THE

CYCLOPAEDIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

g[rt0, g)timces, anti literature.

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXXVIII.

LONDON:

Printed for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Paternoster-Row,

F C AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND I.ETTERMAN, J. CUTHELi,
' CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOU AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO.,
J. DICKINSON, J. TATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.

1819.

CYCLOPEDIA: ^^

OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS and SCIENCES.

WATER.

WATER. This important fluid was believed by the an-
cients to be one of the four elements out of which they
imagined every other fubftance is compofed. This opinion
maintained its ground for a very long period. At length,
however, it began to be fufpefted, from the experiments of
Van Helmont, Boyle, and others. Van Helmont (hewed
that plants would grow for a very long time in pure water,
whence it was concluded that water was capable of being
changed into all the fubftances found in vegetables. Mr.
Boyle fuppofed, that by long digeftion and boiling in glafs-
veflels, he had converted water partly into an earth. Mar-
graafF, who repeated his experiment, drew the fame conclu-
fion ; but the opinion was never very generally admitted,
and at length was proved to be erroneous, the earth being
fhewn to be derived from the glafs-veffels employed in the
experiments.

The combuftible nature of hydrogen gas was obferved
about the beginning of the 1 8th century, and the celebrated
Scheele, many years afterwards, was the firft who attempted
to difcover what was produced by this combuftion. In
this, however, he did not fucceed ; nor were Macquer,
Bucquet, Lavoifier, Dr. Prieftley, and others, who fub-
fequently repeated the experiment with fimilar views,
more fortunate. The diftinguifhed honour of difcovering
the compofition of water was referved for Mr. Cavendi/h,
who, in 1781, proved beyond a doubt that the combuftion
of hydrogen and oxygen produced this fluid, and nothing
elfe. Water, therefore, fince the period juft mentioned, has
been univcrfally admitted to be compofed of thefe two
gafeous principles.

Water is found in abundance in every part of the globe,
and is abfolutely neceflary for the exiftence of organized
beings. When quite pure, as obtained by diftillation, it is

Vol. XXXVIII.

perfeftly tranfparent and colourlefs, and free from tafte
and fmell.

A cubic foot of diftilled water, according to the bell
experiments, weighs, at a temperature of 40°, 437102.4946
grains troy. Hence, a cubic inch of water at the fame
temperature weighs 252.952 grains; and at the tem-
perature of 60°, 252.72 grains. The fpeciilc gravity of
water is always fuppofed to be i.ooo, and it is made tlie
meafure of the fpecific gravity of every other body. (See
Specific Gravity, and Hydrostatics.) Water, at a tem-
perature of 32°, becomes folid, and aiTumes the form of ice.
In this ilate it pofTefTes confiderable hardnefs and elafticity,
and its fpecific gravity is diminifhed to .94. See Freezing,
and Ice.

When water is railed to the temperature of 2 1 2° it boils
and is gradually converted into (learn, which is an invifible
and highly elaftic fluid like air. The fpecific gravity of
fteani, according to the moll recent obfervations, is .625,
that of air being reckoned i.ooo. See Boiling, Ebul-
lition, and Steam.

Water is capable of undergoing a flight degree of com-
pre(rion. See Compression.

Water undergoes no alteration by expofure to heat or
light. Thus it may be made to pafs through a red-ho|f;
tube without fufFering any change.

On expofure to the atmofphere, it abforbs a portion of
air, the greater part of which is capable of being again
driven off by boihng. To expel the whole, however, it is
ftated to be necelTary to continue the operation at leaft two
hours in a flaflc, with its mouth inverted over mercury.
To this fmall proportion of air which it holds in folution,
water chiefly owes its agreeable flavour, boiled water being
infipid. Sec Absorption, and Gas.

B Hydrogen

444079

WATER.

Hydrogen gas, even at a red heat, has no aftion upon to the neighbourhood of volcanoes, but generally their
Iter. Charcoal, when cold, does not decompofe it. But caufe is very obfcure, as we can hardly form any idea of

agents operating for fuch a length of time, and fo uniformly,
as thofe of neceflity mull do which give origin to the phe-
nomena in queftion : all we can infer is, that although local,

water , _

when red-hot charcoal is brought in contaft with water,
carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen are formed in
abundance. Sulphur and phofphorus do not appear to be
capable of decompofing water, even when affilled by heat;
but potaffium and foduim, and doubtlefs alfo the metallic
bafes of the alkaline earths, decompofe it rapidly. Of the
other metals, iron, zinc, antimony, and tin, decompofe it,
when affifted by heat, Silver, gold, copper, and platina,
produce no efFeA upon it.

Water diffolves the alkalies and alkaline earths. The acids
alfo, and many faline compounds, are foluble in this fluid ;
but it is incapable of dilTolving the earths properly fo called.
Water combines with bodies in two different ways. It
either diffolves them, in which cafe the proportion of water
is unlimited, or it combines with them, and forms fohd
compounds, termed hydrates, into the compofition of which
the water enters m a definite proportion. The metallic
hydrates, in general, are remarkable for the briUiancy of
their colours. They are more foluble in acids than the
oxyds, and in fome ijiftances affeft the organs of tafte even
more perceptibly than the metallic falts. This fubjeft has
been particularly inveiligated by M.Prouft. See Hydrate.
According to the lateft and moft perfea experiments,
water is compofed of two volumes of hydrogen gas, and
one volume of oxygen gas. Hence, its combining- weight
or atom will be 1.125, oxygen being reckoned i ; or, if
vre confider the fpecific gravity of hydrogen gas to be
.6944, and of oxygen gas i.iiil, it is compofed of

they are deep-feated and permanent.

2. Atmofpherk ylir : jl'z.ote. — -AH natural waters of a
mean temperature hold a portion of common air in folution.
The quantity, however, has been ftated by Bergman not to
exceed Vjth of the bulk of the water ; and even this can
only be retained at a mean temperature, and under the ordi-
nary prefTure of the atmofphcre, for the greater part of it
efcapes under the air-pump, or on fubmitting the water for
a fliort time to a temperature of 212° or 32°. It is the
oxygen contained in this fmall portion of atmofphcric air,
retained by water, that fupports the refpiration of filhes, and
other aquatic animals, which fpeedily die from fuffocation in
water deprived of air. It is this air alfo, as before obferved,
which renders water fapid and grateful to the palate ; for
by boiling or diflillation, this fluid is rendered infipid and
difagreeable, " and has long been in difrepute," fays Dr.
Saunders, " for lying heavy on the llomach, and even pro-
ducing Icrofnlous tumours and obilructions." The pre-
fence of atmofpheric air in water is eafily accounted for,
from the affinity which fubfin;s between the two fubltances,
and which is fuch, that they foon become mutually impreg-
nated by being expofed to each other. — Azotic gas has
been found to exift in fmall quantity in fome waters, and in
thefe inftances it has been obferved to be extricated from
the fpring itfelf in union with the water. As far as is at
part~by weio-ht of^hydrogen, and eight parts by weight of prefent known, this gas imparts no medicinal or even fenfible
oxygen. The union of o.-iygen and hydrogen gafes to form property to the waters_contaming it

water is attended by the extncation of much hght and heat.
See Combustion and Detonation.

Waters, Natural. " Water," fays Dr. Saunders, " is
found throughout the earth in every degree of purity, ex-
cept the higheft;, for fuch is never procured, except by arti-
ficial difl;il!ation, as all natural \\-aters are confl;antly coming
into contaft with fome fubftance which they can either dii-
folve or hold fufpended." Waters to which the epithet
mineral is applied, in many inftances diff'er from other natural
waters in the degree only in which they are impregnated with
fimilar foreign fubftances : in other inftances, they diff'er in
the nature of the impregnating ingredient ; but for the
moft part they diff'er in both thefe circumftances. In pre-
fenting our readers with an account of natural waters in
general, we fliall commence with an enumeration and (hort
account of the different foreign ingredients ufually met
with in waters, and influencing their operation on the animal
economy.

1. Caloric. — The temperature of natural fpring-waters is
the fame, in general, as the mean annual temperature of the
particular place in which they occur. It is evident, there-
fore, that this temperature muft vary with the latitude.
(See the articles Climate, Temperature, &c.) Waters
rarely occur of a temperature much lower than the mean
annual temperature of the latitude in which they are found ;
but inftances are met with in every part of the globe in
which they occur of a higher temperature. This degree
of increafed temperature is very different in different in-
ftances. Commonly it is not very ftriking, while in other
cafes it is very remarkable : thus, the waters of Carlfbad, in
Bohemia, have the extraordinary temperature of 165°. In
this country, the hotteft fprings are thofe of Bath and
Buxton, the higheft temperatures of which are ftated to be
116° and 82" refpeftively. In fome inftances, thefe devia-
tions from the natural temperature are obvioufly referrible

3. Carbonic Acid. — This gas is likewife ftated by Berg-
man to exift in greater or lefs quantity in all natural fpring-
waters. The limits in which it occurs is faid to lie between
about -l^, and- an equal bulk of the water. In mineral
waters it is a moft important ingredient, not only from its
operation upon the animal economy, but from its being the
folvent of various other aftive ingredients. When waters
contain this principle in excefs, they affume a bright and
fparkling appearance to the eye, have an agreeable pungent
acidulous tafte, and fometimes exert a kind of intoxicating
power when largely drunk. Fiflies are unable to exift in
them, and fpeedily die from fuffocation. On expofure to
the air, however, thefe properties in a ftiort time become
fenfibly diminiflied, and at length almoft totally difappear,
owing to the feparation of the gas — an operation which
may ftill more fpeedily be effefted by boiling. The pre-
fence of this gas in water is eafily explained, from its natural
affinity to that fluid. In almoft every inftance it is extri-
cated from the fpring in union with the water ; but the
fource from whence it is derived is, in general, obfcure and
inexplicable.

4. Hydrogen and its Compounds, carburetted, fulphuretted,
and phofphuretted Hydrogen. — Hydrogen gas is barely folu-
ble in water, and probably, therefore, never exitts alone
in that fluid. The lame is true of carburetted hydrogen.
Both thefe gafes, however, are often extricated from waters,
efpecially when ftagnant, and containing organic fubftances
in a ftate of putrefaftion. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a fre-
quent ingredient in mineral waters, and gives them fo cha-
rafteriftic a feature, that they arc inltantly recognized.
Waters holding this gas in folution hai-e an offenfive fmell,
like that of rotten eggs, or a foul gun. barrel, and which is
more or lefs ftrong, according to the degree m which they
are impregnated. Such waters alfo have a tafte fomewhat
fweetifh, and they generally appear turbid. Water, at a

mean

WATER.

■mean temperature, is ftated to abforb from f ds to ^ths of
its bulk of this gas, and by long agitation more than its
bulk. At a temperature of 80° or 90°, however, this fluid
can with difficulty be made to diflblve any of it. Sul-
phuretted waters, therefore, on expofure to heat, or even
to the open air without heat, foon lofe their charadleriflic
properties, and become turbid, the hydrogen being difli-
pated, and the fulphur depofited. The fource of this gas,
in general, is not obfcure, it being formed in great abun-
dance during the decompoStion of pyrites, and other mine-
rals containing fulphur. Phofphuretted hydrogen is faid
to be occafionally extricated from marfhes and ftagnant
pools, but it is not known to conllitute an ingredient in
mineral waters.

5. The Alkalits and their Salts. — The fixed alkalies feldom,
if ever, occur in natural waters in a free flate. Even the
number of their falts is fo limited, that Dr. Saunders
thinks it neceffary to enumerate only two, namely, the ful-
phate and muriate of foda. The firft of them is a very
common ingredient in mineral waters, but rarely occurs
alone in any quantity, fo that it can hardly be faid ever to
give a peculiar charafter to a water. Muriate of foda is
fo extenfively and abundantly diffufed through nature,
that we rarely meet with a natural water which does not
contain more or lefs of it. Sea-water, and many natural
waters or brines, owe their peculiar charadlers to this fait,
which has been known from the earlieft times, and fecms to
be almoft a neceffary ingredient in our food. The muriate
of foda, however, never occurs alone in natural waters, but
is commonly accompanied by fome of the earthy falts,
efpecially the fiilphate of lime. Chemilts have been puz-
zled to account for the origin of the vaft quantity of this
fait which is met with in the fea and elfewhere ; but a
little refleftion will (hew, that the exiftence of this fub-
ftance is not more difficult to be accounted for than that
of any other ingredient of our globe. From its property
of being foluble in water, it is, perhaps, more generally dif-
fufed than any other principle ; but it is doubtful if it
aAually exids in greater abundance than filex, and many
other folid fubftances, and which, in a geological point of
view, differ from it only in the mechanical circumftance of
their infolubility in water. The carbonate of foda is occa-
fionally met with in waters. Its diftribution, however, is
very partial, being ufually in very minute quantities, or in
very large ones. When in fmall quantity, it is generally
fupcrfaturated with carbonic acid. The mod remarkable
inftance of an excefs of this fait is in " the natron lakes
of Upper Egypt. It is here often mixed with common
fait, and they both are largely didolved in the water, and
form a cruft of feveral feet in thicknefs at the edge of the
lake, owing to the copious evaporation of their water of
folution etfefted by a tropical fun." Potafli, or its falts,
very feldom occur in mineral waters. Carbonate of am-
monia is occafionally found in fmall quantities in fome waters,
arifing probably, as Dr. Saunders conjeftures, from decom-
pofed animal or vegetable fubftances.

6. The Earths and their Salts. — The earth moft fre-
quently occurring in natural waters is lime, and fo gene-
rally is this the cafe, that very few inftances are known in
which this earth is not met with in fome ftate or other.
The neutral carbonate of lime, or chalk, is one of the moll
infoluble fubftances known ; but the fupercarbonate of
lime is very foluble, and is a frequent ingredient in many
fprings. " It is one fource of hardnefs in waters," fays
Dr. Saunders, " but is eafily got rid of by boiling, which
drives off the excefs of carbonic acid, and thus caufes the
chalk to be precipitated ; hence the earthy cruft. or furr on

kettles m which hard water has been boiled for a number of
times. Some natural waters contain an unufual quantity of
this calcareous earth, which is rapidly depofited as foon at
they become expofed to the air, and thereby give an earthy
hning to every tube through which they flow, and encruft
with the fame material every fubftance that accident or
defign may put in their way. Of this kind are the various
petrifying fprings that form part of the natural curiofities
of feveral mountainous diftrifts, and have been applied to
life in a very ingenious manner at the baths of St. Phihp,
in Tufcany, and ftill more extenfively at Gualecavelica, in
Peru."—" The fulphate of lime (the gypfum or felenite of
the older writers) is one of the commoneft of all the earthy
falts that are found in natural waters, and generally ac-
companies every faline fubftance, except where there is an
excefs of alkali. It is almoft invariably found in con-
junftion with the carbonate of lime ; and hence the calca-
reous depofitioi.s, petrifaftions, and the like, frequently con-
tain a fmall admixture of felenite." This fait imparts very
little tafte to water, but gives it " that rough and harfh
feel to the fingers and tongue, which charafterize the
infipid hard w.iters." The muriate of lime commonly ac-
companies the other falts of hme, but efpecially the muriate
of foda. When in excefs in any water, it imparts to it a
bitter and difagreeable tafte, and aftive medicinal properties.
The great bitternefs of " the waters of the Dead fea is
owing to the muriates of lime and magnefia, and not to
bitumen, as was erroneoufiy fuppofed." The carbonate of
magnefia is infoluble in water ; the fupercarbonate of
magnefia, when it occurs in waters, is always accompanied
by the fupercarbonate of lime, both the earths being held
in folution by an excefs of carbonic acid. The fuper-
carbonate of magnefia, however, is more foluble than the
fupercarbonate of lime, and is not, therefore, fo -eafily
feparated by boiling. The fulphate of magnefia, or Epfom
fait, as it was formerly denominated, is the moft important
of the falts of this earth. It almoft always accompanies the
fulphate of foda ; and to thefe two falts moft of the natural
purging waters owe their cathartic properties. It is like-
wife frequently combined with the fulphate of lime, and
alfo with iron. The fulphate of magnefia imparts to the
waters containing it in any confiderable quantity a ftrongly
bitter and faline tafte. It was firft difcovered in a fpring
at Epfom, whence its name ; but is ufually prepared at
prefent from the refufe fait of fea-water, after the common
fait has been feparated. The muriate of magnefia, as before-
mentioned, commonly accompanies the muriates of foda and
lime ; hence it is found in various briue-fprings, and forms
a confiderable part of the faline contents of fea-water, to
which fluids, efpecially when concentrated by evaporation,
it imparts a ftrong bitter tafte. Salts of alumina are not
of very frequent occurrence in waters. The moft common
is the fuperfulphate of alumina, or common alum, which is
ufually aftbciated with the fulphate of iron. The fource
of this fait is for the moft part alum-flate, the fulphur
contained in which becomes acidified on expofure to
the air, and forms fulphuric acid, which, uniting with the
alumina, produces the fait in queftion. The prefence of
the fulphate of iron is eafily accounted for upon fimilar
principles, fince more or lefs of iron ppiies almoft in-
variably accompanies alum-flate. Silex, in a ftate of mi-
nute divifion, is fometimes found fufpeiided in fmall
quantity in running waters, but is foon depofited on their
remaining at reft. This earth, however, occafionally occurs
in a ftate of folution in hot and tepid fprings, efpecially in
the neighbourhood of volcanoes. The menftruum apjjears
to be ufually a littje free or carbonated alkali, the folvent
B 2 powers

WATER.

powers of which are doubtlefs much increafed by heat, or
by fome unknown caiife.

7. Metals and their Salts The metal moft ufually met

with in natural waters is iron ; never, however, in its me-
tallic ftate, but in a ftate of oxyd combined with an acid.
The carbonate of iron is a frequent ingredient of natural
waters, the bafe of which is the black or protoxyd of the
metal, for the red oxyd does not feem capable of combining
with carbonic acid, or at leall of forming with it a foluble
compound. This is, doubtlefs, a wife provifion of nature ;
for, as Dr. Saunders julUy obferves, if the contrary were
the cafe, almoll every natural water would be a chalybeate.
The carbonate of iron, like all the other falts of this metal,
imparts to waters containing it a peculiar inky tafte,
" which," fays Dr. Saunders, " is very perceptible, even
when the proportion of iron is fo fmall as hardly to be
ettimable by any chemical procefs." Waters containing
the carbonate of iron depofit this metal readily on expofure
to the air, partly from the efcape of the carbonic acid, and
partly from the further oxydation of the metal. The ful-
phate of iron or green vitriol is met with occafionally in
waters in confidernble quantity. This fait, as before ob-
ferved, generally occurs in union with the fulphate of alu-
mina, or alum, and is the natural produftion of the decom-
pofuionof iron pyrites. Waters containing this fait in any
quantity, poffefs the properties of chalybeates in a high
degree, and are peculiarly ftyptic. The muriate of iron is
occafionally met with in natural waters ; but its exiftence
in any confiderable quantity is a rare occurrence. Copper,
or rather its falts, and efpecially the fulphate of copper, is
occafionally met with in natural waters. This generally,
however, occurs in the neighbourhood of copper-mines ;
and the fulphate of copper, as Dr. Saunders obferves, is
probably formed, like the fulphate of iron, by the decom-
pofition of copper pyrites. Waters containing this metal
are highly poifonous, and are never ufed internally. Man-
ganefe is occafionally found in fmall quantity in natural
waters. It appears, in general, to be ailociated with iron ;
but the ftate in which it exifts is not accurately known.
As far as prefent obfervation goes, it imparts no fenfible
or other properties to the waters containing it. Lead, per-
haps, never naturally occurs in waters ; but fome waters
have the property of difTolving, or holding in fufpenfion, a
minute portion of this pernicious metal, when expofed to it
in the metallic ftate. Pure foft waters are faid to poffefs
this property in the moft ftriking degree.

8. Mineral Acids. — Both the muriatic and fulphuric acids
are occafionally met with in mineral waters in a free ftate.
Such fprings ufually occur in volcanic countries.

9. Bitumen. — Bitumen is faid by many of the older
writers to be a frequent ingredient in mineral waters. This
ftatement, however, has been generally found erroneous by
modern chemifts, who have in moft cafes demonftrated the
fuppofed bituminous principles of their predeceffbrs to be
fubftances of a very different nature. There are fome
fprings, however, which yield a real bitumen ; but this,
from its infolubility in water, is never diflblved in that fluid,
except in a few rare inilances, through the medium of an
alkah.

Such is a ftiort account of the principal mineral fub-
ftances which are met v^ith in natural waters when they
iftue from the earth. " When," fays Dr. Saunders, " they
flow within a channel over the furface of the ground, they
often become much changed in their chemical compofition,
lofing fome of their contents by evaporation, others by (low
depofition, or by being decompofed through the influence
of light and air. At the fame time they often acquire new
6

contents, which are furnilhed by the foil over which they
flow. Thus the ftreams which pafs over a country covered
with vegetable matter, or which water large towns, will
contain a fenfible quantity of mixed alluvial contents, or a
heterogeneous compound of animal and vegetable extraft of
mucilage.

Different authors have chofen different principles of
arrangement in treating of natural waters. An arrange-
ment purely chemical, or purely medicinal, cannot be
effefted in the prefent ftate of our knowledge ; we (hall
not therefore attempt either, but ftiall confider them under
the following heads :

1. Potable waters.

2. Saline waters.

3. Chalybeate waters, fimple and compound.

4. Acidulous waters, fimple and compound.

5. Sulphureous waters, fimple and compound.

6. Thermal waters, fimple and compound.

This arrangement of natural waters, according to their
fenfible properties, coincides likewife, as well perhaps as
the prefent ftate of the fubjeft will admit, with their chemi-
cal and medicinal prooerties. It may, however, be objedled
to the diviPionsfinple and compound, that neither of them is
accurately correct, and this muft be admitted in a ftriAly
chemical point of view ; but taken in the enlarged and ge-
neral fenfe here underftood, there feems to be no ferious ob-
jeftion to this mode of divifion.

1. Potable IVaters. — Under this divifion we wifh to in-
clude every variety of this fluid ordinarily ufed by mankind
and other animals for fatisfying their thirft. Thefe may be
comprehended under the heads of, a, pure or diftilled water ;
t, atmofpheric water ; c, fpring-water ; d, running water ;
and e, ftagnant water.

a. The chemical properties of pure water have been al-
ready defcribed at the head of this article. As before ob-
ferved, it never occurs in nature, and was therefore pro-
bably never intended as an article of drink for mankind ; cer-
tainly, atleaft, not as one abfolutely neceflary for their ex-
iftence, or even healthy condition.

L. Under atmofpheric waters are included rain-water, fnow-
water, dew, &c.

Rain-water, colledled at a diftance from large towns, or
any other objcdl capable of impregnating the atmofphere
with noxious materials, approaches more nearly to a ftate of
purity than perhaps anv other natural water. Even coUedl-
ed under thefe circumftances, howevtr, it invariably yields
traces of the muriatic acid, and, according to MargraafF,
of the nitric alfo. Rain-water of courfe differs according
to the ftate of the atmofphere through which it paffes.
" The heterogeneous atmofphere of a fmoky town," fays
Dr. Saunders, " will communicate fome impregnation to rain
as it pafies through ; and this, though it may not be at once
perceptible on chtmical examination, will yet render it liable
to fpontaneous change ; and hence rain-water, if long kept,
efpecially in hot climates, acquires a ftrong in:ell, becomes
full of animalcula;, and in fome degree putrid." Rain-water
in general, in warm climates, is much more impure and lia-
ble to becom.e offei.five than in cold and temperate ones.
Rain alfo that falls in the fpring and lummer, or after a
long-continued drought, or very hot wea.her, is faid to be
more impure than that which falls at other feafons of the
year, or after a long-contii'ued nioiil fcafon ; circumftances,
doubtlefs, owing to the exiftence of a greater proportion of
animal and vegetable principles in the atmofphere in fuch
climates and feafons. Thefe foreign fubftances have fomc-
times been fo abundant and peculiar iu their appearance, as

to

WATER.

to Iiave given origin to many marvellous ftories, fuch as the
raining of blood, &c. (See the article Rain.) The fpe-
cific gravity of rain-vpater hardly differs from that of dif-
tilled water ; and from the minute portions of the foreign
ingredients which it generally contains, it is very fofl, and
admirably adapted for many culinary purpofes, and various
proct fTes ill different manufaAures and the arts.

Srww-water equals, if not furpalfes, rain-water in purity,
when collefted under the fame circumftances, it being
for obvious reafons more free from animal and vegetable
impregnations ; thus Dr. Rutty found it perfectly fweet
after keepini;; it in a clofe vefTel for eighteen months. Snow-
water, like rain-water, even in its purefl ftate, yields traces
of muriatic acid, and perhaps alfo of the nitric.

Hail-ivater may be compared to fnow-water, which it
clofely refembles : indeed

Ice-tvater in general is very uure, as the air and faline fub-
ftances are feparated by freezing. Common ice-water, how-
ever, is lefs pure than rain and fnow water, as the foreign
fubllances, though perhaps feparated by freezing, ftill re-
main incorporated with the ice, fo that it is impoflible to
melt the ice without retaining at leaft a portion of thefe fo-
reign matters.

Dew, being depofited chiefly from the lower parts of the
atmofphere, is commonly much more impure than rain or
fnow water. According to Dr. Rutty's obfervatioiis, it
foon becomes foetid and ofFenfive. It yields alfo more feiifi-
ble traces of the prefence of muriatic acid than rain-water.
This fluid, however, collefted at different places and
times, differs exceedingly in its properties, as might be na-
turally expefted.

c. Spring-water includes tuell-wzter, and all others that
arife from fome depth below the furface of the earth, and
which are ufed at the fountain-head, or at leaft before they
have run any confiderable diftance expofed to the air. Al-
though all fpring-waters are originally of atniofpheric origin,
yet they differ from one another according to the narure of
the foil or rock from which they ifTue ; for though the in-
gredients ufually exifting in them are in fuch minute quanti-
ties as to impart to them no ftriking medicinal or fenfible pro-
perties, and do not render them unfit for common purpofes,
yet they modify their nature very confiderably. Hence the
water of fome fprings is laid to be hurri, others /ft, fome
Jwset, others brackifh, &c. according to the degree and nature
of the imprf'guatiiig ingredients. Common fprings pafs infen-
libly into mineral or medicinal fprings, as their foreign con-
tents become larger or more unnfual ; or in fome inftances
they derive medicinal celebrity from the abfenceof thofe in-
gredients ufually occurring in fpring-water ; as, for example,
is the cafe with tlie Malvern and other fprings. Almoil all
fpring-waters poflefs the property termed hardnefs in a greater
or lefs degree. This hardm-is, as we formerly mentioned,
depends ch'efly upon the fiilphate and carbonate of lime
which they hold in folution. The quantity of thefe earthy
falls varies very confiderably in different inftances ; but Dr.
Saunders obfervrs, that when they exilf in the proportion of
five grains in the pint, fuch water will be hard, and from
its properly of decompofing foap will be unfit forwafhing,
and many other purpofes of lioufehold ufe or nianu failures.
The wa:er of deep wells, according to Dr. S., is always,
ttteris paribui, much harder than that of fprings which over-
flow tlieir c'lannel ; but there are many exceptions to this rule.
The fojiiitfs of fpring-waters depends on their containing
fmaller proportions of the earthy falts above-mentioned.
Spring-waters arc faid to be brackifh, when they contain a
fmall proportion of the muriates of foda, magnefia, or lime,
as is frequently the cafe in the neighbourhood of the fca.

Sweetnifs is generally underftood as oppofed to bmcki/hnefi or
fator when applied to fpring-waters. The fpecific gravity
of fpring-waters in general is greater than that of diailled
or any other potable water. See Spring.

d. Running waters include riiier-waters, and every other
fpecies of water expofed to the air, and moving in an open
channel. On this part of our fubjeft we cannot do better
than quote from Dr. Saunders. " River-water," fays Dr.
S., " in general is much fofter, and more free from earthy
falts than fpring-waters, but contains lefs air of any kind ;
for by the agitation of a long current, and, in moft cafes, a
great increafe of temperature, it lofes common air and car-
bonic acid, and with this lafl much of the lime which it
held in folution. The fpecific gravity thereby becomes lefs,
the tafte not fo harfh, but lefs frefh and agreeable, and out
of a hard fpring is often made a ftream of fufficient pu-
rity for moft of the purpofes where a foft water is required.
Some ftreams, however, that arife from a clean filecious
rock, and flow in a fandy or ftony bed, are from the outfet
remarkably pure, fuch as the mountain lakes and rivulets
in the rocky diftricis of Wales, the fource of the beautiful
waters of the Dee, and numberlefs other rivers that flow
through the hollow of every valley. Switzerland has long
been celebrated for the purity and excellence of its waters,
which pour in copious ftreams from the mountains, and give
rife to fome of the fin-ft rivers in Europe." — " Some rivers,
however, that do not take their rife from a rock-, foil, and
are indeed at firfl confiderably charged with foreign mat-
ter, during a long courfe, even over a richly cuhivated plain,
become remarkably pure as to faline contents, but often
fouled with mud and vegetable or animal exuvise, wiiich are
rather fufpended than held in true folution. Such is that of
the Thames, which, taken up at London at low water, is
very loft and good water, and after refl and filtration it
holds but a very fmall portion of any thing that could prove
noxious, or impede any manufafture. It is alfo excellently
fitted for fea-flore, but it here undergoes a remarkable fpon-
taneous change. No water carried to fea becomes putrid
fooner than that of the Thames. When a cailc is opened,
after being kept a month or two, a quantity of inflammable
air (carbuietted or fulphuretted hydrogen) efcapes, and the
water is fo black and ofFenfive as fcarcely to be borne.
Upon racking it off, however, into large earthen veffels,
and expofing it to the air, it gradually depofits a quantity of
black flimy mud, becomes clear as cryftal, and remarkably
fweet and palatable. The Seme has a high reputation in
France, and appears, from the experiments of M. Parmentier,
to be a river of great purity. It might be expefted that a
river which has paffed by a large town, and received all its
impurities, and been ufed by numerous dyers, tanners, hat-
ters, and the like, that crowd to its banks for the conve-
nience of plenty of water, fhould acquire thereby fuch a
foulnefs as to be very perceptible to chemical examination
for a confiderable ditlance below the town ; but it appears
from the moft accurate examination, that where the ftream
>is at all confiderable, thefe kinds of impurity have but little
influence in permanently altering the quality of the water,
efpecially as they are for the moil part only fufpended, and
not truly dilTolved ; and therefore mere refl, and efpecially
filtration, will reftore the water to its original purity. Pro-
bably, therefore, the moft accurate chemift would find it
difficult to diftinguifh water taken up at London from that
procured at Hampton-court, after each had been purified by
fimple filtration." The water of the Ebro alfo, notwith-
ilanditig this river paffes through feveral large towns, is re-
markable for its purity. In general, thofe rivers which iiTue
from lakes are moil pure and tranfparent, while thofe chiefly

fupplied

WATER.

fupplied by fprings and rain are the reverfe. The water of
fome rivers is remarkable for its colour : thus that of the
Tinto, in Spain, at its fource is of a iine topaz, a circum-
ftance from which the river takes its name. Others are of a
yellowifh or greyifh-vvhite, and the water of all fuch rivers
ufually holds a large proportion of fome fait of lime in folu-
tion. In countries where bogs and mardies abound, the
rivers are often tinged of a brownifh colour.

e. Stagnant Waters. — Under this head are included the
waters of lakes, pools, and refervoirs of every defcription,
in which this fluid is expofed to the air in a ftate of relt.
Stagnant waters, in general, prefent greater impurities to the
fenfes than any others, from their ufually containing a large
proportion of animal and vegetable matters in a ftate of de-
compofition. Their tafte in general is vapid, and defti-
tute of that frefhnefs and agreeable coohiefs which diftin-
guifli fpring-water. Stagnant waters have various origins,
but ufually they are a mixture of rain, fpring, and river
water ; and hence, beiides the animal and vegetable matters
they contain, may be fuppofed to be impregnated with the
various fahne matters ufually met with in fuch waters. Many
ftagnant waters are faid to contain the nitrate of potafh ;
others, and efpecially fome lakes, abound in the fulphate
of magnefia ; others in the carbonate of foda, as, for exam-
ple, the natron lakes of Egypt and Hungary, which are
generally very fhallow. A lake in Thibet is impregnated
with the borate of foda mixed with the muriate of foda, the
waters of which feem to have a fubterranean origin. Some
lakes alfo are found impregnated with fulphuretted hydrogen
gas. Stagnant waters are feldom perfectly colourlefs and
tranfparent. Lakes, when deep, are ufually of a blueifh
tinge, mixed with green ; and when the neiglibouring hills
are covered with peat, &c. their water is always of a muddy-
brownifh tinge, as, for example, is the cafe with moft of
the lakes in Scotland.

I. Ufes of Potable IValers. — If we were to be directed by
the evidences of the fenfes alone, fpring-waten would un-
doubtedly be pronounced to be the moft wholefome, for they
are univerfally admitted to be the molt .agreeable. All
other waters have more or lefs of a flat infipid tafte. This
is efpecially the cafe with ili/lilkd and rain water ; the firft of
which is quite pure, and the fecond nearly fo. D'lftilhd
water, therefore, is feldom employed for drinking ; and the
difSculty of procuring it in large quantities almoll precludes
its ufe to any extent in the preparation of food, or in manu-
factures. Much, however, has been lately faid of its me-
dicinal powers by Dr. Lambe, who has recommended it in
cancerous and other affeftions ; and, as Dr. Saunders juftly
obferves, water, when not already loaded with foreign mat-
ters, may become a folvent for concretions in the urinary paf-
fages ; and as much good has been obtained from the ufe of
very pure natural fprings, a courfe of diftilled water may be
confidered as a fair fubjeft of experiment. Diflilled water
is an effential ingredient in the compofition of many medi-
cines, and often abfolutely necefTary in the profecution of
all nicer chemical procefles in the liquid way. Snow and
ice water form almoft the conftant drink of the inhabitants
of cold climates during winter ; and the mafles of ice which
float on the polar fcas aff"ord an abundant fupply of frf^fh
water to the mariner. " Snoiv-vi^Xcr," fays Dr. Sauiiat"S,
" has long lain under the imputation of occafioning thofe
ftrumous fwellings in the neck which deform the inhabitants
of many of the Alpine valleys ; but this opinion is not fup-
ported by any well-authenticated indifputablc facts, and is
rendered ftill more improbable, if not entirely overturned,
by the frequency of the difeafe in Sumatra, where ice and
i"now are never feen, and its being quite unknown in Chili and
12

Thibet, though the rivers of thofe countries are chiefly lup-
plied by the melting of the fnow with which the mountains
are always covered." Dew, efpecially when collefted in the
month of May, was formerly in great repute as a cofmetic,
and for many other purpofes ; but its ufe has been long en-
tirely laid afide. Spring-^dXen, as before obferved, from
the air they contain, and from their grateful coolnefs, con-
ftitute by far the moft agreeable of the potable waters, and
are in more general ufe than any others. Their ufe, how-
ever, is ftated fometimes to occafion in delicate ftomachs an
uneafy fenfe of weight, followed by a degree of dyfpepfia.
They have alfo been accufed, efpecially when of the de-
fcription termed hard, of inducing calculous affeftions ; but
this notion by moft modern writers is confidered as ill-
founded. Spring-Wiiters, in general, alfo, from their pro-
perty of hardnefs, are, as before obferved, very ill adapted
for many domeftic and other purpofes ; while, in particular
inftances, this quality is of advantage. Hird/pring-wdAers,
for example, are very ill adapted for the purpofes of the
dyer or bleacher. " On the other hand," fays Dr. Saunders,
" there are feveral faline fubftances vifhich are very readily
foluble in any kind of water, and here a hard water may be
employed when the objeft is only to procure thefe particu-
lar falts. For culinary purpofes, water is ufed either to foften
the texture of animal or vegetable matter, or to extradl
from it, and prefent in a liquid form fome of its foluble parts.
Soft pure water will fulfil both thefe objects better than hard
water ; and at the fame time the colour of the fubftance em-
ployed will vary as well as its folution. Green vegetables
and pulfe are rendered quite pale, as well as tender, by boil-
ing in foft water ; whereas in a hard water, the colour is more
preferved, and the texture lefs altered, becaufe in the former
cafe the colouring matter of the vegetable is readily extraft-
ed by the menftruum, whilft in the latter more of it remains,
and is likewife altered by the chemical aftion of the earthy
or neutral falts." Dr. S. then relates fome comparative
experiments he made with hard and pure water upon
tea ; from which he concludes that hard water is lefs pow-
erful in foftening the texture of vegetable leaves than foft
water, and that it is not able to exert its fuU effeft in
heightening their colour till affifted by heat ; and alfo, that
the gallic acid (or tannin) is equally well extracted by hard
as by foft water, when by raifing the temperature, the
power of the former as a folvent is fully exercifed. It may
be therefore laid down as a general rule in domeftic economy,
that when the objeft is to extraft the virtues of any fub-
ftance, and to retain them in folution, foft waters ftiould be
ufed ; but that when the objeft is the reverfe, or to preferve
as entire as poflible the article ufed as food, hard waters are
preferable.

Some fine fprings of very pure and foft water have been
long celebrated for their medicinal properties ; as, for ex-
ample, the Mal'vern fprings, in Worcefterfhire, and St.
Winifrid's Well, at Holywell, in Flintfhire. Malvern
water is ufed both externally and internally. Externally
applied, it. is ftated to be a moft ufeful application to deep-
felted ulcerations of a Icrofulous nature, and to various
cutaneous affections. Its inte.nal ufe is often of advantage
"in painful affefti<j.",s of I'le kidneys and bladder, attended
with the di 'charge of bloody, purulent, or fcEtid urine ; the
hcftic fever produced by fcrofulous ulcerati^^ns of the
lungs, or very e.itenllve and irritating fores on the furface of
the body ; and alfo fiftulas of long ftanding, that have been
neglefted, and have become conftant and tro iblefome fores."
The internal ufe of this water fometimes induces naufea at
firft, and occafionally drowfinefs, vertigo, and head-ache,
which foon go off', or may be readily removed by a mild

purgative.

WATER.

purgative. This water occafionally purges, but moft com-
monly the body becomes coftive under its ufe. " In all
cafes, it increafes the flow of urine, and improves the gene-
ral health of the patient ; fo that his appetite and fpirits
almoft invariably improve during a courfe of the water, if
it agrees in the firfl: inilance." The duration of a courfe of
this water depends in a great degree upon the nature of the
difeafe under which the patient labours. Thefe obfervations
upon the effefts of the Malvern water are perhaps equally
applicable to all fpring-waters of a fimilar degree of
purity.

What has been faid of fpring-waters may be applied per-
haps with little modification to running waters, which m ge-
neral differ from yji;-/;;^- waters only in being fofter, in con-
taining lefs air, and m being therefore better qualified for
many purpofes for which fpring-waters cannot be employed.
Stagnant waters in general, efpecially in marfhy countries and
hot chmates, are ufually efteemed unwholelome, and per-
haps defervedly fo. This arifes chiefly from the large quan-
tity of vegetable and animal exuvise which they contain, and
perhaps from other circumftances of which we are at prefent
ignorant. They fhould never be ufcd, therefore, till they
have been boiled and filtered ; by which procefles moft of
the foreign fubftanccs will be probably removed. In gene-
ral ftagnant waters, as Dr. Saunders obferves, are unpa-
latable ; and this circumftance has probably cauled them to
be fometimes in worfe credit than they aftually deferve to be
on the fcore of falubrity.

2. Simple faline Waters. — Under this denomination
we include all thofe waters impregnated with neutral,
alkaUne, and earthy falts only. Waters of this defcrip-
tion may be arranged under the following heads : —
a. Brines, or waters whofe principal faline ingredients are
the muriates of foda and magnefia ; and b. Bitterns, or waters
containing principally the fulphates of foda and mag-
nefia.

a, Sea-ivater, vphich may be confidered as an example of
the fahne waters termed brines, is one of the moft abundant
andextenfively diffufed compounds occurring upon our globe.
When taken up at a confiderable diftance from the ftiore it
is quite tranfparent and colourlefs, and free from any fmell.
Its talle is llrongly faline, and at the fame time naufeous and
bitter. When kept for a ftiort time it becomes highly of-
tenfive, from the putrefaction of the animal and vegetable
matters which it holds in folution. Its fpecific gravity varies
in diff^erent latitudes and circumftances, but may be faid to
lie between 1.0269 ^"'^ 1.0285. The fpecific gravity is faid
to be lefs within the polar circles than at the tropics, owing
probably to the vaft quantities of ice found in thofe regions.
The waters of inland feas alfo, that have Uttle connexion
with the ocean, and the water of bays, &c. into which frefh-
water rivers empty ihemfelves, contain in general lefs faline
matters than the open ocean. This is particularly the cafe
with the Baltic, elpecially when the wind blows from the
eaft. The Mediterranean fea, on the contrary, is faid
to be more faline than the Atlantic. Water taken from a
confiderable depth is more fahne than that taken from the
furface, particularly after much rain, for rain-water being
lighter appears to move upon the furface for a confiderable
time before it becomes quite incorporated. The quantity of
faline matter alfo is ftated to be greater in fummcr than in win-
ter. The water of the Britifli coafts is faid to contain upon
an average about one-thirtieth of its weight of faline matter,
and its temperature to vary between 40° and 65°. Sea-water
does not freeze till cooled down to 28. "5. The following
is one of the lateft analyfes of fea-water by Dr. Murray. A

wine pint of water colleAed in the Firth of Forth was found

to contain

Grains,
Of lime .... 2.9

Magnefia .... j^^.g

Soda . . . - 96.3

Sulphuric acid ... 14.4

Muriatic acid ... gy.y

226.1

Or, fuppofing the elements to be combined in the modes
in which they are obtained by evaporation ; that is, as mu-
riate of foda, muriate of magnefia, fulphate of magnefia,
and fulphate of lime, the proportions of thefe falts in a pint
will be,

Grains.
Muriate of foda - - - 180.5

of magnefia - - 23. 0

'Sulphate of magnefia - - 15.5
of linie - - .7.1

226.

Or, fuppofing that the lime exifts as muriate of lime,
(v.'hich is the moft probable conclufion with regard to it);
and farther, fuppofing that the fiilphuric acid exifts in the
ftate of fulphate of mai^nefia, the proportions will be,

Grains.
Muriate of foda '- . - 180.5

: of magnefia . - 18.3

of lime - . . 5.7

Sulphate of magnefia - - 21.6

226.1

Or, laftly, fuppofing that the fulphuric acid exifts in
the ftate of fulphate of foda, the proportions will be,

Muriate of foda

of magnefia

of lime

Sulphate of foda

Grains.

35-5

5-7

25.6

226.1

The bitter tafte of fea-water is owing chiefly to the mu-
riate of magnefia which it contains. It may alfo arife, in
part, from the prefence of decayed vegetable and animal
fubftances. See the articles Salt, Saltness, and Sea.

Many attempts have been made to render fea-water po-
table. Of thefe the beft, and indeed the only good one, is
diftillation.

The method of obtaining freih water from the diftillation
of fea-water was praftifed by fir R. Hawkins, in the reign
of queen Elizabeth, who thus obtained water that was
wholefome and nouriftiing. See Purchas's Colledt. of
Voyages, book vii. chap. 5.

Experiments were afterwards made by Hales, Lifter,
Hanton, Lind, and others, to fimphfy and render more per-
feft the procefs of diftillation, and at length it attained a
great degree of perfetlion, both in France and England.
Thus M. de Bougainville, in his Voyage round the World,
bore ample teftimony to the utility of the machine for dif-
nlling fea-water, which had been made pubhc in 1763 by
M. Poiflbnnier, its inventor ; and lord Mulgrave, in his

Voyage

WATER.

Voyage towards the North Pole, ia 1773, did equal juftice
to the method of obtaining fre(h water from the fea by dif-
tilhtion, which had been introduced into the EngliHi navy
in 1770, by Dr. Irving, and for which he obtained a parlia-
mentary reward of 5000/.

Dr. Irving's contrivance confided in converting the (hip's
kettle into a ftill. Every fhip's kettle is divided into two
parts, by a partition in the middle ; one of thefe parts is
only in ufe when peas or oatmeal are drelTed, but water is at
the fame time kept in the other, to preferve its bottom.
Dr. Irving availed himfelf of this circumftance ; and by fill-
ing the fpare part of the copper with fea-water, and fitting
on the lid and tube, Ihewed that fixty gallons of frefh water
could be drawn off, during the boiling of either of the above-
mentioned provifions, without tVie ufe of any additional fuel.
He recommended alfo the preferving of the water diftilled
from the coppers in which peas, oatmeal, or pudding, are
drefled, as both a falutary beverage for the fcorbutic, and
the moil proper kind of water for the boiling of fait pro-
vifions. Dr. Irving particularly direiled that only three-
fourths of the fea-water (liould be dillilled, as the water dif-
tilled from the remaining concentrated brine was found to
have a difagreeable taftc ; and as the farther continuation of
the diftillation proved injurious to the vefiels. For an ac-
count of the feveral experiments made on fome of the bed
diftilled water, prepared by Dr. Irving from fea-water, by
Dr. Watfon, fee his Chem. Eff. vol. ii. p. 168, &c.

The (hips of difcovery lately fent out by the French go-
vernment are furnilhed with an economical diftilling appa-
ratus, and inftead of water have taken with them a fupply
of fuel.

Dr. Prieilley fuggelled a plan to give to diftilled water
the briflcnefs and fpirit of frefh fpring-water, and at the
fame ■•time to render it, perhaps, a remedy or preventive
againft the fcurvy, by impregnating it with carbonic acid
gas. Diftilled water alfo acquires, in aconliderable degree,
the grateful flavour of common water, by fimple expofure
for fome time to the atmofphere.

Sea-water may be likewife rendered potable by converting
it into ice. In the polar regions, therefore, there can be no
want of frefh water. In warm climates, the ingenious freez-
ing apparatus of Mr. Leflie may be employed to procure a
fupply of frefh water from the ocean.

b. As an example of the bitterns we may feleft the Sedlitz,
water, which is one of the beft known, and ftrongeft of this
defcription of fimple faline waters. Sedlitz is a village in
Bohemia, and its waters, as well as thofe of Seydfchutz in
the immediate neighbourhood, and which clofely refemble
them, were firft brought into note about a century ago by
the celebrated Bergman. The tafte of thefe waters is
ftrongly bitter and fahne, but not in the leaft brifl< or aci-
dulous, as they ufually contain a fmall proportion of gafeous
matters. Thus the Seydfchutz water above-mentioned was
found by Bergman to yield only 6 per cent, of gafeous pro-
dufts, two-thirds of which only were carbonic acid. Its
fpecific gravity, as ftated by the fame chemift, is 1.006, and
an Englifh wine pint was found to contain of

Grains.
Carbonate of lime - - -944

Sulphate of lime - - 5-140

Carbonate of magnefia - - 2.622

Muriate of magnefia - - 4-567

Sulphate of magnefia - - 180.497

193.770

Sulphate of foda is not mentioned as an ingredient
in this water, although it doubtlefs exifts in it ; at leaft
this fait almoft always occurs in waters of this defcrip-
tion.

Medicinal Properties and Ufes of the fimple faltne Waters. —
All waters of this defcription aft more or lefs ftrongly upon
the bowels, according to the quantity of fahne ingredients
which they contain ; hence they are often of the greateft ufe
in complaints where alvine evacuations are particularly indi-
cated. They generally aft alfo as diuretics. Sea-water and
all brines have the property of inducing a fenfation of thtrft.
" Sea-water," fays Dr. Saunders, " when ufed internally,
fliould be taken in fuch dofes as to prove moderately purga-
tive, the incrcafeof this evacuation being the peculiar objeft
for which it is employed : about a pint is generally fuffi-
cient, and this fliould be taken in the morning, at two dofes,
with an interval of about half an hour between each. It is
feldom neceffary to repeat the dofe at any other time of the
day. This quantity contains half an ounce of purgative fait,
of which about three-fourths are muriate of foda." — " There
is very little danger ever to be apprehended from an excef-
five dofe of fea-water, except the inconvenience of a tem-
porary diarrhoea, and fometimes a forenefs at the extremity
of the reftum, which all faline purgatives are now and then
apt to produce." The internal ufe of fea-water, befides its
general ufe in difeafes where cathartics are indicated, has
been recommended in various forms of fcrofulous affeftion,
efpecially in indolent glandular tumours in the neck and
other parts, which are commonly flow in ulceratihg and in
their cure ; alfo in deep-feated fcrofulous inflammations, fol-
lowed by caries of the bones, profufe difcharges, and tedious
exfoliation, and particularly in fcrofulous ophthalmia. " In
all fuch cafes, the internal ufe of fea-water is almoft entirely
confined to thofe periods of the difeafe when there is no
general fever and heftic tendency, when no fymptoms of
danger are prefent, and when the objeft is rather to prevent
a relapfe than oppofe any prefent difeafe. The external
ufe of fea-water either as a general cold bath, or as a topical
apphcation to indolent fwelhngs, or granulating ulcers, when
the healing procefs has commenced, coincides perfeftly well
in thefe cafes with the general intention." The moft im-
portant advantages of fea-water are indeed probably derived
from its external ufe as a bath. { See the articles Bath and
Bathing. ) With refpeft to the medicinal properties of the
bitterns, we fhall attempt to illuftrate them by relating thofe
of the Sedlitz water, which we before felefted as an ex-
ample of the whole tribe. A pint of this water, taken in
divided portions, is generally a full dofe for an adult, and the
ftrongeft perfon feldom requires more than two pints. It
operates very fpeedily, and without producing griping or
flatulency; and is ftated by Hoff^mann, as quoted by Dr.
Saunders, to be of the utmoft advantage in a foul ftate of the
ftomach, and general torpor of the inteftinal canal, as it not
only ftimulates thefe organs to expel their morbid contents,
but by its bitternefs reftores their tone, and with it the appetite
and digeftive powers. " When the prefenceof hypochondriafis
is marked by anxiety, general languor, perturbed dreams,
a livid hue on the face, difficulty of breathing, pain of
the back and head, vertigo and coldnefs of the extremities ;
when a bihous humour and a depraved fecretion of the fto-
mach impairs its tone and healthy aftion, and is attended
with obftinate coftivenefs ; this water, by evacuating its con-
tents and reftoring the due force of contraftion, enables it to
throwoffthe offending matter." — " Numerous trials alfo have
ftiewn the efficacy of this faline water in that cachexy of fe-
males attended with a fuppreflion of the menftrual difcharge,

wherebv

WATER.

whereby are produced a general languor, difficult refpira-
tion, febrile heat and irritation, wafting of the body, and lofs
of appetite. Alfo when women have arrived at that time of
life when this periodical evacuation begins to ceafe, and is
fucceeded by a number of anomalous diforders, fuch as prof-
tration of appetite, flatulent pains, irregular fiufliiiigs, pains
in the back and fwelHng of the feet, a courfe of Sedlitz
water reftores the wavering appetite, and difperfes the tu-
mours and other morbid fymptoms. Men of from forty to
fifty years of age, who have led a very fedentary life, and have
been accuftomed to intenfe thought and profound medita-
tion, become frequently affefted with cedematous tumours
in the extremities, a want of due aftion in the ftomach, eruc-
tations after taking food, and a generally impaired ftate
of health; all of which are for the moft part very certainly
removed by a liberal ufe of this water. Perfons alfo of a
plethoric habit of body, who from fome obftruftion of blood
in the abdominal vifcera, and have acquired a ftrong difpoiition
to hemorrhoidal affeftions, become thereby often expofed
to very ferious evils. To fuch perfons a faline water Hke
that of Sedlitz is often of great utility, efpecially if accom-
panied by blood-letting when requitite, and a general anti-
phlogiftic plan of cure. Another important ufe of thefe
waters is in removing from the fyftem thofe impurities and
acrid humours which are ufually termed fcorbutic." Such
are the properties of the Sedlitz faline waters according
to the celebrated Hoffmann, whofe account, as quoted by
Dr. Saunders, we have extradled, becaufe it prefents in few
words a comprehenfive and rational view of the medicinal
properties of this important tribe of waters in general. We
wifh however to obferve, that when the ftomach is in a very
weak ftate, and dyfpepfia is prefent in a very great degree,
faline purgatives and waters in general may do harm by in-
creafing thefe affeftions ; their ufe, therefore, in fuch cafes is
rather contra-indicated, or at leaft fhould be combined with
other remedies calculated to invigorate thefe organs, efpe-
cially chalybeates.

3. Simple chalybeate Waters Chalybeate waters are either

Jimple or compound. Under this head oi Jlmple chalybcaies we
include all waters whofe charafteriilic ingredient is one or
more of the neutral faltsof iron. Thefe may be confidered
as of two general defcriptions : — a. Waters contaniing the
carbonate of iron, without any fi:riking excefs of carbonic
acid ; and b. Waters containing the fulphate or muriate of
iron, generally in combination with a large proportion of the
fulphate of alumina. Waters of this lail defcription are much
more rare than the former, and are ufually formed from the
decorapofition of iron pyrites.

a. As an example of the firft. of thefe varieties of fimple
chalybeate waters, we may adduce that of Tunbridge Wells.
This water has been lately fubraitted to a careful and ac-
curate analyfis by Dr. Scudamore, from whofe pamphlet on
the fubjeft we chiefly take the following account. The
temperature of the fprrng throughout the year is uniformly
50° ; and its fp. gr. in the month of Auguft, at its natural
temperature, was 1.0007. The frefh water is perfeftly
tranfparent, and does not fend forth air-bubbles. It exhales
a fmell which is diftinftly chalybeate. Its tafte in this refpeft
is ftrongly marked, but is neither acidulous nor faline. It
has an agreeable frefhnefs, and is by no means unpalatable.
Submitted to analyfis, one gallon was found to contain,

Cubic Indies.
Of carbonic acid - . - 8.05

Oxygen - ... .jo

Azote '- '- .'■ . ' . 4,75

Of muriate of foda ...
— of lime ...

of magnefia

Sulphate of lime - . .

Carbonate of lime - . .

Oxyd of iron - . .

Traces of manganefe, infoluble mat. 1
ter ( vegetable fibre, lilex, &c. ) J
Liofs in procefles . . .

Grains,
2.47

•39
.29

1.41
.27

2.29

•44

•13

7.69

Or, ftating the refults according to Dr. Murray's view,
which will be particularly explained when we treat of
the analyfis of mineral waters, the following eftimate will
appear :

Muriate of foda
Sulpliate of foda
Muriate of lime

of magnefia

Carbonate of lime
Oxyd of iron
Traces of manganefe, &c.
Lofs, &c.

Grains.
1.25
I
I

47
54
.29
.27
2.29
•44
•13

7.68

This latter eftimate, which renders the carbonate of iron
the moft abundant ingredient in the water, appears much
more probable than the former, and to account more fatif-
fadtorily for its medicinal eflcfts.

b. One of the moft linking examples of the f^cood variety
of fimple chalybeate waters is that occurring in the Ifle of
Wight, and lately analy fed by Dr. Marcet. This fpring iffues
from achff onthe S.S.W. (ide of the ifle, immediately under
St. Catherine's Down, in the parifh of Chale, between which
village and the village of Niton it is nearly equidiftant. The
diftance from the fea-fhore is about 150 yards, and elevation
about 1 30 feet above the level of the fea. Its properties, &c.
are the following : — When it firft iffues from the rock it is per-
fedlly tranfparent, and remains fo if kept in clofe veffels ;
but when expofed to the air, reddilh flakes are foon depo-
fited in it. It has a flight chalybeate fmell, and a highly
aftringent and ftyptic tafte. Its fpecilic gravity, in a courfe
of feveral experiments, was found to be 1007.5. ^"^ P'"^
or fixteen-ounce meafures yielded

Of carbonic acid -rVths of a cubic inch,

Sulphate of iron, in the ftate of cryftal-l
hzed green fulphate - - -J

Sulphate of alumina, a quantity of which, ]
if brought to the ftate of cryftallized >
alum, would amount to - -j

Sulphate of lime dried at 160°)

Sulphate of magnefia cryftalhzed

Sulphate of foda cryftallized

Muriate of foda cryftallized -

Silica ......

Grains.

41.4

31.6

10.

I

3'

.6

16.

0

4'

■0

- 0.

7

107.4

13-30

Vol. XXXVIII.

This therefore is the ftrongeft aluminous chalybeate known.

Medicinal Properties and UJes of Jimple chalybeate Waters

a. The feafon for drinking the Tunbridge water, which we

have felefted as an example of the limple carbonated cha-

C lybeates,

WATER.

lybeates, is ufually from May to November. On entering
upon the ufe of this water fome aperient fhould be premifed ;
and Dr. Scudamore recommends that the firft dofe ftiould
be taken at feven or eight o'clock in the morning, the
fecond at noon, and the third about three in the afternoon.
The exaft quantity to be taken mult be varied according
to circumftances ; but " as a general ftatement," fays Dr. S.,
" I would fay that half a pint daily is the extreme fmalleft
quantity, and that two pints daily is the extreme largeft
amount to found a juft expeftation of benefit ; and further,
in the way of general outline of direftion, I conceive that
half a pint, a pint, a pint and a half, and two pints, fhould
form the progreffive ratio of the total daily quantity to be
taken at the three intervals. As the patient arrives at the
larger proportions, they may with advantage be fubdivided
with the interval of a quarter or half an hour, which ftiould
be occupied in exercife." Tea at breakfaft is direfted to be
avoided ; and in cafes when the water difagrees at its natural
temperature, it is recommended to be adminiftered warm.
" On the firft employment of the water, either cold or warm,
fome inconvenient fenfations very commonly arife, fuch as
fluftiing of the face.flight fulnefs of the head, with drowfinefs
and an uneafy diftenfion of the ftomach, together with con-
tinued flatulence. In- general thefe efFefts are not of im-
portance, either in degree or duration, and are much to be
prevented by previous attention to the ftomach and bowels."
— " As a general ftatement, it may be added, that the employ-
ment of this water is improper in a very plethoric ftate of the
circulation ; alfo when there is an inflammatory determination
to any particular organ, or even vifhen local congeftion exifts
without inflammation. In cafes of fimple debihty of the con-
ftitution, the water promifes to produce its happieft effefts.
The proofs of its immediately agreeing with the patient are
increafed appetite and fpirits, and thefe aufpicious fymptoms
are followed by a gradual improvement in the general en-
ergy and ftrength." The bowels ufually become confti-
pated under its ufe, and require the affiftance of medicine.
The warm bath is occafionally of fervice in conjunftion with
this water, as was long ago pointed out by Hoffmann.
Exercife alfo after its ufe is generally of great importance.
In dyfpepfia depending on debility of the ftomach, and ac-
companied with general languor and nervoufnefs, this water
is remarkably reftorative. In uterine debility alfo, and chlo-
rofis, its ufe is often of the utmoft fervice. It has been much
recommended likewife in fome cutaneous affeftions. For the

complaints of children, efpecially when young, (that is to fay,
under fix or feven years of age, ) it is not in general adapted,
for reafons fufficiently obvious. A courfe of this water may
vary from three weeks to two or three months, according to
circumftances. b. With refpeft to the medicinal properties
of waters containing the fulphates of iron and alumina, as the
Ifle of Wight and HartfeU waters above-mentioned, they
differ little perhaps, except in degree, from thofe of the
fimple chalybeate waters. The Ifle of Wight water is fo
ftrong, that it is always proper to dilute it at firft with twice
its quantity of common water ; and even then the dofe cannot
well exceed two or three ounces, which may be gradually
increafed to about a pint in twenty-four hours. Dr. Saun-
ders recommends the fame quantity as the maximum dofe of
the HartfeU water. Both thefe waters are often much im-
proved by being gently heated, efpecially in cafes where the
ftomach is very delicate and irritable. Dr. Lempriere, who
has written a pamphlet on the Ifle of Wight water, ftates,
that he found it particularly ferviceable in the debility in-
duced by the Walcheren fever, chronic dyfentery, &c. as
well as in every inftance when the conftitution had been
undermined by previous illnefs, and the ordinary tonics had
failed. It is particularly neceifary to guard againft coftive-
nefs during the ufe of thefe waters.

Compound Chalybeate Waters. — Thefe may be divided into
a. Saline chahbeates, and b. Acidulous chalybeates.

a. The Cheltenham waters, properly fo called, are a good
example of the /aline chalybeates. ( For the hiftory of thefe
waters, fee Cheltenham. ) Since that article was written,
however, feveral fprings of different quahties and powers
have been difcovered by Mr. Thomfon ; an abftraft of the
compofition and properties of which, as lately publifhed, we
fhall now take the opportunity of laying before our readers.

The fprings which have been defcribed and analyfed by
Meflrs. Brande and Parkes are fix, viz.

1. The ftrong chalybeate faline water. Sp. gr. 1009.2.

2. The ftrong fulphuretted faline water. Sp. gr. 1008.5.

3. The weak fulphuretted faline water. Sp. gr. 1006.

4. The pure faline water. Sp. gr. loio.

5. The fulphuretted and chalybeated magnefia fpring, or
bitter faline water. Sp. gr. ioo8.

6. Saline chalybeate, drawn from the well near the
laboratory.

The following Table prefents a view of the contents of a
wine pint of thefe different fprings.

Springs.

I

2

3

4

5

6

Muriate of foda ......

Muriate of magnefia - . . . -

Sulphate of foda

Sulphate of magnefia ------

Sulphate of lime ....--

Carbonate of foda ......

Oxyd of iron

Lofs ........

Total

Sulphuretted hydrogen . . - . .
Carbonic acid ...----

Total

Grs.

4'-3

22.7
6.0
2.5

Grs.

35-0

23-5
5.0
1.2

0-3

Grs.

15.0

14.0
5.0

0.5

Grs.

50.0

15.0
II. 0

4-5

Gr«.

9-5
9.0

3-5
♦0.5

I.O

Grs.
22.0

1 0.0

1-5

0.5

74.0

65.0

36.0

80.5

60.0

34-0

Cub. In.
2.5

Cub. In.
2-5

1-5

Cub. In.
2'5

1-5

Cub. In.

Cub. In.

J-5

4.0

Cub. In.

lao

2.5

4.0

4.0

0.0

S-5

1 0.0

The

WATER.

The»M<'i//rtW^/'i!)^^rtJwofthefe different fprings of courfe magnefia and iron in brown cryitals, highly tonic; fub.

vary according to their compofition and ftrength. Mr. carbonate of magnefia in powder, and calcined magnefia.

Thomfon, the proprietor, procures from them fix different b. As an example of the acidulous chalybeates, we may ad-

faline preparations, neither of which, however, is precifely duce the celebrated waters of Spa. (See Spa.) Dr. Jones

fimilar to the water drank at the fpa. Thefe he denomi- has lately pubUfhed an interefting paper on thefe waters,

nates, cryftallized alkaline fulphates ; ditto efflorefced and which contains, among other things, analyfes of the different

ground to an impalpable powder for hot climates ; magne- fprings, of the refults of which the following table prefents

fian fulphate in a ftate of efflorefcence ; a murio-fulphate of a fummary view.

Table exhibiting the Nature and Proportion of the Subftances contained in One Gallon of the refpeftive Spa Waters.

Fouatains. •

Tempe-
ratnre.

Specific
Gravity.

Carbonic
Acid Gas.
Cub. In.

Solid

Conients.

Grains.

Sulphate
of Soda.

Muriate
of Soda.

Carbon,
of Soda.

Carbon,
of Lime.

Carbon,
of Mag-
nefia.

Oxyd of
Iron.

Silex.

Alumina.

Lofs.

Pouhon

50

1. 00098

262.0

26.8

0.92

1.26

2.45

9.87

1.80

5.24

2.26

0.29

2.71

Geronftere

49i

1.0008

168.5

12.50

0.62

0.64

1-43

5.20

1.05

0.94

1.40

0.19

1.03

Sauviniere

49i

1.00075

241.4

8.50

0.05

0.25

0.60

3-50

0.69

2.10

0.40

O.IO

0.90

Groelbeeck -

495

1.0007

265.0

5.90

0.05

0.15

0.30

2.40

0.20

«-55

0.60

O.IO

0.55

I ft Tonnelet -

49^

1.00075

282.0

5-3°

0.06

0.15

0.20

1. 10

0.30

2.70

0.60

O.IO

0.09

2d Tonnelet -

49I

1.00075

260.5

3-70

*

*

0.10

0.90

0.20

1.50

0.65

*

0.35

Watroz -

not afcer-
taltien .

9-3°

0.2

O.IO

1.40

1.90

2.60

0.90

0.60

1.80

The Pouhon, T
after much ■
wet weather. J

32-3

0.80

0.95

2.0

13.82

2.97

4-45

3-27

0.38

3.68

* Quantity not appretiable.

With refpeft to the medicinal properties of the compound
chalybeates, they are, as might be expefted, of a mixed cha-
rafter, and ufually correfpond with the nature of the pre-
dominant impregnating ingredients ; hence their proper-
ties will be readily underftood from what has been ad-
vanced. For further particulars refpefting the medicinal
properties of the Cheltenham and Spa waters, we refer
our readers to thefe articles.

4. Simple Jcidulous Waters. — Under this denomination
may be included all waters whofe charaAeriftic ingredient is
an acid. They may be confidered as of two defcriptiona :
a. Thofe impregnated with a volatile acid, as the carbonic
and fulphurous acids ; and b. Thofe containing a fixed acid,
as the muriatic and fulphuric acids.

a. The waters of Seltzer may be adduced as an example
of the firft variety of acididous waters. " Seltzer is a village
fituated in a fine woody country, about ten miles from
Frankfort, and tljrty-fix from Coblentz, in a diftriift which
abounds with valuable mineral fprings." This water has
been examined by Hoffmann, Bergman, and others. When
frefli from the well, it is perfectly clear and pellucid, and
fparkles much when poured into a glafs. Its tafte is flight-
ly pungent, but at the fame time gently faline and alka-
line. On expofure to the air for a fhort time, the carbonic
acid efcapes, and the alkaline tafte becomes more per-

ceptible. According to Bergman, an Englifti pint con-
tains of

Carbonic acid upwards of

Carbonate of lime about
Carbonate of magnefia
Carbonate of foda
Muriate of foda

Cub. Inches.
17

29.5

b. Waters containing a free mineral acid in excefs are
very rare, and chiefly confined to volcanic countries. Mr.
Garden has lately examined a water of this defcription from
White ifland, on the coaft of New Zealand : it was of a pale
yellowifh-green colour ; its odour rcfembled that of a n»ii-
ture of muriatic and fulphurous acids. Its tafte was
ftrongly acid and ftyptic, like that of a chalybeate. Its
fpecific gravity 1. 073. On being fubmitted to analyfis, its
contents were found to conlift chiefly of muritltic acid, a
night trace of fulphur, fmall proportions of alum, muriate
of iron, and fulphate of lime. Waters impregnated with
C 2 fulphuric

WATER.

fulphuric acid are fometimes met with like wife in the vi-
cinity of volcanoes.

As to the medicinal properties of thefe waters, they pro-
bably differ little from thofe of a dilute folution of the dif-
ferent acids which they contain. For the particular pro-
perties of the Seltzer water, fee Seltzer.

Compound Acidulous Waters. — Acidulous waters fome-
times contain fo large a proportion of fahne matters, that the
nature of their operation is conliderably moditied. Such
waters may be denominated faline aj:idulous waters. The
nature of their compofilion and medicinal properties wiU be
readily underftood from what has been already advanced.

5. Sulphureous Waters. — Thefe are either Jimple or com-
pound. A good example of a Jimple fulphureous water is
the Moffat fpring. The village of Moffat is fituated in
Dumfriesfhire, on the banks of the Annan, about fifty
miles fouth-wefl of Edinburgh. The fulphureous waters
for which this village is noted, iffue from a rock a little
below a bog, whence, fays Dr. Saunders, they probably de-
rive their fulphureous ingredient. This water, even when
firft drawn, appears fomewhat milky. Its tafte is ful-
phureous, and flighlly faline. It fparkles a little when
poured from one glafs into another. On expofure to the air,
it becomes more turbid, and throws up a thin film, which is
pure fulphur, and it thuslofes its diilinguifhing properties as
a fulphureous fpring. This change even takes place in clofe
vefTels, fo that it cannot be exported with any advantage.
According to Dr. Garnett's analyfis, a wine pint of this
water contains

Of fulphuretted hydrogen

Of carbonic acid

Of azote - ■ -

And of muriate of foda 4.4 grains.

With refpeft to the medicinal properties oHimpld fulphureous
waters, they have been always celebrated for their good
effefts in cutaneous affeftions in general, and alfo in fcro-
fula. They are apphed externally in the form of a warm
bath, as well as taken internally. They have been alfo re-
commended in bihous complaints, dyfpepfia, general want
of aftion in the alimentary canal, and calculous cafes. The
quantity of the Moffat waters ufually prefcribed internally
varies from one to three bottles every morning. But Dr.
Saunders juilly obferves,that few delicate ftomachs can bear
fo much. On the other hand, the fame eminent phyfician in-
forms us, that the common people not unfrequently fwal-
low from lix to ten EngUfh quarts in one morning.

For further particulars refpefting this fpring, fee
Moffat.

Sulphureous waters frequently contain fo confiderable a
proportion of faline fnbflances as to merit the name of com-
pound. An example of fuch waters we have in the cele-
brated fprings of Harrowgate, in Yorkfhire. ( See Harrow-
GATE. ) This water, when firft taken up, appears perfeftly
clear and tranfparent. It emits a few air-bubbles. Its
fmell is very ftrong, fulphureous, and foetid, like that of a
foul gun-barrel. Its tafte is bitter, naufeous, and ftrongly
faUne ; though it is remarkable that moft perfons fooii be-
come reconciled to it. On expofure to the air, it brcomes
turbid, the fulphureous odour is diminifhed, and the fulphur
is gradually depofited. According to Dr. Garnett, its fpe-

cific gravity is 1.0064. -^ ^'"^ P*"*, according to thecK-
periments of the fame chemift, was found to contain about

Cubic Inches.
Of fulphuretted hydVogen
Carbonic acid gas

Cubic Inches
1.25
.625

•5

2-375

Azote

2-375

1. 000

•S75

And of

Muriate of foda
Muriate of lime
Muriate of magnefia
Carbonate of lime
Carbonate of magnefia
Sulphate of magnefia

4.25

Grains.

76.9
1.6

11.4

2.3

•7

1-3

94.2

With refpeft to the medicinal properties of waters of this
defcription, and particularly of Harrowgate water, they are
of the greateft ufe in all thofe complaints that require pur-
gatives, and at the fame time are benefited by fulphur ;
hence they have been long celebrated in cutaneous affec-
tions, in piles, worms, &c. They have alfo been found of
great ufe in that obftinately coftive habit of body which
ufually accompanies liypochondriafis. Harrowgate waters
were formerly principally applied externally, but now they
are generally recommended to be taken internally, in fuch
dofes as to produce a fenfible effeft upon the bowels ; for
which purpofe it is commonly neceffary to take in the morn-
ing three or four glaffes, of rather more than half a pint
each, at moderate intervals.

6. Thermal Waters. — There is fomething fo myflerious
and remarkable in the circumftances of thermal fprings, that
they have in all ages attracted great attention, and been fup-
pofed to poffefs extraordinary medicinal properties. Hence,
by moft writers on mineral waters, thermal fprings have
been arranged under a diftinft head ; and as there appears to
be no ferious objeftion to this arrangement, we have thought
proper to adopt it. The inveftigation of the caufe of
thermal fprings belongs to the geologift, and will be found
under Earth, Hot Springs, TfiMPERjiTURE, Volcano>
and analogous articles.

They may be divided into Jimple and compound.
Simple thermal waters are either tepid, that is, poffeffing a
temperature below that of the human body ; or warm, pof-
feffing a temperature above that point. A good example of
the fimple tepid waters are thofe of Buxton. ( See Buxton
Water. ) Tepid waters ufually occur in lime-ftone diftrifts.
Warm waters of every degree of temperature, even to the boil-
ing point, are occafionally met vrith iu the neighbourhood of
volcanoes. See VoLCANO.

With refpeft to the medicinal properties of the fimple
thermal waters, it is extremely doubtful if they poffefs any
other powers than thofe of common water artificially raifed
to the fame temperature.

Thermal fprings are liable to be impregnated with all the
different fubftances which ufually enter into the compofi-
tion of cold mineral waters ; hence they are very various
in their nature. Such thermal waters may be called com-
pound, and without any great facrifice of the principles of
arrangement we have adopted, may be comprifed under
three heads ; namely, a. Saline thermal waters, i. Acidulo-
chalybeate thermal waters, and c. Sulphureous thermal

waters ;

WATER.

waters ; each of which varieties may be either tepid or
warm.

a. Thermal waters fimply faline are very rare. Their
properties can in no refpeS be fuppofed to differ from cold
faline waters raifed to the fame temperature. Sea-water,
therefore, heated artificially, is a good example of this
variety. It is generally ufed externally as a bath. See
Bathing.

b. A good example of the acidulo-chalybeate thermal
waters we have in the fprings of Carlfbad. For a full ac-
count of the chemical properties of thefe fprings, fee
Carlsbad.

c. The celebrated waters of Aix-la-Ghapelle, or Aken,
afford a good example of the fulphureous thermal waters.
See Aix-la-Chapelle.

With refpedl to the medicinal properties of the compound
thermal waters, they have all been in much repute as baths,
which was, perhaps, the original mode in which the two laft
varieties in particular were employed. In later times, they
have been much ufed internally. The difeafes, fays Dr.
Saunders, to the cure of which the internal ufe of Carlfbad
waters are applicable, are as various as the nature of their
foreign contents ; and from the union of feveral valuable
qualities in one water, it may be made ufe of in cafes of very
oppofite natures, without incurring the cenfure of employing
it indilcriminately as an univerfal medicine. In common
with the other purgative chalybeates, it is found to be emi-
nently ferviceable in dyfpepfia and other derangements of
the healthy aftion of the ftomach, in obftruftions of
the abdominal vifcera, not connected with great organic
difeafe, and in defeft or depravation of the bihary fecretion.
It is alfo of ufe in calculous affeftions, and is highly efteemed
for reftoring the uterine fyftem to a healthy ftate. The
fame precautions againft its internal ufe in plethoric and
irritable habits, and thofe who are fubjeft to hxmoptyfis, or
liable to apoplexy, require to be obferved here as with any
of the other aftive thermal waters. The Aix-la-Chapelle
waters, taken internally, are likewife found effentially fer-
viceable in the numerous fymptoms of diforders in the
ftomach and biliary organs, that follow a life of high indul-
gence in the luxuries of the table. It alfo much relieves
painful affeftions of the kidneys and bladder. The fame
precautions in its ufe are to be attended to, as thofe above-
mentioned refpefting the Carlfbad waters. For the ex-
ternal ufes of thofe waters, fee Bathing, and the articles
Cahlsbad and Aix-la-Chapelle, before referred to.

Our readers will readily perceive, from the above fy He-
matic fltetch, that the infinite variety which exifls among
mineral waters abfolutely precludes a perfed arrangement of
them : we truft, however, that no mineral water can occur
which may not be referred to one or other of the above
heads or their fubdivifions, without any great facrifice of
our principles of arrangement ; and, confequently, whofe
general medicinal properties cannot be eftimated with tole-
rable accuracy a priori horn its chemical compofition.

On the general Ufes of Water in a dietetic and medicinal Point
of View. — No organic procefs nor interchange of elements
can be fuppofed to take place without the intervention of a
fluid ; organized beings, therefore, contain a large propor-
tion of fluid in their compofition, through the medium of
which that endlefs feries of changes, effential to their exift-
ence, is principally effefted. The bafis of this fluid is uni-
verfally water, which of all other fluids is the mofl emi-
nently fitted for difTolving and holding in folution every
variety of animal and vegetable matter. See Food of Plants.
In animals, the firft great flep in the feries of vital pro-
ceiles is digejlion; and here nature appears to render the pre-

fenceof a fluid particularly neeeffary, in order, as it were, to
infure for herfelf a fufficiency for her future operations.
Accordingly, we find that all animals inftinftively take in a
certain proportion of fluid, either in the form of fimple
water, or fucculent food. Man alone is the only animal
accuflomed to fvvallow unnatural drinks, or to abufe thofe
which are natural ; and this is the fruitful fource of a great
variety of his bodily and mental evils.

We know little of the intimate nature of the digellive
procefs, but we know that it is chiefly eft'eded by means of
a highly animalized fluid fecreted by th? ftomach itfelf.
Now this important fluid, by drinking too little or too
mucii, or by other caufes, may be rendered too concentrated
or too dilute for the due performance of its operations ; and
dyfpepfia, and all its confequences, may thus enfue from ha-
bitual errors in the quantity of drink only. The remedy in
fuch cafes is obvious, and confifls perhaps in nothing more
than in duly regulating the quantity of watery aliment, as
dictated by inftinft, or the feiifation of thiift only.

An eminent modern phyfiologift recommends to abftain
from drinking during meals, and for fome time afterwards ;
and as a general rule, this may, perhaps, be proper, fince a
healthy ftomach may be fuppofed to be always able to fecrete
fluid enough for its own immediate operations : there can be
no doubt, however, but many exceptions to this rule may be
met with, arifing either from the nature of the food or
condition of the ftomach, in which moderate dilution is not
only grateful but falutary.

With refpeft to the choice of water as an article of diet,
(for our readers will underftand that we fpeak of water only
in this place, ) thofe which are hard and impure have long
lain under the imputation of producing calculous affeftious ;
and we have good authority for ftating, that, in many iii-
ftances, the ufe of fuch waters aftually increafes the painful
fymptoms of thefe diftrefling complaints. It is not perhaps
an eafy tafli to explain this, fince, with the exception of lime,
the fubftances found in hard waters never enter into the
compofition of calcuh : their operation, therefore, muft be
rather of a predifpofing nature, and is probably exerted upon
the organs of digeftion, which are well known to be inti-
mately connefted with the kidney. A faA which renders
this opinion the more probable is, that hard waters are often
pofitively noxious to irritable ftomachs,by inducing dyfpepfia.
In fhort, pure water, as we formerly obferved, muft obvioufly
be much better adapted for the important purpofes of dilu-
tion and folution, than water already faturated as it were
with foreign fubftances ; and upon this principle may pror
bably be fatisfaAorily explained the good effefts of Malvern
and other waters, whofe only chara&eriftic property is,
their remarkable degree of purity.

In a medicinal point of view, the ufe of water as a diluent
is moft important ; and, as Dr.Si'i nders juftly obferves, the
long lift of ptifans, decoftions, &c. ufually prefcribed by
phyficians in acute difeafes, owe their virtues almofl entirely
to the watery diluent itfelf.

The inftindlivc defires or averfions, continues the fame
eminent writer, of perfons labouring under any fpecies of
difordered funftions, have been juftly confidered as deferr-
ing the higheil attention from the phyfician, and in moft
cafes will furnidi him with ufeful hints for his treatment of
the patient. In acute difeafes, the thirft after water is pe-
cuHarly remarked as a charafteriftic fymptom, and is a
direft inftinftive indication of increafed heat and want of
dilution ; and this is fo uniform, that the degree of fever
may often be pretty well eftimated by the eagernefs of the
fufferer after cold drink. The benefits arifing from large
dilution in acute difeafes, however, are not confined to the

mere

WATER.

mere quenching of thirft, though this is in itfelf highly ad-
»anta"-eous ; but it is after fo much Uquid is added to the
circulating mafs, that the truly diluent effefts are pro-
duced. Thefe confift, in Dr. S.'s opinion, in diminifhing
the morbid heat and violence of reaftion in the folids ; in pre-
ferving all the fecvetory organs in a pervious ftate ; and in
checking that tendency to fpontaneous change, which ren-
ders the fluids pofitively noxious to the vefTels in which they
are contained, and unfit to perform thofe funftions, on which
the health of the body fo effentially depends.

It appears poffible, however, in the opinion of the fame
author, to carry dilution in aftive fever to excefs. In
fever, as is well known, the exhalent vefTels are compara-
tively inaftive, or morbidly conftrifted, and the fecretion of
urine is defeftive in quantity. In fuch cafes, it is often
better to take liquids in fmall divided dofes, which has the
effeft of moderating the thirft, without overloading the ar-
terial fyftem, and bringing on that tenfion and plenitude
liable to be produced by fwallowing too large a proportion
of liquids.

In the ufe of water in acute difeafes, the temperature
Ihould be particularly attended to. As a general rule it
may be laid down, that the temperature of diluents at the
different periods of a cold, hot, and fweating ftage of a Am-
ple febrile paroxyfm, fhould be hot in the firft cafe, cold in
the fecond, and tepid in the third ; and it is chiefly in the
facond ftage that the quantity may be moft liberal.

Moft of the above remarks are equally applicable to
the ufe of water in chronic difeafes in general, but more
efpecially in the deranged funftions of the ftomach and
bowels and biUary organs, occafioned by a long and habitual
indulgence in high food, ftrong drink, and all the luxuries
of the table, and which are well known to be fo decidedly
benefited by the ufe of water as a medicine. As in acute
difeafes, fo in chronic affeftions likewife, it is often of great
importance to attend to the temperature of the water. A
draught of cold water, for example, will often induce fick-
nefs and other dillrefling fymptoms in delicate dyfpeptic ha-
bits, while water rendered /lightly tepid may be taken with
impunity and even advantage. On the other hand, the ha-
bitual ufe of warm water or drinks is to be avoided, and
doubtlefs always does much harm.

We fliall clofe thefe remarks by a quotation from Dr.
Saunders on the habitual ufe of water. " Water-drinkers,"
fays this eminent writer, " are in general longer livers, are
lefs fubjeft to decay of the faculties, have better teeth, more
regular appetites and lefs acrid evacuations, than thofe who
indulge in a more ftimulating diluent for their common
drink."

For the external ufes of water, fee the articles Bath
and Bathing, where this part of the fubjeft is treated at
length.

On the general Contents of Mineral Waters and their Opera-
tion.— The proportions of fahne and other ingredients in
mineral waters are for the moft part fo fmall, as apparently
to be infufficient for explaining the elfeAs they often pro-
duce upon the animal economy. Many attempts, therefore,
have been made to explain this circumftance by different
writers, and the fubjeft is fo interefting, that we cannot let
it pafs without making a few remarks upon it.

Dr. Saunders, one of the lateft and beft writers on mine-
ral waters, very properly ridicules the idea of Jpeeijic and
other myfterious properties, by which the older authors at-
tempted to explain their operation. This intelligent phyfi-
cian fuppofes, that a very great proportion of their effefts
depends fcl-ly upon the diluent operation of the water itfelf.
Of this, as we formerly obferved, there can be no doubt, in

many inilances ; and even in all, the mere bulk and tempera-
ture of the water muft be allowed to produce a certain pro-
portion of the effefts. Still, hov^ever, innumerable inftances
occur, in which thefe are infufficient to explain the whole,
even when aided by the additional circumftance of great
dilution, on which the above eminent phyfician likewife lays
great ftrefs. The matter, therefore, has always appeared
fiifficiently puzzUng, and it is only lately that a little light
has been thrown upon it by the ingenious views of Dr.
Murray, which will be more fully explained in the next
feftion.

There can be no doubt that foluble falts in general are
capable of exerting a much more powerful effeft upon the
animal economy, ceeteris paribus, than thofe which are info-
luble. The muriates are the moft foluble clafs of falts oc-
curring in waters, and are moreover, independently of this,
the moft aftive ; at leaft, this is the cafe with the earthy
muriates, efpecially the muriate of lime. Now this fait.
Dr. M. has rendered it probable, exifts in all mineral waters
found by the ufual analytic method to contain the ful-
phate of lime and muriate of foda, which comprehend by
far the greater number. The fame ingenious author has
alfo rendered it probable, that iron 'not unfrequently exifts
in the ftate of muriate inftead of carbonate, as commonly
believed, as for example, in the Bath waters. With thefe
views in general we perfeftly coincide, and have no doubt
that, in many inftances, a large proportion of the good ef-
fefts of mineral waters arifes from the muriates they con-
tain ; but we muft confefs that many difficulties flill appear
to ua to remain on this obfcure fubjeft, which cannot, in the
prefent ftate of our knowledge, be fatisfaftorily explained.

Anal^is of Mineral Waters. — The analyfis of mineral
waters has been juftly deemed one of the moft difficult pro-
blems in praftical chemiftry. This arifes partly from the
diverfified nature of the ingredients, and partly from the
minute proportions in which fome of them exift. The cele-
brated Bergman was the firft chemift who prefented the
world with a general method or formula for analyfing mine-
ral waters. This was efteemed excellent in its day, and
even at the prefent time may be confidered valuable. Twenty
years afterwards, Mr. Kirwan pubhfhed an eflay on the fub-
jeft, which not only comprifed all that had been previoufly
done, but contained many valuable additions made by
himfelf. He alfo propofed a new method of analyfis, of
which we fhall give a fhort account hereafter.

a. The firft ftep in the examination of a mineral water,
is to notice accurately its fenfible properties, fuch as its tem-
perature, colour, tranfparency, tafte, fmell, &c.

b. The fecond ftep is to alcertain its fpecific gravity, the
fpontaneous changes it undergoes on expofure to the air,
the application of heat, &c.

c. Thefe prehminary operations being performed, the next
objeft of inquiry, is to endeavour to obtain a knowledge of
the different ingredients prefent by means of reagents, or tefls,
as they are ufually termed. We have already mentioned the
different ingredients commonly met with in mineral waters,
and fhall now proceed to give a hft of the different tejls by
which their prefence may be detefted. For this lift we are
chiefly indebted to Dr. Thomfon, who has compiled it from
Kirwan and others.

1 . The Gafeous Subjlances may be feparated from water, by
boiling it in a retort connefted with a pneumatic appara-
tus, and their nature and proportions may be afcertained in
the manner to be prefently defcribed.

2. Hydrogen and its Compounds. — Sulphuretted hydrogen is
readily diftiuguifhed by its peculiar fmell, by its reddening
litmus fugacioufly, and by its blackening paper dipped in fo-

lution

WATER.

lution of lead. Carburetkd hydrogen may be detefted by
its inflammable nature, and by its yielding carbonic acid by
corabuftion. Phofphuretted hydrogen may be known by its
peculiar fmell and fpontaneous inflammability.

3. Atmofpheric Air : Oxygen and Azote — The prefence
of oxygen gas may be known by its power of fupporting
combuftion, and by the diminution which takes place on
mixing it with nitrous gas or phofphorus. There is no
teft for azote, but it is fufiiciently charafterized by its ne-
gative properties.

4. Alkalies and Alkaline Earths. — The alkalies and alkaline
earths, as well as their carbonates, are diftinguiflied in general
by the following tefl;s. Turmeric paper is rendered brown
by alkalies, or reddifti-brown, if the quantity be minute.
Brazil wood is rendered blue not only by the alkalies, but alfo
by the alkaline and earthy carbonates. Litmus paper reddened
by vinegar is reftored to its original colour by alkalies, and
alfo by the alkaline and earthy carbonates. If thefe changes
are fugacious, we may conclude that the alkali is ammonia.
/Vxf^ alkalies are indicated when a precipitate is produced by
muriate of magnefia after being boiled. The volatile alkali^
or ammonia, may be readily diftinguiflied by its fenfible
properties. The earthy and metallic carbonates are precipi-
tated by boiling the water containing them, except carbo-
nate of magnefia, which is only precipitated imperfeftly.
With refpedl to the individual fubftances of this clafs —
Potafh may be dift;inguifhed by the precipitate it produces
with the muriate of platina, the fulphate of alumina, and
tartaric acid. For foda there is no good teft, but its falts are
eafily diftinguiflied from thofe of potafli. Ammonia may be
knowrt from its odour and other properties above-mentioned.
Z.ime is detefted by means of the oxalic acid, which occa-
fions a white precipitate. To render its operation certain,
however, the mineral acids, if prefent, muft be faturated with
an alkah. Magnefia and alumina. Pure ammonia precipi-
tates both thefe earths and no other, provided the carbonic
acid has been previoufly feparated. Lime-water alfo pre-
cipitates only thefe two earths, provided the carbonic and
fulphuric acids be previoufly removed. The alumina may
be feparated from the magnefia by boiling the precipitate in
pure potafli, which diflblves the alumina and leaves the mag-
nefia. Silica may be afcertained by evaporating a portion of
the water to drynefs, and rediflblving the precipitate in
muriatic acid. "Thejilica remains behind undiflblved.

5. Metals. — The prefence of metals may be fufpedled, if
precipitates are produced by the prufliate of potafli and ful-
phuretted hydrogen. Iron may be difcovered by the follow-
ing lefts. The addition of tinfture of nut-galls gives water
containing iron a purple or black colour. If the tinfture
has no effeft upon the water after boiling, though it co-
loured it before, the iron is in a ftate of carbonate. Pruf-
fiate of potafli produces a fine blue precipitate in water
containing iron, provided no excefs of alkali be prefent,
which muft be faturated with an acid. Manganefe is occa-
lionally prefent in minute quantity, efpecially in chalybeate
waters. It may be precipitated by ammonia with proper
p»ecaution, and is known by the beautiful violet hue it im-
parts to borax, on being fufed with that fubftance. Copper
is occafionally met with in waters. It may be detefted by
the fine blue colour produced on the addition of ammonia ;
by the red-coloured precipitate produced by the prufliate
of potafli ; or it may be obtained in the metallic ftate by
plunging into the water a piece of poliflied iron. Lead
is fometimes found in waters that have traverfed leaden
pipes. Such waters are blackened by a cur/ent of fulphu-
retted hydrogen gas ; but to render the prefence of the metal

more certam, a portion of the water is to be evaporated to
drynefs ; the remainder is to be tefted with nitric acid, and
afterwards tefted with folutions of the carbonate and ful-
phate of potafli, which produce white precipitates, from
which the lead may be readily obtained in the metallic
ftate.

6. Acids — Carbonic acid, in a free or uncombined ftate,
may be detefted by lime-water, which occafions a precipi-
tate foluble with eff'eivefcence in muriatic acid ; or by the
infufion of litmus, which is reddened, but becomes again
blue on expofure to the air. Water containing free car-
bonic acid lofes this property of reddening htmus by boil-
ing. The fulphuric acid is readily diftinguiflied by the
muriate, nitrate, or acetate of barytes, ftrontian, and lime,
and alfo by the nitrate or acetate of lead. The moft deh-
cate of thefe tefts is the muriate of barytes : this pro-
duces a white precipitate, infoluble in muriatic acid.
To enfure the operation of this teft, it is neceflary
that no earthy or alkaline combination be prefent in the
water. The muriatic acid is detefted by the nitrate of
filver, which occafions a white curdy precipitate, info-
luble in nitric acid. To enfure the operation of this
teft, the alkaline and earthy carbonates muft be previoufly
faturated with nitric acid ; and the fulphuric acid, if any be
prefent, muft be feparated by the nitrate of barytes. Bo-
racic acid is detefted by means of the acetate of lead. The
precipitate formed is infoluble in acetic acid. To render
this teft certain, the alkalies and earths muft previoufly be
faturated with acetic acid, and the fulphuric and muriatic
acids removed by means of the acetate of ftrontian and the
acetate of Clver.

Such is a brief account of the diff'erent tejls ufually em-
ployed to deteft the ingredients prefent in mineral waters,
and the moft obvious precautions to be obferved in their ufe.
It is proper, however, to obferve, that there are many cir-
cumftances to be attended to, in the ufe of tefts in general,
which can only be learnt by perfonal obfervation and prac-
tice, and that the inexperienced chemift is very liable to be
niifled by them.

d. Having thus acquired, by the employment of tefts,
a general knowledge of the ingredients contained in a mineral
water, the next objeft is to endeavour to afcertain the
quantities and modes of combination in which they exift ;
and this conftitutes by far the moft difUcult part of the
inquiry.

There are two general modes of condufting the analyfis
of a mineral water : one is to feparate, by various appro-
priate manipulations, the different ingredients in the fame
compound forms in which they are fuppofed to aftuaUy exift.
in the water. The other, recommended particularly by
Dr. Murray, is to afcertain, chiefly by means of tefts, the
quantities of the different fimple fubftances, and afterwards
to ejlimate from them the quantities of the compounds.
The firtt of thefe modes, and in fonie inftances a combina-
tion of both, is the one which has hitherto been generally
adopted by chemifts ; we ftiall, therefore, give a fliort ac-
count of the manipulations had recourfe to for feparating
a few of the fubftances moft ufually occurring in mineral
waters.

I. The gafeous matters are firft to be feparated in the
manner formerly mentioned, and their grofs amount afcer-
tained by admeafurement in a jar graduated into cubic
inches. Sulphuretted hydrogen, if it be prefent with other
gafes, is firft to be feparated by immerfing the jar in warm
water, and introducing nitric acid, which abforbs the ful-
phuretted hydrogen, and the diminntion of bulk denotes its

quantity.

WATER.

quantity. If fulphurous aeid be prefent, the above ftep is
unneccffary, for fulphuretted hydrogen never exifts in water
containing this acid. Sulphurous acid may be feparated by
introducing into the gafeous mixture a quantity of the
peroxyd of lead, in a ftate of powder. This will gradually
abforb the whole, and the diminution of bulk, as before,
will denote its quantity. The introdudion of a little potafh,
after this, will abforb the carbonic acid. The remaining

The oxygen may be fe-

for fome days to the air, and mixing with it a portion of
alumina. The oxyd of iron and fulphate of alumina are
precipitated together, and may be eafily feparated, and the
quantity of iron afcertained.

5. if muriate of potafh or foda exift alone in water, its
quantity can be readily eilimated by precipitating the
muriatic acid with the nitrate of filver. The fame procefs
may be followed, if the alkaline carbonates be prefent ;
only thefe carbonates muft be previoufly faturated with ful-

gafes muft be oxygen and azote ,„ . ■ ^ , r > .• lti,

parated by introducing a piece of phofphorus, or by other phuric acid, and, inftead of uiing the mtrate, the fulphate
well-known eudiometrical means ; and the azote will remain "f <->l"- - t- ^^ — l^^.H

laft of all, unaffefted by any of thefe proceffes

2. The e.irthy carbonates, if any be prefent, are firft to
be feparated by boiling a given portion of the water for a
quarter of an hour. The precipitate thus obtained may
confift of a mixture of the carbonates of lime, of magnefia,
of iron, and of alumina, and even of the fulphate of lime.
Suppofing all thefe to be prefent, the precipitate is to be
treated with dilute muriatic acid, which vvill diffolve the
whole, except the alumina and fulphate of lime. Dry this
refiduum in a red heat, and note the weight. Then boil it
in a folution of carbonate of foda ; faturate the foda with
muriatic acid, and boil the mixture for half an hour : car-
bonates of lime and alumina will be precipitated ; the hme
may be then diffolved by acetic acid, while the alumina will
remain ; and thus the weight of each may be afcertained.

The muriatic folution contains lime, magnefia, and iron.
To feparate thefe, add ammonia, which will precipitate the
iron and part of the magnefia. Dry the precipitate, and
expofe it to the air for fome time in a temperature of about
200°. The magncfii may be then feparated by acetic acid,
and the acetate thus formed is to be added to the muriatic
folution. The iron is now to be rediflblved in muruitic
acid, precipitated by an alkaline carbonate, and dried and

weighed. . . ^ , .

Muriate of lime and magnefia ftill remain in folution.
To feparate them, add fulphuric acid as long as any pre-
cipitate appears, then heat the folution, and concentrate.
The fulphate of lime thus obtained is to be heated to red-
nefs, and its weight afcertained. Laftly, the magnefia
may be feparated by an alkahne carbonate, or, what is
much better, by the phofphate of ammonia.

3. To afcertain the quantity of the alkaline carbonates,
fuppofing them to exift in waters, determine how much of
any dilute acid, whofe ftrength has been previoufly carefully
afcertahied, is neceffary to faturate them ; and from this the
quantity of alkali can be readily eftimated.

4. The alkaline and earthy fulphates may be eftimated by
the following methods.

The alkaline fulphates may be determined by precipi-
tating their acid by means of the nitrate of barytes, having
previoufly feparated all the earthy fulphates.

Sulphate of lime is readily eftimated by evaporating the
water to a few ounces, the earthy carbonates being pre-
vioufly faturated with nitric acid, and precipitating the ful-
phate of lime by means of dilute alcohol.

If the fulphate of magnefia or alumina be the only ful-
phate prefent, the quantity of either can be readily eftimated.
If they exift together, the two earths may be precipitated
by foda, and afterwards feparated by acetic acid in the
manner above-mentioned. If fulphate of lime be alfo pre-
fent, this may be previoufly feparated in a great degree, as
above ; or, what is preferable, the lime may be precipitated
by an alkali along with the other earths, and afterwards
Separated. The fame holds good alfo with the fulphate of
iron ; or the iron may be feparated by expofing the water

of filver is to be employed.

If the alkaline muriates exift along with more or lefs of
the earthy muriates, or with the muriate of iron, without
any other falts, the whole of the earths may be feparated
by barytes water, and their quantities eftimated as before.
To difcover the proportion of the alkaline muriates, the
barytes is to be feparated bv fulphuric acid, and the muriatic
acid expelled by heat. The quantity of the alkaline mu-
riates may be then afcertained by evaporation.

When fulphates and muriates exift together, they may be
feparated by evaporating the whole to drynefs, and diftblving
the earthy muriates in alcohol ; or, when the water has
been duly concentrated, by precipitating the fulphates with
the lame fluid.

When alkaline and earthy muriates exift with fulphate of
lime, this laft fait is to be decompofed by means of the
muriate of barytes. The eftimation is then to be condufted
as if nothing but muriates are prefent, only the proportion
of muriatic acid which united in the muriate of barytes,
added, muft be allowed for.

When muriates of foda, magnefia, and alumina, are pre-
fent, together with fulphates of lime and magnefia, the water
is better examined by two diftinft operations. To one por-
tion add carbonate of magnefia, till the whole of the lime
and alumina be precipitated. Afcertain the quantity of
lime, which gives the proportion of fulphate of lime. Pre-
cipitate the fulphuric acid by muriate of barytes : this gives
the quantity contained in the fulphate of magnefia and ful-
phate of lime ; and the quantity of fulphate of lime being
previoufly known, that of the fulphate of magnefia can be
eafily eftimated. To a fecond portion of the water add
lime-water, till the whole of the magnefia and alumina be
feparated. From the weight of thefe earths the quantity of
their muriates may be eftimated, that portion of the mag-
nefia previoufly found to be in union with fulphuric acid
being dedufted. After this, remove the fulphuric acid by
barytes water, and the lime by carbonic acid, and the liquid
evaporated to drynefs will leave the common fait.

6. Laftly : If the fixed mineral acids fliould alone be
found to exift in a water, it need fcarcely be obfervcd that
their quantities can be readily afcertained ; the fulphuric
acid by means of a barytic fait, and the muriatic acid by
means of a fait of filver.

All thefe different precipitates fliould be dried uniformly,
or at leaft at fome known degree of temperature. It is not
eafy to fix this point, which muft in a great degree be regu-
lated by the nature of the fait, and the peculiar views of the
analyft ; fome choofing to reduce the falts to an anhydrous,
others to a cryftalhzed ftate. As a fort of check alfo to
the analyfis, it is proper to evaporate a known quantity of
the water to drynefs, in order to learn the grofs amount of
the faline matters it contains, which amount is to be com-
pared with the refults as obtained by the different proceffes
of the analyfis.

Such are a few of the moft common methods recom-
mended for feparating and afcertaining the proportions of tlie
I o different

WATER.

different faline fubftances contained in a mineral water.
They muft of courfe be varied according to circumftances ;
but this, as well as the application of other methods, muft
depend upon the praftical knowledge and judgment of the
analyft.

The principles, however, upon which many of the above
analytical procefles are founded, have been lately called in
queftion by Dr. Murray of Edinburgh, and we think very
juftly. That gentleman has endeavoured to (hew, that we
by no means arrive atajuft knowledge of the conftituents of
a mineral water by thefe procefles, and that many of the
compounds obtained by them are determined by the pro-
ceffes themfelves. The following quotation, from a paper
by Dr. Murray, entitled " A general Formula for the
Analyfis of Mineral Waters," in the eighth volume of the
Tranfaftions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, will con-
vey a diflinft idea of his opinions and mode of reafoning
upon the fubjeft.

Two methods of analyfis have been employed for dif-
covering the compofition of mineral waters, what may be
called the direH method, in which, by evaporation, aided by
the fubfequent application of folvents, or fometimes by
precipitants, certain compound falts are obtained ; and what
may be called the indireB method, in which, by the ufe of
reagents, the principles of thefe falts, and bafes of which
they are formed, are difcovered, and their quantities efti-
mated, whence the particular falts and their proportions
may be inferred.

Chemifts have always confidered the former of thefe me-
thods as affording the moft certain and eflential information.
They have not negltfted the latter, but they have ufually
employed it as fubordinate to the other. The falts pro-
cured by evaporation have been uniformly confidered as the
real ingredients ; and nothing more was required, therefore,
it was imagined, for the accuracy of the analyfis, than the
obtaining them pure, and eftimating their quantities with
precifion. On the contrary, in obtaining the elements
merely, no information, it was believed, was gained with
regard to the real compofition ; for it ftill remained to be
determined in what mode they were combined : and this, it
was fuppoled, could be inferred only from the compounds
aftually obtained. This method, therefore, when employed
with a view to eftimate quantities, has been had recourfe to
only to obviate particular difficulties attending the execution
of the other, or to give greater accuracy to the propor-
tions, or, at furtheft, when the compofition is very fimple,
confdling chiefly of one genus of falls.

Another circumftance contributed to lead to a preference
of the direft mode of analyfis, — the uncertainty attending
the determination of the proportions of the elements of the
compound f-lts. This uncertainty was fuch, that even
from the moft exaft determination of the abfolute quantities
of the acids and bafes exifting in a mineral water, it would
have been dilEcult, or nearly impracticable, to aflign the
precife compofition and the real proportions of the com-
pound falts : and hence the ncceflity of employing the direft
method of obtaining them.

The prefent ftate of the fcience leads to other views.

If the conclufion was juft, that the falts obtained by eva-
poration, or any analogous procefs from a mineral water,
are its real ingredients, no doubt could remain of the fu-
periority of the direcl method of analyfis, and even of the
abfolute neceflity of employing it. But no illuftrations, I
believe, are required to prove that this conclufion is not ne-
celTarily true. The concentration by the evaporation muft, in
many cafes, change the ftate of combination ; and the falts
obtained are hence frequently produfts of the operation, not

Vol. XXXVIII.

original ingredients. Whether they are fo or not, and what
the real compofition is, are to be determined on other
grounds than on their being aftually obtained ; and no more
information is gained, therefore, with regard to that com-
pofition, by their being procured, than by their elements
being difcovered; for when thefe are known, £ind their
quantities are determined, we can, according to the prin-
ciple from which the aftual modes of combination are in-
ferred, whatever this may be, aflign with equal facility the
quantities of the binary compounds they form.

The accuracy with which the proportions of the confti-
tuent principles of the greater number of the compound falts
are now determined, enables us alfo to do this witli as much
precifion as by obtaining the compounds themfelves ; and if
any error fltould exift in the eftimation of their proportions,
the profecution of thefe refearches could not fail foon to
difcover it.

The mode of determining the compofition of a mineral
water, by difcovering the acids and bafes which it contains,
admits in general of greater facility of execution, and more
accuracy, than the mode of determining by obtaining infu-
lated the compound falts. Nothing is more difficult than to
efFeft the entire feparation of falts by cryftallization, aided
even by the ufual methods of the aftion of alcohol, either as
a folvent or a precipitant, or by the aftion of water as a
folvent at different temperatures : in many cafes, it cannot
be completely attained, and the analyfis muft be deficient in
accuracy. No fuch difBculty is attached to the other me-
thod. The principles being difcovered, and their quantities
eftimated in general from their precipitation in infoluble
compounds, their entire feparation is eafily effefted. No-
thing is eafier, for example, than to eftimate the total
quantity of fulphuric acid by precipitation by barytes, or
of lime by precipitation with oxalic acid ; and this method
has one peculiar advantage with regard to accuracy, that if
any error is committed in the eftimation of any of the prin-
ciples, it is difcovered in the fubfequent ftep of inferring the
binary combinations : fince, if all the elements do not bear
that due proportion to each other, which is neceflary to
produce the ftate of neutralization, the excefs or deficiency
becomes apparent, and of courfe the error is detefted.
The indireft method, then, has every advantage over the
other, both in accuracy and facility of execution.

Another advantage is derived from thefe views, if they
are juft, that of precluding the difcuflion of queftions,
which otherwife fall to be confidered, and which muft often
be of difficult determination, if they are even capable of
being determined. From the ftate of combination being
liable to be influenced by evaporation, or any other analytic
operation, by which the falts exifting in a mineral water are
attempted to be procured, difcordant refults will often be
obtained, according to the methods employed : the propor-
tions at leaft will be different, and fometimes even produfts
will be found by one method, which are not by another.
In a water which is of a compUcated compofition, this will
more peculiarly be the cafe. The Cheltenham waters, for
example, have in different analyfes afforded refults confider-
ably different : and on the fuppofition of the falts procured
being the real ingredients, this diverfity muft be afcribed to
inaccuracy ; and ample room for difcuflion with regard to
this is introduced. In like manner, it has often been a fub-
jeft of controverfy whether fea-water contains fulphate of
foda with fulphate of magnefia. All fuch difcuflions, how-
ever, are fuperfluous. The falts procured are not uecef-
farily the real ingredients, but in part, at leaft, are produfts
of the operation ; liable, therefore, to be obtained or not,
or to be obtained in different proportions, according to the
I) method

WATER.

meUiod employed : and all that can be done with precifion
is to eftimate the elements, and then to exhibit their binary
combinations, according to whatever may be the moll pro-
bable view of the real compofition.

The method propofed by Mr. Kirwan, formerly al-
luded to, confifts in determining, chiefly by tefts, the
quantity of the different faline fubilances prefent. But the
complicated nature of many of the formulae, bcfide the very
principle of the method itfelf, being liable to moft of the
objeftions above urged by Dr. Murray againft that in com-
mon ufe, render its' application difficult, and refults uncer-
tain. Upon the whole, therefore, we have no hefitation in
faying, that we confider Dr. Murray's views and methods
as by far the belt, and moft likely to le.id to corrcft con-
clufions, that have yet appeared, and which may be ftatcd
in few words, as follows :

" Determine by precipitants the weight of the acids and
bafes prefent in a mineral water. Suppofe them united in
fuch a manner that they (hall form the moft foluble falls :
thefe falls will conftilute the true faline conftituents of the
water under examination."

Dr. Murray illuftrates his method of procedure by fup-
pofing, as an example, a water found, by the ufual tefts,
to contain the carbonates, fulphates, and muriates of lime,
magnefia, and foda. The water is to be reduced by eva-
poration as far as can be done, without occafioning any
fenfible precipitation or cryftallization. A faturated folu-
tion of muriate of barytes is then direfted to be added as
long as any precipitate falls, and no longer. This precipi-
tates the whole of the fulphuric and carbonic acids, and the
carbonate of barytes is to be feparated from the fulphate by
diluted muriatic acid. Add to the refidual liquor a folution
of oxalate of ammonia as long as any turbid appearance is
produced. By this the whole of the lime is feparated.
The oxalate of lime is to be calcined, and converted into
fulphate of lime, from which the quantity of pure lime may
be readily eftimated. The next (lep is to precipitate the
magnefia ; and for this purpofe. Dr. Murray recommends a
modification of Dr. WoUafton's procefs. This confifts in
adding, firft, a folution of neutral carbonate of ammonia,
and afterwards a ftrong folution of phofphoric acid, or
phofphate of ammonia ; taking care to leave an excefs of
the carbonate of ammonia. By thefe procefTes, the whole
of the magnefia is obtained in the ftate of triple phofphate,
and its quantity can be readily eftimated. Muriate of foda
now remains in folution, and its quantity can be obtained by
evaporation. As a check, however, to the different pro-
cefTes, it may be proper to afcertain the quantity of muriatic
acid prefent by means of the nitrate of filver.

If alumina, filica, or iron be prefent, they are beft fepa-
rated by diftinft procefTes, in the manner formerly de-
fcribed.

Laftly, Dr. Murray recommends that the refults of an
analyfis be ftated in three modes : 'ift. The quantities of the
acids and bafes ; idly. The quantities of the binary com-
pounds, as inferred from the principle that the moft foluble
compounds are the ingredients ; and 3dly, The quantities
of the binary compounds, fuch as they are obtained by
the ufual modes of analyfis. The refults will be thus pre-
fented in every point of view. As an inftance of this
method of ftating the refults of an analyfis, we refer our
readers to what we have faid on fea-'water in the prefent
article.

Mineral Waters, artificial Preparation of. — Chemiftry had
no fooner developed the compofition of mineral waters, than
it fuggefted methods of preparing them artificially. Ac-
cordingly, Bergman and others have given many formulae for

this purpofe, fome of which approach the truth, while
others are very imperfeft. When the compofition of a
water is very fimple, nothing more is required to form it
artificially than to know the nature and quantity of the
faline fubftances prefent, and to diffolve fimilar quantities of
the fame faline fubftances in the fame proportion of water.
In the earlier periods of chemical inveftigation, before the
nature of gafeous fubftances was underftood, no attempts
of courfe could be made to imitate the important clafs of
waters which derive their chief properties from the prefence
of fuch fubftances ; but chemifts no fooner became ac-
quainted with the nature of gafes, than they began to devife
methods of imitating thefe alfo ; and artificial carbonated
waters have been long fince prepared as an article of com-
merce, under the name oifoda ivater, fuperior in point of im-
pregnation to any acidulous waters known. See Pyhmont.

It is true that there are fome inftances of natural chemical
folution, which art has not even yet been able to imitate.
Of this kind is the folution of filex, wliich occafionally oc-
curs in mineral waters. It is doubtful, however, if this
earth is capable of exerting any falutary effedls on the animal
economy ; and, therefore, we have little occafion perhaps
to regret our inability to effedt its folution. Another defetl
in the formation of artificial mineral waters is, that many of
the more important ones cannot be obtained in large quan-
tities for bathing, &c. without fo great a degree of expence
and trouble, as to entirely preclude their ufe.

On the other hand it feems plaufible, in theory at leafl,
that we can improve upon the compofition of many mineral
waters. Thus, many mineral waters contain ingredients,
which, either from the minutenefs of the proportion in which
they exift, or from their inert nature, may be deemed as
fuperfluous, or in fome inftances as injurious. Again,
others contain their aftive ingredient in fuch fmall quantities,
as to require an inconvenient bulk of the water to produce
the defired effeft : all which defefts may be remedied in the
artificial preparation, by leaving out the ufelefs or noxious
matter, and increafing that in which the proper medicinal
virtue refides. Befides thefe advantages alfo, we have it in
our power to form new and valuable compounds, which are
no where to be met with in a natural ftate.

The firft itep to the artificial formation of a mineral
water is, of courfe, to know the exaft compofition of the
water we would imitate. Many of the ingredients, how-
ever, obtained from mineral waters by the ufual modes of
analyfis, are very little foluble in water : fuch, for example,
are the fulphate and carbonate of lime, &c. which we Ihould
attempt in vain to diffolve direftly in water. Other modes,
therefore, mull be devifed for this purpofe ; and Dr. Mur-
ray's views of the compofition of mineral waters in general
will enable us to effeft our objeft, in moft inftances, very
readily and completely, as the following example will
(hew.

Suppofe we wifhed to imitate the Seltzer water, an
Enghfh pint of which, according to Bergman's analyfis,
contains, as before mentioned, of

Cub. Inches.
Carbonic acid - - - - 17 ,

Carbonate of lime
Carbonate of magnefia
Carbonate of foda
Muriate of foda

Grains.

3
5

4
17-5

29.5

Of

WATER.

Of thefe ingredients, neither the carbonate of lime nor
magnefia are foluble in water, nor can be rendered fo, with-
out a tedious procefs of impregnating the water, through
which they are difFufed, with carbonic acid gas. But if we
adopt Dr. Murray's views, and confider a pint of this water
as aftually containing of

Cub. Inches.
Carbonic acid gas 1 7

Muriate of hme
Muriate of magnefia
Muriate of foda
Carbonate of foda

Grains.

3-3
5

7.8
10.3 dry, or 18 cryftallized.

26.4

•we can eafily imitate its compofition in the following
manner :

About 35 grains of muriatic acid, of the ftrength ufually
met with in the fliops, are to be put into a ftrong bottle,
with a pint of water, the acid being introduced to the bot-
tom of the water by a long funnel. Three grains of pure
white marble in coarfe powder are then to be dropped in,
and the bottle clofcd. When thefe are dilTolved, five grains
of the common carbonate of magnefia in powder are to be
added ; and after the folutioii of this, 32 grains of cryftal-
lized carbonate of foda, or what is equivalent to this, and
preferable, as affording more carbonic acid, 27 grains of
bicarbonate of foda, are to be put in. The bottle is to be
clofed accurately, fhaken, and inverted. In a rtiort time
a perfeft folution takes place, and a liquor is obtained
tranfparcnt, which fparkles when poured out, has a plea-
fant tafte, and in its compofition refembles the Seltzer
water.

It might be fuppofed, fays Dr. Murray, that fo large a
proportion of carbonate of foda could not exiil with the
muriates of magnefia and lime, without decompofing them ;
but on making the experiment, it was found that the above
quantities might be diifolved in a pint of water, indepen-
dently of the excefs of carbonic acid, without any apparent
decompofition ; the folution remaining tranfparent, even on
expofure to the air.

Upon fimilar principles may the compofition of almoft
every other mineral water be readily imitated.

We have an agreeable imitation of acidulous waters, under
the term of what is called the effervefcing draught. This
confifts of two folutions, one of an alkaline carbonate, and
the other of the citric or fome other vegetable acid, which
are jJirefted to be mixed together, and fwallowed during
the aft of effervefcence. A more portable form of this
grateful draught is to be obtained in the fliops, under the
name of Sothnc potvders, Seidlet% powders, &c. in which
the requifite proportions of alkali and acid in their dry ifate
are formed into feparate little packets, one of each of which
is direfted to be dilTolved feparately in water, and the two
folutions to be then mixed, and fwallowed during the aft of
effervefcence, as before.

The following, therefore, may be laid down as a general
rule for the artificial preparation of mineral waters : — Afcer-
tain, upon Dr. Murray's principles, the precifc propor-
tions of the mojl foluble falts that can be prefent in any
given water ; difiblve fimilar proportions of the fame falts
in an equal quantity of water, and a compound water v/ill
be obtained, precifely fimilar in its compofition to the
original.

Catalogue of the mnfl important mineral Waters The fol-
lowing catalogue is intended to comprife the principal
mineral waters of Great Britain, and fome of the more im-
portant ones of other countries. Our readers will recolleft
that, in the preceding article, we divided natural waters
into potable, fal'me, chalybeate, acidulous, fulphureous, and
thermal, and defcribed the general chemical and medicinal
properties of each clafs, as well as of their compounds.
To prevent repetition, and to fave room, therefore, we have
attempted to refer the different fprings, mentioned in the
following catalogue, to one or other of the above claffes :
thus, when a fpring is ftated to be faline, its general com-
pofition and properties are to be underftood to refemble the
clafs of fal'me «-aters ; and fo of the reft.

The moderns have very properly exploded the old notion
of the myilerious mAfpecific operation of particular fprings.
But even if this cogent reafon for generalization did not
exift, it would be impoflible, in a work of the prefent defcrip-
tion, to defcend to all the minutias of analyfis, &c. fuppofing
them to be known, which is far from being the cafe : we
have thought proper, however, to give a few of the more
interefting and inftruftive recent analyfes of fome of the
moft important fprings.

Thofe fprings marked thus *, in the following lift, are
more particularly defcribed in the preceding article, as
examples of the different claffes.

Ahcourt. An acidulous chalybeate fpring. See Ab-

COURT.

Aberbrothick, or Arbroath. An acidulous chalybeate
fpring. See Aberbrothick.

■ABon. A faline fpring. See Acton.

Aghaloo, Tyrone, Ireland. A fulphureous fpring llightly
faline.

* Aix-la-Chapelle. Sulphureous thermal fprings. See
Aix-la-Chapelle.

Alford. A faline fpring. See Alford.

Alkerton, near Gloucefter. A faline fpring.

Anadujff", Leitrim. A weak fulphureous fpring flightly
faline.

AJhiuood, Fermanagh, A fulphureous fpring llightly
faline.

AJheron, Yorkfhire. A ftrong fulphureous fpring
flightly faline.

Aflrope, Oxfordftiire. An acidulous chalybeate fpring.

Afwarby, Lincolnlhire. A fahne chalybeate fpring.

Athlone, Weftmeath. A chalybeate fpring flightly
faline.

d' Ax-en-foix, France. Sulphureous thermal fprings, in
repute as baths.

Baden. Sulphureous fpringg, formerly in much repute as
baths. See Baden.

Bagnigge-lVells. Two fprings, one faline, the other
chalybeate. See Pancras.

Baia. Thermal fprings, in much repute among the Ro-
mans. See Bai;e.

Balaruc. Saline thermal fprings. See Balaeuc.

Ballycajlle. Two chalybeate fprings, one in which the
iron is in combination with carbonic acid, the other with
fulphuric acid. See Ballycastle.

Ballynahinch, Downftiire. A fulphureous fpring, faid to
contain iron.

Bagneres, France. Thermal fprings, in much repute aa
baths. See Bagneres.

Baljlon, North America. A highly acidulous chalybeate
fpring. According to the recent analyfis of a French
cheraift, 25 Huid ounces contain of

D 2 Carbonic

Carbonic acid

Muriate of foda
Carbonate of lime
Muriate of magnefia
Muriate of lime
Carbonate of iron

WATER.

Cub. Inche

s. is about 74°. A wine pint

75

analyfis, contains wf

Giains.

Carbonic acid gas

31

Common air

22

12.5

5

4

according to Dr. Carrick's

Cub- Inches.

3-75

0-375

74-5

Barege. Sulphureous thermal fprings, in confiderable
repute. See Barege.

Barnet, Hertfordfhire. A weak faline fpring. At
North-hall, about three miles from Barnet, is another of
the fame defcription, but a little ftronger.

Bath. Celebrated fahne thermal fprings, containing hke-
wife a little iron. (See Bath.) One of the moil recent
and probably correft analyfes of thefe waters is by Mr.
Phillips. According to this gentleman, a wine pint con-
tains of

Carbonic acid

Sulphate of lime

Muriate of foda

Sulphate of foda

Carbonate of lime

Silex

Oxyd of iron

Cub. Inches.
1.2

Grains.

9

3-3

i-S

0.8
0.2
0.0147

14.8147

Bihon, Yorkfhire. A weak faline fulphureous fpring.
Binley, Warwickfhire. A fahne chalybeate fpring.
Borroiudale, Cumberland. A ftrong faline water. See

BORROWDALE.

Borfet. Sulphureous thermal fprings, in confiderable
repute. See Borset.

Brahach, Germany. An acidulous chalybeate fpring.

Brandola, Italy. A weak acidulous chalybeate fpring.

Brentwood, EfTex. A faline fpring.

Brighton. A chalybeate fpring : fulphate of iron. ( See

Brighthelmston.)' According to Dr. Marcet's analyfis,

a wine pint contains of

Cub. Inches.

Carbonic acid gas ... 2.5

Sulphate of iron
Sulphate of hme
Muriate of foda
Muriate of magnefia
Silex
Lofs

Grains.
1.80
4.09

1-53
0.75
0.14
0.19

8.50

Brijlol Hotivelh. A fimple thermal water. As this
fpring has not been defcribed in its proper place, we fhall
infert the following Ihort account of it here. This water is
inodorous, perfeftly limpid and fparkhng, and fends forth
air-bubbles when poured into a glafs. It is agreeable to
the palate, but has no decided tatte. Its fpecific gravity is
ftated to be 1.00077. Its temperature, upon an average.

4.125

Muriate of magnefia
Muriate of foda
Sulphate of foda
Sulphate of lime
Carbonate of lime

GraiDs.

0.9
0.5
1.4
- 1.47
1.63

5-9

It was formerly much celebrated in confumption, but its
fuppofed good effefts in this difeafe have been juftly called
in queftion by modern writers.

Bromley, Kent. A chalybeate fpring. See Bromley.

Broughion, Yorkfhire. A ftrong faline fulphureous
fpring, fimilar to that of .Harrowgate.

Buch, near Carlibad, in Bohemia. A weak acidulous
water.

Buglaiuton, Cheihire. A faline fulphureous water.

Burlington, or Bridlingtpn, Yorkfhire. A chalybeate water
flightly fahne.

Burnley, Lancaihire. A chalybeate water flightly faline.

* Buxton. A fimple thermal w-ater. See BuxTON-Z-Ko/er.
Cannock, Staffordlhire. A chalybeate water.
Cargyrle, near Chefter. A weak faline water.
Carijhad. Celebrated acidulo-chalybeate thermal fprings.

See Carlsbad.

Carlton, Nottingham. A chalybeate water.

Cajileconnel. A chalybeate water. See Castleconnel.

Ca/ilemain. A fulphureous fpring faid to contain iron.
See Castlemain.

Camley, Derbyfliire. A fulphureous water flightly faline.

Cawthorp, Lincolnftiire. A chalybeate fpring flightly
faline.

Chedlington, Oxfordfhire. A fulphureous water flightly
faline.

Chaude Fontaine, near Liege, Germany. Thermal fprings
celebrated as baths.

* Cheltenham. Saline and faline chalybeate fprings. See
Cheltenham.

Chippenham, Wiltfliire. A chalybeate fpring.

Cleves. An acidulous chalybeate fpring. See Cleves.

Clifton, Oxfordfliire. A faline fpring.

Coiham, Surry. A chalybeate water.

Codfal Wood, StafFordfliire. A fulphureous fpring.

Colchejler, Eflex. A faline fpring.

Colurian, Cornwall. A chalybeate fpring.

Comner, or Cumner, Berkfliire. A weak faline fpring.

Corjlorphine, near Edinburgh. A weak fulphureous fpring
flightly fahne.

Coventry. A faline chalybeate fpring. See Coventry.

Crickle Spa, Lancafhire. A ftrong fahne fulphureous water.

Croft, Yorkfnire. A fulphureous water flightly faline.

Crofs toivn, Waterford. A fulphureous fpring.

Cunley-houfe, Lancaftiire. A ftrong fulphureous fpring
flightly faline.

Deddington. Saline fulphureous fprings. See Ded-

DINGTON.

Derby. A chalybeate fpring.

Derrmdaft

WATER.

Derrindaff, Cavan. A Culphureous fpring flightly faline.
Derry-hincb, Fermanagh. A fulphureous fpring.
Dog and Duck, St. George's Fields, Southwark. A faline
fpring.
Drig-tuell, Cumberland. An acidulous chalybeate fpring.
Drumafnave, Leitrim. A llrong fulphureous fpring Hightly
faline.

Dublin. Several weak faline fprings.
Du/tuich, Kent. Pretty ftrong faline fpring.
Dunblane, Perthfhire. Thefe fprings have been only lately
difcovered. They have been accurately analyfed by Dr. Mur-
ray. There are two fprings, both of a fimilar nature, that is
to fay, faline, with a minute proportion of iron. A wine
pint of the north fpring was found by Dr. M. to contain of

Grains.
Muriate of foda .... 24.3

Muriate of lime - - - - l8.

Sulphate of lime - - - - 3.1

Carbonate of lime with a trace of iron - 0.5

Hanbr'tdge, Lancafhire. A chalybeate water flightly
faline.

Hanlys, Shroplhire. Two fprings, one faline the other
chalybeate.

^Harroiugate. Saline fulphureous fprings. See Har-
ROWGATE.

^a»-//i?//, Annandale. A chalybeate fpring : fulphate of
iron. According to Dr. Garnett's analyfis, a wine pint of
this water contains of

Grains.
Sulphate of iron ... 10.5

Sulphate of alumina - - - i.c

Oxyd of iron .... 1.875

45-9

The fame quantity of xhe fouth fpring yielded

Miu-iate of foda . . . -

Muriate of lime ....

Sulphate of lime ....

Carbonate of lime ....

Oxyd of iron ....

Dunfe, Scotland. A chalybeate fpring.
Durham. A ftrong fulphureous water (lightly faline.
Egra, Bohemia. A celebrated faline chalybeate fpring.
See Egra.

Epfom. A celebrated faline fpring. See Epsom.

Feljlead, EfTex. A chalybeate fpring.

Filah, Yorkfhire. A faline chalybeate fpring.

Maine. Saline fulphureous fprings.

Grains,

22.

■S

16,

2

•3

0

■3

•IS

—

41,

.25

Francfort on the
See Francfort.

Galway, Ireland.

Geyfer, Iceland.
Iceland.

Glanmile, Ireland

A chalybeate fpring.
Remarkable thermal

fprings. See

A chalybeate fpring.
Glajlonbury. A chalybeate fpring (lightly faline. See
Gla.stonbury.

Glendy, Angus(hire. A ftrong chalybeate fpring.
Granjbaiu, Downlhire. A chalybeate fpring.
//fljjA, LancalViire. A chalybeate fpring : fulphate of iron.
Hampflead. A chalybeate water. See Hampstead. The
moft recent analyfis of this water is by^Mr. Blifs, according
to whom a wine gallon contains of

Cub. Inches.
Carbonic acid - , - - - lo.i

Atmofpheric air - - - - 90.9

Oxyd of iron
Muriate of magnefia
Sulphate of lime -
Muriate of foda nearly
Of (ilex about

lOI.
Grains.

1-5

1-75
2.12

i.o
•38

6.75

13-875

Hartlepool. A chalybeate fpring. See Hartlepool.

Holt, Wiltlhire. A weak faline water.

Holt-neinl, Leicefterlhire. A chalybeate fpring: fulphate
of iron. See Holt Waters.

Jejfop's Well, near Cobham, Surry. A ftrong faline
water flightly chalybeate.

Ilmington, Warwick(hire. A chalybeate fpring.

Inglewhite, Lancaftiire. A ftrong chalybeate fpring.

IJle of Wight. A very ftrong chalybeate : fulphate of
iron.

Iflington. A chalybeate fpring. See I.slington.

Kanturk, Cork. A chalybeate fpnng.

Kattrine Loch, Scotland. On the north fide of this
lake is a ftrong chalybeate fpring.

Keddlejlone, Derbylhire. A ftrong fulphureous water
moderately faline.

Kenfwgton. A faline fpring. See Kensington.

^<7^rfiy, Meath. A chalybeate water : fulphate of iron.

Kilburn, Middlefex. A faline fpring.

Kilroot, Antrim. A faline fpring.

Kiling-Jhaniially, Fermanagh. A chalybeate water flightly
faline.

Killajlxr, Fermanagh. A ftrong fulphureous water.

Kinallon, or Kynolten, Nottinghamlhire. A weak faline
water.

Kincardine. A chalybeate fpring.

King^s-cliff, Northampton(hire. A chalybeate fpring
weakly faline.

Kirby or Kirkby-thoiver, Weftmoreland. Two chaly-
beate fprings.

Knarejborough, the Dropping-well, contains lime held in
folution by carbonic acid. See Knaresborough.

Knowjley, Lancalhirc. A chalybeate fpring.

Korytna, Moravia. A very (Irong fulphureous fpring.

Kuka, Bohemia. A chalybeate acidulous water.

Lancafler. A chalybeate fpring flightly faline.

Latham, Lancaftiire. A chalybeate fpring.

Leuh, Valois, Switzerland. Thermal fprings.

Llandrindod, Radnorfliire. Three fprings; one faline,
another fulphureous, and the third chalybeate.

Llangybi, Carnarvonfhire. A fahne fpring.

Leamington. A faline fpring. See Warwick.

Lee%, Effex. A chalybeate fpring.

Lincomb, Bath. A chalybeate fpring flightly faline.

Lifbeak, Fermanagh. Two fulphureous fprings.

Lis-done-varna, Clare. A ftrong chalybeate water.

Loanjbiiry, Yorkfliire. A fulphureous fpring flightly
faline.

Maccroom, near Cork. A chalybeate fpring.

Mahereberg, Kerry . A faline fpring.

Mallow,

WATER.

Mallow, Coi-k. A pure thermal fpring. See Mallow.

Mc7lton, Yorkfhire. A Jlrong chalybeate fpnng mode-
rately faliiie. .

*Malvern, Worcefterfhire. Very pure fpnngs. fc.ee
Malvern. One wine gallon of the Malvern Holywell
waters, according to Dr. Wilfon, contains of

Grains.

Carbonate of foda
Carbonate of lime
Carbonate of magnefia -
Carbonate of iron
Sulphate of foda
Muriate of foda
Reiiduum, filex

-

^33

-

1.6

-

.919

•

.629

-

2.896

-

i-?53

-

1.687

14.610

According to the fame chemift, one gallon of the Malvern

St. Ann's well contains of

Grains.

Carbonate of foda
Carbonate of lime
Carbonate of magnefia -
Carbonate of iron
Sulphate of foda
Muriate of foda
Refiduum, filex

3-55
•352
.26
.328

1.48
•955
•47

7^395

MartJhaU, Effex. A chalybeate water.
Matlock, Derbyfhire. Thermal fpnngs, temp, about 66 .
See Matlock. , ,

Maudjley, Lanca(hire. A fulphureous water moderately

faljne. . .

Mechan, Fermanagh. Two fulphureous ipnngs.

Millar's Spa. A chalybeate fpring.

*MoJfat, Annandale. Two fulphureous fpnngs. fc.ee
Moffat. .

Mofshoufe, Lancafhire. A chalybeate fprnig.

Moreton, Shroplhirc. A faline fpring.

Mont d'Or, near Clermont, France. Sulphureous ther-
mal fprings.

Mount Pallas, Cavan. A chalybeate fpnng.

Nevil Holt. See HoLT. .

Ncwnham Regis, Warwickfiiire. Three chalybeate fpnngs
flightly fahne.

Neivton Dale, Yorkfhire. An acidulous water holdmg
lime in folution.

Nenvton Steiuart, Tyrone. A chalybeate fpnng.

Nezdenice, Germany. An acidulous water.

Nobber, Meath. A chalybeate fpring : fulphate of iron.

Normanby, Yorkihire. A fulphureous fpnng flightly

faline.

Nottington, Dorfetfhire. A ftrong fulphureous water.

Orfion, Nottingham. A chalybeate fpring.

Oulton, Norfolk. A weak chalybeate fpring.

Owen Breun, Cavan. A fulphureous fpring flightly fahne.

Pancras, Middlefex. A faline fpring.

Pajy, near Paris. A moderately ftrong chalybeate
fpring.

Peterhead, Aberdeenfliire. A ftrong chalybeate fpnng.
See Peterhead.

Pettygoe, Donegal. A ftrong fulphureous water, fahne.

Pitcaithly, Perthfhire. Thefe fprings refemble clofely
thofe of Dunblane, and have been lately analyfed by Dr.
Murray, according to whom a wine pint contains of

Atmofpheric air
Carbonic acid gas

Muriate of foda
Muriate of lime
Sulphate of lime
Cartionate of lime

Cubic Indies.
- 0.5
I.

1^5

Grains,

13-4
19.5

•9
•5

34^5

Plomblers, France. A thermal fpring.

Pontgibault, France. A weak acidulous fpring.

Pyrmont, Weftphalia. A highly acidulous chalybeate
fpring. See Pyrmont.

Queen's Camel, Somerfetfhire. A fulphureous fpring.

Richmond, Surry. A faline fpring.

Road, Wiltfliire. A chalybeate fpring.

Rougham, Lancafhire. A faline fpring.

St. Barlholomciu's Well, Cork. A chalybeate water
flightly fahne.

St. Bernard's Well, Edinburgh. A fulphureous water
flightly faline.

St. Erafinus's Well, Staffbrdfhirc. A weak faline water.

St. Winifrid's Well, Flint. A very pure fpring. See
Holywell.

Scarborough, Yorkfhire. A faline chalybeate fpring. See
Scarborough.

Schooley's Mountain, United States. A weak chalybeate
fpring.

Scollienfes, Switzerland. An acidulous chalybeate fpring.

* Sea-water. See Sea and the former part of this article.

*Sedlit%. A fahne water. See SedLITZ.

*Seltzer. An liighly acidulous water. See Seltzer.

Sene, or Seend, Wiltfhire. Two clialybeate fprings.

*Seydfchut%,ne3x ^ei\\tz. A fahne water. See Sedlitz.

Shadwell. A fahne chalybeate fpring : fnlphate of iron ?

Shapmoor, Weftmoreland. A fulphureous fpring flightly
faline.

Shettlewood, Derbyftiire. A fulphureous fpring flightly
faline.

Shipton, Yorkfhire. A fulphureous fpring moderately
faline.

5on!fr/2iam, Huntingdon fhire. A chalybeate fpring : ful-
phate of iron. See Somersham.

*Spa. Highly acidulous chal5-beate fprings. See Spa.

Stanger, Cumberland. A fahne chalybeate fpring.

Stenfeld, Lincohifhire. A chalybeate fpring flightly
faline.

Streatham, Surry. A fahne fpring. See Streatham.

Suchaloza, Germany. An acidulous fpring.

Sutton Bog, Oxfordftiire. A ftrong fulphureous fpring
flightly faline.

Siaadlingbar, Cavan. A fulphureous fpring.

S-L'an/ea, Glamorganfhire. A chalybeate fpring: ful-
phate of iron. See Swansea.

Sydenham, Kent. A weak faline fpring.

Tarleton, Lancafliire. A chalybeate fpnng flightly faline.

Teu'ijbury, Gloucefterfliire. A faline fpring.

Thelford, Norfolk. A chalybeate fpring flightly aci-
dulous.

Thoroton, Nottinghamfhire. A chalybeate fpring flightly

faline.

Thurli, Yorkfhire. A faline chalybeate fpnng.

■' T,bfielf,

WATER.

Tiljhelf, Derbylhire. A chalybeate fpring flightly aci-
dulous.

Tilbury, Eflex. A faline fpring flightly chalybeate.

Toberbony, near Dublin. A faline fpring.

Tonjlein, Germany. A faline acidulous fpring in con-
fiderable repute.

Tralee, Kerry. A chalybeate fpring.

*Tinibridge Wells, Kent. A chalybeate fpring. See

TUNBRIDGE Wells.

Upm'mjler, Effex. A ftrong faline fulphureous fpring.

Vahls, France. A weak acidulous fpring flightly faline.

Vichy, France. A highly acidulo-chalybeate thermal
fpring. See Vichy.

Wardrew, Northumberland. A faline fulphureous fpring.

JVannbnmn, Silelia. Thermal fprings.

Weather/tack, Wellmoreland. A faline chalybeate fpring.

Wellenhroiv, Northamptonlhire. A weak chalybeate fpring.

Wejl Apton, Wiltfhire. A weak chalybeate fpring.

Wejlwood, Derbyfliire. A chalybeate fpring : fulphate of
iron.

Wexford, Ireland. A weak chalybeate fpring.

White Acre, Lancalliirc. A chalybeate fpring.

Wigan, Lancafhire. A chalybeate fpring.

Wigglejiuorth, Yorkfliirc. A fulphureous fpring flightly
faline.

Wildungan, Germany. A weak acidulous water.

Wilham, EITex. A chalybeate fpring.

Wirkf-iuorth, Derbyfhire. A faline fvdplnircous fpring.

Zahorovice, Germany. A weak faline acidulous water.

*Zealand, Neiu. An acidulous water : muriatic acid.

See the article Aqu.'E, where many thermal and other
fprings are noticed, which have been omitted in the above
catalogue.

Among the older writers on mineral waters, fee Rutty,
Monro, EUiot, and others. One of the belt modern treatifes
on mineral waters is doubtlefs that of Dr. Saunders, to
which we have been particularly indebted. Detached eflays
on particular waters are too numerous to be all noticed.
Among the more recent publifhed in this country may be
enumerated thofe of Phillips on the Bath waters ; Scudamore
on the Tunbridge Wells water ; Jones on the Spa waters ;
and Brande on the Cheltenham waters.

The chief of the older writers on the analyfis of mineral
writers, are Bergman and Kirwan. Latterly, fome very
valuable effays have been publiflied on this fubjeft by
Dr. Murray of Edinburgh, of which we have availed our-
felves in the above article.

Water of Cryjlallization, in Cbemiflry, is a denomination
applied to the water attrafted by many faline bodies during
the aft of cryftallization. Some falls contain no water of
cryilallization, while others contain a very large proportion.
Water always appears to enter into the compofition of
cryftals in a definite proportion. Water can be commonly
feparated from falts without afFefting their faline properties,
and may be reftored to them by diflblvingthem in water, and
fuffering them to cryftallize. See CnysT.\LLizATiox and
Salts.

Waters, Dlftilled or Simple, in Medicine and Pharmacy,
confift chiefly of fimple water flightly impregnated with the
efiential oils of difl^erent plants, and are principally ufed as
vehicles for more aftive remedies. They were formerly very
numerous, but their numbers have been very properly much
reduced by the moderns. See Aqu.e Dijlillatie, where all
thofe in common ufe are enumerated.

VI ATER, Spirituous, Cordial, or Compound, m Pharmacy, &c.
was the name formerly given to what are now denominated
fpirits, the menftruum being alcohol, and the impregnating

ingredients commonly various. See Aqu.t. Cardiacs, and
Spirit. For the methods of preparing fuch compounds,
fee alfo Distillation, and Oil, ejeniial.

Water, in Agriculture and Rural Economy, is a fluid of
great utility for many different purpofes. The nature of the
cotnpofition of water, and the great power and capacity
which it poflefles of taking up and holding a variety of dif-
ferent matters in the ftate of difFufion or folution, as well as
the circumftance of its being every where prefent amongft
almoft all kinds of bodies, renders it particularly ufeful in
the growth of plants as crops, and in many other ways.
Dr. Woodward, indeed, from finding it to contain the par-
ticles of moft forts of extraneous fubftances, was led to
fuppofe that fome of them were the proper matter of nutri-
tion ; as water is conftantly found to afford fo much the lefs
nourifliment, the more it is purified by diltillation, or other
means. So that water, as fuch merely, did not appear to
be the proper nutriment of vegetables, but only the medium
or vehicle that contains the nutritious particles or properties,
and which conveys them along with it through all the parts
of the plant. The more full and complete knowledge of
the nature and properties of water which has fince been ac-
quired, have, however, fet the matter in a more clear and
fatisfaftory point of view. See the article Water.

Water is feldom, if ever, met with in a fl;ate of perfeft
purity, nor often in that even which is fufficiently fo for tlie
different operations and ufes to which it may be neceffary to
apply it. Nor have all the trials that have ever been made
been yet capable of producing it perhaps perfeftly pure.
There feems indeed to be no fort of ftandard by which the
weight and purity of water can be readily and eafily afcer-
tained. It is, in fad, a very difficult matter, however ufe-
ful and advantageous it might be in many different inten-
tions, as water fcarcely ever continues for any length of
time exaftly of the fame weight, or perhaps purity ; as by
reafon of the air and caloric, or matter of heat contained in
it, much variation in refpeft to the former continually takes
place. The effefts which different degrees of heat have on
the gravity of water are well fhewn by the expanfion of it
in boiling. It is this which makes the chief difficulty in
fixing the fpecific gravity of water, in the view of fettling
its degree of purity. The purefl water that is capable of
being obtained is, however, thought by fome, as Mr.
Hawkfbee, who has made many experiments on the fubjeft,
to be eight hundred and fifty times heavier than air. But
others, whofe trials have not been lefs numerous or correft,
have made it not more than about eight hundred, or eight
hundred and thirty-fix times heavier than air. From whence
this general proportion may perhaps be deduced, which may
be confidered as a fort of flandard in the bufinefs, that when
the barometer is at 30°, and the thermometer at i^°, then
water is eight hundred and twenty limes heavier than air ;
and that in fuch a flate the cubic foot of water weighs one
thoufand ounces avoirdupois, and that of air 1.222, or -y^ths
nearly. ( See Water. ) Thereisnot,however, any very exaft
ftandard in air, as the more water there is contained in the
air, the heavier it mull of courfe be ; for indeed a confi-
derable part of the weight of the atmofphere appears to
arife from the water that is contained in it. Confequeiilly,
the nearer any water is found to approach the above ftand-
ards, the purer it may be concluded to be ; which may
ferve to guide and direft many praftical ufes and applica-
tions of the fluid.

In regard to the properties and effefts of water, it is well
known to be extremely volatile and expanfive, being capa-
ble of reduftion wholly into llie ftate of vapour, and of
being diffipated when expofed to heat and unconfined. In

this

WATER.

this ftate, when properly confined, it is of great ufe and ap-
plication for a variety of purpofes. See Steam.

It is found, however, that water, when heated in an open
vefTel, acquires no more than a certain determinate propor-
tion or degree of heat, whatfoever may be the intenfity or
the length of continuance of the fire to which it is expofed ;
which greateft proportion or degree of it is when it boils in
the completeft: manner. The degree of heat, however,
which is necefiary to make water boil perfectly, is va-
riable, according as the purity of the water, and the weight
of the atmofphere, may happen to be. A knowledge of this
mav be of confiderable utility and benefit in the application
of heat to this fluid, in a number of operations, as tending
to fave time, trouble, and the confumption of fuel.

The ready penetrability and feparability of water from
the bodies with which it may have united, as well as its pro-
perties and powers of cohcfion, folution, and coagulation,
render it ftill more extenfively^applicable and ufeful on many
occafions.

Water is a fluid which, in popular language, is dif-
tinguifhed into many different kinds, according to the
quahties of it, and the circumftances under which it
makes its appearance, or is found (fee the preceding
article Water) ; as freJJi water, or that which is per-
feftly infipid, without any faline or other tafle, and ino-
dorous, being that which is the natural and pure ftate of
water : in this ftate, it is well fitted for molt forts of domef-
tic as well as many other ufes : hard water, or that in which
foap does not completely or uniformly diffolve and difFufe
itfelf, but appears in a fort of curdled or coagulated ftate :
it is certain from this that the diffolving power of hard water
is lefs than that of foft ; and that hence it is lefs fit for
wafhing, bleaching, dyeing, boiling culinary vegetables, wa-
tering plants and trees, and many other purpofes. It is,
for the moft part, found, that the hardnefs of water pro-
ceeds either from faline matters, or from the prefence of
gas. The hardnefs which arifes from faline matters may
moilly be difcovered and removed by the addition of fmall
quantities, as a few drops, of a folution of fixed alkaH ;
and that which is caufed by the latter byboiling, or ex-
pofure to the open air for fome length of time. That the
waters of fprings are hard ; but thofe of rivers foft. That
hard waters are remarkably indifpofed to corrupt ; they
even preferve putrefcible fubftances for a confiderable length
of time ; hence they would feem to be beft fitted for keep-
ing, efpecially as they are fo eafily capable of being foften-
ed by a very little of the alkaline folution being added to
them. Putrid water is that which has acquired an offenfive
fmell and tafte by the putrefcence of the animal or vegeta-
ble fubftances which are contained in it. This fort of water
is of a very pernicious quality, and quite unfit for any pur-
pofe. Cauftic lime, when put into water, is ufeful in pre-
ferving it longer in a fweet ftate ; and even expofure to the
air in broad Ihallow veftels has the fame effeft. And water
in this putrid ftate may be, in a great meafure, rendered
fweet by having a current of fre(h air paiTed through it, from
the bottom to the top. Water in this condition is, of courfe,
always to be avoided, except for the purpofe of manure,
for which, in fome cafes, it is of great ufe. i?a/n-water,
or that which may be confidered as a pure fort of diftilled
■water, but as impregnated during its paffage through the
air with a confiderable quantity of putrefcent matter,
whence, in fome meafure, its great fuperiority to any
other in fertilizing the earth or foil, as well as in promoting
the growth of trees and plants. Whence too its inferiority
for fome domeftic purpofes to that of the fpring or river
Jtind, even where it can be readily and well procured ; but,
9

more efpecially, fuch as is coUefted and gotten from fpouts,
trunks, and other contrivances put below the roofs of
houfes and other buildings, which are the ufual modes of
procuring it in this country, which is obvioufly very impure,
and in a fhort time become? in the putrid ftate. From its foft-
nefs, it, however, anfwers well in fome ufes, after it has
become pretty pure by ftanding. i?(Wr-water, or that
which is next in purity to that of fnow, or the diftilled kind,
and which, for moft domeftic and fome other ufes, is fupe-
rior to either of them, as having lefs putrefcent matter, and
more fixed air, or carbonic acid gas in it. Of this water,
that, however, which runs over a clean, rocky, ftony, or
gravelly bottom, is by much the pureft. River-waters, in
general, are found to putrefy fooner than thofe of fprings ;
and that during their putrefaftion they throw off a part of
the extraneous matter they contain, and at length become
fweet again, and purer than in their firft ftate ; after which
they will commonly preferve fweet a great length of time ;
this is particularly the cafe with fome river-water, as that of
the Thames. It is this fortof water that is fo extenfively ufe-
ful in improving grafs-lands, when thrown over them in a pro-
per manner. See Watering Land, and Water Meadonu.
There are fome other forts of water, 3sfa!t water, or that
which contains large portions of fait in it, fo as to be fenfi-
ble to the tafte. This is of moft ufe in the preparation of
that fubftance from it, but may perhaps be applicable in
fome other ways, i'fj-water, or that which is a fort of an
aftemblage of bodies or fubftances, in which this fluid may
be faid to have barely the principal part : it is, in ftiort, an
univerfal coUeftion of moft of the matters in nature, fuftained
and kept fwimming in this fluid as a medium or vehicle :
being a diffufe folutjon of various fubftances, as common fait,
bitter cathartic fait, different other faline matters, and a
compound of muriatic acid with magnefia, mixed and blended
together in a variety of proportions. It is capable of being
frefliened by fimple diftillation, without any addition ; and
is about three parts in a hundred heavier than common
water ; the temperature of it at great depths being from
thirty to forty degrees ; but near the furface it follows the
temperature of tke air more nearly. It is probable, from
fome trials lately made with it, that it may be ufeful when
applied to land in fome cafes. Its greater weight and other
properties would feem to be favourable for this in fome in-
tentions. It is the muddy material conveyed in the ftate of
diffufion in this water, which is found fo beneficial in th£
warping of land in fome cafes and fituations. (See Warp-
ing of Land. ) i'noai-water, or that which is the pureft
of all the common waters, when the fnow has been coUefted
in its pure ftate, and kept in a dry place, in clean glafs
veflTels, not clofely ftopped,but covered from duft and other
fuch matters ; this water becomes in time putrid, although
in well-ftopped bottles it will continue unaltered for feveral
years ; but diililled water undergoes no alteration in either
circumftance. Snow-water will be feen below to be ufeful
in promoting the nutrition of plants. Sfiring-wnter, or that
which is commonly impregnated with fome forts of mate-
rials or other, as a fmall portion of imperfetl neutral fait
extrafted and taken up from the diff'erent ftrata through
which it paffes and percolates ; great quantities of ftony
matter, which are depofited as it runs along, and large
maft^es of ftone thus formed, fometimes too incrullating dif-
ferent fubftances of the animal and vegetable kmds, which
it is faid to petrify. Spring-water is much ufed for domef-
tic purpofes in many cafes, and on account of its coolnefs
and clearnefs forms a fuitable drink for man and animals ;
but from its being ufually fomewhat hard, is inferior iu
fome intentions to that which has run a confiderable diftance

iu

WATER.

in an open channel, expofed to the aftion and influence of
t!ie air.

The water of fprings arifes and is caufed by rain, and
from mifts and moifture in the atmofphere ; which falling
upon the hills and higher grounds, as well as other parts,
foak in and fink down into the earth, paffing along between
the different ftrata, until they find a vent or outlet in the
form of a fpring. See Draining of Land, Spring, and
Wall. Alfo SfRit^o-Drainlng.

It is only under certain circumftances that fpring-water
can be applied over the furface of grafs-land with much be-
nefit ; as where it is confiderably impregnated and loaded
with particular forts of materials, as thofe of the calcareous,
and perhaps fome other kinds.

A late philofophical writer has remarked, that the neceffity
of much water in the progrefs of the growth of plants or
their vegetation, is (hewn by the great quantity which exifts
naturally in all parts of them ; infomuch that many roots, as
thofe of the fquill and rhubarb, are known to lofe about fix
parts out of feven of their original weight, fimply by dry-
ing them before the fire ; which quantity of moillure never-
thelefs does not exhale in the common heat of the atmo-
fphere during the life of the root ; as may be feen in the
growth of fquills in the (hop of the druggift, and of onions
on the floors of the ftore-rooms of the feedfman. And
that a fecond neceffity of much water in the economy of
their vegetation or growth may be deduced from the great
perfpiration of them, which appears from the experiments
of Hales and others, who, like Sanftorius, have, it is faid,
eftimated the quantity of perfpiration from their daily lofs
of weight ; which, however, it is fuggefted, is not an ac-
curate conclufion, either in refpeft to plants or animals, as
they both abforb moifture from the atmofphere, as well as
perfpire it. But that this great perfpiration of vegetables,
like that from the fldn and lungs of animals, does not ap-
pear to confift of excrementitious matter, becaufe it has in
general no putrefcent fmell or tafte, but feems to be fecreted
firfl for the purpofe of keeping the external furface of the
leaves from becoming dry,which would prevent the oxygen of
the atmofphere from entering into the vegetable blood or juice
through them ; fince, according to the experiments of Dr.
PrielUey on animal membranes, the oxygen will only pafs
through them when they are moift. A fecond ufe of this
great perfpiration is, it is faid, to keep the bark fupple by
its moifture, and thus to prevent its being cracked by the
motion of the branches in the wind. And though a great
part of this perfpirable matter is probably abforbed, as on
the flcins of animals, yet as it exifts on fo large a furface of
leaves and twigs, much of it muft neceffarily evaporate on
dry and windy days.

And the difcovery of the decompofition of water has, it
is faid, led to a third great ufe of water in the vegetable
economy, which is probably owing to its ready decompo-
fition by their organs of digeftion, fanguification, or juice-
forming, and fecretion. This is evinced, it is thought, firft,
by the great quantity of hydrogen which exifts in the cora-
pofition of many of their inflammable parts ; and fecondly,
from the curious circumftance which was firft difcovered by
the ingenious Dr. Prieftley, that the water which they per-
fpire is hyper-oxygenated, and in confequence always
ready to part with its fuperabundance of oxygen, when
expofed to the fun's light ; whence it may be concluded, it
is thought, that a part of the hydrogen, which was pre-
vioudy an ingredient of this water, has been feparated from
it, and ufed in the vegetable economy. And that, from the
decompofition of water, when confined in contaft with air
beneath the foil, the nitrous acid feems to be produced, and
Vol. XXXVIII.

ammonia, both of which are believed to be ufeful to vegeta-
tion and the growth of plants.

But that, befide thefe peculiar ufes of a great quantity
of water, the more common ufes of it both to vegetable and
animal life, along with caloric or the matter of heat, are to
produce or preferve a due fupplenefs or lubricity of the fo-
lids, and a due degree of fluidity of liquids which they
contain or circulate ; and, laftly, for the purpofe of dif-
folving or diff^ufing in it other fohd or fluid fubftances, and
thus rendering them capable of abforption, circulation, and
fecretion.

It is beneficial, too, in the view of promoting the ferti-
lity of grafs-lands, by the occafional fuffufion or flowing it
over them, by which it not only fupplies fimple moifture for
the purpofes above noticed in the drier parts of the feafon,
but brings along with it calcareous earth and azotic air
from the neighbouring fprings in many inftances, or other
manures from the rivers and brooks. Still another benefi-
cial confequence of it is to give a due penetrability to the
foil or mould, which otherwife, in moft fituations, becomes
fo ftiflF and hard, as to ftop the elongation and diftenfion of
the tender roots of plants ; but neverthelefs, the cohefion
of the foil or earthy particles may be too much or too
greatly diminiftied or leflened, by great and perpetual moif-
ture, fo as not to give fufficient firmnefs to the roots of
trees or plants. It may alfo be injurious in fome cafes, as
in very hafty fliowers, by wafliing off^ and taking away
much of the decompofing animal and vegetable recrements,
which are foluble or diffufible in it, and carrying them
down the rivers and brooks into the fea ; and from the fides
of hills, injury in this way is produced by fmall fliowers ;
and the evaporation of water or moifture from the furface
of the earth may produce fo much cold as to injure fuch
terreftrial plants as are too long covered with it.

The author of the " Elements of Agricultural Che-
miftry" has concluded, that water is abfolutely neceffary to
the economy of vegetation, both in its elaftic and fluid
ftate ; and that it is not devoid of ufe, even in its fohd
form. Snow and ice are, it is faid, bad conduftors of heat ;
and that, confequently, when the ground is covered with
fnow, or the furface of the foil or of water is frozen, the
roots or bulbs of the plants beneath are protefted by the
congealed water from the influence of the atmofphere, the
temperature of which, in northern winters, is ufually very
much below the freezing-point ; and this water becomes the
firft nouriftiment of the plants in early fpring. The ex-
panfion of water too during its congelation, at which time
its volume increafes one-twelfth, and its contraftion of bulk
during a thaw, tend, it is obferved, to pulverize the foil, to
feparate the parts of it from each other, and to make it
more permeable to the influence of the air, and the fibres of
the roots of vegetables.

Water alfo, as conftituting the daily neceflary drink of
the different forts of domeftic animals which form the live-
ftock of the farmer, is always to be particularly attended
to, and to be provided as fully and of as good quality as
can poffibly be met with j as fuch ftock conftantly do beft
where they have plenty of water. See Pond, and Live-
StorL

Application of water, whether of ponds, brooks, rivers,
or other kinds, to the purpofe of fiftieries, is likewife a
matter of great individual utility and benefit, as well as ge-
neral national advantage. It is the means of irtcreafing
a moft ufeful fort of food in almoft an unlimited manner,
at very little coft or expence. It provides much profitable
labour and employment to fome of the working clafles of
fociety ; and from th« trifling charge incurred in providing it,
E and

WATER.

and the readinefs of its dhTpofal, muft be a fource of great
wealth to the country. It fliould, of courfe, be encouraged
as much as pofTible, wherever it can be done with conve-
nience and fuccefs, in all parts of the kingdom. See FisH-
Pond, FoSD-Fi/heries, and SALMO'S-FiJJjeries.

Water, Aj'ccni of, in Hydraulics. See Ascent and
Capillary Tubes.

Water, High and Zow. See Flux, High, and Tide.
' Water, Motion of. The theory of the motion of run-
ning water is one of tlie principal objefts of hydraulics, and
mapy eminent mathematicians have applied themfelves to
this fubjeft. But it were to be wifhed that their theories
were more confiftent with each other, and with experience.
The curious may confult fir Ifaac Newton's Principles,
lib. ii. prop. 36. with the comment. Dan. Bernouilli's
Hydrodynamica. Jo. Bernouilli, Hydraulica, Oper. torn. iv.
p. 389, feq. Dr. Jurin, in the Phil. Tranf. N°452, and in
Dr. Martyn's Abridg. vol. viii. p. 282, feq. S'Gravefande,
Phyfic. Elem. Mathemat. lib. iii. par. ii. Polenus, de Caf-
tellis, and others.

Mr. Maclaurin, in his Fluxions, art. 537. feq., has illuf-
trated fir Ifaac Newton's doftrine on this intricate fubjeft,
which flill, notwithilanding the labours of all thefe eminent
authors, remains in a great meafure obfcure and uncertain.
Even the fimple cafe of the motion of running water, which
is when it iifues from a hole in the bottom of a vefiel kept
conftantly full, has never yet been determined, fo as to give
univerfal fatisfaftion to the learned. We fhall here mention
fome of the phenomena of this motion, as ftated by Dr.
Jurin from Poleni ; referring for other obfervations on this
fubjeft to Fluids, and Hydraulic Laius of Fluids.

1. The depth of the water in the veflel, and the time of
flowing out being given, the meafure of the effluent water is
nearly in proportion to the hole.

2. The depth of the water, and the hole being given, the
meafure of the effluent water is in proportion to the time.

3. The time of flowing out, and the hole being given,
the meafure of the effluent water is nearly in a fubdupli-
cate proportion to the height of the water.

4. The meafure of the effluent water is nearly in a ratio
compounded of the proportion of the hole, the proportion
of the time, and a fubduplicate proportion of the depth of
the water.

5. The meafure of the water flowing out in a given time,
IS much lefs than that which is commonly afligned by ma-
thematical theorems. For the velocity of effluent water is
commonly fuppofed to be that which a heavy body would
acquire in -vacuo in falling from the whole height of the
water above the hole ; and this being fuppofed, if we call
the area of the hole F, the height of the water above the
hole A, the velocity which a heavy body acquires in faUing
In vacuo from that height V, and the time of falling T ; and
if the water flows out with this conftant velocity V, in the
time T, then the length of the column of water, which
flows out in that time, will be 2 A, and the meafure of it
will be 2 A F. But if we calculate from Poleni's accurate
experiments, we (hall find the quantity of water which flows
out in that time to be no more than about 4^4^ of this mea-
fure 2 A F. Polen. de Caftellis, art. 35. 38, 39. 42, 43.

Poleni alfo found, that the quantity of water flowing out
of a veflel through a cylindrical tube far exceeded that
which flowed through a circular hole made in a thin lamina,
the tubs and hole being of equal diameter, and the height
of the water above both being alfo equal ; and he found it
to be fo when the tube was inferted, not into the bottom,
which others had obferved before, but into the fide of the
yeffel. 1 2

6. Since the meafure of the water running out in the
time T, is 2 A F x \i^, the length of the column of water,
which runs out in that time, is 2 A x Mi-n. Therefore
if each of the particles of water, which are in the hole in the
fame fpace of time, paiTes with equal velocity, it is plain that
the common velocity of them all is that with which the fpaee
2 A X -J^i5 0- would be gone over in the time T, or the ve-
locity V X 4Jire* But this is the velocity with which water
could fpring in vacuo to near 'd of the height of the water
above the hole.

7. But when tlie motion of water is turned upwards, as
in fountains, thefe are fecn to rife almod to the entire height
of the water in the ciftern. Therefore the water, or at leaft
fome portion of the water, fpouts from the liole with almoft
the whole velocity V, and certainly with a much greater ve-
locity than V X fj-^Tr-

8. Hence it is evident, that the particles of water, which
are in the hole in the fame point of time, do not all burfl
out with the fame velocity, or have no common velocity ;
though fome mathematicians have hitherto taken the con-
trary to be certain.

9. At a fmall difl;ance from the hole, the diameter of the
vein of water is much lefs than that of the hole. For in-
fl:ance, if the diameter of the hole be i, the diameter of
the vein of water will be -J^, or 0.84, according to fir Ifaac
Newton's meafure, who firll obferved this phenomenon ;

20 20^
and according to Poleni's meafure — , or --^, that is, taking

the mean diameter O.78, nearly.

As to the manner of accounting for thefe phenomena, we
have already obferved that authors are not agreed ; and
it would be far beyond our defign to (late their different
theories, we mull therefore refer to the originals above
quoted.

Neither are authors agreed as to the force with which a
vein of water, fpouting from a round hole in the fide of a
veflel, prelfes upon a plane direftly oppofed to the motion
of the vein. Moft authors agree that the prefigure of this
vein, flowing uniformly, is equal to the weight of a cylin-
der of water, the bafis of which is the hole through which
the water flows, and the height of which is equal to the
height of the water in the veflel above the hole. The ex-
periments made by Mariotte, and others, feem to counte-
nance this opinion. But Mr. Daniel BernouilH rejefts it,
and ellimates this prefigure by the weight of a cylinder, the
diameter of which is equal to the contradled vein (accord-
ing to fir Ifaac Newton's obfervation above-mentioned),
and the height of which is equal to twice the height of the
water above the hole, or, more accurately, to twice the al-
titude correfponding to the real velocity of the fpouting
water ; and this prefiure is alfo equal to the force of repul-
fion, arifing from the rcadion of the fpouting water upon
the veflel. For he fays that he can demonllrate, that this
force of repulfion is equal to a prelTure exerted by a vein of
fpouting water upon a plane direftly oppofed to its motion,
if the whole vein of water fl;rikes perpendicularly againft the
plane. From whence it would follow, that the preffure or
force of the vein will be greater m proportion, as its con-
tradlion is lefs ; and this contraftion vanifliing, as it does
when the water fpouts through a fliort tube, and the vein
being at the fame time fuppofed to have the whole velocity
it can acquire by theory, the fpouting water will then exert
a preflure double to what is commonly fuppofed. But the
aftual velocity of the water being always fomething lefs
than it ought to be by theory, and the vein of water
being not uncommonly contrafted to almoll one half, expe-
riments

WATER.

riments have led authors to think, that the prefTure, exerted
by fpouting water, was equal to the weight of a cylinder
of the fame diameter with the vein, and of the height of the
■water above the hole. The ingenious author remarks that
he fpeaks only of Cngle veins of water, the whole of which
are received by the planes upon which they prefs ; for as to
the preffures exerted by fluids furrounding the bodies they
prefs upon, as the wind, or a river, the cafe is different,
though confounded with the former by writers on this fub-
jeft. Hydrodynamica, feci. 13. p. 289.

M. Bernouilli endeavours to confirm his theory by a dif-
fertation in the eighth volume of the Afta Petropolitana ;
where he obferves, that the experiments formerly made be-
fore the Academy of Sciences at Paris, to eilablifh the
quantity of the prefTure exerted by a vein of fpouting
water, are very far from proving the truth of the rule they
are brought to eilablifh. For inflance, in one of thofe ex-
periments, the height of the water in the vefTel above the
hole from whence the vein fpouted was two feet Paris mea-
fure ; the diameter of the circular hole, which was cut in
the horizontal bottom of the vefTel, was four lines ; and the
force of the vein of water was obferved to be one ounce
and three-quarters. But the weight of a cylinder of water
of the diameter of the hole, and of the height of the water
in the veflel, is fcarce equal to one ounce and three -eighths.
The difference, therefore, is at leall three-eighths of an ounce,
which is about three-elevenths of the whole weight of the
before-mentioned cylinder of water. So that it is furprif-
ing, that this difference fhould have been afcribed to the re-
moval of the plane, receiving the impulfe, to fomc dillance
from the hole ; for this caufe, fuppofing the plane removed
to the diftance of two inches, could not produce an increafe
of one-fixtecnth of an ounce. It appears, therefore, that
the common opinion is rather overturned than confirmed by
experience. Du-Hamel, Hifl. Acad. Paris, ann. 1679,
feft. 3. cap. 5.

M. Bernouilli, on the other hand, thinks his Own theory
fufficiently eftablifhed by the experiments he relates ; for
the particulars of which, we refer to the Afta Petropoli-
tana, vol. cit. p. 122, feq.

This ingenious author thinks that his theory of the quan-
tity of the force of repulfion, exerted by a vein of fpouting
water, might be ufefully applied to move fhips by pumping ;
and he thinks the motion produced by this repulfive force
would fall little, if at all, fhort of that produced by rowing.
He has given his reafons and computations at length in his
Hydrodynamica, p. 293 to 302.

The fcience of the preffures exerted by water, or other
fluids in motion, is what M. BernouilH calls hydraulico-Jlatka.
This fcience differs from hydroflatics, which confiders only
the prefTure of water and other fluids at refl ; but hydrau-
lico-flatics confiders the prefTure of water in motion. Thus
the prefTure exerted by water, moving through pipes, upon
the fides of thofe pipes, is an hydraulico-flatical confidera-
tion, and has been erroneoufly determined by many, who
have given no other rules in thefe cafes, but fuch as are ap-
plicable only to the prcffure of fluids at refl. See Hydro-
dynam. feft. 12. p. 256. feq.

Water, Ra'ifing of. Machines for this purpofe are
fo numerous, that a minute dtfcription of fuch hydraulic
machines as are in common ufe would fill a volume ; and
a fcientific account of their principles, with the maxims
neceffary to be obferved in their conflruftion, would
form a very complete body of mechanical fcience : this is
far beyond the limits of an article like the prefent, in which
%vt can only introduce the moft flriking machines which

have not already been explained in difl^erent articles of this
work ; and for others, we mufl refer to the original works
in which they are defcribed.

The moft complete coUeftion of hydrauhc machines is
that of Jacob Leopold, entitled " Theatrum Machinarum
Hydraulicarum," publiflied at Leipzic, in 1724 and 1725,
in 2 vols, folio ; thefe form part of his voluminous " Thealii
Machinarum," which maybe confidered as containing all that
was known in mechanics at that period.

M. Behdor, in his " Architefture Hydraulique," 1737,
has defcribed many machines which were invented fince the
date of Leopold's work. This eminent engineer was a
good mathematician, and his work may be confidered as a
ftandard for the theory of the hydrauhc machines of which
it treats. The " Experimental Philofophy" of Defagu-
liers contains fome chapters on hydraulic machinery, in
which he generally follows Belidor very clofely, but has
tranflated the mathematieal inveftigations of the former into
the ordinary procefTes of arithmetic, to adapt them to the
comprehenfion of mechanics ; and in this point of view, the
works of Defaguliers have been of great ufe. On the
other hand, M. Prony publifhed a modern edition of Beli-
dor's work in 1790, in which, in moll cafes, he has tran-
fcribcd the procefTes of the original into the modern modes
of analyfis ; but on the whole, he has added little to our
real knowledge, except his defcriptions and fuperb plates of
Mr. Watt's fleam-engine.

We do not recoiled any complete coUeftion of machines
for raifing water fince Belidor, although the inventions of
the lafl century are both numerous and important. Much
information relative to them may be derived from Gregory's
" Mechanics," in 2 vols. 8vo. ; Dr. Robifon's Works, and
his excellent articles Hydrodynamics, Pump, and Water-
works, in the Encyclopaedia Britannica ; and from various
mifcellaneous publications, fuch as the Repertory of Arts,
and the Tranfaftions of different learned Societies ; alfo the
coUeftion of Mr. Smeaton's Reports, in 3 vols. 4to. It
is much to be regretted, that this excellent engineer never
completed a defign which he formed, to publifh a com-
plete coUeftion of praftical hydraulic machines founded
on his own experience. Among his manufcript papers which
have been lent to us by fir Jofeph Banks, we find an outline
for this work, of which we have availed ourfelves in this article.

In confidering machines for raifing water, they may be
clafTed under two heads :

Firft, thofe machines which aAuate fome kind of
bucket or vefTel adapted to contain water, which vefTel is
raifed up when full of water, and difcharges its contents
into an elevated refervoir, then defcends empty in order
to repeat its adlion : of this fpecies are, the buckets for
wells, fcoops, Perfian and Chinefe wheels, chaplets or
chains of buckets, the Noira, and the fcrew of Archimedes.
It is evident from the nature of all this clafs, that they are
incapable of raifing water to a greater height than that to
which the machine is elevated, or provided with tlie means
of drawing up the buckets or other vefTels ; and further,
that they cannot raife conflant ftreams of water, but that
the water mufl be given out by a fuccefliqn of difcharges
from the different buckets or vefTels.

The fecond clafs comprifes thofe machines which aft by
means of valves and pillons moving in cyhnders, or other
equivalent contrivances, and force the water to afcend
through pipes or tubes : thefe machines have the advantage
of raifing the water to very great heights above the place
where the machine is placed. The greater part of thefe
machines we hafe already defcribed uiider the article Pump,
E Z anci

WATER.

and there remain but few to be confidered in the prefent
article ; viz. the varieties of the hydrauhc ram, of the
Chremnhz fountain, and of the fyphon machines.

The moil obvious means of raifing water is by the operation
called baling, that is, hfting up water-in a bucket, or other
veflel, by the force of a man's arm. This method is ex-
tremely fatiguing, and is only adapted to very fmall eleva-
tions, fuch as clearing the water from a boat, &c. The moft
ancient hydraulic machine afts on this principle, fuch as the
fcoop and troughs, the Fen wheel, Perfian wheel, the Noira,
&c. : it is, therefore, with tliefe machines we Ihall com-
mence.

The Dutch luater-fceop, or fliovel, is the beft means of
baling out water. The fcoop is a kind of box, made of
live pieces of board, with one end and one fide open : this
box is fixed at the extremity of a long pole, which the
workman holds in his hand, and the weight of the fcoop
is borne by a cord tied to the pole near to the box, and
fufpended from a tripod, formed of three poles tied together
at the top. The man works the machine by fwinging the
fcoop backwards and forwards in the direftion of the length
of the pole ; in moving the box forwards, he depreffes the
end of the pole, which caufes the box to dip into the water,
and take up a quantity which it will throw forwards and
rather upwards to a confiderable diftance. In bringing the
fcoop back for another ftroke, he depreffes the end of the
pole which he holds in his hand, and thus keeps the box
out of the water. Of courfe this method is only appUcable
where the height to which the water is to be raifed, or rather
thrown, is very fmall. M. Behdor informs us, that a work-
man can only remove half a cubic foot in two vibrations,
which he will perform in four feconds ; this is at the rate
of 7| cubic feet per minute, or 450 cubic feet per hour : it
is rareJy apphcable, except to throw the water over a bank
which forms the boundary of a ditch, or other place of fmall
depth, which is to be emptied.

The laving gun, which is ufed in fait -works from its fim-
plicity, comes next. It is a trough of five or fix feet in length,
made fmall at one end like a fpout, and gradually increafing to
the oppofite end, where it is about a foot or eighteen inches
fquare. The fmall end is fnpportedon pivots upon the bank
over which the water is to be raifed, and a lever is apphed to
it for a man to work it by. The large end of the trough
will dip into the water, when it defcends and becomes filled ;
but when Lfted the leaft above the horizontal poCtion, the
contained water will run along the trough, and be delivered
over the bank through the fpout. This machine is much
improved by making it double, or with two troughs, on the
oppofite fides of the centre ; thus when one afcends, the
other virill defcend fo as to raife up a conftant ftream, which
it muft, in this cafe, dehver at a fpout fideways, near to the
pivot or centre on which it plays. This double inachine
will raife a copious ftream of water, but is confined to fmall
heights of three or four feet. If the large end of the
trough has a valve opening into it to admit the water, it will
fill itfelf more readily. A machine which operates on the
fame principle as this, is called the fcoop-wheel, or tympa-
num, which is in fail feveral double laving machines ar-
ranged round the centre like a wheel. The advantage of
this wheel is, that it always moves in the fame direftion,
whereas the fimple machine requires a reciprocating
motion.

The tympanum, or fcoop-ivheel, mentioned by Vitruvius, is a
great hollow wheel formed by a kind of barrel or drum
(as its name imports) : it is compofed of feveral planks
joined together, well caulked and pitched, and having a ho-

rizontal axle with pivots at the ends, on which it turna. The in -
terior capacity of this drum is divided into eight equal fpaces,
by as many partitions placed in the direftions of the radii ; each
fpace or cell has an orifice of about fix inches in vpidth in the
rim of the drum or wheel. Thefe openings are fo ihaped, as to
facilitate the admiflion of the water ; moreover, there are
eight hollow channels running along the axle of the wheel and
contiguous to each other, each correfponding to one of the
eight large cells ; into thefe channels the water paffes out of the
cells juft mentioned, and after running along thechannels in the
axis of the wheel to a convenient diftance, it efcapes through
orifices into a refervoir placed juft under the axle. Thus
when the wheel is turned round, the water is elevated through
a vertical height equal to the radius of the hollow wheel.

When the tympanum is ufed to raife water from 3 run-
ning ftream, it is moved by means of float -boards fixed on the
circumference, which are impelled by the ftream ; but when
it is employed to raife ftagnant waters, there is commonly a
fmaller hollow wheel fixed on the fttaft at the fide of the
tympanum, which is turned by men walking in it, as in the
old walking-crane. The chief defeA of this machine is,
that it raifes the water in the moft difadvantageous fituation
poflible, for the load of water is always towards the extre-
mity of a radius of the wheel, and the length of the effec-
tive lever which anfwers to it muft continually increafe as
the water is raifed through the whole quadrant, which the
water defcribes in paffing from the bottom of the wheel to
the altitude of its centre, fo that the power muft aft in the
fame manner as if it were applied to a winch or crank han-
dle, and cannot aft uniformly.

The horn-iuheel was contrived to remedy this defeft : it
is fo called, becaufe the fegments which pafs from the cir-
cumferences of the large flat cylinder to its centre are not
ftraight radii, as in the former inftance, but are curved fpirally.
The fcoops, or mouths, by turns, dip into the water, and
as they rife up caule the water to pafs up the horn, or
curved fegment, until it is as high as the centre of the
wheel, and tlien it is difcharged into a trough placed under
the end of the axis, which is hollow, and has its pivots
fattened to a crofs.

M. de la Faye has inveftigated the proper curves for the
fcoop fegments of this machine in the following manner : —
When we evolve the circumference of a circle by unwrapping
a ftring from the circumference, the end of the ftring will
defcribe a curve called the involute of the circle, of which
all the radii are fo many tangents to the circle, as is (hewn
by the ftring in its different pofitions whilft tracing the
curve, and likewife all the radii are refpeftively perpen-
dicular to the feveral points of the curve defcribed by the
end of the ftring.

The greateft radius of this curve is a line equal to the
periphery of the circle evolved. The truth of this ftate-
ment is fhewn by geometricians, when treating of the gene-
ration of Evolute and Involute Curves. See thofe articles.

Hence, having an axle, whofe circumference a little ex-
ceeds the height to which the water is propofed to be ele-
vated, let the circumference of the axle be evolved, and it
will make a curve which will be the involute of the circle,
as before mentioned. Now, let a number of pipes, or
trunks, be made exaftly with this curvature, and then put
together around the axle, in form of a wheel, fo that the fur-
ther extremities of thefe canals will fucceflively enter the wa-
ter that is to be elevated, whilft the other extremities abut
upon the ftiaft which is turned. Then, in the courfe of the
rotation of the wheel, the water taken in at the extremity
of each canal will rife in a vertical lijie, which is a tangent

to

WATER.

to tte (Kaft, becaufe the curves of the feveral channels will
be at right angles to this vertical line, in the points where
the line interfefts the curves ; and this is true in whatever
pofition the wheel may be. Thus the aftion of the weight
continuing always beneath the extremity of the horizontal
radius of the axle, will oppofe the fame refiftance, as though
it afted upon the invariable arm of a lever, in the manner
of a bucket of water, which is drawn up out of a well by a
rope, winding on a roller, and the power required to raife
the weight will be always the fame.

If the radius of the wheel, of which thefe hollow canals
ferve as bent fpokes, be equal to the height through which
the water is to be raifed, and confequently equal to the
circumference of the axle, or (haft, the power will be to
the load of water reciprocally as the radius of a circle to
its circumference, or direftly as i to 6^ nearly. M. de la
Faye recommended the machine to be compofed of four of
thefe canals, but it has often been conftrufted with eight.
The wheel is turned by the impulfion of the ftream upon
float-boards fixed on the circumference of the wheel, and
the orifices of the curvilineal canals dip one after another
into the water which runs into them ; and as the wheel
revolves, the fluid rifes in the canals, until it is as high as
the centre : it then runs out in a ftream from the holes in
the axis, and is received into the trough fixed beneath the
axis ; from thence it may be conveyed by pipes or troughs
to the required fituation.

By this conftrviftion, the weight to be raifed offers always
the {^ame refiftance, and that is the leaft poifiblc, while the
power is applied in the moft advantageous manner which
the circumftances will admit of. Thefe conditions being
both fulfilled at the fame time, furnifti the moft defirable
perfeftion in a machine. This machine raifes the water by
the Ihorteft way, namely, the perpendicular or vertical line,
and in this refpeft is preferable to Archimedes's fcrew,
where the water is carried up a crooked and inchned path ;
and befides this each curved channel in this wheel empties all
the water it receives in every revolution, while the fcrew of
Archimedes delivers only a fmall portion of the fluid with
which it is charged, being often loaded with twenty times as
much water as is difcharged at one rotation, and thus re-
quiring an increafe of labour when a large quantity is in-
tended to be raifed by it. The horn-wheel would be one
of the moft perfeA machines for raifing water, were not its
powers confined to fuch altitudes as the femi-diameter of
the wheel.

The Jlajh, or fen-miheel, comes next to be defcribed. —
This is a vertical wheel, made exaftly like thofe water-
wheels for turning mills which are called breaft-wheels, and
in the fame manner the wheel is furrounded at the lower
quadrant by a curved fweep of mafonry or breaft, to which
the floats of the wheel are fitted with the greateft accuracy,
but do not abfolutely touch. This wheel, being turned
j-ound in a direftion contrary to that in which a water-wheel
turns, will carry water before its floats, and raife it up
againft the breaft until it runs over the fame. The opera-
tion is juft the reverfe of the water-wheel ; and the only
dilFerence in the conftrudtion of the two machines is, that
the flafli-wheel requires no fliuttle to be placed at the top
of the breaft, becaufe the water muft be aUowed to run
freely away from the top of the breaft ; but the water-
wheel requires a ftiuttle or fluice to regulate the quantity of
xvater which ftiall flow to the wheel.

It is by this kind of machine that the extenfive fens of
Holland are drained ; and in Lincoln and Cambridgefliire
they are ^Jfo ufed very extenfively. They are, in general,
7

worked by the power of the wind, and are on a very large
fcale. °

Mr. Smeaton made a horfe-machine on this plan, which
raifed thirty-three hogflieads per minute, to the height of
four feet and a half, when it was worked by four horfes •
but a fluice was placed in the channel which admitted the
water to the wheel, fo as to fupply the water in a greater
or leffer quantity ; and by this means, the fame machme
could be adapted to the power of three or two horfes.
The crown or top of the breaft, over which the water
was delivered, was not elevated to the full height to which
the water was to be raifed, but it was laid twelve inches
beneath the furface, and the body of water which the wheel
raifed up was fufBcient to drive this depth of water before
it ; but to prevent the return of the water when the mill
ceafed working, two pointed doors were placed in the
channel leading from the wheel, like the gates of a canal-
lock : thefe doors opened freely, to let the water pafs, but
would (hut and flop the water from returning. The pro-
portions of this machine were as follows :

Diameter of the track in which the 1 , ^ „ . ,
horfes walked - - .| 26 feet 8 inches.

Great cog-wheel fixed on the per-"^ 72 teeth 9 feet dia-
pendicular axis - - - j meter.

Trundle worked by the wheel - 35 teeth 4^ feet djam.

Diameter of the water-wheel on the 7 r
fame axis as the trundle - J ' +

Breadth of the wheel ... 2 feet 2 inches.

Number of its floats - . - 42

The floats did not point to the centre of the wheel, but
formed tangents to a radius, equal to about half the radius
of the wheel. The floats of the wheel were very exaftly
fitted to the channel or pit in which it worked, fo as not
to touch.

The hucket-nvheel is a very ancient method of raifing
water ; but it cannot hft water to a greater height than its
own diameter. The laft machine was tlie reverfe of the breaft
water-wheel, and the prefent is the reverfe of the over-fhot
water-wheel, for the circumference of the wheel is furround-
ed by buckets, which dip in the water beneath the wheel,
and take up water, which they difcharge at the top of the
wheel into an elevated trough or refervoir. The wheel is
mounted upon an horizontal axis, and turns upon pivots ; it
is put in motion by the force of a current of water ftriking
the float-boards fixed on the circumference of the wheel ;
or if there is no current in the water, it may be moved by
making the wheel hollow within for a man to walk in it, as
is common in fome kinds of cranes, or the wheel may be
turned by horfes. The rim, or circumference of the wheel,
is made hollow, and is divided into feveral compartments, to
form a number of boxes or buckets ; each bucket has an
opening into it at that end which will be the moft advanced
when the wheel turns ; and from this opening, a fpout or
trough projefts in a direAion parallel to the axis of the
wheel. When the wheel revolves, the buckets dip into the
ftream, and become filled with water ; but as the mouths
or fpouts are at the upper end when the buckets rife out of
the water, they cannot efcape, and each bucket carries up
its charge of water to the top of the wheel ; but the buckets
will have then become inverted, and the fpouts or openings
being at the lovveft part, that they difcharge the water
fiJeways through the fpouts into a trough properly placed
to receive it, and then the buckets defcend empty till they
dip into the Itream and are refilled. The objeAion to this
machine is, that the buckets b*gin to pour out the water

fopie

WATER.

fome time before they arrive at the greateft height of the
wheel ; and, therefore, the trough is of necefTity placed
lower than the diameter of the wheel, or a confiderable por-
tion of the water would be loft, and in any cafe part of the
water is raifed above the level of the trough.

Span'iPi Buctet-JVheel.—^h: Townfend, in his Travels
through Spain, defcribes a fimple machine which is ufed at
Narbonne for watering of gardens. The water is raifed by a
vertical wheel, which is twenty feet in diameter, on the cir-
cumference of which is fixed a number of little boxes or
fquare buckets, for the purpofe of raifing water out of the
ciftern communicating with the canal below, and to empty
it in a refervoir above, placed by the fide of the wheel. The
buckets have a lateral orifice to receive and to difcharge the
water. The axis of this wheel is embraced by four fmall
beams, crofTmg each other at right angles, and tapering at
the extremities fo as to form eight little arms. This wheel
is near the centre of the path in which the mule walks, and
contiguous to the vertical axis, into the top of which the
horfe-beam is fixed ; but near the bottom of this axis it is
embraced by four little beams, forming eight arms, fimilar to
thofe above dcfcribed, on the axis of the water-wheel. As
the mule which they ufe goes round, thefe horizontal arms,
fupplying the place of cogs, take hold each in fuccefhon of
thofe arms which arc fixed on the axis of the water-wheel,
and keep it in rotation. This machine may be made very
cheap, and will throw up a great quantity of water, yet
undoubtedly it has two defefts ; the firft is, that part of the
water runs out of the buckets, and falls back into the well
after it has been raifed nearly to the level of the refervoir ;
and the fecond is, that a confiderable proportion of the water
to be difcharged is raifed higher than the refervoir, and falls
into it only at the moment when the bucket is at the higheft
point of the circle, and ready to defcend.

The Perfian wheel -with f'win/wg buckets is free from fome
of the defeds of the laft machine. The buckets are loofe,
and each hangs from the circumference of the wheel by a
pin, on which it fwings or turns freely ; and as the bucket
is fufpendcd by its upper part, it will hang perpendicular,
with the mouth upwards, in all pofitions of the wheel. From
the time it dips in the water and is filled, until the bucket
arrives at the upper part of the wheel, it is carried by the
motion of the wheel againft the edge of the trough, and in-
clined fo far as to difcharge its contents into the trough.
(See Persian- Wheel.) The pins are fixed into the circum-
ference of the wheel, and project fideways therefrom a fuf-
ficient diftance to fupport the buckets, and carry them over
the elevated trough. Sometimes the wheel is made with
two rims, and each bucket is fufpended upon an axis be-
tween them : the end of each axis paffes through the rim of
the wheel, and is bent to form a (hort lever, which is carried
by the motion of the wheel againft a fixed rail, and thus
inclines the bucket to difcharge the contents into a trough
which is fixed to the rims of the wheel immediately beneath
the bucket, and has a fpout projefting at the fide of the
wheel, to carry the water fideways and deliver it into the
trough, which is fixed at the fide of the wheel for its
reception.

As the Perfian wheel is a very effeftive machine in fitua-
tions where the elevation is required to be but fmall, the
following directions, given by M. Belidor for its conftruc-
tion, are worthy of attention : firft fix the diameter of the
wheel fomething greater than the altitude to which the water
is to be raifed ; fix alfo upon an even number of buckets, to
be hung at equal diftances round the periphery of the wheel ;
and mark the pofition of their centres of motion in fuch a

manner, that they will ftand in correfponding pofitions in
every quarter of the circle. Suppofe vertical lines drawn
through the centre of motion of each bucket in the rifing
part of the wheel, and they will interfeft the horizontal
diameter of the wheel in points, at which, if the buckets
were hung, they would make the fame refiftance to the
moving force, as they do when hanging at their refpeftive
places on the rim of the wheel. Thus, fuppofing there are
eighteen equidiftant buckets, then while eight hung on each
fide of a vertical diameter of the wheel, there would be eight
on the other fide, and two would coincide with that diame-
ter : in this cafe, the refiftance arifing from all the full
buckets would be the fame as if one bucket hung on the
prolongation of the horizontal diameter, at the diftance of
twice the fine of 20° + twice the fine of 40° + twice the
fine of 60'' + twice the fine of 80°, thefe being the fines to
the common radius of the wheel.

To know the quantity of water that each one fhould con-
tain, take four-ninths of the abfolute force of the ftream,
that is, four-ninths of the weight of a prifm of water whofe
bafe is the furface of one of the float-boards, and whofe
height is equal to that through which the water muft fall in
order to acquire the velocity with which the ftream moves.
This is the power which fhould be in equilibrio with the
weight of water contained in the buckets of the rifing femi-
circle. Then fay, as the fum of the fines mentioned above
is to the radius of the wheel to the centre of the float-
board, fo is the power jult found to a fourth term, one-half
of which will be the weight of water that ought to be con-
tained in each bucket. Laftly, the velocity of the float-
board of the wheel will be to that of the ftream nearly as
one to tvs"o and two-fifths, and from this the number of re-
volutions it will make in any determinate times may be
known, and of confequence the quantity of water the wheel
will raife in the fame time, fince we know the capacity of
each bucket, and the number of them which will be dif-
charged in every revolution of the wheel. See Persian
Wheel.

The Chinefe Bucket-Wheel. — Sir George Staunton, in his
account of the Embaffy to China, gives the following de-
fcription of a bucket-wheel, which is different from any we
have met with in the hydraulic colleftions, and conftrufted
with that fimplicity which diftinguifhes the Chinefe inven-
tions. Two hard-wood pofts or uprights are firmly fixed in
the bed of the river, in a hue perpendicular to its banks.
Thefe pofts fupport the pivots of an axis of about ten feet
in length ; this is the axis of a large wheel confifting of
two unequal rims, the diameter of the rim which is neareft
to the bank being about fifteen inches lefs than that of
the outer rim ; but both rims dip into the ftream, while the
oppofite points or top of the wheel rife above the elevated
bank over which the water is to be raifed. This double
wheel is framed upon the axis, and is fupportcd by fixteen
or eighteen fpokes, inferted obliquely into the axis near each
extremity, and crofling each other at about two-thirds of
their length. They are there ftrengthcned by a concentric
circle, and are faftened afterwards to the two rims. The
fpokes inferted in the interior extremity of the axis reach to
the outer rim, and thofe proceeding from the exterior ex-
tremity of the axis reach to the inner and fmaller rim. Be-
tween the rims and the croflings of the fpokes is a triangu-
lar fpace, which is woven with a kind of clofe bafket-work, to
ferve as ladle-boards, or floats. Thefe fucceffively receiving
the current of the ftream, obey its impulfe, and turn round
the wheel.

The buckets which take up the water are fmall tubes or

fpouts

WATER.

fpouts of wood attached to the two rims of the wheel, and
having an inclination of about twenty-five degrees to the
horizon, or to the axis of the wheel. The tubes are clofcd
at their outer extremities, which are fixed to the larger rim,
and open at the oppolite end. By this pofition the tubes^
which in the motion of the wheel dip into the ftream, have
their mouths or open ends uppermoll, and fill with water.
As tliat fegment of the wheel rifes upwards, the mouths of
the tubes attached to it will alter their relative inclination,
but not fo much as to let their contents flow out until fuch
fegment of the wheel arrives at the top. The mouths of
thefe tubes are then relatively deprcfled, and they pour the
water into a wide trough placed on pivots, from whence it
is conveyed, as may be wanted, among the plantations of
canes.

The only materials employed in the conftruftion of this
water-wheel, except the nave or axis, and the pofts on
which it refts, are afforded by the bamboo. The rims, the
fpokes, the ladle-boards or floats, and the tubes or fpouts,
or even the cords, are made of entire lengths, or fingle
joints, or large pieces, or thin flices, of the bamboo. Nei-
ther nails, nor pins, nor fcrews, nor any kind of metal,
enter into its conft:ru£lion : the parts are bound together
firmly by cordage of flit bamboo. Thus, at a very trifling
expence, is conftrufted a machine, which, without labour
or attendance, will furmfli, from a confiderable depth, a
refervoir with a conftant fupply of water, adequate to every
agricultural purpofe.

Thefe wheels are from twenty to forty feet in diameter,
according to the height of the bank, and confequent eleva-
tion to which the water is to be raifed. A wheel of thirty
feet is capable of fuftaining with eafe twenty tubes or
fpouts, of the length of four feet, and diameter of two
inches in the clear. The contents of fuch a tube would be
equal to fix-tenths of a gallon, and the twenty tubes wo\ild
hold twelve gallons. A ftream of a moderate velocity
would be fufficient to turn the wheel at the rate of four re-
volutions in one minute, by which would be lifted forty-
eight gallons of water in that fhort period ; or in one hour,
two thoufand eight hundred and eighty gallons ; and fixty-
nine thoufand one hundred and twenty gallons, or upwards
of three hundred tons in a day. This wheel is thought by
fir George to exceed, in moil refpefks, any machine yet in
ufe for fimilar purpofes. The Perfian wheel, with loofe
buckets fufpended to the edge of the rim or fellies of the
wheel, fo common in the fouth of France, and in the Tyrol,
approaches neareft to the Chinefe wheel, but is vallly more
expenfive, and lefs fimple in its conftruftion, as well as lefs
ingenious in the contrivance. In the Tyrol there are alfo
bucket-wheels for lifting water in a circumference of wood,
hollowed into fcoops ; but they are much inferior either to
the Perfian or Chinefe wheel.

Chain of Buckets. — This machine confifts of a number of
buckets attached to a chain or rope, the ends of which are
tniited together. The chain is conduced over a wheel,
which is turned by fome animal or mechanical power ; and
the chain hangs down from this wheel into the well from
which the water is to be drawn. The buckets at the lower
part of the chain become filled, and, by the motion of the
chain, the buckets attached to one part of the chain will
afcend full of water, whillt thofe on the oppofite fide are
defcending empty, with their mouths downwards. When
the full buckets of water turn over the upper wheel, they
difcharge their contents into a trough fixed near the wheel.
The molt convenient way of difcharging the water is to
make the upper wheel hollow, with divifions in it like the
tympanum; and the buckets, when they turn over, will

pour their contents into the hollow fegments of the wheel,
and it will run off" through a hollow in the axis made for
that purpofe. The advantage of the chain of buckets over
the wheel is, that the chain can be made to defcend in a well,
or fmall fpace, where the wheel could not ; alfo, that the
chain may be ufed for greater depths than would be prafti-
cable for a wheel.

The SpamJIi notra is a chain of buckets or earthen jars.
Mr. Townfend informs us, in his journey through Spain,
that the noira confifts of an cndlefs band or girdle, pafQng
over a fprocket- wheel : the band is long enough to reach
eighteen inches or two feet below the furface of water in a
well. All round this band, at the dift;ance of about fifteen
inches, are fixed jars of earthen-ware, which, as the band
turns, take up water from the well, and pour it into a cif-
tern fitted to receive it. A little afs, going round in a
circular walk with eafe, turns a trundle, which gives motion
to a cog-wheel, fixed on the fame axis with the fprocket-
wheel, on which the band is hung, and with which it turns.
This machine produces a conftant and confiderable fupply
of water, at a fmall expence, and with very little friftion.
As the air would obftruft the entrance of water into thefe
earthen jars or bottles, each jar has a httle orifice in its bot-
tom, through which the air efcapes ; but then water runs
out alfo, and a certain quantity falls back into the well.

It is true, as the jars rife in one ftraight line, the water
which runs out of the fuperior jar is caught by that which is
immediately below it, yet ftiU there is a lofs ; and, befides
this inconvenience, the whole quantity is raifed higher than
the upper refervoir, at leaft by the diameter of the fprocket-
wheel, becaufe it is only in their defcent that the jars are
emptied.

The fcreiu of Archimedes is a machine on a principle very
clofely allied to the horn-wheel ; but the curved channels
are wrapped fpiralwife round an axis, which is placed on an
inchned pofition, with the lower end immerfed in the water
which is to be raifed, and the upper end placed over the
edge of the refervoir into which the water is to be dehvered.
When this cylinder is turned round, it will take water up
in its fpiral channel, and r.iife it gradually to the elevated
end, and difcharge it into the refervoir. (See Screw.)
Although this machine is fimple in its general manner of
operation, its theory is attended with fome difficulties.

If we conceive that a flexible tube is rolled regularly
about a cylinder, from one end to another, this tube or
canal will form a fcrew or fpiral, of which we fuppofe the
intervals of the fpires or threads to be equal to one another.
Suppofe this cylinder placed with its axis In a vertical pofi-
tion, if we put in at the upper end of the fpiral tube a fmall
ball of heavy matter, which may move freely, it is certain
that it will follow all the turnings of the fcrew from the top
to the bottom of the cylinder, defcending always as it would
have done, had it fallen in a right line along the axis of the
cylinder ; only it will occupy more time in running through
the fpiral.

If we luppofe the cylinder placed with its axis horizon-
tally, and we again put the ball into one opening of the
canal, it will defcend, following the direftion of the firft
demi-fpire, until it arrives at the loweft point in this portion
of the tube, and then it will flop : for the weight of the
ball has no other tendency than to make it defcend in the
demi-fpire. The oblique pofition of the tube, with refpeft
to the horizon, caufes the ball, in defcending, to advance
from that extremity of the cyhnder whence it commenced
Its motion to the other extremity. When the ball is ar-
rived at the bottom of the firft demi-fpire, if we caufe the
cyhnder to turn on its axis, without changing the pofition

of

WATfiR.

of that axis, and in fuch manner that the loweft point of the
demi-fpire on which the ball prefTes becomes elevated, then
the bJl falls neceflarily from this point upon that which
fuaceeds, and becomes loweft ; and as this fecond point is
more advanced towards the fecond extremity of the cylinder
than the former one, the ball will be advanced towards that
extremity by this new defcent, and fo on, that it will at
length arrive at the fecond extremity. Moreover, the ball,
by conftantly following its tendency to defcend, has ad-
vanced through a right hne, parallel and equal to the axis
of the cyhnder ; and this diftance is horizontal, becaufe the
fides of the cylinder were placed horizontally.

But fuppofe the cylinder had been placed oblique to the
horizon, and turned on its axis continually in the fame di-
reftion, it is eafy to fee that the ball will move from the
lower end of the fpiral tube towards the upper end, al-
though it is aftuated folely by gravity, for this caufes it to
occupy the loweft point of the firft demi-fpire ; and when it
is abandoned by this point, as it is elevated by the rotation,
and will roll by its weight upon that point which has taken
its place, this fucceeding point is further advanced towards
the elevated extremity of the cylinder than that which the
ball occupied juft before ; confequently the ball, while fol-
lowing its tendency to defcend, will be always more and
more elevated, by virtue of the rotation of the cyhnder.
Thus it will, after a certain number of turns, be advanced
from the lower extremity to the upper, or through the
whole length of the fpiral ; but it will only be raifed
through the vertical height, determined by the obHquity of
the polition of the cylinder.

Inftead of the ball, let us now confider water as entering
by the lower extremity of the fpiral canal, when immerfed
in a refervoir. This water defcends at firft in the canal
folely by its gravity ; but the cylinder being turned, the
water moves on in the canal to occupy the loweft place,
and thus, by the continual rotation, is made to advance
further and further in the fpiral, till at length it is raifed to
the upper extremity of the fpiral, where it is expelled.
There is, however, an effential difference between the water
and the ball ; for the water, by reafon of its fluidity, will
adapt itfelf to the form of the fpiral, and, after having de-
fcended by its heavinefs to the loweft point of the demi-
fpire, will rife up on the contrary fide to the original level ;
on which account, more than half one of the fpires may be
filled with the fluid.

The moft fimple method of tracing a fcrew or a helix
upon a cyhnder is well known to be this : — Take the height
or length of a cyhnder for the perpendicular leg of a right-
angled triangle, and make the bafe or horizontal leg equal
to as many times the circumference of the cylinder as the
fcrew is to make convolutions about the cylinder itfelf;
then draw the hypothenufe to complete the triangle. Sup-
pofe this triangle to be enveloped about the furface of the
foUd cylinder, the perpendicular leg being made to he
parallel to the axis of the cylinder, and the horizontal leg
or bafe to fold upon the circumference of the cyhnder, even
with its bafe ; then the hypothenufe or floping fide of the
triangle will form the contour of the fcrew. If a tube be
formed according to the direftion of this fpiral, and a fmall
ball put into it when the cyhnder is placed upright, the
ball would roll to the bottom with the fame velocity, and
the fame force, as it would have defcended upon a plane
furface, inchned in the fame degree as the hypothenufe of
the triangle which we have fuppofed, when the bafe thereof
ia-horizontal. But fuppofe the cyhnder be inclined in fuch
degree, that the hypothenufe of the faid triangle would be
horizontal inftead of the bafe, as the angle which the

threads of the fcrew make conftantly with the bafe of the
cylinder is juft equal to that incUnation, the tlireads at
their point of fmalleft inclination will be parallel to the ho-
rizon ; fo that there being nothing to occafion the ball to
roll towards either end, it will remain immoveable, fup-
pofing the cyhnder to be at reft ; but if the cylinder be
turned on its axis in one direftion, the ball (abftrafting
from friftion) will move the contrary way, in conformity
with the firft law of motion. The inclination which we
have juft aflTigned is the leaft we can give, fo that the ball
fhall not defcend of itfelf ; but if we augment this inchna-
tion, then, by turning the cylinder, the ball will always have
a defcent on one fide, and will in confequence roll towards
the elevated end of the fame, and will mount by defcending.
The reafon is very fimple : the plane which carries it makes
it rife more, in confequence of the rotatory motion, than it
defcends by virtue of the force of gravity. It is obvious,
from what has been remarked, that this fcrew can never
raife water, when the angle which the central line of the
fpiral makes with the bafe of the cyhnder is larger than
the angle which the bafe of the cylinder makes with the
horizon.

The ratio of the weight of the ball to the force which is
neceffary to make it rife by turning the fcrew, is as the ver-
tical fpace through which the weight is raifed to the fpace
paffed through by the power in moving it. Suppofe the
moving force afts at the circumference of the cylinder, the
fpace paffed over by that force will be equal to as many
times the circumference of the cyhnder as the number of
convolutions of the helix. Let the diameter of the cylin-
der be 14 inches, the vertical altitude of the upper end of
the cylinder above the lower end 12 feet, or 144 inches, and
12 convolutions of the fpiral : let the cylinder he fo placed,
that the inclination of the axis is greater than the inclination
of the fpiral to the axis, and let the weight to be raifed be
a 48 lb. ball. The circumference of the cylinder will be
nearly 44 inches, and the 12 turns equal to 12 x 44 =
528 inches, for the fpace the power muft move through.
Hence we have 528 inches : 144 inches :: 48 lbs. : 133- lbs. ;
the meafure of the requifite force to be apphed at the fur-
face of the cyhnder. If the moving force defcribes a circle
whofe diameter is three times that of the cylinder, or afts
at a winch whofe diftance from the axis of motion is 21
inches, that force will then be rednced to j of 133- or 44 lbs.
which is lefs than one-tenth of the weight of the ball. In
this inveftigation, no notice is taken of the friftion upon the
pivots, or of the effefts of the air included in the fpiral :
yet if the fpiral had been folded upon a cone inftead of a
cyhnder, or if it had been formed of a flexible tube of va-
rying diameter, thefe effefts would have been important :
fome of them are confidered in our account of the ipiral
pump.

The Archimedes' fcrew is a machine fo frequently em-
ployed in hydrauhc architefture, as to deferve particular di-
reftions for conftrucEting it. The fimple pipe wrapped
round a cylinder will not afford any confiderable fupply of
water, and therefore a hollow barrel muil be made with one
or two fpiral partitions running in it, hke the fpiral ftair
cafes ufed in church fteeples.

Vitruvius has given minute direftions for the conftruftion
of the water-fcrew, and Mr. Smeaton's direftions, which
are very fimilar, are as follow : — For a fcrew of i8 inches
diameter, ufe a fohd cyhnder of fix inches diameter as an
axis, upon the furface of which cut a double helix, form-
ing two feparate grooves round the axis of about three-
quarters of an inch wide and deep, fo that the grooves in
going once round will advance about fixteen inches, and in

confequence

WATER.

confequtnce the two grooves will be eight inches apart from
middle to middle, meafuring parallel to the length of the
cylinder, Into thefe grooves drive and fallen pieces of
board, fo as to form radii or feftors of a circle of eighteen
inches and a half diameter, and fo moulded as to be a little
upon the twift, to anfwer the different inclinations of the
helix, at the different diftances from the centre. Thefe
pieces being jointed together, and to the axis, fo as to fill
the whole groove from one end of the axis to the other,
form a double fcrew ; then apply narrow boards longitu-
dinally, reaching from one end of the fcrew to the other.
The boards fhould be about four inches broad, and formed
concave withinfide, anfwerable to a circle of eighteen inches
diameter. Thefe boards are marked one by one at the
places where they touch the fpiral boards, and are then
grooved about a quarter of an inch, to admit the ends of
the radius pieces which form the fcrew. When all the boards
are put together they form a cylinder of eighteen inches
diameter, which is hooped on the outfide, in the manner of
a tub or call< ; and in order that the hoops may properly
drive on the outfide, at the fame time that the infide forms a
complete cylinder, the longitudinal pieces are made rather
thicker in the middle than at the ends.

Archimedes' fcrew may be ufed for other purpofes than
railing of water. It might be adapted with advantage in
raifing cannon-balls from a Ihip to a wharf, and with the
addition of a bevel-wheel or two and their pinions, might
be worked either by men or horfes. Sometimes Archi-
medes' fcrew inftead of being worked by men at a winch,
is turned by means of float-boards fixed on the circum-
ference of a wheel placed at its lower end, upon which a
ftream of water afts. If the water has a moderate fall, it
will have fufEcient eifioacy to turn two fcrews, one above
another. The top of the lower fcrew and the bottom of
the upper fcrew may aft one upon the other, by means of a
wheel upon each, with an equal number of teeth taking
into each other. In this cafe the upper fcrew will turn in a
contrary direftion from the lower, and confequently the
fpiral lube mufl be wound about the cyhnder in an oppofite
direftion. A folid wheel, or a light wheel with a heavy
rim, turning upon the middle of the fcrew as an axis, will
operate like a fly, and in fome cafes be very ufeful.

Mr. Smeaton made a machine to raife water by an Archi-
medes' fcrew for the royal gardens at Kew, which was on
a large fcale. The fcrew was twenty-four feet long, two
feet fix inches in diameter, and raifed the water perpendicu-
larly fourteen feet nine inches. The central cyhnder, or
fhaft of the fcrew, was ten inches diameter ; the diflance be-
tween the threads, including the thicknefs of the hehx, was
twelve inches and a half ; and as there were two fpiral paf-
fages, each fpiral advanced twenty-five inches along the cy-
linder at every turn ; each fpiral contained twenty-feven
quarts at every turn, the fcrew therefore gave out fifty-four
quarts at every turn which it made.

This fcrew was turned by means of a trundle or pinion
from a horfe -wheel, with the intervention of two moveable
joints, to change the direftion of the axis from the hori-
zontal to the direftion of the axis of the fcrew, which was
inclined at an angle of about thirty-eight degrees to the
horizon. The diameter of the horfe-track was twenty-
five feet, half of which was the length of the effeftive
lever upon which the horfes afted. The great cog-wheel
on the axis of the levers was fourteen feet diameter, with
144 cogs, and the trundle which it turned twenty-three
cogs, fo that the fcrew made about fix turns for one of the
horfe-wheel.

This machine was worked by two hght horfes, with very
Vol. XXXVIII.

great eafe, and they made three turns *.r minute ; but if at
all urged, could make the fcrew turn twenty turns pir mi-
nute, and at that rate of working raifed 300 hogfheads /^r

ThelVater.fcre'w, defcribed in our article Screw, does
not differ from the fcrew of Archimedes in its principle
but as the fcrew turns round within a fixed barrel, the water
is liable to leak back in part.

Draiving Water by Buckets — The methods which we have
hitherto defcribed are only adapted to raife water to fmall
elevations ; but by means of buckets, water may be drawn
from very great depths. The raofl fimple cafe is that of a
man with a bucket or other veffel in his hand, ftooping down
to lower the empty bucket into a pond, as low as he can
reach, and drawing it up full of water.

The firll improvement which would occur would be to
fufpend the bucket by a rope, and draw it up by means of a
long lever, or otherwife, if the depth was greater, by con-
tinuing the rope over a pulley, fo that the man could eafily
draw the end of it ; and this would be farther improved
when two buckets were fufpended at the oppofite ends of
the rope or chain, fo that one being drawn up full of water
an empty one would be let down at the fame time. This
method is apphcable to the deepeft well, and is very etfec-
tive. The addition of a windlafs and crank would be a
fucceffive improvement, and could be made to aft either
fingly, to draw up one bucket, or double, to let down an
empty bucket at the fame time it drew up another loaded
with water.

The drawing up of a bucket by a rope and pulley is
lo fimple and obvious as to need no explanation. The
bucket fiiould be of fuch a fize that it will not weigh above
twenty.fix pounds, and will therefore contain nearly half a
cubic foot of water. For although a man could with eafe
raife a much greater weight, yet he would be unable to
draw It up fo quickly, or to work at it throughout the
day ; and what he would gain by the increafed quantity of
water, he would lofe in the time which it would require to
draw up the bucket, and in the time he would require to
reft himfelf from his fatigue. If the rope is condufted ho-
rizontally, and the man takes it over his Ihoulder and walks
along the ground, his force will be applied in a much more
effeftive manner than by fimply hauhng the rope over a pul-
ley ; and a horfe may be applied in the fame manner with a
larger bucket, and there is perhaps no better mode of ap-
plying the force of a horfe for a deep well. The bucket
fhould not in this cafe weigh above a hundred and twenty
pounds, or it muft not contain above two cubic feet to
enable the horfe to draw it with that velocity which is moft
natural to him.

When a windlafs is employed to wind up the rope, the
winch or crank, which is applied to the axis of it, can be
made much larger than the radius of the windlafs, and in
confequence the power may be increafed fo much that a
larger bucket may be drawn, which is fome advantage, be-
caufe lefs time will be loft in flopping to fill and empty the
bucket, otherwife nothing is gained in drawing up a large
bucket, becaufe it muft move flower in proportion to its in-
creafed weight ; but in all cafes the length of the handle
fhould be about fourteen or fixteen inches, to enable a man
to turn it with eafe, and the weight of the bucket mufl be
fo adapted to the fiz.e of the windlafs, that the power re-
quired at the handle will not be above thirty pounds or even
twenty-five pounds, if a man is to work continually for fix
or eight hours in a day. For example, fuppofe the bucket
is about forty-fix pounds weight, and the handle fixteen
inches long, then as 46 is to 25, fo is 16 to 8| nearly ; from
^ which

WATER.

which deduft half the thicknefs of the rope, and it leaves
the proper radius for the roller or windlafs. A rope of the
proper fize for this purpofe will be about two inches and
a half in circumference, or rather more than three-quarters
of an inch in diameter ; hence the diameter of the barrel
will be l6|. If a fly-wheel is applied to the axis, it will
be an advantage to equalize the force which the man ap-
plies, becaufe fome pofitions of a crank or handle are lefs
favourable than others for the exertion of a man's ftrength.
It is moll advantageous to employ two buckets, and as the
rope for one unwinds whilll the other winds up, the weight
of the two buckets balance each other, and the man has only
the weight of the water to draw up.

Bttgket-Machines for deep Wells. — When a machine to
draw water by buckets is made on a larger fcale, the windlafs
is placed perpendicularly, and levers applied to it at the lower
end, which may be aftuated either by men, or by horfes
walking round in a circle on the ground, and drawing or
pufhing the end of the lever ; in this way a powerful ma-
chine may be made, and if the depth is very confiderable, it
is a very good method. Many methods have been propofed
to make the buckets fill themfelves when at the bottom of
the well, and empty when at the top : the beft is to fufpend
the bucket in an iron loop or bow, like the handle of a pail,
but this (hould be made fo long, that the pins on which the
calk or bucket hangs, ftiall be but little above the centre of
gravity of the bucket when loaded with water ; in confe-
quence, when the bucket is drawn up to the top, one edge
of it is caught by a hook fixed on the edge of the ciftern
into which the water is to be delivered, and the bucket ftill
continuing to be drawn up whilft the hook detains one edge,
the bucket is thereby overturned, and its contents difcharged
into the refervoir. It is requifite for this plan, that the
bucket be made, by fome contrivance, to prefent itfelf
always in the fame direftion to the hook, fo that it will be
feized and overturned thereby : one method is to fix upright
pieces of wood or iron in the well on each fide of the bucket,
and the pivots on which the bucket is poifed projedl on
each fide beyond the iron loop on which the bucket hangs,
and enter into grooves formed in thefe pieces, fo as to be
guided in the afcent and defcent of the bucket. Another
method is to make the rope of the bucket double for fome
feet immediately above the bucket, that is, the rope divides
into two ends, each of which is made fall to the oppofite
fide of the iron loop in which the bucket is fufpended : the
rope is made to pafs through a narrow opening in a piece of
plank, which will admit the double rope to pafs freely, pro-
vided the bucket comes up in the required pofition ; but if
it does not, then the forked rope will be afted upon by the
fides of this narrow opening in fuch manner, as to turn the
bucket round to the required pofition.

To make the bucket fill readily at the bottom of the well,
a fimple valve is made in the bottom, which opens upwards
and admits the water, but fhuts when the bucket is drawn
up out of the water. In the Tranfaftions of the Society of
Arts, vol. xii. is a defcription of a machine by Mr. Ruffe),
in which the bucket, when it is drawn up to the top of the
vrell, afts upon a lever, and caufes a moveable trough to run
acrofs the well beneath the bucket ; and then as the bucket
rifes higher, a trigger, which belongs to the valve in the
bottom of the bucket, is intercepted by a fixed piece of
wood, fo as to open the valve, and the water runs out of the
bucket into the moveable trough which conveys it into the
refervoir : when the bucket begins to defcend, it allows the
levers to return, and the moveable trough retreats from
beneath the bucket, and allows it to defcend again into the
well to bring up a frefli charge. The moveable trough is made

10

to run backwards or forwards over the mouth of the well,
by means of wheels or rollers, on which it is fupported, and
thefe wheels run upon pieces of wood laid acrofs the well.

Indian Method of drawing Water by a leathern Bucket. —
Dr. Roxburgh of Calcutta has given us a defcription of a
method of raifing a large quantity of water from a deep
well by means of one or two buffaloes or bullocks, which
is in common ufe in many parts of Hindooftan, where the
wells are too deep for the lever. A pulley is erefted over
the well to receive a rope, which the animals draw by vralk-
ing along an horizontal path in order to elevate a large
bucket, and they return towards the well to lower it down :
the bucket is made of leather, like a long funnel, extended
at the top or mouth by a fquare frame of wood, or by a
hoop, and the lower end terminates in a fmall open tube,
which is flexible, and can be turned up ; in which cafe, if the
orifice of the tube is kept as high or higher than the mouth
of the bucket, no water can efcape through the tube, it is
in this condition that the bucket is drawn up full of water :
the end of the tube has a cord fattened to it, which is con-
dufted over a roller fixed on the edge of the trough into
which it is defirej to deliver the water, and which trough
muft be at leafl the length of the bucket beneath the great
pulley that is fixed over the well. The oppofite end of the
cord is tied to the great rope near the point where the
buffaloes draw, and the cord is of fuch length as to hold
the orifice of the tube rather above the mouth of the
bucket, until the tube is drawn up to the roller. When the
cord draws the tube over the roller, and leads its end into
the trough as the bucket continues to be drawn up, it is
raifed above the level of the trough, by which means the
whole of the water will make its efcape through the orifice
of the tube into the trough : when the bucket is let down
again, the flexible tube returns over the roller, and the cord
holds up its orifice above the top of the bucket.

Defaguliers, in the fecond volume of Experimental
Philofophy, defcribes a very fimple contrivance to raife
water by a bucket ; which is this, to one end of a rope is
fixed a large bucket, having a valve in its bottom opening
upwards ; to the other end of the fame rope is faflened a
fquare board, fomething like the fcale-board of a balance,
but large enough for a man to Hand upright in it ; the cord
is made to pafs over two pulleys, each of about fifteen inches
diameter, and fixed in fuch manner, that as the bucket
defcends, the fcale afcends with equal velocity, and wee
•verfd. The fcale is made to run freely between four ver-
tical guide rods, pafTmg through holes at its four corners,
and when the bucket is lowered down into the lower water-
ciftern in order to fill with water, the fcale flands nearly
level with the horizontal plane of the upper refervoir to
which the water is to be raifed. When the bucket is full,
a man fteps into the fcale, and his weight, together with
that of the frame, exceeding the weight of the veffel and its
contained water, will give an afcending motion to the
bucket, and caufes the valve in its bottom to clofe. When
the bucket is raifed to the proper height, a hook which is
fixed at the edge of the upper refervoir catches into a hafp
at the fide of the bucket, and turns it over, to caufe it to
empty its water into the upper ciflern, or into a trough,
which conveys it where it is required : at this time the man
and the fcale have arrived at a platform, which prevents
their further defcent, and the man muft remain in the fcale
till he finds the bucket above is empty, when he fteps from
the fcale, and runs up a flight of flairs to the place from
which he defcended : the bucket in the mean while, being
fomevuhat heavier than the fcale, defcends again to the water,
and raifes the frame to its original pofition ; thus tlie work

is

WATER.

is continued, the man being at reft during its defcent, and
labouring in the afcent.

Defaguliers employed in this kind of work a tavern-
drawer, who had been ufed to run up and down ftairs ; he
weighed 160 pounds, and was defired to go up and down
39 fteps of 65 inches each (in all about 21 feet) at the fame
rate he would go up and down all day. He went up and
down twice in a minute, fo that allowing the bucket, with a
quarter of a hogfiiead of water in it, to weigh 140 pounds,
he is able to raife it up through 21 feet twice [in a minute,
which is equivalent to the whole hogfhead raifed io| feet in
a minute, and rather exceeds what Defaguliers affigned as
a maximum of human exertion ; from experiments made with
a mercurial pump. He recommends that the man in the fcale
(hould weigh one-fifth or one-fixth more than the weight of
the water in the bucket, in order to give him a prepon-
derance to bring up the bucket with a proper velocity.

Balance Buckets. — This is an ingenious contrivance for
raifing water by the power of a fmall fall of water : fuppoie
a wooden lever twenty feet long, poifed upon a centre at
five feet from one end, one arm will then be five feet long,
and the other fifteen, or three times. At the extremity of
the long arm a fmall bucket is fixed, and at the extremity of
the (hort arm another bucket, which is rather more than
three times as great in capacity : the lever is fo poifed, that it
will place itfelf in an horizontal pofitlon when both the
buckets are empty; but fuppofe that in this fituation a fmall
fpout of water runs into each bucket, when they become
both filled, the larger bucket at the end of the fliort arm
will overweigh the fmaller one, becaufe it holds more than
three times as much water ; in confequence, the larger bucket
will defcend and move the lever into a perpendicular fitua-
tion, by which means the fmall bucket is raifed fifteen feet
above the level of the fpout at which it received the water,
whilft the great bucket has defcended five feet beneath its
fource of fupply. Both the buckets are fufpended to the
ends of the lever on pivots, fo that they can readily be
turned over to difcharge their contents ; this takes place
when the lever arrives near its vertical pofition : the fmall
bucket is caught by a hook, and overturned into the elevated
trough which is to receive the water, and immediately the
lower bucket is emptied by fimilar means. The long end
of the lever is now the heavieft, and in confequence the lever
returns to its horizontal pofition, in which it remains until
the buckets are both full, and then it makes another ftroke.
A fimple contrivance is applied to ftop the running of the
fpout of water during the time that the lever is in motion,
to prevent wafte of the water.

The lojing and gaining Buckets is a fimilar machine to the
preceding, but admits of raifing the water to a greater
height, becaufe chairs and wheel-work are employed inilead
of a lever. This machine will raife water fufficient to ferve
a gentleman's feat, with an overplus for fountains, fifii-ponds,
&c. A machine of this kind can be erefted wherever
there is a fpring affording a fmall fupply of water, and
having even fo fmall a fall as ten feet. It ispofiible, by
this invention, with the lofs of part of the water, to raife the
reft, to fupply a houfe, or any place where it is required ; but,
of courfe, it muft be in a lefs quantity than the fall of water
which is to aftuate the machine, nearly in the fame propor-
tion as the place to which the water is to be raifed is higher
than the fall of the fpring. For example, the fall of one hogf-
head through ten feet will raife about one-fixth of a hogthead
to the height of forty feet. This machine had been con-
ceived by Schottus a great many years ago, and he gave a
draught of it. It is defcribed in Leopold's Theatrum
Machinarum Hydraulicarum, 1720; but it was never

put in execution to any good purpof« in England, till
Mr. George Greaves, a carpenter, ereded an engine upon
this prmciple, about 1730, for fir John Chefter, baronet, at
his feat at Chickley, in Buckinghamfhire ; a fetch of
which is given at /^. 13, Plate Water-Works. A fmall
fpring of water, fupplying four gallons per minute, is con-
veyed feventy-two yards, by a gutter, into a ciftern N,
containing about twelve gallons. This water has a de-
fcent to the other ciftern at R, ten feet below X ; from
the latter, the wafte is conveyed off along H, by a drain or
fewer. The defcent of part of the water through this ten
feet is the motive force to work the machine. A, B, are two
copper pans, or buckets, of unequal weights and fizes, fuf-
pended by chains, which alternately wind off, and on the
two multiplying-wheels Y and Z, whereof the wheel Y is
fmaller in diameter, and Z larger, in proportion to the dif-
ferent lifts each bucket is defigned to perform. A houfe
is built over the well or ciftern, with three floors, for the
conveniency of fixing the parts of the engine. On the
uppermoft floor is fixed a frame of timber 2 2, in which the
moving parts are fupported, as is fhewn, (part being broken
off in the figure, to explain the work) : acrofs this frame
lies an horizontal axis G, three feet and a half long, moving
on two gudgeons in braflfes. Upon this axis are framed
three wheels ; firft, the fmall wheel Y, which is two feet
diameter, and flirouded, or made with a raifed rim at each
fide : tlie edge of the wheel is five inches broad, and fhod
with iron. Upon the wheel Y is fixed a chain, made very
flat and flexible, which, after it has wrapped once round
the wheel, is then made double, that it may he on each
fide of the edge part, the double parts having a fufficient
opening between them to admit the fingle part, and this pre-
vents fretting or galling, and keeps the chain exaftly per-
pendicular : from the extremity of the double part is hung
a long rod of iron, at the bottom of which the great bucket
A is fixed. The largeft wheel Z on the axis is fix feet
diameter, and one inch and a half broad on the face, which
is alfo (hrouded : this wheel is not circular, but fpiraled
two inches, both in the fole and in the fhrouds ; fo that its
radius at the leaft part is two inches lefs than three feet.
Upon the large wheel Z is fixed a fmaller chain, to fuf-
pend the bucket B : it is made hke the former, and fo
arranged, that when the wheel Z has made one revolution
from left to right, the fpiral fole will take up a certain
length of the chain. After this length, the lower or re-
maining part of the chain has crofs-bars fixed to it, at equal
diftances, which fall upon the edges of the fhrouds into
notches plated with iron : by this means, and by the help
of the fpiral, this part of the chain is not only prevented
from riding upon the other, but helps to equiponderate the
increafe of weight of the other chain of the bucket A.
A third wheel r, three feet ten inches diameter, is fixed
on the axis G, between the other two wheels : it is fhrouded
like the others, and is fpiraled three-fourths of an inch ; it
receives a rope, the lower end of which goes about a wheel
d, of two feet diameter, to which that end is fixed, and on
the axis, </, of this wheel is another, /, one foot diameter,
and to this is faftened a rope, which goes down upon the
quadrant ah, which carries a Aiding weight in a box at the
extremity of the arm Q ; the quadrant a moves on the
axis b, and the rope defcending from the wheel /, is guided
between iron plates, upon the circumference of the qua-
drant. The box, at the end of the arm Q, contains a fliding
lead weight, to counter-balance the weight of the chains,
by keeping an exaft equilibrium in every pofition of the
machine. Befides the aftion of the quadrant, the motion is
regulated by wheel-work, like that of a jack ; thus, upon
F z one

WATER,

one end of the axis G, is a ftrong iron wheel M, giving mo-
tion to a pinion m, and by means of a wheel and worm n and
c, to a fly P, which regulates the motion of the engine, and
prevents any improper acceleration from the unwinding
of the chains. The fmall bucket B is made of copper,
about five gallons in capacity ; it has a valve in the bottom,
by which the bucket will be filled when it defcends into the
water of the ciftern N. The bucket is fufpended in an
iron link, or handle, upon two pivots, fo that it can be
very eafily turned over upon them. This happens when it
is drawn up to F, the edge of the bucket catching a hook
which overturns it, and difcharges the contents into the
trough W, at an elevation of thirty feet above X, and
whence it is conveyed by pipes wherever it is wanted.
The great bucket A is hkewife made of copper, and
contains about fifteen gallons when drawn up to the poii-
tion A : it is filled with water from a valve, or fluice, in the
fide of the ciftern N, which is then opened by a bent lever,
whereof the end projefts, fo that the bucket will lift it up.
In the bottom of the bucket is a fpindle-valve, which is
opened when the bucket has defcended to R, by the end of
its fpindle refting on the bottom of the well. Iron rods
are fixed vertically to guide both the buckets, which have
ears with brafs rollers in them, and inclofe three fides of
each, which is fquare, and they are thus caufed to afcend
and defcend in a perpendicular line, and no other.

The operation of the machine is as follows : — When the
buckets are empty, they are flopped, as fhewn in the figure
on a level with the fpring at X, whence they are both filled
with water at the fame time, in the manner juft dcfcribed.

The greater of the two A, being the heavier, when full
preponderates, and defcends ten feet from C and D, and
the lefTer B, depending from the fame axis, is at the fame
time weighed up or raifed from B to F thirty feet.

Here, by catching the hook F, the fmall bucket dif-
charges its water into the trough W, and thus fuddenly
lofing weight, it lets the great bucket down an inch lower,
and the valve in the bottom is opened, fo as to let out its
water, which runs wafte by the drain below at H. The
bucket B being then empty, is fo adjufted as to overweigh,
and defcending fteadily as it rofe, betwixt the guiding-rods,
it brings or weighs up A to its former level at X, where
both being again replenifhed from the fpring, they thence
proceed as before. And thus will they continue conftantly
moving, (merely by the circumftantial difference of water
and weight, and without any other affiftance than that of
fometimes giving the iron-work a httle oil, 1 fo long as the
materials ihall laft, or the fpring fupply water.

The lleadinefs of the motion is, in part, regulated by the
fly P, which not only keeps the engine to an equal velo-
city, but by its running forwards, after the buckets are
quite up or down, holds them if eady till they are completely
filled or emptied, and prevents them recoihng back too
foon. In order to counterbalance the weight of the chains
in every pofition, the wheels r, il, and /, are fo calculated,
that during the whole performance up and down, they let
the quadrant a move no more than one-fourth of a circle ;
by which contrivance, as more or lefs of the chains which
fufpend the buckets come to be wound off their refpeftive
wheels Y and Z, this weight gradually increafes its aftion
as a counterbalance, and fo continues the motion equable
and eafy in all its parts. The fpiraling of the wheels Y
and Z help, in fome meafure, to regulate the weight of the
chains in every pofition, as they act in winding on and off
the wheels ; but the quadrant a b, and lever with the
weight Q, complete the equiUbrium, by afting with the
greatcft force, becaufe the lever is in the horizontal pofition

II

when the chain of the great bucket A is all down, and
weigliing upon the wheel, the weight Q then afts with its
whole weight upon the wheel /, as that chain is drawn up,
its afting weight is thereby diminifhed, and the lever of the
weight Q is moving down towards its perpendicular,
whereby the weight Q diminiflies equally in its influence
on the motion of the wheel r, until it hangs perpendicular,
and its weight ceafes to aft ; but the fliding-vveight then
runs down in its box, to keep the rope tight, the Hiding-
weight being attached to the end of the rope, and not to
the lever. At the firft return, or re-afcent of the great
bucket, the weight Q is drawn up to a Ihoulder, before
any motion is given to the lever of the quadrant ; but
whilft the long chain of the fmall bucket evolves from its
wheel Z, the afting-weight of the quadrant is continually
increafing, and at the fame time the other chain of the great
bucket wrapping itfelf upon the wheel Y, its afting weight
is decreafing. Tlie lever of the quadrant rifing higher,
brings the hne of direftion of the weight Q farther from
the centre of the quadrant, and fo lays a greater force or
obftruftion to retard the wheel r, and continually keeps a
counterbalance.

This engine, at a flow motion, carries up one bucket full
in five minutes ; but if the fpring ran double the quantity,
it would go up twice in the fame time, and an engine of
this kind may be made to raife one hogihead^fr minute, or
more, if required, the confumption of water is lefs than
what is fpent by a water-wheel to raife an equal quantity
of water to the fame height.

The Endlefs Rope to raife Water. — This is a moft fimple
contrivance, and will raife up a fmall quantity of water from
a very confiderable depth. A foft hemp or hair-rope,
with the ends fpliced together, is fufpended over a large
wheel, which is turned by a handle ; the rope mull hang
down into the well, and reach fome deptii into the water, and
a fimilar wheel may be placed beneath the furface of the water
for the rope to pafs under ; but this is not neceflary when the
length of the rope is fuch, that its ow-n weight will make
it apply clofe to the upper wheel. The upper part of the
rope rauft defcend through a tube, which is fixed in the
bottom of the ciftern, or refervoir, to prevent the water
running down with the rope ; the tube is of fuch fize as to
fit the rope very nearly, but not to caufe any confiderable
friftion. The rope is put in motion by turning the handle
of the wheel, and the motion muft be in fuch a direftion,
that the rope where it pafies tlu-ough the tube in the ciftern
ftiall defcend.

The confequence is, that the water in the well adheres
to the rope, and furrounds it hke a film, or covering of
water ; but when the rope pafTes over the wheel, fome of
the water is thrown off' by the centrifugal force, and falls
into the refervoir, and that part of the water which efcapes
the aftion of the wheel is feparated from the rope by the
tube through which the rope pafies ; for it is to be obferved,
that the film of water which furrounds the rope is put in
motion, whilft it is in the well, by the lateral adherence of
the water to the rope, which motion being continually
kept up, is fufficient to overcome the gravity of the water ;
but if any body is prefented to the rope, fo as to refift the
motion of the water, without obftrufting the motion of the
rope, the w-ater will fly off^, and, lofing its motion, will obey
the aftion of gravity, and fall down.

The velocity with which the rope requires to be moved,
will depend upon the depth from which the water is to be
raifed. The length of that part of the rope which is im-
merfed in the water is alfo of fome confequence, for it
muft be fuch, that the rope will aft upon the ftill water

which

WATER.

■which immediately furrounds it, until it has put that water
in motion with nearly the fame rapidity as the rope, and
then fuch portion of water will accompany the rope ; but
this cannot take place without communicating a flower
motion to a much larger quantity of water, which will alfo
accompany the rope with a flower motion ; but being too
far removed from the rope to have its motion accelerated,
or even maintained, its velocity will continually decreafe,
until it ceafes to afcend, and then it will begin to run back.
But this is to be underftood only of that part of the water
which is too far diilant from the rope to have its motion
fully maintained by the lateral adlion of that water which
is nearer to the rope, and which moves with nearly the fame
velocity as the rope. If the rope is examined at the point
where it rifes above the furface of the water, it will be
found to be furrounded by a column of water which is of a
confiderable fize at the bafe, but diminifties as it rifes up-
wards, fomewhat in the form of a trumpet, fo that at a few
feet in height it is but little larger than the rope. This
column of water is compofed of feveral laminve, each moving
with a different velocity : for inllance, the interior part
moves nearly as quick as the rope, the water which is more
diftant from the rope moves flower, until there muft be a
part in which the water remains immoveable, and all the
water which is beyond this, and on the outfide of the
.column, runs downwards, and falls back into the well. On
this account, the machine lofes a confiderable part of the
power which is applied to it without producing an adequate
€ffea.

This machine was invented by the Seur Vera, in France.
A machine was made by him with a wheel three feet dia-
meter, and a hair-rope of half an inch diameter, the well was
ninety-five feet deep. A man could turn the wheel fixty
times ^fr minute, which gives a velocity of five hundred and
fixty-five feet^fr niuuite for the rope. It brought up fix
gallons per minute, but was fevere labour for one man.
When the wheel made fifty turns, and the rope moved four
hundred and feventy-one feet per minute, the machine ftill
raifed a confiderable quantity of water ; but if the motion
was reduced to thirty turns, or two hundred and eighty-two
feet per minute, it brought up fcarcely any water. A rope
of hair is preferable to hemp, becaufe it is lefs fubjeft to
decay ; and when a hemp-rope begins to rot, it commu-
nicates a taint to the water.

The Sucking-Pump has a valve at the bottom of the bar-
rel, and alfo another valve in the pifton, vifhich is called a
bucket, becaufe it brings up the water before it. This
pump does not raife water when the bucket is let down, but
only when it is drawn up, which is in fome cafes an incon-
venience ; and another objeftion is, that it cannot raife
water to a greater height than the place where the power is
applied, becaufe there muft be an opening for the pump-rod
to come out at, and the water would flow out at the fame
opening, if it was raifed as high. This inconvenience is
remedied by

The Lift-Pump, which has a valve in the bucket, the fame
as the fucking-pump, but it differs from it in the manner of
communicating the force to the pifton or bucket : one way
of effefting this is to make the barrel open at the lower end,
and the rod from the bucket, inftead of being fixed to the
upper fide of the bucket, is fixed to the lower fide, and
comes out beneath the furface of- the water in which the
barrel is immerfed. Rods are jointed to tliis, and rife up pa-
rallel to the barrel, in order to be attached to the lever by
which the pump is to be worked ; the fixed valve is placed
at the top of the barrel above the bucket ; this is the old-
fafhioned lift-pump.

The Lift-Pump -with a Stuffing-box, called fomctimes a
jack-head pump, is exaftly the fame as the fucking-pump,
except that the top of the barrel is covered by a lid, which
has a hole in the centre for the rod to pafs through : the
rod is made very fmooth and true, and the hole is fo formed
as to contain collars of leather, which fit clofe round the rod,
and prevent the efcape of any water by the fide of the rod.
The water mounts up a pipe which communicates fideways
with the upper part of the barrel.

Another form of lift -pump has been recently introduced,
in which the pifton is folid, having no valve in it, and the rod
pafTes through a ftufRng-box or collar of leather in the top
of the barrel, the bottom of the barrel being open. Two
pipes are made to communicate fideways with the barrel at
the upper part, one of which brings water from the well
into the pump when the pifton defcends, and has a valve
in it to prevent the return of the water ; the other pipe
conveys the water away from the barrel when the pif-
ton is drawn upwards, and this is likewife furnifhed with 3r
valve to prevent the return of the water.

One advantage of tliis kind of pump is, that both valves
are fituated in boxes near the top of the barrel, and can be
examined and repaired at any time by taking off the doors
or covers of the boxes ; but in pumps where there is a valve
at the bottom of the barrel, it fometimes happens that the
valve fails, and requires to be repaired, when the water in the
well ftands higher tlian the cover or door of entry to the
valve : in this cafe, fome other means muft be ufed to reduce
the water in the well, or elfe the pump mulf be drawn up
out of its place, wliich, in large works, is very difficult.
Another advantage is, that the apertures of the valves may
be made of any required dimcnfions to let the water pafs
freely through them ; but wlien tlie water muft come up
through a valve in the bucket or pifton, the paflage through
the valve muft necefl'arily be much fmaller than the barrel, to
allow a proper lodgment all round for the valve and alfo
for the leathers.

The Force-Pump. — This is made with a fohd pifton, like
the laft, but the barrel is open at the top, where the pifton-rod
comes out. There is a valve at the bottom of the barrel to
admit the water into it, and a pipe, which turns fideways
out of the barrel at bottom, and has a valve to prevent the
water returning into, the barrel, to convey the water to what-
ever place it is to be forced to. The force-pump raifes
water only when the pifton is prefled down, whereas the
lift-pumps and fucking-pumps raife the water when the
buckets are drawn up.

The Lift and Force-Pump of M. De la Hire. — This is the
union of the two laft pumps in one, for both thefe pumps
work with a fohd pifton, and the barrel of the force-pump
is open at top, and the barrel of the lift-pump is open at
bottom ; hence the fame barrel and pifton may be made to
ferve for both, Tliis pump throws up water equally when
the pifton-rod is drawn up or wlien it is forced down, and
is moft proper for the double-afting fteam-engine. It has
the advantage of raifing twice the quantity of water that
any of the other pumps will raife, and with the friftion of
only one pifton ; alfo the v.alves admit of being made of fuf-
ficient fize to allow the paffage of the water without any
imneceffary refiifance.

Force-Pump ivilh a folid Plunger. — This was invented
by fir Samuel Morhmd, and does not differ from the force-
pump laft defcribed, except in the manner of fitting the
pifton to the barrel. Inftead of the barrel being bored truly
cyhndrical withinfide, and the piilon fitted into it fo as to Aide
up and down, and provided with leathers to make a clofe fit-
ting, the pifton is made of a cylindrical form, and very nearly

WATER.

as large as the hollow barrel into which it defcends, but it
does not touch the infide of the barrel. To make the clofe
fitting, the outfide furface of thecyhndrical pifton,or plunger,
as it is called, is made very true and fmooth ; and it is fur-
rounded by a collar of leathers fixed at the top of the barrel,
fo that no water can leak out of the barrel between the
plunger and the leather collars ; at the fame time that the
plunger can freely move up and down through the collars,
and will thereby increafe or diminifh the capacity of the bar-
rel, to produce the fame effeft as if the piilon fitted clofe
into the barrel.

The principal circumftance to be attended to in this
pump is the conftruftion of the collar of leathers. To re-
tain thefe leathers in their places, the top of the barrel muft
be made with a flaunch, and pierced with holes to receive
fcrew-bolts. Upon this flaunch two rings of metal are ap-
plied one over the other, with fimilar holes : the internal
opening in the lowed ring is exaftly the fize of the plunger,
and that of the upper one a little larger. Two rings of foft
leather are cut out to correfpond with the metal rings, except
that the central holes are rather fmaller than the plunger :
to prepare the leather, it is foaked in a mixture of oil and
tallow for fome hours. One of thefe leather rings is laid
on the pump-flaunch, and one of the metal rings placed above
it ; the plunger is then thruftdown through the leather, which
turns the inner edge of the leather ring downwards ; the
other leather ring is then flipped on at the top of the plunger,
and the fecond metal ring is put over it, and then the whole
are Aid down to the metal ring ; by this the inner edge of
the laft leather ring is turned upwards.

The metal rings and leathers are now fixed on the flaunch
by the fcrew-bolts ; and thus the leathern rings are ftrongly
comprefled between them, and make a clofe joint with the
top of the barrel ; and as the holes through the leathers are
fmaller than the plunger, they grafp the plunger fo clofely
that no preffure can force the water through between them.
The lower metal ringjuft allows the plunger to pafs through
it, but without any play, fo that the turned-down edges of
the lower leathern ring cannot come up between the plunger
and the lower metal ring, but are lodged in a conical enlarge-
ment, which is made round the inner edge of the upper
part of the barrel ; and in hke manner the turned-up edges
of the upper leather are received in the hole of the upper
metal ring, which hole is made larger than the plunger, to
leave a fpace all round for thefe edges : it is on thefe trifling
circumftances that the great tightnefs of the collar depends.
To prevent the leathers from flirinking by drought, there is
ufually a little ciftern formed round the head of the pump,
and kept full of water.

This kind of pump is preferable to any other, where the
preflTure to be overcome is verv confiderable. The hydro-
ftatic preflcs are conftrufted on this principle. See Press.

Pijians or Buckets for Pumps. — A good pifton fhould be
as tight as poflible, and (hould have as httle friftion as is
confiftent with this indifpenfible quality. The bucket of
the common fucking-pump, when carefully executed, pof-
feffes thefe properties in a high degree, and is the model for
other kinds of pump-buckets, or piftons, in which leather
can be employed. This bucket is in the form of a truncated
cone, with a hollow through the centre of it, which is half as
large as the outfide, at the largeft part ; it is generally made
of wood not hable to fplit, fuch as elm or beech, but in the
beft ki"d of pumps is made of metal. The fmall or upper
end of it is cut away at the fides, fo as to open into the
hole through the centre of it, and form an arch, by which it
is fattened to the iron rod or fpear of the pump, and within
the arch the valve or clack is fituated. The lower end of

the conical part may be covered with a hoop of brafs, which
fits the barrel of the pump very exaftly ; the bucket is alfo
furrounded with a ring or band of ftrong leather, fattened to
, the wood with nails, and firmly retained by the brafs hoop
which is driven down on the bucket from the upper or the
fmaller end of the cone, and binds the leather fatt on the
wood ; but the leather being wider than the brafs, the edge
of the leather rifes upwards and furrounds the wood : this
part of the leather is made to turn outwards, like a cup or
hollow cone, which, at the upper end, is rather larger than
the barrel, fo a? to fpring againft the infide of the bar-
rel when the bucket is put into it. The leather muft be of
uniform thicknefs all round, fo as to fuffer equal compref-
fion between the wood of the bucket and the working
barrel, but tliis compreflion is very flight, becaufe it is the
upper edge of the cup which applies moft clofely to the
barrel. The feam or joint of the two ends of the band of
leather muft be tapered, and made to overlap and lie very
clofe, without increafing the thicknefs, but not fewed or
ftitched together, as that would occafion bumps or inequa-
lities, vi-hich would fpoil its tightnefs ; and no harm can
refnlt from the want of fewing, becaufe the two edges will
be fqueezed clofe together by the compreflion in the
barrel ; nor is it by any means neceflary that this compreflion
be great, for it occufions friftion, and caufes the leather to
wear through very foon at the edge of the bucket, and it
alfo wears the infide of the working barrel, which foon be-
comes enlarged in that part which is continually pafled over
by the pifton, while the mouth remains of its original dia-
meter, and then it is impoflible to thruft in a pifton which
fhall completely fill the worn part. A very moderate pref-
fure is fufficient for rendering the pump perfeftly tight,
becaufe the prefl"ure of the water makes the leather cup ap-
ply itfelf clofe to the barrel all round, and even adjuft itfelf
to all its inequahties. Suppofe it to touch the barrel in a
ring of an inch broad all round, this is a trifle, and the fric-
tion occafioned by it not worth regarding ; yet this fmaU
furface is fuflicient to make the paflage perfeftly imper-
vious, even by the prefl^ure of a very high column of incum-
bent water : for let this prefigure be ever fo great, the pref-
fure by which the leather is forced againft the infide of the
barrel will always exceed it, becaufe, in addition to the pref-
fure of the water, the leather will always prefs againft the
barrel by its own elafticity, the top of the cup of leather
being made rather larger than the interior of the barrel.

This method of applying leather piftons is found to be
preferable to any other, becaufe if the leather is prefled
againft the barrel by any other means than the force of the
column of water, the preflure will always be too great or
too little.

Pumps which are to raife hot water cannot be leathered,
becaufe the leather would fhrivel up ; in this cafe, ftrong can-
vas cloth is fometimes ufed inftead of leather ; but as this will
not hold water perfeAly, fuch pumps are generally packed
with hemp, in the fame manner as the pifton of fteam-
engines.

Pump without Frisian. — When the height to which the
water is to be raifed is fmall, a pump may be conftrufted in
which the pifton does not require to be fitted clofely into
the barrel, nor are any leathers required. The barrel of this
pump muft be as long as the whole height to which the
water is to be raifed, and as much more as the length of the
ftroke of the pifton. The pifton is a foUd piece of wood,
fitted to the barrel as clofely as it ca.i be vithout aftually
touching the infide, and may be either fquare or round, but
a fquare trunk and a fquare beam of wood are beil, if the
pump is made of wood. The pifton muft be as long as the

barrel,

WATER.

barrel, fo that when it is let down it will occupy the whole
interior fpace of the barrel, except that fmall fpace which
is left between the infide of the barrel and the pitton, to
avoid aftual contaft. The bottom of the barrel has a valve
in it which opens upwards, and a pipe proceeds from the
lower part to convey away the water to the refervoir into
which it is to be raifed by tlie pump. This pipe is pro-
vided with a valve, to prevent the return of any water
which has pafled through it, but the greateft elevation of
the water in the refervoir muft not be quite fo great as the
top of the barrel. When this pump is fixed for work, the
lower end of the barrel muft: be immerfed in the water of
the well at lead as much as the whole length of the ftroke,
fo that the lower end of the pifton will never rife above the
furface of the water in the well, and upon this circumftance
the aftion of the pump depends ; for when the pillon is
drawn up, the water flows through the valve in the bottom
by its gravity, and fills the fpace which is left by the draw-
ing up of the pifton ; when the pifton defcends, it difplaces
from the barrel all this water, and forces it up the fide-pipe
into the refervoir. It is true that a fmall portion of water
rifes in the fpace between the barrel and the pifton, but
this fmall quantity cannot efcape, becaufe the top of the
barrel rifes higher than the furface of the water in the re-
fervoir.

Dr. Robinfon, who we believe firft defcribed this pump,
obferves that it is free from all the difficulties which are
experienced in common pumps, from want of being air-
tight. Another is, that the quantity of water raifed is
very nearly equal to the power expended ; for if there is
any want of accuracy in the work, which occafions a dimi- ,
nution of the quantity of water difcharged, it alfo makes an
equal diminution in the force which is neceffary for pufliing
down the plunger. The dodlor mentions a machine, con-
fift;ing of two fuch pumps, the piftons of which were fuf-
pended from the arms of a long beam or lever, the upper
fide of which was formed into a walk, with a rail on each
fide. A man ftood on one fide of the centre of the lever,
until the pifton of the pump at that end funk to the bottom
of its barrel, and of courfe the pilton of the pump on the
oppofite fide of the centre was drawn up ; he then walked
flowly up to the other end of the walk upon the beam or
lever, the inclination being about twenty-five degrees at
firft, but gradually diminiftied as he went along, and pafled
on the oppofite fide of the centre of motion, fo as to change
the load of the beam. By this means he made the pifton at
the other end go to the bottom of its barrel, and fo on al-
ternately, with the eafieft of all exertions, and what a man
is moft fitted for by his ftrufture. With this machine a
feeble old man, weighing no pounds, raifed 7 cubic feet
of water 11-5 feet high every minute, and continued work-
ing eight or ten hours every day. A ftout young man,
weighing nearly 135 pounds, raifed 83- cubic feet to the
fame height ; and when he carried 30 pounds conveniently
flung about him, he raifed 9^ feet to this height, working
ten hours a day, without greatly fatiguing himfelf. This
exceeds Defagulitrs' maximum of a hogftiead of water ten
feet high in a minute, in the proportion of 9 to 7 nearly.
This pump is limited to very moderate heights, and in fuch
fituations it is very effeftual.

The mercurial pump is a fpecics of lift -pump, in which
mercury is employed to make a clofe fitting between the
pifton and the barrel, and thus avoid the friftion of leathers,
and prevent lofs of water.

This pump was originally invented by Mr. Jofliua Haf-
kins, and was improved by Defaguliers, who defcribed it in

the Philofophical Tranfaftiont for 1722, N* 370. p. 5 ;
and he has alfo given every detail of the conftruftion in his
Experimental Philofophy, vol. ii. p. 491.

In this pump the barrel is inverted, that is, it is open at
the bottom, like the firft lift-pump which we have men-
tioned ; and it has alfo two pipes communicating with the
upper end of the barrel, one to bring up the water from
the well, and the other to carry it up to the refervoir : each
pipe is provided with its valve, to prevent the return of the
water. The barrel muft be made of iron, and as thin as is
confiftent with the ftrength of the metal. The pifton is a
cylindrical plug of wood, fitted to the barrel fo as to fill it,
but not to touch the fides. This pifton is fixed perpendi-
cularly in the centre of a hollow cylinder of iron, vihich is
rather larger within than the outfide of the pump-barrel, fo
that an annular fpace is left all round between the fodid
pifton or plug and the infide of the cyhnder, into which fpace
the pump-barrel can enter, and will fill it very nearly. The
annular fpace is then filled with mercury. This compound
piece, confifting of the hollow cylinder, with the fmaller
fohd cylinder within it, forms the pifton ; and to this the
power which is to work the pump is applied by means of
chains, which fufpend it from the fhort arms, fo that if the
lever is moved, the pifton will rife up and down. When
the pifton is applied in its place, and the inverted pump,
barrel is received into the annular fpace between the folid
and hollow cylinders, the mercury therein will make a clofe
fitting between the folid pifton and the infide of the barrel,
fo as to prevent any water paffing between them ; and the
afcent and defcent of the pifton will produce an alternate
contraftion and dilatation of the internal capacity of the
working barrel, in the fame manner as a folid pifton would
do, if it was clofely fitted to the infide of the barrel with
leather all round.

As the water exerts a preffure on the mercury, to force
it out of the annular fpace in which it is lodged, the depth
of the annular fpace and length of the barrel which defcends
into it muft be adapted to the height to which the water is
intended to be elevated ; fo that the column of mercury
which it will contain, without raifing the mercury fo high ai
to run over the edge of the external cyhnder, (hall always
exceed one-thirteenth part of the height to which the water
is to be elevated ; the weight of mercury being more than
thirteen times the weight of an equal quantity of water.

That there may be lefs mercury ufed, the pump-barrel
(hould be made of plate-iron, turned on the outfide, and
bored within ; the outer cylinder of the pifton ftiould be
bored, and the inner one turned ; and if the work be well
performed, eight or ten pounds of mercury will be fuffi-
cient, though the bore of the barrel, or diameter of the
column of water which is raifed, is fix inches. Lefs than
fix pounds of mercury would fuffice, if there were two bar-
rels, in order to keep a conftant ftream. This will very
much leflen the expence of mercury, which would otherwife
be an objedlion againft this pump ; and by making the inner
and outer cylinder of hard wood, as box, or lignum vita, the
expence may ftill be reduced. But if the engine be very
large, caft-iron bored will be proper for the outer cyhnder,
and caft-iron turned on the outfide for the inner cyhnder or
plug, and hammered iron bored and turned for the middle
cylinder.

There is an objeftion, which feems at firft to take off the
intended advantage of this engine, viz. that inftead of the
friAion of the leather of a pifton, when wc hft up the pifton
to make a ftroke, the rcfiftancc neceffary to make the mer-
cury to rife on the outfide of the barrel in the outer cylinder

of

WATER.

of the pifton is at leaft as great as the friftion we avoid.
Defaguliers fays, that refiftance is never greater than the
weight of a concave cylinder of mercury, whofe height is
the greateft to which the mercury rifes in the faid outer
cylinder, and the bafe is the area of the barrel itfelf. This
weight in a pump of 6 inches bore is equal to 57^ pounds,
and, therefore, it would appear to be greater than the re-
fiftance arifing from the friftion of a pifton. But if it be
confidered, that in the defcent of the pifton for fucking, the
mercury fhifts immediately into the infide of the barrel,
rifing to the fame height therein, and ftill keeping the fame
bafe, the weight of 57-^ pounds helps to prefs down the
pifton, and faciUtates the overcoming of the force of the
atmofphere, or fuftion of the pump ; confequently, the
weight of the mercury being balanced is no hindrance,
whether the pump works with a double or with a fingle
barrel.

There remains only then the hindrance by lofs of time,
whilft the mercury changes from the outfide to the infide of
the barrel, at the beginning of any ftroke. Defaguliers
ftates this to be one-fifty-fecond part of the ftroke, and that
he found tlie beil pumps then in ufe generally loft near
one-fifth of the water that they ought to have given, ac-
cording to their number of ftrokes.

Notwithftanding the high terms in which this author and
others have fpoken of the mercurial pump, it can only be
confidered as an ingenious fuggeftion, for the expence of
mercury would be too great for the aftual application of
any fuch machine in praftice ; and in refpeft to friftion, it
would have a confiderable (hare of refiftance in plunging
the pifton into the mercury, although there would be no
aftual rubbing of hard fubftaiices together. This refiftance
would arife in the rapid running of the mercury from the
infide of the barrel to the outfide, and back again, at the
beginning of each ftroke.

The machine is exceedingly ingenious and refined, and
there is no doubt but that its performance will exceed that
of any other pump which raifes the water to the fame
height, becaufe there can be no want of tightnefs in the
pifton, and friftion is in a great meafure avoided. But
thefe advantages are but trifling. The expence would be
enormqus ; for with wliatever care the cylinders are made,
the interval between the inner and outer cylinders muft
contain a very great quantity of mercury. The middle cy-
Lnder muft be made of iron-plate, and without any feara,
for mercury diflblves every kind of folder. For fuch rea-
fons, it has never come into ufe. But although we have
profeffed to defcribe only the machines in aftual ufe, it
would have been unpardonable to have omitted the defcrip-
tion of an invention, which is fo original and ingenious ;
and there are fome occafions where it may be of ufe, fuch
at nice experiments for illuftrating the theory of hydrauhcs :
it would be the beft pifton for meafuring the preftiires of
water in pipes, being in faft the fame principle as the baro-
meter.

Seflor pumps are thofe in which the pifton is made to
move upon a centre, like a door upon its hinges. The
pifton is inclofed within a veflel ftiaped like the feftor of a
circle, which forms the body of the pump, and which is
divided by the pifton into two compartments. The pifton
is fitted, fo that it can move backwards and forwards on its
centre of motion, without fuff'ering any water to pafs by it ;
and by this motion it will alternately enlarge or contraft the
capacities of the two compartments, fo as to draw in water
through pipes and valves properly fituated, and force it out
again at other pipes. Thefe kinds of pumps are difficult to

conftruft, and have no advantages over the pumps with
ftraight barrels, except for the engines for extinguifhing
fire. See that article for a defcription and figure of Mr.
RovsTitree's, which is one of the beft of this kind.

Rotatl've Pumps — As moft of the firft movers for hy-
draulic machinery aft with a rotative motion, it would be
very defirable to have a pump which would at once employ
the rotative force to the purpofe of raifing water. Many
fchemes have been propofed, and much ingenuity difplayed
in thefe inventions ; but hitherto no one has been brought
to fuch perfeftion as to be equal to the pumps with ftraight
barrels. In Ramelli's work, pubhftied in 1588, feveral
rotative pumps are defcribed ; and Leopold has made a
coUeftion of them in his " Theatrum Machinarum Hydrau-
hcarum," vol. i. They are all upon one common prin-
ciple, viz. a hollow cylinder or drum clofed on all fides ;
within this another fmaller cylinder is inclofed, and the in-
terior cylinder is placed out of the centre of the hollow cy-
linder, fo that the interior cylinder touches the hollow one
at one point of the circumference ; but at all other points
there is a confiderable fpace between the two. The interior
cylinder is provided with four or fix valves or leaves, which
are united to it by hinges, and, when folded clofe up to the
cylinder, will form a fmooth and circular circumference ;
but if the leaves are opened out, they will reach to the in-
terior firface of the hollow cylinder. When the interior
cylinder is turned round by a handle applied to the axis, the
valves fweep round within the hollow cylinder, and in this
motion perform the office of piftons, becaufe tliey clofe up
to the internal cyhnder, in proportion as they approach to-
wards the point where the internal cylinder touches the
hollow cylinder ; and the fame vanes open out again, after
they have pafTed that point. In this way the fpaces between
the valves form a number of cavities, which alternately ex-
pand and contraft in their capacity, and in confequence
they will draw up water through a pipe which is inferted
into the hollow cylinder, and force it out at another pipe,
fo as to raife up a continual ftream.

The machine is fometimes varied, by making the hollow
cylinder of an elliptical form : in other cafes, the valves,
inftead of moving upon hinges, are made to Hide in ftraight
lines from the centre of the revolving cylinder ; but in either
cafe, the aftion is the fame. The common defeft of all
thefe rotatory pumps is, that it is very difficult to pack them
fo as to be tight, and they have more friftion than any other
kind of pump.

The centrifugal pump, invented by Mr. Erfliine, may be
called a rotative pump, but it is on a different principle
from all other pumps. A perpendicular pipe has another
joined to it, in form of the letter T : the lower end of this
pipe being immerfed in water, and the whole filled with
water, it is turned round on the perpendicular item as an
axis ; the water contained in the horizontal arms will, by its
centrifugal force, fly out, and draw a conftant ftream of
water up through the perpendicular pipe. See Centrifugal
Pump.

Spiral pump, or Zurich machine, is a hollow drum or cy-
linder turning on a horizontal axis, and partly plunged in a
ciftern of water, like a very large grind-ftone. The interior
fpace of this cylinder or drum is formed into a fpiral canal,
by a plate coiled up within it, like the main-fpring of a
watch in its box, only that the fpirts are fituated at a given
diftance from each other, fo as to form a fpiral paffage of
uniform width. [See Jig. 11. Plate Water-Works.) This
fpiral partition is well joined to the two circular ends of the
cylinder, and no water can efcape between them. The

inner

WATER.

inner end or central part of the fpiral paflage communicates
with the axis, which is hollow at one end, and communi-
cates with the vertical pipe which is to convey the water to
the elevated refervoir. The outermoft turn of the fpiral
paflage begins to widen at about three-fourths of a circum-
ference from the open end, and this gradual enlargement
continues for nearly a femicircle ; this part being called the
horn. The paflage then widens fuddenly in form of a
fcoop or fliovel. The cylinder is fo fupported, that this
fcoop may, in the courfe of a rotation, dip feveral inches
into the water, and take up a certain quantity of water be-
fore it emerges again. This quantity is fufficient to fill the
enlarged part called the horn, and is alfo nearly equal
in capacity to one turn of the outermoft uniform fpiral.
The vertical pipe is connefted with the axis by a turning
joint, fo as to admit of the rotation of the axis, at the fame
time that it will not allow of the efcape of any water.

When this cylinder is turned round by a handle applied
to the extremity of the axis, a portion of water which the
fcoop takes up at every turn, will continually advance in the
fpiral, imtil it arrives at the centre ; it wiU then pafs through
the hollow in the end of the axle, and will rife upwards in
the vertical pipe ; and in the intervals between the periods
when the fcoop dips into the water, the horn will become
filled with air, and the fucceeding portion of water which is
taken in will carry the air before it, fo that the water rifes
in the vertical pipe mixed with air. See Screw.

Dr. Robinfon, in his account of this machine, recom-
mends the rifing pipe to be of fmall bore ; for if the pipe is
fo large as to allow the air to efcape freely upwards through
the water, the machine will raife the water to a certain
height, proportioned to the number of turns of the fpiral,
and to their diameter ; but if the pipe be narrow, fo that
the air cannot rife freely, it will rife in the pipe almoft as
flowly as the water. By this circumftance, the water
mixed with the air becomes of a lefs fpecific gravity, as it
were, and can be raifed to a much greater height than it
could be raifed by the mere preffure of the columns of water
and air in the different turns of the fpiral. This is effefted
with hardly any augmentation of the power, but if the
air, after being comprefled, is fuffered to efcape, all the
force exerted to comprefs it will be loft. The entrance into
the rifing pipe ftiould be no wider than the laft part of the
fpiral ; and it would be advifeable to divide it into four
channels by a thin partition, and then to make the rifing
pipe very wide, and to put into it a number of flender rods,
which would divide it into feveral flender channels, that
would ferve completely to entangle the air among the water.
This procedure will greatly increafe the height to which the
heterogeneous column may be carried.

Jlnother Form of the Spiral Pump. — When the main pipe
is very high, the former conftruftion will require either an
enormous diameter of the drum, or many fpiral turns of a
very narrow pipe. In fuch cafes, it will be much better to
make the fpiral in the form of a cork-fcrew, than of a flat
form like a watch-fpring ; or, the pipe which forms the
fpiral may be wrapped round the fruftum of a cone.

We regret that we have had no opportunity of making
experiments upon a machine of this kind, as its principles of
aftion, though treated of by many authors, are not defcribed
in a fatisfaftory manner in any works which we have read.

The chain pump is an effeftive means of raifing water, and
with the advantage of a continuous motion. It is generally
made with a fquare or round barrel, placed in a perpendi-
cular pofition. The chain is furniflied with feveral piftons
of the fame figure as the barrel, which are fixed at fmall
diftances afunder upon the links of the chain. The ends of
Vol. XXXVIII.

the chain are united togetlier, and it is extended between two
wheels, one fixed at the upper end of the barrel, and the
other at the lower end ; but fometimes only the wheel at the
top is ufed. Thefe wheels have forks fixed on the circum-
ference, wliich are fo contrived as to receive one half of each of
the fiat piftons in the intervals between the forks, whilft the
forks take hold of the hnks of the chain, and draw them up,
when the wheel is turned round by means of a handle ap-
plied to the axis. The piftons on the chain are made accu-
rately to fill the feftion of the barrel, at the lower part near
the water, and alfo for a few feet upwards ; but above this,
the barrel is made larger, fo that the piftons rife up frse :
indeed, the upper part of the barrel is only to conti!:! the
water which is brought up by the piftons, and may, there-
fere, be fquare, or of any other figure. The lower end of
the barrel is immerfed in water, and the chain being caufed
to circulate by turning the wheel, each pifton, as it enters
into the lower or bored part of the barrel, will bring up
water before it in the barrel ; which water will rife in the
upper part of the barrel, till it runs over the top ; and as the
piftons fucceed each other in a regular fucceffion, they pro-
duce a conftant ftream. Chain pumps are chiefly ufed in
fliips, where they are worked by the force of men turning
winches. ( See Pump. ) In other fituations they are moved
by horfes, and fometimes by the impulfe of a ftream of water.
They are fo contrived, that by the continual folding in of the
piftons, when they enter into the bottom of the barrel,
ftones, dirt, or whatever comes in the way, may be cleared
off. On this account they are often ufed to drain ponds
and fevvers, or to remove foul water, when no other pump
could be employed.

The greateft difadvantage in the chain pump is the fric-
tion of the chain, and of the piftons, which is greater than
in other pumps ; becaufe feveral piftons are moving in the
barrel at the fame time, and alfo becaufe the piftons do not
admit of the application of the cup-leathers, which we have
defcribed. The edges of the cups would fold up when
they enter into the barrel, and get between the edge of
the pifton and the barrel. The piftons are, therefore,
made with a thick piece of leather, which is placed be-
tween two round plates, which form the pifton or faucer,
as it is called ; the leather is cut round to the fize of the
barrel, fo that the edge of the leather may be applied to
the infide of the barrel. In this way, its tightnefs muft
depend wholly upon the force with whicli tlie leather is
fqueezed into the barrel, and it occafions great friftion to
make the piftons fufficiently tight.

Another variety of the chain pump is an endlefs rope,
with ftuffed cuftiions faftened upon it at regular intervals.
By means of two wheels or drums, the rope is made to cir-
culate, and the cufliions are drawn up in fucceffion through
the barrel, and each one carries fome water before it.

The chain pump is found to raife a greater quantity of
water to the fame height, when the barrel is placed in an
inchned pofition, than when vertical. M. Behdor recom-
mends the barrel to be placed at an angle of 24 degrees with
the horizon, and the diftance between the piftons to be
equal to their diameter. The reafon of this advantage is,
that an inclined pump afts with lefs friftion, becaufe the
piftons need not be fo exactly fitted, but they will, by their
weight alone, apply clofely to the bottom or loweft fide of
the inchned barrel ; whereas the piftons of the vertical pump
muft exaftly fill the barrel, or the water will leak down
from one to the next in a conftant ftream.

Bello-ws-Pump A pair of leathern bellows may be em-
ployed as a pump, if a fuftion-pipe is apphed to the lower
valve, and another pipe to the nozzle, with a valve to

G prevent

WATER.

prevent the water returning into the bellows after it has
been driven out by clofing the bellows. This kind of
pump has been frequently propofed, and the advantages of
difpenfing with barrels and piftons loudly infilled upon ; but
the refiftance of the leather in folding, and the lofs of water
by leakage^ and above all the want of durability, will always
prevent the adoption of fuch pumps.

The Pump with a Diaphragm of Leather, •which does tiot
Jllde In the Barrel This is very nearly allied to the bellows-
pump. The belt form for conilrufting it is fully defcribed
in our article Ship'j Pump, where the invention is attributed
to Benjamin Martin ; but we find the fame thing was long
before applied by Meflrs. Goflet and De la Deuille, in
France. (See Belidor's Arch. Hydraulique, vol. ii. p. 120. )
This is a good pump, but is not durable, becaufe the con-
ftant ftrain on the leather will caufe it to crack.

Sucking-Pump, which gives out a continual Stream — Mr.
Smeaton applied the following fimple and etfeftual expe-
dient to make a fingle fucking-pump deliver the water
equally in the defcent of the bucket as in its afcent. Tiie
pump-rod was enlarged, by furrounding it with a cylinder of
wood at the part where it rofe above the furface of the
water contained in the cillern at the top of the pump. This
cyhnder of wood was of fuch diameter, that its feftion
was equal to half the area of the pump-barrel at the
place where the bucket worked. When the bucket was
drawn up, and raifed water into the ciftern at top of the
pump, the vv'ood cylinder, which was attached to the pump-
rod, rofe up out of the water in the ciitern, and thereby
made place in the ciftern for one-half of the water which was
brought up by the bucket, and in confequence only one-half
of the water ran out at the fpout of the ciftern ; but when the
bucket moved downwards, in order to fetch another ftroke,
this cylinder of wood difplaced from the ciftern half as much
water as the pump brought up in the former inftance, and
confequently an equal quantity of water was given out at
the fpout in either cafe.

If the pump is worked by the force of a man working a
fimple lever, then he will make the down-ftroke of the
bucket in Icfs time than the up-ftroke, and in this cafe the
area of the cylinder fnould be made lefs than half the area of
the barrel of the pump. It muft be obferved, that this
contrivance is only a remedy for the unequal efflux of water
from the fucking-pump, and that the power required to
work the pump is ftiU left unequal in the up-ftroke and
down-ftroke, becaufe it is only in raifing up the bucket that
the water is drawn from the well below ; and that water
which runs out at the fpout when the bucket dcfcends, is
drawn from the ciftern at the top of the pump, and not from
the well. When the pump is worked by a man with a
lever, this inequality of the refiftance is advantageous, be-
caufe a man can exert his force moft conveniently when he
deprefles the end of the lever to draw up the bucket ; alfo,
in a fingle-afting fteam-engine, the principal power is
exerted to draw up the bucket.

In machines worked by wind, water, or horfes, the moving
force is uniform, and the refiftance muft, by fome means, be
made uniform alio, or the machine will move by fuddcn ftarts.
A fufficitnt weight maybe applied to the oppofitecr.d of the
lever to counterbalance one-lialf of the force neceffary to draw
up the bucket ; this weight will tend to diminilh the force of
drawing up the bucket, and v.-}ien the bucket defcends, and
the machine would otherwile have nothing to do, it will
have to raife up the weight ready to aid it in the fucceed-
ing llroke. Or a fly-wheel may be applied : but a ftill
better method is to employ two pumps to aft alternatelv, by
which means the refiftance is continual, and the effiux of

water alfo. When two fucking-pumps are employed, they
may be combined together, by making them both draw
from a common fu6tion-pipe, and both may be made to lift
the water into the fame ciftern. Or two or three force-
pumps may be combined together, as is defcribed in the
article Pump, in order to produce a continuous ftream.

Alr-Vejfel for equalizing the Df charge of IV ate r from
Pumps. — This is the moft perfedl contrivance for effeding
that purpofe. It is a clofe vefTel of any figure, which will
contain air, and is made to communicate with the pipe
which conveys the water away from the pump. This com-
munication muft be made at the lower part of the air-veflel,
fo that the water will have free ingrefs and egrefs from it.
The air in this veftel will be comprefled into a fmaller fpace,
in proportion to the column of water which the pump has
to raife ; and by its clafticity endeavouring continually to re-
gain its former fpace, it will aft as a fpring to equalize all
fudden motions of the water through the pipe ; for in any
pump which afts by a ban-el and pifton, the water will be
propelled by ftarts ; and even if two or three barrels are
combined together fo as to produce a continual efflux of
water, fuch efflux will not be perfeftly equal during all the
periods of the motion.

The evil of this may appear trifling and fo it would be
merely with refpeft to the difcharge of the water ; but it muft
be confidered that the mafs of water contained in a long ,
pipe is very great, and that it requires a very confiderable
force to put this mafs in motion with that velocity with
which it muft flow through the pipe. Now if the
operation of a pump is by ftarts, the mafs of water in
the main-pipe will remain at reft, preffing on the valve
during the time that the pifton is withdrawn from the bot-
tom of the working barrel. In this cale, the force necef-
fary to put the water in motion muft be expended at every
ftroke, becaufe if the column comes to reft only for an
inftant, it muft be put in motion again bofore the operation
can be refumed : this is a heavy additional load upon the
firft mover, and has another more ferious evil in ftraining the
pipe and all parts of the machinenr ; becaufe the column of
water in the pipe, after it flops, runs back for a fmall
fpace until the valve (huts ; and it makes juft as great a con-
cufDon or fhock when its motion is fuddenly (lopped by the
fliutting of the valve, as any other fohd body would do
which was of the fame weight, and moved with the fame
velocity. In large ftcam-engines, the fliock occafioned by
the fliutting of the valve is exceedingly violent, unlefs an
air-veflel is applied. In that cafe, if the pump urges the
water with a fudden motion, the air in the vefle! will yield, and
admit the water into the veflTel in far lefs time than the whole
column of water could be urged into motion ; but as tlie air
will become comprefled by more force than the column of
water in the pipe, the elafticity of the air will force the
water from the veflel and up the pipe with a regular mo-
tion, and this wiU continue until the air has regained fo
much fpace that its elafticity is only juft fufficient to ba-
lance the column of water in the pipe.

The air-veflel fliould be placed as near the pump as pof-
fible, that it may produce an equable motion of the water in
the whole length of pipe. The air-veflel is of confiderable
advantage when a column of water of great length is to be
raifed by a fingle-afting pump. If the pifton of the pump
at one end of the pipe is put at once into motion, even with
a moderate velocity, the ftrain on the pipe would be very
great before the column of water could be put in motion.
But the air-veflel tends to make the motion along the main-
pipe lefs defultory, and therefore diminifties thofe ftrains
which would really take place in the pipe. It afts
2 l^ke

WATER.

like the fprings of a travelling carriage, whofe jolts are in-
comparably lefs than thofe of a cart, and by this means
really enables a given force to propel a greater quantity of
water in the fame time.

The ftrcam produced by the aflillance of an air-veffel is
almofl perfeftly equable, and as much water runs out dur-
ing the returning of the pifton as during its aftive llroke ;
but it muil not be imagined that it therefore doubles the
quantity of water. No more water can run out than what
is fent forwards by the pifton during its effeftire ftroke.
The continued ftream is produced only by retaining part of
this water in the air-veffel during t!ie llroke of the pifton,
and by providing a propelling force to aft during the pif-
ton's return ; but it cannot enable the moving force of the
pifton to produce an increafedcfFcft : for the compreflion which
is produced in the air-veflel, more than what is necelFary for
merely balancing the quiefcent column of water, reafts on the
pifton to refift its compreflion juft as much as the addition of
a column of water would do, the height of fuch column being
fufficient to produce the required velocity of the efflux.

Machines for working Pumps. — The beft method of work-
ing pumps from a firft mover which afts with a rotative mo-
tion, is by means of cranks ; and if two or more pumps are
to be aftuated by the fame machine, the cranks for them
fiiould be placed at regular intervals round the centre, fo as
to produce a continual aSion.

It has been obferved, in our article SrEAM-Enginc, that
the reciprocating motion obtained by a crank is very un-
equal, even when the rotative motion of the crank is quite
uniform. This renders the motion of the pifton in the bar-
rel of the pump irregular, for at the top and bottom of the
barrel the motion of the pifton is very flow, but when the
pifton is at the middle of the barrel the pifton moves
quickly. This property is a great advantage in working
pumps, becaufe it puts the column of water in motion with
a lefs fudden fhock ; but it has been very generally miftaken
and confidered as a dcfeft, and many ingenious contrivances
have been propofed, by means of racks and pinions, to give
an uniform motion to the pifton-rods of pumps. Thcfe have
never fuccecded in praftice, and have always been laid aiide.
Tlie attempts of mechanicians to correft this unequal
motion of the pifton-rod are mifplaccd ; for if it could be
done it would greatly injure the performance of the pump.
As this is a favourite fpeculation, and new attempts to
perfeft it are conftanily making, we think it right to fliew
the reafon of their failure.

Suppofe the firft mover to move uniformly with a rotatory
motion, and that the machinery is fo conttrufted, that the
pifton-rod will be moved up and down with a regular mo-
tion, or that the velocity of the pifton fliall be at all times
the fame, whether it is at the top or bottom, or in the
middle of its courfe. In this cafe, at every reciprocation,
the column of water in the main pipe muft be fuddenly
Brged into motion from a ftate of reft, and the machine
could not perform one ftroke, if the velocity of the firft
mover did not ilacken a little, or if the different parts of the
machine did not yield by bending or compreflion. Thefe
Itrains would be fo fudden and violent, that no flrength of
materials could withftand the violence of the fhocks at every
reciprocation of the motion. This would be chiefly ex-
perienced in great works which are put in motion by a
water-wheel, or fome other equal power, exerted on a large
mafs of matter, of which the machine confifts. The water-
wheel, being of great weight, moves with fteadincfs or uni-
formity ; and when an additional refiftance is oppofed to it
by the beginning of a new ftroke of tfie pifton, its quantity
of motion is but little afleftcd by this addition, and it pro-

ceeds with very little lofs of motion. The machine muft
therefore yield a little by bending and compreflion, or it
muft break to pieces, which is the common event.

A crank is free from this inconvenience, becaufe it ac-
celerates the pifton gradually, and brings it gradually to reft,
while the water-wheel moves round with almoft perfeft uni-
forrnity. It has been ftated as an inconvenience of this flow
motion of the pifton at the beginning of its ftroke, that the
valves do not (hut with rapidity, fo that fome water gets
back through them ; but this is a miftake, becaufe the valves
always fall by their own weight as foon as the water ceafes
to flow upwards through them. Now when the pifton be-
gins to move with its flow motion towards the end of the
ftroke, lefs water is caufed to flow through the valves, and
in confequence they clofe gradually, and will be fully fhut
by the time that the pifton becomes motionlefs, and before it
begins to return. This is ftiewn in the large machines, fuch
as that of London-bridge, where the pumps are worked by
cranks, and the valves clofe imperceptibly ; but in a fteam-
engine of the fame power, the fhock occafioned by the fliut-
ting of the valves is exceedingly violent. In fhort, by a
judicious application of the crank and a fly-wheel, or an air-
veflTcl, and by employing two or three barrels to the pump,
the evils of the reciprocating motion of pumps may be com-
pletely remedied, and on this account we confider, that if a
rotatory pump could be brought to perfeftion, it would have
no fuperiority over an accurate pump with a ftraight barrel.
Jlfr. Smeaton's proportions for a tiuo-horfe pump machine for
raifing water are as follow : horfc-track thirty feet diame-
ter ; great cog-wheel nineteen feet diameter, with 144 cogs ;
this gave motion to a trundle of feventeen ftaves, fixed upon
an horizontal axis, which carried a caft-iron fly-wheel of ten
feet diameter, and the rim three inches by three inches. On
the extremity of the horizontal axis was- a crank of a foot
and a half in length, which, by means of a connefting-rod,
gave motion to one end of a working beam or lever of feven-
teen feet long, which was poifed on a centre in the middle
of its length, and at the oppofite end was an arched feftor
for the chain, by which the pump-rod was fufpended. The
pump was a fucking-pump, fix inches diameter in the barrel,
and the length of the ftroke was three feet. A weight was
applied to the end of the beam over the crank, which was
fufiicient to balance one-half of the column of water in the
pump. In this machine, when the horfes walked two miles
and a half per hour, they made two turns and one-third per
minute. The trundle and fly-wheel made twenty turns per
minute; the pump made the fame number of effeftive ftrokes,
and raifed upwards of a hundred barrels ale meafnrc^irr hour.
By the counter balance and the fly-wheel, the refiftance to
the horfes was rendered perfeftly uniform.

The Pump Machine at Blenheim, which was erefted by
Mr. Alderfea for the duke of Marlborough, is thus de-
fcribed by Mr. Fergufon in his leftures. The water-wheel
is underfliot, and is turned by the fall of the water running
down an inclined plane, and ftriking the floats of the wheel.
The extremity of the pivot or gudgeon is formed into any
number of cranks ; for inftance fix, that is, three at each end
of the axis, more or lefs, according to the force of the fall
of water, and the height to which the water is intended to
be raifed by the engine. As the water-wheel turns round,
thefe cranks move as many levers up and down, by the iron
connefting-rods. Thefe levers alternately raife and deprefs
the piftons of the forcing-pumps by other iron rods, which
are attached to the oppofite ends of the levers, and as one
is raifed the oppofite pifton is dcpreffed. Pipes go from
all thefe pumps, to convey the water which they draw up
(to a fmall height) into a clofe ciilcrn or box, from wliich
G 2 the

WATER.

devoted to the water-machines, that is, five on the London
fide, and one on the Soiithwark fide.

Mr. Smeaton's great Engine at the ffth Arch of London

Bridge This machine is reprefented in perfpeftive, in

Plate II. Water-works, Machines for raifng Water. The
view being taken from beneath the arch of the bridge, B B
reprefents the flarhng of the fourth pier of the bridge,
compofed of a vaft body of piles driven into the bed of the
river, and the interftices filled up with chalk and gravel.
Upon the heads of thefe piles, a fet of horizontal beams
are laid in the manner of joills, and all is made level by chalk
and gravel.

The fifth pier C C is made in the fame manner. The
water-wheel F F G G is made of fiich a breadth as to fill
the fpace between the two ftarlings as exaftly as poflible,
without touching ; and the bearings for the gudgeons of
its axis are fupported upon head-ftocks E E, which reft
upon the ftarhngs. The water-wheel has four circular
rings F F F F, each fuftained by fix arms mortifed into the
axis ; each ring has twenty-four ftarts mortifed into it, and
to thefe are nailed the float-boards//, upon which the water
afts to turn the wheel round.

Upon each end of the main axis is fised a large wooden
wheel H H, round which caft-iron rings of cogs are fixed
in fegmcnts. Thefe cog-wheels turn two trundles, which
give motion to the forcing-pumps, which are fix in number,
vi%. one three-barrelled pump on each fide of the water-
wheel ; but only one of the engines or triple pumps is (hewn
in the figure, for as the other is exaftly the fame, it is fuf-
ficient to defcribe one. The axis on which the trundle I is
fixed is of caft-iron ; it is connefted with a triple crank, one
arm of which is marked b, and two others are hidden behind
the frame : ghi are ftrong iron rods, joined to the cranks at
their lower ends, and to the ends of the great levers or re-
gulators K L M at the upper ends.

The regulators are poifed on centres in the middle of
their length, and have arches /?/m at the other ends, which
are ftruck from the centres of motion, upon which arches
the chains are laid, to give motion to the pifton-rods of the
pumps N.

By the motion of the water ftriking the float -boards, the
water-wheel is made to revolve on its axis, and the large cog-
wheel H with it. This turns the trundle I and the triple
cranks be, which, being arranged round the axis at equal in-
tervals, elevate and deprefs the crank-rods _§• A ( and regida-
tors K L M fucceffively, and give to the pump-rods and
piftons a vertical motion.

The joints of the crank-rods ^ /ji are made to fcrew to-
o-ether round the crank-neck with brafs between ; by this
means they work very pleafantly, and when worn can be
fcrewed up tight again that they may have no fhake. The
crank-rods are each made in two lengths, each of which has
a flanch at the end, and they join at n in the middle of the
rod : the flanches are held together by three fcrews, fo as
they may be taken apart occafionally without difficulty,
when the pump-forcers are to be drawn out of the barrels
to new leather them.

The joints at the end of the beam or levers are made
vrith braffes, and fcrews to adjuil them ; and fo are the cen-
tres or fulcrums of the levers.

The levers or regulators are admirably well defigned to
be ftrong, with but little timber ; they are formed of two
pieces of timber, between which the caft-iron axis on v.'hich
they turn are placed ; and then the ends of thefe pieces are
bent to touch, and are kept together by hoops and fcrew-
bolts, fo as to make clofe joints. At the ends, feveral fmall
fquare pieces of wood are interpofed crofs ways in thefe

joints at the ends of the lever, being let into both timber* ;

by thefe, when they are firmly bound together, the two
pieces of timber are prevented from Aiding end ways upon
each other, fo as they form an excellent trufs-beam, for it
cannot bend or yield without ftretching one timber and
oomprefBng the other.

The pump-rods are attached to the arches at the ends of
the beams by four iron chains each, as is fhewn in_^p-. 2.
The rod has a crofs-piece^ fixed on the top of it, to which
the two outfide chains are attrched, and the lower ends of
the fame chains are fattened at the lower end of the arch,

Thefe chains aft to pull down the pifton-rods ; the other
two chains which return or raife the rods are faftened to the
top of the arch, and to the rods at the lower ends, as fhewn
in the figure.

The pumps are forcing-pumps, and raife the water when
the piftons are depreffed : the lower piece of the triple
pump is a fquare iron-pipe or trunk, fcrewed fafl down
upon the groundfells of the engine-frame ; this is called the
fudtion-piece : it has a flanch at each end, to one of which a
lid is fcrewed, and the other joins it to tlie futlion-pipe R,
which brings up the water from the river. On the top of
the trunk, the three barrels N are fcrewed, each having
a valve in the joint, which allovi'S water to enter into the
barrel, but prevents its return. From the bottom part of
each barrel proceeds a crooked pipe q, which communicates
with another fquare trunk S, called the forcing-piece, hav-
ing valves at the joint, to prevent any water from getting back
into the barrels. On the top of the trunk over each valve
is a round hole, over which a lid is fcrewed, but can be re-
moved to clean or repair the valves when neceffary. Similar
lids are fcrewed on over openings into the fuftion-trunk, at
the back towards the cranks. At the ends of the forcing-
trunk S are flanches, one of which receives a lid like the
lower trunk, and the other flanch joins to the pipe s, which
conveys the water away from the pumps.

The piftons or buckets of the pumps are fohd, that is,
without valves in them ; and their aftion is as follows :

When the pifton of any of the barrels is drawn up, it
makes a vacuum in that barrel ; and the prefTure of the at-
mofphere on the fnrface of the water from which the fuftion-
pipe R draws, raifes the valve at the bottom of that barrel,
and fills it with water. At the defcent of the pifton, the
lower valve fhuts, and the water contained in the barrel can
find no paffage but through the valve in the forcing-trunk
S ; and when the pifton is drawn up again this valve clofes,
and the lower one opens to give a frefh fupply of water to
the ban-el. By the pofition of the triple cranks, it alwavs
happens that one or other of tlie barrels is forcing the
water into the force-pipes ; and as the ftrokis of the other
fet of pumps at the other end of the water-wheel are con-
trived to be intermediate or alternating to thefe, a conftant
fucceffion is kept up.

The main-pipe s is continued to the fhore, to convey the
water into the ftreets. A wooden ciftern T is placed over
the pumps to hold water, and keep a conftant fupplv of it
above the piif ons to prevent leakage. The whole engine is
furrounded by a ftrong timber fence, which guards it from
the injuries it might receive from veffels or floating ice,
ftriking it at high water, when the water rifes above the
level of the ftarlings nearly to the axis of the water-wheel.
On the tops of thefe piles, a large itage is built, to ferve as
a road from the fhore to the engine, and the underfide of it
fupports the main-pipes, which convey the water afhore.
There are alfo other ftages in different parts of the machine,
to fupport workmen when repairing it ; thefe prevent the
whole £Dgi?e from being feen from the bridge at one \'iew, and

for

WATER.

for this reafon they are omitted in the drawing, which is in
feme degree imaginary, as it reprefents the engine detached.

This machine is more limple than the preceding, as it
performs more work by fix pumps of ten inches bore and
4^ feet ftroke than the other by fixteen pumps of feven
inches bore and 2^ feet ftroke, and therefore with much
lefs lofs of power by friftion ; and as the cranks only
work in one direction, they work much more pleafantly
than when there are pumps at both ends of each lever, be-
caufe in that cafe the flrain on the cranks, connefting-rods,
and the fulcrums of the levers, in faft on all the joints, is
alternately in different diredlions, and if there is any fhake
or loofenefs in the joints, it produces jerks and irregularities.
By ufing three barrels and triple cranks, the fupply of
water, forced into the main-pipe, is more equable than when
four are ufed, though not perfeflly fo. The perpendicular
motion produced by the arches and chains, is a great advan-
tage in making the barrels wear equally.

In order to enable this engine to work as long as pollible
in each tide, and after the velocity of the motive water is
abated, it is contrived to adjufl the refiftance to the dimi-
nifhed power. This is done in the moft fimple manner by
a fmall cock and pipe in the chamber of each pump-barrel ;
juft above the fudlion-valve from this cock, a rod of com-
munication rifes up to the ftage to turn it by, and this cock
being opened will admit air into the barrel when the pifton
is drawn up, fo that the water of the river will not be drawn
up into that barrel ; and in confequcnce, it will become in-
active, and the wheel will be relieved from the load of work-
ing it. In this way, the load of the engine is adapted to
the power of the tide at its different periods ; but when all
the three barrels are thus relieved by opening the air-cocks,
the motion of that engine becomes a ufelefs loud friftion of
the piflons and movements ; and to relieve this, the ihaft or
axis of connexion between the axis of the trundle and the
triple crank, is provided with the means of diluniting or
uniting them whilil in motion, fo that one engine will itand
Hill whilil the other is at work.

The principal dimenfions of this machine are as follow :
— The water-wheel is thirty-two feet diameter, meafuring
to the outlide of the float -boards ; the length of the float-
boards fifteen feet and a half, and their breadth four feet
and a half; the number of float-boards twenty-four. At
each end of the axis is fixed a cog-wheel, fourteen feet dia-
meter, with eighty cogs : each of thefe turns a trundle of
twenty-three ftaves, fixed on the axis of the cranks, which
are triple ; that is, three cranks are formed fide by fide on
the fame axis, and bent in different direftions, fo as to pro-
duce a continual aftion. Each crank actuates a lever or
working beam eighteen feet long, which is poifed on a ful-
crum in the middle, and gives motion to the pump-rods by
an arch-head and iron chains. The pump-barrels are ten
inches diameter, and the piitons make ftrokes of four feet
and a half long ; they are forcing-pumps, and three barrels
are combined together, to throw the water into one mam
pipe, which conveys the water into the town ; the higheft
elevation to which the water is ever lifted is a hundred and
twenty feet. The cranks, beams, and pumps, at each fide
of the wheel, are exaftly fimilar, fo that the wheel adluates
fix pumps.

This machine was erefted, under Mr. Smeaton's direftions,
in 1767, and worked conilantly for fifty years, when the
timber-work becoming decayed, it was rebuilt in 181 7, with
caft-iron inllead of wood, and has been lately fet to work.
The principal proportions of Mr. Smeaton's defign have
been preferved, but the great levers have been fupprefTed, and
the cranks are placed over the fame pumps as the former.

Mr. Smeaton's Pump Machine at Stratford IVater-works

This IS fo like the laft, that we fhall only give the principal
dimenfions, as an example of the beft. proportions for a ma-
chine with a breaft-wheel, the laft being underlhot. The
water-wheel was fixteen feet diameter and eight feet wide •
upon its axis was a cog-wheel of eleven feet and a half dia-
meter, with feventy-eight cogs, which turned a cog-wheel of
five feet one inch diameter, with thirty-five cogs. This was
fixed upon the axis of the cranks, which were three in number
and by means of three beams gave motion to three forcing-
pumps nine inches diameter and two feet and a half length
of fl;roke, lift of the water 84 feet. In addition to the pair of
cog-wheels juft mentioned, there was another pair, of different
proportions, fixed clofe to the fides of the others, and by a
fimple contrivance either pair could be brought into aftion,
and the other pair would then be difengaged. The fecond
wheel, which was fixed in the axis of the water-wheel, was
nine feet eight inches diameter, with fixty-fix cogs, and the
wheel on the axis of the cranks which belonged to it had
forty-feven cogs. The intention of thefe two lets of wheels
was to adapt the water-wheel to >\'ork equally well when it
was flooded and impeded in its motion, as when the water was
low ; for when the quick motion was in ufe, the cranks made
15.6 revolutions per minute, whilft the water-wheel made
feven revolutions. But when the flow motion was in ufe,
the cranks would make 15. i revolution , per minute, whilft
the water-wheel made eleven. This machine is feven horfes'
power.

The Pump Machine at Marly, near Paris, being fo much
celebrated on account of its magnitude and the multiplicity
of its parts, we fliall be expefted here to give ionie account
of it, which we have taken from Belidor, and we fliall fub-
join a few remarks upon its conftrudion, from which it will
appear we do not recommend it as a model.

This machine is fituatcd between Marly and the village
La Chauflee. In that place the river Seine is penned up
partly by the machine and partly by a dam, which keeps up
the water ; but in order that the navigation may not be in-
terrupted, a canal has been cut, two leagues above Marly,
for the paflage of boats and barges. There has been erefted,
about thirty-five fathoms from the machine, a contrivance,
called an ice-breaker, to prevent floating pieces of ice or
tiniber, which come down the ftream, fmm damaging the
machine, and the better to fecure the pen-ftocks, and the
channels in which the watcr-wheels move. There is a grate
of timber to Hop whatever may come through the ice-
breaker.

The water is raifed to its deftined height by the force of
fourteen undcrfliot water-wheels, which work the pumps at
three different ftages : firft, one fet of pumps to lift the
water from the river, to a refervoir placed up the hill two
liiindrcd and thirteen yards from the river, and at the eleva-
tion of a hundred and fixty Englilh feet above the level of
the Seine. The power of the wheels is conveyed alfo to
this place by chains, in order to work a fecond fet of pumps,
which force the water to the fecond refervoir, a hundred
and eighty-fix feet higher, and therefore three hundred and
forty -fix feet above llie river, and fix hundred and ninety
yards diitant. At this fpot is a tliird fet of pumps, to
throw up the water frcm the latter to the fummit of a tower
a hundred and eighty-nine feet higher, and at a diftance of
one thoufand three hundred and thirty yards from the river
up the mountain. The whole elevation is rather more than
five hundred and thirty-five feet above the river. From the
ciftern in the tower the water is conveyed, by an immenfe
aqueduft, to the gardens of Marly.

The breadth of the machine comprehends fourteen water-

courfes,

WATER.

courfes, each (hut by a fluice or pen-ftock, which can be
raifed and depreffed by racks, and in each of thefe courfes
an underlhot wheel is placed. The fourteen wheels are dif-
pofed in three lines acrofs the river. In the firft line, which
is up the ftream, there are feven wheels, in the fecond line
fix, and only one in the third.

The wheels are thirty feet diameter, and five feet wide,
and they are all nearly the fame as follow- : the ends of the
axle of each wheel go beyond their bearing pieces, and are
bent into cranks, which make levers of two feet ; the crank
which is towards the mountain gives motion to a beam or
lever, which carries four piftons or forcers at each end, to
work in the barrels of as many forcing-pumps, which as the
wheel works alternately fuck up the water of the river, and
drive it up into the firft ciftern. The other crank at the
oppofite end of the axle gives motion to the chains, which
go up the hill, to work the pumps in the two elevated
citterns.

Each of the fix wheels on the firft line is cor.ftrufted in
this manner, to give motion by one of its cranks to an
engine, confifting of eight forcing-pumps combined toge-
ther. The engine is aftuated by a lever or beam, from each
end of which a fquare piece of wood is fufpended, that
carries and direfts four piftons of forcing-pumps ; the beam
of the engine is put in motion from the crank of the wheel
by a beam or leader, which is connefted with the crank of
the wheel at one end, and with one arm of a regulator or
bent lever, whilft the other arm of this regulator is united
by another leader to the extremity of the beam of the
engine, which beam is thus made to vibrate up and down
and work the pumps.

Of the fix wheels we have juft mentioned, there are five
which, by their oppofite cranks, give motion to the pumps
in the elevated ciftern of the firft lift. This is effefted by
means of one vertical beam or lever, and two horizontal
levers, which are bent, and aftuate the chains that com-
municate the motion ; the three levers are only to change
the direftion of the motion of the crank into a proper
d'.reftion to go up the hill. The fixth wheel, which is the
firft towards the dam, gives motion to a long chain that
goes up the hill to work the pumps of the upper ciftern.
The feventh wheel of the firft line is exclufively apphed to
move a chain, which goes to the firft ciftern, by both its
cranks.

The fix wheels of the fecond line are like the five wheels
in the firft row, i. e. one of the cranks of each works an
engine of eight pumps, and the other a chain that goes to
the upper ciftern.

Laftly, the fingle water-wheel, vi'hich is on the third
line by each of its cranks, works an engine of eight forcing-
pumps fixed in the river, and of itfelf fupplies one conduit-
pipe of eight inches and a lialf bore.

There are then eight engines in the river, and reckoning
all the chains which go up the hill, they are thirteen in
number, including the chains that come from the fixth and
feventh wheels of the firft line : thefe thirteen chains afcend
the hill all together, and are fufpended at regular intervals
of twenty feet by levers, to bear them up from touching
the ground, which by moving on their centre admit of the
working of the chains. Each chain is double, that is, there
is a fecond chain, which is connedled to the oppofite ends of
the fufpi;nding levers, and each chain ferves to draw the
other chain back again after it has made its ftroke. Five
of thefe double chains are employed to aftuate levers, which
work thirty inverted lift-pumps fituated in a ciftern at the
firft lift, and which drive the water through two pipes of
eight and a half inches bore up to the upper lift. Tlie

other eight double chains go ftraight on to the upper
ciftern.

The feven chains of the wheels of the firft line, in going
along, work alfo eight fucking-pumps, placed a little below
the ciftern of the firft lift, becaufe in that place the water of
a confiderable fpring is brought by an aqueduft, and thefe
fame chains take up that water a fecond time by forty -nine
pumps, which are fituated in a feparate ciftern, at the firft
lift, on a level with the firft ciftern, and force it into the
upper refervoir, through two conduit-pipes of eight and a
half inches diameter, and three others of fix and a half inches
diameter.

The water raifed by the feventy-nine pumps in thefe two
cifterns at the firft lift, difcharges itfelf into a great refer-
voir at the fecond lift, and thence by two conduit-pipes of
a foot diameter each, it runs into refervoirs of communica-
tion, and is diftributed into the feveral wells or little pump-
ciilerns of the upper ciftern, which all together contain
eighty-two inverted hft -pumps ; thefe force the wal^r through
fix conduit-pipes of eight inches and a half dianjtter up into
the ciftern, in thetower which anfwers to the aqueduft. Thefe
eighty -two lift -pumps are worked by the eight great chains
before mentioned, that go ftraight to the upper ciftern,
without moving any pumps by the way ; and the fame chains
work fixteen fucking-pumps behind the upper ciftern, to
bring back into the relervoir of the lame ciftern the water
which leaks out of the fix iron pipes that go to the tower.

To fum up all the pumps of this intricate machine :

1 . The eight engines in the river contain fixty-four pumps,
which fuck and force the water 1 60 feet up five iron pipes of
eight and a half inches bore, and 213 yards long, up to the
firft lift.

2. The two cifterns at the firft lift contain feventy-nine
lifting-pumps, which raife the water 186 feet, through four
pipes of eight and a half inches bore, and three pipes of
fix and a half bore, and 477 yards up to the fecond lift.

3. The cifterns at the fecond lift contain eighty-two
Lfting-pumps, which raife the water 189 feet through fix
pipes of eight and a half inches bore, diftance 640 yards :
In all 225 forcing-pumps, which lift 535 feet and 1330
yards diftance. To this muft be added eight fucking-
pumps in the river called feeders, which raife water into the
cifterns at the top of the forcing-pumps, to keep water in
the pumps, and prevent leakage ; alfo the eight others which
are below the midway ciftern ; and laftly, the fixteen fucking-
pumps, wliich we mentioned as placed beliind the upper
ciftern, fo that the machine has in all 257 pumps.

The bafin of the tower, which receives the water raifed
from the river, and fupplies the aqueduft, is 1330 yards
diftant from the river, and 535 feet above the level: the
water having run along a flone aqueduft, which is raifed
upon thirty-fix arches, is feparated into different conduits,
which lead it to immenfe refervoirs at Marly, and formerly
conveyed it alfo to Verfailles and Trianon.

Such is the mechanifm of the machine of Marly. Its
mean produce in Belidor's time was from 3000 to 4000
Enghfh cubic feet of water per hour : he fays mean pro-
duce, becaufe under certain favourable circumttances it has
formerly raifed more than 8484 cubic feet per hour. But
during inundations, or when the Seine is frozen, when the
water is very low, or when any repairs are making, the
machme ftops in a great meafure, if not entirely.

The annual expences of the machine have been ftated
formerly at 3300/. fterling, or 9/. pe^ Azy, including the
falaries of thofe who fuperintend it, and the wages of the
workmen employed, together with repairs, neceffary articles,
ficc. This ^raakes about one farthing for every eleven

cubic

WATER.

cubic feet. Or, taking into the account the mtereft of
333,000/., the original expenfe of ereftion, which ij five
times as great as the annual expenfe, 1 1 cubic feet, which is
67 gallons, will coft three half-pence, or at the rate of a
farthing for 1 1 gallons.

This is the account of it given by Belidor in his fecond
volume.

Rannequin, the inventor, was an ingenious praftical mecha-
nic, but no mathematician or philofopher. In feveral pofi-
tions, the moving forces aft unneceflarily obliquely, which oc-
cafions a great lofs of power, and renders the machine lefs
effeftual. A great proportion of the whole moving power of
fome of the water-wheels is employed in giving a reciprocating
motion to the fets of rods and chains, which extend from
the wheels to the ciftern, nearly two-fifths of a mile diftant,
where they work a fet of pumps.

As this machine is continually quoted as the moft power-
ful of all machines, we will compare its power with fome of
the large fteam-engines in England. The quantity of water
is (8484 -;- 60 = ) 141 cubic feet per minute x by 535 feet,
the height to which it is raifed, = 75649 cubic feet per
minute Kfted one foot high. Divide this by 528 cubic feet,
which is the quantity that can be lifted one loot per minute,
by what is called a horfe -power in fteam-engines = 143
horfe-power ; but as the machine afts by 14 water-wheels,
each one will be fcarcely lOj horfe-power. The horfe-
power is one-third greater than the average of horfes, and
we therefore eftimate that 215 horfes working together,
would do as much work as this machine ever did, or 15
horfes to each wheel ; but as the horfes could only work
eight hours /"i-r day, three fets mull be kept to continue
conilantly.

M. Montgolfier informs us that the fupply of water to
the wheels is 138000 cubic feet per minute, and the fall is
45 feet ; this gives a power 8f times as great as the effeft
produced. Montgolfier found 22 j times when he tried it.

The whole work is now in a very ruinous ftate, and many
projefts have been formed for a reftoration of the machine
on better principles.

It is probable Rannequin thought his moving force would
not be fufficient to raife the water to the height of 535 feet
at once ; and this is agreeable to the praftice of more mo-
dern engineers.

If the machinery was conftrufted in caft iron, in the fame
manner as fteam-engines are now made, the force of one
crank would be more than iufficient to raife a cylinder of
water of that altitude, and above eight inches in diameter,
without any complication ; but the pipes would require very
great ftrength. This is proved by a machine that has been
lately erefted at Marly, in place of one of the old water-
wheels.

Even according to the original conftruftion, the water
might be raifed in one jet to the fecond refervoir. This ap-
pears from two experiments, one made in 1738, and the
other in 1775. In the firft, M. Camus endeavoured to make
the water rife in one jet to the tower ; his attempt was not
attended with fucccfs, but he made the water rife to the
foot of the tower, which is confiderably higher than the fe-
cond refervoir. During this experiment the machine was
fo much ftraincd, that it was found neceflary to fecure
fome parts of it with chains.

The objeft of the fecond trial, made in 1775, was to
raife the water at once to the fecond lift, 346 feet. It did
afcend thither at different times, and in great plenty, but
the pipes were exceedingly ftrained at the bottom, fo
that feveral of them burft, and it was neceflary to fufpend
Vol. XXXVIII.

and recommence the experiment feveral times. Thi» arofe
from, a fault which might eafily have been remedied ; vix.
from the age of the tubes and their want of ftrength ;
therefore it refults from this trial, that the chains which pro-
ceed from the river to the firft lift might be fuppreffed, to-
gether with the firft well itfelf : and this perhaps is all'that
is to be expefted without a complete change in the
machinery.

Ruksfor calculating the Dimenfions of Pumps. — The quan-
tity of water defivered by any pump will be in the joint pro-
portion of the furface or bafe of the pifton and its velocity ;
for this meafures the capacity of that part of the working
barrel which the pifton paftes through ; and the fame is true
of feftor pumps, or rotative pumps : but as pumps with
ftraight cylindrical barrels are the only kind in general ufe,
it will be fufficient to give the rule for calculating the con-
tent of a cylinder, which is fimply to multiply the area of
the bafe by the length ; thus, take the diameter of the barrel
in inches, and the length of the ftroke in feet.

Square the diameter in inches, and divide by 183.3 • multi-
ply this by the length of theflroke in feet, and it gives the con-
tent of the cylinder in cubic feet.

Example — How many cubic feet of water will be raifed
in an hour by a pump 8^ inches diameter, and 3I feet
ftroke, which makes 18 ftrokes /ii;r minute ?

Diameter 8.5 inches x 8.5 = 72.25 circular inches : di-
vide it by 183.3, wliich is the number of circular inches in
a fquare foot, and it gives .394 fquare feet for the area of
the barrel x 3.5 feet in length = 1.379 cubic feet; the
content of the barrel x 18 ftrokes ^^r minute = 24.822
cubic feet of water raifed /fr minute x 60 minutes = 1489
cubic feet per hour.

If it is required to know the quantity which a pump will
raife in ale gallons, it is obtained by the following rule :
take the diameter of the barrel in inches, and the length of
the ftroke in feet.

Square the diameter in inches ; multiply by the length in feet,
and divide by 30.

This ftiould give the content of the barrel in ale gallons
of 282 cubic inches each ; but the rule is not perfeftly cor-
reft, for it affumes the gallon to be 282|-.

Example of the fame Pump as above. — The fquare of the
diameter is 72.25 x 3.5 feet in length =: 252.875 -^ 30 =
8.429 ale gallons for the content of the barrel. The
true mcafure in this cafe is 8.45 gallons, which is very
near.

To find the force rcquifite to work any pump, take the •
diameter of the barrel in inches, and the perpendicular height
of the column of water in feet.

Square the iliameter in inches; multiply by .T^^ decimal, and
multiply by the height of the column in feet.

This gives the force in pounds avoirdupois. It is ufual
to add one-fifth to this weight, on account of friftion and
refinance.

Example. — Suppofe the above pump lifts the water 64
feet in the whole, what force will it take to draw up the
pifton ?

The fquare of the diameter is 72.25 x .34lbs. =:
24.565 lbs., which is the weight of one foot high of tlie
column x 64 feet .— 1572 lbs., tho weight of the whole
column. Add 4th of this, wV.. 314 lbs. ..-r 1886 lbs. the
weight required to draw up the pifton and give it a proper
velocity.

In conftrufting pumps, care niuft be taken to avoid all
unncceffary contraftions in the v.ilvcs or pipes which convey
the water. If the water-way is too fmall, the water will

H be

WATER.

be greatly refilled in its pafiage through fuch contrac-
tions ; and this is called by the- workmen wire-drawing the
water.

The velocity of the water in the conduit-pipe, and in its
paffage through every valve, will be greater or lefs than the
velocity of the pifton, in the fame proportion that the area of
the pifton or working barrel is greater or lefs than the area
of the paffage of the valve. For whatever quantity of
water paffes through any feftion of the working barrel in a
fecond, the fame quantity muft go through any one of the
paffages : this enables us to modify the velocity of the water
as we pleafe, and we can increafe it to any degree at the
place of delivery, by diminifhing the aperture through
which it paffes, provided we apply fufficient force to the
pifton. This is the cafe in the engine for extinguifhing
fires ; but no fuch increafe of velocity muft be fuffered in
pumps which are required to raife the greateil quantity of
water with a given power ; becaufe the power required to
farce the water with a great velocity is very confiderable,
and the velocity fo obtained adds nothing to the mechanical
effeft which is produced. The refiftance arifes from a two-
fold caufe ; viz. the friftion of the water againft the fides
of the paffage, and ftill more from the refiftance which
water oppofes to any fudden change of figure ; for though
water is a ptrfeft fluid, and will readily accommodate itfelf
to any change of figure by its own gravity, yet, it requires
fome time to make fuch change ; and if we force it to
change its figure in lefs tim* than it naturally would, it re-
quires mechanical power to do fo, juft the fame as to

comprefs a mafs of clay, or other i'oft and non-elaftic
body.

In praftice, the velocity with which the pillon of the
pump moves, determines the fize of the fmalleft paffage
through which the water can pafs without unneceffary re-
fiftance. Few pumps move with a greater velocity than 8g
or lOO feet per minute ; and we think the area of the nar-
roweft paffages and pipes fliould bear fuch a proportion tu
the area of the barrel, that the water will never be urged
with a greater velocity than three feet per fecond, or i8o
feet per minute, if the power required to move the pump is
an objeft. In general, this will be accomplifhed by making
the area of the fmalleft opening equal to half the area of the
barrel ; or if the diameter of the barrel is divided into lo
parts, the diameter of the leaft opening (hould be 7 of thofe
parts. If the pump moves flower, then the paffages may bear
a fmaller proportion. The pumps which have folid piifons
are preferable, becaufe the valves can be made of any fize
which is defired ; but when a valve is made in the pifton,
its fize is neceffarily limited to lefs than we have recom-
mended.

EJiimate of the Strength of Men to raife Water. — Various
authors have ftated the mean force of a man fo widely dif-
ferent, that the ftudent is perplexed which to choofe. The
following table contains feveral of thcfe ftatements, wliich
we have reduced to one common denomination ; viz. the
number of pounds avoirdupois, or the number of cubic
feet of water which a man can raife up in one minute to the
height of one foot.

Pounds Avoirdu-

Cubic Feet of

Auiliors.

pois raffed one

Water rtifrd one

Duration of the Wt^rk.

Foot pn Minute.

Foot per Minute.

i Hachette . . - -

'343

21.5

Working 10 hours ^cr day.

Amontons . . . -

1530

24.48

Euler ....

3000

48.

f 3668

58-7 7

Smeaton ....

■} 3750

60. \

Working during 8 hours in 24.

I 3859

61.7 )

Bernouilli ....
Schulze ....

4144

66.3

For 8 hours.

4410

70.5

Defaguliers . . . -

5500

89.6

Emerfon ....

6300

ICO. 8

For 10 hours. [

503'

80.5

rA feeble old man, working 8 or 10 |

Dr. Robinfon . - -

< hours per day, a pump without fric-

6648

106.4

{_ tion.

f A young man weighing 135 lbs.: 10

Average of all thefe ...

4098

65.5

\ hours j5fr day.

True ftandard ...

375°

60.

Working 10 hours /«■ day.

It is not difficult to account for thefe great differences,
when we confider how the mufcular force varies in different
individuals, and alfo the power of enduring fatigue. The
only means of afcertaining the mean force of a man is to take
the fum total of the work executed by a number of men
acting for a great length of time. This was repeatedly
done by Mr. Smeaton, on a very large fcale, and with fo
very little variation, that we can very confidently recom-
mend engineers to calculate a man's force at 60 cubic feet,
or 3750 lbs., raifed one foot ^cr minute; as this is juft one
cubic foot per fecond, it will eafily be fixed in the memory.
Defaguliers' eftimate of one hogftiead raifed ten feet high per

minute, is very frequently ufed, and is 5500 lbs. raifed one
foot j!>i/- minute, but it is too great for a mean ; and Defagu-
liers himfelf called it the maximum, which no machine can
exceed.

When a machine is to be turned by tlie fi)rce of a man
turning a winch or handle, the handle ought not to be
longer than from 12 to 16 inches; nor fliould it be calcu-
lated to make more than 30 turns per minute ; and when
moving with this velocity, it Ihould not require a greater
force than 165 lbs. preffure upon the handle ; or a man will
Bot be able to move it without greater fatigue than he can
endure for a day's work. If the handle is required to move

flower,

WATER.

flower, for inflance 20 turns per minute, tlien tlie load may
be increafed in proportion ; 111%. to 25^ lbs., and this will be
lefs fatiguing.

The Force of Horfa tu raife Water.— 'VlAi we find
varioufly ftated by different authors as the force of men.

Autliors.

Pdunds Avoiri^u-
poi'! raiffd one
Fout^er Minute.

Cubic Feet of
Water raiffd one
Foot per Minute.

Uuralion of tlie Work.

Hachette's eftimate that a horfe is equal!

to 7 men J

Fcnviick ..---.
Gregory - - - ...

More

Watt - - - - -
Smeaton's 2 horfc machine, with an!

Archimedes' fcrew - - - j
Smeaton's 4 horfe machine to work a1

flaftl- wheel j

Smey.ton's ftandard - . - -
Defaguliers" ettimate that a horfe is 1

equal to 5 men - - - - j

Smeaton's experiment on drawing coals'^
with 2 horfes - - - -J

Meflrs. Boulton and Watt's horfe-powerl
in fteam-engines . - . .

9406

13200
184S0
21I2Q
20000

20104

20418
22916

27500

27720

32000
33000

150.5

21 1.2
295.6

337-9

320.0

321.6

326.7
366.6
440.0

443-0

512.0
528.0

Working 9 hours per day.

Working 9 liotirs per day, light woi k.
Working S hours per day.

f Working ^\ hours per day, 4 horfes
were kept in order to work for
(, 9 hours per day.

fThe ftrongelt horfes, fuch as are ufed
< in London, cannot work at this rate
{_ throughout the day.

True ftandard - - . - -

22000

352

f Working 8 hours per day, nearly equal
\ to 6 men.

In this, as in the former inftance, we feel inclined to give
the preference to Mr. Smeaton's eftimate, both from his
fuperior experience and accuracy, and alfo becaufe by his
MS. papers, we are informed of the particulars of his ex-
periments. He found, from examining the accounts of a
colliery, that each horfe drew 27720 pounds one foot per
minute ; but as tlicy could only continue to work at that
rate for 4^ liours per day, Mr. Smeaton fixed his ftandard
at 250 hogfheads per hour raifed ten feet, which is equal to
22,916 pounds, raifed one foot high. Still we find in two
of his machines, of which we have already given the parti-
culars, the performance fell rather (hurt : vie have, there-
fore, chofen to recommend 352 cubic feet of water, or
22,000 pounds per minute raifed one foot high, as a ftandard
for a horf^'s force, when lie works 8 hours per day, and
moves with a velocity of z\ miles per hour. This is fettled
by univerfal confent as the molt proper pace for a horfe to
walk ; and he will in that cafe draw juft ICO pounds, which
is an eafy number to remember.

The eftimate of Defaguliers we confider as the maximum
of a horfe's power ; for the horfe-power of MefTrs. Boulton
and Watt is only ufed as a meafure of the ferce of their
Ream-engines. See that article.

In applying horfes to work machines, the circular traft
in which they walk fhould be as large as poffible,
that the horfes may turn round in the circle with little
inconvenience. Few cafes will admit of a walk of more
than 30 feet diameter ; and in proportion as this is di-
minifhed, the horfe lofes fome of his power. No horfe-walk
fhould be made of lefs than 20 feet diameter, if he is re-
quired to aft with any confiderable force. When this fizt?
cannot be obtained, we are of opinion that the horfe would
■«rork to a greater advantage by walking within a larg? per-
pendicular wheel, like thofe wheels ufed for eranes.

It muft be remembered, that the horfe fhould always
move with a velocity of 2\ rm\es per hour, or 220 feet per
minute ; and, therefore, the number of turns which he will
make in a minute muft be proportioned to the fize of the
track in which he works.

Nunil)pr of Tunis

Diameter of tl\e
Horfe's Track.

Circumference.

per Miuule, when

the Horfe walks

Ci^Milei/jn-Hour.

30 feet.
28

94 feet.

88

2-34
2.5

26

81.5

2-7

24
22
20

75.2

69

62.6

2.9

3-17

3-5

The machine which is to raife the water fhould be fo
connefted with the principal wheel which the horfe turns,
that it will move with the proper velocity, when the horfe-
wheel turns at the rate above fpecified. The velocity
proper for moft machines is mentioned in the defcription
of each.

Water-Wheels applied to raife IVater The circumference

of a water-wheel wall work to the greateft adTautage, when
it moTes with a velocity of from 3 to 4 feet per fecond, or
from 180 to 240 feet per minute. A very proper velocity
for a water-wheel is to make it the fame as the liorfeg, by
the above table ; and we have, therefore, adtled the velocities
for fmaller diameters.

H

Diameter

WATER.

Diameter.

Circumference.

Turns per Minute.

1 8 feet.

56.4 feet.

3-9

16

50

4-4

14

44

K.

12

37-5

5.86

10

3»-4

7

Few machines, with pumps worked by a water-wheel,
will raife more water to a given height in any time, than
amounts to one-third the mechanical effeft of the quantity of
water employed to work it ; that is, confidering the dif-
ferences of the heights to which the water is raifed, and the
height of the fall, and reducing them both to an equahty,
the quantity of water raifed will never exceed half of the

quantity which falls. The other half is loft in friftion an J.
leakage, and in overcoming the inertia of the parts of the
machine.

Prejfure engines are thofe machines which give motion to
the piilon of a pump, by the force of a column of
water afting in a cylinder or barrel, fimilar to that of
the pump. ( See the article PRES.suRE-^n^inf. ) It was
omitted in that article, that M. Belidor invented a ma-
chine, which may be confidered as the firft which was
perfeft, and was indeed the model for that made by
Mr. Smeaton. See Architefture Hydraulique, vol. ii.
p. 240.

M. Baillet made obfervations upon feveral machines of
this kind in the mines of Hungary, from which it appears
that the mechanical effeil produced, is only four-tenths of
the mechanical efFedt of the iirft power.

HeisI" of ihe Fall

Diameter of the

Quantity of Water

Heisht to which

Quantity of Water

Ratio of thiElfea,

of Water 10 work

Piftons.

expended in

the Water is raifed.

raifed in 24 Hours,

and the Caufe.

the Machine.

24 Hours.

French Metres.

Metres.

Cubic Meires.

Metres.

Cubic Metres.

85-757

0.352

1900.328

89.656

817.036

0.45

89.656

0.325

2467.965

214.39

479.879

0.46

79.910

do.

685.55

46.777

394-185

0-33

79.910

do.

582.711

28.585

589.566

0.36

89.656

do.

2467.965

66.267

1336.8.5

0.40

0.4 mean.

The French metre is equal to 3.281 Englifh feet, and the
cubic metre is 35.3198 cubic feet Enghlh.

Poiuer of the largejl Steam-Engines to raife Water. — The
moft powerful machine in exiftence is the ileam-engine, on
Mr. Watt's principle, called Stoddart's engine, at the
United Mine in Cornwall. Three other engines of equal
dimenfions are employed to drain the mine, but only this
one is loaded fo as to exert its utmolt force. The fteam
cyhnder is 63 inches diameter, and aAs double ; that is, it
operates to raife water equally in the afcent or defcent of
the pifton. The weight of water in the pumps is 82,000
pounds, and with this load it makes 65 double flrokes per
minute of 7^ feet each ; or, it gives to the load loof feet
motion per minute.

Multiply 82,000 pounds by looy feet, and it gives
8,261,500 pounds /icr minute lifted one foot high: divide
this by 33,000 pounds, which is called the horfe-power, and
it gives 2505 horfe-power for the afting force of the engine.
Again, divide 8,261,500 pounds by 62^ pounds, the weight
of a cubic foot of water, and we tind this engine is capable
of raifing 1 32, 1 84 cubic feet of water per minute to a height
of one foot. This is not one of the beft engines with re-
fpeft to fuel, and it burns 3 1 \ pounds of coal to raife this
quantity.

The whole power employed to drain the United Mine is
as follows :

Horfe-Power.
Stoddart's engine, 63 inch cylinder, double afting 25OJ
William's engme, 65 inch cyhnder, do. 200

Sim's engine, 63 inch cylinder, do. 185

Poldorey's engine, 63 inch cylinder, do. 196

Total - 83 1 i

Here we liave a fingle machine of nearly double the
power of the famous machine at Marly, which is in faft
compofed of fourteen machines, working in concert for a
common objeift ; and fo do the four engines in the mine,
which amount to 83 I 3 horfe-power, without reckoning the
engines employed to draw up the ore.

The engines at feveral other mines in Cornwall are of
immenfc power. We will ftate two.

The mine called Wheal Alfred has four engines : a
63 inch double engine, which is lightly loaded, and only
exerts 80 horfe-power ; a fingle afting engine of 66 inch,
and 60 horfe-power ; and two others of 64 and 60 inch,
equal to 51 and 54 horfe-power : — in the whole, 245 horfe-
power to drain one mine.

The Dolcoath mine has three engines : a double engine
of 63 inch cylinder, and 132 horfe-power; a fingle engine
of 63 inch, and 45 horfe-power ; and a fmaller fingle engine
of 20 horfe-power : — in all, 197 horfe-power to drain the
mine.

It will be obferved above, that the power of the different
engines is not in proportion to the dimenlions of the cyhn-
ders : this is becaufe the preflure upon each fquare inch of
the pifton varies in different engines from 7 to 20 pounds.
But cuilom has eftabliftied, that certain fizes of cyhnders
wiU be equal to a certain number of horfes' power, as is
(hewn by the following table.

The fteam in the boiler is fuppofed to be kept within the
limits of from 2 to 4 lbs. preflure on each fquare inch more
than the atmofphere ; and in that cafe the cyhnders of the
diameters marked in the Table will have very nearly the
powers afligned to them.

A Table

WATER.

3

O
C

^!
■H

£

3
C

1

•a

M i-< M <0 -rj-

O CO CO O so
lo lovo r-- r~-

COOO coco CO
00 00 OS ON O

00 CO Ov t)- OS
O •"• — N W

-let
■+ Cv CO t^ t-i

CO CO Tt- ^ l,^

Mlci-lc*
lOOO Tj-OO T*-

lo vovo VO r^

(0(5

•

s

=
c

US
S

i

1

O r- i^ CO rj-

O t--^ 0 CO
O « rj ■^- Lo

so so r-- r- r^

so t^OO On O

VO t^OO CVOO
•^ N cv-j Tf- L^
M M N N N

OO OvVO -f- N
VO t^OD C\ O
N c^ CJ C^ CO

O t- OvVO 00

« - N CO ■^
CO CO CO CO CO

1^ i

o 00 q r- ^

6 6s CSOO 00

cp o 00 ^ -^

20 00 t~- t~- I>-

N "^ O OVOO
f^ !>- t^VO VO

t~-vq lo -1- CO

VO VO VO vcj VO

VO vd vd vd v6

Mechanical Effect exprefled by the
Weight which can be raifed in a Mi-
nute to a Height of one Fool,

it

0 0 o o o
o o o o o
q q q 0^ o

C0\0 M 00 ■+■

CO^O CO OsVO

« l-H N

o o o o o

O O O O O

o^o N ocT -+■

CO OSO M OS
CO CO -^ lO ^o

O 0 O O 0
O O O O 0

o_ o_ o q q

o ^o <s c<r ■<*-

O O O 0 o

o o o o o
q q q q q

dsVO NOO -^
Ov lo N OO "^

ov q - -^ N

O 0 0 O O
O 0 O O O

q q o o o
(D VO rToo -f-

(S 00 lo I-. OO
CO CO -^ uo lo

o o o o o
o o o o o
q q q q q
dvd" c<co •?

Vo " 00 'I- «

vq r-- r;oo^ OS

S s

OD \0 N CO -i-

lo q « -^ f^

O ^ r» 00 ri-

00 CO CS '^- O

N CO CO -i- i-O
i^\0 t~-QO CN

O so N 00 -^

^ — r^ fvi 00
O « N rn •+■

O VO N 09 +
'+- C> L^ 0 VO

00 00 ov o o

i^vo t^ 0\ o
« »-. h-. M (S

O VO N 00 -t

n r-- cooo ri-

t-t ^ ri ri CO
w M CO -^ to
r< N N N N

O so N OC "1-
O to »-" so c^
^ •!*- to toVO
so r--oo ds 0
N rl c* (N| CO

Is

>

Is

s =

>-. ^

It

3 =

5 ^

CO -^ i^ r< •J^

00 00 00 C\ c>

SO SC CO On O
Ox ^ OS On On

0 O O O O
O O O O O

M N rs N ri-

o o o o o

o o o o o

to i.^ to Vo to

O O O O O

VO CO 0 1^ O

N N SC 00 CO

On O* Os CTs OS

O O O O O
O O O O O

M Oi N M N

o o o o o

r^ cs N N o*

00 OO CC CO O

o o o o -

N N M rj ri

2 2 2 2 2

C< M N c^ c^

2^ s

O N -"i- - t-
W% TJ- CO CO N

r}- ri- r* «N N
N W C4 N N

O O 03 00 CO

t^ r- t-^ r-vo

VO VO VO VO Lo

to to to to •<-

5 aj .5

^1^ -1C< HHlC*

— M N to CO

i^ ^r^ L/>, Lo i^

-In
VO VO VO VO VO

VO VO VO VO t^

t-^ r^ r^ r-^ r^

-3
O =

Si; *j

U3

4)

iii

0\ N !>- 0 On
a> OS r- t^oo
M CO c- O en

00 M r--0 0
-H \o Lovo o
r-. 0 coNO O

«> N N N CO

O O 0 O 0

O co^ 0\ N

en c^ ro Ti- T^-

r-vo 0 f<^00

OS I^ O N N
OO - trsOO O
■^ Lr^ Lr^ Lr^VO

VO CO 0 OO CO
t1-vc OO OS Tt-
covo 0\ "S lo

VO VO VO t^ r-

r- « to o ■<)-
to r-oo o -

CO « ri-OD -

r-oo CO 00 Ov

= S = »

N CO 0 On

A !>• t^ t'-'o

l-t W H-. N

r-^ r-- r-- r^ !>■

fp to -i- ^O
t^ t^ t^ t^ r^

vq i^ -*- r^vo
t^ r^ r^ r^ r^

lO
VO VO I-- t~. t^

r^ 1^ t^ t^ t^

to t^ Ov Ov
r-- r^ r^ r^ t^

t-- r^ r^ t^ r-^

J

0)

o

e

o

f=
S

Z £ IS

O tJ- Lr> ■+ O

00 C^^ "A -t-

N r< (S N N

lo 0 r-- *^ OS

4- -i- CO ro N
N N N N N

vo ^ N c>.^q

rj M PI •- ^

N M N N (S

« « ^ « d

<S N N N N

00 t--VO to Tt-

6 d d d d

N N «V) N N

-^- CO CO CO C^

6 6 6 6 6

N N N N c<

00 '^'O M 0\

LnOO N CO N
■^CO CO t-- 1-
N N CO CO -^

N rrt N ON U-,

•^ o\ <-nvo o

^ Tl- K^ W>VO

ir, N « \0 ■+

■^00 N »^ Ov

vo VO r^ f-- r^

N OvVO CO CTv
covo O Tj- t--
ao QO o\ Ov o\

O to — VO r»
*s to CA CO r^
o o o - -

>- (0

c c

o.s

O covo OS OS

O "- - Ovoo

r^ u-v tn OO

VO CO r- CO

so CO 00

\0 00 "-■ CO lo

r-- OS O -^ CO
•-< •-I cs N N

•^ uovO vo r^
N N N r» N

00 CTv O « -•
r» N CO CO ro

r* CO -^ T*- lo

CO CO CO CO CO

VO VO t-~-0O 00
«0 CO CO CO CO

-J

c o

as

be-'

C OS

*h1M h-t N CO Th

lo^ I>00 On

O -< «^ t^ ■<*-

i^vo r^oo o\

O " N CO ^
N N N M N

lovo r^oo OS

N N C< N N

►H M tJ-VO OO

O •^ •+<> 00

O N •+VO 00
N N N N N

O N ThVO OO
CO CO CO CO CO

0 N -*-VO 00

-*■ -^ 4- •*- -i-

O N ■+SO eo
io to lo to to

WATER.

Confumption of Coals in an Hour
in Pounds Weight.

•

.5 CD

"•:3

r-- CO Cn — C-^

t-~X CC C\ 0\

CO vr> .- VO 03
O O - - -
N e^ N c^ cs

-t-:c N - 1--

<N CO loVO C^
C4 t-1 N c^ CN)

CO N NO O NC
CO O — CO -^
C4 CO CO CO CO

CO -h toco t/-
NO r-o: CN —

CO CO CO CO ^

CTn 'M o CO ON
W -t- to C--CC

■*• ^ •+ ■* "i-

(

On O CO

- loco
to to to

OS

C
'53

s

H

tJ-O CO M 'i-

lovc r-00 c^

CO CO to CO CO

VO O d CO r--

O ^ C* CO CO

CO NC ^ N lo
'^- r^ O c^ lo
Tt- •*- lo lO LO

r^ to M o CO

t^ O CONO 0\
to NO NO NO NO

NO 00 O r^ O

M -^ t~- CN CO

r- r^ t^ r--oo

co to CONO On

1^00 - -t- p^

CO CO On On On

On O NO
CO O NO
O - -

Ss C\ C\00 00

00 t-~ t^ r^\0

O NC VO >o lo

to lo to lo to

to to to »o to

to to to

lO lO IJ", Ul LI-,

U-, to U-, In v^

to to to to ui

to lo »o lo to

lo to lo to »o

lo to to

n .= ^

*=^ i ^
HI

i'i''

■si

>
<

o o o o o
o o o o o

q o_^ q q q

cf vo c-r CO •*

ON q - ~ ci_

— rT N M 0*

88888

q q q q q

0 NT N OO -f
— I--- '*- O t~^

CO CO -^ IJ^ lo

rT N N N c*

O O 0 O O

O O O O O

o o_ q q q

4- uP, cf >o C5
O O r^ CO O

NO 00 CN - CO

cT r? N CO CO

O 0 O 0 Q
O O O O 0
9, "2, 9, 9, "i

to cf to OCO

NO CO OnnO to
CONO r^ On —

cr CO CO CO ^

O O O O O

o o o o o
q q o q q

NO CO O" t^ CO
loco C) CO OO
CO rJ-NO !>. 0\

•+ •*■ ^ •?• ■?

O O O 0 0

o q 8 8 8

OS coco NO ^

rj* "- r^ r^ r--

- CO -i-NOCO
to to to lo to

O O 0
O O O
O O O

l^ o'nc"
CO 0 On
N NO On

NO NO NO

O V3 c< CO ^
GO CO On -^ O
vo r^ r^co 0\

"h" fT CO ^ LO
CO CO CO CO CO

O O N 00 •*

vc " r- c< 00
Oi q q_ - -
vooo o^ 6 —

CO CO CO -^ ■<:*-

O O o o o

-t-00 M NO O

P^OO to -co

M -:^ t-^ o c4

Tj- •:)- Tj- U-, U-,

0 O O O 00

^00 N NO CJ
'^ O t^ CO to

toOO O CONO
to to NO NO NO

NO 00 0 O CO
On O N NO N

NOCO On to !>■
6\ -^ CONO C?.

NO t^ r^ t^ r^

CC 00 CC NO -^
-C O -i- - 00

CO o O CO On
c^ to c^ O CO

<K 00 OO On CN

N O NO
ON O CO
t^^NO ON
ON t?, -T
On O "

Ve\ocity of i!ie Motion witli ivliich the Load
i« raiffd.

C tj

*^ .H

1^ lr^ |J^ i^ i^

o O O 0 0

•!|- 'I- '^ ■* *

O O O O 0

■^ M c^ N fNl
O O O O O

On On On On On

On On On C\ On

On On OnoO OC
On ON On On On

-1^ -.r> >^\'A

OO c-^ r~- r^No
On On On On ON

NO to to

ON ON C>

— si

o o o o o

N M N C^ C»

00 ^ 00 CO 00

O O O O o
M c^ N o» n

00 ■* ^- Tt- Tl-
0 O O O O

M CI C^ CJ N

CO CO 00 OO 00
On CN CTn On ON

OO t-~ t^NC NO

CN On On O ON

NO to lo tJ- CO

O ON On On C7N

N - 0

O On ON

si i

■<)- '^ -h Tt- ^

„ - , — -,

CO CO CO CO CO

CO M CJ N M

- O 0 O O

O O O ON ON

~lc«-|c<-|c<
On ON O

0-. IJ
t£:fifc.

t^ tr- t^ r^ t^

00 00 00 00 CO

CO CC OO CO 00

On On On On On

On On On On On

NO NO NO NO
On On d\ (5n O

O O O

-3

y

111

00 N t~- - VC

^ r^ O coO

6s 3\ 6 6 6

VO CO 0 CO to

O CJ -^ L^ t-^
— -i- r-- o CO

nT nT N^ cT C?

o 0 CO r^NC

ON lO ly^NO r-

NO r-- lo CO —

cT CO -rj- iAno

to CONO O 0
On CONO O O

ON CO - q q

NcToo On O -T

O NO CO CO ^
O NO O - M
qNO to ■+• ^

Cl N CO Ti- to

N r< M r< r4

ioV3 N 00 to

NO •cj- C> to CO
c^ rl O c^ ^

NO C^OO (^ O
N C< N M CO

'I- to -

CO to C4

Ti- loco

cT ^NO
CO CO CO

|fl i

»o

00 00 00 0\ c>

A t^ t^ t^ c-

q q q q q

CO CO OO 00 CO

O c^ c< p* c^

CO 00 CO Clj 00

« to to to to

CO 00 00 00 00

loVD NO NO NO
00 OO 0(5 00 <»

r^ t^ r^-yo OO

00 00 oc3 00 00

ON ON q
CO 00 On

o
(^

o
5

c
O

- - o o o

c^ CN c\oo 00

OO l-^ r-NO NO

Tl- Tt- -t- ^ CO

CO CO CO N r»

r« N N

o o o o o

N r» N N C4

O On On O 0\

CN On ON CN On

On CN CJN On On

ON ON ON On CN

CN ON On ON CTn

CJN ON On

vo \o o o o

O ^00 c>< vo
(^ r4 c^ CO CO

VO CO CJ lO -Cj-

cc CO r^ O -^

CO Ti- -^ lO lO

O ^ CO M CO

CN l^ t-~NO NO
toNO r^co CN

CO to N O CO
-+•■<*- •^^ ^NO
O -« N CO Tt-
C4 N N c^ CI

lo ^ CO C«» C«l

toNO t~-00 CTn

N N N N P»

On i-~ t-^OO -
« « — — (S

0 - N CO Ti-
co CO CO CO CO

M 00 "-

CO ^ r^

NO OO o
CO CO -^

2 §

N 00 ■+ VD

r^ CO I-- ':t-

N to t-v

N •+ t^

f

CN CN O - -
CO CO -^ Ti- Ti-

P* N CO CO Tt-

-i- ■<*- 'I- 'I- •*

loNO f-OO O
•*■ 'I- ^ •* lO

N- (S CO Ti-NO

lo to to to to

r-oc On O -

to to tONC NO

p* CO Th to NO

NO NO NO NO NO

OO d ci

NO f- t^

ft, u

O •"• c» CO tJ-

CO CO CO CO CO

lovo t-00 On

CO CO CO CO CO

O c< u-1 t^ O

^r^.4-'^-to

c< to r~ O CO

Vo to toNO NO

NO CO 0 « lo

NO NO t- t^ r^

OO O CONO On
t~-00 00 OO 00

tHONO
OnO O

0 "^ -^O 00

\o vo \c \o VO

0 N t}-\0 00

r^ r^ r^ t^ r^

O to 0 to O

00 CO C7N On O

to O "N O NO

0 - -• N N

N \0 O to M

CO CO tJ- -^ to

NO - NO N 00

to NO NO r~- p-

On O N

GO O —
— PI CI

WATER.

This Table is formed from obfervatioas of a great number
of engines of different powers, and making the intermediate
fizes to correfpond to the fame law of increafe. Thus, a
twenty-horfe engine is always made with a cylinder of 24
inches diameter, which is allowing 22.6 fquare inches of the
pifton's furface for each horie-power ; but larger engines have
a lefs allowance; an eighty-horfe engine has 19.8 fquare
inches to each horfe-power, and fmall engines have a much
greater allowance ; a ten-horfe engine having 245, and a
one-horfe, 28 fquare inches. This difference is to compen-
late for the numerous difadvantages which always attend
imall machines.

The proper length of the ftroke for different engines is
not at all fettled. Mr. Watt's firfl engines were made
much longer than this Table, but of late years they have been
made fhorter, and without any adequate reafon which we can
perceive ; for it mud be an advantage to a machine to make
as few reciprocations as is confillent with a prafticable
length of cylinder. Thefe differences in the length of flroke
do not affoft the calculation of powers, becaufe if the
length of the flroke is altered, the number per minute is alfo
changed, and the velocity of the piflon is the fame ; at leall
it will be always nearly the fame as the Table for thofe en-
gines which work a crank and fly-wheel. But it muil be ob-
ferved that thefe engines move with a greater celerity than the
engines for pumping water, becaufe it is neceffary to accu-
mulate a conliderable velocity in the fly-wheel, or it mull be
immenfely heavy if the piflon was to move fo flowly as the
pumping engine generally does.

It is ufual with engine-makers to calculate the velocity
of the piftons of engines at 220 feet per minute ; but we
liave rarely found them to come up to this in practice, and
have therefore calculated them at lefs. In the Table, the
preflure upon each fquare inch of the furface of the fteam-
piilon is in proportion to the velocities there marked ; and
if the velocities are found lefs than the Tabk, as is the cafe
with engines for pumping, then the load upon each inch of
the piflon mull be increafed in proportion, or elfe the power
of the engine will be different, although the cylinder re-
mains the fame.

For inflance, the engine at the Birmingham canal,
mentioned in the article SrEA'si-Engiiie, had a twenty-
inch cylinder ; and being a lingle engine, fliould, by our
Table, be rather more than feven horfes power. How docs
this agree ? The weight raifed/cr hour to one foot high was
calculated, in the article STiiAM-Engitie, at 13,961,805 lbs.;
which divided by 60 gives 232.697 lbs. per minute : divide
this by 33,000, the horfe-power, and we have a feven-
liorfe power ; fo far it agrees with the Table. But the
preffnre on each fquare inch of the piflon was 1 1.7 lbs., and
the Table fays the preffurc fhould be 7.1 lbs. This dif-
ference is reconciled by the differences of the velocities ; for
the piflon of tlie Birmingham engine moved 635 feet per
minute, and the velocity in our Table for a fingle engine is
98 feet : now as 1 1.7 lbs. is to 7. i lbs., fo is 98 feet to 59^
feet, inflead of 635: ; the difference is very fmall, and may
be thus accounted for. The Birmingham engine, although
feven horfes power, had only a twenty-inch cylinder, yet,
according to our Table, it fhould be 20.6 ; its piflon there-
fore required to move rather quicker, in order to make an
equal produce. Thus, the area of a twenty-inch cylinder is
314 fquare inches ; and of a cylinder 20.6 diameter, it is 332
fquare inches: now as 314 fquare inches is to 332 fquare
inches, fo is 59^ feet per minute to 63 feet per minute, inflead
"f ^37' which the engine attually moved.

The allowance for fuel in this Table is as fmall as it will
ever be found to be in aftual pradicc ; the conlumptiou of

fuel is not in dirccl proportion to the power of the engine,
becaufe fmall engines lofe more heat, and have more friftion
in proportion than large ones, and the reciprocations of the
motion are more frequent. We have taken the effeft of the
twenty-horfe engine at twenty millions of pounds of water
per minute, raifed one foot with each buflicl of coals weigh-
ing 84 lbs. ; this makes the confumptiou of fuch an engine
very near two bufhels per hour ; an eight-horfe burns one
bulliel. We have alfo taken the performance of the engine
of ICO horfes at 30 millions, and made all the intermediate
fizcs by a regular lav/ of increafe ; the refult agrees fo well
with feveral engines which we have obferved, that we con-
fidered the Table as very correct. The quantities of coal
are the fmallefl ; fcarcely any engines will do with lefs fuel
when they are working with their full load ; but many en-
gines will req\iire more. Engines vvill be conflantly found
which are of the dimenfions marked in our Table, and are
called fo many horfe-power, although they are working with
either a greater or leffer power than the Table expreffes ;
in fuch cafes, allowance of fuel mufl be altered in proportion.

We have n«w gone through the defcription of thofe ma-
chines for r.iifmg water which are adluated by the mechani-
cal force of animals, or water or fleam afting externally by
means of levers and other connefting mcchanifm ; but there
are fome machines in which a current or a column of water
is made to operate within clofe veflels, and raife water to a
confiderable height : thefe are the Chremnitz fountain, the
fypho interruptus, and the hydraulic ram. Thefe are moil
admirable machines, particularly the lail, becaufe they are
fo hmplc, and having fcarcely any moving parts, are not
liable to decay and injury ; and they do not waite the motive
power in unnecefTary friftion and refiflance.

The original fleam-engines of the marquis of Worcefter
and Savery, which are all of this clafs, are fully defcribed
under the article STSAM-Engine. The wafle of fuel in thefe
engines is fo great, that they fall very far below other en-
gines. We have mentioned the engine made by Mr. Kier,
which by a calculation will be found to raife only 2^ millions
of pounds of water one foot high with each bufhel of coals,
and the power of ilic engine is 25 horfes. An engine of the
fame kind, of five horfes power, which Mr. Smeaton calcu-
lated raifed 5 j millions, ^nd this is perhaps the utmofl of this
kind of engines. Another engine of 2f horfe-power, raifed
5-5 millions. The befl engine on Newcomen'a principle will
raife 10 m.illions ; Mr. Walt's 30 millions ; and Mr. Woolf '3
50 millions. From this ftatement, it is clear that the expence
of fuel m Savery's engines is lo great as to counterbalance
any advantages ariling from their fimplicity.

The Chremnitz Maehine. — In this a column of water, de-
fcending from an elevated refervoir, is made to raife up an-
other column of water from a confiderable depth, and air is
introduced as the medium for communicating the preffure of
the motive column to that column which is to be raifed.
This machine is not a new invention ; its principle is fully
defcribed in the Italian book, "Le Machine," by Brancas
of Rome, 1629. A machine at Chremnitz, in Hungary,
is fo celebrated as to have given a name to this invention
from its lize, and the moll extraordinary formation of
ice and fnow by the working of it, befides that it is the
only one of the kind which had been applied to large works.
An account was given to the Royal Academy at Paris by
their correfpondent M. Jars, which is inferted in their me-
moirs for the year 1768 ; and Dr. Wolfe has alfo defcribed
it. The machine was executed by father Hell, a profeffor
of aftronomy at Vienna, in the year i 755 ; it is ufed to raife
the water in a Ihaft named Anialie, in the mines at Schrem-
nitz, or Chremnitz, in Hungary; fig. 14. Plate Wa-
ter-

WATER.

ter-v)orks, is a Jketch of this machine, in which the pipes
are not drawn in the proportion of their lengths, but are
contrafted to the fpace of the defign. O is a wooden
trough, placed in the middle of the mountain, 143 feet
above the place, K, where the water drains off ; this water
is conveyed from the mines above it, and the fall of the
water from this refervoir works the machine. There is alfo
another trough higher up the mountain, "viz. 260 feet above
the place of delivery K, into which rain-water is conveyed
for the purpofe of working the machine with 260 feet fall,
when a fupply can be obtained therefrom ; but when this
fupply fails, the machine is worked by the cittern O with
143 feet fall. T is an iron-pipe defcending from the refer-
voir, to conVey the water to an air-veffel of copper, A,
placed at the foot of the mountain near the place of de-
livery. The water from the refervoir O, or from the more
elevated refervoir, flows through the defcending pipe T,
whenever the cock H is opened : the pipe T defcends very
nearly to the bottom of the veffel A A, as fhewn by the
dotted lines X, with the intention that the air included in the
veffel fhall be compreffed when the water enters, and forced
through the tube L M into a lower veffel, B, which is fimi-
lar to A, but only of half the capacity ; it is placed at the
bottom of the lower mine, which is to be drained at 104
feet below the delivery K, and veffel A ; this lower veffel
receives the waters collefted in this mine from the trough D,
through the pipe Q and cock C, and by the force of the
compreffed air introduced into B by the pipe M from the
upper veffel ; the water contained in B is expelled through
the pipe S, which defcends to the bottom of the vefftl B,
and is difcharged at F.

The wooden trough D is the tcnnination of a trougli
or channel from another engine, which raifcs the water from
a yet greater depth ; K is a pipe with a cock for difcharg-
iog the water out of the veffel A, when the operation is
over, in order to fill it again with air ready to repeat it, fcr
which purpofe the fmall pipe I is hkewife opened to admit
air ; the cock L tranfmits and difcharges air from tlie upper
veffel A into the lower veffel, tlirough the pipe M. The
little pipe E, and its turncock, mult be opened to let out
the air from the veffel B, and it mult remain open wliillt B
is filling, by the water from the trough D, through the
pipe C Q, and it is at the orifice of the httle pipe E that
fnow and ice are generated. A valve is placed at the lower
ends of the pipe F S, to prevent the water from efcaping
out of the pipe F S, after it has been raifed, and whillt the
veffel B is filling with frcfli water.

The operation is performed thus : two men are placed at the
veffels A and B to open and (hut the cocks ; fuppofe all the
cocks fhut, and the refervoir O, at 143 feet high, is always
full ; the pipe T H is alfo full as far as the cock H ; the refer-
voir D is kept conltantly full of water from the mine, which
is to be drained by raifing the water from D to F, 104 feet; for
this purpofe, it muft firit be admitted into the veffel B : the
cock C is therefore opened, and the water flows into B, tlie
air being at the fame time fuffered to tlcape from that velFil
by opening the cock E. The veffel B is known to be full
by the emiffion of v.'ater at E, at which initant both the
cocks C and E are to be clofed. The machine is now pre-
pared for the operation, which is began by opening the eocks
H and L ; the defcending water from the refervoir O L'liters
the veffel A, and comprefles the included air till its elaftic
force becomes equal to the preffure of the column of water
D F, and then the air defcends through the pipe M, and
enters the lower veffel B, where it preffes on the fnrface of
the water contained in the veffel, and forces that water to
afcend through S to F, which opens into the adit, tlurough

10

which the water is difcharged from the mine. This water
being raifed, the lower veffel B is become filled with con-
denfed air in place of the water, and the upper veffel A is
become filled with water in place of the air. The cocks
H and L are then (hut, and K and I are opened ; the
cock K fuffcrs the water contained in A to flow off, and
I accelerates the difcharge, by admitting the external air
into the veffel A ; and both theie cocks are clofed again as
foon as the evacuation of the upper veffel is completed.
During this laft operation another man below opens thi'
cock E, by which the condenfed air included in the veffel B
iffues with great force through E ; he then opens C, and the
water from D again fills the veffel B, as at firlt ; this being
done, he clofes C and E.

The apparatus is now charged again ready for aftion, and
by opening H and L the above operation will be repeated ;
w'z. the contents of B will be forced up to F, and thus the
engine may be kept continually at work as long as the two re-
fervoirs O at the top, and D at the bottom, are kept fupplied.
The dimenfions of the principal parts, as given by father
Hell, are as follow, in Hungarian meafure :

The diameter of the upper veffel A 325 inches ; its
height 60 inches ; the thicknefs of the copper i^ inches.

The iron-pipe T is 260 feet ; from H, to the moft elevated
refervoir above O, it is 4^ inches bore ; and the thicknefs of
the metal is i\ inches.

The lower refervoir O 143 feet above H.
The pipe F S, 104 feet long, 3^ inches bore.
The air-pipe L M is formed narrower towards the bot-
tom ; at its upper end it is two inches bore, and at its lower
end I inch ; thicknefs of the metal l^ inches.

The Chremnitz foot is to the Paris foot, as 1538 to 1440 ;
the pound, as 106 to 92. The Paris foot to the EngHlh, as
32 to 30.

A cubic foot of water of the niiiic weighs 72lbs.
The upper veffel A contains 575 cubic feet, add the
lower veffel B 27^.

Twenty-five cfibic feet are raifed at every operation, and
fometimes 31 5 feet, as the water defcends from the upper
or lower rcfervoirs at O, the duration of the operation being
different ; for when the upper ciltern O is ufed at 260 feet
of elevation, 20 or 2 i draughts are made in an hour ; but
when the lower ciftern is uled at 143 feet elevation, only 17
or 18 draughts per hour.

Each of theie veffels is ca(l in three pieces, which are
joined by flanches and fcrews, with a ring of lead and an-
other of leather placed between each to fecure tlie joint, and
prevent the tranfmiffion of any fluid. M. Jars oblerves that
the pipes would have been better if conncdted by flanches,
in the manner (hewn by the figure ; but the real praftice is
to drive the ends of the pipes into hollow cylinders of dry
wood, bound with iron hoops ; thefe anfwer tolerably well,
and are of coiifidcrable durability.

The moveable plugs of the cocks, C, E, K, are fcrewed
in their places by caps or covers faftened down with fcrews.

The produce of water raifed by this machine is thus efti-
mated by Dr. Wolfe :

If the veffel A were completely emptied after each opera-
tion, the expcnce of water, when the fall of 260 feet is ufed,
would be 1178.25 cubic feet in an hour, defcending 206
feet ; and the efteCt, or the water raifed, would be 563.75
cubic feet to a height of 104 feet ; or, when the fall of
143 feet is ufed, the expence per hour would be 1006.25
cubic feet, and the effedt 481.25. But as it is not neceffary
that the veffel A (hould be much more than half emptied,
the expence of water will be nearly equal to, or will not
much exceed the quantity raifed.

It

WATER.

, It (hould follow, from experiments on the nature of air,
that the column F D is counterpoifed by the comprefled air
in the inverfe ratio of 104 to 32 : hence the volume of air
contained in the vefTel A and the pipe L M, equal to 58^
cubic feet, muft be reduced to 18 cubic feet, before the
elafticity will be equal to the preffure of the column C F
104 feet; but by increafmg the compreflion a little more,
the water in B will be made to flow out through F.

If, at the moment the vefTel A is full of water, the
cock H be Hiut, the water will continue to flow through F,
until the air occupies a fpace of 1 8 cubic feet in the veffel B,
and in the pipe L M ; the elafticity of the air will then be
in equilibrio with the column FD, and the efflux of the
water through F will ceafe. In this manner, not above
17 cubic feet of water are evacuated at each draught, and
io| cubic feet are conftantly left in the veflel B.

But if the cock H is not fhut the very moment that the
veflel A is full, the water in A will follow the air through
L M, and, before it gets to the vefTel B, will raife one
cubic foot more out of that vefTel. After the water from
A enters into the vefTel B, the difcharge at F will not be
the water of B, but the water of A defcending and afcend-
ing again by a ufelefs circuit, until H be (hut ; which being
done, the water will continue to flow at F, until the re-
mainder of 1O5 cubic feet is expelled from B by the air
contained in it. The moment when the water from A has
defcended into the lower vefTel B may eafily be known, by
the velocity of the efflux at F becoming fuddenly three times
greater.

That this is aftually the cafe is proved, becaufe fometimes
315 cubic feet are difcharged ; which quantity exceeds the
capacity of the vefTel B by more than 4 cubic feet.

This inconvenience might eafily have been prevented, by
giving to the pipe S a diameter of i8 inches ; for then there
would have remained only the juft fpace of i8 cubic feet for
the comprefTed air.

The height of the column T to the loweft of the two
refervoirs at O is 143 feet, which, taken upon the diameter
of the veflel A as a bafe, is equal to the weight of 822^
cubic feet, and would comprefs the air into a fourth ; or,
when the water is defcending into the lower vefTel B, into a
feventh part of its natural fpace, provided it were equally
refifted at F. The vefTel A becomes filled at a mean in
8 Teconds ; and in twice that fpace of time, 1 7 cubic feet
are evacuated through F.

The power of the column of 260 feet from the moft ele-
vated refervoir, afting within the vefTel A, is equivalent to
the weight of 1495 cubic feet of water. It can raife a
greater quantity, if the vefTel B be fo conftrufted as to
allow no more than a juft fpace to the comprefTed air. If
the vefTel A were filled in 4 feconds, then 17 cubic feet of
water would be difcharged through F in twice that time,
and the air would be reduced into an eighth, and, during
the defcent of the water of the vefTel A into the lower vefTel
B, into an eleventh part of its bulk. But this makes no
alteration as to the quantity of the effeft ; and when water
ceafes to flow out at F, there will always remain 105 cubic
feet of water in the vefTel B.

Two men are required to attend it, but it would be very
eafy to conneft the levers of the cocks above and below, fo
as to require only one man to work the whole fet ; and in-
deed there would be little difficulty in making the machine
work itfelf fafely, without any attendant, except to fet it
off at firft, or flop it when requifite. The machinery for
this purpofe has been propofed by Mr. Bofwell. See Nichol-
fon's Journal, 4to. iv. 117.

From what has been faid, it is evident that this machine,
Vol. XXXVIII.

though i± anfwers the author's intention, is fo deficient ar,
to the effeft the fame fall of water might produce, as to bear
fcarce any proportion ; and there is a defeft in the principle
of the machine, -viz. that the air will require a confiderable
fliare of the power to comprefs it, and this air muft be fuf-
fered to efcape, before the vefTels can be refilled to repeat
the aftion ; in confequence, all the power taken to comprefs
the air is loft, and expands itfelf in forcing out a ftrong
blaft of air at the difcharging cock, without producing, any
ufeful effeft. Notwithftanding this defeft, the cheapnefa
and eafe of conftrufrtion, and the little wear and tear, to-
gether with the facility with which it may be made to work
and ftop for very fliort periods of time, are powerful recom-
mendations of this machine, in fuch places as afford the re-
quifite fall of fuperior water, and do not require a higher
fingle lift than 15 or 20 fathoms.

A curious phenomenon has been obferved in this machine,
when it is near the end of its operation, that is, when nearly
the whole of the water has been raifed out of the lower
vefTel B, and the cock E be opened to give vent to the
comprefTed air, and beforethe cock L is fhut, fo that the
air is followed up by the water, then if a hat or miner's
bonnet be prefented to the aperture E, the aqueous vapours
difperfed through the comprefTed air, and perhaps alfo,
fays M. Jars, part of thofe of the external air are con-
denfed in the bonnet in the form of very white and compaA
ice, very much refembling hail, and not eafily feparated
from the bonnet. It foon melts, which is not to be won-
dered at, as the temperature of the place itfelf is not cold.
MefTrs. Du Hamel and Jars remained in Hungary from
January to July 1758, and obferved the fame phenomenon
at all feafons ; but as they had no thermometer, they could
not make a number of experiments, which might have been
of value in the inveftigation of the fubjeft.

It is obferved that the air iffues out with fuch impetuofity,
that the workman could not hold the bonnet at the diftance
of a few inches from the aperture, as he does in this experi-
ment, if he were not fupported behind. The ice is much
more compaft, if the cock be only in part opened.

When the cock at which the air is difcharged is opened,
it rufhes out with prodigious violence, and the drops of
water are changed into hail or lumps of ice. It is a light
ufually fhewn to ftrangers, who are defired to hold their
hats, to receive the blafts of air : the ice comes out with
fuch violence as frequently to pierce the hat like a piftol
bullet. This rapid congelation is a remarkable inftance of
the general faft, that air, by fuddenly expanding, generates
cold ; its capacity for heat being increafed.

The formation of the ice and fnow, when the condenfed
air rufhes out of this machine, has been explained in a dif-
ferent way ill almoft every fyftem of philofophy. It ap-
pears to us to be a neceffary confequence of the condenfed
air, on rufliing out into the open air.

The air of the atmofphere, and the water when taken into
the macfiine, are nearly of the fame temperature ; and it
may be confidered that each cubic foot of water and of air
contains fome certain quantity of heat or caloric ; but they
will readily impart a portion of this heat to any body contain-
ing a lefs degree than themfelves, or they will abforb or take
up heat from any body containing a greater proportion of
heat than themfelves, in confequence of that property of heat,
by which it will diftribute itfelf equally among all bodies
which are in contaft with each other. By the aftion of the
machine, the air is comprefTed into one-third of the fpace it
before occupied, and the fhare of heat contained in that air
is hkewife concentrated or thrown into a third of the fpace,
and ill confequence becomes more intcnfe. Some part of
I the

WATER.

tbelieat will, therefore, be communicated to the furround-
ing water, until the heat diftributes itfelf again between the
water and the condenfed air, fo that they come to the fame
telnperature. In this ftate, if the air is fuffered to rufti out
of the veflel, it will fiiddenly expand and recover its former
volume, and it muft alfo recover its former (hare of caloric,
which it can only do by abftrafting heat from the furround-
ing air, or from any fubftance with which it comes in con-
taft : hence the coldnefs of the blaft of air. In refpeft to
the formation of fnow and ice, it muft be confidered that the
air of damp places always contains a confiderable portion of
water in a ftate of vapour, and the air in this machine will
have taken up more than the ordinary (hare, in confequence
of being in contaft with the water. When the air expands
itfelf, the heat being fuddenly abftrafted from this watery
vapour, it becomes fluid, and accumulates in drops like
rain ; which drops, by a farther abftraftion of heat, become
folid like fnow or hail.

An infti-ument which is in common ufe to produce fire,
by the fudden compreffion of air, (hews the reverfe of this
aftion : it is a fyringe fitted with a pifton, which is air-tight ;
at the bottom of the barrel a fmall piece of tinder is placed.
Now, if the pifton is very violently and fuddenly forced
down to the bottom of the barrel, and the pifton is then
withdrawn, the tinder will be found on fire. The heat con-
tained in the air which fills the barrel is fo concentrated at
the fame time with the air, as to produce aftual fire. If
the piftoii is forced flowly down, the air will be condenfed
to an equal degree, but no fire will be produced, becaufe
the heat has time to efcape through the metal of the barrel,
before it arrives at any confiderable degree of concentration.
We confider that in all cafes when air (and perhaps other
elaftic fluids) is comprefled into a fmaller fpace, part of the
heat it before contained will be given out to the furrounding
matter ; or if it is fulfered to expand to fill a larger fpace,
it will abforb or take up heat from the furrounding matter.

A larger Machine at Chremnitz. — This does not differ
from the original machine, fo as to require a minute defcrip-
tion ; but as this machine is not employed in England, and
we think it might be ufeful in many cafes in mining diftrifts,
we (hall give the proportions and calculations of a larger
machioe, as a model for engineers.

Feet.

Height of the fource above the place of delivery T
or fall of water, which is to work the machine : >
defcending pipe 4 inches bore - - -j

Depth from which the water is to be raifed out of "1
the pit to the place of delivery : afcending pipe >

Cubic Feet.

4 inches bore

136

96

170

83

Upper veflel a copper cylinder 5 feet diameter,
and 85 feet high ; metal 2 inches thick ; the
defcending pipe goes to within 4 inches of the
bottom : contents . . . - -

The lower veflel a brafs cyhnder 4 feet diameter,
and 67^ feet high ; metal 2 inches thick ; the
afcendiiig-pipe goes within 3 inches of the bot-
tom : rapacity .-.---

Air-pipe which communicates between the two
vefFels, 2 inches bore, and 96 feet in length

To ui.derftand the aftion of this machine clearly : — Sup-
pofe that the lower cyhnder is charged vi^ith water, and the
upper cylinder with air ready for aftion ; when the water
from the fource is admitted into the upper cyhnder, if no
ifft^ was given to the contained air, the water would enter
into the veflel, until the air was compreffed into one-fifth of

its bulk by the column of 1 36 feet high ; for a column of
34 feet nearly balances the ordinary elafticity of the air.
But when there is an ilfue given to the air through the air-
pipe, it will drive the compreffed air along this pipe, and ir
will expel water from the lower cylinder.

When all the air is expelled from tlie upper cylinder,
there will be 34 cubic feet of water expelled from the lower
cylinder. Now if the afcending pipe had been carried up
more than 136 feet above the lower level, inftead of 96 feet,
then the water would have rifen 136 feet high in that pipe,
by the intervention of the elaftic air, before it was in equilibrio
with the water in the defcending pipe ; but no more water
would have been expelled from the lower cylinder than what
would fill this pipe.

But the afcending pipe being only 96 feet high, the water
will be thrown out at the top of it with a confiderable velocity.
Were it not for the great obftruftions which the water and
air muft meet with in their paffage along the pipes, it would
iffue from the mouth of the afcending pipe with a velocity
of more than 50 feet ptr fecond. It iffues, however, much
more (lowly.

When the upper cylinder is become filled with water, the
fupply is ftopped ; but the lower cyhnder ftill contains 34
cubic feet of compreffed air of fufiicient elafticity to balance
the water in a difcharging-pipe 136 feet high, whereas tha
afcending-pipe is only 96 feet. Therefore the water will
continue to flow at the mouth of the afcending-pipe till the
compreffed air is fo far expanded as to balance only 96 feet
of water, that is, until it occupies one-fourth of its ordinary
bulk, or one-fourth of the capacity of the upper cylinder,
viz. 425 cubic feet. Therefore 425 cubic feet of water
will be expelled, and then the efflux will ceafe, leaving tlie
lower cylinder about one-lialf full of water.

When the difcharging-cock of the upper veffel is opened
the water iffues with great violence, being preffed by the
condenfed air returning from the lower cyhnder. It there-
fore iffues with the fum of its own weight, and of this com-
preffion. Thefe gradually decreafe together, by the efflux
of the water and the expanfion of the air ; and this efflux
flops before all the water in the upper veffel has flowed out,
becaufe there are only 42I feet of the lower cylinder occu-
pied by air. This quantity of water nearly will therefore
remain in the upper cylinder. The workman knows this,
becaufe the difcharged water from the upper veffel is
received firft of all into a veffel containing three-fourths of
the capacity of the upper cylinder, which ferves as a mea-
fure ; when this is filled, the attendant opens the cock
which admits the water into the lower veffel, by a long rod
which goes down the (haft : this allows the water of the
mine to fill the lower cylinder, and the air returns into the
upper cylinder through the air-pipe, and permits the remain-
ing water to run out of it ; and when the attendant finds
no more water will come out, every thing is brought to its.
firft condition.

The above account of the procedure in working this
engine, (hews that the efflux at the mouth of the afcending-
pipe becomes very flow near the end. On this account, it is
found convenient not to wait for the complete difcharge, but
to cut off the fupply when about 30 cubic feet of water
have been difcharged, and more work is done in this way.

A gentleman of great accuracy and knowledge of thefe
fubjetts, took the trouble of noticing particularly the per-
formance of the machine. He obferved that each ftroke, as
it may be called, took up about three minutes and one-
eighth, and that 32 cubic feet of water were difcharged, and
66 cubic feet were expended.

The ex pence therefore is 66 cubic feet of water falling

136

WATER.

\ ^6 feet, and the performance is 32 cubic feet raifed 96 feet,
and they are in the proportion of 66 x 136 to 32 x 96, viz.
8976 to 3072, that is the power employed is to the efTeft
produced, as 2.9 to i. The quantity raifed, viz. 32 cubic
feet, divided by the time 35- minutes, gives very nearly 10
cubic feet per minute, and multiplied by the height raifed
96 feet = 960 cubic feet raifed 1 foot high. Divide this
by 528 cubic feet, which is the horfe-power, and it gives 1.8.
The machine is not therefore equal in effeftive povs-er to a
fteam-engine of tvvo-horfe power, but the power employed
is juit equal to five-horfe power.

When we confider the great obftruftion which water
meets with in its paflage through long pipes, we find we
may gain feme advantage by increafing the bpre of the de-
fcending-pipe of fupply. The quantity of water which
defcends through this is 66 cubic feet in 3^ minutes, or very
nearly 30 cubic feet per minute ; the area of the four-inch
bore is 12.5 Iquare inches, and therefore 11.5 fuch areas
would make a fquare foot. Multiply 30 cubic feet by 1 1.5,
and we have 34J feet, which is the velocity with which the
water muft defcend in the pipe. This is much too great,
and it would be an improvement if the pipe was increafed to
fix inches bore, and the velocity would then be only 151
feet per minute. The performance of the machine would
then be greatly increafed, we think as much as one-third ;
it is true that it would expend more water, but not in the
fame proportion ; for part of the deficiency of this ma-
chine arifes from the needlefs velocity of the water in the
pipe, as well as from the violent efRux of the water by the
condenfed air, as we have before mentioned.

The difcharging-pipe ought to be 1 10 feet high inftead of
96, and would not give fenfibly lefs water. It muft be con-
lidered if the original expence of this fimple machine would
not be lefs than a water-mill which would raife 10 cubic feet
of water, 96 feet high, in a minute ; the repairs of it would
be fmall when compared with a mill. And, laftly, let it be
noticed, that fuch a machine can be ufed where no mill
■whatever can be put in motion.

A fmall ftream ef water, which would not move any kind
of wheel, will raife one-third of its own quantity to the
fame height, working as fall as it is fupplied.

From its fimplicity, we think the Hungarian Machine
( which fee ) eminently dcferves the attention of mathematicians
and engineers, to bring it to its utmoft perfeftion, and into
general ufe. There are many fituations where this kind of ma-
chine may be very ufeful. Thus where the tide rifes 1 7 feet, it
may be ufed for comprefling air into feven-eighths of its
bulk, and a pipe leading from a very large veflel inverted in
the tide-water may be ufed for raifing water from another
vefTel of one-eighth of its capacity, 1 5 feet high ; or if this
veffel has only one-tenth of the capacity of the larger one
fiet in the tide-way, two pipes may be led from it, one into
the fmall veffel, and the other into an equal veffel, 16 feet
higher, which receives the water from the firll. Thus one-
fixteenth of the water may be raifed 34 feet, and a fmaller
quantity to a ftill greater height, and this with a kind of
power that can liardly be applied any other way.

Sipho Inlerruptus to raife IValer ly Sudion. — l^iis machine
is the reverfe of the Chremnitz machine in its aftion, for
the power of a defcending column of water, running out of
a clofe veffel, caufes a vacuum therein ; and another column
of water is fucked up into the veffel, or rather forced up
by the preffure of the atmofphere to fill the vacuous fpace.
This machine is fully dcfcribed by Leopold, in his Thcatrum
Machinarum Hydraulicarum, vol. i. It is provided with
apparatus to open and (hut ihe cocks. It woiild be diffi-
cult to explain this machine witliout fcveral figures, and we

have therefore preferred to defcribe a machine of the fame
kind invented by Mr. Goodwin ; he calls it a machine
that will raife a body of water to any height not exceeding
the height of that column which will counterbalance the
preffure of the atmofphere, (fay 30 feet) and aas by the
defcent of part of the fame body of water through a fome-
what greater height, aided by the preffure of the atmo-
fphere.

Let A,^^. 10, Plate Water-iuorks, be a fpherical veffel of
copper or other metal, about 1 8 inches diameter ; B, another
fpfiere, about two feet fix inches in diameter ; C, a refer-
voir kept conftantly fupplied with water, part of which is
to be raifed up to E, by the power of another part defcend-
ing to a confiderable depth beneath the refervoir C. D is
a glafs cap, about fix inches long, fixed on the top of the
upper veffel A, for the purpofe of feeing when the water
begins to fill and has filled it ; E is the upper refervoir into
which the water of the refervoir C is to be elevated, atid the
contents of the upper veffel A is to be emptied ; I is a
pipe about half an inch in diameter, joined into the top of
the lower veffel B, and rifing upwards to within about an
inch of the top of the glafs cap D of the upper veffel ; 2 is
a pipe of the fame diameter, and a few feet longer than 1,1,
joined to the bottom of the lower veffel B, and defcending
downwards in a perpendicular or inclined direftion, to a
rather greater diftance beneath C than the upper veffel A is
elevated above C ; 3 is a pipe one inch and a half in diame-
ter, joined to the bottom of the upper veffel A, and paffing
upwards through the bottom to within two inches of the
top of the glafs cap D ; 4, 4, is a pipe of about half an inch
diameter, joined to the top of the veffel B, it paffes through
the bottom of the refervoir C, and rifes above the furface of
the water therein ; 5 is a pipe of the fame diameter, fixed to
the top of the veffel B, and terminating in and fixed to the
bottom of the refervoir C ; a is a pipe or fpout of the fame
diameter, fixed into the bottom of the upper veffel A, to
convey the water into the refervoir E ; 7 is a trumpet
mouth-pipe fixed to the bottom of the pipe 3, and extend-
ing downwards beneath the water to within about an inch
of the bottom of the refervoir C ; a, b, c, and J, are cocks
fixed to the pipes. The veffels, pipes, cocks, and joints,
muft all be air-tight.

In order to raife water from the lower refervoir C into
the upper refervoir E, all the cocks being ffiut proceed
thus : open the cocks i and c, in order to fill the lower
veffel B, and when B is filled, ffiut the cocks b and c, and open
the cock d. The water will then begin to run from the
fphere B by its gravity, and by means of its communication
with the upper fphere A, through the pipe i, will draw off
the air therefrom to fupply the fpace left in the lower veffel
B, by the running out of the water the air in A is thus rare-
fied. The atmofpheric air at the fame time preffmg on the
water in the refervoir C, will caufe it to rife through the
trumpet-mouth 7 of the pipe 3, and by falling over the top
of the pipe 3 at D, it will fill the upper fphere A. When
A is full, which may be feen through the glafs cap D, fhut
tlie cock d, and open the three cocks a, b, and c, the cock
and pipe b will allow the atmofpheric air to return into the
veffel, and fill both with air, by which means the water con-
tained in the veffel A will run into the elevated refervoir E,
and B will be replcniflied for another operation. Then (hut
the cocks a, b, and c, and open the cock d, and it will re-
peat the operation of raifing the water mto A.

If it be required to raife any body of water from refer-

voir C into refervoir E, by means of the defcent of a body

of fome other water from the veffel B, a communication

muft be made into B, independently of the pipe 5, anH

I 2 cock

WATER.

cock c ; •utt. through a pipe-cock leading from another
refervoir, as is reprefented by the dotted lines comnnuiii-
catiiig with B near the pipe and cock 5 ; the aftion is the
fame as before ; but the cock with the dotted hnes is to be
«fed in heu of pipe 5, and cock c. By this means, if the
water which is employed to work the machine is foul or
tainted, it will have no communication with the water which
it raifes. This machine has the fame defeft as the Clirem-
nitz machine ; viz. that the power which is expanded in
rarefying the air is greater than the quantity of water raifed,
and the difference is loll when the cock in the lower veffel
16 opened, and the air ruihes in.

A different Form of the Siphon Machine. — Mr. Goodwin's
engine is formed upon a very elegant principle, and operates
by the afliltance of only a fmall quantity of water. It may
be made in various forms, either to raifc the fluid above the
defcending column, or from below it to a level with the
bottom, and the height may be doubled or trebled by pro-
portionally increafing the defcending mafs, and raifmg fe-
veral columns of water from different elevations at the
fame time, by combining two or more of the ilmple
machines together, as is (hewn 'v\ fg. 8. Plate Water-
tuorks.

C, as in the former figure, reprefents the refervoir or
fource of water which is to work the machine ; B repre-
fents the lowed of the two Teflels which contain the rifing
and defcending bodies of water ; and the fmall fquare near
Jig. 8. reprefents the upper veffel A, Jig. 10. Thefe veffels
are fpherical in the original drawing, but to leffen the lofs of
fpace in defcent, they are here made fiat and cylindrical ;
E is the higher ciftern of the original figure, into which the
water is to be raifed ; 2, 3, and 4, are the pipes arranged in
the fame manner as the former machine ; F, a veffel the fame
as A, with tubes 3 and 6 : it communicates with the
veffel B by a pipe, and is intended to raife water out of the
ciftern E into a higher and additional cillcrn G.

The veffels E, F, and G, form a fecond machine,- which
has the fame parts and properties as the former, except that
the lower veffel B is common to both, and ferves as the
lower veffel to exhauil and drive up the water both to A
and to F ; 2 is an enlarged tube like the original drawing,
through which the water defcends to produce the aftion ;
5 is a hole in the top of B, inttead of a tube. This hole,
and the tubes 2, 4, and 6, muft be provided with valves inftead
of cocks, which muft be kept clofe by weights or fprings,
(while the water is rifing) except the valve to tube 2,
which muft be open. The tubes 3, 3, may alfo have valves
to fupport the raifed columns.

Operation. — Fill the cifterns C and E with water, and let
the lower ciftern be ccnftantly fnpplied ; open the valves of
the tubes 4, 5, 6, 6, and clofe the valve of the defcending-
tube 2, the veffel B then becomes filled through the hole 5.
Now clofe the valves of the tubes 4, 5, and 6, and open the
valve of the tube 2, the water will then begin to defcend
out of B, and will exhauft the air from A and F, juft as in
the firft-mentioned machine ; the prefl'ure of the atmo-
fphere on the furface of the water C, will raife one body of
water out of C into A, and out of E into F ; when B is
nearly empty, or when A and F are full, open the tubes
4, J, 6, 6, and clofe 2, then B will be filled a fecond time, and
the veffels A and F will empty themfelves into their refpec-
tive cifterns E and G : thus the reciprocations continue
without interruption.

Another body of water may be raifed out of G into a
higher cittern by additional apparatus, and by proportion-
ally increafing the dimenfions of the veffel B and the tube 2.
The dotted lines reprefent the apparatus for raifing water
9- .

below the bottom of the tube 2, to be ufed inftead of thofe
above the ciftern C.

This arrangement of the engine is of great utility in
many cafes ; and in lituations where this machine can be
erefted, it may be of confiderablc ufe for raifing water out
of mines for draining pieces of land, or elevating the water
employed in domeftic purpofes.

Comparifon of different Prejfure -Engines. — In Mr. Nichol-
fon's Journal, 8vo. vol. i. Mr. Bofwell has given a plan for
conftrufting Mr. Goodwin's engine on a large fcale, to
operate without attendance of any perfon, to open and fhut
the cocks, and another method of caufing the Chremnitz
machine to raife water above the level of the prime refer-
voir ; and he makes the following comparative view of the
advantages of both kinds of engines and their powers.

It will be found that the powers and capabilities of thefe
machines are nearly fimilar. 1 ft, In both the greater the
height of the original fall of water from the fource to the
difcharge, and the greater the quantity of water which it can
fupply in a given time, the greater quantity can be raifed by
either of thefe engines in a given time. 2dly, Both engines
can be conftrufted fo as to raife water above the original
level, and from below, to the furface, or from a pit. 3dly,
By a fucceflive number of refervoirs, both engines can be
brought to raife water to any height, but as they will raife
a fmaller quantity as the height is increafed, the quantity
wanted m a given time, and the expence of conftruftion, will
limit the extent of their elevation. 4thly, In both engines
the diftance of one refervoir from anothermuft always be lefs
than that of the original fall : the circuniftances in which
thefe engines differ arife from the difference in their manner
of aftion. Jthly, The Chremnitz engine operates by cauf-
ing a fall of water to comprefs the air, which rcafting on
other water, forces it to rife in a pipe to a certain height.
The fyphon engine afts by caufing a fall of water to rarefy
a certain quantity of air, in whofe fpace the preffure of the
atmofphere forces a quantity of water when permitted.
6thly, Hence in the Chremnitz engine the preffure afting
from within outwards tends to burft the veffels ufed in the
ftrufture, and to open and extend any fiflTures which may
chance to be in them, ythly. In the fyphon engine, the
preffure afting from without inwards, clofes all the parts of
which it is compofed more together. 8thly, The Chremnitz
engine will always raife water of a heiglit nearly equal to that
of the original fall from one refervoir to another, fuppofing
the original fall of any height whatfoever as 100 feet. The
fyphon engine will not raile water by one refervoir fo high
as thirty feet in any cafe whatfoever, as there cannot be a
complete vacuum formed by it in the air-chamber, but only
an approximation to one.

From this comparifon, it will follow that wherever the
original fall of water is lefs than thirty-two feet, the fyphon
engine will be much preferable to the Chremnitz, as from
the feventh article of the comparifon it may be made of
the cheapeft materials, fuch as ftrong wooden cafks and
wooden pipes, whereas the Chremnitz engine from the fixth
article mull be made of the ftrongeft, and of courfe the moft
collly materials, as metal, and that of confiderablc thicknefs ;
but wherever the original fall exceeds the height of tliirty
feet confiderably, and it is required to raife the water to
nearly the fame height, then the Chremnitz engine appears
to be preferable, as, in all probability, the fewer number of
parts which it will require in this cafe will more than com-
penfate for its coil in materials.

When it is required to raife water to a height much greater
than that of the original fall above the firfl level, or from a
greater depth, either from the original faH being fhort, or

the

WATEll.

tlie required height being great, it is better to employ an
engine in which the preffiire of the water is made to a£l by
a pifton in an apparatus iimilar to that of a ileam-engine.
(See our article Pressure Engine.) When neither the fy-
phon engine nor the Chremnitz can be ufed without a
number of refervoirs, then the pifton preflure-engine ought
to be preferred, but this will much depend on the"number
of refervoirs ; for perhaps one or two in addition to the
Chremnitz might coit lefs than boring the cyhnder of the
pifton-engine perfeft, and conftrufting its additional ma-
chinery. For merely raifing water the powers of each are
nearly equal, depending entirely on the height of the original
fall of water.

It would be a great advantage of the pifton-preflure engine
if a fall of water could be applied to it without any watte, to
work, mills or macliinery for any purpofe; this would be of
very great confequence when the fall of water is of con-
ilderable height, and the ftream or fupply fmall. We have
mentioned the advantage in this engine to have its aftion made
elaftic, by the addition of an air-chamber, on the fame prin-
ciple as that ufed in engines for extinguilhing conflagrations.
Mr. BofwcU fuggefts that this might be effefted by making
the pifton hollow, and of a larger fize, to contain air for this
purpofe, as the air's clafticity would then aft both on the
upper and lower preft"ure of the water.

Machine for raifing Water by the lateral Communication, from
the Motion of a Stream of Water running through a conical Tube.
— This machine operates by fuftion, or more properly by the
pren"ure of the atmofphere, and is in fome refpefts fimilar to
the fyphon machine. (See ^^. 9. Plate Water-iuorlis.)
A A rcprefeiits a refervoir of water kept conftantly full, at
the fame time tliat the conical fpout, B, is running full under
a confiderable preft^ure ; D, a fpherical copper veifel, with a
tube, C, joined into its bottom, and rifing up within to fome
height above the centre of the fphere ; E, another tube joined
to the bottom of tlie fphcro D, and terminating near its top ;
the lower part of this tube is bent, and the extremity of
it is introduced into the fmaller apertures of the conical
tube B ; F, a fpout or tube to empty the vefTel D, when it
is filled with water which has been raifed up out of the re-
fervoir A ; G, a fmall tube pafling through the fpout F, and
rifing to near the top of the fphere, D, tor the admiffion of
air to quicken the defcent of water out of that vefl^el. Both
thefe tubes are clofed at their lower ends by a leather valve
at the end of the lever L, which lever is fixed upon the
turning plug of a cock in the tube E, and has a weight upon
one end, in order that the other end may bear the valvj up
againft the openings of the tubes F, G, with a confiderable
force, and alfo to fiipport the weight of the fmall bucket I,
which is fufpended from the lever by a wire (at leaft when
the bucket is empty ) ; H is a fmall ciftern to be filled witii
water from the refervoir A, in the fame time that the
water is raifed up into D ; this muft be done by regulating
the cock, k, upon the pipe which fupplies the ciftern with
water. The ciftern H is provided with a fyphon, which will
tegin running as foon as the veffel is full of water, and will
foon empty it. The fmall bucket I, which is fufpended
from the lever L, is alfo fnrnidied with a fyphon-tube, which
will begin to run and empty the bucket whenever it is quite
full, but not before.

The operation of the engine will be as follows : — The re-
fervoir A being kept conftantly full of water, and the coni-
cal tube B completely filled at its wider end by the water
which runs out of A, the force of the lateral motion of the
fluid will be increafcd by the conical form of the tube B,
and will adl upon the end of the tube E to draw air out of
the fame, fo as to rarefy the air in the veffel D ; and the pref-

fure of the atmofphere upon the furface of the water in tlie
refervoir A, will .taufe part of that water to rife up the
pipe C, to run over its top and fill the fphere D ; it will then
defcend through E, and join the ftream of water which flows
out at B. When the veffel D is full of water, if the valve at
the fpout F is opened, the water will run out.

In order to open the valve the cock k is regulated, that
the ciftern H will be filled foon after D is full, and the
fyphon of this ciftern beginning to empty the water it fills
the bucket I, which then overbalances the weight upon the
lever L, and opens the fpout F, and air-pipe G, and at the
fame time clofes the cock in E ; the column of water in the
defcending pipe C immediately defcends into the refervoir,
and if the fmall tube G be full of water it will be emptied
by the defcent of that column, and will admit air into D fo
as to allow the water to flow out at F into the elevated re-
fervoir. The fyphon in the ciftern H is regulated fo that
the ciftern and the veifel D will be empty of water about
the fame time, and the bucket I by its fyphon will become
empty foon after : the weight upon the lever L will thea
clofe the fpout F, and open the paffage through E, when
all the parts will ftand as at firft ready for a repetition of
the operation of the lateral aftion of the ftream, by which
the water is raifed up into D as before.

If the water fhould defcend through E before F and G
are opened, it will render the cock in E more tight. To
quicken the reciprocation of the engine, and increafe the
quantity of raifed water, a valve may be made to fupport
the column of water in the fuftion-pipe ; this valve may be
placed in a cheft at the bottom of the pipe.

The defcending branch of the fyphon in the higher veffel
H ftiould be made of confiderable length, to prevent a con-
ftant dripping, and make the reciprocation end at once ;
the fyplion of the bucket I fliould fall as large in bore as
the other, in order that the weight on L may preponderate
quickly, and clofe the valve immediately.

The inventor entertains no doubt refpefting the operation
of a machine of this kind, and that a column of water may
be railed to any height not exceeding thirty feet by pro-
portionally increafiiig the pren"ure of water in the refervoir,
and the dimenfions of the conical tube.

In many fituations, however, the requifite quantity of water
for this purpofe cannot be had, and others may not admit of
fufficient defcent.

Where the ftream has a confiderable defcent, the water
may be railed by a number of lifts inftead of one, by com-
bining as many machines. Suppofe three refervoirs each
with Its conical tube or fpout through which the water runs
from one to the other ; alfo three exhaufting veflels each
with its elevated ciftern into which the raifed water is to be
dehvered ; and the fuftion-pipe of each veffel draws its water
from the elevated ciftern of the veffel below it. From each
exhaufting veflel a pipe is conveyed to the conical fpout of
one of the three refervoirs, and the lateral motion of the
ftream paffing through the fpouts of the three refervoirs will
aft upon all three engines at once.

In like manner, when there is plenty of water, but not
convenience for a deep refervoir, feveral conical fpouts may
be fixed to different parts of the refervoir, and all upon the
fame level. Eacii machine muft be provided with a lever
and weight to work its own valves, but they may be all
opened at the fame time by the defcent of one veffel con-
uefted with all the levers, or each may have its refpeftive
bucket and fyphons.

This kind of machinery, by altering the pofition of the
rarefying tubes, may be made to raife water from a depth
below the ftream equally as well as to a height above it ; and

WATER.

in fttuations Wtiere there it plenty of water and convenience
for a refervoir a lower body of water may be conveyed into
a ftream above by the help of a fingle tube, one end of
which is placed in the water to be raifed, and the other mud
be introduced into the fmaller aperture of the conical tube
adapted to the refervoir ; a conilant ftream will then rife,
fo long as water below can fupply the tube.

Mr. Whitehurjl's Machine for raifmg Water by iu Mo-
mentum Fig. 7, Plnte IVater-works, is a reprefentation of

the firft machine on this principle, which was exec'ited in
the year 1777., by the ingenious Mr. John Whitehurft, at
Oulton in Chefhire, at the feat of Mr. Egerton, for the fer-
vice of a biew-houfe and other offices, and which purpofe it
was found to anfwer effeftually. This firft form of the
momentum machine would be a ufeful application in many
fimilar fttuations. The circumftances attending this water-
work are as follow : A reprefents the fpring, or original re-
fervoir, which fupplies the water, the upper furface coincides
with the horizontal line B C, and the bottom of the refer-
voir K, into which the water is to be raifed ; D is the main-
pipe, one inch and a half in diameter, and nearly two hundred
yards in length ; E, a branch-pipe, of the fame dimenfions,
for the fervice of the kitchen-offices. It is to be obferved,
that the kitchen-ofiices are fituated at leaft eighteen or
twenty feet below the furface of the refervoir A ; and that
the cock F is about fixteen feet below it. G reprefents a
valve-box, and^the valve within it ; H is an air-veffel, and
O, O, are the two ends of the main-pipe, inferted into the
air-veflel H, and bending downwards, fo that in effeft the
pipes communicate with the loweft part of the vefTel, and the
air cannot efcape when the water is forced into it, but it
muft be comprefled by the column of water ; W is the fur-
face of the water m the air-veflel. It is well known from
theory that, when water is difcharged from an aperture, under
a prelTure of fixteen feet perpendicular height, it will move
at the rate of thirty -two feet in a fecond ; the velocity of
the water from the cock F will be nearly as much, making
fome allowance for fritlion and refillance ; and although
the aperture of the cock F is not equal to the diameter of
the pipe D, yet the velocity of the water contained in the
pipe will be very confiderable ; confequently when the cock
is opened a column of water two hundred yards in length is
put into motion, and if it is fuddenly flopped by the fliut-
ting-cock F, its momentous force wUl open the valve g,
and condenfe the air in veflel H ; this aftion will be repeated
as often as water is drawn from F. It is needlefs to fay in
what degree the air is thus condenfed in the inilance before
us ; but it will be fufficient to obferve, that it was fo much
condenfed as to force the water up into the refervoir K, and
even to burft the veflel H, in a few months after it was firft
conftrufted, although it was apparently very firm, being made
of flieet-lead, about nine or ten pounds weight to a fquare
foot. Whence it is reafonable to infer that the momentous
force is much fuperior to the Cmple preflure of the column
in the refervoir K, above the level line C B, and therefore
equal fo a greater refiftance (if required) than a preflure of
four or five feet perpendicular height. It may be neceflary
farther to obferve, that the confumption of the water in
the kitchen-offices is very confiderable, becaufe water is fre-
quently drawing from morning till night all the days of
the year.

From this account which is publifhed in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions for 1775, it is clear that Mr. Whitehurft was
luUy aware of the power of the momentum of running
water, and though he applied it only to raife water to a
fmall height, he knew it might be carried to a greater
extent.

Montgolfier' s Hydraulic Ram. — We have given the ac-
count of Mr. Whitehurft's machine, becaufe it fliews the
firft origin of a moft valuable invention, which was after-
wards pratlifcd in France by M. Montgolfier, the inventor
of the firft balloon with heated air. Mr. Boulio;i took a
patent in England for Montgolfier's machine in 1797; he
afterwards called his machine belter hydraulique, that is, hy-
draulic ram, becaufe of the fliock which the water makes
wh^n its motion is fuddenly ftopped. In his publication in
the Journal des Mines, vol. xiii. he fays, " This invention
is not originally from England, but belongs entirely to
France ; I declare that I am the fole inventor, and that the
idea was not furnifhed to me by any perfon. It is true
that one of my friends, with my confent, fent to Mefirs.
Watt and Boulton copies of feveral drawings of this ma-
chine with a detailed memoir on its applications. Thefe
arc faithfully copied in the patent taken out by Mr. Boul-
ton in England, dated December 13, 1797, as that gentle-
man has avowed." Wc do not wifli to detract from the
merit of M. Montgolfier, as we believe that Whitehurft's
machine was unknown to him, but we muft ftate the
hydraulic ram an Englifh invention. To have an idea of
this invention, it is proper to ilate its phyfical principle of
aftion, which is as follows.

When water is running with a rapid current through a
pipe or clofe channel, if the end at which the water iflues
be fuddenly ftopped, the water (by its acquired motion, 1
momentum, or impetus,) will aft upon the fides or circum-
ference of the pipe, and endeavour to efcape with a force
proportioned to' its quantity and velocity. If the materials
of the pipe are ftrong enough to refift that impetus, the
water may be made to iffue with violence and velocity, at
any aperture which is opened in or near the clofe end of the
pipe ; therefore if an afcending pipe be joined to that
aperture, a portion of water will afcend in it. The machine
being provided with proper valves, to prevent the return
of the water fo elevated, the operation may be repeated in
a conftant fucceflion, and will form a kind of perpetual
pump.

The fame effeft will be produced by a different arrange-
ment of this apparatus, mix. a pipe open at both ends, with
a valve and afcending-pipe, fuch has as been defcribed. Let
this be fo attached to fome kind of machinery, that it can be
fwiftly moved along, in the direftion of its length, through
ftanding water ; then, upon clofing the hinder part of the
pipe fuddenly, a portion of water will be forced up in the
afcending-pipe, in the fame manner as in the former cafe,
and for the fame reafon, becaufe the water will be relatively
in motion with refpeft to the pipe.

The fame principle may be readily extended to raife
water by fuftion from a lower level than that on which the
machine is placed, and this by either of the means above-
mentioned. Suppofe a fuftion-pipe, which communicates
with water at a lower level, be joined to the main-pipe
through which the water flows, and that the junftion is
near that end of the pipe where the water enters into it.
Suppofe alfo that the water has acquired a rapid motion
through the pipe, either by the current of water running
through the pipe, or by the pipe moving through the water ;
then let the mouth or end at which the water enters be fudden-
ly Ihut by the machinery, and the water by its momentum
will continue its motion relatively to the pipe, and will
tend to exhauft the content of the pipe. This aftion will
draw or fuck up water through the afcending-pipe from the
lower level, fo as to fill up the vacuity in the main-pipe, oc-
cafioncd when the water therein perfeveres in its previous
motion.

The

WATER.

The firft and moft fimple hydraulic ram is fiiewn in fcc-
tion at ^^.4. (Plate Water-'worti) ; here CC reprefents
the main-pipe, or body of the ram, through which the ftream
of current water is condiifted ; D, the afcending-pipe pro-
vided with a valve of exit at A, to allow the paffage of the
water which is raifed, but to prevent its return ; B is a ftop-
valve to clofe the end of the maiji-pipe ; E is a balance-
weight fixed upon the lever G, which conrmunicates with
another, K, attached to the axis of the llop-valve B ; this
weight tends to open the valve at the proper time. The
main-pipe is to be fituated in a current or ftream of water,
either produced by the natural current or declivity of a
river or other ftream, or by penning up the water by a dam
or weir, and inferting the end of the main-pipe through the
dam, fo as to obtain the greateft fall of water which the
natural circumftances will admit of. To put the machine
in aftion, let the ftop-valve be opened to the pofition fhewn
in the figure, the water will run through the main-pipe C,
until it acquires a certain velocity which will be propor-
tioned to the height of the fall of water which produces
the current of water. The aftion of the current upon the
ftop-valve B, in its reclined pofition, will increafe until it is
fufficient to overcome the weight E, and then it will (hut
the itop-valve. The water being now fuddenly ftopped,
and confined in the pipe C, by its impetus or momentum,
will exert a confiderable force within the pipe, which will
open the other valve A, and a portion of the water will
rife up the afcending-pipe D. The force of the momentum
being expended in raifing this water, the water in the main-
pipe will immediately recover the equilibrium, and the
clofing of the valve A will prevent the return of the water
which is raifed in the afcending-pipe. The weight E now
defcends, and opens the ftop-valve B, and the water in the
main-pipe refumes its motion until its velocity is fufficient
to clofe the valve A again, and the operation of raifing the
water is again repeated.

This water gradually rifes in the afcending-pipe until it
reaches its fummit, and then a quantity will iffue from it at
every ftroke into a proper refervoir R. The quantity will be
more or lefs, according as the height to which it is raifed, and
to the velocity of the current, and the fize of the apparatus.
In this defcription, we have taken no notice of the aftion of
the air-velTel J, at the bottom of the afcending-pipe D, al-
though its ufe is very important to the prafticability of the
contrivance ; for where the water is to be raifed to any con-
fiderable height, the pipes, although formed of the bell mate-
rials that can be procured, will be m danger of rupture from
the great concuflion of the water when fuddenly checked ;
hence the rifing of the water would be limited to the height
of a few teet, or the pipes muft be made of an extraordinary
thicknefs, difregarding expence.

This danger of burfting the pipes is to be regarded in
every cafe of applying this invention to praftice ; but it
will be prevented, or very much diminiflied, by introducing
an air-veifel I. The water from the main-pipe enters at
every ftroke through the exit-valve A, and compreffes the
air in the vcfTel J, which again, by its expanfion or elafticity,
afts upon the water, (which is prevented from returning to
the pipe C by tlie ftiutting of the exit-valve,) and therefore
rifes through the afcending-pipe, and by repeated ftrokes
acquires the defired height.

The dimt nfions of the air-veflcl, as well as its form and
pofition, and whether it is affixed to the main-pipe laterally
or above, are in a great meafure arbitrary ; but its contents
of air ought not to be much lefs than ten times the quantity
of water to be raifed through the afcending-pipe at each

ftroke, and if very much larger ftill the better, the prin-
cipal boundary being expence.

The regulation of the ftop-valve B, is a principal point
in the cGnftruftion of thefe machines. It may be opened
and fhut by the current, as has been defcribed, in a very
fimple manner, by adapting the valve to move upon an axle
or hinge, and affifting it to open at the proper time by a
weight attached to a lever fixed to its axis at the proper
angle. The valve (hould be prevented from opening to
fuch a degree, that the aftion of the current of water could
not (hut it. This muft be done by fome fixed refiftance be-
hind the valves, as (hewn at B,Jig. 3, or by any other con-
venient means.

It is neceffary to adjuft the weight by experiment, fo as
to open the valve at the right time, according to circum-
ftances, which may be done either by Aiding the weight
nearer to, or farther from, the centre of motion, or by in-
creafing or diminilhing the weight itfelf. The inconve-
nience of this method is, that the weight being generally
under water, it is troublefome to adjuft it ; therefore the
mechanifm (hewn in Jig. 4. is better adapted to the ftop-
valve. The weight E is fitted upon a lever connefted with
a fpindle, to which another arm or lever G is alfo fixed,
and that is connefted by rod a, with the arm K fixed to the
valve.

The rod may be prolonged to any neceffary length, and
the weight and its mechanifm may be always placed above
water, fo as to be eafily come at for adjultment. Valves
of this kind may be hinged either upon their lower or
upper edge, or upon one of the perpendicular fides as a
common door, as convenience requires, and the mechanifm
is connefted accordingly.

When it is required to open the ftop-valve fo completely
that the current of water in the main-pipe cannot aft upon
it, to (hut it, a fmall ftream of water is led from the head,
which fupplies the main-pipe, or from fome other fource into
a pipe or trough, which is furnilhed with a cock to regulate
the quantity. This pipe or trough pours its water into the
bucket G, Jig. 5, which caufes the bucket to preponderate,
and by means of the lever ic, fixed to its axle, and the
rod cd attached to it, it (huts the ftop-valve B, by the con-
neftion of the lever de attached to it. The bucket then
empties its water, and the pendulous weight E, as foon as
the recoil of the water in the main-pipe takes place, prepon-
derating in its turn, opens the valve, and reftores the bucket
to its place. In this contrivance, by opening the cocks of
fupply more or lefs, and by adapting the capacity of the
buckets in proportion to the weight E, the number of llrokes
to be made in any given time is regulated.

The ftop-valve may be conftrafted in a circular form,
and, inftead of being hinged upon one fide, may be fixed
upon a fpindle in its centre, which Aides in a focket, fimilar
to what are called button-valves ufed in pump-work, and at
the proper time is opened by mechanifm fimilar to the
former ; or, in place of the weight, a fpring itiay be em-
ployed.

In conftrufting large machines, where the (hock, from
(hutting the ftop-valve, might endanger the derangement of
the machine, other kinds of ftop-valves will be preferable to
thofc before defcribed.

A very good form of valve is that which opens in two
leaves, like the gates of a canal-lock. The loaves may (hut
one upon another in the middle, or may Ihut upon an up-
right bar placed thirc. Tb.ey are opened by the fame kind
of mechanifm as we liave defcribed before, only there muft
be two conne(fting-rods, one to each leaf of the valve ; and

4 tbefe

WATER.

thefe being united together, will caufe them to fhut both
together. The aperture for this valve is of a rcftangular
form.

A valve in two leaves, fuch as is called a butterfly-valve,
may alfo be hinged in the middle of the opening, but would
too much obftruA the water-way. When the main pipe is
of a large diameter, (for inftancc, two feet or upwards,)
the ftop-valve may be made in three, four, or more leaves
connefted together by mechanifm, fimilar to Venetian win-
dow-blinds.

Another kind of valve is poifed upon an axis, like a com-
mon fire-ftove chimney damper; the axis does not pafs
through its centre, but divides it into two unequal fegments.
The valve is not opened fo far as to ftand in the line of the
current of water, but, when opened, ftands inclined to that
current ; fo that the larger fegment being placed towards
the dream, the latter may by its aftion fliut it at the proper
time. It is opened by mechanifm fimilar to the former.
Another kind of valve is a fpherical ball of porcelain, which
is fitted into a feat. • • u

When the machine is made ufe of in an open river, which
does not admit of having its water penned up by a weir or
dam-head, the main pipe ought to be laid fo as to be covered
by the low waters of the river ; and it ought to be parallel
to the furface of the river, fo as to have the greateil poflible
declivity that can be obtained in the length of the main
pipe : its mouth or receiving end (hould be Ihaped hke that
of a trumpet or bell. In all cafes whatfoever, the valves
ought to be conipletely under the furface of the water, in
the lower refervoir.

Performance of the hydraulic Pam, (fee Ram) — M. Mont-
golfier, in his publication, fays, that a belier hydraulique, exe-
cuted with care, is capable of rendering three-fourths of the
force which is employed to move it, that is, the produdt of the
weight of water raifed, multiplied by the height to which it
is raifed, will be equal to three-fourths of the produft of the
weight of water which works the machine, multiplied by
the height of the fall. Commonly it yields fix-tenths, but
he would only engage to furnifli half. Thus, if the water was
to be raifed lOO feet by a fall of 5 feet, he would engage
to make a machine which (hould deliver at 100 feet a
fortieth part of the whole quantity which fell. He recom-
mends particularly that the machine (hould be fixed in the
mod folid manner, by mafonry or timber, fo that the (hock
of the water can produce no motion of the machine, be-
caufe all fuch motion will dedudl confiderably from the
quantity of water raifed. It is Hated that the machine will
make from 20 to 120 llrokes/x-r minute.

The dimenfions of an hydrauUc ram at the bleaching
■works of M. Turquet, near Senhs, in France, when re-
duced to Enghlh meafure, are as follow : diameter of the
body of the ram 8 inches, fall of the water 3 feet 4 inches,
height to which the water is raifed 15 feet i inch. In three
minutes this machine made 100 ftrokes, which expended
67 cubic feet of water, and raifed 9-4: cubic feet : hence,
67 cubic feet x 3i feet — 223, and 9:! cubic feet x I5tV

feet = 140. Now

223

is equal to -rVsths, fo that the

effeft produced is above fix-tenths of the power applied. In
another experiment it was found to be 64-hundredths. This
machine raifed a quantity of water equal to 6.2 inches of water
(pouces de fontanier), for 269 litres which are nearly equal
to 280 pints, in three minutes ; and the pouce de fontanier
is a meafure of running water equal to 14 pints (French)
per minute, or 796.37 cubic inches, Engli(h. This ma-

chine working 24 hours willraife 134400 pints (French), or
4512 cubic feet Englifh, of water to a height of 15 feet
I inch. The water raifed by this machine is equal to f the
power of a man, according to our ftandard.

M. Montgolficr recommends the pipe or body of the ram
to be of an equal diameter through the whole length ; and
all internal irregularities are to be avoided, becaufe they
diminifh the velocity of the water : the ftrength of the pipe
(hould be at lealt equal to fuftain a column of twice the
height to which it is intended to raife the water.

He fays, that he executed one with a fall of 10 feet,
which comprelTed the air in an air-ve(rel to an equal degree
with 40 atmofpheres, which, taking the prelTure of the at-
mofphere equal to 33 feet of water, makes the preffure
equal a column of water 1320 feet in height.

Improved hydraulic Ram. — M. Montgolfier, the fon of
the inventor, has recently obtained a patent in England for
an improved hydraulic ram, in which, by attention to fome
minute particulars in the conltruftion, he is enabled to make
the length of the tube much lefs than in the former ma-
chines ; and he has even obtained a refult equal to 84 per
cent, of the power employed.

One of thefe improvements is the addition of a fmall
fnifting-valve, which, at each movement, ferves to introduce a
fmall quantity of air into the head of the ram, from whence
it is driven by the next movement into the air-veflel, which
would otlierwife become filled with water, if the air, ab-
forbed by the contaft of the water under a ftrong preffure,
were not continually replaced by fome fuch means.

Alfo, in the interior of the head of the ram is an annular
fpace, furrounding the frame of the (lop-valve : this con-
tains a fmall volume of air, which cannot be forced into the
air-veffel, but which, at each movement, is conipreffed by
and receives the firft effort of the moving water. This he
calls the air-matrafs, and by means of it, the (hutting of
the ftop-valve makes lefs noife, the pipe is not ftrained, and
all the operations take place with fo much eafe, that the
machine is lefs fhakcn, and lefs frequently out of repair.
The following is a defcription of the new machine.

That end of the pipe or body of the ram which receives
the water of the refervoir is formed like a trumpet -mouth,
that the water may flow more readily into the pipe ; and the
length of the pipe muft be regulated according to the height
of the fall of water, which is to produce the current through
it. The pipe is compofed of feveral pieces or lengths
fcrewed together by flanches, or other fimilar means ; but
it is in the end piece, which is called the head of the ram,
that the moving parts of the machine are placed.

The extremity of the pipe or head of the ram is a hollow
fphere, the diameter of which is nearly twice as great as the
bore of this pipe : the upper part of the fpherical end is flat-
tened, fo as to reduce it to a fegment of a fphere, with a flat
circular furface on the top or upper fide, in the centre of which
furface is a large circular opening to receive and hold the
feat of the ftop-valves, at which the water i{rues ; but when
the valve is clofed, it prevents the water from iffuing.

When the valve opens, it defcends perpendicularly into
the hollow fphere, and leaves a free paffage through the
opening. Its motion is guided between three or four per-
pendicular ftems, which have hooks formed at the lower
ends to retain or fupport the valve when opened ; and thefe
ftems are fixed by fcrews, fo that they can be regulated to
allow the valve to defcend more or lefs, and open a greater
or lefs paffage for the water. The valve is made of metal,
and hollow, for it has a flat circular plate of metal, with a
hollow cup or difh of metal attached to its lower furface :

this

WATER.

this at the fame time renders the valve lighter in the water,
and gives it a convex furface on the lower lide, which, when
tlie valve is opened, corrcfponds in curvature witli the in-
terior concave furface of the fpherical end ot the head of
the ram. The feat of the valve is compofed of a fliort
cyhnder or pipe, of which the opening is much greater than
the tranfverfe feftion of the body of the ram. This fhort
cylinder is fcrewed by its flanch into the opening in the
upper furface of the head qf the ram. This flanch of the
feat is fo formed as to liave an inverted cup round the upper
part of the fhort cylinder, that is, a circular channel or an-
nular fpace within the head of the ram, which will contain
air, and from which the air cannot efcape when the water
compreffes. The air in this channel is called the air-
matrafs.

The fnifting-valve is at the end of a fmall pipe, which
leads from the annular fpace or matrafs to the open air.
The fnifting-valve opens inwards, in order to admit the air
to enter into the matrafs ; but to prevent its return, there is
another fmall valve in the fame pipe, which opens outwards :
the office of this is to admit a certain quantity of air into
the matrafs, and then to fhut and prevent any farther en-
trance.

On the outfide of the feat of the ftop-valve that is over
the aperture in the liead of the ram, where the water ifTues,
another ftop-valve is applied, which is fimilar to the internal
valve before mentioned, but Ihuts down on the outfide of
the feat. Its ufe will be hereafter explained.

The upper part of the pipe or head of the ram is made
flat at the part near the end where it enlarges to a fphere ;
and this flat furface on the top of the pipe has feveral nar-
row openings acrofs it, which are covered by as many flap-
valves of leather, to allow water to pafs out from the main
pipe, but to prevent its return. And on each fide of the
iiead of the ram, at the part oppofite to thefe flap-valves, is
a hollow enlargement, in form of a fegment of a horizontal
circle ; and the two enlargements taken together form a
circular bafon, through the centre of which the pipe of the
ram paffes ; but, as before ftated, the pipe, inflead of being
circular, is flat at top at that part, to form the feats for the
flap-valves. This circular bafon is covered by a cylindrical
air-veflel, fcrewed down by means of a flanch at the edge,
fo that tlie circular bafon forms the bottom of the fpace in
the air-veflel ; the flap-valves being covered by the_ air-veflel
are therefore within the veflel.

In confequence of this arrangement, all the water which
idues from the body of the ram through the flap-valves will
flow off on each fide, and be received in the bafon ; but as
the circular bafon or bottom of the air-veffel is divided into
two parts, by the pipe of the ram which pafles through it,
there i.s a paifage communicating from one of the enlarge-
ments to the other ; for which purpofe, it curves down
and dcfcer.ds beneath the pipe of the ram ; and the afcend-
ing pipe that carries away the water which the machine
raifes, proceeds either from this curved paflage or from
fome other part of the bafon, fo that it may receive the
water which has paflcd from the body of the ram through
the flap-valves and the air-velTel into tlie bafon, at each fide
of the pipe.

The aclion of this hydraulic ram is nearly the fame as the
preceding. Snppofc the pipe or body of the ram is full of
water, if the internal ftop-valve is opened, the water from
the refervoir will flow through the body of the ram, and
iffue through the opening at the end, it will lift up the ex-
ternal ftop-valve and efcape ; but the current having con-
tinued until the water has acquired a certain velocity, the
force of the current buoys up the internal valve, and clofes
Vol. XXXVIII.

the paflage. The motion of the water contained in the ram
will thus be fuddenly arretted, and by its -vis inertia, or
moving force, will exert a fudden prefl"ure againft the ftop-
valve, and againft all the interior parts of the ram. The
fmall quantity of air contained in the fpace around the
interior ftop-valve, which is called the air-matrafs, is com-
prefled into a fmaller fpace, and, by its elafticity, takes off
the violence of the fliock or blow which would otherwife be
produced. This prefl'ure opens the flap-valves on the top
of the pipe, which are within the air-veffel, and a portion of
the water will be driven into the air-veffel, which is fup-
pofed to be fuU of air, compreffed or condenfed, till its
elafticity equals the preffure of the column of water which
is to be raifed up the afcending pipe by the atlion of the
machine.

The water which is forced into the air-veffel caufes the air
therein to be condenfed, and to exert a greater degree of elafti-
city, until it will exceed the preffure of the column of water
in the afcending-pipe ; by degrees this air will therefore
force through the faid pipe all the water which was injefted
through the flap-valves, and caufe that quantity of water to
iffue from the upper extremity of that pipe.

The moving force, or vis inertia of the mafs of water,
which was in motion in the body of the ram, having expend-
ed itfelf by forcing a portion of water into the air-veffel, and
making a ftill greater compreffion of the contained air, a re-
coil of the water in the body will take place with a flight
motion from the valve towards the open end of the body ;
this arifes from the reaflion or elafticity of the air contained
in the air-matrafs, and alfo of the metal of which the tube
is compofed.

The flap-valves within the air-veflel ftiut, and prevent the
return of the water which has been forced into the air-
veffel. This recoil of the water in the body towards the
open end caufes a flight afpiration within the whole body of
the ram, and the external ftop-valve defcends by its weight,
and prevents the water with which it is covered from enter-
ing through it ; but the air paffes through the fmall pipe,
leading from the open air to tlie annular fpace or air-ma-
trafs, and opens the fnifting-valve, and a fmall quantity of
air is fucked into the matrafs ; but this is a very fmall
quantity, becaufe the external air-valve clofes as foon as the
air flows with a rapid current through the pipe and fnifting-
valve.

During the recoil, the internal ftop-valve having nothing
to fuftain falls by its weight, and opens the paffage ; and as
foon as the force of the recoil has expended itfelf in afting
againft the column of water contained in the refervoir at the
open end of the body, the water begins again to flow
through the body in its original direction, and repeats the
aftion before defcribed.

It fhuts the internal ftop-valve when it has acquired the
intended velocity, and being thus ftopped, the efflux of the
vis iiieylits condenfes the air-matrafs, and opening the flap-
valves, forces a quantity of water into the air-veffel, from
which the reaflion of the contained air will drive it up the
afccnding-pipe.

The vis inerlin of the moving column of water being thus
expended, the recoil commences by the readlion of the air in
the matrafs, the flap-valves fhut, and tlie external ftop-
valve likevs'ife ; the afpiration produced by the recoil draws
fome air through the fnifting-valve, and it joins the air in the
matrafs. The internal ftop-valve falls open by its weight
and opens the paffage, fo that the water in the pipe can re-
fume its motion when the recoil has exhauftcd itfelf.

The fmall quantity of air which is drawn into the ma-
chine through the air-valve, at each afpiration, caufes an acr
iK cumulation

WATER.

cumulation of air in the matrafi ; and when the afpiration
of the recoil takes place, a fmall quantity of this air pafles
from the annular fpace, and proceeds along the pipe till it
arrives beneath the flap-valve, and lodging in the fmall fpace
beneath thefe valves, it will be forced into the air-veffel at
the next ftroke, by vrhich means the air-veffel is always kept
filled vpith air.

The following are the dimenfions of a machine which is
calculated to raife water up the tube to loo feet above the
f urface of the water in the refervoir, when the fall by which
it is worked is five feet, that is, where the level of the water
in the refervoir is five feet above the lower level ; and the
length of the pipe from the open end to where the water is
difcharged is to be twenty feet long, ajid fix inches in
diameter.

Such a machine may be expefted to expend about feventy
cubic feet per minute to work it, and to raife up about two
and one-third cubic feet per minute ; but thefe quantities
cannot be exactly ftated, becaufe they depend upon the care
and accuracy with which the machine is conftrufted.
Under different circumftances, having a greater or lefs
fall or quantity or water, the dimenfion of the machine
muft be calculated accordingly.

The improvements in this lad form of the hydraulic ram
are,

Firft, that by conftrufting the head of the ram with the
upper fide of the pipe flat, and applying the flap-valves im-
mediately upon the top, there is very little fpace to contain
dead water, that is, water which will be motionlefs when the
current takes place in the pipe ; and by dividing the fingle
valve of the original machine into feveral fmall and narrow
valves, they open and fliut more fuddenly, and with lefs lofs
of water.

Secondly, in making the bafon on each fide of the pipe,
which bafon is on a lower level than the flap-valves.
By this means the water will flow off from the flap-valve on
each fide, and at the inflant when the machine performs its
ftroke, and forces water through the faid valves into the air-
veffel, the valves will not be covered, or at lead very flightly
covered by water ; confequently, when thofe valves open, and
the water is forced into the air-veffel, it has only the com-
preffed air to oppofe it, which from its elafticity allows the
water to enter with more facility than if it was refiiled by a
column of water refting upon the valves ; not that there is any
lefs hydroflatic preffure upon the valves, becaufe it is the air
which bears upon them, inftead of the water, but there is a
lefs mafs of matter to be put in motion by the water which
enters into the air-veflel : for it has only the matter con-
tained in the valves themfelves to put in motion.

Thirdly, in applying the external ftop-valve, the ufe of
which is to prevent the water returning into the ram when
the recoil takes place, and having this provifion, a greater
quantity of air can be employed in the matrafs than could
otherwife conveniently be done ; this renders the fhock
which takes place when the flop-valve is (hut lefs fudden.
We have examined feveral of thefe machines made in France
by the inventor, and can with confidence recommend them
to engineers as the very bell machine, and the motl fimple
for raifing water when there is a natural fall. The laft im-
provements, as they enable us to fhorten the length of the
body of the ram to nearly one-third, without reducing the
performance, are very important.

The hydrauhc ram is adapted to give motion to the hy-
droflatic prefles, which are in common ufe under the name
of Bramah's preffes. For this purpofe, it is only neceffary
to apply the afcending-pipe to the cylinder of the hydraulic
prefs, and at each ftroke of the ram a fmall quantity of

water will be forced or injedled into the cylinder of the
prefs, and will thus produce the afcent of the pifton of the
prefs in- the fame manner as is now performed by the fmall
inje£lion-pump worked by the force of men. But by the
application of the hydraulic ram to that purpofe, the prefs
can be worked in any fituation where there is a fmall fall of
water, and the ram may be fet in motion whenever the prefs
is wanted.

An Hydraulic Ram, or Momentum Machine aSing hy SuSion,
is fhewn axjig!. 2 and 3. Plate Water-iuorhs. This is appli-
cable in cafes where the water to be raifed is below the level
of the main-pipe, and is to be difcharged at that level ; a cafe
which frequently occurs in the drainage of marfhy lands,
where the aftion of the current of water, in an embanked
river, or other ftream or fource of water on a higher level,
can be employed ; or this method can be applied in raifing
water out of the holds of fhips by the motion of the veffel
through the water ; alfo to raife water out of a well of mo-
derate depth.

C reprefents a portion of the main-pipe ; Y>,f.g. 2. is
the ftop-valve fituated at the entrance of the pipe, and open-
ing outwards fo as to ftop the paffage of the pipe when it is
fhut ; D, the afcending or fucking-pipe, communicating
with the well at the bottom an^l with the main-pipe at the
top ; J is the air-veffel ; and E the weight of the ftop-valve
of the main-pipe. There is likewife a valve A opening
from the air-veffel into the main-pipe.

The water in the main-pipe having acquired a proper ve-
locity by the current, as in the former cafes, the ftop-valve
B (huts, and the water in the main-pipe continuing its mo-
tion for a time, draws air out of the air-veffel J, through the
valve A. The momentum of the water in the main-pipe
being foon expended it recoils, the receiving-valve A fhuts
to prevent the return of the water into the air-veffel, and the
ftop-valve B opens by the aftion of the weight E, the water
thus regains its paffage, and foon acquires fufficient ve-
locity to clofe the ftop-valve again, and the operation is
repeated.

Thus in a few ftrokes the exhauftion is increafed till the
air-veffel fucks up water from below, through the afcending-
pipe D, or rather the preffure of the atmofphere on the fur-
face of the valve below forces it up, when the preffure on
the furface within the air-veffel is removed by the ex-
hauftion. This aftion being continued, the afcending-pipe
fills by degrees to the top, after which, at every fucceflive
ftroke, a portion of the water from below paffes into the
main-pipe, and is carried off into the pipe C, where it mixes
with the upper water.

In cafes where the water of the tide or other alternating
current is employed as the motive power, the apparatus may
be conftnifted in two ways, either by applying a ftop-
valve, air-veffel, and afcending-pipe, fuch as is fhewn at one
end in_^^. 4. to each end of the main-pipe C, to be ufed al-
ternately, according as the tide fets in the one direftion or
the other ; or otherwife by applying two main pipes to one
air-veffel, their mouths being placed in oppofite direftions
and to be ufed alternately, and apphed to the raifing of water,
for the ufe of falt-works, or for other ufes, fuch as the fup-
ply of a country-houfe.

The firft machine above defcribed may be employed to
raife water to fmall heights by the motion of the waves of
the fea, or of any large pieces of water ; in which cafe the
mouth or receiving end of the main-pipe fhould be formed
like a fpeaking-trumpet, as fhewn injif^. 4. and placed op-
pofite to the direction in which the waves beat upon the
fhore at the place where the machine is. The water of the
waves will enter the main-pipe, and rufh through it until

the

WATER.

the ftop-valve fhuts ; when the contained water will in part
enter the air-veflel by the aftion already defcribed, and the
next wave will produce another ftroke.

Momentum- Pump, or Momentum- Machine, to ra'ife Water
by the application of mechanical Power. — Where a fall of
water cannot be oht3ineA,Jlg. I. (hews an application of this
momentum principle, in lieu of pumps for raifing water, the
main-pipe being put in motion through the water by the
ftrength of men, or other mechanical power in default of a
current, as in the other cafes.

C C is the main-pipe bent in a fpiral form round the air-
veffel J; it may either be made to touch it, or be kept at a
diftance from it, and may make one or more revolutions
round the faid veffel ; the whole of the main-pipe is im-
merfed in the external water which is to be raifed. Both
ends of the pipe are open to the water ; but one of them
has 'the ftop-valve opening inwards, which will occafionally
clofe it, and near this latter end, a communication is made
by a fide-pipe with the air-veiTel, the orifice being covered
by a valve opening into the veffel. The whole turns upon
a pivot K, at the lower end of the afcending-pipe D, which
fcrves as an axis, and is kept upright by a collar, in which it
turns, as (hewn at L. Upon this axis a toothed wheel M
is fixed, and is put in motion by another wheel N, turned
by a winch, crank, or other contrivance.

At the top, or upper end of the afcending-pipe, the
water is difcharged into a trough, which furrounds it, and
conveys it to the place of its deftination.

Tliis apparatus is made to raife water by a continued ro-
tative motion, the open end moving firft, through the water
which paffes out again through the other end ; but whenever,
by that motion, the main-pipe has attained a proper velo-
city, the ftop-valve fhuts fuddenly, and by the concuffion
the water paffes into the air-veffel, from whence the egrefs
of the water is prevented by the fhutting of the exit-valve.
The ftop-valve then opens by means of a fpring in lieu of a
weight, as in the former cafes, and the apparatus continuing
to revolve in the fame direftion, more ftrokes are made at
intervals proportioned to the velocity with which it moves.
The fpring of the ftop-valve fhould be fo regulated in force
as to allow the relative motion of the water in the main-pipe
to fhut the ftop-valve at proper intervals. The perpen-
dicular feftion of the main-pipe is drawn fquare, but may
be circular, or of any other convenient figure. A horizontal
feftion of it is fhewn dt. Jig. 6, with the main-pipe and the
air-veffel.

In lieu of the wheel N, which produces a continued
rotatory motion, the machine may be made to vibrate or
fwing upon an axis, backwards and forwards, the limits of
the vibration or ftroke being determined by a detent ftriking
againft a ftiff fpring. In this cafe, the main-pipe (liould
be provided with ftop-valves at both ends, and alfo have a
communication at each end with the air-veffel, which open-
ings fhould be clofed by valves to prevent the return of the
water from it. Such a machine may be put in motion by
the following means : upon the afcending-pipe D, a double
pulley is fixed, round which are wound the ropes, and by
pulling the ends of thefe alternately, the apparatus may be
made to revolve in either direAion. The main-pipe and
the afcending-pipe being filled with water by hand or
olherwife, if the ropes are pulled alternately, they will
make the pipe move through the water with fufficient velo'
city to make the apparatus aft. It is found if the appa-
ratus makes about thirty vibrations in each minute, that it
will aft very completely.

Hydraulic machines are of the greateft importance to
focJety, whether we look to a fupply of the firft neceffity

for domeftic ufes, or to the advantageous ufes of neglefted
though valuable firft movers. Thefe machines muft, in moft
cafes, be modified by localities, and other circumftances ;
and confequently the moft ufeful praftical knowledge will
notconfift in any acquaintance with, one or more of the beft
engines, but with that great variety of happy contrivances
which inquiry and refleftion muft point out. We have, as
far as our limits permit, given all the machines which are
praftically ufeful, and we fhall conclude this article by
giving Dr. Young's catalogue of the moft important and
valuable writings on hydraulic engines.

Ramelli's Colleftion of Hydraulic Machines, in French
and Italian, 1588, folio.

Defcriptio Machine Hydraulics curiofae Conftrufta,
Joh. Georg. Faudieri, Venet. 1607.

Bates on Art and Nature, 1635.

Nouvelle invention de lever I'eau plus haut que la fource
avec quelque machines mouvantes par le moyen de I'eau,
&c. par Ifac de Caus, 1657.

Jofephi Gregorii a Monte Sacr. Principia phifico-mecha-
nica diverfarum machinarum feu inftrumentorum pneumatics
ac hydraulices, Venet. 1664.

Nouvelle Machine Hydraulique, par Francini Joum. dcs
S^av. 1669.

[An account of this machine is likewife given in the
Architefture Hydraulique of Belidor, tom. ii. ; and in the
2d vol. of Defaguliers' Experimental Philofophy : in both
which performances many other hydraulic machines are
defcribed.]

An Undertaking for raifing Water, by Sir Samuel Mcwe-
land. Phil. Tranf. 1674. N° 102.

An Hydrauhc Engine. Phil. Tranf. 1675. N° 128.

A cheap Pump, by Mr. Conyers. Phil. Tranf. 1677.
N°i36.

M. de Hautfeuille, Reflexions fur quelque Machines a
elever les eaux, avec fa defcription d'une nouvelle pompe,
fans frottement, et fans pifton, &c. 1682.

Elevation des eaux par toute forte des Machines, reduite
a la mefure, au poids, a la balance, par le moyen d'un nou-
veau pifton et corps de pompe, et d'un nouveau mouvement
cyclo-elliptique et rejetant I'ufage de toute forte de mani-
velles ordinaires, par le Chevalier Morland, 1685.

A new Way of raifing Water, enigmatically propofed
by Dr. Papin. Phil. Tranf. i68y. N° 173. The folu-
tions by Dr. Vincent and Mr. R. A. in N° 177.

M. du Torax, Nouvelles Machines pour epuifer I'eau
des foundations, qui, quoique tr^s fimples font un effet
furprennant, 1695. Joun. des S^av. 1695. p. 293.

An Engine for raifing Water by the help of Fire, by
Mr. Thomas Savery. Phil. Tranf. 1699. N° 253.

D. Papin nouvelle maniere pour lever I'eau par la force
du feu; a Caffel, 1707.

Memoire pour la conftruftion d'urte pompe qui fourni
continuelment de I'eau dans le refervoir, par M. de la Hire,
Mem. Acad. Scien. Paris, 17 16.

Defcription d'une machine pour elever des eaux, par M.
de la Faye, Mem. Acad. Scien. Paris, 1717.

Joh. Jac. Bruckmann's und Joh. Heinr. Weber's Ele-
mentar-mafchine oder univerfal-mittel bey alien waffer-hebun-
gen. Caffel, 1-725.

Jacob Leopold, Theatri machinarum hydraulicarum,
1724 et 1725.

Joh. Frid. Weidleri traftatus de machinis hydraulicis
toto terrarum orbe maxirais Marlyenfi et LondinenC, &e.
1727. Vide Aft, erudit. Lipf. 1728.

A Defcription of the Water-works at London-bridge,
by H. Beigbton, F. R. S. Phil. Tranf. 1731. N°4i7.

K 2 An

WATER.

An account of a new engine for raifmg water, in which chines, vulgarly called fteam-engines, in order to extract'
horfes or other animals draw without any lofs of power water from mines, convey it to towns, and jets d'eaux in
(which has never yet been praftifed

of the pillon may be made of any length, to prevent the
lofs of water by too frequent opening of valves, &c. by
Walter Churchman. Phil. Tranf. 1734.

Sur I'efFet d'une machine hydrauhque propofee, par M.
Segner, par M. Leon. Euler. Mem. Acad. Scien. Ber-
lin, 1750.

Application de la machine hydraulique de M. Segner, a
toutes fortes d'ouvrages et de fes avantages fur les autres
machines hydrauliques, par M. Leon. Euler. Mem. Acad.
Scien. Berlin, 1751.

[M. Segner's machine is no other than the firaple yet
truly ingenious contrivance known by the name of Barker's-
miU, which has been defcribed in the 2d volume of Defa-
guliers' Philoiophy, fome years before the German pro-
feflbr made any pretenfions to the honour of the invention.
The theory of it is likevvife treated by John Bernouilli at
the end of his Hydraulics. 3

Recherches fur une nouvelle mani^re d'elever de I'eau
propofee, par M. de Mour, par M. L. Euler. Mem. Acad.
Berlin, 1751.

Difcultion particuliere de diverfes manieres d'elever del'eau
par le moyen des pompes, par M. L. Euler. Mem. Acad.
Berlin, 1752.

Maximes pour arranger le plus avantageufement les ma-
chines deftinees a elever de I'eau par le moyen des pompes,
par M. L. Euler, Mem. Acad. Ber. 1752.

Refledlions fur les machines hydrauliques, par M. le
Chevalier D'Arcy, Mem. Acad. Scien. Paris, 1754.

Memoires fur les pompes, par M. le Chevalier de Borda,
Mem. Acad. Scien. Paris, 1768.

Dan. Bernouilli, Expofitio theoretica fingularls machimt
hydraulicte. Figuris helvetiorum exftruftoe. Nov. Com.
Acad. Petrop. 1772

y 101s or power water from mines, convey it to towns, and jets
and how the itrokes gardens, to procure water-falls for fulling, hammering,
ftamping, rolling, and corn-mills, by William Blakey, 1793.
Egerton.

Machines aduated by the Force of Currents or Streams of
Water. — Thefe are very numerous, but all may be reduced
to two kinds.

Firft, thofe which are adapted to receive the impulfe of
moving water ; that is, water which has been put in motion
in confequence of a defcent towards the earth previoufly to
its operating on the machine, which muft be provided with
parts proper to refill and take away fome of the motion of
tuch water, and it will thereby receive motion which may be
applied to produce fome mechanical effeft. Of this kind are
underfhot and horizontal water-wheels.

Secondly, thofe machines which are provided with fome
kinds of bucket'i or vcfTels to contain water, the weight of
wliich buckets, and the water they contain, is fupported by
the machine, fo that the water cannot defcend towards the
earth in confequence of its gravitation, without giving mo-
tion to the buckets or veflels which contain and lupport It.
Of this kind is the over-fhot water-wheel, breaft-wheel,
chain of buckets, and prelTure-engine.

In either cafe, the motive force or power is the fame ;
viz. the gravitation and motion of fuch bodies or maffes of
water as are found more elevated above the furface of the
earth than the general level of the fea, or of fome other
water in its neighbourhood ; fuch water will defcend by the
force of gravity until it joins the fea, or until it is fupported
or held up by fome fixed obftacle.

The difference between the two kinds of machines is, that
in the firft cafe the water is fuffered to defcend before it
operates upon the machine, and in confequence of its gra-
vitation, acquires motion with a velocity proportioned to
the fpace through which it has defcended ; and the office

Abhandlungen von der Waflerfchraube, von D. Scherffer, of the machine is to take from the moving water as much

Priefter Wien. 1774

Recherches fur les moyens d'executer fous I'eau toutes
fortes detraveaux hydrauliques, fans employer, aucun epuife-
ment, par M. Coulumb. 1779.

Saemund Magnulfen, Holm, Efterretning om flcye pum-
pen Kiobenhavn, 1779.

Moyen d'augmenter la viteffe dans le mouvement de la
vis d'Archimede fur fon axe, tire des memoires manufcrits
de M. Pingeron, fur les arts utiles et agreables. Journ.
d'Agric. Juin. 1780.

The Theory of the Syphon, plainly and methodically
illuftrated, 178 1. { Richardfon. )

Memoria fopra la nuova tromba funiculare umiliata, dal.
Can. Carlo. Caftelli. Milano, 1782.

Differtation de M. de Parcieux fur le moyen d'elever

of its compounded weight and motion, or power, as it can
obtain.

In the other cafe, the machine receives its motion and
power at the fame time, when the water acquires it, by de-
fcending ; or, in other words, the machine moves with the
water.

The wori power, as ufed in praftical mechanics, fignifies
the exertion of llrength, gravitation, impulfe, or prefTure,
fo as to produce motion ; and a machine adluated by means
of ftrength, gravitation, impulfe, or preffure, compounded
with motion, is capable of producing an effeA : and no
effecl is properly mechanical but what requires fuch a kind
of power to produce it.

The mufcular power of animals, as likewife prelTure, im-
paA, gravity, elcftricity, &c. are looked upon as forces,

I'eau par la rotation d'une corde verticale fans fin Amfter- or fources of motion ; for it is an incontrovertible fatt that

dam et Paris, 1792.

Theorie der Wirzichen fpiral pumpe erlaiitert von Heinr.
Nicander, Schwed, Abhandl. 1783.

Jac. Bernouilli, Effai fur une nouvelle machine hydrau-
lique propre a elever de Tuau, ct qu'on pcut nommer
machine pilotienne. Nov. Aft. Acad. Petrop. 1786.

K. Ch. Langfdorf's Berechnuiigen iiber die vortheil-
hiftere benutzung angelegter fammelteiche zur betreibung
der raafchinen. A.A. Acad. Eletf . Mogunt, 1784, 1785.

Nicander's Theorie de fpiral pumpe, 1789.

Nouvelle architeiSlure hydrauhque, par M. Prony, 1 790,
1796.

bodies expofed to the free aftion of either of thefe are put
in motion, or have the ftate of their motion changed. All
forces, however various, can be meafured by the efFefts they
produce in hke circumllances ; whether the effefts be
creating, accelerating, retarding, or deflefting motions :
the effecl of fome general and commonly obferveJ force is
taken as unity.

The moft proper meafure of power is the aft of raifing
fome weight with fome velocity of motion ; that is, the
overcoming of the gravitating force of a weight in fuch de-
gree as to produce motion in oppofition to gravity. In
confidcring the quantum, the weight or mafs of matter

A (hort account of the invention, theory, and praftice of operated upon muft be one quantity, and the velocity of the
fire-machinery; or introdutiion to the art of m. iking ma- motion communicated is the other ; the mechanical power is

the

WATER.

tbe compound of both. We can only meafure tlie weight
of any body or mafs of matter by its relation to feme other
weight with which we are acquainted ; hence we fay, the
weight is equal to fo many pounds, or fo many cubic feet of
water. In like manner, we meafure the velocity or intenfity
of the motion, by ftating the height or perpendicular dif-
tance from the earth, (meafured by relation to fome known
diftance, as a foot or a yard,) through which height the
weight is raifed m fome known fpace of time, as a fecond or
a minute.

For inftance, 528 cubic feet of water is a known weight
or mafs of water : let a machine operate upon this, and raife
it upwards, through the fpace of one foot in the time of
one minute ; then 528 X I X i = 528 is the number
which reprefents the power which the machine exerts. Sup-
pofe another machine to operate on 132 cubic feet of water,
and raife it four feet in one minute, then ufing the fame
meafures to determine the quantities of weight, height, and
time, we fay 132 X4X 1 = 528 ; hence thefe two ma-
chines are equal in the power which they exert ; for in all
cafes the weight raifed is to be multiplied by the height to
which it can be raifed in a given time, and the produdl is the
meafure of the power expended in raifing it ; confequently,
all tliofe powers are equal whofe produfts made, by fuch
multiplication, are equal ; for example, take two powers,
it one can in any given time raife twice the weight to the
fame height, or the fame weight to twice the height, in the
fame time that the other power can, the firft power is
double the fecond ; or, if one power can raife half the
weight to double the height, or double the weight to half
the height, in the fame time that another can, thofe two
powers are equal : but note, all this is to be underftood
only in cafes of flow or equable motion of the body raifed,
for in quick, accelerated, or retarded motions, the vis iiier-
t'lii of the matter moved will make a variation.

The machines actuated by the impulfe of flowing water
are, the underfhot water-wheel, horizontal wheels, and Dr.
Barker's m.U. It is a common exprcffion to call all wheels
in which tlie water runs or fhoots under the wheel, under-
fhot ; but in this place we (hall only fpeak of

Underjljot IVater-IVheeh, ad'ing by the Impulfe of Jlowing
Water — Thefe are the moft ancient and original forms
of water-machines, although if they had been invented from
the refuk of reafoning, fuch as we have given, they would
have been the laft, becaufe their manner of aftioii is lefs
obvious ; but this was not the cafe. The lirll machines
were wheels placed in a river or running ftream, and pro-
vided with vanes or wings on the circumference, called
floats; the floats at the lower part of the wheel, dipped into
the Itream to intercept the water. When the plane of the
floats became perpendicular to the direftion of the current,
or nearly fo, they would refill or oppofe the motion of the
water, and the wheel would obtain motion from it in pro-
portion to the quantity of motion, its floats abftrafted from
the water of the ftream. Tlie power thus obtained would be
found to be only a fmall proportion of the power of the
ftream, becaufe the water would eaflly efoape fideways from
the floats, particularly if it were attempted to take away any
confiderable fliare of the velocity of the water, by refifting
or loading the wheel, fo as to make it move Howly. Hence
it became an obvious improvement to contract the river to
the exaft lize of the float-boards of the wheel, or to make
a clofe channel in which the wheel exattly fits. The next im-
provement would be to intercept the river or ftream of
water by a dam, orobftacle, in order to make it pen up, or
accumulate, till it had rifeij to the greateft height which
could be obtained, and to let the water out of the dam or

refervoir into the channel or wheel-courfe, through a verti-
cal aperture or door, level with the bottom of the wheel-
courfe ; in this way, the water would be urged by the pref-
fure of the water in the dam, and would rufh out from the
aperture in a ftream or fpout, with a velocity proportioned
to the perpendicular preflTure, and would (Irike the float-
boards of the wheel fo as to urge them forwards. Such is
the form of the underrtiot wheels ftiU generally employed in
France and on the continent ; but in England they have
been long fuperfeded by more effeftual applications of the
power of the water, and it is very rarely we meet with
an underfhot wheel afting by the impulfe of the water.
They are called ground-fhot wheels, becaufe the water runs
or fhoots along the ground or floor of the channels in which
the wheels work.

It was firft proved by Mr. Smeaton, in 1754, that
only a portion of the power of any fall of water could be
obtained by means of an underfhot wheel ; for M. Beli-
dor had not long before ftated the underfhot wheel as the
beft mode of applying a fall of water. It was one of the
continual occupations of Mr. Smeaton, during forty years,
to improve the old water-mills, by fubftituting breaft-wheels
for underfhot ; and the advantages were uniformly fo great,
that thefe mills were copied by others, until fcarcely any of
the original conftruftion remained. We do not mean that
Mr. Smeaton invented the breaft-wheel, for it is defcribed by
Leopold ; but he firft inveftigated its comparative ad-
vantages.

It is from this cireumftance that we find, in all the mecha-
nical writings of foreign authors, much more mathematical
inveftigation relative to the underfliot water-wheels than the
importance of the fubjeft deferves, and we fhall difmifs it
more briefly.

The excellent paper by Mr. Smeaton, in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions for 1759, contains a numerous lift of expe-
riments moft judicioufly contrived by him, and executed
with the accuracy and attention to the moft important cir-
cumftances which are to be obferved in all that gentleman's
performances.

Mr. Smeaton's rules were originally deduced from expe-
riments made on working models, which are the beft means
of obtaining the outlines in mechanical enquiries ; but in
every cafe it is neceffary to diftinguifli the circumftances in
which a model differs from a machine at large, otherwife a
model is more apt to lead from truth than towards it ; and
we muft not, without great caution, transfer the refults of
fuch experiments to large works. But we may fafely tranf-
fer the laws of variation, which refult from a variation of
circumftances, although we muft not adopt the abfolute
quantities of the variations themfelves. Mr. Smeaton was
fully aware of the limitations to which coiiclufions drawn
from experiments on models are fubjeft, and has made the
applications with his ufual fagacity. The beft ftrufture of
machines cannot be fully afcertaiiied but by making trials
witli them, when made of their proper fize.

Mr. Smeaton's Principles for Underfoot Wheels. — In com-
paring the effeft produced by water-wheels with the powers
producing them ; or, in other words, to know what part of
the original power is neccffarily loft in the application, we muft
previoufly know how much of the power is Ipent in overcom-
ing the friftion of the machinery, and the refiftanco ot the
air ; alfo, what is the real velocity of the water at the in-
ftant it ftrikes the wheel ; and the real quantity of water
expended in a given time.

The velocity Mr. Smeaton meafured in a moft fatisfaftory
manner in every experiment, by applying a cord and weight
to the asle of the wheel, not to wind up the weight by the

motiou

WATER.

motion of the wheel, but that the weight by defcending
fliould turn the wheel. He applied fo much weight as would
make the wheel turn, and make its floats move with the ve-
locity which he defired or expefted the effluent water to
have ; and this weight he adjufted until he found, by re-
peated trials, that the wheel moved juft at the fame rate,
whether the water was fuffered to flow and fl:rike its floats, or
whether the water was fl;opped, which proved that the floats
of the wheel moved with precifely the fame velocity as the
effluent water ; then by meafuring the circumference of the
wheel, and counting the number of turns it made in a mi-
nute, he obtained the meafure of the velocity.

From the velocity of the water at the inftant that it
ftrikes the wheel, the height of head produftive of fuch
velocity can be deduced from acknowledged and experi-
mented principles of hydroftatics ; fo that by multiplying
the quantity or weight of water really expended in a given
time by the height of a head fo obtained, which muft be
confidered as the effeftive height from which that weight of
water had defcended in that given time, we fhall have a pro-
duct equal to the original power of the water, and clear of
all uncertainty that would arife from the friftion of the water
in pafling fmall apertures, and from all doubts arifing from
the different meafure of fpouting waters, affigned by dif-
ferent authors.

On the other hand, the fum of the weights raifed by the
aftion of this water, and of the weight required to over-
come the friftion and refiftance of the machine, multiplied
by the height to which the weight can be raifed in the time
given, the produft will be equal to the effeft of that
power ; and the proportion of the two produAs will be the
proportion of the power to the effeft : fo that by loading
the wheel with different weights fucceflively, we fhall be
able to determine at what particular load and velocity of the
wheel the effeft is a maximum.

From experiments condufted in this manner, Mr. Smea-
ton fettled the following maxims :

Maxim I . That the virtual or effeftive head of water, and
confequently its effluent velocity being the fame, the mechani-
cal effeft produced by a wheel aftuated by this water will
be nearly in proportion to the quantity of water expended.

Note. The virtual or effeftive head of any water which is
moving with a certain velocity, is that height from which a
heavy body muft fall in order to acquire the fame velocity.

The height of the virtual head, therefore, may be eafily
determined from the velocity of the water ; for the heights
are as the fquare of the velocities ; and the velocities, con-
fequently, as the fquare roots of the heights. Mr. Smea-
ton obferved the velocity of the effluent water in all his ex-
periments, and thence calculated the virtual head ; he ftates
that the virtual head bears no proportion to the real head or
depth of water ; but that when either the aperture is
greater, or when the velocity of the water iffuing therefrom
lefs, they approach nearer to a coincidence ; andconfequently,
in the large openings of mills and fluices, where great quan-
tities of water are difcharged from moderate heads, the
aftual head of water, and the virtual head, as determined by
theory from the velocity, will nearly agree.

For example of the application of his firft maxim. Sup-
pofe a miU driven by a fall of water, whofe virtual head is
5 feet, and which difcharged 550 cubic feet of wzler per
minute ; and that it is capable of grinding four bufhels of
wheat in an hour. Now another mill, having the fame vir-
tual head, but which difcharges 1100 cubic feet of water
per minute, will grind eight bufliels of corn in an hour.

Maxim 2. That the expence of water being the fame, the
effeft produced by an underihot wheel will be nearly in pro-

portion to the height of the virtual or effeftive head. Thi»
is proved in the preceding example.

Maxim 3. That the quantity of water expended being the
fame, the effeft will be nearly as the fquare of the velocity
of the V ater ; that is, if a mill driven by a certain quantity ,
of water, moving with the velocity of j 8 feet per fecond, !
is capable of grinding 4 bufhels of com in an hour, another 1
mill, driven by the fame quantity of water, but moving
with the velocity of 22^ ieet per fecond, will grind nearly \
7 bufhels of corn in an hour ; becaufe the fquare of 18 is :
324, and the fquare of 22^ is 5065. Now fay, as 324 I
is to 4 bufhels, fo is 500:5 to 6^ bufhels ; that is, as 4 ,
to 6^.

Maxim 4. The aperture through which the water iflues
being the fame, the effett will be nearly as the cube of the
velocity of the water iffuing ; that is, if a mill driven by
water rufhing through a certain aperture with the velocity
of 18 feet per fecond will grind 4 bufhels of corn in an
hour, another mill, driven by water moving through the
fame aperture, but with the velocity of 22^ feet per fecond,
will grind 51 bufhels ; for the cube of 18 is 5832, and the
cube of 22^ is 11390J; then, as 5832 is to 4, fo is
ii39o|-to 7f.^

Maxim 5. The proportions between the power of the water
expended, and the effeft produced by the wheel, was 3 to I.
Upon comparing feveral experiments, Mr. Smeaton fixed the
proportions between them for large works ; that is, if
the weight of the water which is expended in any given
time be multiplied by the height of the fall, and if the
weight raifed be alfo multiplied by the height through
which it is raifed, the firfl of thefe two produfts will be
three times that of the fecond.

Maxim 6. The beft general proportions of velocities
between the water and the floats of the wheels will be
that of 5 to 2 ; for inftance, if the water when it ftrikes
the wheel moves with a velocity of eighteen feet per
fecond, the wheel muft be fo loaded that its float-boards
will move with a velocity of 7.2 feet per fecond, and the
wheel will then derive the greateft power from the water,
becaufe as 5 to 18, fo is 2 to 7.2.

Maxim 7. There is no certain ratio between the load
that the wheel will carry when producing its maximum of ef-
feft, and the load that will totally ftop it ; but it approaches
neareft to the ratio of 4 to 3, whenever the power exerted
by the wheel is greateft, whether it arifes from an in-
creafe of the velocity, or from an increafed quantity of
water ; and this proportion feems to be the raoft applicable
to large works. But when we know the effeft a wheel
ought to produce, and the velocity it ought to move with
whilft producing that effeft, the exaft knowledge of the
greateft load it will bear is of very httle confequence in
praftice.

Maxim 8. The load that the wheel ought to have, in order
to work to the moft advantage, can be always affigned thus :
afcertain the power of the whole body of water, by multiply-
ing the weight of the water expended in a minute by the height
of the fall, take one-third of the produft, and it gives the
effeft of power which the wheel ought to produce : to find
the load, we muft divide this produft by the velocity which
the wheel fhould have, and that, as we have before fettled,
fhould be two-fifths of the velocity with which the water
moves when it ftrikes the wheel.

The wheel muft not be placed in an open river to be ac-
tuated by the natural current, in wliich cafe, after it has
communicated its impulfe to the float, it has room on all
fides to efcape : this is the fuppofititious cafe on which moft
mathematicians have proceeded ; but in all thefe experi-
1 1 ments.

WATER.

ments, the wheel is placed in a conduit or race, to which the

float-boards are cxaftly adapted, and the water cannot

otherwife efcape than by moving along with the wheel. It

is obfervable in a wheel working in this manner, that as

loon as the water meets the float, it receives a fudden check,

and rifes up againft the float, like a wave againft a fixed ob-

jeft, infomuch that when the flieet of water is not a quarter

of an inch thick before it meets the float, this (heet will

[ aft upon the whole furface of a float, whofe height is three

I inches ; and confequently, where the float is no higher than

; the thicknefs of the (heet of water, as theory alfo fuppofes,

a great part of the force would have been loft by the water

daftiing over the float.

The wheel which Mr. Smeaton ufed had originally twenty-
. four floats, and was afterwards reduced to twelve, which
I caufed a diminution in the effeft, on account of a greater
! quantity of water efcaping between the floats and the floor
of the channel in which it moved; but a circular fweep
being adapted thereto, of fuch a length, that one float en-
tered the curve before the precedmg one quitted it, the
'effeft came fo near to the former as not to give hopes of
I advancing it, by increafing the number of floats beyond
twenty-four in this particular wheel.

' Mr. Smeaton obferves that, in many of the experiments,
;the refults were by different ratios than thofe which his
maxims fuppofed ; but as the deviations were never very
confiderable, the greateft being about one-eighth of the
quantities in queftion, and as it is not praflicable to make
experiments of fo compound a nature with abfolute preci-
fion, he fuppofes, that the lefler powers are attended with
fome friftion or work under fome difadvantages, which have
;iot been duly accounted for ; and, therefore, he concludes
that thefe maxims will liold very nearly, when applied to
works in large.

Application of thefe Principles to PraSice The firft thing

to be done in a fituation where an underfliot wheel is in-
tended to be fixed, is to confider whether the water can run
off clear from the wheel, fo as to have no back water to im-
pede its motion ; and whether the fall wliich can be obtained
by conftrufting a proper dam to pen up the water and
fluice for it to pafs through, will caufe it to ftrike the float-
boards of the wheel with a fufficient velocity to impel them
rorcibly forwards ; and alfo, whether the quantity of the
iupply will be fufBcient to keep a wheel at work for a cer-
tain number of hours each day.

When we have afcertained the height of the fall of water,
that is, the height of the furface above the centre of the
opening of the fluice, we muft find what will be the con-
tinual velocity of the water ilTuing out from fuch opening.

In fome cafes, we have the velocity of the water given
when it iiTnes from the opening of the fluice, and we then
i require to know what height of column will produce that
velocity. Thefe two things we may find by a fingle rule,
and an eafy arithmetical operation, which is as follows :

ift. The perpendicular height of the fall of water being
given in feet and decimals of feet, the velocity that the
water will acquire per fecond, exprelTed in feet and decimals,
may be found by the following rule :

Multiply the conllant number 64.2882 by the given
height, and the fquare root of the produft is the velocity
required.

Example I. — If the height is two feet, the velocity will
be found 11. 34 feet per fecond.

Example 2. — If the height is 16,0913 feet, the velocity
will be 32,1826 im per fecond.

Example 3. — If the height is fifty feet, the velocity will
be 56,68 [eetfer fecond.

Note. The velocities thus obtained will be only the theoretic
velocity, that is, the velocity any body would acquire by
falling through fuch height in -vacuo, the velocity in reality
will be lefs, generally fix or feven-tenths.

The uniform velocity of a fluid being given, exprefled in
feet and decimals of feet per fecond, the height of the co-
lumn or fall to produce fuch a velocity may be found by
the following rule :

Multiply the given velocity into itfelf, and divide the pro-
duft by 64,2882 ; the quotient will be the height required,
exprefled in feet and decimals.

Example i If the velocity given is three feet per fe-
cond, the height will be 0.139 of a foot.

Example 2 — If the velocity given is 32,1826 feet per
fecond, the height viiW be found 16,0913 feet.

Example 3. — Let the velocity be 100 feet per fecond,
the height will be 155,649 feet.

The knowledge of the foregoing particulars is abfolutely
neceflary for confl:rufting an underfliot water-wheel ; but
the moft advantageous method of fetting it to work, and to
find out the utmoft it could perform, would be very dif-
ficult, if we were not furniflied with the maximum which
Mr. Smeaton fettled, by fliewing, that an underfliot water-
wheel will aft to the greateft advantage, when the velocity
of its float-boards is equal to two-fifths or four-tenth parts
of that of the water which gives it motion.

To illuftrate this, let us confider awheel equally balanced
on all fides, and turning freely round upon its pivots, its
circumference would foon move as faft as the current it
was placed in. Suppofe the water to move at the rate of
three feet in a fecond, the circumference of the wheel
would pafs through three feet in a fecond. In this cafe,
the wheel performs no work, and the effeft produced is
nothing.

Now in attempting to apply the power of this wheel to turn
any kind of machinery, fuppofe the work to be fo proportion-
ed, that the refiftance would caufe the wheel to ftand Itill and
flop the water, or make it run over the floats, in confequence
of its not having fufficient force to carry the float-boards
along with it. In this cafe alfo, there being no motion,
there could be no mechanical effeft produced ; but if the
refiftance be diminiftied by degrees, the wheel would be-
gin to partake of the motion of the current of water, and
being loaded, would produce a mechanical eff'eft propor-
tioned to the load and velocity. The wheel would increafe
in its velocity in proportion as the refiftance was dimi-
niftied, and the mechanical effeft would increafe alfo until a
certain point when the wheel moved fo faft, that the water
would not ftrike the float-boards quick enough to produce
the greateft effeft : tins is found to be as before mentioned,
when the floats move four-tenths as faft as the water, be-
caufe then fix-tenths of the water is employed in driving
the wheel with a force proportional to the fquare of its
velocity.

If we multiply the furface or area of the opening by the
height of the column, we (hall afcertain the body or column
of water which (hould prefs againft that float -board, which
is immediately under the wheel, fuppofing it has no motion ;
but it will be found, that a fmall proportion of the weight
of the original column hung on the oppofite fide of the
wheel, would arrcft its motion entirely ; but when we would
have it to move with a proper velocity, that is, two-fifths of
that velocity with which the water moves, tWd of the
weight of the original column, is the wtight which the
wheel would raife with four-tenths of the velocity that the
water moves with, and the power which the wheel would
exert on the machinery to grind corn, lift hammers, raife

water,

WATER.

v?ater, &c. is t\.V,t of ^^^ weight of the water multiplied
by -r'o of its velocity.

Thus it appears that an underfhot water-wheel, conftrufted
after the foregoing manner, would only raife one-third part
of the water expended to the fame height, as the orignial
head or level. This is the utmoft that can be expefted,
though often lefs is done ; becaufe here we fuppofe every
part exaftly performed, and the water applied to the wheel
in the bed manner ; therefore, as we cannot come up to the
maximum, we muft come as near it as we can by lofmg the
leaft poffible of the power's impulfe.

It is no advantage to have a very great number of float-
boards round the wheel, becaufe when they are (truck by
the water, as applied in the beft manner poffible, the fum of
the impulfes exerted on the different floats, will but be equal
to the impulfe made againft one float-board ftruck by all the
water iffuing from the fluice at right angles to its furface.
But as this float -board muft move forward, there muft be a
fuccefTion of float-boards to receive the impulfe of the
water, and fince they cannot receive it at right angles, there
will be fome lofs of impulfe in that fucceflion. Befides
when the firft float -board is fo far paft the perpendicular, as
to have the aftion of the water intercepted by the fucceed-
ing one, it is checked by the back water through which it
muft pafs in rifing out of the water, and thereby be fo far
retai-ded as to take from the full effeA of the impulfe on
the following float. Indeed if all the water <:ould run off
immediately after having performed its office, this would
rot happen ; but it can feldom be effefted in underfhot-
mills, efpecially thofe built upon rivers. All the remedy
in fuch cafe is, (when the diameter of the wheel is
fettled) to fix juft fuch a number of floats upon it, that
each one, after it has received the full impulfe of the
water, may come out of the water as foon as polfible,
that another fucceeding float may be brought to receive the
impulfe, otherwife the wheel would remain a moment with-
out any impulfe.

In the article Mill we have given a table for the dimen-
fions and proportions for underfhot v/heels, which was cal-
culated by Mr. Fergufon. Dr. Brewfter, in his new edition
of Mr. Fergufon's works, has given an improved table,
which is calculated upon the following principles.

It is evident that the water-wheel muft always move with
lefs velocity than the water, even when there is no work to
be performed ; for a part of the impelling power is necef-
farily fpent in overcoming the inerlia of the wheel itfelf ;
and if the wheel has little or no velocity, it is equally mani-
feft that it will produce a very fmall effeft.

There is confequently a certain proportion between the
velocity of the water and tiie wheel, when the effeft is a
maximum. Mr. Smeaton has fhewn the greateft efFeft is
produced when the velocity of the wheel is between one-
third and one-half, but the maximum is much nearer to
one-half than one-third. He obferves alfo that one-half
would be the true maximum, if nothing were loft by the
refinance of the air, the fcattering of the water carried up
by the wheel, and thrown off by the centrifugal force,
and the leakages of the water between the floats and
the water-courfe, all which tend to produce a greater
diminution of the effeft at that velocity, which would
be the maximum if thefe lofl'es did not take place, than
they do when the motion is a little flower. The great
hydrauhc machine at Marly, the wheels of which are un-
derfhot, was found to produce a maximum effect when
the velocity of the wheel was two-fifths that of the cur-
rent. Hence Dr. Brewfter concludes that in theory the velo-
city of the wheel is one-half that of the current, and that
12

in praftice it is never more than three-eighths of the flream'g
velocity, when the effeft is a maximum.

Dr. Brexuftcr's Table of uruLrfhot Water-Wheeh, in which
the velocity of the wheel is three-feventbs of the velocity of
the water, and the effeds of fridlion on the velocity of the
ftream are 'reduced to computation. The wheel is fup-
pofed to be fifteen feet diameter.

Velocity of the
Water per Se-
cond, Fii(5lion

being confi'Jered.

Velocity of ihe

Revolutions of

Hei..|.t of

ill." Fall of

Water.

Wlieel pec Se-
cond being three-
fevenths that of
the Wmer.

the Wheel per
Minute, its Dia-
meter being
fifteen Feet.

Feet.

Feet and

Feet and

Revo'utions and

Decimals.

Decimals.

Decimals.

I

7.62

3-27

4.16

2

10.77

4.62

5.88

3

13.20'

5.66

7.20

4

15.24'

6-53

8.32

5

17.04

7-30

9.28

6

18.67

8.00

10.19

7

20.15

8.64

10.99

8

21.56

9.24

11.76

9

22.86

9.80

12.47

10

24.10

10.33

13-15

II

25.27

10.83

13-79

12

26.40

II. 31

14.40

13

27-47

11.77

14.99

'4

2S.5I

12.22

15.56

•5

29.52

12.65

16.13

16

30.48

13.06

16.63

17

31-42

13.46

17.14

18

32-33

13.86

17.65

19

33-22

14.24

18.13

20

34-17

14.64

18.64

Another Manner of applying Water to an underfhot Wheel
—This was propofed by M. Fabre as the refult of much
mathematical inveftigation, and has been fo frequently re-
commended by authors of eminence, that we fliall give a
fhort defcription without entering into all his rules for the
proportions. The principal diff'erence in this wheel from
that in common ufe is, that the water is made to run down
a rapid flope or inclined plane, in order to ftrike the floats
of the wheel, inftead of iffuing from an aperture or fluice
fituated beneath the furface of the water in the refervoir.
A mill is ufually fituated at a diftance from the river, with
a canal or water-courfe to conduft the water to the mill; as
it is of the higheft importance to have the height of the fall
as great as poffible, the bottom of the canal or water,
courfe, which condufts the water from the river to the mill,
fhould have a very fmall declivity ; for the height of the
water-fall at the mill will diminifh in proportion as the
declivity of the canal is increafed: it will be fufficient to
make it flope about one inch in 200 yards, taking care to
make the declivity about half an inch in the firft 48 yards,
in order that the water may have a velocity fufficient to
prevent it from flowing back into the river.

When the water is thus brought to the channel in which
the wheel is placed, the water is recommended to be con-
dufted down a flope or inchned plane, making an angle of
64^ degrees with the horizon ; that is, in ? perpendicular of
ten feet, the flope ftiould deviate from it 4^ feet .- at the
bottom of this flope the water is to be again condufted
horizontally, and then to ftrike the float-boards of the

wheel.

I

V¥ATEll.

wheel. To render thr fall of the water eafy, tlie (lope is to
be rounded off by a convexity at top and a concavity at
bottom, to lead the water from the horizontal to the Hope,
and again from tlie flopc without abruptnefs. It is fiip-
pofed that the water, iu running down this inchned plane,
will acquire the fame velocity as if it had fallen perpen-
dicularly through a height equal to the perpendicular
height of the flope.

The diltance through which the water runs horizontally,
from the foot of the Hope before it afts upon the wheel,
(hould not be lefs than two or three feet, in order that the
different portions of the fluid may have obtained an hori-
zontal diredtion ; but if this horizontal diftance be much
larger, the velocity of the ftream would be diminilhed by its
fritlion on the bottom and fides of the water-courl'c. That
lefs water may efcape between float-boards and the bottom
of the courfe, it (hould be formed into the arch of a circle
concentric with the wheel, which fweep fhould be pro-
longed, fo as to fupport the water as long as it can att upon
the float-boards ; beyond this fweep (hould be a ftep or fall
of not much lefs than nine inches with a flope of about
45 degrees, that the water having fpent the greater part of
its force in impelling the float-boards, may not accumulate
below the wheel and retard its motion. After this itep the
courfe of difcharge, or tail water-courfe to run off the water
from the wheel, (hould be floored with wood or niafonry
about 1 6 yards long, having an inch of declivity in every
two yards.

The canal which condudls the water from the courfe of
difcharge to join the river again, fliould Hope about four
inches in the firft 200 yards, and three inclies in the lecond
200 yards, and fo decreafing gradually till it terminates in
the river. But if the river to which the water is conveyed,
(hould be fubjeft to be fwollen by the rains, fo as to force
the water back upon the wheel, the canal mud have a
greater dechvity, in order to prevent this from taking
place. Henct' it will be evident, that very accurate levelhng
is neceflary for the proper formation of the mill-courfe.
The tail water-courle ought always to have a very confi-
derable breadth, which fhould be greater than that of the
wheel-race, or part in which the wheel afts, that the water
having room to fpread may have lefs depth. The feftion
of the fluid at the point where it ftrikes the wheel (hould be
rcftangular, the breadth of the flream having a determinate
relation to its depth. If there is a great Itream of water,
the breadth fhould be triple the depth ; if there is a mode-
rate quantity, the breadth fhould be double the depth ; and
if there is very little water, the breadth and the depth fliould
be equal. The depth of the water here alluded to is its
natural depth, or that which it would have, if it did not
meet the float-boards. The effective depth is generally two
and a half times the natural depth, and is occaiioned by the
impulfe of the water 011 the float -boards, which forces it to
fwell, and increafes its atlion upon the wheel.

As it is of great confequence that none of the water
fhould efcape, either below the float-boards or at tlieir
fides, without contributing to turn the wheel, the breadth of
the float -boards fliould be wider than the fheet of water
which llrikes them. The diameter of the water-wheel
fhould be as great as pofTible, unlefs fome particular circum-
flances in the conflrudtion prevent it ; but ought never to
be lefs than feven times the natural depth of tlie llream or
thicknefs of the flieet of water, where it meets the float-
boards. The wheel will move irregularly, fometimes quick
and fometimcs flow, according to the pofltion of the floats
with refpcft to the fl;ream ; unlefs the number of float -boards
is confiderable, the wheel muft have fo many floats, that

Vol. XXXVIII.

two floats will at leafl; be always in the circular fweep at
the bottom of the wheel; but in order to remove any

inequality of motion in the wheel, and prevent the water
from efcaping beneath the tips of the float-boards, it fhould
have as many float -boards as poffible, without loading it, or
weakening the rim on w.hich they are placed. The float-
boards fliould not be perpendicular to the rim, or, in other
words, a continuation of the radius, but fltould be inclined to
the radius ; the water will tlius heap upon the float -boards, and
att not only by its impulfe, but alfo by its weight. When
the velocity of the ftream is eleven fi;et per fecond, or above
this, the inchnation fliould never be lefs than thirty degrees;
or v/hen this velocity is K-fs, the inclination fhould diminifli
in proportion ; fo that when it is four feet, or under, the
inclination fhould be nothing, that is, the float-boards fliould
point to the centre of the wheel.

It is a llrong practical obje&ion to this manner of apply-
ing the water to the wheel, that when the water of the river
finks in dry weather from a deficiency of water, it would
not run over the top of the fall, and the mill could not work
at all even if it funk only ten or twelve inches : in like
manner, when the water rifes in floods, the water at the top
of the fall would become fo deep, as to require fome fhuttle
to prevent it from inundating the wheels, at the fame time
that the f-tagnant water in the mill race would prevent the
wheel from working. Almoil all rivers are fubjeft to
floods, and 'often they rife and fall, three, four, fix, and
eight feet above their ordinary level in fair weather ; now
the water moftly rifes at the tail or difchai-ge of the water
as much as the head, and the wheel-race will therefore be
full of ilagnant water, which is called tail-water, and ob-
ftrufts the motion of the wheel.

In a ground-fhot wheel, where the water iffues from a
fhuttle on a level with the bottom of <he wheel-race, it can
always work in dry feafons, as long as the river contains
any water, although the power diminifhes almoft to nothing,
when the water finks low, and will not rufh out with force
from the fliuttle. In floods of .water, this wheel has a
greater advantage, hecaufe the depth of head which urges
the flowing water is increafed when the water is high, and
this makes it drive the tail-water forcibly^ out of the wheel-
race, and enable the wheel to work, when a wheel with
an inclined fall would infallibly be (lopped.

Breaft-wheels and overihot-whecls, properly conftrudled,
have ftill greater advantages, in clearing themfelves from
tail-water, and this is a very important objeft.

Floating-Mill luith iindeijlM Wheels. — A large floating
water-mill, to be worked by the tides or currents, was fta-
tioned fome years ago in the river Thames, between London
and Blackfriars bridge, by permiffion of the Board of
Navigation. Such permiffion having been granted with the
view of reducing, if pofBble, the price of flour in the
metropolis, and contributing to a con'.lant fupply of that
recelfary article of fubfiftence. The fimphcity of this in-
vention renders a long defcription fuperfluous, as it confifts
in merely applying the force of two large underfliot water-
wheels on each fide of a barge, or any other veffel calculated
to contain the interior part of the machinery ; the float-
boards are difpofed in a proper manner to be afted on by
the tide or current, fo as to give the wheels a rotatory motion,
::nd by connefting them with proper machinery, to anfwer
tl;'.' purpofes for which the mill is intended.

Any fliip, brig, (loop, or other veffel, may be ufed for
this purpofe, provided it is of fufficient fize to accommo-
dr^te the works to be erefted, yet in point of expence it will
be better to employ fuch as' are rendered unfit for fea-
fervice,

L "When

WATER.

When it is intended that the fhip or mill (hould be fta-
lionary, it muft be anchored, moored, or otherwife made
faft, fo as to fwing with the tide when nccefTary ; but the
mill may be worked while the veffel in which it is ereftcd is
failing, when wind and other circumilances permit.

The number and fize of the water-wheels to be ufed may
be varied, according to the fize of the fhip or veflel, or to
the ftrength of the tide or current, and the power required ;
and the wheels may be conftrufted as in common underfhot
jnills, or with folding-floats, for the more readily freeing
them from the water : two wheels are to be placed vertically,
on an horizontal axis, of fuch length, that, the axis being
placed acrofs the (hip or veflel, one wheel may run on each
fide of it on the fame axis.

A mill conftruAed in the manner above defcribed may
be moved by the ilrength of from two to fix large water-
wheels, or fuch other number as the (hip or velfcl will ac-
commodate. Thcfe water wheels may dip into the water
from three to four, or more feet deep ; they (liould be
fo connefted together as to be ealily engaged with and dif-
engaged from each other, fo that during the weak part of the
tide they may all be made to aft on one pair of mill-ftones,
if neceffary ; and as the ftrength of the tide increafes, more
ftones or other machinery may be put in motion, fo as at all
times to do bufinefs in proportion thereto.

In a mill of this kind the water-wheels do not admit of
having water-courfes, or any equivalent contrivances, to con-
duft the water to the wheels, as in other underfhot wheels ;
but the float-boards muft be large enough to receive the
power required from merely dipping into the current of the
tide-water.

The veffel of the mill in the Thames is the luil! of an
old (hip of two or three hundred tons burthen, which being
moored in the river by chains, fo that it can fwing round
when the tide changes, the wheels will always turn the
fame way round ; one water-wheel is fixed on each fide of
the veffel, a long iron axis being common to both ; the ex-
treme ends of the axis are fupported in a frame w-ork of
timber, and another very ftrong frame of timber is fixed
outfide of the wheels at the level of the water, wliich floats
in the water, and is only attached to the mill by chains ; this
is to proteft the wheels iVom injury, by veffels which pafs and
repafs. Each water-wheel is i8 feet diameter, and 14 feet
broad ; the float-boards are each 3 feet deep, and are about
fixtcen in number, affixed on the circumference of cart iron-
wheels, or circles, which are i 2 feet diameter, there are three
of thefe circles for each wheel ; hence we find each float-
board expofes a furface of 42 fquare feet to the aftion of the
current, and if we fuppofe each wheel to have two floats in
aftion at the fame time, the power of the mill will be derived
from 168 fquare feet afted upon by the water, which feldom
exceeds a velocity of four miles per hour, or 352 feet per
minute.

The iron axis of the water-wheels is a hollow tube of nine
inches diameter outfide, and five inches within, made in four
lengths of 12 feet each, properly joined together, and ex-
tending acrofs the veffel from one wheel to the other. On
the middle of this axis a large wheel of 1 1 feet diameter is
fixed, and furrounded by a brake or gripe like that ufed in a
wind-mill, the ufe of which is to ftop the mill when it re-
quires repairing. Near to this brake-wheel is a large be-
villed cog-wheel 1 3 feet diameter, with 89 cogs, which gives
motion to a bevilled pinion two feet eight inches diameter,
with eighteen cogs fixed on the top of a vertical axis. On
this axis is alfo a large horizontal fpur-wheel 12 feet dia-
meter, with 201 cogs, which gives motion to pinions of one
foot diameter, and 1 7 cogs fixed on the fpindles of the mill-

9 .

ftones. There are four pair of mill-ilones, two pair of
4-1 feet and two pair of 3^ feet diameter, and the mill alfo
works a dreffing-machine for the flour. The mill-ftones
make 575 revolutions for one revolution of the water-wheels,
which move very (low, fcarcely two turns ^^r minute, in the
moft favourable periods of the tide. The circumference of
each taken through the middle of the float-boards is 47 feet ;
hence the float -boards move about 94 feet per minute, when
the mill-ftones make their proper number of revolutions to
grind with the greateft effeft.

It was found that on a flood-tide, this mi'l would drive two
pair of 3-5 feet mill-ftones, and a flour drefling-machine, but
on the ebb-tide only one pair of 4-feet ftones and the ma-
chine ; thus it is only the performance of a fmall mill, al-
though the wheels are of large dimenfions, and it would
require enormous wheels to make an effective floating mill
in the river Thames.

Tfiis machine is now removed from the river, becaufe it
was found to do fo much injury to the veffels which continu-
ally ran againft its floating frame, and the repairs of the da-
mages frequently done to the mill by ice and the craft took
away all the advantages of the mill.

Lfnili-rjhot IVheeh with oblique Floats. — Attempts have
been made to conftruft water-wheels for tide-rivers which
receive the impulfe obUquely, like the fails of a common
wind-mill. This would in many fituations be a great ad-
vantage. A very flow but deep river could in this manner
be made to drive mills ; and although much power would
be loft by the obliquity of the impulfe, the remainder might
be very great. Dr. Robinfon fpeaks of a wheel of this kind
which was very powerful ; it was a long cylindrical frame,
having a plate ftanding out from it about a foot broad, and
furrounding it with a very oblique fpiral like a cork-fcrew.
This was immierfed about one-fourth of its diameter (which
was nearly 12 feet), having its axis in the direftion of the
ftream. By the work which it was performing, it feemed
more powerful than a common wheel which occupied the
fame breadth of the river. Its length was not lefs than
20 feet ; had it been twice as much it would have been nearly
redoubled in its power without occupying more of the
water-way. It is probable fuch a fpiral continued quite to
the axis, and moving in a liollow canal wholly filled by the
ftream, might be a very advantageous way of employing a
deep and flow current.

In the Tranfaftions of the Society of Arts, vol. xix. a
water-wheel is defcribed, in which the float -boards are placed
obliquely to the axis of the water-wheel at about an angle
of 40 degrees, being fixed to the rim in pairs, which are
inclined equally to the axis of the wheel, but in oppofite
direclions to each other ; fo that the two float-boards of
each pair point towards each other in an angle of about
80 degrees, and if the pair of floats were continued they
would meet in the middle of the breadth of the wheel. The
water is made to ftrike the floats within this angle, and in
confcquence all the water which is emitted by the fluice and
ftrikes upon the oblique floats will be reflefted from the fides
or ends of the two pair of float-boards towards the vertex
of the angle, which they make ; but the pair of floats
do not touch each other, fo that the vertex of the angle is
open ; but to prevent the water pafling freely through the
open angle, one of the float -boards is made to extend far be-
yond the vertex, or point, where they would interfeft, and
the other is made to fall ihort of it, neverthelefs the water
would certainly pafs through the opening. It is ftated, that
the motion of the ordinary wheel with parallel floats is
greatly retarded by the reliftance which they experience in
rifing up or quitting the tail-water of the ftream, from the

preffure

WATER.

preffure of the atmofphere on their upper furface before the
air gets admiflion beneath the floats ; but in Befant's wheel
this refiftance is greatly diminifhed, as the floats emerge from
the ftream in an oblique direftion. The water-wheel is
conftrufted in the form of a hollow drum, fo as to refift the
admiflion of the water. Although this wheel is much hea-
vier than thofe of the common conftruftion, yet it revolves
more eafily upon its axis, as the llream has a tendency to
make it float. We cannot recommend this wheel, but on
the contrary think it one of the w.orft forms, as it tends to
increafe that lofs which arifes in all underfliot-wheels from
the change of figure which the water muft undergo when it
llrikes the float, and we fliould not have mentioned it, but
that it has been fo frequently copied and recomnTeuded by
different authors.

HurW.ontal Water- luheels affuated by the Impulfs of Water.
— Thefe have been confiderably in ufe on the continent, and
defervc our notice from the limplicity of their conftruftion.
The wheel is conftrufted in the fame manner as an under-
fliot-wheel, having float -boards fixed round its circumference
in the form of radii ; it is mounted on a vertical axis, the
upper end of which is fixed to the fpindle of the mill-ilone,
if the mill is intended to grind corn ; but in fome cafes, it is
better to fix a cog-wheel on the upper part of the vertical
axis with teeth round its edge, to give motion to trundles
or pinions on the fpindles of the mill-ftones, becaufe the
floats of the wheel muft always be made to move with a
given proportion of the velocity of the water. The wheel-
race or water-courfe may be made nearly the fame as for an
undcrfliot-wheel, if we fuppofe it laid down in an horizontal
pofition ; that is, a trough or channel of mafonry is con-
ftrufted in which the wheel works, and the float-boards of
the wheel are exaftly fitted to it : at one end of this chan-
nel is the aperture or fluice through which the ftream of
water ifl"ues, and ftrikes the floats of the wheel fo as to
turn It round, and the water pafles forwards and efcapes at the
other end of the channel. When the water is dehvered upon
the wheel in an horizontal direftion, or perpendicular to its
axis, the float -boards fliould be inclined about twenty -five
degrees to the plane of the wheel, and the fame number of
degrees to the radius, fo that the loweft and outermoft fides
of the float-boards may be fartheft up the ftream and be met
by the water firft.

In many cafes, the water-courfe is made inclined to the
plane of the wheel in fuch a degree, that the water may ftrike
the float-boards perpendicular to their furfaces.

In the fouthern provinces of France, where horizontal
water-wheels are generally employed, the float-boards are
made of a curvilineal form fo as to be concave towards the
ftream ; they are generally fegments of fpheres, or hollow
wooden bowls or ladles fixed on the rim of the wheel : the
water, in this cafe, is condufted through a pipe, and pro-
jefted in a jet on a direftion a little inclined to the horizon.
When the height of water is very confiderable, this is,
perhaps, the beft form for the floats, or ladles, as they are
called.

The chevalier de Borda obferves, that in theory a double
eff'eft is produced when the float-boards are concave, but that
tlieeffcftisdiminifliedin praftice,fromthedifriculty of making
the fluid enter, and leave the curve in a proper direftion.
Notwithftanding this difficulty, however, and other dcfefts
which might be pointed out, horizontal wheels with con-
cave float-boards are always fuperior to thofe in which the
float-boards have plane furfaces.

Mr. Smeaton conftrufted a fmall corn-mill with a hori-
zontal water-wheel, of which the following are the prin-
cipal dimenfions. Fall of water 5 zi feet ; diameter, or

bore of the nofe-pipe through which the water ifl"ued in
a jet to ftrike upon the wheel, li inch ; diameter of the
water-wheel 10 feet to the centre' of the floats or ladles,
which were twelve in number ; they were made of a concave
form, nearly fegments of fpheres, and about 14 inches in
diameter ; and fixed round the circumference of the wheel,
fo that the planes of the circular rims, or edges of the
hollow ladles, were not perpendicular to the plane of the
wheel, but inclined thereto in fuch a degree, that the jet of
water in"uing from the nofe-pipe at an angle of 2 2 degrees
from the horizontal line, would ftrike the floats in the centre
and perpendicular to the circular edge of the hollow ; the
internal furface of the floats being really fpherical, the water
would always ftrike perpendicularly into the concavity of
the bowl. The water-wheel axis rofe up perpendicularly
into the mill-houfe, and on the top a wheel of 4 feet 8 inches
in diameter, and 44 cogs, was fixed for giving motion to the
pinions on the axis of the mill-ftones. The largeft pinion
of 17 cogs was fixed on the axis of a pair of ftones 4 feet
6 inches in diameter, and the fmaller pinion of 1 3 cogs on
the axis of a ftone 3 feet 6 inches in diameter. It was
not intended to turn both thefe pairs of ftones at the fame
time, but it was neceflary to have two pairs for different
ufes.

When this mill moved with a proper velocity to grind
to the greateft advantage, if the 4 feet 6 inches ftones were
ufed, the water-wheel made 25 revolutions per minute, and
the ftones therefore made 65 revolutions per minute, and
the float-boards moved with a velocity of 784 feet *^r mi-
nute ; but when turning the fmaller mill-ftones of 3 feet
6 inches diameter, the water-wheel went beft when it made
26 revolutions, and therefore turned the mill-llone 88 turns
per minute ; and the velocity of the floats was 816 feet per
minute.

Mr. Smeaton calculated the velocity of the water ifluing
from the pipe at 3403 ketper minute, which is the velocity due
to a JO feet feet, becaule he allowed the 2^ feet to overcome
friftion, and the expenditure of the li inch nofe-pipe at 30
cubic teetper minute allowing for friftion. This mill ground
one bufhel of wheat per hour, on the average of a great
many experiments, now 30 x 50 = 1500 cubic feet, falling
one foot per minute. It is found by repeated experiments,
that 600 cubic feet falling one foot per minute on a good
water-wheel is an ample allowance for grinding a buftiel of
wheat, as it may be done by 530 ; hence this fall of water
ought to have ground 25 bufliels per hour inftead of one.
The mill, however, admits of improvement in making the
floats of the wheel move quicker.

When the mill-ftone of an horizontal mill is fixed on the
upper end of the axis of the water-wheel, if the mill-ftone be
five feet in diameter, it ftiould never make lefs than fixty turns
in a minute, and the wheel muft perform the fame number
of revolutions in the fame time ; and in order that the
eff'eft may be a maximum, or the greateft poffible, the ve-
locity of the current muft be more than double that of the
wheel.

Suppofe the mill-ftone, for example, to be 5 feet dia
meter, and the water-wheel 7 feet, it is evident that the
mill-ftone and wheel muft at leaft revolve 60 times in a mi-
nute ; and fince the circumference of the wheel is 22 feet,
the float -boards will move through that fpace in the 60th
part of a minute, that is, at the rate of 22 fcot per fecond ;
which being doubled, makes the velocity of the water
44 feet one fecond, anfwering, as appears from the rule,
for the velocity of falling water, to a fall of 30 feet. But
if the given fall of water be lefs than 30 feet, we may
procure the fame velocity to the mill-ftone, by diminifti-
L 3 ing

WATER.

ing the diameter of the wheel. If the wlieel, for inftance,
is only 6 feet diameter, its circumference will be 18.8
feet, and its floats will move at the rate of 18.8 feet in
a fecond, the double of which is 37.6 feet per fecond,
which anfwers to a head of water 22 feet high. The dia-
meter of the water-wheel, however, ihould never be lefs than
6 or 7 feet, becaufe the float -boards change their direiftion
fo rapidly, in confequence of their proximity to the centre,
that they will not receive the full aAiou of the water, be-
caufe it afts in a perpendicular direction to the float -board
only for a moment. 'Hence there will be a certain height
of the fall, beneath which the Ample horizontal wheel can-
not be employed ; and beyond that, wheel-work mud be
introduced to obtain the requiflte velocity for' the mill-
ftones.

In the provinces of Guienne and Languedoc, in France,
another fpecies of horizontal wheel is employed for turning
machinery. It confifts of an inverted cone, with I'piral
float-boards of a curvilineal form winding round its furtace.
The wheel moves on a vertical axis in a pit or well of ma-
fonry, to which it is exaiftly fitted, like a coffee-mill in its
box. It is driven chiefly by the impulfe of the water, con-
veyed by a fpout or canal in a ftream, which ilrikes the ob-
lique float-boards ; and when the water has fpent its impul-
five force, it defcends along the fpiral float-boards, and con-
tinues to aft by its weight till it reaches the bottom, where
it is carried oflF by a canal. The idea of this m.achine is in-
genious. The jet of water, being firft apphed to the upper
or laro-eft; part of the cone, ftrikes the float-boards at the
part where they move with the greatell velocity, in confe-
quence of their being on the largeft radius ; but as the w.-iter
lofes its velocity, in confequence of the motion it has im-
parted to the wheel, it defcends in the cone, and afts upon
the floats lower down, where, the radius being lefs, the
floats move more flowly, and are therefore better adapted
to receive the aftion of the water with its diminiftied ve-
locity.

M. Mannoury Dedot's horizontal Watcr-Whecl, rvhtch

he calls Danaide This receives the impulfe of the water in

a diflerent manner from any which we have defcribcd, and
is defcribed in a report to the IniHtute of France in 18 13.
The water-wheel is fixed in a horizontal pofition upon a
vertical axis, and fupported upon the pivots thereof, fo as
to be capable of turning round. It is not in reality a wheel,
but a hollow cylinder or drum capable of containing water ;
it is open at top, and united to the axis in the centre of the
circular plane, which forms the bottom. Within this drum,
and concentric with it, a folid cylinder is fixed ; it is of lefs
dimenfions than the drum itfelf, and occupies fuch portion
of the content of the drum as to reduce the open part which
can contain water to a hollow ring or circular trough, open
at top, and of a confiderable depth, but only a few inches
in width. The depth is defcribed as being nearly as great
as the diameter of the wheel.

The water coming from an elevated refervoir, is pro-
jefted in jets from one or more pipes into this annular fpace
which furrounds the rim of the wheel. Thefe pipes defcend
in an inchned direftion, till they are nearly on a level with
the furface of the water in the annular fpace ; and the ex-
tremities turn horizontally, fo as to projeft the jet horizon-
tally, and in the direftion of tangents to the mean circum-
ference of the water contained in the annular fpace.

Suppofe this fpace whicli furrounds the wheel is fuU of
water, then the ftream iffuing from the jet caufes the wheel
to turn round upon its axis, becaufe it takes hold or aCts
upon the water in the annular fpace, and tends to give the
water a circulr,ting motion within the annular fpace ; but the

fridtion, or refiftance, which the water would find in fuch
circulation, caufes the wheel to turn round with the water,
unlefs the load on the wheel, or refillance to its motion, is
too great.

The water which is continually thrown into the wheel
efcapes from the annular fpace by paifages which proceed
from the bottom thereof to the centre of the wheel ; and
there are openings at the centre, whei-e the water can drop
out below. To form the paflages for this purpofe, the folid
cylinder which is fixed in the centre of the hollow drum is
of lefs depth than the other, and leaves a fpace between the
bottom of the foUd and the bottom of the hollow, which
is divided into compartments by diaphragms fixed upon the
bottom of the trough, and proceeding like radii from the
circumference to a central hole in the bottom of the trough,
which is left open to allow the water to efcape. The report
ftates, that the velocity with which the water iflues from
the jets makes the machine move round its axis ; and this
motion accelerates by degrees, till the velocity of the water
in the annular fpace equals that of the water from the re-
fervoir, fo that no fenfible fliock is perceived of the afiluent
water upon that which is contained in the machine. The
motion of the wheel is regular, becaufe the aftion is con-
tinual ; but in the cafe of other water-wheels, where the
water ilrikes againd float-boards, fuch boards muft necef-
farily be of a determinate number, and the motion muft be
given to the wheel by a fucceflion of impulfes, as the floats
arrive before the ftream. We might indeed fuppofe a wheel
with an infinite number of floats, but it would then amount
to a plain cylindrical or flat furface, upon which the water
would not take fufficient hold to produce any fenfible effort
to turn it round.

Now in M. Dedot's wheel, in place of float-boards, the
rim of the wheel is clothed with water, which is capable of
being afted upon by the water ifluing from the jets. This
aftion tends to put the water in the annular fpace in motion,
and to carry the wheel along with it, by the adhefion it
muft naturally have to the fides of the channel which con-
tains it. The velocity of the wlieel will be in proportion to
the refinance that the load makes to its motion.

The circular motion of the wheel communicates a centri-
fugal force to the water contained in the annular cavity of
its rim, which caufes it to prefs againft the outermoft fide
of the channel. This centrifugal force afts equally upon
the water contained in the compartments at the bottom of
the faid rim ; but its aftion diminilhes as the water ap-
proaches the centre.

The whole mals of water is then animated by two op-
pofite forces, vie. gravity and the centrifugal force. The
firft tends to make the water run out at the hole in the bot-
tom of the wheel at the centre, and the fecond to drive the
water from that hole.

To thefe two aftions are joined a third, -c'lz. friftion or
refiftance, which afts an important and Angular part ; and
in this machine the friftion of the water produces its powers
of aftion, while in moft other machines it always diminiflies
their powers. The effeft in this machine v^'ould be nothing,
were it not for the refiftance which the water finds oppofed
to its free circulation in the annular fpace round the rim of
the wheel.

By the combination of thefe three forces there ought to
refult a more or lefs rapid flow of water from the hole m the
centre at the bottom of the wheel ; and the flower this water
ifl"ues, the greater will be the effcftive power of the machine
for producing the ufeful eff'eft for which it is deftined.

The moving power in this machine, hke all others, is the
weight of the water which runs into the wheel, muhiplicd

by

WATER.

by the elevation the refervoir lias above the bottom of the
wheel, or orifice from which it iffues in quitting tlie fame ;
but the ufeful mechanical effeft is Rated to be equal to that
produft, diminilhed by half the force which the water re-
tains, when it flows out at the orifice below, and quits the
machine.

In order to afcertain, by direft experiment, the magni-
tude of this effect, Meflrs. Prony and Carnot fixed a cord
to the axis of the machine, which pafling over a pulley,
raifed a weight by the motion of the machine. By this
means the effeft was found to be -/nths of the power, and
often approached -/„Vths, without reckoning the friftion of
the pulleys, which has nothing to do with the effedl.

We cannot help fufpedling fome millaice in thefe experi-
ments, or in the llatement of them, but think the machine
deferves a trial ; and if it (hould produce near the refult
above ftated, it would be a moll valuable addition to our
means of employing falls of water ; and its fimplicity would
be a great recommendation, particularly for corn-mills, be-
caufe the perpendicular axis is immediately adapted for that
purpofe, without any wheel-work.

Horizontal Mill ivith oblique Vanes In Belidor's Archi-

tefture Hydraulique he defcribes a ditferent form of Ijori-
7.ontal mill. The wheel is a circular rim, and the radii or
arms are all oblique vanes or floats, precifely the fame as the
common fmoke-jack. This wheel is placed horizontally in
a well, to which it is exaftly fitted, but the rim of the wheel
does not touch the circular wall of the well. The axis of the
wheel afccnds upwards into the mill-lioufe, and the fpindle
of the mill-ftone is fixed into it. A horizontal arch-way is
condufted to the well fideways, and above the part where the
wheel is fituated. This arch conveys the water into the
well over the wheel ; and beneath the wheel there is a fimilar
horizontal arch to carry away the water, after it has palled
through the wheel, that is, in the fpaces between its vanes
or floats. The weight of the water prelTes upon them in a
perpendicular direftion, ami tlie planes of thefe floats being
all inclined to the horizon, the action of the prelTure tends
to turn the wheel round on its axis, by the fame aftion as
the fmoke upon the vanes of a jack, or like a wind-mill.

The water is fupplied in Inch a body through the upper
arch, that the well is always kept full, with a confiderable
depth of water preffing upon the wheel ; whilft the lower
arch carries away the water fo freely, that it runs awav
from beneath the wheel as fail as it can pafs through the
vanes of the fame.

The mill defcribed by Belidor was at Touloufe, and
contained a number of fuch wheels in a row, each giving
motion to one pair of Hones.

Horizontal Machines moved by the Readion of Water. —
The rcaftion of water, ilfuing horizontally through a fpont
or orifice, may be employed to communicate motion to
machinery ; and though this principle has not yet been
adopted in practice, it appears from theory, and from fome
detached experiments .on a fmall Icale, that a given quantity
of water, falling through a given iieight, will produce greater
elTeAs by its reaftion than by its impulfe. If we fuppofe
a vertical pipe of any given height, open at both ends, and
that water is poured into it at tiie top, the water will ilTue
at the bottom of the pipe with a velocity proportioned in a
certain manner to its altitude, becaufe every particle of water
which i'lucs is prefied upon and impelled by the weight of
all the particles which are above it. Now, fuppofe the
pipe bent or curved at the bottom, fo that it will turn the
ftreani of water into a horizontal pofition ; in this cafe, the
prelfure and force, of which we have fpoken, will be de-
fiedted from the vertical direftion to tiie horizontal. Nov.'

It IS clear that the bent part of the pipe, or fome part of the
mtenor furface of the tube oppofite to the orifice, muft fuf-
tain all the prefTure which is thus defleaed or tranfmitted ih
another diredion ; and if the tube is freely fufpended, it will
retreat before this preflTure, and be put in motion. If we
fuppofe the tube to have no rcfiftance to motion, then it
would receive all the motion of the water, which would not
move at all after it in"ued from the orifice, but the orifice
and tube would move away from the water. This is an ira-
poflTible cafe, and in reality the motion of the effluent water
will be divided between the pipe or tube and the iffuing
water, in proportion to the rcfiftance with which each is
loaded. Another and perhaps more familiar explanation is,
that thevvater preffes againil every part of the interior part
of the pipe, except againft the orifice or aperture, which is
open ; and in confequence, the unbalanced preffure on the
part oppofite to the orifice will tend to put the pipe in
motion. A llcy-rocket mounts in the air from a fimilar caufe.

Dr. Barker's mill by the reaction of water was the firft of
this kind of machines, and is defcribed by Defaguliers, in
1743- I" his Experimental Philofophy, vol. ii. p. 460, he
calls it a machine to prove Mr. Parent's propofition experi-
mentally, viz. that an under-fliot water-mill does moft work,
when the water-wheel moves with only a third part of the
natural velocity of the water that drives it. He fays, that
Dr. Barker had this thought, and communicated it to him,
faying, that it would be an experimental proof of Mr. Pa-
rent's propofition ; in confequence of which, Defaguliers
made a working model of it, which he ihewed to the Royal
Society, and the experiments upon it, at their meeting in
1742.

It confifts of an upright pipe or trunk, communicating
with two horizontal branches, hke an inverted T ; thus, J^.
This perpendicular pipe is poifed upon a pivot at the lower
end, and the upper end is conne£led vvitli the fpindle of the
mill-itone, or other machine to which it is to communicate
motion. The top of the pipe is formed into a funnel, into
which a ftream of water is conduced, and runs down the
pipe : the water efcapes through a hole in each of the
horizontal arms, which holes are near the ends of the arms,
and open in oppofite diredlions, and in fuch a pofition that
they will direft the llream of water horizontally, and nearly
at right angles to ^he length of the arms.

Suppofe water to be poured in at the top of tlie tube
from tiie fpout, it will then run out by the holes at the ends
of the arms, witli a velocity correfponding with the depth
of thefe holes beneath the furface of the water in the vertical
pipe. The confequence of this mud be, that the arms
mull be prefied backwards, for there is no folid furface at
the hole on which the lateral preflure of the water can be
exerted, while it afts with its full force on the infide of the
tube oppofite to ;!ie hole. This unbalanced preffure, afting
upon the oppofite fides of botli arm.s, will make the tube
and the horizontal ann revolve upon the fpindle as an axis.

This will be more eafily underllood, if we fuppofe the
orifices to be flint up, and confider the prelfure upon a cir-
cular inch of the arm oppofite to the orifice, the orifice
being of the fame fize.

The preffure upon this circular inch will be equal to a
cylinder of water, whofe bafe is one inch in diameter, and
whofe altitude is the height of the fall ; and the fame force
is exerted upon the fhut-up orifice. Thefe two preflures
being equal, and afting in oppofite direftions, the arm will
remain at reft ; hut as foon as the orifice is opened, the
water will ilFue with a velocity due to the height of the fall.
The preffure of the w.iter upon t! e orifice will now be re-
moved, and as the preffure upon the circular inch oppolite

to

WATER.

'I

from the lower end of the column will acquire the fame
velocity of motion, from the uniform preflure of the thirty
cubic inches which are above it, that one cubic inch let fall
from the top would acquire in falling down to the level of
the aperture, t/z. fuch a velocity as in a contraiy direction
would throw or projeft it to the level from whence it fell,
the weights and velocities in both thefe cafes being equal, the
products, or wliat we have called mechanical powers, will
alfo be equal. We might therefore be led to fuppofe, that
a cubic inch of water, let fall through a fpace of thirty
inches, fo as to inpinge upon a folid body, would be capa-
ble of communicating thereto an equal motion or mechanical
effeft by collifion, as if the fame cubic inch had defcended
through the fame fpace with a flower motion, and produced
the effeft gradually ; for in both cafes gravity acts upon an
equal quantity of matter through an equal fpace.

It is true that the gravitating force afts a longer Ipace of
time upon the body that defcends flowly, than upon the
other which falls quickly ; but this cannot occafion the dif-
ference in the effeft : for we find by experiment, thrt an
elaffic body falling through any given fpace will, by coU;fion
upon another elaftic body which is fixed, rebound nearly to
the height from which it fell : or, by communicating its
motion to a body equal to itfelf, will caufe that body to
afcend to the fame height. On thefe principles we might
conclude, as fome authors have done, that whatever was the
ratio between the power and effeft in underfliot wheels, the
fame would hold true in overfhot, and indeed in all others.

However conclufive thio reai'oning may feem, it will ap-
pear, in the courfe of the following deduftions, that the
effeft of the gravity of defcending bodies is very different
from the effeft of the ttroke, of fuch as are nnn-elajlh,
though generated by an equal mechanical power.

It is true that, in the cafes we have abo-ve fnppofed, the
power of the fall of water is the fame ; but tiie problem
propofed to the engineer is, to obtain from it all or as
much as poffible of the power, and render it applicable to
fome ufeful purpofe. We have already given our definition
of poiuer, that it is weight or matter compounded with
motion. Now to obtain all the power from any ftream of
water, we muft abftraft from it all its weight and all its
motion. In underfhot wheels, or any others moved by the
impulfe of the water, we cannot come near this, becaufe
we have already Ihewn, that the greatell effeft is produced,
when the velocity of the wheel is two-fifths of the velocity
of the moving water. The water, after it has finifhed its
effeft, is difcharged with that velocity ; hence it retains
and carries away with it three-fifths of its original power.
Neither can we obtain the full effeft of the weight of the
water, for another lofs is fuftained, in the change of figure
which the water experiences, when it ftrikes the float-board.
This is much greater than is ufually fuppofed, in confidering
machines, although it muft be familiar to any one who con-
fiders the refiftance of a boat, or other body, when drawn
through water. No weight is raifed in thefe cafes, unlefs
the motion be rapid, ( fo as to raife a wave before the moving
body ; ) but all the power is expended in changing the figure
of the water, by dividing the particles, and putting them
in new pofitions, fo that the body can pafs between them.

It is to this fource that we muft look, for the difference
between two-fifths of the power, which we find is abftrafted
from the whole power of the water by an underfliot-wheel,
and one-third of the power, which is the utmoft we can ob-
tain by means of an underftiot wheel.

In the other clafs of machines, which are aftuatcd by the
weight of water, we can obtain a much greater fhare of the
power of the defcending water. The weight of the water

is borne by the machine, which muft therefore receive the
whole weight of the water, and the lofs is chiefly in the
motion which the water itiU retains after departing from or
quitting the machine ; but as we are not confined, as in the
former inftnnce, to any fixed velocity of motion for the'
wheel, we may make it move almoft as flowly as we pleafe,'
fo that the water will carry away with it a very fmall fliare'
of the velocity which it would have acquired by falling
through the height of the fall. Indeed, if v/e could fup-
pofe a wheel to be without friftion, and no water to leak,
or efcape from thofe veifels, or parts of the wheel which
contain the water, it would be poflible to obtain an effeft
from it Tery nearly equal to the power.

Briajl-Wheels. — Thefe are very commonly called under-
fliot wheels, becaufe the water runs beneath the wheel, bu:
improperly, becaufe the water does not flioot againft the
floats of the wheel, or at leaft the principal power is derived
from the weight of the water. A breaft-wheel partakes of
the nature of both an overfhot and an underfliot, and is con-
ftrufted as is reprefented in^^g^. I. PIa!e I. of IValer-ivheeh.
The lower part of the wheel is furrounded by a curved wall
or fweep of mafonrv, v\-hich is made concentric with the
wheel, and the float-boards of the wheel are exaftly adapted
to the niaionry, fo as to pafs as near as poffible thereto with-
out touching it ; and the fide walls are in like manner
adapted to the end of the float -board or fides of the wheel,
the intention being, that as little water as poffible fhall be
able to pafs by the float-boards without caufing the boards
to move before it. The water is poured upon the wheel
over the top of the breaiting at I, the efflux from the mill-
dam R being regulated by the fluice or fluittle M, which is
placed in the direftion of a tangent to the wheel, and is pro-
vided with a rack N, and pinion P, by which it can be
drawn up fo as to make any required degree of opening, and
admit more or leis wster to flow on the wheel.

The water firll ftrikes on the float, and urges it by its
impulfe ; but when tlie floats defcend into the fweep, tliey
form as it were clofe buckets, each of which will contain :.
given quantity of water, and the water cannot efcape from
thefe buckets except the wheel moves, at leaft this is the in-
tention, and the wheel is fitted as clofe as it can be to the
race with that view. Each of the portions of water con-
tained in thefe fpaces bears partly upon the wall of the
fweep, and partly upon the floats of the wheel ; and its pref-
fure upon the floats, if not exceeded by the refillance, will
caufe the wheel to move ; hence the acf ion upon all the
floats which are within the fweep of the breafting is br the
weight of the water alone ; but the water is made to im-
pinge upon the firft float-board with fome velocity, becaufe
the furface of the water in the dam K is raifed confiderab!--
above the orifice beneath the fhuitle where the wat; ■
iffues.

The upper part of the fall at I is rounded off to a fe:^-
ment of a circle called the crown of the fall, and the water
nuis over it. The lower edge of the fhuttle when put do" n
is made to fit to this curve, fo as to make a tight joint ; r.:.d
in confequence when the fhuttle is drawn up, the water will
run between its lower edge and the crown in a fheet cr
ftream which ftrikes upon the firft float that prefents itfelf,
nearly in a direftion perpendicular to the plane of the float-
board, or of a tangent to the wheel. The float-boards of
the wheel are direfted to the centre, but there are other
boards placed obliquely which extend from one float-board
to the rim of the wheel, and nearly fill the fpace between
one float-board and the next. Thefe are called rifing-boards,
and the ufe of them is to prevent the water flojwing over the
float-board into the interior of the wheel j but the edges of

thefe

WATER.

thefe boards are not continued fo far as to join to the back.
■of the next float, bccaufe that would make all the boards of
the wheel clofe, and prevent the free efcape of the air when
the water entered into the fpaces between the floats.

As the water ftrikes with feme force, the riiing-board is
ver\- neceflary, to prevent the water from dalhing over the
float -boards into the interior of the wheel.

This is the form of bread-wheel employed by Mr.
Smeaton in the great number of mills which he conftrufted ;
but although he fpeaks of the impulfe of the water ftriking
the wheel, he always endeavoured to make the top of the
breafting or crown of the fall as high as poffible, fo as to
attain the greateft: fall and the lead of the impulfive aftion.
All rivers and ftreams of water are fubjeft to variation in
height from floods or dry feafons, and in fome this is very
coiiliderable ; it was therefore neceflary to make the
crown I of the fall at fuch a height as that in the lowed
date of the water R, it would run over tlie crown in a Iheet
of three or four inches in thicknefs, and work the wheel.
When the water rofe higher in the mill-dam, it would then
have a preffure to force it through, and in that cafe would
ftrike the wheel fo as to impel it by the velocity.

Mr. Smeaton was well aware that the power communi-
cated by this impulfe was very fmall. In fome cafes, where
the water was very fubjedt to variation, he ufed a falfe or
moveable crown, that is, a piece of wood which fitted to the
crown I, and raifed the furface thereof a foot or more, fo as
to obtain the greated fall when the water Hood at a mean
height ; but when the water funk too low to run over this
moveable crown, it could be drawn up to admit the water
beneath it. This effeft has fmce been produced in a more
perfeft manner by making the crown of the fall a moveable
(huttle, to rife and fall according to the height of the water in
the mill-dam, by which means ths inconvenience before-
jnentioned is avoided.

Improvid Breq/l-<wheil., in ivhich the Water runs over ibe
Shuttle. — Fig. 7. is a feftiou of one of this kind. A is the
water which is made to flow upon the float-board B, and
urges the wheel by its weight only, the water being pre-
vented from efcaping or flowing off the float-boards by the
bread or fweep D D, and the fide-walls which inclofe the
floats of the wheel. The upper part of the bread D D is
made by a cad -iron plate, curved to the proper fweep to
line with the done-work. On the back of the cad-iron plate
the moving diuttle e is applied ; it fits clofe to the cad-iron
fo as to prevent the water from leaking between them, and
the water runs over its upper edge. F is an iron groove or
channel let into the mafonry of the fide-walls, and in thefe,
the ends of the Aiding diuttle are received ; / is an iron
rack, which is applied at the back of the diuttle, and afcends
above the water-line where the pinion g is applied to it
to raife or lower the fhuttle. The axis of the pinion is fup-
ported in a frame of wood II; A H is a toothed feftor and
balance-weight, which bears the fliuttle upwards, or it might
otherwife fall down by its own weight, and put the mill in
motion when not intended. G is a drong planking, which is
fined acrofs between the two fide-walls, and retains the water
when it rifes very high, as in time of floods ; but in com-
mon times the water rifes only a few inches above the lower
edge of the planking. When the fhuttle is drawn up to touch
this lower edge, the water cannot efcape ; but when the
diuttle is lowered down, it opens a fpace e through which
the water flows upon the float-boards of the wheel. This
was the form fird adapted for the falling-ihuttle, but its
condruftion has fince been much improved.

Fig- 4. Plate II. is a feftion of tiie moll improved form
for a bread-wheel, taken from the Royal Armoury Mills, at
Vol. XXXVIII.

Enfield Lock, ereded by Mcdrs. Lloyd and Ode!. The
general defcription of this, is like the former, but it is con-
drufted in a better manner, and unites ilrength with dura-
bility. The bread of mafonry is furmountedi by a cad-iron
plate A 25 feet high, which is let into the mafonry of the
fide walls at each end, and the lower part is formed with a
flanch, by which it is bolted to the done-bread at top.
This plate is made ilraight at the back for the fhuttle B to
lie againd, and it Aides up and down. The ends of the gate
are guided by iron groove pieces or channels which are let
into the done-work of the fide walls, and being made wedge-
like, they fix the ends of the cad -iron bread fad in its place.
The grooves are not upright, but inclined to the perpendicu-
lar fo much, that the plane of the gate is at right angles to
a radius of the wheel drawn through the point where the
water falls upon the wheel. D is a ilrong plank of wood,
extended between the iron grooves jud over the fhuttle.
When the fhuttle is drawn up it comes in contaft v/ith tiic
lower fide of this piece of wood, and dops the water ; but the
piece D is fixed at fuch a height, that the water will run
clear beneath it, unlefs its furface rifes above its mean
height.

The float -boards of the wheel do not point to the centre
of the wheel, but are fo much inclined thereto that they ate
exaflly horizontal at the point where the water fird flows
upon them. In this way, the gravity of the v/ater has its full
effeft upon the wheel, and the boards rife up out of the
tail-water in a much better pofition, than if they pointed to
the centre of the wheel ; and this is more particularly ob-
fervable when the wheel is flooded by tail-water penned up
in the lower part of the race, fo that it cannot run freely
away from the wheel. The diineniions of this wheel are as
follow : — Diameter 18 feet to the points of the floats, and 14
feet wide ; the float-boards are 40 in number, each 16 inches
wide, and each rifing-board 1 1 inches wide. The wheel is
formed of four caft-iron ciicles or wheels, each 14 feet 8
inches diameter, placed at equal didances upon the central
axis, which is 14 feet 8 inches long between the necks or
bearings, and 9 inches fquare ; the bearing-necks are 9!
inches diameter. The wheel is calculated to make four re-
volutions/>«r minute, which gives near 35 ieei per fecond for
the velocity with which the float-boards move. The fall
of water is fix feet, and the power of the wheel, when the
fhuttle is drawn down one foot perpendicular, equal to
28-horfe power.

Breajl-Wheel ivith tiuo Shuttles. — In this wheel the piece
of wood marked D in the lad figure, is fitted into the groove
of the fhuttle, and is provided with racks and pinions to
(lide up and down, independently of the lower fliuttle.
The intention of this is, to make the lower Ihattle rife and
fall, according to the height of the water, fo that the water
fball always run over the top of it, in the proper quantity
to work the mill with its required velocity, whild the upper
fhuttle is only ufed to dop the mill by fhutting it down
upon the lower fhuttle, and preventing the water from run-
ning over it. This plan is ufed when the mill u to be regu-
lated by a governor, or machine to govern its velocity ; in
that cafe the governor is made to operate upon the lower
fliuttle, and will raife it up, or lower it down, according as
the mill takes too much or too little water, and this regulates
the fupply ; but the upper fhuttle is ufed to dop the mill,
and by this means the adjullment of the lower fhuttle is not
dedroyed, but when fet to work again, it will move with its
required velocity. Fig. 3. Plate II., Water-wheels, is a fec-
tion of one of the water-wheels at the cotton-mills of MefTrs.
Strutt, at Belper, in Derbyfliirc. The width of this wheel
13 very great, and lo rendi-r ihe fhuttka A B firm, a drong
M g'^*ti"g

WATER.

grating of caftiiron, is fixed on the top of the breaft K, and
the Shuttles are applied at the back of the grating E, fo as
to Aide up and down againft it, the ftrain occafioned by the
prefTure of the water being borne by the grating. The
lower (huttle is moved by means of long fcrews, a, which
have bevilled wheels, b, at the upper ends, to turn them,
by a conneftion of wheel-work with the wheel-work of the
mill. The upper fhuttle, A, is drawn up or down by
racks and pinions, c, which are turned by a winch, or handle.
The bars of the grating E are placed one above the other,
like flielves, but are not liorizontal ; they are inclined, fo
that the upper furfaces of all the bars form tangents to an
imaginary circle of one-third the diameter of the wheel
defcribed round the centre thereof. Thefe bars are not
above half an inch thick, and the fpaces between them are
2^ inches. The bars are of a confiderable breadth, the ob-
jed: of them being to lead the water, with a proper flope,
from the top of the lower (huttle A to flow upon the floats
of the wheel. This difpofition allows the (buttles to be
placed at fuch a diilance from the wheel as to admit very
llrong upright bars of call iron to be placed between the
■wheel and the (buttles, for the (huttles to bear againft, and
prevent them from bending towards the wheel, as the great
weight of water would otherwife occafion them to do.
Thefe upright bars are very firmly fixed to the ftone-work
of the breaft at their lower ends, and the upper ends are
fattened to a large timber, D, which is fupported at its
ends in the fide walls, and has a trufs-framing applied to the
back of it, like the framing of a roof, to prevent it from
bending towards the wheel. The upright bars are placed
at diftances of five feet afunder, fo as to fupport the (hut-
tles in two places in the middle of their length, as well as
at both ends ; and large rollers are applied in the (huttle,
where it bears againft thefe bars, to dimini(h the friftion,
which would otherwife be very great.

Thefe precautions will not appear unnecelFary when the fize
of the work is known. The wheel is 21^ feet in diameter,
and 15 feet broad ; the fall of water is 14 feet, when it is at
a mean height ; the upper (huttle is 2\ feet high, and 15 feet
long ; the lower (huttle is 5 feet high, and the fame length,
fo that it contains 75 fquare feet of furface expofed to the
preflure of the water : now taking the centre of pre(rure at
two-thirds of the depth, or 3^ feet, we find the preffurc equal
to that depth of water aftingon the whole furface ; that is,
the weight of 3^^ cubic feet of water = 208 lbs. bears on
every fquare foot of furface, which is equal to 15,600 lbs.,
or near 7 tons on the lower (huttle only ; but if we take the
two (huttles together, the furface is 112 fquare feet, and
the mean prefTure 312 lbs. upon each, or 16 tons in the
whole. The wheel has forty float-boards pointing to the
centre. The wheel is made of caft-iron. There are two
wheels of the dimenfions above ftated, which are placed in a
line with each other, and are only feparated by a wall which
fupports the bearings ; for they work together as one wheel,
and the feparation is only to obviate the difficulty of making
one wheel of fuch great breadth as 30 feet, though this is
not jmpolfible, for there is a wheel in the fame works 40 feet
in breadth, but it is of wood and not in iron, framed in a
particular manner, as we (hall foon defcribe.

Mr. Buchanan's Bucht IVatcr-Wheel fcr alor-j) Fail. We

have already ihewn, that where water can be made to aft
on a wheel by weight, it is mucli more elfeftual than when
the fame water is made to aft by impulfe ; and we (hall (hew
this more fully in fpeaking of overihot-wheels.

Where tlie fall is lefs than half the diameter of the
wheel, if the buckets are made in the ufual form of the
buckets for overfhot-wheels, the difficulty of filling them

with water, and the (hort time they are able to retain the
water, are fuch great defefts, that in fuch cafes breaft-
wheels, with open float-boards, fuch as we have defcribed,
have been found in pradlice to be more advantageous tlian
bucket-wheels.

Mr. Buchanan fuggefts, that, by adopting another form
of the buckets, they might be 10 made as to be eafily filled,
and at the fame time capable of retaining the water in a
fituation to produce nearly its full effeft altogether by
weight, on a low fall.

In a wheel of this conllruftion, contrary to the ufual
practice, the water muft be poured into the buckets from
within the circle of buckets inftead of from without the cir-
cle of buckets. How the filling of the buckets from with-
in can be accomplilhed may not at firft be obvious ; but it
may be done without the pentrough, which fupplies the
water, making any interference with the arms of the wheel,
if it is conftrudted as (hewn mjigs. 4. and 5. Piatt I. Water-
wheels. Fig. 4. is an horizontal fection of the wheel, and
plan of the pentrough ; and Jig. 5. an elevation of the
water-wheel.

The buckets in the figure, empty themfelves by means of
apertures on the outfide of the wheel, which arc the whole
length of the buckets, but no wider than juft fufBcient to
difcharge the water from the buckets when they arrive at
the bottom of the wheel, and before they begin to afcend.
A A is the pentrough, into which the fupply of water is
condufted. From B to C a part of the wheel is reprefented,
with the (hrouding removed, to (hew the form of the
buckets, and the fituation of the water in them ; a, a, a, are
the apertures by which the water efcapes from the buckets ;
b the aperture by which the water enters from the pentrough
to the buckets. The plan,_yf^. 4., (hews, that the arms, N N,
of the wheel, and the circular rims which fupport the
buckets, occupy only a fmall part of the breadth of the
circular ring of buckets M ; fo that about one-third of the
length of the buckets at each end is expofed on the infide
of the circle, and againft thefe parts the penftock is applied,
as (hewn at A A, and the arms and rim of the wheel, move
clear of it ; but the buckets, as they pafs, receive water,
which flows in a continual ftream at the orifices, b, b, of the
pentrough ; the buckets there become filled from the infide.
The partition-boards or plates which form the buckets are
reprefented by the white hnes in Jig. 5., and are fo (haped,
that they will retain nearly the whole of the water until they
arrive at the loweft a ; the water then begins to efcape, and
by the time that each bucket arrives at the loweft point of
the wheel, it will have difcharged all the water, and will rife
up empty.

This is a truly ingenious contrivance ; but we fear that in
the execution it would prefent many difficulties, particularly
the ring of buckets M, which could not, we think, be fo
firmly afSxed, fupported by the narrow bearing of the two
rings and arms N, as to preferve their circular figure for
any great length of time ; and any bending or warping of
fuch a heavy mafs as a water-wheel will foon deftroy it.
Neither is the advantage which could be derived from re-
ceiving the water in clofe buckets, inftead of open float-
boards, fo great as is generally imagined.

On the Power and EJfed of Breajl-iuheels. — We (hall
fully examine the different effefts of the power of water,
when afting by its impulfe and by its weight, under the
title of overjloot-wheels. In breaft-wheels of the common
conftruftion, the effefts of iuipuUe and weight are com-
bined ; but what is there defcribed being carefully attended
to, the application of the fame principles in thefe combined
cafes will be eafy.

AU

WATER.

AH kinds of machines, where the water cannot defceiid
thro\igh a given fpace, unlefs the wlieel moves therewith,
are to be confidered as of the fame nature with overfliot-
wheels, and equal in power and effeft to an overlhot -wheel,
in which the perpendicular height that the water defcends
from is the fame. All thofe machines that receive the im-
pulfe or fliock of the water, whether in an horizontal, per-
pendicular, or oblique direftion, are to be confidered of the
fame nature as underfhot-wheels. Therefore, in a wheel
which the water Itrikes at a certain point below the fur-
face of the water in the mill-dam, and after that de-
fcends in the arc of a circl?, preffing by its gravity upon the
floats of the wheel, the power will be equal to the effedt of
an underfliot-wheel, whofe fall is equal to the difference of
level, between the furfece of the refervoir and the point where
it ftrikes the wheel, added to that of an over/hot, whofe
height is equal to the difference of level between the point
where it ftrikes the wheel and the level of the tail-water.

It is here fuppofed that the wheel receives the fhock of the
water at right angles to its radii, and that the velocity of its
circumference is properly adapted to receive the utmoft ad-
vantage of both thefe powers ; otherwife a redudlion muft
be made on tliat account.

Mr. Oftel, an experienced engineer, informs us, that the
velocity of the water-wheel's circumference fhould always be
between three and four fcet^frfecoud ; but he has not been
able to determine which of thefe two velocities is the beft,
except in cafes where a wheel is fubjeft to be flooded by
tail-water; and in that cafe four feet per fecond is beft.
Mr. Smeaton advifed 3^ feet.

On overfljot Water-lVheels — An overfhot-wheel is fimply
a circular ring of open buckets, fo difpofed round the cir-
cumference of a vertical wheel, as to receive the water from
a fpout placed over the wheel in fuch a manner, that the
buckets on one fide of the wheel (hall be always loaded with
water, whilft the other fide is empty : in confequence, the
loaded fide will caufe it to defcend ; and by this motion the
water runs out of the lower buckets, while the empty
buckets of the rifing fide of the wheel, in their turn come
under the fpout, and are filled with water.

A machine fo fimple does not appear to prefent any diffi-
culties in its execution, which fliould require any application
of theoretic reafoning to remove them ; but in reality it is
a matter of fome delicacy to conftrudt a wheel in fuch a man-
ner as to obtain the greateft effeft from a given fall of water.

It is probable, that the earlieft overfliot water-wheels con-
fifted of a number of wooden boxes or bowls, faftened on
the circumference of tlie wheel ; but thefe would foon give
place to a better mode cf conftruftion, in which the cir-
cumference of the wheel being furrounded by a circular
ring at each fide, the fpace between them was divided into
feparate buckets by partition-boards. Thefe partitions
did not point to the centre of the wheel in the direc-
tion of radii, but were inclined thereto nearly in an angle
of forty-five degrees. By this means, the water which
iffued from the fpout of the trough above, nearly in an
horizontal direftion, as a tangent to the wheel, would run
into the buckets, and fill them as they arrived in fucceftion
at the top or higheft point of the wheel ; but as the
buckets changed their pofition by the dcfcending-motion
of one fide of the wheel, they would become inclined, and
the water contained in the buckets would begin to run
over the edges of the partitions between th« buckets, and
by the time the bucket arrived at the bottom point of the
wheel, the whole of the water would be run o\it and leave
the bucket empty, and they would remain empty whilft
they afcendcd on the oppofite fide of the wheel. By this

means, a conftant preponderance of one fide of the wheel
would be kept up by the water faUing into the buckets at
the top of the wheel, and flowing from it at the bottom.

The points chiefly to be confidered in conftruding an
overfhot-wheel are, firft, that the water ftiall be applied
on the circumference of the wheel, fo as to be incapable
of defcending without communicating motion to the wheel
until the water has defcended to its loweft pofition, and
that it fhall then quit the wheel entirely ; fecondly, that
the utmoft height of fall fliall be attained and ufefully em-
ployed ; and thirdly, that the load or refiftance to the
motion of the wheel fhall be fo adapted and proportioned
to the weight of water which is applied in the defcending-
buckets of the wheels, that the wheel will move flowly ;
becaufe we have before ftiewn, that whatever velocity the
wheel moves with, fo much velocity the water muft retain
when it quits the wheel, and will thus carry away fome
power with it.

We (hall now proceed to confider all the particulars
which contribute to the attainment of thefe objefts, taking
Mr. Smeaton for our guide, afid only adding fuch obftr-
vations as appear neceffary to render his maxims more
clear.

I. On the maximum EfftS which can be obtained from a
Fall of Water by Means of an uverJIiot-Wheel. — The effeftive
power of the fall of water muft be reckoned upon the
whole defccnt, becaufe it muft be raifed that height, in
order to be in a condition to produce the fame effeft a
fecond time. The ratio between the powers of the falling
water fo eftimated, and the mechanical effefts produced
by the wheel at the maximum, deduced from the mean
of feveral of Mr. Smeaton's experiments, is as 3 to 2
nearly. We have before, in our obfervations upon the
effefts of underftiot-wheels, (hewn that the general ratio of
the power to the effeft, when greateft, was 3:1. The
effeft, therefore, produced by an overfhot-wheel, under the
fame circumftances of quantity and fall of water, is at a
medium, double that produced by an underfliot. From
this, it appears that non-elaftic bodies, when afting by their
impulfe or coUifion, communicate only a part of their ori-
ginal power ; the other part being fpent in changing their
figure in confequence of the ftroke.

The ratio of the power to the effeft, computed upon the
height of the wheel only, was, at a maximum, as 10 : 8,
or as 5 : 4 nearly, becaufe Mr. Smeaton made the wheel of
a lefs height than the fall of water, in order to allow fome
run or defcent of the water through the fpout or trough,
which conducted it into the buckets of the wheel. We
find the ratio, between the power and effeft, to continue
the fame, in cafes where the conftruAions are fimilar; hence
we muft infer, that the effefts, as well as the powers, are as
the quantities of water and perpendicular heights multiplied
together refpedlively.

II. On the mofl proper Height of the Wheel, in Proportion
to the ivhole Defcent. — The preceding obfervation (hews, that
the effeft which can be obtained from the fame quantity of
water, defcending through the fame perpendicular fpace, is
double when it is made to aft by its gravity upon an over-
fhot-wheel, to what could be obtained from it when made
to aft by its impulfe upon an underfhot-wheel.

Hence it follows, that the higher the wheel is, in propor-
tion to the whole defcent, the greater will be the effeft ;
becaufe an overfhot-wheel depends lefs upon the impulfe of
the water when it firft ftrikes the wheel, and more upon the
gravity of the water in the buckets. The water which is con-
veyed into the buckets can produce very little effeft by its
impulfe, even if its velocity be great j both on account of
M 2 the

WATER.

the obliquity with which it ftrikes the buckets, and in confe-
quence of the lofs of water occalioned by a confiderable
quantity of fluid being dalhed over their fides. Indead,
therefore, of expeftinjj an increafe of elfeft from the im-
pulfe of the water occafioncd by its fall through fome part
of the whole height, we fhould caufe it to aft through as
much as poflible of this height by its gravity, by making
the diameter of the whetl as great as poflible. But a dil-
advantage attends even this rule ; for if the water is con-
veyed into the buckets with a very fmall velocity, which
muft be the cafe when the diameter of the wheel equals the
height of the fall, the velocity of the wheel will be re-
tarded by the impulfe of the buckets flriking againft. the
water, in order to put it in motion, and much power would
be loft by the water dafhing over them. In order, there-
fore, to avoid all'inconveniences, the diftance of the fpout
from the receiving-bucket fhould, in general, be about two
or three inches, that the water may be delivered with a velo-
city a little greater than that of the wheel ; or, in other
words, the diameter of an overfhot-wheel fhould be two or
three inches kfs than the greateft height of the fall ; and
yet it is no uncommon thing to fee the diameters of thefe
wheels fcarcely one-half of that height. In fuch a con-
ftruftion, the lofs of power is prodigious.

It is always dcfirable that the water fhould have fome-
what greater velocity, than the circumference of the wheel
in coming thereon, othcrwife the wheel will not only be re-
tarded by the buckets flriking the water, but thereby dafh-
ing a part of it over fo much of the power is loft.

The velocity that the circumference of the wheel ought
to have, will be known by what we fhall fay next, and the
depth of column requifite to give the water its proper velo-
city, is eafily computed from the rules and tables given in
this article, and will be found much lefs than what is gene-
rally fuppofed.

This maxim obliges us to ufe a wheel, whofe diameter is
nearly equal to the whole fall ; but we fhall not gain any
thing by employing a larger wheel. It is true, we could
then apply the water upon a part of the circumference
where the weight will aft more perpendicularly to the ra-
dius, but we fhould lofe more, by the neceffity of difcharging
the water at a greater height from the bottom, becaufe the
water, in all cafes, begins to run out of the buckets long
before they arrive at the bottom of the wheel.

Suppofe the buckets of both wheels equally well con-
ftrufted in either cafe, whether the wheel is only as high as
the fall, or of a greater height, then the heights above the
bottom, where they will difcharge the water, will increafe
in the proportion of the diameter of the wheel. That we
(hall lofe more by this, than we gain by a more direft appli-
cation of the weight, is plain without any further reafoning,
by taking the extreme cafe, and fuppofing our wheel en-
larged to fuch a fize, that the ufelefs part below would be
equal to our whole fall. In this cafe, the water would be
fpilled from the buckets as foon as it is dehvered into them.
AU intermediate cafes, therefore, partake of the imperfec-
tion of this. It was the objeft of Mr. Buchanan's bucket-
wheel, which we have already defcribed, to avoid this dif-
ficulty, and employ a height of fall which bore only a fmall
proportion to the whole height of the wheel. This obfer-
Tation necefTarily leads us to confider the beft form for the
buckets.

III. On the bejl Form for the Buckets of overjljot Wheelt. —
It is impoflible to conftruft the buckets fo that they will re-
main completely filled with water till they reach the bottom
of the wheel : indeed, if the buckets were formed by par-
titions direfted to the axis of the wheel, the whole water

muft run out by the time they have defcendcd to the levci
of the axis ; and, in confequence, there muft be a great-
diminution in the mechanical efleft of the wheel. Mill-
wrights have, therefore, turned their chief attention to the
determination of a form for the buckets which fhall enable
them to retain the water through a great portion of the
circumference of the wheel. An infpeftion oi^gs. 2 and 3
will fhew at once the proper form which has been eftablifhed
by long praftice. Thefe are called elbow-buckets, be-
caufe each partition is formed by two boards, which are
put together with an angle or elbow. The rule for fetting
thefe out is, to divide the wheel into the number of buckets
it is intended to have ; then take four-fifths of the fpace or
interval between two partitions for the depth of the fhroud-
ing, that is, the breadth of the circular rings at the fides of
the wheel, which form the ends of the buckets, and are
called the fhrouds ; whilft the planking, which forms the
bottom of all the buckets, is called the fole of the wheel.
That board of each partition which is in the direftion of a
radius to the wheel, rifes from the fole half the depth of
the fhroud ; the other board of the bucket is fo inchned,
that its outer end fhall be advanced beyond the line of the
next radius-board, if it was produced.

It is a great advantage to make the partitions of the buckets
thin, particularly the edges of the partitions, which will
meet and divide the ftream of water flowing upon the wheel ;
and if thefe edges are not made fharp, they will fplafli the
water about ; the edges are, therefore, finifhed by iron-
plate, or it is better to make all the inclined parts of the par-
tition of iron-plate. The greater number of buckets, arid
the fhaUower they are, the more regularly the wheel will
aft. The limits are, that the mouths of the buckets fhall
be of fuch width as to allow the air to efcape, at the fame
time that the ftream of water flows in ; and alfo that the
breadth of the wheel fhall not be extravagantly great, to
make its buckets contain as much water as would produce
the power required from the wheel.

The lofs of water, at the lower part of the wheel, will
very much depend upon the proportion of water which ii
poured into each bucket. It is evident, that if the buckets,
of whatever form they are made, were totally filled when at
the top of the wheel, they muft begin to fpill the water im-
mediately when they departed from that poiltion. But, on
the other hand, if only a part of the content of each bucket
is filled with water, then it will bear a greater degree of in-
clination, and be a longer time before the water will begin
to fpill from the bucket. This is a reafon for making large
buckets, and filling only a part of their contents. In prac-
tice a medium muft be Itruck between thefe contending cir-
cumftances, and the wheel will aft to advantage.

It has been propofed to apply another bend to the parti-
tion-boards of each bucket which fhall be beyond the in-
clined board that we have defcribed, and fhall be concen-
tric with the rim of the wheel, in the fame manner as is
reprefented in Mr. Buchanan's wheel, ^^.5. It is true
that this form would retain the water from fpilling fdr a
longer time, and thus be an advantage ; but it is not favour-
able for admitting the water into the buckets when at the
top of the wheel.

The inclined boards, when made as we have defcribed,
may be exaftly in the line of the ftream of water, which
ifTues from the fpout when it pafTes beneath fuch ftream ;
and in this way, if the edge of the inclined board is made
thin, there will be as little fplafhing of the water as poffible.
But by the addition of another part to the edge of the par-
tition, which is concentric to the circle of the wheel, the
ftream of water cannot be made to proceed exaftly in the

line

WATER.

line of the partition, and will therefore fplafli the water.
The fplaftiing may appear immaterial, but it is in reality
yery prejudicial, becaufe the broken water fills the mouth
of the bucket, and prevents the air from getting out rea-
dily, and it is for this reafon that it is very neceflary to
allow fo much of the fall above the height of the wheel, as
will make the water run into the buckets, with a little
greater velocity than the motion of the wheel.

Dr. Robinfon, in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, defcribed
a plan for the buckets of an overfhot wheel, which was in-
vented by Mr. Robert Burns, millwright, and executed by
him at a cotton-mill in Scotland : it is (hewn in^. 5. Plate II.
IVatc-r-'wheeh. In this way, the wheel has two ranks of
buckets, one within the other. The buckets confill of a
partition A B, in the direftion of a radius of the wheel,
which is joined to another B C, inclined to that, and alfo
to a third C D, which is concentric with the rim of the
wheel.

The bucket is divided into two, by a partition L M, alfo
concentric with the rim of the wheel, and fo placed as to
make the inner and outer portions of the bucket nearly
of equal capacity. It is evident, without any farther reafon-
ing, that this partition will enable the double bucket to re-
tain its water much longer than the fingle one could. When
they are filled only one-third, they retain the whole water
at eighteen degrees from the bottom of the wheel, and they
retain half of the water at eleven degrees. The only ob-
jeftion is, that they do not admit the water quite fo freely
as buckets of the common conftruftion.

This arifes from the air, which mufl find its way out to
admit the water, but is obftrufted by the entering water,
and occafions a great fpluttcring at the entry. This may
be entirely prevented, by making the fpout confiderably nar-
rower than the wheel, and will leave room at the two ends
of the buckets for the efcape of the air. It was found in
praftice, that a flow moving wheel, allowed one half of the
water to get into the inner buckets, efpecially when the
partitions which form the inner buckets, did not altogether
reach the radius drawn through the lip D of the outer
bucket. The doftor confiders this as a very great improve-
ment of the bucket-wheel ; and when the wheel is made of
a liberal breadth, fo that the water may be very fhallow in
the buckets, it feems to carry the performance as far as it
can go. Mr. Burns made the firft trial on a wheel of
twenty-four feet diameter, and its performance is manifeftly
fuperior to that of the wheel which it replaced, and which
was a very good one. It has alfo another valuable properly.
When the liipply of water is very fcanty, a proper adjuft-
ment of the ftream of water iffuing from the fpout, will
direft almoft the whole of the water into the outer buckets ;
which, by placing it at a greater diftance from the axis,
makes fome addition to its mechanical energy.

IV. Concerning the proper Velocity of the Circumference of
an overjliot Wheel, in order to produce the greatejl EffeB. — If a
body of water is let fall freely from the furface of the
water in the upper refervoir to the bottom of the defcent,
it will take a certain time in falling ; and in this cafe, the
whole aftion of gravity will be fpent in giving the water a
certain velocity. But if this water in falling is intended to
aft upon fome machine, fo as to produce a mechanical
cfFeft, the falling water muft be retarded, becaufe a part of
the aftion of gravity is then fpent in producing the effeft,
and the remainder only will give motion to the falling water,
which motion it will retain, after it has quitted the machine.
On this principle, the flower a body defcends the greater
portion of the aftion of its gravity can be applied to pro-

2

duce mechanical effeft, and in confequcnce the greater that
effeft will be.

If a quantity of water falls from a ftream, into each
bucket of an overfhot-wheel, it is there retained until the
wheel, by moving round, discharges it. Now, the flower
the wheel moves, the more water each bucket will receive
becaufe it remains a longer time beneath the fpout, fo that
what is loft in the fpced with which the wheel moves, ie
gained by the prcffure of a greater quantity of water afting
in the buckets at once ; and if confidered only in this light,
the mechanical power of an overfhot-wheel to produce effefts
will be equal, whether it moves quick or flow. The popular
reafoning adduced to prove this has been of the following
kind. Suppofe that a wheel has thirty buckets, and that four
cubic feet of water are delivered in a fecond on the top of
the wheel, and difcharged, without any lofs by the way, at
a certain height from the bottom of the wheel.

It IS clear that this ftream will fupply the fame quantity,
whatever is the rate of the wheel's motion ; and the buckets
muft be of a fufficient capacity to hold all the water which
falls into them when the wheel mores very flow. Suppofe
this wheel employed to raife a weight of any kind, for in-
ftance to draw a bafket of coals out of a deep pit or mine,
and that the rope winds upon a barrel of fuch fize that the
bafl<et will be drawn up with the fame velocity as the water
in the buckets defcends. Suppofe, further, that the wheel
will make four revolutions in a minute, or one turn in fifteen
feconds, when the load or weight in the bafket which forms
the refiftaiice to the motion of the machine is one-third of
the load of water contained in the buckets of the wheel.

Now, during the time of one revolution, fixty cubic feet
of water will have flowed into the thirty buckets, and each
have received two cubic feet. In this cafe, the hafi<:et may
contain a weight equal to twenty cubic feet of water, which
weight will be drawn up a height equal to one circum-
ference of the wheel, during one turn of the wheel, or in
fifteen feconds of time.

Now fuppofe the machine fo loaded, by making the
bafket more capacious, that the wheel can only make two
turns in a minute, or one turn in thirty feconds, then each
defcending bucket of the wheel will receive four cubic feet
of water. If the bafliet contained a double weight, tjz.
equal to forty cubic feet, the effeft produced by the ma-
chine would be the fame as before, becaufe the velocity is
only one half ; but we find in praftice, that it will raife
more than in this proportion when it moves flower, for if
we attend to what we have juft obferved of the falling body,
we find that fo much of the aftion of gravity as is employed
in giving motion and velocity to the whei 1 and water therein,
muft be fubtrafted from its preffure upon the buckets.
The produft made by multiplying the number of cubic
inches of water which aft on tlie wlieel at once by its velo-
city, will be the fame in all cafes ; yet, as each cubic inch,
when the velocity is greater, prelTes more lightly upon the
buckets than when the velocity is lefs, the power of the
water to produce effefts will be greater in the lefs velocity
than in the greater. This leads us to the general rule, that
the lefs the velocity of the wheel, the greater will be the
effeft produced by any given quantity, and fall of water.

A confirmation of this doftriiie, together with the limits
it is fiibjeft to in praftice, is a matter of experiment and
obfervation which has been ably deciJi.d by Mr. Smeaton.
The velocity of the wheel fhould not be diminiftied, further
than what will produce fome folid advantage in point of
power ; becaufe, as the motion is flower, the buckets mufl
be made larger, that the increafe of their weight may com-

pertfate

WATER.

penfate for the ftownefs of their motion. The wheel beings
tlius more loaded with water, the ftrefs upon every part of
the work will be increafed in proportion.

The beft rule for praftice will be, to make the velocity
of the circumference a little more than three feet in a
fecond.

Experience confirms, that this velocity of three feet in a
fecond, is applicable to the greateft overlhot wheels as well
as the fmalleft ; and all other parts of the work being pro-
perly adapted to this velocity, the fall of a given quantity
of water, will produce very nearly the greateft effeft pofli-
ble. But it is alfo certain from experience, that large
wheels may deviate further from this rule before they will
lofe their power, by a given aliquot part of the whole, tlian
fmall ones can be admitted to do ; for inftance, a wheel of
twenty-four feet high may move at the rate of fix feet per
fecond, without loiing any confiderable part of its power.
This may perhaps be accounted for, when we confider how
fmall a proportion of the whole fall is requilite to give the
water the proper velocity which the wheel ought to have ;
whilfl in a fmaller wheel, the fame height muft be allowed
for that purpofe, and confequently, a greater proportion of
the whole height. On the other hand, Mr. Smeaton tells
us, that he had fecn a wheel of tliirty-three feet diameter
that moved very fteadily and well, with a velocity but little
exceeding two feet per fecond.

There is a natural wifh to. fee a machine move brifldy ; it
has the appearance of aftivity : but a very How motion al-
ways looks as if the machine was overloaded. For this rea-
fon, mill-wrights have always yielded flowly, and with reluc-
tance, to the advice of Mr. Smeaton, but tliey liave yielded ;
and we now fee them adopting maxims of conilruftion more
agreeable to found theory, that is, making their wheels of
great breadth, and loading them witli a great deal of work.
The reluftance to adopt this fyftem did not arife folely
from prejudice, but from a real inconvenience attending
the flow motion of the wheel when the refiftance which is
oppofed to its motion, and which is the caufe that it
moves flowly, is not uniform in tlie different parts of a
revolution.

In all machines, there are fmall inequalities of aftion
which are unavoidable ; and in fome machines very great in-
equalities arife, from the intermitting motions of cranks,
ftaDipers, and other parts which move unequally or reci-
procally. When a water-wheel is employed to give motion
to fuch machines, it may be fo refitted or loaded, as to be
nearly in equilibrio with its work, in the moft favourable
pofition of the parts of the machine ; but when thefc change
into a lefs favourable pofition, the machine may flop the
wheel altogether, or at all events hobble, and work very
irregularly. And for tlie fame reafon that a water-wheel
accommodates its motion very quickly to the refiftance it
is to overcome, fo all tendency to irregular motion is in-
creafed. A wheel, when its load is increafed, moves more
flowly, and receives more water into each bucket ; thereby
taking to itfelf a weight of water equal to overcome its
load, and on the other hand by moving quicker, it takes
lefs water into each bucket when the load is diminifhed.
But thefe changes do not take place inftantaneoufly, be-
caufe it can be only in the moment that each bucket paffes
beneath the ftream, that the fhare of water it fhall have,
will be influenced by the rate of the wheel's motion.
When a bucket is once filled it continues with that charge
until it arrives at the bottom of the wheel.

This felf-regulating property of the wheel can only ap-
ply in cafes of fmall and permanent changes of refiftance,

for it always comes too hte to correft fudJen and confider- j
able changes in the refiftance ; then it afts in the contrary
direftion. Suppofe, for inftance, an overfliot wheel is em-
ployed to work a fingle pump by means of a crank, the
refiftance of this machine will be continually varying ; it
will be nothing during one-half of the period of the revo-
lution when the pump is not drawing any water, and during
the other half it will be in a conitant ftate of increafe and
diminution. Now, during the time this wheel has nothing to
do, it will turn round very quickly, and therefore each
bucket will receive very little water ; confequently, when
the wheel comes to be refifted, the wheel will have fo little
water in its buckets, that it will perhaps be quite ftopped:
in this cafe, the bucket beneath the fpout will receive water
until it is quite fuO, and then the water will run over and
fill fo many of the buckets beneath it, as to put the wheel
in motion flowly; in confequence, the fucceeding buckets
will receive a large fhare of water during the half revolu-
tion when the pump makes its ftroke ; but when this is
finiflied, and the refiftance ceafes, the wheel being well
loaded with water, will in confequence move very rapidly
for a half revolution, and its buckets will receive very little
water.

This is indeed an extreme cafe of irregular refiftance,
and muft be remedied by applying two pumps inftead of
one, or a balance-weight, or a fly-wheel ; but the fame
principle will apply in cafe of fmaller irregularities. In all
cafes, the refiftance muft be reduced to a great degree of
uniformity, before a water-wheel can be applied to it with
advantage, particularly if the wheel is intended to move
flowly, with a view of obtaining the greateft power, the
irregularities will then have more ferious confequences.

A little more velocity enables the machine to overcome
thofe increafed refiftances by its inertia, or the great quan-
tity of motion inherent in it. Great machines pofTcfs this
advantage in a fuperior degree, and will confequently work
fteadily with a fmaller velocity. In all cafes, the machine
muft have fo much moving matter in it as is fufficient to
overcome the irregularities, and regulate tlie motion of the
wheel. If this is not already found in the machine, as in the
mill-ftones of a corn-mill for inftance, the weight muft be
placed in the water-wheel itfelf, or in a fly-wheel appUed
for the purpofe.

Mr. Buchanan meafured the quantity of water which a
cotton-mill required, when going at its common velocity ;
and when going at half that velocity. The refult was, that
the laft required juft half the quantity of water wliich the
firft did. In the experiments, the quantities of water were
calculated from the depth of water and apertures of the
fluices.

From which experiments, he inferred that the quantity
of water neceffary to be employed in giving different de-
grees of velocity to a cotton-mill, muft be nearly as the
velocity. The water from the cotton-mill on which he made
the obfervation, falls a little below it, into a perpendicular-
fided pond, which ferves as a dam for a corn-mill. By mea-
furing the time which the water took to rife at a certain
height in that pond, he determined the expenditure of water
when the corn-mill moved at its common velocity ; and alfo
when it moved at nearly half that velocity.

The refult of thefe experiments approached very nearly
to the former, and all the differences could be accounted for,
by a fmall degree of leakage, which took place at the
fluices on the lower end of the pond ; and the time being
greater when the mill moved flower, the leakage would of
courfe be greater.

In

WATER.

In thefe experiments, the motion of the water-wheel

■ , being exaftly proportioned to the quantity of water ex-

' pended, the load upon the wheel muft have been equal when

' it moved quick or flow, that is to fay, the buckets mull

have been equally filled when the wheel moved at its ordi-

'nary motion, or at half that motion.

' The efFedl, therefore, of letting more water on a wheel
Iwhen the reiiilance continues the fame, is not to lodge a
, greater quantity in each of the buckets, but to fupply the
I fame quantity to each bucket when the wheel is in a
greater motion.

The greateft velocity that the circumference of an over-
ifliot wheel can acquire, depends jointly upon the diameter
lor height of the wheel, and the velocity of falling bodies ;
I for it is plain, that the velocity of the circumference can
I never be greater, than to defcribe a femicircumference, in
ithe time that a body let fall from the top of the wheel
would defcend through its diameter, nor indeed quite fo
■great ; as a body defcending through the fame perpendicular
ifpace cannot perform its courfe in fo fmall a time, when
'palling through a femicircle, as would be done in a pcr-
ipendicular line. Thus, if a wheel is fixteen feet one
inch diameter, a body will fall through the line of its dia-
|meter in one fecond : this wheel, therefore, can never arrive
;at a velocity equal to the making one turn in two feconds.
An overlhot wheel can never come near this velocity, for
when it acquires a certain fpeed the greateft part of the
iwater is prevented from entering the buckets ; and the reft,
iat a certain point of its defcent, is thrown out again by the
Icentrifugal force. The velocity, when this aftion will be-
Igin to take place, depends in a great degree upon tlie form
■of the buckets as well as other circumilances ; fo that the
ytmoit velocity that an overftiot wheel may be capable of is
not to be determined generally ; and indeed the knowledge
of it is not at all neceftary in practice, becaufe a w heel, in
fuch cafe, would be incapable of producing any mechanical
leffeft.

V. On the proper Load for an overjhot Wheel, in ordir that It

\may produce a maximum Effell The maximum load or re-

fiftance for an overftiot wlieel, is that which will reduce the
circumference of the wheel to its proper velocity, of three or
three and a half feet per fecond ; and this will be known, by
dividing the effeft it ouglit to produce in a given time, by
the fpace intended to be defcribed by the circumference of
Ithe wheel in the fame lime ; the quotient v/ill be the refiftance
to be overcome at the circumference of the wheel, and is
equal to the load required, the friftion and refiftance of the
jmachinery included.

I VI. On the grealejl Load that an overjhot Wheel can overcome.
\ — The greateft load an overftiot wheel can overcome depends
:',ipon the magnitude of the buckets; and the refiftance
> which will ftop the wheel, muft be equal to the cifort of
lUU the buckets in one femicircumference, when quite filled
jwith water.

; The ftrufture of the buckets being given, the quantity
|of this effort may be affigned, but is not of much import-
itance in praftice, as in this cafe alfo, the wheel lofes its
I power ; for though the water makes the utmoft exertion of
gravity upon the wheel, yet, being prevented by a counter-
balance from moving at all, it is not capable of producing
any mechanical eff^eft, according to our definition. An
overftiot wheel, generally ceafes to be ufeful before it is
loaded to that pitch, for when it meets with fuch a refift-
ance as to diminifti its velocity to a certain degree, its mo-
tion becomes irregular ; yet this never happens until the ve-
locity of the circumference is reduced to lefs than two feet
per fecond, where the refiftance is equable, as appears not

only from the preceding fpecimen, but from experiments
on larger wheels.

VII. Conjlrultion of the Pentrough for fupplying the Water to
ovcrjljot Wheels. — We have hitlitrto Ipoken of the ftream of
water, as if it iftued from a fpout nearly in an horizontal direc-
tion, or with only fo much inclination as will make the line of
the ftream correfpond with the direftion of the oblique part of
the bucket -board. This is the ancient, and ftiU the common
way ; Mr. Smeaton's, which is a much better, is ftiewn in
Jig. 2. Plate I. Water-wheels. G reprefents the pentrough
through which the water flows, and F F ftrong crofs-beams on
which it is fupported ; the wheel is fituated very clofe beneath
the bottom of the trough, as the figure fliews. E E are two
arms of the wheel, which are put together, as ftiewn in_fg. 7.
D B is the wooden rim of the wheel ; the narrow circle beyond
this is the feflion of the fole planking, and on the outfide of
this the bucket-boards are fixed as the figure ftiews ; one of
the bottom boards, i, of the trough at the end is inclined, and
an opening is left between that end and the other boards of
the bottom, to let the water pafs through ; this opening is
clofed by a fliding ftiuttle, e, which is fitted to the bottom
of the trough, and can be moved backwards and forwards
by a rod, d, and lever, e, which is fixed into a ftrong axisy";
this axis has a long lever on the end, which, being moved
by the miller, draws the ftiuttle along the bottom of the
trough, and increafes or diminiflies the aperture through
which the water iffues. The extreme edge of the ftiuttle is
cut inchned, to make it correfpond with the inclined part l>,
and by this means it opens a parallel paflage for the water
to run through, and this caufes the water to be delivered in
a regular and even ftieet ; and to contribute to this the edges
of the aperture where the water quits it, are rendered fliarp
by iron plates ; the ftiuttle is made tight where it lies upon
the bottom of the trough by leather, fo as to avoid any
leakage when the fliuttle is clofed. When the wheel is of
confiderable breadth, the weight of the water might bend
down the middle of the trough until it touched the wheel ;
to prevent this, a ftrong beam, O, is placed acrofs the trough,
and the trough is fufpended from this by iron bolts winch
pafs through grooves in the fliuttle, fo that they do not in-
terfere with the motion of the ftiuttle.

Fig. 3. of the fame plate is an overfliot wheel, for which
Mr. Nouaille took a patent in 1813 ; he recommends that
the water-wheel be made the full heiglit of the fall of water,
and tdat the water be applied upon the wheel at 53 degrees
from, the vertex. The pentrough is made nearly on the
fame plan as Mr. Smeaton's. O R is the trough, hg the
end inclined in the direction in which the vi'ater is intended
to be direfled, f the fliuttle, fliding horizontally on the
bottom of the trough, cde the lever for drawing the fliut-
tle, to which motion is given by a regulating fcrew a and
nut h.

Fig. 9. Plate II. Water-ivheels, is the method of laying on
water, which has for feveral years been in common ufe in York-
fliire and the north of England. In this the water is not ap-
plied quite at the top of the wheel, but nearly in the fame
pofition as the laft defcribed ; but the advantages of this wheel
over all others is, that the water can be delivered at a greater
or lefs height, according to the height at which the water
ftands in the trough ; but in all the preceding methods if the
water is fubjeft to variations of height, as all rivers are, then
the wheel muft be diminillicd, fo that in the loweft ftate of the
water it will ftand a fufficient depth above the orifice in the
bottom of the trough to ifl"ue with a velocity rather greater
than the motion of the wheel. In this cafe, when the water
tii'cs to its ufual height, or above it, the increafe of fall thua
obtained is very Ikile advantage to the wheel ; the improved

wheel

WATER.

wheel can at all times take the utmoil fall of the water, even
when its height varies from three to four feet. A A is the
pentrough made of caft-iron ; the end of it is formed by a
grating of broad flat iron bars, which are inchned in the
proper pofition to direft the water through them into the
buckets of the wheel. The fpaces between the bars are (hut
up by a large (heet of leather, which is made fall to the bottom
of the iron trough at a, and is applied againft the bars ; and
the preflure of the water keeps it in clofe contaft with the
bars, fo as to prevent any leakage. This is the real (huttle, and
to open it fo as to give the required ftream of water to the
wheel, the upper edge of the leather is wrapped round a
fmaller roller b ; the pivots at the ends of this roller are re-
ceived in the lower ends of two racks, which are made to
Aide up and down by the aftion of two pinions fixed upon
a common axis which extends acrofs the trough ; this axis
being turned, raifes up or lowers down the roller, and the
leather (huttle winds upon it as it defcends, or unwinds from
it as it afcends, fo as to open more of the fpaces between the
bars, or clofe them as it is required. In order to make
the roller take up the leather, and always draw it tight, a
ftrap of leather is wound round the extreme ends of the
jj-oUers, beyond the part where the leather (huttle rolls upon
It. Thefe ftraps are carried above water and applied on
wheels, which wind them up with a very confiderable tenfion
by the aftion of a band and weight wrapped on the cir-
cumference of a wheel, which is on the end of the axis of
thofe wheels.

The water runs over the upper fide of the roller, and flows
through the fpaces between the grating into the buckets of
the wheel ; the defcent of the water pafling through the
bars, and afterwards in falling before it ftrikes the bottom
of the bucket, is found fully fufficient to produce the ne-
cefTary vtlocity of the water, for a fall of four inches pro-
duces a velocity of more than four feet per fecond.

We recommend this as the beft; method of applying the wa-
ter, as we fee in all other forms that a much greater portion of
the fall is given up in order to make the water flow into the
wheel ; not that any fuch depth as is commonly given is at
all necelfary, but the aperture in the trough mull be placed
fo low that the water will run through it in the very loweft
Hates of the water, otherwife the wheel mull Hop at fuch
times.

On (he Manner ef framing Waler-nvheeh. — The weight of
every wheel mult be fupported by its axis, which therefore
demands the firll confideration. If the axis is to be of wood
it fhould be made of a tree of hard and durable wood, of a
length and fize proportioned to the lize and weight of the
wheel ; mto each end a gudgeon or centre fliould be fixed
for the wheel to turn upon. There are two methods of fixing
the gudgeon into a wooden axis ; one is, by forming the
gudgeoi; with acrofs, which is let into the end of the tree,
and faftened by fcrews, and the wood is comprefled round
the crofs by two or three iron hoops, fitted on the end of
the tree iud wedged ; this is explained in the article MlLL-
Work. The other method is, to make a Itrong iron box in a
piece w'th the gudgeon, into which box the end of the tree is
received and fecured by wedges. The box being of an ofta-
gon Ihape, and the wo d being cut to the fame figure, it
cannot flip round withni \\p box.

Of late years it has btc i il'ual to make the great axis of
water-wheels of cail-iroii, which is a very good plan, pro-
vided the axis is made of fufficient dimenfions. This was
firll prailifed by Mr. Smeaton, but he was rather unfor-
tunate, as fevenJ of them broke after having been many
years in ufe : he then employed hollow lubes of call -iron of
large dimenfions and confiderable thicknefs of metal. Even

now that the ftrength of call -iron is better underftood, it is
not uncommon for the axis of a water-wheel to break, par-
ticularly in cold and frofty weather, and for this reafon fome
millwrights ufe wrought iron, but the hollow tube is fo much
ftronger, as to be very fecure from accident.

In an iron axis it is advifeable to make the bearings of the
axis clofe to the fides of the water-wheel, and leave the ends
of the axis projecting beyond the bearings, in order to attach
the cog-wheel, by which the power of the wheel is to be
communicated to other machinery. This diminifhes tl-.e
length of the axis between the bearings, and renders it much
ftronger ; wooden axes mutl have the gudgeons at the ex-
treme ends.

The next point to be confidered is, the beft means of afEx-
ing the arms of the wheel firmly to the axis. If the arms
are of wood, and the axis alfo, the mod obvious plan is to
mortife the arms into the axis ; but this is the worll method
that can be adopted, becaufe the axis is much weakened, and
the water being admitted into the centre of the tree caufes it
foon to decay, nor can an arm be eafily replaced without
taking all the wheel to pieces.

A better way is to ufe eight timbers for the arms, and put
them together fo as to interfeft each other at right angles,
(as is fliewn v^fig- "]• Plate I. ) leaving a fquare opening in the
centre for the reception of the axis, which is made up to a
fquare by adding pieces of wood to it, and the wheel is faf-
tened on by wedges. The only objeftion to tliis is, that
the arms are weakened by interfefting each other, and
they fupport the circular rim of the wheel in unequal feg-
ments.

In Mr. Buchanan's water-wheel, which we have before
defcribed in Jigs. 4 and 5, Plate I. Water -ivheels, is a parti-
cular conftruftion of the arms formed by thin planks of wood.
He ftates that this plan is applicable to any kind of water-
wheel ; and fince 1 790, when he firfl conltrufted a wheel
with arms on that principle, a confiderable number of large
wheels have been erefted in Scotland on the fame plan. It
is evident that arms, fuch as are commonly fixed in mortifes
in the axis, are weakell in one direftion, and that commonly
in the direftion of the ftrain. To remedy this defeft the
feather-pieces F F are applied all round, having their broad-
elt ends towards the centre of the wheel, and being at right
angles to the breadth of the principal arms. In order to
unite them ftrongly to the principal arms, and conneft the
whole more firmly together, a ring of iron, R, is applied
on each fide ; blocks of wood being put in the vacant fpaces
between, and the keys or wedges, K K, bind the whole clofe
to the axis.

The very beft method of uniting the arms to the axis is to
have a caft-iron centre-piece, or ftrong hoop, to fit on the
wooden axis with a broad projefting flanch round it, againft
the flat furface of which the arms of the wheel are applied,
and the intervals between them filled up by wooden blocks
or wedges ; the arms and blocks are firmly bound to the iron
flanch by iron rings applied to the arms on the oppofite fide
to the flanch, with fcrew bolts to go through the whole.
This fame plan is applicable to an iron axis, and will be more
clearly underftood by a reference to the article Mill, and
Plate XXXIV. Mechanics ; but it is there defcribed that the
broad circular flanch to fcrew the arms againft, is caft in the
fame piece with the axis. This was Mr. Smeaton's original
plan, but the flanch fhould be made in a feparate piece, and
faftened on .the axis v/ith wedges ; for' if caft in the fame
piece, the contradioa of the metal contained in the flanch
when cooling, renders the metal of the axis fpongy at the part
where it joins to the flanch, and caufes them to break at that
part. Sometimes the caft-iron centre -piece is made with a

diftiuA ;

WATER.

diftinft cell to receive each arm, and they are faftened into
the cells by wedges and fcrew-bolts, bui a flat flanch with
tlie intervals filled up by blocks is more fimple and fecure.
Modern wheels are very frequently made with caft-iron arms,
which in this cafe are attached to the axis by a fimilar
centre-piece.

The circular rims of water-wheels are commonly made of
wood, put together in two or three thickneffes, the joinings
of one ring not coinciding with thofe of the other, and 8 or
lo fegments in each thicknefs, according to the fize of the
wheel ; the thicknefles are united together by rivets. The
arms are attached to the ring by notching them in, and fe-
curing them by bolts. Caft-iron rings are now generally ufed,
and with great advantage, becaufe the neceffary mortifes
can be made in iron, without weakening the ring ; but the
ftrength of a wooden ring is greatly impaired by the mor-
tifes through it.

The number of rings in a wheel depend upon its breadth;
when the wheel is four feet wide, two rings will fupport the
float-boards or buckets, but the rings fhould not be more
than five feet afunder, or the floats may bend and yield ; for
want of a fufGcient fupport each ring is framed with its fet
of arms, fo that every one derives its ftrength from the
axis. When a wheel is of great breadth, the whole will be
Tery much ilrengthened, by applying oblique braces, ex-
tending from the centre-pieces of the outfide rings to the
circumference of the middle ring, by firmly attaching thefe
oblique braces to the arms of all the rings which they inter-
cept ; they form trufs-franies which prevent the wheel and
the axis from bending by its weight : this is particularly
ufeful in wide overfhot wheels.

In breaft and underfhot wheels the float -boards are nailed
to pieces of wood called ftarts, which are fixed into the mor-
tifes in the rings, and projeft outwards for that purpofe.

In overfliot-wheels, the rings of the wheels are covered by
boards laid parallel to the axis, well jointed together, and
fpiked down to the rings like the boards of a floor to the
joifts. This boarding forms a clofe cyhnder, which is called
the fole of the wheel, and is the foundation for the buckets.
When the rings of the wheel are of iron, holes are left in
the cartings in the edge of the rings, at regular diftances
round the circumference, and thefe are filled up with plugs
of wood, into which the nails can be driven to fatten on the
boarding of the fole. The fole of the wheel is fometimes
made of iron plates rivetted together, and rivetted alfo to
the rings of the wheel.

At the ends of the fole-boards, two circular rings of
wood or iron, called fhrouds, are fitted on perpendicularly
to the fole to form the ends of the buckets ; and it is ufual,
if the wheel is wide, to apply a fhrouding over each ring of
the wheel, and then the buckets are divided into lengths of
about four or five feet. In the flat furfaces of the ihroud-
ings, grooves are made for the reception of the ends of the
bucket-boards. It is ufual to make the firft board, which
is in the direftion of a radius, of wood, and the outfide one
is generally made of iron plate ; but fometimes the whole
are made of plate iron, and both parts of the buckets are
then bent up out of one piece, and the ends of the plate ; and
alfo that part of tlie edge which is to apply to the fole, is
turned fquare to lie flat againft the fole and the flirouding,
fo that rivets and nails may unite all together, and make
water-tight joints.

When the (hrouding is of caft-iron, it is made to ferve
inftead of the rings of the wheel, becaufe it has fuf&cient
ftrength to ferve both purpofes : the arms of the wheel are
in this cafe applied flat againft the ring of flirouding, and
bolted to it.

Vol. XXXVIII.

The breaft-wheel,/^. 3. Plafell. Water-'wheels, at MeflVs.
Strutt's works, which we have already noticed, is deferving of
further notice from the manner of putting it together. The
rings of the wheel are made of caft-iron, and the float-boards
arc mcluded between the rings in the manner of an overftiot
wheel, but the arms are only of wrought iron, being made
of fmall round iron rods, which are very light, and have little
ftrength to refift bending ; but as they are all tied in from
the centre, the ring cannot deviate from its true circular
figure, and to fuftain the wheel fideways, oblique bars are
extended from the centre-pieces at each end of the axis, and
are united to the circular ring in the middle of its breadth,
which is 15 feet. We have feen two overfhot -wheels of 24 feet
diameter, and 9 feet broad, made in the fame way. It is
plain that in this conftrudlion the axis of the wheel can do
no office but to fupport the weight of the wheel ; for though
thefe arms are fufficiently ftrong for that purpofe, they can
have little ftrength by way of levers to tranfmit the force
of the circular motion of the rim of the wheel to the axis ;
but the power is tranfmitted in a better way than from the
axis, •viz. by a ring of cogs fcrewed to the circular rim of
the wheel, and working in a pinion which conveys the mo-
tion to the mill. There is another fimilar ring of cogs at
the other fide of the wheel, which works into a pinion fixed
on the fame fliaft, by this means nearly all the ftrain is taken
from the axis of the water-wheel ; for the pinion is placed
on the defcending fide of the wheel, fo that the weight of the
water adting on the float -boards is immediately tranfmitted to
the pinions by the ftrength of the rings of the wheel.

This method of tranfmitting the power is alfo apphed to
other wheels than thofe which are made with flight arms
like the above ; the ring of cogs is fometimes placed in the
middle of the breadth of the wheel, and then afts upon one
pinion, but it is much bttter to place it at one fide or both
fides, if the wheel is very broad, becaufe the circle of the
teeth may then be made rather lefs than the diameter of
the rings of the wheel, and the fide of the ring being clofely
fitted to the ftone-work of the race, the water may be ex-
cluded from the cogs.

It is obvious that of the various conftruftions of water-
wheels, that is the ftrongeft which communicates its motion
by means of a ring of cogs immediately attached to its rim,
where the power of the water is alfo applied, the leaft pof-
fible ftrain being thus thrown on its arms and axis.

The only objeftion to this plan is, that as the teeth of
the cog-wheel are in moft cafes conftantly wet, which pre-
vents the greafe from adhering, the ufual mode of occa-
fionally greafing the cogs is of little or no ufe, and the dirt
in the water grinds away the teeth ; or, were the water even
free from dirt, there would be much unneceflary friftion and
wafte of power.

Greafing Maehine for the Cog-Wheel of a Water- Wheel. —
Mr. Buchanan mentions two water-wheels of this kind, in
which the rings of the teeth were wearing very faft, and
knowing the trouble and expence of renewnig them, he was
folicitous to difcover fome means of rendering them more
durable. The only way which prefented itfelf was by fome
contrivance to keep them well greafed.

This he did by a machine ftiewn v\ fg. 8. Plate!. Watcr-
-juheeh ; it is nothing more than a kind of pinion, with one
or more of its teeth made hollow to contain the- givaiy fub-
ftance, and the metal plate of which the hollow cog is com-
pofed is perforated with fmall hole?, for oxudating the
greafe through tliofe parts which come in contaft with the
teeth of the wheel.

Fig. 8. is a feftion of the greafing macliine ; A B repre-
fents part of the ring of teeth on the circumference of the

N > water-

WATER.

water-wheel. The greafing-pinion which works in thefe
teeth is mounted on an axis, as is clearly fhewn.

N O a retarding lever, of which N is the fulcrum, and O
a weight to make it prefs on the axis of the greafing-pinion,
fo as to caufe a refiitance, and make the cogs of the wheel
prcfs forcibly on the cogs of the pinion.

G H I K, the hollow teeth for containing the greafe ;
they are made of copper-plate or iron ; and to make the per-
forated fides of the greafing leaves come in clofe contaft
with the face of the teeth of the wheel, the lever N O,
with a fmall weight on it, afts on a pulley fixed on the axle
of the pinion, and ferves to retain it.

E F, &c. the folid teeth of the pinion, made of wood ;
there are Aiders which open for admitting the greafe into the
hollow teeth at their ends.

The number of leaves in the greafer ftiouid be fuch, that
thofe containing the greafe (hall apply themfelves in the
courfe of feveral revolutions of the wheel to each of its teeth.
Mr. Buchanan found a greafer of 1 2 leaves, 4 of which con-
tained greafe, had this eSe&. upon a wheel of 304 teeth ; and
one of 1 3 leaves, with one tooth only filled with greafe,
ferved a wheel of 168 teeth.

It k beft to ufe a mixture of tallow, oil, and black lead for
greafing, made of a confiftency to feed regularly, and frefh-
ened about twice in a week.

Con/lruclton of a Bnajl-Wtteel of very great Width. — At
Meffrs. Strutt's works is a very powerful bread-wheel, made
of the extraordinary width of 4ofeet, and it defervesour notice
from the manner of framing it together ; its diameter is only
I2| feet, and it is made without any axis, or rather the axis
is hollow, and fo large that the float-boards are fixed imme-
diately upon it. It is made like a very long caflv, 48 feet
long, compofed of 32 ftaves of fix inches thicknefs, bound
together by hoops like an ordinary caflc ; it is five feet in dia-
meter at one end and fix feet at the other, and in the middle
7 feet 2 inches ; the fmall end is made up folid for three feet
in length, and the gudgeon is fixed in this folid part ; the larger
end is folid for four feet from the end, and on this part the
large cog-wheel is fixed to communicate the motion to the
mill; it is 14 feet diameter, and has 120 cogs, whilft the
water-wheel is only 12 j feet diameter to the outfide of the
floats. The floats are fupported by 10 circular rings,
which are fixed on the outlide of the axis or cafl<, at four
feet diftance from each other, and the float-boards are fixed
between thefe rings, 24 floats being arranged in each
circle ; but the floats in the different fpaces are not made to
line with each other, becaufe if the water was to ftrike upon
the whole length of 40 feet of float-board at once, it would
give a fenfible fliock to the water-wheel, and work the mill
irregularly ; hence the floats between all the different rings
are placed oppofite to the intervals between the floats in the
adjoining fpaces, by which means the water afts on the
floats in rapid fucceflion, fo that the ftroke upon any one
float is imperceptible.

The float -boards are not made to touch the central-barrel
or axis within two inches, in order to leave fpace for the air
to efcape. The float -boards in the middle of the wheel are
2 feet 4 inches wide, and at the ends are wider. This wheel
has two fhuttles, one above the other, hke the breafl-wheel
before defcribed in fig. 3, and the fame dimenfions ; for the
wheel is placed in the fame mill, but is adapted to work
when the tail-water rifes in time of floods to fuch a height as
to preveqf the other wheel from working.

/I very large overjlot Wheel. — The largeft overfhot water-
wheel of which we have heard, is that at Mr. Crawfhaw's
iron-works at Cyfarthfa, near Mcrthyr Tidvil, in South
Wales : it is ufed to blow ai» into three of the large blafl

furnaces for fraelting iron ; the water-wheel is fifty feet in dia-
meter and fix feet wide : it is chiefly made of call iron, and has
I 56 buckets. The axis is a hollow tube, and is ftrengthened
by twenty-four pieces of timber applied round it. On each
end of the axis is a cog-wheel of twenty-three feet diameter,
which turns a pinion. On the axis of thefe are two cranks,
and a fly-wheel twenty-two feet diameter, and twelve tons
weight ; each of the cranks gives motion to a lever, like that
of a large fteam-engine, and works the pifton of a blowing
cylinder or air-pump 5 2^ inches in diameter, and five feet ftroke,
which blows air into the furnace, both when the piflon goes
up and down. The work on the other fide being the fame, it
aftuates in the whole four of thefe double cylinders ; the
wheel makes about two and a half turns per minute, and
each cylinder makes ten flrokes. It is caUed ./Eolus, and was
built in 1800 under the direftion of Mr. Watkin George.

At Aberdare, in South Wales, is an imraenfe double water-
wheel, confifting of two wheels of forty feet in diameter, placed
one above the other like the figure 8, ( fee our article Ca-
nal, ) the water from the upper one aftuating the lower one,
and both being connefted together by cog-wheels on their
refpeftive rings. We underftand this machine has not an-
fwered, and we only mention it as an attempt to occupy a
fall of water of eighty feet ; in fuch cafes, the Prejfure-engine^
defcribed under that article, is a better method, particularly
if the work will admit of a reciprocating motion.

Chain of Buckets This is applicable in many fituations

where there is a confiderable fall of water. This flcetch was
taken from one in Scotland ufed to give motion to a thrafhing-
mill ; the Jig. 6. Plate I. is fo obvious as to need little explana-
tion. The buckets C, D, G, H, &c. muft be conneiSed by
feveral chains to avoid the danger of breaking, and united
into an endlefs chain, which is extended over two wheels
A and B, the upper one being the axis which is to com-
municate motion to the mill-work ; E is the fpout to fupply
the water. The principal advantage of this plan is, that
no water is loft by running out of the buckets before they
arrive at the loweft part, as is the cafe with the vfheel.
Another is, that the buckets being fufpended over the
wheel A of fmall diameter, it may be made to revolve
more quickly than a wheel of large diameter, and without
increafing the velocity of the defcending buckets beyond
what is proper for them. This faves wheel-work when the
machine is to be employed, as in a thrafhing machine to
produce a rapid motion. On the other hand, the friftion of
the chain in folding over the wheel at the top, and feizing
its cogs, will be very confiderable ; thefe cogs muft enter
the fpaces in the open links between the buckets, to pre-
vent the chain flipping upon the upper wheel. We think
this machine might be much improved by contriving it fo,
that the chain would pafs through the centre of gravity of
each bucket, whereas in the prefent form, the weight of
each bucket tends to give the chain an extra bend.

The Chain-Pump reverfed has been propofed as a fubfti-
tute for a water-wheel when the fall is very great, and we
think it would anfwer the purpofe with fome chance of
fuccefs. It would have an advantage over the chain-
pump when employed for raifing water, in the facility of
applying cup leathers to the piilons on the chain, in the
fame way as other pumps, which leathers expand themfelves
to the infide of the barrel, and are kept perfeAly tight by
the preffure of the water. In the chain-pump fuch leathers
cannot be employed, becaufe the edges of the leather-cups
would turn down and ftop the motion, when the cups were
drawn upwards into the barrel. It is the defective mode
of leathering the piilons of the chain-pump which occafions
its great firiAion. In tlie motion of a machine of this kind
9 the

WATER.

the piftons would defcend into the barrel, and might there-
fore be leathered with cups like other pumps, fo as to be
quite tight without immoderate friAidn. This machine was
propofed by a Mr. Cooper in 1784, who obtained a patent
for it, and Dr. Robifon has again propofed it with re-
commendation.

Mechanifm for equalling the Motion of Water-WheeU

When a part of the machinery of a mill is fuddenly de-
tached from the firft mover, or fuddenly connefted with it,
the load of the machine is either increafed or diminifhed ;
and the moving power remaining the fame, an alteration in
the velocity of the whole will take place ; it will move
fafter or flower. Every machine has a certain velocity, at
which it will work with greater advantage than at any other
fpeed ; hence the change of velocity arifing from the above
caufe, is in all cafes a difadvantage, and in delicate opera-
tions exceedingly hurtful. In the cafe of a cotton mill,
for inftance, which is calculated to move the fpindles at a
certain rate, if from any caufe the velocity is much in-
creafed, a lofs of work immediately takes place, and an in-
creafe of wafte from the breaking of the threads, &c. ; on
the other hand, there muft be an evident lofs from the
machinery moving too flow. In fteam-engines this evil is
remedied by a contrivance called a governor, which we have
already defcribed in our article SxEAM-^n^/nf.

Governors are fometimes apphed to water-wheels, and
made on various conftruftions. Smith-bellows have been
applied to that ufe, the upper board rifing and falling on
any augmentation or diminution of the velocity of the lower
board, which received its motion from the mill, and forced
air into the fpace beneath the upper board ; from this fpace
the air was permitted to efcape by a pipe with a cock. If
the lower board worked fafter than the air could efcape,
the upper board would rife, but if it moved flower, then
the board would fink ; and this rifing and falling was applied
to regulate the fliuttle of the water-wheel, not by the force
of the bellows alone, but the bellows were made to throw
the wheel- work of the mill into aftion, either to raife or
lower the fhuttle.

Of late years a new kind of water-wheel governor has
been introduced, the principles of which are nearly the fame
as the governor of a iteam-engine. It has a revolving pen-
dulum, which receives its motion from the mill, and in pro-
portion as the machinery moves fafter or flower, the cen-
trifugal force afts with greater or lefs force upon the balls
of the governor, making them approach to, or recede from,
the perpendicular axis. This raifes or deprefles an iron crofs,
which Aides upon the perpendicular axis of the revolving
pendulum, and by ailing on a lever, is made to engage the
fluice with a train of wheel-work, which is kept in conftant
motion by the power of the water-wheel. When this train is
connefted with the fluice, it operates upon it fo as to enlarge
or leflen the paflage of the water to the water-wheel, and by
augmenting or lefiening the quantity of water falling on the
wheel, increafes or diminiflies its fpeed.

This fluice is made on the principle of the throttle-valve
of fteam-engines. In order that it may be moved by a fmall
power, it is poifed on an axis of motion palling through the
middle of the fluice. When it is turned edgeways to the
ftream of water, it makes no obftruftion ; but if it is turned
perpendicularly, it clofes the paflage of water, or by placing
it more or lefs obliquely, it alters the area of the paflage for
the water.

The axis on which the fluice turns, if horizontal, fliould
be one-third of the height of the fluice from the bottom, in
order that the prefTure of the water above the centre may
balance that below.

So long as the machinery is moving at a proper velocity,
this wheel-work of the fluice apparatus is not connefiked
with the fluice, and it remains at reft. But if the mill goes
too flow, the crofs is deprefl"ed, and ftriking the lever in
an oppofite direftion, connedls the fluice with a different
part or train of wheel-work, which has a motion in a contrary
direftion to the former, and fo produces a contrary effeft on
the fluice.

The train of wheel-work is fo calculated, as to reduce
the aftion on the fluice to a very flow motion, and it is
found, from experience, that this is neceflary. Where the
area of the aperture is too fuddenly changed, the effeft on the
water-wheel would be too violent. See a more complete
defcription of this contrivance in Vol. XXIII. MiLL-^orl.

On the Conflru8ion of the Wheel-race and Water-courfe. —
The wheel-race fliould always be built in a fubftantial manner
with mafonry, and if the ftones are fet in Roman cement, it
will be much better than common mortar. The earth behind
the mafonry fliould be very folid, and if it is not naturally
fo, it ftiould be very hard rammed and puddled, to prevent
percolation of the water. This applies more particularly to
breafl;-wheels, in which the water of the dam or refervoir ia
ufually immediately behind the wall or breaft in which the
wheel works, a floping apron of earth being laid from the
wall in the dam to prevent the water leaking. The wall of the
breaft fliould have pile planking ( fee Canal ) driven beneath,
to prevent the water from getting beneath, becaufe that might
blow up the foundation of the race. The ftones of the race
are hewn to a mould, and laid in their places with great care ;
but afterwards when the fide walls are finiflied, and the axis
of the wheel placed in its bearings, a gauge is attached to
it and fwept round in the curve, and by this the breaft is
drefled fmooth, and hewn to an exaft arch of a Circle :
the fide walls in like manner are hewn flat and true at the
place where the float-boards are to work. It is ufual to make
the fpace between the fide walls two inches narrower at each
fide, in the circular part where the floats aft, than in the
other parts.

In fome old mills the breaft is made of wood planking,
but this method has fo little durability that it cannot be re-
commended. In modern mills, the breaft is lined with a call-
iron plate, but we do not approve of this, becaufe it is next
to impoflible to prevent fome fmall leakage of water through
the mafonry, and this water being confined behind the iron
breaft cannot efcape, but its hydroftatic preflure to force up
the iron is enormous ; and if the water can ever infinuate
itfelf behind, the whole furface of the plate rarely fails to
break it, if not to blow it up altogether. This is beft guarded
againft by making deep ribs projefting from the back of
the plate, and bedding them with great care in the mafonry;
thefe not only ftrengthen the plate, but alfo cut off the
communication of the water, fo that it cannot aft upon
larger furfaces at once, than the ftrength and weight of the
plate can refift. Stone is undoubtedly the beft material for
a breafting. In overfhot-wheels the lol's of water, by running
out of the buckets as they approach the bottom of the
wheel, may be confiderably diminiftied by accurately form-
ing a fweep, or cafing round the lower portion of the
wheel, fo as to prevent the immediate efcape of the water,
and caufing it to aft in the manner of a breaft-wheel, which
has been already defcribed. While this improvement re-
mains in good condition, and the wheel works truly, it pro-
duces a very fenfible effeft; but it is frequently objefted to,
becaufe a ftick or a ftone falling into the wheel would be
liable to tear off part of its ftirouding, and damage the
buckets ; and again, a hard froft frequently binds all faft, and
totally prevents the poflibility of working during its conti-
N 2 nuance ;

WATER.

nuance ; but we do not think the latter a great objeftion,
for the water is not more liable to freeze there than in the
buckets or on the fhuttle, and may be prevented by the
fame means, wz. by keeping the wheel always in motion ; a
very fmall dream of water left running all night will be fufii-
cient. Mr. Smeaton always ufed fuch fweeps, and with
very good eflfeft; it is certainly preferable to any intricate
work in the form of the buckets.

On Jetting out IVater-courfes and Dams. — The moft ancient
mills were underlhot-wheels placed in the current of an open
river, the building containing the mill being fet upon piles
in the river. It would foon be obferved that the power of
the mill would be greatly increafed, if all the water of the
river was concentrated to the wheel, by making an obftruc-
tion acrofs the river which penned up the water to a re-
quired height ; and alfo to form a pool or refervoir of water.
A fluice or (huttle would then become neceffary to regulate
the admiffion of water to the wheel, and other fluices would
be neceffary to allow the water to efcape in times of floods ;
for though in ordinary times the water would run over the
top of the obftruftion or dam, yet a very great body of
water running over might carry away the whole work, by
waffling away the earth at the foot of the dam, and then
overturning it into the excavation. This is an accident
which frequently happens to mills fo fituated, and the danger
is fo obvious, that moll water-mills are now removed to the
fide of the river, and a channel is dug from the river to the
mill to fupply it vrith water, and another to return the water
from the mill to the river. The difference of level between
thefe two channels is the fall of water to work the mill, and
this is kept up by means of a weir or dam entirely acrofs
the river ; but the water can run freely over this dam in
cafe of floods, without at all affefting the mill, becaufe the
entrance to the channel of fupply is regulated by ffuices and
fide walls.

The dam fhould be erefted acrofs the river at a broad part,
where it will pen up the water fo as to form a large pond or
refervoir, which is called the mill-pond or dam-head. This
refervoir is ufeful to gather the water which comes down the
river in the night, and referve it for the next day's con-
fumption ; or for fuch mills as do not work inceffantly, but
which require more water, when they do work, than the
ordinary llream of the river can fupply in the fame time.
The larger the furface of the pond is, the more efficient it
will be ; but depth will not compenfate for the want of fur-
face, becaufe as the furface finks, when the water is drawn
off", the fall or defcent of the water, and confequently the
power of the water, diminifnes.

The dam for a large river ftiould be conftrufted with
the utmoft foUdity ; wood framing is very commonly ufed,
but mafonry is preferable. Great care muft be taken,
by driving pile planking under the dam, to intercept all
leakage of the water beneath the ground under the dam,
as that loofens the earth, and deftroys the foundation
imperceptibly ; when a violent flood may overthrow the
whole. It is a common praftice to place the dam obliquely
acrofs the river, with a view of obtaining a greater length
of wall for the water to run over, and confequently prevent
its rifing to fo great a height, in order to give vent to the water
of a flood. But this is very objeftionable, becaufe the cur-
rent of water conftantly running over the dam, always afts
upon the fliore or bank of the river at one point, and will in
time wear it away, if not prevented by expenfive works.
This difficulty is obviated, by making the dam in two lengths
which meet in an angle >, tlie vertex pointing up the
ftream. In this way the currents of water, coming from
the two oppofite parts of the dam, ftrike together, and

fpend their force upon each other, without injuriiig any
part. A flill better form is a fegment of a circle, which
has the additional advantage of ftrength, becaufe if the abut-
ments at the banks of the river are firm, the whole dam be-
comes hke the arch of a bridge laid down horizontally.
This was the form generally ufed by Mr. Smeaton.

The foot of the dam where the water runs down ffiould
be a regular flope, with a curve, fo as to lead the water
down regularly ; and this part fliould be evenly paved with
ftone, or planked, to prevent the water from tearing it up,
when it moves with a great velocity.

When the fall is confiderable, it may be divided into more
than one dam ; and if the lower dam is made to pen the
water upon the foot of the higher dam, then the water run-
ning over the higher dam will ftrike into the water, and lofe
its force. There is nothing can fo foon exhauit the force of
rapid currents of water as to fall into other water, becaufe
its mechanical force is expended in changing the figure of
the water (fee circular "jjeir in our article Canal) ; but when
it falls upon ftone or wood, its fc>rce is not taken away, but
only reflefted to fome other part of the channel, and may be
made to aft upon fuch a great extent of furface as to do no
vei-y ftriking injury at any one time, but by degrees it wears
away the banks, and requires conftant repairs : for it is de-
monftrable that, as much of the force of the water as is not
carried away by the rapid motion with which it flows, after
pafling the dam, muft be expended either in changing the
figure of the water, or in waffling away the banks, or in
the friftion of the water running over the bottom.

The cotton-works of Meflrs. Strutt at Belper, in Derby-
ffiire, are on a large fcale, and the moft complete we have
ever fcen, in their dams and water-works. The mills are
turned by the water of the river Derwent, which is very
fubjeft to floods. The great weir is a femicircle, built of
very fubftantial mafonry, and provided with a pool of water
below it, into which the water falls. On one fide of the
weir are three fluices, each 20 feet wide, which are drawn
up in floods, and allow the water to pafs fideways into the
fame pool; and on the oppofite fide is another fuch fluice,
12 feet wide. The water is retained in the lower pool by
fome obftruftion which it experiences in running beneath
the arches of a bridge ; but the principal fall of the water is
broken by falling into the water of the pool, beneath the
great femicircular weir.

The water which is drawn off from the mill-dam above
the weir pafles through three fluices, 20 feet wide each,
and is then diilributed by different channels to the mills,
which are fituated at the fide of the river, and quite fecure
from all floods. There are fix large water-wheels; one of
them, which is 40 feet in breadth, we have mentioned, from
the ingeriuity of its conftruftion ; and another which is
made in two breadths, of ij feet each, we have alfo de-
fcribed. They are all breaft-wheels. The iron-works of
Meffrs. Walker at Rotherham, in Yorkfhire, are very good
fpecimens of water-works ; as alfo the Carron works in
Scotland.

The largeft works for overffiot-mills are in Rufiia, at
Colpino, near St. Peterfburgh, on the river Neva. They
were erefted principally under the direftion of Mr. Gaf-
coigne of the Carron works in Scotland, and have been
greatly improved by the prefent direftor, who is nn engineer
of his fchool. An immenfe dam of granite is built acrofs
the river to pen up the water, until it makes a lai'ge refer-
voir. The wafte and flood waters do not run over this
dam, but are condufted out of the refervoir by a femi-
circular branch of the river, and run over a great weir to
join the original courfe of the river below the works. The

mills

WATER.

mills are fituated in the valley below the great dam, the
water being conveyed to the wheels by channels coming
through the dam, and conveyed away into a large tail bafon,
which is tlie original courfe of the river. The wheels,
which are very numerous, are all 22 feet diameter. They
are placed in f^iveral different mills, for rolling and forging
iron and copper, boring guns, making anchors, &c. Thefe
mills are arranged on the fides of the tail bafon, which is
navigable to bring the boats up to them. There are alfo
two larL^e faw-mills at the end of the femicircular channel.

Thefi- works are very complete, owing to the excellent
execution of the dam and water-works ; but it is not a good
plan to place the mills beneath the dam, becaufe if it fhould
fail, or the water pour over it by an extraordinary flood,
the mills and buildings below would be in danger of being
carried away ; whereas, on the other conftrudlion, the mills,
being placed at a diftance from the river, are perfedlly fafe,
and would not be injured if the (dam ihould be wholly carried
away. This is not a fault imputable to the gentlemen we
have mentioned, as the foundations of thefe works were
commenced in the time of Peter the Great, and too far ad-
vanced to admit of altering the plan radically, when the em-
prefs Catherine invited Mr. Gafcoigne to Ruffia, in 1786,
to enlarge them to their prefent magnitude.

On the Dijlribution of the different Falls of Water In Rivers.
— In erefting a mill, care mull be taken to place it fo that
it (hall not be impeded by flood-waters, except when they
rife to excefs. When the water below will not run off
freely, but (lands penned up in the wheel-race, fo that the
wheel mud work or row in it, the wheel is faid to be tailed,
or to be in back water or tail water.

Upon moft rivers in this country all the falls of water are
fully occupied, and at every mill there is a weir, which pens
up the water as high as the mill above can fuff'er it to
ftand without inconvenience. Each miller is anxious to ob-
tain the greateft poffible fall, and he can at any time aug-
ment the fall, by raifing the furface of his weir ; but as this
may produce an inconvenience to the mill above, in prevent-
ing the water from running freely away from its wheel, it
is a conftant fonrce of difpute and litigation. A mill may
be fubjedled to tail-water by the concurrence of fo many
circumftanccs, that it is frequently very difficult to know
where to feek the beft remedy, whether the miller ought to
raife his wheel higher and diminiih his own fall, or infill
upon a diminution of his neighbour's below him by lowering
his weir.

The following rule is that which Mr. Smeaton conRantly
followed, in placing fucceffive dams upon rivers, whether
for the ereiSlion of mills or for navigation. In flat countries,
where the falls of water are fmall, and confequently tail or
back water is moft troublefome, thofe dams muft be fo
built, that no one fliall pen the water into the wheel-race of
the mill next above it, when the river is in its ordinary fum-
mer's ftate. The fame rule we have found generally fub-
fifting in ancient mills.

This rule is founded upon reafon ; for if the ereftion of a
dam does not affeft the mill above by tail-water, in dry fea-
fons, when water is the moll icarce, it can do no material
injury at any other time. Every mill that is well and pro-
perly conllrufted will olear itfelf of a confidcrable deptli of
tail-water, provided it has at the time an increafe of tlie heiglit
of water in ilie mill-dam or head, and an unlimited quantity
of water to draw upon the wheel ; for if floods produce tail-
water, they alfo increafe the head water, and alford a fupe-
rior qiiantity to be expended. This is the proper means by
which a number of mills on the fame river are to be cleared
of back-water, as far as is confident with the mutual enjoy-

ment of their feveral falls of water. This alone is a very
fufScient fectirity againft any one being injured. Common
breaft-mills will bear two feet of tail-water, when there is
an increafe of head, and plenty of water to be drawn upon
the wheel, without prejudice to th^ir performance ; but
mills well conftrudled, vith flow moving wheels, will bear
three and even four feet and upwards of tail-water. Mr.
Smeaton mentions having feen an infl;ance of fix feet ; and it
is a common thing in level countries, where tail-water is
moft annoying, to lay the wheels from fix to twelve inches
below the water's level of the pond below, in order to in-
creafe the fall of water ; and, if judicioufly applied, is at-
tended with good effeft, as it increafes the diameter of the
wheel, and though it muft always work in that depth of
tail-water, it will perform full as well, becaufe the water
ought always to run off from the bottom of the wheel, in
the fame direftion as the wheel turns.

The law refpefting mill property is by no means fettled,
but is greatly influenced by the cullom of the mills upon any
river or in any diftrift ; fome few points however are eftabhflied.
Every one has a right to that fall which the water has, in run-
ning through his own grounds, and may make what ufe he
pleafes of the defcent of the water, provided that he does not
divert the water, at the tail of his eftate, into any other chan-
nel, or that he does not pen up the water higher than the
level at which it has always entered into his land ; he has alfo a
right to infift that the miller below fhall let the water depart
from his grounds, at the fame level at which it has always been
ufed to do. The knowledge of this is very neceflary, be-
caufe a miller very frequently finds himfelf ferioufly injured,
when he is not entitled to any redrefs. It fcarcely ever
happens that any confiderable improvements or alteration in
mills can be made, without producing difputes among the
parties interefted. Suppofe, for inftance, that there are
two ancient mills upon a river, with an unoccupied defcent
in running over the lands between them, the proprietor of
this land, by deepening the channel and erefting a weir, may
bring all the fall into one place and ereft a mill, without in-
fringing the conditions we have laid down ; but ftill the
miller below him may be confiderably injured : for in the
original ftate the river, in running down with a regular and
eafy flope, from the upper mill to the lower, held a great
quantity of water, which was a corps de referve for the miller
below, and tended to regulate his fupply. If the upper
mill ftopped working, the water contained in the river would
ftill run down to him, and fo long as that laftcd he could
continue to work, perhaps until the upper mill began to
work again, and thus he would fufFer no interruption. The
erection of an intermediate mill cuts off this refource, and
he will be obliged to ftop working very foon after the new
mill ftops working ; and further, he is obliged to work
when the new mill is at work, or elfe the water poured
down will run over his mill-dam and be wafted ; but, in the
former inftance, the water would have come down lefs fud-
denly, and he might be able to fet to work before the whole
of the water had efcaped over his weir.

In inch a cafe the lower miller may be inchned to
appeal to the law, but he will find that he has no right to
prevent his neighbour above from ufing the water in the
fame manner as he does himfelf, and if he finds any altera-
tion in his own mill, it is for want of a capacious mill-pond
to referve the water. In the original ftate the channel of
tlie river in his neighbour's ground above ferved him in fome
meafure as a mill-dam, by retaiiinigllie water for a given time,
ihoiigli it would not retain it permanently. The advantage
of this he had enjoyed for j long lime, wlicn it was no in-
conveuicnce to his neighbour, but had acquired no right to

demand

WATER.

which wfU be exerted upon each ftoiie of the mafonry to
thruft it outwards.

Depib ben'-^ili I'rtffurc on ei,th St ne,

the Surface or on every fqii^re Fool,
in Feet. in 1 • utuIs.

1 62.5

2 125

3 187.5

4 250

5 3'2-S

6 375-

7 437-S

8 500

9 56^-5
10 625.

The length and width of the tank does not influence the
prefTure upon each itone ; becaufe, following our firft pro-
pofition, we are only to regard the magnitude of the plane
againft which the water afts, and the depth at which it is
fituated beneath the furface. But in all cafes when the
plain is not horizontal, the depth of the water will be greater
upon fome parts of the plane than upon others. The
depths muft therefore be taken from the centre of prejfure of
the plane ; fee that article in Vol. VII.

The knowledge of the centre of preflure is required, in
order to apply this calculation to wooden veflels, fuch as the
large backs ufed by brewers ; or to find the preffure againft
the gates of a fluice or lock, or in any other cafe where the
wood planks, or the ftones of the mafonry are fo united to-
gether into one mafs, that the whole fide of the veffel muft
be removed together. If the plane againft which the water
afts rifes up as high as the furface of the water, and is of a
reftangular figure ; that is, if all its horizontal dimenfions,
whether taken at the bottom of the veffel or at the top, are
equal, then the centre of preiTure is fituated at fd? of the
greateft depth beneath the furface.

Example — A wooden vat is 18 feet long, and contains
water 6 feet deep ; required the force which the water ex-
erts againft the fide of the vat to force it outwards. Two-
thirds of 6 feet is 4 feet, which is the depth of the centre of
prefTure: 4 x 62.5 = 250 lbs. is the mean prefTure upon
each fquare foot of the plane, 1 8 feet long x 6 feet deep
= 108 fquare feet of area x 250 lbs. 27,000 lbs., wliich is
the force exerted againft the fide of the vefTel, and muft be
refifted by the ftrength of the materials.

On the Means of meafur'mg or gunning the Quantity of run-
ning Water — The ancients feem to have had no other mea-
fure of running water than that uncertain and fallacious one,
■which depended wholly on the perpendicular feftion of a
ftream, without confidering the velocity of the motion. The
firft who opened a way to the truth was Benedift Caftelli,
an Italian, and friend of Galileo. He firft (hewed that the
quantity of water, flowing through a given feftion of a ftream,
is proportional to the celerity with which the water is carried
through that feftion. This obfcrvation engaged philofo-
phers to ftudy the doftrine of the motion of fluids with
much diligence, and after Caftelli's time there was fcarcely
any mathematicians who did not endeavour to add fomething
thereto, either by experiments or by reafoning and argu-
ment.

But few of them, until the illuftrious fir Ifaac Newton,
had any fuccefs, becaufe of the exceeding difficulty of the
fubjeft.

Thofe who ftudied the theory laid down fuch theorems as
were found to be falfe, when brought to the teft of experi-
ments, and thofe who laboured in making experiments fre-
quently omitted to obferve fome minute circumftances, the

'mportance of which they had not yet perceived. Hence

they differed greatly from one another, and almoft all of
them erred from the real meafure.

The theory of hydraulics has never been carried to a vei-^
high degree of perfeftiou upon mathematical foundatic
alone, nor has it hitherto, even with the afiiftance of exper:
ment, been rendered of much praftical utility. NewtOi
began the inveftigation of the motions of fluids on tri.^
principles. Daniel Bernouilh added much valuable mattci
to Newton's propofitions, both from calculation and expe-
riment. D'Alembert, and many later authors, have exer- y
cifed their analytical talents in inquiries of a fimilar nature, li

Dr. Robifon obferves that thefe, and other mathema- '
ticians of the firft order, feem to have contented themfelve-
with fuch views as allowed them to entertain themfelves with 1,
elegant applications of calculus. They rarely had any op- |
portunity of doing more, for want of a knowledge of fafts,
but they have made excellent ufe of the few which have
been given them.

It requires much labour, great variety of opportunities,
and great expence, to learn the multiplicity of things which
are combined, even in the fimpleft cafes of water in motion.
Thefe advantages feldom faU to the lot of a mathema-
tician, and he is without blame when he enjoys the pleafure.
within his reach, and cultivates the fcience of geometry in
its moft abftrafted form. Here he makes a progrefs which
is the boaft of human reafon, being almoft infured from
every error, by the intelleftual fimplicity of his fubjeft.
But were we to turn our attention to material objefts, we
know neither the fize and (hape of the elementary particles,
of water, nor the laws which nature has prefcribed for their
aftion. We cannot, therefore, prefume to forefee their
effetts, calculate their exertions, or direft their aftions, with
any reafonable expeftations of certainty.

A different and more praftical mode of attaining hy-
draulic knowledge, has been attempted by a diftindl clafs
of inveftigators. Thefe have begun from experiment alone,
and have laborioufly deduced, from very ample obfervations
of the aftual refults of various particular cafes, the general
laws by which the phenomena appear to be regulated, or
at leaft the formulas by which the effeft of new combina-
tions may be predicted. But it muft be confefled, that
thefe formulas, however accurate, are almoft too intricate
to be retained in the memory, or to be very eafily applied to
calculations from particular data.

There are two gentlemen whofe labours in this refpeft
defenc very particular notice, profefTor Michelotti, at Tu-
rin, and abbe Boftut, at Paris. The firft made a pro-
digious number of experiments, both on the motion of
water through pipes and in open canals. The experi-
ments of BolTut are alfo of both kinds, and though on
a much fmaller fcale than thofe of Michelotti, they feem
to deferve equal confidence. The chevaher de Buat, who
has taken up this matter where the abbe Bofliit left it,
has profecuted his experiments with great affiduity and fin-
gular fuccefs.

Mr. Eytelwein, a gentleman honoured with feveral em-
ployments and titles relative to the public architefture of
the Pruffian dominions, made a tranflation of Buat's works
into German, with important additions of his own ; and he
alfo publiflied " Handbuch der Mechanik und der Hydrau-
lik," Berlin, 1801. In this compendium of mechanics and
hydraulics, he has coUefted the principal fafts that have
been afcertained, as well by his own experiments as by thofe
of former authors, efpecially fuch as are the moft capable
of praftical application. He appears to have done this in
fo judicious a manner, as to njake his book a moft valuable

abftraft

WATER.

abitratt of every tiling that can be deduced from theory,
reCpefting natural and artificial hydraulics. The elegant con-
cifenefs of his manner deferves fo much the more praife, as
liis countrymen too often make a merit of prolixity.

In our article Discharge, we have given the general
principles of the motion of fpouting fluids ; and under River
the theory of water running in rivers. The objetl of the
prefent article will be to lay down fuch rules as may be im-
mediately applicable to the ufe of the engineer.

In all cafes of gauging ilreams, the quantity which flows,
in any given time, is obtained by meafuring the area of the
aperture, or channel, through which the water flows, and
Ending the velocity with which the water moves through
that aperture. To find the area of the aperture is a fimple
operation of menfuration, but to afcertain the velocity is not
fo eafy. There are two different methods of determining
the velocity. The lirlt is, by obferving the rate of motion
of the furface, either by means of fmall light bodies thrown
into the ftream, or by employing inllruments adapted to
meafure the rate at which the ilream moves. This method
i« only applicable in cafes of open canals and rivers, where
the water flows with a flow motion. The other method is
more general, and is applicable to the greatelt velocities j
becaufe it is derived from calculation, according to the depth
of water, or height of column, which urges the flowing
water, and occafions its motion.

To meafure the Quantity sf Water running in a River or Ca-
nal. Fii-Jl Method. — Chooie a part of the channel where the
banks are of a determinate figure, and where they continue
of the fame breadth and depth for a length of ten, twenty,
or thirty feet, the longer the better, and the more regular
the banks are, the better the obfervations will be. Mealure
the breadth and the depth, or other dimenfions which may
be neceffary, to find the area, or fedion of the paflage,
through which the water flows. Take thefe meafures at
feveral different points, and if there is any difference at dif-
ferent places, find the area at each place, and take a mean
between them.

Then proceed to find the velocity of the motion, by
throwing in a cork, or other light body, and obferving, by
a llop-watch, or pendulum, what number of feconds it takes
to flow through a given length of the channel ; for in-
ftance, the length of ten, twenty, or fifty feet, which was
chofen in the tirft inflance for the experiment, and marked
out by ftretching two firings, parallel acrofs the river. This
trial m\ift be repeated feveral times, and as the inilant when
the floating body arrives at the lall fl;ring, can be very
exaftly noted, this method admits of confiderable exaftnefs.
A mean of the different refults muft be taken for the true
velocity.

It is true that this only gives the velocity of the water
at the furface, and the water moves with different velo-
cities at different depths, beneath the furface; (inilead of
a fingle light body to float upon the furface of the water),
we are recommended to employ a cylindrical rod of wood,
of a length fomething lefs than the depth of the water :
this is to be ballafted by a weight at the lower end, fo
that it will fwim jufl upright in Handing water, and with
the upper end of the flick about an inch above water. By
uGng this, inilead of a fingle cork, we are fuppofed to attain
the mean velocity of the ftream at its diffe-ent depths, inftead
of the velocity of the furface.

Inftead of a cylinder of wood, three or four apples,
ftrung together by a ftring, will anfwer the purpofe very
well, the lower ones 'being loaded by putting nails in
them till they are rather heavier than water, fo that the
apples, when put into ftanding water, will hang in a per-

VoL. XXXVIII.

pendicular line. Goofeberries are very nearly the weight of
water, and may be employed fingly, to fliew its velocity at
different depths.

Example — A canal meafured eight feet in width, and
four feet in deptli, the fides being perpendicular ; then the
area of the ftdion is thirty-two fquare feet. It was found,
by experiments with three apples, that the current ran
through a fpace of fifteen feet in five feconds, in another
experiment fix feconds, and in a third four feconds and a half.
What is the quantity of water pafling through this canal >.

The mean of all thefe is five feconds and one-fixth,
during which the water moved fifteen "feet. Now as five
feconds and one-fixth is to fifteen feet, fo is fixty feconds to
a hundred and feventy-four feet, which the ftream flows in
the fpace of a minute. Then thirty-two fquare feet (the
area), multiplied by 174 feet, gives 5568 cubic feet, which
is the quantity of water flowing through the canal every
minute.

This is the method recommended by Defaguliers, and
if carefully executed, and the trials frequently repeated,
is tolerably exaft. Several autliors have fuppofed this
method might be much improved, by employing fome in-
ftrument to ftiew the velocity of the ftream by infpeftion.
There are many ingenious inventions for this purpofe.

Stream-Meafurers. — M. Pitot invented a ftream -meafurer
of a fimple conftruftion, to find the velocity of any part
of a ftream. This inftrument is compofed of two long
tubes of glafs open at both ends, and placed in a perpen-
dicular direction in tlie Ilream of water : one of thefe
tubes is cylindrical throughout and ftraight ; but the
other has its loweft extremity bent nearly at right angles,
fo as to form a horizontal branch, which gradually en-
larges like a funnel, or the mouth of a trumpet ; both
thefe tubes are fixed to the fide of a triangular prifm of
wood, with the lengths of the tubes parallel to the length
of the prifm, and their lower extremities both on the fame
level ; the horizontal branch of the tube is carried through
the prifm, fo that the end of the trumpet-mouth opens in
one of the angles of the prifm. The upright parts of the
tubes ftand one befide the other, and are let into grooves
in the prifm, fo as to be tolerably well preferved from ac-
cidents. The face of the prifm in which thefe tubes
ftand, is graduated on the edges clofe by the fides of
them into divifions of inches and lines.

To ufe this inftrument, it is placed perpendicularly in
the water in fuch a manner, that the opening of the trum-
pet-mouth at the bottom of one of the tubes, fhall be com-
pletely oppofed to the direftion of the current, in order
that the water may pafs freely through the funnel up into the
perpendicular tube. Then by obferving to what height the
water rifes in each tube, it will be found to rife higher in
the tube with the trumpet-mouth than the other, and the
quantity of this difference will be the height due to the Te-
locity of the ftream.

It is manifeft that the water will rife in the ftraight cy-
lindrical tube to the fame height as the furface of the ftream :
this is by the hydroftatic preffure. But the water of the
current entering by the funnel into the other tube, will be
compelled to rife above that furface to fome certain height,
at which height it will be fuftained by the impulfe of the
moving fluid ; that is, the momentum or impulfe of the
ftream will be in equilibrio with the column of water fuf-
tained in one tube above the 'furface of that in the other.
In eftimating the velocity by means of tliis inftrument, we
muft have recourfe to the following rules: if the height of
the column fuftained by the ftream, or the difference of
heights in the two tubes be taken in feet, the velocity ef
O the

WATER.

the Rrezmper fecond in feet will be 6.5 times the fquare root
of the height. , • •

If the height be meafured in inches, then the velocity in
feet per fecond will be 1.88 times the fquare root of the
height, nearly. It will be eafy to put the funnel into the
moil rapid part of the ftream, by moving it about to different
places, until the difference of altitude in the two tubes be-
comes the greateft. In fome cafes, it will happen that the
immerfion of the inftrument will produce a httle eddy in the
water, and thus difturb the accuracy of the obfervation ;
but keeping the inflrument immerfed only a few feconds
will correft this. The wind alfo would affeft the accuracy
of the experiments ; it is therefore advifeable to make them
when there is little or no wind.

By means of this inftrument, the velocity of water at va-
rious depths in a canal or river may be found with tolerable
accuracy, and a mean of the whole drawn. Where great
accuracy is not required, the bent tube with the funnel at
bottom will alone be fufficient, becaufe the furface of the
water will be indicated with tolerable precifion, by that
part of the prifmatic frame for the tube which has been
moiflened by the immerfion.

M. Pitot likewife propofed that a fimilar inflrument fhould
be ufed inflead of a log, to determine the rate at which a
Ihip fails. For this purpofe, in the middle of a veffel, or as
near as can be to the centre of its ofcillations, place two
tubes of metal of three or four lines in diameter, one of
them being ftraight, and the other bent at bottom and
enlarged into a conical funnel. The lower ends of both
are to dip into the water in which the veffel fails, and
there will be no evil to apprehend from orifices fo minute.
Into thefe metallic tubes, two others are clofely fitted at
a convenient height for the obfervations. The water will
rife, in the firft of thefe tubes, up to its level on the outfide
of the fhip ; and in the fecond, up to a certain height, which
will indicate as above the velocity of the veffel. For the
funnel being turned towards the prow of the fhip, it will, in
confequence of the motion, be affefted in hke manner, as
if it were plunged into the ftream of a running water. The
aftual velocity of the veffel is found by the fame rules as
that of ihe current. This method has been repropofed in
this country, without any acknowledgments to M. Pitot.
We do not, however, recommend its adoption on board a
(hip ; for, notwithftanding its theoretical ingenuity, it is hable
to many fources of error in praftice, and would not, it is
probable, furnifh more accurate meafures of a ihip's way,
than thofe deduced from the common log.

In the praftical ufe of M. Pitot's inftrument, a great
difficulty is experienced from the ofcillations of the water
in the tubes, which it is not eafy to prevent, and a mean
height of the ofcillating water muft be taken.

M. Du Buat made trials of the inftrument, and found it
could not be trufted for any other purpofes than to give the
ratios of different velocities. He found the inftrument was
better without the ftraight tube, and he employed only one
tube with its lower end turned horizontally, in the direc-
tion of the ifream, it was made of tinned plate inflead of
glafs, and fuf&ciently large to admit a float to fhew the
height of the water in the tube. Inftead of making the end
of the tube an open trumpet -mouth, he ufed to clofe it by
s flat plate, with a fmall perforation in the centre to admit
the water through it, or in fome cafes feveral fmall perfora-
tions. In this way, the water will rife in the tube, juft the
fame as if it was open ; but the ofcillations of the column
will be avoided, or greatly diminifhed.

The hydraulic quadrant has been recommended by feve-
ral authors, for meafuring the velocity of water.
I?

It confifts of a fmall quadrant with a divided arch, and
having two threads moving round its centre. One of thefe
is fhort, and carries a plummet which always hangs in air,
and ferves to place the quadrant in its true pofition. The
other thread is longer, and carries a weight whofe fpecific
gravity is greater than that of water, and which plunges
more or lefs deep in the current as the thread is lengthened.
The inftrument is held over the water, fo that the plummet
of the long thread hangs in the water, and the force of the
current will remove it from the perpendicular, whilft the an-
gular diftance from the other thread, which is a vertical
hne can be afcertained by the divifions on the arch of the
quadrant ; the quantity of this deviation from the perpendi-
cular is the meafure of the force, and confequently of the
velocity of the current. Boffut has fhewn, that the force
of the current is as the tangent of the angle which one
thread makes with the other, and gives direftions for ufing
this inftrument to try a current at different depths.

Dr. Brewfter, in his edition of Fergufon's leftures, re-
commends a fmall and light wheel, like an underfhot water-
wheel, with float-boards on its circumference. It is provided
with an apparatus to afcertain and record the number of
turns it makes, and is held in the ftream, fo that the water
may aft upon the float -boards to turn it round ; and from the
number of turns it makes in any given time, the velocity
of the ftream may be computed. He direfts the wheel
to be made of the lighteft materials, and about ten or
twelve inches in diameter : it is furniftied with four-
teen or fixteen float -boards. The centre of the wheel is
perforated with a hole, and tapped to receive a delicate
fcrew or wire, which forms the axis upon which it re-
volves, with as little friftion as pofTible. At each end
of the fcrew or axis, is a handle to hold it by, and to fup-
port the wheel ; and to one of thefe handles an index is
fixed, pointing to divifions on the circumference of the
wheel, which confift of 100 parts. This index fhew»
the aliquot parts of a revolution, whilft the number of
threads which the wheel advances on the fcrew fhews the
number of whole turns it makes.

To prepare this inftrument for ufe, the wheel muft be
turned round upon the fcrew until it arrives quite at one end
of it, and till the index points to zero of the divifions on the
rim of the wheel ; then hold the axis or fcrew horizontally
by the two handles, fo that the floats dip in the water and
turn the wheel round upon the fcrew.

By means of a ftop-watch, or a pendulum, find how
many revolutions of the wheel are performed in a given
time, a minute, for inftance. Multiply the mean cir-
cumference of the wheel, /. e. the circumference deduced
from the mean radius, meafured from the centre of im-
pulfion upon the float-boards to the centre of the wheel,
by the number of revolutions, and the produft will be the
number of feet which the water moves through in the given
time. On account of the friftion of the fcrew, the refift-
ance of the air, and the weight of the wheel, its circum-
ference, will move with a velocity a little lefs than that of
the flream ; but the diminution arifing from thefe caufes,
may be eftimated with fufficient precifion for all the pur-
pofes of the praftical mechanic.

This, we think, is one of the bell ftream-meafurers, becaufe
it will give a correft meafure of the motion at the furface
of the water ; but it will not give the velocities at the dif-
ferent depths beneath the furface, nor do we know any
machine which vnU. effeftually anfwer that purpofe.

By means of this inftrument, we can obtain the velocity
of the furface with greater accuracy than perhaps by any
other means ; but to afcertain the quantity of water which

ftiaU

WATER.

ftiall be difcliarged, we mult know the mean velocity of the
water.

Ratit between the mean Velocity of running Water am! the
Velocity of the Top and Bottom of a Channel. — M. Du Buat
ftates, that the i'upeificial velocity of a flrtam of water
always bears a certain relation to the mean velocity, fo that
we can derive one from the other by an arithmetical rule.

From a great number of experiments, he difcovered the
following laws : ill, That the velocity at the furface in the
middle of the Itream, (in flow motions, ) is to the velocity at
the bottom of the ftream, in a ratio of confiderable inequa-
lity. 2d, This ratio diminiflies as the velocity increafes, and
in very great velocities approaches to the ratio of equality.
3d, What was moft remarkable, was, that neither the mag-
nitude of the channel, nor its flope, had any influence in
changing this proportion, whilft the mean velocity remained
the fame. Whether the ftream ran in a channel with the
bottom covered with pebbles, or coarfe fand, the propor-
tions between the two velocities was, as nearly as poflible,
the fame as when it ran in a fmooth channel. 4th, If the
velocity at the furface in the middle of the ftream be con-
ftant, the velocity at the bottom will be alfo conltant, and
will not be affcfted by the depth of water or magnitude of
the ftream. In fome experiments, the depth was thrice the
width, and in others the width was thrice the depth. This
changed the proportion of the magnitude of the feftion,
to the magnitude of the rubbing part, but made no change
in the ratio between the velocities at the top and bottom.

The place of the mean velocity in the feftion of the
ftream could not be difcovered with any precifion. In
moderate velocities, it was not more than one-fourth or one-
fifth of the depth diftant from the bottom. In very great
velocities, it was fenfibly higher, but never in the middle of
the depth.

In all cafes he computed the mean velocity by meafur-
ing the quantities of water difcharged in a given time. His
method of meafuring the bottom velocity was fimple, and
probably juft ; he threw in a goofeberry, as nearly as poflible
of the fame fpecific gravity with the water ; it was carried
along the bottom without touching it. We have already ob-
ferved, that the ratio between the velocity at the furface in
the middle, and the velocity at the bottom, diminiftied as the
mean velocity was increafed. This variation lie was enabled
to exprefs in a very fimple manner, fo as to be eafily re-
membered, and to enable us to find any one of them from
having obferved another.

Dr. Robifon ftates, that if we take unity from the fquare
root of the fuperficial velocity, in the middle of the ftream,
exprefled in inches/icr fecond, the fquare of the remainder is
the velocity at the bottom ; and the mean velocity is the
half fum of thefe two. Thus, if the velocity of the furface
in the middle of the ftream be twenty-five inches per fecond,
its fquare root is five ; from which if we take unity, there
remains four. The fquare of this, or 16, is the velocity

at the bottom, and ~ — - — -, or 20^, is the mean velocity.

This is a very curious and moft ufeful piece of inform-
ation. The velocity of the furface in the middle of the
ftream, is the eafieft meafured of all, by any light fmall body
floating down it, or by a ftream-meafurer ; and the mean
velocity is the one which regulates the difcharge, and all
the moft important confequcnces.

Dr. Robifon gives the following table of thefe three
velocities, which will fave the trouble of calculation in fome
of the moft frequent queftions of hydraulics.

Vulovi

y ill Inches ppr Sect'iid.

Vflnc'

ij in Indies per Second.

Surlace.

Bottom.

Mean.

Surlace.

Bottom.

Mean.

I

0.000

0.5

51

37-712

44356

2

0.172

1. 08 1

52

38.564

45.282

3

0-537

1.768

53

39-438

46.219

4

I.

2-5

54

40. 284

47.142

5

1.526

3-263

55

41.165

48.082

6

2.1

4.0JO

56

42.016

49.008

7

2.709

4.854

57

42.968

49.984

«

3-342

5.67

58

43-771

50.88S

9

4-

6.5

59

44.636

51.818

10

4.674

7-337

6q

45.509

52-754

II

5-3^9

8.184

61

46.376

53.688

12

6.071

9.036

62

47.259

54-62,9

13

6.786

9-893

63

48.136

55.568

H

7-553

10.756

64

49.

56.5

15

8.254

1 1.622

65

49.872

57-436

16

9-

12.5

66

50.751

58-376

17

9-753

13-376

67

51-639

59-319

18

10.463

14.231

68

52.505

60.252

•9

11.283

15.141

69

53-392

61.196

20

12.055

16.027

70

54-273

62.136

21

13-674

16.837

71

55-145

63.072

22

13.616

17.808

72

56.025

64. 012

23

14.202

18.701

73

56.862

64.932

24

15.194

19-597

74

57.790

65.S95

25

16.

20.5

75

58.687

66.843

26

16.802

21.401

76

59.568

67.784

27

17.606

22.303

77

60.451

68.725

28

18.421

23.210

78

61.340

69.670

29

19.228

24.114

79

62.209

70.605

30

20.044

25.022

80

63.107

71-553

3'

20.857

25.924

81

64.

72.5

32

21.678

26.839

82

64.883

73-441

33

22.506

27-753

83

65.780

74-39°

34

23-339

28.660

84

66.651

75-325

35

24.167

29-583

85

67.568

76.284

36

25-

30-5

86

68.459

77.229

37

25.827

31-413

87

69-339

78.169

38

26.667

32-333

88

70.224

79.112

39

27.51

33-255

89

71.132

80.066

40

28.345

34-172

90

72.012

81.006

41

29.192

35.096

91

70.915

81.957

42

30.030

36.015

92

73-788

82.894

43

30.880

36.940

93

74-7'9

83.859

44

3'-742

37-871

94

75.603

S4.801

45

32.581

38.790

95

76.51

85-755

46

33-432

39.716

96

77.370

86.685

47

34-293

40. 646

97

78-305

87.652

48

35-'5«

41.570

98

79.192

88.596

49

36-

42.5

99

80.120

S9.56

50

36.857

43.428

100

8i.

90.5

The knowledge of the velocity at the bottom is of life to
an engineer, to enable him to judge of the aftion of a ftream
on its bed. Every kind of foil will bear a certain velocity
without changing the form of the channel. A greater velo-
city would enable the water to tear it up, and a fmallcr ve-
locity would permit the depofition of more moveable mate-
O 2 rials

WATER.

rials from above. It is not enough, then, for the perma-
nency of a river, that the accelerating forces are fo adjufted
to the fize and figure of its channel, that the current may ac-
quire an uniform velocity, and ceafe to accelerate. It muft
alfo be in equilibrio with the tenacity of the channel.

It appears from obfervation, that a velocity of three
inches per fecond at the bottom, will jiift begin to work upon
fine clay fit for pottery, and however firm and compaft it may
be, it will tear it up. Yet no beds are more liable than
clay, when the velocities do not exceed this, for the water
foon takes away the impalpable particles of the fuperficial
clay, leaving the particles of fand fticking by their lower
half in the reft of the clay, which they now proteft, making
a very permanent bottom, if the ftream does not bring down
gravel or coarfe fand, which will rub off this very thin
cruft, and allow another layer to be worn off. A velocity
of fix inches per fecond, will lift fine fand ; eight inches will
lift fand as coarfe as linfeed ; twelve inches will fweep along
fine gravel; twenty-four inches will roll along rounded
pebbles an inch in diameter ; and it requires three feet per
fecond at the bottom to fweep along Ihivered angular ftones
of the fize of an egg.

Dr. Young gives an excellent fimple rule for the fame ob-
jeft, which is only a trifle different from Dr. Robifon's ; he
Hates, that from a mean of all the beft. experiments, he found
that, if the fquare root of the mean velocity of any ftream
(running in an uniform open channel) be added to fuch mean
velocity, it will give the fuperficial or top velocity in the
middle ; or if dedufted therefrom, it will leave the bottom
velocity : whence we have deduced the foUowsing practical
rule, w'z.

1. Having found the top velocity, expreffed in any con-
venient meafure, which will correfpond with the refult
required.

To find the bottom velocity, add the conftant number .25
(or ^) to the top velocity ; extraft the fquare root of the
fum, and double it ; again add i to the top velocity, and
from the fum deduft the double root before found : the re-
mainder is the bottom velocity of the ftream.

2. To find the mean velocity from the top velocity, add
the conftant number .5, (or i'l to the top velocity, and from
their fum deduft the fquare root found in the firft rule ;
the remainder is the mean velocity.

Or, 3. To find the mean velocity from the bottom velo-
city, add the conftant number .25, (or \) to the bottom ve-
locity, and extraft the fquare root of the fum ; then to this
fquare root add the bottom velocity, and the conftant num-
ber, .5, and their fum is the mean velocity.

Thefe are true in all cafes, provided the top and bottom
velocities are related to each other, as Dr. Young ftates.
For example, Mr. Watt obfcrved the furface of the water
in an open canal to move with a velocity of 17 inches ^fr fe-
cond : What was the bottom velocity ?

By our firft rule 1 7 -|- .25 = 1 7.25, of which extraft the
fquare root; it is 4.15 ; twice this is 8.3. Again, to
the top velocity 17 add i = 18, and deduft 8.3, it leaves
9.7 for the bottom velocity. Mr. Watt obferved the bot-
tom velocity to be 10 inches per fecond.

2. To find the mean velocity, add .5 to the top velocity
17, it gives 17.5 ; deduft 4.18, and we get 13.32 inches

per fecond for the mean velocity.

3. If we take Mr. Watt's obfervation of the bottom ve-
locity of 10 inches ^fr fecond, inftead of the top ; then to
fiodthe mean velocity 10-)- .25= 10.25, of which the fquare
root is 3.201 ; and 10 -|- .5 = 10.5 ; add thefe together,
thus (3.201 -f- 10.5) = 13.701 inches />£•>• fecond for the

mean velocity ; which only exceeds that deduced from the
top velocity by little more than ^d of an inch in a
fecond.

By the aid of this rule, and the wheel ftream-meafurer
before defcribed, great accuracy may be obtained. Care
mull be taken to apply the wheel in the centre of the ftream,
on the furface, or rather at that place where the velocity of
the furface is found to be the greateft.

Second Method of tneafuring the Flotving of Water in an

open Canal When a river flows with an uniform motion,

and is neither accelerated nor retarded by the aftion of
gravitation, it is obvious that the whole weiglit of the water
muft be employed in overcoming the friftion of the water
again ft the bottom and fides.

The principal part of this friftion is as the fquare of
the velocity, and the friftion is nearly the fame at all depths :
for profelfor Rnbifon found, that the flow of the fluid
through a bent tube was not increafed by increafing the
preffure againft the fides, being nearly the fame when the
bended part of the tube was fituated horizontally, as when
vertically, the fame difference of level being preferved.

The quantity of friftion will, however, vary, according
to the furface of the fluid which is in contaft with the folid,
in proportion to thi whole quantity of fluid ; that is, the
friftion for any given quantity of water will be, as the fur-
face of the bottom and fides of a river direftly, and as the
w'hole quantity of water in the river inverfely; thus, fup-
pofing the whole quantity of water to be fpread on a hori-
zontal furface equal to the bottom and fides of the river,
the friftion is inverfely as the depth at which the river
would then ftand. This is called the hydraulic mean
depth.

If the inclination or flope of the furface of water in a
river varies, the defcending weight, or the force that urges
the particles down the inclined plane, will vary as the
height of the fall in a given diftance ; confequently, the
friftion, which is equal to the defcending weight, muft
vary as the fall ; and the velocity being as the fquare root
of the friftion, muft alfo be as the fquare root of the fall.
Suppofing the hydraulic mean depth to be increafed or
diminiflied, the iiichnation remaining the fame, the friftion
would be diminifhed or increafed in the fame ratio ; and,
therefore, in order to preferve its equality with the defcend-
ing weight, the friftion muft be increafed or diminiflied, by
increafing the velocity in the ratio of its fquare to the
■ hydraulic mean depth ; that is, increafing the velocity in the
ratio of the fqu.ire root of the hydrauhc mean depth.

Mr. Eytelwein's Rule is, that the velocity of a ftream will
be in the joint proportion of the fquare root of the hydraulic
mean depth, and the fquare root of the fall in a given diftance ;
or as a mean proportional between thefe two quantities.

Taking two Englifti miles for a given length upon a
ftream, we muft find a mean proportional between its hy-
draulic mean depth and its fall in two miles in inches, and
inquire what relation this bears to the velocity in a par-
ticular cafe. We may thence expeft to determine it in any
other. According to Mr. Eytelwein's formula, this mean
proportional is -{.^ths of the velocity in a fecond in inches.

In order to examine the accuracy of this rule, we may
take an example, which could not have been known to Mr.
Eytelwein. Mr. Watt obferved, that in a canal 18 feet wide
.ibove, and 7 below, and 4 feet deep, having a fall of 4 inches
in a mile, the velocity was 17 inches per lecond at the fur-
face, 14 in the middle, and 10 at the bottom. The mean
velocity may be called I3f inches, in a fecond. Now to
find the hycjrauhc mean depth, we muft divide the area of

the

WATER.

the fedion r— tT x 4 j = 50 fquare feet, by the breadth
of the bottom and length of the floping fides added toge-

1 ther ; whence we have

50

or 29.13 inches : and the fall

8 X 29.13) =
mean proportional; -i-°ths of which is 13.9,

20.6
in two miles being 8 inches, _ we ^ have
15.26 for th , .

agreeing nearly with Mr. Watt's obfervation. Profeflbr Ro
bifon has deduced from Buat's elaborate theorems 12.568
inches for the velocity, which is confiderably lefs accurate.

For another example we may take the river Po, wliich
falls one foot in two miles, where its mean depth is 29 feet,
and its velocity is obferved to be about 55 inches in a fecond.
Our rule gives 58, which is perhaps as near as the degree
of accuracy of the data will allow.

On the whole, we have ample reafon to be fatisfied with
the unexpe&ed coincidence of fo fimple a theorem with ob-
fervation ; and in order to find the velocity of a river from
its fall, or the fall from its velocity, we have only to recol-
left that the velocity in inches per fecond is |4ths of a mean
proportional between the hydraulic mean depth and the fall
in two Englifh miles in inches. This is, however, only true
of a ftraight river flowing through an equable channel.

For the Hope of the banks of a river or canal, Mr. Eytel-
wein recommends, that the breadth at the bottom fhould be
j-ds of the depth, and at the furface Vds ; the banks will
then be in general capable of retaining their form. The
area of fuch a feftion, is twice the fquare of the depth, and
the hydraulic mean depth fds of the aftual depth.

M. Du Buat's Rule. — In our article River, we have
given the theorem of M. Du Buat for calculating the motion
of water in a river or other regular channel, or through
pipes. It has been obferved by the late Dr. Robifon,
that the comparifon of the chevalier Du Buat's calculations
with his experiments is very fatisfaftory ; that it exhibits a
beautiful fpecimen of the means of exprefling the general
refult of an extenfive feries of obfervations in an analytical
formula ; and that it does honour to the penetration, fltill,
and addrefs of M. Du Buat, and of M. De St. Honore,
who affifted him in the conftruftion of his expreffions.

Dr. Young's Rule Dr. Young julHy remarks, in an ex-
cellent paper in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1808, that
the form of Du Buat's exprcflions is not fo convenient for
praAice as they might have been rendered ; and are liable to
great objeftions, in particular cafes : for when the pipe is ex-
tremely narrow, or extremely long, they become completely
erroneous. Dr. Young has, therefore, fubftituted for the
formulse of M. Du Buat others of a totally different nature ;
and he profefTes to have followed Du Buat only, in his general
mode of confidering a part of the prefTure, or of the height
of a given fall, as employed in overcoming the friftion
of the pipe, through which the water flows out of it ; a
principle which, if not of his original invention, was cer-
tainly firil publifhed by him, and reduced into a practicable
form. We find Mr. Smeaton ufed it in conllrudting his
MS. tables. By comparing the experiments which Du
Buat has collefted, with fome of Gerftner's, and fome of his
own. Dr. Young difcovered a formula, which appears to
agree fully as well as Du Buat's, with the experiments from
which his rules were deduced, and at the fame time accords
better with Gerftner's experiments ; and which formula ex-
tends to all the extreme cafes with equal accuracy. It feems
to reprefent more fimply the aftual operation of the forces
concerned ; and it is dircft in its application to practice,
without the neceffity of any fucceflive approximations.

He began by examining the velocity of the water dif-
charged through pipes of a given diameter, with different

degrees of prefTure ; and found that the friaion could not
be reprefented by any fingle power of the velocity, although
it frequently approached to the proportion of that power
of the velocity, of which the exponent is i .8 ; but that it ap-
peared to confill of two parts, the one varying fimply as the
velocity, the other as its fquare. The proportion of thefe
parts to each other mnft, however, be confidered as dif-
ferent, in pipes of different diameters ; the firfl part being
lefs perceptible in very large pipes, or in rivers, but be-
coming greater than the fecond in very minute tubes ; while
the fecond alfo becomes greater, for each given portion of
the internal furface of the pipe, as the diameter is dimi-
nifhed.

If, with Dr. Young, we exprefs all the meafures in
Englifli inches, calhng the height employed in over-
coming the friftion /, the velocity in a fecond v, the
diameter of the pipe d, and its length /; we may make

+ 2 c -J V : for it is obvious, that the fric-

tion muft be direftly as the length of the pipe ; and finee
the preffure is proportional to the area of the feftion, and
the furface producing the fridtion to its circumference or
diameter, the relative magnitude of the friftion mud alfo be
inverfely as the diameter, or nearly fo, as Du Buat has
juftly obferved.

nr
We fhall then find, that a muft be .0000001 (413 + -^

a

_ 144°
d+ 12.8

f <)0O dd

180

I

^ d

and c muft be .0000001

+ :7^('°'^ +

13.21

+

•0563 \>
dd )/

\dd+ 1136 ^ ^d\ -" ' d

Hence it is not difficult to calculate the velocity for any
given pipe, open canal or river, with any given column
of water : for the height required for producing the velo-

city, including fridlion, is, according to Du Buat,

510

or rather, as it appears from almoft all the experiments

586

586

or h

and the whole height h
■a I

= &+i6>'

I

586.
and alfo

which the doftor compared,

is, therefore, equal to f -\-

-I — V ; and afTuming b

d

aliummg e = -— j-, we nave

i>= ^ [h h -\- e''') — c ; which is a general theorem.

In order to adapt this formula tp the cafe of rivers, we

muft make / {the length) infinite ; by which h becomes

al -T- d-y .00171
' -j- 2e-u = bh \ whence,

/'

niS.bh =

ds

X -r =

s being the^nir of the in-

a i a

clination of the water's furface, and d =z 4. times the hy-
draulic mean depth. The hydraulic mean depth is the area
of the fedion of the moving water, divided by as much of
the circumference of that area, as the water touches.
/ [ads + e') — c

fince e is here = — -u =

And
and in mod

a a

rivers, v becomes nearly ^/ ( 20000 <//).

Another ufeful rule by Dr. Young, is to find the fuper-
ficial velocity of the water in a river by adding to the mean

velocity

WATER.

velocity of a river its fquare root ; this gives the velocity
at the furface ; and by fubtrafting the fame fquare root,
we get the velocity at the bottom.

N. B. 2.618 — ,/ 2.618 = I, and .382 + ^/ .382 = I ;
which it may be ufeful to remember, with reference to this
laft rule.

Dr. Young made a comparifon of his general theorem, as
above, with forty experiments extrafted from the colleftion
which ferved as a bafis for Du Buat's calculations ; and he
found that the mean error of his formula is -j^-th of the whole
velocity, and that of his own iVth only. But, omitting the
four experiments, in which the fuperficial velocity only of a
river was obferved, and in which he calculated the mean velo-
city by Dii Buat's rules, the mean error of the remaining 36
is but 3-5-th, according to Dr. Young's mode of calculation,
and -TT-th according to M. Du Buat's ; fo that, on the whole,
the accuracy of the two formulas may be confidered as pre-
cifely equal with refpeft to thefe experiments.

In the fix experiments which Du Buat has wholly rejefted,
the mean error of his formula is about TrVth, and that of
Dr. Young's TTsth. In fifteen of Gerftncr's experiments,
the mean error of Du Buat's rule is id, that of Dr. Young's
^th ; and in the three experiments which Dr. Young
made with very fine tubes, the error of his own rules is -rVth
of the whole ; while in fuch cafes Du Buat's formuls com-
pletely fail.

It would be ufelefs to feek for a much greater degree of
accuracy, unlefs it were probable that the errors of the expe-

riments themfelves were lefs than thofe of the calculations.
But if a fufficient number of extremely accurate and fre-
quently repeated experiments could be obtained, it would
be very poffible to adapt Dr. Young's formula ftill more
correftly to their refults.

In order to facilitate the computation. Dr. Young made'
tables of the co-efhcients a and c for 44 different values of
a, both in French and Englirti inches, which may be feen
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1808 ; but inftead of
inferting them, we fhall give a far more extended table,
which we have carefully deduced from Dr. Young's formula-
and table, and put it in a form more direftly applicable to
praftice.

Let d reprefeni four times the hydraulic mean depth of
an open canal.

Note. — The hydraulic mean depth is the area of the feftion
through which the water runs, divided by fo much of the
circumference of that feftion as is touched by the water.

Not£ alfo. — In cafe of clofe pipes running a full bore of
water, the diameter of the pipe is four times the hydrau-
lic mean depth.

s reprefents the fine of the inchnation of the water's
furface ; that is, the height of the head or rife, divided by
the length or diftance of the flope in which fuch rife takes
place.

V, the mean velocity per fecond, in inches.

The other fymbols ufed in the theorem are (hewm at the
head of the different columns of the Table.

Dr. Thomas

WATER.

Dr. Thomas Young's Theorem, with a new and enlarged Table deduced therefrom, exprefsly for our Work tor
calculating the Velocity of Water flowing in Rivers, Channels, or Pipes.

Theorem. The mean Velocity /fr Second,

in inches

or -u, is = ./ (—,s +

-V-

ay a

</

f'

c

d

^»

d

• —

d

_1_

a

a'-

a

a

a^

a

0.5

20410

41-477

6.441

64

1629000

4.576

2-139

I.O

39840

19.171

4-379

65

1654000

4.61 1

2.147

1-5

56820

11.468

3-386

66

1679000

4.645

2.155

2.0

72730

7.922

2.815

67

1703000

4.678

2.163

2-5

88030

5.972

2.444

68

1728000

4.709

2.170

3

102700

4.729

2.175

69

1752000

4-739

2.177

4

131600

4-363

2.089

70

1777000

4-769

2.184

5

159700

2.624

1.620

7'

1 80 1 000

4.796

2.190

6

186900

2-153

1.467

72

1826000

4.823

2.196

7

214100

1.885

'•373

73

1850000

4.848

2.202

8

241000

1. 701

1.304

74

1875000

4.872

2.207

9

267900

1.570

'•253

75

1899000

4.894

2.212

10

295000

1.506

1.227

76

1923000

4.915

2.217

1 1

321600

1.469

1. 212

77

1947000

4-936

2.222

12

347800

1.450

1.204

78

1 97 1000

4.956

2.226

13

373600

'•443

1. 201

79

1996000

4.976

2.231

'4

398900

1.418 '

* 1. 191

80

2020000

4-995

2-235

•5

423700

1.476

1. 215

81

2044000

5-013

2-239

16

449400

1.521

'-233

82

2068000

5.030

2.243

17

474900

1.566

1. 251

83

2093000

5.046

2.246

18

500000

1. 612

1.269

84

2 1 1 7000

5.061

2.249

'9

524900

1.664

1.290

85

2141000

5.076

2-253

20

549500

1. 717

I. 310

86

2165000

5.091

2.256

25

673900

2.010

1. 418

87

2189000

5.106

2-259

30

795800

2.508

1.584

88

2213000

5.121

2.263

35

918600

2.929

1. 711

89

2237000

5-135

2.266

40

1042000

3-304

1.818

90

2261000

5.149

2.269

45

1 163000

3-636

1.907

91

2285000

5.162

2.272

50

1285000

3-939

1.984

92

2309000

5-175

2-275

51

1 310000

3.988

1.997

93

2333000

5.188

2-277

52

1334000

4.041

2.010

94

2357000

5.200

2.280

53

1359000

4-093

2.023

95

23810QO

5.212

2.283

54

1383000

4.144

2.036

96

2405000

5.224

2.286

55

1408000

4.194

2.048

97

2429000

5-236

2.288

56

1433000

4-243

2.060

98

2453000

5.248

2.291

57

1457000

4.290

2.071

99

2477000

5.260

2.293

58

1482000

4-335

2.082

100

2501000

5.272

2.296

59

1506000

4.380

2.093

200

4950000

5-541

2-354

60

15310OO

4-423

2.103

300

7371000

5.460 *

2-337

61

1556000

4.465

2.113

400

9780000

5-372

2.318

62

1580000

4.504

2.122

500

12200000

5-30'

2.302

63

1605000

4.541

2-131

Infinite

4-749

2.179

To

ABATER.

Ufe of the Tab!:. — To render this theorem ufeful to thofe
who are not familiar witli the ufe of algebraic expreflions,
we Ihall give an example of the manner of calculating a
ftream of'water, all the operations being performed by com-
mon arithmetic, with the help of the preceding Table.

1. If it is a ftream of water running in an uniform chan-
nel, take a fufficient number of dimenfions of the tranfverfe
feiftion of the channel, and by the rules of menfuration cal-
culate the area of its crofs feftion in fquare feet. Calculate
alfo, how much of the circumference of fuch crofs feftion is
touched by the water, not'mcluding its level top.

Then divide the area in fquare feet by that portion of the
circumference in ,eet, in order to obtain the hydraulic mean
depth; this mull be multiplied by 12, to reduce it to inches.
Multiply the quotient by 4, and the refult is d, the number
which is to be fought in the firft column of the preceding
Table. .

If it is a circular pipe of uniform bore, running full of
water, its internal diameter, taken in inches, is already
equal to four times the hydraulic mean depth, without any
computation ; and accordingly the diameter of the pipe in
inches is to be fought for in column i.

2. By a fpirit-level or otherwife, afcertain the perpendi-
cular fall or difference of level, between any two diftant
points on the furface of the water, if it is an open ftream,
and find the diftance between thefe points of leveUing, by
meafuring upon a parallel to the furface of the ftream.
Thefe may be taken in any convenient meafures ; but the
fall and the diftance muft be reduced to the fame meafures :
then divide the fall by the diftance, and the quotient is /, or
a decimal number, which is ih^fme of the inclination of the
Itream.

If it be a clofe pipe, the perpendicular fall muft be the dif-
ference of level between the furface of the refervoir and the
place of difcharge ; divide thia by the length of the pipe.

3. Having found d, in column i of the Table, take out
the number oppofite to it in the fecond column, entitled

— (that is, (/divided by a), and multiply this tabular num-
a

ber by the decimal number s.

Note It wiU fometimes happen that the exaft amount of

d is not to be fouud in column I, but it will fall between two
of the numbers therein ; then take out the leaft of thofe num-
bers before d, and find how much is to be added thereto, by
the following rule : Take the difference of the two numbers
in col. 1. between which J falls ; alfo the difference of the
numbers oppofite to them in col. 2.; alfo take the difference
between the number d, and the leaft of the two numbers be-
tween which it falls. Now, by the Rule of Three, fay, as
the whole difference of the two numbers in col. i. is to
the fame in col. 2., fo is the difference between d and the
number above it in col. i. to a fourth number, which is
the proportional part to be added to the number of col. 2.
before d.

4. Take out the tabular number from col. 3. which is

c"
entitled — ; (that is, the fquare of c divided by the fquare

of a).

But here note, in cafe of calculating a proportional part,
(as direfted in the laft rule,) it is not always to be added (as
in col. 2.) ; but fometimes, on the contrary, it is to be fub-
trafted, accordingly as the numbers in that part of col. 3.
are increafing or decreafing ; and for greater eafe of difco-
vering this, a* is placed oppofite 14, and between 200 and
300 of col. I., to fhew the places where thefe changes take
place, from decreafe to increafe, and the contrary.

10

c. Multiply /, the refult of the ibcond operation, and — » j

a j
the refult of the third operation, together, and to the pro-

<:"
duft add —,, as found by the fourth operation : then extraft
a'

the fquare root of this fum.

6. Take out — from col. 4., and apply the proportional
a

part as before, if neceffary ; deduft this number • — from

et

the fquare root laft found, and the remainder or refult is the
mean velocity of the ftream in inches per fecond, which was re-
quired.

Should this refult be afterwards wanted in feet per minute,
the numbers lail obtained muft be multiplied by 60, and di-
vided by 12 ; or rather, multiplied at once by 5, which is
the fame thing.

To obtain the quantity of water difcharged in a minute,"
multiply the area of the feftion of the ftream by the velo-
city now found ; taking care, if the area is in fquare feet,
to exprefs the velocity of the water in feet ; or if the area is
in fquare inches, the velocity muft be expreffed in inches,
and the produft or refult will be in cubic feet or cubic
inches, accordingly.

Example I . — The Academy of Sciences at Paris were oc-
cupied, during feveral months, with an examination of a
plan propofed by M. Parcieux, for bringing' the water of
Yevette into Paris ; and, after the moft mature confideration,
gave in a report of the quantity of water which M. De Par-
cieux's aqueduft would yield. Their report was afterwards
found erroneous in the proportion of at leaft 2 to 5 ; for
when the waters were brought in, they exceed the report in
this proportion. Indeed, long after the giving in the re-
port, M. Perronet, the moft celebrated engineer in France,
affirmed, that the dimenfions propofed were much greater
than were neceffary ; and faid that an aqueduft of ji feet
wide, and 3^ deep, with a flope of 15 inches in a thoufand
fathoms, would have a velocity of 12 or 13 inches per
fecond, and would bring all the water furniflied by the
propofed fources. The great diminution of expence occa-
fioned by the alteration, encouraged the community to under-
take the work. It was accordingly began, and partly exe-
cuted. The water was found to run with a veloeity of near i
19 inches, when it was 35 feet deep.

M. Perronet founded his computation on his own expe-
rience alone, acknowledging that he had no theory to in-
ttruft him.

Let us examine this cafe by our theorem.

Firft, The area of the feftion is 3.5 feet deep x by 5.5
feet wide ;= 19.25 fquare feet. — The circumference which
the water touches, confiftsof the two fides of 3.5 feet each,
added to 5.5 feet, the bottom = 12.5 feet. The area 19.25
fquare feet divided by 12.5 feet gives 1.54 feet, for the hy-
draulic mean depth x 12 = 18.48 inches ; four times this
K d=. 73-92, which we are to feek in the firft column of '
the table ; and may take 74.

Secondly, To find s, take the fall 15 inches, or 1.33 feet,
and divide it by the diftance, 1000 fathoms, or 6000 feet ;
the refult is .00022, for s, or the fine of the incUnation.

Take out from the table
the numbers correfpond-
ing to 74.

d

d
a

a^

c
a

74 1875000

4.872

2.207

We

WATER.

We now have all the neceflary quantities for making the

</ n .^

calculation thus : multiply — = 1875000 by x = .00022,

and we have 416.25. To this add — ^ = 4.872, and it makes

421.122, of which extraft the fquare root, and it is 20.52 ;

deduft — = 2.207 from this, and it leaves 18.313 inches
a

per fecond for the mean velocity of the water.

This agrees pretty well with the obfervation of 19 inches,
and Dr. Robifon made very nearly the fame refult by a diffe-
rent mode of calculation.

The velocity of 18.313 inches per fecond X 5 gives
91.56 feet /icr minute, and again multiplied by 19.25 fquare
feet, (the area of the feftion,) gives 176 1.6 cubic feet of
water which flow through this canal every minute.

This example is comparatively eafy, becaufe the table
affords the numbers required ; but in I'ome cafes the exaft
numbers cannot be found in the table, we Ihall therefore give
another example.

Example 2 Mr. Watt meafured a canal in the neigh-
bourhood of Birmingham, which was 18 feet wide at the fur-
face of the water, 7 feet wide at the bottom, and 4 feet deep.
The water had a declivity of four inches in a mile ; — required
the velocity with which the water moved, and the quantity
which the canal afforded.

To have a complete knowledge of the feftion, find the
lengtli of each floping fide, thus take the projeftion of the
top width over the bottom width on each fide, that is, half
the difference between the top and bottom width (18 — 7)
— ;- 2 =; 5.5 feet : now the fquare of 5.5 is 30.25, and the
fquare of 4 feet the depth is 16, the fum of the two is
(30.25 + 16 = ) 46.25 ; and the fquare root of this is 6.8,
the length of each Hoping fide.

Firft, To find the area and the hydraulic mean depth —
The mean between the widths of the top and bottom is
( jg 4. 7)-f- 2 12.5 X 4 feet deep = 50 fquare feet for the
area of the feftion. To find the circumference which the
water touches, add the two floping fides, each 6.8 feet, to 7
feet, the width of the bottom, and it makes 20.6 feet.

The area, 50 fquare feet, divided by 20.6 feet, gives 2.4272
feet = 29. 126 inches for the hydrauhc mean depth ; 4 times
this is 116.504, which is d, and muft be found in the firft
column of the table. The neareft which can there be found
is 100 inches.

Secondly, The fall is 4 inches in the diftance of a mile,
= 63360 inches, divide 4 by 63360, and it gives .00006313
for 1, the fine of the inclination.

Thirdly, The value of — , in the fecond column, oppofite
a

to 100 in the firft column, is 2501 000, to which fomething
muft be added for the 16.5 inches. To find this quan-
tity, take the difference between the adjacent numbers in
column two, -viz. 2501000 and 4950000 = 2449000, and,
laftly, the difference between 100 and 116.5 — "^-J ' ^^^"
fay, as 100 is to 2449000, fo is 16.5 to 404085, which num-

beris to be added to 2501000, = 2905085, which is —
for 1 16.5.

Fourthly, The value of — , in column third oppofite to
a

100, is 5.272, to which add .0043, as found by a rule of
Vol. XXXVIII.

proportion flmilar to the above, audit gives 5.276, which is

c^

— for 1 16.5.

Fifthly, Multiply s = .00006313 by 2905085, and it
gives 183.395; add —^, or 5.276, as found by the pre-
ceding operation, and it gives 188.671 ; and the fquare root
of this number is 13.736.

Sixthly, The value of — , in column fourth, is 2.296 for
a

100, or for 1 16.5 it is 2.297 > deduft this from 13.736, the
refult of the laft operation, and we have 1 1.439, which is the
velocity of the ftream in inches per fecond, and this x 5 =
57.195 feet per minute. To find the quantity, multiply
the velocity, 57.19 feet per minute, by 50 fquare feet the
area, and we ihall have 285.97 cubic feet, which quantity
will flow every minute through this canal.

The velocity here found is confiderably fmaller than what
was obferved by Mr. Watt ; he found the velocity at the
furface 17 inches ^^r fecond, and at the bottom 10 inches,
the mean velocity we have already calculated at 13.32.

Dr. Robifon, in the Encyclopedia Britannica, gives a
calculation of this fame cafe by Du Buat's formula, which
we have given in the article River. He makes the velo-
city 11.85 f^^' /"■'■ fecond, which differs fo httle from our
computation, that the two theorems may be confidered
equally accurate ; but both appear, by Mr. Watt's obferva-
tion, to be rather too fmall in very fmall dechvities of
rivers and canals. This is not furprifing when we confider,
that the experiments, which are the foundation of both
thefe formulas, were made on fmall canals ; but for this
reafon, we may expeft they will be more accurate when
applied to fmaller channels, fuch as mill-courfes, aque-
dufts, &c.

In taking obfervations to apply this method of calculation
to praftice, it muft be recoUefted that it always proceeds on
the fuppofition, that the canal is of a regular width and
depth, and of an uniform (lope throughout. If this is not
the cafe, the canal muft be confidered in different portions,
and each calculated feparately. We think greater accuracy
will be attained by meafuring and carefully levelling lOO
yards in which the width and depth are quite regular, than
by taking a mile in length, if there are any irregularities
in the dimenfions, or in the flope in that diftance.

On the other hand, the theorem cannot apply at all, unlefs
the length of the channel is fuch, that the water in it will
arrive at an uniform motion without any acceleration of the
motion, as it proceeds down. In fhort and rapidly incHned
channels, the water accelerates in confcquence of defcending
further down the fall ; but when the canal is long, the ve-
locity arrives at a certain point, and then the friftion pre-
vents any farther acceleration ; in this cafe, the theorem ap-
plies. We fhall not err feniibly in ufing this theorem for
canals of 30 yards in length, or Icfs, if the fall is fmall.

Method of gauging the Water running through clofe Pipes. —
Dr. Young's theorem and our table, apply with equal, per-
haps greater accuracy, to the cafe of clofe pipes than to open
canals.

All that is neceffary is, to meafure the internal diameter
of the pipe in inches, the length of the pipe, and the diffe-
rence of the level between the water in the refervoir and the
place at which the water is difcharged, and proceed as in
the former inftance ; but to render it more clear we ihall
give two examples.

Example I The city of Edinburgh is fupplied with

p water.

WATER.

water, from fprings at Comifton, which is a confiderable dif-
Unce ; this is conveyed by two pipes, the firft of which was
laid in 1720, under the diredion of Defaguhers. Dr. Ro-
bifon mentions one of them, which is 5 inches diameter,
14,637 feet in length ; the refervoir at Comifton is torty-
four feet higher than the refervoir on the Caftle-Hil., m the
town of Edinburgh.

Firft, to find the fine of the inclination, or s, divide the
faU 44 feet by 14,637, and it gives .00301, which is s.

Now take five inches, the diameter of the pipe in col. i.,

and oppofite to it in col. 2. find — = 1597CO, which mul-
tiply by .00301, gives 479.1 ; to this add— = 2.624taken

from the third column, and the fum is 481.724.

Extrad the fquare root of this, and it is si. 948, from

which dedua— , or 1.620, taken from col. 4., and the re-

a
fult is 20.328, which is the velocity in inches per fecond,
and this x by 5 = 101.64 feet />fr minute.

To find the quantity, find the area of the feftion of the
pipe in fquare feet, by dividing the fquare of the diameter
25 by 183.3, ^"^ ''^ g'^*^^ .I364fquare feet, and this x by
101.64 feet velocity, gives 13.86 cubic feet per minute for
the difcharge from the pipe.

Dr. Robifon's c.ilculalion of this fame cafe by Du Buat's
formula, gives a velocity of 20.08 inches per fecond.

In Mr. Smeaton's Reports, we find the other pipe ftated at
four and a half inches bore, and that it yielded 160 Scots
pints per minute, each 103.4 cubic inches = 9.58 cubic feet.
Mr. Smeaton's own calculation was 159 pints.

Example 2 Mr. Smeaton ftates, that this pipe was im-
proved by obtaining an increafe of fall, making it 51
feet, and that it then yielded 200 Scots pints = 11.98
cubic feet per minute, the bore being 4-| inches, and the
length 14,637 feet as before. Mr. Smeaton's calculation
was 173 pints = 10.36 cubic feet per minute. What
would it be by Dr. Young's theorem ? viz. velocity =

fall 51 feet by the length 14,637

The fquare root of that number is 22.609, fro''* which
deduft — , = 1.854, ^"^ '*^ leaves 20.755, which is the velo-
city per fecond in inches.

[Note. — is found by fubtrafting half the difference be-
tween the numbers for 4 and 5 in the fourth column, from
the number anfwering to 4. )

20.755 inches per fecond x 5 = 103.775 feet per mi-
nute, tor the velocity. The area of the pipe is 4.5 x
4.5 = 20.25 circular inches, which ~ by 1 83.3, the cnxular
inches in a fquare foot, is = .1104 fquare feet for the area
of the pipe. Multiply this by 103.775 ket per minute, and
we get 1 1.46 cubic feet per minute for the difcharge, which
agrees very nearly with the experiment.

Dr. Brewfter, in his Encyclopaedia, has calculated this
fame pipe, except that he ftates it 300 feet longer ; he
makes the velocity by Du Buat's theorem 20.385 inches ^i;r
fecond, and fays that on an average of five years, from 1738
to 1743, its maximum difcharge was 11.3 cubic feet per
minute ; he has alfo calculated the fame cafe by five different
formulas ; thus.

The quantity of water aftually
difcharged . - .

Calculated by Eytelwein's for-
mula . . . .
Calculated by Girard's formula
Calculated by Du Buat's formula
Calculated by M. Prony's fimple
formula . . . .
Calculated by M. Prony's table -
To which we may add Mr. Smea-
ton's calculation . - .
And by Dr. Young's theorem -

Scot's'l'infs
pel- Miiiule.

J 200
j 189-4

I 189-77

188.26
188.13

I 192-32
180.7

I9I.5

Cubic Feet
per Minute.

11.968

.n-333
11.355

1 1.265
11.257

11.502

10.S13

10.352

11.459

d

— X
a

t +

\

To find X, divide the
feet ; it gives .003484.

To find — , anfwering to 4.5 inches in col. i., take half
a

the difference between the numbers in the fecond col. op-
pofite to 4 and 5, and add it to the number anfwering to

4; thus, — for 4 is 131560, and — for 5 is 159700,

difference 28200, which -^ 2 =
= 145600, which is — for 4.5

14100, and this X 131500
Multiply this 145600

by s, or .003484, and it is =: 507.67 : to this add — .

To find — for 4.5, take half the difference between the
a'

numbers in the third column for 4 and 5, which is .869,
and fubtract it from 4-363, the number anfwering to 4;

the refult is 3.494,
507.67 is 511.164.

w]

hich

is — for

4-5 ; this added to

It is fatisfaftory to find the refults of fo many different
proceffes agree fo nearly, and gives us', great confidence
in the truth of the principles. There is in this cafe fo little
difference amongft theorems that any one may be taken ;
but we think it needlefs to enter into farther particulars, as
the one which we have given effefts all that can be defired,
and by the help of the table, is the moft ready in the appli-
cation.

We fhall only add Mr. Smeaton's table on the friftion of
water running through pipes, which we find in his manu-
fcript papers, and which he computed from his own
obfervations alone, without knowing the experiments on
which the other theorems are founded. They will give ra-
ther lefs than the theorems, and perhaps may approach more
nearly to aftual praftice, in which pipes are not laid with the
fame care, to avoid roughnefs withinfide and fudden bends, as
when prepared purpofely for experiments ; we may confider
the theorems as the maximum difcharge, and Mr. Smeaton's
table as the fair average of practice.

life of the Table. — Find the velocity of the water ^fr
minute in feet and decimals in the firft column, or in feet
per fecond in the next column, and on the fame line under-
neath the diameter of the bore in inches, you will find the
perpendicular heightof a column of water in inches and lotliS,
neceffary to overcome the fridtion of that pipe for 100 feet
in length, and obtain the giyen velocity.

9 Mr.

WATER.

[r. Smeaton's Table for fhewing the Friftion of Water in Pipes ; the Bore of the Pipe being gi
of the Water therein ; the Column or Height of Head neceflary to overcome the Fridtion, and j

is (hewn by this Table for loo Feet in Length.

„ „ ven, and the Velocity
and produce that Velocity,

Bore of the Pipes

in Inches.

Velocity.

I

3.

4

I

li

l|

1%

2

2i

2|

3

34

In Feet

per
Minute.

In Feet

per
Second.

Dep

hs of Water neceflary to overcome the Friftion of the Wa

er in a

?ipe 100

feet

long, and produce the Velocities marked in th

2 two lirft Columns.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Indies.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inche

Inches.

5

.083

0.2

0.16

0.12

O.I

0.08

0.07

0.06

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.04

lO

.166

0-7

0.5

0.4

0-3

0.25

0.2

0.2

0.17

0.15

0.12

0. lo

15

.-zs

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.4

0-3

0-3

0.25

0.2

0.18

20

•33^

2.0

1-3

I.O

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.4

0-3

0.3

25

.416

3-2

2.1

1.6

1-3

I.I

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.5

30

•5

4-5

3-0

2.2

1.8

1-5

1-3

I.I

1.0

0.9

0-7

0.6

3S

.58

6.0

4.0

3-0

2.4

2.0

1-7

1-5

1-3

1.2

1.0

0.8

40

.666

8.0

5-3

4.0

3-2

2-7

2-3

2.0

1.8

1.6

1-3

I.I

45

•75

9-5

6-3

4-7

3-8

3-2

2-7

2.4

2.1

1.9

1-5

1.4

50

•833

II. 7

7.8

5-9

4-7

3-9

3-4

2.9

2.6

2-3

1.9

1-7

SS

.916

14.2

9-5

7-1

5-7

4-7

4.1

3-6

3-2

2.8

2.4

2.0

60

I.

.6.7

II. I

8.4

6-7

5.6

4.8

4.2

3-7

3-3

2.8

2.4

65

1.083

19.5

13.0

9-7

7.8

6-5

5.6

4-9

4-3

3-9

3-2

2.8

70

1. 166

22.2

14.8

II. I

8.9

7-4

6.4

5.6

4.9

4-4

3-7

3-2

IS

1.25

25.0

16.6

12.5

lO.O

8-3

7-1

6.2

S-3

5.0

4-2

3-6

80

1-33

28.5

19.0

14.2

1 1.4

9-5

8.1

7-1

6.3

5-7

4-7

4.1

85

1.416

31-5

21.0

15-7

12.6

10.5

9.0

7-9

7-0

6-3

5.2

4-5

90

1-5

350

23-3

17-5

14.0

II. 7

1 0.0

8.7

7-8

7.0

5.8

5.0

95

'•583

38-5

25.6

19.2

15.4

12.8

1 1.0

9.6

8.6

7-7

6.4

5-5

100

1.66

42.0

28.0

21.0

16.8

14.0

12.0

10.5

9-3

8-4

7.0

6.0

105

1-75

45-7

30-5

22.9

18.3

15-3

13-1

11.4

10.2

9.1

7.6

6.5

no

1-833

49-5

33-0

24.7

19.8

16.5

14.1

12.4

1 1.0

9-9

8.2

7-1

115

1. 916

53-7

35-8

26.9

21.5

17.9

15.4

13-4

11.9

10.7

9.0

7-7

120

2.

57-7

38-5

28.9

23.1

19.2

16.5

14-4

12.8

II. 5

9.6

8.2

130

2.166

66.5

44-3

33-2

26.6

22.1

19.0

16.6

14.8

13-3

II. I

9-5

140

2-333

75-7

50.5

37-9

30-3

25.2

21.6

18.9

16.8

15.1

12.6

10.8

150

2-5

85.7

57-2

42.9

34-3

28.6

24.5

21.4

19.0

17.1

14-3

12.2

160

2-33

96.5

■64-3

48.2

3S.6

32.1

27.6

24.1

21.4

19-3

16.1

13.8

170

2.83

108.5

72-3

54.2

43-4

36.1

31.0

27.1

24.1

21.7

18. 1

^5-5

180

3- ,

121.0

80.6

60.5

48.4

40-3

34-6

30.2

26.9

24.2

20.2

17-3

190

3.166

134-5

89.6

67.2

53-8

44.8

38-2

33-6

299

26.9

22.4

19.2

200

3-333

149.0

99-3

74-5

59.6

49-7

42.6

37-2

33-1

29.8

24.8

21-3

210

3-5

164.0

109.3

82.0

65.6

54-7

46.9

41.0

36-4

32.8

27-3

23-4

220

3.666

180.0

120.0

90.0

72.0

6c.o

51.4

45.0

40.0

36.0

30.0

25.7

230

3-833

196.5

131.0

98.2

78.6

65-5

56..

49-1

43-7

39-3

32-7

28.1

240

4-

214.0

142.6

107.0

85.6

71-3

61. 1

Si-5

47.6

42.8

35-7

30.6

^SS

4.25

241.2

160.8

120.6

96.5

80.4

68.9

60.3

53-6

48.2

40.2

34-5

270

4-5

270.7

180.5

135-4

108.3

90.2

77-4

67.7

60.1

54.1

45.1

38-7

285

4-75

301-5

201.0

150,7

120.6

100.5

86.1

75-4

67.0

60.3

50.2

43-1

300

5-

336-2

224.1

168.0

134-5

1 1 2. 1

96.1

84.0

74-7

67.2

56.0

48.0

I
2

3

4

I

li

^\

i|

2

2^

2|

3

3^

Bore of t

ie Pipes

in Inche

s.

P2

WATER.

Mr. Smeaton's Table for the Friftion in Water in Pipes — Continued.

Bore of the Pipes in Inches.

Velocity.

4

4^

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

In Feet

In Feet

Depth

s of Water neceflary to overcome the FriAion

of the Water in

a Pipe 100 feet

Minute.

per
Second.

long,

and produce the Velocities marked in

the Twc

) firft Col

umns.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

5

.083

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.02

O.OI

O.OI

O.OI

O.OI

O.OI

lO

.166

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.05

0.04

0.04

0.03

0.03

IS

.25

0.15

0.14

0.12

O.IO

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.05

20

•33

0.25

0.2

0.2

0.17

0.14

0.12

O.I I

O.IO

0.09

0.08

25

1 -416

0.4

0.4

0-3

0-3

0.2

0.2

0.18

0. l6

0.15

0.14

30

■5„

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.4

0-3

0-3

0.25

0.2

0.20

0.19

35

.58

0.8

0.7

0.6

0-5

0.4

0.4

0-3

0-3

0.27

0.25

40

.666

I.O

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0-5

0.4

0.4

0.36

0-3

45

•75

1.2

I.I

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.4

50

•833

1-5

1-3

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.6

0-5

0.5

5S

.916

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.6

60

I.

2.1

1-9

1-7

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.8

0.7

65

1.083

2.4

2.2

1.9

1.6

1-4

1.2

1. 1

1.0

0.9

0.8

70

1.166

2.8

2-5

2.2

1-9

1.6

1.4

1.2

I.I

1.0

0.9

75

1.25

3-1

2.8

2-5

2.1

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

I.I

1.0

80

'•33

3-6

3-2

2.8

2.4

2.0

1.8

1.6

1-4

1-3

1.2

85

1. 416

4.0

3-5

3-1

2.6

2.2

2.0

1-7

1.6

1-4

1-3

90

1-5

4-4

3-9

3-5

2.9

2.5

2.2

1.9

1-7

1.6

'•5

95

'•1^3

4.8

4-3

3-8

3-2

2-7

2.4

2.1

1.9

1-7

1.6

100

1.66

5.2

4-7

4.2

3-5

3-0

2.6

2-3

2.1

1.9

1.8

105

•■7S

5-7

5-«

4.6

3-8

3-3

2.9

2-5

2-3

2.1

1.9

no

1-833

6.2

5-S

4-9

4.1

3-5

3-1

2-7

2-5

2.2

2.1

"5

1.916

6.7

6.0

5-4

4-5

3-8

3-4

3-0

2-7

2.4

2.2

120

2.

7-2

6.4

5-8

4.8

4.1

3-6

3-2

2-9

2.6

2.4

130

2.166

8-3

7-4

6.6

5-S

4-7

4-2

3-7

3-3

2.9

2.8

140

2-333

9-5

8.4

7-6

6-3

5-4

4-7

4.2

3-8

3-4

3-2

150

z-5

10.7

9-5

8.6

7-'

6.1

5-4

4.8

4-3

3-9

3-6

160

2-33

12. 1

10.7

9.6

8.0

6.9

6.0

5-4

4.8

4-4

4.0

170

2.83

13.6

12. 1

10.8

9.0

7-7

6.8

6.0

5-4

4-9

4-5

180

3-

15.1

13-4

12. 1

lO.I

8.6

7-6

6-7

6.0

5-5

5-0

190

3.166

16.8

15.0

13-4

1 1.2

9.6

8.4

7-5

6.7

6.1

5.6

200

3-333

18.6

16.6

14.9

12.4

10.6

9-3

8-3

7-4

6.8

6.2

210

3-5

20.5

18.2

16.4

13-7

11.7

10.2

9-1

8.2

7-5

6.8

220

3.666

22-5

20.0

18.0

15.0

12.9

II. 2

lO.O

9.0

8.2

7-5

230

3-833

24.6

21.8

19.6

16.4

14.0

12.3

10.9

9.8

9.0

8.2

240

4-

26.7

23.8

21.4

17.8

15-3

13-4

11.9

10.7

9-7

8.9

255

4.25

30.1

26.8

24.1

20.1

17.2

15. 1

'3-4

12.0

II. 0

10. 1

270

4-5

33-8

30.1

27.1

22.6

19-3

16.9

15.0

13-5

12.3

11-3

285

4-75

37'7

33-5

30.1

25.1

21.5

18.9

.6.7

15.1

13-7

12.6

300

5-

42.0

37-4

33-6

1

28.0

24.0

21.0

18.7

16.8

15-3

14.0

4

A\

5 1

6

7

8

9

10

II

12

Bore

of the Pipes in Inc

les.

We

WATER.

We have fearched in Mr. Smeaton's papers for the experi-
ments by which this table was made, and we find an invefti-
gation, from the experiments of M. Couplet, as recorded by
Belidor, on the flow of water through a large pipe at Ver-
failles. From thefe he deduced the following rule, to find
the height of column in inches, correfponding with the ve-
locities in inches per fecond, through a pipe of any diameter
ijiven in inches, and loo feet long.

48 X ( velocity ) 4- velocity ^

depth of column ;

52.66 X (diameter)

jr, ftill more nearly, taking 47.873 for the conftant number
inftead of 48.

It appears that he found this rule did not agree with his
awn obfervations ; and, in confequence, he made the foUow-
,ng experiments himfelf with a pipe of i\ inch bore and 100
'eet in length ; and we believe he arranged them into the
:able, by projefting and drawing a curve, at leaft we find
hat was his ufual method in like cafes.

Velochy
per

Depth of the Column.

Second.

By the Table.

By Experiment.

Inches ,

Inches.

Inches.

%

2.1

2.0

3-0

2.8

^

3-7

3-8

10

4-7

4.8

Hi

6.2

6.2

13-4

7-9

7.8

i5f

i8|

10.4

10.7

14.7

14.5

21

18.3

I8.I

23i

22.7

23.0

27

28.4

27.6

28i

30.8

30-5

29I

33-8

34-3

3oi

34-8

35-6

35-5

47.2

47.0

43f

71.2

7..0

' This is ufeful information, becaufe it (hews what part of
'the table may be depended upon. He aflumed, that the
idepth of the column in pipes of other dimenfions, was as the
length of the pipe direftly, and as the diameters inverfely.

The form of this table renders it immediately applicable
to a great variety of purpofes ; for inftance, an engine is re-
quired to pump water to a height of 60 feet ; but the water
muft pafs through 1 800 feet of horizontal pipe of 5 inches
bore, and with a velocity of 140 feet per minute. The table
{hews, that for every 100 feet of this pipe the friftion will be
equal to a column of 7.6inches ; multiply this by 18.6, and
we find the whole friftion will be 141.36 inches, this added
to 60 feet makes 71.78 feet for the real column which the
pump muft overcome.

Rules for meafuring the Qimntity of Water Jloiving through
Sluices or Apertures. — In this, like the former inftances, we
muft multiply the area of the aperture by the velocity with
which the water ruihes through it.

Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Principia, book ii. theo. 8.
prob. 36. has demonftrated, that the velocity of water,
flowing through holes in the bottom or fide of a veflel,
ought to be equal to the velocity which a heavy body would
acquire, in falling through a fpace equal to the diftance be-
tween the furface of the water and the place where it is
difcharged.

Hence, at the depth of i6tV feet, a ftream of 32^ feet
in length, ought to flow out in a fecond of time. And from
the laws of falling bodies, it follows, that as the fquare
root of I 6tV is to the velocity of the ftream flowing out at
that depth, fo is the fquare root of any other depth to the
velocity of that depth.

Hence, the velocity of water flowing out of a horizontal
aperture, in the bottom of a ciftern or refervoir, is as the
fquare root of the height, or the depth of water above
the aperture.

That is, the pren"ure, and confequently the depth, is as
the fquare of the velocity ; for the quantity flowing out in
any given time is as the velocity, and the force required to
produce a velocity in a certain quantity of matter in a given
time, is alfo as that velocity ; therefore, the force muft be
as the fquare of the velocity.

The propofition is fully confirmed by Boffut's and Mi-
chelotti's experiment ; the proportional velocities, with a
preffure of i, 4, and 9 feet, being 2722, 5436, and 8135,
inftead of 2722, 5444, and 8166; very inconfiderable dif-
ferences.

There is another mode of confidering this propofition,
which is a very good approximation. Suppofe a vary thin
cylindrical plate of water, like a wafer, fituated in the ori-
fice ; and fuppofe a conftant fuccelfion of fuch plates to be
put in motion, one at every inftant, by means of the pref-
fure of the whole cyhnder ftanding upon it ; let all the
gravitating force of the column be employed in generating
the velocity of each fmall cylindrical plate, (negledting the
motion of the cylinder itfelf,) this plate would be urged by
a force as much greater than its own weight, as the column
is higher than itfelf, and this through a fpace fliorter in the
fame proportion than the height of the column. But where
the forces are inverfely as the fpaces defcribed, the final
velocities are equal : therefore, the velocity of the water
flowing out muft be equal to that of a heavy body falling
from the height of the head of water.

This velocity may be found very nearly by the rule
which we have before given in underfliot water-wheels, or
by extrafting the fquare root of the depth in feet, and mul-
tiplying it by 481.2 : the produft is the velocity /fr minute
in feet.

In praftice it is more convenient to take the depth ii^
inches, inftead of feet ; then to obtain the velocity in feet
per minute.

Extract the fquare root of the depth in inches, and mul-
tiply it by 138.88: the produtft is the velocity in feet
per minute.

As this rule is the foundation of all calculations for
velocities, when friftion is not confidered, it is conftantly
wanted : we ftiall, therefore, give a table, calculated by
Mr. Smeaton from the above rule, fhewing the theoretic
velocities correfponding with different depths.

A Table

WATER.

A Table (hewing the Velocity in Feet per Minute, or per
any given Depth beneath the Surface, from \ Inch to 20

SeconJ, with which Water fliould ifTue from an Aperture ati
Feet, calculated according to the Theory of falUng Bodies, j

Depth.

Velocity per
Minute.

Incites.
I

I

I

2
2\

k

i

4i

4f
5

5i
6

1 1

9!

10

1 1
Hi

12

12|

H

144
15

j6

.6i

•7

Feet.
69.7
98.6
120.0
138.6
155. 1

170. 1
183.8
196.2
208.2
219.6

230.0
240.6
25.0.5
259.8
268.8

277.8
286.3
294.6
302.5

3IO-3

318.1
325.8

333-0

340.2

354-0

367-4
380.4

392-7
405.0
417.0

428.4

439-3
450.1
460.8
471.0

481.2
491.4
501.0
510.6
519.6

529.2

538-3

547.2

555-<5
564.0
572.6

Dill".

Velocity IKT
SecoiKl.

28.9
21.4
18.6
16.5

15.0

13-7
12.4

12.0

II.4

10.4

10.6
9.9

9-3
9.0

9.0

8.5

8-3

7-9
7.8

7.8

7-7

7-2

7.2

13.8

13-4

13.0
12.3
12.3
12.0

11.4

10.9

lo.y
10.7
10.2

10.2

1 0.2
9.6
9.6
9.0

9.6

9.1
8.9
8.4
8.4

8.6

Feet.
1. 16
1.64
2.00
2.31
2.58

2.83
3.06

3-27
3-47
3.66

3-84
4.01
4.17

4-33
4.48

4-63
4-77
4-9'
5.04

J-I7

5-30
5-43
5-55

5.67
5.90

6.12

6-34
6.55
6.75
6.95

7.14

7-32
7.50
7.68
7.85

8.02
8.19

8-35
8.51
8.66

8.82
8.97
9.12
9.26
9.40
9-54

Diff.

48

36

31

,27

■25

■23
.21

.20
,19

-17
.16
.16

•15

•15
.14
.14
•13
•13

•13

-13
.12
.12
-23
.22

.22
.21

.20
.20

.19

.18
.18
.18
•17
-17

-17
.16
.16
-15
.16

•15
-15

.14

.14
.14
.14

Depth

Inches.

i7i
18

18I

19

i9§

20

20i
21
21I
22

22^
23

234
24

25

26
27
28
29
30

31

32

33
34
35

36
37
38

39

40

41

42

43
44
45

46

47
48

49
50

Velocity per
Minute.

5'
52
53

54

580.8

589-3
597-6
605.4
613.2

621.1

628.8
636.6
644.4
651.6

658.8
666.1
673.2
680.5
694 2

708.0
721.8

735-0
748.2
760.9

773-4
786.0
798.1
810.0
822.0

834.0
844.8
856.2
867.6
878.4

889.2
900.0
910.8
921.6
931-9

942.0
952.2
962.4
972.6
982.2

992.1
1002.0
loi 1.6
1020.8
1030.2

Diff.

8.5

8-3
7-8
7-8

7-9

7-7
7.8

7-8

7-2

7-3
7-1
7-3
3-7

3-8
3-2
3-2

2.7

2-5
2.6
2.1

1.9

2.0
2.0

0.8

1-4
1.4
0.8

0.8

0.8
0.8
0.8
0-3
0.1

0.2
0.2
0.2
9.6

99

9-9
9.6

9-2

9.4

9.0

Velocity fer
Secoiid.

Feel.

9.68
9.82
9.96

0.09
0.22

0-35
0.48
0.61
0.74
0.86

0.98

l.IO
1.22

'•34
'•57

1.80
2.03
2.25

2.47
2.68

2.89
3.10
3-30
3-50

3.70

3-89
4.08
4.27
4.46
4.64

4.82
5.00
5.18
5^36
5^53

5.70
5.87
6.04
6.21

6-37

6-53

6.70
6.86
7.01
7.17

Dff.

21
20

20
20

'9

19
19
19

18

18

18
18
18
17

17

17
17
17
16

16

Depth.

Ifn hes

57
58
59
60

■63
66
69

72
75

78
81

84
87
90

93
96

99
102

105

108
1 1 1
114
117
120

123
126
129
132
135

'38
14T
144
150
156

162
168

174
180
186

192

204
216
228
240

Velocity per
Minute,

Feet.
039.2
C48.8
057.8
066.8
076.1

102.8
127.9

'53'3

179.0
203.0

227.0
250.4

273-2
296.0

317-9

339^9
361. 1

382.4
403.0
422.7

443-7
463-4

483-3
502.4
521.8

540.8

559-4

578.0

596-1
614.0

632.0
649.4
667.1
701.6
735-2

768.2
800.6
832.5
863.8
894.6

924.8

984.5

2041.8

2097.6

2152.2

Di.f.

Velucity
per Second

9.6
9.0
9.0

9-3

26.7

25.1

25.4

25-7
24.0

24.0

23-4
22.8

22.8

21.9

22.0

21.2

21.3
20.6
19.7

21.0

'9-7
19.9
19.1
19.4

19.0

18.6
i8.6
18.1
17.9

18.0

17.4

17.7

34^5
33^6

33^o

32-4
3'-9
3J-3
30.8

30.2

59-7
57-3
55-8
54.6

Feet.
17.32
17.48
17.63
17.78

'7-93

18.38
18.80
19.22
19.65

20.05

20.45
20.84
21.22
21.60
21.96

22-33
22.68

23.04
23-38
23-71

24.06

24^39
24.72
25.04
25.36

25.68
25.99

26.30
26.60
26.90

27.20

27-49
27-78
28.36

28.92

29.47

30.01

30-54

31.06

31.58

32.08
33-07
34-03
34-96

35-87

Diff.

If

WATER.

I If we were to calculate the expence or difcharge for
liny orifice by this table, we fhould in every inftaiice find
It much greater than nature really gives us.
[ It muit he recoUefted, that this table is not calculated
rom experiment, but from the theory of falling bodies,
jWhich makes no allowance for the lofs of velocity, which
^rifes from the frittion of the particles of water againft
;he edges of the aperture, and againfl: the neighbouring
jarticles of water which are not put in motion.

Sir Ifaac Newton, in making experiments, found the
velocity thus determined to be too great, which in one cafe
le correfted. The friftion againft the fides of the aperture,
ind the oblique direftion of the particles of water before
;hey reach the aperture, both tend to diminifh the velocity of
;he ftream ; and if thefe caufes could be removed, efpecially
:he latter, the Newtonian theory would be confirmed by
experiment, or rather experiment would exaftly agree with
;;heory.

For, if we fuppofe water running into the top of a cy-
lindrical tube, and that there is no attraftion or fridlion
petween the particles of water and the interior of the tube,
the velocity of the water, or of each of the particles at the
bottom, would be the fame, or equal to that which they
would have acquired in falling through the fame fpace with-
)nt the tube, towards the earth.

Hence, to obtain the true velocity, under different cir-
;umftanccs, we muft correct the compnted velocity by
experiments.

It is ftated in fome elementary works on hydroftatics,
that the velocity of the water at the orifice is only equal to
that which a heavy body would acquire by falling through
,haif the height of the fluid above the orifice. This was firft
maintained by fir Ifaac Newton, who found that the dia-
meter of the ftream is contracted, after it has quitted the
(Orifice ; and at the fmalleft part, the diameter was to that
of the orifice as 21 to 25. The area, therefore, of the one
Iwas to the area of the other as 2i* to 25', which is nearly
Ithe ratio of i to the fquare root of 2. By meafuring
ithe quantity of water difcharged in a given time, and alfo
Ithe area of the vena contratta, fir Ifaac found, that the velo-
Icity at the vena contrafta was that which was due to the
.whole altitude of the fluid above the orifice. He, there-
Ifore, concluded, that fince the velocity of the orifice was to
jthat at the vena contraAa as i to the fquare root of 2, the
velocity in the vena contrafta was that which was due to the
whole altitude of the fluid; and that the velocity at the
orifice muft be that which is due to one half that altitude,
becaufe the velocities are as the fquare roots of the heights.
From this, fir Ifaac ftated the aftual velocity of flowing
water to be tcssj or .707 of the theoretic velocities.

But the real quantity of the reduftion varies in different
cafes, according to the nature of the aperture : hence, it is
neceffary to confider all different forms of apertures, and
make a different allowance for each cafe. To do this, the
circumilances of the aperture muft be carefully examined.

A, Jig. 8. PlaU II. IVater-'works, explains the manner
in which the filaments of water may be fuppofed to move,
when a ftream flows through an aperture in a thin plate.

B fhews the motion, v.'hen a tube of about two diameters
in length is added to the orifice, and when the water flows
through the tube with a full ftream. This does not always
happen in fo fhort a pipe, and never in one that is fhorter ;
but the water will frequently detach itfelf from the fides of
the pipe, and flow through it with a contracted jet.

C fhews the motion, when the pipe projetls into the in-
fide of the veflel. In this cafe, it is difficult to make the
tube flow full.

D reprefents a mouth-piece fitted to the hole, and formed
agreeably to that fhape which a jet would afl'urae of itfelf.
In this cafe all contraftion is avoided, becaufe the mouth
of this pipe may be confidered as the real ca-ifice ; and no-
thing now diminiflies the difcharge but a trifling friftion of
the fides.

When water ilfues through a hole in a thin plate, the
lateral columns, prefling into the hole from all fides, caufe
the iffuing filaments to converge to the axis of the jet, and
contradl us dimenfions after it has quitted the hole, and at
a little diftaiice from tb.e hole ; and it is in this place of
greateft contraftion that the water acquires that velocity
which we r.ffume as equal to that acquired by falling from
the furface : therefore, that our computed difcharge may
beft agree with obfervation, it muft be calculated on the
fuppofition that the orifice is diminifhed to the fize of
this fmalleft fedlion. But the contraftion is fubjeft to
variations, of which the reafons are not apparent.

The following are the meafures of the contradled vein, as
aicertained by different authors ; the area of the aperture
being 1000, the area of the contrafted vein at the fmalleft
will be as follows :

Sir Ifaac Newton

Poleni - . . . .

Greateft found by Boffut

Mean of fix experiments by Boffut

Loweft found by Boffut

Bernouilli . . - . .

Michelotti . . .- .

Du Buat

Venturi - . . . .

Eytelwein - . - . .

707

714
667
664
666
641
641
666
636
642

The meafures given by Boflut were taken by a pair of
fpherical compafles, with which he meafured direftly the
diameter of the contradled vein, which he found to preferve
the fame diameter for fome lines. The altitude of the water
in the refervoir which Boffut ufed was 12 feet 6 inches.
He meafured the vena contrafta alfo, when the water iffued
by vertical orifices placed 4 feet 3 inches below the furface
of the fluid, and he obtained the very fame refults. The
ratio between the area of the orifice and the area of the vena
contrafta appears from the above, to be by no means con-
ftant. It undergoes perceptible variations, by varying the
form and pofition of the orifice, the thicknefs of the plate
in which the orifice is made, the form of the veffel, and the
velocity of the iffuing fluid.

The dimenfions of the fmalleft feftion of the contrafted
vein are at all times difficult to be afcertained with precifion.
It is, therefore, much more convenient to compute from the
real dimenfions of the orifice, and to correft this computed
difcharge by means of an aftual comparifon of the computed
and effeftive difcharges, in a feries of experiments made in
fituations refembling thofe cafes which moft frequently
occur in praftice.

We liave made a colleftion of experiments by various
authors, and from them we have deduced the following rule
for the real velocity with which water iffues from an aper-
ture in a thin plate.

Rule — Meafure the depth of the centre of the orifice be-
neath the furface of the water in the refervoir in inches,
extraft its fquare root, and multiply it by the conllant number
85. Sy : the produft is the velocity in feet p-r minute.

If tlie velocity, as marked in the preceding table, is mul-
tiplied by .618, the fame refult will be obtained. For the
contraftion of the ftnam or vein of water, running out of a
fimple orifice in a thin plate, reduces the area of its fcdlion,

at

WATER.

at the diftance of about half its diameter from the orifice,
from I to .665, according to the mean different ilatements
above quoted : hence the diameter is reduced to .815.

The quantity of water difcharged is very nearly, but not
quite, fufEcient to fill this feftion with the velocity due, or
correfponding to the height. For finding accurately the
quantity difcharged, the area of the orifice muft be fuppofed
to be further diminifhed to .619 on account of friftion.

In regard to the accuracy of this rule, we muft refer to
the following table, which contains the refults of 35 experi-

ments, and alfo the calculation for each. Wc have been
obliged to rejeft about 1 2 other experiments, becaufe they
would not accord with the theorem ; but in nearly all of
them, the velocity was greater than the rule, and thofe
which are lefs we have preferved. This was done, becaufe
we fufpeft that many of the cafes were not apertures in thin
plates ; but in wood planks of confiderable thicknefs, fuch
as fluices, the difcharge would then be greater than our
rule fuppofes, and fuch cafes (liould be clafled with another
defcription of aperture.

Table of Experiments on the Efflux of Water from Apertures on thin Plates.

Deptli in Inches

Velocity of the

Velocity calcu-
lated, by multi-
plying the Square
Root of the Deptf

Authors.

of ihe Centre of

tlie Orifice beneath

the Surface.

effluent Water

per Minute

in Feet.

Defcription of the
Aperture.

by 85.87.

Smeaton and Brindley . . -

12.5

307 -1-

304

I inch fquare.

Boffut

12.8

307 =

307

Poleni

22.7

381 -

410

2^ circular

Smeaton ------

24.5

432 +

425

I inch fquare.

Defaguliers . - . - -

'^•.

432 +

429

I inch fquare.

Boffut

25.6

434 =

434

c

29-3

460 —

464

I rs inch fquare.

Venturi - - - - - -•{

34-

515 +

500

TTT inch circular.

i

34- <5

508 +

505

I^ inch circular.

BoiTut

38-4

53^ =

532

Venturi

42.6

553 -

560

I /jj circ ular.

Smeaton ------

48.5

608 +

598

1 inch fquare.

Boffut

51.2

613 =

6.5

\ an inch circular.

Smeaton ------

60.5

680 -1-

6681

Boffut

64.

685 =

6SA

I inch fquare.

Boffut

76.8

751 =

752J

84.5

790 =

790

3 inches fquare.

Michelotti

86.5

807 +

798

I inch fquare.

.

87.8

805 =

804

3 inches fquare.

'

87.9

803 =

805 1

89.6

810 =

813

Boffut

102.5
"5-

866 =

918 =

869
920

»

1 inch circular.

128.

967 =

971

-

141.

1014 =

1019J

Michelotti i

148.3

1031 =

1045

3 inches circular

149.2

1035 -

1049

3 inches fquare.

Boffut

150.

fi047 -1
I1050 =J

105 1

150.2

1055 =

1053

1 inch circular.

275.1

1438 +

1425

1 inch fquare.

276.4

1414 -

1428

3 inches circular.

Michelotti <{

277-4
277.7

1416 —

1417 -

14301

143 '3

3 inches fquare.

280.1

1404 -

1437

2 inches circular.

l-

281.6

1446 4-

1441

I inch circular.

Thefe are the refults of the difcharge through orifices in
a thin plate. If we apply to the orifice the fhorteft cylin-
drical pipe, that will caufe the ftream to adhere every where
to its fides, we fhall find that its length muft be twice its dia-
meter. The difcharge through fuch a tube wiU be about
4-J.ths of the full quantity, and the velocity may be found
by multiolying the full velocities marked in our firft Table
by .8125.

The greateft diminution of velocity is produced by in-

ferting the pipe fo as to projeft within the infide of the re-
fervoir ; probably becaufe of the greater interference of the
motions of the particles approaching its orifice in all direc-
tions : in this cafe, the velocity is reduced nearly to half of
the full velocity.

It was one great aim of the experiments of Michelotti
and Boffut to determine the effefts of contraftion in different
cafes. Michelotti, after carefully obferving the form and
dimenfions of the natural jet, made various mouth-pieces re-

fembling

WATER.

fembling it, till he obtained one which produced the fmalleft
diminution of the computed difcharge, or till the difcharge
computed for the area of its fmaller end approached the
neareft to the effedive difcharge. And he at lail obtained
one, which gave a difcharge of 983, when the natural dif-
charge would have been 1000. This piece was formed by the
revolution of a trochoid round the axis of the jet, and the
dimenfions were as follow :

Diameter of the outer orifice = 36

inner orifice == 46

Length of the axis = 96

EyteWein ftates that a conical tube, approaching to the
figure of the contraftion of the ftream, procured a difcharge
equal to .92 of the full velocity ; and when its edges were
rounded off, of .98, calculating on its leaft feftion.

Venturi has afierted, that the difcharge of a cylindrical
pipe may be increafed by the addition of a conical tube at
the end of it nearly in the ratio of 5 to 2. (See his experi-
ments in our article Discharge. ) But Mr. Eytelwein
finds this aflertion fomewhat too ftrong, and obferves, that

when the pipe is already very long, fcarcely any effeft is pro-
duced by the addition of fuch a tube. He made a number of
experiments with different pipes, where the ftandard of com-
parifon was the time of filling a given veffel out of a large re-
ierroir, which was not always kept f nil, becaufe it was difficult
to avoid agitation in replenifhing it ; but this circumftance
was rendered indifferent to the refults of the experiments by
the application of an ingenious theorem. They prove that
a compound conical pipe may increafe the difcharge to twice
and a half as much as through a fimple orifice, or to more
than half as much more as would fill the whole feftion with
the velocity due to the height ; but where a confiderable
length of pipe intervenes, the additional orifice appears to
have little or no effeft.

The refults of the inveftigations of Boffut, Michelotti,
and Eytelwein, agree in a very fatisfaftory manner refpeft-
ing the diminution of the difcharge in different cafes ; and
we have arranged them in the following Table, which we-
recommend to engineers, as affording all the neceffary in-
formation to calculate the difcharge from fluices and
orifices.

Vol. XXXVIII.

*i

WATER.

Dcfcrlption of the Aperture through which
the Water flows.

ffnlf. — In takinsr the meafure for the depth
of the colurun wliich produces the velocity,
we may in general take it from the furface
of tlie water to tlie centre of the aperture;
but if the aperture is in a perpendicular
plane, and of a height greater than one-
fourth of the whole depth, then the velo-
city muft be found for the top of the aper-
ture and alfo for the bottom of the aperture,
and tlie mean of both taken for the mean
velocity of the water.

Ratio

between the

real velocity

and the

tlieoretic

velocity, or

that which is

due to the

wholeDej)ih,

as Qiewn by

our firft

Tuble.

To find tlie Velocity of the IfTuihg Water.
Rule. — Extmfl the Square Root of the Depth, (roeafurcd from
the Centre of the Orifice to the Surface of the Water,) and
multiply by forae One of the following Numbers, accordinj
to the CircumllancK of the Cafe.

I.

When it is required to know
the Velocity in Feet per Second

II.

When it is required to know
the Velocity in Feet per Minute

If the Depth

is in Feet
multiply by

If tha Depth
is in Inches
multiply by

If the Depth
is in Feet

multiply by

If the Depth
is in Inches
multiply by

To find the Number ot

Cubic Feet of Water

which flow per Minute

through each Squftre

Ineli of the Area.

Kthe
Depth is
in Feet

extract the

SquHre

RtH)t and

multiply by

If ihe

Depth is

in Inches

extract tlie

Square

Root and

multiply by

For a (hort
cylindrical
pipe from
two to .
four times
as long as
the bore,

For orifices in a thin plate
For the openings of fluices or
apertures in the fide or internal
walls of the refervoir, without
any fide walls which can ferve
to conduft the particles of wa-
ter in a ftream to the aperture
" I. When it projefts
withinfide the vefTel
and does not run
with a full bore of [>
water, but in form
of a contrafted vein
within the tube

2. When it projefts
withinfide the veflel
but runs with a full
bore of water

3. When it does not
prujeft withinfide
of the veflel -

Fornarrow openings, of which the
bottom is on a level with that of
the refervoir. Alfo for fmaller
openings of fluices, when pro-
vided with fide walls to conduft
the water to the aperture; alfo ■
for the water-paflage under
bridges which have fquare piers
with abrupt projeftions, which
do not conduft the water regu-
larly into the paflage

For wide openings, of which the"
bottom is on a level with that
of the refervoir ; alfo for large
fluices with condufting walls
in the direftion of the ftream }>
and for the water-way beneath
bridges vnth pointed piers,
which conduft the water into
the paflage

For a circular orifice or tube formed '
correfpondent to the contrafted ■
ftream - - - -

For the whole velocity due to the '
height according to the theo- ■
rems for falUng bodies

.618

.636

•5137

.681

.8125

.860

.960

•983

1. 000

4-957

4. 1 19

5.46
6.515

6.9

7-7

7.884

8.019

1-431

1.472

1. 190

1.576

1.881

.992

2.223

2.276

2.3148

297-45

306.

247.14

327.6

390-9

414.

462.

473-04

481.14

85.87

88.32

71.40

112.86

119.52

133-38 3-2o8

136.56

138.888 3.349

.065

•59633

2.125 -^133

1.716

94.56 2.275

2.729

2.875

3-285

.4958

.6566

-7837

.830

.9262

-9483

.9645

WATER.

To apply thefe rules for gauging fluices, the following
nieafures muft be taken, i. The perpendicular depth of
the bottom of the aperture beneath the furface of the water.

2. The perpendicular depth of the top of the aperture.

3. The horizontal width of the opening. Then, taking the
difference between the two firll meafures leaves the height
of the opening.

^ote. — If the aperture is not in a vertical plane, but in-
clined, as is frequently the cafe in mill-fluices, then the
width of the opening muft be meafured on the flope ; but
the depths muft always be taken perpendicularly beneath
the furface of the water.

To make the calculation, find the mean velocity of the
effluent water, by calculating the velocity due to the depth
of the top of the aperture, and alfo for the bottom of the
aperture, and take a mean of the two.

Note. — When the height of the aperture is lefs than one-
fourth of the whole depth, then the velocity due to the depth
of the centre of the aperture will be very near the truth.

Having found the mean velocity in feet, multiply it by
the number of fquare feet in the area of the aperture, and it
will give the quantity difcharged, in cubic feet.

Example I. — A fluice, which is four feet wide, is opened
or drawn feven inches, and the depth of water above the
centre of the orifice is ten feet. The edges of the fluice
are cut fharp, fo that the borders of the orifice are hke a
thin plate. What is the velocity and difcharge per minute
in cubic feet ?

The fquare root of 10 is 3.162, which x 297.45 from the
table, gives 940.6 feet per minute, for the mean velocity of
the water.

The area of the aperture is 4 feet, which x 7inches,= 28 -r
12= 2.333 fquare feet, for the area of the aperture ; there-
fore, multiply 940.6 by 2.333, ^"^ ^^^ ^^'^^ 2194 cubic
feet per minute, for the quantity difcharged.

If the depth had been exprelTed in inches, it would have
been 120. The fquare root of this is 10.95, andthis multiplied
by 85.87, gives 940.6 feet per minute for the velocity, as be-
fore. In like manner, the table gives the proper multipliers
for finding the velocity in ket per fecond, if it is required.

If it was only required to obtain the quantity difcharged,
we may proceed more direftly, thus. The depth is 10
feet, and the fquare root is 3.162, x by 2.065, ^^^ number
taken from the laft column but one of the table, and we
have 6.529 cubic feet, which are difcharged per minute
from every fquare inch of the aperture. The aperture is
48 inches, this x 7 = 336 fquare inches, this x 6.529 =
2194 cubic feet difcharged as before.

If the depth had been 120 inches, then the fquare root of
that number = 10.95, ^^'^ '1^'^ ^ •59^3' ^^^ number in the
laft column gives 6.529, as the laft.

Another method is, to calculate the theoretic difcharge,
and then make a proper reduftion, by multiplying by the
decimal number in the firft column. Thus, by our firft
table of velocities, 120 inches deep = 152 1.8 feet per
minute, this x by 2.333 fquare feet, the area of the aperture
gives 3550 cubic feet per minute for the theoretic difcharge.
The tirft column of the prefent table (hews that the real
difcharge is only .618 of the theoretic difcharge ; therefore,
multiply 3550 cubic feet by .618 =: 2194 cubic feet for
the real difcharge, as in all the former cafes.

This latter method is very convenient, becaufe we can
apply a different correftion in different cafes, according to
difcretion, and the table of velocities facilitates the calcula-
tion very much.

Example 2. — A flour-mill was worked by the water

which ran through a (huttle four feet wide, the depth to tl.c
bottom of the aperture was 22 inches, and the fhuttle was
aravvn up one mch and one-quarter, fo that the depth to the
top of the aperture was 20.75 '"ches ; what is the expen-
diture per minute ?

The full velocity due to 22! <- ^ r

inches depth is by the table j ^J'-'^ feet/^r minute.
Ditto - . for 2o|- 632.7

2)1284.3

64 2 . 1 5 mean velocity per min ,

Note.— A-i 20.75 is not to be found in the table,
take 2o| ^ 628.8, and add to it half the difference between
2oi and 21, v'fz. 3.9 = 632.7 ktl per minute velocity for
20.75? *^ auOvt.

The area of the aperture 48 inches, x 1.25 inches = 60
fquare inches, - 144 = .4166 fquare feet. Multiply this
by the velocity — 642.15 feet, and it gives 267.5 cubic feet
per minute discharged according to theory.

To reduce this to the pradlical difcharge, multiply by
fomeof the numbers in the firft column of the Table oppo-
fite, according to the nature of the aperture. The fluice was
in a trough, nearly of its own dimenfioiis ; fo that the bottom
and fides nearly correfponded with the aperture ; therefore,
take .860, and x 267.5 g'^^s 238 cubic ket per minute.

It is very convenient to an engineer to be able to calculate
the difcharge of water by means of the flide-rule. This
he may do by means of the two lines ufually marked C and
P ; C being a line of logarithms, and D a line fimilarly
divided on a fcale twice as large. By means of thefe, the
fquare root of any number can be extracted and multiplied by
any number at one operation. To ufe it, find the multi-
plier which is to be ufcd, upon the line D, and fet the
Aider fo that 10 upon C will correfpond with it ; then feek
for the depth upon C, and oppofite to it upon D, the re-
quired velocity will be found.

Thus,
Line on the Cider marked C, depth in inches, i o

Line on the rule marked D, velocity in {eetper minute, 85.8
And in like manner for any other multipliers : for
inftance.
Line on the Aider marked C, depth in inches 10

Line on the rule marked D, cubic feet /fr minute

1

difcharged through a J- .596

fquare inch,

Mr. Eytelwein obferves, from Du Baat, that the difcharge
through an orifice communicating between two refervoirs,
and fituated beneath the furface of the water in the lower
refervoir, is the fame as if the water run into the open air,
taking the difference of level between the two furfaccs, for
the depth of the column ; he calculates the difcharge when
the water has to pafs through feveral orifices in the fides of
as many refervoirs open above. In fuch cafes, where the
orifices are fmall, the velocity in each may be confidered
as generated by the dift'crence of the heights in the two
contiguous refervoirs ; and the fquare root of the dilTerence
will therefore reprefent the velocity which muft be generated
in the feveral orifices, inverfely as their refpeftive areas, fo that
we may calculate from hence the heights of the different
refervoirs when the orifices arc given. Mr. Eytelwein alfo
confidcrs the cafe of a lock, which is filled from a canal of
Q 2 an

WATER.

an invariable height, and determines the time required, by-
comparing it with that of a veflel emptying itfelf by the
preffure of the water that it contains, obferving, that the
motion is retarded in both cafes in a fimilar manner, and
he finds the calculation agree fufBciently well with expe-
riments made on a large fcale.

Rules for meafur'wg the Quantity of Water which fows over
a Weir, or through an aperture in the Edge of a Board, the Stream
being open atTop. — If we fuppofe water running in a regular
fheet over the edge of a large ciftern or refervoir, or through
a reftangular aperture made in the perpendicular wall or
fide of the ciftern, but open at top, we may take the area
of the aperture, and proceed to find the velocity by calcu-
lation.

When this fubjeft has been confidered theoretically,
it has been affumed, that the furface of the water at
the place where it runs through the aperture, is with-
out motion, becaufe it ftands at the fame level with the
ftagnant water in the refervoir, and that the velocity
of the water at different depths will always be as the
fquare root of the depth ; that is, beginning at nothing at
the furface, the velocity at different depths will increafe by
that law.

We can find the velocity at the bottom of the aperture, or
at any intermediate depth, by the rules and table we have
already given ; but what we require is the mean velocity of
the whole (heet of water. We could obtain this nearly by cal-
culating the velocities for a great number of different depths,
increafing by regular intervals, and taking a mean of the
whole ; but we can effeft the fame with exaftnefs, if we take
two-thirds of the velocity at the bottom, and confider it as
the mean velocity of the whole body of water ; or, the ve-
locity due to four-ninths of the depth, will give the fame
refult.

In praftice we muft make allowance for lofs of motion by the
friftion of the water in pafling through the aperture, and alfo
becaufe the water does not fill the aperture to the fame level
as the ftagnant water in the refervoir. The motion of the
water extends fome diftance into the refervoir, and the water
will confequently have a floping furface from that part of
the furface where the motion begins ; the flope will con-
tinually increafe as the motion of the water accelerates, fo
as to form a convex furface, wliich is a portion of a para-
bolic curve ; hence the furface of the water where it is
pafling through the aperture will be in rapid motion, infleadof
being raotionlefs as the theory fuppofes, and the furface will
be much lower than the furface of the ftagnant water, fo
that the aperture will only be half full of water ; at leaft this
is the affertion of M. Du Buat. But Dr. Robifon ftates,
that he always found the depth of the water in the aperture
about .715 of the whole depth from the bottom of the aper-
ture to the level of the water in the refervoir.

M. Du Buat's theorem for the difcharge through an open
aperture, when reduced to Englifh meafures, is this : having
given the depth from the level furface of the water to the
bottom of the aperture, and alfo the width of the aperture
in inches, to find the difcharge in cubic inches per fecond.

Let it be remembered that 11. 449 1 cubic inches of
water, or 1 1.5, will be difcharged in a fecond, through every
inch in width of the aperture, when the bottom of it is ex-
aftly one inch beneath the level furface of the refervoir.
To obtain the difcharge for any other depths, this number
muft be multiplied by the fquare root of the cube of the
depth in inches, and it will give the cubic inches difcharged
per fecond through each incli in width of the aperture.
Example^ — Suppofe the depth of the bottom of the aper-

3

ture beneath the level furface of the water in the refervoir
to be 4 inches. The cube of this is 64, the fquare root of
which is 8 ; therefore, at that depth each inch in width will
difcharge 8 x 11.5 = 92 cubic inches ^^r fecond ; if the
width of the aperture was 3 feet, then 92 x 36 inches
= 3312 cubic inches, or 1.917 cubic feet, which x 60 fe-
conds = 11.J02 cubic ktX. per minute.

Dr. Robifon gives the following table, which is rather
greater than from the above theorem, and will be found
very exaft, when the aperture is made in a plank or
board half an inch or an inch thick, and fo fituated that the
fides and bottom of the refervoir do not corrcfpond with the
edge of the aperture, to lead the particles of water in a
current to the aperture.

Cubic Feet dlfchar^'ed per Minute throusih eacli

Depth from the Bot-

Inch of the Widtli of the Aperture.

tom of the Aperture
to the level Surface

of the Water, in
Inches.

In fmall Apertures of
lefs than IS Inches

wiile.

In larger Apertures
than la Inches.

I

0.403124

0.428

2

1. 140

1. 21 I

3

2.C95

Z.226

4

3.225

3-427

5

4.507

4.789

6

5.925

6.295

7

7.466

7-933

8

9.122

9.692

9

10.884

11.564

10

12.748

13-535

II

14.707

15.632

12

16.758

17.805

13

18.895

20.076

14

21. 117

22.437

»5

23.419

24.883

16

25.800

27-413

17

28.258

30.024

18

30.786

32.710

In taking the depth, if it does not exceed four inches, it
will not be exadf enough to take proportional parts for the
fraftions of an inch. The following method is exaft : if
there be odd quarters of an inch, look in the table for as
many inches as the depth contains quarters, and take the
eighth part of the anfwer. Thus, for 3|- inches take the
eighth part of 23.419, which correfponds to 15 inches.
This is 2.927.

If the aperture is not in the fide of a large refervoir, but in
a running ftream, we muft augment the difcharge, by multi-
plying the feftion by the velocity of the ftream. But this
correftion can feldom occur in praftice, becaufe in this cafe
tlie difcharge is previoufly known.

The amount of the allowance for friftion and lofs of
motion muft be different in different cafes, according to the
kind of aperture, or board over which the water flows ; but
will always be very nearly the fame as the allowance, for lofs
in an aperture or orifice of fimilar nature. For inftance, if
the edges of the aperture through which the water runs be
a thin plate, then we may find the velocity in feet per
minute due to the whole depth from the bottom of the
notch to the level furface of the water in the refervoir ; mul-
tiply the fquare root of the depth in inches by 85.87, as we

have

WATER.

have before direfted, and take two-tliirds of the produft for
the mean velocity ; this multiphed by the number of fquare
feet in the area of the feftion of the aperture, will give the
cubic quantity of water which flows per minute in cubic
feet. Note, in taking the area of the feftion, we muft meafure
the whole depth from the level furface, and multiply it by the
horizontal width of the aperture, and not fimply the feftion of
the water. This is becaufe, the theory upon which the rule
is founded fuppofes the water in the aperture to have no ve-
locity at the furface, and to be upon the level of the Handing
water. Neither of tliefe fuppofitions is true in reality,
but the refult is very nearly true, bfcaufe the feftion
of the moving water is diminilhed in proportion to the ve-

locity which the water has at the furface, and in eonfequence
the errors of the two alTumptions always correft each
other.

We have therefore only to apply a correft theorem to
obtain the velocity due to the whole depth, according to the
nature of the aperture, and take two-thirds of the produft.
All the neceffary information for this purpofe may be taken
from the table of multipliers laft given, for the velocity of
the difcharge through apertures ; or otherwife, if we take
the velocity at the bottom, and multiply it by the depth,
and take two-thirds of the produft, we fhall have the mean
velocity. But to make the fubjeft clear we (hall give
another table for this objeft.

Rules for obtaining the Velocities and Quantities of Water difcharged through reftangular Apertures, which are open

at Top.

Defcription of the Aperture.

Nb(e. — The depths are fuppofed to be roeafured from the level furface of the tvater
to the bottom of the aperture, in inches.

To find the mean \'e-
locity of the Water

running tlirough the

Aperture in Feet ^tr
Minute.

Rule. — Multiply ihe
Square Root of the
Depthin Inches, l>y
fome one of tlie fol-
lowing Numbers,
according to the
Cafe.

To find the Number of
Cubic Feet difcharged
per Minute through
each Inch in Width
of the Aperture,
liulc. — Multiply the
Square Root of the
Cube nf the Depth
in Inches, by foaie
One of the follow-
ing Numbers, ac-
cording to the Cafe.

For a fmall aperture ih one fide of a large refervoir, the bottom")
and fides of which do not correfpond with the aperture, fo as to I
lead the particles of water thereto in a ftream ; the edges of the |
aperture againft which the water runs is fuppofed to be fharp and
made of thin plate; the aperture not to exceed i8 inches long
and nine inches deep - . . - .

For an aperture under the fame circumftances as the former, but
made in a plank with edges from half to one inch thick

For an [aperture of great breadth and more than nine inches deep,
fuch as the weir or dam in a river ; it is fuppofed that the
water runs over the edge of a plank or wafte board, one or two
inches thick .....

For an aperture of which the bottom is on a level with the bottom")
of the refervoir, or for a weir which occupies the whole breadth
of a river, and where the water flows over the top of a broad
ftone-wall fo floped as to condudl the water to the paffage -_

For the full difcharge according to theory, fuppofing no lofs from'
friclion. Very large and deep weirs will come near to this

57.24^5

•39754

58.0493

.40312

58.88

.40886

88.92

.6174

9J.592

.6430

When the aperture occupies nearly or the whole width of
the refervoir, there is no level furface of the water above the
aperture, becaufe the water is continually ruiniing towards
the aperture in a llream ; fuch is the cafe of a tveir acrofs a
river, or when water fpouts out of the open end of a reft-
angular trough.

It is extremely difficult to meafure the exaft height of
the water above the bottom of the aperture, for the curva-
ture of the furface of the water will begin feveral feet up
the (Iream before it arrives at the aperture ; and there muft
be fomething arbitrary in the meafurement, becaufe the fur-
face of tlie water, even where there is no curvature, is not
horizontal but (loping, when the w.-iter is in motion. In
fucli cafes, the depth muil be taken beneath the inchncd fur-
face of the water, if we fuppofe the fame prolonged until it
reaches the aperture, which can eafily be done, by ilretching

a fine along the furface of the water fo as to correfpond
therewith, at the part above where the curvature com-
mences.

We muft alfo make fome addition to the difcharge, on ac-
count of the motion which the water po{re(res before it comes
to the aperture ; to do this with accuracy, we may meafure
the regular velocity of the ftream, by throwing in floating
bodies, and obferving tlie dillance they pafs through in a
given time, taking care that we make this obfervation at a
part of the channel, where the furface is in a regular motion
and not in a ftate of acceleration, becaufe what we want is
the velocity of the water at that point where the curvature
begins, in eonfequence of the defcent through the aperture.
Now Avhen the channel is not of an uniform breadth and
depth, as in a mill-dam for inftance, tlie velocity of every
part of the ftream is different, we (hall then find difficulty in

meafuring

WATER.

mcafuring the velocity by floating bodies, and mull apply the
wheel ftream-meafure before defcribed ; this will give the pre-
cife velocity of the furface at any given fpot, and we (hould
choofe that place where the curvature begins. The velocity
fo obtained we muft add to the mean velocity, and find the
difcharge by multiplying the fum by the area of the aper-
ture.

Example. — Suppofe the depth of the bottom of the aper-
ture to be eight inches beneath the line of the furface of
the water ; that the width of the aperture is four feet, and
that the aperture is in a thin plate with (harp edges. Alfo
that the ft ream is found by the wheel to move with a velo-
city of thirty feet per minute, at the place where the furface
of water begins to deviate from its regular Hope, and to af-
fume a curvature.

Then take the numbers 57.246 from the firft cafe in our
laft table, and multiply it by 2.83, which is the fquare root
of eight (tiie depth) ; thus 57246 X z.83 = 162 feet/i-r
minute, for the mean velocity of the water ; to this add
30 feet for the previous motion = 192 feet /ifr minute. The
area of the aperture is 8 inches, or .66 feet x 4 feet =
2.66 fquare feet. Multiply 192 feet velocity by 2.66, and
we have 510.72 cubic feet per minute, for the quantity dif-
charged.

IVater-Gauge for meafurtng the Quantity of Water afforded

by any Spring or Brook The molt accurate and convenient

method for this purpofe, is to conftruft a temporary bank
or dam to intercept the ftream, and pen it up into a pond,
then in the bank or dam fix a board with an aperture in it
for the water to flow through. By meafuring the width and
depth of the aperture as before explained, the quantity can
be calculated by the rules already given.

This is what Mr. Smeaton called the water-gauge, and is

Refuh.'! of Thirteen Experiments on the Difcharge of Wat'
tlnough an Aperture open at Top, made by Meflrs. Smeai
ton and Brindley, and M. Du Buat.

i

Depth, in
Inches, from
the level Sur-

Cuhic Feet difchar^ed per

Minute, afcertained by

Obferva'ion,

Cubic Feet difehargcd per

Minute by each Injh in
Width, as afceriained by
Calculation, i

face 10 the

Bottom of tlie

Notch,

Inches.

the Notch

being fix

Inches wide.

by each Inch
in Width.

by the Num-
ber .403124.

by theNum-
ber .39754.

I.

2-75

•4583

•403

•397

1.25

3-68

•613

.36

•554

1-375

4.07

.678

.646

.64

1.625

5-1

.85

•83

.825

• 1-778

5-75

.958

.958

-94

2.312

8.63

1.438

1.42

1.40

3125

1 1.9

2.15

2.22

2.2

* 3-2

13-9

2.316

2-3

2.26

• 4.665

24.4

4.066

4.05

■4.90

5-

26.1

4-35

4-5

4-45

5.625

28.5

4-75

5-35

5-3°

6.5

40.

6.66

^•7

6.57

* 6.753

42.6

7.083

7.06

7-

The two laft columns of the table are deduced from cal-
culation, and agree fo well vrith the obfervations as to give
every confidence m the rules. The laft column is calculated
on the fuppofition that the aperture is made in a thin plate ;
but the laft column but one is according to Dr. Robifon's
number, and agrees more nearly with the truth. We believe

of moft important ufe, to afcertain the quantity of water that Mr. Smeaton's experiment! were made on an aperture
which can be procured to fupply a canal, or for a town, or in a board one inch thick ; the aperture was fix inches wide,
a mill, or any other purpofe : it is the neceffary prelude for M. Du Buat's four experiments, denoted by * m the
undertaking any fuch kind of work, and all perfons em- table, were in an aperture 184 inches wide, which we
ployed in fuch purfuits, fliould underftand the manner of have reduced to fix inches, in order to compare them
fixing up a gauge, and making the neceffary obfervations. with Mr. Smeaton's. In making this comparifon, we
The dam mult be of fuch a height as to pen up the water have not rejefted any experiment, as we were obliged to

' do in the cafe of difcharge through the apertures beneath
the furface.

Self-regifier'mg Water-Gauge. — When the produce of a fpring
or ftream is required with great accuracy, the depth of the wa-
ter flowing through the gauge muft be taken very frequently

into a tolerable large pond compared with the aperture, fo
that the furface of water Ihall have no fenfible inclinatio:i or
run towards the aperture ; and to avoid this, the larger the
pond is the better. The water muft have fo much fall
down from the aperture, as to flow away in a clear ftream

perfeftly free from all obftruiSion of the water below; but during a whole feafon, and a mean of all the refults obtained,
it fhould not fpout out fo as to fall far in the air. This would require the conftant attendance of an intelhgent
The aperture fhould be a reiEtangular notch cut in the perfon, and would be hable to miftakes ; but a fmall ma-
edge of a broad plank ; it will be beft to make the length of chine may be made to fhew the depth by infpeftion, fo that
the notch fome even number of inches, as 6, 8, 12, or 24, any careful perfon can keep the account. Thus, at the
and the depth correfpondent to the quantity expeifted to fide of the water-gauge, fix up a wooden or tin cyhnder or

flow through the aperture.

We recommend that the edges of the aperture be cut
fharp, or even faced with a flip of metal plate, and then
our firft rule in the laft table will apply with great accu-
racy. The more common praftice is, to ufe a plank of one
inch thick, and leave the edges of the aperture of that
thicknefs, only rounding off" the fharp angles : in this cafe,
the fecond theorem in our table muft be ufed; but this is lefs
certain, becaufe the lofs of motion from refiftance will not
bear a conftant portion in different depths, for the thicknefs
of the plank is a conftant quantity, and therefore bears a
different proportion to the quantity difcharged, in every
cafe of a different depth.

The accuracy of our rules, when applied to water-gauges,
will appear from the following table.

trunk, which is open at the bottom, fo that the water can en-
ter freely. In this trunk, or tube, let a float be placed, having
a fmall light rod attached to the float that will rife up from
it, and appear above the top of the trunk ; this part muft
be divided into inches and tenths, and muft have fome
index fixed to the trunk to read the divifions by. This
apparatus muft be carefully adjufted ; in the firft inftance, by
the perfon who fixes the gauge, fo that its divifions will corre-
fpond with the depth of water meafured very exactly in the
way we have direded ; then the float will ever after rife and
fall with the furface of the water, and will fhew the depth
without any neceflity of referring to the original mode of
meafurement, unlefs it be to verify the adjuftment. It is
obvious that fuch an apparatus muft be fixed fo, that it can-
not be deranged either by deCgn or accident. The tube
2 i:.

WATER.

in which the float acts fliould be in the Hill water fome feet
above the plank in which the aperture is made, and have a
proper box, or cover, which can be locked up, to fecure the
whole. The float (hould be a hollow copper ball, or a glafs
bottle, becaufe wood or cork floats abforb the water, and fink
deeper therein ; and the rod of wood Ihould be well painted.
A flill more perfeft water-gauge is obtained by a fmall ma-
chine to keep the regifter ; for this purpofe, let an eight-day
clock of the ordinary conftruftion be fixed up in a kind
of centry-box, or fmall houfe, over the gauge ; this is to be
connected by wheel-work, with a cylindrical barrel, which
is to be placed in a perpendicular direftion, and made to turn
round once in a week by the clock ; a fheet of paper is
wrapped round the barrel, and fattened upon it in the fame
manner as paper is faftened on a drawing-board.

The perpendicular ftem of the float mull have a fmall pencil
attached to it, with a flight fpring to caufe it to bear againft
the paper on the circumference of the cylinder, fo as to mark
•jpon it : in this way the pencil marks, at a different part of
the length of the cylinder whenever the float rifes or falls, and
the cylinder turning regularly on its axis by means of the
clock, caufes thefe rifings and fallings to be marked on dif-
ferent parts of the ftieet of paper, fo that when it is removed
from the cyhnder it will have a curved line traced upon it,
which fliews all the increments and decrements of rife and
fall, and affords an exaft regifter of the flow of water,
v;hich may be reduced to cubic meafure, by our rules already
given.

A different kind of water-gange has been propofed by M.
De Baader : two large cafl<s or other veffels are to be fixed
fide by fide, in fuch pofition, that the fl;ream of water may
be poured into either of them by a fpout or trough. The
fpout is fo contrived, as to turn the llream into one or other
of the vcflels at pleafure, with the greateft eafe, but the
dream cannot run into both at once. In each veffel is a
large float which is ccwnefted with a perpendicular fl:em,
fo that the ftem rifes or falls with the float, as the veffels
fill or empty ; alfo at the bottom of each veffel is a valve,
or fluicc, to allow the water to run out from it, and the
perpendicular ftem from the float is provided with means to
npen this fluicc, whenever the veffel is full of water, and the
Boat rifes to the top, or to fliut the fluice whenever the vef-
fel is empty ; and the fame aftion turns the ftream of fupply
■"rom the veflcl which is fuD, into that which is empty. In
;his way, the two veffels aft alternately to receive the water,
ind meafure it, for while the fpout runs into one veffel its
loat rifes until the veffel is quite full ; the float then turns
he fpout and ftream into the other veffel, which we fup-
lofe to be already empty, and at the fame moment it will
jpen the valve in the bottom of the full veffel ; the water
hen begins to run out of the full veffel and to fill the other,
s-hich becoming full in turn, its float opens the valve in its
)Ottom. In this way the machine continues to meafure the
rater, and is provided with a fmall counting machine to re-
after the number of reciprocations it has made.

We have now, as far as our limits will allow, given all the
loft ufeful and praftical rules for meafuring flowing water ;
nd fliall conclude by obferving, that this is one of the moft
itricate and difficult fubjefts in hydraulics, and that no en-
ineer can be tuUy competent to dircft the execution of large
■orks without ftudyingthe fubjeft much farther than we have
een able to enter into it. Many untried cafes, and combina-
lons of cafes, will continually arife, which cannot be decided
y any previous knowledge. As a refource for fuch occafions,
c fliould be well verfed in the theory of the fubjcft, fo as to
lodify the rules laid down for fimple cafes, and adapt them
i> his particular cafe, as far as theory can aflift him.

If he only purfucs the rules laid down by others, without
any knowledge of theory, and without entering into the
realon and ongm of the rules, his experience wiU not be
ot much avail, becaufe he will be unable to correft and im-
prove the rules by his own obfervations, or if he attempts
to do fo, he may completely fpoil them, by making them
falfe m many cafes, in order to obtain truth in fome one cafe.

To attain the knowledge to which we allude, the follow-
ing authors may be confulted.

Julius Frontinus, De Aquseduftibus urbis Roma Com-
mentarius ; written about the year loo, in the time of the
emperors Nerva and Trajan. This contains all the know-
ledge of the ancients on this fubjeft. It is printed in
Graevii Thefaurus Antiquitatum Romanorum, vol. iv.
1630 and 1780. A new edition was alfo pubhflied.

Caftelli, a difciple of Galileo, Delia Mefura dell' acque
correnti, 1628.

TorricelU De Motu Gravium Naturaliter Accelerato,
1643. In this work we find the origin of the propofition,
that the velocities of iff'uing fluids are as the fquare roots of
the depths.

Raphel Fabrettus de Aquis et Aqueduftibus veteris
Romas, 1679.

Marriotte, Traite du Mouvements des eaux, 1686. This
work contains a great number of experiments on the motion
of fluids, and particularly on jets of fpouting fluids ; but
the reafoning is frequently erroneous.

Guglielmini, La Mefura dell' acque correnti Alfo,

Delia Natura dell Fuimi, Bologn. 1697.

Guglielmini de Fluviis et CafteDis Aquarum. Thefe
contain a theory which has long fince been exploded. He
firft attempted to apply the principles of falhng bodies to
the motion of waters in open canals and rivers.

Polenus, De Motu aqua: Mixto, Patav. 1697, 1718, 1723.

Parent Mem. Acad. Par. 1700.

Newton's Principia, 1687. This work contains the doc-
trine, that the velocity of a fpouting fluid is equal to that
which a heavy body .acquires in falling through half the depth
of the column ; but which is not correft. And in the fecond
edition, 1713, Newton firft points out the contrafted vein,
and the proportion of its area to that of the orifice to be, as
.707 to I.

Polenus De Caftellis per qusE derivantur fluviorum aqua:,
Padua, 1 7 1 8. He ftates the area of the contrafted vein to be
.571 of the area of the orifice, and he difcovered, that more
water is yielded by a cyhndrical pipe than by a fimple
orifice.

Michelotti, De Separatione Fluidorum in Corpore Ani-
male, 1719.

Dr. Jurin, " On the Motion of running Water," pub-
lifned in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1718 and 1722.
Lowthorp's Abridgment, vol. vi. p. 341.

Raccolta De Autori die Trattano dell Moto dell' acque,
3 torn. 4to. Florence, 1723. This moft valuable collec-
tion contains the writings of Archimedes, Albizi, Galileo,
Caftelli, Michclini, Borelli,Montanari, Viviani, Caflini, Gug-
lielmini, Grandi, Manfredi, Picard, and Narducci ; and an
account of the numberlefs works which have been carried
on, in the imbankment of the river Po in Italy.

M. Couplet, Des Recherches fur le Mouvement des eaux
dans les tuyaux de conduit. Memoires de I'Acad. 1732.
This is on the motion of water in pipes, and is given by
Belidor in his Arch. Hydraulique.

Architefture Hydraulique ou I'Art de Conduire d'elever
et de menager les eaux pour les differens befoins de la vie,
in 4 vols. 4to. par M. Belidor, Commiffaire Provincial
d'Artilleric, Paris, 1739.

Daniel

WATER.

from Cotnifton and Swanfton, in leaden and iron pipes ;
but the fupply is very inadequate to the fize of the
city.

When water is to be conveyed in an open canal, like the
New River, the manner of fetting out and executing the
work is fo nearly the fame as for a navigable canal, that it
is unn'ecefTary to fay more than we have already given in
our article Canal, except the rules for calculating the ne

courfe, which is a channel of ftone, and on each fide of it is
a narrow path wJth a parapet, which renders it fafe to walk
along the fide of the aqueduft when it requires cleaning or
repairing.

In the Philofophical Tranfaftions, it is ftated that this
aqueduft is 2560 fathoms in length, and confifts of 242
arches ; the fpan of each is 65 fathoms, and the thicknefs
of each pillar to futlain the arches 4 fathoms. On the fide

ceflary flope or defcent to produce the required velocity of of the valley next to Maintenon, there are thirty-three fingle '

the water ; and the beft theorem for this purpofe we have
already given in the preceding part of the prefent article.

We (hall only add a few particulars of fome of the largeft
modern aquedufts for conveying water.

Aqucduas. — BeUdor ftates, in his Architefture Hydrauli-
que, that one of the fineft fubterraneous aquedufts in France
is that of Arcueil, which condufts the water from many
coUcfting channels in a ftone channel. It is fituated in the
countries of Rungis, Paret, and Coutin. This aqueduft is
14,920 yards in length, and is conftrufted in free-ftone ; it
extends from the valley d'Arcueil to an elevated water-ciftern,
or chateau d'eau, which is at the Porte St. Jaques. The chan-
nel has an inchnation of 6 inches in 400 yards, or i in 2400.

On each fide of the water-courfe is a raifed foot-path
19 inches wide, upon which a pcrfon can walk as far as the
village d'Arcueil. The height of the paffage from the bot-
tom of the water-trough to the under fide of the arch is 6^
feet, except in fome places where they have been obliged
to make them lefs, in confequence of the high roads beneath
which it pafTes.

Another fubterraneous aqueduft of this kind is that of
Rocquancourt, which conveys water to Verfailles ; it is
3623 yards in length, and in all the length has an inclination
of only 31 feet, which was the utmolt that could be given
it. To conftrudl this aqueduft, they were obhged in many
places to dig to a depth of 30 yards, which rendered the
execution of it very difficult. One hundred and fifty (hafts
were made in the length of this aqueduft. They were not
made at equal diftances, but only in fuch places as would
facilitate the conveyance of materials ; eighty of them were
lined with ftone, and the other feventy, which were not
required to laft longer than during the conftriiftion, were
only lined with wood, and ftopped up afterwards with a
dome of mafonry, and filled up with earth to the level of the
furface.

This aqueduft coft 325,000 livres. From 1675 to '^7^
it never yielded more than 6 pouces of water, and fome
times gave only 5, 4, 3, or even 2 pouces, according as the
dry feafons were of greater or lefs duration. The pouce de
fontainier is a meafure of running water ufed by French en-
gineers, which amounts to about .48 Engli(h cubic feet
ptr minute ; hence the 6 pouces would be 2.88 cubic feet
per minute.

A pond was made in 1685 at the head of this aqueduft,
to drain a country called Trou d'Enfer ; and fince then it
has given lo and 12 pouces, i. e. 4.8 and 5.76 cubic ieiX. per
minute.

When water is condufted in an open channel, it fre-
quently becomes necelTary to crofs deep valleys ; in this cafe,
the channel mud be fupported on arches like a bridge. This
was the objeft of thofe vaft Roman aquedufts, of which we
find the remains at Nimes, Aries, Frejus, &c. The great-
eft modern ivorksof this kind are thofe conftrufted in the time
of Louis XIV. to conduft water to Verfailles and Marly.
One of thcfe is the aqueduft of Maintenon, for conveying
the river Bnre to Verfailles : it confifts of three courfes of
arches, raifed one above the other, to fupport the water-

arches, afterwards feventy-one double ones, ( that is, having
one arch upon another,) then forty-fix treble ones ; at this
part the water-courfe is generally 216 feet 6 inches high from
the ground up to the floor of the water channel ; afterwards
there are feventy-two double arches, then twenty fingle ones,
which laft reach to a mound of earth, which is raifed 50 feet
high above the ground for a great diftance.

The general height from the ground up to the fecond ar-
cade or row of arches is 16 fathoms ; from the fecond row
to the third or upper arcade 14 fathoms ; in the upper ar-
cade, the arches are double the number of thofe they ftand
upon ; above this is 6 fathoms 6 inches more to the door of
the channel, which is at leaft 7 feet high befides the pa-
rapet.

The pillars at the ground are 8 fathoms thick, but with
the Hopes and (hortenings, which are made in every ftory ;
the top where the channel runs is reduced to 20 feet broad.
There is likewife at each pillar a buttrefs projefting one
fathom, and two fathoms wide to ftrengthen the pillars.

There is another great aqueduft raifed on arches in the
Plaine de Bue, which condufts water to Verfailles from the
Plaine de Scale. This is built with two ranks of arches,
and the lower ones are fo much wider than the upper, as to
aflford room for a carriage-way acrofs the valley about half
as high up as the water-courfe. Drawings of thefe great
works are given by Belidor.

It ij difficult to determine the exaft (lope which (hould
be given to a water-courfe, in order to conduft a given quan-
tity of water; it can only be known by calculation accord-
ing to the rules we have already given, and which are founded
upon experience. Vitruvius recommended a flope of i foot
fall in 200 feet in length ; but Behdor fays this is much more
than is necelTary, and that i foot fall in 3600 feet of length is
quite fufficient, when the channel is ftraight without elbows,
or fudden angles, or if the bends at fuch angles are by eafy
curves, fo that the water is not retarded in changing its di-
reftion. He remarks, that the canal from the pool of
Trappes, made by M. Picard to conduft the water to Ver-
failles, had 9 inches flope in 1000 fathoms, or l foot fall in
7998 feet long. When the water was run into this, it took
four hours to run 8526 yards, though it was urged by a pref-
fure of 38.3 inches. Alfo that the aqueduft of Rocquan-
court before mentioned has only 3 pieds fall in all its length,
which is 1700 toifes, that is, i foot fall in 3400 feet of length.
Whence Btlidor direfts as a general rule t0 make the fall
I inch in 100 yards, that is, l foot in 3600 feet, provided the
bottom of the trough is of fmooth (tone, and not muddy.
This is the leall which can be allowed, and more may be
given when the relative levels between the two places will
admit of a more rapid defcent.

On the Conveyance of Water in Pipes — This is an objeft of
great importance. The ancients condufted water in pipes
only down hill ; but never carried it up again, not knowing
that water would rife to its own level ; but we can conduft
water to very great diftances, and bring it from one moun-
tain to another in pipes, which defcend into the intermediate
valleys and rife again, provided that the fpring or place from

which

WATER.

which the water comes is fomewhat higher than the other
end where the water is to be delivered. The water would
indeed (hew itfelf at the fame level at one end of the pipe as
at the other, but it would not run out ; and in all cafes with
the fame fize pipe, the quantity of water given will increafe
in proportion as the receptacle at the difcharge is below the
fpring at the other end of the pipe. Hence, if there is a
great deal of water to be conveyed to a place fituated but
Tittle lower than the level of the original fpring, a very large
pipe mull be ufed to convey any given quantity. But the
fame quantity may be conveyed in a fmaller pipe, and con-
fequently at lefs expence, if the refervoir is much below the
original level.

If the diftance is great, the length of the pipes will con-
fiderably diminifh the quantity of water brought through
them, in confequence of the friftion of the water againft the
fides of the pipes ; this cannot be prevented, and we muft
make the bore of the pipe larger, in proportion to the length,
if the water be in fuch quantity and fo much wanted as to
make it worth the expence. The rules for calculating the
proper fize of pipes we have already given.

Defaguliers mentions an experiment which he made upon
a leaden pipe, wiiofe inward diameter was i|^ inch, and found
that at 1400 yards diftance from the fpring of water that
fupplied it, it did not give a tenth part of the water that it
would have given at thirty yards from the fpring, though
both places were at the fame depth below the furface.

All care (liould be taken in the conflruAion of a conduit-
pipe, to avoid obilruftions occafioned by lumps of folder hang-
ing in the infide of the pipes, or by roughnefs at the joints,
if the pipes are put together by fcrew-joints. All the cocks
and plugs in the pipe (hould have water-ways fully equal to
the fedion of the pipe.

Thofe who execute water-works are moft tempted to fail
in this point by making the cocks too fmall, becaufe large
cocks are very expenfive.

The engineer fhould be fcrupuloufly attentive to this, for
a fingle contraftion of this kind may occafion the extra ex-
pence of many hundred pounds in making a large pipe to be
thrown away, becaufe if the pipe will yield no more water
than can pafs through the fmall cock, it would have been
as well to have laid a fmall pipe all the length.

It is of the moft material confequence that there be no con-
traftion in any part of a conduit, and it is alfo prudent to
avoid all unnecefTary enlargements ; for when a pipe is full
of water moving along it, the velocity in every feftion muft
be inverfely proportional to the area of the feftion : hence
the velocity is diminifhed wherever the pipe is enlarged ; and
it muft again be increafed where the pipe contrafts.

This cannot be done without expending force in the ac-
celeration ; and confuming part of the impelling power,
whether it be that of a column of water, or the force of a
machine.

No advantage can be gained by the flow motion which
takes place at every enlargement in a pipe ; but every con-
traction, by requiring a reftoration of the former velocity,
employs a part of the impelling force ; this force muft be
equal to the weight of a column of water whofe bafe is the
contrafted palTage, and whofe height is fufficient to produce
that velocity with which the water mull pafs through the
contraftion.

This point has often been overlooked by engineers of the
firit eminence ; and has, in many inftances, impaired the per-
formance of their beft works.

Another point, which muft be attended to in the conduft-
ilig of water through pipes is, that the motion of the water
ftiould not be by pulfations, but continuous. When the

water is to be driven along a pipe by the ftrokes of a reci-
procatmg engine, it fliould firft be forced into an air-veffel,
that the elafticity of the confined air may preferve an uniform
motion along the whole length of pipe. If the water is
fufFered to reft at every fuccefTive ftroke of the pifton, the
whole mafs muft again be put in motion through all the
length of the pipe. This requires a ufelefs expenditure of
power, over and above the force which may be neceffary for
raifing or conveying the water to its deftination. By employ-
ing an air-veffel and double or treble adling pumps we remove
this imperfedlion, becaufe it keeps up the motion in the
intervals between the ftrokes of the pifton. The cora-
preffion of the air by the aftive ftroke of the pifton muft be
fuch as to continue the impulfe during the momentary inac-
tivity of the pump.

Pipes are fubjeft to obftrudlions from the depoCtion of
fand or mud in the lower parts of the pipes, and from the
coUedlion of air in the upper parts of their bendings. The
velocity of the water ftiould always be very moderate, and
then fuch depofitions of heavy matters are unavoidable ;
care ftiould therefore be taken to have the water freed from
all impurities, before it enters the pipe by proper fil-
tration ; and to difcharge the fediment which is unavoidable,
there ought to be cleanfing plugs at the lower parts of the
bendings, or rather a very little way beyond them. When
thefe are opened, the water will iffue with greater velocity,
and carry the depofitions with it.

It is much more difficult to get rid of the air which
chokes the pipes, by lodging in their upper parts. This air
is fometimes taken in along with the water at the refervoir^
when the entry of the pipe is too near the furface ; but it is
eafy to avoid this fource of the air, by making the water
enter the pipe beneath the furface. For if the entry of the
pipe is two feet under the furface of the water at the fpring,
no air can ever get in, and a float may be placed over the
entry, with a lid hanging from it to flaut the pipe before the
water runs too low.

Air is difengaged from fpring-water by the motion of the
water in paffing along the pipe. When pipes are fupplied
by an engine, air is very often drawn in by the pumps. It
is alfo difengaged from its ftate of chemical union, when
the pumps have a fuftion-pipe of ten or twelve feet, which
is very common. In whatever way it is introduced, it col-
lefts in all the upper part of bendings, and accumulates
till it will choke the paffage, fo that fcarcely any water will
be delivered.

To illuftrate this, fuppofe that the water of a fpring, or
coUeftion of fprings, is to be conveyed through a pipe to
the place of delivery, at a mile or half a mile diftant from
the fpring ; and that the ground, over which the pipe is
carried, has many undulations, and afcents and defccnts,
where it pafles over fmall intermediate hills and valleys.
We will fuppofe the place of declivity to be but a httle
lower than the water at the fpring, for example 9 or 10
feet. If the furface of the water in the fpring comes down
to the entrance-mouth of the pipe, or only near it, much
air will run down with the water into the pipe ; and where-
ever the ground rifes in the courfe of the pipe, this air will
lodge itfelf in the upper parts of the bends of the pipe,
and thereby diminifli the water-way fo as to force the
water to pafs through a paflage of one.fifth or one-fixth,
fometimes one-tenth of the proper bore of the pipe when
full.

Sometimes, though no air Ihould get into the mouth at

the fpring, there will be thefe lodgments of air from the

firft running of the water ; for when the water firft enters

into the pipe, if after coming down from the fpring it has

R r to

WATER.

to rife again, to pafs the furamit of a fmall hill, it will run
over the eminence without carrying all the air before it, as
it had done in other parts of the pipe, before it arrived at
fuch eminence. Hence feme air is left in the highefl part of
the bend, but the Water which pafles by the air runs forward
and fills the pipe again in the defcending part, and fo goes
on in a full bore, till it comes to the next eminence, where
it again runs over the higheft part of the rifing pipe, leav-
ing a fpace of air at top, which diminifhes the water-way.
Then filhng the pipe full again, it proceeds till its next
rifing, and there the water-way is again contrafted by the
air.

To clear the pipe of this air, if the pipe is of lead, the
common way, as praftifed by plumbers, is thus : at every
rifing ground the pipe is laid bare at the higheft place, and
a nail is driven into the upper fide of the pipe, fo as to make
a hole through the metal. Whilft the nail is flicking in, the
lead is hammered all round the nail, with the pen of the ham-
mer, fo as to make a little button or fpout. When the nail
is withdrawn, the air viill blow out violently, till at laft the
water wiU fucceed the air ; and with a ftroke or two with
the face of the hammer the hole can be quite flopped up.

This is done at every eminence of the pipe, until all the
air is difcharged, and tlie full quantity of water will be de-
livered at the oppofite end of the pipe. If the mouth
of the pipe at the fpring never receives any air, by the defcent
of the furface of the water, the pipe may give its full quan-
tity for years.

The vi'ay to know when the whole water is delivered is to
meafure it, when the pipe has been fully cleared of air, as
above-mentioned ; and when by meafure, the quantity of
water appears to be deficient, the pipe muft again be cleared
of air or other obftruftions.

If the fpring is much higher than the place of delivery,
the places where the air will accumulate in the pipe will not
be juft at the higheft part of the pipe, but a httle beyond
it ; becaufe the water running with more velocity and force,
drives the lodged air ftill forward down the pipe, and it
muft lodge in the part where the pipe begins to defcend
again, its own tendency to afcend to the top being counter-
afted by the motion of the water. In this cafe, the nail-hole
muft be made beyond the greateft elevation, or elfe the run
of the pipe muft be ftopped for fome time, fo that the
water may ceafe to be in motion, the air will then go back
gradually to the higheft part of the pipe, where it may be
let out.

Suppofe that the water, inftead of coming from an ele-
vated fpring, be forced up its whole way from a place much
lower by an engine, and up the conduit, then the places
where the air wiU lodge will be beyond the eminences of the
pipes, but nearer to the upper end. In thefe cafes, it will not
be fufficient to prick the pipe with a nail, becaufe air will
be continually forced in with the water, and will refill thofe
places in the pipe from which the air had been ennptied.
The obftruftions thus happening often occafion the burft-
ing of the pipe, or it gives too fmall a quantity of water,
and does damage to the engine.

In fuch a cafe, the following contrivance muft be ufed :
a fmall leaden pipe, about thirty feet in length, which i^
called a rider or air-pipe, is laid at the higheft part of the
main-pipe, and extends along the top thereof. It commu-
nicates with the main at the top of the eminence, and alfo
at two other places, at fifteen feet on each fide of the emi-
nence. This air-pipe has a little branch and cock. Now if
the cock is opened when the engine is working, the air will
be pufhed forward till it is difcharged by the air-pipe and
cock. If the ^r goes beyond the eminence, the pipe of

12

communication will certainly difcharge it. When water
comes out at the cock it muft be ftiut, and the main-pipe
will then be full of water, but after fome time, the cock
being left fhut, air will gather again in the eminence of the
main-pipe and lodge ; but, if the air-cock is again opened,
the air will be difcharged.

When water is forced up by an engine into an elevated
ciftern, from which it is to run down a main-pipe to the re-
fervoir where it is wanted, this air-cock will alfo be very
necefTary, becaufe the water in the ciftern fomctimes covers
the entrance-mouth of the defcending pipe, and fometimes
not. In that cafe, air goes down with the water.

In leaden or iron pipes of conduit, the difcharge of air is
abfolutely neceflary if there are any rifes in the pipe. In
wooden pipes the air often paffes through the wood and
efcapes ; but if the pipes are tight and thoroughly foaked,
the air-pipes and cocks are very ufeful. When water runs
from a raifed ciftern through a diftance of a mile or two,
fome perfon (hould turn the air-cocks two or three times a
day.

This trouble may in fome cafes be avoided, by carrying
the air-pipe perpendicularly upwards, to an equal or greater
height than the entrance mouth of the main-pipe. In this
cafe,' the water will rile up in the air-pipe to near the fame
level as the water at the entrance, but cannot run over.
Neverthelefs, if any air paffes along the main-pipe, when it
arrives at the air-pipe, it will rife up therein in bubbles
through the water contained in the perpendicular air-pipe
and efcape. By taking advantage of fome tall building, or
large tree to fnpport the perpendicular air-pipe, this ex-
pedient may in general be applied.

Defaguliers contrived a valve which fhould open to let out
the air, and fl\ut again when the water came. It was an in-
verted brafs valve (hutting upwards, and falling down by its
own weight, with cork fixed to the under fide of it, to make
it rife and (hut when the water came. This fucceeded in
firft clearing the pipe of air, but it did not anfwer to keep
it clear ; becaufe, when the valve had been fhut fome time,
if air fhould extricate itfclf from the water, it would be
denfe air, whofc force would be equal to that of the water,
and would keep the valve fhut as well as the water did be-
fore, although the air at firft could not fhut the valve. The
only remedy for this difficulty is to make the valve very
fmall, and make a hoUow copper veffel for a float. This
will rife with confiderable force to fhut the valve, when the
water afts upon it ; and it will be fufHciently heavy, when
the water forfakes it, to pull open the valve.

The fame author afterwards made a better contrivance.
It is a fmall fquare box of caft-iron, made tight on
all fides, except where the air-pipe communicates with the
bottom of it, and alfo where a fpout is fixed on the top to
let out the air. This fpout is provided with a cock, fitu-
ated withinfide of the box, and to the plug of the cock a
fmall arm or lever is fixed, having a hollow ball of copper
at the extremity of the arm or lever. This ball floats on
the furface of the water in the box, and when it rifes opens
the cock, or fhuts it when it falls. When the air in the
pipe accumulates, it paffes along the air-pipe and enters
into this box, and as the quantity increafes, the furface of the
water in the box fubfides, until the float at the end of the
lever, opens the cock and allows the air to efcape, and this it
will always do before any air can accumulate in the pipe.

It is beft to place the air-box near to the main-pipe, but
it muft have communication by an air-pipe with the main-
pipe, at two or three different places, in order that it may
certainly receiye all the air which gathers in the great pipe.

On the Difcharge of Wat»r by lateral Branch-Pipes from a

Main-

WATER.

Maln-Pipe.^lt is a common cafe in water-works, that water
is required to be drawn off through a fmall pipe, from the
fide of a main-pipe, in which the water is not at reft, but in
motion, with a much greater velocity than the flow occa-
fioned by the water which is drawn off through the fmall
pipe. It is often required to know what quantity fuch
fmall pipe will yield. When water is pafling along a pipe,
its preffure on the fides of the pipe is diminifhed in confe-
quence of its velocity ; and if a pipe is derived from it, the
quantity drawn off muft alfo be lefs than if the water in the
great pipe was motionlefs. It is therefore of great im-
portance to determine what is the diminution of preffure
which arifes from the motion along the main-pipe.

It is plain, that if the water fuffered no refiftance in the
main-pipe, its velocity would be that which is due to the
height through which it had defcended, and it would pafs
along without exerting any preffure. Alfo, if the pipe were
Ihut at the end, the preffure within the pipe would be
equal to the whole depth of water. Between thefe limits we
Ihall find what we feek. If the head of water renrains the
fame as when the pipe was ftopped, and the end of the tube
be contrafted, but not ftopped entirely, the velocity in the
pipe will be fmall ; and the natural velocity due to the
defcent being checked, the particles willre-aft on what ob-
ftrufts tlieir motion. This aftion will be uniformly pro-
pagated through the fluid in every direftion, and will
exert preffure on the fides of the pipe. Now obftruAions
of any kind, arifing from friftion or any other caufe, virill
produce a diminution of velocity in the pipe. The refiftance,
therefore, which we afcribe to friftion, produces the fame
lateral preffure which a contraftion of the orifice would do,
provided that it would diminifti the velocity in the pipe, in
an eqnal degree.

We will firft confider the cafe of an horizontal pipe, in
which the whole impelling force is applied at one end of the
pipe, either by a pump or by a column in a perpendicular
pipe at that end. This force muft be tranfmitted or carried
by the water through the whole length of the pipe, v/herein
part of it will be abforbed in overcoming the obftruftion
and friftion, and the remaining force will produce the velo-
city with which the water iffues at the open end of the pipe.
It is evident that every part of the horizontal length of fuch a
pipe muft bear a different degree of preffure, when the water is
in motion ; thus, at the end where it is difcharged, there is
no preffure exerted on the pipe to burft it open, becaufe
the water can efcape freely ; but at every other part a force
muft be exerted, which is fufficient to overcome all the re-
fiftance which the water will meet with, in running from fuch
part to the open end, where it is difcharged.

In ftiort, whatever part of the column of water in the re-
fervoir, or of the preffure which impels it along the pipe, is
not employed in producing velocity, muft be employed in
afting againft fome obftruftion ; and by the re-aftion of this
obftrudlion, an equal preffure is tranfmitted to all parts of
the pipe. The chief queftions will be, in what part of the
pipe are thefe obftruftions fituated, and at what part is the
force applied which is to overcome them ; becaufe that pan
of the pipe which is between the two, muft bear the ftrain
of tranfmitting the force from the place where it is applied,
to the place where it is to operate.

In the cafe where the impelling force is all applied at one end
of the pipe, and the only refiftance is the friftion of the water
in running through the horizontal pipe, the preffure to burft
the pipe, will begin at nothing at the open end of the pipe,
and regularly increafe from that to the other end. Its quan-
tity for 100 feet in length may be afcertained for any giten

bore of the pipe, and velocity of the water, from Mr. Smea-
ton's table of friftion abeady given, and may be adapted to
all other lengths by a fimple rule of proportion.

If in addition to the refiftance by friftion, which takes
place equally in all parts of the length of the pipe, there
are any particular caufes of obftruftion at the extreme end
or at any other part, the force neceffary to overcome fuch
refiftance muft be added to that required to overcome the
friftion, as found by the table ; and all this tends to burft
open the pipe, or that part which is between the impelling
force and the obftruftion, which may arife either from a
perpendicular column or hft, up which the water is to be
forced, or from a contraftion.

Example i. — A fteam-engine with a forcing-pump is em-
ployed to force water through a pipe, which proceeds hori-
zontally for 1800 feet, and then rifes up 60 feet perpendi-
cular, to a cittern at the top of a tower ; the diameter of
the pipe is five inches, and the motion of the engine is fuch,
that the water moves with a velocity of 140 feet^^r minute
through the pipe. It is neceffary to fupply a cittern in a
houfe from the middle of the main-pipe, by a fmall branch-
pipe of one inch bore and 100 feet long ; this cittern is jc
feet above the great horizontal-pipe, or five feet beneath the
elevated cittern ; required the velocity with which the water
will flow through the fmall branch-pipe, when the engine is
not at work, and when it is at work.

When the water in the great pipe is motionlefs, there is
the preffure of a column of five feet to force the water
through the branch-pipe. Mr. Smeaton's table (hews, that
for one inch bore and 100 feet long, a preffure of five feet,
or fixty inches, will produce a velocity of 180 feet per mi-
nute ; but when this pipe is running, the water in the great
pipe muft move alfo. The area of the pipe of five inches, is
twenty -five times as great as the pipe of one inch ; therefore,
the motion of the water in the great pipe, will be only one
twenty -fifth of 180 feet, or 7.2 feet per minute. Find the
neareft velocity to this in the table, or ten feet per minute,
and under five inches bore, we find .07 inches the height ne-
ceffary to produce that motion, if the pipe was 100 feet
long ; but as it is 960 feet, the height required will be
.07 X 9.6 = .672 of an inch. This fliould be dedufted
from the five feet preffure which urges the water through
the fmall pipe ; .but fo fmall a quantity is not worth notice :
hence we may ttate the velocity when the engine is not at
work at 180 feet per minute, and the difcharge from a bore
of one inch, will be .98 of a cubic foot per minute.

When the engine is at work, the fame preffure will be ex-
erted with the addition of all the preffure neceffary to over-
come the friftion of the water, in running along the great
pipe with a velocity of 140 ketper minute. Look for this ve-
locity in the table, and for five inches bore it fhews, that a co-
lumn of 7.6 inches muft be allowed for every lOO feet of the
pipe. The length of the pipe meafured from the place where
the branch-pipe proceeds to the cittern at the top of the
tower, is 900 feet horizontal, and 60 perpendicular, viz. 960 ;
therefore, multiply 7.6 by 9.6, and we have 73 inches for
the height, which mull; be added to the five feet, and makes
133 inches for the whole column or force, which urges the
water to flow through the branch-pipe, when the engine is
at work : laftly, by referring to the table in the column of
one inch bore, we find that 135 inches will produce a velo
city of 270 {eei per minute, and the difcharge will be 1.47
cubic feet^i-r minute.

The fame inveftigation fhews us, that the main-pipe at the
place where the branch-pipe proceeds from it, muft bear the
preffure of a column equal to 66 feet one inch when the

engine

WATER.

engine is at work, although it bears only 60 feet when it is
at reft. But if we confider the whole length of i860 feet,
the friftion will be equal to a column of eleven feet ten inches,
fo that the preffure, when the engine is at work, will be near
72 feet, at that end of the pipe which joins to the pump.

Example 2 We will now confider the reverfe of this cafe,

that is, takeaway the pump and fteam-engine,and let the water
be propelled through the great pipe, by the water defcending
from the ciftern, with a fall of 60 feet. What will be the
preffure which caufes the water to flow through the fmall
branch-pipe ?

To find this, we muft calculate with what velocity the
water will flow through the whole length of the great pipe,
by the theorem and example we have already given for
water in pipes. Having found this, calculating on the
whole length of the pipe, we muft make another calculation,
reckoning only as much length of the pipe as is contained
between the ciftern of fupply, and the place where the
branch-pipe joins the main-pipe.

Then take the difference between thefe two velocities,
and it fhews what refiftance or fridlion the water muft over-
come in running along the remainder of the pipe, ■y/'c. from
the place where the branch-pipe joins to the open end of
the pipe, where the water is difcharged. Now if a fimple
orifice was to be made at that part of the great pipe where
the branch-pipe joins, the vs-ater would flow out with a ve-
locity equal to the difference of the two velocities, making
the proper deduftion for the friftion of the water in pafTmg
through the orifice.

But if we wifh to know the velocity with which the water
wiU flow through the branch-pipe, we muft find the depth
of column neceffary to produce the velocity equal to the
difference of the velocities of which we have before fpoken,
calculating according to theory, without regard to friftion ;
and then with the depth fo found, we can feek in the table
of friftion in pipes, for the refult or flow of water through
the fmall branch-pipe.

The cafe of a regularly inclined pipe is confiderably dif-
ferent, becaufe the impelhng force is not all applied at one
end of the pipe ; but every portion of the pipe having a
defcent, has alfo a portion of the impelling power applied
to it. When this pipe is of a certain length, the water
arrives as its maximum velocity without accelerating as it
proceeds further down the flope ; becaufe the accelerating
power of the water is in equilibrio with the obftruftion,
that is, the power of defcent acquired in a foot or an inch
of the flope, is juft equal to the refiftance in the fame dil-
tance ; confequently, the water exerts no preffure on the
pipe to burft it open, any part of the water would continue
to Aide down the flope with its uniform velocity, even if it
was detached from that water which followed or which pre-
ceded, and it derives no impelling power from any co-
lumn of water. The effeft would be juft the fame, if
the pipe was fplit down the middle and converted into two
open troughs.

It is clear, that in this cafe, no water can be obtained from'
any lateral branch-pipes, unlefs they defcend from the pipe.

Let us confider the fame pipe when the inchnation il not
a regular flope, but when fome parts flope more rapidly than
others. In this cafe, the impelling force is not apphed re-
gularly upon every part of the length of the pipe, as in the
former inftance ; the confequence is, that in thofe parts
which have a more rapid flope than the inclination of
a line drawn from one end of the pipe to the other, the
water will have a tendency to accelerate beyond the regu-
lar velocity which is due to the regular flope, and with

which it muft ultimately flow out of the pipe ; and on the
other hand, in places where the flope is lefs rapid than this
line, the tendency of the water will be to flow m.ore flowly
than the regular velocity. Now the pipe being clofe and of
an equal bore, the water muft flow with the fame velocity
in every part of the length ; and although fome portions of
the contained water tend to run forwards falter than the
regular velocity, yet other portions tend to hang back ;
by means of the pipe, the force is tranfmitted from one
place to another, and thefe forces become all combined to-
gether to produce an uniform velocity.

We fliall find, on farther confideration of thefe aftions, that
fome parts may be fubjefted to a preffure or ftrain to force
or burft it open, and other parts may at the fame time be
ftrained in an oppofite direflion, viz.. to crufh the metal of
the pipe inwards.

Thus at every point where the pipe fuddenly changes its
flope or rate of inchnation, from an eafy flope to a very rapid
defcent, then the water will have a tendency to run down fuch
floping part of the pipe, and pafs away fafter than other
water can come down the eafy flope ; the confequence is, that
a fuftion or afpiration takes place within the pipe, and if a
fmall branch-pipe were applied in fuch a fituation, water
may aftually be drawn up from a confiderable depth. This
has been fhewn by M. Venturi, who calls it the lateral com-
munication of motion between fluids.

This is a certain proof that the bore of the pipe is too
fmall at fuch places. An attentive confideration of thefe
circumftances, will (hew the propriety of making a long
pipe with different bores at different places, where the flope
is different; for, by judicioufly increafing the bore of the
pipe where the flope is lefs, the aftion may be made uniform
throughout. But this cannot be done in cafes where the
changes of flope are exceffive ; for inftance, when the pipe
defcends rapidly into a deep valley, and muft rife again with
a rapid flope in an oppofite direftion. This is the cafe with
the pipes which fupply Edinburgh, and in many fituations
is unavoidable.

The refiftance arifing from friftion is greater or lefs ac-
cording to the velocity of the motion ; but whatever is the
inchnation of a pipe, provided it is long enough, the velocity
with which the water runs through it will fo adjuft itfelf,
that the funi of all the refiftance in the whole length of the
pipe, will exaAly balance the fum of all the forces, which
the water exerts by its defcent. But if the pipe is
too fhort, the forces of defcent down the pipe may over-
balance all the refiftances. In this cafe, the water will tend
to accelerate, and the water which has defcended near to the
bottom of the pipe, will draw after it that water which has
juft entered the upper part of the flope, inftead of the water
in the upper part, forcing forwards that water which is
beneath it.

Dr. Robifon obferves that there are fome curious cir-
cumftances in the mechanifm of thefe motions, which makes
a certain length of pipe neceffary, for bringing it into the
equihbrium of motive force, and refiftance, which he calls
train. A certain portion of the interior furface of the pipe
muft a& in concert in obftrufting the motion. We do not
completely underftand this circuinilance, but we can form
a pretty diftinft notion of its mode of afting. The film of
water contiguous to the pipe is withheld by the obftruc-
tion of friftion, but glides along ; the film immediately within
this is withheld by the outer film, but ghdes through it.
and thus all the concentric films gUde within thofe aroutid
them, fimilar to the tubes of a telefcope, when we draw it
out by taking hold of the end of the innermoft. Thus the
10 fecond

WATER.

focond film pafTcs beyond the tirft orinnermoft, and becomes
the outermoft, and rubs along the tube. The third does
the fame in its turn, and thus the central filaments will at
lail come to the outfide, and fuftain their greateft poflible
obftrudion. When this is accompliflied, the pipe is in
train.

This requires a certain length of pipe which we cannot
determine by theory ; but it is evident that pipes of greater
diameter muft require a greater length, and this is probably
in proportion to the number of filaments, or as the fquare of
their diameter.

Du Buat found this fuppofition agree with his experi-
ments. A pipe of one inch in diameter fuftained no change
of velocity by gradually fhortening it, until it was reduced to
fix feet, and then it difcharged a little more water. But a
pipe of two inches in diameter gave a fenfible augmentation
of velocity, when fhortened to twenty-five feet ; he there-
fore fays, that the fquares of the diameter in inches, mul-
tiplied by 72, will exprefs the length in inches neceflary for
putting the water in any pipe in train.

When pipes are of any confiderable length, the waters of
a larger pipe will run with a greater velocity than thofe of a
fmaller pipe having the fame Dope. A pipe of two inches
diameter will give much more water than four pipes of one
inch diameter ; it will give as much as five and a half of fuch
pipes, or more, becaufe the fquares of the difcliarges are
very nearly as the fifth powers of the diameters.

On the requijtte Strength for IVater-Pipes. — We have (hewn
that, in certain cafes, the water running through a pipe will
exert little or no ftrain to buril the pipes. This may be
the cafe in great portions of the length, or even in the
Iwhole length ; neverthelefs we may obferve, that at all parts
'fo fituated, an open canal would anfwer all purpofes as well
las a clofe pipe. It is not neceflary to employ a clofe pipe
in any cafe, except where it is fiibjedled to a ilrain. We
may alfo obferve, that it is prudent in all cafes to make the
pipe fufficiently ftrong to refift the full prefTure of the im-
,pelling colunui, when the motion of the water is flopped ;
ibecaufe this may happen accidentally, and then the pipe
will burft.

I In order to adjuft the ftrength t)f a pipe to the ftrain, we
may conceive it as coiififting of two half cylinders joined by
'earns, parallel to the axis or length of the pipe ; the
Arength of fuch feams to refift the feparation of the two half
:ylinders will be equal to the ordinary ftrength of the ma-
iierials of which the pipe is made. The infide prefTure tends
•uO burft the pipe by tearing open thefe feams, and the force
'which adts upon any given length of the pipe (as an inch or
■1 foot), is the weight of a column of water whofe bafe is
i:he diameter of the pipe, by the given length (as an inch or
n foot ), and whofe height reaches up to the furface of the
j.vater in the refervoir. This follows from the common prin-
;iples of hydroftatics, and may be calculated by the rules
"or columns of water already given.

J Suppofe the pipe to be of lead, one foot in diameter,
What will be the force to burft open one inch in length, at
ihe depth of 100 feet under the furface of the refervoir?
iWater weighs 625 pounds per cubic foot, the bafe of the
rolumn is I foot by i inch, or -,Vth of a fquare fo A, and the
endency to burft open an inch long of the pipe is 100 x

- T 6250 . ,

>2A X t'-- = --=— = ;2I pounds nearly.
12

'therefore, an inch long of each ffeam is ftrained by 2605
Js. A rod of catt lead, one inch fquare, is pulled
Icr by 860 pounds. (Sec Strekgth of Materials.)

Therefore, if the thicknefs of the feam is = -— inches, or

860

one-third of an inch, it will juft withftand this ftrain. But
we make it much thicker than this, efpccially if the pipe
leads from an engine which fends the water along it by
flarts.

M. Montgolfier ftates, that a pipe one inch in diameter,
and one line in thicknefs, will bear a column of 50 feet,
French meafur6> from which if we defire to know the
proper thicknefs for any other diameter, with the fame pref-
fure, we ftiall find it by fimple proportion. Thus, if the
diameter be 4 inches, the thicknefs muft be four lines ; or
if the prefl"ure is augmented we proceed in the fame man-
ner, by direft proportion, fo that for 100 feet it muft be
two lines thick for one inch diameter, and 8 fines thick for
4 inches diameter.

To make full ufe of this mode of reckoning, he gives the
following table of the preflure which pipes of different fab-
ftances will fuftain.

Feet
high.
Copper pipe, i inch bore, and i line thick, will 7

fupport a column of water . . - j 4°°

Brafs pipe of good quality, and the former dimenfions 300
Lead pipe, made of flieet lead . - . ^o

Caft-iron pipe, 2 inches bore, and 4 lines thick, willl

fuftain Ttleaft - 1 . . ' | 5°°

Elm wood li inch diameter, and 2 inches thick, 30 or 40

That is, they may fafely be made of that fize, but
will bear fometimes 1 10 feet prefl"ure.

Lead Pipes. — The plumbers ufe caft pipes of lead, and
alfo make pipes of tough fheet lead turned up, and burned
or melted together in the longitudinal joints ; the different
lengths of lead pipe are fometimes burned together with
lead at the joints, when they are laid in the field, inftead of
foldering, becaufe this is much cheaper. Leaden pipes may
be turned up of any fize, but are not ufually caft of more
than four inches bore. Unlefs the caft pipes are very
found, they are not fo good as turned-up pipes ; hence it is
not advifable to ufe caft pipes of more than 25 inches bore.
There muft be great care taken in making the turned-up
pipes, that they may be perfeftly cylindrical.

Small lead pipes are made by cafting and drawing them
through a plate, like wire. See our article Pipes.

The proper thicknefs for lead pipes, according to Defa-
guliers, is as follows : a pipe, 7 inches diameter, fituated
from 140 to 80 feet below the refervoir, mud be |^ of an
inch thick ; that part which is from 80 to 60 feet beneath
the refervoir, muft be half an inch and an eighth thick ; from
60 to 30 feet I an inch ; and the remainder from 30 feet up
to the refervoir g of an inch.

For pipes of four inches diameter, half an inch will do
from a depth of 200 feet to 100 feet ; from 100 to 40 feet
depth I of an inch thick ; and from 40 feet deep up to the
refervoir ^ of an inch in thicknefs.

Dcfaguliers defcribes a method of proving the ftrength
of pipes experimentally, by a fmall forcing-pump, to injeft
water into a piece of the pipe at one cud, whilft a valve is
applied to the other, which valve is loaded with fuch a
weight as will equal the weight of the intended column of
water ; therefore, if the pipe bears this preffure, it will bear
the column of water.

Lead pipes are very improper for water-works, where the
water is forced by an engine ; for at every ftroke or pufh
from the engine, the water raifes the ftop-valve of the pump,

and

WATER.

and when the valve fhuts again, the water falls with it, and
gives a fudden blow againft all the lides of the pipe. By
the lateral preffure, this force afts in a direftion perpen-
dicular to the fides of the pipe, vrith the weight of a pillar
of water whofe bafe is the feftion of the pipe, at the place
of the ftroke, and the height is equal to the whole height of
the water above that place ; and it llrikes with the fan:ie
velocity that the valve falls. Now if the firft ftroke of this
water makes the lead fwell outwards but the looth part of
an inch, the lead having no elafticity, will remain in that
pofition, and not (brink back; then fuppofe the next ftroke
fweUs the lead outwards the looth part of an inch more, the
diameter of the pipe will become fo much larger and remain (o.
The next ftroke will ftill make it jwider, and fo on for many
ftrokes, till at laft the lead becomes fo thin that it muft
break. This is inevitable if the force is great enough to
begin the enlargement, for after every ftroke the force of
the water ftriking will be greater than the preceding, in
confequence of the enlargement, and will foon burft the pipe.
An iron pipe is beft to be ufed, for even if it were in itfelf
as weak as the lead, it would not be liable to be enlarged,
although each ftroke ftiould make it yield, but by the
elafticity of the metal it would return again to its own
dimenfion after every ftroke. The fame will happen in
pipes of copper or wood, becaufe thofe fubftances are
elaftic.

Wood pipes are made of elm or oak, bored through the
middle with a fucceffion of augres, increafing in fize until
the defired bore is attained. Behdor fays a man can bore
39 feet of elm pipe, two inches diameter, in a day, but only
65 feet of oak pipe. The manner of laying and joining
pipes is fully explained in our article Pipe.

Care muft always be taken that wood pipes are bored in
the heart of the wood, and that the heart is of fufficient
thicknefs about the bore of the pipe. Elm pipes of nine
inches bore, that are from 80 to 140 feet beneath the fur-
face of the water in the refervoir, muft have the heart of
elm three inches thick after it is bored : therefore, a tree
muft be chofen of no lefs than 18 inches diameter in the
fmalleft part. For a depth from 60 to 80 feet, the heart
muft be 2i inches thick, which a tree of 17 inches in dia-
meter will afford ; for a depth of from 30 to 60 feet, the
heart mufl be two inches thick, and the tree 16 inches in
diameter ; and for any height under 30 feet, the heart need
be but \\ inch thick, for which a tree of i/), inches will
fufBce. '

From thefe proportions it may be determined what thick-
nefs the heart of elm fhould be for pipes of lefs bore at the
fame depths, taking it thinner in proportion to the diameter.

Behdor recommends, in laying wooden pipes, to ufe a
compofition of mutton fat beaten in a mortar with powder of
brick -duft, fo as to make a fort of wax. When there are
cracks in the wood, fmall wedges wrapped with tow, and
covered with this compofition, are to be driven in to ftop
them.

Earthen Pipes — M. Belidor ftates, that the beft kinds in
France are made at Savigny, near Beanvais ; they are in
lengths of two feet, which enter three inches into one an-
other, and are made of all diameters, from two to fix inches ;
when the pottery is feven lines thick, they will bear a co-
lumn of twenty -five feet of water. The joints are made of
a compofition of pitch, afties, and brick-duft with mutton
fat : this is applied hot ; but for larger pipes, a cement of
lime is ufed.

One of the lengths of the pipes for the fupply of Edin-
burgh is made of pottery.

Iron Pipes. — The methods of joining and laying iron
pipes will be found in our article Pipe ; but we ftiall
give a

Table of the Weight of Iron Pipes caft at Carron Iron-
Works in 1769, being their Standard for dried Sand
Caftings, allowiog every 36 Cubic Inches of Caft Iron
to be equal to 10 lbs.

Diaineier
'of ihe

Full Diamner

Lengtli
of the
Pipe.

Thicknefs of

Weicht of the

ItifLle, or

Hore.

of the Flainh.

the Pipe.

"Pipe.

Inches.

Ft. In.

Yrn.

Cwu. qrs. lbs.

2

0 8

6

J

8

0 2 10

2|

0 8i

6

T^

034

3

0 9

6

h

I 0 10

ih

0 9i

6

2

I 0 27

4

0 1 1

6

I
2

I I 18

5

0 12

6

•2

I 2 18

6

I 2

8

a

3 I 21

7

I 3

8

1

8

3 3 20

8

' 5

9

3

A-

6 0 10

9

1 6

9

3.

■4

634

10

I 7

9 _

3

4

7 I 22

II

• 9

9

7

s

9 2 17

12

I 10

9

7

a

10 I 12

13

I 1 1

9

i

II 0 26

14

2 0

9

7

3

II 27

It was afterwards found that, in a long courfe of praAice,
it was better to make iron pipes rather thicker ; becaufe in
moulding there is fome uncertainty if the metal is equally
thick all round.

Water, Jets of, fountains were formerly the ornaments
of all garden and pleafure-grounds ; but are now fo far out
of faftvion, that we only iind them in the gardens of the
greateft palaces. |

The moft celebrated are thofe of Verfailles and St. Cloud
in France, Frafcati, near Rome, and Peterhoff in RuiHa.
The fubjeft of the latter is the conteft of Jupiter with the
Titans ; it contains a column of nine inches diameter, which
fpouts fixty feet high. ,

The fountains of Verfailles, which are very numerous and
magnificent, are fully defcribed by Belidor.

They confift of four grand pieces, which contain excellent
bronze ftatues, reprefenting fome fubjeft of the mythology,
befides a great number of jets for the ornament of fmalJer
pieces of fculpture. The bafon of Latona confifts of many
jets, which throw up water obliquely 30 feet high, into three
large bafons, from which it pours down in cafcades. The
water-piece of Neptune and Amphitrite eonfifts principally
of perpendicular jets, which are very numerous. The bafon
of Apollo contains the god in his chariot, drawn by four
horfes ; the great jets of this piece rife 57 feet, and the fmaller
jets 47 feet. The baths of Apollo contain moft excellent
fculpture, and large ftieets of water in cafcade. There are
alfo the pyramids of water, mountains of water, alleys of
water, theatre of water, &c.

We have no room left for treating this fubjeft, which is
of fome intricacy, and (hall conclude with Mr Mariot's
table, which (hews the altitude of a refervoir necelTary to
produce a jet of a certain height ; and alfo the quantify ne-
ceffary to fupply jets of a certain bore, meafured in Paris
feet and Paris pints, 42.36 of which are equal to a cubic
foot Engh(h.

WATER.

Altitude of
the Jet.

Altitude of the
Refervoir.

is Feet.

Ft.

In.

5

5

I

10

10

4

15

15

9

20

21

4

25

27

I

30

.33

0

3J

39

I

40

45

4

4S
50
55
60

51

58
65

72

9
4
I
0

65
70

79
86

I
4

75
80

93

lOI

9

4

«5

109

I

90

117

0

95

125

I

100

133

4

Quantity of

Water rilfcharged

in a Minute from

an AHjutag^e fix

Lines i:i

Diameter.

Piris Pints.

32
45
56
65

73
81

88
95

lOI

108
114
120
125

131

136
142

147
152
158
163

Diameter of

the Conduit-
Pipe, fuited

to the

two preceding

Columns.

Lines.
21
26
28
31

33
34
36
37
38

39

40

41
42

43
44

45
46

47
48

49

See our article Jet d'Eau, Vol. XVIII. .
Water, in Gardening, a well known ufefiil article in gar-
dening, as applicable to numerous forts of young plants and
trees, feed-beds, &c., efpecially in the droughty fpring and
fummer feafons, both fuch as grow in the full ground and
in pots in the open air, as well as thofe in green-houfes,
ftoves, hot-beds, &c. : and alfo in ornamental defigns, in
pleafure-grounds, parks, &c., either when formed into re-
gular pieces, circular, oval, or in oblong or ferpentine ca-
nals, &c.; likewife when varied in a fomewhat natural ex-
panfe, in curves and bendings.

In forming defigns of this fort, the nature of the fupply
ihould be iirll confidered, whether it be by fprings in or
near the place, by currents or ftreams pafTing through, or
fo nearly adjacent as to admit of being condufted to the
place ; or by being condiifted by fome neighbouring river,
brook, or lake, &c. by means of pipes or fmall cuts, or
by being colletfted iffuing from higher grounds, and con-
duced by proper channels. And another circumftance,
equally neceffary, is to confider the means by which it
may be retained afterwards. In a loofe earthy, fandy , or gra-
velly bottom, it will foon fink away, efpecially in dry wea-
ther, unlffs there is a conftant current or flow of water run-
ning in ; but in a naturally ftrong clayey bottom, of pro-
per thicknefs, both at the fides and below, it may be retained
in fome tolerable degree. In moil cafes, fome art, however,
will be neceffary in this bufinefs. See Basons, &c.

Where it is eafily attainable in any of the above modes,
it Ihould not be omitted, on a fmaller or larger fcale, efpe-
cially in grounds of any confiderable extent ; but where in-
tended principally as refervoirs for watering gardens, they
may be of much more moderate dimenfions than when de-
figned for ornament, and may be formed either in a circular
manner, an oblong canal, pond, or cut, &c.; the ftifFnefs
of thele forms being always broken by varying curves of
the margins or borders, conftantly forming them where the
fupply of water can be moft conveniently procured.

Ornamental plats, or pieces of water in pleafure-grounds,
Vol. XXXVIII.

are very defirable, as being great additions to the beauty, va-
riety, and embellifhment of them, when properly diftofed
and contrafted with fome nearly adjoining detached clumps
of plantation, and bounded with a proper expanfe of graf*.
ground, fpreading from the verge confiderably outwards.
In general, when any fpaces of water, on a larger or fmaller
fcale, are intended, they Ihould be difpofed, as confpicu-
oufly as poffible, in fome principal divifion ; either fometimes
at or near the termination of a fpacious open lawn, or occa-
fionally in fome other fimilar open fpace ; and fometimes
difpofed more or lefs internally, in fome central or other
grand opening ; in all of which an expanfe of water has a
fine effeft. The particular forms may be adapted to the na-
ture of the fituation, and the extent to that of the fupply
of water that can be had.

In parks and pleafure-grounds, the moft proper fituations
for plats, or other forms of water, are fome rather low con-
venient places for containing and fupplying it, which are fo
difpofed as to difplay an agreeable rural view of the water
from the refidences and principal lawns and walks belong,
ing to them, either near at hand, or at fome confiderable
diftance from them ; and where there are occafionally other
accidental fights and views of it, from other parts of the
ground, unexpededly taking place in an abrupt or fudden
jnanner. In thefe fituations the forms and appearances of it
may likewife be greatly varied and diverfified, according to
their particular nature and other concurring circumftances,
fo as to take off any fort of formal regularity which they
may have naturally. They may alfo have oval, oblong,
winding, curving, or bending ferpentine direftions given to
them, as may be the moft natural and fuitable ; and they
may be of fmall or very confiderable extents, in propor-
tion to the nature of the fituations, and the fizes of the
grounds, as well as the fupplies of water which can be com-
manded. They are fometimes in large grounds, formed
in the manner of natural bending rivers or ftreamlets, which
fweep round rifing fwells of land, planted with trees in the
form of clumps, or other modes, fo as to produce a natural
and agreeable effeft.

Mr. London, in his ingenious work " On forming, im-
proving, and managing Country Refidences," thinks that
water, in whatever point of view it may be taken, whether
as neceffary to the produce of a country, the delight of the
traveller, or the intereft of romantic rural fcenery, is one
of the moft lovely ornamental materials of nature. Its
effefts in all thefe ways are highly ufeful, interefting, and
beautiful ; without it all foils are barren and unproduftive,
roads are dull and uninterefting to the tafteful traveller, and
rural fcenes are often tame and difgufting. For as it occurs
in fpringy banks, purling rills, or winding brooks, it
equally engages and delights ; while in the more diftant
view, in larger expanfes, as thofe of great rivers, glaffy
lakes, or the extent of the ocean, it exalts and fills the mind
with aftonifhment. And in fecluded country fcenery it is
not lefs fuccefsful in affording variety and pleafure, either
by the beauty of its varied appearance, the roar of its fall
among rocks and cliffs, the foam and din of it in the fmall
cafcade, or the melancholy of it in the ftagnant pool, (haded
by over-hanging boughs.

But though much has been ingenioufly and ufefully writ-
ten on this interefting material of ornamental rural improve-
nient, and the neceffity and means of a better tafte inculcated
in the management of it, little alteration has yet been effeft-
ed in the modes of praftice, as few examples of artificial
water rendered pidlurefque have been fet before the public.
The former old, naked, tame, ftiaving, formal methods,
ftill continue to prevail too much in the diftribution and

S manner

WATER.

manner of conducing it. There are ftill not a few who
are infefted with

that ftrange difeafe "

Which gives deformity the power to pleafe :

CoUeftions of ornamental water may, it is faid, properly
be confidered as of two kinds ; as thofe defigned to be feen
in a general view, and in connettion with the adjoining
fcenery ; and thofe to be feen only when near. The former
forts chiefly confifl of lakes, rivers, ponds, bafons, and
others of firoilar kinds ; the latter of fprings, rills, rivu-
lets, cafcades, and others of the fame nature. There are
fcarcely any iituations in which waters of the fpring, rivu-
let, and others of the fame nature, may not be placed. In
nature, rills are ufually found deep funk in dells, as in in-
ftances where they run down the fides of hills, or pafs
through foils of the fandy kind. Where they pafs through
a fertile valley, or level meadow, they have commonly a very
regular courfe ; and when they are met with in hollow
places, their courfe is for the mod; part ftraight, or ap-
proaching to it. The fituations of rivers, lakes, and ponds,
are almoft invariably in the lowed parts of the furface of the
land. It is, indeed, impoflible that they could be other-
wife. Water, whenever it occurs, is conftantly a linking
feature in grounds, and in this way has always its peculiar
frtuation : when that fituation is changed, every feature is per-
verted ; truth, nature, and harmony, are fet at defiance, and
the moft glaring difcord fubftituted in their place, ftriking
inftances of which prefent themfelves in many different or-
namented fituations.

The general fhape of pieces of water mud depend upon
the nature of the charafter which is to be created or given
them. Whatever rnay be the magnitude or dimenfions of
lakes or ponds, they Ihould be of irregular diapes, more or
lefs wooded, and never entirely naked, being conftantly dif-
tinguidicd by prominences and maffes ; and as often as oc-
cahon may ferve, further varied by iflands managed in a
fimilarity of manner. And the forms and directions of
rivers (hould be given by their fizes, and the nature and kind
of country through which they are to pafs. Large rivers,
in fertile plains, are, for the moft part, much lefs varied in
their cburfes than thofe of the fmallcr kind ; and both are a
great deal lefs fo than thofe which have their direftions
through hilly uneven furfaces, or through land of a rocky-
nature. Large rivers can never be imitated where there does
not exift a very confiderable itream ; as without this, the
neceftary degree of motion can never be given ; but the di-
reftions or courfes of natural rivers may, it is fuppofed, be
frequently altered, varied, improved, or divided, with the
moft advantageous effefts in the way of ornament ; in all
which cafes the remarks here given will be applicable.
Much might be effected in this way at many of the fine an-
cient feats of this country, and a high degree of grandeur
and magnificence of effeft be produced.

In regard to the margins or borders of waters, and the
accompaniments of them, it is fuggefted that there are two
arguments or reafons, which clearly (liew that the former, in
every piece of water, whatever may be its charafter, ihould
be broken and diverfified. The firft of which is, that there-
by intricacy, variety, and harmony in form, colour, and
difpofition, are produced, in the place of monotony or dif-
cord ; the fecond is, that this mode prevails in nature. In-
tricacy, variety, and harmony, are produced in the outline,
by making the fmall parts irregular, confiderably fo in
feme places, and lefs fo in others, according to the kind of
water ; in the ground by producing breaks clofe to and
alfo at fome diftance from the water ; by (hewing the naked
or various-coloured earth and gravel interfperfed among

9

abruptnelTes, fmooth flopes, levels, and by every form and
difpofition of furface : it is further heightened by the iii-
troduftion of ftones of different (hapes, and placed in va-
ried or intricate dlfpofilinn ; and alfo by roots, decaying
trunks, or branches of trees. It is further luggefted,
that another fruitful fource of thefe beauties is plants,
graffes, low growths, fhrubs, and trees. Plants and graffes
may, it is fuppofed, be employed both for cloathing fuch
parts of the furface as are fmooth, for varying others, ai)d
aftifting difpofition. Shrubs and trees may be ufed for the
laft purpofe upon a more enlarged fcale. Plants, graffes,
and low growths, give intricacy and (hade to fmall breaks,
and the interftices among ftones, rocks, &c. Shrubs and
trees give intricacy to large receffes, either of fimple mar-
gin, or containing thefe leffer enrichments, which, fhaded
by trees, will be heightened in eflFeft. All this, it is fup-
pofed, we fee accomplifhed in nature in fuch a beautiful
manner, as far furpaffes every fort of defcription ; it may,
it is believed, be admired by perfons of feeling alone, with-
out much judgment or knowledge of the principles by
which it pleafes or produces the effeft noticed ; but this
kind of knowledge and judgment is highly ufeful in direct-
ing what to copy from nature, and how to apply it to arti-
ficial pieces of water. Without it, perfons, it is contended,
may argue either for copying the deformities or Angularities
of nature, or for mifapplying them when copied, as has
been done by feveral. There is a difference of charafter m i
the margin and accompaniments of a lake, river, and brook, |
though each is varied or harmonious. Each differs alfo ac-
cording to the nature or ftyle of the country, or foil of the
land through which they may have to pafs, as is evident from
a great numberof different inftances fcattered over the coun-
try, in which there are particular differences in the banks,
adjacent grounds, and accompaniments, that give an inte-
refting variation of charafter to each individually.

There are fome other ornamental appendages which are
occafionally placed near to or upon water, fuch as ereftions o£
the bridge, and other kinds. There is no greater ornamenfe
to a piece of water of the nature of a river than a bridge, and' '
few objefls fo generally pleafing, becaufe fo univerfally ufe-
ful. This notion has been taken advantage of, it is fug-
gefted, by improvers, but for the moft part in a very inju-
dicious manner. Their bridges are too commonly formal,
and unconnefted with the fcenery, either by their unfuitable
magnitude, or by the loftinefs of their arches, ftraddhng
acrofs a fhallow ftagnated river, as is the cafe in many well-
known fituations. They want, it is contended, that beau-
tiful fimplicity, connexion, and pifturefque effeft, which
may be feen in many highway bridges acrofs dreams or
rivers, and which is produced there by necejftiy and time.
Thus the arches, it is faid, are made low when tiie banks
on each fide are tame and level, becaufe otherwife carts and
carriages would have greater difficulty in afcending them.
The architecture is fimple, becaufe, in general, the builders,
were not allowed to incur the expence of ornaments. The
plants, ivy-bu/hes, and trees which group with them, have
fprung up in the courfe of time, but they may be fpeedily
imitated by art. The broken parapets, piers, or arches,
fupplied by open railing, or a few pales, are the effefts of
time, or accident, and in fome cafes are worth imitating in
the fcenery of a refidence. Thefe circumftances might
eafily be copied in ornamental fcenery, and if judicioufly
fupplied, it is faid, will invariably fucceed in producing a
good cffeCt. Foot-bridges of planks, or rude boles and
trunks of trees, fnit well, it is fuppofed, with many fcenes
of the rural kind. They have frequently been attempted,
it is afferted, but feldom with complete fuccefs, owing to
the tafteleflhefs of thofe who contrived them.

The

WATER.

The other forts of ereftions which have been ufually em-
ployed for the purpofe of ornamait'mg water, it is contend-
ed, have rarely either pifturefque efFeft, or any ufe ; fuch,
for inftance, as thofe of aquatic temples, ilatues, river-gods,
and other fimilar abfiirdities, or what may be called falfe de-
corations. Boat-houfes, however, of fimple couflruftions,
and for the moft part all ufeful forts of eredions, may oc-
caiionally be introduced with propriety and good efFeft.
The Perfian -wheel, the forcing-wheel, the corn-mill, and
fome others of fimilar kinds, are had recourfe to with ex-
cellent effedls in different places. " The water-wheel and
corn-mill at Warwick-caftle, it is faid, is perhaps the grandeft
appendage to that noble building ; whether in refpett to
the train of ideas which it awakens in the mind refpefting its
former compared with its prefent ufe, &c., or its effeft in
connexion with the cafcade, for which it forms an excellent
apology. And though cafcades of this kind be formal of
themfelves, yet the idea of their utility, it is fuppofed,
compenfates, in a confiderable degree, for the want of
pifturefque grandeur ; and ftill the roar meets the ear
through woods, or diftance, with the fame force as in thofe
which are natural."

Mr. London further fuppofes, that the pidlurefque im-
provement of the pieces of water which already exift will
be attended to by all thofe who at prefent have artificial
waters, in imitation of rivers, lakes, ponds, or brooks,
and who are in the habit of making improvements of this
kind upon their grounds. Such proprietors may, he
thinks, be affured that no part can ftand in greater
need of alterations than fucli waters ; and fhould they
go on with others, except planting, to the negleft of
this, they will not certainly merit the approbation of men
of tafte, as tafte always prefers excellence to quantity.
" If, it is faid, any proprietor (hould hefitate to alter a
piece of water which he has long been accullomed to fee
without being fenfible perhaps of any great deformity, in
confequence of habit, if he looks from his windows to a
ferpentine river, winding among fmooth naked turf, with
only here and there a few clumps placed at fome diftance
from its margin ; if the water prefents one uniform glare of
light, clear blue, or dull green, and feldom varied by any
fliadows or refleftions but thofe of clumps and /ley, let him,
before he decides in favour of the tame river, imagine that
in place of this a broad irregular lake, forming bays and
receffes, retiring among thick woods, and with its margin
in fome places abrupt, broken, and varied by Hones, plants,
and creepers ; in one place fmooth, fioping, and covered
with grafs ; and in another clothed with fhrubs, trees, and
low growths ; then let him imagine that he fees thefe trees,
woods, and the different coloured earths and ftones of the
banks, refledled upon the ftill furface of the water, which, in
fome places, was covered with dark fhadows from the wood,
and in others was bright and clear as the heavens : let him
confider how interefting this would appear, even at a dif-
tance, and how long he might be employed in tracing with
the eye the various receffes, dark places, and refleftions,
whrle ftill much remained indiftintt or unfeen, and therefore
either employed the imagination in completing it according
to its own ideas, or awakened curiofity to wr\lk down and ex-
amine it minutely, by tracing, as far as could be done without
the interruption of thickets and briars, the various windings
and intricate margin of the whole. Let him only contrail
this with the effedl of the piece of water already there,
which he can fee and know as completely by a fingle glance
as if he viewed it an hour ; and could examine the two ex-
treniities, which are all that could be difcovered by walking
down to it, as completely in a few minutes as if he were to

encompafs it a whole day. If the contraft does not ftrike
him, he certainly, it is contended, as far as regards his 6wn
tafte, is juftified in preferving his water as it is ; but if
otherwife, he ought to commence improvement immediately,
not only in gratification of his own fentiments, but alfo in
juftice to every attempt to promote and introduce good tafte
in a country where he is a proprietor, and among a people
upon whom he is dependent for hi« rank and affluence.
Different ftyles of improvement may, it is obferved, be or-
namental, and admired while they are in fafliion ; but it is
only fuch as this, which are pifturefque, or natural, that
can ftand the teft of time."

The firft thing to be confidered in the alteration of artifi-
cial pieces of water, is the charafter which ought to be
adopted ; and the next, the execution of that charafter in
the beft manner pofiible, and with the leaft expence of
labour and money. The former has been already fully no-
ticed, and the latter will be particularly confidered below.
In many cafes, however, the alterations required are fo very
fimple, as to ftand in need of little art, either in the defigns or
the pradlical parts, as has happened in altering the waters of
different fine country-feats.

In (hort, the management of natural pieces of water,
where they come within the province of pifturefque im«
provement, moftly confifts in rendering them more charaAer-
iftic, and by the occafional introduftion oi particular effeSs.
The leading principles in effefting the firft of thefe im-
provements have been made fufficiently obvious already ; and
the latter are derived from what takes place in nature ; as
in the cafes of waterfalls, cafcades, fprings, and droop-
ing banks or rocks, on the margins of large brooks or
rivers, all of which may, it is fuppofed, be imitated in parti-
cular inftances. Alfo, in rills and fmaller ftreams there
are dank-pools, ponds, and little lakes, which often occur
in their courfes, that are highly worthy of imitation for
their intrinfic beauty, their contraft with the narrow rills,
and tlieir ufe in landfcape. Belides, it is fuggefted that a
great advantage of fuch pools, or httle lakes, is, that they
may be made to appear natural where no other variety of
ftill water could poffibly be attempted. And that, in nature,
they are found on the fides of declivities, where they are,
for the moft part, covered by wood, and feen only on a
near view. In level places or fituations, or fuch furfaces as
are not ftrikingly inchned, they are or may be opened in
fome parts, for the purpofe of being feen from diftant
places in the grounds, as is admirably done in fome
cafes.

Another fort of occafional appearance or effeft is
ijlands, and they are particularly deferving of imitation,
efpecially in lakes and ponds ; nay, even in large rivers or
brooks they have often a good effeft. In large rivers they
are moiUy long and narrow ; and in brooks frequently fo
large as to be wholly out of proportion to the ftream,
containing much extent of furface ; but fometimes th ey ar
extremely fmall, and only contain a fingle bufti, a few
buflies, trees, or ftones and plants ; each of which cafes
may be feen in almoft every brook, and they deferve imita-
tion. Iflands in ponds, it is fuppofed, ftiould rather be nu-
merous and near together, than large and diftant, and be
fituated rather approaching the fides than the middle parts :
the apparent magnitude of a piece of water may, it is fug-
gefted, be greatly heightened from the main point of view,
by placing moft of the largeft iflands next the eye, as well
as by the mode of planting them. In regard to planting
iflands in general they ffiould be wooded, but not wholly,
and never in fuch a way as to exclude the appearance of
furface, broken ground, rocks, roots, and ftones, which

S 2 are

WATER,

are morei natural to iflands than to (hores, becaufe it muft
always be fuppofed that it has been fon:ie of thefe ma-
terials which have either occafioned the accumulation of
the idand, or prevented it from being waftied away after-
wards.

Waterfalls and cafcades are alfo occafionally introduced in
extenfive pleafure-grounds, where there is the advantage of
a rivulet, by which they may be formed either in one large
fall, or in two or three fmaller ones in fucceflion, having
large rough ftones placed below to break the water, and in-
creafe the found of the torrent in its fall and paffage over
them, in fome degree fimilar to that peculiar to natural caf-
cades. And fountains, fpouting water from images, &c.
are fomctimes introduced in the centre of fmall or moderate
bafons, or other refervoirs of water in gardens or grounds,
where a fupplying head of water is conveniently fituated
fufEciently high to raife and throw the water from the jet
or fpout, in a continued full ftream, to a coniiderable height,
which falling in the bafon, keeps the water of it in motion,
prevents ftagnation, and is thereby rendered more proper for
keeping and breeding fifh of the gold and filver kinds, &c.
and the fpouting and falling of the water have a refrefhing
effeft in the heat of fummer. In parterres, fhrubbery
grounds, and particular kinds of gardens, water is intro-
duced either in the forms of ftill ponds, drooping fountains,
or jets d'eau ; but as thefe are all artificial, no perfeft
mode can be afforded for imitation. They, however, molt
of them proceed in fome meafure on the principle of cod-
traft, which, in every modification of matter, is capable of
producing either incongruity, variety, or harmony ; confe-
quently, of efFefting fcenes which Ihall difguft, pleafe, or
highly intereft the beholder. Jets d'eau are not at prefent in
fuch difrepute as they were formerly in this country ; but
they are, for the moll part, lefs underftood, and their pro-
per ufe lefs comprehended.

Mr. London, in the above work, remarks, that the epi-
thets waterfalls and cafcades denote different charafters in or-
namental improvements. Where the water falls over a ridge
of rock in one or more JJjeets, they are properly denominated
waterfalls ; and where its fall is broken and interrupted by
the irregularity of the ridge, and by other fragments of
rocks and ftones, they are properly cafcades. Both kinds,
it is fuggelled, may be imitated in improved fcenery, though
hitherto this has feldom been well accomplifhed, on account
either of the reftrifted pradlical knowledge of perfons of
tafte, or the limited or vitiated tafte, or deficiency of judg-
ment^ in thofe who have had the neceffary pradlical expe-
rience in matters of this kind.

However, waterfalls may either, it is fuppofed, be imi-
tated direftly, by being copied from nature, or indireftly,
by the introduftion of weirs for the ufe of water-mills, as
already hinted. In imitating nature, thej!rength or durabi-
lity of the whole mufl: be equally taken into confideration
with that of the beauty. Thefirft depends upon the gene-
ral form of the whole materials, and the fecond principally
on the foundation ; but in a partial way alfo, on the quahty
of the materials, and the execution. In every cafe which is
upon a large fcale, the foundation ought to be the natural
rock, if poffible ; but on a more moderate or fmall fcale,
it may be a fecure caufeway, fixed by oak piles and crofs-
planks, the work being performed vrith great care, and in an
exaft manner ; ufing fuch mortar, where neceffary, as is ca-
pable of reCiling water.

It is noticed, that there is one variety of waterfall which
may be occafionally feen in nature, and which is highly
worthy of imitation, though it is not known to have ever
yet been attempted to be introduced. It is that where a

fmall rivulet or rill, at its junAion with a river or brook,
falls over a rock in one fmall fheet. It is ftated that, " at
Matlock Bath, the noife of a fmall waterfall of this kind
forms one of the finell circumftances of the fcenery about
that place ; — borne upon the breeze, its grateful harmony
meets the ear in almoll every part of the adjacent fcenery,
in murmurs as varied as their pafTages through woods and
open glades, along the turface of the Dove, under the
echoing cliffs of the Tor, or afcending the heights of
Abram. This remarkable effeft, it is contended, produced
by fuch a fmall quantity of water, ought to be the greateft
encouragement to fuch as poffefs brooks or rivulets, as few
cafes can occur where it may not be imitated ; not indeed
with fuch remarkable fuccefs, becaufe the furrounding
fcenery may not be fo varied, but ftill with fuch an effeft as
would amply compenfate for the expence, which in every
cafe could be but trifling." Others are fuggelled, and the
beft manner of forming them clearly explained by drawn
figures.

The nature of waterfalls for the purpofe of driving ma-
chinery are, it is obferved, generally pretty well under-
ftood ; and that as no difguife in the mafonry is requifite,
but art is commonly to appear, the principles of ftrength
and durability noticed above are what chiefly demand atten-
tion. But it is remarked that it is to be i-egretted that fo
few who have rivers take advantage of it, and that fo many
make cafcades equally formal and unnatural, without any
real ufe, and witli little beauty, either of charafter in them-
felves, or fitnefs and connexion with the fcenery about
them.

As to cafcades, what has been faid in refpeft to water-
falls will in general apply. In thofe which are upon a fmall
fcale, and where there is a plentiful fupply of water at all
feafons of the year, the fame forms may be built with fimi-
lar care in refpeft to foundation, folidity, and mortar, they
being then difguifcd by rocks of different fizes in a natural
manner, in different ways, according to the different circum-
ftances of the places. The fame general principles-in relation
to form will be applicable to all kinds of hearts, fifh-ponds,
&c.; only in thefe cafes the materials are commonly clay or
gravel ; which laft fhould always be well puddled with clay
or ftiff loam on the fide next the water. In defigning
waterfalls and cafcades, one principal confideration is, it is
faid, to adapt them properly to the fcenery. In fome cafes,
they are quite inadmiffible, as in all rivers or brooks without
ftones or rocks in their beds or margins ; and in others
where they are few, or where the ground on each fide is
level, they can never be made of any great magnitude. An
attention to nature is, however, fufficient to guide us in
this, as well as in every thing elfe which relates to the fub-
jeft ; a fubjeft which, it is faid, is fo highly interefting and
comprehenfive, that it would require a very great fpace to
give a complete elucidation of it in every refpeft. See

WATER-i^aZ/j.

It may be noticed, that in the bufinefs of farming ground
for water, the earth muft be excavated to a proper depth, gra-
dually Hoping from the verge to the middle, from three to four
or five feet deep ; fometimes, however, in low fituations, the
place is naturally hollowed in fome degree, fo as not to re-
quire a general excavation, or only in particular parts, and
fome general regulations to the whole, which in extenfive
defigns is a confiderable advantage. Where the fides and
bottom are of a fandy, gravelly, or ftony nature, or abound
in loofe foil, and there is not a conftant fupplying ftream,
they muft be well fecured by the apphcation of a thick coat
of well-wrought clay. And where this claying is neceffary
in the preparatory excavation, a proper allowance fhould be

made

I

WATER.

made for the additional coat of clay, to the extent of twelve
or fifteen inches in thicknefs, and of feveral inches of gravel
over it, to preferve the clay from being wafted by the mo-
tion of the water, and keep it clear, which would otherwife
be muddy. But previous to the claying, the loofe and
uneven paits in the bottom and fides of the cavity (hould be
well rammed, to make the whole firm, even, and fmooth ;
then beginning in the middle fpace with the clay, and pro-
ceeding gradually outward, being careful that no ftones,
ilicks, or other matter, get mixed with it, to occafion fif-
fures, or cracks, by which the water may efcape, laying it
fvenly, a fmall thicknefs at a time, and fpreading it regu-
larly, treading it well with the naked feet ; and if dry
weather, caftmg water on it occafionally, ramming it well
from time to time with wooden rammers ; then gradually
applying more clay, in the fame manner, to the proper
thicknefs, being careful that every part is fo well puddled
and rammed, as not to leave the fmalleft vacancy. Thus
continuing the claying in a regular manner each way, from
the bottom to the top of the circumference, fmoothnig the
furface evenly, and in dry weather covering it, as the work
proceeds, with matts or fti-aw litter, or with the ftratum of
pebbly gravel. When the whole is finiihed, the water
fliould be let in.

When this has been done, the top or verge muft be regu-
lated and levelled, forming it evenly from the edge of the
water, in a gradual regular expanfi in to fome extent out-
ward, without any ftiff flope clofe to the water, diHinft
from the furrounding fuperficies ; laying the ground with
grafs turf, efpecially along the margin, continuing it as far
down as the general level of the water. Where the extent
is confiderable it may be fown with grafs-feeds.

In conftrudting the excavations for a body of water in
fuch fituations as are deficient of materials in iome of their
parts, as too low in fome of their boundaries, as either at
the ends or fides finking below the general furface of the
ground, or the height at which the water is intended to
uand ; thefe parts muil be ftrongly banked up to the ne-
celfary height in a fubftantial manner, having a fufficient
body of proper materials applied, efpecially where the part
is to form a head at the end of a canal, or other fimilar
piece of water ; the whole being inwardly faced with a
ftrong body of well puddled clay.

It is well known by every one, the above writer fays,
that the expence attending the formation of artificial water
by the modes which have hitherto been chiefly praftifed is
enormous, and in fome inftances fcarcely fupportable ; but
by adopting improved methods, fuch as thofe which have
been fuggefted, it will in almoft every cafe be greatly re-
duced, and become nmch cheaper, often to a very remark-
able degree. This will be rendered quite evident by con-
fidering the different neceflary operations in their formation,
as they relate to each method of proceeding ; fuch, for in-
ftance, as the excavation of the bed for the water, the form-
ation of the head, the fpreading of the earth taken out, and
the management of the furrounding furface. In regard to
the firll, the principal reafon why it becomes fo expenfive
is, that a river is commonly imitated inftead of a lake, which,
on account of the natural flope of all grounds, requires not
merely larger heads, but a far greater number of them.
By in a great meafure imitating lakes, one head is, for the
mott. part, all that is required ; and this alfo, many times,
of a far fmaller dimenfion than thofe in the cafes of rivers.
This alone often makes a very material difference in the
coft.

In what relates to the fpreading of the excavated earth,
and the regulation of the furrounding furface, as in the me-

thods hitherto purfued in landfcape gardening, whatever
may be the natural charafter or tendency of the furround-
ing furface, it is to be reduced, by levelling, to a fmooth,
even lawn, or pafture, floping in a gradual manner from
the margin of the water. Tliis of courfe caufes a prodi-
gious expenditure of money ; and what is ftill more dif-
agreeable, it is too frequently quite uncertain, and only
capable of being calculated after the finiihing of the whole
work. The quantity of cubical yards to be removed in the
work of excavating can be eftimated very nearly to a cer-
tainty ; but the bufinefs of leveUing is intricate, trouble-
fome, and often of great extent ; hence the great excefs of
expence which is frequently incurred beyond the eftimate in
this refped in pieces of made water. If any one plan ever
had the advantage over another, it is contended that certainly
piCturefque or natural pieces of water have the full and
complete fuperiority over thofe of other kinds in what re-
gards expence. In them, it is maintained, the natural cha-
rafter of the ground is prefcrved or improved, and confe-
quently no expence of levelling is incurred ; the fuperflu-
ous earth produced in the procefs of excavating being
formed into irregular inequalities, or diftributed along the
banks in fuch a manner as to augment or increafe their cha-
rafter andpiaurefquenefs,as is evident in numerous inftances.
Under other circumftances, vaft expence may often be run
into, without much, if any, beauty being produced ; when
It could have been effeaed to a great extent by the modes
which are here advifed without laying out much money.
Farther information on this very interefting fubjeft may be
gained by confulting Mr. London's excellent work.

Water, Rain, Colkaing of, for Farm Ufe, in Rural
Economy, the providing it in proper fituations for the
purpofe. This praftice was formerly adopted in different
parts of the country : as in moft towns, and in the yards,
ponds for the ufe of cattle, are ftill to be met with, which
have an artificial appearance. In extenfive pafture heavy
or about the houfes of many old farm-lands, pools or
land diftrifts, pits have evidently been formed by art
for the purpofe of catching fuch rain-water as may be
brought to them by the ridge-furrows, ditches, or other
fuch means, as well as that of land-fprings. The art too
has been long praftifed on the fouthem chalk-hill parts of
the kingdom, and ftill continues, in a great meafure, to pre-
vail ; and on thofe, in fome northern diftrifts, it has been
more lately eilabhfhed, and fpreads itfelf on the neighbour-
ing heights with vaft benefit. It is certainly neceffary and
ufeful in all dry high fituations. It may probably, in fome
cafes, alfo be coUefted into fuch pits, from the roofs of the
buildings, for fuch purpofes, with much advantage ; though it
has been much too common to draw it up, at great labour
and expence, from deep vrells formed in the bowels of the
earth.

Lately much more attention has been beftowed on this
matter than was formerly the cafe, in moft places, and in
fome with the greatell fuccefs and benefit. It (hould never
be neglefted where the want of it is confiderable, as live-
ftock never do well under fuch circumftances. See Poni>>
Made Streams, and Watering Live-Stock.

Water, Sea, Management of Land gained from, in Agricul-
ture, the bringing ground of this fort into cultivation. It
has been obferved, that the principal difficulty that can oc-
cur in any fituation will be to keep off the water of the
rivulets or rivers that may come from the furrounding lands,
and to carry away and dehver to the fea the furface-water
coUefted from the land gained : the next important con
fideration is that of clearing this land of furface incum-
brances. It ivill often happen, it js faid, that the gjround
12 to

WATER.

to be defended is interfered by a river. This is, it is
thought, the mod expenfive and difficult cafe that can occur ;
but it is here only neceflary to carry the defence along each
fide of it to the fea ; and there, where it interfefts the other
line of defence, to place a flood-gate, which may prevent
the tide from entering, except when it may be neceflary to
admit veflels or other things, and which fliall allow the water
of the river to pafs into the fea. Small rivulets and fprings
may either be turned along the margin of the land gained,
and be let out at one end of the defence where it joins the
land, or be led the moft convenient way to one or more of
the valves or flood-gates, which it is neceflary to make in all
defences for excluding the water within. The water col-
ledled on the furface of the land gained, may generally be
let off by the above flood-gates or valves ; but where the
defence is extended into the water, this cannot be the cafe,
as the level of the fea will moftly be above that of the land.
In this cafe, wind-mills for driving pumps muft be placed at
proper diftances, according as the particular cafe may be.
Perhaps, in general, one fmall wind-mill driving four pumps,
may be fufficient for freeing a thoufand acres of ground of
water. The expence of fuch a pump-mill would not, it is
faid, be above twenty or thirty pounds. By making a
fmall defence-bank, from two to four feet high, fome dif-
tance within the larger one, all the water coUefted between
that and the original fliore would be accumulated ; and it
might be led in a raifed canal in the fame level to a flood-
gate in the outer defence. This would, it is thought, leave
very little water to be drawn up by the pump ; and in this
way, though twenty thoufand acres were gained, one wind-
mill only would be necelTary. Often, and indeed in moft
cafes, in place of a wind-mill, the brooks, rivulets, or fprings
colletted within, might eafily, it is faid, be made to turn a
water-wheel, which would be more permanent and uniform
than that turned by the wind. A bafon might alfo be con-
llrufted, fo that the ebb and flow of the tide would turn a
draining-whcel ; and a great many other methods might, it
is fuppofed, be fuccefsfuUy adopted. Thus, in land gained
from the fea, there cannot, it is thought, be any difficulty
in preferving it from water, from whatever quarter it may
come. When the land to be gained is more or lefs covered
with ftones, thefe ffiould be put in flat-bottomed boats at
low water ; and when the tide floats them, they fhould be
rowed to the propofed line of bank defence, and be then
dropped. This mode of conveyance will genei'ally be found
the moft economical for all the folid materials vrhich are at
a diftance. Where the ground is fandy or poor on the fur-
face, and aogillaceous earth or rich loam below, it may be
trench-ploughed to fuch a depth, as to turn up the good
and bury the bad foil. If the foil be fliallow, and even
rocky, it may ftill, it is faid, be rendered valuable. The
moft rocky parts may be covered five or fix inches
deep with mouldy matters, and the whole be fown with
either meadow grafs-feeds, to be floated with freffi water, or
kept as meadow ; or with other proper and fuitable grafs-
feeds, and kept as falt-marfli. When mud of a good quality
and confiderable depth is gained, it may, in fome cafes, it is
thought, be defirable to fummer-fallow it for one or more
feafons, after it has been fecured from the fea. At other
times it may be better to fow it with rape-feed for the firft
fcafon, and to fummer-fallow it the next, as a preparation
for a corn-crop, &c.

It is obferved that no fort of land can be gained from
the fea but what is of great value for the purpofe of culti-
vation, and efpecially as it can for the moft part be flooded
by frefh water as well as by that of the fea at all times. By
flooding, the moft barren fand or rock, with only an inch or

two of foil upon it, will bear excellent pafture. Indeed,
much of the fand in thefe fituations that is often reckoned ;
barren and ufelefs, is mixed with broken (hells-, and on being; !
examined will be found to contain three or four parts in ten
of calcareous matter. Moft of the large rocks, too, witliin
the fait -water mark are, it is faid, in a ftate of rapid decom-
pofition, and fo fragile on the furface, as to be eafily pene-
trated by the roots of grafs-plants ; more particularly after
they have been expofed for fome length of time to the
aftion of the atmofphere. The large detached ftones often
found within the water-mark are not here meant, as thefe
are fuppofed to be either buried in the ground, or boated
off as above ; but thofe continued rocks which frequently
conftitute the bafis of the fea-(hore for great diftances,
the furface of which is fo completely oxydated, and occa-
fionally decompofed and reduced fo as to be called rotten,
that they are capable of affording either an excellent ma-
nure for certain foils, or are fit and proper -for fupporting
the vegetation of faline plants in their aftual condition.

The quantity of land of this fort that is eafily capable of
being obtained and thus cultivated is very confiderable
indeed, perhaps not lefs than fome millions of acres in the
whole illand. See Waste Land, and Watering Land.
Alfo ^ALT-MarJ]}.

Water, Gum. See MuciLAGE.

Water, Hungary. See Hungary Water.

Water, Laurel. See Laurel.

Water, Lime, is common water, in which quicklime
has been flaked. See L.i}iiE-lVater.

Waters, Ophthalmic, or Eje, are fuch as are good in dif-
orders of the eyes. See CoLLYR^u^r, Eye, and Ophthax-

UlA.

Water, Tar. See TAR-lVater.

Water, in Anatomy, &c. is applied to divers liquors, or
humours, in the human body.

Such is the aqua phlegmatica, phlegmatic water ; which is
a ferous fluid contained in the pericardium.

Water, in Geography and Hydrography, is a common, or
general name, applied to all liquid tranfparent bodies, flow-
ing on the earth.

In this fenfe, water and earth are faid to conftitute our
terraqueous globe.

Some authors have raflily and injurioufly taxed the diftri-
bution of water and earth in our globe as unartful, and not
well proportioned ; fuppofing that the water takes up too
much room.

The quantity of water on this fide our globe, Dr.Cheyne
fufpefts to be daily decreafing ; fome part thereof " being
continually turned into animal, vegetable, metalline, or mi-
neral fubftances ; which are not eafily diftolved again into
their component parts." Philofoph. Princip. of Rehg.

Many modern philofophers are of the fame opinion.

An inundation, or overflowing of the waters, makes a
Deluge; which fee.

Water, among Jewellers, is properly the colour or luftre
of diamonds and pearls ; thus called, by reafon thefe were
anciently fuppofed to be formed, or concreted of water.
The term is fometimes alfo ufed, though lefs properly, for
the colour or hue of other precious ftones.

Water is alfo ufed in divers ceremonies, both civil and
religious. Such are the baptifmal -water, holy luater, &c.

Water, Holy, is a water prepared every Sunday in the
Roniifli church, with divers prayers, exorcifms, &c. ufed
by the people to crofs themfelves with at their entrance,
and going out of church ; and pretended to have the virtue
of waffiing away venial fins, driving away devils, preferving

from

I

WATER.

from thunder, diiTolving charms, fecuring from, or curing
difeafes, &c.

The ufe of holy water appears to be of a pretty ancient
Handing in the church: witnefs St. Jerom, in his life of
St. Hilarion, and Gretfer, de Benedift. cap. x. &c. — M.
Godeau attributes its original to Alexander, a martyr under
the emperor Adrian.

Many of the reformed take the ufe of holy water to have
ibeen borrowed from the luftral water of the ancient Romans:
Ithough it might as well be taken from the fprinkling in ufe
'among the Jews. See Numbers, xix. 17.

Urban Godfrey Siber, a German, has a diflertation,
iprinted at Leipfic, to fhew, by proofs brought from church
;hiftory, that one may give holy water to drink to brutes.

Bitter Waters of Jealoufy. — In the Levitical law, we find
mention made of a water, which ferved to prove whether or
no a woman were an adultrefs. The formula was this : the
prieft, offering her the holy water, denounced, " If thou
;liail gone afide to another, inlfead of thy hufband, and if
thou be defiled, ixc. the Lord make thee a curfe and an
path among thy people, by making thy thigh to rot, and
'ihy belly to fwell ; and this water fhall go into thy bowels,
,;o make thy belly to fwell, and thy thigh to rot," And
I.he woman (hall fay. Amen. " Thefe curfes the prieft (hall
iwxite in a book, and blot tliem out with the bitter water.
jlSThen he hath made her drink the bitter water, it (hall come
\q pafs, that, if fhe be defiled, the water (hall enter into
iier, and become bitter, and her belly iTiall fwell," &c. If
%e be not deliled, fhe fhall be free, and conceive feed."
I^Jumbers, "chap. v.

Water, Interdiflion of Fire and. See Interdiction.
Water of Flax and Hemp, &c. that which is ufed for
beeping or raiting them in, in the view of procuring the
Imre vegetable fibrous matters that they contain. The wri-
ier of the " Elements of Agricultural Chemiflry" has ob-
iervcd, that this water poftefTes confiderable fertilizing
DOwcrs. It appears, it is faid, to contain a fubftance ana-
logous to albumen, as well as much vegetable extraftive
Inatter. It putrefies very readily. And that as a certain
llegree of fermentation is abfolutely neceffary for obtaining
Ihe matters of the (lax and hemp in a proper ftate ; the
jvater to which they have been expofed (hould on that ac-
count be ufed as a manure as foon as the vegetable fibre
js removed from it.

I Water, Black, a difeafe in neat cattle and (heep, which
B not unfrequently of a ferious nature. It has not, how-
'ver, been yet properly or fully invelligated.
( In neat cattle it is faid to arife from fudden changes in
ihe ftate of the weather from heat to great cold, the taking
|)f cold on being turned into low wet paftures in the early
Ipring feafon, and the want of proper water in long dry
■imes. Some fuppofe too that it may be caufed by frefh
baflures of particular forts, and that certain vegetables
[licked up by the cattle may produce it. It confiffs of a
lifcharge of a dark black bloody nature from the kidneys,
ind fometimes probably from other parts of the body. It
is moft probably produced bv inflammation terminating fud-
jlenly in a ftate of great debility and relaxation of the parts,
(0 as to admit the dark grumous blood thrown out to pafs
l.way in this manner.

, In (light cafes of this nature the cattle do not feem to be
>. great deal affefted by the difeafe, but where the bloody
jiuid palTed away is confiderable, and lafts for fome length of
.ime, the animals become reduced to a very low ftate or con-
lition, aiid great weaknefs is the confetiucnce, which if not
pcedily removed by fome proper remedy, the cattle foon
ink. under the prell'ure of the complaint.

In the cure, except the difeafe be taken at its commence-
ment, bleedmg will feldom be ufeful or neceffary, but tlie

ftipated, which would be hurtful and dangerous. When
the difcharge continues, balls compofed of alum, ruft of
iron, and armenian bole, made up with Venice turpentine,
may often be of fervice, when given in fufficient quantities ;
but a more powerful and effeftual remedy will be found in
a ftrong decoftion or infulion of bark, with vitriolic acid,
and the tinfture of opium, given in the proportion of a pint
of the firft, two drachms of the fecond, and tliree drachms
of the laft. This may be repeated once or twice in the
courfc of the day where neceffary, the bowels being always
well kept open.

By fome of thefe means the difeafe may moftly be re-
moved without any great difficulty.

Some think that much benefit often arifes from the ufe
of nitre in full dofes in this diforder, as well as from the
change of pafture, in fome inftances, as from low to fuch
as are rather high in their fituation.

Xvijlieep the difeafe is charafterized by much the fame ap-
pearances, taking place fuddenly, mofl commonly among
thofe of the hog kind, and fucli as are apparently tlrong,
while feeding in rank paftures of the clover or other luxu-
riant grafs kinds. In thefe cafes, there is fometimes much
dark bloody watery fluid met with in the ftomachs of the
fheep after death. The difeafe in thefe animals is moftly
very rapid in its progrefs, therefore the fheep in fuch paf-
tures fhould be conftantly well looked to, in order to dif-
cover if any of them be indifpofed.

In the prevention of the black water in thefe animals,
fome have found great benefit by the ufe of about half a
tea-fpoonful of fulphuric or vitriolic acid in mixture with a
fmall fpoonful of the compound tinfture of cinnamon, when
given in a cup of cold water to each Iheep in the morning,
and cotting or houfing them in the night feafon.

In other cafes, when the difeafe appeared to be prefent,
much advantage has been faid to be produced by giving a
ftrong infufioii of oak-bark with aromatics, well acidulated
with the fulphuric acid, and to which has been added a little
of the tinfture of opium. The bowels are to be kept in an
open ftate at the fame time.

The immediate removal of the fheep into clofer fed and
drier paftures, will always be attended with great benefit \\\
this difeafe, and the fupplying them with dry food might
perhaps in fome cafes be of utihty.

Water, White, a name often given to a dangerous difeafe
in fheep.

Water in the Head, a denomination frequently applied
to a difeafe in the head of flieep. See GiD and Sturdy.

Water Braxy, among Animals, a difeafe in fheep, which
has been difputed by fome ; but which the writer of the
" Shepherd's Guide" is confident exifts, having feen and
diffefted feveral cafes of it after death ; and is affured, too,
that it does confiderable damage on fome particular farms,
in fome iituations ; but that whether it be a fpecies of tlie
common braxy or not, will, it is thought, admit of a doubt,
though it is always viewed and confidored by the fhepherd
as fuch. It is ilated in addition alfo, that in two external
appearances it has a refemblaiice to it. The firft of which
is, that the animal, when living, fecms affefted much in
the fame way, lying frequently down, and loitering be-
hind the reft of the flock, appearing likcwifc fomewhat
fwelled in the body. And that the next is, tha«, like all
others affefted with the braxy of any kind, it will not bleed

to

WATER.

to iny extent on opening a vein. The cutting of a vein in
the tail, fpould, or below the eye, will make other (heep
bleed plentifully ; but from thefe fcarcely a drop will iffue ;
and even on cutting the principal vein in the throat, only a
very fmall quantity, it is faid, proceeds to flow out.

However, in the interior appearances it differs very
widely and materially. On opening the fheep, the whole
entrails are, it is obferved, fwimming in bloody water, none
of which is within the bowels, but only within the rim of
the belly. The gall-bladder is very fmall, appearing as
having been moftly fpilled previoufly to the death of the
animal, and the urinal bladder is contrafted and (hrunk up
to a fize fcarcely noticeable. The fmall fibres connefting
it with the other parts are inflamed, and on bringing it near
the nofe fmells fomewhat like the other braxy. The bladder
leems entirely without urine, but on blowing it up it is
always quite found, and never burfl;s ; the guts and flefti
are a little difcoloured, and have a fmell pecuhar to that
diforder. The fmaller department of the ftomach or reid
has fome purple fpots on it ; and, on being felt with the
finger, thefe are thicker in the texture than the other parts
of it. They feem, too, to have bled a portion inwardly ;
this fome fuppofe iflues from the liver.

In an efTay inferted in the appendix to the Rev. Mr.
Findlater's Account of the Agriculture of the County of
Peebles in Scotland, it is faid to be a difeafe that is analo-
gous to the fuppreflion of urine, which is caufed by the
want of fufficient aftivity and exertion. And that it con-
fifts in the bladder being over-diftended with urine, which
raifes violent inflammation in that organ, and produces an
incapacity to difcharge the urine that is accumulated. The
confequence of which is, that the urine regurgitates over
the body ; the whole carcafe is tainted by fetid gafes ; the
bladder becomes gangrenous, burfts, and the animal dies.
That young and vigorous (heep are moft liable to this fort
of braxy. And that the immediate caufe of the difeafe is
feeding too freely on rich fucculent diuretic food, and reft.
ing too long in the morning on the layers, taking place fre-
quently when the fliepherds are more negligent than ufual in
removing them.

It is luppofed that the difeafe may be prevented by avoid-
ing too free an ufe of fucculent diuretic food, and by
moving the animals from the layers on which they are early
in the morning, making them walk about for fome time in
the view of encouraging them to pafs their urine and
purl.

In attempting the cure, in cafe the bladder be greatly
diftended and affefted, which may be known by there
being a great fulnefs in the lower part of the belly, the
urine may be endeavoured to be drawn off by the introduc-
tion of fuitable implements of the catheter kind, or by cau-
tioufly letting it off by incifion or punfture, where that
cannot be done. In either of thefe ways, when effefted,
great relief will be afforded.

And in the view of allaying or preventing inflammation,
the ufe of proper purging and evacuating injeftions ftiould
be had recourfe to, fuch as Glauber, or other falls of the
fame kind ; or even warm milk aud water be thrown up.

The firft writer, however, thinks that no remedy for the
difeafe has yet been pointed out that can be fully de-
pended upon. See Braxy, and Striking ///, Blood,
or S'tcknefs.

Water Farcy, a difeafe in horfes of the oedematous or
partial dropfical kind, which is often very troublefome in its
removal. It has no relation or refemblance, however, to
that of the real farcy, being wholly different in its nature,
caufes, and effcfls, thou^ fometimes ignorantly fuppofed

to be of the fame kind. It occurs in horfes of all kinds
and defcriptions, and at moft periods of their exiftence. Iti»
a foft watery fwelling below the fkin, and is caufed by what-
ever has a tendency to weaken and deftroy the natural vi-
gour and ftrength of the body, whether in a local or general
manner, but more efpecially in the former, fuch as low
bad keep, want ai fufHcient cleaning and dreffmg, taking
the animals into cold water in a warm ftate, too great ex-
pofure to cold rains, and many others. It often, too,
happens after fevere colds of the epidemical kind. The
fwellings take place in different parts, but particularly in
the legs, having a pitted or dimpled appearance when prefled
by the finger. In fome cafes, the difeafe has a more
general dropfical afpeft, the water not being confined to
any one part, but ftiews itfelf in feveral, over the whole
body, by fuch fwellings. Thefe cafes, for the moft part,
proceed from foul feeding, or the effefts of eating too
greadily of rich luxuriant after-grafs. In the former cafe,
the limbs and the whole body are fometimes feen enormoufly
fwelled, and become very hard, the belly and Iheath parts
being very greatly diftended.

In the cure of the difeafe, in all the cafes, the great objefts
are the removal and difcharge of the water, and the preven-
tion of its future formation by every pofGble means. The
former are to be attempted by the giving of ftrong diuretic
purgative remedies, and the latter by the ufe of medicines
of the ftrengthening kind, fo as to brace up and reftore the
tone of the relaxed folids of the whole body.

In the firft of the above intentions, the combining of
calomel and fquills with jalap and aloes, in the proportions
of about one drachm each of the two firft, to two drachms
each of the two laft, for a large horfe, may be very ufeful,
when made into a ball, and given every night, or every
other night for four or five times, and repeated as there
may be occafion ; throwing in, in the intervals, bark and
other tonics, in full quantities, to reftore and keep up the
ftrength of the animals.

Rather ftrong infufions of the fox-glove with aromatics
may hkewife be tried, and oak-bark in powder, with the
fame, be given in large dofes at the fame time they are
made ufe of.

The horfes fliould frequently, too, have good mafties in
which nitre has been put.

Gibfon, however, advifes the horfes to be purged once or
twice in ten days, and to have intermediately a pint night
and morning of the ftrong decoAion or infufion of black
hellebore, prepared by boihng or infufing it in water, and
then adding to four parts of it two of white wine, that has
ftood upon the fame for fome length of time in a warm ftate ;
or a ball compofed of nitre, fquills, and camphor, in the
quantities of two drachms of the firft, three drachms of the
fecond, and one drachm of the third, made up with honey,
and given once a day, either alone, or wafhed down with a
hornful or two of the above infufion.

The horfes (hould be kept warm, and have plenty of dry
food while they are under thefe courfes of medicine. See
Farcin.

Water Sicknefs, a difeafeamong fheep of the dropfical kind.
It is a diforder, or fort of affeftion, arifing in the weak ftates
of their conftitutions, which is incident to all the varieties
of foil and climate, it is faid, in its different forms and de-
grees of violence, from Shetland in the nortt- of Scotland,
to the moft fouthern parts of this country, wherever fheep-
hufbandry is carried on. It is obferved to occur, in general,
among aged fheep, that arc fubje<fted to its attacks in confe-
quence of weaknefs, either of the more general or more
local kind. It moft commonly feizes the animals towards

the

W A T

W A T

•the end of the harveft-feafon and winter, and on farms which
are moftly delUtute of (helter. It is, in faift, faid to be the
genuine offspring of cold and moifhire, and perhaps of every
thinfT that debilitates the vigour of the animals.

The appearances that diftinguilh it to be prefent are
fwellings in the legs towards night, which difappear in
the morning, when the lower jaw often becomes a good
deal fwelled. The eyes are dull, the urine, when noticed,
is high coloured, the tongue is dry, and as the difeafe ad-
Tances, the belly often becomes tenfe, and water is felt un-
dulating in it, efpecially on being ftruck on one fide with
one hand, while the other is kept fteady on the other fide.
The (heep lofe their heart and vivacity, their appetites
fail them, they become thin and lean, and at laft fall away
and die.

In regard to the prevention of the difeafe, a dry weU-
ilieltered fheep-vvalk is faid to be good in that intention ;
and the neighbourhoods of fea-(hores are ufeful in the fame
view, as have been found by experience. But if the dif-
temper fliould (hew itfelf in a fevere manner, in very wet
feafons, in winter or fpring, night-lhelter is found of parti-
cular benefit in (lopping the increafing ftate of the malady.
The animals, too, (hould have good, green, fweet, dry
hay chopped and given them, at the fame time with a little
oats or bran in fome cafes.

In the cure of thofe which are difeafed, a (hed or room
in a houfe, and a full allowance of the fame forts of dry
food, arc particularly neceffary and ufeful. Some have tried
tapping in the advanced ftage of the diforder, but with
only a temporary relief. Two drachms of cream of tartar
given twice a day, in a little warm thin oatmeal-gruel, have
been known to have a remarkably good elfcft. In the
more early (lages of the complaint, fmall quantities of
calomel with fquills would probably remove the difeale,
efpecially if accompanied with a few hornfuls of a ftrong
decoftion of oak-bark two or three times a week. By
thefe means, difeafed (heep, when taken early, would per-
haps be readily reftored.

In the above-named part of Scotland, the difeafe is faid
to be called by the title of (hell-ficknefs, as well as that
which is here given it.

W ATER-Calamint, in Botany, the name ufed by fome for
a fpecies of mint. See Mentha.

W ATER-Cro'wfooi, in Agriculture, the name of a plant of
the weed kind, on which cows are faid bv fome to be
very fond of feeding. An- in the fifth volume of the
Tranfadions of the Linnaean Society, Dr. Pulteney has
obferved that it is not only relilhed by fwine, but that they
thrive remarkably upon it, requiring little or other food
until put up to fatten. The produce of it cannct, however,
be great, fo that the ufe of it muft be limited.

Water Crefs, in Garilnihig, the common name of a fmall
creeping plant of the herb kind growing in watery fituations,
fuch as the fides of rivulets, rills, brooks, or other fmall
trickling dreams ; and which is much employed as a fallad
herb, and for eating with bread and butter, or in other
modes in its natural ftate, as being highly cooling and
agreeably bitter. See Cress.

W ATEK-Dropworf. See Drop- /Fort.
Vf ATER-Germander. See Germander.
VJ ATER-Hair-grafs. See Aira Aquatica.
Vf ATER-Hemp-Agrimony. See Water- Hemp-.\cRmO'S\ .
VJ ATER-Leaf. See Leaf.
W ATER-Liiy. See Nymth.-ea.

Water Melon, the vulgar name of a plant of the melon
kind, growing in aquatic fituations, and the fruit of which
is of a watery infipid nature. See CucuRBlTA Citrullus.
Vol. XXXVIII.

"W ATJtR-Parfntp. See Pahsnep.
Water-Poo. See Poa Aquatica.
WATER-So/dier, a (pecks o( Jlratiotes ; which fee.
W ATER-Tath, in Sheep Hujhandry, a term applied to that
fort of rank grafs that arifes from an excefs of wetnefs in
fheep-walks and paftures, and which has a tendency to pro-
duce the rot in thefe animals. It may be caufed by too
much wetnefs in the lands, either naturally, or by the ufe
of water on them. It is this probably that makes water-
meadows fo dangerous for (heep at certain periods. See
Tath and W xTER-Meadow.

Vif AVer- Hen, in Ornithology. See FuLiCA Chloropus,
Flavipes, and Rallus Carolinus.

W ATER-Ouzel. See Sturnus Cinalus.
WATER-Rail. See Rallus Aquaticus, and Benga-
lenjis.

W ATEn-Wagtail. See Wagtail.

WATER-Dog, in Zoology, a vaxiety of the Canis Fami-
liaris. See Dog.

W ATER-Elephant. See Hippopotamus.
W ATER-Nog. See Capybara.
WATER-Rat. See Mus.

W ATER-Aidle, in Agriculture, a teijm applied to the flag-
nant water contained in mofs land, in fome places, as in
fome parts of the county of Lancafter. It is faid to be
highly prejudicial to animals, when they drink water that is
mixed or impregnated with it. It is belt removed from fuch
land by proper draining, and frequent fuitable tillage culti-
vation.

The bringing fuch waftes into a (late of improvement
confequently difcharges it in an efFeftual manner. See
Moss and Waste Land.

VJATER-Bai/iff'. See Bailiff.

W ATER-Barroiu, Swing, in Rural Economy, an improved
contrivance of this fort. See Quendon Water-Barrow.
WATER-Bearer, in AJhonomy. See Aquarius.
W ATER-Bellows, in Mechanics, a machine ufed to blow
air into a furnace, by theaftion of a column of water falling
through a vertical tube. The orifice where the water enters
the tube is fo contrived, that the water (hall be mixed with
air when it enters the pipe ; and this air viill be carried along
Avith the ftream through the tube, and is collefted into a
proper receiver, from which it is conveyed to the furnace m
a continued blad. Thefe machines are much ufed on the
continent, but have never been introduced in England, be-
caufe they will not produce by any means fo great a current
of air as may be raifed by the fame fall of water, when em-
ployed to work bellows, or other machines, by means of a
water-wheel.

M. Reaumur h;;3 given a minute defcription of the water-
bellows employed for the iron furnaces, in the provinces of
Dauphine and Pays de Foix, in France, where fuch ma-
chines are called trompcs. The water is conduftcd to the
furnace by a trough or pafTage, having an inclination of one
inch in a toife ; the body of the trompe is a vertical tube,
about 27 French feet in height, and 16 inches diameter on
the outfido : it is made of two pieces of fir hollowed out,
and bound together by hoops of iron.

The form of the interior of the tube contributes materially
to its e{Fecl. The mouth or upper orifice, where the con-
duit-trough pours the water into it, is 13 inches diameter ;
from this it diminifiies, in the manner of a conical funnel,
till at a depth of three feet from the mouth, it is only four
inches diameter, which part is called the throat. Here the
opening of the tube enlarges all at once to a fize of nine
inches, which it continues for all the reft of the height.
Immediately beneath the throat, (that is, the upper part of
T the

WATER-BELLOWS.

the tube where it becomes nine inches diameter,) ten vent
holes are bored through the fides of the tube ; they are cy-
lindrical, and two inches diameter ; their direftion is in-
clined, fo that they point downwards at about an angle of
45 degrees ; they are arranged at equal dillances round the
tube in two rows, the upper row having fix holes, and the
lower row four : it is through thefe holes that the air enters.
The tube is fupported in a vertical pofition by a framing,
and the lower end is introduced into a ftrong ton or caflc,
fix feet deep, and almoft as much in diameter, though it is
rather fmaller at top than at bottom. The tube defcends
through the head of the calk i8 inches, fo that it terminates
within 4^ feet of the bottom of the callc ; and a kind of
table made of a flat round ftone, or a plate of caft-iron, is
placed horizontally in the centre of the ca(k, at i8 inches
beneath the orifice of the tube, being fupported by a crofs
of wood, placed upon four legs, from the bottom of the
ca(l<. The cade is well clofed on all fides, particularly
round the tube, where it pafles through the head ; but there
is an air-pipe condufted away from the top of the caflc, to
convey the air to the furnace ; and from the bottom of the
caflv there is an opening, by which the water can pafs away.
The opening is regulated by a wooden (huttle, which pens
up the water to fuch a height within the cafl<, that the
opening through which the water iiTues will be always be-
neath the furface of the water, fo as to pres-ent the efcape
of the air by the fame paflage.

The aftion of this machine is not fo eafy to explain as its
ftrufture, and it has at various times occupied much of the
attention of philofophers. Father Kircher was the firft
who defcribed the machine in his Mundus Subterraneus ;
but he did not fatisfaftorily explain the reafon of its aftion.
In the Memoires des Scavant etrangers, Barthes, the father,
has given a theory which is very defeftive ; and Dietricli
was of opinion that the air was produced by the decompofi-
tion of the water.

M. Reaumur explains it thus : — The funnel of the tube
is always full of water, which ilfues rapidly through the
throat ; but finding immediately a larger place, the ftream
difperfes and fcatters into drops, becaufe it is no longer en-
clofed within a cyhndrical furface : it does not, therefore,
take any conftant figure, but the ftream is compofed of dif-
ferent fmall Itreams, or rather fucceffions of drops, which
are continually changing their pofition with refpeA to each
other. Now the intervals between thefe feparate ftreams or
drops are occupied by the air which is within the cavity of
the tube : fuppofe that between two ftreams feparated by
air a third comes to defcend, it will pulh the air before it
with all its force, and carry the air down to the cafk ; ana
this will be replaced by frefh air, entering at the vent-holes.
The irregular arrangement which the ftreams or drops take,
cither at their iffuing from the throat or in continuing their
fall, is fuch that few drops do not carry fome air down be-
fore them into the cafit : the water faUing upon the table
within the caflc dafties on all fides, and releafes the air which
rifes in the cadi, and iflTues through the air-pipe to the fur-
nace, whilft the water falls to the bottom of the cafk, and
efcapes gently through the fluice.

A fingle trunk of the dimenfions juft defcribed is found
fufBcient to blow a forge or finery ; but for a fmelting fur-
nace, three are joined together, having a common trough of
fupply, and the air-pipes from the three callcs are joined to-
gether. M. Reaumur fuppofed that a greater height of the
tail would produce more air, becaufe it is longer expofed to
thofe changes of pofition in the different ftreams of water ;
b-ut he fuppofed that no adequate advantage would be
gained by an increafe of the diameter of the tube, becaufe

3

it would be more likely, in falling in a large body, to de-
fcend in a clofer column.

The machines of the Pays de Foix are fomewhat dif-
ferently conftrufted : in thefe the water is conveyed into s.
refervoir, from the bottom of which a fquare trunk or tube
defcends to the refervoir or air-cheft, which is made very
long ; and the air-pipe proceeds from an elevated part of it,
to prevent the danger of fpray or fmall drops being carried
into the furnace. Inftead of a throat and the vent-holes,
the tube is made to divide into two branches, at the point
where it paffes through the bottom of the upper refervoir :.
thefe branches rife above the furface of the water in the re-
fervoir, fo that it cannot enter into them, but the water is
admitted at an opening between thefe two branches, fo that
in effeft the tube is divided into three, the centre being an
opening for the water to defcend, whilft the two outfide
branches admit the air to mix with the water and go
down.

The editor of the Art des Forges fuppofes that the vent-
holes are ufelefs, but that the violent agitation of the water
in palling the throat, and daftiing upon the table within the
caflt, is fufficient to change the water into air. This is the
fame hypolhefis as that of Dietrich.

Thefe various explanations rendered the fubjeft ftill more
obfcure ; and in 1 791, the Academy of Touloufe invited
philofophers to determine the caufe and the nature of the
ftream of air which is produced in thefe machines. M.
Venturi, profeffor of philofophy at Modena, gave the real
anfwer in an excellent paper on the principle of lateral com-
munication of motion in fluids.

To explain the principle, this philofopher fuppofes a
number of equal balls to roll along in a horizontal trough,
in contaft with each otlier, with an uniform motion at the
rate of four balls in a fecond : fuppofe, on arriving at the
end of the trough, they fall fuddenly to a depth of 16 feet.
Now, from the laws of gravity, each ball will perform this
defcent in a fecond of time ; and as four balls fucceed each
other in each fecond, it follows that there will always be
four balls in the air at the fame time. The relative politions
of thefe will be as follows : the uppermoft ball will be one
foot from the point where they begin to fall, the fecond
four feet, the third nine feet, and the fourth fixteen feet.
This arifes from the acceleration which always takes place
in defcending bodies. A confideration of this circumftance
will give a proper idea of the difunion and fuccefGvc fepara-
tion of the particles which the accelerating force of gravity
produces in fluids, or in bodies which fall in a ftream.

The rain-water flows out of gutters by a continual cur-
rent ; but during its fall, it feparates into portions in the
vertical direftion, and ftrikes the pavement with diftinft
blows. The water likewife divides, and is fcattered in the
horizontal direftion. The ftream which ifl^ues out of the
gutter may be one inch in diameter, and ftrike the pavement
over the fpace of one foot. The air which exifts between
the vertical and horizontal feparations of the water which
falls is impelled, and carried downwards. Other air fuc-
ceeds laterally ; and in this manner a current of air or wind
is produced round the place ftruck by the water. M. Ven-
turi went to the foot of the cafcades which fall from the
Glaciere of La Roche Melon on the naked rock at La No-
valefe, towards mount Cenis, and found the force of the
wind to be fuch as could fcarcely be withftood. If the
cafcade falls into a bafon of water, the air is carried to the
bottom, whence it rifes with violence, and difperfes the
water all round in the form of a mift.

He formed one of thefe artificial blowing engines of a
fmall fize ; the vertical pipe was two inches in diameter, and

four

WATER-BELLOWS.

>iir feet in height : it was a plain cylindrical tube, vrithoiit
..iiy throat or funnel. But he found, when the water accu-
lately fdled the feftion of the orifice, and all the lateral
openings of the pipe were clofed, the pipe no longer emitted
any wind.

According to this writer, the circumftances which favour
the moll abundant produftion of wind are as follows : — The
reparation of the defcending balls is more rapid in the upper
than in the lower part of the fall. In order, therefore, to
obtain the greateft effeft from the acceleration of gravity,
t is neceffary that the water Ihould begin to fall at the orifice
of the vertical tube with the lead poffible velocity, and that
the depth of the water in the horizontal trough (hould be
no more than is neceffary to fill the feftion of the vertical
tube. The vertical velocity of this feftion is fuppofed to
be produced by a height or head of water in the trough, of
a depth equal to the diameter of the tube.

We do not know by direft experiment the diftance to
which the lateral communication of motion between water
and air can extend itfelf, but we may with confidence affume
that it can take place in a vertical tube, whofe feftion is
double that of the original feftion with which the water flows
from the trough into the pipe. Let us then fuppofe the
fedlion of the pipe to be double the feftion of the water in
the trough, and in order that the ftream of water may ex-
tend and divide itfelf through the whole double feftion of
tlie pipe, fome bars, or a grate, are placed in the orifice of
the vertical tube, to diftribute and fcatter the water through
the whole internal part thereof.

Since the air is required to move in the blowing-pipe with
z. certain velocity, it muft be compreffed in the receiver.
This comprelfion will be proportioned to the funi of the
accelerations which (hall have been deftroyed in the inferior
and clofe part of the vertical pipe, that is, the part beneath
the vent-holes. Taking this clofed part of the pipe i^ foot,
we (hall have a preffure fufficient to give the requifite velo-
city in the air-pipe. The fides of this portion of th.e pipe,
as v/ell as thofe of the receiver, muft be exaftly clofed in
every part, to prevent the efcape of the air.

The lateral openings in the upper part of the pipe may
be fo difpofed and multiplied, particularly towards the top,
that the air may have free accefs within the tube.

In fome machines of this kind, the conftruftors feem to
have been of opinion, that a great height was required in the
water-fall ; but Dr. Lewis, who made a great number of
experiments upon the fubjeft, {hews that an increafe in
height can never make up for a deficiency in the quantity of
water ; four or five feet, he thinks, is a fufficient height for
the water to fall : and where there is a greater height, it
may be rendered ufeful by joining two or more machines
together in fuch manner, that when the water has once com-
mitted its air in the condenfing czik. or veffel, it ftiall flow
out into a new refervoir, and from thence defcend through an-
other funnel and cylinder, and fall from it into a condenfing
veffel, where the air is extricated and carried off through
the air-pipe.

Another kind of water-bellows was invented by the in-
genious Martin Triewald, of Sweden, and is defcribed in
the Philofophical Tranfaftions. The machine confifts of two
caflts or tuns open at bottom, and fo loaded, that they will
fink into water in the fame manner as diving-bells. Thefe
being fo fufpended that they can be alternately lowered
down into water and drawn up again, will by proper valves
and pipes afford a continual blaft of air.

Fig. 15. Plate Water-ivorks, reprefents thefe water-bellows
in profile. A A are two caflis, made nearly the fame ftiape
as diving-bells, being in the form of a truncated cone, or

wider below than at top, where they are furnifhed with
clofe heads B B, but at the lower ends A A are quite open.
In the heads B B are valves V, which open inwardly,
and are made hke the palates of other bellows, with their
hinges and the valves themfelves covered with hatters' -
felt. They are caufed to fhut by eafy fteel fprings till the
air from above opens them, which happens only when the
bellows receive their motion upwards. The valves are fliut
by means of the preffure of the air within, when they fink
down into the water.

On the fame heads two phable leather tubes R R are
fixed, one at the top at each water-bellows, which tubes are
made and prepared in the fame manner as thofe ufed in
water-engines for extinguifhing of fire, Thefe leathern
tubes or pipes reach from the bellows to the tubes T T,
which carry the wind into the furnace, or any other place,
according to pleafure.

Thefe two bellows are fufpended from the lever by iron
chains K K, which are fattened to two fweeps S S, by which
means they hang perpendicular from the balance-beam, and
at the fame diftance from the centre of its motion C on the
oppofite fides. On the top of this balance-beam are fixed
two Hoping gutters F F, into which the ftream of water runs
from the gutter G, and gives motion to the whole work,
performing the fame fervice as an overftiot or any other
water-wheel ; but they coft much lefs, and give as even and
regular motion as a pendulum, for as foonias fo much water
runs*into either of the inclined planes of the gutters F F,
that the weight of the water exceeds the fri£lion near the
centre of motion C, and the weight of that bellows which
is funk down into the water, the gutter immediately de-
fcends with an incrcafing velocity till the balance meets with
the refiftance of the v/ooden fprings H H ; during tliis time
it has raifed the oppofite water-bellows, or that bellows
which is fixed under the oppofite gutter, the gutter
which has been filled being come down to the fpring H,
delivers all the water it has received, and at the fame time
the water begins to run into the oppofite gutter, which re-
ceives its load of water almoft as foon as the former is emp-
tied, fo that one of the gutters begins its effeft as foon as
the other has finilhed, and this continues alternately as long
as the ftream of water is fupplied. Thefe Hoping gutters
upon the balance-lever, therefore, perform all the effedl
which a water-wheel does in working the ordinary bellows,
and by means of the fame power of defcending water, but
ailing reciprocally on oppofite ends of the balance-beam.

Thefe water-bellows blow the fire on the fame principle,
which produce the effeft of the ordinary bellows, •viz.. that
the air which enters the bellows, and which they contain
when the top is raifed, is again compreffed or forced into a
narrower fpace when the bellows clofe ; and fince air like
all other fluids moves to that place where it meets with the
leaft refiftance, it muft confequently go through the opening
which is left for it, with a velocity proportioned to the force
by which the air is compreffed, and muft blow ftronger or
weaker in proportion to the velocity with which the top
and bottom of the bellows are made to approach each other ;
the blaft alfo will laft a time proportioned to the quantity
of air that was drawn into the bellows through the valve or
pallet.

The fame operation takes place in the water-bellows, for
the air which they contain muft neceffarily be compreffed
by the water, which rifes alternately into the bellows A A,
and obliges the air to go through the leathern tubes R R,.
as being the place where the air meets with the leaft re-
fiftance.

In this machine, the chief part of the weight to be
T 2 ,' moved

W A T

WAT

moved is balanced in equilibrio, for the bellows A A may
be confidered as two nearly equal heavy weights in a pair
of fcales, which in a great part balance each other. The
difference is occafioned by that bellows which finks down
into the water, being fo much lighter, as it lofes its weight
by the quantity of water it difplaces, from the bulk of air
contained beneath the furface of the water. This difference
is compenfated by the weight of the water which falls
down along the Hoping gutter, which acquiring the power
of a falling body, increafes in the fame proportion as the
bellows to be raifed by it increafes in weight ; for the
bellows which links down into the water does not at once
lofe its weight in the water, but gradually as it defcends
deeper; and in the fame manner, the afcending bellows does
not at once become heavier than the other, but the weight
gradually increafes from the time it is firft raifed till it is
quite raifed.

Mr. Hornblower fome years ago propofed an hydraulic
bellows of the fame kind as M. Triewald's, except that, to
avoid the flexible tubes of leather R R, he employed a lead
pipe to go down to the bottom of the ciftern of water in
which the bellows defcended, and turn up again ^eneath the
bellows, fo that the orifice of the pipe was above the furface
of the water ; it therefore communicated ?t all times from the
interior of the bellows to the furnace. Mr. H., in Nichol-
fon's Journal, mentions a very ftriking difference between
thefe water-bellows, in which the moving cheilwas eighteen
inches fquare and moved perpendicularly nine inches, and
a common pair of fmith's leather-bellows of thirty inches
long.

The leather-bellows threw confiderably more air to
the fire, and its nozzle, compared with the water-bellows,
was as 73 to 60 in diameter, but it did not produce fo
great an effeft in bringing on the heat ; and the noife of the
water-bellows was fo great as to almoff drown that of the
common one. The only difference in other refpefts is, that
in the hydraulic bellows, the pipe went under ground for
about eight feet, and the connefting pipe of the other
came down about the fame diftance from the fhop above.

VJ^ATER-Bomi, a name given by our chemift Godfrey to
a machine he invented on the plan of Greyl's difcovery, for
the extinguifhing of accidental fires in houfes. He con-
fidered firft, that the unchangeable fize of Greyl's engine
was a very great objeftion, and on this plan contrived a
medicated liquor, which was fuch an enemy to fire, that a
very fmall quantity would extinguifh as much as a much
larger of common water ; and this liquor had the farther
advantage, that it might be kept ever fo long without cor-
rupting, and by that means the veffels containing it would
remain always fit for ufe ; whereas in Greyl's method they
mull have been rotted by the corrupting and fermenting of
the water, after a few years. The author of this invention
tried it twice in public with us, and both times with all the
fuccefs that could be wifhed ; but the ftrutlure of the veffel
was fo much the fame with that of Greyl's, that Godfrey
cannot be allowed any farther merit as an inventor, than
that of contriving the medicated liquor inftead of common
water. The machine is a wooden vcfFel, made very firm
and ftrong, that the liquor, when once put in, cannot leak
out any where ; in the centre of this is an oblong cylindric
veffel, which is filled with gunpowder ; a tube is brought
from this to the head of the barrel ; and this being filled
with combuftible matter, and the inner cafe with powder,
and both made of plate-iron, that no water may get in, the
veffel is then filled with the medicated, ,or antiplilogiftic
liquor. The top of the tube is the.') covered, and thf thing
fet by for ufe.

When there is occafion for it, it is only neceffary to utl'
cover the tube, and fetting fire to the matter in it, it is con-
veyed to the veffel containing the powder, and the whole
machine being thrown into the place where the fire is, is
torn to pieces by the explofion, and the extinguifhing liquor
fcattered every way about, on which the fire is quenched in
an inftant.

The contriver of thefe things propofed the making of
three kinds of them, the one containing five gallons of the
liquor : this was the largeft fize, and contrived for the
largeft rooms, and moft urgent ncceflities. The fecond kind
contained three gallons ; and the fmalleft, which was meant
for a clofet, or other little room, contamed only two gallons.
Thofe of the fmaller kind alfo had fometimes a peculiar
difference in their ftrufture, the powder-veffel being placed
not in the centre, but at the bottom : the intent of this was
to fit them for chimneys, when on fire, as by this means the
liquor, not being wanted to be fcattered on all fides, was
carried mollly upwards. Thefe were fixed on the end of a
long pole, and by this means thrufl to a proper height up
the chimney ; and the tube that communicated the fire was
placed do ivn wards.

The manner of ufing the machines for rooms on fire, is
this : the perfon who has the care of them is to throw them
as nearly as may be into the middle of the room, and then
to retire to a little diflance : as foon as he hears the explo-
fion, he may fafely enter the room, and with a cloth, or any
thing of that kind, put out any remaming fparks of fire
that there may be in particular places. If the room be fo
large, that one of the machines caimot difperfe the liquor to
every part of it, two are to be ufed, one being laid at each
end : and if feveral rooms are on fire at once, as many of
the machines are to be ufed, one being thrown into each
room. If a whole houfe is on fire, the lower rooms are
firft to be taken care of, and after thefe the upper, as they
afcend.

Our Godfrey had fcarce better fuccefs than his predeceffor
Greyl ; for while he was making his public experiments,
one Povey, collefting fome of the fragments of his broken
veffels, found out the ingredient ufed in the medicated
liquor, and made and fold the things in the fame place
where he had proved his right to them. It is probable that
the medicated liquor was no other than common water,
with a large quantity of fal ammoniac, that fait having this
virtue of extinguifhing fire in a very remarkable degree.
But it is to be greatly wondered at, that while all the world ■
were convinced by experiments of the ufe of the machine^
the author made but little advantage of it, and it is now dif-
ufed. Acl. Erudit. Ann. 1724, p. 183.

The fociety of arts and manufaftures, &c. made trials
of balls prepared in Mr. Godfrey's- method, by his grand"-
fon, in a proper edifice erefted for this purpofe ; and they
found, that, after the fire had prevailed for a confiderable
time, and the flame forced its way through the chimney and
windows, it difappeared, and was entirely extinguifhed
by the explofion of two of thefe balls. See Fike, Ext'tn-
guijiing of.

WATER-Borne, in the Sea-Language, denotes the flate of a
fhip, with regard to the water furrounding her bottom,
when there is barely a fufBcient depth of it to float her off
from the ground ; particularly when (he had for fome time
refted thereon.

WATER-Camilets. See Camblet.

Watek, Cataracl of. See Cataract.

VJ ATZR-Ctsck. See Clepsydra.

Watek- Co/oar/j in Painting, are fuch colours as are only

diluted

WAT

'liiluted and mixed up with gum-water : thus called, in con-
tradiftinftion to oil-colours. See Washing.

The ufe of water-colours, makes what we call limning ;
as that of oil-colours does painting, properly fo called.
j Painters in water-colours have been often afflifted with
the difeafe called colica piftonum, occafioned by the poifon-
ous quality of feveral of the pigments which they ufe; and
iwhich, by putting the point of their pencils between their
,lips, whilll they are ftudying their fubjeft, they infenfibly
fwallow. Dr. Fothergill fays, that, when the vomitings are
labated, copious difcharges by ftool are procured, and the
funftions of the bowels in a degree reftored to their ufual
Hate by the method purfued in the cure of the colica pifto-
num ; nothing contributes fo efFeftually to rellore the ufe
of the limbs, when impaired by thefc caufes, as the liberal
and conftant ufe of the tinftura guaiacina volatilis ; which
,may be given in fuch quantity, as to keep the body gently
open ; mixed with a little common fugar or honey, and then
diluted with any weaker mucilaginous liquor, as thin gruel,
or barley-water, or marfhmallows-tea. Med. Obf. vol. v.

P- 394-

W ATER-CiJlcr/is, for Rural Piirpofis, fuch as arc formed
for different domeftic ufes. In high, dry, upland fituations,
ciflerns of this kind are of great utihty and importance in
many parts of the country. In the account of the agricul-
ture of the North Riding of Yorkfhire, it is ftated that in
the high eaftern parts of it, water-cifterns or rcfervoirs are
made by the inhabitants within the ground, which are highly
ufeful : thefe, it is faid, are fed by the rain-water which
falls upon the roofs of the buildings, and is condufted from
thence by fpouts. That in thefe cilferns a very ample fup-
j)ly of foft water is always ready at hand ; and that by their
brnig luidcr ground, and kept clofe, the water is fweet and
fuitable for every domeftic or other ufe.

A water-ciftern of this fort is ftated to be formed in this
manner. A cube of the required fize being dug in the
ground, and the fides made even and perpendicular, the bot-
tom is covered with fo much clay, as that, when well beaten,
will be four inches thick ; a foundation of ftone is then laid
round the fides ; upon the clay, a brick floor is laid in
tirras, the furface of which fhould not be lower than the
t(ip of the foundation; the fides are then built a fingle brick
thick, and the bricks laid in terras, a foot fpace being left
betwixt the wall and the earth, which is gradually filled
with clay in a foft ftate ; and this well beaten as it ftiffens ;
the whole is arched over, leaving a hatchway for a man to
go in and clear it out, and an opening or paffage into a
drain, for the furplus water to run or be taken off, when
the ciftern is full.

The water is raifed for ufe by means of a pump. In
tliL-le cafes, as keeping all external air out of the ciftern
contributes, it is faid, much to the fweetnefs of the water;
the pipe by which the ciftern is fed fhould be continued to
within a few inches of the bottom, and the furplus water be
conveyed off by a pipe rifing from near the bottom to the
extreme height the water is defigned always to be at, when
that takes place, and there communicate with the drain : by
thefe precautions, it is faid, there will be no more of the fur-
face of the water expofed to the external air, than wliat is
within thofe pipes and that of the pump.

This method of forming water-cifterns may be found ufe-
ful, cheap, and convenient, in many places, where fnch water
is neceflary to be preferved pure and fweet.

Cifterns of this fort have fometimes the title of water-
cellars, and are of great convenience and ufe for farm-yards.
See Water, Rivtr, Colkaing of, and Watering Live-
Stoci.

WAT

VfATEK-Crturfes, in Agrtcullure, are fuch larges ditche* or
paffages for taking off the water as are formed, and remain
conftantly for the purpofe in different places, and properly
belong to the pubhc.

They Ihould be kept conftantly well opened and cleared
out, not having too much fall given them, fo as to deftroy
the evennefs of their bottoms. See Sewer.

Water, Cut. See CvT-Water.

Water, Dead, in Sea-Language. See Dead- Water and
SHiP-Builili/ig.

W ATER-Engine, in Mechanics, denotes either an engine
to raife water, or any engine that moves by the force of
water.

WATER-Falls, in Ornamental Gardening, are thofe falls of
water which are formed and introduced in pleafure or other
grounds for the purpofe of producing ornamental and pic-
turefque efFeds, or which naturally exiff in Inch fituations.
They are of different kinds and forms, being fometimes of
the nature of cafcades, and at other times contrived for the
intention of driving fome particular fort of interefting ma-
chinery, fo as to afford an agreeable and flriking pifture in
the rural fcenery of the particular place whore they are had
recourfe to. They are ufually conflrufted, where they do
not exift naturally, either by means of largt- rocky ftones
thrown rudely together into a fort of ridge torm of head,
over which the water paffes, formed in the way of weirs, or
built in mafonry in a careful and exaft manner, according as
the different nature of the circumftances and fituations may
require. See Water.

Mr. London, in his ufeful work on " Country Refi-
dences," has well defcribed and delineated feveral different
modes of forming water-falls. They fhould, he thinks, be
natural, ftrong, and lafting, from ttie gei.eral form of the
whole of the materials, the fecurity and folidity of their
foundations, and the quality of the work and materials ufed
in building them.

Water, Foul, in Sea-Language. See Foul.

Water-FoivI. See Fowl.

VfATER-Furroiu, in Agriculture, a deep open furro#
drawn by the common or a large double mould-boarded
plough made for the purpofe, in a proper direftion of the
field in arable lands, or thofe in the ftate of tillage, for the
ufe of conveying and taking off the fuperabundaiit hurtful
water, and preventing the ftagnation of it from injuring the
crops. This is efpecially neceffary and proper in the winter
feafon, and often in others. It is therefore effential that, as
foon as poffible after fowing moft forts of grain, but par-
ticularly wheat, when there is any difpofition in the foil or
land to the retention of moifture in too large a proportion,
there fhould be as many water-furrows opened in this way
as may be fufficient for carrying off and completely remov-
ing the excefs of water, and thereby preferving the ground
in a properly dry and iound condition for the healthy
growth of the crops. It is obferved by the writer of a late
Calendar of Hufbandry, that the making of proper water-
furrows is a circumftancc of much importance in the culture
of wheat, but that it is oftentimes ftrangely negletted. It
is a work, however, that fhould be well and effeftually per-
formed on all lands, except thofe that are perfeftly dry
all the winter through. The water-furrows fhould be
formed by the plough, as foon as the field has been finifbed
ploughing, fowing, and harrowing, and then a ipit or earth
ftiould be dug from out of the bottoms of them, and laid on
one fide oppofite the rife of the land Qr ndgc, and the loofe
mould in the bottom parts be well fnovelled and cleaned out,
fo as to make a pcrfeftly free paflage for drawing off the
wetnefs; the openings of all the common ridge-furrows.

beinsT

WAT

W A T

being likewife well cleanfed at the fame time, fo that the
water may have an eafy fall out of every one of them into
the large water-furrows. The number of thefe large fur-
rows mull conftantly depend on the variations of the furface,
and fome other circumllances of the lands : the only general
rule is to make them fo many in number, as that no water
may be fuffered to ftand on any part of the land in the wet-
ted weather. In the bottoms or low parts of fields, or in
other places of them where there is a double flope of the
land, it is neceflary to form and cut double water-furrows at
the diftance of about a yard or four feet from each other, in
order to take the water from each defcent iingly.

The fame writer, too, farther advifes, that in all lands fown
with clover or other grafles among the corn, thefe forts of
furrows fhould be dug a fpit deep, and the mould raifed in
that way be carefully thrown out. Many farmers, it is
faid, are not attentive enough to this point. They only
fcour the furrows in fuch cafes. They (hould, however, it is
thought, confider how long the grafs crops are on the
ground, which may be two or three winters ; confequently
it mud be very material to fuch crops to lie dry all that
length of time, which fcouring alone will not effeft, at leaft
not in a fufSciently perfett manner. Particular attention
fhould alfo be paid to the fpreading of the earth that is dug
out of the furrows in thefe cafes, as if the men be not cau-
tioned, they will lay it too thick and injure the crops ; it
fhould be chopped and rendered fniall, and then fpread
with great care, in order that the feeds may rife freely
through it.

In the cafe of arable land, thefe furrows fhould be often
examined during the winter feafon, to fee that they are
perfeftly open and free ; the clods, lumps, and other fuch
matters that may have fallen into them, being cleared out by
means of the fpade.

This is a praftice which is either much overlooked, or
very imperfeftly executed, in a great many diftrifts of the
kingdom. The fides of the furrows in thefe cafes fhould
always be made to Itand firm, and to have a good flope each
way, which prevents their falling in and mouldering down
fo much. The name of water-furrow drain is fometimes
given to this fort of furrow. See W ATER-Furro-,ving.

VJ^ ATER-Furroiu Fall Plough. See the next article.

VfATER-Furroiui/ig, a term ufed to fignify the operation
of opening water-furrows. It is a fort of work moftly
executed by the affiftance of a large plough for the pur-
pofe and the fpade, but fometimes by the plough alone.
And in fome parts of the county of EU'ex, particularly in
the neighbourhood of Colchefter, they have a method of
doing it by means of a machme that is termed a fall-plough :
in the lines where this fort of furrowing is to be performed
acrofs the ditches or ridges, this fort of tool is ufed there
once in fix, feven, or eight years, for the purpofe of lower-
ing, or, as they call \\., falling the furface. They fird gather
four or fix furrows by the plough ; then follows this imple-
ment acrofs thefe furrows, in their loofe frefh ploughed
ftate, taking up the parts of the mould, and dropping them
on the crowns or fides of the ditches or ridges, and when
finiflied, the water-fm-rows are ploughed and fcoured in the
common manner : the invention is faid to have merit, as the
water certainly takes a freer courfe than in the ufual
method. In a dry feafon, a large extent of ground can be
done in a fliort time, at little expence, in this way.

Some think this work done in the neated and mod; effec-
tual manner by means of a fhovel ; and that an old worn
fhovcl is the bed for the purpofe. See W ATEK-Furronu.

WATER-Gagp, the name of a fimple contrivance for mea-
furing and afcertaining the depth or quantity of any water

in its application to any purpofe, or otherwife. See
Gage.

WATER-Gan^, a term applied to a channel or padage cut
through any fpot to drain and free a place of water by car-
rying off a dream from it.

WATER-Gavel, in our Old Writers, a rent paid for filhing
in, or other benefits received from, fome river.

W AT Ell- Gilding. See Gilding.

"W ATEM-Lanman, a fmall glafs inftrument, which is a tube
of about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with a ball
about It, inch at one end, the other end being hermetically
clofed ; the ball contains water, and the empty fpace is ren-
dered nearly a vacuum by boiling the fluid previoufly to
fealing it. In this indrument the heat of the hand applied
to the wetted tube, is fufficient to produce bubbles of
vapour, which enter the ball, but fpeedily coUapfe. The
feries of thefe condenfations is as quick as 15 or 16 in a
fecond. But in the deam-engine the condenfation is prodi-
gioufly more rapid. When a fmall double deam-engine, on
the condruftion of Boulton and Watt, having all the parts
and gear of the large engines, but its cyhnder being only 2^
inches diameter, and the length of droke 6f inches, was fet
to work ; it gave 600 drokes per minute, or about twice as
many as the beats of a common watch. By an eafy calcu-
lation it may be fhewn, that the deam condenfed was then
much more than 300 cubic inches per fecond ; and if the
condenfation, indead of being efFedled in maffes of about
a pint at a time, could have been performed by fucceffive
coilapfes of each cubic inch in an open fpace, the pulfes
would have produced the tone of the lowed E flat in the
treble cliff. »But the number of cubic inches condenfed in
a large fteam-engine, e. g. a three-feet cylinder with an
eight-feet ftroke, will be eight or nine times as much at
the ufual rate of working. See Nicholfon's Journal,
vol. iv. 8vo.

WATER-Level, the level which is formed by the furface
of dill water, managed in fome way or other in a conve-
nient manner for its application in different cafes ; and
which is perhaps the trued of any for mod ufes. The term
is alfo applied to and iignifies the level ufed in watering
land, and performing different other operations in the bufi
nefs of agriculture. See Level, SpiRir-Level, and WA'
TERiNG Land.

W ATER-Levels are alfo lengths of canal in fome places,
that are not connefted by locks with other navigations
but at the ends of which the goods are unloaded into tea!
waggons. See Canal.

Vf AiER-Line and Reel, the ftrong large line and reel of
the garden kind, which is ufed in forming fome part of the
works in watering of land.

WATER-Zinw, (fee Smv- Building), are the lines of
floatation fuppofed to be defcribed by the furface of the
water on the bottom of a fliip. Of thefe the mod par-
ticular are thofe denominated the light luater-line and the
load luater-Une ; the former, namely, the light water-line,
being that line which fhews the depreflion of the fliip's body
in the water when light or unladen, or when fird launched,
called the launching draught of -water ; and the latter, which
exhibits the fame when laden with all her guns and ballad,
or cargo.

WATER-LeggeJ, in Sea Language, denotes the ftate of a
diip when, by receiving a great quantity of water into her
hold, by leaking, &c. die has become heavy and inaftive
upon the fea, fo as to yield without refidance to the effort
of every wave rudiing over her deck. In this dangerous
iituation of a diip, the crew have no refource, except to free

hfr

ifi-

J

es,B

IS ^^

4

W A T

W A T

' her by tlae pumps, or to abandon her by the boats as foon
as poflible.

Water, To Make. See Make.
W ATEK- Machine. See Machine.
j "W AtER-Mead or Meadow, in jlgriculture, a term ap-
I plied to that fort of meadow or other inclofed low ground,
I which is capable of being improved and kept in a conilant
iftate of fertility and produftivenefs, by means of water from
fome adjoining river, brook, or ftream, being thrown and
jcondufted over it in the winter or other proper feafon. This
imanner and beneficial praftice of forming meadows has pre-
I vailed locally for fiich a very great length of time in different
[parts of the country, cfpecially in Wiltfhire, Gloucefter-
|!hire, and Devoiifhire, that it is extraordinary that it has
not been generally adopted and introduced into other dif-
trifts, where it is equally capable of being had recourfe to
iwithout great difficulty, and where it may be equally ad-
(vantageous and proper. This negleA has been afcribed by
a late intelligent writer to a deficiency of information among
farmers in general, in regard to the nature and management
of the bulinefs, and particularly in what relates to the nature
lof levels, and the means of adjufting them in different cafes.
;Thefe circumftances, it is fuppofed, have confined it to
the weftern diftrifts and parts of the kingdom. Other
Icaufes may, however, have operated in this way, as the
ifaciHties afforded by the fituations of the lands in general,
the numerous rivulets and ftrcams always ready at hand for
the purpofe, and many others of the fame nature.

It is neceflary that water-meadows fliould have fuch a
form, either by nature or art, as that this fluid may be
capable of flowing over their furfaces in a rapid manner, in
[order to produce and promote the early and quick growth
'of the grafs in a healthy ftate. It is effentially neceffary,
too, to their perfeft fuccefs and completenefs, that there be
at all feafoiis a full command of the water, as well as of the
' means of diftributing it to every part of them, and of dif-
charging it in a complete manner, whenever it may become
requiiite. See Watering Z-a?;;^.

As to the advantages to be derived from meadows of this
kind, they are very confiderable, not only in the vaftly in-
'creafed quantities of hay which they afford, but alfo in the
point of early fpring food for ewes and lambs, as well as in
many other refpefts and particulars.

It may be obferved, that from the grafs of water-meadows
' being fo very forward in the months of March and April,
it is in general fed down or paftured in the fpring with
iheep ; and to thofe farmers wlio keep them for breeding or
I fattening, becomes almoft invaluable, from the great fear-
city of green food at fuch a period ; but that after being
flooded in the latter end of the laft of thefe months, they
are moftly (hut up for hay in the fummer.

And the after-grafs is eaten off in autumn by neat cattle,

it being confidered as very pernicious and dangerous for

flieep to paflure on water-meadows at that feafon. A re-

I markable inftance of its fatal effefts is ftated by the writer

' of the Correfted Account of the Agriculture of the County

; of Sufiex. Eighty ewes from Weyhill fair were turned

j into fome field adjoining a watered meadow : a fcore of

, them broke into the meadow for a night, and were taken

1 out in the morning, and kept till lambing ; when they pro-

; duced twenty-two lambs, all of which lived, but every one

\ of the ewes died rotten before May-day. The remaining

I I'lxty made themfelvcs fat, nor could a rotten fliecp be dlf-

1 nwred amongft them. It is an extraordinary tadt, it is

i.iid, though not eafily accounted for, that the grafs of

j watered meadows (hould be (o nouridiing to fhecp in the

I fpring, and yet have fo deftrudive an effed. on them in the

autumn. The fad feems, however, to be well and indif-
putably eftabhfhed. It may probably depend upon the
grafs being in a more foft and loofe watery itate of produc-
tion in the autumn than what it is in the vigorous growth of
the fpring. See Tath and Water-TW/Zi.

By the author of the " Treatife on Watering Meadows,"
it is advifed that no (heep, except thofe that are jufl fat,
fhould ever be fuffered, even for an hour, in watered mea-
dows, as they will infallibly rot them at any other feafon
than the fpring, but efpecially if made from low, boggy, or
fwampy ground ; but that it is not fo, when made from
dry heathy land. Others, however, think it dangerous on
all, and therefore always to be avoided.

It cannot be doubted but that on farms of this nature,
where it is convenient to have three or four meadows that
can be watered, they will be found particularly advan-
tageous; as, while neat ftock are eating the firit, it is faid,
the fecond will be growing, the third becoming dry, and
the fourth under water : by which an extenfive fyflem of
feeding and producing of dry fodder may be carried on.

It is noticed by Mr. Smith, in a late effay on thefe kinds
of meadows, that even a fmall piece of this fort of meadow,
which will produce an early crop of fpring feed at the very
time of the greateft preCTure of fcarcity, and when the tur-
nips ought to be off the ground, muff be much more valu-
able to a poor arable farm than can eafily be imagined by
any one who has not witneffed the great utility derived from
them, in many parts of Wiltfliire. What, but for the
water-meadows, could enable the Wiltfliire farmers, it is
allied, to bring to market a much greater number of fheep,
and that at an earlier feafon than can be produced from any
other county in the kingdom ? The water-meadows have
unqueltionably a great fhare in doing this.

They afford there, it is faid, an early fupply of grafs for
the forward or early breed of lambs, on which they begin
to feed them about the middle of March, having previoufly
withdrawn the water from them, and laid them perfedly
dry. It is obferved, that on a good crop of grafs of this
kind, it has been faid, that five hundred couples may be fed
on an acre for one day. The praftice is to hurdle out,
daily, fuch a portion of the ground as is neceffary, leaving
a few open fpaces in the hurdles, through which the lambs
may feed forward on the frefli grafs. The hours they are
fullered to feed on this grafs, in luch cafes, are from about
ten o'clock in the morning until five in the afternoon, when
they are generally folded on the contiguous barley fallows,
or lands in preparation for that crop. This is a praftice
or fort of management, too, which is fuppofed to have a
great advantage, in confequence of its manuring a part of
the farm without the dunghill. The manure, however, in
fuch cafes, is drawn from, and at the lofs of fuch mea-
dows.

The writer of the Correfted Report of the Agriculture
of the County of Middlefex mentions a remarkable inftance
of the beneficial and fertilizing effefts of water in thefe mea-
dows, as occurring in the early part of the autumn of 1796,
when fuch grafs lands as had not had the advantages of
water, as in thefe cafes, were nearly burnt up. A clofe of
about twenty acres, which liad been watered in this way,
had, it is faid, a moft luxuriant after-grafs of from fix inches
to a foot in depth ; and a neighbouring inclofure of near
forty acres afforded fupport for three months to forty-feven
liories and bullocks, all which throve very well. And
another cafe of the fame nature is recorded, in which forty
acres employed in this way were found equal to the fupport
cf five hundred Wiltfhire ewes, from the middle of the
month of March to the firft of May, or about fix weeks ;

and

WAT

and that the improvement of the ftock in that time was one
fhilling a week, or three pounds fifteen fliiUings the acre.
In fome parts of the fame county, five pounds worth of hay
might alfo, it is faid, be taken off the firft week in May.
Thefe fafts and ftatements ftrongly prove and difplay the
utility of thefe meadows, wherever they can be properly-
provided.

In fpeaking of the management of water-meadows, the
author of the effay already noticed remarks, that in thofe
great diftrifts of water-meads, which in Wiltlhire are wa-
tered by the common confent of many different proprietors
and occupiers of land, the operation of floating muft begin
and end at certain fixed periods, wliich it is neceffary for
every one to know, and regularly adhere to, not only in
order to the produftion of a crop of grafs, but for the pro-
creation of thofe animals that eat the grafs : confequently,
as every farmer knows at what time he rtiall have grafs for
his fheep, he fo manages his breeding flock, that his lambs
may be ftrong enough at the ufual time of feeding to go
with the ewes to take their food in the meadows, and return
to the fold for lodging.

It is noticed, that the time to commence the feeding on
the meadows upon thofe large ilreams in this county is
generally about the twenty-fifth of March : therefore, if the
winter be very mild and favourable for the growth of grafs,
it fometimes gets to fuch a height as many farmers, unac-
cuflomed to the herbage, might think to be much too coarfe
and luxuriant for (heep, and even too liigh to be fed off with
cattle. So great was the luxuriance of the grafs in the
water-meads of Wiltfliire, it is faid, fome years fince, oc-
cafioned by the mild growing weather immediately after the
commencement of floating, that fome farmers laid their
meadows dry, and fed them off in November, and the fol-
lowing month ; and then, by floating again, obtamed a
crop of feed in the fpring before the ufual period. Many
who did not adopt this method lamented that their grafs
was too high, even in the month of February ; and it was
then not uncommon to fee it in the water-meads nine inches
high, but laid on the ground, and white at the bottom, be-
fore the lambs were ftrong enough to go into the meadows.
Some apprehended, it is faid, that the long four grafs would
be wafted ; yet it was aflonifliing with what avidity tlie
fheep devoured it, and even preferred the parts that were the
longeft, and rendered white at bottom, in confequence of
the extreme thicknefs : this they would, it is obferved,
gnaw down to the very roots. It was remarked by Mr.
Davip, it is faid, that the grafs then on one Rickwood's
mead was fuch a crop as, at the ufual time of cutting it,
would have been eilimated at 18 cwt. per acre. Many de-
clared that they never faw tlie crop of the water-meads fo
very abundant and early ; but on vifiting the fame meadow,
at the particular requeft of the above-named friend of the
writer, on the tenth of March, when it had been in feeding
more than three weeks, and atlcing the floater if they ever
began to feed it fooner, he replied that he had had the
management of the meadows more than thirty years, and
never knew it fo early but once, when they began feeding it
on the eleventh of the firft month in the year. The writer
walked over the greateft; part of this extraordinary piece of
ground with fome confiderable difficulty, it is obferved,
from the thicknefs and height of the grafs ; and he could
difcover but one place, to the great credit of the floater,
which was worfe than another, and that not two rods fquare.
The man foon faw it noticed, it is faid, and before the
writer could mention the circumttance, told him he knew
what he was looking at, and had contrived to do away even
fuch a trifling defeft ; fo this may be truly faid to be, the

WAT

writer thinks, a fpotlefs meadow. This fhews the nice at-
tention and great care beflowed in forming water-meadows
in this diftridl ; and in fome other counties the care be-
flowed upon the water-meadows is probably not much, if
any lefs. This would feem to be particularly the cafe in
the county of Gloucefter, where very great attention is
given to the floating of them, to tlie manner of feeding them
down by live-itock, and the fhutting them up for the pro-
duftion of hay, as well as in every other part of their ma-
nagement.

They are there, too, equally valuable and important in
the quantity and utility of the produce which they afford,
as well as the qualities of it, yielding much profit to indi-
viduals, and advantage to the whole diltridt.

The utility and benefit of water-meadows are indeed now
beginning to be every where well underltood, wherever they
are capable of being formed in a convenient and fuitable
manner.

Water-mcadowo are in general calculated to afford an
early fpring feed for fheep, or other forts of live-ftock,
which may be continued in feeding by them until towards
the beginning of the month of May, when, if defigned for
the producing of hay, that muft then ceafe ; as, if perfifl:ed
in even for a lingle week in that month, the hay would, as
fuppofed by fome, be wholly ruined in quality, being ren-
dered foft, woolly, and unfubftantial, as in the cafe of after-
math crops : but being then fhut up, and floated for fome
days, a crop of hay is next produced, which is in readinefs for
the fcythe in about fix weeks ; and tliis crop being removed,
and the meadows again floated as before, a third or after-
math crop is afforded, for being paftured by neat cattle and
horfes, but never, or in few cafes, by fheep, or for being
ufed as cut green food in houfe-feeding, which, in fome
cafes, is probably the moil beneficial application of it ; as
where one or two more fuch crops are caufed and taken in
the fame way, at the fame feafon.

The great fuperiority of the produce from water-meadows
is thus rendered very evident, and the ufes of it not of lefs
value or importance.

Water-meadows fhould conftantly be well eaten down
before they are floated, but efpecially in the autumn.

It is of great advantage, in many different refpcdts, to
have feparate water-meadows, whicli can be alternately in
the courfe of feeding off, floating, and being laid dry, as
has been already feen ; as, by this means, their benefits can
never be loft for any length of time. And it is particularly
beneficial in providing an uninterrupted fuccefTion of after-
math pafturage, or of that fort of grafs for being cut and
ufed green in the ftalls.

Any thing which is done to the furfaces of water-mea-
dows, in the way of rolling or giving them preffure, fhould
always be done while they are in a quite dry ftate, about the
beginning of the month of March, and never when they are
much in a moift condition.

The hay produce of meadows of this fort is moflly proper
for all kinds of neat cattle and fheep, but not fo fuitable for
horfes, efpecially thofe of the working or team kind.

V^ KTUR-Meafurc. Salt, fea-coal, &c. while aboard veffels
in the pool, or river, are meafured with the corn bufhel
heaped up ; or elfe five ftriked pecks are allowed to the
bufhel. This is called water-meafure ; and this exceeds
Winchefter-meafure by about three gallons in the bufhel.

W AT^R- Jllicro/cope. See Microscope.

Water-MH/, in Rural Economy, that fort of mill which
is turned by the power or force of water applied in fome
way or other. As mills of this kind often form and oppofe
great obftrudions to different improvements of the farmer,

2 and

WAT

and efpecially in the praftice of watering land, they fhould
confequently be diminiflied in number as much as poffible
in fuch cafes, and thofe of the tide and wind kinds be fub-
ftituted in tlieir places, as might be done with great facihty
■in many inftances. See Mill.

Water, Mother, in Chemijlry. See Crystal.

Watek Ordeal, or Trial, was of two kinds ; by hot, and
by cold water. See Ordeal.

WATEK-Orj-an. See Organ.

Water, Petrifying. See Petrifying.

WATER-Poi/e. See Hydrometer, and Areometer.

Dr. Hooka has contrived a watcr-poife, which may be of
good fervice in examining the purity, &c. of water. It
confifts of a round glafs ball, hke a bolt-head, about three
inches in diameter, with a narrow ftem or neck, one twenty-
fourth of an inch in diameter ; which being poifed with red
lead, fo as to make it but little heavier than pure fweet
water, and thus fitted to one end of a fine balance, with a
counterpoife at the other ; upon the lead addition of even
T-o-'o-irth part of fait to a quantity of water, half an inch of
the neck will emerge above the water, more than it did be-
fore. Phil. Tranf. N° 197.

WATER-Proof Cloth and Leather. It woujd be very
defirable to render the principal articles of clothing impe-
netrable to water, provided it could be done without injur-
ing the pliability of the cloth.

The mofl common refource is to line the garment with
oiled filk, fuch as is ufed for hat-covers and umbrellas ; that
is, filk which has been drefled with a varnifh of drying lin-
feed oil, fo as to prevent the admiffion of water. This effec-
tually guards the wearer of fuch a garment from becoming
wet ; but it is not perfeft, for the outfide cloth can im-
bibe moifture, which will evaporate by the wind, and caufe
great part of that ooldnefs which renders wet clothes fo
prejudicial.

What would be defirable is, that we fliould give to cloth
the fame property which we find in the fur of feveral ani-
mals ; the otter, beaver, and water-rat. This is a repellence
of water, which when thrown upon the animal rolls off in
pearl drops, without wetting the fur in the leaft ; but we
obferve this only in the living animal, and when in a Hate of
health, for thefe animals are known to be fick when they
are found to be wetted after having dived in the water.
This perfeftion has not yet been attained, but we (hall proceed
to (late what has been attempted, with a view of water-
proof varnilhing for cloth.

Mr. Albert Angel, in 178 1, had a patent for preparing
an elaflic varnifli for this and various other purpofes. His re-
ceipt is, hnfecd oil, or nut oil, one gallon ; bee's-wax ( yellow
or bleached ), one pound ; glue or fize, fix pounds ; verdigris,
a quarter of a pound; litharge, a quarter of a pound; fpring
or rain water, two quarts; to be put into an iron kettle, and
melted down till it forms the compofition.

Caoutchouc, or elaftic gum, called Indian rubber, is a
fubftance which has engaged the attention of philofophers,
ever fince it has been known. Its fingular elafticity, its
flexibility and impenetrability to water, have caufed it to be
confidered as very valuable for this purpofe.

It is not poffible to effeft the liquefaflion of caoutchouc,
by means of heat ; it will melt as well as other refins, but
when cooled, it remains liquid and adhefive. Alcohol or
fpirit of wine, the ufuaUfolvents of refinous fubflances, do
not aCl upon it, nor is it diffolved in water, as gums are ;
it was then tried to diffolve it in drying oils, and it was
found that by the aid of heat, the caoutchouc may be dif-
folved, and form an excellent varnifh, fupple, impervious
to air or water, and refilling a long time the aftion of acids.

Vol. XXXVIIL

WAT

With fuch varnifli Meffrs. Charles and Roberts covered
their air-balloons.

Several effential oils, as thofe of turpentine and lavender,
aft upon the caoutchouc, even when cold, and thefe are of
no great price. The difagreeable fmell of the oil of tur-
pentine becomes, perhaps in procefs of time, lefs difagree-
able than that of the lavender.

The oil of turpentine always leaves a kind of fticklnefs.
The following procefs is defcribed in a patent granted to
Mr. Henry Johnfon of London in 1797, for rendering cloth
and other articles water-proof.

The article to be operated upon, mufl firft be cleanfed
from all greafe or dirt by wafhing it with an alkaline folu-
tion, and then ftretched in a frame. The water-proof com-
pound, as it is termed, is formed by diffolving caoutchouc or
Indian rubber in fpirit of turpentine, (the fmell of which is
taken off by adding oil of wormwood, and fpirit of wine in
equal quantities ; ) this forms a fort of varnifh, which is capa-
ble of being fpread, or wafhed over the furface of the leather
or cloth, always applying it on the wrong fide of the article,
or that fide which is not to be feen. The varnifh is laid on
by means of a large piece of Indian rubber, inftead of a
brufh or iponge. To conceal the varnifh and make a good
internal furface to the cloth or leather, it muft be fifted over
vyith fome fubftance, fuch as filk, wool, or coney, cut very
fine, in the fame manner as flock paper is made ; and being
left to dry, in a few days the flock, by its adhefion to the
varnifh, forms a very good lining, at the fame time that it
conceals the varnifh. Thefe articles were called by the
patentee hydrolaines, and were loudly recommended by ad-
vertifements, but never came much into ufe.

AT. Pelletier's Method of making Varnifh of CaoutchouCy
or elaflic Gum, by dijfol-uing it in fulfhuric Ether. — Boil the
elaftic gum for the fpace of an hour in common water, by
this it becomes foft enough, to be cut into fmall threads ;
being thus divided, put it again into boiling water, and keep
the yeffel on the fire for about another hour ; this fecoud
boiling penetrates the elaftic gum very fenfibly, and deprives
it of that hardnefs which it poffeffes in the firft ftate.

AVhen the gum is thus divided and foftened, put it imme-
diately into a matrafs, or any other clofed veffel, containing
reftified fulphuric ether. In the courfe of a few hours the
ether penetrates the elaftic gum (which fwells veryconfider-
ably ), and at the end of a few days the folution is complete,
without the afTiftance of heat, provided a fuflicient quantity
of ether is made ufe of.

According to this procefs, the folutions are of a white co-
lour and tranfparent ; the heterogeneous and footy particles,
which the elaftic gum generally contains, fall to the bottom
of the veffel in which the folution is made, and have a footy
appearance, fo that by merely decanting the folution it may
be obtained very clear.

Mr. Parrifh and Mr. Ackermann have likewife had pa-
tents for the fame objeft ; the latter fucceeded much better
than the elaftic varnilhes.

Water-proof Leather — In the memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences at Turin, 1789, is a paper by the chevalier de St.
Real, on the manner of rendering leather impermeable to
water, without diminiftiing its ftrength or its fupplenefs, and
without fenfibly augmenting jts price. M. St. Real fhews
that fkins may be tanned in fuch a way as to give this
defirable quality to the leather, and in other refpefts with
benefit to the tanner, by reducing all the proceffes of the art
to the following.

For ftrong ox or cow leather, which is ufed for making
the outer foles of fhoes and boots.

I ft, Soak the green hides, feparate from each other, in
U running

WATER-PROOF.

running water, a fufficient time to extraft all the foluble
animal matter or lymph ; it will be eafy to determine when
that is done, by putting a piece of the hide into water, and
heating the water gradually ; if no fcum is formed upon the
furface, it is a proof that no lymph remains.

2dly, Place the hides (after they have been wafhed and
cleaned) in a cauldron, fimilar in conftruclion tothofe in
which common fait is made ; fill the cauldron with water,
which is to be heated to 167 degrees of Fahrenheit, and no
more : after the hides have been one hour expofed to this
degree of heat, take them out. .

3dly, Stretch them upon the horfe, and proceed to take
off the hair in the ufual manner.

4thly, Put them again into the cauldron ( which fhould be
fo contrived that it may receive as much water from a cock
on one fide as is let out from a cock on the other fide), and
fo keep up in this cauldron a conftant current of water, of
the heat of 60 degrees.

5thly, Let the hides remain in this cauldron till the water
no longer contains any animal jelly ; which may be eafily
known by evaporating a fmall quantity of it.

6thly, Take the hides out of the water and place them
upon the horfe, that the cellular and mufcular membrane
may be taken off.

7thly, Wa(h the hides again in running water, then put
them again into the cauldron, or one fimilar to it, which is to
be filled with filtered tan-liquor. This liquor is to have the
fame degree of heat that the water had in the former opera-
tion ; the (kins to remain in it till they are completely tan-
ned, taking care to put frefh tan-liquor in the place of that
which (hall appear to have loft its energy by the combina-
tion of its aftringent principle with the hides ; this may be
readily known by dropping in a few drops of a folution
of green vitriol.

The author ftates, that leather made according to this
fyftcm would be more free than any other from the animal
jelly, which is not combined with the tan, and confequently
would be lefs fufceptible of moifture. The fibrous part of
the ficin being more ftrongly afted upon by the tan-liquor
when heated, would become more firm and more diffi-
cult to be penetrated by water ; it would be increafed in
ftrength and compaftnefs, without lofing any part of its
fupplenefs.

That excellent Swedilh leather fo fuperior to all other, of
which boots, breeches, and great-coats are made, is capable
of refilling the moft violent rains. This leather is prepared
in Jutland with hot water.

In the common way the tanner contents himfelf, before
he delivers the leather to the (hoe-maker, with beating thofe
parts which are foft, or which have a very irregular furface,
upon a fmooth log of wood with a mallet. The more care-
ful tanners beat all their hides ; and this praftice is general
in England.

Befides the ftrong fole -leather already mentioned, leather
of a different kind is ufed in a great variety of arts and ma-
nufaftures. It is made of (Icins of cows and oxen, but more
generally of calves'-fiiins ; it ferves to make the foles of
pumps, or women's (hoes ; for belts, harneffes, covering
trunks, &c. or the inner foles of men's (hoe?, ar.d the upper-
leathers ; in (hort, any kind of work in which the thickeft
and ftrongeft leather is not required. All this fort of leather
is curried, becaufe leather as it comes out of the pits is by no
means fit for the various ufes for which it is intended : it is
rough, of an unequal thicknefs, and unmanageable. Th«
objeft of the currier's art is to fupple it, and to give it an
nniform compaftnefs and denfity ; this objeft he fulfils by the
following operations :

I ft. He triads the (kins, that is, after having foaked them
till they are foftened, he kneads them with his feet, to make
the water penetrate every part equally.

2dly, He works them with the pummel ; this is done by
applying to the (Icins a fquare tool made of hard wood, about
a foot long and five inches broad ; it is furrowed longitu-
dinally, and convex at the bottom and flat at top ; it is fixed
to the workman's hand by a leather ftrap fo that it cannot
flip. This tool by being worked forcibly along both fides
of the (kin, firft upon the fide of the epidermis, and then
on that of the flcfh, forms the grain of the leather, and gives
it fupplenefs.

3dly, He then works the flvin with an iron inftrument with
a blunt edge ; with this he (crapes very ftrongly thofe parts
which are too thick, thofe in which there is left any flelli, or
any tan, and thofe in which there are hollows ; driving as it
were to prefs the luperfluities of the thick parts into thofe
which are too thin, and thus to give to every part of the (l{in
an equal thicknefs and an uniform denfity.

4tlily, He pares the flcin with a paring-knife ; this paring-
knife is circular : the workman cuts away thofe thick and
projefting parts which the operation juft defcribed was
not able to remove ; fo that this lall operation may be
confidered as completing the objeft of the preceding
one.

After the four operations above-mentioned, the leather is
fupple and fmooth, and of an equal thicknefs and denfity in
all its parts : it is now in a ft ate capsble of being em-
ployed by the workmen who make ufe of it. But the
very operations which give it thefe valuable properties ap-
pear to injure its compaftnefs. The leather by being
beat, ftretched, and (craped, muft neceffarily become more
fpongy, and confequently more permeable to water. To
remedy this inconvenience, the currier impregnates it with
fat or oil.

To drefs leather with fat, it muft firil be made perfeftly
dry. The pores of the leather are then dilated, by paffing
it over a clear ftrong fire, and it is rubbed over with a kind
of woollen mop dipped in melted fat, pretty hot. The fat
thus applied to each fide of the leather penetrates into its
fubftance, lodges within its pores, and adhering there fills
them up fo as to preclude the entrance of any moifture ;
(hould the leather be wet when the fat is applied, it will
remain upon the furface, and not penetrate into the fub- 1
ftance.

The manner of dreffing leather with oil is the reverfe ofl
this, and is founded upon tlie property which water poffeffesl
of fweUing thofe fupple and elailic capillary tube? into which
it infinuates itfelf ; alfo that of its not being mifcible withJ
oil, and upon that of its evaporating much more fpeedilj
than oil.

The currier therefore foaks thofe (l<ins in water which he I
means to drefs with oil, and while they are yet wet, heJ
fpreads over them with a wool m.op any kind of fi(h oil. As
the water evaporates, the oil takes its place ; and confequently
the more the flcins were fwelled with water, the more tho-
roughly they become impregnated with oil.

M. St. Real found the cow-leather dreffed with fat imfc
bibes more water than the calf-(]<in dreffod with oil ; but hd
attributes this difference to the manner in which the currier
applies the fat. He rubs the leather with a kind of mop,|
dipped into melted fat moderately warm, it feems impoffiblfel
that, by this manner of applying it, the fat can penetrate!
into the interior parts of the leather ; the air contained inf
its pores oppofes an invincible obftacle to the penetration ofl
it. On the contrary, there is no air in the pores of the wetl
leather upon which the oil is applied, and the permanentl

fluidityj

WATER-PROOF.

' fluidity of the oil itfelf alfo facilitates its paffage into the
leather.

To make the leather imbibe the fat, he propofes three or
four days immerfion in running water, to drive out the air;
then to foak the leather in melted fat, of the temperature of
167 degrees of Fahrenheit, till all the water in the leather
is evaporated by the heat ; the fat would then penetrate
into the interior pores of the leather, and render it imper-
meable to water.

If leather is comprelTedjit evidently diminiihes the thick-
nefs, and increafes its compaftnefs ; and if it is beaten with
an iron hammer upon a very fmooth anvil, it produces a
permanent contraftion of its pores. Leather is in that re-
fpeft very much like iron, and all other metals which
harden by beating ; and, confequently, our author fuggefts
that it would be of great advantage to comprefs the leather
before it is ufed, by paffing it between a pair of rollers,
fuch as are ufed to flatten metal : this would ftiffen the
leather.

It appears from experiment that the ftrong fole-leather,
by being properly impregnated with fat, and comprefled in
the rollers, abforbs only one-thirteenth part of water, im-
bibed by the fame leather which has not undergone thofe
operations. The quantity of water which the firil abforbs,
and which amounts to about one-thirtieth part of its weight,
is fo fmall, that it does not render it capable of wetting any
fubftance it may come in contaft with, nor does the leather
appear wet when taken out of the water ; it may therefore
be confidered as almoft impermeable to it.

The cow-leather, when impregnated with fat, and com-
prefled, abforbs about one-ninth part of the water abforbcd
by leather of the fame nature which has not undergone thofe
operations. The quantity of water abforbed by the firft;
amounts only to the thirty-fourth part of its own weight.

The calf-ikin, when impregnated with fat and compreffed,
abforbs only one-third part the quantity of water that the
fame quantity of leather abforbs when it has not undergone
thofe operations ; and that quantity is not fo much as one-
fortieth part of the weight of the leather.

In this manner, without making any alteration in the
ufual method of tanning, except with refpeft to the thin
fole-leather, it is pofTible to render leather very nearly im-
permeable to water, by the known operations of currying,
provided to them are added compreflion by rollers, and foak-
ing in fat, as before defcribed. The additional greafing and
preffing will not ienfibly increafe the price of the leather,
for it retains only about the fixteenth part of its weight of
fat.

The leather which had pafled through the rollers was not
diminilhed in its llrength ; for it fupported, without break-
ing, weights as heavy as were fupported by leather of the
fame kind which had not undergone that operation.

In 1794 Mr. Bellamy of London obtained a patent for a
method ot rendering leather water-proof, which he thus
defcribes.

Take nut oil, one gallon ; poppy-oil, one gallon ; and lin-
feed-oil, two gallons ; or they may be in other proportions :
put them iiito an iron vefiel, and fet it over a gentle fire.
To every gallon of the mixed oils, put half a pound of um-
ber, or white copperas, fugar of lead, colcothar, or any
other proper drier, but obferving to ufe a larger proportion
than the above, when the oil is to be prepared for new
leather, or a lefler proportion when it is to be prepared for
old.

Let the oils remain on the fire, and give it as great a de-
gree of heat as it can bear without burning, or cauCng it to

rife, for fix or feven hours ; and if it will not dry fufficiently
continue the fame degree of heat till it does : then take it
off the fire, and when it is a httle cooled, it is ready to be
applied to make water proof leather.

This is done by a bruih being dipped into the prepared
matter, and rubbed or brufhed into the leather.

When the article is well filled with the prepared oils, lay
It on an even board, andfcrape off what is fuperfluous with a
thin iroi} tool ; then put it to dry in a warm room, and when
fufficiently dry it will be fit for ufe.

For fole-leather of thick fubflance,let it be gently warmed,
and with a brufh or pad, made of wool or hair, rub or brufh
the prepared matter on the leather, till it is thoroughly fa-
turated ; then let it dry in a warm place, and it is ready for
ufe.

The proportion of the mixtures of oils, mud be varied
according to the nature of the oil, and alfo according to the
nature of the leather, for the fame kind of oil will not
always have the fame qualities.

Oils exprefled at different times will frequently have a
greater or lefs propenfity to finifii ; and muft, on that ac-
count, have more or lefs of the poppy or nut oils. If the
drying oil finilhes reluftantly, there muft be added a leffer
quantity, or none at all, of the nut or poppy oils, and a
fmall quantity of an elfential oil added, till it will finilh with
eafe and beauty. The fame kind of leather will alfo require
a different mode of treatment ; for if the leather be new it
will abound more with the natural greafe of the animal
which produced it, and it will require the oil to be fo ma-
naged as to abforb or neutralize the greafy quality, that it
may finifh without loading the leather, and making it un-
pleafant to the wearer. When this is the cafe, one-fourth
part of elfential oil of turpentine muft be mixed with the
above oils when prepared ; and vice ijer/d if the leather is
old.

Another of Mr. Bellamy's receipts is as follows : to one
gallon of the above prepared oils add one pound of gum
refin, half a pound of pitch, a quarter of a pound of tar,
and a quarter of a pound of turpentine. Let them be well
incorporated with the oils, by firft heating the whole mafs
gently, and then increafe the fire till the whole is thoroughly
mixed ; or he propofes to add to the oils, gums fandarac,
martic, anime, copal, amber, together or feparate, or af-
phaltum, or one-fixth part of bee's-wax. In fhort, any
bituminous, refinous, or adhefive matter, which will refift
acids, alkalies, and water, and will unite with drying oils,
provided when mixed in proper proportions they do not
render the leather hard, or make it crack, or otherwife dif-
agreeable.

In the Annales de Chemie, Mr. Hildebrand of St. Pe-
terfburgh propofes the three following methods of render-
ing fole-leather impermeable by water.

The firft preparation is made by boiling li lb. of minium
with 20 lbs. of oil of linfeed, or hemp-feed; continue the
boiling till the metallic oxyd be entirely dilTolvcd, and the
mixture aflumes a carbonaceous dark brown colour : appjy
this compofition to the infide of the hides till they can ab-
forb no more of it ; then dry them, in fummer by the heat
of the fun, in winter before a fire. When the compofitiou
becomes too thick, it may be liquified by the addition of oil
of turpentine.

The fecond preparation is fimply either of the fame oils,
in part difhydrogenated by fire ; it will ferve equally well for
upper leathers.

The third preparation is a mixture of two ounces of black

pitch with a pound of tar, melted together by a gentle heat ;

U 2 the

W A T

w A a^

the leather is then anointed with the mixture, and dried.
Soles thus prepared ought to be ufed with the fmooth fide
inwards.

Another receipt for an elaftic water-proof varnifh is,
gum afphaltum, two pounds ; amber, half a pound ; gum
benzoin, fix ounces ; linfeed-oil, two pounds ; fpirits of tur-
pentine, eight pounds ; and lamp-black, half a pound ;
united together in an earthen veflel over a gentle fire.

The leather is to be nailed on a board, and the varnifh ap-
plied upon it ; it is then to be pafled into an oven feveral
times, the varnifhing being each time repeated, till the lea-
ther is completely covered.

Mr. William Baynham took a patent in 1 8 1 6 for a water-
proof varnifh, which very much refembles thofe of his pre-
decefTors. It is prepared as follows : fix gallons of linfeed
oil, one pound and a half of rofin, and four pounds and a
half of red litharge, or any other fubftance ufually known
under the denomination of dryers, are to be boiled together
till they acquire fufScient confidence to adhere to the fingers,
and draw out into firings when cooled upon a piece of glafs
or otherwife. It is then to be removed from the fire, and
when fufBciently cooled, thinned to about the confiilence of
fweet oil, by adding fpirits of turpentine to it, which
generally requires about fix gallons. It is left to fettle
for a day or two, and tlien carefully poured off from the
grounds ; and about one pound and a half of ivory or lamp-
black, and one pound and a half of PrufTian blue ground in
linfeed oil, added to and intimately mixed with it. It is then
ready for ufe.

To apply this varnifh, ftir it up, and lay it on with a
brufh until it lies on the furface of the leather with an
even glofs ; then hang up the article which has been operated
upon until the next day : repeat the application as before,
taking care to leave the furface as thin and even as poffible.
This muft be repeated each fucceffive day, until it has the
defired appearance.

Water, Raiting, in Rural Economy. See Rait.

WATER-Rociei. See Rocket.

Water-5/3(7, in a Ship, denotes a fmall fail, fpread occa-
fionally under the lower fludding-fail, or driver-boom, in a
fair wind, and fmooth fea.

WATER-Scape, of the Saxon waterfchap, denotes an
aqueduft, drain, or paflage for water.

W ATER-Shie/d. See Hydraspis.

Water-Woo/, a young fprig, which fprings out of the
root or flock of a tree.

Water-5^0/, in Sea Language. See Mooring.

WATER-Spoui. See fi^ater-SpoUT.

W ATER-Tab/e, in Architeclure, is a fort of ledge, left in
ftone or brick walls, about eighteen or twenty inches from
the ground ; from which place the thicknefs of the wall be-
gins to abate. See Wall.

Vf ATEK-Thermometer, a thermometer made with water by
Mr. Dalton, for the purpofe of afcertaining the precife de-
gree of cold at which water ceafes to be farther condenfed ;
and likewife how much it expands in cooling below that de-
gree to the temperature of freezing, or 32°. With this
view he took a thermometer tube, fuch as would have given
a fcale of ten inches with mercury from 32° to 212°, and
filled it with pure water. He then graduated it by an accu-
rate mercurial thermometer, putting them together in a bafon
filled with water of various degrees of heat, and flirring it
occafionaUy : as it is well known that water does not ex-
pand in proportion to its heat, it does not therefore afford a
thermometric fcale of equal parts, like quickfilver.

From repeated trials agreeing in the refult, he found that

the water-thermometer is at the loweft point of the fcale it is
capable of, that is, water is of the greateft denfity at 424"
of the mercurial thermometer. From 41° to 44' inclufively,
the variation is fo fmall as to, be jull perceptible on the fcale ;
but above or below thofe degrees, the expanfion has an in-
creafing ratio, and at 32° it amounts to fth of an inch, or
about T^-ath part of the whole expanfion, from 42^° to 2 1 2°,
or boiling heat. During the invelligation of this fubjeft, his
attention was arretted by the circumtlance, that the expan-
fion of water was the fame for any number of degrees from
the point of greateft condenfation, no matter whether above
or below it : thus he found tliat 32°, which are io^° below
the point of greateft denfity, agreed exactly with 53°,
which are io-^° above the faid point ; and fo did all the in-
termediate degrees on both fides. Confequently, when the
water-thermometer ftood at 53°, it was impofiible to fay,
without a knowledge of other circumftances, whether its
temperature was really 53^ or 32^. Our ingenious author,
recoUefting fome experiments of Dr. Blagden in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions, from which it appears that water
was cooled down to si°or 22° without freezing, was cu-
rious to fee how far this law of expanfion would continue
below the freezing point, previoufly to the congelation of
the water, and therefore ventured to put his water-thermo-
meter into a mixture of fnow and fait, about 2 j° below the
freezing point, expecting tliebulb to be burft when the fud-
den congelation took place. After taking it out of a mix-
ture of fnow and water, where it ftood at 32°, (that is, 53°
per fcale, ) he immerfed it into the cold mixture, when it
rofe, at firft flowly, but increafing in velocity, itpafTed 60°,
70°, and was going up towards 80°, when he took it out to
fee if there was any ice in the bulb ; but it remained pcr-
feAly tranfparent : he immerfed it again, and raifed it 75^
per fcale, wlien in an inilant it darted up to 128", and that
moment taknig it out, the bulb appeared white and opaque,
the water within being frozen : fortunately it was not burfl ;
and the hquid which was raifed thus to the top of the fcale
was not thrown out, though the tube was unfealed. Upon
applying the hand, the ice was melted, and the hquid re-
fumed its ilation. This experiment was repeated and varied,
at the expence of feveral thermometer bulbs, and it appear-
ed that water may be cooled down in fuch circumftances,
not only to 21°, but 5° or 6^, without freezing; and that
the law of expanfion above-mentioned obtains in every part
of the fcale from 42-|° to 10°, or below, fo that the denfity
of water at 10° is equal to the denfity at 75°.

Vf ATER-Tight, in Sea-Language, the ftate of a fhip when
not leaky.

WATER-TVaa'n^ Crefcent, in Rural Economy, the tool
formed in the manner of the gardener's edging-iron, but
made much larger, and in tlie crefcent form, very thin and
well-fteeled, and fharp in the edge, having a ftem about three
feet in length, with a crofs handle for bearing upon in
working with it, in cutting out the fides of the different
condudlors of the water in watering land. See Watering
Land.

V^ ATER-Ways,m Ship-Building, the fide-ftrake of a deck
wrought next the timbers, and much thicker than the deck,
but reduced to the thicknefs of the deck in front : it makes
a channel for the water to run through the fcuppers, and
prevent leaking at the fide.

W ATER-lVheel, an engine for raifing water in great quan-
tity out of a deep well. See PsRsiAif-lVheel, and Water,
Rating of, fupra.

W ATER- 1 l^oriers, in ./Agriculture, a term applied to the
makers and formers of meadow-drains and trenches, or wet

ditches.

I WAT

; ditches, as in the praftices of watering and draining of land,

or othervidfe.
! "WATER-lVorm, Reprodudion of, in Natural Hi/lory. See
i Reproduction, and IVafer-WoRM. See alfo Vermes.
i Water Key, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the bay of
! Honduras, near the coaft of Mexico. N. lat. 17° 30'. W.
, long. 88° 40'.

Water Key, a fmall ifland in the Spanifli Main, near the
[ Mofquito (hore. N. lat. 12° 15'. W. long. 82° 55'.
I Water Key, South, a fmall ifland in the bay of Hondu-
|ras. N. lat. 16- i<y. W. long. 88^ 45'.
I Water Point, a cape on the ealt coail of Java. S. lat.
17° 55'. E. long. 1 14° 33'.

Water Sound, a ftrait of the North fca, between South
Ronaldfha and Barra, two of the Orkney iflands.

WATERBOROUGH.atown in the diftria of Maine,
and county of York, containing 1395 inhabitants ; 15 miles
!N.W. of Wells.

WATERBURY, a town of the ftate of Connefticut,
containing 2874 inhabitants ; 20 miles S.W. of Hartford.

WATEREE, a river which rifes in the Allegany Moun-
, tains, then runs foutherly into South Carolina, and changing
|its name to Wateree ; after a courfe of about 120 miles, it
joins the Cangaree, and then takes the name of Santee.
; WATERFORD, a maritime county of Ireland, in the
[province of Munftcr, having the county of Cork on the
'weft, the counties of Tipperary and Kilkenny on the north,
the county of Wexford on the eaft, and St. George's Chan-
,nel on the fouth. It extends from eaft to weft 40 Irifti, or
51 Englilh miles ; and from north to fouth 23 Irifti, or 29
[Englifti miles. Its breadth, however, varies much, and is
lin one part not more than fix miles. The area is ftated to
ibe 262,800 acres, or 410 fquare miles Iri(h, which are
iequal to 425,692 acres, or 665 fquare miles Englifli. Dr.
'Beaufort ftates the number of houfes to be 18,796 ; and
ithe number of inhabitants at leaft 1 10,000. The num-
ber of parifties is 74, in which there were 21 churches,
idivided between the fees of Waterford and Lifmore. Wa-
'terford returns four members to the imperial parliament, two
ifor the county, one for the city of Waterford, and one for
'the borough of Dungarvan. The county of Waterford is
lin general hilly, and the northern part is particularly rough
.and mountainous ; in the fouth and eaft the foil is rich and
'produftive. In the weft of the county, on the north of the
i£lackwater, there is a ridge called the Knockmekdo-wn moun-
itains, many parts of which are very high, though Mr.
Twifs is mittaken in calling them the higheft in Ireland.
; The Commeragh mountains cover a great extent of country
[between Dungarvan and Clonmell. Thefe hills, except in
la few defolate and craggy fpots, afford pafture to fmall
'cows, which produce a great quantity of butter. In the
■ eaftern part agriculture has been much improved, and the
' farms are not furpafted in any part of Ireland.

The river Blackwater flows through the weft of thio county
I into the bay of Youghal, and is navigable to Cappoquin.
I The banks of this river are peculiarly beautiful, efpecially
; near Lifmore. The river Bride, which joins the Black-
; water, paffes near the town of Tallow, and is fo far navi-
I gable for large boats. The gentle and majeftic Suir forms
t the northern boundary, dividing it from the counties of
1 Tipperary and Kilkenny, and running eaft till joined by the
I Barrow ; when, turning fouth, they form an eftuary, 9
j miles long, and 2 broad, which is the harbour of Water-
, ford. At Dunmore, near the extremity of this, on the
\ Waterford fide, a very line pier is building, for the protec-
j tion of the packets, and of fuch vcftels as may put into this
harbour.

W A T

Dr. Charles Smith pubhflicd " The ancient and prefent
State of the County and City of Waterford," in the year
V'^^xV^^"^'^ "'^^ reprinted in 1772. In this work, he ftates
the Menapu to have been inhabitants of this county and
Wexford in the time of Ptolemy, which Menapii he fup-
pofes to have been a colony from the Belgic Menapii, men-
tioned by Casfar. The Defii are ftated to have been a
powerful clan at the time of the Englifli invafion. Thefe
came from the county of Meath, and gave name to the ba-
ronies of Defies within and Defies without Drum, and their
defcendants are now called Dcafy. Though the power of
the Defii was aboliftied by the Englifli, yet, for many years
after, the O'Feolains, kings of the Defii, are occafionally
mentioned in the Irifti annals. Henry 1 1, in 1 177 made a grant
of the city of Waterford, with all the circumjacent province,
to Robert Le Poer, his marftial, from whom are defcended
not only the family of Le Poer, the head of which was
created, in 1535, earl of Tyrone, but alfo the feveral re-
fpeftable families of Power, fettled at Claftimore, Gurteen,
&c. By marriage, the eftates and honours of the Le Poers
came to the family of Beresford, the head of which is now
marquis of Waterford, and has a noble feat at Curraghmore,
in this county. In the civil war, Waterford had its ftiare of
difturbance, and Cromwell himfelf was engaged unfuccefs-
fully in the fiege of its capital. Dr. Smith's Topography
is ftill interefting to the reader, from the various information
he collefted refpefting the different families fettled, though
many of them are now extinft or removed. His natural hif-
tory is very defective, yet it is the beft hitherto publiflied.
He drew attention to the fiflieries, and to the Nymph bank,
yet even now, though employment is fo much wanted, the
filheries remain without encouragement. In his enumera-
tion of eminent men born in this county, we find the names
of Congreve the poet, and of Robert Boyle, who was bora
in the caftle of Lifmore. The duke of Devonftiire, as de-
fcendant of the eldeft branch of the Boyle family, poffeffes
the towns of Dungarvan, Lifmore, and Tallow, with a great
traft of land, which gives him a preponderating influence in
the county. Beaufort's Memoir of Ireland, &c.

Waterford, a city and fea-port town on the fouth fide of
the river Suir, in Ireland, capital of the county of the fame
name. This river is embanked by a noble quay, extending
the whole length of the town, to which veffels of great bur-
den can come up, though the largeft ftiips generally lie a
few miles lower down. Like moft of the other fea-ports of
Ireland, it was originally built by the Oftmen or Danes ;
and is faid to have been founded A.D. 853, nearly at the
fame time as Dubhn and Limerick. Waterford feems to
have been the chief fettlement of this people, for we find
the kings of the Danes of Waterford often mentioned in
the old annals. Strongbow, foon after his landing in Ire-
land, took Waterford by affault in 1171, and in 1172 he
gave it up to king Henry II., v/ho landed at Waterford,
and received there the fubmiffion, not only of his Englifti
fubjefts, but alfo of many Irifli chiefs. King John alfo
landed at this city, and made it his refidence for fome
months. The fteady adherence of Waterford to the Eng-
lifti caufed it to be engaged in almoft conftant warfare with
its neighbours ; and in return it received many marks of
royal favour. Richard II. landed twice at Waterford.
When Simnel was crowned king by the earl of Kildare, the
lord deputy, the citizens of Waterford refufed to admit
him, adhering fteadily to Henry VII., in confequence of
which he addreffed a letter to them, thanking them for their
adherence, and giving them power to feize the rebels and
their effefts, and to employ the latter for their own advan-
tage. They behaved with the fame loyalty againft Perkin

Warbeck,

WAT

Warbeck, who had many adherents in Ireland, in confe-
quence of which the king gave tliem this motto, which is Hill
ufed, " Intafta manet Waterfordia." In the reign of
James I., Waterford appears to have become turbulent iu
confequence of its attachment to the Roman Catholic reli-
gion, and in confequence was deprived of many privileges,
but thefe were rellored by Charles I. In the civil war,
Waterford was on the fide of the Catholics, and a meeting
of the popifll clergy was held there by the pope's nuncio in
1646. It was belieged by Cromwell without fuccefs ; but
was afterwards taken by Ireton. It has been already men-
tioned that Waterford was built by the Danes ; it was at lirll
called Portlargie, from lalrge, a thigh ; the courfe of the
river Suir, near tliis place, refembling that part of the
human body. The Engli(h gave it its prefent nanie,
as it is faid, from a ford in St. John's river, which empties
itfelf into the Suir. The city chiefly faces the north and
eaft, which, though feemingly a fituation not fo defirable,
being expofed to the chilhng blafts of thefe winds, yet the
heahhinefs of it makes amends for the bleaknefs of the ex-
pofure. A further advantage is its noble iituation, near the
confluence of three large and navigable rivers, the Suir, the
Nore, and the Barrow, by which inland commodities may
be fupplied at a very inconliderable expence of carriage,
from the very centre of the ifland, and from feven different
counties wafhed by thefe rivers, and other counties adjacent
to them. Over the river Suir, a fine wooden bridge has been
erefted within a few years, to facilitate the communication
with other places. A very flourilhing commerce with Eng-
land and other countries is the happy confequence of fuch a
fituation. Its exports of beef, butter, hides, tallow, pork,
and corn, are confiderable. The number of large hogs
weekly flaughtcred during the feafon exceeds 3000 on an
average. The quantity of butter annually exported exceeds
80,000 cafks.

This city is alfo largely concerned in the Newfoundland
trade. The population is fuppofed to exceed 40,000, and
it ranks as the fourth town of Ireland in extent, and the fifth
in commercial importance. Packet-boats are eftabhflied be-
tween this port and Milford Haven, for the convenient inter-
courfe of the fouth of Ireland with England. This city
fends one member to the united parliament, eledled by the
freemen and freeholders. This eleftion is free, and, to the
honour of the elefiors, fir John Newport, one of the moil
fteady friends of Ireland, has been repeatedly returned.
The cathedral of Waterford, adorned with an elegant fteeple,
is a fine ftrufture. There is alfo a very fuperb Catholic
chapel, with feveral other places of worfhip. The other
public edifices are conftrufted with much elegance, and
effentially contribute to ornament the city. It is, however,
of more confequence to obferve, that its numerous charitable
inftitutions are well condudled, and liberally fupported. Its
houfe of induftry may ferve as a model for others. Its
fever hofpital was the firft in Ireland, and nearly the firll in
the united kingdom, and has been carried on with uniform
fuccefs. Without any wifh to take from the merit of other
worthy individuals, much of this praife is due to the exer-
tions of the Society of Friends, who are numerous in Water-
ford. This city is 74^ Irifh miles S.S.W. from Dublin.
Smith's Waterford. Carhfle's Ditlionary. Wakefield,

&c.

Waterford and Lismore, Bi/hnpric of. The firft of
thefe fees, which is confined to the eaftern part of the county
of Waterford, and is very fmall, was founded by the Oil-
men in the nth century; but that of Lifmore, which in-
cludes the greateft part of Waterford county, and a confi-
derable portion of Tipperary, was founded in the feventh

9

W A T

century. The union took place in 1536. The extent of
the union is, in Irifli miles, 39 by 29, and in Englifh 49 by
37. The number of Irifli acres 354,80c, wliich are divided
into 106 parifhes. Forty-four of thefe are impropriate, and
the reft form only 44 benefices, of which, wlien Dr. Beau-
fort pubhflied his account, only 30 had churches, and only
8 glebe-houfes. Many churches and glebe-houfes have been
built throughout Ireland within a few years. Beaufort.

Waterford, a populous and compact incorporated poft-
village, in the S.E. corner of Half Moon, Sr.ratoga county,
on the W. bank of the Hudfon ; 10 miles N. of Albany.
It is the moft populous town in the county, and has the
greateft ftiare of trade. It is handfomely laid out, in 5 E.
and W. ftreets, interfefting at right angles. It has 190
houfes and ftores, 2 houfes of worfhip, and fome other
buildings, together with three fchools on the Lancafter plaa.
It is well iituated for a manufailuring town ; and in 1812 a
wharf, 320 yards long, was conftrudled, and a canal along
it to the channel of the Hudfon.

Waterford, a town of the ftate of Vermont, in the
county of Caledonia, on the W. bank of the Connefti-
cut, formerly called Littleton, containing 12S9 inhabitants;
40 miles N. of Norwich.

Wateuford, a poft-town in the diftridl of Maine, and
county of Oxford, containing 188 inhabitants ; qj miles
N. of York.

Waterford, a poft-town of Virginia ; 20 miles N.W.
of Wafhington.

Waterford, a town of Connefticut, in the county of
New London ; containing 2185 inhabitants.

Waterford, or Le Bcuf, a poft-town of the ftate of
Pennfylvania, in the county of Erie, containing 162 inhabit-
ants ; 370 miles N.W. of Wafhington.

Waterford, a townfhip of New Jerfey, in Gloucefter
county, containing 2105 inhabitants; 40 miles S. of Tren-
ton Alfo, a town of Ohio, in the county of AVafhingtOD,

containing 701 inhabitants.

WATERGUCHEE, or Waterquechie, a river of
Vermont, which runs into the Connefticut, N. lat. 43° 34'.
W. long. 72'= 18'.

WATERING, in Gardening, the pratlice or means of
rendering feeds, plants, fhrubs, and trees, as well as garden-
grounds, properly and fuitably moift for the purpofe of their
better, more ready, and more healthy germination, growth,
and taking root, when fown, planted out, or fet, and after-
wards for continuing them in the neceflary ilates of vegeta-
tion, growth, and increafe, efpecially when the weather is
dry, hot, and parching. It is alfo occafionally ufeful in
preventing fome forts of fruit-trees from being dellroved by
the attacks of different forts of iiifeCls, as well as for the
clearing them of other kinds. Il i^ occafionally equally
effential for the feeds and plants in the full gronnj, as for
thofe in pots in it, and thofe in green-houfes, glafs-cafes,
hot-beds, hot-houfes, ftoves, and other fimilar fituations ;
fuch, for inftance, in the former kinds, as the feeds in drills,
beds, and other open places, different young plants in the
fame fituations, numerous others of the cutting, flip, off-
fet, and other fimilar kinds, which have been njwly pricked
out, planted, or traniplanted, not only at the time of firft
putting them out, but now and then afterwards, when dry
hot weather is prefent ; alfo in many kinds of newly-planted
young trees and fhrubs in the fpring and early autumnal
plantings ; and to all the plants which are in pots in the open
air, whether they may be of the more or Icfs hardy kind?,
during the droughty feafons of fpring, fummer, and early
autumn ; and in the latter defcription, to all the fine tender

kinds

WAT

kinds of potted plants and trees under any fort of covering
* orproteftion of the houfe or other kind.
I There are many forts of plants which cannot exift wilh-
; out watering in either a fmall or plentiful manner. Some
ftand in need of it only in a flight degree, and at par-
ticular feafons of the year, while others demand it in very
full proportions at all times. Some are very nice in the
•quantities which are required at any one time ; but others
arc lefs particular in this refpeft. Some too are under the
neceflity of having it thrown over their leaves as well as to
jtheir roots ; others only have occafion for it to the root part.
lAnd there are fome other methods of adminiftering and ap-
plying it, which are peculiar to certain kinds of plants, trees,
and other vegetable produfts, as (hewn under their particu-
lar individual modes of culture.

In .ill caf'js, the mod proper water for this ufe is that which
is contained in any fort of pond, refervoir, or other fimilar
ikind of excavation, for the purpofe of containing it in a ftate
of conilant expofure to the atmofphere, in gardens or other
places, as it is not only more convenient and ready for
being employed, but, at the fame time, a great deal more
falutai-y, and better adapted to promote the growth and
'increafe of the different forts of plants and vegetables, than
[that of the raw, fliarp, cold, hard kind, which is drawn
ifrom wells or raifed by pumps for immediate ufe, as being
'more foft in its nature, and more fuitable in its tem-
.perature.

The mod fuitable time of applying it is in the evening,
aft'-'r the dlfappearance of the fun, and when the exceffive
heat of the day is gone off, and in a great meafure abated, as
its effefts are then more benciicial and lading ; and belides the
work can be performed with more eafe and convenience, as
v^ell as in a more agreeable manner.

When once the buluiefs of watering has been commenced,
it fliould always be regularly proceeded with, or the plants
or vegetables may fuffer much, and be greatly injured by
the omiffion or neglett. It is condantly better never to
attempt it, than to juil begin and then leave it off again, as
lis much too frequently the cafe, in the praftice of horticul-
ture, witli fome gardeners, who have not fully confidered the
matter.

The wQj-k of watering feeds, plants, flirubs, and trees, is
ulually perlormed, either by means of common watering
pots and cans, large fyringes contrived for the purpofe,
forcing engnies for throwing it up over the plants, or by
ifonie other contrivance of a fimilar nature. The water
being moilly brought to the places where it is wanted, either
in tubs hung in a fort of barrow-frame, or by their being
placed on the barrows themfelves.

; The water is commonly applied in a fine divided date,
over the plants, where it is not required in any large quan-
tities, and for clearing away and dellroying fmuts : but
, where it is demanded m large proportions, it is often poured
in full dreams to their roots or other parts.

But in ufuig it upon a large fcale for garden-grounds,

; Mr. London has fuggeded tiiat it may be accompliflied by a

"iMctice fomewhat fimilar to that of overfio>ving tillage-

i.r.id, or by means of iubflooding ; this lad m>iy, he thinks,

\ be elfetled by having a dratuni or layer of gravel under-

■leath the whole garden, winch by having a trench furround-

i; , or, if upon a dope, at the upper fide of it only, may

, l:::'.'e the ground wholly faturated with the water let into it,

. which will loon be ablorbed and taken up by the incumbent

\ lurfacc containing the vegetables that are under cultivation.

And, in the former of thefe methods, by having pipes,

I Mpcn-cuts, or rather fmall wooden troughs, which may ferve

I to convey and condudt the water upon the furface of every

W A T

quarter of the ground ; it maj there diftribute itfelf in the
intervals between the beds or drills, as well as over the gene-
ral furface of the broad-cad crops. It is further fuggeded
that the former method could be put in praftice at any pe-
riod of the fpring or fummer ; the latter, for the mod part,
in moid weather, or in the night feafon. See Watering
of Land.

In the watering of both feeds, plants, and garden
grounds, much care diould, however, be taken, in every in-
dance, that injury indcad of good be not done, by employ.
ing too large quantities, or continuing them for too great a
length of time.

On the whole, it will be evident, from what has been faid
above, that the praftice of watering in garden culture may
be beneficial in different ways, as in exciting and promoting
a better and more fpeedy vegetation in newly-fown feeds
and tranfplanted vegetables ; in forwarding the growth
and increafe in a proper manner of different crops,
plants, and trees ; and in the dedruAion or removal of
infefts, fucli as the aphis, red fpiJer, and fome of the coccus
tribe.

WATERiNG-5t7/vo7y, in Gardening, fuch as is employed
in conveying water to gardens or other places. They have
ufually a tub fixed upright in the frame by means of pivots,
hooks, and gudgeons, or fome other way, one-half of which
is below and the other above it, the water being, in a great
meafure, prevented from fpilliug while it is carrying. See
OuEXDON Jl^ater-Barroiu.

Watering Forcing-Engine, an engine contrived for
the purpofe of forcing water in a fort of fhower over
fome kinds of fruit-trees, garden vegetables, and plants,
and which commonly effefts the bufincfs in an eafy, conve-
nient, and effetlual even manner, being well adapted to par-
ticular modes and purpofes of watering.

W AVERmu of Land, in Agriculture, the praftice of over-
fiowingit artificially in the grafs date, with the water which
is diverted from an adjoining or neighbouring river or dream,
which has a higher level than the ground to be covered, or
where there is a proper fall. In this way, by the new-
foimed water-courles being kept nearly on the level, the
fpaces of land between the new and the old channels may be
watered, the water being brought upon the ground by the
former, and difcharged or taken away by the latter ; and
thus a condant fuccelfion of the water be retained and re-
moved without fuch an accumulation of it as would be inju-
rious, or fuch a deficiency as would leave any part imper-
feftly fupplied. In different didriils different names are
applied to this praftice, fuch as thofe of floating, flooding,
drowning, foaking, and fome others.

It is, without doubt, a praftice of great antiquity, which
it is probable the extraordinary fertility afforded by the
annual overflowings of the river Nile, in Egypt, may have
fird fuggeded as the means of improving the lands of other
countries. In this country, indeed, it would feem to have
been had recourfe to, for the purpofe, at a very early pe-
riod, as in the county of Hereford, it appears to have been
praftiied more than two hundred years ago, as is evident
from a work on the fubjeft written by Rowland Vaughan,
and publifhed in the year 1610, entitled "Mod improved
and long-experienced Water- Works ; containing the man-
ner of iummer and winter drowning of meadow and padure,
by the advantage of the lead river, brook, fount, or water-
mill adjacent ; thereby to make thofe grounds, efpecially if
they be dry, more fertile ten for one." And the praftice
is probably dill more ancient in the county of Wilts than in
the above or any other didrift, in confequence of its pof-
feding naturally watered grafs lands, which perhaps fird led

to

WATERING OF LAND.

to the notion of forming them in an artificial manner. The
general want of good pafture-grounds in the high lands of
this county might, it has been fuppofed, be a great induce-
ment to improve fuch watery valley-tracks, which mull ever
have difplayed the moll pleafing and interefting appear-
ances of early and luxuriant vegetation and growth.

However, in whatever way the praftice originated in this
country, it is unqueftionably a method that is deferving of
the attention of the land proprietor and the farmer in a very
high degree.

It has been ftated by different writers on the praftice of
watering land, that the mod proper qualities of the grounds
for being watered, are all thofe which are of a fandy or gra-
velly friable open nature, as on fuch the improvement is not
only immediate, but the effeAs produced more certain and
powerful than on other kinds of them. There are alfo
fome ftrong adhefive four wet lands, which are alfo capable
of being improved by watering.

There are ftill fome other forts of lands, as thofe which
contain different kinds of coarfe vegetable produftions upon
their furfaces, fuch as heath, ling, rufhes, boggy and other
aquatic plants, which may likewife be much improved by
watering. It fhould, however, be conftantly kept in mind,
in attempting this fort of improvement, that the more ftiff
and tenacious the foil or land is, the greater the command of
water fhould be, in order to effeft the purpofe.

The lands which admit of this fort of improvement with
the moll fuccefs and benefit are, for the moll part, all fuch
as lie in low fituations on the banks and borders of brooks,
rivers, and ftreams, or in Hoping direftions on the fides of
hills, to which water can be condufted in an eafy and ready
manner.

The writer of a late ufeful traft on tlie fubjeft, however,
feems inclined to fuppofe that there arc only a few foils or
forts of land to which watering may not be advantageoufly
applied ; the experience which he has had, it is faid, has de-
termined, that the wetteft land may be greatly improved by
it, and likewife that it is equally beneficial to that which is
dry. But that as many perfons, unacquainted with the nature
of watering land, may be more inclined to the latter fuppofi-
tion than the former, the reafon of wet land being as capable
of improvement by watering as that which is completely
dry before it is ufed, is explained. It is that, in the con-
flruftion of all watered meadows or lands, particular care
muft be taken to render them perfeftly dry when the bufi-
nefs of floating or covering them with water Ihall termi-
nate ; and that the feafon for floating or watering is in the
•winter and not in the fummer, which thofe who are unac-
quainted with the procefs have too commonly fuppofed.
All bogs of the peat kind are certainly, it is faid, of vege-
table origin, and thofe vegetables are all aquatic in their
nature. It therefore follows that the fame water which has
produced the vegetables of the bog would, under due ma-
nagement upon the furface, produce fuch grafies or other
■vegetables as are ufually grown by the farmer ; and the
writer has hitherto had reafon to think, that this may be
confidered as a general rule for determining the fituation for
any experiments or trials with water. The writer having
fuceeeded in the attempt to make good watered lands, upon
foils which have been thought unfit for the purpofe, and
floated or watered them with water that was equally con-
demned, in point of quality, he is now, it is faid, fufficiently
emboldened to recommend the trial of watering land by
means of machinery, and that the moll flattering hopes of
■fuccefs are entertained from it. It is noticed that the
grades produced by the firll year's floating or watering of a
peat-bog, or any wet land, will be much more like what

will become the permanent herbage of a water-meadow,
than the firll or fecond year's crop from a newly-floated or
watered piece of dry land. The herbage of the former
being, it is faid, previoufly llored with aqueous plants, is in
fome degree fuited to this new flate, whereas the herbage of
dry land is generally of quite a different nature, and often
produces an exceeding great crop of grafs the firll year,
which does not appear the next ; for the fame water which
caufed thefe grafles to grow fo very luxuriantly the firll
year, will totally dellroy them in the courfe of the enfuing
winter, and produce an herbage much more congenial to
that degree or Hate of moillure. The utility of watering in
all thefe cafes has been fully ellablilhed in feveral different
dillrifts, fo that proper examples of the forms and crops
may always be readily had for the trials of others in the fame
way. This has been done, it is faid, in the counties of
Bedford, Norfolk, and Kent, in the firll and lall of which
upon foils that are very different from thofe of mod water-
meadows in the county of Wilts ; and that the floating or
watering of them has been effefted with water which was
always before confidered to be wholly unfit for that pur-
pofe, even by thofe fuppofed to be the bell acquainted with
the practice : it is now, however, fully proved and Ihewn to
be the cafe, not only by the accurate invelligations of the
moll able chemills, but by the extraordinary growth of
gralfes in particular boggy fituations, that waters of the
ferruginous kind are not at all hurtful to vegetation ; but,
on the contrary, very friendly to it, when they are properly
applied. Such fafts being eilabhfhed beyond all poflibihty
of doubt, afford, it is faid, a much greater fcope for the in*
provements by water, than was ever expefted or thought of
by the moll fanguine advocates of watering, and enables
the writer, from his great experience and obfervation, in
different parts of the kingdom, to fay that there are few dif-
trifts to which they are not applicable.

It is, however, fuppofed by fome, that the quality of the
water, like that of marl or other manures, is a matter of the
firll importance, and fhould be particularly afcertained.
And it has been remarked by the author of the " Treatife
on Landed Property," that it is univerfally known that
water which flows out of a dung-yard poffeffes a fertilizing
quality. It is generally admitted, too, that the walhings of
fheep-walks, frelhly-manured arable lands, llreets of towns,
roads, and other fuch places, after a long drought, have the
quality of fertiHzation. And it is equally evident, it is
thought, that the waters iffuing in different parts of the
kingdom from chalk, hme-llone, marl, or other calcareous
ftratum, though they are perfeftly limpid, poffefs the power
of fertility ; and thofe of fome dillrifts, as of Wiltfhire,
Dorfetlhire, and fome others, to an allonilhing degree.
And a fimilar, though lefs powerful, effeft is produced by
the limpid waters, which iffue from the Hate-rocks of Devon-
(hire and Cornwall. On the other hand, waters that ooze
out of peat-bogs, and iffue from particular mines, are
well known to be injurious to the growth of agricultural
vegetables.

It is added, that chemiftry points out tells and proceffes
whereby waters, as well as marls and other grofs manures,
may be tried and analyfed. But the virtue of water, when
confidered as a manure, does not refide in a fingle principle,
like that of lime-ftone. Water is capable of fufpending, not
only calcareous earth, but various other matters, — of animal,
vegetable, and foflil origin : fome of them friendly, others
inimical, to vegetation. It would, therefore, it is thought,
be imprudent m a praftical man in this bufinefs to commit
himfelf to theoretic guidance alone, while the theory of ma-
nures, and efpecially of watering land, remains fo much in-
1 1 volved

WATERING OF LAND.

volved in obfcurity ; and while trials in the field, on the very
land which is defired to be improved, may be made with fa-
cility and prompt decifion.

The efFefts of watering are remarkable in many inftances :
in Wiltfhire, it is not uncommon to fee, it is faid, lands,
where water has been diverted for the purpofe of improve-
ment, divided by a hedge or a ditch only, the grafs on one
fide of which is of the moil luxuriant nature and abundant
growth, but on the other fo diminutive that the ftrongeft
blades have never reached the height of three inches. The
fame is the cafe in other fituations, which fufficiently marks
the importance of the praftice.

It will be neceffary, before we ftate the different methods
of performing the bufinefs of watering in different circum-
flances, to give fome account of the implements which are
requifite for the purpofe, as well as fome explanation of the
terms employed in carrying on the work in the different
modes. The firft and principal inftrument in the execution
of the work is a proper level, of which the fpirit one is per-
haps the beft. It is neceffary for taking the level of the
I land at a diftance, compared with the part of the river or
(Other ftream, from whence it is intended to take the water,
jto know whether it can or cannot be made to float the part
|defigned to be watered. It is particularly ufeful in works
; of this fort on a large fcale, though the labourers too fre-
quently negleft the ufe of it, bringing the water after them
' to work by in-cutting the feveral parts that are to convey
the water. It fhould, however, be moftly ufed as being
more certain and correft. See Level, and Water-
Level.

A proper line and reel and cutting-iron are likewife abfo-
lutely neceffary, as well as a breaft-plough, which fhould be
of the beft kind, as being of great ufe in cutting turfs for
the fides of the channels and other parts. See Water-
Llne and Reel, Water Crefcent, and Breast-P/ow^A.

The fpades ufed in this fort of work fhould have the flems
or handles confiderably more crooked than thofe in common
ufe, the bit being of iron, about a foot in width, in the mid-
dle, terminating in a point, a thick ridge running down the
middle part, from the top to near the point ; the edges on
both fides being drawn very thin, and kept quite (harp by
frequent grinding and whetting : when they are become thin
and narrow by wearing, they are ufed for the fmaller
trenches and drains. By means of the handles being made
fo crooked, the workman, ftanding in the working pofition
in the bottom of the drain or trench, is enabled to make it
perfeftly fmooth and even without any difBculty.

Both fhort and narrow fcythes are alfo neceffary, in order
to mow and cut away any weeds or fuperfiuous grafs that
may be prefent, during the running of the water in the
trenches or other cuts ; as well as forks, and long four or
five-tmed crooks or drags for pulling out the roots of the
fedges, rufhes, reeds, and other fuch matters, that may be
in the large mains or other channels. Thefe crooks fhould
be made light, and have long Aiafts to reach wherever the
water is fo deep that the labourers cannot work in it, fo as
to remove fuch obftruftions.

Wheel and hand-barrows, too, become neceffary and
ufeful, the former for removing the clods and earths to the
flat or hollow places, for this ufe they may be made open,
without fides or hinder parts ; the latter are ufed where the
ground is too foft to admit the former, and where the clods
or other matters require to be removed during the time the
land is in water. But when large quantities of earth are
wanted to be removed, efpecially when to be conveyed to
fome diflance, three-wheeled carts are proper.

And in all cafes a flout large water-proof pair of boots is
Vol. XXXVIII.

abfolutely requifite, having the tops made fo as to draw up
halt the length of the thigh ; they fhould be large enough
to admit a quantity of hay or other fuch materials to be
itutted down all round the legs, and be kept well taUowed,
in order to refift the running water for any length of

time,

The terms ufed in the praftice of watering are very nu-
merous. A weir is a work thrown over or acrofs a brook
river, rivulet, ftream, main, or other fuch parts, the ufe of
which is to divert the water; and when the hatches are all
properly adjufted and in their places, to ftop the whole cur-
rent, in order that the water may rife high enough to over-
flow the banks, and fpread over the adjoining land ; or, by
flopping the water in its natural courfe, turn it through mains
or channels, cut to convey it another way, to fome diftant
lands that are to be watered. See Weir.

A fluice differs from the above fimply in having but one
thorough or opening, as when there are more than one it be-
comes a weir. It is applicable in fmall ftreams in the fame
way that the weir is in large ones. See Sluice.

The covered fluice or trunk is conftrufted and had re-
courfe to in all fuch cafes, as where two ftreams of water
are to crofs each other at the point of difcharge, and to ferve
ad a bridge. The drain-fluice or trunk is that which is
placed in the loweft part of a main, as near to the head as it
can be formed, and put low enough to drain the main and
other parts. It is put with the mouth at the bottom of the
main, being let down into the bank ; and from the other
end of which a drain is cut to communicate with fome
trench-drain that is the neareft. It is ufed for carrying off
the leakage through the hatches when (hut down, to convey
the water to other grounds, and for fome other purpofes.
See Sluice.

Hatches are flood-gates, and ufed for the fame purpofes :
they are confequently differently formed in different cafes ;
but fuch as have about a foot to take off, and let the water
pafs over fo much of them, are thought ufeful by fome in
different cafes of watering. Others fuppofe them the bell
when made whole and of good timber. See Hatch.

A carriage is a fort of fmall wooden or brick paffage,
built in an open manner, for the purpofe of carrying or con-
veying one ftream over another, and is ufeful in many cafes,
though very expenfive in the praftice of watering.

Head-main in watering land implies that part of the prin-
cipal cut or channel which takes the water firft out of a river
or ftream, and conveys it to fuch lands as are laid out for the
purpofe, by means of fmaller mains and trenches. It is
neceffarily formed of various breadths and depths, accord-
ing to the quantity of land to be watered ; and to the
length, or the fall of the ground it is cut through. Small
mains are the next order of cuts for the diftribution of water
on lands, as connefting between the head-main and trenches.
Thefe fmaller mains are moftly taken out of the head-
main ; and the only difference between them is, the one
being much lefs than the other ; they are commonly cut
at, or nearly at, right angles with the other, though in fome
cafes at many degrees lefs. The ufe of both thefe forts
of mains is to feed the various trenches and gutters that
branch out in all parts of the land with water, and to con-
vey it for floating the ground in an equal manner. By fome
thefe fmalkr mains are termed carriages, but improperly, as
it is confounding them with. the open trunk fo named, as
already fcen.

The trench, in watering, is a fhallow narrow cut or ditcli

made to take the water out of the mains for floating the

land. It fhould always be drawn in a ftraight line from

angle to angle, with as few turnings as poflible. It i*

X never

WATERING OF LAND.

never made deep, but the width of it muft be in proportion
to the length it has to run, and the breadth of the pane of
ground between that and the trench-drain. It (hould con-
ftantly be cut gradually narrower and narrower, in the
wedge-form, to the lower end, in order to force over the
water more equally.

The trench-drain is conftantly cut parallel to the trench,
and as deep as the tail-drain water will permit when necef-
fary. It fliould always, where pofiible, be cut fo as to
come down to a firm ftratum of fand, gravel, or clay. If
the laft, a fpade's depth into it will be of great benefit.
The ufe of it is to take away the water immediately after it
has run over the panes of the land from the trench. It is
not neceffary to be brought up to the head of the land by
five, fix, or more yards, as the nature of the foil may be.
The form of it is the reverfe of the trench, being narrower
at the head, or upper part, and gradually wider and wider,
until it comes to the lower end, and empties itfeli into the
tail-drain, which is a receptacle for all the water that comes
out of the other drains, that are fituated fo as not to
empty themfelves into the river ; and, confequently, it
Ihould run nearly at right angles with the trenches ; but it
is, in general, preferable to draw it in the lowed part of the
ground, and to ufe it for conveying the water out of the
ground where there is the greatell defcent : this is com-
monly found in one of the fence-ditches ; for which reafon
a fence-ditch is nioftly made ufe of for the purpofe, as
anfwering the double ufe of a fence and drain at the fame
time.

The pane of ground is that part of the land which lies
between the trench and the trench-drain, and is the part on
which the grafs grows, which is cut for hay : it is watered
by the trenches, and laid dry by the trench-drains ; confe-
quently there is one on each fide of every trench. The
term pane is alfo applied to the part which is ufed, for
taking off the produce.

The bend implies a ftoppage made in different parts of
fuch trenches as have a qtiick defcent, in order to obftruft
the water. It is effefted by leaving a narrow flip of green-
fward ground acrofs the trench where the bend is dcfigned
to be, and cutting occafionally a fmall part out of the
middle of it in the wedge form. It is ufeful for checking
the water, and forcing it over the trench on to the panes ;
which, if it were not for fuch bends, would run rapidly on
in the trench, and not flow over the land as it pafles along.
The great art of watering land confitts in giving to every
part of each pane of ground an equal quantity of water,
which is greatly promoted in this way.

The gutter is a fmall groove cut out from the tails of
thefe trenches, where the panes of ground run longer at one
fide or corner than the other. The ufe of it is to carry
the water to the extreme point of the panes. Thofe panes
which are iiiterfecled by the trench and tail drains,
meeting in an obtufe angle, want the affiftance of thefe
gutters to convey the water to the longeft; fide. And
another ufe of them is, when the land has not been fo per-
feflly 'evelled but that fume parts of the panes of ground
lie higher than they fliould, a gutter is then drawn from
the trench over that high ground, which would otherwife
not be overflowed. Without this precaution, unlefs the
flats were filled up, which fliould always be the cafe when
materials are to be had, the water will not rife upon it ;
and after the wateriug-fcafon is paft, thofe places would
appear of a rufty-brown, while a rich verdure would over-
fpread the others ; and at hay-time the grafs in thofe places
would fcarcely be high enough for the fcythe to touch it ;
while that around them, which has been properly watered.

will, from its luxuriance, be laid down. Tliis negleit is^
therefore, to be reprobated in moft cafes, as the great art of
watering land is that of throwing the water regularly
over all parts, thofe where it cannot rife of itfelf as well
as others, and in carrying it off" from thofe in which it
would otherwife ftagnate and be hurtful.

The catch-drain is an occafional ditch, fometimes cut for
the purpofe of carrying the fame water into a fecond main
or other part, for watering lower lands or panes of ground
with the water that has been before ufed. It is made ufe of
too in fome other cafes, as catching the water that is thrown
forward.

Pond is ufed to fignify any part where the water ftands
on the ground in watering, or in the tail-drain, trench-
drains, or others, fo as to injure the lands near them ; and is
occafioned by flats and irregularities in the fnrface of the
grounds, as well as by other caufes.

The turn of water means the fpace of land that can be
watered at one time in any cafe ; and is accompliflied by
fliutting down the hatches in all thofe weirs where the
water is defigned to be kept out, and opening thofe that
are to let the water through them. The quantity or
extent of land to be watered by one turn, muft of courfe
vary with the fize of the river, brook, main, and other fuch
parts, and by the plenty or fcarcity of the water.

The bed of a river, main, trench, or other fuch part, is
the bottom of any of them.

The head of any watered land is that part into which the
river, main, or other fuch part, firft enters. And the tail of
it is that part where the water laft pafles off^ by the tail-drain
into the courfe that is to take it away.

The upper fide of a main or trench is that which, when
they are made at nearly right angles with the river or other
fucli part, fronts the place where tlie river, &c. entered.
And, of courfe, the lower fide is the reverfe.

The upper pane of tlie land is that which lies upon the
upper fide of the main or trench when made at right angles
with the river, &c. running north and fouth. Where, how-
ever, thefe run parallel with the river, &c. the panes on
either fide are not diftinguiflied from each other.

Some other terms, which are ufed by the more modern-
writers on watering land, will be explained as we proceed in
pointing out the natvire of the bufinefs.

After noticing the manner in which water is artificially
brought on and taken away from the land in watering, as
already feen, the WTiter of the traft before alluded to re-
marks, that the art of watering land may properly be called
floating, not foaking or drowning. Soaking the foil,
fimilar to the effefts produced from a fliower of rain, is not
fufficient for the general purpofes of watering ; nor will
damming up the water, cr keeping it ftagnant upon the
furface, like that in a pond, or on the fens, produce the
defired effeft. The latter, it is thought, may properly be
termed drowning, becaufe it drowns or covers all the grafles,
thereby rendering the plants beneath it certainly aquatic,
or the herbage difpofed to take on fuch a change ; whereas
the herbage of a watered meadow or land fliould, from the
form and circumftances of the ground, enjoy the full
benefits of air and water. Praftice has proved, it is faid,
that there is no better method of cffefting this, than by
keeping the water palling over the furface of the land with
a brifl< current, but not fo brifk as to wafli away the foil,
and yet in fufficient quantity to cover and nourifli the roots,
but not too much to hide the flioots of the grafles : hence
appears the nicety of adjuftlng the quantity of water ; and
hence it appears, too, that one main-drain, to bring the
water on the upper fide of the land, and another on the

lower

i

WATERING OF LAND)

lower fide to take it away, will not be adequate to all the
purpofes of fuch an accurate regulation. If the fpace be-
tween the upper channel, or main-feeder, and the lower one,
or tna'm-drain, fhould therefore be wider than what is pro-
per for the due adjuftment of the water, that is, fo that
every part of the fpace may have enough of water paffing
over it, and no part too much, then that fpace muft be
divided into fmaller fpaces by intermediate drains, which
may catch and re-diftribute the water. Thcfe, and the
ground capable of being watered in this way, have this
term apphed to them, as they catch or colleft the water and
re-diilribute it, being in well-formed lands never made
more than eight or ten yards apart. As the water is
brought by the main-feeder upon the higher fide of a piece
of groun'l, which flopes towards tlie main-drain, and down
which floping furface the water will very readily run, to
perfons unacquainted with watering, it does not at firft
fight appear necefiary to make fuch a number of inter-
mediate catch-drains ; but it is proved by experience, that
however regular the (lope of ground may appear to the
eye, the water will find a number of irregularities, force
itfelf into gutters or channels, and defeat the purpofes of
watering, in the hollow places by excefs, and in the high
ones by the want of water. Hence the water that was
fcattcred over the furface of the firft fpace, being all col-
lefted in the catch-drain, may, by the fl<ill of the floater, be
let out upon thofe parts of the bed of ground below, which
feem to need the greateil afliftance.

As it is efientially neceffary to pofTefs full and complete
command of the water in all cafes of improvements of this
nature, the works tor the purpofe fliould always be well-
formed at firft. Temporary means of making dams and
hatches to divert the water out of its ufual channel may, it
is faid, by the writer of the traft on watering land, fufSce
to try an experiment, or for a tenant who has but a ftiort
term in the grounds to be watered ; but every land-owner,
or other proprietor, who enters upon or undertakes fuch
works in this temporary manner, fadly miftakes his own
intereft ; indeed, it is frequently more difficult to repair
than to renew upon large ftreams, where the foundations are
not feldom deftroyed or very greatly injured by the force of
the water. The fame principle holds good upon fmall
ftreams, and even in the feeders and drains of watered land.
Wherever the channels are fo contracted as to make a fali,
or much increafe the rapidity of the ftream, it is conftantly
difpofcd to wear away tlie fides of its channel, or undermine
a dam. The repair of thefe defefts will ftand in need of
land to be dug away and wafted each time, they are re-
placed with the lofs of labour. The confcquent ill-manage-
ment of the water renders it more advifeable, and perhaps
cheaper, to make all fuch works of mafonry. When works
are well done at firft the owner ever finds a pleafure and
fatisfaftion in viewing them ; and even the labourers feel
much more intereft in their good management, which is a
circumftance not to be overlooked.

In tlie undertaking of bufinefs of this kind, it is neceffary,
before entering upon its execution, to fully confider whe-
ther the ftream of water to be made ufe of will admit of a
temporary wuir or dam to be formed acrofs it, fo as to
keep the water up to a proper level for covering the land
without flooding or injuring other adjoining grounds ; or
if the water be in its natural ftate fufficiently high without
a weir or dam, or to be made fo by taking it from the
ilrcam higher up, more towards its fource, and by the con-
(Iniftor keeping it up nearly to its level initll it comes upon
the meadow or other gound. And ftill further, whether the
inralcr cau be drawn off from the meadow or ground in as

rapid a manner as it is brought on. Having, in addition to
all thefe, too, an attention to all fuch other difficulties ami
obftruftions as may prefent themfelves, from the lands
being in leafe through which it may be neceftary to cut or
form the mains or grand carriers, from the water being
neceffary for turning mills, from the rivers or brooks not
being wholly at the command of the floater, and from fmall
necks of land intervening, fo as to prevent the work from
being performed to the greateft advantage, the operator
may be in a fituation to commence his works.

The water being thus under full command and regulation
in every part of the land to be watered, by a proper direc-
tion, ufe, and form of the works, it is fuppofed neceffary,
in order to have an equal diftribution, and prevent the wafte
of it, that no part of the meadow or land, either in the
bed or catch-work mode, fhould be fo formed as to be
floated or watered direftly from the main-feeder ; but that
all the main-feeders ftiould be kept high enough to dif-
charge the water into the fmall feeders with confiderable
velocity, and through a narrow opening. The motion of
water is faid to be truly mechanical ; and that it requii-es
a great deal of ingenuity, and a perfeft knowledge of lines
and levels, to make it pafs over the ground in a proper
manner. Each meadow or portion of land requires a dif-
ferent defign, unlefs the land-owner or tenant makes up hi»
mind to the heavy expence of paring off banks, and filling
up fuch hollows as may be neceffary to reduce it to fome
regular method, the conftruftion to be varied according
to the nature of the ground. This conftitutes the difference
between the watered meadows or lands of Berkfhire and
thofe of Devonfliire. Thofe of the latter county being
upon fmall ftreams carried round the fides of the hills, and
are chiefly in catch-work ; thofe of the former are near
large rivers and boggy ground, being thrown up into ridges
to create a briflc motion in tlie water ; and alfo for the
effential purpofe of drawing off the fuperficial moifture
which might be injurious to the graffes when fhut up for
feeding or mowing. Where there is much floating to be
done with a little water, or rather where the great fall of a
fmall ftream will admit of its being carried over a great
quantity of ground, and ufcd feveral times, it is defirable
to employ it in fuch a way, though meadows or land fo
watered are not to be confidered as perfeft models. If it
fhould anfwer the purpofe of a coat of manure upon fuch
an extent of ground, it is all that can be expefted, and will
amply repay the expence. In all cafes, lofing fall is waft-
ing water. All the drains of watered meadows or lands
require no greater declivity than is neceffary to carry the
water from the furface ; therefore, the water fhonld be
collefted and ufed again at every three feet of the fall, if it
be not catch-work. It is fometimes difficult to do this in
bed-work lands ; but where the upper part of the land is
catch-work, or in level beds, and the lower part not too
much elevated, it may be done. By coUefting and ufing
the water again in the fame piece of ground before it falls
into the bruok or other courfe, a fet of hatches is faved,
and it is not neceffary to be very particular about getting
the upper part into high ridges, fince that part of land
which is near the hatches generally becomes the beft, and
the lower end of the field being often the wetteft or moft
boggy in its natural ftate, requires to be thrown up the
higheft. If the laud be of a dry abforbent nature before
floating or watering, it is not neceffary that it iTiould be
thrown up into high beds. There are many good meadow
lands in the county of Wilts that have little work in them,
and fome that have neither feeder nor drain : but thefe are
extraordinary fituations that do not occur in almoft any
X 2 other

WATERING OF LAND.

otber county, or they muft, it is thought, have fuggetted the feeders, that the water might foon be ufed again ; there-
'the ideas already ftated as to the origin of floating or water- fore a very fmaU quantity would fuffice ; and if there was a
ing There is fome reafon, it is thought, from the natural fcarcity in the winter, the whole difcharge might be flopped,
wl-'mth of peat-ground, which keeps it from freezing, that and gradually lowered in the fpring. This method would
fuch land will produce an earlier crop of fpring-feed than anfwer all the purpofes of complete faturation, whkh
any other. At all events, it will firll (hew the advantages feems to be one of the moft effential parts of watering, and
of watering, and gravel or fand may the next to it. might be applied more or lefs, according to the time of the

It has been fuggefted that if gcafs-land of the heavier year. When the water is put on, it is fuppofed no graffes
kind could be ploughed in fuch a manner as to fet the two would fuftain any injury by exclufion from the air for a day
furrow-flides or fods in a leaning pofition againft each other or two at the firft application. If thefe ridges could be
with the grafs fides outwards, the roots of the graffes would elevated but four or fix inches above the furrows, it would
be perfectly dry all winter ; the (hoots would have the full give the furface nearly the fame flope as the wider ridges of
benefit of the fun, and great advantage from mutual ftielter. common meadows or lands ; perhaps it would be better to
Upon wet land, this ploughing ihould be done the way the begin ploughing the furrows wide at the ridge, and very
water runs. If the ground ploughed in this form before narrow at the furrow, which would leave but narrow: fpace*
winter could be watered toward the fpring, fo as to give it for drains. If a piece of turf-ground were ploughed in
a good foaking, it might be preffed down again to a level fuch ridges by the common way of turning over the furrow,
furface with a heavy roller. If thefe narrow ridges, too, if it were fet pretty much on edge, it is thought the grafs
were croffed with level trenches at every forty, fifty, or between would foon cover the whole furface.
one hundred yards diftance, according to the fall of the Ridges, too, might perhaps be made by beginning the
ground; and thefe trenches made to communicate with two firft furrows more apart than the ufual width, thus
other m'ain trenches, which (hould run up and down the leaving the width of one furrow between the two firft to
Hope, and fupply or difcharge the contents of thofe which conftitute the channel of the feeder. Thefe ridges (hould
Are horizontal, fuch ground might be laid dry or wet at be ploughed up and down, with only three or four
pleafure. And it is believed, that land fo (haped might be inches fall between the crofs feeders ; and the water may be
floated or watered all winter with ftagnant water to its great brought into ufe again at every other fet of beds. If the
benefit, and probably in the fpring too, if the water be ground require to be loofened every year, or every other, or
changed at frequent and proper periods ; for the water two years or more, it will not be attended with much ex-
would remain only in the furrows, where there would be pence, and there will be no very great inconvenience m
little or no vegetation, and the newly loofened foil of the mowing ground in this (hape, if the fides of the ridges be
ridges could not fail to abforb moifture, fuch as would about a fwath wide. It is thought that meadows or lands
promote the growth of the grafs without any danger of of this fort might be made for twenty -five or thirty (hillings
putrefaftion. The levels muft be taken before a piece of the acre, floated or watered with lefs water than catch-work,
ground be ploughed in this ftiape, and the earth taken out and have many advantages over it ; namely, the water would
in cutting the crofs-drains, be ufed in flopping the furrows lie more above the furface, would be more at command, and
on the lower fide of them. Perhaps upon wet lands it therefore changed more readily, and it may be pent up better
would be neceffary to re-plough them every autumn, or the to get a good foaking when fcarce. This may be done more
ftrong lands might become too folid to receive the fame effeftually in turns, and will run drier when the water may
benefit from the praftice ; and it will be neceffary to level be taken off. It does not require much (l<ill in the making
the ridges every fpring, if the ground be mowed, but if or management. All the water will be let through nicks
fummer-fed, it may as well remain in this form as any other, inftead of running over a nice level edge, which in the firft
This eafy method of getting land up into ridges, which are place is feldom made well, and in the next is difScult to
very narrow, gives to the furface all that inchnation which is keep in repair. This fort of work would, it is thought,
neceffary for drawing off water, and is certainly fo far likely have all the advantages of drains and feeders, whereas the
to anfwer the purpofe of watering. The water is thus fame channels are obliged to ferve for both in the common
under the fame command as in any of the beft-formed mea- catch-work ; it would require but very few or no flops, and
dows or lands, and a much lefs quantity will be fuificient confequently want but Uttle attendance. It might be prac-
than under any other plan of watering. It is fuppofed that tifed where there are fix or eight inches of fall between the
it might, probably, anfwer the purpofe to float young crofs-feeder and crofs-catch, as the water of each ridge,
wheat, or any other fort of grain, in fome cafes, by a.fimi- which (hould be (hort, may be led out by a fod with lefs
lar method. It is thought that flat peaty ground, fuch as trouble in the regulation than catch-work. See Weir.
the level fens in Norfolk, which are fubjeft to be covered The whole of the channels and drains for carrying the
a few inches deep every winter with ftagnant water, would water on or off the land, in the conftant courfe and regular
be much benefited by ploughing in this way before the quantity which praftice proves to be neceffary, have two
floods commence. Some parts of it would thereby be very diftinft ufes. The firft fort or feeders bring a con-
raifed above the water, and vegetate quicker in the fpring, tinned fupply of water to make the flopes wet ; and the lat-
and the fedgy matter growing up in the furrows, would in ter by carrying it away, prevent the land from getting too
a few years raife them to the fame level. The crofs-drains, wet in the time of floating or watering, and ferve to render
where on a decUvity, would ferve to catch and re-diftribute it dry when that operation is over, and to remove any fuper-
the water, and the fall from one to the other muft be very fiuous moifture which may leak from the foil or fall from
little. If this method be found not to do for watering, it the clouds. The large ones which convey the water to the
is thought that four furrow-ridges of turf, with a fmall land, and along the maip ridge to fupply the others, are
feeder upon each, would anfwer all the purpofes of a more fometimes faid to be the main feeders ; and the branches that
expenfive fyftem. There is always good grafs by the fide run along each ridge and diftribute the water down the fides,
of the feeder, whether the water ruflies over it or not, and tkejloating feeders. The firft operation of floating or water-
» meadow or land of this nature would be nothing but ing begins, or ought to begin, at the edges of thefe feeders;
feeders. It requires fo little elevation of ridge and fall in the main feeders being nothing more but channels or courfes

lo along

WATERING OP LAND.

a]ong which the water muft pafe, from the places where it
can be found to the places where it is to have its effeft.
The place of its ufe lies between the floating feeder and the
foot of the flope or drains, which are made in every furrow,
for the purpofe of catching the water ; and which are faid
to be catch drains, and the large ones, which colleA the
water from thefe, main drains.

It is fuppofed that all floating or watering, in large rivers,
may be done without conilruifling hatches, which are often
attended with heavy expences and many inconveniences. If
the proprietor has the land far enough up the river, nothing
more is neceflary, than to go thither and cut a channel out
of it, which fhall be deeper than the bottom of the itream.
The water, which will be taken out in this new channel,
may be dammed up by the hatches in it, at any place moft
convenient for getting it out upon the furface. To turn it
into its old coiu-fe down the river, nothing more is neceflary
than a hatch at the upper end of the feeder. Feeders con-
ftrufted in this way will be extremely ferviceable in time of
floods, for by drawing both the hatches an entire new chan-
nel will be opened, which is generally much ftraighter than
the old one. To contrive the fliorted poflible way to get
the water upon the ground, it is evident that an obtufe
angle is the beft: calculated for that purpofe ; it Ihortens the
length of the feeders, facilitates the motion of the water,
increafes the velocity, and confequently preferves that natu-
ral warmth or motion which keeps it from freezing in the
winter or ftagnating in the fummer. It alfo prevents the
accumulation of fcum, or whatever floats upon the furface,
and enables the floater to diftribute the water much more
equally on every part of the work than if it went in a more
circuitous courfe. The wind has lefs power to retard the
motion of the furface, and the fediment which fliould go
out upon the beds is lefs liable to lodge in the bottom of
the feeders, and confequently the feeders will be cleared out
with much lefs trouble and expence, efpecially if there be
proper plugs or fmall hatches to draw up for the purpofe
of fending a ilream through them. It may appear to fome
that thefe hatches are too expenfive, or unneceflary, but
praftice proves that it is beft to have them well done at
firft, which is doing them for a length of time. Inclined
planes, too, are abfolutely neceflary for the purpofe of water-
ing. To form thefe between ftraight and parallel lines, it
is requifite to dig away land where it is too high, and move
it to thefe places where it is too low, to make fuch an uni-
formity of furface. The new-made ground will, of courfe,
fettle in hollows proportioned to the depth of the loofe
matter which has been lately put together, but fuch fettle-
ment will not take place until the new ground has been
completely foaked with wet and dried again ; confequently,
thefe defefts cannot be removed before the fecond or third
year of watering ; it will therefore require more flcill to
manage watered land for a few of the firft years, than may
be the cafe at any time afterwards.

In conclufion it is noticed, that however fimple the con-
ftruftion of a watered meadow or land may appear upon a
fuperficial view, thofe who enter particularly into the con-
cern will find it much more difiicult than is commonly fup-
pofed. It is no eafy tafli to give an irregular furface that
regular yet various form which may be fit for the overflow-
ing of the water. It is quite neceflary for the defigner to
have juft notions of lines, levels, and angles ; the know-
ledge of fuperficial forms will not be fufBcient. Accurate
ideas of folid geometry, fomehow acquired, are abfolutely
neceflary to put fuch a furface into the proper form for the
reception of water, without the trouble and expence of
doing much of the work twice over.

Divifton of Watering.-~m\\t praftice of watering land
may be divided or diftinguiflied into two principal head* or
modes ; as thofe of performing it in flat work or flat-
flooding, and in floping or catch work. Each of thefe di-
vifions has, however, many varieties in the methods of eM-
cuting the bufinefs, as will be feen below.

In the former, or that of watering lands in flat-flooding,
there muft be a full fupply of water, which ferves only one
turn, and is then carried off' the field. There fliould be a
very moderate but uniform declivity in the furface of the
land, and the requifite expence be incurred by the under-
taker. But though in fuch works a very fmall gradual de-
clination will moftly be fufficient, there will be confiderable
variety in this particular, according to the aftual form of
the land. The moft defirable and perfeA dechvity for this
purpofe has been found to be in the ridges, from the upper
to the lower extremities of the field, one inch in every nine
yards. With this gentle fall, the water pafles over by the
mere contraftion of the feeder, without any flop ; but fuch
exaft declivities are feldom had. It is alfo found that the
declivity of the fides of the ridges, from the crown to the
furrow, fliould be about two inches for every yard ; fo that,
fuppofing the ridge to be ten yards broad throughout, and
every fide to be in the form of an inclined plain, declining
in this proportion, the crown may be ten inches raifed above
the furrow, meafuring by the furface at each part. In
thefe proportions, however, there is great aflual variety.
It is by no means uncommon to find the ridges fourteen
yards wade ; and when the water is very fcanty, they are
fometimes twenty yards in width. Where there is a full
ftream of water, the narrow ridges are found to produce
the greateft crops in proportion ; but the expence of form-
ing them is likewife greater. Where the field or land has
an uniform furface, and the declivity fuits, one principal
feeder may ferve the whole. It is to be cut fo as to be
the wideft at the upper end, contrafting all the way as it
defcends. Notches are to be cut in the bank on the fide
next the land ; and a notch oppofite to and communicating
with each of the lefler feeders, in order to fupply them all
in fucceffion with water. Thefe fmaller feeders, too, are to
be formed fo as to be the largeft at the heads, contrafting
gradually as they defcend, until near the lower end of the
ridge, when the fmall feeder entirely difappears. The cor-
refponding fmall drains are made fomewhat lefs than the
feeders, though not much lefs, and the proportions of the
drains are reverfed, being formed the largeft at the lower
ends, and diminiftiing into fcarcely any thing at the upper
ends.

But though the furface of the field or land fliould be
uniform, yet if the defcent in the line of the principal
feeder be too rapid to admit of its giving fupply to the Idler
feeders, in a regular manner, without great flops or hatches,
the method below may in that cafe be had recourfe to. The
main ditch may aft as a conduftor only, not as a feeder; and
parallel to it the main feeder may be formed in feveral dif-
ferent parts, each of which is eafily levelled up, fo as to
fupply five or fix ridges, and is itfelf fupphed from the con-
duftor, by fimply adjufting a ftop or hatch for every fub-
divided feeder. If the furface fliould confift of feparate
and gently rifing fwells, there muft be a main feeder branch-
ing away from the conduftor to fupply every afcent, on the
top of which this feeder is formed ; while a correfponding
drain is cut at the bottom, and the refpeftive ridges are
marked out and formed between the feeder and the drain.

If it fliould be neceflary, fome catch-work may be inter-
mixed, fo as to water the irregular portions of furface,
which poifefii a degree of declivity anfwering to that mode

of

WATERING OF LAND.

of watering ; and too .much of it to be conveniently and
properly watered in flat flooding.

The ridges being formed, and all the feeders and drains
cut out, and their materials placed and difpofed in fuch a
way as to render the fnrface as regular and correft as can at
firfl; be done ; the feeds of proper grafles (hould in fome
cafes be fown, but in others it will be uimecefTary. When
the land is ready in the fpring, the feeds may be fown with
a thin crop of fome early grain kind, but it may be as well
to fow the feeds alone towards the beginning of the autumn
if the land be then ready.

In the latter mode of watering, or that of catch-work,
the principle confifts in floating as much of the furface, as
can be done, in the way moft fuited to the form of the
grounds ; taking care to prevent the water from fmking or
ftagnating ; and coUefting it again to be a fecond time, or
more frequently thrown over new furfaces of the land. In
order to put it in the power of the floater to receive the
water, and to throw it again over fome other portions of
the ground, there muft be a declivity fufficient for fuch
purpofes. A fmaller quantity of water may be enough for
watering, according to this method, than is neceffary in
flat flooding ; and as the water is accommodated to the form
of the ground, and no ridges required, the expence of
watering in this way is generally very moderate, in compari-
fon with that of watering flat meadows or lands. It is well
adapted, too, to thofe gentle declivities which produce very
little in the itate of nature, but may become highly valuable
at little expence, when properly watered. On thefe and
fome other accounts, it would feem that all the preference
to flat meadows or lands, that has been commonly claimed
for them, is not due. At leaft, it admits of no queft;ion,
that watering in catch-work, when properly executed, is a
very beneficial and advantageous method.

The principal objeftion to this mode of watering is, per-
haps, in the feeming unequal diftribution of whatever nutri-
ment the water may contain, which has certainly fome
weight in it ; as the firit furface over which the water pafles,
muft of neceflity have the advantage. It fhould not, how-
ever, be entirely forgot, that in moft cafes of land in fuch
declivities the confiderate farmer beflows moft manure where
the foil or land is the moft thin and poor ; and the water of
catch-work meadows or lands does the fame ; the higher
Stuated groiuids receiving it and its benefits the firft, and
afterwards thole which are lower, and, for the moft part,
richer, and deeper m point of earthy ftaple.

In this mode of watering, the feeders and drains are cut
in a direftiou palling acrofs the (lope of the furface of the
land ; and having no greater fall, as the water, flows in them,
than to caufe it to move gently and freely, without either
ftagnating, or acquiring fuch a rapidity, as might endanger
the works. In order to accomplilh the work in this eafy
way, the water may be introduced at an upper corner,
where it paifes gently, and by a very fmaU declivity in the
feeder acrofs the flope, and overflows the furface below its
traft. A drain, at a proper diftance below, receives the
water, and tranfmits it into another feeder, cut on the fame
plan as the former, where it again overflows, and is again
taken up in a drain to be fent over nev? furfaces.

In this manner, a moderate quantity of water may float
a fet of different fpots lying in a diagonal direction, until it
arrive at length at the bottom of the watered grounds, and
reach a drain which carries it off completely. An entirely
new fet of different fpots may then be watered in the fame
manner, the drains in the firft procefs, or caf.-, acting as
feeders in the fecond, and the contrary in other cafes. But
catch-work watering, fo far as regards the method of per-

forming it, admits of almoft an endlefs variety. A con-
duftor with ftops may be formed, pointing direftly down
a declivity, if the rapidity of the current be not fufpefted
as dangerous for forcing up the channel in which it flows.
From this conduftor, feeders may be formed at right angles,
to the right and to the left, or in either direftion ; and the
ftops in the conduftor fend the water into thefe feeders ;
which, being formed only a very little off the level, foon fill
and overflow the grounds below them. The furplus water
is collefted in drains parallel to thefe feeders, which reftore
it to the conductor, whence it can again be diffufed to right
and left, in order to float a lower fituated furface, from
feeders conftrufted in the manner already feen.

There are many other ways of watering in different cafes
of this nature ; but where the lands are neceffary to be laid
down into permanent meadows, the works fliould evidently
be fubftantially executed at once, and with proper care and
defign, whether the method be catch-work or flat meadows-
or grounds.

Regular plans of this mode of watering may be feen in
the laft editions of Wright's traft on the " Art of floating
Land," and of Young's " Farmer's Calendar."

The writer of the work on " Landed Property" has given
praftical direflions for four different methods of applying it
artificially on the furface.s of grafs lands, which may be ufe-
ful in guiding the practice of the inexperienced.

\Ji. Flooding or covering loiv Jlat Lands •with Jlagnant or

Jlo'wiy -moving IVater This is a mode which, it is thought,

was formerly, perhaps, the only one in ufe, in this cotmtryj
for enriching the bafes of valleys by the means of water. In
the midland diftrifts, tradition, it is faid, fpeaks of it with
famiharity. And the remains of works that have been ufed
in praftifing it, are ftill evident. Even in the weftern dif-
trifts of the fouthern range of chalk hills, which have long
profited more by watering, than all the other diftrifts of
the ifland, this, it is more than probable, has been hereto-
fore the only method in ufe. It is indeed an interefting fa£t,
it is faid, that the far-famed long-grafs mead of Orchefton,
in the county of Wilts, is ftill watered in this manner. But
it is conceived that there are now, however, few fituations in
which this method can be pradlifed with the beft effeft.
The one for which it is the moft applicable is, it is fuppofed,
a drained morafs, or other flat moory ground, through which
a ftream naturally paffes, or to which a fufficient fupply of
enriched waters can be led. A body of water, refting on a
light fpongy furface, tends to comprefs and confolidate it;.-
while the fediment of foul waters, let fall in palling from
an agitated to a ftagnant ftate, further promotes this ten-
dency. The rich moory meadows and pafture grounds,
which are feen in various parts of the kingdom, were doubt-
lefsly, it is thought, brought to their prefent profitable
ftate, by being flooded with ftagnant or flowly moving
waters.

Another, and perhaps the only other, fort or clafs of
lands, to which this method can now be properly applied, is
dry valley grounds, which are compofed of a fufficient depth
of foil for the pafture of herbage, with a fubfoil of flints,
pebbles, or rough gravel, to draw off quickly the fuper-
abundant moifture that may be left in the foil, after its fur-
face has been freed from water ; and, thereby, to give vege-
tation the immediate freedom of aftion. But lands of this
fort, having a fufficient command of water to flood them,
are much lefs common, in this country, than thole of the
former clafs or kind. The valley of Orchefton is, however,
in itfelf, it is thought, a fufficient ftimulant for fearching
narrowly for lands of fo valuable a formation, and which can
command fertilizing water to flood them ; as they may ge-
nerally

i

WATERING OF LAND.

nerally be watered at lefs expence by this, than by any other
method.

The method of floodiiifj flat or difliing lands artificially
with Handing water, i; (imply, it is faid, that of raifing
a dam acrofs the lower end of the fite of improvement,
of a fuflicient height to overflow the land, and proper
ftrength to i'ullain the weight of the water ; with a channel
at each end, t^ carry away tlie overflow ; and with a valve
in the middle or loweft part to draw at pleafure.

Where the fubfoil is not fufiiciently abforbent and open
to free the upper foil of fuperfluous moifture, prefently
after the body of water has been drawn off^, a main drain
fliould be run up into the area of the fite, and lateral ones
be branched off from that, to wherever the water is found
to hang ; whether on the furface or in the fubfoil. But
where the tubfoil throughout is retentive, though but in a
fmall degree, the land may be confidered as improper for
this mode of watering, as will be fecn below.

2d. W aterlng Jlat Lands luith running Water, ivhen raifed
into R'idgcs. — This is a method of praftice which is conceived
to be modern when compared with that of flooding, drown-
ing, or covering the entire furface with {landing water, as
being a fpirited mode which is ilill, as a general prafticc,
confined to one part of the kingdom. Among the chalk-
hills of Wiltfliire and Dorfctfliire, but efpecially the former,
I there are large trafts of water-formed valley lands, which
'have long been watered with fcientific accuracy and correft-
nefs. Thefe lands, it is probable, were firlf brought to a
firm ftate of fward, by flooding them, during a great length
of time, with ftanding water ; and have been fince moulded
into their prefent form ; been raifed into ridges, or other
[inequalities, in fuitable manners, and properly watered.
I It is proper and necefTary, however, before fo expenfive
la praftice be recommended, to explain the principles on
Iwhich it proceeds, and on which it may be profitably pur-
fued and had recourfe to ; where fuitable ground, and a
fufficient fupply of water, which is proper, can be employed.
It is noticed that plants, as well as animals, have their natural
'Elementary matters. That water plants, aquatics which root
jbeneath the water, live but in this fluid, where they are
Jecluded, in a certain degree, from air and heat. On the
tontrary, the agricultural vegetables of this country, among
itvhich are to be reckoned the more nutritious meadow
plants, require a free communication of atmofpheric air
|ind heat, to every part of them : they cannot live with their
i-oots immerfed in water, nor flourifli while water is lodged
(immediately beneath them. And between thefe two oppo-
site tribes of plants, is found an intermediate one, which is
tomewhat amphibious, or partakes fomething of the nature
bf both, — the plants of which delight in water, yet can live,
.hough not flourifli, on dry land, — provided it be of a cool
|iature or quality.

; It is dated that where the foil of low flat meadow lands
of this nature, rells on a retentive bafe, the palnftrean fort
of plants feldom fail to intermix with the meadow herbage.
|[n a feafon which is favourable to dry land plants, the
Tuper-iquatics are kept in a dwarfifli underling ftate. On
j.he contrary, in a wet feafon they flcunfli ; while the better
iicrbage becomes weak and unproductive. If, through neg-
,e£l, the foil or land be fuffered to remain faturatcd for fome
length of time with water, the meadow plants dwindle, or
die, and the ranker wetland weeds take pofleflion. Hence,
In the prafticc of watering, the propriety of quickly reliev-
ing the foil or land from fuperfluous moifture or wetnefs,
p order that the better herbage may gain the afccndancy ;
'fpccially in the fpring, when a few days of warm weather
jt the critical junfture may give the one or the other a fu-

periority during the early fummer months. Even in mea-
dows where the fuperaquatics do not abound, the fame prin-
ciple of praftice holds good ; for it is well known to
common obfervation, that flat retentive meadows, which do
not readily ftioot off^ furface-waters, are materiully injured by
a cold wet fpring : by which the finer more nutiilious her-
bage is cut off, or wholly checked : fo tliat the hay-crop
proves thin, is of fmall bulk, and of an inferior quality.
But further, though it be evident that water, even ftanding
water, may remain for a fliort time upon dry 'aud-planti.
with impunity, efpecially in a cold feafon ; yet wherever it
is fuffered to lie long on the furface, particularly during
warm weather, there, dry land-plants, in general, are de-
ftroyed, are probably fuff^ocated for want of that fupply of
air which Jlanding water is incapable of aff"ording them.
Hence, it is fuppofed, appears to arife an advantage of wa-
tering with running water ; and hence, too, the propriety
of watering by inter-vah ; in order to enable the plants to
recover their ftrength, and to exert their natural powers of
imbibing the nouriftiment the water may have provided for
them, and thereby increafing their ftrength. Befides, the
warmth which moving bodies, even agitated liquids, natu-
rally generate, may be fuggefted as another advantage of
watering with running water.

Thefe confideration» may, it is fuppofed, fufficiently ex-
plain the reafon for laying up cool flat lands into ridges for
the purpofe of watering. Experience has well afcertained,
it is faid, that where calcareous water, at leaft, is fpread over
a fufficiently (loping furface of grafs-land, the fuperaquatic
plants difappear, while the more nutritious graffcs luxuriate.
On the contrary, where the fame fort of water is fuifered to
loiter on a flat foil, lying upon a retentive bafe, the groffer
wet-land plants prevail. And further, that the fame or
fimilar water in its nature, thrown over the fame or a fimilar
fort of foil, with the fame turn of furface, but with a dry
abforbent bafe, produces luxuriant crops of valuable her-
bage. And, from long continued obfervations on fafts of
this nature, has doubtlefsly arifen, it is thought, the prefent
praflice of Wiltfhire and its neighbourhood.

The work of raifing flat lands into water-mead ridges in
thefe cafes, is direfted to be performed in this manner. In
a fuitable fituation, where the ftream of water can be pro-
perly received to begin and mark out a plot of the green
fward, or land, of the proper length and breadth for the pur-
pofe. Then if to be done by the fpade, to roll back the
turf after it has been cut, and form the earth of the foil into
the proper (haped convex ridge, being careful in forming
it, to keep the bell of the mould conftantly toward the fur-
face, and leaving the opening on the ridge eight or nine
inches or more deep, and nearly level ; the end towards the
ftream being made fomewhat higher and rather wider than
the other, that the water may flow evenly over every part
of the ridge. The turf is then' to be returned, being careful
to replace it evenly and firmly along the fides of the trench
in the middle ; and cut a drain on each fide of the ridge thus
formed, with proper outlets to carry away the wafte water.
Lailly, raife a channel between the ground and the fource
of the water, to conduft it into the watering-trench ; and
continue to adjuft the ground until the well flow evenly over
every part of it. The moft proper forms, and the degrees
of convexity which are the mod fuitable in different cafes,
will be feen below.

This work may be performed either with the fpade or with
the plough. The former is the more expenfive method, but
it is the more accurate, and fooner brings the improvement
to profit. By the fpade, the natural earth and foil are again
diftributed on the furface. By the plough much of them is
X buried

WATERING OF LAND.

buried under the ridges, while the furrows are left deftitute.
Where there is a great depth of fertile foil, the plough may
be ufed with better effeft than where the foil is (hallow.

The next confideration is the elevation and convexity of
thefe meadow ridges. On the principle offered, it is faid,
die ileeper the fides are formed, the more beneficial will be
the etfeft of the work. But it is not lefs certain that the
expence of it will be proportionally great. Something may de-
pend on the nature of the materials of which the ridges are to
be formed, and the method of forming them. If,in moving the
materials, a regular ftratum of flints or gravel can be buried, at
a proper depth, as an open fubfoil, a fmall degree of elevation
will be fufficient. In ordinary cafes, one foot of rife to fixteen
feet and a half, or a ftatute-pole of bafe, will fufSce ; pro-
vided the drains between the beds be funk to a fufficient
depth. One foot of rife to five feet and a half of (lope, or
eleven of bafe, may be confidered as the maximum of eleva-
tion in thefe cafes. On thefe premifes, it is concluded, that
a ridge fet out one ftatute-perch in width at the bafe, re-
quires an elevation of from nine to eighteen inches at the
ridge ; one of two perches in width, an elevation of from
eighteen inches to three feet, according to the nature of the
materials by which it is formed. In refpeft to the turn of
furface, or form of the Hope, there are fufScient reafons why
it fhould be convex, not a regular inchned plane, nor of a
concave or hollow caft. A regular (heet of water fpread
over a (loping furface has a natural tendency to break into
ftreamlets, and to coUeft into partial currents. In the pro-
cefs of watering, this effeft is produced in part, by the un-
evennefs of the furface it is fpread over, and the obftruc-
tions it meets with in its defcent, as well as by the natural
propenfity of falling waters to colleft into a body ; and the
ileeper the defcent, the greater freedom of aftion this pro-
penfity acquires. Hence, the propriety of giving the water
a gentle defcent on the upper part of the flope, in order to
preferve the entirety of the (heet as far down the fide of it
as may be ; and this is effefted by the convex form, which
alfo gives firmnefs to the fides of the trench. Befldes, a
convex furface, while it leffens the defcent at the ridge, in-
creafes it at the foot of the flope, and thereby haftens the
drying in that part ; to which the fuperfluous moiflure of
the entire flope tends, and where noxious plants are moll
liable to gain a footing ; the earth or foil being there kept
the longed in a flate of faturation.

The width of thefe convex beds is a matter of much con-
fideration. In what has been faid of their- elevation, it
plainly appears that the expence of forming them is in pro-
portion to their width. An acre of ground may be raifed
into beds of a rod wide, with the mentioned flope, at half
the expence that another acre can be formed into thofe of
two rods in width, and the fame (lope : the latter requiring
to be raifed at the ridge twice the height of the former ;
befldes the work in this cafe being within a fmaller compafs.
And from what has been faid of the form of the flope, it is
equally clear, that water may be more evenly fpread over %
narrow than over a wide or deep flope ; and that a narrow
bed will dry more quickly than a wide one of the fame foil
and fubflrata. Neverthelefs, there is an advantage of wide
ridges, which, in fome iituations, may more than over-ba-
lance all their inconveniences. A given quantity of water
will float twice the quantity of ground, though perhaps not
with twice the profit, when railed into beds of two poles
wide, that it wiU in thofe of one perch in width, befides the
current expences of management being lefs. If, however,
the quantity of water be great in proportion to the extent of
ground, or if it can be collefted again, and fpread over other
lands belonging to the fame owner, which lie below thofe

that have been watered, narrow ridges may claim a fupe-
riority. Hence, the proper width of watered meadow
ridges depends much on foil and fituation, and on the quan-
tity of water proportionate to the quantity of ground. In
the neighbourhood of Salifbury, the prevailing width, it is
faid, is ten yards, nearly two perches. In the vicinity of
Amelbury, there are fome of three times that breadth oT
width, but they are nearly flat. From one to three poles
may fairly, it is thought, be fet down as the ordinary limits
of width.

In refpeft to the arrangement of thefe meadow beds, and
the general economy of watered meadows or lands of this
nature, almoft every thing may be faid to depend on the
particular circumflances of the given fite. But fuppofing
a copious dream of good water to pafs through a flat of
water formed land, in a dilatation of the bafe of a valley ; and
fuppofing the fituation of it to be nearly level from fide to
fide of the fame, or to have a gentle defcent, the banks of
the dream towards the outer margins ; a cafe which often oc-
curs where flat lands have long been liable to the overflow of
foul waters. In this cafe, the beds require, it is faid, to be
run acrofs the valley in a direft or obUque manner, as the
defcent may point out ; and the water to be condufted to
them by an artificial channel, winding on each fide of the
natural dream, with a main-drain near each outer margin,
leaving room for a carriage-way between it and the foot of
the bank of the valley ; and where the grounds to be wa-
tered are wide, other road-ways may be left between the
condufting trenches and the bed of the brook or rivulet.
Thefe d' y flips of land are ufeful, not only in conveying
away tlie crop, but in furnifhing comfortable lodging-
grounds for paduring dock when the area of the land is
moid. It follows, of courfe, that thefe road-flips fhould
be watered with caution, late in the fpring and during the
fummer months. The mod ehgible method of raifing the
water high enough to fill the trenches, is that of placing
folding-gates, like thofe in ufe for navigable canals, acrofs
the dream, at the upper end of the ground to be improved.
In fummer, or when the water is not wanted for ufe, the
gates may be thrown open, and fadened back, to give free
paffage to floods. But during the time of watering they
are kept (hut, to throw a condant fupply of water into the
main trenches. If the defcent downward of the valley be
confiderable, the main trenches or condufting channels re-
quire to have dops, or rather checks, placed acrofs them, at
didances proportioned to the defcent, in order to fill with
due effeft the working trenches, the mouths of which open
into the condufting channels ; and, to gain more perfeft
command of the water, the mouth of each aftiug trench
fhould be furnifhed with a regular valve, to admt jud water
enough to fupply the given ridge while under watering, and
to clofe the entrance effeftually when it is laid. A fifting-
board in the form of a (hovel, with a (hort handle, and
Aiding in upright grooves made in the faces of two flender
pods, joined together within the ground, becomes a fimple
and defirable regulator for the purpofe. And where a mea-
dow ridge happens to be long and much dechning, a circum-
dance which (hould, as much as poflible, be avoided : checki
are likewife requifite to be placed in the working-trenches,
to afTid in didributing the water evenly over its furface.
Thefe checks are formed in different ways. Two thick
tough fods placed in the trench, fo as to leave an opening
between thim narrow enough to force a fufficient quantity
of water over the fides of the trench above them, and wide
enough to let the remainder pafs down freely into the lower
part of the trench, form a ready and not ineligible check for
this purpofe ; as the opening may be eafily widened or nar-
rowed

WATERING OF LAND.

rowed at pleafure. If the defoent ftraight acrofs the valley
be not fufficient, wliere the defcent down it is confiderable,
it is advifed to direft the beds obliquely acrofs it, and by this
eafy mean gain the required fall. But where the bafe of
the valley is wide, fo that the length of the beds, if run out
from the natural ftream to the outer bark, will be too great,
as from fifty to a hundred yards, wind a conducing trench
along the foot of the bank, as well as by the fide of the
brook or rivulet, and fink a deep drain in the midway be-
tween them. As to what regards the dimenfions of work-
ing trenches, they (hould vary according to the breadths and
lengths of the beds to be watered. The wider and deeper
they are formed, the more freely a large body of water will
pafs along them. Hence it is evident, that the upper end
of a long trench (hould have the larger dimenfions, in order
that a fufficient fupply of water may pafs freely to the fur-
ther end, where the dimenfions are required to be lefs ; as
; the uniform contraftion ferves as a continual check to the
water, and thus tends to force it in its paffage over the fides
of the trench. From fix to fifteen inches wide, and from
four to ten inches deep, may ferve to give a general idea, it
is faid, of their dimenfions.

' 3^. Watering by fpread'tng running Water over naturally
■ uneven Surfaces. — In the more weftern counties of this
country, but particularly in Devonfhire, this practice has
ibeen eftablifhed time immemorial. Even tradition there
fpeaks not of its origin. The fpring-waters that ilTue from
the fldte-rocks, which are there the prevalent fubftrufture,
are of a fertilizing nature; and the fteep valleys that
■there abound are moftly covered with a rich deep foil, fit
for hay-ground. Such circumftances may well ferve, it is
Ifaid, to account for the prevalence and antiquity of the prac-
jtice in that part of the kingdom. Something of this
ipraAice, on a fmall fcale, too, has been long in ufe in dif-
ferent parts of the country for fpreading the overflowings of
dang-yards and pits, and the walh of home-ftalls over grafs-
'lands lying below them. Of late years, alfo, it has been
employed in different diftrifts, in diftributing the waters of
Jmore copious ftreams ; and numerous inftances ftill remain
;in which the praftice may be extended with great and va-
luable effefts.

If tlie quantity of water be fmall, whether it flow from a
ifarm-ftead, or a fpring of fuperior quality, it (hould, it is
faid, be collefted in a proper place, whenever it is not em-
ployed on the ground ; more efpeciaUy in the fpring
'months, while the hay-crop is growing, in order to be able
|to liberate it, (hould its growth be arreiled by a dry feafon,
ind to meliorate the foil as foon as the crop is off the
'ground for the benefit of the after-growth. The ground or
|fituation of improvement is moftly given in the fource of the
water, or the point at which it can be commanded. Where
(this is a matter of choice, it is generally advifable to run the
thannel of fupply along the brink or brow of a (lope, as
above: thus giving the flatter lands above it to the plough,
to which in upland fituations they are beft fuited, and the
iftecper to the fcythe, as watered hay-grounds, for which
they are the moft eligible^ extending the ground downward
jto the foot of the (lope, and to the flatter lands beneath it,
jprovided their fubfoil be abforbent and open, and the given
jquantity of water be fuflScient for the whole extent. The
|canal or artificial water-courfe from the natural ftream or
bther fource of the water, to the ground of improvement,
Jrequires a certain fall, to give a due degree of current to the
water it may convey. If the motion of water in a fupply-
ing channel be (luggifh, part of it is liable to fink, and be
bft by the way. Slowly moving water does not tend to
make the bottom of the channel firm and watcr-tiirht. hke a
Vol. XXXVIII. ^

hvmg (Iream : nor will a channel of the fame «ze convey
an equal quantity of water in the fame time; nor wiU it
clear itfelf fo well from obftruaions, as with a quicker cur-
rent. On tfie contrary, dead water gives the fufpended
matter, which (hould be conveyed as nourifliment to the
plants, an opportunity of being depofited by the way in the
form of mud, for want of agitation, and thereby foufing the
channel. On the other hand, if the current be made too
rapid, it is liable to wear the channel, and to caufe unne-
cefl'ary repairs. Befides, where all the height that can be
properly got is required, every foot of fuperfluous fall con-
trads, unnecefl'arily, the field of improvement. On the
grounds of praftical experience, it is fuppofed, that one per
cent, as one inch, foot, or yard of faU, in every hundred
inches, feet, or yards of diftance, is, in ordinary cafes, the
proper fall : this giving an aftive but inoffenfive current.
Under the above circumftances, and where the length of
channel required is great, one -hslf per cent, may be made to
fuffice. Two-thirds of the ordinary fall gives a degree of
life to the ftream, and may, in many cafes, be eligible and
proper.

In fetting out water-courfes of this nature and fort, the
ufe of the level is neceffary ; and the beft forms of fuch
courfes, whatever the fize may be, are thofe of inverted
arches, as clearing themfelves better when low in water,
and giving firmer banks on the lower fides than is the cafe
with fquare flat-bottomed fteep-fided trenches. The modes
of performing the work, and of laying them out properly,
muft be direded by the particular turn of the furface of
the grounds.

In the low lands which lie at the feet of the (loping
grounds, the natural furfaces of which are fufBciently un-
even to admit of running water being fpread over them,
without the alTiftance of art ; and the fubftrata of which are
fufficiently abforbent and open, to permit them to dry
quickly, after the water is taken off : the method of water-
ing, where they lie pretty regularly ftielving, is to lead
the water along the higher fide of the land, and to draw it
off by a main-drain on the lower fide ; ftraight working
trenches and correfponding drains being cut, downward of
the area, fo as to fpread the water over the whole, without
fuffering it to lodge on any part of the furface. This is
that which may be diftinguifhed by the Devonftiire praftice,
or manner of watering.

Where, however, the furface is more irregular, lying in
natural fwells and ridges, with dips and hollows between
them, the water is to be led along the tops of fuch higher
parts, without regard to the ftraightnefs or regularity of the
trenches ; and the drains to wind up the hollows and loweft
ground with the fame irregularity. There are two ways
of afcertaining the true lines of the trenches and drains in
cafes of this nature. The one is by flooding the entire area,
where it can be done, and driving down levelling-pegs over
every part of it, fo as to leave their heads uniformly level
with the furface of the water ; which being let ofT, the
(horteft pegs fliew the proper lines for the trenches, the
longeft thofe of the drains. This method was ufed by
Bakewell, in Leicefterlhire. The other, which has occurred
in the writer^s experience, is attended, it is faid, with lefs
trouble and inconvenience. The higher parts are readily
afcertained, and the lines of the trenches accurately traced
by a proper levelhng implement ; artificial mounds being
raifcd between the detached knolls when wanted. After the
frcfli-made ground has properly fettled, and the trenches
have been duly formed, the water is turned on ; and by this
ready mean, the proper lines of the drains are accurately
given. This is an eafy way of watering valley lands ; and
Y where

W A T

where the irregularities of furface arc fufficiently great, and
the fubfoil abforbent, it is very eligible ; efpecially, iF in
making the trenches and drains, the turf and foil fo raifed
be applied in adjufting the natural defefts of the furface.

In the watering of more lleeply floping grounds, as the
fides of hills, and the lower banks of valleys, in what may be
termed the D-.on(hire praftice, as having been long there
and thereabo, u chiefly cftablifhed ; as ther;-, the fides of
the valleys lie in or nearly in their natural Hates ; many of
them appear as if they had never been fubjefted to the
plough ; and thofe which have been in tillage, have been
laid down again to grafs with nearly their natural furfaces.
The praaice of laying up foils into high arable ridges, has
never, perhaps, gained a footing in that part of the king-
dom. In thefe cafes, the condufting channel being led along
the brink, and acrofs the upper part of the flope, as ad-
vifed, the working trenches are to be fupplied from it by
means of checks and valves, as already feen. The diftances
between the working trenches are to be regulated by the
fteepnefs and evennefs of the furface. Wherever the (heet
of water is feen to break, and to divide into numerous
ftreamlets, there a trench is required to catch and refpread
it ; the working trenches, in this manner of watering,
afting in the two-fold capacity of trenches and drains :
frefh fupplies of water being let down from above, to the
lower trenches, as occafion may require.

Where the depth or downward length of the flope is
great, or where an additional fupply of water offers itfelf,
and where refervoirs are formed at different heights, an addi-
tional main-channel is required, to lead a frefli fupply acrofs
the" midway of the flope. This main-trench hkewife re-
ceives the wafle water from above ; and, like the working-
trenches, afts at once as a fupply ing-channel, and as a re-
ceptacle of the wafte water : hence, a given quantity of
water will float a much larger extent of ground in this man-
ner of watering, than in watering ridges, raifed on level
ground ; though, it may be prefumed, not with equal
benefit.

In forming the trenches of whichever fort, the turf and
loofe earth that are raifed out of them, and which are not
wanted to make their lower fides firm and level, are to be
ufed in filling up the channels and dimples that naturally
happen in the face of the flope ; in order that the warer
may fpread more evenly over it, and thereby to leflen the
reijuifite number of trenches. To the fame end, if hillocks
or fmall protuberances occur, as they generally do on na-
tural furfaces, they are to be lowered by turning back the
turf, ufing their contents as above, and returning the fods to
faioothed furfaces. But, where the knoll is large, water
may be led by a narrow branching trench to its top, and be
thus fpread evenly over its fides. The proper defcent or
decline of the working trenches depends, in fome meafure,
on the prefa of water that enters them. One quarter per
cent, may ferve as a guide in fetting them out : firit making
them of inferior dimenfions, and then turning on the water :
afterwards enlarging them, and in doing this, adjufting
them in fuch a manner, that the water will flow evenly out
of them, from end to end. The ftiorter the afting trenches
are made, the more eafily they may be regulated without the
jncumbraice of checks, which fhould be avoided as much as
poflible.

4/Z1. Watering Jloping Groundi that have leen raifed into
Ridges by Cultivation, and are in the State of Grafs. — In
watering ridges on flopes, or fuch fhelving grounds as have
formerly been in a ftate of aration, in whicli they have been
raifed into high wide convex beds, refembling thofe ad-
vifed above, for flat meadowy ftu-fices, and have been laid

WAT

down to grafs in that form ; a praftice which, it is fuppofed,
has been common to many parts of the kingdom, efpecially
where the common-field fyllem pi-evailed ; the direction of
the ridges being moftly dircttly downward of the flope.
In this cafe, it would be in vain to attempt to fpread water
over the furface, in the manner ufyally praftifed on more
even flopes. And if it be thrown into open trenches, cut
along the tops of the ridges, agreeably to the practice in
ufe for level grounds, and according to the ordinary prac-
tice of watering the lands now under confideration, the
operation becomes very imperfeft. For, if the defcent be con-
fiderable, the water will unavoidably flow ont of the trenches
in ftreams immediately above the checks ; and the fides of the
ridges will confequently be watered partially. Thefe dif-
ficulties in fpreading water evenly over ridges on fteeply
ftielving furfaces, have led fome induilrious managers to
throw down the ridges, and return the flopes to their natural
itates. But this, where the ridges are high and wide, is
very troublefome and expenfive if done by hand ; and if
performed by the plough, is greatly injurious and hurtful
to the land for many years. A better method has there-
fore been had recourfe to by the writer. Inflead of leading
the water down the ridges, it is thrown into the furrows,
and fpread over the fides of the beds by means of crooked
trenches, winding, in the feftoon manner, horizontally, or
nearly fo, acrofs them, and led more efFeftually over their
tops by pointed trenchtels depending from the feflooned
parts. Thefe winding trenches, like thofe acrofs plain
floping furfaces, aft both as feeding-trenches and as drains,
or collefting trenches, to refpread the water evenly over the
ground, immediately below them : thus keeping the entire
ridge covered with an even fheet of brifl<ly moving water.
When the upper ends of the ridges are fufficiently watered,
the water is to be let down the furrows to the parts below ;
or if the ridges are fhort, their whole length may be
watered at once, by letting the water partially down the
furrows to the lower parts, by the means of cuts of proper
widths, made with a fliarp tool acrofs the lower fides of the
trenches, where they crofs the furrows : thefe fimple regu-
lators afting as checks in the common modes of watering.
The diftances between the trenches, as well as their form,
muft always vary with the fteepnefs of the flope or defcent,
and the fhape of the ridge.

Confiderable trafts of land in North Wales have been
watered in fomewhat this manner of late years.

In concluding, it may be Hated on tiie beft authority,
that the beneficial praftice of watering, by fome of the me-
thods which have been fuggefted above, may be greatly ex-
tended and applied in different parts of the country where it
has yet been but little tried, as on the fenny lands of the
counties of Lincoln, Norfolk, Cambridge, Northampton,
and, perhaps, fome others, where it is particularly defirable,
as well as the bottoms of the chalk-hills in different dif-
trifts, as Yorkfliire and Suffex, and the vales of Hertford-
fhire, the chalky parts of Buckinghamfhire, Oxfordfhire,
and Suffolk, which are peculiarly fitted for the purpofe ;
befides many others where good' waters are afforded for
making fuch improvements on grafs-Iands.

Watering Live-Stock, in Agriculture, the bufinefs of giv-
ing and providing them with water. The work is effefted
in different ways, and by different means. See Drinkin6-
Poyos, Made Streams, W AT^R-Ci/lerns, Water, Rain,
Colhaing of. Spring, Artificial, Well, Field, &c.

Watering Plants and Fruit-Trees, in Hot-houfes, Stoves,

&c. in Gardening, the practice of throwing water over them

in different intentions. The common modes of applying

water have been fpoken of in confidering the general praSice

12 of

WAT

of garden-watering, and under the heads of the different
plants, as they may require it ; but the nature of its ap-
plication, in thefe cafes, may be explained in the prefent
place.

For plants in thefe fituations, Mr. Fordyce has advifed
the ufe of iimple water only, in clearing them from different
nuifances to which they are expofed, though lime-water in
other cafes may be more powerful and have a better effeft,
as will be feea below. It is diredled to be applied in this
manner. About four o'clock in the afternoon a barrow-
engine is to be filled with foft water, or fuch as has been ex-
pofed to the fun through the day, and wheeled along the
foot-paths of the houfes, where they are wide enough to
receive it, and the whole of the plants fprinkled with the
fluid, by preffmg the finger on the top of the pipe of the
engine, in order to fpread the water fomewhat in the manner
of a fine fhower of rain, playing the engine and throwing the
fluid likewife againft the top-lights and fhelves of the houfes,
until the water Hands an inch deep in the paths of the houfes.
A fmall copper engine may be made ufe of, and anfwers
very well, when a barrow-engine cannot be got into the houfes.
It may be had in moil places. But if an engine Ihould not
be conveniently at hand, which can be got into the houfes,
the front-lights may be opened, or, where there are no front-
Lghts, the top-lights may be flided down, and the water be
thrown in at the fronts or tops. When this operation is
begun, if in the infide, every light mull be clofe fhut down ;
and if the water be thrown in at the fronts or tops, one
light only is to be kept open, which is immediately to be
fliut, when that part of the houfe, which is oppofitc to it,
is fufRciently watered ; then proceeding to open others until
the whole be properly watered. The houfes after this are
to be kept clofe until the next morning ; which will caufe
fuch an exhalation from the glafs of the houfes, and the beds
that may be in them, if there fhould be any, that the
plants will, it is faid, be covered all over with fleam or va-
pour ; which will infallibly deflroy and clear them of the
vermin and other hurtful matters that may be upon them,
efpecially thofe of the plant-loufe and coccus kinds. This
fort of watering is, however, to be repeated every afternoon,
!in the time of hot weather only. By it a great deal of la-
'bour in watering will be faved ; but fuch plants as ftand in
, need of much watering, fhould have the water given them
■before the fprinkling of the houfes is begun. In moft cafes,
the plants will have imbibed all the moilture before morn-
'ing, and the paths of the houfes will be perfeftly dry.
; As it fometimcs happens that in hard winters, when ftrong
'fires are under the neceflity of being kept in the ftoves or
lother houfes night and day, that the plants which ftand on
;fhelvc3 in thofe of the dry kind, are fo parched up, that the
'leaves drop off, as from deciduous trees in the autumnal fea-
|fon, which renders them very difagreeable in their appear-
jance ; it fliould be prevented or remedied by watering, in
the manner diredled below by the fame writer. About eight
o'clock in the morning, when the fun fhines out, and there
lis the appearance of a fine day, water is to be thrown into
jthe houfes until the floors are covered to the depth of nearly
;two inches ; they being kept fhut the whole day, unlefs the
jheat rifes very high, which is feldom the cafe at fuch a
.feafon of the year, but when it does happen, the doors may
be opened to admit a little air. By the middle of the day,
the water becomes entirely exhaled, and the floors quite dry.
pThe operation may be repeated two or three times in a week
|in fu.nny weather. The plants in tlie courfc of a week's time
ibegin to recover, or throw out new foliage, and in a fort-
inight or three weeks become in full leaf ag^n, difplaying
Ihemfelves in a fine manner,

WAT

This fort of watering is greatly ufeful on many other
occafions, as in the growth of plants in the pits of fuch
houfes.

Fruit-trees in fuch houfes may alfo be watered in the
fame manner with much benefit in fome cafes ; btit for thofe
againil walls, a lime-water prepared by putting thirty-two
gallons of foft water to half a peck of unflaked Ume is re-
commended to be ufed in this manner. With the clear li-
quid, after the hme has fubfided, the engine is to be filled,
and a good watering given to the trees, throwing a confider-
able part of it forcibly under the leaves, and fpreading it
finely by the means direfted above ; at the fame time, wheeling
it backwards and forwards, that no parts of the trees may
be miffed. This fhould be performed when the weather is
cloudy, or when the fun is off the wall tliat contains the trees.
Where the trees are on an eafl wall, the watering may be
begun about half paft eleven o'clock ; if on a north wall, the
watering may be done the firfl thing in the morning ; and
when they are on a fouth wall, it may be executed about
four o'clock in the afternoon : it is to be repeated once a
day for fix or feven days in fucceflion. If, however, there
fhould be cold northerly or eafterly winds, or frofty nights,
fuch watering fhould be difcontinued until the weather be-
comes more mild and temperate. Care is coiiftantly necef-
fary that the trees get dry before night, and that no water-
ing takes place while the fun is upon them. Care is hke-
wife to be taken not to water them with any of the grounds
of the limey liquid, which would injure the leaves, and make
the trees look very mifightly.

This fort of watering, with the ufe of hme and wood-afh
dufl to the under-fides of the leaves, are found extremely effec-
tual in deflroying and clearing away every thing noxious
about the trees, and in rendering them healthy and produc-
tive. See Watering, in Gardening.

VJ ATERlKG-Pots, Pans, or Cans, arc fuch contrivances
of this nature as are fuited for pouring water over feeds,
plants, trees, &;c. in pots or otherways in a fine fhowcry
divided flate, they being provided with flrainers or rofes of
a finer or coarfer kind for the purpofe, well adapted to their
fpouts. They are particularly convenient for potted plants
of all forts, as well as many other kinds. They form the
principal mode of hand-watering.

Wateiung Sheep, in ylgrlcuUure, the fupplying them with
water. This is particularly neceffary in the management of
flocks in fome fituations, as on the South Downs ; and as
there is there no other water than what is to be collefted by
fome artificial method, ponds are conftrufted for retaining
fucli water as falls in rain ; thofe, for this ufe, are commonly
made circular, and very gently floping to the centre ; the
bed very flrongly rammed down to prevent any lofs by
foaking through the chalk. As ponds are liable to become
leaky, and to be fpoiled by a hard froil,. they are made by
lining them with chalk, puddled and trod down until it
makes a fort of plaifler floor. If a little good flone lime
were fifted evenly over the whole and trod well in with
the chalk, it would probably effedl the bufinefs of ren-
dering them perfeftly retentive of the water under all cir-
cumftanccs.

In Italy the fheep-fiocks were regularly watered morning
and evening, as is evident from Columella, and the practice
has probably confiderable utihty, efpecially in dry fitu-
ations.

WATERlKG-5jiWn§'?, in Gardening, a large kind of garden
fyringe employed for throwing water to fome height over
trees or plants, in rather a forcible manner, in the way of
a flream, for clearing away infefts and other mattery as well
as feme other purpofes.

Y z Watering

WAT

Wateiung the Soil of Tillage Land, m Agriculture, the
praAice of improving ploughed ground, and the crops upon
it, by the application of water.

The outlines of a plan for watering arable or tillage crops
and lands, that has long been familiar to the writer on the
Management of Land, are firft to form the foil into flat beds
or ridges, with intervals, or trenches, direfted fomewhat
obliquely acrofs the flope, or general defcent of the field or
o-round ; iiauif 'y, fo as to dip from one quarter to one half
per cent, brneat'. the dead level ; this declination being equally
calculated u> ommunicate and carry off water. The width
of the bed^ 's to be regulated by the nature of the land.
Abforbent foils may be laid into wider beds than thofe
which are repellent, or of the ftiff heavy kind, that are lefs
prone to draw away the water.

The depth of the trenches (hould vary according to the
quality of the water, and the intention of ufing it. For
merely moiftcning the land, in a dry feafon, with ordinary
water, the ti-enches, it is conceived, (hould be deep, fo as to
lodge the water in the fubfoil, rather than the foil above it.
But when an enriched water is to be ufed to fertilize the
foil, and encourage the growth of the crop during its early
ftages, it requires to be communicated immediately to the
pafture of the plants ; confequently, in this cafe, the beds
fliould be narrow, and the trenches no deeper than j'lil to
prevent the water from overflowing.

When the water is neceffarily required to be conducted to
the uppermofl corner of the field or open ground, to be con-
tinued and condufted down the flope, acrofs the higher ends
of the beds, and to be forced into the trenches, by the
means of regulated checks, placed below their mouths, as
occafion may require ; it fhould be either fuffered to run with
moderate ftreams along the trenches ; or, if the quantity be
fmall in proportion to the extent of ground, it may be
checked at proper diftances, fo that the whole of it (hall
be abforbed, thus going over the ground, and repeating
the watering as the quantity of water, or the fufficiency of
moifture may direft.

Watering, in the ManufaBures. To water a llufF is to
give it a luftre, by wetting it lightly, and then palling it
through the prefs, or the calender, whether hot or cold. See
Tabbying.

WATERLAND, Daniel, D.D. in Biography, was
born in 1683, atWafely, in Lincolnlhire, where his fatherwas
reftor, and fent to Magdalen college, Cambridge, in 1699,
for the completion of his education ; of this college he was
elefted a fellow in 1704, took his degree of M.A. in 1706,
and became a private tutor. His traft, entitled " Advice to
a young Student, with a Method of Study for four Years,"
publifhed at this time, was popular, and pafled through fe-
veral editions. In 17 13 he was nominated mailer of his
college, and prefented to the reftory of Ellingham in Nor-
folk. On occafion of taking his degree of B.D. in 1 7 14, he
diftrnguiflied himfelf by defending before the regius pro-
felTor of divinity the negative of his theus, " Whether
Arian fubfcription be lawful ?" Being chofen chaplain
in ordinary to king George I., he was nominated, on his
raajefly's vifitto Cambridge, D.D., and incorporated in the
fame degree at Oxford. Diftinguifhed as a champion of
orthodoxy by his " Vindication of Chrill's Divinity, being a
Defence of fome Queries relating to Dr. Clarke's Scheme of
the Holy Trinity," printed in 1 7 19, he was appointed in the
following year the firft preacher of lady Moyer's lefture in
favour of the divinity of Chrill. He alfo publifhed an an-
fwer to Dr. Whitby on the fame fubjeft, and in 1721 he
was prefented by the dean and chapter of St. Paul's with the
reftory of St. Auftin and St. Faith. His " Hiftory of the

9

W A T

Alhanafian Crged," vindicating it againll the objeftions of
Dr. Clarke, was publifhed in 1723, and his preferments to
the canonry of Windfor, the vicarage of Twickenham, and
the archdeaconry of Middlefex, kept pace with his publica-
tions of this nature. His remarks on Dr. Clarke's " Expo- |
fition of the Church Catechifm," printed in 1730, engaged |
him in a controverfy with Dr. Sykes on the facrament of the |
Lord's fupper. Againfl Tindal's " Chriftianity as old as ]
the Creation," he pubhlhedhis " Scripture Vindicated," and
his " Chriftianity Vindicated againft Infidelity." On thefe
treatifes, Dr. Middleton pubhfhed remarks, and they were
defended by Dr. Zachary Pearce. In 1734 Dr. Waterland
made an attempt for refuting Dr. Clarke's opinions in a
" Difcourfe of the Argument a priori for proving the Ex-
iftence of a Firft Caufe ;" and in this year, having declined
the office of prolocutor of the lower houfe of convocation
to which he was chofen, he publifiied his treatife " On the
Importance of the Doftrine of the Trinity," which he re-
garded as fundamental, avowing his high refpeifl for the
authority of the fathers in this and other articles of faith.
In 1736 he commenced a feries of archdiaconal charges on
the fubjeft of the eucharift, arguing againft the opinion of
Hoadley on the one hand, that it was a mere communicative
feaft, and againll that of Johnfon and Brett, on the other,
that it was a proper propitiatory facrifice. But a complaint
under which he laboured, and which required repeated fur-
gical operations, endured by him with exemplary pa-
tience, at length terminated his life in December 1 740, in the
5Sth year of his age. A coUeftion of his fermons was pub-
lifhed after his death, " As a controverfialift," fays one of
his biographers, " though firm and unyielding, he is ac-
counted fair and candid, free from bitternefs, and aftuated
by no perfecutmg fpirit." Gen. Biog.

Waterland, in Geography, an ifland in the South Pa-
cific ocean, difcovered by Le Maire and Schouten, in the
year 1616. It is reprefented as a low uninhabited ifland,
fandy, and full of rocks, with plenty of trees on the border,
but neither cocoa-nuts nor palmettoes. Some rrelTes and In-
dian falad were found, and fome frcfh water in ditches. No
foundings for anchorage were difcovered. S. lat. 14"^ 46'.
W. long. 149° 3c'.

WATERLANDIANS, in Eccleftafiical Hijlory, a feft
of thofe that were called the gro.'^s or moderate Anabaptifts,
confifting at firft of the inhabitants of a diftrift in North
Holland, called Waterland ; whence their name. They were
alfo called Johannites from John de Reis, who, affifted by
Lubert Gerard, compofed their confeffion of faith in 1580.
This confeffion far furpaffes, 'v\ refpeft both of fimplicity
and wifdom, all the other coiifelfions of the Mennonites ;
though it has been alleged, that it is not the general con-
feffion of the Waterlandians, but that merely of the congre-
gation, of which its author was the paftor.

This community, fays Mofheim, has abandoned the fe-^
vere difcipline and fingular opinions of Menno, whom, never-
thelefs, they generally refpeft as their primitive parent and
founder. They are, however, divided into two diftinft fefts,
which bear the refpeftive denominations of Freislanders
and Waterlandi.ans; and are both without bifliops, employing
no other ecclefiaftical minifters than prefbyters and deacons.
Each congregation of this fedl is independent on all foreign
jurifdiftion, having its own ecclefiaftical council or confiftory,
which is compofed of prefbyters and deacons. The fupreme
fpiritual power is, neverthelefs, in the hands of the people,
without whofe confent nothing of importance can be carried
into execution. Their prcfbyters are, generally fpeaking,
men of learning, and apply themfelves with fuccefs to the
fludy of phyfic and philofophy ; and there is a pubhc pro-

feffor,

1

I

W A T

fcltor, fuppoitcd by the fett at Amftcrdam, for the inftruc-
tioii of their youth in the various branches of philofophy,
and facred erudition. One of thefe Waterlandian fefts was
divided, in 1664, into two faftions, of which the one were
called Galenists, and the other Apostoolians, from
their refpeftive leaders. Moflieim's Eccl. Hift. vol. iv.
vol. V.

WATERLOO, Anthony, in Biography, a Flemilh
landfcape painter of great abilities, is generally fuppofed to
have been born at Utrecht, about the year 161 8 ; it is cer-
tain that he refided there the greater part of his life, and
the fcentry of his piftures is found in the environs of that
city.

His landfcapes are charafterized by the greateft fimplicity
of compofition ; the entrance into a forell, a broken road with
a bank and a few trunks of trees, a folitary cottage, a mill,
&c. are made interefting by the exquifite touch, and beauti-
ful colour and chiaro ofcuro, with which he treated them.
His flcies are cbar, and his clouds float in air ; his colouring,
however, is fometimes too ftrongly contrafted with yellow
foregrounds and blue diftances, and offend the eye for want
of being more broken. He marked the charafters of his trees
admirablv, in form and colour. His piftures are by no means
common, as tliey are not numerous. He occupied himfelf
very much in etching his own defigns and views, and his pro-
duftions in that art are as valuable as his pidures, in point
of truth and (l<ill ; and will always continue to be a fource
of pleafure and improvement to the artift and the connoifleur.
His plates, according to Bartfch, amount in number to 150,
not entirely completed with the point, but finilhed with
the graver, to foften and to invigorate them. It is to
be lamented that he funk an early prey to habits of intem-
perance.

Waterloo, in Geography, a village of the Netherlands,
between 12 and 13 miles from Bruflels, fituated behind the
fkirts of the fine beech foreft of Soignies, rendered famous
by one of the mod fevere and fanguinary battles which
modern hiftory of war records, fought in its vicinity on
Sunday the 18th of June, 18 15, between the duke of Wel-
lington, who commanded the Britifh, Hanoverian, German,
and Belgic army, and Napoleon Buonaparte, who con-
dufted the operations of the French forces. The ground on
which the battle was fought is faid not to exceed two miles
from north to fouth, including the whole from the rear of
the Britifli to the rear of the French pofition ; and from
eaft to weft, from the extremity of the left to that of the
right wing of the contending armies, is about a mile and a
half in extent ; fo that the fanguinary refult of the battle
has been attributed in fome degree to the limited fpace
in which they were engaged, and the confequent intermix-
ture of the two armies. The pofition of the French troops
is reprefented as the bell, becaufe the eminence occupied by
them was higlier, and the afcent lleeper than ours, and
better adapted to attack and defence. The village of
Waterloo, which is not feen from the field of battle, was
occupied on the Saturday night previous to the battle by
the duke of Wellington, the principal officers of his ftaff,
the prince of Orange, lord Uxbridge, fir Thomas Pifton,
fir William de Lancey, and other general officers. The
French army in the Netherlands, is faid to have amounted
to 130,000 ; and after the loffes of the 15th and i6th, and
the detachment of two corps under marfhal Grouchy, there
mud have remained at lead 90,000 men, with which Napo-
leon took the fiild on the 1 8th of June ; while, after allow-
ing for the lofies of the allies on the i6th, which were very
ferious, it muft appear that there was a great difparity in
regard to numbers ; as it may be deduced from a Itatement,

WAT

founded upon the latefc return to the Horfe Guards, pre-
V10U3 to the battles of the 16th and i8th, that the extreme •
force Bntifh and German was 46,221 men, under the duke
of Wellington, to which we may add 22,000 for Brunf-
wickers and Dutch, fo that the whole could not exceed
68,221 men ; or, as it is elfewhere ftated, there could not
be in adion a greater number than 64,000 men to fupport
the attack of the whole French army. From tlie adjutant-
general's office, 6th November 18 16, it appears that the
effeftive ftrength of the Britilh army, prefent at the battle
of Waterloo on the i8th of June 1815, was 74,040, in-
cluding the army of obfervation. It is moreover obferved,
that the hoftile army confided of the bed troops of France ;
that it was a regular and difciplined army, even before the
Bourbons quitted France, and that from the return of Buo-
naparte every thing had been done to render it effeftive ; it
was indeed the force which had been felefted and com-
bined to aft upon the northern frontier. Whereas the
allied army, the Britifh part excepted, was almoft wholly a
green army ; the allies, particularly the Dutch, Belgians,
Hanoverians, and troops of Nadau, being chiefly young
foldiers.

Previoufly to the grand and decifive battle of Waterloo,
the campaign had commenced on the 15th of June by an
attack upon the outpofts of the Pruffian army, commanded
by field-marfhal prince Blucher. The points of concen-
tration of the feveral corps of his army were, Fleurus,
Namur, Ancy, and Hannut. Buonaparte advanced the
fecond corps of his army by Thuin, along the banks of the
Sambre, upon the town of Charleroi, and drove the ad-
vanced pods of general Ziethen's corps back upon the bridge
of Marchienne. After a very fmart aftion, the Pruffian
general was obliged to retire behind the river, and coUeft
his corps near Fleurus : and as he confidered Charleroi
untenable, the troops itationed in that town were with-
drawn, and the French cavalry entered it about mid-day.
The Pruffians defended their advanced pods with bravery ;
and it was only the overwhelming force that was brought
againd Ziethen's corps, which induced that general to
withdraw his advance, in order that he might concentrate
his whole force near Fleurus.

On the evening of this day an officer arrived at Bruflels
from marfhal Blucher, to announce that hoftilities Iiad com-
menced. The duke of Wellington received his difpatches,
whild he was fitting after dinner with a party of officers.
The troops were ordered to hold themfelves in readinefs, to
march at a minute's notice. Before midnight a fecond
officer arrived from Blucher, and the difpatches were deli-
vered to the duke of Wellington in the ball-room of the
duchefs of Richmond ; and he gave his orders to one of his
daff-officers, who indantly left the room. In the midil of the
repofe that feemed to reign over Brudels, the drums fuddenly
beat to arms, and the loud call of the trumpet was heard
from every part of the city. The whole town became
indantly an univerfal fhovv of budle. The foldiers affem-
bled with their knapfacks, and every kind of warlike pre-
paration threw the town into a date of agitation. But
before eight in the mojning, the dreets, which had been
filled with bufy crowds, were empty and filent ; the great
fquare of tlie Place Royale, which had been filled with
armed men, and with all the appurtenances of war, was now
quite deferted. The duke of Wellington had let off in
great fpirits, obferving, that as Blucher had moil probably
fettled the bufinefs, he fhould perhaps return to dinner.

When the direftion by which Buonaparte intended to
penetrate into Belgium had been afcertained, the duke of
Wellington immediately gave orders for the army under his

command

WATERLOO.

command to concentrate on the extreme of its pofition,
near the great road from Bruffels to Charleroi, and in a line
between Nivelles and Namur. The fifth divifion of the
Britifh army, with the corps of the duke of Brunfwick-
Oels, left Bruffels about 2 a. m. on the i6th, and advanced
towards the pofition where the whole army was ordered to
aflemble.

One brigade of the Dutch troops, which was in advance
towards Charleroi, had been attacked, when the Prufiians
fell back on the 15th, and driven from its advanced pofition
near Frafnes ; but the prince of Orange having moved up
another brigade of the fame army, they were able to repulfe
the enemy, and in the evening they regained the greater part
of the ground which had been loft throughout the day.
On the morning of the i6th, prince Blucher, who was
determined to meet Buonaparte with all his ftrength, had
pofted the army under his command on the heights between
the villages of Brie and Sombref, and to fome diftance
beyond Sombref. In front of this line, he occupied the
villages of St. Amand and Ligny with a very confiderable
force.

Buonaparte, as foon as he had pafled the Sambre, direfted
the great body of his force againft the Pruflian line. Mar-
(hal Ney, who commanded the left wing, was direfted to
advance by Goflelies and Frafnes, and attack the Britifti
pofition ; his force confifting of the firft and fecond corps
of infantry, and four divifions of cavalry.

The third, fourth, and fixth corps, with the guard in re-
ferve, were ordered to attack the Pruffian pofition in front,
while the fifth corps under Grouchy, and a divifion of
cavalry, were detached towards Sombref, on the Namur
road, with the view of manoeuvring on that flank.

On debouching from Fleurus, Buonaparte had an oppor-
tunity of reconnoitring the pofition of marfhal Blucher with
more precifion. He immediately placed the firft corps be-
longing to the left wing under Ney, with two divifions of
heavy cavalry, behind the village of Frafnes, on the right,
and at a little diftance from the Bruffels road, where it was
to form a referve, that could be brought up to fupport
either his attack upon the PrufGans, or Ney's attack upon
the Jiritilh. The third corps was ordered to advance in
column to carry the village of St. Amand, while the
fourth corps, fupported by the guard and the cavalry, was
ordered to attack Ligny.

The enemy advanced in overpowering mafles upon St.
Amand, where the aftion firft commenced on the morning
of the 1 6th. The brave Pruffians defended this part of
their advanced pofition with great firmnefs, and it was not
till after a long and fanguinary conflift, that they were
obliged to yield for a time to fuperior numbers. The
fourth corps commenced its attack upon the village of
Ligny about mid-day, and by one o'clock p.m. the aftion
may be faid to have become general throughout the whole
of the extended line of the allied Britifti and Pruffian armies.
Grouchy by that time had attacked the extreme left beyond
Sombref, and Ney had come in contaft with the advance of
the army under the duke of Wellington, near Frafnes.
But it was in the villages of St. Amand and Ligny, that
the greateft ftruggle for viftory took place, between the
contending armies. There the battle continued for five
hours, it may be faid, almoft in the villages themfelves, as
the movements forwards and backwards, during that period,
were confined to a very narrow fpace. Frefti troops were
conftantly moved up on both fides ; and as each army had
immenfe mafles of infantry behind that part of the village
which it occupied, thefe ferved to maintain the combat, as
they were continually receiving reinforcements from the

rear. Upwards of 200 pieces of cannon were direfted
againft the villages, and they were frequently on fire in
many places.

About 4 o'clock, prince Blucher placed himfelf at the
head of a battalion of infantry, and charged with them into
the village of St. Amand. After a dreadful ftruggle, he
gained pofleflion of the greater part of it. The enemy
were panic-itruck, and the viftory feemed fo doubtful, that
Buonaparte was obliged to fend in all hafte for the firft.
corps, which he had left in referve near Frafnes ; at the very
moment too, that it had become equally neceflar^' to marflial
Ney, whofe columns, having been repulfed by the fifth
divifion of Britidi infantry, were retiring in great con-
fufion.

The advantage which Blucher had fo nobly gained, was
of little importance to the general aftion in which his troops
were engaged. At Ligny, the battle ftill raged with
unabated vigour; and though the evening was far advanced,
the viftory remained undecided. The badnefs of the roads,
and the difficulties which general Bulow had to encounter
in his march, prevented his corps from getting up on the
1 6th ; fo that Blucher had only three corps of his army in
pofition ; and though they had repulfed every attack which
had been made upon them, the danger was becoming urgent,
as all the divifions were engaged, or had already been fo,
and there was no referve at hand.

As the night advanced, the enemy, favoured by the dark-
nefs, made a circuit round the village of Ligny, with a divi-
fion of infantry on one fide ; and, without being obferved,
got into the rear of the main body of the Pruflian army, at
the fame moment that fome regiments of cuirafliers forced
their paflage on the other fide of the village. This move-
ment decided the day, and ficld-marflial Blucher was obliged
to commence his retreat ; yet his brave columns, though
furprifed, were not difmayed. They formed themfelves
into folid mafles, and, repulfing every attack which the
enemy made upon them, retired in perfeft good order to
their original ground, upon the heights above the village,
and from thence continued, unmolefted, their retrograde
movement upon Wavre.

This movement of the marftial's rendered neceflTary a
correfponding one on the part of the duke of Wellington ;
and he retired from the farm of Quatre Bras upon Genappe,
and thence upon Waterloo, the next morning of the 17th
at 10 o'clock.

The duke of Wellington, having given orders for the
army under his command to concentrate on the left, pro-
ceeded with the fifth divifion and the duke of Brunfwick-
Oels' corps, in the direftion of Charleroi. About two
o'clock on the afternoon of the i6th, the head of the Britifh
column reached the farm of Quatre Bras, fo named from its
ftanding near where the roads from Bruffels to Charleroi,
and from Nivelles to Namur, crofs each other. The ad-
vance of the enemy under Nej', who had again driven the
Dutch troops from their pofition near Frafnes, had nearly
reached the fame fpot ; and general Kempt's brigade had
fcarcely time to deploy from the great road, before it was
attacked by the enemy's cavalry, fupported by heavy mafles
of his infantry, Nothing could exceed the daring intre-
pidity of the French troops at this moment ; their fuccefs
on tlie 15th, and confidence in their leader, added to the
natural bravery of the troops, made them advance with
almofl a certainty of viftory. The fudden appearance of
overwhelming mafles of cavalry, and the rapidity with
which they charged our infantry, before they had time to
throw themfelves into fquares, created fome little confufion
in one or two regiments. Indeed, fo daring were the

French

WATERLOO.

French cuiraflicrs, that a regiment aftually cut into the
fquare of the forty-fecond Highlanders ; but they paid
dear for their temerity, as few ever returned to their lines ;
and the Highlanders had ample revenge for the lofs of their
brave colonel fir Robert Macara. The third battalion of
the Royal Scots, twenty-eighth, and firil battalion of the
ninety-lifth, were warmly engaged for feveral hours on the
left of the Brnffels road ; while general Pack's brigade,
confiding of the forty-fourth, feventy-ninth, and ninety-
iecond regiments, with the forty-fecond already mentioned,
fucceeded completely in repelling the enemy on the right,
after an equally arduous conteft.

About 4 o'clock, the firll divifion under major-general
Cooke, and third under lieutenant-general fir Charles Alten,
came up, and were alfo immediately engaged. The enemy
was now driven from his ground, and obliged to retire to
the pofition which he had occupied the night before, and
where he had fome difficulty in maintaining himfelf, until
the darknefs put an end to the combat. The troops of the
duke of Brunfwick diftinguilhed themfelves very much on
the afternoon of the ifith ; and his ferene highnefs was un-
fortunately killed at the head of his brave huffars.
I At day-light on the morning of the 17th, the duke
jftiewed his whole force, and challenged the enemy to fight ;
but they did not feem difpofed to accept the cTiallenge ;
;and therefore both he and prince Bliicher took up their re-
ifpeftive politions ; their movements having been commu-
nicated to each other, and Blucher having been requefted
to fupport the duke in cafe of an attack on the next day
with two divifions of his army. On the 17th no movement
of any confequence took place.

i The pofition which the Britifh army now took up, had
ibeen chofen with great judgment, from its proximity to the
lextenfive foreft of Soignies. The village of Waterloo lies
upon the great road from Bruflels to Charleroi, embofomed
in the foreit ; and a few fcaltered houles extend to another
fmall village called Mont- Saint-John : about a quarter of a
mile in front of this latter village, there is a rifing ground
'which croffes the great road already mentioned, and extends
from a farm-houfe called Ter-la-Haye on the left, to the
Village of Merbe-le-Braine on the right, croffing alfo the
Iroad from BruflTels to Nivelles, which diverges from the
;road to Charleroi at the village of Mont-SaUit-John. It
was on this rifing ground that the^allied army, command^-d
by field-marfiial the duke of Wellington, or more properly
the firft corps of that army, took up its pofition on the
levening of the 17th of June. The fecond corps, under the
command of lord Hill, (with the exception of the fourth
idivifion and the troops of the Netherlands, under prince
;Frederick of Orange, who were left to guard an important
'pofition at Halle,) was placed in referve on the right of the
ipofition, and in front of tlie village of Merbe-le-Brainc,
Iwith its right refting on Braine-la-Leud. The infantry
bivouacked a little under the ridge of the rifing ground,
■and the cavalry in the hollow ground in rear of the infantry.
[Excepting a tew roimd fhot which the enemy occafionally
[fired while our troops were deploying into their pofition,
;nothing of any moment occurred during that afternoon or
jthe whole of the night.

, It had rained almoft inceffantly during the greater part
jof the 17th, and the weather was very lempeftuous during
|the night. The ground afforded no cover for tlie troops ;
|fo that generals, officers, and men, were equally cxpofed to
|tlie rain, which fell in torrents. Buonaparte flcpt at the
|farm-houfe of Caillou near Planchenois ; and his army
halted in the neighbourhood of Genappc. The duke of

Wellington flept at a fmall public houfe in the village of
Waterloo.

As foon as day-light appeared on the morning of the
1 8th, the Britifh army could perceive, from its pofition,
immenfe mafils of the enemy moving in every direftion, and
before two o'clock the vthole of his force appeared to be
coUeftcd on the heights and in the ravines, which ran
parallel with the Britifli pofition.

The French army, when concentrated in front of the
pofition of tlie allies, confiltcd of four corps of infantry
including the guard, and three corps of cavalry, the whole
number of men being uncertain, and probably overrated by
thofe who ii'.te them at i20,oco.

At 1 1 o'clock every thing feemed to indicate tliat the
awful contefl; would foon commence ; — a conteft in which
viftory was obftinately and valiantly difputed on both fides,
but which at laft terminated in the complete triumph of the
duke of Wellington, and total defeat and political annihila-
tion of Buonaparte. The weather had cleared up, and the
fun (hone a little as the battle began, and the armies within
800 yards of each other, the duke of Wellington, with his
ufual quicknefs, had foon perceived the natureof the attacks
that would be made upon lii.s line ; and when the troops
flood to their arms in the morning, he gave orders that they
fliould be formed into fquares of half battalions, and in that
ttate await the enemy's attack.

Marflial Ney, as foon as Buonaparte's order was com-
municated to him, direfted the divifion of infantry com-
manded by Jerome Buonaparte, to advance upon Hougo-
mont ; and about half paft eleven o'clock, the firft columns-
of this divifion made their appearance upon the ravine, or
rather hollow ground, which leads down from the pubhc-
houfe of La Belle Alliance to tlie Chateau. The two
brigades of artillery belonging to general Cooke's divifion
had taken up a pofition on the ridge of the hill in front of
the line of infantry, and the moment the enemy made his
appearance, our nine-pounders opened upon his columns.
The artillery officers had got the range fo accurately, that
almoft every fhot and ftiell fell in the very centre of his
mafiTes; fo great was the effeft produced by thefe few guns,
that all Jerome's bravery could not make his fellows advance,
and in a moment they were again hid by tlie rifing ground
from under cover of which they had but juft emerged.
This, which was the commencement of the aftion, was con-
fidered a very favourable omen by our brave fellows who
witnefled it ; and for a (hort time they were much amufed
with the manoeuvres of Jerome's divifion, and the cautious
manner in which it feemed to emerge from its hiding-place.

This Hate of things, however, did not continue long, as
other great movements were obferved to be preparing
throughout the enemy's hue. A powerful artillery was
brought to bear upon our guns that had fo annoyed his firll
advance, and general Jerome's troops gained the outfltirts
of the wood, where they became engaged with our light
troops. By mid-day the cannonade was general.

The great objeft of Buonaparte, in this important battle,
was evidently to force our centre, and at the fame time turn
our right flank ; fo that by furrounding and taking pri-
foners, as it were, one half of our line, he might completely
paralyfe and deftroy the effeft of the other half. Unfor-
tunately, our centre was the weakeft part of our pofition,
and upon that part he direfted his firft grand attack to be
made about noon.

An immenfe mafs of infantry, followed by a column of
upwards of twelve thoufand cavalry, advanced upon the
points occupied by the third and fifth divifions, and the left

of

WATERLOO.

of the Guards, covered by a fire from upwards of one hun-
dred pieces of artillery. Thefe columns, which feemed to
advance with a certainty of fuccefs, were led by count
d'Erlon in perlon. They advanced almoft to the muzzles
of our mufliets ; but here they foon found they had Britons
to contend with ; our fellows gave them a volley ; and,
cheering, rufhed on to the charge, which they did not ftand
to receive, and our cavalry emerging from the hollow ground
where they had hitherto been concealed from the enemy's
view, paffed through the openings between the fquarcs, and
charging the enemy's cavalry, fucceeded completely in dif-
perfing them, and driving them back upon their own line.

In this conflid, which was dreadful while jt laited, the
enemy was baffled in all his attempts, and, befides the
killed and wounded, loll feveral thoufand prifoners and an
eagle ; but the Brililh army had alio to lament the lofs of
its brighteft ornaments, and his majefty, one of his beft;
officers. The gallant lir Thomas Pifton fell, mortally
wounded, in leading on the fifth divifion.

About 3 o'clock, when Buonaparte found that Jerome's
divifion could not drive the guards from Hougomont, he
ordered the chateau to be fet on fire. The (lielh from
feveral mortars which were brought to bear upon the houfes,
foon had the defired effeft : but our troops, retiring into
the garden, did not yield one inch of their ground ; and the
only thing which the enemy gained by this cruel meafure,
was the dellruftion of a few of our wounded, who were too
ill to be removed, and who fell a prey to the flames. The
troops in La Haye Sainte, having expended tlieir ammuni-
tion, were obliged to retire for a moment from that point,
and the enemy got poflefGon of the houfe and garden ; but
as foon as a reinforcement of our troops could be moved
up, he was driven from that as well as from every other
point which he had attacked : and at no period during the
day, notwithllanding the heavy maffes of infantry and
cavalry which were advanced againtl our centre, time after
time, was he ev«r able to force our pofition ; and the pof-
feffion of the advanced pod of La Haye Sainte for a few
minutes, may be faid to have been the greateft advantage he
ever gained. The battle continued to rage with unabated
fury, and the number of brave men who were continually
falling on both fides was very great, while the rapidity with
which the columns of attack fucceeded each other, feemed
to indicate for a time, that the refources of the enemy were
inexhauftible. The artillery on both fides was well ferved :
but Buonaparte had upwards of two hundred and fifty
pieces in the field ; while the train of the allied army under
the duke of WeUington did not exceed one hundred guns,
nine-pounders and fix-pounders. Notwithftanding our in-
feriority in this arm, which was ftill more apparent from the
fize of the enemy's guns (being twelve-pounders) than from
their numbers, ours were fo well fought, that it is allowed
by all, they did equal execution.

About 2 o'clock, the duke of Wellington difpatched an
officer of his ftafF to the head-quarters of field-marfhal
Blucher, to afcertain his movements, and to know when it
was probable his advance would come in contaft with the
enemy. This officer found the Pruffian general at the
village of Lafnes, where he gained the information required.

At half paft 7 o'clock, the iffue of the battle was ftill
doubtful. The greater part of lord Hill's corps of the
Britifii army had been moved up at different periods to the
fupport of the firft corps. The whole of Bulow's corps,
and part of the fecond corps of the Pruffian army, had
arrived at their pofition near Frichermont, and their attack
in that direftion was fufficiently powerful to oblige the

enemy to give way on his right ; which Buonaparte having
obferved, conceived that the moment was now arrived when
he muft put an end to the engagement. He informed his
generals that the firing on the right was occafioned by the
arrival of Grouchy's corps. This gave freih hopes to his
troops already beginning to defpair, and immediately he
gave orders to form the lalt column of attack. This
column was compofed principally of the guard, which had
hitherto fuffered but httle ; he gave direftions for the whole
of the line to fecond this effort, upon which he faid the
viftory depended, and placing himfelf at their head, they
advanced in double quick time.

Thefe veteran warriors, fo long efteeemed the firft troops
in Europe, advanced acrofs the plain which divided the two
armies, with a firmnefs which nothing could exceed ; and
though our grape and canifter fliot made dreadful havoc in
their ranks, they were never difconcerted for a fingle mo-
ment. Our infantry remained firm in their pofition, until
the enemy's front line was nearly in contaft with them,
when, with the ufual falute of a well-difefted volley, and a
Britifh cheer, they rufhed on to the charge with bayonets.
This charge even the Imperial guard could not ftand againft,
and thofe undaunted troops, who at one time confidered
themfelves the conquerors of the world, were obliged to
give way. In this attack the Britifti and French guards
were, for the firft time, perhaps, fairly oppofed to each
other. The (hock for a moment was dreadful. The enemy
refufed to take or give quarter, and the carnage was horri-
ble. At laft the whole of their ranks was broken, all dif-
cipline was at an end, and they began to give way in the
utnioft confufion. The duke of Wellington, who was on
the fpot, was not inattentive to the manner in which the
enemy retired from this attack, and, though his left was
ftill preffed, he ordered the whole line of infantry, fupported
by the cavalry and artillery, to advance. This order was
no fooner given, than our brave fellows rufhed forward from
every point. In a moment they carried the enemy's pofition,
and obliged him to retire in great diforder, leaving in our
poffeffion a num'oer of prifoners, and upwards of one hun-
dred and fifty pieces of cannon, with their ammunition,
befides two eagles. Before the diforganized maffes of the
French had cleared the ravine by which they retired, the
right and left of the Britifli line were nearly in contaft, and
the enemy in a manner furrounded. What added greatly
to the confufion of the beaten foe, was a gallant charge by
general Ziethen's corps upon his right flank, at the moment
the Britifh advanced in front. Blucher, who had joined
with his firft corps at the time this decifive charge was
going on, advanced with his gallant troops ; and about nine
o'clock the two field-marfhals met at the fmall pubhc-houfe
called La Belle Alliance, and mutually faluted each other
as viftors.

The Britifh army, which had been fo warmly engaged for
upwards of nine hours, was now halted, and the purfuit left
to the brave Pruffians. Though they had already marched
many leagues, all fatigue was forgotten when in the prefence
of their enemy. About half-pall nine field-marflial Blucher
affembled the whole of his fuperior officers, and gave orders
for them to fend every man and horfe in purfuit.

It is not eafy to afcertain the number of thofe who were
killed and wounded, from the 15th to the 18th days of
June inclufively. The lofs of the guards, in killed and
wounded, in the defence of Hougomont, amounted to 28
officers, and about 800 rank and file. The foreign corps
(Naffau and Biunfwickers) loft about 100. Within half
an hour, it is faid, 1500 men were killed in the fmall orchard

of

WATERLOO.

of about four acres at Hougomont. The lofa of the
French was enormous. Tlie divifion of general Foy alone
teft about 3000, and then- total lofs in the attack of this
pofition is eftimatcd at 10,000 in killed and wounded.
Above 6000 men of both armies perilhed in the farm of
Hougomont ; 600 French fell in the attack on the chateau
and the farm ; 200 Enghfh were killed in the wood ; 25 in
the garden ; 1 100 in the orchard and meadow; 400 near
the farmer's garden ; 2000 of both parties behind the great
orchard. The bodies of 300 Englifli are buried oppofite
the gate of the chateau ; thofe of 600 French have been
burnt at the fame place. The wounded at Quatre Bras, 1 6th
of June, are ftated upon the report of the adjutant-general,
to be 5000 ; but no eftimate is given of the killed, who
muft have been very numerous. On occafion of Blucher's re-
tiring to Wavre,he is faid to have had 14,000 men killed and
wounded. The lofs of the Britiih, aa ftated in a letter dated
•Tune 19th, fince the i6th, muft have exceeded 5000. In
the battle of Ligny and Quatre Bras, Napoleon is faid to
have loft 10,000 men. The total of the killed and wounded
of the Britifti foldiers, as returned from the War-office
July 18 1 5, amounts to 9755 perfons. The total of the
killed, wounded, and milling of the royal artillery in the
battles of the i6th and i8th of June 1815, comprehends
32 officers, 15 ferjeants, 285 rank and file, and 529 horfes.
The lofs of the Dutch in killed, wounded, and miffing, is
ftated to be 4136. The Pruffians are faid to have loft
33,120.

According to the French accounts their lofs, at the battle
of Fleurus on the 15th, was 10 killed and 80 wounded, and
that of their enemy 2000, of whom 1000 were prifoners.
The lofs of the Pruffians on the i6th could not be lefs, as
they fay, than 15,000 men, and their own 3*00 killed and
wounded. At Quatre Bras they fay, that the Englifh loft
From 4 to 5000 men ; and that theirs, which was very con-
fiderable, amounted to 4200 killed and wounded. They
make no ftatement of that of the i8th.

The total lofs of the Britifti, Hanoverians, and Ger-
man legions from official reports, from June i6th to the
j6th, 1815, is 11,084; ''"'i '^'-" computed lofles of the
Dutch and Pruffians during the campaigns in the Nether-
lands were, that of the Dutch as above ftated 4136, and that
i)f the total Pruffian lofs 33,132.

' It appears from the lift of killed and wounded from the
!)fficial returns, June 16 to June 26, 18 15, that an immenfe
lumber of officers, feveral of whom were high in rank, is
included in one or other of thefe clafles. In the former, are
he names of the duke of Brunfwick-Oels, colonel Cameron,
'ieutenant-colonel Canning, lieutenant-colonel fir F. d'Oyly,
|:olonel fir H. W. Ellis, lieutenant-colonel fir A. Gordon,
;olonel fir W. de Lancey, and colonel fir R. Macara, lieu-
icnant-gencral fir T. Pifton, major-general fir W. Ponfonby,
kc. Sec. ; and in the latter we find the prince of Orange,
he earl of Uxbridge, colonel Hon. A. Abercromby, lieu-
enant-geiieral fir C. Alten, major-general fir E. Barnes,
najor Beckwith, lieutenant fir H. Berkeley, lieutenant-
olonel fir H. Bradford, major Cameron, lieutenant-colonel
Cameron, lieutenant-colonel R. H. Cooke, colonel fir J.
jillay, captain Hon. E. S. Erflcine, lieutenant-colonel fir
il. C. Hill, lieutenant-colonel Macdonald, colonel Hon.
I*". Ponfonby, lieutenant-colonel Fitzroy Somerfet, earl of
iJxbridgc, &c. &c.

I After the moft diligent refearch, amidft confufed and
|ontradiftory accounts, it is difficult, if not impoffible, to
jfcertain the exaft number of the killed and wounded, on
■oth fides, in this fanguinary and decifive conflift.
I Honourable and profperous as was the iffue of this battle.
Vol. XXXVIII.

we cannot forbear regretting that fo many valuable lives
ftiould be facrificed on occaCons of this kind, and we alfo
lament the condition of thofe who are wounded and maimed,
and rendered helplefs for the refidue of their years. We
applaud the fpirit that has aftuated fuch multitudes, and
difpofed them to confer honour on the name and memories, or
to impart to the fuccour and fupply, of thofe who have fallen
or fuffered in the fervice of their country.

The Angular importance of this viftory, the pre-eminent
talents of the commander-in-chief, and the heroifm difplayed
by the officers, commiffioned and non-commiffioned, and by
all the privates, on this interefting occafion, entitled them to
the gratitude of the government and of the country, and to
fuch tokens of refpedl as were thought to be moll appro-
priate to the occafion. Accordingly, it was refolved on th«
23d of June, that the thanks of both houfes of parliament
fhould be given to his grace the duke of Wellington, prince
Blucher, and the aUied armies, officers and foldiers. The
prince regent alfo granted the dignity of a marquis to earl
Uxbridge and his heirs. The houfe of commons agreed
June 29th 1 8 15, in an addrefs to the prince regent, requeft-
ing him to direft a national monument to be erefted in
honour of the fplendid viftory of Waterloo, and to com-
memorate the fame of the officers and men of the Britifh
army, who fell glorioufly upon the i6th and 18th of the
faid month ; and more particularly of lieutenant-general fir
Thomas Pifton, and major-general the Hon. fir William
Ponfonby ; and that funeral monuments be alfo erefted in
memory of each of thefe two officers in the cathedral church
of St. Paul, London. The prince regent has alfo been
pleafed, in the name and on behalf of his majefty, to grant
promotion to 52 majors, recommended for brevet-rank, for
tlieir conduft in the battle of Waterloo, to be lieutenant-
colonels in the army ; and to 36 captains to be majors, with
commiffions refpeftively, dated from June 18, 18 15. His
royal highnefs has alfo appointed major-general fir James
Kempt, to be knight grand crofs of the moft honourable
military order of the Bath ; and major-generals G. Cooke,
Maitland, and F. Adam, to be knights commanders of the
faid order, and a number of other officers to be companions
of the moft honourable military order of the Bath, upon the
recommendation of the duke of Wellington. The king of
the Netherlands has given the duke of Welbngton the title
of prince of Waterloo, and the ftates-general have fettled
upon his family an eftate annually producing 20,000 Dutch
florins, (2000/.) confiding of woods, &c. in the neighbour-
hood of La Belle Alliance, Hougomont, &c. The king of
Saxony has alfo conferred upon the duke his family order
of " The Crown of Rue :" and the grand duke of Baden
has conferred upon him his order of " Fidelity" of the firft
clafs, accompanied with a gold fnuff-box, enriched with dia-
monds of great value. The emperor of Auftria has con-
ferred upon a number of officers the crofs of a commander,
and of a knight refpeftively of the order of " Maria
Thercfa." The emperor of Ruffia has alfo conferred decora-
tions of different clafles of the orders of St. George, Anne,
and Wladimir, on a number of officers. The king of the
Low Countries has alfo conferred decorations of diff'erent
clafles of the " Wilhelm's" order upon certain officer*.
The king of Bavaria has conferred decorations of the difter-
ent clafles of the order of " Maximilian Jofeph," on certain
officers ; all thefe in teftimony of their refpeftive approba-
tion of their fcrviccs and conduft. The prince regent has
granted the dignity of a baron of the United kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland unto the right honourable lieute-
nant-general Rowland baron Hill and to his heirs ; and in
token of his high apprgbation of the diftinguifhed bravery

Z and

WATERLOO.

and good conduft of the firll and fecond life-guards at the
battle of Waterloo, he has declared himfelf colonel in chief
of both thefe regiments. He alfo declares that he Ihall ap-
prove all the Britilh regiments of cavalry and infantry
which were engaged in the battle of Waterloo, being per-
mitted to wear on their colours and appointments, in addi-
tion to all other badges and devices, the word " Waterloo,"
in commemoration of their diftinguiflied fervices on the i8th
of June 1811; ; and he alfo approves of all the enfigns of
the three regiments of foot-guards having the rank of lieu-
tenants, and that fuch rank (hall be attached to all the
future appointments to enfigncies in the foot-guards, in the
feme manner as the lieutenants of thofe regiments obtain tiie
rank of captain ; and he alfo approves of the firft regiment
of foot-guards being a regiment of grenadiers, and ftyled
" The Firft or Grenadier Regiment of Foot-Guards."
An alteration has alfo taken place in regard to the penfions
allowed to wounded officers in favour of thofe who have
ferved in the battle of Waterloo ; and it is alfo ordered that
henceforth every non-commifRoned officer, trumpeter,
drummer, and private man, who ferved in the battle of
Waterloo, or in any of the aftions which immediately pre-
ceded it, (hall be borne upon the mufter-roUs and pay-lifts
of their refpeftive corps as " Waterloo Men ;" and that
every " Waterloo Man" fhall be allowed to count two
years' fervice in virtue of that viftory, in reckoning his
fervices for increafe of pay, or for penfion when difcharged.
It is alfo ordered, that the heutenants of cavalry and in-
fantry, who had ferved more than five years as fuch, on the
18th of June 1815, or who may fubfequently have com-
pleted that period of fervice, are to receive one (hiUing
per diem for every day's fervice as lieutenant beyond five
years, it being fully underftood that the retrofpeft is, in no
inftance, to exceed two years. In like manner, the corporals
and privates, diftinguilhed as " Waterloo Men," are to re-
ceive the benefit of the two years' fervice retrofpeftively, in
cafes in which, by the addition of the two years, they would
have completed their refpeftive terms of fervice, on or pre-
vioufly to the 18th of June 18 15, and the two years' fervice
will, of courfe, be reckoned in all claims fubfequently ac-
cruing.

Sir Charles Alten is honoured with the title of count,
and the Hanoverian troops, who were prefent in the battle,
may bear on their colours and uniform the word " Water-
loo." Other regiments alfo that are particularly fpecified,
are to have the word " Waterloo" in commemoration of
their diftinguilhed fervices, June i8th, 1815. The prince
regent has commanded, that in commemoration of the
brilliant and decifive viftory of Waterloo, a medal (hall be
conferred upon every officer, non-commiffioned officer, and
foldierof the Britifh army, prefent upon that memorable occa-
fion. It is alfo appointed, that from the date of the battle of
Waterloo, 18th June 1815, thepenfions to officers and widows
(hall increafe according to the officer's further advance.

It is a farther inttruftion with regard to the Waterloo
grant, that lieutenants of cavalry and infantry, who had
ferved more than five years on the 1 8th of June, are to re-
ceive one (hilling per day for every day beyond five years'
fervice, provided the retrofpeft be not beyond two years :
non-commiffioned officers and privates are alfo to benefit
proportionately from the fame retrofpeft. The charge for
officers is to be made in their ordinary accounts ; thofe for
men diftinft in a pay lifl fupplementary, according to a pre-
fcribed form.

Prize-money was alfo granted by parliament to the army
which ferved under the command of field-marlhal his grace
the duke of Wellington in the battle of Waterloo and cap-
12

1,274 10 104

433 2 4i

90 7 3f

tui-e of Paris. This was advertifed in the London Gazette,
June 21, 1817. Thofe (hares that have not been claimed
before the 24th of September 18 17, may afterwards be re-
ceived from tlie deputy treafiirer of Chelfea hofpital, if
claimed within the period of fix years.

The (hares of each individual in the following claffes are :

Commander-in-chief's proportion is efti-l p,

„,!• J .. f ±.01,000 o o

mated at - - - J

Clafs I. General officers - -

2. Field-officers and colonels

3. Captains

4. Subalterns - - - 34 14 95

5. Serjeants - - - 19 4 4

6. Corporals, drummers, and privates 211 4

Notice has alfo been given in the Dutch, Flanders, and
German papers, that his highncfs the prince of Waterloo,
duke of Wellington, has given orders for the payment of
the prize-money to all the allied troops, who fought under
his command at Quatre Bras and Waterloo, at the taking
of Paris.

His highnefs has fixed the proportions into clalTes as
above. This diftribution includes the Dutch, Belgic,
NafTau, Hanoverian, and Brunfwick troops.

The total amount of receipts for the Waterloo fubfcription
to May 31, 18 1 7, has been 518,288/. 9^. lid. The total
expenditure for payments and donations, and incidental
charges, leaves a balance at the bankers i8th of June 1817
of 1,222/. 13X. §d.

Statement of the appropriation is as follows :

Annuities granted for Life.
To the widows of officers, non-commif-l p

fioned officers, and privates killed - J J'iy'r
To the wounded non-commiffioned officers, 1 ,

and privates totally difabled - ^ > 4y

To dependent relatives - - 540

Amount of annuities for life

11.783

Annuities granted for limited Periods.
To the children of officers, non-commif-'l „

fioned officers, and privates - J >i ^

To orphans ... g^j

Amount of annuities for limited periods

Total amount of annuities

9,209

20,992

126

Voted in Money.

To the wounded officers, iion-commifiioned offi-l
cers, and privates - - "J

To the parents and dependent relatives of officers,!

non-commiffioned officers, and privates killed, > 28,577
leaving no widows or children - - J

To the Foreign Troops, vi%.

Pruffians, Brunfwickers - ' 1 ac 000

Hanoverians, and Netherlanders - j ^^'
Additional for the exclufive benefit of theirT

orphans rendered fuch by the campaign > 17,500
ofl8i5 - - - - J

■ 62,500

Total a;mount voted in money

162,203

A confiderable fubfcription, amounting to 3905/. 14;. <)d.

received

WAT

received from Demerary, has been lately announced,
February 24, 1818.

On the fecond anniverfary of the battle of Waterloo, the
noble ftrufture of the bridge over tlie Thames from Surrey
to the fcite of the Savoy, was firil opened for public ac-
commodation ; and with a view of commemorating the ever-
memorable viftory of Waterloo, its name was changed from
that of the " Strand Bridge," to the more dignified and
triumphal appellation of " Waterloo Bridge." The cere-
mony was condufted with great dignity and fplendour.

This bridge exhibits a very linking difplay of the eminent
abilities and tafte of Mr. Rennie, the engineer, as well as of
the liberality of the proprietors, who have provided the
funds neceffary for its conftruftion. Its fituation is judi-
cioufly felefted, as, independently of the advantage which
commerce and the convenience of perfonal intercourfe may
derive from it, it gives the grandeft view we have of the
river in its beautiful meander, difplays the rifing crefcent of
buildings on the north fide, and brings out Somerfet Ter-
race in the moft favourable way ; while on the fouth it
opens the beautiful profpeft of the Surrey hills.

The following are fome detailed particulars of the bridge,
which is conltrufted of Cornilh granite ; the baluilrades are
of granite from Aberdeen.

Dimenjions of the Bridge.

Feet.

The length of the ftone bridge within the abutments i ,242
Length of the road fupported on brick arches on 1

the Surrey fide of the river - ■ j

Length of the road fupported on brick arches on /

the I.,ondon fide - - - - j

Total length from the Strand, where the building'

begins, to the fpot in Lambeth where it falls to i- 2,892

the level of the road
Width of the bridge within the baluilrades - 42

Width of pavement or foot-way on each fide - 7

Width of road for horfes and carriages - 28

Span of each arch - - - - 120

Thicknefs of each pier - - - 23

Clear water-way under the nine arches, which are! j,

equal, 1 20 ft. each - . - j '

Brick arches on the Surrey fide - 40

Ditto on the London fide - - 16

Granite ditto for the water-courfe * o

\ 400

q

> > 2,892

Total number of arches from the Strand to
the Lambeth level

h

In building the arches, the ftones ( fome of which weigh
upwards of fix tons) were fo accurately jointed and care-
fully laid, that upon the removal of the centres, none of the
arches funk more than an inch and a half. In fiiort the ex-
cellency of the workmanlhip vies with the beauty of the
defign, and with the flcill and arrangement, to render the
" Bridge of Waterloo" a monument of the public fpirit,
tafte, and glory of the age, of which the metropolis, and
the Britifh empire, have abundant rcafon to be proud.

We fhall clofe our account of the battle of Waterloo,
with ftating a faft not unworthy of being recorded. The
ftates-general defiring to give to his royal highnefs the prince
of Orange a teftimony of the national gratitude, for the
bravery which he employed, as well in the defence of the
pofition of Quatre Bras as at the battle of Waterloo, have
propofed to his majefty, to purchafe at the expence of the
State a palace, fituated in the city of Brulfels, which, after
being properly furnifhed, may be given in full property to
his royal highnefs the hereditary prince, as well as the park
of Toweuren, in the foreft of Soigne, with a hunting-feat }

WAT

and that thefe eftates be transferred to the prince of Orange,
free of all charges and expence. His majefty approved of
this propofal. See Battle of Waterloo, &c. 2 vols. Bvo.
London, 1 817.

WATERMEN are fueh as row in boats, or ply on the
river Thames, ultimately fubjeft to the dircftion and go-
vernment of the lord-mayor of London, and court of alder-
men, who fettle their fares, and, as well as other juftices of
peaoe, have authority to hear and determine offences, &c.

The names of watermen are to be regiftered ; and their
boats mud be twelve feet and a half long, and four and a
half broad, or be liable to forfeiture ; and watermen, taking
more than the fares affelTed, Ihall forfeit 40J., and fuffer half
a year's imprifonment ; and refufing to carry perfons for
their fare, lliall be imprifoned for twelve months. None
fhall ply on the river, but fuch as have been apprentices to
watermen for feven years. 2 & 3 P. Sc M. cap. 16.
29 Car. II. cap. 7.

The hghtermen and watermen conftitute a company ;
and the lord-mayor and aldermen yearly eleft eight of the
latter, and three of the former, to be rulers, and the water-
men choofe affiftants ; the rulers and affiftants being em-
powered to make rules, which are required to be obferved,
under penalties. The rulers on their court-days ftiall ap-
point forty watermen to ply on Sundays, for carry nig
paftengers acrofs the river, who pay them for their labour,
and apply the overplus to the poor decayed watermen ; and
no perfons are allowed to travel on a Sunday with boats,
unlefs they are licenfed and allowed by a juftice, on pam
of forfeiting 5^. 11 & 12 W. III. cap. 21.

No apprentice (hall take upon him the care of a boat, till
he is fixteen years of age, if a waterman's fon, and feven-
teen, if a landman's, unlefs he hath worked with fome able
waterman for two years, under the penalty of los.; and if
any perfon, not having ferved feven years to a waterman,
&c. row any boat in the river Thames for hire, he Jhall
forfeit 10/., gardeners' boats, dung-boats, fiftiermen's,
wood-lighters, weftern barges, &c. excepted. No appren-
tice is to be taken under fourteen years, who fhall be bound
for feven years, and inrolled in the book of the watermen's
company, on pain of 10/. No tilt -boat, row -barge, &c. fliall
take more than thirty-feven paffengers, and three more by
the way ; nor any other boat above eight, and two by the
way, on forfeiture of 5/. for the nrft off'ence, and 10/. for
the fecond, &c. And in cafe any perfon be drowned, where
a greater number is taken in, the waterman fhall be deemed
guilty of felony, and tranfported. 10 Geo. II. cap. 31.

Tilt-boats ufed between London-bridge and Gravefend
fliall be fifteen tons, and the other boats three tons. Rulers
of the watermen's company are required to appoint two
officers, one at Billingfgate at high-water, and another at
Gravefend, to ring a bell for the tilt-boats, S:c. to put
off ; and thofe which do not immediately proceed with two
fufficient men, fhall forfeit 5/. The fares of watermen,
affefTed by the court of aldermen, are, from London-bridge
to Lime-houfe, Ratcliffe-crofs, &c. for oars is., and fcul-
lers 61I; Wapping-dock, Rotherhithe-cliurch ftairs, &c.
for oars 6J., and for fcullers 3d. ; from either fide of the
water above the bridge to Lambeth and Vauxhall, for oars
IS., and fcullers 6d. For all the ftairs between London-
bridge and Wettminfter, oars 6d., and fcullers 3^.

WATERS, among Farriers, the name given to a dif-
tcmperature of horfes. See Watekv Sores.

WATERS AY, in Geography, one of the Weftern
iflands of Scotland, about one mile fouth from South-Uift,
from which it is feparated by a channel, called " Chifamul
Bay." This illand is about three miles long, and one
broad. N.lat.56^54'. W. long. 7» 30'. ^^^^^^

WAT

WAT

WATERTIGHT Stuff denotes clay, or any other
tenacious and compaft foil, which will hold water.

WATERTOWN, in Geography, a town of Maffa-
chufetts, in the county of Middlefex, containing 153 1 in-
habitants; 7 miles W.N.W. of Bofton.— Alfo, a town of
Connefticut, in the county of Litchfield, containing 1714
inhabitants ; 26 miles N.N.W. of New Haven.

Watertown, a poft-townfliip of New York, the capital
of Jefferfon county, and a place of depofit for the mihtary
ftores of the ftate of New York. It lies near the mouth of
Black river, about 80 miles N.W. of Utica, and was firft
created into a town in March i8lo, from a part of Mexico,
then in Oneida county, and comprifed alfo Rutland and
Hounsfield. Its extent is about fix miles fquare. The in-
habitants are principally emigrants from the eaftern ftates.
Here are about 200 dwelling-houfes, eight fchool-houfes, a
court-houfe and gaol, together with a lodge and arfenal for
military ftores. Here are alfo eight grift and faw -mills, one
paper-mill, one wool-carding machine, five diftilleries, two
breweries, a printing-office and weekly paper, a fmall air-
furnace, and many common mechanics. It promifes to be
a place of much bufinefs. Pot and pearl afhes are manufac-
tured in abundance, and fent in boats to Montreal. By the
cenfus of 1810, the population confifts of 1849 perfons ;
and here are 308 fenatorial eleftors.

Watertown, or Jefferfon Village, is a flouriftiing poft-
viUage of Watertown, in Jefferfon county, on the fouth
bank of Black river, four miles from Brownville, and at the
fame diftance from navigable water communicating with
lake Ontario. The village contains about 50 dweUing-
houfes, fome of which are elegant. In its vicinity are a
quarry of good building lime-ftone, clay, and fand. Pine
and other timber are plentiful.

WATERVILLE, a town of the diftria of Maine, and
<ounty of Kennebeck, containing 13 14 inhabitants.

WATERVLIET, a large townihip of New York, in
the north-eaft corner of Albany county, 6 miles N. of Al-
bany ; extending 10 miles along the Mohawk, and 6\ miles
along the Hudfon, and having an area of about 52 fquare
miles, exclufive of feveral iflands in the Hudfon. Much of
the land is poor and barren, and the population is very un-
equally diftributed. Along the Hudfon are fome fine flats,
and in many places tlie river-hills are moderately fteep, and
afford good farming lands. The interior abounds with
■fandy ridges, fome marfties, and wet land, wooded with
pine and a variety of dwarf ftirubbery, of little value. In
this townfhip are two fmall villages, -uiz. Wafhington, five
miles north of Albany, and Gibbon's Ville, oppofite Troy,
fix miles. The Cahoos, which are the principal falls of the
Mohawk, are between Watervliet and Halfmoon, in Sara-
toga county. The whole river Mohawk defcends in one
fheet at high water, about 70 feet ; and below the falls the
fpreading branches form iflands, which are attaclied to
this town : thefe are Haver ifland. Van Schaick's ifland or
Cahoos ifland, and Green ifland. In this town are 1092
white males, 1070 white females, 128 flaves, and 75 other
perfons; in all 2363 ; and 215 fenatorial eleftors. The
fettlement of the people called " Shakers" lies in the north-
weft part of this town, at a place called Nifliayuna, 8 miles
N.W. of Albany. They have a houfe of worftiip, and the
village contains about 150 houfes. A manufaftory of iron
fcrews has lately been erefted on the Mohawk, near Cahoos
bridge.

Watervliet, a town of Flanders ; 12 miles E. of Sluys.

WATERY Head. See Hydrocephalus.

Watery Humoui: See Aqueous and Humour.

Watery Lands, in Agriculture, all fuch as are largely
impregnated with and retentive of moiftare or wetnefs.
10

Wlicrever water refts much upon laiide, it fours them,
and deftroys the finer herbage ; the remaining plants being
made to become coarfe and ftrong, but moftly un-
palatable, and of little value for ftock. They fhould, of
courfe, have the fuperabundant water removed from them,
and then be improved by fuitable fubftances applied a?
manures, and by other means, fuch as being flooded, in
fome cafes.

By fuch methods, according to the nature of their wet-
nefs, fuch lands may moftly be brought into a good ftate of
improvement. See Bog, Fen, Morass, Marsh, and
Swamp ; alfo the lands of their feveral natures.

Watery Poke, a name fometimes given to a difeafe in
flieep, from their having a fort of poke or bag hanging be-
low the top of their throats, fuppofed to be caufed by
water. See Sheep and Rot.

Watery Sores, difeafes of the legs and pafterns of horfes
and fome other animals, in which there are watery fwellings
and fores, which difcharge an acrid watery fluid. They
moftly arife from bad feeding, and improper management
in dreffing and the ufe of exercife.

The cure will commonly be effeftcd by giving ftrengthen-
ing remedies, with calomel and fquills in moderate dofes,
and by the gradual ufe of elaftic bandages to the parts.

WATFORD, in Geography, a market-town in the hun-
dred of Caftiio, and county of Hertford, England, is 8 miles
S.E. from St. Alban's, 20 miles W.S.W. from the county-
town, and 14 miles N.W. from London. Previous to the Con-
queft, Watford formed part of Caihio, and under that ap-
pellation was given by king Off^a to the abbey of St. Alban's,
to which it continued attached till the time of the diflblution,
when the ftewardftiip of this and other adjacent manors was
given to John, lord Ruflel. James I., in the feventh year
of his reign, granted Watford to the lord chancellor Eger-
ton, in whofe defcendants, the dukes of Bridgewater, it
remained vefted till about the year 1760, when it was pur-
chafed by the then earl of Eflex, and is now the property of
the prefent earl. The town confifts principally of one ftreet ;
the houfes being ranged on the fides of the high road, and
extending in a north-wefterly direftion rather more than a
mile. The buildings are chiefly of brick, and many of
them very refpeftable. The police is under the direftion
of the refident and neighbouring magiftrates. A market,
which is now held on Tuefdays, was granted to the abbots
of St. Alban's for Watford by Henry I. ; and Edward IV.
gave them liberty to hold two annual fairs, which are now
increafed to four. The market-houfe is a long building,
rough-caft above, and fupported on wooden pillars beneath.
Corn is fold here in very large quantities ; and the number
of cattle, (heep, calves, and hogs, is proportionable. Em-
ployment for the labouring clafies is chiefly derived from
agriculture ; but an additional fource is furniflied by the
throwing of filk, three filk mills having been eftabliftied in
or near the town. The parifli of Watford comprehends,
with the town, the hamlets of Caftiio, Levefdon, and Ox-
hey. In the population return in the year 181 1, the num-
ber of inhabitants was ftated to be 3976, occupying 766
houfes. The church, a very fpacious edifice, confifts of a j
nave, three aides, and a chancel ; with a maffive embattled i
tower at the weft end, about 80 feet high. The church 1
contains feveral fine monuments, among which are two by j
Nicholas Stone. At the fouth fide of the church-yard is a ]
free-fchool, founded and endowed in the year 1704, by
Mrs. Elizabeth Fuller, for the education and clothing of j
forty boys and twenty girls : the government is vefted in
nine truliees, chofen out o*f the principal inhabitants of the
town. Here are alfo eight alms^houfes, for the maintenance ]
of fo many poor widows.

About !

\V A T

About one mile north-weft of the town is Cajhiobury,
Ihe feat of the earl of EfTex. The manfion is a fpacious
edifice, fituated in an extenfive and well-wooded park,
through which flows the river Gade ; and to which is the
line of the Grand Junftion Canal. The houfe was ori-
^jinally begun in the time of Henry VIII. by Richard
Morifon, efq., and completed in the ftyle of that age by his
fon, fir Charles Morifon. It has fince been greatly altered
and improved, particularly under the direftion of the pre-
fent noble owner, and contains a number of elegant apart-
ments, together with a kind of cloifter, the windows of
[which have been recently ornamented with painted glafn,
executed in a very fuperior ftyle. In its general appearance,
the whole manfion, with its oflices, lias the character of a
nionaftic dwelling. The rooms are adorned with numerous
portraits, and other piftures of the firft degree of merit.
The park is between three and four miles in circumference,
,and affords rich fcenery and noble timber ; the pleafure-
grounds and gardens are extenfive, and have lately undergone
fome judicious alterations. A particular defcription of this
fplendid feat, by Mr. Britton, is contained in Havell's
«' Views of Gentlemen's Scats," &c. which alfo contains a
'print of it. — Salmon's Hiftory of Hertfordfhire, fol. 1728.
! Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii. Hertford (hire, by
E.W. Brayley, 1808.

; WATH, in Rural Economy, a term often ufed provin-
cially to fignify a ford.

'. WATHULT, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Smaland ; 47 miles W.N.W. of Wexio.

WATKIN's Point, a cape on the S.W. coaft of Ma-
'ryland, in the Chefapeak. N. lat. 37° 59'. W. long. 76°.
1 WATLING's Island, one of the Bahama iflands,
jabout 18 miles long, and 4 broad. N. lat. 23° 50'. W.
long. 74° 16'.

\ WATLiso-SfnTt, in Roman Antiquity. See Way.
' WATLINGTON, in Geography, a fmall market-town
'in the hundred of Pirton, and county of Oxford, England,
is fituated between the two high roads leading from Lon-
'don to Oxford, about half a mile N. by W. from the Ike-
,neild-ftreet, at the diftance of 5 miles S. from Tetfworth,
!l5 miles S.E. from Oxford, and 46 miles W. by N. from
'London. The ftreets are narrow, and the houfes, with a
;few exceptions, mean and ill built. There is no ftaple ma-
•nufafture of any confequence : the making of lace, how-
lever, prevails to fome extent, and forms the chief employ-
•ment of the labouring females. A fchool has been formed
lexprcfsly for the purpofe of teaching this art, and isufually
attended by from forty to fifty pupils. The town is watered
'on the fouth fide by a brook, rifing in the vicinity, which
now works, within two miles from its fource, four corn-mills.
'A weekly niarket is held on Saturdays, which was originally
,prantcd to Roger Bigod, carl of Norfolk, in the reign of
iRichard I. But this market is tliinly attended ; and the bufi-
ncfa of the day is invariably conduftcd in the parlours of the
principal inn. Here are likewife two annual fairs. In the
Icentrc of tlie town is the market-houfe, a fubftantial build-
iing, eredled by Thomas Stonor, efq. in the year 1664 : he
;alfo founded and endowed a grammar-fchool for ten boys ;
ijccording to the will of the donor, the mafter was to be a

fraduate of one of the univerfities ; but imperative circum-
ancea have caufed this article to be difpenfed witii : four
iboys have been added to the original number, and the whole
lare taught in a commodious room above the market-houfe,
lin which are likewife held the courts leet and baron of the
jmanor. The magiftrates hold a petty feffions once in a fort-
iTiight during the winter, but in fummcr not fo often. Ac-
cording to the population return of the year 181 1, this town

W A T

then contained 259 houfes, the number of inhabitants being
1150, which was a decreafe of 156, fince the enumeration of
the year 1801. The church is a refpeftable ancient building,
fituate N.W. of the town : in the chancel are feveral neat
monuments, and a handfome burial-place of the Home
family. Lands and tenements have been left by will for the
repairs of the church, without any pari(h-rate for that pur-
pofe ; and there have alfo been confiderable fums bequeathed
tor the ufe of the poor. Previous to tlie Reformation, the
abbot and canons of Ofney were patrons, to whom the
church was appropriated in 1263, by the bifhop of Lincoln;
In this parifh was anciently a chapel, founded by the lord of
the manor of Watcomb ; but on a complaint made by the
abbot and canons of Ofney, pope Urban III. dlftolved it :
no traces can now be difcovered of the fcite occupied by this
ftrufture. Wefleyan Methodifts and Baptifts have each a
place of worftiip in the town ; but the number of thefe fo-
cieties is comparatively fmall. The Methodifts were efta-
bhflied here during the life of John Wefley, who occafionally
preached in the open ftreet : a fubftantial meeting-houfe has
lately been erefted, but not more than thirty perfons are in
the habit of attending. The Baptifts are fcarcely fo nu-
merous ; and their meetings are held in a very humble build-
mg. The manor of Watlington was given by Henry III.
in 1 23 1, to his brother Richard, earl of Cornwall. By
Edward II. it was granted to Piers Gavcfton. On his dif-
grace it reverted to the crown, and was given by Edward III.
to fir Nicholas De la Becke, who obtained permiffion, in
1338, to build a fpacious caftlc, fome traces of which were
difcernible within the laft century. The building ftood on a
(lightly elevated fpot to the fouth-eaft of the church, and it
may yet be perceived that the ftrudlure was encompaffed by
a moat. King Charles I. granted the manor, in 1628, to
four citizens of London, who fold it in the following year.
Soon after this period it became fo divided and parcelled
out, that in the year 1664 there were about fifty perfons
participating in the manorial rights ; and previous to the en-
clofure of the parifh, which took place in 1809, the ftiares
of the manor were fixty-four in number.

On Brittvell-hill, about a quarter of a mile eaft of the
Ikeneild-ftreet, fome remains of trenches point out the
fcite of an ancient encampment.

Within half a mile from Watlington is one of the moft
complete agricultural eftablifhments to be found in the
county. The whole of the very extenfive farm-yard is en-
compaffed by buildings covered with flate, and prefents the
fpcftacle of a new and handfome village. This noble range
was erefted under the immediate infpeftion of William
Hayward, efq., and was completed in the fpace of one
year. His primary objeft appears to have been to produce
utility on the fimplcft and moft fcientific plan.

About a mile to the north of W.-itlington is Pirton, an
inconfiderable village, though it gives name to the hundred.
Near Pirton is Shirbourn-Cajlle, the feat of the earl of
Macclesfield. A caftcllated edifice was firft cretted on this
fpot in the fourteenth century by fir Wariner de I'Ifle. The
caftle and manor were purchafed at the beginning of the
eighteenth century by Thomas, earl of Macclesfield. The
building forms an oblong fquare, and is encompafted by a
broad and deep moat, over which are three draw-bridges ;
tlic chief entrance is guarded by a portcullis : at each angle of
the edifice is a circular tower. The interior is dilpofed in a
ftyle of modern elegance and comfort that contains no allu-
fion to the external charafter of the ftrufture, except in one
long room fitted up as an armoury, and containing coats of
mail, ftiields, tilting-fpears, and offenfive arms of a modern
as well as ancient date. A park of about fixty acres is

attached

WAT

attached to the manfion. — Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xii. Oxfordfhire. By J. N. Brewer, 1813.

WATO, a town of Sweden, on an ifland in the Baltic,
near the coaft of the' province of Upland ; 10 miles E.N.E.
of Nortelge. N. lat. 59° 54'. E. long. 18° 43'.

WATOLMA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Upland ; 10 miles N. of Upfal.

WATRAP, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura; 33
miles S.W. of Madura.

WATSCH, or Vatsche, a town of the dutchy of Car-
niola ; 16 miles S.E. of Stein.

WATSNESS, a cape on the weft coaft of the idand of
Shetland. N. lat. 60° 19'. W. long. 2° 6'.

WATSON, Robert, D.D., in Biography, a Scottifti
hiftorian, was born at St. Andrew's about the year 1730,
commenced his courfe of education for the minillry at the
fchool and univerfity of St. Andrew's, and with fingular
afllduity profecuted his ftudies at the univerfity of Glafgow,
and alfo in that of Edinburgh. He paid particular atten-
tion to grammar and eloquence, and with the advice of lord
Kaimes, delivered a courfe of leAures on thefe fubjefts,
which gained the approbation of Mr. Hume, and other men
of genius and learning. Having failed in his endeavours to
fupply a vacancy in one of the churches of St. Andrew's,
he was foon after made profeflbr of logic, and by a patent
from the crown, profeiTor of rhetoric and belles lettres.
In his leAures on logic and mctaphyfics, he deviated from the
old plan of fyllogifms, modes, and figures, and introduced
fubitantial improvement by furniftiing his pupils with an ana-
lyfis of the powers of the mind, and by leading them to in-
veftigate the various kinds of evidence, of knowledge or
truth. His hiftory of Philip H. advanced his reputation
during the period of his hfe ; and it was farther enhanced by
his hiftory of Philip HI., which was publifhed after his
death ; of which latter he only wrote the firft four books,
the other two being fupplied by Dr. William Thomfon, the
editor, at the defire of the guardians of his children. He
fucceeded Tulideph as principal of the univerfity by the
intereft of the earl of Kinnoul ; but his death, in 1780,
foon deprived him of this honour. By his wife, who was
daughter of Mr. Shaw, profeflbr of divinity in St. Mary's
college, St. Andrew's, he had five daughters, who furvived
him. Gen. Biog.

Watson, Richard, an Englifti prelate, eminently dif-
tinguiftied by his talents, acquirements, and charafter, was
born at Haverfham, in Weftmoreland, in Auguit 1737.
He was the defcendant of an ancient family, deriving its re-
mote origin from Scotland, and occupying, for feveral ge-
nerations, a fmall eftate at Hardendile, near Shap, where
his father was born in the year 1672. In 1698 his father
was appointed head matter of Haverftiam-fchool, which he
condufted with great reputation for nearly forty years.
Among other pupils who enjoyed the benefit of his inftruc-
tion, we may mention Ephraim Chambers, the well-known
author of the Diftionary of Arts and Sciences (fee his ar-
ticle J, Mr. Prefton, afterwards bifhop of perns, in Ireland,
and the fubje£t of this memoir. To this fchool belonged
two exhibitions, (now of jo/. a year each,) one to Tri-
nity college, in Cambridge, and the other to Queen's col-
lege, Oxford ; the former of which was enjoyed by Mr.
Prellon, and afterwards by his fchool-fellow, Mr. Watfon.
In the year 1788, thefe two fcholars, being then bifhops,
teftified their regard for tlie place of their education by re-
pairing the fchool-houfc, and by affixing to it a Latin in-
fcription, exprefling their refpeft for the memory of its
pious founder, and of Mr. Watfon's father. To his mother
,slfo Mr. Watfon pays a tribute of grateful and affeftioiiale

WAT

remembrance, defcribing her as a charitable and good wo-
man, to whom he was indebted for imbuing his young mind
with principles of religion, which never forfook him ; and
obferving more generally, that " the care of the mother pre-
cedes that of the fchool-mafter, and may llamp upon the
rafa tabula of the infant mind, charafters of virtue and reli-
gion which no time can efface." Soon after the death of his
father, in November 1753, Mr. Watfon was fent to the
Univerfity, and admitted a lizer of Trinity college, in
Cambridge, on the 3d of November, 1754. Apprized
that his patrimony, which was 300/., would be barely
fufiicient to defray the charges of his education, and having
no expeftations from any of his relations, he determined to
fabricate his own fortune, and applied with afiiduity and
ardour to his academic ftudies. Before he had been fii
months at college, a circumftance occurred vs-hich indicated
his talents for metaphyfical difquilition, and which contri-
buted in no fr.iall degree to his reputation in lliis department
ot fcience. As he attended the coUege-leftures, which
were then delivered to the under-graduates in the hall, im-
msdiately after morning-prayers, during term-time, he was
aflced by Mr. Brocket, the head Ictlurer, whether Clarke
had demoiillrated the abfurdity of an iniinite fucceffion of
changeable and dependent beings ? to which queftion he re-
plied non ; and being aiked his reafons for fo thinking, he
ftammeredout, as he My, in barbarous Latin, " that Clarke
had enquired into the origin of a feries, which, being from
the fuppofition eternal, could have no origin ; and into the
Jirjl term of a ferics, which, being from the fuppofition in-
Jinite, could have no firft." This circumftance was recol-
lefted four years afterwards, when he took his bachelor's
degree, and laid the foundation of iiis acquaintance with Dr.
Law, then mafter of Peterhoufe, and reckoned one of the
beft metaphyficians of his time ; from which he derived, as
he acknowledges, much knowledge and hberality of fenti-
ment in theology. Not fatisfied with his rank of fizer, he
afpired to a fcholarfhip, and fucceeded in obtaining it, on
the 2d of May, 1757, a year before the ufual time. Thus
advanced in rank, his expences increafed, but they were
more than counterbalanced by the advantage attending it.
Dr. Smith, who was then mafter of the college, took occa-
fion to nominate him to a particular fcholarfhip (lady Jer-
myn's) ; and at -the fame time recommended Saunderfon's
Fluxions, juft pubhfhed, and fome other mathematical books,
to his perufal ; thus, as he fays, " giving a fpur to my induf-
try, and wings to my ambition." At this time he had re-
fided in college two years and feven months, without leaving
it for a fingle day ; and during this period, he had acquired
fome knowledge of Hebrew, improved himfelf greatly in
Greek and Latin, made confiderable proficiency in mathe-
matics and natural philofophy, and ftudied with much at-
tention Locke's Works, King's book on tlie Origin of Evil,
Puffendorf's Treatife " De Officio Hominis et Civis," and
fome other books on fimilar fubjefts. Conceiving him-
felf entitled to fome degree of relaxation, he fet out, in
May, 1757, on a vifit to his elder and only brother at Ken-
dal, who was the firft curate of a new chapel ereded there,
and to the building of which he had liberally contributed.
This brother hved freely, fpent hig fortune, injured his con-
ftitution, and died when the fubjett of our memoir was
about the age of 33. With the afieSion of a brother and
fingular liberality, he paid his debts, to the amount of aknoft
his whole property. In the beginning of September he re-
turned to college, with a purpofe to make his alma mater the
mother of his fortunes. He was then only a " junior foph ;"
but fiich was his reputation, that he was fohcitcd to become
private tutor to Mr. Luther and Dr. Strachey. From the

time

WATSON.

lime in which he undertook this charge he was employed
for thirty years, and as long as his health lafted, in inftruft-
ing others, without much inftrufting himfelf, as he fuggeils,
and in prefiding at dii'putations in philofophy or theology,
from which, after a certain time, he derived little intelleftiial
improvement. Addifted, whilil: an under-graduate, to aflo-
ciate with thofe wiiom collegians call the beft company, fuch
as idle fellow-commoners, and other perfons of fortune : he
foon perceived that he was purfuing a millaken courfe : and
this conviftion was more fcnfibly felt, when he often faw, on
' his return home at one or two in the morning, from fonie of
1 his evening feftivities, a light in the chamber of a fellow-
ftudent of tlie fame (landing with himfelf. His jealoufy
was thus excited, and the fucceeding day was always de-
voted to hard ftudy ; nor would he allow himfelf the leifure
for dinner. In his folitary walks he profecuted the ftudy of
mathematics and philofophy without book, or pen and
' paper ; and went through tedious and intricate demonftra-
• tions by the mere exercife of his mental powers. Thefe
walks were fo frequent, that among thofe who did not know
how he was employed, he incurred the charge of being
a lounger ; but the fequel of his hiflory fufficiently proves
, the injuftice of the charge.

I Whilft abftradt ftudies occupied his chief attention, he did
i not negleft other purfuits. Every day he impofed upon
I: himfelf the taflc of compofing a theme in Latin or Englilh.
|i Among the firft of his compofitions of this kind, the fub-
!' jeft of that written in Englifh was " Let tribunes be granted
to the Roman people," and that of the Latin was " Soeiis
Italicis datus Civitas :" the fubjecls of both were fiiggefted
to him by a perufal of Vertot's " Roman Revolutions ;"
and to his account of this incident he adds, " Were books
j of fuch kind put into the hands of kings during their boy-
hood, and Tory-trafli at no age recommended to them, kings
in their manhood would fcorii to aim at arbitrary power
througli corrupted parliaments." He alfo introduces this
refleftion on the choice of his Inbjcfts : " They Ihew that a
long commerce in the public world has only tended to con-
firm that political bent of my mind in favour of civil liberty,
which was formed in it before I knew of wtiat felfilh and
low-minded materials the public world was made." In the
courfe of Mr. W.'s clafTical reading, to which he devoted
the afternoon, whilft the morning was occupied by mathe-
matics, he informs us, that Demoftheiies was the orator,
Tacitus the hiltorian, and Perfius the fatirift, whom he mofl
admired. At an early period of his life, Mr. W. inclined to
the opinion which has in later times been more prevalent,
' that the foul is not a diftinft fubftance from the body ;
I though he proftfTes not to have troubled himfelf much with
perplexing difquifitions concerning hberty and neceffity,
matter and fpirit ; (hewing, however, on all occafions, his
faith in Chrillianity, as founded on teftimony, and more efpe-
cially on the teltimony concerning the refurreftion of its di-
vine founder ; and his belief of a future ftate of retribution
and immortality. His fpeculations on matter and fpirit are
hot likely, in our judgment, to illumine the darkncfs, and
to refolve the difficulties that involve this (ubjeft. As to the
ftory, recorded in the French Encyclopa:dia (art. Mort),o{
a man who came to life after having been fix weeks under
water, we cannot help confidering it as fabulous ; but whe-
ther it be true or falfe, it appears to us to aftord little fatif-
faftion with regard to the queftion in difpute. Nor does
his reafoning about the tfTeiitial properties of cxtenfion, fo-
Hdity, mobihty, divifibility, and inaftivity, as common
properties, belonging equally to a table, tree, oyfter, and
man, and the addition of life to the matter of the tree, of
Jife and perceptivity to that of the oyfter, and to that of

the man, life, perceptivity, and thought, feem to have
given very great fatisfaftion to himfelf. " Whether hfe can
exift without perceptivity," he fays, " or perceptivity with-
out thought, are fubtle queftions, not admitting perhaps, in
our prefent ftate, a pofitive and clear decition either way.
Phylical and metaphyfical difficulties prefent theinfelves on
every fubjeft, and ultimately baffle all our attempts to pene-
trate the darknefs in which the divine mind envelopes his ope-
rations of nature and grace."

In January 1759, Mr. W. took his degree of bachelor
of arts. In the firft year of his being moderator, he intro-
duced an alteration in the mode of obtaining this degree,
which has been continued ever fince. " At the time of
taking it, the young men are examined in clades, and the
clalfes are now formed according to the abilities (liewn by
individuals in the fchools. By this arrangement, perfons of
nearly equal merits are examined in the prefence of each
other, and flagrant afts of partiality cannot take place. Be-
fore this alteration was made, they were examined in clalfes,
but the clalfes confifted of members of the fame college, and
the beft and the worft were often examined together." In the
firft year of his being moderator, Mr. Paley, afterwards fo
well known, and a Mr. Frere of Norfolk, were examined
together ; and Mr. Paley, being Mr. Frere's fuperior, was
made fenior wrangler, though it was reported that the
grandfather of Mr. Frere had propofed to give 1000/. if he
were admitted to this honour. This gentleman afterwards
candidly acknowledged that he deferved only the fecond
place ; and this declaration was obvioudy the refult of their
having been examined together. One of the queftions pro-
pofed by Mr. Paley for his aft was " jEternitas poenarum
contradicit Divinis attributis." This queilion, tlioufjh ac-
cepted by Mr. W., occafioned an alarm ; but in order to
allay all difquieting appreheiifions, Mr. P. was allowed to
put in non before coiitraJicit, and the alarm fublided. This,
however, fays Mr. W., is a fubjeft of great difficulty.
" It is obfervcd, on all hands, that the happinefs of the
righteous will be, ftriftly fpeaking, everlafting ; and I
cannot fee the jullnefs of that criticilm which would inter-
pret the fame word in the fame verfe in a different fenfe.
(Matt. XXV. 46. ) On the other hand, reafoii is (hocked at
the idea of God being confidered as a relentlefs tyrant, in-
flifting everlafting punilhment which anfwers no benevolent
end. But how is it proved that the everlafting punilhment
of the wicked may not anfwer a benevolent end, may not
be the means of keeping the righteous in everlafting holi-
nefs and obedience ? How is it proved, that it may rot an-
fwer, in fome other way unknown to us, a benevolent end
in promoting God's moral government of the Univer/e'^"

In Odober 1760, Mr. W. was elefted a fellow of Tri-
nity college, although by that appointment he was put over
two of his feniors of the fame year ; and in the following
November became afliftant tutor to Mr. Bajkhoufe. Soon
after this he declined accepting the curacy of Clermont ;
and he alfo relinquifhed his defign of going out as chaplain
to the faftory at Bencoolen. " You are far too good,"
faid the mafter of the college to him, " to die of drinking
punch in the torrid zone." Afterwards he reflefted with
gratitude and felf-complacency on his difappointment of an
opportunity of becoming an Afiatic plunderer. " I might
not," he fays, " iiave been able to reiift the temptation of
wealth and power, to which io many of my countrymen have
yielded in India."

At the commencement of 1762 he took his degree of
M.A., and in the following Ottober was made moderator
for Trinity college. In his " Memoirs," he recites the quef-
tions which were at that time the ftibjefls of fcholallic ex-

ercifes.

WATSON.

erdfes, and from their nature and variety he juftly infers the
importance of thefe exercifes.

In February 1764 an occafion was afforded him of mani-
fefting his friendly attachment to Mr. Luther, one of the
members for Eflex, who had been formerly his pupil, and
his difinterefted anxiety for his happinefs. Having heard
that he had feparated from his wife, and was haftily gone
abroad, he immediately prepared to feek him, and to im-
part to him, if poffible, fome confolation. Although he
had no money, and could not fpeak a word of French,
he determined on his journey ; and having borrowed 50/.,
and provided a French and Englifh Diftionary, he polled to
Dover, and haftened to Paris, where he found his difconfo-
late friend. After twelve hours (lay at Paris, he returned
to England ; and having crofled the channel four times, and
travelled izoo miles in very bad weather within a fortnight,
he brought his friend back to his country and his family.
Of Mr. Luther, he fays that " he was a thorough honetl
man, and one of the friends I ever loved with the greateft
affeaion."

In November 1764, he was unanimoufly elefted by the
fenate to fucceed Dr. Hadley, as profeflbr of chemiftry ;
and though at this time he knew nothing of chemiilry, he
procured an operator from Paris, and immured himfelf in
his laboratory, fo that in 14 months from his eleftion he
read a courfe of chemical leilures to a very full audience,
and another in November 1766. For the fourth time he
was made moderator in Odlober 1765, and in 1766 made
his lad fpeech in Latin to the fenate. Befides other im-
provements in the univerfity education, which he had pro-
pofed on former occafions, he now recommended the infti-
tution of public annual examinations, in prefcribed books,
of all the orders of ftudents. In 1774 this fubjeCl was re-
vived and enforced by Mr. Jebb. The defign was unequi-
vocally approved by the chancellor of the univerfity, the
duke of Grafton. After a long difcuffion of the fubjedl,
the regulations drawn up by the fyndics were propofed to
the fenate, and were rejedled by the " Non Regent Houfe,"
47 againil 43. In 1764 application was made for a ftipend
to the profeflbr of chemiilry ; and after confiderable delay,
100/. a year was obtained : and this grant paved the way for
fimilar ftipends to the profeflbrs of anatomy, botany, and
common law. In Odlober 1767, Mr. Watfon fucceeded
Mr. Backhoufe as head tutor in Trinity college, and, for
the fhort period during which he retained the office, dif-
charged its duties with confcientious diligence. " In this,"
he fays, " and the two following years, I read chemical
leftures to very crowded audiences, in the month of No-
vember. I now look back with a kind of terror at the
apphcation I ufed in the younger part of my life. For
months and years together, I frequently read three public
leftures in Trinity college, beginning at 8 o'clock in the
morning ; fpent four or five hours with private pupils, and
five or fix more in my laboratory, every day, befides the
incidental bufinefs of prefiding in the fophs fchools."

In 1768 he compofed and printed his " Inftitutiones Me-
tallurgicx," and about the fame time prefented to the Royal
Society a paper on the folution of falts, and was elefted a
fellow of that fociety. In the following year he pubUihed
his Affize Sermon, which he dedicated to Mr. Luther.
Upon the vacancy in the office of regins profeflbr of di-
vinity, occafioned in Otlober 1771 by the death of Dr.
Rutherforth, Mr. Watfon propofed to become a candi-
date ; but he was then neither bachelor nor do6lor in di-
vinity ; and without being one of thefe, he could not be ad-
mitted as a candidate. Prompt, however, in the execution
of all his meafures, though he had only feven days for the

accomplifliment of his objeft, he obtained the king's rasiri*
date for a dodlor's degree, and was created a doftor on the
day previous to that appointed for an examination of the
candidates. The fubjefts on which he was to write were,
the reconciliation of the genealogies in Matthew and Luke,
and the interpretation of the pafl"age, " What (hall they do
that are baptized for the dead ?" i Cor. xv. 29. He was
alfo appointed to read a Latin dilTertation on Gen. x. 32.

At length he was unanimoufly elefted, having, as he fay*,
by hard and inceffant labour for 1 7 years, attained, at the
age of 34, the firft office for honour in the univerfity, and,
exclufive of the maderfhip of Trinity college, he made it
the firft for profit ; having advanced it from 330/. a year to
at lead 1000/. Having been promoted to this honourable
and important office, he devoted himfelf, with his accuf-
tomed refolution and perfeverance, to the (ludy of divinity ;
making the Bible the objeft of his inveftigation, and feehng
no concern about the opinions of councils, fathers, churches,
bifhops, or other men, as httle infpired as himfelf. Al-
though he was called by the mafl;er of Peterhoufe, avloii-
o2K7oi, the felf-taught divine ; and though the profeflbr of
divinity had been nicknamed " Malleus Hareticorum," he'
profelTes that his mind was wholly unbiaffed ; without pre-
judice againft or predileftion for the church of England ; and
aftuated only by a fincere regard for the church of Chrift,
and an infuperable objeftion to every degree of dogmatical
intolerance. " I never troubled myfelf," thus he proceeds,
" with anfwering any arguments which the opponents in the
divinity fchools brought againft the articles of the church,
nor ever admitted their authority in decifion of a difficulty.
But I ufed, on fuch occafions, to fay to them, holding the
New Teftament in my hand, ' En facrum codicem! Here is
the fountain of truth ; why do you follow the ftreams de-
rived from it by the fophiftry, or polluted by the paflions
of men ? If you can bring proofs againft any thing delivered
in this book, I (hall think it my duty to reply to you :
articles of churches are not of divine authority ; have done
with them ; for they may be true, they may be falfe ; and
appeal to the book itfelf.' This mode of difputing gained
me no credit with the hierarchy ; but I thought it an honeft
one, and it produced a liberal fpirit in the univerfity."

About the clofe of the year 1771 our author printed an
Effay on the fubjeft of chemiftry, which was difperfed
among fome few friends ; but it was unjuftly charged by
the authors of the " Journal Encyclopedique," with favour-
ing the " Syfteme de la Nature." The author remon-
ftrated, and the periodical journahfts made an apology. In
the following year Dr. Watfon publilhed two letters to the
members of the houfe of commons, under the feigned name
of a Chriftian Whig, the fecond of which was infcribed to
fir George Savile. In 1773, upon maturely weighing the
queftion concerning the abftraft right which a national church
may claim of requiring fubfcription to human articles of
faith from its public minifters, he publi(hed " A brief State
of the Principles of Church Authority," which he deUvered
as a charge to the clergy of his diocefe, in June 1813. In
this traft it is maintained, that every church has a right of
explaining to its minifters what doftrines it holds ; and of
permitting none to minifter in it, who do not profefs the
fame behef with itfelf. With refpeft to another queftion,
viz. whether the majority of the members of any civil com-
munity have a right to compel all the members of it to pay
towards the maintenance of a fet of teachers appointed by
the majority to preach a particular fyftem of doctrines, this
may admit a ferious difcuffion. Our author once thought
the majority had this right in all cafes, and he afterwards
apprehended that they have it in many. But a cafe may

happen,

WATSON.

happen, in which the eftabhnied religion of a country may
be the religion of a minority of the people, that minority at
the fame time pofreffing a majority of the property, out of
which the minifters of the eftablifhment are paid ; and if this
fhould occur, our author feems to be undecided in his judg-
ment. His fentiments as to the expediency of requiring from
the minifters of the eftablifhed church a fubfcription to the
prefent articles of religion, or to any human confeflion of
faith, further than a declaration of belief in the fcriptures,
as containing a revelation of the will of God, may be col-
le€lcd from his two pamphlets, fubfcribed " A Chriftian
Whig," and "'A Confillent Proteftant."

In adverting to thefe trails, our author reflefts with
fatisfaftion on the coincidence of his fentiments, on many
points civil and religious, with thofe of bifhop Hoadly,
though he has been farcaftically and injuridufly called " A
republican bidiop."

On th'; 2ift of December 1773, Dr. Watfon married
the eldeft daughter of Edward Wilfon, efq. of Dallum
Tower, in Weftmoreland ; and the conneftion was a
fource of uninterrupted fatisfaftion and felicity. Hav-
ing obtained, by the intereft of the duke of Grafton
with the bifhop of St. Afaph, a fmecure in Wales, he ex-
changed it, by the fame intereft, on his return to Cam-
bridge, for a prebend of Ely ; and this favour was granted,
though the duke and Dr. Watfon held different political
opinions. Tliey afterwards differed alfo in their religious
fentiments ; the duke having avowed himfelf an Unitarian.
Referring to him under this denomination. Dr. Watfon,
with laudable liberality, declares, " that lie is happy in
feeing a perfon of his rank profeftlng with intelligence and
fincerity Chriftian principles. If any one thinks that an
Unitarian is not a Chriftian, I plainly fay, without being
myfelf an Unitarian, that I think otherwife."

Dr. Watfon's pohtical principles are well known. From
his earlieft youth to his dying day he was a Whig, in tliat
fenfc of the term which is well underftood, and need not
here be explained. In 1776 it came to his turn to preach
the reftoration and acceflion fermons before the univerfity ;
and they were both printed. The firft was entitled " The
Principles of the Revolution vindicated." Although it was
written with great caution, a report was circulated in Lon-
don that it was treafonable ; but when Mr. Dunning (after-
wards lord Aftiburton) was aflced what he thought of it,
he replied, " that it contained fuch trcafon as ought to be
preached once a month at St. James's." However, it gave
great offence to the court, and, in Dr. Watfon's opinion,
continued to be an obftacle to his preferment. The author
was much abufed, in confequence of the publication of this
fermon, by miniftcrial writers, as a man of republican prin-
ciples ; but by Mr. Fox, and others of his clafs, it was
very highly commended.

In the fame year, 1776, Dr. Watfon published his
•' Apology for Chriftianity," in reply to Mr. Gibbon's
obnoxious chapters in his " Hiftory of the Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire." His treatment of the hiftorian
was liberal and conciliatory, and was acknowledged with
great courtefy and refpeft. In February 1780, Dr. Wat-
Ion preached, at the requcft of the vice-chancellor, the faft
fermon before the univerfity, which became very popular,
and was widely circulated. In May of this year he pub-
lifhed a charge to the clergy of the archdeanery of Ely, at
his firft vifitation ; the primary objcft of which charge was
to recommend an eftabliftimcnt at Cambridge, for the ex-
prefs purpofe of.tranflating and publiftiing Oriental MSS.,
wherever found. Dr. Keene, biftiop of Ely, exprefted his
approbation of this charge ; but as he reflefted on the
Vol.. XXXVIII.

author's politics, he retorts it by obferving in a letter to his
lordfhip, " My politics may hurt my intereft, but they will
not hurt my honour. They are the pohtics of Locke,
Somers, and Hooker ; and in the reign of George II.,
they were the politics of this univerfity." In February
1781, our author was prefented by the duke of Rutland
with the reAory of Knaploft, in Leicefterftiire ; and as he
was juft then printing the firft two volumes of Chemical
Effays, he availed himfelf of this opportunity of dedicating
them to his grace. In 1782, Soame Jenyns publiflied his
Difquifitions on various fubjefts, the feventh of which ad-
vanced principles very oppofite to thofe which were con-
tained in the " Principles of the Revolution vindicated,"
with occafional glances at that fermon. Although our
author was fcarcely recovered from a dangerous illnefs, he
drew up, in the courfe of a few hours, " An Anfwer to the
Difquifitions, &c." Upon a change of miniftry, lord
Shelburne was induced to confer the biftiopric of Landaff
on Dr. Watfon ; and on the 26th of July 1782, he kiffed
hands on his promotion. But he was not very much gra-
tified by this advancement ; becaufe lord Shelburne had
expreffed to the duke of Grafton his expectation that he
would occafionally write a pamphlet for their adminiftration.
The duke, however, did the new prelate the juftice to affure
his lordfhip, that he had totally miftaken the charafter of
the biftiop ; for though he might write as an abftraft quef-
tion, concerning government, or the principles of legiflation,
it would not be with a view of affifting any adminiftration.
" I had written," fays the independent and high-fpirited
biftiop, " in fupport of the principles of the revolution, be-
caufe I thought thofe principles ufeful to the ftate, and I
faw them vilified and neglefted. I had taken part in their
petitions againft the influence of the crown, becaufe I
thought that influence would deftroy the conftitution, and
I faw that it was increafing. I had oppofed the fupportcrs
of the American war, becaufe I thought that war not only
to be inexpedient, but unjuft. But all this was done from
my own fenfe of things, and without the leaft view of
pleafing any party : I did, however, happen to pleafe a
party, and they made me a biftiop. I have hitherto fol-
lowed, and fliall continue to follow, my own judgment in
all pubhc tranfaftions : all parties now underftand this, and
it is probable that I may continue to be biftiop of Landaff
as long as I live. Be it fo. Wealth and power are but
fecondary objefts of purfuit to a thinking man, efpecially
to a thinking Chriftian." Lord Shelburne feems to have
courted an intimate acquaintance with the biftiop ; alleging
that he had Dunning to aflift him in law points, and Barry
in army concerns, and expreffing his wifti to confult him in
church matters. The biftiop availed himfelf of this over-
ture, and propofed to the minifter a plan by which fervice
might be done to religion and to the eftabliftied church.
Being invited to dine with his lordftiip, he put into his hand
a paper, containing the following fcheme of reform, com-
prehending the doftrine, the jurifdiftion, and the revenue
of the church of England. The two following hints on the
fubjeft of the revenue he fubmittcd to the confideration of
his lordlhip : — " Firft, a bill to render the biflioprics more
equal to each other, both with refpeft to income and pa-
tronage ; by annexing, as the richer biflioprics became va-
cant, a part of their revenues, and a part of their patronage,
to the poofer. By a bill of this kind, the biftiops would
be freed from the neceflity of holding ecclefiaftical prefer-
ments in commendam ; a praftice which bears hard on the
rights of the inferior clergy. Another probable confe-
quence of fuch a bill would be, a longer refidence of the
biftiops in their fcveral diocefes ; from which the beft con-
A a fequences

WATSON.

fequences both to religion, the moraUty of the people, and to
the true credit of the church, might be expeded : for the
two great inducements to wifh for tranflations, and confe-
quently to refide in London, namely, fuperiority of income,
and excellency of patronage, would in a great meafure be
removed. Second, a bill for appropriating, as they become
vacant, one half, or a third part, of the income of every
deanery, prebend, or curacy, of the churches of Weft-
minfter, Windfor, Canterbury, Chriftchurch, Worcefter,
Durham, Ely, Norwich, &c. to the fame purpofes, mutatis
mutandis, as the firft fruits and tenths were appropriated by
queen Anne. By a bill of this kind, a decent provifion
would be made for the inferior clergy, in a third or fourth
part of the time which queen Anne's bounty alone will
require to effeft it. A decent provifion being once made
for every officiating minifter in the church, the reftdence of
the clergy in their cures might more reafonably be required than
it can be at prefent, and the licence of holding more livings
than one be reftrifted." Lord Shelbume wifhcd to be in-
formed if nothing could be gotten from the church to relieve
the burdens of the ftate ; to which the bilhop replied, that
the whole revenue of the church would not yield, if it were
equally divided, which could not be thought of, above
ico/. a year to each clergyman, which could not be thought
too ample ; and in a pohtical view it would be highly inex-
pedient, unlefs government would be contented to have a
beggarly and illiterate clergy, which no wife minifter would
ever wifh to fee. In profecution of the fame plan, the
bifliop fent a letter to the archbifhop of Canterbury, and a
copy to lord Shelburne, the duke of Grafton, the duke of
Rutland, and lord John Cavendilh refpcftively. The
minifter difcouraged the bufinefs, and earneftly difTuaded
the biftiop from any immediate publication of it. Upon the
refignation of lord Shelburne, who, by an exercife of pre-
rogative, had been nominated by the king without the re-
commendation of the cabinet, the coalition miniftry, formed
of lord North, and others who had for many years repro-
bated his political principles, came into power. This cir-
cumftance of the coalition roufed our prelate's indignation,
and led him to entertain a very unfavourable opinion of the
difintereftednefs and integrity of thofe to whom he had been
invariably attached. Although the badnefs of the peace,
and the fuppofed danger of trufting power in the hands of
lord Shelburne, were the oftenfible reafons for this coalition,
perfonal diflike of him, and a defire to be in power them-
felves, were, in the biftiop's judgment, the real ones. This
diflcnfion of the Whigs, he fays, did more injury to the
conftitution than all the violent attacks on the liberty of the
fubjeft, which were fubfequently made during Mr. Pitt's
adminiftration. " This apoftacy from principle in the coali-
tion miniftry ruined," as he conceived, " the confidence of
the country, and left it without hope of foon feeing another
refpedable oppofition on conftitutional grounds ; but it
ftamped on the hearts of miUions an impreffion which will
never be effaced, that patriotifm is a fcandalous game played
by publii men for private ends, and frequently little better than
a ftlfijh flruggle for poiver." — " It is," he adds, " a prin-
ciple with all parties to require from their adherents an im-
pUcit apprnbation of all their meafures : my fpirit was ever
too high to fubmit to fuch a ditgraceful load of political
conneftion." — " To forget all benefits, and to conceal the re-
membrante of all injuries, are maxims by which pohtical men
lofe their honour, but make their fortunes."

Our prelate's letter to the arclibifliop of Canterbury was
pubUihed in the interval between lord Shelburne's refigna-
tion and the appointment of the duke of Portland to the
head of the treafury ; but though a copy of it was fent to

each bifhop, none thought proper to acknowledge it except
Dr. Porteus, then bifhop of Chefter. Soon after the failure
of Mr. Fox's Eaft India bill, to which Dr. Watfon was ad-
verfe, Mr. Pitt was appointed firft lord of the treafury ; and
though he had continued in office for feveral weeks previoufly
to the diftolution of parliament, March 25th, 1784, in direft
oppofition to the majority of the houfe of commons, which
in the judgment of our prelate eftabliftjed a dangerous pre-
cedent, yet deference to the fenfe of the nation declared by
numberlefs addreftes to the king againft the coalition minif-
try, induced him to acquiefce. In July of this year he
wrote a letter to Mr. Pitt, recommending an union of Bri-'
tain and Ireland on an equal and liberal footing ; but it was
not accompliflicd till fixteen years after this period, and not^
as the biftiop obferves, " in the liberal way it ought to have
been done." Enlarged and hberal as were his fentiments of
toleration, he neverthelefs regarded the church of Rome aS'
a. perfecuting church ; and he thought it was more necelTary
to guard againft the danger to be apprehended by Proteft-
ants in a country where popery is fimply tolerated than
where it is the eftabliftied religion. On another occafion
he expreffes fentiments which muft lead the friends of Ca-
tholic emancipation to conclude, that he was not favourable
to this objeft. " The perfecuting fpirit of the Roman
church remains in the hearts of the generality of its mem-
bers," he fays, " and whilft it does remain, popery muft be
watched, intimidated, and reftrained." In a letter to Mr.
Wakefield written in 1784, he avows his belief of the pre-
exiftence of Chrift as the doftrine of the New Teftament ;
but at the fame time he is far from concurring with thofe
who brand the fupporters of it as enemies to the Chriftian
fyftem. In the fame year he addrefled a letter to Mr. Wy-
vill, expreffing his warmeft wifties for parhamentary reform,
which Mr. Pitt feemed at the commencement of his admi-
niftration inclined to promote. In 1785' he publifhed his
" CoUeftion of Theological Trafts," in fix volumes, in-
tended for the benefit of young perfons, who could not af-
ford to purchafe many books in divinity ; the defign was
laudable, and was generally approved ; though, he fays,
the bifliops were not pleafed with his having printed
fome trafts originally written by Difienters. In January
1786 he loft his friend Mr. Luther, with whom he had Kved
on terms of the moft aff^eftionate intercourfe for thirty
years ; and in mentioning this circumftance he gratefully
acknowledges his generous bequeft, which enabled him io
preferve his independence, and to provide for his family.
To his Suffex eftate, from the fale of which he derived
20,500/., this generous teftator added the entail of his
eftate in Effex. Having, in the year 1782, pubhihed a
third volume of his Chemical EfTays, he prefented to the
pubhc a fourth volume in 1786. About this time applica-
tion was made to him by government for advice relating to
the improvement of gun-powder ; and he fuggefted a plan
of making charcoal by diftilhng the wood in clofe veiTels,
which was carried into execution at Hythe in 1787, and
which produced a conCderable faving in the manufafture of
this article.

Dr. Watfon, having been attacked with a diforder in
1781, which continued and rendered the difcharge of his
duty, as profeflbr of divinity, very irkfome to his feelings,
and likely to haften the termination of his hfe, intimated to
Mr. Pitt his wifties for fome kind of preferment that would
enable him to reCgn his profeflbr(hip ; his church income,
exclufive of it, being only about 1200/. a year. This ap-
plication he very reluftantly renewed, but .it produced no
effetl ; and the confequence was a kind of remonftrance, in
the tone of complaint, on the part of the biftiop to tl« mi-
nifter.

WATSON.

nifttr. About this time Mr. Pitt confulted the biftiops
about tlif repeal of the Teft and Corporation Afts ; and of
all the bifhops who were alfembled for the difcuffion of the
fubjed bifhop Watfon and birtiop Shipley were the only two
who voted, that they ought not to be maintained. The
queftion was afterwards loll in the commons by a majority
of 78 ; 178 to 100. When it was brought forward again
in 1789, it was loll by a majority of 20 ; 122 to 102. But
in 17901 the majority againfl it was 194 ; 299 to 105 : the
clamour of " the church is in danger" having in the mean
while been widely and loudly circulated, under the fandlion
of fome imprudent or mifunderftood exprelTions in the pub-
lications of Dr. Hartley and Dr. Priellley. The bilhop's
intereft with the miuifter was not promoted by the part
which he took on this occafion, and much lefs by his par-
liamentary fpeech againfl Mr. Pitt's commercial treaty with
France. Soon after this he was very much enfeebled by a
dyfentery ; and upon his return from Bath to Cambridge in
1787, the fenate appointed Dr. Kipling to be his deputy
as profeflTor, with a falary amounting in a courfe of time to
two-thirds of the value of the profeflbrfliip, when Dr. Wat-
fon firfl undertook it. At the enfuing commencement he
delivered a kind of farewell addrefs to the univerfity, in
which he exprefTed his warmeil widies for its profperity ;
after having been incelTantly engaged in its bufmefs for more
than thirty-three years. After the commencement he took
a journey to Weftmoreland, with a view to the re-eftablifh-
ment of his health. He now determined to become an
agriculturiit ; and his purfuits in this department, as an im-
prover of land and planter of trees, were fo favourable to
his health, and upon the whole fo profitable, that he fays in
the year 1809, " I feel much falisfaftion at this moment in
having, by my own exertions, wholly counterafted the ef-
fefts which might otherwife have followed the negleft I
have experienced from the court or from its minillers, or
from both, that I fincerely pity, and cordially forgive the
littlenefs of mind, which, in fome one or other, has occa-
Coned it." The bilhop relates an incident which occurred
on occafion of his attending a levee in November 1787, and
which fufficicntly evinced the pains that had been taken to
inllil wrong notions of his pohtical principles into his ma-
jefty's mind. " 1 was Handing," he fays, " next to a Ve-
netian nobleman ; the king was converiing with him about
the republic of Venice, and haitily turning to me faid,
' there now, you hear what he fays of a republic' My
anfwer was, ' Sir, I look upon a repubhc to be one of the
word forms of government.' The king gave me, as he
thought, another blow about a republic. I anfwered that
J could not live under a repubhc. His majeily ftill pur-
fued the fubjeft : I thought myfelf infulted and firmly
faid, ♦ Sir, I look upon the tyranny of any one man to be
an intolerable evil, and upon the tyranny of a hundred to
be a hundred times as bad ;* thus ended the converfation."

Although Dr. Watfon, as profeflbr of divinity, had been
for many years a chartered member of the fociety for pro-
pagating the gofpel in foreign parts, he had never fub-
Kribed to it nor attended its meetings ; becaufe its miffion-
aries were more bufily employed in bringing over DilTenters
to epifcopacy than in converting heathens to Chriftianity.

In the year 1788 he publifhed a charge which he had deli-
Tered at his vifitation, entitled " An Addrefs to Young Per-
fons after Confirmation." Towards the clofe of this year and
the commencement of the next, he took an adtive part in the
bufinefs of the regency, occafioned by the king's mental de-
rangement ; and in an elaborate fpeecli delivered m tiie houfe of
lords Jan\iary 22d, 17S9, he difcufled, with fingular ability,
<:\k fubjed in debate between Mr. Fox, who afTcrted "that

theprince of Wales had a right to affume the'regency," and
Mr. Pitt, who had faid, " that the prince of Wales had no
more right to alfume the regency than any other man in the
kingdom had." The part he took on this occafion is faid
to have offended the queen ; who, as he fays, " diftinguifhed
by different degrees of courtefy on the one hand, and by
meditated affronts on the other;, thofe who had voted with,
and thofe who had voted againfl the minifler." At the
drawing-room, held on the king's recovery, the bifliop was
received with a degree of coldnefs, " which would have ap-
peared to herfelf ridiculous and ill-placed could fhe have
imagined how little fuch a mind as mine regarded, in its ho-
nourable proceedings, the difpleafure of a woman, though
that woman happened to be a queen." The prince of Wales,
who was witnefs to this conduft, paid particular attention
to the bifhop, invited him to dine at Carlton-houfe, and en-
tered into a familiar conference with him ; the bifhop on the
occafion " advifing him to perfevere in dutifully bearing
with his mother's ill-humour, till time and her own good
fenfe lliould difentangle her from the web which minillerial
cunning had thrown around her." When the bifhop, before
the clofe of the inter i^iew, declared that he was fick of
parties, and fhoiild retire fiom all public concerns, " No,"
faid the prince, " and mind wh': it is tiiat tells you fo, you
fhall never retire ; a man of your talents fhall never be lofl
to the public." The bifhop's rcfleftion fubjoined to this
anecdote is, " I have now lived many years in retirement,
and, in my 75th year, I feel no wilh to live otherwife."
About ten years after the pubhcation of the traft which he
had given to the young perfons of his diocefe, already men-
tioned, Mr. Afhdown of Canterbury addreffed two letters
to him, in whicli he contended that the diflindlion of ordi-
nary and extraordinary operations of the Holy Spirit is
not founded in fcripture, and that if it were, both opera-
tions ceafed with the apottolic age. In reference to this
opinion, the bifhop declares, " I am not afhamed to own,
that I give a greater degree of affent to the doftrine of the
extraordinary operation of the fpirit in the age of the
apoftles, than I do to that of his immediate influence,
either by illumination or fanftification, in fucceeding ages.
Notwitlillanding this confefGon, I am not prepared to fay,
that the latter is an unlcriptural doftrinc : future inveftiga-
tion may clear up this point, and God, I trufl, will pardon
me an indecifion of judgment proceeding from an inability
of comprehenfion. If it fhall ever be fliewn, that the doc-
trine of the ordinary operation of the Floly Ghofl is not a
fcripture doftrine, Methodifm, Quakerifm, and every de-
gree of enthufiafm, will be radically extinguifhed in the
Chrillian church ; men, no longer believing that God does
that by more means which may be done by fewer, will
wliolly rely for religious injlrultion, confequent converfion,
and fubfequent /d/iirt/ion, on his tVord."

In the fummer of 1789, our bifliop, in purfuit of his
plan for retiring from public life, laid the foundation of his
houfe on the banks of the Winandermere ; where he con-
tinued till his death. On occafion of the publication of
" Hints to the New Affociation, recommending a Revifal of
the Liturgy, &c." in 1789, by the duke of Grafton, two
pamphlets were in the following year publifhed in oppofition
to thefe " Hints." The bifliop made a reply to thefe at-
tacks ; and took a comprehenfive view of the fubjeft. Al-
though he was diffuaded from publilhing his trail, it foon
appeared under the title of " Confiderations on the Expe-
diency of revifing the Liturgy and Articles of the Church
of England," by a Confiftent Proteftant. Moreover, it
was propofed, in converfation with the duke of Grafton, to
commence a reform, by the introduAion of a bill into the
A a 2 houfe

WATSON.

houfe of lords, for expunging the Athanafian creed from
the Liturgy ; but on account of the French revolution, the
defign was poftponed. In this conneftion, we cannot forbear
mentioning what is called the Windfor anecdote. It is as
follows ; and given by the bifhop on the authority of Dr.
Heberden : " The clergyman there, on a day when the
Athanafian creed was to be read, began with IVhofoever •will
befaved. Sec. the king, who ufuaUy refponded with a loud
voice, was filent ; the minifter repeated, m a higher tone,
his IVhofoever ; the king continued filent ; at length the
Apoftle's creed was repeated by the minifter, and the king
followed him throughout with a diftinct and audible voice."
" I certainly diflike," fays the biftiop, " the impofition of all
creeds formed by human authority ; though I do not diflike
them, as ufeful fummaries of what their compilers ielieve to
be true, either in natural or revealed rehgion." In a letter
to the duke of Grafton, dated OAober, 1 79 1, he briefly
ftates his fentiments on feveral fubjecls of importance.
Amongft other obfervations that deferve attention, he fays,
" In England we want not a fundamental revolution ; but
we certainly want a reform both in the civil and ecclcfiafti-
cal part of our conftitution ; men's minds, however, I think,
are not yet generally prepared for admitting its neceflity.
A reformer of Luther's temper and talents would, in five
years, perfuade the people to compel the parliament to
abohfli tithes, to extinguifh pluralities, to enforce refidence,
to confine epifcopacy to the overfeeing of diocefes, to ex-
punge the Athanafian creed from our liturgy, to free Dif-
fenters from tell afts, and the minifters of the eftablifliment
from fubfcription to human articles of faith. Thefe, and
other matters refpefting the church, ought to be done : I
want not courage to attempt doing what I think ought to
be done ; and I am not held back by confiderations of per-
fonal interefl: ; but my temper is peaceable, I diflike con-
tention, and truft; that the ftill voice of reafon will at length
be heard. — As to the civil ftate, it cannot long contmue as
it is, &c. &c." In a charge delivered in 1792, the bifliop
touched on feveral fubjefts of importance and general in-
tereft ; and among other things on the injuftice and impolicy
of our Teft and Corporation Ads. " There feem to me,"
fays our prelate, " but two reafons for excluding any honell
man from ehgibility to public ofSce ; — want of capacity to
ferve the office, and want of attachment to the civil confti-
tution of the country. That the Diflenters want capacity
will not be aflerted ; that they want attachment to the civil
conftitution of the country is aflerted by many, but proved
by none." — " The Diflenters are neither Tories nor Repub-
licans, but friends to the principles of the revolution ;" but
their condutl fince the revolution, and at and fince the re-
ftoration, proves that they have no defign to undermine the
conftitution of the country.

" But it may be faid, that inafmuch as the Diflenters are
enemies to the church eftabfifliment, and that the ftate is fo
allied to the church, that he who is unfriendly to the one
muft wifli the fubverfion of both. I think this reafon-
ing is not juft ; a man may certainly wifli for a change
in an ecclefiaftical eftablifhment, without wifliing for a
change in the civil conftitution of a country. An Epif-
copahan, e.g. may wifh to fee biftiops eftabliflied in all
Scotland, without wifliing Scotland to become a republic :
and he may wifti that epifcopacy may be ettabhflied in
all the American ftates, without wifhing that monarchy
may be eftabliftied in any of them. The proteftion of
life, liberty, and property, is not infeparably or exclu-
fively connetted with any particular form of church-go-
vernment. The bleflings of civil fociety depend upon the
proper execution of good laws, and upon the good morals

of the people ; but no one will attempt to prove, that the
laws and morals of the people may not be as good in Ger-
many, Switzerland, Scotland, under a Prefbyterian, as in
England or France, under an epifcopal form of church-
government," with much more to the fame purpofe.

In the year 1795 °"'' hiftiop made a fpeech in the houfo
of lords in favour of a motion by the duke of Bedford,
" that no form of government which may prevail in France
ftiould preclude a negociation with that country, or pre-
vent a peace whenever it could be made confiftently with
the honour, intereft, and fecurity of the nation." In the
following fummer he publiflied a charge, and two fcrmons,
one of them entitled " Atheifm and InfideHty refuted from
Reafon and Scripture ;" and the other " The Chriftian Re-
ligion no Impofture." In 1796 he publilhed " An Apo-
logy for the Bible," in defence of it againft the Icurrilous
abufe of Thomas Paine. Of this tract many thoufands
were diftributed at a low price, both in England and Scot-
land ; and we have reafon to believe produced the moft
benelicial efi^efts, not only in Great Britain, but in Ireland
and America. In 1798 the bifliop pubhflied an addrefs to
the people of Great Britain, which was of great fervice in
raifing the fpirit of the nation. In 1799 he delivered a
fpeech, recommending and vindicating againft objeftions a
cordial union with Ireland, as an event which would enrieh
Ireland without impoverifliing Great Britain : and that
would render the empire, as to defence, the ftrongeft in
Europe. When Mr. B. Flower was brought to the bar of
the houfe of lords for a breach of privilege in publifliing j
fomething againft the above-mentioned fpeech, the biftiop, I
when he heard of it, declared, "that he fliould feel much]
more fatisfaclion in forgiving the man's mahgnity than in j
avenging it."

In 1805 the petition of the Roman Catholics of Ireland '
was taken into confideration by both houfes of parliament,
and rejefted by great majorities in both. Previoufly to the 1
difcuffion on this queftion, bifliop Watfon communicated]
his fentiments on the fubjeft in a letter addrefled to the]
duke of Grafton. As this is a queftion &i\l fai judice, wej
fliall here introduce the general heads of argument fuggefted 1
in relation to it by the bifliop. " l. The abfolute juftice of I
tolerating rehgious opinions, fince no civil government caal
juftly poflefs more power over its fubjefts than what indivi-
duals have conjentcd to transfer to it when they entered into I
fociety ; and no individual can give up the right of wor- j
ftiipping God according to his confcience, and therefore no j
government can juftly abridge that right. 2. No civil go-
vernment has any right to take cognizance of opinions either]
political or religious, but merely of men's aftions. Thigl
principle, however, is liable to exception with rcfpeft to I
the public teachers of religion. 3. The eftabliftied religion]
of every country ought to be the religion of the majority of I
the people ; unlefs an exception be admitted, when the mi-
nority of the inhabitants poflefles a majority of the property
by which the eftabliftiment is maintained ; and even in that
cafe, humanity and policy, if not ftrift juftice, require a j
co-eftablifliment of the religion of the minority. 4. Great j
credit ought to be given to men of probity and talents, dif- 1
claiming, in exprefs terms, the moft obnoxious principles
of the church of Rome ; the odium of paft tranfaftions
ought not to be thrown upon thofe who had no concern 1
in them. 5. Conftitutionally fpeaking, the Catholic peers
and commons have no more right to fit in parliament than
a Catholic king has to fit upon the throne ; and if the |
change of times is not yet fuch that a Proteftant would en-
dure the thought of a Catholic king upon the throne, it may '
be inquired upon what principle it is that a Proteftant can

endure J

WATSON.

endure the thought of a Catholic legiflator. The principle
may be the little comparative influence of a Catholic legifla-
tor, and his abjuration of temporal tenets formerly pro-
feffed by Catholics. 6. The progrefs of fcience lias fubdued
the bigotry formerly too apparent not only in the church of
Rome, but in all the reformed churches : and it will never
be able, till a ftate of ignorance and barbarifm recurs, to
rear up its head again. There is no probability of intole-
; ranee and fuperftition ever more pervading Europe ; and
the Cacliolic religion will continue to derive light from the
labour of learning. Tlie learned Catholics are beginning
I every where to foften the afperities of their religious tenets,
and to apologize for what they cannot excufe. The Irilh
gentry partake of the illumination of the age ; and the pea-
fantry will imitate the example of their fuperiors. 7. It
may be faid that the church of Rome has not formally re-
nounced any of the doctrines maintained at the council of
.Trent, and that the court of Rome has not abandoned any
of its pretenfions to temporal dominion; yet Catholic, as
well as Proteftant, Hates have every where fpurned thefe
pretenfions; and fomething very like a formal renunciation
of one of the moll dangerous tenets of that church took
•place in Ruflia more than twenty years ago. The emprefs
I Catharine gave permiiTion to the Roman Catholics in her
dominions merely to exercife their religion ; and to have
•bifhops of their own perfuafion for the government of their
jchurch. She was prefent at the confecration of the firft
Catholic archbifhop. When the ceremony had proceeded
■to the adminiftration of the oath ufiially taken by the bifhops
of that church, the archbifhop (that was to be) refufed to
repeat the claufe " Hoereticos Ichifmaticos et rebelles domino
Jnoftro papae pro polTe perfequar et impugnato." On this
;|refufal, the ceremony was ended, frcfli inllruftions were re-
i'quired from Rome, and the then pope ordered the claufe to
!be omitted ; and it has been lince omitted, by the authority
of the pope, in the oath taken by the Irifh bifhops."

" My great objeftion," fays Watibn, " to the church of
Rome is the uncharitable principle of the infalvability of per-
il fons out of its pale ; for this principle produces a perfe-
iiCUting principle, and I muft ever deteft every fpecies of
iperfecution. I cannot however believe that Catholic eman-
;cipation will tend to theincreafe of the number of Catholics,
leitherin Ireland or in England ; on the contrary, I think the
:numberwould,by fuch a meafure,be leffened. Nothingunites
, men fo much as any degree of perfecution. Individuals,
jotherwife of no confequence, cither from talents or fortune,
.become confpicuous, and acquire a degree of weight, when
^conneftcd with a party. Men claim merit from what they
call their fufferings, who would have no ground for claiming
■it on anv other fpecies of defert."

I In fubfequent letters aildrcffod to lord Grenville in 1 8 10,
I and to fir John Cox Hippiflcy in 18 1 2, he gives the fullow-
|ing opinion of the -veto: " the appointment of the Irilh Ca-
, tholic bifhops ought to be in the king, if they are to be paid
' by the ftate ; and if they are to be paid by the Catholics
[themfelvcs, it ought to be in them ; but exclufive of all
foreign influence, recommendation, or confirmation. If
they do not accede to this, or to fomething fimilar to this,
they will aft on di principle which I did not sxpcS, nor can ap-
frove." In a letter to lord Hardwicke, dated April 2,
1812, he fays, " I make no fecret of my opinion ; a cordial
reception of Catholics and Dilfenters into the bofom of the
conftitution, by the extinftion of all difqualifications, is be-
come neceffary to fecure the independence of the empire,
and the fafety of the country."

In confequence of an imputation of want of orthodoxy,
partly occafioned by a fermon pubhflied by the bifhop, and

entitled « A Second Defence of revealed Religion," he
makes the following refleftions on the ground of this charge.
" What is this thing called orthodoxy, which mars the for-
tunes of honeft men, mifleads the judgment of princes, and
occafionally endangers the liability of thrones ? In the true
meaning of the term, it is a facred thing, to which every
denomination of Chriftians lays an arrogant and exclufive
claim, but to which no man, no affembly of men, fince the
apoftolic age, can prove a title. It is frequently, amono-
individuals of the fame feft, nothing better than felf-fuffit
ciency of opinion, and pharifaical pride, by which each
manefleems himfelf more righteous than his neighbours. It
may, perhaps, be ufeful in cementing what is called the
alliance between the church and ftate ; but if fuch an alliance
obftrufts candid difcuflions, if it invades the right of pri-
vate judgment, if it generates bigotry in churchmen, or in-
tolerance in ftatefmen, it not only becomes inconfiftent with
the general principles of Proteftantifm, but it impedes the
progrefs of the kingdom of Chrift, which we all know is
not of this world."

The next public occafion on which our biftiop diftin-
guilhed himfelf was on the debate which took place in the
houfe of lords, March 23, 1807, concerning the abolitioa
of the flave-trade. For the affirmative of this queftion he
delivered a fpeech, abounding with hiftorical information and
found argument. When the adminiftration that had been
formed on the deatli of Mr. Pitt was difmifled, he exprefled
in ftrong terms his difapprobation of tlie oftenfible reafofi
alleged for its difmiffion, which was the king's diflike of a
meafure which had been brought forward in parliament re-
fpedling the Irifh Catholic officers ; and the requifition on
the part of his majefty of a pledge that this adminiftration
would never more bring forward the queftion of granting
farther indulgence to the Irifh CathoUcs. This requifition
was confidered by many as having a tendency dangerous to
the conftitution ; and to Dr. W. it appeared " to be not in
words, but in fad, a declaration of s.fic volo." On occa-
fion of the difmifiion of this " half Whig, and half Tory
adminiftration," as he calls it, he communicated to lord
Grenville a refolution, which he conceived to be fit to be in-
troduced in the houfe of lords, whenever the fubjeft fhoiild
be brought forward, and which lord Grenville aftually
adopted in loto, as better in his opinion than any thing which
had occurred either to himfelf or to his friends. The refo-
tion was as follows : " Refolved, that whoever has advifed,
or fhall in future adyife, his majefl:y to require from his con-
fidential fervants a pledge, that they will, on any occafion,
abflain from fubmitting to his confidcration any meafure of
government which they, in their confcionces, believe to be
conducive to the public weal, is and ought by this houfe to
be declared to be an enemy to the conftitution of this coun-
try." Soon afterwards lie fent to the duke of Grafton a
lefs firm refolution, which he thought might be more ac-
ceptable to the then houfe of lords. Neither of thefe refo-
hitions, however, was ultimately adopted ; but the refolu-
tio[i that was aftually propofed was, after a debate which
lafted till 7 o'clock in the morning, negatived by a great
majority. A violent alarm againll Popery and of the
church's danger prevailed, during which the bifhop declared
his opinion, " that it was both juft, and in the ftate of Buo-
naparte's ftrength and temper towards us, highly expedient,
to receive both Cathohcs and DifTenters into the bolom of the
conftitution", but that it was improper to prefs any innova-
tion till the people were prepared to receive it ; and that"
(in his opinion) " the time was not yet come for the general
adoption of fuch a pohtical and equitable principle of go-
vernment. Toleration was in every man's jsouth ; but do-
1 1 minion

WATSON.

minion over the faith of other men, exclHfion from privi-
leges poflefled by themfelves, and a difpofition to the exer-
cile of power without right, were in the hearts of a great
part, probably of a majority of the people of Great
Britain."

In reply to a letter, in which the writer exprefTes a wifh,
that the bithop would anfwer Mr. Malthus's book, intitled
" An Effay on Population," and in which, as he reprefents
it, the author endeavours to eftablifh a code of morality in
oppofition to the morality of the gofpel. Dr. W. obferves
that Mr. Malthus appeared to him to be " endeavour-
ing to (hew the utility of bringing down the population of
the earth to the level of the fubfiftence requifite for the
fupport of man," (a propofition wanting no proof, fince
where there is no food, man muft die, ) " and that in his judg-
ment, his time and talents would have been better employed
in the inveftigation of the means of increafing the fubfiftence
to the level of the population." He fays, however, that
after having looked into this book, he was juftified in neg-
lefting to perufe it, as it thwarted the ftrongeft propenfity
of human nature, and contradifted the moll exprefs com-
mand of God, " Increafe and multiply ;" more efpecially as
he was perfuaded, " that the earth had not, in the courfe of
6000 years from the creation, ever been replenifhed with any
thing like one half the number of inhabitants it would fuf-
tain."

The biftiop might indeed well regret, as he frequently,
perhaps too frequently does, the inattention to his merits, and
daims on higher preferment than a poor Wel(h bifhopric,
which he had long experienced, after a long courfe of lite-
rary labour and public fervice. Mr. Pitt profefled himfelf
well difpofed towards him, but alleged " that z certain per f on
would not hear of it." " Notwithllanding this anecdote,"
fays the bifhop, " I cannot bring myfelf to believe that the
king was either the firft projeftor, or the principal aftor in
the forry farce of neglefting a man whom they could
not difhonour, of diftrefling a man whom they could not
difpirit, which has been playing at court for near 26 years."
Acquitting Mr. Pitt, though he knew that no minifter
would be very zealous in promoting a man who profefled and
praftifed parliamentary and perfonal independence, from the
charge of forgetting either obhgations or conneftions in the
purfuit of his ambition, he lays the blame on a more exalted
perfonage. " As to the king's diflike of me, unlefs his
education had made him more of a Whig, it was natural
enough. My declared oppofition to the increafed and in-
creafing influence of the crown had made a great impreflion
on his majefty's mind."

Of the bill, introduced into the houfe of commons by
the chancellor of the exchequer in 1808, for making more
effcAual provifion for the maintenance of ftipendiary curates
in England and Wales, and for their refidence on their cures,
he exprefled his difapprobation, with the reafon of it, in
letters addrefled both to the archbilhop of Canterbury and
Mr. Percival. He rejoiced, however, in the grant of
100,000/. a year by a vote of parliament in 1809, in lieu
of queen Anne's bounty ; but in his charge of that year,
referring to a letter previoufly written to lord Hawkef-
bury on this occalion, he renews his complaint of the man-
ner in which he had been neglefted, alleging that he never
had any place of refidence amongft his clergy, nor a church-
income fufficient to enable him to attend every year his par-
liamentary duty. Having, in the year 1809, and during
an extenfive .vifitatioii of his diocefe, held a confirmation at
Merthyr-Tydvil, he was hofpitably accommodated at the
houfe of the late Mr. Crawfhay, a well-known iron-mafter,
jffhofe hofpitality the writer of this article has experienced ;

and before he left the diocefe, Mr. C. came to LandafF to
take leave of him. On this occafion, taking the bilhop by
the hand, he faid to him, " If ever you have occafion for
5 or 10,000/. it (hall be wholly at your fervice." Of courfe ,
declining to avail himfelf of this generous offer, he never- |
thelefs declares, " I was more delighted with this fubftan-
tial proof of the difinterefted approbation of an iron-mafter
than I (hould have been with the poffeflion of an arch- j
bifliopric acquired by a felfifli fubferviency to the defpotic '
principles of a court."

On the fubjeftof Lancafterian fchools and bible focieties,
he declares his opinion to be, " that certain zealous men in
the eftablifhed church have fuffered their apprehenfions for
its fafety to outftrip all probabihty of danger ariiing to it,
from the inftitution of either Lancafterian fchools or auxi-
liary bible focieties. The church is in no danger from Pro-
teftant or Cathohc Diflenters ; but the ftate muft ever be in
danger from difcontent breeding difaffeftion, whilft a large
portion of its members is looked upon by government with a 1
jealous and repulfive eye." On another occafion, in a letter (
to Mr. Wyvill, Oft. 21, 1813, he exprefles fentiments of a '
iimilar kind : " the ftruggle for the liberty of Europe has
been moil nobly fuftained by Great Britain, and might it !
not at this period be fuccefsfully terminated by our govern- I
ment granting emancipation to the Catholics, and a repeal sf
the Teft and Corporation afts to the Diflenters I Thefe
conceffions would be more powerful means of defence tiian
all the confcriptions of our enemy can ever be to the con-
trary." We cannot forbear fubjoining a paragraph from
Mr. Wy vill's reply : " Mr. Fox proved the fincerity of his
attachment to liberty, civil and religious, by the long fer-
vice of 30 years, almoft wholly fpent in parliament, under
the frowns of power : your lordfhip, I believe, has given a
fimilar proof of your attachment to that beft of caufes.
You have endured a fimilar profcription from men who
afted on the fame unworthy motives, and the confequence
has been almoft the fame : you have at Landaff^ been fo long
Ihut out from the road to the higher honours of the church.
But how much higher have you rifen by having obtained the
undifputed dignity of virtue, benevolence, patriotifm, and
the true fpirit of Chriftianity !" Well might the bifhop re-
ply to Mr. Wyvill, " I am proud of your honourable tef-
timony to that pohtical confiftency of principle, which
unites my name to that of Mr. Fox."

From this period the health of the bifliop rapidly de-
clined ; and though his mental faculties continued unim- j
paired, yet bodily exercife and literary compofition became [
irkfome to him. He expired on the 4th of July, 1816, in
the 79th year of his age ; illuftrating, as the publifher of his
Memoirs fays, in death the truth of his favourite rule of
conduft through life : " Keep innocency, and take heed
unto the thing that is right, for that fhall bring a man peace
at the laft."

Having availed ourfelves of the work now before us, we
make no apology for extending this article beyond the ufual
limits of our biographical (ketches. From the honour of
an early acquaintance with the fubjeft of this article, and
from a full conviftJon of his uniform integrity, as well as
his pre-eminent talents, we felt a peculiar intereft in the pe-
rufal of the memoirs of his hfe. Diftinguifhed by mental
powers of a fuperior order, and by public fervices which
have feldom been paralleled, we pay this tribute of refpeft to
his memory. His charafter needs no dehneation befides the
" Anecdotes" which his own pen has furnifhed. In every
department which he occupied, firft as a ftudent, and after,
wards as a tutor and profeflbr in the univerfity of Cam-
bridge, as a prelate and a member of the legiflature, and in

the

WAT

the latter period of his life as an agriculturiil, his afiiduily
and a£tivity were indefatigable and perfevering. To fay
nothing of his folicitude for the beft interefts of his friends
and his family, the ardour of his zeal in promoting the
honour and profperity of the church and civil community to
which he belonged, by thofe means which, according to his
comprehenfi»eand liberal views, he thought to be moft con-
ducive to this purpofe, muft approve itfelf in a high degree
to thofe who entt-rtained fentiments fimilar to his own, and
it will need little apology in the candid judgment of thofe
who moft differ from him in their opinion of public men and
public meafures. As he always fpoke and afted from the
convidion of a well-informed and upright mind, and coun-
terafted his own fecular intereft by the courfe he purfued,
his fentiments claim deference, and his conduct will com-
mand refpeft. If it Ihould occur to any who perufe the
anecdotes, now before us, that he was too ambitious of pre-
ferment, it muft be recoUefted, that the merit of his fer-
vices, both to the church and ftate, of wliich he could not be
unconfcious, and the elevated conneftions which his ftation
in the univerfity had led him to form, encouraged reafonable
EXpeflations of a higher rank in the church than a poor bi-
fhopric in Wales ; fo that he could not otherwife than feel
himfelf negleAed and difappointed. His private fortune,
though his patrimony had been expended, was rendered
ample by the liberahty of his friend Mr. Luther, and there-
fore he had no juft reafon for complaint on this account ;
and yet it (liould be confidered that he had a family, for
ivhich he wilhed to provide in a manner fuitable to the cir-
cumftances in which his aggregate income had placed them.
Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watfon, bilhop of Lan-
daif, written by himfelf at different intervals, and revifed in
1814,410., publifhed by Iiis fon, Richard Watfon, LL.B.
prebendary of Landaff and Wells. Lond. 1817.

Watson, in Geography, a town of Virginia ; 35 miles
S.W. of Richmond.

Watson'/ Ijland, an ifland in the Mergui Archipelago,
of an oval form, and about 1 2 miles in circumference. N.
lat. (/ 36'.

WATSON I A, in Botany, was fo called by Miller,
after the late fir William Watfon, knight, M.D. F.R.S.,
well known by his numerous papers in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, on many fubjefts connefted with the hiftory
of Botany, and eminently diftinguifhed for his cultivation
of feveral branches of philofophical and medical knowledge.
Miller's genus being funk by Linnaeus in Antholyza, the
Butiner'ia was called Walfonia by Boehmer ; but the original
one, reftored by Mr. Kcr, is now generally, and with great
propriety, adopted. — Mill. Ic. 1 84. Ker in Sims and Kon.
Ann. of Bot. v. i. 229. Dryand. in Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. I. 93 — Clafs and order, Triandria Monogyma. Nat.
Ord. Enfatt, Linn. Ir'tdes, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Spatha inferior, fhorter than the corolla,
of two oblong, clofe-preffed, permanent valves. Cor. of
one petal, fuperior : tube cylindrical throughout, fomewhat
enlarged, but not fpreading, in the elongated throat, curved :
limb nearly regular, in fix deep, flat, fpreading, almoft equal
fegmcnts. Stam. Filaments three, inferted into the tube at
the origin of the throat, thread-lhaped, afcending, fhorter than
the corolla; anthers oblong, fomewhat parallel, incumbent.
P'ljl. Germen inferior, oblong, furrowed j ftyle thread-
j lliaped, longer than the ftamens ; ftigmas three, flender, deeply
; cloven, fpreading, recurved. Peric. Capfule oblong, bluntly
[triangular, cartilaginous, of three cells and three valves.
Seeds numerous, imbricated downwards, angular in their
lower part, dilated into more or Icfs of a wing at the upper
end.

WAT

Eil". Ch. Spatha of two valves. Corolla tubular, with
a cyhndrical throat; its limb in fix deep, nearly equal,
fegments. Stigmas three, thread-fhaped, deeply cloven, the
fegments recurved. Capfule cartilaginous. Seeds nume-
rous, angular.

This genus differs from Gladiolus in its almoft regular
corolla, with a cylindrical throat ; narrow, divided, not ^\-
hted, Jigmas ; and angular, fcarcely winged, feeds: An-
tuolyza, as now hmited, is diftinguiflied from it, by hav-
ing a ringent limb, of unequal and diflimilar fegments ;
fimple Jligmas ; and nearly globular feeds. See thofe ar-
ticles.

1. W. fpicata. Hollow-leaved Watfonia. Ker in Curt.
Mag. at p. 553. Ait, n. i. (Ixia fpicata; Willd. Sp.
PI. v. 1. 200. I. cepacea; Redout. Liliac. t. 96. I. fif-
tulofa; Curt. Mag. t. 523. I. alopecuroidea ; Linn.
Suppl. 92. Gladiolus fpicatus ; Linn. Sp. PI. 53. Thunb.
Gladiol. n. 13. G. fiftulofus ; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.

v. I, 8. t. 16.) — Leaves cylindrical, hollow Gathered by

Thunberg, on the higheft hills of Hottentot's Holland, at
the Cape of Good Hope, flowering in December and Janu-
ary. By fir Jofeph Banks's herbarium, this fpecies appears
to have been cultivated by Mr. W. Mdcolm, in 1791. It
blooms in the European green-houfes in May, but not very
readily, often bearing fmall oat-like bulbs in the place of
flowers. The iull> is fmall, round, with a fibrous coat.
Stem leafy, from eight to twelve inches high. Leaves alter-
nate, very remarkable for their cylindrical inflated form, gra-
dually fwelling upwards, obtufe, with a fmall point ; their
furface very fmooth ; their bafe Iheathing. Flowers either
light blue or pale purple, very numerous, clofely imbricated
in a two-ranked tapering fpike, with reddifii crmzXg Jheaths.
Corolla regular, expanding rather more than half an inch.
We do not find that the Jligmas of this plant are cloven, as
the generic charafter requires, and we ftiould rather have
left it ill Ixia, till it could otherwife have been difpofed of.
The fame remark applies to the following. The name fpicata
is not fo exclufively appropriate as Jijlulofa or cepacea would
have been, but it is the oldeft name, and hable to no objec-
tion. This is certainly, as far as we can make out, the
original Gladiolus fpicatus of Linnaeus, though he, long after
its pubhcation, very inadvertently laid into his herbarium,
under that name, a Siberian fpecimen of a fmall-flowered
variety of G. communis.

2. W. plantaginea. Plantain-fpiked Watfonia. Ker in
Curt. Mag. t. 553. Ait. n. 2. ( Ixia plantaginea ; Willd.
Sp. PI. V.I. 200. Gladiolus alopecuroides ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 54. Amoen. Acad. v. 4. 301. Thunb. Gladiol.
n. 14.) — Upper leaves linear-fwordfiiaped, many-ribbed:
lowermoft hollow, comprefled. Flowers imbricated in two

rows Gathered by Thunberg in feveral places near the

town, at the Cape of Good Hope, often in the highways.
This differs effentially from the fpecies juft defcribed, in
having the ufual fword-ftiaped foliage of its natural order.
TheiT flowers nearly refemble each other. Thefe are in the
prefent fpecies either blue or white, very numerous, forming
a denfe two-ranked fpike, with membranous-edged Jheathsy
recalling the idea of fome kind of Plantain. Sometimes
ezc\i_fiem bears two or three (uch fpiies, which are then very
large and luxuriant ; but in our cultivated fpecimens they
are ufually folitary, as well as much fmaller. The flowers
are without fcent.

3. W. punaata. Dotted-flowered Watfonia. Ker in
Ann. of Bot. n. I. Ait. n. 3. (Ixia punftata ; Andr.
Repof. t. 177.) — Leaves linear-awlfhaped, compreffed.

Spike about three-flowered Sent from the Cape of Good

Hope, in 1800, by Mr. Niven, to his employer Geo. Hib-

bert.

WATSON I A.

bert, efq. in whofe green-houfe at Clapham it flowered the
fpring following. Bulb roundilh, deprefled. Stem leafy,
{lender, about a foot high. Leaves few, alternate, very
narrow, fpreading in two direAions. Flowers agreeing in
fize and difpofition with thofe of Ixia maculata, about three
in number, of a fine purple, marked with dotted or beaded
veins ; their fegments regular, elliptical, longer than the
tube, three of them rather fmaller than the reft. Stigmas
three, deeply divided.; or rather, we (hould fay, fix, ftrap-
ihaped, obtufe, revolute, downy. The charafter of the
Jligmas anfwers to Watfonia, but the habit is very unlike the
other fpecies.

4. W. marginata. Broad Bordered-leaved Watfonia.
Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 608. Ait. n. 4. (Gladiolus mar-
ginatus ; Linn. Suppl. 95. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 217.
Thunb. Gladiol. n. 20.) — Leaves fword-fiiaped, with thick
callous edges. Spike fomewhat compound. Mouth of the
corolla with fix teeth. — Abundant on gralTy hills at the
Cape of Good Hope, as well as on the Table-mountain,
and other elevated ground, flowering from Oftober to De-
cember often in fuch profufion, as to cover the hills as it
were with a beautiful rofe-coloured carpet. Thunberg. In
our grcen-houfes it readily bloflbms from June to Auguft,
efpecially if planted in deep pots, and as readily increafes,
being, as Mr. Ker obferves, become within a few years one
Ckf the commoneft of its tribe. The great fize of the
plant, its thick-edged leaves, not indeed well expreffed in
the Botanical Magazine, and the copious, rofe-coloured
Jloivers, fmelling like Hawthorn, or Heliotrope, render this
one of the moll defirable and ftriking of the Cape bulbs.
The corolla is regular, with a tube about equal to its limb,
having a fhort cylindrical throat. Stigmas long, each in
two divaricated revolute fegments.

5. W. rofea. Pyramidal-fpiked Watfonia. Ker in
Ann. of Bot. n. 5. Curt. Mag. t. 1072. Ait. n. 5.
(Gladiolus glumaceus ; Thunb. Prodr. 186. Vahl Enum.
V. 2. 105. G. marginatus ^; Thunb. Gladiol. n. 20. G.
iridifolii varietas ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 235. G. pyramidatus;
Andr. Repof. t. 335.) — Leaves fword-fiiaped, thickened
at the edges. Spike compound. Mouth of the corolla
naked. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope. It appears
to have flowered, for the firft time in England, at the Dow-
ager Lady de Clifford's, in Auguft 1803. One of the
largeft of its tribe, being fometimes four feet high. We
cannot wonder at this having been taken for a variety of
the laft, at leaft while the fpecies of this difficult order of
plants were but fuperficially examined. The prefent is,
however, the larger and more ftately plant of the two, with
e"ven more beautiful rofe-coloured Jloivers, whofe corolla
wants the fix marginal teeth round the mouth, which
eflentially diftinguifh the preceding.

6. W. brevifoUa. Short-leaved Watfonia. Ker in
Curt. Mag. t. 601. Ait. n. 6. (Antholyza fpicata ;
Andr. Repof. t. 56. Gladiolus teftaceus ; Vahl Enum.
V. 2. 105.) — Leaves ovate-fwordftiaped, equitant, very
fhort. Tube, throat, and limb, of the corolla equal in
length ; mouth naked. — Native of the Cape of Good
Hope, from whence it was imported by Meflrs. Lee and
Kennedy, through the hands of Mr. Pringle of Madeira,
in 1794. The leaves are about four, almoft perfeftly radi-
cal, remarkable for their fhortnefs, being but two or three
inches long, though near an inch wide ; their edges cartila-
ginous, though very narrow. Stem twelve or eighteen
inches high. Spike long, ereft, fimple, or fometimes
branched, but not compofed of little fpikclets. Flowers
of a tawny red, about the fize of IV. marginata, but the
proportion of their tube, and efpecially their throat, is longer

compared with the Umh. Their colour would lead us to
expeft fome fragrance, in the evening at leaft, but this is
faid not to be the cafe. They have, however, the advantage
of being much more lafting than fome of their allies. The
Jligmas are deeply cloven.

7. W. iridifoUa. Flag -leaved Watfonia. Ker in Ann.
of Bot. n. 12. Ait. n. 7. (Gladiolus iridifolius ; Jacq.
Ic. Rar. t. 234. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 215, excluding the
fynonym of G. cardinalis. ) — /3. var. fulgens ; Curt. Mag.
t. 600. (Antholyza fulgens ; Andr. Repof. t. 192. Gla-
diolus marginatus -/ ; Thunb. Gladiol. n. 20.) — Throat of
the corolla curved, longer than the tube, and rather longer
than the acute Hmb. Leaves fword-fhaped, ereft, with a
prominent midrib. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope,
from whence it was fent by Mr. MafTon, in 1795. The
variety /S is preferred, on account of the fplendid fcarlet co-
lour of its flowers, in which alone it is faid to differ from
the pale greyifh- flowered plant, figured by Jacquin. We
have not feen the latter, but if the figure be correft, the
tube, and the cylindrical throat, are, each of them-, fhorter
in proportion to the Jheath, and to the limb, than in the
fcarlet kind. The leaves in both are long, ereft, and
fcarcely thickened at the edges, having more of a midrib
than the feveral foregoing fpecies. The /pathos, in the
fcarlet variety, are not much above half the length of the
flender tube, which is about two- thirds as long as the
greatly-extended, cylindrical, curved, and ftrongly deflexed
throat. The latter exceeds the length of the elliptical,
acute, recurved, nearly equal, fegments of the limb. An*
thers violet. Stigmas cloven half way down, divaricated.

8. W. Meriana. Red Watfonia. Ker in Ann. of Bot.
n. II. Curt. Mag. t. 1194. Ait. n. 8. (Watfonia;
Mill. Ic. t. 276. Antholyza Meriana ; Linn. Sp. PI. 54.
Curt. Mag. t. 418. Gladiolus Merianus ; Willd. Sp. PI.
V. I. 214. Vahl Enum. v. i. 94. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 230.
Redout. Liliac. t. 1 1 . Meriana flore rubello ; Trew.
Ehret. t. 40. )

^. W. angufta; Ker Ann. of Bot. n. 9. (G. Merianas
var. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 231.) — Throat of the coroUa
curved, rather longer than the tube, and longer than
the obtufe limb ; tube longer than the fpatha. Leaves
fword-fhaped, ereft, with a prominent midrib. — Native of
the Cape of Good Hope. Raifed from feed, before 1750,
in Chelfea garden, by Miller, who firft gave it the name of
Watfonia. A large and handfome fpecies nearly akin to
the lait, but fufBciently diftinft, and charafterized by the
blunt fegments of its corolla. The proper hue of the
jlo-wers is a peculiar falmon-coloured red, rather than a
fcarlet, as may be feen in Miller's and Jacquin's figures,
and efpecially Curtis's t. 418. But the corolla varies in
this rcfpeft, as well as in fize, of which the two ex-
tremes are the Botan. Mag. t. 1194, and Jacq. Ic. Rar.
t. 231. The latter, which we have never feen in England,
was referred to this fpecies by the lite Mr. Dryander,
from a drawing fent by Jacquin, how juftly can only be a
matter of opinion, unlefs living fpecimens were accurately
compared. The fpecies before us flowers with other Cape
bulbs in May and June, increafing plentifully by offsets.

9. W. humilis. Crimfon Watfonia. Mill. Ic. t. 297.
f. 2. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 631. 1195. Ait. n. 9. (Gla-
diolus laccatus ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 232. Willd. Sp. PI.
v. I. 215.) — Throat of the corolla curved, rather longer
than the acute limb ; tube the length of the fpatha.
Leaves fword-fhaped, ereft, with a prominent midrib. —
Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence the feeds
were obtained by Miller, in 1754. Much fmaller than
feveral of the laft defcribed, beiag feldom above a foot

high,

WAT

Kigh, with lineal- leaves. The flowers are of a crimfoa, oi-
role-coloured, hue, not verging towards a fcarlet, or tawny-
red. They vary in fize, as may be feen by the two figures
in the Eotanical Magazine. The throat is correftly cyhn-
drical ; tube generally fhorter than the fpatha, not long;er.
We are obliged to content ourfelves with the above fpecific
charafters, founded on the proportion of thefe parts, for
want of better. Mr. Ker and Mr. Dryander have done
much towards the corredl difcrimination of genera and fpe-
cies in this favourite tribe, but the fubjeft is far from
being exhaufted.

10. W. rofeo-alba. Long-tubed Watfonia. Ker in
Curt. Mag. t. 537. Ait. Epit. 376. (Gladiolus rofeo-
albus ; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr, v. i. 7. t. 13. Vahl Enum.
T. 2. 93.)

/S. Variegated with red. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 1 193.

Ait. Epit. 376 Tube about twice the length of the

throat, limb, or fpatha, making nearly a right angle with
the throat. Leaves fword-lhaped, with a midrib. — Native
of the Cape of Good Hope. The tube is one and a half or
two inches long, ere£l ; throat fuddenly deflexed, cylindri-
cal, rather (lender, an inch long ; fegments of the limb lan-
ceolate, acute, the length of the throat. Anthers \iw\.\\x^
projefting out of the mouth of the flower, violet-coloured.
Stigmas in linear fegments. The corolla is either cream-co-
loured, with rofe-coloured tints about the mouth and throat,
or flefh-coloured blotched with fcarlet, or all over crimfon.
The flowert are more numerous and crowded than in W.
Meriana and its allies. We cannot doubt the diftinftnefs
of this fpecies.

11. W. aletroiJes. Aletris-flowered Watfonia. Ker in
Ann. of Bot. n. 7. Ait. n. 10. Curt. Mag. t. 533. (Gla-
diolus tubulofus ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 229. Antholyza tubu-
lofa; Andr. Repof. t. 174. A. Merianella ; Curt. Mag.
t. 441, excluding the reference to Miller.) — Throat de-
flexed, four times as long as the fegments of the limb —
Found at the Cape of Good Hope by Mr. MafTon, who
fent bulbs to Kew garden in 1774. This elegant fpecies
bears numerous drooping^^ow^rj, of a rich crimfon, fome-
times fpeckled with a darker tint, or with white, and re-
markable for their fmall flightly-fpreading limb, fo fliort in
proportion to the long tubular deflexed throat, that they re-
femble the flowers of an Aletris or Aloe. The leaves are
fword-fhaped, narrow, with a central rib not very ftrongly
marked, and feveral fmall lateral ones.

12. W . flriaifltra. Straight- flowered Watfonia. Ker
in Curt. Mag. t. 1406. Ait. Epit. 376. — Tube thread-
fhaped, twice the length of the fpatha ; throat ereft, very
(hort, (lightly dilated ; fegments of the limb elliptical,
obtufe, half the length of the tube. Leaves fword-fhaped,
with a prominent midrib. — Native of the Cape of Good
Hope, from whence it was imported by the honourable
W. Herbert. The flem is about twelve or eighteen inches
high, with feveral (hortifli taper-pointed leaves at the bottom,
and bears about two handfome crimfon fleivers, refembling
fonie of the larger IxU, in the fhape, fize, and pofture of
the limb, with a very long ftraight (lender tube. Stigmas
divided, as in true Watfonia, the only charafter in which
this plant anfwers to the genus. On the contrary, Gla-
diolus Watfonius, Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 233. Willd. Sp. PI.
v. I. 214. Ait. v. I. 96. Curt. Mag. t. 450 and 569, (fee
Gladiolus,) has every charafter and appearance of a Wat-
fonia, even a regular i?o'a;(;r, except the narrow deeply cloven
Jligmas. We are obbged, therefore, to confefs, that thefe ge-
nera do not at prefent reft on any natural dillinftion, how-
ever different fome of their fpecies may be from each
ether.

Voi-.XXXVnL

W A T

WAT-TAUPAUMENE, or St. Peter, in Geography,
a nver of North America, which runs into the Miffifiippi.
N. lat. 44° 42'. W. long. 93° 38'.

WATTEAU, Anthony, in Biography, one of the moft
agreeable painters of the French fchool, was born at Valen-
ciennes in 1 684. His parents were in indigent circumftances,
and he was placed with an obfcure artill in his native city, to
cultivate a talent which manifeftcd itfelf early. When he was
about 1 6 years old, having already furpaffed his preceptor,
he conneded himfelf with a fcene-painter on his way to Paris,
and for fome time alTifted his alTociate in decorating the
opera-houfo in that city. When this engagement was com-
pleted Watteau found it difficult to refcue himfelf from the
obfcurity and embarrafTment into which he fell, when happily
he became acquainted with Claude Gillot, a painter of gro-
tefque and fabulous fubj-cts, who was pleafed with his
works and difpofition. Gillot afl'orded him an afylum in Ids
own houfe, and then inftrufted him in all he knew of the art,
and found an apt and agreeable fcholar in his protegee. With
the help he thus received from Gillot, and his own admiratipn
and attentive ftudy of the Luxembourg gallery, he formed a
tafl:e for colouring, which if not as grand,_is at leaft as agree-
able, as ever was employed by any one.

He attempted to prepare himfelf for hiftorical painting,
and ftudied at the academy with that view ; he even was 10
fuccefsful as to obtain the firft prize there for an hiftorical
pidture ; but happily he difcovered a charafter of fubje A quite
original and exaftly fuited to his tafte, for which he wifely
deferted hiftory, and which has fince formed plenty of afpir-
ants, but has never been fo fuccefsfuUy praftifed. The
theatre, the opera, fetes champetres, mafquerades, panto-
mimes, puppet-fhows, afforded him his (igures ; the garden*
of the Luxembourg and of the Thuilleries, of Verfailles and
St. Cloud, furnifhed the fcenes. In thefe nature prevails
only in the colouring, and that is exquifite, rich, delicate,
clear, and full ; bright without gaudinefs, and deep without
blacknefs ; laid on with a freedom, fulnefs, and delicacy of
touch, which no one ever furpafled ; but the airs of his
figures are generally afFefted to the higheft degree ; people
of rank and fafhion, aping the enjoyments of rural life : and
when he attempted to paint domeftic or rural fcenes, he
carried the fame tafte into his praftice. The true charac-
ter of Watteau's piftures is French gentility, gay, cheerful,
debonnaire, of which felf-fatisfaftion is the fureft bafis.
" In his halts and marches of cavalry, the carelefs ftrut
of his foldiers retains the air of a nation that afpires to be
agreeable as well as viftorious." Watteau vifited England
in the reign of George I., but did not enjoy his health here,
and returned to France in about a year, where he died in 1721,
at the early age of 37.

WATTEN, in Geography, a town in Scotland, in the

county of Caithnefs ; 7 miles N.W. of Wick Alfo, a

town of France, in the department of the North, on the
Aa ; 4 miles N. of St. Omer.

WATTENSCHIED,a town ofGermany, in the county
of Mark ; 5 miles S. W. of Bockum.

WATTE R, a river which rifes in the county of Wal-
deck, and runs into the Erpe, near Volckmarfen.

WATTERPUTTEN, a town of Hlndooftan, in Con-
can ; 5 miles S. of Geriah.

WATTINAD, a town of Hlndooftan, in the Camatic ;
20 miles S.S.E. of Taryore.

WATTLE, in Agriculture and Rural Economy, a kind of

hurdle formed by means of fplit wood, or fmail rods, and

ufed for making folds for iheep. The term alfo fignifiea a

flefhy excrefcence growing from under the top of the throat*

B b of

WAT

of animals, fiich as the cock, turkey, and fome others. See
Hurdle.

WATTLE-BirJ. See Glaucopis Cinerea.
Wattles, in Rural Economy, a term applied, in fome
places, to the rods that are laid upon a roof to be thatched
on. This is found an ufeful and cheap mode for farm build-
ings in fome of the fouthern diftrifts. See Thatching.

WATTON, in Geography, a fmall market-town in the
hundred of Wayland and county of Norfolk, England, is
fituated on the confines of what is called the Filand, or open
part of the county, at the diftance of 21 miles W. by S. from
Norwich, and 91 miles N.N.E. from London. Since the
making of the turnpike-road through the hundred, Watton has
become a place of confiderable thoroughfare. It has three
annual fairs, and a refpeftable weekly market on Wednefdays.
Great quantities of butter are fent hence for the fupply of
the London markets. In the enumeration of the popula-
tion for the year 181 1, the pari(h was ftated to contain 177
houfes, with a population of 794 perfons. The church is
very fmall, being only twenty yards long and eleven broad :
the tower is round at the bottom, and oftangular at the top.
Blomefield was induced, from the appearance of the church,
to fuppofe it was erefted fo early as the reign of Henry I.
It ftands at a diitance from the town, near the fcite of the old
manorial houfe ; and was evidently fo placed to accommo-
date the tenants of the feveral hamlets belonging to the ma-
nor. On the 25th of April 1673, a dreadful fire happened
in the town, when above fixty houfes were burnt down, be-
fides outhoufes, &c. to the damage of 74J0/., and goods to
the further value of 2660/. : for which a brief was granted to
colleft throughout England for two years. — Blomefield's
Effay towards a Topograpliical Hiftory of Norfolk, vol. 2.
8vo. 1805. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xi. Nor-
folk. By Rev. J. Evans, and J. Britton, F.S.A.

WATTS, Isaac, D.D. in Biography, a Nonconformift
divine, eminently diftinguifhed for talents and piety, was born
at Southampton in 1674, where, under the tuition of a clergy-
man of the eilablifhed church, he made rapid progrefs in the
Latin and Greek languages, and acquired fome knowledge
even of Hebrew. When it was propofed by fome gentlemen
who were apprized of his proficiency, to bear the charges of
his education in one of the Enghfh univerfities, he declared his
purpofe of continuing among the Diffenters, though his father,
who was of that profeflion, hadoften fuffered perfecution ; and
at the age of fixteen he was placed under the care of the Rev.
Thomas Rowe, who kept an academy in London. Twenty-
two Latin diflertations on metaphyfical and theological fub-
jefts, found among his papers, afford ample evidence of his
zealous application during his connexion with this inftitu-
tion. Of his poetical talents at the early age of fifteen years
feveral fpecimens have been preferved, and more particularly
a Pindaric ode, addreffed to his preceptor Mr. Pinhorne. At
the age of twenty he finifhed his academical ftudies, and
reiided with his father for two years with a view to farther
improvement. At this time he was invited to become private
tutor to the fon of fir John Hartopp, bart. at Stoke-Newing-
ton near London, and in this fituation he continued for five
years, gaining univerfal efteem, cultivating a friendfliip with
his pupil which lafted through life, and connefting with the
difcharge of his office the ftudy of the fcriptures in the
original languages. Although he was well qualified for the
public exercife of his miniftry, fuch was his diffidence that
he would not venture to afcend the pulpit till he had com-
pleted his twenty-fourth year, at which time he was chofen
affiftant to Dr. Ifaac Chauncy, whom he fucceeded as paftor
in the year 1702. His conftitution was fo delicate that he
could not undertake the whole fervice, and the attack of a

WAT

fever in 17 1 2 difiqualified him for his public duties for
four years. In this ftate of debility he was kindly re-
ceived in the houfe of fir Thomas Abney, where the indulgent
treatment of this gentleman and his lady contributed to reftore
his health and fpirits. In this hofpitable manfion he not only
found a temporary afylum, but a permanent abode for the
remaining thirty-fix years of his hfe. Here he enjoyed every
comfort which friendlhip and liberality could bellow, and
which, by repairing his enfeebled frame, enabled him to re-
lume his iervices in public and to profecute his private ftu-
dies, no lefs to the improvement and fatisfatlion of thofe
with whom he was immediately connected, than to the bene-
fi.t of the world ; iniomuch that few perfons have acquired a
more extenfive and a more permanent popularity, as it re-
fpefts the interefts both of literature and of religion. His
reputation attradted the notice of both the univerfitiesof Edin-
burgh and Aberdeen, and they feemed to vie with each other
which Ihould firft confer upon him the honour of the degree of
doftor in divinity, and he received it from thefe two univerfi-
ties in the year 1728. His conftitution, though in fome de-
gree renovated by the attention and kindnefs which- he expe-
rienced, was ftill fo delicate and feeble, that he found it ne-
ceflary to remit, and at length to refign his minifterial duties ;
but his congregation teftified their refpeft for him by declin-
ing to accept his offer of the renunciation of his ufual falary.
However, he gradually dechned, and calmly expired at Stoke
Newington, November the 25th, 1748, in the 75th year of
his age.

Dr. Watts was a man of lively fancy, warm feelings, and
a comprehenfive underftanding, and diftinguifhed by that
verfatiiity of talents and purfuits, which enabled him to ac-
quire a confiderable degree of reputation in various depart-
ments of literature, but which prevented his arriving at a
fupereminent rank in any. The charafteriftic quality of his
mind, manifefted in his numerous produftions, was a devo-
tional fpirit. Of his " Horas Lyricas," the greateft number
belongs to the devotional clafs, and in thefe his ardent feelings
and imagination have fometimes tranfported him beyond the
bounds which a correft tafte and found judgment would have
prefcribed. The fame obfervation may be alfo applied to his
" Pfalms and Hymns," and more efpecially to the latter,
which were juvenile compofitions, and in which a fober
reader will be difgufted with the contraft that is exhibited
between the wrath of the Supreme Being and the benignity of
the Son of God ; as if the Deity were inclined to punifh his
offending creatures with everlafting punifhment, and the Son
were difpofed to r^fcue and fave tliem. Many of the pfalms
and hymns, however, are admirably adapted to Chriftian
worlhip, and a feleft coUeftion of them, which has been
lately made by fome miniilers in London, and which they
have enriched by extrafts from other fources, is lefs excep-
tionable in a variety of refpefts than either the pfalms or
hymns even of Dr. Watts in their original ftate ; and in
thefe devotion and poetry are more happily combined for the
worfhip of DiiL-nters and even of Churchmen than in the
pfalmody of the eftabliftiment. Many of Watts's lyric pro-
duftions poffefs confiderable poetical merit, and difplay a
fertility and elegance of fancy. His " Divine Songs for
Children" have been widely circulated, and are well calcu-
lated to intereft and imprefs youthful minds ; and they are,
generally fpeaking, unexceptionable, though not incapable
of caftigatiou and improvement.

The doftor's philofophical publications are numerous, and
moft of them are well known. Among thefe we may reckon
his " Logic," and the fupplement to it, entitled the •' Im-
provement of the Mind ;" " A Difcourfe on Education ;"
" An Elementary Treatife on Altronomy and Geography ;"

" Philofo-

WAV

" Philofophical Eflays on various Subjefts, with Remarks
on Locke's EfTay on the Human Underitanding ;" and " A
brief Scheme of Ontology." His other works are chiefly
theological, confiding of Sermons, Difcourfes, EiTays, and
Controverfial Trads, &c. His fcheme of theology was
undoubtedly that which is ufually called orthodoxy, and, to
fay the leaft of it, approaching to Calvinifm. His temper,
however, was kind and gentle, and his moderation was in-
creafing as he advanced in years, and the maturity of his
judgment reftrained and controlled the fervour of his feehng3
and paffions. Some have faid that towards the clofe of life
his fentiments, with regard to the doSrine of the Trinity,
were materially altered. This, however, is a queftion Jul
jtidice. Whilft it is needlefs in this place to enter into the dif-
pute, and to examine the allegations pro and con, we incline
to think, as far as we have had an opportunity of examining
the evidence, that the fuppofition of fome degree of change
is not improbable. The printed Works of Dr. Watts, to-
gether with thofe which were left in M.S. for the revifion of
Dr. Jennings and Dr. Doddridge, were publiflicd colledively
by Dr. Gibbons, in 6 vols. 410. 1754. We (hall conclude
this article with the words of one of iiis biographers. " To
whatever clafsDr. Watts belongs," ranked by this biographer
among the decided advocates for orthodoxy," he muft always
be regarded as one of thofe whofe whole heart was devoted
to the promotion of the bell interefts of mankind, and whofe
life would have done honour to any fyltem of opinions."
Gibbons's Memoirs of Watts. Johnfon's Lives of the Poets.
Gen. Biog.

Watts, in G«ofra/i^j;, a town of Virginia ; 30 miles N.W.
of Alexandria. — Alfo, a town of the ftate of Georgia. N.
lat. 34°~22'. W. long. 86° 25'.

Watts IJland, a fmall ifland in the Chefapeak. N. lat.
37° 54'. W. long. 76° 3'.

WATTUSKIFLET, a channel of the Baltic, between
the ifland of Aland and the coaft. of Finland, abounding with
fmall iflands.

WAT VV EILE R, or Watterweiler, a town of France,
in the dapartment of the Upper Rhine. Near it is a medi-
cinal fpring ; 16 miles S. of Colmar.

WAU, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Wcrrear ;
24 miles N. of Radunpour.

WAU-CA-HATCHO, or Cow-Tail Ri-ver, a river of
Louifiana, which is the laft llream of any conlequence that
enters the Sabine.

WAVE, Unda, in Phyfics, a cavity in the furface of
the water, or other fluid, with an elevation on its fides.
Or, it is a volume of water elevated by the adlion of the
wind upon its furface, into a ftate of fluftuation.

The origin of waves may be thus conceived. The fur-
face of a ftanding water being naturally plam, and parallel
to the horizon, (allowing for that fmall degree of curvature
which refults from its gravitation to the centre,) if by any
means it be rendered hollow, as at A, {Plate 'X.Y. Hy-
draulics, Jig. II.) its cavity will be furrounded with an ele-
vation B B ; for if a certain quantity of water be deprefled
below the ufual level, an equal quantity muft rife in fome
other place above that level, and the water which ftands
clofeft to the place of the original impreffion will of courfe
be moved. The raifed water will defcend by its gravity,
and, with the celerity acquired in defcending, will form a
new cavity ; by which motions, the water will afcend at the
fides of this cavity, and fill the cavity A, while there is a
new elevation towards C ; and, when this laft is deprefled,
the water rifes anew towards the fame part. Thus arifes a
fucceflive motion in the furface of the water ; and a cavity,
which carries an elevation before it, is moved along from A,

WAV

towards C. Thus the alternate rifing and falling of the water
in ridges will extend all round the original fource of motion ;
but as they recede from that place, fo the ridges, as well as the
adjoining hollows, become fmallcr and fmaller, until they
vanilh. This diminution of fize is produced by three
caufes ; viz. by the want of perfeft freedom of motion
amongft the particles of water, by the refiftance of the air,
and by the further ridges being larger in diameter than thofe
which are nearer. It is likewife on account of the friftion,
or adhefion, among the particles of water, and of the refift-
ance of the air, that, in the fame place, the alternate eleva-
tions and depreflions diminifti gradually, until the water re-
aflumes its original tranquillity, unlefs the external impref-
fion be renewed or continued. This cavity, with the eleva-
tion next it, is called a luave ; and the fpace taken up by
the wave on the furface of the water, and meafured accord-
ing to the direftion of the wave's motion, is called the
breadth of the -wave ; which is evidently equal to the dif-
tance between the tops of contiguous ridges, or between
the loweft parts of two contiguous hollows ; and a wave is
faid to have run its breadth, when Us elevated part is arrived
at the place where the elevated part of the next wave ftood
before, or (the fituations of two contiguous waves being
given ) when one of them is arrived at the place of the other ;
and the time which is employed in this tranfition is called
the time of a -wave's motion.

Waves, the Motion of, forms an article in the new phi-
lofophy ; and its laws being now pretty well determined,
we fhall give the reader the fubftance of what is taught on
this fubjeft.

1 . The cavity, as A, is encompafled every way with an
elevation ; and the motion above-mentioned expands itfelf
every way : therefore the waves are moved circularly.

2. Suppofe, now, AB [Jig. 1 2.) an obftacle, againft
which the wave, whofe beginning is at C, ftrikes ; and we
are to examine what change the wave fufFers in any point,
as E, when it is come to the obftacle in that point. In all
places through which the wave pafles in its whole breadth,
the wave is raifed ; then a cavity is formed, which is again
filled up ; which change while the furface of the water un-
dergoes, its particles go and return through a fmall fpace :
the direftion of this motion is along C E, and the celerity-
may be reprefented by that line. Let this motion be con-
trived to be refolved into two other motions, along G E and
D E, whofe celerities are refpedlively reprefented by thofe
lines. By the motion along D E, the particles do not aft
againft the obftacle ; but, after the ftroke, continue their
motion in that direftion with the fame celerity ; and this
motion is here reprefented by E F, fuppofing E F and E D
to be equal to one another ; but by the motion along G E,
the particles ftrike direflly againft the obftacle, and this
motion is deftroyed : for though the particles are elaftic,
yet, as in the motion of the waves they run through but a
fmall fpace, going backward and forward, they proceed fo
(lowly, that the figure of the particles cannot be; changed by
the blow ; and fo are fubjeft to the laws of percumon of
bodies perfeftly hard. See Percussion.

But there is a refleftion of the particles from another
caufe : the water which cannot go forward beyond the ob-
ftacle, and is puftied on by that which follows it, gives way
where there is the leaft refiftance ; that is, it afcends ; and
this elevation, which is greater in fome than other places, is
caufed by the motion along G E ; becaufe it is by that mo-
tion alone that the particles impinge againft the obftacle.
The water, by its defcent, acquires the fame velocity with
which it was raifed ; and the particles of water are repelled
from the obftacle with the fame force in the direftion E G,
B b 2 as

WAVES.

as that with wliich they ftruck agakift the obftacle. From
this motion, and the motion above-mentioned along E F,
arifes a motion along E H, whofe celerity is exprefled by
the line E H, which is equal to the line C E ; and by the
refleftion, the celerity of the ware is not changed, but it
returns along E H, in the fame manner as if, taking away
the obftacle, it had moved along E h.

If from the point C, C D be drawn perpendicular to the
obftacle, and then produced, fo that D c (hall be equal to
C D, the line H E continued will go through c ; and as
this demonftration holds good in all points of the obftacle,
it follows, that the reflefted wave has the fame figure on
that fide of the obftacle, as it would have had beyond the
line A B, if it had not ftruck againft the obftacle. If the
obftacle be inclined to the horizon, the water rifes and de-
fcends upon it, and fuffers a fritlion, by which the refleftion
of the wave is difturbed, and often wholly deftroyed ; and
this is the reafon why very often the banks of rivers do not
refleft the waves.

If there be a hole, as I, in the obftacle B L, the part of
the wave which goes through the hole, continues its motion
direftly, and expands itfelf towards Q Q ; and there is a
new wave formed, which moves in a femicircle, whofe
centre is the hole. For the raifed part of the wave, which
firft goes through the hole, immediately flows down a little
at the fides ; and, by defcending, makes a cavity which is
furrounded with an elevation on every part beyond the hole,
wliich moves every way in the fame manner as was laid down
in the generation of the firft wave.

In the fame manner, a wave to which an obftacle, as A O,
is oppofed, continues to move between O and N, but ex-
pands itfelf towards R, in a part of a circle, whofe centre
is not very far from O. Hence, we may eafdy deduce
what muft be the motion of a wave behind an obftacle,
as MN.

Waves are often produced by the motion of a tremulous
body, which alfo expand themfelvos circularly, though the
body goes and returns in a right line ; for the water which
is raifed by the agitation, defcending, forms a cavity, which
is every where furrounded with a rifing.

Different waves do not difturb one another, when they
niove according to different direftions. The reafon is, that
whatever figure the furface of the water has acquired by the
motion of the waves, there may in that be an elevation and
depreffion ; as alfo fuch a motion as is required in the motion
of a wave.

To determine the celerity of the waves, anotlier motion,
analogous to their's, muft be examined. Suppofe a fluid
in the bent cylindric tube E H [Jig. 13.) ; and let the fluid
in the leg E F be liigher than in the other leg by the dif-
tance / E ; which diftance is to be divided into two equal
parts at i. The fluid, by its gravity, delcends in the leg
E F, while it ..fcends equally m the leg G H ; f o that when
the furf.ice of the tiuid is arrived at ;, it is at the fame height
in both legs ; which is the only pofition in which the liquid
can be at r'?ft : but by the celerity acquired in defcending,
it continues its motion, and afcends higher in the tube G H ;
and in E F is depreffed quite to /, except fo much as it is
hindered by the friftion againft the fides of the tube. The
fluid in the tube G H, which is higher, alfo defcends by its
gratvity, and fo the fluid in the tube rifes and falls, till it has
loft all its motion by the friftion.

The quantity of matter to be moved is the whole fluid in
the tube ; the moving force is the weight of the column / E,
whofe height is always double the diltance E i ; which dif-
tance, therefore, increafes and diminiftics in the fame ratio
with the moving force. But the diftance E ;' is the fpacc to

be run through by the fluid, in order to its moving from thi-
pofition E H, to the pofition of reft ; which fpacc, theru-
fore, is always as the force continually afting upon the
fluid : but it is demonftrated, that it is on this account thai
all the vibrations of a pendulum, ofcilkting in a cycloid, are
ifochronal ; and, therefore, here alfo, whatever be the ine-
quality of the agitations, the fluid always goes and returns
in the fame time. The time in which a fluid thus agitated
afcends, or defcends, is the time in which a pendulum vi-
brates, whofe lengLh is equal to half the length of the fluid
in the tube, or to half the fum of the hues E F, F G, E K.
This length is to be meafured in the axis of the tube. Sec
Pendulum.

From thefe principles, to determine the celerity of tlie
waves, we muft confider feveral equal waves following oi.t
another immediately ; as A, B, C, D, E, F, {Jig. 14.
which move from A towards F : the wave A has run ii.»
breadth, when the cavity A is come to C ; which cannot
be, unlefs the water at C afcends to the height of the top
of the wave, and again delcends to the depth C ; in which
motion, the water is not agitated fenfibly below the line hi ;
therefore, this motion agrees with the motion in the tube
above-mentioned ; and the water afcends and defcends, that
is, the wave goes through its breadth, while a pendulum of
the length of half B C performs two oicillations, or while a
pendulum of the length BCD, that is, four times as long
as the firft, performs one vibration ; fince the times in wliich
pendulums of different lengths perform their vibrations are
as the fquares of their lengths. [ See Vibration. ) There-
fore, the celerity of the wave depends upon the length of
the line BCD; which is greater, as the breadth of the
wave is greater, and as the water defcends deeper in the
motion of the waves. In the broadeft waves, which do not
rife high, fuch a line as B C D do^•s not much differ from
the breadth of the wave ; and in that cafe a wave moves its
breadth, while a pendulum, equal to that wave, ofcillates
once. Hence, if the breadth of a wave be 39.1 196 inches,
( this being the length of a pendulum which vibrates feconds, )
then that wave will move on at the rate of 39.1196 inches
per fecond of time; that is, at the rate of 195 feet per
minute, nearly.

In every equable motion, the fpace gone through in-
creafes with the time and the celerity ; wherefore, multiply-
ing the time by the celerity, you have the fpace gone
through ; whence it follows, that the celerities of the waves
are as the fquare roots of their breadths : for as the times in
which they go through their breadths are in that ratio, the
fame ratio is required in their celerities, that the produfts
of the times, by their celerities, may be as the breadths of
the waves, which are the fpaces gone through.

Dr. Young is of opinion, that fir Ifaac Newton's ana-
logy, refultiiig from a comparifon of a wave with the ofcil-
lation of a fluid in a bent tube, is too diftant to admit our
founding any demonftration upon it. Legrange, he fays,
has inveftigated the motions of waves in a new and improved
manner ; and Dr. Young has alfo demonilrat. d a theorem
fimilar to his, but, as he apprehends, more general and ex-
plicit. From thefe premifcs it appears, that, fuppoCng the
fluids concerned to be infinitely elaftic, thai is, abfolutely
incompreflible, and free from friftion of all kinds, any fmall
impulfe communicated to a fluid would be trarfmittcd every
way along its furface, with a velocity equal to t.Sat which a
heavy body would acquire in faUing through half the depth
of the fluid ; and he concludes, from oblervaiion and ex-
periment, that where the elevation or depreflion of the fur-
face is confiderably estenfive in proportion to the depth,
the velocity approKchcs nearly to that which is thus deter-
mined,

WAVES.

mined, bciiij^ frequently dclitieut one-ciglitfi or one-tenth
<KiIy of the whole. In other cafes, where a number of fmall
waves follow each other at intervals confiderably lefs than
the depth, he has endeavoured to calculate the retardation
which muft be occafioned by the imperfeft elafticity or com-
preffibility of the fluid ; but it feems probable that the
motion of fmall waves is ilill much flower than this calcula-
tion appears to indicate. Many of the phenomena of waves,
fays this ingenious author, may be very conveniently ex-
hiljited by means of a wide and (hallow velfel, with a bot-
tom of glafs, terminated by fides inclined to the horizon ; in
order to avoid the confufion which would arife from the
continual refleftions produced by perpendicular furfaces.
The waves may be excited by the vibrations of an elaftic rod
or wire, loaded with a weight, by means of which its mo-
tions may be made more or lefs rapid at pleafure ; and the
form and progrefs of the waves may be eafily obferved, by
placing a light under the veffel, fo that their fhadows may
fall on a white furface, extended in an inclined pofition.
In this manner, the manifeft inflection of the furface of the
water may be made perfeftly conipicuous.

This motion of the fea-water depends greatly on the
winds, and on the fituation of mountains, in regard to the
fea ; for the winds are driven back from thefe with great
impetuofity ; and in fome places this occafions a great and
very irregular undulation, befide that which is produced by
the immediate aftion of the winds on the furface of the
water in ihcir own dirett courfe.

Waves are to be confidered as of two kinds, and thefe
may be diftinguilhed from one another by the names of
natural and accidental waves.

The natural waves are thofe which are regularly propor-
tioned in fize to the ilrength of the wind, whofe blowing
gives origin to them. The accidental waves are thofe occa-
fioned by the wind's readying upon itfelf by repercuflion
from hills and mountains, or high fhores, and by the wafh-
ing of the waves tlienif'lves, otherwife of the natural kind,
againft rocks and ftioals : all thefe caufes give the waves an
elevation, which they can never have in their natural fl:ate.

It feems to be pretty well determined, from a variety of
experiments and obfervations, that the moll violent wind
never penetrates a great way into the water ; and that in
great ftorms the water of the fea is flightly agitated at the
depth of 20 feet below the ufual level, and probably not
moved at all at the depth of 30 feet, or 5 fathoms ; con-
fequently the natural difplacing of the waters by the wind
cannot be fuppofed to reach nearly fo low : and hence it
fiiould feem, that the greateft waves could not be fo very
high as they are reprefented by accurate and creditable navi-
gators. Mr. Boyle found, upon inquiry, that when the
wind was high, fo that the waves were manifeftly fix or feven
feet high above the furface of the water, no fign of agita-
tion was perceived at the depth of 15 fathoms ; but if the
blaft continued long, then the mud at the bottom was itirred,
and the water became thick and dark. Perfons who have
remained for fome time at a confiderable depth have been
furprifed to find a florm, when they have returned to the
upper parts of the water. At the depth of 12 or 15 feet,
the agitation of the water has been accordingly diminiflied ;
and at a confiderable diltance from the fiiore, and in deeper
water, the fea has been found proportionably calm and tran-
quil, it has alfo been found, that ni a part of the fea often
tempeftuous, the llorm did not reach with any efficacy four
fathoms beneath the furface of the water. Boyle's Works,
vol. iv. p. 354, 4to. Relations about the Bottom of the
Sea, § 3.

Count Mariigli nicaiured carefully tiic elevations of the
waves near Provence, and found that, in a very violent tem-
ped, they arofe only to feven feet above the natural level of
the fea ; and this additional foot in height, above the refult
of Mr. Boyle's deduftions, he eafily refolved into the acci-
dental (hocks of the water againfl; the bottom, which wa?,
in the place he meafured them in, not fo deep as to be out
of the way of affeding the waves ; and he allows that the
addition of one-fixth of the height of a wave, from fuch a
difturbance from the bottom, is a very moderate alteration
from what would have been its height in a deep fea ; and
concludes, that Mr. Boyle's calculation holds perfeftly right
in deep feas, where the waves are purely natural, and have
no accidental caufes to render them larger than their juft
proportion. '

In deep water, under the high (hores of the fame part of
France, this author found the natural elevation of the waves
to be only five feet ; but he found alfo that their breaking
againft rocks, and other accidents to which they were liable
in this place, often raifed them to eight feet high.

We are not to fuppofe, from this calculation, that no
wave of the fea can rife more than fix feet above its natural
level in open and deep water ; for waves immenfely higher
than thefe are formed in violent tempefts in the great feas.
Thefe, however, are not to be accounted waves in their
natural (tate, but they are fingle waves formed of many
others ; for in thefe wide plains of water, when one wave is
raifed by the wind, and would elevate itfelf up to the exaft
height of fix feet, and no more, the motion of the water is
fo great, and the fucceifion of waves fo quick, that, during
the time this is rifing, it receives into it feveral other waves,
each of which would have been at the fame height with itfelf:
thefe run into the firfi; wave one after the another, as it is
rifing ; and by this means its rife is continued much longer
than it naturally would have been, and it becomes accumu-
lated to an enormous fize. A number of thefe comphcated
waves arifing together, and being continued in a long fuc-
ceflion by the continuation of the ftorm, makes the waves fo
dangerous to ftiips, which the failors in their phrafe call
mountains high. Marfigli, Hift;. Phyf. de la Mer.

When it blows fre(h, the waves not moving with fuffi-
cient rapidity, their tops, which are thinner and lighter, are
impelled forward, broken, and changed into a white foam,
particles of which, called the " fpray," are carried a great
way. Waves, with regard to their form, are circular or
ftraight, or otherwife bent, according as the original im-
preflion is made in a narrow fpace nearly circular, or in a
ftraight line, or in other configurations. In open feas the
waves generally are in the (hape of ftraight furrows, becaufe
the wind blows upon the water in a parallel manner, or at
leaft for a long apparent traft. The fame caufes wliich
raife water into waves muft evidently produce the like effeft
on other fluids, but in various degrees, as the fluid is more
or lefs heavy, as its particles adhere more or lefs forcibly to
each other, and probably likewile as there is a greater or
lefs degree of attraflion between the fluid and the other
body which gives it the impulfe. If it be attempted to
raife waves upon oil by the force of wind, it will be found
verv difficult to fucceed in a fimilar degree. This difficulty
is probably owing to the natural attradlion of the particles
of od ; and befides, there may be lefs attratfion between oil
and air than between the latter and water, for water always
contains a certain quantity of air ; and if it be deprived o£
that air by boiling, or otherwife, a (hort expofure to the
atmofphere will enable the water to reimbibe it. It is like-
wife probable, that the furface of water, even when ftag-
10 nam,

WAV

W A W

nant, may not be fo fmooth as the furface of oil, fo that the
wind may more eafily catch into the inequalities of the
former than the latter. Hence it is that the effeft of the
wind upon waves may in a great degree be prevented or
moderated, by fpreading a thin film of oil on the furface of
the water. For an account of this operation and its effefts,
fee Oil.

WAVE-Oferlng, among the Jews, a facrifice offered
by agitation or waving towards the four cardinal points.

To Wave, is ufed, in the Sea-Language, for the making
figns for a vefl'el to come near, or keep off.

WAVED, or Wavy, a term in Heraldry, when a bor-
dure, or any ordinary or charge in a coat of arms, has its
outlines indented, in manner of the rifing and falling of
waves. This is alfo called undy, unde, or onde, and denotes
that the firfl of the family in whofe arms it ilands, acquired
his honours for fea fervices, and has this peculiar comme-
moration of it ordered in his arms.

Waved Hair-Grafs, in Agriculture, a fort of grafs which
is found to be pretty productive on mountain heathy lands,
and which abounds pretty much in nutritive matter, but
which lofes confiderably in its weight in drying, according
to the trials which have lately been made on graffes at
Woburn. See Aira Flexuofa.

WAVELLITE, in Mineralogy, a mineral firft difco-
vered at Barnftaple, in Devonfhire, by Dr. Wavell, and
fince found in various other fituations. From its appearance,
it has been claffed by Mr. Jamefon as a member of the
zeolite family. See Zeohte.

Wavellite occurs in a botryoidal, flalaftical, and globu-
lar form ; alfo cryftallized in very oblique four-fided prifms,
flatly bevelled on the extremities : the bevelling planes are
fet on the obtufe lateral edges. The prifms are fometimes
deeply truncated on the obtiife lateral edges. Wavelhte
occurs alfo in fibres, or acicular prifms, diverging from a
common centre, and either feparated or adhering laterally to
each other, compoiing hemifpherical concretions of various
fizes, to the magnitude of a bullet. The luftre of wavellite
is pearly, more or lefs fhining. The colour is yellowifh-
white, greyifh-white, and greenifh-white ; it is tranflucent.
This mineral is brittle, and, according to profeffor Jamefon,
it is fufBciently hard to fcratch quartz : others afcribe to it
a lower degree of hardnefs. Before the blow-pipe it be-
comes foft and opaque, but neither decrepitates nor fufes.
It is foluble by the affiftauce of heat in the mineral
acids, in which it effervefces and leaves very little re-
fidue. The fpecific gravity of wavellite varies from 2.22
to 2.70.

The moft remarkable peculiarity of this mineral is its
compofition ; wavellite being nearly a pure hydrat of alu-
mine ; but fome fpecimens contain a trace of fluoric acid.
When fragments of the Englifh or Irifh wavelhte are laid
upon a glafs plate, and a drop of fulphuric acid is added,
the glafs is flightly corroded on the application of heat, in-
dicating the prefence of the above-mentioned acid.

The conftituent parts of wavelhte are given as under :

Wavellite from Barnftaple.
Alumine - 71.50
Oxyd of iron .50

Lime -
Water - 28.

100 Klaproth.

70

1.4
26.2

97.6 Davy.

Alumine
Oxyd of

Cornilh Wavellite.

- 58.70
iron 0.19

South American Wavellite.
68.
I.

Lime
Silex
Water
Lofs

- 0-37
6.12

- 3°-75

- 3-87

4.50
26.50

100 Gregor.

100 Klaproth,

Wavellite occurs in veins in the granite of Cornwall, with
fluor-fpar, quartz, tin-ftone, and copper pyrites. At Barn-
ftaple, in Devonftiire, it occurs in loft flate. Several mi-
neralogifts confider wavellite as a variety of the fame mineral,
which Hauy has called diafpore.

WAVENEY, in Geography, a river of England, in the
county of Suffolk, which joins the Yare, at its mouth.

WAVE REN, a town of France, in the department of
the Scheld, on the Dyle. By war and accidental fires much
decayed ; 12 miles S. of Louvain.

WAVERS, in Rural Economy, a term ufed to fignify
the young timber-trees, or timberlings as they are moftly
called, that are left ftanding for further growth, in felling
or cutting over woods of different kinds. See Timber.

WAVESON, in the Admiralty-Laiu, a term ufed for
fuch goods, as, after fhipwreck, appear fwimming on the
waves.

WAVIGNIES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Oife ; 10 miles N. of Clermont.

WAUKEAGUE, a town of the diftrift of Maine, near
the coaft ; 5 miles W. of New Briftol.

WAUNGLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour ; 10
miles S.E. of Currer.

WAVY, in Botany, is fynonymous with repandum and
undulatum ; in the firft inftance, it expreffes an undulating
outline, with an even furface ; in the fecond, an undulating
furface, caufed by the marginal region of a leaf, or petal,
being more ample or luxuriant than the central part, or bafe.
The latter is often the cafe with cultivated plants, as Malva
crifpa, and the different curled varieties of cabbage, brocoli,
parfley, mint, &c.

Wavy, in Heraldry. See Waved.

WAWAY, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the E. coaft of the ifland of Celebes, about
40 miles in circumference. S- lat. 4° 8'. E. long.
123° 30'.

WAWARSING, a large townfliip of New York, in
the fouth-weft angle of Uliter county, 25 miles S.W. of
Kingfton, erededin 1806, from the S.W. part of Rochefter,
and lying on the W. of the Shawangunk mountain. Plum-
bago, of a good quality, is found in this townfhip, and here
are many indications of iron-ore. Here are feveral fmall
fettlements, as at Warwafing, Napenagh, and LurenkiU ;
but much of the land is uncultivated. Here are one Dutch
reformed church, and eight or ten fchool-houfes. In 1812,
the whole population confifted of 1335 perfons, and the
number of eleftors was 117; and here were 74 looms in
families, which produced 1 8,047 yards of cloth.

WAWIACHTANOS, Indians of America, inhabiting
chiefly between the rivers Wabafh and Sciota.

WAWRA, a fmall negro town of Africa, properly be-
longing to Kaarta, but when Park vifited it, tributary to
Maafong, king of Bambarra. It is furrounded with walls,
and inhabited by a mixture of Mandingoes and Foulahs. The
inhabitants are chiefly employed in cultivating corn, which

they

WAX.

they exchange with the Moors for fait ; 60 miles E.S.E.
of Benowm.

WAX, a term which comprehends two or three fub-
ftances, differing in their nature and origin, and yet poffeff-
ing feveral common properties. The common properties
of the animal and vegetable prodnftions, of which we (hall
give a brief account in the fequel of this article, are fufibi-
lity at a moderate heat ; when kindled, burning with much
flame ; infolubility in water ; folubility in alkahes, and alfo
in alcohol and ether ; in which two latter properties all the
fpecies of wax differ from the concrete oils, to which in
other refpefts they bear a very ftrong refemblance. The
moil important, and moft generally known and ufed of thefe
iubftances, is

Bees'-rwax, excreted from the body of the bee, and em-
ployed by thefe infefts in the conitruftion of their cells,
both for the accommodation of their young and the depo-
fition of their honey. Of this fubftancc, a young hive will
yield at the end of the feafon about a pound of wax ; and
an old hive about twice as much. The fineft wax is that
which is made in dry, heathy, or hilly countries ; but in
parts abounding with vineyards it is decidedly inferior.
Although the commonly received notion, which afcribes
this iubllance to the elaboration of the pollen of flowers,
which the bees vifibly coUedt on their thighs, had received
tlie fanftion of obfervers not lefs diftinguilhed than Bonnet
and Reaumur (fee Pain D' Abeilles) , yet the Lufatian So-
ciety, as long ago as the year 1768, was not unacquainted
with the faft, tl>at the wax, inftead of being difcharged from
the mouth, is fecreted in the form of thin fcales among the
abdominal rings or fegments. In 1792, the celebrated Mr.
John Hunter detefted the genuine refervoir of the wax under
the belly of the bees, and gave an account of his obferva-
tions in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, (vol. Ixxxii. part i.)
On elevating the lower fegments, he obferved plates of a
ifufible fubilance, which he afcertained to be wax ; and he
I was convinced, that an effential difference fubfifts between
the pollen, which thefe little creatures coUeft with fo much
iCare and induftry in the form of pellets on their thighs, and
'the matter of which the combs are conftrufted. This
icurious fubjeft has been further inveftigated by Meffrs.
iHuber, father and fon ; and they have demonftrated the
[organs in which the wax is fecreted, though they had eluded
,the perfpicuity of Swammerdam, Hunter, and other acute
.anatomifts. Thefe facklets, or fmall compartments, now mi-
inutely explained and illuftrated by engravings, are peculiar to
ithe working bees, which alone produce wax ; and each in-
dividual is furniflied with eight of them. The waxy matter,
I as it occurs in a tranfuded ftate in the fecretory organs,
I differs from the frefh wax of the combs only in being of a
I lefs compounded nature, which has been afcertained by
'trials with fpint of turpentine and fulphuric ether. Profe-
. cuting thefe refleftions, our ingenious authors concluded that
the common opinion was probably erroneous ; becaufe, like
; Hunter, they had obferved fwarms, newly placed in the
[empty hives, conftruA their combs without fetching home
I any pollen ; while the bees of old hives, where no freih cells
i were required, neverthelefs provided an ample ftock of this
powder. In order, however, to determine the point more
' direftly, they confined a recent fwarm within an empty
I ftraw-hive, leaving at their difpofal only a fufficiency of
, honey and water for their confumption, and preventing them
I from going beyond the precinfts of a well-clofed room ;
j when, in the fliort fpace of five days, they had conftrufted
five cakes of a beautiful white though very fragile wax.
' This experiment was repeated, and was uniformly accom-
I panied by fimilar refults ; and therefore they no longer hefi-

tated m admitting the faft, that honey, through the organic
intervention of bees, may be converted into wax. In order
to determine whether vegetable pollen, alfo, was fufceptible
of this converfion, the honey was wholly removed, and the
confined bees were fed on fruits and pollen, of which lad a
large ftore was left at their difpofal ; but, though they con-
tinued in this fituation during eight days, they neither made
any wax, nor exhibited any plates under their abdominal
rings. Having fufpeded that the fecretion of wax origi-
nated in the cohefive principle contained in honey, our
authors recurred to various experiments, which conftantly
proved that fugar alone was an excellent fubftitute for honey,
and, on fome occafions, afforded a fuperior wax. They
afterwards found, that bees, when left at perfeft hberty to
roam abroad, aft precifely on the fame principle in the con-
ftruftion of their combs ; and thty alfo difcovered, that la-
bourers of two defcriptions exift in each hive. The firtt,
fufceptible of acquiring confiderable dimenfions, when they
have received all the honey which their ftomachs can con-
tain, are principally deftined to the elaboration of the wax ;
while the fecond, whofe abdomen undergoes no fenfible
change of bulk, neither gather nor retain more honey than '
is neceffary for immediate fubfiftence, and readily fliare that
which they colledl with their companions ; who take no
charge of lloring the hive with provifions, their appropriate
office being to attend the young. Thefe they call nurfing
or fmall bees, in contradiftinftion to thofe with dilated bel-
lies, and which, as they fay, are entitled to the appellation
of " wax-workers." The exiftcnce and feparate offices of
thefe two forts of bees were fufficiently afcertained. When
the hives are filled with combs, the wax-working bees dif-
gorge their honey into the ufual magazines, and produce no
more wax ; but, if they have no receptacle in which they
can depofit it, and if the queen finds no cells formed ready
for the reception of her ova, they retain in their ftomachs
the honey which they had amaffed ; and, at the end of 24
hours, the wax oozes out between the rings, when the
fabrication of the combs commences. The nurfing bees
alfo produce wax, but in a much fmaller quantity than the
others.

As for the ufe of the pollen, our authors have afcertained,
that it is collefted for the purpofe of feeding the young ;
and they have alfo found, that bees, fed too long on the
fyrup of fugar alone, are incapable of rearing their offspring,
and at length defert the hive. The waxy matter, when
newly fecreted and moulded in its appropriate organs, differs
from real wax in being tranfparent like fcales of talc, white,
and quite friable, or brittle ; whereas that of which the
cells are compofed is of a yellowilh-white, opaque, and
flexible. Our limits will not allow our defcribmg the pro-
cefs obferved by our authors with the aid of a glafs appa-
ratus, by which thefe infefts commence and conduft the
conftruAion of their combs. The difference of afpeft and
confiftency between cells juft formed, and thofe which are
of older ftanding, cannot fail to attraft the attention of every
obfervant apiarian. The former are, in faft, of a dull white
colour, femi-tranfparent, foft, and even, without being
fmooth ; but, in the courfe of a few days, the whole of
their internal furface affumes a yellow tint of greater or lefs
intenfity : their fliarp edges become thicker and lefs regu-
lar ; and thofe tubes, which at firft could not refift the
flighteft preffure, become flexible, fomewhat more heavy,
and more difficult of fohition in hot water. The contour
of the orifice of mature cells is bound with a rim of a reddifli
and odorous refin, which is alfo employed to cement the
angles of other parts of the cell. This folder or varnifh is
found, on chemical trial, to be identical with the propolis,
II and

WAX.

and quite dillina from the wax. Meffrs. Hiiber have not
only eftabliihed this important faft, but deteded the origin
of the propolis itfelf. Having obtained branches of the
wild poplar, cut in fpring before the developement of their
leaves, with very large buds filled with vifcous, reddilh, and
odorous juice, they placed thefe in the way of the bees to
the fields, fo that they muft fee them : foon after this ar-
rangement, a bee alighted on one of the branches, and ap-
proached one of the largeft buds ; (he then feparated its
folds with her teeth, attacked the parts which file had half-
opened, pulled off filaments of the vifcid matter with which
they were filled, and then feized, with one of the legs of
the fecond pair, the fubftance held between her jaws,
brought forwards one of her hind-legs, and finally placed in
the bafl<et of that leg the little ball of propolis which file
had jull coUefted. Having accomplillied this objeft, (he
again opened the bud in another place, carried off new
threads of the fame matter with her teeth, laid hold of them
with the legs of the fecond pair, and placed them nicely on
the other balket. She then took her departure, and re-
joined her hive. In a few minutes afterwards, a fecond bee
alighted on the fame branches, and loaded herfelf with pro-
polis in the fame manner. This propolis was found to be
different from the matter which imparts the yellow colour
to the wax, which is probably fecreted in the cavity of the
teeth, and depofited on the wax. We obferve, however,
that bees are not contented with merely painting and var-
ni(hing their cells, but they alfo impart additional folidity
to their aggregate amount by the ufe of a mortar, com-
pofed of wax and propolis ; and which the ancients, who had
not overlooked this department of their economy, termed
Bufis, or ptffocerum. (oee Pkopolis.) With the ne-
cefTary documents before us, we cannot forbear intro-
ducing fome further obfervations on the economy of thefe
infetts, though they are not immediately connefted with the
fubjeft of this article. As the clofenefs of a hive, and the
multitude of living creatures which inhabit it, (amounting
fometimes to twenty-five or thirty thoufand,) are circum-
ftances which feem to preclude a free ventilation and re-
newal of air, we might be induced to fuppofe that bees are not
endowed with any particular fyftem of refpiratory organs,
and that they are capable of exifting in any atmofphere, how-
ever vitiated. As a teft of this fuppofition, our ingenious
and perfevering authors recurred to various experiments ;
which inconteftibly prove, that thefe infefts cannot long
exift either in vacuo, or in air that is contaminated by noxious
gafes ; that, in fhort, they breathe hke other animals of their
clafs ; and that they are fpeedily deprived of life if the pro-
ccfs of refpiratibn be arrefied. Yet it refults, from eudio-
metrical trials, that the air of a well-ftocked hive is equally
pure with that of the atmofphere. It has been afcertained,
too, that neither wax nor pollen favours the produftion of
oxygen gas, and that the bees themfelves have no internal
faculty of generating vital air ; fince, if that of the atmo-
fphere be entirely excluded, they are obferved to perilh in
the courfe of a few hours. Our authors, therefore, took an
opportnnity of examining, whether the indiiftry of thefe in-
fefts prefented no particular caufe of this phenomenon ; and
at length they were ftruck by the conneftion which might
fubfift between the circulation of the air and that beating of
the wings which they had recently obferved, and which occa-
fioned a continual humming in the interior of their habit-
ation. They fufpefted that the play of thefe membranes,
which imprefs the air with fufficient force to elicit from it a
very diftinft found, might be deftined to replace that which
had been vitiated by refpiration. Although this may feem
to be a trivial caufe for counterailing the pernicious effeft

above ftated, yet by putting the hand near to a fanning-
bee, we (hall perceive that (he agitates the air in a manner
that is very fenfible, and moves her wings with fuch rapidity
as that they are fcarcely diftinguifhable.

United at their edge by means of fmall hooks, the two
wings of each fide prefent a larger furface to the air, on
which they have to ilrike ; they form, befides, a flight con-
cavity, which (hould fomewliat contribute to increafe their
energy ; and we may be fatisfied that they defcribe an arc
of 90°, becaufe we fee them, fimultaneoufly, on the two ex-
tremes of their vibrations. When engaged in this exercife,
the bees cling faft to the (land with their legs, the fird ■
pair being projefted forwards, the fecond feparated and.
fixed to the right and left of the body, while the third,
clofely approximated, and in a direftion perpendicular to
the abdomen, contributes to fupport the hinder parts in an
elevated pofition. During the fine feafoii, we may alway,
obferve a certain number of bees agitating their wings ip.
front of the entrance to their hive ; but we may alfo be con-
vinced, by infpeftion, that flill more of them are employed
in fanning within their dwelling. The ordinary Ration of
the ventilating bees is on the lower floor of the hive. All
thofe which are occupied in this way, on the outfide, have
their heads turned towards the entrance, but thofe within
prefent their backs to it. Thefe bees feem to arrange them-
felves methodically, fo that they may manage the ventilating
procefs with the greateft eafe ; being diftributed into files,
which terminate at the entrance of the hive, and are fome-
times difpofed like fo many diverging rays ; but this order
is not uniform : and it is probably owing to the neceffity to
which the fanning bees are fubjefted of leaving room for
fuch as go and come, whofe rapid courfe conftrains them to
form in file, that they may avoid being joftled and over-
turned at every inftant. More than 20 bees may fometimes
be feen ventilating in the lower part of the hive ; but their
number at other times is fmaller ; and each of them vibrates
her wings for a longer or (horter period. They have been
obferved to continue the exertion during 25 minutes, with-
out retting ; although they feemed occafionally to take
breath by fufpending the vibration of their wings for an al-
moft imperceptible inftant ; but, as foon as they ceafe from
fanning, others take their place, fo that the humming noife
in a well-filled hive never fuffers interruption.

But to return from this digreffion to the principal fubjeft
of the article.

Bees'-'wax makes a very confiderable article in commerce ;
the confumption of it throughout the feveral parts of Eu-
rope being incredible. There are two kinds, white and yel-
lotv ; the yellow is the native wax, juft as it comes out of
the hive, after exprefling the honey, &c. This colour, fays
Thorley, is owing to the age of the combs, and breath of
the bees ; wax, he fays, both as it is gathered, and wrought
into combs, being always white : the white is the fame
wax, only purified, wa(hed, and expofed to the air. The
preparation of each follows.

Wax, Tellom. To procure the wax from the combs for
ufe ; after feparating the honey from them as much as pof-
fible by the prefs, they are either foaked for fome days in
clear water, in order to extraft all the honey, or they are
broken into pieces, and fpread on a fheet near the hives, fo
that the bees in time fuck out all the honey that is left, and
reduce the wax into fmall fragments like bran. Then the
whole of the wax is put into a large kettle, with a fufficient
quantity of water ; and with a moderate fire, it is melted,
and then ftrained through a linen cloth, by a prefs, and thus
freed from all remaining impurity. Before it is cold, they
fcum it with a tile, or a piece of wet wood, and caft it,

while

WAX.

while yet warm, in wooden, earthen, or metalline moulds ;
having firft; anointed them with honey, oil, or water, to pre-
vent the wax from flicking. Some, to purify it, make ufe
of Roman vitriol, or copperas ; but the true fecret is to
melt, fcum it, &c. properly, without any ingredients at
all.

The belt is that of a high colour, an agreeable fmell,
fomewhat refembling that of honey, foft, fomewhat unc-
tuous to the touch, but not fticking to the fingers, nor
to the teeth when chewed. When new, it is of a lively yel-
low colour; it is fomewhat tough, yet eafy to break ; by
age, it lofes its fine colour, and becomes harder and more
brittle. In winter it becomes confiderably hard and tough.
It is deprived of its yellow colour and fmell by expofing it
in thin laminae to the aftion of the light and air, in the pro-
cefs of bleaching ; by which it becomes perfeftly white,
fcentlefs, fomewhat harder,and lefs greafy to the touch. How-
ever, wax is often fophifticated with refui, or pitch, coloured
rocou, or turmeric.

The prefence of refin may be fufpedled when the frafture
appears fmooth and fhining, inftead of being granulated : and
it may be faturated by putting fmall pieces of the wax into
cold alcohol, which will readily diffolve the refinous part,
without affefting the wax in any confiderable degree.

Its adulteration with earth or peas meal may be fufpefted
when the cake is very brittle, and the colour inclining more
to grey than bright pale yellow ; and they may be feparated
by fmelting and Itrainingthe wax. White wax is fometimes
adulterated with white oxyd of lead, in order to increafe its
weight. This may be known by melting the wax in water,
■when the oxyd falls to the bottom of the veffel.

It is alfo adulterated by tallow, fuel, or any kind of ani-
mal fat. It then becomes more fufible, and when rebleached
and expofed to a hot fun, it is very apt to cake. It like-
wife lofes its femi-tranfparency,the diftinguifliing property of
pure bleached wax. This adulteration may be detefted by
boihng alcohol, which will didolve wax, but not tallow.

Wax, White. The whitening, blanching, or bleaching
of wax, is performed by reducing the yellow fort, firft,
into little bits or grains, and melting it in a copper cauldron,
with water juft fufficient to prevent the wax from burning.
The cauldron in which the wax is melted is fo difpofed, that
it may flow gradually through a pipe at the bottom into a
large tub filled with water, and covered with a thick cloth,
to preferve the heat till the water and impurities are fet-
tled. From this tub the clear melted wax flows into a veflel,
the bottom of which is full of fmall holes, about the fize of
a grain of wheat, and hence it falls in fmall ftreams upon a cy-
hnder, conitantly revolving over water, into which it occa-
fiopally dips, fo that the wax is cooled, and at the fame
time drawn out into thin Ihreds or ribbands. The conti-
nual rotation of the cylinder carries off thefe ribbands as fait
as they are formed, and diftributes them through the tub.
The wax, thus granulated or flatted, is expofed to the air
on linen cloths, ftretched on large frames, about a foot or
two above the ground, in which fituation it remains night
and day for feveral days, expofed to the air and fun ; and
thus the yellow colour nearly difappears. In this half-
bleached ftate, it is heaped up in a folid mafs, and allowed to
remain for a month or fix weeks ; after which, to complete
the procefs for whitening it, it is re-melted, and ribbanded,
and bleached as before, (in fome cafes feveral times) till it
wholly lofes its colour and fmell. Some manufacturers, in
re-melting it, add alum or cream of tartar, which are fup-
pofed to increafe the whitenefs and foHdity of the wax.
Some alfo, inilead of fpreading the ribbands of wax on
Vol.. XXXVIII.

cloths, lay evenly a broad courfe of bricks, which are fre-
quently watered, fo that the wax is kept from melting by
the fun's heat abforbed by the bricks.

When the fun and air have at length perfedtly blanched
the wax, fome melt it for the lafl; time in a large kettle ;
out of which they cafl: it, with a ladle, upon a table, co-
vered over with httle round dents or cavities, of the form of
the cakes of white wax, as fold by the apothecaries, &c.
having firft wetted thofe moulds with cold water, that the
wax may be the more eafily got out. Laftly, they lay out
thefe cakes to the air for two days and two nights, to ren-
der it more tranfparent and dry.

As the volatile fulphureous acid has the property of de-
ftroying more quickly almoft all the colours of vegetables, it
has been fuggefted by Macquer, the author of the Chemical
Diftionary, that this bleaching might perhaps be fhortened,
by expofing ribbands of yellow wax to the vapour of fuJ-
phur, as is praftifed for wool and filk ; but this procefs has
not been found to fucceed.

However, the operation of bleaching v;ax above defcribed
can be performed well only in fine weather, as it depends
chiefly on the aftion of the fun. This circumftance being
attended with much inconvenience to the manufafturers, the
difcovery of a method of whitening wax independently of
the feafons would be very ufeful, and has been recommended
to the attention of chemiils by fome economical focieties.

With a view to difcover fuch a method, Mr. Beckman
has made experiments, an account of which is publiflied in
the fifth volume of the " Novi Commentarii Societatis Re-
gia: Scientiarum Gottingenfis." According to thefe experi-
ments, thin pieces of yellow wax were whitened and har-
dened, by being digefted and boiled in diluted and undi-
luted nitrous acid, in a few hours. But the wax tlius
whitened, being melted by means of boiliiig water, was ob-
ferved to acquire a yellow colour, lefs iiitenfe, however, than
it was before it had been treated with the mineral acids.
The marine and vitriohc acids were Icfa efi"eiitual than the
nitric or nitro-nmriatic. He expofed wax to the flames of
burning fulphur, but without fuccefs. Yellow wax being
melted in vinegar, was rendered of a grey colour. The oil
of tartar whitened wax, but lefs effetlually than acids had
done ; and this wax being wafhed in water, and afterwards
digefted in nitrous acid, was rendered ftill more white;
but upon melting it in water, a yellowifli tinge returned. He
liquefied wax in folutions of nitre and alum, but without
any good eff'eft. Spirit of vi'ine, which is recommended by
Mr. I3oyle for this purpofe, did indeed whiten the wax, but
changed it to a butyraccous fubftance, fo frotliy, that its
bulk was increafed thirty times. Reflefting that tartar is
purified from its oily particles by means of a calcareous
earth, he tried the effefts of a kind of fuller's earth, which
he threw upon wax liquefied in water, and he agitated the
mixture. This method rendered wax of a greyiih colour,
and is, therefore, recommended by him as preparatory to
bleaching ; the time neceflary for whicii, he thinks, may be
thus greatly fliortened.

M. Sennebier made fome remarks on the efFeft of light,
and other fuppofed difcolouring agents. Some yellow wax
was melted, and thinly fpread upon a plate of glafs ; and a
fimilar plate was laid upon it when hot ; and the edges of the
plates were clofed with fealing-wax. Thus the bees'-wax
was deprived of the accefs of air, and it was placed in the
fun, to the hght of which it was expofed for four or five
hours daily. Another quantity of wax was inclofed be-
tween plates in a like manner, but kept in the dark. In
two days the wax expofed to the fun began tp bleach, and
Cc in

WAX.

in a month's time the whok, when it did not exceed one-
iixth of an inch in thicknefs, was quite white ; whilft no
change at all took place in that which was kept in darknefs.
Alcohol has no fenfible aftion on wax when cold, but if
the fluid be boiled, it will diffolve rather lefs than one-
twentieth of its weight of wax ; and the greater part of it
Ceparates, when cold, in the form of white bulky flocculi.

yet the gelatinous folution obtained by boiling it in fpirit
of wine, by mixture with a thick mucilage of gum arable,
becomes foluble in water, fo as to form therewith an
emulfion or milky liquor : the wax itfelf is made in hke
manner foluble, without the intervention of fpirit, by
thoroughly mixing it with the gum in fine powder ; but
when thus diflblved, it proves ftiU infipid, and perfeftly void

while the fmall quantity that remains is wholly precipitated of acrimony

by water. Such is the refult of Pearfpn's and Bollock's ex- Wax is foluble abundantly in the fixed oils, and melted

periments ; whereas Fourcroy, Chaptal, and Nicholfon with them, produces an uniform mafs, the confiftence of

affert that it is infoluble in this fluid. Sulphuric ether dif- which, whatever be the proportion of each, is interme-

folves' wax when heated, and much more copioufly than di^te between the two. It is diflblved but fparingly in

wax . -

alcohol diflblves it, but the greater part, like that of the
former, is feparated by cooling, and the remainder by water.
Wax boiled in cauftic potafli makes the fluid turbid, and in
procefs of time rifes to the furface in a flocculent form.
The portion of the wax, held in folution by the clear alkaline
liquoi, may be feparated by an acid, and the refidue float-
ing on the furface is fo far converted into a faponaceous
ftate as to have lofl; its inflammability, and to be no lefs fo-
luble in pure water than white foap, and again precipitable
by acids nearly in its original form, with a reftoration of its
inflammability. Pure ammonia nearly refembles the fixed
alkalies in its adlion ; but the refulting faponaceous form is
lefs foluble in water.

When yellow wax has been long fwimming in a folution
of carbonate of potafti, it becomes grey ; and this colour
is entirely changed into a milk white by fubfequent digef-
tion in nitric acid, and the wax refumes its whitenefs.

If wax be difl^illed with a heat greater than that of
boiling water, it may be decompofed. By this diftil-
lation, a fmall quantity of water is firfl; feparated from the
wax, and then fome very volatile and penetrating acid,
(probably a modification of the acetous,) accompanied
■with a fmall quantity of a very fluid and very odoriferous
oil. As the diftillation advances, the acid becomes more
and more fl:rong, and the oil more and more thick, till
its confifl;ence be fuch, that it becomes folid in the
receiver, and is then called butter of wax. When the dif-
tillation is finilhed, nothing remains but a fmall quantity
of coal, which is almoft. incombuftible, from the want of
fome faline matter. Wax cannot be kindled, unlefs it
be previoufly heated, and reduced into vapours ; in which
refpeft it refembles fat oils. The oil and butter of wax may,
by repeated diftillations, be attenuated, and rendered more
and more fluid, becaufe fome portion of acid is thereby
feparated from thefe fubfl;ances ; which effeft is fimilar to
what happens in the diilillation of other oils and oily con-
cretes ; but this remarkable effeft attends the repeated
diftillation of oil and butter of wax, that they become more
and more foluble in fpirit of wine ; and that they never ac-
quire greater confiftence by the evaporation of their more
fluid parts. Boerhaave kept butter of wax in a glafs vefTel
open, or carelefsly clofed, during twenty years, without ac-
quiring a mure folid confiftence. Wax, its butter, and its
oil, differ entirely from effential oils and refins, in all the
above-mentioned properties ; and in all thefe perfectly re-
femble fweet oils. Hence Macquer concludes, that wax
only refembles refins in being an oil rendered concrete by an
acid ; but that it differs eflentially from thefe in the kind of
oil, which in refins is of the nature of eflential oils ; while
in wax and other analogous oily concretions, it is of the na-
ture of fweet, unftuous oils, that are not aromatic, and
not volatile, and are not obtained from vegetables by es-
preflion.

Although wax is not diffolublc at all in watery liquors,

eflential oils.

Bleached wax burns with a very pure white light, with-
out any offenfive fmell, and with much lefs fmoke than tal-
low ; and as it is lefs fufible than tallow, it requires a fmaller
wick. (SeeCANDLES.) Bleached wax melts at about 155^ of
Fahrenheit ; and the unbleached at 142°, according to Pear-
fon and Nicholfon, and alfo Dr. Boftock, but at 117^ ac-
cording to Fourcroy ; whilft tallow melts at 92°, fperma-
ceti at 133°, adipocireat 127°, and the pelaof the Chinefe
at 145°. (See Nicholfon's Journal, vol. i. p. 70, 4to.)
The fpecific gravity is lefs than that of water, being about
.96.

The yellow wax is brought to market in round cakes about
two inches thick ; and large quantities of it are imported
from the Baltic, the Levant, and the Barbary coaft.

The white wax is ufed in the manufafture of candles,
torches, tapers, figures, and a variety of other wax-works.
See Candles, &c.

It is alfo an article of the Materia Medica, and ufed as an
ingredient, partly forgiving the requifile confiftence to other
ingredients, and partly on account of its own emollient
quality, in plafters, cerates, and divers pomatums and un-
guents for the complexion.

The yellow fort, diflblved into an emulfion, or mixed
with fpermaceti, oil of almonds, conferve of rofes, &c.
into the form of an eleftuary ; or divided, by ftirring into it,
when melted over a gentle fire, as much as it will take up of
powdery matter, as the compound crab's-claw powder, has
been given alfo internally, and, as- fome have pretended, often
with great fuccefs, in diarrhoeas and dyfenteries, for ob-
tunding the acrimony of the humours, fupplying the natural
mucus of the inteftines, and healing their excoriations or
erofions.

The empyreumatic oil, into which wax is refolved by dif«
tillation with a ftrong heat, is greatly recommended by
Boerhaave and others, for healing chaps and roughnefs of
the fldn, for difcufling chilblains, and with proper fomenta-
tions and exercife, againft ftiffnefs of the joints, and con-
traftions of the tendons. It is, without doubt, fays Dr.
Lewis, highly emollient ; but does not appear to have any
other quality by which it can aft in external appUcations ;
it has nothing of the acrimony or pungency which prevail
in all the other known diftilled vegetable oils ; though in
fmell it is not a little difagreeable and empyreumatic ; a cir-
cumftance which occafions it to be at prefent more rarely
ufed than formerly. As the wax fwells up greatly in the
diftillation, it is convenient to divide it, by melting it with
twice its weight of fand ; or putting the fand above it in the
retort, that it may mingle with the wax when brought into
fufion. The oil, which is preceded by a fmall quantity of
acid liquor, congeals in the neck of the retort, from whence
it may be melted down, by "applying a hve coal, and made
fluid by rediililling it two or three times without addition.
The fseces remaining, after exprefling the wax, have been

ufed

WAX.

ufed both by furgeons and farriers, with fuccefs, againft
ftrjins.

The officinal preparations are as follow : cera jlava
purificata of Dub. Ph. ; oxidum antimomi •vltrificatum
cera of Edinb. ; emplajirum eerie of Lond. and Edinb. ;
emplajlrum cumitii of Lond. ; empl. picis compojitum of
Lond. ; I'mpl. oxldi Jerri ruhrl of Edinb. ; empl. ajfa-
fatidic of Edinb. ; empl. gummofum of Edinb. ; empl.
inches ■vejuatorii of Edinb. and Lond. ; empl. galbani
of Dub. ; empl. aromaikum of Dub. ; ceratum of Lond.
and Dub.; ceratum calamln<e of Lond. and Dub.; ceratum
i-ifms of Lond. Edinb. and Dub. ; ceratum fabina of
Lond. and Dub. ; ceratum faponis of Lond. ; unguentum
picis arids of Lond. and Edinb. ; ung. Infufi meloes vejicatorii
of Edinb.; and un^. caniharidis of Dub. Ph. For the firft,
fee 'wMle-ivax below. The fecond, or vitrified oxyd of an-
timony with wax, formerly waxed glafs of antimony, is
formed by melting one part of yellow wax in an iron veflel,
and throwing into it eight parts of oxyd of antimony
vitrified with fulphur, reduced to powder, and roafting
the mixture with a gentle fire for a quarter of an hour,
ftirring it afiiduouily with a fpatula ; then pouring out the
latter, and when cold rubbing it into a powder. This pre-
paration is diaphoretic and cathartic, occafionally exciting
naufea and vomiting. It was formerly thought to polfefs
efficacy in diarrhoea and dyfentery ; but is now fcarcely ever
prefcribed. The dofe may be from gr. ij. to gr. xv. given
twice or three times a day. For the empl. cera, fee Wax Plas-
ter. For tiie 4th, fee Emplastrum / Cymino. For the
5th, fee Compound Pitch Plaster. For the 6th, fee Plas-
ter of red Oxyd of Iron. For the 7th, fee ^Jfa Fcetida
Plaster. For the 8th, fee Gum Plaster. For the 9th,
loth, and nth, fee Plaster. For the others, compre-
hending cerates and ointments. See Unguentum.

The bleached or white luax is generally melted and caft,
in the manner already ilated, into thin difcs, about 5 inches
in diameter, in which form it is found in the (hops. For
medical purpofes, it is regarded as a demulcent ; and has been
fometimes adminiftercd in obllinate cafes of diarrhoea and dy-
fentery, with the view of fiieathing the bowels ; which efFeft
is better produced by fimple mucilages and folutions. It is
generally exhibited ditfufed in mucilaginous fluids by means of
&ap, in the proportion of jd part of the wax, with which it is
firft: melted, and then rubbed in a mortar, with the fluid gra-
dually added; but a preferable method is faid to be that of
Poerner, which is firft to melt the wax with olive oil, and
then mix the oily compound while hot with the mucilagin-
ous fluid, by triturating with the yolk of an egg. The dofe
is a cupfuU of the emulfion, containing about 3j of wax,
given every four or five hours. This wax, as well as the
yellow fort, is much ufed in the compofition of plafters and
ointments. The officinal preparations are ceratum cetacei
of Lond. Edinb. and Dub. pharmacopeias; unguentum ce-
tacei of Lond. and Dub. ; ung. hydrargyri nitrico-oxydi of
Lond.; linimentum Jimplex of Edinb.; and ung. Jimplex of
Edinb. See Ceratum, Liniment, and Unguent. Lewis's
Mat. Med.

Yellow wax is made foft with turpentine, yet retains its
natural colour. Red wax is only the white melted with tur-
pentine, and reddened with vermilion or alkanet. Verdi-
grife makes it green ; and burnt paper, or lamp-black, black.
Some travellers tell us of a natural black wax ; affuring us
there are bees, both in the Eaft and Weft Indies, that make
an excellent honey, included in black cells. Of this wax,
they fay, it is, that the Indians make thofe little vafes, in
which they gather their balfam of Tolu.

Wax is Jfo produced by the fecretion of many plants,

and forms the filvery powder or bloom, whicli covers their
leaves and fruit. It is found very abundantly combined
cc. '■e»"' covering the trunk of the wax-palm ( CeroKylon)
of South America, found in the QuinoUu mountains, 180
feet high, with leaves 20 feet long, the trunk of which is
covered with the waxy fecretion about two inches thick,
and confifting of two-thirds of refin and one of wax ; and
very pure, enrrufting the feeds of the Myrica cerifera, or
wax-tree of Louifiana, and other parts of North America.
The Pe-la of the Chinefe is an animal wax, and the white
lac of India appears to be a variety of wax ; lo that wax
may be regarded, in the extended meaning of the term, both
as an animal and a vegetable produft. The croton febi-
ferum, the tomex febifera, the poplar, the alder, the pine,
as well as the Myrica, afford a concrete inflammable matter
by decodlion, that more or lefs refembles tallow or wax,
that is, a fixed oil faturated with oxygen. But the Myrica
cerifera fupplies it in the greatelt abundance. The grains
of this tree, and the (hining wax obtained by boihng them
in water, have been long ago, -j/z. in 1722 and 1725, no-
ticed in the Hiftory of the Academy of Sciences. The
wax, it was obferved, is drier and more friable than our's ;
and it was found, that the hquor in which the grain had
been boiled, and from which the wax was procured, af-
forded, on evaporation, a kind of extraft that checked the
moft obftinate dyfenteries ; and the inhabitants of Louifiana
are faid to have made candles of the wax. Several authore
have mentioned different fpecies of thefe trees ; but the wax
they afford has more lately been the fubjeft of experimental
inveftigation, particulariy by M. Cadet and Dr. Boftock.
The moft fertile of thefe flirubs afford near feven pounds of
berries, the gathering of which employ feveral families.
Thefe berries are thrown into a kettle, and covered with
water. Whilft the water is boiling, the grains are ftirred
about againft the fides of the veffel, fo tliat the wax may
more eafily come off. In a little time it floats on the water
like fat, and being coUefted, is ftrained through a coarfe
cloth, to free it from any impurities. This operation is re-
peated with frefli berries ; and when a confiderable quantity
of wax has been obtained, it is laid upon a cloth to drain off
the water ; and it is then dried and melted a fecond time ;
and when thus purified, formed into maffes. Four pounds
of berries afford about one of wax : that which is firft
obtained is generally yellow ; but in the latter boilings it
affumes a green colour, from the pellicle with which the
kernel of the berry is covered. M. Cadet made a variety
of experiments on thefe berries, and found that the powder
which was obtained from them afforded an aftringent folu-
tion by alcohol, and that it contained gallic acid, but no
tannin ; and to this acid he attributes their effett in dyfen-
teries. The wax, obtained either by the decoftion of the
grains, or the folution of the powder when precipitated
from alcohol by water, when melted, is always of a greenifli-
yellow ; of a firmer confiftence than bees'-wax, dry, and fuf-
ficiently friable to be pulverized; and evidently more
oxygenated than the wax prepared by bees. Candles made
of this wax yielded a white flame, a good light, without
fmoke, and without guttering ; and when quite frefli, they
emit a balfamic odour, confidered in Louifiana as very falu-
brious to perfons in bad health. Diftilled in a retort, this
wax, for the moft part, paffes over in the form of butter.
This portion is much whiter, and has no more confiftence
than tallow. Another portion tliat was decompofed af-
forded a little water, with fome empyreumatic oil and
f -bacic acid. Much carbonated hydrogen gas and carbonic
acid gas were difengaged ; and there remained in the retort
a black and coaly bitumen. Ether was found to diffolve
Co 2 this

WAX.

this wax better than alcohol. Oxygenated muriatic acid
rendered this, as well as bees'-wax, perfeftly white ; but
the vegetable wax was bleached with the greateft difficulty.
The folution in ammonia is of a brown colour, and a por-
tion of the wax is rendered foapy ; and it forms foap with
fixed alkah. When the foap of Myrica is decompofed, a
very white wax is obtained, but in a ftate unfit for our ufes.
Litharge difTolves very well in this melted wax, and forms
a hard plafter, the confiaence of which may be diminifhed
at pleafure by the addition of a little oil. For bleaching
this wax, M. Cadet obferves, that two rc-agents prefent
themfelves to manufaaurers, the fulphuric acid and the oxy-
genated muriatic acid. He propofes the following method
as the moft fpeedy in its effeft :— Let the wax be reduced to
a very divided ftate, and ftratified in a calk with fuper-
oxygenated muriate of lime, and let them remain for fome
time in contaft without water. Let the fait be afterwards
decompofed with water, acidulated by the fulphuric acid ;
taking care to pour the water a little at a time at different
intervals, until there fhall be no longer any perceptible dif-
engagement of muriatic gas ; at which period a large quan-
tity of water is to be added, and the mixture agitated with
a ftaff. The infoluble fulphate of hme falls down by repofe,
while the bleached wax rifes and fwims at the furface.
This is to be wafhcd and melted; on the water bath. Our
author clofes his memoir with recommending the culture of
the plant that yields this wax, and with a brief detail of
methods for effefting this purpofe. Dr. Boftock has alfo
profccuted an inquiry into the nature and ufes of myrtle
wax. He finds that in its more important properties it re-
fembles bees'-wax, but that in fome refpefts they differ from
one another. The myrtle wax is moderately hard and con-
fiflent, poffeffing in part the tenacity of bees'-wax, without
its unauofity, and alfo, in fome degree, the brittlenefs of
refin. The prevalent colour is pale green, tending in moll
of the pieces to a dirty grey ; in others it is hghter, more
tranfparent, and of a yellowifh tinge. Its fpecific gravity
is about 1. 0150, water being l.ooo, fo that it finks in it,
and the white bees'-wax being .9600. Water has no aftion
upon it, either when cold or at the boiling heat. Alcohol,
when cold, does not affeft it; but 100 parts, by weight,
of this fluid, when boiling, diffolve about five parts of the
wax. Nearly four-fifths are depofited by the cooling of the
alcohol ; one-fifth remains fufpended, but in the courfe of a
few days is (lowly depofited, or may be precipitated by the
addition of water. Sulphuric ether, when at the common
temperature of the atmofphere, diffolves only a fmall quan-
tity of this wax, but afts upon it rapidly when boihng.
It takes up fomewhat more than one-fourth of its own
weight. As the ether cools, it is moftly feparated, and the
fmall refidue may be precipitated by water. After folu-
tion, the wax is nearly colourlefs, and the fluid affumes a
beautiful green hue. The depofit by evaporation fomewhat
refembles fpermaceti. Reftified oil of turpentine, at the
temperature of the atmofphere, foftens the wax, but does
not diffolve it : aided by a moderate heat, 1 00 grains of the
turpentine diffolves fix grains of the wax. The turpentine
acquires a hglit green tinge, part of the wax is feparated as
the fluid cools, and part remains permanently diffolved in it.
Pure potalh renders it colourlefs by boiling, and forms a
foap with a fmall part, which being decompofed by acid,
affords the wax nearly unchanged. Pure ammonia afts
nearly as potafh, but more feebly. The three principal
mineral acids aft upon the myrtle wax, but with no great
force. The' fulphuric acid, with a moderate heat, diffolves
about one-twelfth of its weight, and converts it into a thick,
dark -brown raafs, which on cooling becomes nearly con-

9

Crete, but without any feparation of the wax. The nitric
and muriatic acids, even when heated, feem to poffefs little
attraftion for the wax. From fuch experiments. Dr. Bof-
tock affigns to myrtle wax, with a confiderable degree of
probability, the place which it fliould occupy among che-
mical fubftances. Its inflammability, fufibihty, infolubility
in water, and the aftion which takes place between it and
the alkalies, indicate its affinity to the fixed oils ; while its
texture and confiftence, and more particularly its habitudes
with alcohol and ether, manifell a refemblance to the refins.
Upon the whole, we may confider the myrtle wax as a fixed
vegetable oil, rendered concrete bv the addition of a quan-
tity of oxygen ; and feeming to hold the fame relation to
the fixed, which refins do to the effential oils of vegetables.
Dr. Boftock has inftituted a comparifon between myrtle
wax and other fubftances which it refembles, fuch as bees'-
wax, fpermaceti, adipocire, and the cry-ftalhne matter of
biliary calculi ; and, upon the whole, deduces this conclu-
fion, that though thefe five fubftances poffefs certain pro-
perties in common, and have a degree of fimilarity in their
external appearance, yet that they differ materially in their
chemical nature. There is indeed, he fays, reaion to con-
jefture, that they are all compofed of the lame elements,
combined together in different proportions, and with dif-
ferent degrees of attraftion. Nicholfon's Journal, vol. iv.
8vo.

Wax, C/mfe. See Chafe.

Wax, Crude or Rough, called by the French cin brute,
in Natural Nijlory, a name given to a fubftance called by the
ancients erlthace, fandarac, and ambrojia.

We feem to have no name for it in Englifti, but may call
it after the name of the French, rough wax.

The Dutch call it the food of the bees, and that, per-
haps, very properly, there appearing many reafons to think
that the bees eat it.

This is the yellow fubftance found on the hinder legs of
bees in fmall lumps, of which, as Reaumur and fome others
erroneoufly thought, wax is made by this infeft. See Pain
d'Jbeilles.

Wax, Myrtle. See Myrica, and Wax, fupra.

Wax, Virgin, Propolis, is a fort of reddifti wax, ufed
by the bees to rtop up the clefts or holes of the hive. It is
applied juft as taken out of the hive, without any art, or
preparation of boihng, &c. It is the moft tenacious of any,
and is held good for the nerves. See Propolis.

Wax, Sealing, or Spani/h Wax, is a compofition of gum
lacca, melted and prepared with refins, and coloured with
fome fuitable pigment.

There are two kinds of fealing-wax in ufe : the one hard,
intended for feahng letters, and other fuch purpofes, where
only a thin body can be allowed ; the other foft, defigned
for receiving the imprcflions of feals of office to charters,
patents, and fuch written inftruments.

The beft hard red fealing-wax is made by mixing two
parts of fhell-lac, well powdered, and refin and vermilion,
powdered, of each one part, and melting this combined
powder over a gentle fire ; and when the ingredients feem
thoroughly incorporated, working the wax into fticks.
Seed-lac may be fubftituted for the ftiell-lac ; and inftead of
refin, boiled Venice turpentine may be ufed. A coarfer,
hard, red fealing-wax may be made, by mixing two parts
of refin, and of ftiell-lac, vermihon and red-lead, mixed in
the proportion of one part of the vermilion to two of the
red-lead, of each one part ; and proceeding, as in the former
preparation. For a cheaper kind, the vermilion may be
omitted, and the Ihell-lac alfo, for very coarfe ufes. The
hard black fealing-wax may be prepared in the fame manner ;

ufing

I

WAX

WAX

jfuig for the bed fort, inftead of the vermilion, the bell
ivory black ; and for the coarfer fort, inftead of the ver-
milion and red-lead, the common ivory black. For hard
green fealing-wax, inftead of vermilion, ufe poH'dered ver-
digrife ; and for a bright colour, diftilled, or cryftals of
verdigrife. For liard blue fealing-wax, inftead of the ver-
milion, fubftitute well powdered fmalt, or for a light blue,
verditer ; or a mixture of both. For yellow hard fealing-
; wax, fubftitute mafticot, or, for a bright colour, turbith
mineral, inftead of the vermilion. The hard purple wax
is made like the red ; changing half the quantity of the ver-
I milion for an equal, or greater proportion of fmalt, as the
purple is defired to be more blue or more red.

For uncoloured foft fealing-wax, take of bees'-wax, one
pound ; of turpentine, three ounces ; and of olive oil, one
ounce ; place them in a proper veftel over the fire, and let
them boil for feme time ; and the wax will be then fit to be
\ formed into rolls or cakes for ufe. For red, black, green,
blue, yellow, and purple foft fealing-wax, add to the pre-
ceding compofition, while boiling, an ounce or more of any
ingredients directed above for colouring the hard fealing-
wax, and ftir the mafs, till the colouring ingredient be in-
[ corporated with the wax.

j The hard fealing-wax is formed into fticks, by roUing
the mafs on a copper-plate, or ftone, with a rolling-board,
lined with copper, or block-tin, into rolls of any required
fize. In order to give them the fire-polifh, or glofs, a fur-
nace or ftove, like a pail, with bars at the bottom for fup-
porting the charcoal, and notches at the top of the fides for
putting the fticks of wax over the fire, is ufually provided.
By means of this ftove the fticks of wax may be conveniently
expofed to the fire, and turned about, till the wax is fo
melted on tlie furface as to become fmooth and ftiining.
Hard feahng-wax may be formed into balls, by putting a
proper quantity on the plate or ftone, and having fafhioned
it into a round form, rolling it with the board till it be
fmooth.

The foft wax is eafily formed into rolls or cakes, by
pouring the melted mafs of the ingredients, as foon as they
are duly prepared, into cold water, and working it with the
hands into any defired figure. Some perfume both thefe
kinds of wax, by ufing, for a pound of the wax, half an
ounce of benjamin, one fcruple of oil of Rhodium, ten
grains of muflc, and of civet and ambergrife, each five
grains ; rubbing the oil with the other ingredients powdered ;
and when the wax is ready to be wrought into fticks, fprink-
ling in and well ftirring the mixture ; or by ufing one ounce
of benjamin, one fcruple and a half of oil of Rhodium, and
five grains of ambergrife, in the fame manner. Lewis's
Com. of Arts, p. 370. Handmaid to the Arts, vol. ii.
p. J4, &c.

WAx-Caniiles. See Candle.

Wax, To imitate Fruit, i^c. in. Take the fruit, and
bury it half-way in clay ; oil its edges, and the extant half
of the fruit ; then nimbly throw on it tempered alabafter,
or plafter of Paris, to a confiderable thicknels. When this
is concreted, it makes the half mould, the fecond half of
which may be obtained in the fame way. The two parts
of the mould being joined together, a little coloured wax,
melted, and brought to a due heat, being poured through
a hole made in any convenient part of the mould, and pre-
fently (hook every way therein, will reprefent the original
fruit. Boyle's Works abr. vol. i. p. i 36.

Here we muft not forget that pretty mvention of M. Be-
noift, a man famous at Paris for his figures of wax. Being
by profefiion a painter, he found the fecret of forming
moulds on the faces of living perfons, even the faireft and
moll delicate, without any danger either to their health or

complexion : in which moulds he caft mallcs of wax ; lo
which, by his colours, and glafs eyes imitated from nature,
he gave a fort of life : infomuch as, when clothed in proper
habits, they bore fuch a refemblance, that it was difficult
diftinguifhing between the copy and the original.
Wax, Gilding. See Gilding.

Wax, Grafting, is a compofition ferving to bind or fix
the bud, or graft, in the cleft of the ftock.

Inftead of grafting wax, the country gardeners, &c. only
ufe clay, over which they lay a piece of linen cloth, and fo
keep it moid ; and to prevent its cracking with the heat of
the fun, they tie mofs over it. But the wax ordinarily ufed
is a compoil of one pound and a half of pitch, a quarter of
a pound of wax, and an ounce of oil of almonds, melted and
mixed together : with the addition, in fpring or autumn, of
a moderate quantity of turpentine.

For cleft-grafting, whip-grafting, and grafting by ap-
proach, Mr. Mortimer recommends tempered clay, or foft
wax ; but for rind-grafting, clay and horfe-dung.
Wax, Green. See Green IVax.
Wax, thorough, in Botany. See Bupleurum.
Wax, Painting in. See Encaustic Painting.
Wax-BHI. See Loxia ^IJiriU.

W AX-Scot, or Wax-Jhot, Ceragium, in our Ancient CuJ-
toms, money paid twice a year towards the charge of main-
taining lights, or candles, in the church.

WAXENBURG, m Geography, a town of Auftria j
10 miles W. of Freyitadt.

WAXHOLM, a fortrefs on the coaft of Sweden, in
the Baltic ; fituated on a fmall ifland at the entrance of the
channel of the Malar Lake, and built in the year 1649. ft
has fince been greatly improved and enlarged, fo that it has
the appearance of a little town. Here all homeward-bound
fhips are fearched. On this ifland, which is called ll/^axon,
befides this fort, are a church, a fchool, and a cuftom-houfe.
The chief occupation of the inhabitants is fiihing ; 16 miles
E. of Stockholm. N. lat. 59° 21'. E. long. 18° 16'.

WAXING, Ceratio, in Chemijlry, the preparation of
any matter to render it fit and difpofed to hquefy, or melt,
which of itfelf it was not.

This is frequently done, to enable things to penetrate
into metals, or other folid bodies.

Waxing, in the Manujadure of Calico, Sec, a procefs
by which the operation of certain colours is refifted by flop-
ping out with wax ; but it is too expenfive to be often
adopted among calico-printers, who are anxious to finifti
their prints with the leall poffible charge. Formerly this
mode was very generally pratlifed, and great quantities of
wax were confumed in the procefs. In the Eaft Indies
wax is ftiU ufed for preferving the whites in calico-printing.
In printing the filk handkerchiefs called bandanas, a pro-
cefs called luaxing is ftill followed. It conlllls in making
a preparation of tallow and rofiii very liquid by heat, and
in printing it in that ftate with a block upon the filk.
When fuch goods are palled through the blue vat, thofe
parts which are covered with the tallow and rofin are
preferved from the attion of the indigo, and remain white,
while the whole remainder is dyed a fad blue. The
method afterwards taken to difcharge a part of this blue,
and produce yellow, orange, &c. is as follows : — The
agent employed for this pnrpofe is the nitrous, and fome-
times the nitro-muriatic acid. This was ufed for the pur-
pofe of putting yellow figures upon blue filk handker-
chiefs. With this view aqua fortis, or nitro-muriatic acid,
of a ftrength fuitable to the kind of blue that is to be dif-
charged, is mixed either with gum-tragacanth, or with
llour pafte, to a proper confidence, and in this form it is
printed on the filk, by means of a common block, ou which

the

WAY

the intended pattern is cut. The confequence of this is,
that wherever the acid attaches, there the original colour is
difcharged, and a yellow dye is produced in its place. The
pieces are then fteamed, by pafling them over a veffel con-
taining boiling water, which gives brilliancy to the colour, and
finilhes the operation. Parkes's Eff. vol. ii. p. 149. 170.
See Difchargi Wokk, and Discharging of Colours.

WAXWAY, in Geography, an ifland in the Eaft In-
dian fea, near the E. coaft of the ifland of Celebes, about
thirty miles in circumference. S. lat. 3° 35'. E. long.
123° 15'.

WAY. See Pulo Way.

Way, Via. See Highway, Road, Turnpike, and

Via. ... . •,•

Roman ways are divided into confular, pr/itorian, military,

and public. See Via.

We have four notable ones of thefe in England ; an-
ciently called chimini quatuor, and intitled to the privileges
of pax regis. The firil is Watling-Jlreet, or IVatheling-Jheet,
leading from Dover to London, Dunftable, Towcefter, At-
terfton, and the Severn, near the Wrekin in Shropfhire,
extenduig as far as Anglefea in Wales. The fecond, called
HekineU, or Ikemld-Jlreet, reaches from Southampton, over
the river Ifis at Newbridge, thence by Camden and Litch-
field, then pafTes the Derwent near Derby, fo to Bolfover-
caRle, and ends at Tinmouth. The third, called Fojfe-iuay,
becaufe in fome places it was never perfefted, but lies as a
large ditch, leads from Cornwall through Devonfliire, by
Tetbury near Stow in the Wolds ; and befide Coventry to
Leicefter, Newark, and fo to Lincoln. The fourth, called
Erming, or Erminage-Jlreel, ftretches from St. David's in
Weft Wales, to Southampton.

Way. See Weigh.

Way, Milky. The opinion, long maintained among aftro-
nomers, but lately controverted, that the milky way contains
a great number of ftars, has been confirmed by the obferva-
tions of the ingenious and indefatigable Dr. Herfchel. On
applying his telefcope of the Newtonian form, with an
objeft-fpeculum of twenty feet focal length and an aperture
of iSt'it inches, to a part of this fpace, he found that it
completely refolved the whole whitifh appearance into fmall
ftars ; which his former telefcopes had not light enough to
effeft In the traft immediately about the hand and club of
Orion, to which his obfervations were particularly direfted,
the multitude of ftars of all poflible fizes that prefented
themfelves to view was aftonifhing : and in order to form
fome juft idea of their number. Dr. Herfchel counted many
fields, and computed from a mean of them, what a given
portion of the milky way might contain. Among many
trials of this fort, he found that fix fields, promifcuoufly
taken, contained no, 60, 70, 90, 70, and 74 ftars each. A
mean of thefe gives 79 ftars for each field. Hence, by al-
lowing fifteen minutes of a great circle for the diameter of
the field of view, it is inferred, that a belt of fifteen degrees
in length and two in breadth, which is the quantity often
obferved by this excellent aftronomer to pafs through the
field of his telefcope in one hour's time, could not well con-
tain lefs than fifty thoufand liars, that were large eno igh to
be diftinftly numbered. But, befides thefe, Dr. Herfchel
fufpefted at leaft twice as many more, which, for want of
light, he could only fee now and then by faint glittering and
interrupted ghmpfes. See Galaxy and Nebitla.

Way of a Ship is fometimcs ufed for the fame with the
rake. But the term is mure commonly underllood of the
courfe or proafrefs which (he makes on the water under fail:
thus, wi.eii fhf begins her motion, ftie is faid to be undir
•way; when that motion increafes, (he is faid to ha.ie fre/h
•way through the water ; when flie goes apace, thf y kyjie
5

WAY

has a good way ; and they call the account how faft (he faiU
by the log, keeping an account of her tvay.

And becaufe moft ftiips are apt to fail a little to the lee-
ward of their true courfe ; they always, in cafting up the
log-board, allow fomething for her leeward-way. Hence
alfo a (hip is faid to have head-way zniflern-way.

Way of the Rounds, Chemin des Rondes, in Fortification,
is a fpace left for the paflage of the rounds, between the
rampart, and the wall of a fortified town.

This is not now much in ufe ; becaufe the parapet not
being above a foot thick, it is foon overthrown by the
enemy's cannon.

Way', Covert, Fofs, Gang, Hatch, Spur, and Water. See
the feveral articles.

WAY-Sread, in Agriculture, a name given in fome places
to the herb plantain, which is very ufeful in fome grafs
lands, as increafing the quantity of feed very greatly. See
Plantago.

WAY-Going Crop, a term applied to that which is taken
from the ground the year the tenant or occupant leaves ji
farm. Such crops are regulated in many different ways, ac-
cording to the nature of the leafes. See Lease.

WAY-Leave, a provincial term for the ground purchafed
or hired to make a waggon-way upon, between coal-pits and
the river.

WAY-Pane, in Agriculture, a term applied to the flips left
for cartage in watered lands. It is that part of the ground
which lies, in a properly watered meadow, on that fide of a
main where no trenches are formed and taken out, but it
floated all the length of the main over its banks, having a
drain parallel to it. It ferves as a road for conveying the
hay upon out of the ground, inftead of the teams having to
crofs all the trenches.

Vf AY-Thyile, a troublefome plant of the perennial weed
kind, with ftrong roots that branch out in a horizontal
manner. Some think it may be weakened or deftroyed '
wholly by frequent cutting over, the beft feafon for which is
when it is coming into full bloom ; as the wet then gees
down its hollow ftalk, and aids the rotting of it. In tillage-
land it is fometimes got quit of by deep repeated ploughing.
See Thistle and Weeds.

Vf AY -Warden, in Rural Economy, a name fometimes given
to the furveyor or overlooker of the roads of a diftritt or
county.

WAYA, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of the
ifland of Celebes, in Tolo bay. S. lat. l°5o'. E. long.
121° 52'.

WAYAM, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the I
S.E. coaft of the ifland of Waygoo. S. lat. 0° 24'. E. '
long. 131° 30'.

WAYBARI, a river of Guiana, which runs into the
Atlantic, N. lat. 6° 25'. W. long. 58° 6'.

WAYBORN Hope, a creek and point of land, on the
N. coaft of the county of Norfolk, which takes its name
from a village, about five miles from Holt.

WAYED Horse, in Rural Economy, a term applied to
an animal of this kind which has been already backed and
broken in for work, and which ftiews a difpoCtion to be
tradable and ufeful. See Horse and Team.

The term is hkewife fometimes applied to team-oxen and
other animals.

WAYFARING-Tree. See Viburnum.

WAYG AT's Strait, in Geography, a ftrait of Ruflia in
Europe, feparating a fmall ifland, called Waygat ifland, from
the continent or country of the Samoiedes. It is alfo called
Vaigatflioi and Vaiatch. N. lat. 68°. E. long. 60°. See
Vaigatskoi.

WAYGOO, an ifland in the Pacific Ocean, about 60

miles

I

W A Y

miles in length,

-^2 „, "

from E. to W., and z$ in breadth. N.lat.
o" 2' to o'^ 30'. E. long. 130° 31' to 131° 40'.

WAYNE, a town of America, in the diftriA of Maine,
and county of Kennebeck, containing 819 inhabitants. —
Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Greene county, con-
taining 588 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfylvania,
in Crawford county, containing 502 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Mifflin county, containing
1501 inhabitants. — Alfo, a county of Pennfylvania, con-
taining 4125 inhabitants Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in

the county of Adams, containing 9c i inhabitants. — Alfo, a
townfhip of Ohio, in the county of Butler, containing 1 135
inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in the county of
Columbiana, containing 377 iiiiiabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip
of Ohio, in JefFerfon county, containing 1 16 1 inhabitants.
— Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in Knox county, containing
478 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in Montgo-
mery county, containing 431 inhabitants Alfo, a town-
fhip of Ohio, in Pickaway county, containing 742 inha-
bitants.— Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in Scioto county, con-
taining 398 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, iu
Tufcarawa county, containing 191 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
townfhip of Ohio, in Warren county, containing 1862 in-
habitants— Alfo, a county of Kentucky, contaming 5393
inhabitants, of whom 226 are flaves; the town Monticilio
contains 37 perfons, including 4 flaves. — Alfo, a county of
North Carolina, containing 8687 inhabitants, 2756 being
(laves. — Alfo, a county of Georgia, containing 354 in-
habitants Alfo, a county of the Miffiflippi territory, con-
taining 1253 inhabitants, 262 bting flaves. — Alfo, a large
townfhip of New York, in the N.E. part of Steuben county,
15 miles E. of Bath, called Frederick's town till the year
1808: it has apoft-office called Rofcommon. The S. part is
hilly, but the central and other parts are arable and prd-
duftive. The timber is chiefly oak and walnut, ,ind fome
pine on the hills. Here are a congregation of Baptifts, and
a competent number of fchool-houfes. The fettlement
commenced about 1794, and the population is rapidly in -
creafing. In 1810, the number of people was 1025, and
that of lenatorial eleftors 57.

WAYNESBOROUGH, a town of Georgia, contain-
ing 1 1 1 inhabitants.

WAYS and Means, Committee of. See Supplies.

WAYTE, in Geography, a rocky iflet in the ftraits of
Macaffar, near the weft coaft of Celebes. S. lat. 0° 40'.
E. long. 119" i8'.

WAYTO, a townontheS.E. coaft of the ifle of Timor.
S. lat. 8° 39'. E. long. 126° 9'.

WAY-WlSER, an inftrument for meafuring the road,
or diftance gone ; called alfo perambulator, and podometer,
or pedometer.

Mr. LovcU Edgworlh communicated to the Tociety of
Arts, &c. an account of a way-wifer of his in nation ;
for which he obtained a filver medal. This machitie con-
fifts of a nave, formed of two round fiat pieces of wood, one
inch thick and eight inches in dianneter. In each of thefe
pieces there are cut eleven grooves, five-cightlis of an inch
wide and three-eighths deep ; and when the two pieces are
fcrewed together, they enclofe eleven fpokes, forming a
wheel of fpokes, without a rim : the circumference of the
wheel is exaftly one pole ; and the inllrument may be calily
taken to pieces, and put up in a fmall compafs. On each
of the fpokes there is driven a fcrril, to prevent them from
wearing out ; and in the centre of the nave, there is a fquare
hole to receive an axle. Into this hole there is inferted an
iron or brafs rod, which has the thread of a very fine fcrew
worked upon it from one end to the other ; upon this fcrew

W E A

hangs a nut which, as the rod turns round with the wheel,
advances or recedes towards or from the nave of the wheel.
The nut does this becaufeit is prevented from turning round
with the axle, by having its centre of gravity placed at fome
diftance below the rod, fo as always to hang perpendicularly-
like a plummet. Two fides of this fcrew are filed away-
flat, and have figures engraved upon them to fhew by the
progrefTive motion of the nut, how many circumvolutions
the wheel and its axle have made : on one fide the divifions
of miles, furlongs, and poles, are in a direft, and on the other
fide the fame divifions are placed in a retrograde order.

If the perfon who ufes this machine places it at his right
fide, holding the axle loofely in his hands, and walks for-
ward, the wheel will revolve, and the nut advance from the
extremity of the rod towards the nave of the wheel. When
two miles have been meafured, the nut will have come clofe
to the wheel. B'jt to continue this meafurement, nothing
more is neceffary than to place the wheel at the left hand of
tlie operator ; and the nut will, as he continues his courfe,
recede from the axle-tree, till another fpace of two miles is
meafured.

It appears from the conttruftion of this machine, that it
operates like circular compafTes ; and does not, like the
common-wheel way-wifer, meafure the furface of every ftone
and mole-hiU, &c. but pafFes over moft of the obftacles it
meets with, and meafures the chords only, inftead of the arcs
of any curved furfaces upon which it rolls.

WAYWODE. See Waiwode.

W£A.CHIN, in Botany, the name given by the Indians
of America to the maize, or Indian corn, which they culti-
vated for bread before we knew them.

WEADINGSTEDE, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Holftein ; 7 miles E. of Weflingburen.

WEAK, or Easy Branch, in the Manege. See Ban-
quet, and Banquet -Z/n(r.

WsAK-Land, in Agriculture, that which is of a light, thin,
open nature, and which is deficient in ftaple, or the quantity
of proper mouldy material. It is direftly contrary to that
of the cold watery kind, which often changes the nature and
quality of the produce, and retards vegetation in the early
fpring, or during wet feafons, as it forwaj-ds the growth of
the crops that are put upon it, but is frequently defeAive
in the amount of produce which is afforded. It is to be im-
proved by the ufe of proper earthy fubilances and manures,
according as the quality of it may be, and by keeping the
furface of it as much covered as poffible by fuitable green
crops, to prevent the too great expofure of it to the aftion
of the fun and w^inds. Such other means, of the fame kind,
as the nature, circumftances, and fituation of the land will
permit, may likewife be purfued. See Soil.

WEAK-Pt:l/e. See Pulse.

WEAKY, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify juicy, in
contradillinAion to that of dry or hufky, as applied to
different kinds of food.

WEALD, or WEALD-Land, a name applied to a kind
of wild woody traft of ground of a ftiff heavy quahty in
fome fouthern diilridls, .as thofe of Kent, Suffex, &c.

It is moflly ot a deep tenacious clayey, marly, and
loamy nature, but occafionally intermixed with earths of a
lighter .ind more open fort. The writer of the account of
the agriculture of the former of the above counties, ftates,
that the weald part of that diftrift was in ancient times an
immenfe wood or foreft, inhabited only by herds of deer and
hogs, and belonged wholly to the king. That by degrees
it became peopled, and interfpeifed with villages and towns;
and by plcce-meal, was, for the moft part, cleared of its
wood, and converted into tillage and paflure. There arc,

however,

W K A

however, fome woodlands ttill in their original (late ; and
by the author of that of the latter, it is remarked, that fo
predominant is the timber and wood of one fort or another
in the weald of that county, that when viewed from any
eminence in the neighbourhood, it prefents to the eye hardly
any other profpeA but a mafs of wood, which is, it is
thought, to be afcribed to the great extent and quantity of
wood, preferved by a cuftom of a nature fo extraordinary,
that it is not a little furprifing no fteps have been taken to
put an end to it.

When this county was firft improved by clearing, as m
the other diftrift, it was, it is faid, a common praftice to
leave 2.Jhaiu of wood feveral yards in width, to encompafs
each diilinft inclofure, as a nurfery for the timber and other
plants. The fizes of thefe inclofures being fmall, they muft
of neceifity contribute to render the general appearance of
the traft woody.

Anterior to the Conqueft, the weald of this county was,
it is faid, a continued forell, extending from the borders
of the firfl: diftrift to the confines of Hamplhire, acrofs
the whole of it ; and the names of a variety of parifhes
fituated in this hne, and evidently derived from Saxon
original, atteft this faft to the prefent day. In fhort, the
forefL now remaining occupies, it is faid, a confiderable
portion of the county.

The weald parts of both thefe counties were probably
once one great foreft.

It is noticed, that there is, perhaps, no objeft in the weald
of the latter county, fo worthy of attention and obfervation
as the grow til of timber ; that there is no region of the
earth where trees of all kinds thrive better, but efpecially
thofe of the oak and afh forts. The traft there diilinguiflied
by the title of the Weald has formerly-, it is ftated, been
covered with trees, and it was called the forell of An-
derida ; and that now, even if a field be neglefted, it will
become a wood, principally of oak and birch, intermixed
with hazel, fome kinds of willow, and dog wood.

This difpofition for the growth and railing of wood and
timber (hould, in all cafes of weald land where it cannot be
converted to a better or more profitable purpofe, be taken
advantage of and promoted, by proper plantmg and en-
couraging the natural growth of the wood thrown up, as it
may form one great feature in the improvement of fuch
land, and be produftive of vaft benefit in bringing every
portion and fort of it to the greatell profit.

WEALREAF, in our Old Writers, fignifies the robbing
of a dead man in his grave.

The word comes from the Saxon nueal, Jlrages, and reaf,
fpoIiaUo.

WEANEL, a country term for a young beaft newly
weaned, or taken from fucking its dam.

WEANING, Ablactation. See Ablactation.

Weaning Toung Live-Stock, in Rural Economy, the fepa-
rating them from the mothers in the different kinds, for dif-
ferent purpofes, and in different intentions.

Foals, where they are defigned for the faddle, fhould,
on being taken from the mothers, be put into fome fafe
(beds or other proper places at a diftance, where they can
be quiet and out of the hearing of the mares, being well
fupplied with the neceffary forts of food and good water for
a day or two ; the buildings fliould be connefted with
grafs-fields, into which they can be turned in the day-time,
but be always brought up for the night, for fome time,
having proper kinds of dry food then given them in full
quantities, fo as to get them on well at firft. Some intel-
ligent breeders have their young horfe-ftock fed, after
weaning, with coarfely ground oats and one-third flour,

W E A

divided into proper feeds, and given on the nights in the
houfes. This, it is faid, pulhes them on early to a full
growth, and that they never become ftunted afterwards.
In fome inllances, it may be ufeful and proper to put the
colt and filly foals into feparate paftures. Where a number
are to be weaned at a time, it is of advantage to have the
pafture-lands pretty large. See Breeding, Foal, and
Horse.

In the weaning* of the young of neat cattle, the bufinefs
is accompliftied at different times or ages of the animals, as
the nature of the purpofe for which they are defigned may
be ; when for rearing as ftock, it is often done immediately,
or in a few days or weeks, and when for fattening, not at
all. If for fale, the time is uncertain, depending on the
demand. Where good neat cattle-ftock is the objeft, as foon
as the natural food milk is laid afide, a fubflitute of fome
good fort of diet fhould be had recourfe to, fuch as oat or
barley-meal, ftirred in with the jelly of linfeed, that has
been produced by being fteeped in hot water, and mixed
with flet milk ; which ftiould be continued until they be-
come capable of eating more firm and folid kinds of food,
fuch as either oats, fpht beans, and chopped hay, or bran,
and barley-flour mixed : in the early Ipring they (hould
be turned out into good grafs paftures in warm fituations.
By thefe means they will be brought on well, and become
good ftrong ftock. For the purpofe of rearing, as well as
that of the butcher, thofe that are dropped early are to be
preferred, as after the early fpring months, they are not
found capable of gaining fufficient ftrength and hardnefs
before the fucceeding winter comes on, or a proper fize and
growth by the enfuing fpring.

In the buying of the young of neat cattle for weaning
there are many fyftems of management among farmers : fome
prefer bull calves for caftration, and which they keep, in fome
cafes, until they become reared, and are fat bullocks fit for
the market ; others buy cow-calves of the true fhort-honied,
or fome other good milking-breed, which they fell at two
years, or two years and a half old, and upwards, to the cow-
keepers as milking-ftock. In this method, they are col-
lefted from the latter end of the fummer through the autumn
of the above true breed, as others will not do from
Yorkftiire, and other places where they are to be met with
of the right kind, as fuch fell better, and more readily to
the cow-keepers for affording milk. In weaning, they are
then firft put to llcim-milk, and tempted as foon as poflible
to eat fome other good food, as bran, oats, oil-cake, the
fwecteft hay, common turnips, and cole or rape ; but
nothing is found to do better for them than the Swedifh
turnip cut fmall. In keeping them, they fhould have great
attention to cleanlinefs, and the proper and regular feeding
of them. In this way they are continued, being kept in
fheds in the night-time, and turned out by day, until the
fpring, when the ray-grafs becomes ready, and then they
may go out gradually altogether, according as the weather
may be : after ray-grafs to the beft marfhes or paftures ;
in the autumn to cole or rape that is feeding off for wheat,
and after that to turnips : it is a rule with fome to feed them
through the whole period of keeping them as well as pof-
fible. This is expenfive, but it is conceived, that if they
will not pay for good keeping, they will not for bad.
Some, however, when they are turned out, make them the
followers of the fattening ftock.

In this fyftem there are' thofe, too, who buy both cow
and buil-calves, difpofing of the former in the above manner,
and keeping the latter raifing a fucccfGon of fteers for the
grazing or fattening farmers.

All thefe modes, though hazardous in fome inftances, aie

often

W E A

often very beneficin!. A man is required for the purpofe, in
autumn, winter, and fpring, when the bufinels is carried on
upon - Nrcje fcale. See Calf, Breeding, and Cattle.

Alfo Cr.V KTEPING.

The \w • . 7 of lambs is a matter of feme trouble and
difSculty 111 niauy cafes; it fliould be done towards the latter
end of the fummer, according to circumPances, but never
be delayed too Ic:ig, as the ewes may thereby be greatly
I'.'irt in different ways. After the Iambs are taken, or
lifted as it is fometimes called, from the mothers, they
'liould be allo\>'ed to pafs the night about the fold or place,
the fi Mowing mor:iing feme of them will begin to eat,
_..J teach the orhers to do the fame. They fhouH then
be removed to fume convenient loft graffy pafture, difturb-
j ing them as little as poifible, care being taken that they do
not wafte or cxhauil themfelves by running. If there be
; any danger of their not refting quietly the fird night after
they are removed, it is faid that it may be effeftually pre-
vented by pafturing them with their mothers the night im-
mediately preceding their weaning, on their future pafture,
and driving them to the fold or other place direftly in that
road or way by which the lambs are to be removed from it.
In the courfe of ten or twelve days both the lambs and the
ewes may be paftured together again without inconve-
nience. See Lamb and Sheep.

Store fwine fhould conftantly be weaned at the end of a
few weeks, as about fix or eight, otherwife they do much in-
jury to the few. The young pigs ftiouldbe well fedforfome
time afterwards, in order to pufh them on to their proper
growth, and prevent their becoming dwarfilh. The want
of attention to this often produces a poor ftunted fort of
pigs, worth little or nothing. See Swine.

WEANLING, a term applied in fome diftrifts to the
inewly-weaned calf. See Weaning.

WEAPONS. See Arm and Armour.
WsAPOti -Salve, a kind of unguent, fuppofed to cure
(wounds fympathetically, by being applied, not to the
wound, but to the weapon that made it. See Sympa-
Ithetic Powdrr, and Transplantation.

WEAR, or Week, a great ftank, or dam in a river ;
fitted for the taking of fi(h, or for conveying the ftream to
the mill. See Fishing, and Weir.
Wear, in Geography. See Were.
WEARE, a townlliip of America, in New Hampfhire,
in the county of Kellftiorough, containing 2634 inhabitants ;
!l8 miles S.W. of Concord.
I WEARING, in S9a Language. See Veering.

WEARY Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N.E. coaft
lof New Holland, S. of Endeavour river.
[ WEASEL, Weesel, Common, in Zoology, a fpeci^o of
[the muftela. See Mustela Vulgaris.
j The common weafel ufually refides in caTities under the
iroots of trees, as well as of banks near rivulets, &c. from
•which it occafionally fallies out in fearch of birds, and more
pfpecially of field-mice, great multitudes of which it de-
Sftroys.

I In Norway, Sweden, Ruflia, and Siberia, the weafel
jalways changes to white at the approach of winter. In
jSiberia it is called lafmitjka ; and the Ikins are fold to the
IChinefe for three or four rubles per hundred.
I We have authentic accounts of this animal's being fo com-
ipletely tamed, as to exhibit every mark of attachment to its
ibenefaftors, and to be as familiar as a cat or lap-dog. A
lady took one of thefe animals under her proteftion ; and
|fed it from her hand with warm milk, and alfrf with veal,
'beef, or mutton. When it is fatisfied it generally goes to
I Vol. XXXVIII.

W E A

deep, and when it wakes, it amufes itfelf with various frolics,
and beftows the moft affeaionate careffes on its guardian.
It diftinguilhes the voice of its benefaarefs amidft twenty
people, and gives her a decided preference to all the reft.
Among other curious particulars which this lady has re-
cited, we cannot forbear mentioning the curiofity of this
animal ; it being impoflible, as fhe fays, to open a drawer or
a box, or even to look at a paper, which this little creature
will not alfo examine. Aldrovandus indeed confirms the
account given by Buffon ; exprefsly alTerting, that weafels
are eafily tamed, and that, when tame, they are remarkably
playful ; adding, at the fame time from Curdan, that if their
teeth are rubbed with garlick, they will not afterwards pre-
fume to bite. This writer alfo affirms, that the weafel
fometimes carries her young in her mouth from place to
place feveral times in a day, when (he fufpeds that they will
be i^olen from her ; refembling fome other animals in this
refpea. For other fpecies of weafel we refer to Mustela
and VivERRA ; and we fhall here add fome few fpecies,
mentioned by Dr. Shaw, which have not been noticed under
either of thofe articles. Such are the Viverra Touan, or
ferruginous weafel, white beneath, with the tail naked to-
wards the tip, tlie " Touan" of Buffon ; a native of
Cayenne, that lives in hollow trees, and feeds on worms and
infeas. The V. Cuja, or black weafel, with turned up
fnout, the " Cuja" of Molina, refembling the ferret in
(hape, manners, and teeth ; a native of Chili, and preying
upon mice. The V. Maculata, or du(l<;y weafel, fpotted
with white ; the " Spotted Martin" of governor Phillips, in
its form fomewhat refembling the foffane. There are alfo
fome other fpecies, not yet fufficiently defcribed, as the
grey-headed weafel, or " La Grande Marte de Giiiane," of
Buffon ; the South American weafel, or " La Fouine de
la Guiane," of Buffon ; the woolly weafel, or " La petite
Fouine de la Guiane," of Buffon ; the raulliy weafel of
Pennant, a native of Bengal ; and the flender-toed weafel
with a bufhy tail, defcribed, as well as the other, by
Mr. Pennant from a drawing ; this latter being a native of
Cochinchina.

Weasel-Coo/, in Ornithology, the red-headed fmew, or
mergus minutus of Linnasus.

Weather, in Agriculture, as denoting the flate or
difpofition of the atmofphere, in regard to heat and cold,
drought and moifture, fog, fair, or foul, wind, rain, hail,
froft, fnow, and other changes, is a fort of knowledge which
is of vaft utility and importance to the farmer, as the fecur-
ing of his different produce in a perfea manner greatly de-
pends upon it ; and it is in and by means of the atmofphere,
that plants are in fome meafure nourifhed, and that animals
live and breathe : any alterations or changes in its heat,
denfity, purity, or any other refpea, muit, of courfe,
neceflarily be attended with proportionable changes in the
ftate of thefe.

The great but regular alterations which a little change of
weather makes in many parts and forts of inanimate matter,
is fully and ftrikingly fhewn in the common inftances and
cafes of barometers, thermometers, hygrometers, and other
fuch inftruments ; and it is owing partly to our inattention,
and partly to other caufes and circumftancss, that we, hke
other animals, do not feel as great and as regular ones in the
weight, preffure, and affeaions, in the tubes, chords, and
fibres of our own bodies.

In order, however, fully to form and eflablifh a proper

and con'Cftent theory or doarine of the weather, it would

be neceffary to have accounts and regifters of it regularly

and carefully kept, in divers parts of the ^lobe, for a long

D d feriet

WEATHER.

feries of years, -whence, it is pofTiblc, we might be enabled
to afcertain and determine the direftions, breadths, and
bounds of the winds, as well as other matters, and the
nature of the weather they bring along with them ; with the
corrcfpondence there may be between the weather of differ-
ent places, in divers parts of the earth, and the difference
between one fort and another at the fame place ; and thus,
in time, learn to judge of, and foretell many great changes
and emergencies ; fuch as extraordinary heats, droughts,
rains, fro lis, fnows, and fome others. But hitherto very
few, and only partial accounts in relation to the weather,
have been, for the moft part, kept. The general conclufions
that have been drawn from the experiments that have been
made, and the experience had upon this fubjeA, are, that
barometers generally rife and fall together, even at very
diftant places, and a confequent conformity and fimilarity of
weather ; and that this is the more uniformly fo, as might be
expeAed, as the places are the nearer together. That the
variations of thefe inftruments, too, are the greater, as the
places are nearer to the pole ; thu% for inftance, the quick-
filver in them at London, has a greater range by two or
three lines than at Paris, and at that place a greater than
at Zurich ; and that at fome places near the equator, there
is fcarcely any variation at all ; that the rain in Switzerland
and Italy is much greater in quantity, taking it for the
whole year, than in the county of Effex, though the rains
are yet more frequent, or there are more rainy days in that
county, than in either of the other places ; that cold con-
tributes greatly to rain, and this apparently by condenfing
the fufpended vapours, and thereby making them defcend ;
thus, very cold months, or feafons, are very commonly
followed immediately by very rainy ones, and cold fum-
mers are always wet ones ; that high ridges of country,
or mountains, fuch as the Alps and others, and tlie
fnows with which they are covered, not only affeft the
neighbouring places, but even diftant countries, as thefe
often partake of their effefts ; and the weather is moftly
rainy in the vicinities of them, both in this and other
countries.

The prognoftics of the weather that are formed from
other circumftances and obfervations arc, that a thick dark
Iky failing for fome time, without either fun or rain, always
becomes fair firft and then foul ; that is, it changes to a fair
clear flcy before it turns to rain. The reafon is thought to
be obvioufly this : the atmofphere is replete with vapours,
which though fuflicient to refteft and intercept t!ie fun's rays
from us, yet want denfity to defcend, and while thefe vapours
continue in the fame ftatc, the weather will do lo too : ac-
cordingly fuch weather is commonly attended with moderate
warmth, and with little or no wind to difturb tlie vapours,
but having a heavy atmofphere to fuftain them ; the baro-
meter being commonly high : but when the cold approaches,
and by condenfing the vapours, drives tliem into clouds, or
drops, the way is made for the fun-beams to difplay them-
felves ; until the fame vapour, by farther condenfation, be
formed into rain, and fall down in drops. And that a
change in the warmth of the weather is often followed by a
change in the wind. Thus, the northerly and foutherly
winds, though commonly accounted the caufes of cold and
warm weather, are in reality the effeSs of the cold or warmth
of the atmofphere ; of which Dr. Derham aflures us he has
had fo many confirmations, that he makes no doubt of the
faft. Thus, it is common to obferve a warm foutherly
wind, fuddenly changed to the north, by the fall of fnow or
hail ; or to fee the wind in a cold frolty morning north,
when the fun has well warmed the air, wheel towards the

6

fouth, and again turn northerly or eallerly in the cold of the
evening.

From the rules laid down by the fhepherd of Banbury,
many interefting and ufeful deduftions may be made in re-
gard to the weather : it may be concluded, that when the
fun rifes red and fiery, there will be wind and rain ; but that
when it rifes cloudy, and the clouds foon difappear or leffeii,
there will certainly be fair weather ; and that when the even-
ing is red and the morning grey, a fine day may moftly be
predidled.

That when there are fmaU and round clouds, of a dapple
grey colour, with a north wind, it may be determined, tliat
there will be fair weather for two or three days ; but that
large clouds hke rocks are a fign of great ftiowers. And
that when fmall clouds increafe, it is an indication that there
will be much rain ; but that if the large clouds are feen to
lelfen, there will be fair weather. In fummer or harveft,
it may alfo be confidered, when the wind has been fouth two
or three days and it grows very hot, and clouds are feen to
rife with great white tops hke towers, as if one were on the
top of another, being joined together with black on the
lower fide, a fign that there will be thunder and rain
fuddenly. And that when two fuch clouds rife, one on
each hand, it is high time to make hafte to (helter.

Tliat when a cloud is feen to rife againft the wind, or the
fide wind, it is a fure fign that when the cloud comes up near
you, the wind will blow the way in which the cloud came.
It is the fame, too, with the motion of a clear place in the
flcy, when all the parts of it are thick except one edge.
That, at all times, when the clouds look black in the weft,
it is fure to rain ; or if raining, it is fure to continue, what-
ever quarter the wind may be in : and that, on the contrary,
if it (hould break in the weft, it is fure to be fair. That
fair weather for a week, with a fouth wind, is likely to pro-
duce a great drought.

That the wind ufually turns from north to fouth quietly,
but comes back to north llrong and with rain. That fudden
rains never laft long ; but that when the air grows thick by
degrees, and the fun, or moon and ftars, fhine dimmer and
dimmer, it is likely to rain for lome time.

That when it begins to rain from the fouth with a high
wind for two or three hours, and then the wind falls but the
rain continues, it is likely to rain twelve hours or more;
and that it generally rains until a flrong north wind clears
the air. But that when it begins to rain an hour or two
before fun rifing, it is likely to be fair before noon, and to
continue fo that day ; but that if the rain begin an hour or
two after fun rifing, it is hkely to rain all that day, unlefs
the rainbow be feen before it rains.

That when mifts rife in low ground and foon difappear, it
is a fign that there will be fair weather ; but that when they
rife to the hill tops, there will be rain in a day or two.
That a general mi ft before the fun rifes, when near the time
of full moon, is a fign of fair weather. That when there
are mifts in the new moon, there will be rain in the old ; and
if there are mifts in the old moon, there will be rain in the
new. That in regard to the feafons, as fpring and fummer,
when the lail eighteen days of the month of February and
the firft ten days of the following month are for the moft
part rainy, the fpring and fummer may be concluded likely
to be fo too. It is faid alfo, that a great drought has
never been known by the writer, but wliich began at that
time. In refpeft to the winter, when tfie end of Oftober
and the beginning of the following month are, for the moft
part, warm and rainy, the two beginning months of the new
year are likely to be frofty and cold, except after a very

dry

WEATHER.

dry fummer. But that when Oftober and the following
month are fnowy and frofty, the two beginning months of
the new year may be likely to be open and mild.

Something may be drawn from the habits, cries, and courfe
of animals, in refpeft to the weather. It is remarked, that
in fummer, when (heep rife early in the morning, it is a fure
fign of either rain, or a very hot day ; and that, in all
feafons, when they jump and play much about, it is an in-
dication of rain or wind, but generally of both, in the fum-
mer, and of very ftormy weather in the winter. That in
winter, when the (heep he under a hedge, and feem loath to
go off to pafture, and bleat much, it is confidered a fign of
a ftorm. And that, when Iheep are fed with hay in the
winter, and in frofty and fnowy weather they leave the hay,
it is a certain fign of the frofts breaking up.

That when rabbits get out to feed early in the morning,
it is a figu of rain in the night in fummer, and of either rain
or fnow in winter ; and that when it is likely to be a bad
night, they will be apt to get home before it is dark.

That pigs appear very uneafy before high winds, and run
about fqueaking as if they were in great pain.

That when owls fcrcech, it is a certain fign of rain, and
moftly in a very (hort time. Alfo, that when wood-peckers
cry, it is a fign of rain. For this reafon, they arc called, in
fome places, rain-fowl. That likevvife, when peacocks cry
much, it is a fign of rain. That when the cocks begin to
crow while it rains, it is a fign of fair weather.

That before a wet fummer, the fwans build their nefts
very high ; but that before a dry fummer they build very
low. That the bittern or bitter bump does the fame.
But that when the raven is obferved early in the morning
fparing round and round at a great height in the air, it is a
fure fign the day will be fine, and that the weather is likely
to fet in for fair. And that in fummer when the bat is feen
flying and flitting about very late in \.\.c evening, the next
day is likely to be fair. That likewife when the fwallow is
obferved to fly high, the weather will moft likely be warm
and fair. But that when it is noticed to fly low, and dip
the tips of its wings in the water as it Slums over the furface,
the weather is hkely to be rainy. And that the continued
f qualUng of the guinea-fowl, and the quacking of ducks and
geefe, are certain Cgns of rain.

That before great ftorms the miflel thrufh fings parti-
cularly loud, and continues to do fo until the rain begins.
On this account, in fome places, it is called the ftorm-fowl.
Alfo, that in autumn, when flocks of wild geefe are feen
flying over in a weilerly direftion, it is a fign there foon
will be hard weather. That the early appearance of the
wood-cock and field-fare likewife indicate cold hard winters.

That when in the time of hay-making the black fnails
are to be feen ftretched along on the fwath of grafs, it is a
fign of rain. That when frogs look black inftead of a
golden yellow colour, it is a fign of rain. And the loud
hoarfe croakings of frogs are fure figns of rain.

That in autumn, when the dor beetle is feen flying about
in the evening, the next day is likely to be fine. Alfo, that
when bees do not go out as ufual, but keep in their hives, it
is a fign of rain. Much information of this nature may be
found in Marfliall's " Minutes of the Southern Counties,"
which may be confulted by the cautious farmer with great
utihty and advantage, in regard to the weather he may have
for fecuring his produce in different cafes.

There are other conclufions, too, in refpeft to the wea-
ther, that may be drawn from plants of different kinds, as
moft vegetables expand their flowers and down in fun-ftiiny
weatlier ; and towards the evening and againft rain clofe
them up, cfpecially at the beginning of their flowering,

when the feeds are fenfible and tender. This is vifible and
evident enough in the down of dandelion, and many other
downs, and eminently fo in the flowers of pimpernel ; the
opening and fliutting of which make what is termed the
countryman's ■weather-'wifer, by which he foretels the wea-
ther of the following day. The rule is, when the flowers
are clofe ftiut up, it betokens rain and foul weather; but
when they are open and abroad fair weather. And lord
Bacon obferves, that the flialks of trefoil fwell againft rain,
and grow more upright ; and that the hke may be noticed,
though lefs fenfibly, in the ftalks of moft other plants. It
is added, too, that in the ftubble fields there is found a fmall
red flower, called by the country people pimpernel, which
opening in a morning is a fure indication of a fine day.

" Eft & aha (arbor in Tyhs) fimihs, fohofior tamen,
rofeique floris; quern noftu comprimens, aperire incipit
fohs exortu, meridie expandit. Incolse dormire eum dicunt.
Phn. Nat. Hift. lib. xii. c. li. See Sleep of Flasts, and
ViGlLliE Florum.

It is readily conceivable that vegetables fliould be aff'edled
by the fame caufes as the weather, as they may be confi-
dered as fo many hygrometers and thermometers, confifting
of an infinite number of trachece or air-vefl'els, by which they
have an immediate communication with the air or atmo-
fphere, and partake of its moifture, heat, and other changes.
And hence, too, it is, that all wood, even the hardeli: and
moft loHd, fwells in moift weather, the humid vapours eafily
infinuating themfelves into the pores of it, efpecially of the
lighter and drier kinds, from wliich they become applicable
to many purpofes of art, and may tend to fliew the cliange
of the weather in fome inftances.

Hence we derive a very extraordinary ufe of wood, w'z.
for breaking rocks for mill-ftones.

The method at the quarries is this : — Having cut a rock
into a cylinder, they divide that into feveral lefs cylinders,
by making holes at proper diftances round the great one ;
the holes they fill with fo many pieces of fallow wood,
dried in an oven, which, in moift weather, becoming im-
pregnated with the humid corpufcules of the air, fwell ;
and, like wedges, break or cleave the rock into feveral
ftones.

The attentive farmer (hould ftore up in his mind as many
of the ufeful rules relating to the weather as poflible, as they
may ferve him very eff^edtually, on many occafions, in the
performance of his various bufinefs. See Atmosphere,
Meteorology, Heat, Rain, Wind, &c.

The members of our Royal Society, the French Aca-
demy of Sciences, and many authors of note, have made
confiderable eflays this way ; and the pratlice of keeping
meteorological journals has, of late years, become very
general. For inftruftions and examples pertaining to this
fubjeCl, fee Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv. part il. art. 16.

Eraf. Bartholin has obfervations of the weather for every
day throughout the year 167 1. Mr. W. Merle made the
like at Oxford, for feven years, with a very remarkable care
and accuracy. Dr. Plott did the fame at the fame place,
for the year 1684. Mr. Hillier, at Cape Corfe, for the
years 1686, 1687. Mr. Hunt, &:c. at Grefliam college,
for the years 1695, 1696. Dr. Derham, at Upminfter in
EfTex, for the years 1691, 1692, 1697, 1698, 1699, 1703,
1704, 1705. Mr. Townley, in Lancaftiire, in 1697, 1698.
Mr. Cunningham, at Emin in China, for the years 1698,
1699, 1700, 1701. Mr. Locke, at Oats in Eflex, 1692,
Dr. Scheuchzer, at Zurich, in 1708 ; and Dr. Tilly, at
Pifa, the fame year. See the Phil. Tranfaftions.

The form of Dr. Derham's obfervations we give as a

fpccimen of a journal of this kind ; obferving that he notes

D d 2 the

WEATHER.

the ftrength of the winds, by o, I, 2, 3, &c. and the quan-
tity of rain, as it fell through a tunnel, in pounds and
centelimals.

Phenomena of the Weather, Oftober 1697.

j D^J-

Hour.

Weather.

WhuL

Barometer.

Rain.

27

7
12

9

Fair.
Rain.
Stormy.

S.W. 2

S.W. byW.5
0

29 37
29 34
29 88

I 52
0 29

We have feveral fchemes for keeping meteorological
journajs or diaries of the weather, extant in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfa£lions, the Medical Effays of Edinburgh, and in
other books. The Ephemerides Ultrajeftinx may alfo be
confulted. The inftruments requifite for fuch journal are, a
Barometer, Thermometer, Aneritojcope, and Ombrometer, which
fee in their proper places. See a CoUeftion of ingenious
obfervations, and meteorological conjeftures, by Dr. Frank-
lin, in his Experiments, &c. p. 182, &c. See Evapora-
tion, Rain, and Wind.

We fhall here fpecify fome of the common indications of
changes of weather that may be obferved at fea. Under
the article Tides we have already ftated, that they are raifed
by the joint aftions of the fun and moon ; the fpnng-tides
being raifed by the fum, and the neap-tides by the differ-
ence of the aftions of thefe bodies ; and, alfo, that the fpnng-
tides, near the time of an equinox, are higher than at other
times of the year. Now, fince the atmofphere is a fluid
much lighter than water, it mud, therefore, be more affedled
about the times of new and full moon, and in the months of
March and September, than at other times. This is con-
firmed by obfervation ; for, about the times of new and full
moon, an alteration in the ftate of the weather ufually
happens ; and the violent gales about the time of the
equinoxes, called equinoxtal gales, are well known, and ex-
pefted by every feaman.

According as the ftate of the atmofphere is more or lefs
difturbed, it is evident the appearance of the heavenly bodies
will be more or lefs altered. Thus, if the moon appears
paler than ufual, or if there is a halo about the moon, rain
will probably follow foon after. Several circles about the
moon portend wind. Thefe obfervations are alfo applicable
to the fun. If the moon appears of a red colour, or if the
moon's horns are blunt, they are figns of wind, which may
be expefted from that quarter to which the blunteft horn is
direfted. In viewing the moon with a telefcope in a quiet
evening, if one part of the moon's limb be obferved to be
tremulous, while the oppofite part of the limb is without the
leaft apparent tremor, the wind may be expefted from that
point to which the limb free of tremors is direfted. A red
circle about the moon towards the time of full moon in-
dicates wind.

One of the bell known figns in the heavens is the Ra'in-
boiu ; which fee. When the blue and yellow parts of the
rainbow are very bright, or if all of it vanifh at the fame
time, it will be fair weather : if the bow appears to be
broken in feveral places, tempeftuous weather may be
expefted.

From the various appearances of the clouds, (fee Cloud,)
which are vapours floating in the atmofphere, producing rain,
hail, fnow, thunder, and lightning, the approaching weather
may, in fome meafurejbe predifted. The height of the clouds
feldom exceeds a mile ; and the fummits of high mountains
are free of clouds.

When the fky is of a fine blue colour, without any clouds,
3

it will continue to be fair weather ; but if it is of a very
dark blue, clouds will be formed, and rain, wind, or fog,
will foon follow.

When the flcy appears very much clouded for fome time,
without rain, it generally firft clears up, and then changes
to rain. This is accimnt°d for as follows : — The atmo-
fphere at that time being replete with vapours, which,
though fufficient to intercept the rays of the fun, yet want
denfity to defcend ; and while the vapours continue in the
fame ftate, the weather will do fo too ; and iuch weather is
commonly attended .vith moderate warmth, and with little
or no wind to difturb the vapours, and an heavy atmofphere
to fupport them, the barometer being commonly high.
But when the cold approacheth, and, by condenfing the
vapours, drives them into clouds or drop'-, then way is made
for the fun-beams, till the fame vaponrs. I)y farther conden-
fation, be formed into rain, and fall down in drops.

If the clouds, in a fummer evening, gradually diminifli,
and at laft vanifh, it will be fine weather ; but, if they
increafe, and fniall clouds be obferved to move very fwiftly
underneath, it will be rain foon after ; or, if the clouds
change to a dark colour, thunder may be expefted.

If the clouds in the weftern hemifphere, at the time of
fun-fet, are tinged with a light red and yellow ; or, if there
are no clouds, and the (ley, towards that part of the horizon
where the fun fets, be of a beautiful red and yellow, it will
be fine weather: but if the fun be of a pale colour, or if
the clouds change to a dark red, and continue, it will be
rain. The clouds tinged with a dark red in the oppoiite
hemifphere to the fun, whether at rifing or fetting, prefage
wind.

In winter, when large clouds are obferved with white
edges, and a ftrorg blue fl<y above them, it will be hail or
fnow ; or probably thefe may be diflblved into rain before
they reach the earth.

When there are two or more ftrata of clouds moving in
different direftio;.s, rain generally follows. Many fmall
clouds pretty high, and other appearing at the fame time in
form of fleeces of wool, deno'e wind.

A cloud of an oblong form, fometimes called Noah's
Ark, feen in a clear flcy, and changing from a fine light to
a dark colour, is a fign of rain ; but, if it changes from dark
to light, it is a fign of fair weather.

A fmall black cloud feen in a clear flfy, or feveral fmall
clouds coUefting near each other, ar; an indication of wind
from the quarter from whence they are obferved to move :
alfo, if the clouds are obferved to diverge from a point in
the horizon, wind may be expefted from that, or from the
oppofite point.

When ftars of the fecond and third magnitudes are fud-
denly obfcured, wind or rain will foon follow. Thofe
meteors, commonly called_/ii///nj- ox Jhooting ftars, are ufually
the forerunners of wind.

That appearance in the heavens refembling a portion of
the rainbow, but apparently broader than any part of the .
arch when complete, and generally known by the name of
a Wind-gall, is an indication of an approaching gale.

The Aurora Borealis, (which fee,) or northern light, is a
fign of wind from between the S. and S.W. points, attended
with hazy weather, and fmall rain, the gaie generally com-
mencing between twenty-four and thirty hours after the firft
appearance of the aurora. The violence of the gale, and the
time of its commencement after the aurora borealis is feen,
and duration, depend, in a great meafure, upon the brightnefs
and motion of the aurora ; for the more brilliant the aurora,
and the quicker its motions, the gale will happen fooner, be
more violent, and of fhorter duration.

A change

W E A

A cliaDge in the wind commonly produces a change in
the weather. Thus, in fair weather, if the wind changes to
the oppofue point, rain may be expefted : but, in rainy or
foggy weather, it will clear up foon after the change of the
wind.

In a ftorm at fea, a fiery meteor, in form of a ball, afford,
ing an obfcure flame like a candle burning faintly, is fome-
timcs fcen adhering to the mads, yards, &c. or leaping from
one part to another. When only one is feen, it is called
Helena, and is a (i^n that the feverefl; part of the ftorm is
yet to come. When two are obferved, they are called
Cajlor and Pollux, and fometimes Tyndarida, and denote the
ftorm to be near an end. If five of thefc balls are feen toge-
ther, which tlie PortngiiL-fe call the Virgin Mary's Crown, it
is confidered to be a fnre fign that the ftorm will be foon
over. When the meteor adheres to the mafts, yards, &c. it
is concluded, from the air not having fufficient motion to
diiTipate the flame, that a calm will foon enfue ; but if it
leaps from one place to another, that it denotes a ilorm.

At the Cape of Good Hope, an approaching ftorm, or
gale of wind, is ealily known by the following obfervations ;
— When a fmall black cloud, called the Ox-eye, is obferved to
rife from the top of Table Moimtain, which continues to
ncreafe until the heavens be almoft entirely overclouded,
;he Ilorm then commences. A fimilar phenomenon ufually
jrecedcs a ftorm at the Arabian gulf : this ftorm comes
rom the north, and is accompanied with a great quantity of
■ed fand.

When a hurricane happens in the W 'ft Indies, it is gene-
ally either at new or full moon, or at the quarters, and the
igns are as follow : — The fun and moon appear redderMhan
ifual, and are fometimes furrounded with a halo ; the ftars at
light appear larger and fainter ; the Iky in the N. W. quarter
8 dark ; the hills are clear of tliofe clouds and mills which
ifually hover about them ; the fea emits a ftrong fmell, and
s violently agitated, often when there is no wind ; the wind
ilfo veers about to the weft, from whence it fometimes blows
vith intermifiious violently and irregularly for about two
lours at a time.

The tumbling of porpoifes indicates a gale of wind.
liVhen a fwell fets from any particular point, there being no
vind, a gale may be foon expefted from that point.

From a very great number of meteorological obfervations,
nade in England between the years 1677 and 1789, Mr.
iCirwan has deduced the following probable conjedlures of
he weather :

1 . That when there has been no ftorm before or after the
ernal equinox, the enfuing fummer is generally dry, at leaft
ive times in (ix.

2. That when a ftorm happens from any eafterly point,
ither on the 19th, 20th, or 21ft of March, the fucceeding
ummer is generally dry, four times in five.

3. That when a ftorm arifes on the 25th, 26th, or 27th
if March, and not before, in any point, the fucceeding
ummer is generally dry, four times in five.

4. If there be a ftorm at S.W. or W.S.W. on the 19th,
:oth, 2 1 ft, or 2 2d of March, the fucceeding fummer is
generally luel, four times in five.

We fhall further fubjoin the following obfervations :

1. A moift autumn, with a mild winter, is generally fol-
owed by a cold and dry fpring, wiiich greatly retards
egctation.

2. If the fummer be remarkably rainy, it is probable tliat
he enfuing winter will be fevere ; for the unufual evapora-
ion will have carried off the heat of the earth. Wet
ummcrs arc generally attended with an unufual quantity of

W E A

feed on the white thorn and dog-rofe bufhes. Hence, tJie
unufual fruitfulnefs of thefe ftirubs is a fign of a fevere
winter.

3. The appearance of cranes, and birds of paftage, early
in autumn, announces a very fevere winter ; for it is a fign
that it has already begun in the northern countries.

4. When it rains plentifully in May, it will rain but little
in September, and -vice -verfa.

5. When the wind is S.W. during fummer or autumn,
and the temperature of the air unufually cold for the feafon,
both to the feeling and the thermometer, with a low baro-
meter, much rain is to be expedled.

6. Violent temperatures, as ftorms or great rains, produce
a fort of crifis in the atmofphere, which produces a conftant
temperature, good or bad, for fome months.

7. A rainy winter predidls a fteril year ; a fevere autumn
announces a windy winter.

For indications of the weather by the barometer, fee
Barometer. By the Thermometer, (which fee,) Mr.
Dalton deduces the following conclufions :

The mean altitude of the mercury in the thermometer in
Britain is about ^^° : if higher, the weather is warm ; but
if lower, it is cold.

A quick and confiderable alteration in the altitude of the
mercul-y in the thermometer indicates rain.

If it begins to fnow when the thermometer is below 32°,
the mercury generally rifes to that altitude, and continues
while the fnow falls. If the weather clears up foon after, a
fevere cold may be expeclcd. See alfo Hygrometer, from
which it is inferred, that, when the index of the hygrometer
points to dry, and continues proceeding towards extreme
drynefs, fair weather, and probably wind, may be expefted ;
but if the index returns to the mean ftate, it will be rain.
If the index points to ?7ioiJI and increajing, rain will foon
follow ; if it returns towards the mean, it will be fair
weather.

As to the fuppofed influence of the moon upon the wea-
ther, fee Influence of the Moon.

Weather, in Sea Language, is ufed as an adjeftive, and
applied by mariners to every thing lying to windward of
a particular fituation : thus, a fiiip is faid to have the wea-
ther-gage of another, when flie is farther to windward.
Thus alfo, when a fhip under fail prefents either of her fides
to the wind, it is then called the weather-fide, or weather-
bo.ird ; and all the rigging and furniture fituated on it are
diftinguiflied by the i'ame epithet ; as the weather-flirouds,
the weather-lifts, the weather-braces, &c.

To Weathek, is to fail to windward of fome ftiip,
bank, or head-land.

WEATHER-.6fa/fn. Scattered by a ftorm.
Weather-^iV, denotes a turn of the cable of a ftiip
about the end of the windlafs, without the knight-heads.
It is ufed to check the cable, in order to (lacken it gra-
dually out of the fliip, in tempeftuous weather, or when the
fhip rides in a ftrong current. See KltiC-Ropes.

VJ^ATiiEH-Boarding, among Carpenters, &c. denotes (he
nailing up of boards againft a wall, and fometimes the boards
themfclves when thus nailed up.

WE.\THER-Coci, or Weather- Vane, a moveable vj^ne,
in form of a cock, or of other fhape, placed on high,
to be turned round according to the direftion of the
wind, and point out what quarter the wind blows from.
See Vane.

WEATjiER-Cor^/. See Hygrometer.
Weather, //ar(/-(7. See Hard.

WEATHER-Bou/e. See HvGROMiJTER.

Weather-

W E A

WEXTHER-Gage, in Sta Language. When a (hip or
fleet is to windward of another, (he is laid to have the wea-
ther-j^age of her.

Weather-G/^j are inftrunients contrived to indicate
the ftate or difpofition of the atmofphere, as to heat, cold,
gravity, moifture, &c. to meafure the changes befalling it
in thofe refpefts ; and by thofe means to predift the alter-
ation of weather, as rains, winds, fnow, &c.

Under the clafs of weather-glalTes, are comprehended
barometers, thermometers, hygrometers, manometers, and ane-
mometers, of each of which there are divers kinds. See their
theories, conftiruftions, ufes, kinds, &c. under Barometer,
Thermometer, Hygrometer, &c.

WEATHER-Quartfr, in Sea Language, that quarter of the
fhip which is on the windward fide.

Weather-QuoiV or Co'de, is the turning of the (hip's head
about, fo as to lie that way which her ftern did before with-
out loofing any fail, but only by bearing up the helm.

WEATHER-5/Wf, the fide of a (hip upon which the wind
blows.

WEATHER-Wor^, a name given to the (bore lying to
windward.

WEATiiER-ri7;n^, in Building, the covering of the up-
right fide of a houfe with tiles.

WE AT HE RE R, in Geography, one of the fmaller
Shetland iflands. N. lat. 60° 35'. W. long. 1° 13'.

WEATHERING, a douWing, or failing by a point,
or place.

Weathering, among MiU-iurlghts. See Wian-Mi/l.
The Weathering of a Hawh, among Falconers, is the
fetting of her abroad to take the air.

WEATHERSFIELD, in Geography, a town of the
ftate of Connefticut, in the county of Hartford, founded
about the year 1639, containing zS68 inhabitants; 5 miles

S. of Hartford Alfo, a towndiip of Vermont, in the

county of Windfor, containing 21 15 inhabitants; 3 miles

S. of Windfor Alfo, a town of Ohio, in the county of

Trumbull, containing 232 inhabitants.

WEAVER, in ManufaSures, one who praftifes the art
of weaving.

Perfons ufing the trade of a weaver, (hall not keep a
tucking or fulling-mill, or ufe dyeing, &c. or have above
two looms in a houfe in any corporation or market-town,
on pain of forfeiting 20s. a week : and (hall ferve an ap-
prenticefhip for feven years to a weaver or clothier, or (hall
(hall forfeit 20/. &c. 2 & 3 Ph. & M.

Weaver'^ yllarm. This contrivance is only a weight
fattened to a packthread, which is placed horizontally, fo
that in a certain time a candle may burn down to it. Then
the flame of the candle fetting (ire to the thread, the weight
falls, and awakens the (leeping perfon. See Phil. Tranf.
No. 477. feft. 14, where we have a figure to explain the in-
vention, which has got its name from being in frequent ufe
among the weavers.

Weaver'^ Lake, in Geography, a lake of New York ;
3 miles N.W. of Otfego lake.

WEAVING, in ManufaBures, is the art of combining
and uniting threads together, to form cloth. Stocking-
jLisitting or weaving is a diftinft art from cloth-weaving, the
manner of combining the thread, being efTentially different
in the two. In the ftocking fabric, the whole piece con-
fifts of one continuous thread, which is formed into a feries
of loops in fucceflive rows ; and the loops of each row are
drawn through the loops of a former row. See Stocking-
Frame.

Woyen cloth is always compofed of two diftinft fyftems

W E A

of threads, called the warp and the wreft ; thefe traverfe the
piece of cloth in oppofite direftions, and are ufually at right
angles to each other. Thofe threads, (or, as the weavers
call them, yarns, ) which run in the direftion of the length
of the web or piece of cloth, are called the warp, and they
extend entirely from one end of the piece to the other.
The crofs thread, or yarn, runs acrofs the cloth, and is
called the woof or weft. This is in faft one continued
thread through the whole piece of cloth, being woven alter-
nately over and under each yarn of the warp, which it
croffes, until it arrives at the outfide one. It then pafTes
round that yarn, and returns back over and under each
thread, as before ; but in fuch a manner, that it now goes
over thofe yarns which it paffed under before, and vice
verfd ; thus firmly knitting or weaving the warp together.
The outfide yarn of the warp, round which the woof i«
doubled, is called the felvage, and cannot be unravelled
without breaking the weft. The ftrength of the cloth, in
the direftion of the length, mult depend on the threads of
the warp ; but its ftrength in the oppofite direftion will de-
pend upon the weft ; and the ftrength of thefe two threads
(hould be always properly proportioned to each other.

The combined arts of fpinning and weaving are among
the firll elTentials of civilized fociety, and we find both to
be of very ancient origin. The fabulous ftory of Penelope's
web, and, ftill more, the frequent allufions to this art ia
the facred writings, tend to ihew, that the fabrication of
cloth from threads, hair, &c. is a very ancient invention.
It has, however, like other ufeful arts, undergone a vaft
fuccclTion of improvements, both as to the preparation of
the materials of which cloth is made, and the apparatus ne-
ce(rary in its conftruftion, as well as in the particular modes
of operation by the artift. Weaving, when reduced to its
original principle, is nothing more than the interlacing of the
weft or crofs threads into the parallel threads of the warp,
fo as to tie them together, and form a web or piece of
cloth. This art is doubtlefs more ancient than that of
fpinning, and the firft clotli was what we now call matting,
i. e. made by weaving together the (hreds of the bark, or
fibrous parts of plants, or the ftalks, fuch as ru(hes and
ftraws.

This is ftill the fubftitute for cloth amongft moft rude
and favage nations. When they have advanced a ftep far-
ther in civilization than the ftate of hunters, the (l<ins of
animals become fcarce, and they require fome more artificial
fubftance for clothing, and which they can procure in
greater quantities. Neverthelefs, fome people are ftill
ignorant of the art of weaving ; for the cloth made in the
idands of the South fea appears to be made by cementing or
glueing the (hreds together, rather than by weaving. From
the defcription given by captain Cook, and other circum-
navigators, and from the fpecimens which have been brought
to Europe, their cloth, or rather matting, is in general
produced by cohefion of the parts, rather than texture.
This aflimilates it more to the ideas which we attach to
paper, or pafteboard, than to thofe which we form of cloth.
When it was difcovered that the delicate and (hort fibres,
which animals and vegetables afford, could be fo firmly
united together by twifting, as to form threads of any re-
quired length and ftrength, the weaving art was placed on
a permanent foundation. By the procefs of fpinning, which
was very fimple in the origin, the weaver is fiirnifhed with
threads far fuperior to any natural vegetable fibres in light-
nefs, ftrength, and flexibility ; and he has only to combine
them together in the moft advantageous manner.

The art of weaving cloth has been fo extenfively applied

in

WEAVING.

I in almoft every civilized country, and the knowledge of its
I various branches has been derived from fuch a variety of
fources, that no one perfon can ever be pradically em-
ployed in all its branches ; and though every part bears a
llrong analogy to the reft, yet a minute knov«kdge of each
of thefe parts can only be acquired by experience and re-
lleftion. We will endeavour to give the reader as compre-
henfive an idea of the Iiiftory and progrefs of this ancient
and invaluable art as the nature ot the thing, and the limits
to which we are neceflanly confined, will permit.

The hiftory of this art is very little known, and its great
antiquity neceflarily involves the earlier eras of it in the moft
perfeft obfcurity.

The art of making linen, which was probably the firft
fpecies of cloth invented, was communicated by the Egyp-
tians, the inhabitants of Paleftine, and other eailern nations,
to the Europeans. By flow degrees it found its way into
Italy ; and it afterwards prevailed in Spain, Gaul, Ger-
many, and Britain. The Belgae manufaftured linen on the
continent ; and when they afterwards fettled in this ifland,
it is probable they continued the pradlice, and taught it to
the people among whom they refided.

When it is conlidered that the wants of mankind are
nearly the fame in all countries, it is not improbable that
the fame arts, however varied in their operations, may have
been feparately invented in different countries. It is not,
however, certain that the art of making cloth is one which
the Britons invented for themfelves.

It is moft probable that the Gauls learned it from the
Greeks, and communicated the knowledge of it to the
people of Britain. It is very certain that the inhabitants of
the foutheni parts of Britain were well acquainted with the
arts of drelfnig, fpinning, and weaving, both flax and wool,
when they were invaded by the Romans. Neverthelefs,
we have the authority of Julius Cxiar, that when he in-
vaded Britain, the art of weaving was totally unknown to
the Britons.

Whatever knowledge the Britons might poffefs of the
clothing arts, prior to the invafion, it is very certain that
thefe arts were much improved amongft them after that
event. It appears from the Notitia Imperii, that there
was an imperial manufaftory of woollen and linen cloth, for
the ufe of the Roman army then in Britain, eftablifhed at
Venta Belgarum, now called Winchefter.

Many public afts relative to the woollen manufafture, in
the earlier period of Englifh hiftory, evidently prove that
the greater part of our wool was, for a very long feries of
years, exported in a raw ftate, and manufaftured upon the
continent.

In bilhop Aldhelm's book concerning " Virginity,"
written about A.D. 680, it is remarked, " that chaiiity
alone forms not a perfeft charafter, but requires to be ac-
companied and beautified by other virtues." This obferv-
ation is illuftrated by the following fimile, borrowed from
the art of figure-weaving : " It is not a web of one uniform
colour and texture, without any variety of figures, that
pleafeth the eye, and appcareth beautiful ; but one that is
woven by (buttles, filled with threads of purple, and many
other colours, flying from fide to fide, and forming a variety
of figures and images, in different compartments, with ad-
mirable art."

Perhaps the moft curious fpecimen of this ancient figure-
weaving and embroidery, now to be found, is that pre-
ferved in the cathedral of Baycaux. It is a piece of linen,
about 19 inches in breadth, and 67 yards in length, and
contains the hiftory of the Conqueft of England by William

of Normandy; beginnmg with Harold's embaflfy, A.D.
IC65, and ending with his death at the battle of Haftings,
A.D. 1066. This curious work is fuppofed to have been
executed by Matilda, «ife to William, duke of Normandy,
atttrwards king of England, and the ladies of her court.
Although It IS certain that the art of figure-weaving was
then known in Britain, it muft be owned, that the piece of
tapeftry juft mentioned owes moft of its beauty to the cx-
quifite needle-work with which it is adorned.

The filk manufadure was firft praftifed in China, and
the cotton in India. Both the woollen and hnen were bor-
rowed by the Englifti from the contineat of Europe ; and
for many ages, all the improvements in them in this country
were firft introduced into this country by foreign artificers,
who fettled amongft us.

About the clofe of the eleventh century, the clothing
arts had acquired a confiderable degree of improvement in
this ifland. About that time, the weavers in all the great
towns were formed into guilds or corporations, and had
various privileges beftowed upon them by royal charters.

In the reign of Richard I., the woollen manufadure be-
came the fubjeft of legiflation ; and a law was made, A.D.
1 197, for regulating the fabrication and fale of cloth.

The number of weavers, however, was comparatively
fmall, until the policy of the wife and liberal Edward III.
encouraged the art, by the moft advantageous offers of re-
ward and encouragement to foreign cloth-workers and
weavers, who would come and fettle in England. In the
year 1 33 1, two weavers came from Brabant, and fettled at
York.

The fuperior flvill and dexterity of thefe men, who com-
municated their knowledge to others, foon manifefted itfelf
in the improvement and fpread of the art of weaving in this
ifland. ^

Many Flemifh weavers were driven from their native
country, by the cruel perfecutions of the duke d'Alva, in
the year 1567. They fettled in different parts of England,
and introduced or promoted the manufadure of baizes,
ferges, crapes, and other woollen fluffs.

About the year 1686, nearly 50,000 manufadurers, of
various defcriptions, took refuge in Britain, in confequence
of the revocation of the edid of Nantz, and other ads of
religious perfecution committed by Louis XIV. Thefe
improvements chiefly related to filk-weaving.

The arts of fpinning, throwing, and weaving filk, were
brought into England about the middle of the 15th cen-
tury, and were pradifed by a company of women in Lon-
don, called filk-women. About A. D. 1480, men began
to engage in the filk manufadure, and the art of filk-weaving
in England foon arrived at very great perfedion. See
Silk.

The civil diffentions which followed this period, retarded
the progrefs of thefe arts ; but afterwards, when the nation
was at reft, the arts of peace, and among others that of
weaving, made rapid advances in almoft every part of the
kingdom.

Ill the latter part of the laft century, the invaluable in-
ventions of fir Richard Arkwright, introduced the very
extenfive manufadure of cotton, and added a lucrative and
elegant branch of traffic to the commerce of Britain. The
light and fanciful department of tiie cotton manufadure
has become, in fome meafuie, the ftaple manufadure of
Scotland, vvhilft the more fubftantial and durable cotton
fabrics have given to England a manufadure inferior, in
importance and extent, only to the woollen trade.

At the prefent day, our fupcriority in point of quality

is

WEAVING.

is univerfally acknowledged in the cotton manufafture ; but
in thofeof lilk, linen, and woollen, it is ilill difputed by other
countries.

Loom. — Weaving is performed by the aid of a machine
called a loom. The common loom for plain cloth is a very
fi.mple machine; but fome of the varieties which are ufed
for weaving ornamental and figured cloth are very curious :
ftill there are parts common to all. The principal of thefe
are as follows.

I. The yarn-beam, which is a round wooden roller, on
which is wound or rolled the warp, or yarns that are to
form the length of the piece of cloth. 2. The cloth-beam
is a fimilar roller, on which the cloth is rolled up when
woven. The yarns of the warp are extended in parallel
lines, between the yarn-roll and the cloth-roll, fo as to
form a horizontal plane, or ftieet, and are combined toge-
ther by the crofs-threads, or weft. 3. The fhuttle, which
has a hollow to contain a bobbin or pirn of the weft.
4. The heddles, which are threads with loops or eyes,
through which the yarns of the warp pafs : the heddles are
connefted with the treadles, upon which the weaver places
his feet, to draw down one fet of heddles and raife up
another, fo as to open and feparate the warp into two
divifions, and allow a paffage, called the (hed, for the
fhuttle between them. 5. The reed, which is a frame
containing a row of parallel fhreds of reeds or cane, and
the yarns of the warp pafs between them, as it were be-
tween the teeth of a comb. 6. The reed is fixed in a
frame, called the lay or lathe, which fwings upon centres
of motion. The ufe of the reed and lay is to comb or pufh
the threads of the weft clofe to each other, and make the
cloth clofe and denfe.

The operation of weaving or working the loom for plain
cloth confifts of three very fimple movements, viz. I. Open-
ning the fhed in the warp alternately, by preffing the
two treadles with his feet in oppofite direftions. z. Driv-
ing or throwing the (huttle through the fhed when opened.
This is performed by the right-hand, when the fly-fliuttle
is ufed, and by the right and left alternately, in the common
operation, wherein the fhuttle is thrown from one hand and
caught in the other. 3. Pulling forward the lay or batten
to ftrike home the woof, and again pufhing it back nearly
to the heddles. This is done by the left-hand with the
fly-fhuttle, or by each hand fucceflively in the old way.

There are feveral different ways of fetting up a loom
for weaving plain cloth ; but the principal parts are always
made the fame. We fhall firll defcribe that which is
ufed for weaving plain filks : it is fhewn in perfpeftive in
Plate II. Weaving. In this A is the yarn-roll or beam,
on which the thread to form the warp is regularly wound ;
B, the cloth-beam, or breaft-roll, on which the finifhed
cloth is wound up ; D E, the treadles, on which the weaver
preffes his feet ; dd, ee, are the heddles, or harnefs. Thefe
are each compofed of two fmall rods d d and e e, connefted
together by feveral threads, forming a fyftem of threads,
which is caUed a heddle ; ee '■» another heddle, behind the
former. In the middle of each thread of the heddle is a
loop, through which a yarn of the warp is paffed, every
other yarn going through the loops of the heddle e e, and
the intermediate v:.ins paffing between the threads of that
heddle, and r.iterwards through the eyes or loops of the
other hed,*'.e dd.

The l\.o heddles, dd^xiA. ee, are connefted together by
two ill all cords going over pulleys, fufpended from the
top rf the loom, fo that when one heddle is drawn down,
the other will be raifed up. The heddles receive their

motion from the levers or treadles D E, moved by the
weaver's feet. The yarns of the warp being paffed alter-
nately through the loops of the two heddles, by prefling
down one treadle, as E, all the yarns belonging to the
heddle e e are drawn down ; and by means of the cords and
pulleys, the other heddle dd, with all the yarns belonging
to it, are raifed up ; leaving a fpace, called the fhed, of
about two inches between the yarns, for the paffage of the
fhuttle.

F, G G, H, [Jig. 2.) is a frame, called the batten or lay,
fufpended by the bar F, from the upper rails of the loom,
fo chat it can fwing backwards and forwards, as on a centre
of motion ; the bottom bar H is much broader than the
rails G G, and projefts before the plane about an inch
and a half, forming a fhelf, called the fhuttle-race. The
ends of the fhuttle-race H have boards nailed on each fide,
to form two fhort troughs or boxes I I, in which pieces of
wood or thick leather k k, called peckers or drivers, traverfe.
The peckers are guided by two fmall wires, fixed at one end
to the uprights G G, and at the other to the end-pieces
of the troughs I I. Each pecker has a firing faftened to
it, tied to the handle y, which the weaver holds in his right-
hand when at work, and with which he pulls, or rather
fnatches, each pecker either to the right or left alternately.

R is the reed : it is a fmall frame, fixed upon a fhuttle-
race H, containing a number of fmall pieces of fplit reeds
or canes ; or elfe of pieces of flat wire, of fteel or brafs ;
but the cane is moft common, although the frame is called
the reed. When_/?_f. 2. is in its place in the loom, the yarns
of the warp pafs between the canes or dents of the reed.
In Jig. 2. the reed is reprefented without the top or piece
which covers it, and which is called the lay-cap. It is a rail
of wood with a longitudinal groove along its lowermoil fide,
for the purpofe of fuftaining the upper edge of the reed.
The lay -cap is that part of the machine on the middle of
which the weaver lays hold with his left-hand when in the
aft of weaving.

The fhuttle (fee Plate I. ) is a fmall piece of wood pointed
at each end, from three to fix inches long. It has an ob-
long mortife in it, containing a fmall bobbin or pirn, on
which is wound the yarn which is to form the weft ; and
the end of this yarn runs through a fmall hole in the fhuttle,
called the eye. The fhuttle has two little wheels on the
under fide, by which it runs eafily upon the fhuttle-race H.

Operation. — The weaver fits on the feat M, [Jg. I.)
which hangs by pivots at its ends, that it may adapt itfelf
to the eafe of the weaver when he fits upon it. It is lifted
out when the weaver gets into the loom, and he puts it in
again after hira. He leans hghtly againft the cloth-roll B,
and places his feet upon the treadles D E. In his right-
hand he holds the handle jj [Jg. 2.), and by his left he lays
hold of the rail, called the lay-cap, which croffes the batten
or lay G G, and ferves to fupport the upper edge of the
reed R. He commences the operations by preffing down
one of the treadles with his foot : this depreffes one-half of
the yarns of the warp, and raifes the other, as before-
defcribed. The fhuttle is previoufly placed in one of
the troughs I, againft the pecker K, belonging to that
trough. By the handle of the pecker, with a fudden jerk,
he drives the pecker againft the fhuttle, fo as to throw it
acrofs the warp upon the fhuttle-race, into the other
trough I, leaving the yarn of the weft, which was wound
on the bobbin after it, in the fpace between the divided
yarns. With his left-hand he pulls the lay towards him ;
and, by means of the reed, the yarn of the weft, which before
was lying loofe between the warp, is diiven up towards

• the

WEAVING.

! the cloth-roll : the weaver now prefies down his other foot,
which reverfes the operation, pulling down the heddlc
which was up before, and raifing that which before was
depreiTed. By the other pecker he then throws the (hutlle
back aga\o, leaving the woof after it between the yarns of
the warp ; and, by drawing up the batten, beats it clofe
up to the thread before thrown.
i In this manner the operation is continued until a few
i inches are woven ; it is then wound upon the cloth-roll, by
I putting a fhort lever into a hole made in the roll, and turn-
, ing it round, a chck afting in the teeth of a ferrated wheel,
I prevents the return of the roll. At each end of the yarn-
roll A, (Jig- I.) a cord is tied to the frame of the loom ;
the other ends of the cords have weights hanging to them.
The rope caufes a friftion, which prevents the roll from
turning (unlefs the yarn is drawn by the cloth-beam), and
always preferves a proper degree of tenfion in the yarn.
! TT (Jig- I.) are two fmooth flicks (cotton-weavers have
;ufually three) put between the yarns, to preferve the leafe,
and keep the threads or yarns from entangling.

In cotton-weaving thefe ilicks or rods are kept at an uni-
form diftance from the heddles, either by tying them toge-
ther, or by a fmall cord with a hook at one end, which lays
ihold of the front rod, and a weight at the other, which hang
Jover the yarn-beam.

' The cloth is kept extended during the operation of weav-
ing, by means of two hard pieces of wood, called a templet,
with fmall fharp points in their ends, which lay hold of the
edges, or felvages, of the cloth.

, Thefe pieces are connefted by a cord pafllng obhquely
through holes, or notches, in each piece. By this cord
they can be lengthened or Ihortened, according to the
breadth of the web.

They are kept flat after the cloth is ftretched by a fmall
;bar turning on a centre fixed in one of the pieces of wood.
This ftretcher is called the templet. Silk-weavers ufually
ftretch their cloth by means of two fmail fliarp-pointed
,hooks fattened to the ends of two firings, with little
weights at the other ends ; and the ftrings are made to pafs
lover little pulleys in each fide of the loom, at a fuitable dif-
(tance from the felvages of the cloth.

; The perfeftion of the work depends very much upon the
^previous operations which the yarn mud undergo. It is
obvious that the yarns of the warp mult be ftretched with
;great parallelifm and equality of tenfion, fo that when the
icloth is finifhed, every individual yarn may bear an equal
(hare of any ftrain which tends to tear the cloth ; hence
rgreat care mull be taken to ftretch the yarns of the warp to
[an equal length, and roll them with great regularity upon
[the yarn-roll. Thefe operations are called warping and
ibeaming. Previous to warping, the yarn muft be prepared
!by fizing or ftarching, in order to cement all the loofe fibres,
land render the yarn fmooth.

J The fpinners of yarn, whether they employ machinery or
iHOt, ufually reel the yarn into ll<eins and hanks of a deter-
iminate length ; and the weight of thefe hanks, or the num-
:ber which will weigh one pound, is the denomination for the
Ifinenefs of the yarn. (See ATanu/a^i/rt' 0/ Cotton.) In
Ithis ftate the yarn is bought by the weaver. The hanks
[of yarn are firrt boiled in water; if it is linen-yarn a little
Ifoap and potafh are put into the water, and for cotton-yarn
:a fmall portion of flour is added, to render the thread firm.
I When the hanks are perfeftly dry they are wound off upon
bobbins, each thread having a fcparate bobbin, and a cer-
Itain length is wound upon each. This winding is performed
iby a very fimple hand-wheel to turn the bobbin rapidly
I round, the hanks of yarn being extended upon a reel, or
I Vol. XXXVIII.

over two fmall reek placfed at a diftonc* afunder, which are
called wiflcs.

Warplng.-^The objeft of this operation is to ftretch the
whole number of parallel threads which are to form the
warp of the cloth to an equal length. For this purpofe as
many of the above bobbins are taken as will furnifh the
quantity of threads which is required in the warp of the
piece of cloth. The bobbins are ufually one-fourth or one-
fixth of the number of threads required, and are mounted
on fpindlcs in a frame, fo that the thread can draw off freely
from them. All thefe threads are drawn off at once, fo
as to combine them all into one clue, which will be ready for
the warp. The ancient method was to draw out the warp
at full length, and ftretch it in a field; and this ia ftill prac-
tifed in India and China, but is fo very uncertain in our
climate that it is feldom ufed. The prefent mode of warp-
ing is either by the warping-frame or warping-mill.

The warping-frame is a large wooden frame, which is
fixed up againft a wall in a vertical pofition. The upriglit
fides of the frame are pierced with holes to receive wooden
pins, which projeft fufHciently to wind the clue of yarns for
the warp round them.

The operator having the threads which are to compofe
the warp wound on the bobbins before-mentioned, places
thofe bobbins in a frame ; then tying the ends of all the
threads together, and attaching them to one of the pins at
«ne end of the frame, he gathered all the threads in his
hand into one clue ; and permitting them to flip through his
fingers, he walked to the other end, where he paffed the
yarns over the pin fixed there, and then returned Xf> the
former end of the frame and paffed the warp over another
pin, then went back again, and fo on till he formed the re-
quired length of the warp. This being done, he fecured
the end of the warp by crofTing it round the pin, and then
he worked back and returned over all the fame fpacc again,
laying the threads over the fame pins, fo as to double the
clue ; and he repeated the doubUng until the number of
threads neceffary for the breadth was made up. The num-
ber of doubHngs would be according to the number of
bobbins and threads which he took in his hand at once.

This method is ufed very much in France, particularly at
Lyons : it is alfo ufed in Devonfhire. It is adapted to the
weaving carried on in cottages, becaufe the frame is fixed
clofe to the wall, and takes little or no room ; but the warp-
ing-mill or reel is very fuperior, and is adopted in all ini-
proved manufaftures where the warping is a feparate bufi-
nefs, and is ufually done at the mill where the yarn is fpun.

The warping-mill is a large reel of a cylindrical form, or
rather of a prifmatic form, being made with twelve, eighteen,
or more fides. The reel is ufually about fix feet diameter
and feven feet high : it is turned round on a vertical axis by
a band, paffing from a grooved wheel which is turned by a
winch, and is placed beneath the feat on which the warper
fits. (See a figure of the warping-machine for filk Piatt
Silk, Jig. 6. ) The bobbins which contain the yarn are placed
on a vertical rack fufpended from the ceiling, and the
threads from them are all collefted together and paffed be-
tween two fmall upright rollers in a clue, which is wound
up by the reel when it is turned round. To guide the clue
and diftribute it equally on the length of the reel, the above
rollers are fixed on a piece of wood, which Aides perpendi-
cularly on an upright bar fixed at one fide of the reel. The
fliding-piece is fufpended by a fmall cord, wrapped round a
part of the perpendicular axis that rifes above the reel. The
cord paffes over a pulley at the top of the upright bar, and
goes down to the fliding-piece which carries the two rollers.
When the reel turns round, the guide-rollers are flowly
£ e drawn

WEAVING.

drawn up by the colling of this cord round the axis ; and
the yarn is wound in a regular fpiral about the reel, until
the length which the warp requires is wound upon it. When
the full length of the yarn is wound on the reel, the clue of
thread is croffcd over pins projefting from the frame of the
reel, and tlie mill is then turned the reverfe way, fo that the
Aider and guide-rollers defcend, and the yarn is laid down-
wards along the fame fpiral which it before afcendcd, fo as
to double the clue of thread ; and this doubling is repeated
until the required number of threads is coUeaed together
in one clue upon the reil.

When the warp is thus completed, it is taken off the reel
and wound upon a ftick into a ball; the croflings which dif-
tinguifh the different returns or doublings of the fimple
clue being firfl properly fecured, as a means of dividing the
warp into as many equal portions as is neceflary for the con-
venience of the weaver, in counting the threads in the fuc-
ceeding operation of beaming.

There is likewife another kind of divifion of the threads
of the warp ; this is called tlie leafe, and ferves to feparate
all the threads whicli are to go through one of the heddles
of the loom, from thofe which are to go through the other
heddle. To effeft this feparation, the bobbins from which
the threads are drawn are arranged in two rows, and a
thread is alternately drawn from the upper row and from
the lower row. Then at the beginning and end of every
doubling of the warp, the threads of one row of bobbins
are croffed over the threads of the other row, and two pins
are put into the croflings to retain them. Thefe pins are
put into holes made in pieces of board fixed to the warping-
reel. One of thefe boards at the top of the reel is fixed
fait, but the other is moveable, and can be fixed at any part
of the reel, according to the length of the warp.

In the moft improved warping-machines, the feparation
is made by an apparatus called in Scotland the heck. It
confiils of a row of fteel pins with eyes through one end of
each for the threads to pafs through like large needles.
Thefe are (luck into two pieces of wood, by which they
are fupported in a row near to the warping-reel. Every al-
ternate pin in the row is faftened in one piece of wood, and
the intermediate pins are faftened in the other piece, fo that
by lifting up one piece of wood the pins and threads be-
longing to it will be raifed up, whihl the intermediate pins
and threads are held down. This occafions the divifion of
the threads, and a pin is put in to keep thtm fo divided.
The other piece of wood is then lifted up, whrch occafions
all the threads to be croffed ; that is, every thread forms a
crofs over that which is adjacent to it. A fecond pin is
then put in, and before the warp is taken off from the reel,
this croffing is fecured by a firing.

Beaming When the weaver receives his warp in a large

ball or bundle, he proceeds to roll it up regularly upon the
yarn-roller of his loom : this is called beaming. For this
purpofe he employs an inflrument called a feparator, or
ravel, which confiils of a number of fhreds of cane, fattened
together, and fixed to a rail of wood, like the teeth of a
long comb ; the threads are intended to be put into the
fpaces between thefe teeth, fo as to flretch the warp to its
proper breadth.

Ravels are fomewhat like reeds, but much coarfer, and
are alfo of different dimenfions. One proper for the pur-
pofe being found, one of the fmall divifions of the warp is
placed in every interval between two of the teeth. The
upper part of the ravel, called the cape, is then put on, to
fecure the threads from getting out between the teeth, and
the operation of winding the warp upon the beam com-
mences. In broad works, two perfons are employed to

II

hold the ravel, which ferves to guide the threads of the warp,-
and to fpread them regularly upon the beam ; one or two
other perfons keep the threads at a proper degree of tenfion,
and one more turns the beam upon its centre.

The knottings which fecure the croffings or doublings
made in warping, are very ufcful to the weaver in beaming,
to afcertain the number of threads, and to diflribute them,
with regularity. He cuts the knotting before he can put
the warp in the ravel, but he flill keeps them diflinft by a'
fmall cord.

The French weavers ufe a fmall reel, upon which they
wind the warp from the ball, and then from this reel they
draw off the warp througlx the ravel, by . winding up the
beam. The reel is loaded with a weight, to make a regu-
lar friftion,. and draw the warp with a regular tenfion.

Draiv'ing. — The warp being regularly wound upon the
beam, the weaver muft pafs every yarn througli its appropriate
eye or loop in the heddles : this operation is called drawing.
Two rods are firfl inferted into the leafe formed by the pins,
in the warping-mill, and the ends of thefe rods are tied to-
gether ; the twine by which the leafe was fecured is then
cut away, and the warp llretched to its proper breadth.
The yarn-beam is fufpended by cords behind the heddles,
fomewhat higher, fo that the warp hangs down perpendi-
cularly. The weaver places himfelf in front of the lieddles,
and opens the eye of each heddle in fucceffion ; and it is the
bufinefs of another perfon, placed behind, to feleft every
thread in its order, and deliver, it to be drawn through the
open eyes of the heddles. The fucceffion in which the,
threads are to be delivered is eafily afcertained by the leafe-
rods, as every thread crofies that next to it. The warp,
after pafling through the heddles, is drawn through the reed
by an inflrument called a fley, or reed-hook, and two,
threads are taken through every interval in the reed.

The leafe-rods being paffed through the intervals which
form tlie leafe, every thread will be found to pafs over the
firll rod, and under the fecond ; the next thread paffes under
the firll, and over the fecond, and fo on alternately. By
this contrivance every thread is kept diflinft from that oa
either fide of it, and if broken, its true fituation in the
warp may be eafily and quickly found. This is of fuch im-
portance, that too much care cannot be taken to preferve
the accuracy of the leafe. There is likewife a third rod,
which divides the warp into what is ufually cMedJp/itfu/s,
for two threads alternately pafs over and inider it ; and thefe
two threads alfo pafs through the fame interval betwixt the
fplits of the reed.

Thefe operations being finifiied, the cords or mounting
which move the heddles are applied ; the reed is placed in
the lay, or batten, and the warp is knotted together into
fmall portions, which are tied to a fhaft, and connected by
cords to the cloth-beam, and the yarns are llretched ready
to begin the weaving.

Manner of Weaving. — The operations of weaving are
fimple, and foon learned, but require much pratlice to per-
form them with dexterity.

In prefling down the treadles of a loom, moft beginners
are apt to apply the weight or force of the foot much too
fuddenly. The bad confequences of this are particularly
felt in weaving fine or weak cotton-yarn ; for the body of the
warp muft fuftain a ftrefs nearly equal to the force with
which the weaver's foot is applied to the treadle. The art
of fpinning has not yet been brought to fuch perfedlion as
to make every thread capable of bearmg its fan- proportion
of this flrefs. Befides this, every individual thread is fub-
jefted to all the friftion occafioned by the heddles and fphts
of the reed, between which the threads pafs, and with

which

WEAVING.

which they are generally in contrail when rifing and finking.
A fudden prefTure of the foot on the treadle mud caiife a
proportional increafe of the ftrefs upon the warp, and alfo
of the friftion. As it is inipoffible to make every thread
equally ttroiig and equally tight, thofe which are the weakefl,
or the tighteil, mull bear much more than their equal pro-
portion of the ftrefs, and are broken very frequently. Even
with the grcateft attention, more time is loft in tying and
replacing them, than would have been fufficient for weaving
a very confiderable quantity into cloth.

If the weaver, from inattention, continues the operation
after one or more warp-tiireads are broken, the confequence
is ftill vvorfe. The broken thread cannot retain its parallel
fituation to the reft, but crofling over or between thofe
neareft to it, either breaks them alfo, or interrupts the paf-
fage of the Ihuttle : it frequently does both.

In every kind of weaving, and efpecially in thin wiry
fabrics, much of the beauty of the cloths depends upon the
weft being well ftretched. If the motion given to the
Ihuttle be too rapid, it is very apt to recoil, and thus to
flacken the thread. It has alfo a greater tendency, either to
break the woof altogether, or to unwind it from the pirn or
bobbin of the Ihuttle in doubles, which, if not picked out,
would deftroy the regularity of the fabric. The weft of
muflins and thin cotton goods is generally woven into the
cloth in a wet ftate.

This tends to lay the ends of the fibres of cotton fmooth
and parallel, and its effeft is fimilar to that of dreffing of
the warp.

The perfon who winds the weft upon the pirn ought to
be very careful that it be well formed, fo as to unwind
freely. The beft Ihape for thofe ufed in the fly-lhuttle is
that of a cone ; and the thread ought to traverfe freely
round the cone, in the form of a fpiral, or fcrew, during
th? operation of winding.

Tlie fame wheel which is ufed for winding the warp upon
the bobbins preparatory to warping, is alfo fit for winding the
weft on the pirn. It only requires a fpindle of a different
ftiape, with a fcrew at one end, upon which the pirn, or
bobbin of the Ihuttle, can be fixed. The wheel is fo con-
ftrufted, that the fpindles may be eafily Ihifted, to adapt it
for either purpofe.

■ The reeds are formed of a number of fhort pieces of reed
6r cane, or of brafs wire, fattened parallel to each other
between two fticks, and cemented with pitch. This frame is
enclofed between two pieces of the frame of the lay, one of
which is made wide, to form the fhuttle-race ; the other
piece, which is the lay-cap, extends acrofs the frame, but is
fitted fo that it can be eafily removed to take away the reeds,
and fubftitute a finer or coarfer fort, as the nature of the
goods to be woven require. Tlie mannfafture of reeds,
both of cane and of ileel, is a feparate trade. Thefe are
fully defcribed in Les Arts et Metiers, vols. 9 and 15.

To render the fabric of the cloth uniform in thicknefs,
the lay or batten mull be brought forward with the fame
force every time.

■ In weaving feme kinds of foft or light goods, the reed is
' not fixed fall to the lay-cap, but is held in its place by a
long thin piece of wood, which is tlaftic, and yields or
fprings when the weft is beaten up. In fome cafes the reed
is fnllained by a double woollen cord, llrutched acrofs the
lay, jull beneath the lay-cap, and twilled ; this bears the
reed, and is very elaftic, but can be rendered more ftifF by
twilling the two cords tighter.

Ill the common operation of weaving, a regular force of
the ftrokc for beating up the weft mull be acquired by
pradlice. It is, however, of confequence to the weaver to

monnt or prepare his loom in fuch a manner, that the range
or fwing of the lay may be in proportion to the thicknefs of
his cloth. As the lay fwings backwards and forwards, upon
centres placed above, its motion is fimilar to that of a pen-
dnluni. Now the greater the arc, or range through which
the lay palfes, the greater will be its etfeft in driving home
the weft ftrongly, and the thicker the fabric of cloth will
be, as far as that depends upon the clofenefs of 'the weft.
For this reafon, in weaving coarfe and heavy goods, the
heddles ought to be hung at a greater diftance from the
place where the weft is ftruck up, and confequently where
the cloth begins to be formed, than would be proper in
light work. The line of the laft wrought fhot of weft is
called by the weavers the fell. The pivots upon which the
lay vibrates ought, in general, to be fo placed, that the
reed will be exaftly in the middle, between the fell and the
heddles, when the lay hangs perpendicularly. As the fell
is conftantly varying in its fituation during the operation, it
will be proper to take its medium ; that is, the place where
the fell will be when half as much is woven as can be done
without taking it up on the cloth-roll, and drawing frelh
yarn from the yarn-roll.

The periods for taking up the cloth ought always to be
fhort in weaving light goods ; for the lefs that the extremes
of the fell vary from the medium, the more regular will be
the arc or fwing of the lay. Mr. James Hall had a
patent, in 1803, for a method of perpetually winding up the
cloth-beam, fo as to take away the cloth as fa ft as it was
woven, or Ihoot by fhoot. This was elfedted in a fimple
manner by a ratchet-wheel fixed on the end of the cloth-
beam, and a proper catch to move it round one tooth at a
time : the catch was aftnated by the motion of the lay. A
fimilar method is ufed in ribband-weaving.

The variations in the ftrufture of looms frcm that which
we have defcribed, are not material. The framing is vaned
in almoft every diiferent kind of loom, and ought always to
be fuitable in ftrength to the kind of cloth which is to be
woven. The loom ufed for filk is very llight in all its
parts ; but for carpet and fail-cloth it muft be very
ftrong.

In looms for heavy goods, the cloth-beam is not placed
at the breaft of the weaver, as it is fo large that it would
impede his working ; the cloth is therefore palled over a
fixed bar in the place of the cloth-beam reprefented, and
the beam is placed lower down, and near the weaver's feet,
out of the way of his knees. The heddles are connefted
by levers, in fome looms, inllead of pulleys ; but the effeft is
always the fame ; viz. to make one heddle afcend when the
other defcends. For weaving fine goods, the heddles would
be inconveniently clofe together, if all the yarns went
through two heddles ; hence they ufe four heddles inftead of
two ; but their aftion is jull the fame, becaufe they are con-
nefted together in pairs, and when one pair rifes the other
pair finks. Many looms are ilill made without the fly-
lhuttle ; and in that cafe the fliutile is merely tlirown from one
hand to the other, and then thrown back again : this
obliges the weaver to change his hands continually, and the
operation is more complicated. For wide cloths, which are
more than a man can reach acrofs, two perfons were always
employed before the tly-ftiuttle was introduced, which is only
within a few years ; but by its affiftance one perfon can weave
the greatert 'breadths. The fly-ftiuttle is tlie bell for all
kinds of work, and its conftruftion is fo fimple that no other
ought to be ufed.

Treatment of iliffcmit Kinds of Tarns. — The manner of

weaving all kinds of plain cloth is much the fame, whether

it is wool, filk, flax, or cotton ; except that the two latter

Ee 2 require

WEAVING.

require what is called drefling. Silk and woollen warps re-
qiuife little preparation after being put into the loom, ex-
cept to clear the yarn occafionally with a comb, to remove
knots or lumps which might catch in palling through the
reed ; the comb detefts fuch lumps, and they are removed
with the afiiftance of a pair of fciflbrs. Flax and cotton,
but particularly the latter, require the warp to be dreffed
with fome glutinous matter, to cement the fibres, and lay
themclofe. This is applied in a fluid itate, and as the weav-
ing does not proceed well after it is fuffered to dry, the
warp, is drelTed with a bru(h when in the loom, a fmall quan-
tity at a time, immediately before it is woven.

Dreffmg The ufe of drefling is to give to yarn fuffi-

cicnt itrength or tenacity, to enable it to bear the operation
of weaving into cloth. By laying fmooth all the ends of
the fibres of the raw materials, from which the yarn is fpun,
it tends both to diminilh the friftion during the procefs, and
to render the cloth fmooth and glofly when finifhed. The
drefling in common ufe is fimply a mucilage of vegetable
matter boiled to a confiftency in water. Wheat-flour, boiled
to a pafte like that ufed by book-binders, or fometimcs po-
tatoes, are commonly employed. Thefe anfwer fuflB-
ciently well in giving to the yarn both the fmoothnefs and
tenacity required ; but the great objeftion to them is, that
they are too eafily affedted by the aftion of the atmofphere.
When dreffed yarn is allowed to ftand expofed to the air
for any confiderable time, before being woven into cloth, it
becomes hard, brittle, and comparatively inflexible. It is
then tedious and troublefome to weave, and tlie cloth is
rough, wiry, and uneven. This is chiefly remarked in dry
weather, when the weavers of fine cloth find it neceffary to
work up their yarn as fpeedily as poflible, after it is dreffed.
To counteraft this inconveniency, herring or beef brine, and
other faline fubftances which attraft moifture, are fome-
times mixed in fmall quantities with the drefling : but this
has not been completely and generally fuccefsful ; probably,
becaufe the proportions have not been fufRciently attended
to ; for a fnperabundance of moifture is equally prejudicial
with a deficiency. The variations of the moifture of the
air are fo great and frequent, that it is impofllble to fix
any univerfal rule for the quantity of fait to be mixed.
Some weavers put butter-milk in the pafte.

To apply the drefling, the weaver mull fufpend the
operation of weaving, whenever he has worked up that quan-
tity of warp which he has dreffed, or within two or three
inches ; he then quits his feat, and applies the comb to clear
away knots and burs ; next pulhes back the leafe-rods
towards the yarn-roll, one at a time, and if they Hide freely
between the yarns, it ftiews they are clear from knots ; he
then brufhes the yarn with the parte by two bruflies, holding
one in each hand. The fuperfluous humidity is afterwards
dried by fanning the yarns with a large fan, and then a fmall
quantity of greafe is brufhed over the yarn ; the leafe-rods
are returned to their proper pofition, and the weaving is
refumed.

Drefling is of the firft importance in weaving warps fpun
from flax or cotton ; for it is impofllble to produce work
of a good quahty, unlefs care be ufed in dreffing the
warp.

The fame praftice, when ufed upon filk, has a very de-
ftruftive tendency : it injures the colours of the filk when
ufed, as it is fometimes very improperly, by the weavers of
white fatin. The injury done to the work is irreparable.
In cotton, the operation of drefling is indifpenfable ; but in
nik, this is by no means the cafe.

The preparation of pafte or Cze for warp, has been the
fubjeft of feveral patents. Mr. Foden, in 1799, recom-

mends a quantity of calcined gypfum, or plafter of Paris,
to be reduced to a very fine powder, and then mixed with
alum, fugar, and the farina or ftarch of potatoes, or any
other vegetable farina. This powder, when mixed well
with cold water, forms a foft pafte, to which boiling water
is to be added, and the mixture thoroughly ftirred till it be-
comes fufEciently gelatinous for ufe.

Another fize, for which Mr. M'^ilks had a patent in 1801,
is prepared as follows : — The ftarch or flour is to be ex-
tracted from any kind of potatoes which are mealy when
boiled, by grating them while raw (but waftied clean) into
a tub of water. The water, thus impregnated with the
grated potatoes, is run through a fieve or ftrainer, which
will retain the coarfer and fibrous parts of the potatoes, but
admit the finer particles, conftituting the ftarch or flour, to a
pafs with the water into a veffel beneath the fieve or ■
ftrainer. This water muft remain in the veffel feveral hours '
undifturbed, to permit the ftarch to fubfide to the bottom ;
then the water is poured off, and the ftarch io obtained is
put into frefli water, and paffed through a finer lieve into
another tub, where the ftarch is left to fubfide to the bottom
as before, and the water is again poured off.

About two-thirds the quantity of potatoes, which fur- jl
nilhedthe ftarch, are alfo to be boiled without peeling, fo as J
to make them mealy when boiled ; they are then maftied, and
diluted with water, fo that they will pafs through a fieve
into a boiler. In this the maflied potatoes are heated till
they alnioft boil ; and the ftarch from the grated potatoes is
then to be added, and the whole boiled and ftirred for 20
minutes, when it will become pafte proper for ufe. It
ftiould be fpread in a flat open veffel to cool.

Improved Syjlem of Weaving by Machinery, — In our article
Cotton we mentioned that weaving-looms, worked by me-
chanical power, were then coming into ufe : fince the time
that article was printed thefe have made great advances ; but
to ufe them with advantage, the preparatory proceffes of
warping and dreffing muft be conducted in a particular man-
ner. Many attempts have been made to diminifli the number
of operations through which the yarn muft pafs by combin-
ing feveral together. Mr. Stuart had a patent in 1800 for
fizing or ftarching cotton-yarn whilft in the cop, fo that it
would be ready to warp at once. Mr. Marfland had a patent
in 1805 for the fame objeft : his plan was to expofe the
cops of cotton to the aftion of the hot ftarch in an exhaufted
receiver; the preffure of the atmofphere being thus removed, .
the fize penetrated readily to the centre. It was found dif-
ficult to dry the cop perfeftly, and the threads were fome-
times fo glued together as to render the winding off dif-
ficult.

Another plan has therefore been introduced both for flax
and cotton : this is to wind off the yarn from the cop or
bobbin in which it is fpun, and gather it upon the bob-
bins ready for the warping ; by this manner the reeling is
faved. A fmall quantity of ftarch is applied to the yarn
during the operation, by caufing it to pafs over a horizontal
wooden cylinder, which revolves on its axis in a trough
filled with fluid ftarch. The threads, in pafling from the
cop to the bobbin, are drawn over the upper furface of the
cylinder, and receive the ftarch with which it is covered.
The winding machine for this aftuated a great number of
bobbins at once ; the warping is then condufted, as we
have before defcribed, and the drefling is performed in the
loom whilft weaving, that is, if woven by hand ; but for
the power-loom it is dreffed previoufly to placing it in the
loom.

Drejftng Machines. — Mr. Johnfon, of Stockport, had a pa-
tent, in 1804, for a method of drefling whole webs of warp at

once.

WEAVING.

onee, by a machine. The yarns were wound off from the bob-
bins or cops of the fpinning machines upon beams or rollers.
Several of thefe rollers were placed parallel to each other, in
an horizontal direftion, at theoppofite ends of the machine,
frojn three to fix at each end ; and the yarns from them were
all combined together in one web, which was received and
rolled up on the yarn-beam of the loom placed in the middle
of the machine, and raifed up confiderably above the other
rollers, io that the yarns proceeded from both ends of the
imachuic towards the middle. In their padage they paffed
through feveral reeds to keep them feparate, and were fup-
plied with the pafte by pafTing over two cylinders revolving
in a trough of fluid palle. This pafte was dreffed or worked
into the yarn by means of two brufhes, of a length equal to
the breadth of the web ; one of the brufhes afted upon the
upper fide of the yarns, and the other on the lower fide. A
ifimilar pair of brufhes were apphed at both ends ; each
brufh had a motion given to it by means of cranks, exaftly
fimilar to the movement with which the weaver brufiies the
yarn in the loom. Near the yarn-roller a fan was placed,
ilike that ufed in a winnowing machine, which blew a current
bf air through the yarns of the warp to dry them before
they were rolled up by the beam. To preferve the leafe, the
yarns were conducted through a pair of heddles, fimilar to
thofe of the loom, but they remained flack to avoid fridtion.
The machine was moved by the mill with a confl;ant and
"egular niovement.

When a warp is thus warped, beamed, and drelTed, the
yarn-beam is carried to a loom, on which the yarn is jufl
'jxhaufted, and is made to replace the empty yarn-roll. The
;nds of the yarn are joined to the old yarns by twilling, and
lire thus drawn through the heddles and reed, fo that the
jweaving can be refumed with very little lofs of time, and
iihe weaver can proceed with his work without any interrup-
-ion for dreiling. The principal objtdtioii to the above
inachine is the fridlion which the yarns muft undergo in
jrufhing, and in paffing through fo many reeds : it was,
iiowever, praftifed in a large work at Stockport ; but the
Iveaving was performed by hand.

I Another dreffing machine was invented by Mr. M'Adam,
Imd he obtained a patent in 1806: it is praftifed by Mr.
lVIonteith,at PoUockfliaws nearGlafgow. This machine is very
uuchlike the former in its manner of aftiou. Inftead of ufing
hree, four, or fix beams at each end of the machine, there
lire only two beams, each containing one half the number of
irarns for the intended warp. The fl;arch is fupplied in the
.ame manner as the former, or fometimcs by making the two
yarn-beams themfelves turn in a trough of ftarch without
i.'mploying a feparate cylinder. The brufhiiig is performed
In a more fimple and efFeftual manner by ufing cylindrical
'jrulhes, which revolve with a regular motion, two of them
\re applied on the upper fide of the warp, and two on the
lower fide ; alfo four fanners arc applied to dry the warp
Inftead of one. The yarns were conduftcd between reeds and
|hrough heddles, like the firft machine ; and hence the fame
libjeftion of fridlion applies to botli.

Mr. Duncan, in his Effays on Weaving, defcribes another
method of drcfTing warps, which is pradtifed by Mr. Dunlop
'it Barrowfield. In this the yarn is warped and beamed in
die ufual manner, upon a yarn-roll : from this the yarn is
,jnwound, and taken up upon another beam ; and in its paf-
Tage from one to the other it is extended, fo that the pick-
jbg and clearing can be performed in the ufual way by hand
With a comb and fciflbrs, and the dreffing is apphed with
oruftics in the ufual way : beneath the warp a fan is placed,
to blow a current of air up through the yarns and (!ry them.
|[n this machine all the operations, except the fanning, are
12

performed by hand ; the advantage, therefore, confifts only
in the d.vifion of labour, by making the dreffing and weaviog
diftmft operations. ° °

Po'wer.Lomns.-ln the article Cotton we have men-
tioned Mr. Dohgnon's claim to the invention of weaving bv
mechanical power. ° '

The origmal projeft, we believe, was by M. De Gennes,
and IS pubhflied in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1768,
N^ 140. See alfo Lowthorp's Abridgment, vol. i. p. 499.
This IS a very ingenious invention. The flv-ftiuttlc was
not then invented, and he fupplied the want of it by a con-
trivance which held the fliuttle as it were in a hand by fingers •
this carried it half way through the cloth, and then it was'
transferred to another fimilar hand, which drew it through
the remainder. By this means there was a greater certainty
than m throwing the fliuttle from one fide to the other, be-
caufe the fliuttle always continued engaged with the me-
chanifm : the whole machine is ingenious and worthy of

notice.

M. Vaucanfon, the celebrated French mechanift, made a
machine for weaving ten ribbands at a time, which was
worked by a circular motion given by the workman ; and it
might, therefore, have been worked by mechanical power.
This IS defcribed in the Encyclopede Methodique in
great_ detail, with ten folding plates, and is an ingenious
machine.

We believe both thefe inventions were prior to that of
Mr. Dolignon ; and alfo that the merit of inventing the ma-
chine, and firft reducing it to praftice, is due to Mr. Auftin,
of Glafgow. In this gentleman's memoir to the Society of
Arts, he ftates, that his firft attempt was made in the year
1789, when he entered a caveat for a patent, but did not
apply for it further ; fince that time he made many improve-
ments upon the original plan. In 1796 a report in its fa-
vour was made by the Chamber of Commerce and Manu-
faftures at Glafgow ; and in 1798, a loom was fet at work
at Mr. J. Monteith's fpinning works, at PoUockfliaws near
Glafgow, which anfwered the purpofe fo well, that a build-
ing was erefted by Mr. Monteith for containing thirty looms,
and afterwards another to hold about two hundred.

Mr. AuJViti's Piiiver-Loom. — The model from which our
drawing {Plate I. Wen-vhig'] was made, is depofited in the
Society of Arts : it is an improvement upon the looms con-
ftrufted for Mr. Monteith.

The drawing Plate I. is a perfpeftive view, exhibiting the
whole loom at one glance : it is viewed from the back rather
than from the front.

A is a fquare iron axis extending through the whole
length of the machine ; to this the power of the firft mover
is applied by a cog-wheel B, of thirty-fix teeth, turned by a
pinion of twelve leaves fixed to the axis of the fly-wheel D.
A handle is fixed to one of the arms of the wheel to give mo-
tion to the model ; but in tlie large machine a live and dead
pulley are adapted to the axis of the fly-wheel ; and by means
of an endlefs ft rap, the power is communicated from any
convenient part of the mill in which a great number of looms
are placed together.

The axis A has feveral eccentric wheels or camms fixed
upon it ; as thefe revolve they give motion to a number of
levers or treadles, by which all the ufual operations of the
loom are performed at the proper intervals : thefe are,

Firft, To feparate the two parts of tlie yarns of the warp,
as fliewn at G, and admit of the pafTage of the fliutde.

Secondly, To throw the fliuttle, in order to lay the weft
or crofs-threads of the cloth.

Thirdly, To move the lay 7.8, and return it; fo that
the reed g will beat up the weft clofc to the fell, or pre-

ceding

WEAVING.

ceding (hoot of the weft : this renders the cloth of uniform
texture.

Fourthly, To wind up the cloth upon the cloth-roll, as
fall as it is formed by the preceding operations.

The yarns, which are to form the warp of the cloth, are
warped in the manner before defcribed upon the yarn-roll
F ; and from thence they are extended horizontally to the
cloth-roll E, of which only a fmall part can be feen at the
oppofite fide of the loom : in their way the yarns pafs
through the eyes of the heddles G H, which effeft the firft
operation above-mentioned. Each heddle is compofcd of a
number of perpendicular threads equal to lialf the number
of yarns in the warp ; thefe are Itretched between two
fmaU rods a a and b b, and in the middle of each thread is
a fmall eye, through which a yarn of the warp is pafTed ;
thus, the firft yarn of the warp is pafied through the eye
of the heddle G, but has no conneftion with the heddle H,
becaufe it paifes between its threads. The fecond yarn is
put through the eye of the heddle H, but has no con-
nexion with G ; the third yarn is attached to H ; the
fourth to G, and fo on alternately throughout the whole
number. By this means if one heddle is raifed up, and
the other at the fame time depreffed, a feparation of the
yarns will take place as fhewn at G, every other yarn
being raifed up, whilft the intermediate ones are drawn
down, fo as to admit the paffage of the fhuttle and weft
between them.

The two heddles are moved by camms upon the main
axis A ; and they are fo connetted by fhort levers I I,
which are fufpended from the upper part of the loom, that
when one heddle is pulled down, the other will be drawn
up at the fame time, becaufe they are fufpended from the
oppofite ends of the levers I.

The camms on the main axis for the heddles are marked
L ; the two are exaftly fimilar, but are rcverfed upon the
axis ; that is, the (horteil radius of one is placed on the fame
fide with the longeil of the other. They aft upon two
levers, which are the fame as the treadles in a common loom ;
only one of thefe treadles or levers ( w'z. that which belongs
to the camm L ) can be feen at M, the other lever being
concealed from the view ; both levers move on centres at n
between the fmall uprights^ J; the other ends flide freely
up and down between fimilar uprights at the oppofite fide
of the frame, which cannot be feen in the figure ; the levers
are connefted with the heddles, which being fufpended
from the levers I as before mentioned, the levers will
therefore move in contrary direftions, the one rifing when
the other is preffed down by the aftion of the camm on the
axis A.

The conneftion between the levers or treadles M and
the heddles G H, is made by cords communicating with
two counter-levers O P, which are centered in uprights
fupported by the frame at the ends of the machine. The
counter-levers O P. are conncdfed with rods h and t, and
thefe by a double cord are attached to the heddle-rods a a
and b b.

This machinery which we have now defcribed efFefts the
feparation of the warp thus : when the axis A turns round,
every revolution of its camms L will caufe two feparations of
the warp, and each one in a different manner, for thofe yarns
which are railed up at one time are drawn down the next.

The fecond operation, I'iz. throwing the fliuttle, is per-
formed by two camms R S, which are reverfed to each
other upon the axis A. They aft upon two levers, only
one of which can be feen at T ; they are placed beneath tlie
camms. The fhuttle requires to be projefted with a
fudden jerk ; thefe levers are therefore centered at d on the

fame pin as the levers M and N, but the other ends prefs
down fmaller levers W, which are centered at the oppofite
end of the frame, and he beneath the long levers. The ex-
treme ends of thefe fmaller levers are connefted by a ftrapy
with a fegment of a wheel, which has a long ftem of whalebone
Y fattened to it ; and by means of two firings, one of which
is fhewn at q^, it moves the peckers or drivers z upon the
wires 3, 3, and throws the fhuttle. The fhuttle, which is
fhewn in a feparate figure, is pointed at each end, and fhod
with iron : it contains two fmall rollers 3 I 3 I upon which it
runs ; and as they projeft through both furfaces, it will run
either way upwards, or either end firft. In the centre of the
fliuttle is an oblong mortife, containing the pirn or bobbin
33, on which the thread for the weft of the cloth is wound;
and the end of the weft marked 34, is brought through a
fm.all glafs tube, called the eye of the fhuttle.

The aftion of the mechanifm for throwing the fliuttle is
as follows : — By the revolution of the camm R, the long
lever beneath it is diprcfTed, and at the fame time the ex-
tremity of the fliorter lever W defcends, but with an in-
creafed velocity ; this by means of the ftrap f turns the
fegment of a wheel on its centre, and its tad Y Inatches the
firing y 4of the pecker 2, and makes itftrike againft the fhuttle
with fuch a velocity, as to drive the fhuttle out of the
trough O, acrofs the ihuttle-race, into the oppofite trough,
where it will pufli back the pecker, and remain at reft in the
trough ready for the next ftroke : by this ftroke it will be
returned back again with an aftion fimilar to the laft, but
occafioned by the other camm S, and its correfponding
levers.

The threads of the warp, which are loweft when the
feparation takes place, are drawn down by their heddle
G or H, fo as to lie clofe upon the fhuttle-race, and caufe
no obftruftion to the paffage of the fhuttle. To facilitate
this, the fhuttle muft be very fmooth on the furface, that it
may not catch the threads and be flopped. The fhuttle-
race is inclined towards the reed, both that the yarn may
lie flat upon it, and that the fhuttle may not be liable to
run off its race ; for as it leaves the weft, which is drawn off
from its bobbin, in the fpace between the divided yarns of
the warp, it might be drawn off its race tideways, without
this precaution. In this manner the fecond operation is
performed.

The third motion is that of the reed^: this is fixed clofe
behind the fhuttle-race, and is a frame containing a great
number of parallel flips of reed or cane ; between thefe the
yarns of the warp pafs, and when the whole frame of reeds
is moved towards the cloth-roll E, they will aft in the man-
ner of 3 ccmb, to beat up the thread of the weft, which is
left by the fhuttle lying loofely between the yarns of the
warp.

For this purpofe, the fhuttle-race, reeds, peckers, &c. and
their ftem Y, with its fegment of a wheel, are all placed on
a framer which moves on hinges at the lower ends, 8, of the
two upright fides 7 8. This frame, which is termed the lay,
is drawn backwards by means of ftraps 10, 10, rolled upon
pulleys II, faftened upon the axis 12 ; upon this fame axis
are two other fmaller p\illeys, upon which two ftraps, 13,
are rolled, to conneft with the long levers 14, which are
moved by the camms 15, upon the axis A.

The long levers, 14, are centered at one end of the frame,
and the pulleys on the axis, 12, being of different diameters,
the motion of the reeds will be performed very quickly.
To move the lay in a contrary direftion, and give the ftroke
to beat up the weft, two large weights, hkem, are fufpended
by flraps from pulleys on an horizontal axis, which carries
two larger wheels .v ; on thefe, ftraps are wound, to commu-
nicate

WEAVING.

nicate with the upright fides, 7 8, of the lay, and draw it
forwards.

When the loom is afting very quickly, thefe weights
would not aft with fufficient fharpnefs to throw the reeds
againft the threads of the weft with the proper force.

The weights are therefore connefted by fpiral wire-
fprings, with long levers 16, which are prefled down by a
camm or rather tappet 17, fixed on the main axis. Thefe
levers aft before the lav is at liberty to move, and by prefi"-
ing down the levers extend the fprings ; confequently, as
foon as the camm 15 fuffers the lever 14 to rife, the fprmgs
aft inftantaneoufly, to throw the lay and the reeds forwards
to beat up the weft.

The inllant after the blow has been given, the lay is drawn
back again by the camm 15, and returned into the vertical
pofuion, in which fituation the lay muft continue whilft the
fiiuttle is thrown ; for this purpofe, the outfides of the
camms 15 are portions of circles. This completes the
third motion.

As fall as the clotli is fabricated by the foi-egoing move-
ments, it is gathered upon the cloth-roll E. This is turned
flowly round by a fmall crank 19, on the extreme end of
the main axis A ; the crank moves a fmall rod 20 up and
down, in order to turn a fmall ratchet-wheel round one
tooth each revolution of the main axis ; the return of the
ratchet is prevented by a chck. On the axis 21 of the
ratchet-wheel is an cndlefs fcrew, to engage the teeth of a
cog-wheel upon the end of the cloth-roll, and give it a flow
motion.

The yarn is kept to a proper degree of tenfion by the
friftion occafioncd by aline 28 pafied twice round the yarn-
roll, one end being fattened to the frame, and the other to a
lever 30, loaded with a weight.

The framing of tliL- loom is too evident to need defcrip-
tion. In the conftruftiou of the machine, the principal
circumllance to be attended to, is the figure of the different
camms ; alfo that they are placed upon the axis A in the
proper pofitions relative to each other. Thefe cautions will
enfure the accurate performance of the machine.

The camm R or S, for throwing the flinttle, is formed
with a fudden beak or projeftion, that it may ilrike the
levers T down iuftantaneoufly, and throw the fhuttle ; from
this beak the curve continues circular for fome diftance,
that the lever may be held ftationary ; the remainder of the
camm gradually diminifhes its radius like a fpiral, and quits
the lever, in order to leave it at liberty to rife up when its
correfponding lever is forced down by the beak of the other
fimilar camm S.

The camm L for the heddles is made circular where it is
to come in contaft with the lever, and which is all the time
it is in aftion. This occafions the levers and heddles to be
ftationary whilft the fliuttle is thrown.

The niventor ftates that, by the addition of fome fimple
improvements, his looms have the following advantages ;
■viz. 300 or 400 of them may be worked by one water-
wheel, or fteam-engine, all of which will weave cloth in a
fuperior manner to what can be done in the common way.
They will go at the rate of 60 (hoots in a minute, making
two yards height of what is calL-d a nine hundred web in an
hour. They will keep regular time in working, ftop and
begin again, as quick as a llop-watch. They will keep
conftantly going, except at the time of {hiftiug two (huttles,
when the weft on the pirns , is exhaulled. In general, no
knots need be tied, and never more than one in place of two,
which are rcquifite in the common way when a thread
breaks. In cafe the (buttle ftops in the (hcd, the lay will
not come forwards, and the loom will inftantly Hop work-

ing. They will weave proportionally flower or quicker,
according to the breadth and quality of the web, which may
be the broadell now made. They may be mounted with a
harnefs or fpot-heddles, to weave any pattern, twilled,
ftriped, &c.

There is but one clofe fhed, the fame in both breadths,
and the drain of the working has no effeft: on the yarn be-
hind the rods.

The fell and temples always keep the fame proper dif-
tance. There is no time loft in looming, or catting out the
cloth ; but it is done while the loom is working, after the
firft time.

The weft is well ftretched, and exaftly even to the fabric
required.

Every piece of cloth is meafured to a ftraw's breadth,
and marked where to be cut at any given length.

Tlie loom will work backwards in cafe of any accident^
or of one or more (hoots miffing. Every thread is as re-
gular on the yarn-beam as in the cloth, having no more than
two threads in the runner. If a thread (hould appear too
coarfe or fine in the web, it can be changed, or any ftripe
altered at pleafure. They will weave the finell yarn more
tenderly and regularly than any weaver can do with his
hands and feet.

When a thread, either of wsjp or weft, breaks in it, the
loom will inftantly ftop, without ftopping any other loom,
and will give warning by the ringing of a bell. A loom of
this kind occupies only the fame fpace as a common loom ;
the expence of it will be about half more ; but this additional
cxpcnce is more than-compenfated by the various additional
machinery employed for preparing the yarn for the com-
mon loom, and which this loom renders entirely un-
neceffary.

The preparatory procefies of reeling, winding, warping,
beaming, and looming, and the interruptions occafioned by
combing, drcffing, fanning, greafing, drawing bores, (hift-
ing heddles, rods, and temples, which is nearly one-half of
the weaver's work, do not happen in thefe looms. The ge-
neral wafte accompanying the above operations is ftated at
about fix per cent, of the value of the yarn, all which occur
in the operations of the common loom. The power-loom,
without further trouble, performs every operation after the
fpinning, till the making of the cloth is accompliflied, by
which a faving is effefted of about 20 per cent, of the
yarn.

The heddles, reed, and bruflies, will wear longer than
ufual, from the regularity of their motion. More than one-
half of workmanfhip will be faved ; one weaver and a boy
being quite fufficient to manage five looms of coarfe work,
and three or four in fine work.

Mr. Miller's Poiver-Loom A patent was taken out for

this in 1796. It is fo much like Mr. Auilin's in its
general principle, that it is unneccffary to enter into the de-
fcription. The motions are all produced by camms fixed
on a horizontal axis, and operate upon a number of hori-
zontal levers, difpofed beueatii the loom, in the fituation of
treadles : in other refpefts the arrangement of the parts is
very different. This is fometimes called the wiper-loom,
wiper being a different name for a camm.

Crank Loom by Po-zver. — In this the treadles are aftnated
by cranks, inftead of camms or wipers. The reciprocating
motion produced by a crank is not uniform, but accelerated
at one time, and retarded at another. This is an advantage
in fome of the operations of a loom. It is true, that, by
means of wipers, any required law of acceleration may be
produced ; but in a crank, the acceleration muft proceed
according to one law. The fuperiority of cranks arifes

from

WEAVING.

from the circumftance, that they will communicate motion
in both direftions ; whereas a camm will only pufh a lever
in one direftion, and the return of the motion mull be made
by a fpring or counterweight. Now, if this counterweight
is too large, it makes unneceffary lofs of power and fric-
tion ; and if it is too fmall, there is feme uncertainty in the
return of the lever.

Mr. Todd of Boulton had 'a patent, in 1803, for im-
provements in power-looms.

Mr. Horrocks of Stockport had three fucceflive patents
for this kind of machinery, in 1803, 1805, and 1813. The
machine defcribed in the latter is a crank-loom ; that is, the
lay is aftuated by a crank to beat up the weft. The prin-
cipal improvement confifts in a fyftem of levers, which
tranfmit the aftion of this crank to the lay, and fo modify
it, that the lay will advance quickly, and give an effeftive
ftroke to the weft, and then withdraw quickly to a fta-
tionary pofition, in which it will remain whilft the (huttle is
thrown. The advantages which are ftated are, that a large
Ihuttle may be ufed, fuflicient to hold a full-fized cop of
weft : the wafte and lofs of time by renewing the cop will,
therefore, be lefs. From the fmartnefs of the flroke, lefs
weight will be required on the yarn-beam, and this will
occafion the heddles to work more lightly, fo as to break
fewer threads. From the fame caufe, more threads of the
weft may be laid in an inch, and make clofer work.

Mr. Johnfon of Prefton had a patent in 180J, and
another in 1807, for a power-loom, in which the warp is
ftretched on a vertical plane, inftead of horizontal, as in
former machines. The advantages of this are ftated to be,
I ft, that it takes lefs fpace ; zd, the reed ferves for the
Ihuttle-race, becaufe the (huttle rtms upon the reed itfelf,
and, therefore, makes no friftion upon the yarns ; 3d, alfo
in dreffing, picking, and clearing the warp, the attendant
always remains in front of the machine, and can continue to
watch the machine ; whereas, in the other looms, he muft
quit his poft in front, and go round behind the looms for
thefe operations. When the drefling is to be applied to the
warp, whilft it is in the loom, that part of the warp is con-
duced horizontally for that purpofe, and a fan is applied
to dry the warp.

The lateft inventions of power-looms are Mr. Peter E wart's
patent, 1813 ; and Mr. Duncan's loom, which he calls a
vibrating loom.

The Indian Loom This is a ftriking contraft to our power-
looms ; it confifts merely of two bamboo rollers, one for
the warp, and the other for the finifhed cloth ; and a pair of
heddles. The fhuttle performs the double office of ftiuttle
and reed : for this purpofe, it is made like a large netting-
needle, and of a length fomewhat exceeding the breadth of
the piece of clotli which is to be woven.

This apparatus the weaver carries to any tree which
affords a (hade moft grateful to him : under this he digs a
hole large enough to contain his legs, and the lower part of
the geer or heddles ; he then ftretches his warp, by fatten-
ing his bamboo rollers at a due diftance from each other on
the turf, by wooden pins ; the balances of the geer or
heddles he fallens to fome convenient branch of the tree over
his head ; and two loops underneath the geer, in which he
inferts his great toes, fcrve inftead of treadles ; his long
fliuttle, which performs alfo the office of a batten, draws
the weft, throws the warp, and afterwards ftrikes it up
clofe to the web. In fuch looms as this are made thofe ad-
mirable muffins, whofe delicate texture the Europeans can
never equal, with all their complicated machinery.

The weaving, even of their fineft muffins, is thus con-
du£led in the open air, expofed to all the intenfe heat of

their climate. We know well that this would be imprafti-
cable with fine work in this country, even in an ordinary
fummer day, on account of the fudden drying of the drelT-
ing. It is not known what is the fubftance which the
Indian weavers employ for dreffing their warps. It might
be of ufe to our manufafturers, were this inveftigated in a
fatisfaftory manner. It is faid to be a decoftion of rice,
formed by boiling the rice in a fmall quantity of water, and
expreffing the juice : when this is cool, it forms a thick
glutinous fubftance, which undergoes fome kind of fer-
mentation before it is ufed.

Figure-iueaving. — Having given an account of the nature
and procefs of plain weaving, we muft notice the fanciful
and ornamental parts of the bufinefs. The extent to which
this fpecies of manufafture is carried renders it an objeft of
very great national importance, and deferving a more minute
defcription than our limits will admit.

Figures or patterns are produced in cloth, by employing
threads of different colours, or of different appearance, in
the warp, or in the weft. By the weaving, the threads
muft be fo difpofed, that fome colours will be concealed
and kept at the back, whilft others are kept in the front ;
and they muft occafionally change places, fo as to (hew as
much of each colour, and as often as it is neceffary, to make
out the figure or pattern.

The weaver has three means of effefting fuch changes of
colour : Firil, by ufing different coloured threads in the
warp, or threads of different fizes and fubftances ; thefe are
arranged in the warping, and require no change in the man-
ner of weaving. This is confined to ftriped patterns, the
ftripes being in the direftion of the length of the piece.

Secondly, by employing feveral ffiuttles charged with
threads of different colours or fubftances, and changing one
for another every time a change of colour is required. This
makes ilripes aerofs tlie breadth of the piece ; or, when it
is combined with a coloured warp, it makes chequered and
fpotted patterns of great variety.

Thirdly, by employing a variety of heddles, inftead of
two, as we have hitherto defcribed ; each heddle having a
certain portion of ihe warp allotted to it, and provided with
a treadle. When this treadle is depreffed, only a certain
portion of yarns which belong to that heddle will be drawn
up, and the reft will be depreffed ; confequently, when the
weft is thrown, all thofe yarns which are drawn up will ap-
pear on the front or top of the cloth ; but in the intervals
between them, the weft muft appear over thofe threads
which are depreffed. The number of threads which are
thus brought up may be varied as often as the weaver
choofes to prefs his foot upon a different treadle, and by
this he produces his pattern.

All thefe means may be combined together, and give the
weaver the means of reprefenting the moft complicated
patterns.

The principal varieties of woven cloth, including only
thofe which require a different procefs for their fabrication,
are the following :

Stripes are formed upon the cloth either by the warp or
by the woof. When the former of thefe ways is prac-
tifed, the variation of the procefs is chiefly the bufinefs of
the warper ; but in the latter cafe, it is that of the weaver,
as he muft continually change his (huttle.

By unravelling any ffired of ftriped cloth, it may eafily
be difcovered whether the ftripes have been produced by the
operation of the warper or thofe of the weaver.

When the fly-(huttle is ufed, the changing of the ffiuttle
is very readily effefted by a fimple contrivance. One of the
/huttle-boxes of troughs, as we have before called them,

{Pia/f

WEAVING.

[Plate II. Weaving, fg. 2.) is made in two parts, fo that a
part of the trough I near the pecker, where the {huttle lies
during the time it is at reft, can be removed, and another
trough fubftituted, which contains a different (huttle. For
the purpofe of making the change with facility, a moveable
fl\uttle-box n is fufpended by two perpendicular ilems o from a
wire or centre of motion m attached to the lay, as is fliewn by
the dotted lines. The moveable box is juft on the fame
level with the (huttle-trough I, and is divided by partitions
into two or three feparate troughs, each exaftly the width
of the regular trough, and as long as is neceflary to contain
a fliuttle. The pecker i, and the wire upon which it Hides,
remain exaftly as before defcribed ; but by fwinging the
moveable box n on its centre any one of its compartments
may be brought to line with the real place for the (huttle-
trough in which the pecker runs. The moveable box muft
have proper catches to hold it exaAly in its true pofitions.

In working with this contrivance a (liuttle of a different
colour muft be placed in each cell or divifion of the move-
able box n ; and when the weaver defires to change the (huttle
he pulls the connefting ftring. This moves the (huttle-
troughs either backwards or forwards, fo as to carry away
that (huttle which had been juft before in ufe, and place
another before the pecker. Then if he pulls the pecker-
handle j the new (huttle will be thrown acrofs the (huttle-race,
juft as the old one was in the former itillance. If only one
moveable (huttle-box is ufed there will be fome limitation in
the pattern, becaufe the ftripes of different colour muft al-
ways confill of an even number of the fame coloured thread,
as two, four, fix, &c. This may be obviated, and a greater
change of (buttles may be introduced, by ufing two move-
able fhuttle-boxes, one at each end of the (huttle-race : in
that cafe the two moveable boxes are provided with cranks
and ftrings, fo that the weaver can reach either of them
with cafe.

Chech are produced by the combined operations of the
warper and the weaver.

Tweeleil cloths are fo various in their textures, and fo
complicated in their formation, that it is difficult to convey
an adequate idea of the mode of conftruAing them without
the aid of feveral drawings.

In examining any piece of plain cloth, it will be obferved
that every thread of the weft croffes alternately over and
then under every thread of the warp which it comes to ; and
the fame may be faid of the warp : in (hort, the threads of
the warp and weft are thus interwoven at every point where
they crofs each other, and are therefore tacked alternately.
Tweeled cloth is rather different, for only the third,
fourth, fifth, fixth, &c. threads crofs each other, to form
the texture.

Hence two, three, four, or more, of the fucceflive threads
or (hoots of the weft will be found to pafs under or over the
fame thread of the warp ; or, in other words, by tracing any
thread of the warp it will be found to pafs over two, three,
four, or more threads of the woof at once, without any
interweaving the v/arp. Then it crolTes and paffes between
the threads of the weft, and proceeds beneath two, three,
four, or more threads, before it makes another palfage be-
tween the threads of the weft.

Tweeled cloths are of various defcriptions, and produce
different kinds of patterns ; becaufe at all the interfefting
points where the threads aftually crofs or interweave both
threads of warp and weft are feen together, and thefe pomts
are therefore more marked to the eye, even if the warp and
weft are of the fame colour. Thefe points in plain tweels form
parallel lines extending diagonally acrofs the breadth of the
cloth, with a different degree of obliquity, according to the
Vol. XXXVIII.

number of weft-threads over or under which the warp-
threads pafs before an interfedion takes place. In the
coarfeft kinds every third thread is croffed : in finer fabrics
they crofs each other at intervals of four, five, fix, feven,
or eight threads ; and in fome very fine tweeled filks the
crofTing does not take place until the fixteenth interval.

Tweeling is produced by multiplying and varying the
number of heddles, or, as the weavers exprefs it, the number
of leafcs in the harnefs, which is the name given to the
whole number of heddles employed in a loom ; by the ufe
of a back-harnefs or double-harnefs, by increafing the num-
ber of threads which pafs through each fpht of the reed,
and by an endlefs variety of modes in drawing the yarns
through the heddles ; alfo by increafing the number of trea-
dles, and changing the manner of treading them.

The number of treadles requifite to raife all the heddles
which muft be ufed to produce very extenfive patterns,
would be more than one man could manage ; for if he placed
his foot by miftake on a wrong treadle he would disfigure
his pattern. In thefe cafes, recourfe is had to a mode of
mounting or preparing the loom, by the application of
cords to the different heddles of the harnefs ; and a fecond
perfon is employed to raife the heddles in the order required,
by pulling the ftrings attached to the refpeftive heddles of
the back-harnefs, and each heddle is returned to its firft po-
fition by means of a leaden weight underneath. This is the
moft comprehenfive apparatus ufed by weavers, for all fan-
ciful patterns of great extent, and it is called the Draw-
Loom. See that article.

The manner of mounting the harnefs of looms, to pro-
duce all the principal varieties of fabrics, is detailed in our
articles Design, Draught, and Cording 0/ Zoomj ; alfo
Damask, Diaper, Dimitv, Dornock, Fustian, and Ta-
pestry. A perufal of thofe articles will render it unnecef-
fary for us to proceed farther on that fubjeft in the prefent
article. We (hall however defcribe a moft valuable inven-
tion, which has of late years come into ufe, as a fubftitute
for the fecond perfon or draw-boy, who muft be employed
in the draw-loom, by which loom alone all the complicated
patterns can be woven.

Machine called the Draw-Boy, becaufe it performs the OJjiee of
a Draw-Boy in Weaving. — The faving of labour is not the
only advantage of this machine ; the certainty of its opera-
tion and fecurity from miftake are obvious. The weaver
produces the required aftion upon the moft complicated
harnefs by two treadles only, which he works alternately,
juft with the fame motion as in plain cloth-weaving. The
machine, when once fet up, performs every thing elfe.

Like moft other inventions, this was at firft imperfect,
but has been gradually improved. We do not know its hif-
tory, but we have feen great numbers of machines, for
carpet-weaving and coarfe goods, which have been fome
years in ufe. The machine is fituated in a fmall fquare
frame, not larger than a chair, which ftands at the fide of
the loom, and cords from all the di(ferent heddles are con-
dufted from the draw-loom down to this frame, where they
are arranged in order. Each cord has a knot anfwering to
the handle, which the boy muft pull in the common draw-
loom ; and there is a piece of mechanifm aftuated by the
treadles which at every ftroke felefts the proper cord, and
draws it down fo as to raife the heddles belonging to it.
The next time it changes its pofition and takes another
cord, and fo on until tlie whole number of cords has been
drawn and the pattern completed.

Thefe original machines have a great defedl, vi%. that

they only proceed with regularity to raife up all the heddles,

until all the cords have been drawn, and one feries of changes

F f has

WEAVING.

has been gone through; but when this is completed, and a
repetitioa of the pattern is wanted, the weaver muft flop
and reftore the machine to its oriojinal pofition by pulling a
ftring. This appears very eafy, but it diverts his attention ;
and if he does not do it at the cxaft moment his pattern
may be fpoiled. This defeft was remedied by Mr. Alexan-
der Duff, who received a fmall and inadequate premium
from the Society of Arts in 1807, probably becaufe they
were not aware of its value and importance; but in 1810
we find them with a liberahty truly difcouraging to real
merit, giving an equal reward to another perfon, for the
moft trivial alteration of Duff's machine. The latter ma-
chine is alone defcribed in their Tranfaftions ; fee vol. xxviii.

Mr. Duff'' s Draw-Boy. — Fig. 4. Plate II. Weaving, is a
plan of this machine, and J?f. 2. a perfpeftive view. It is
fixed at the fide of a draw-loom, in the fame place as a draw-
boy would ftand, and H Ihew the cords which are to draw the
harnefs. The fame letters are ufed in both figures. A A
is a fquare wooden axis, mounted fo as to turn backwards
and forwards in the frame B B, on points or centres of mo-
tion. At one end of it a pulley D is fixed, to receive a line
a a fattened to it at the higheft point, by means of which
the axis receives motion from the two treadles of the loom,
one of the treadles being attached to one end of the line, and
the other to the oppofite end of it. E E are two rails of
wood, fixed acrofs the frame parallel to the axis; andf?
are two brafs plates fcrewed to the rails, and pierced with a
great number of holes to receive as many cords. Each
cord is tied by one end to a central rail F of the frame be-
neath the axis ; and after palling through one of the holes
in the above plate e, and turning over a round wooden rod
G, has a lead weight fufpended to the other end of it.
Thefe weights are (hewn at h b. The rods G G are fuf-
pended by firings at their ends from the ceiling of the room.
To each of the above cords another is tied juft before it
pafTes over G. Thefe are reprefented by H, and hang
loofely. The upper ends of thefe cords are tied to hori-
zontal cords extended acrofs the ceiling of the room, and
made faft to the ceihng at one end; the other ends pafs over
pulleys fituated at the top of the loom, in a frame called
the table of mullets, and the harnefs or heddles are fuf-
pended by them.

By this arrangement it will be feen, that when any one of
the cords fattened at F is pulled down, it muft draw one of
the ttrings H, and raife fuch an arrangement of the har-
nefs or heddles as is proper to produce the figure which is
to be woven. The weight b draws the cord fo as to keep it
ftraight ; all that is therefore neceffary is to draw down the
cords at F one at a time, but to take a different one each
time, and thus raife a different feries of the heddles each
time ; this is the bufinefs of the machine, and which it ac-
compUtties in the foliowang manner.

The bar, or axis, A A, has an iron femicircle, d,
grooved like a pulley, and each of its ends divided, fo as
to form a cleft-hook or claw.

Each of the ftrings made faft at F has a large knot tied
jn it, juft beneath where it paffes through the brafs plate e e,
and which knot ftops the farther afcent of the cord, in con-
fequence of the pull of the weight b. Now when the axis
A vibrates backwards and forwards by the treadles of the
loom, as before mentioned, the hook of the femicircle d
feizes the knot of one of the cords F, and draws down that
cord, and raifes the heddles belonging to it. The weaver
throws the (huttle, and then returns the treadles, and the
axis A with the femicircle returns back again, and allows
the cord F to take its original pofition. When the femi-
circle d inclines over to the other fide, its oppofite hook

takes hold of the cord F, which is next to the one op-
pofite to that which it juft quitted ; it draws down this
cord, and the weaver again throws his fhuttle, then re-
turns the femicircle to the oppofite fide, and it will take
the cord next to the oppofite one, and fo on ; fo that tlie
femicircle will in fucceffion take every alternate cord in each
of the rows c e, and leave every other.

This is effefted by the femicircle Aiding along its axis A
every time, by means of two wooden racks, h and /, in
the plan, which are let into grooves in the axis A{; thefe
racks have teeth like faws, but inclined in contrary direc-
tions. The rackj move backwards and forwards in their
grooves, the extent of a tooth at each vibration of the axis, j
by the aftion of two circular inclined planes of iron faftened I
to the frame at L M, again ft which the ends of the racks
are thrown by fpiral fprings concealed beneath each rack.
The femicircle is fixed on a box or carriage N, which fiides J
upon the axis A, and has two clicks upon it ; one at /, I
which falls into the. teeth of the rack h ; the other at m
for the rack / : n is a roller fixed over the box, and connefted
with the two clicks / and m, by threads wound in oppofite
direftions ; fothat one click is always raifed up, and difengaged
from its rack, while the other is in aftion. O is a piece of wire
fixed to the frame, fo as to intercept a fmall wire projefting
from the roller when the axis is inclined, and turn the roller
a fmall qaanlity ; P is another wire for the fame purpofe,
but fixed to a crofs bar, Q, which is moveable, and can be
faftened at any required place, farther or nearer from the
end of the axis. Suppofe the roller n to be in fuch a pofi-
tion that the click m is down, and / drawn up, the aftion
will be as follows : the femicircle firft inclines to the direftion
oi Jig- 2., its hook taking down one ftring ; during this mo-
tion the end of the rack i comes to the inclined part of the
circular inclined plane M, and moves by its fpring towards
D, the fpace of one tooth, which the click m falls into. On
the return of the axis, the rack i is thruft back, and the box
N and femicircle with it towards L, caufing the hook to take
the next oppofite ftring : in this manner it proceeds, advan-
cing a tooth each vibration, till it gets to the end of its courfe ;
the tail of the roller n then ftrikes againft the pin P, and turns
the roller over, raifes the click m, and lets down the other, /,
into the teeth of the rack i ; this was all the time moving
in a contrary direction to i, by its inchned plane L, but had
no aftion, as its click / was drawn up ; this being let down,
the femicircle is moved back, a tooth at a time, towards M,
until it meets O, which upfets the roller n, and fends the
femicircle back again.

Tiueeled Silks. — In weaving very fine filk tweels, fuch as
thofe of fixteen leafes, the number of threads required to
be drawn through each interval of the reed is fo great, that
if they were woven with a fingle reed, the threads would
obftruft each other in rifing and finking, and the ftied, or
opening of the divided warp, would not be fufiiciently open
to allow the ftiuttle a free paffage. To avoid this inconve-
nience, other reeds are placed behind that which ftrikes up
the weft ; and the warp-threads are fo difpofed, that thofe
which pafs through the fame interval in the firft reed>are di-
vided in pafFing through the fecond, and again in pafling
through the third. By thefe means the obftruftion, if not
entirely removed, is greatly leffened.

In the weanng of plain thick woollen cloths, to prevent
obftruftions of this kind arifing from the clofenefs and rough-
nefs of the threads, only one-fourth of the warp is funk and
raifed by one treadle, and a fecond is preffed down to com-
plete the ftied between the times when every {hot of weft is
thrown acrofs.

Double Cloth is compofed of two web«, each of which

confifts

WEAVING.

confiils of feparate warps and fepirate wefts, but the two are than the weaver can manage by his feet, they feldom employ
interwoven at intervals. The junftion of the two webs is a draw-loom.

formed by palling each of them occafionally through the
, other, fo that any particular part of both warps will be found

fometimes above and fometimes below.
I This fpecies of weaving is almoft exclufively confined to

the manufafture of carpets in this country. The material
I employed is dyed woollen, and as almoft all carpets are de-
' corated with fanciful ornaments, the colours of the two webs
I are different, and they are made to pafs througli each other
, at fuch intervals as will form the patterns required. Hence
' it happens that the patterns at each fide of the carpet are the

fame, but the colours are reverfed. Carpets are ufually

■ woven in the draw-loom, or with the machine called the
I draw-boy before defcribed.

Marfeilks is a fabric woven of cotton, which is a double

; cloth. The loom for weaving Marfeilles is fomewhat fimilar

! to the diaper loom. A good idea of the manner in which

it is prepared may be had, by conceiving two vi'ebs woven

' one under the other in the fame loom, which are made to

■ intermingle at all the depreff d lines, and form the reticula-
tions on the furface, in imitation of the quilting performed

' by hand.

I When the fpecies of Marfeilles, called Marfeilles quilting,
; is made, a third warp, of fofter materials than the two others
\ defcribed, lies between them, and merely ferves as a fort of
1 fluffing to the hollow fquares formed by them.

Quilling is another fort of cotton Huff, folely appropriated
to quilts, which (hould, in ftriftnefs, be fet down exclufively
, to the cotton manufafture, although there is nothing to pre-
vent its being made of other materials.

I The weft of thofe quilts is of very coarfe and thick yarn,
I whicli is drawn out by a fmall hook into little loops, as it is
woven, that are fo arranged as altogether to form a regular
; pattern ; every third or fourth (hoot of the fiiuttle, the
weaver has to llop to form thofe loops from a draft, which
caufes ti;e weaving of thofe quilts to take up more time than
that of any other ituif, except tapeftry ; which accounts for
I the greatnefs of the price at which they are fold, in propor-
;tion to the value of the materials of which they are princi-
] pally compofed.

. Gauze differs in its formation from other cloths, by having
'the threads of the warp crofled over each other, inflead of
; lying parallel. They are turned to the riglit and left alter-
;nately, and each fliot of weft preferves the twine which it
I has received.

: This effcft is caufed by a Angular mode of producing the
, fiieds, which cannot eafily be defcribed without the aid of
! drawings.

I Crofs, or Net IFeaving, is a feparate branch of the art, and
irequircs a loom particularly conflrufted for the purpofe.
I Spots, brocades, and lappets, are produced by a combina-
ition of the arts of plain, tweeled, and gauze weaving, and
las in every other branch of the art are produced in all their
,varieties by different ways of forming the divifion of the
Iwarp by the application of numerous heddlcs, and their con-
:neftions with the treadles which move them. Indeed the
;great flcill of the art confiils in the proper management of
Ithis part of ihe apparatus of a loom.

Rilhdnd Wtav'wg Tliis was formerly performed by a

Ifmall common loom, weaving one ribband at a time. Rib-
ibands arc commonly ftriped in the length by laying a ftriped
iwarp, and patterns are produced by changing the colour of
khe weft occafionally ; fometimes an ornamented edging is
jformed by a fiiccclfion of open loops at the borders of the
iribband. Figured ribbands arc alfo woven by a great num-
ber of treadles, but as they rarely extend to a greater number

Engine- Loom for weaving Ribbands The weavers at Co-
ventry, which is the principal feat of the ribband trade, uni-
verfally employ what they call an engine-loom : it is worked
by the hands and feet like a common loom, but weaves twelve
fixteen, or even twenty ribbands at once. The (buttles are of
courfe fly-fhuttles, and are driven by what is called a ladder
becaufe it is a fmall frame exaftly like a ladder, which Aides
horizontally in a groove in the lay ; and every crofs-bar of
the ladder afts upon one fhuttle in the manner of a pecker :
the ladder has a handle to give it motion.

Another peculiarity of this loom is, that the ribbands are
taken away as they are woven, with very few interruptions
to wind up the work : for this purpofe they conduft the
warps over pulleys, and the ribbands alfo, fo that both hang
down in long loops. Thefe looped parts are conduAed
through pulleys, which are loaded with weights, and tend
always to draw the loops down, and keep the warp tight.
The weight which is thus fufpended by the finifhed ribband
tends to draw it forwards at every ilroke which the lay
makes; and the weight which is fufpended by. the yarn of
the warp is drawn up. When thefe weights have run
through their refpeftive courfes, the weaver muft flop to
wind up the finifhed ribband, and unwind a frefh length of
yarn. In fome looms this is rendered unneceffary by a
fimple mechanifm, which continually winds up the ribband
as faft as it is woven.

In iRoi the Society of Arts rewarded Mr. Thomas
Clulow, for an improved loom for weaving figured rib-
bands.

This loom differs from the common figured ribband-
looms in the method of forming the figure, which, in the old
mode, was tedious, from the work being flopped, whilfl the
figure was drawn by hand.

In the prefent loom, the tire-cords which form the figure
are drawn or worked by a cord or leather-ftrap fixed to the
centre-treadle, which flrap paffes over two vertical and one
horizontal pulley to the back of tfce loom, and has a weight
hung to the end thereof. Upon this flrap above the weight
is fixed an iron, of a bevel or floping form, which when the
flrap is pulled up by preffing with the foot upon the treadle,
raifes a wire -lever placed acrofs the main-wheel of the move-
ments placed vertically, and allows this main-wheel to move
one-fourth of its circumference, where it is flopped by an
iron pin, placed on its rim, and prevented from returning by
a clitch or catch on the edge of the wheel on its right
fide.

Within the rim of the main-wheel is a fmall catch-flrap
connected with the flrap above-mentioned ; this catch-ftrap
pulls forward the main-wheel one-fourth of its circum-
ference, until it is flopped by the wire-lever and one of the
pins on the rim, of which there are four in number in the
ground.

There are alfo four iron pins projefting from the left fide
of the main-wheel in oppofite quarters of it : thefe aft on a
hanging lever, to the lower part of which a ftring is at-
tached, which paffes behind the box containing the whole
machinery, and raifes four clicks or catches on four rollers,
which permits any one of the four rollers to run back as the
figure may require, each roller by fuch motion drawing up
the number of threads ncceffary to form the figure, by cords
extending from thefe rollers over pulleys to the pafs-cords,
which draw the figure.

Machine Loom for Ribbands. — We have before mentioned

M.Vaucanfon's loom for weaving ten ribbands by a rotatory

tnotion. We do not know that this is in ufe in this country.

Ffi Mr.

WEB

Mr. James Birch invented an improvement on the fvf ivel-
loom, fo as to weave fatin-guard or figured laces, and re-
ceived a reward from the Society of Arts in 1804.

This loom is worked by a circular motion of the hands,
without treadles, or any application of the feet.

A wooden bar, to which the hands are applied, works
two cranks on a large iron axle, extending the width of the
loom ; one crank is near each end of the above axis. A fly-
wheel is attached to one of the ends of the axis, to regulate
the motion of the machinery ; an endlefs fcrew is placed
upon the axis, works a ftar-wheel underneath it, which turns
a barrel that has a refemblance to that of a hand-organ, and
has wooden pegs fixed in different parts around it : thefe
pegs catch upon levers, which draw forward the cords
that form the figure, and pull them down by a claw, which
fecures the cords thus brought within its power, and by thofe
means raife the upper geer connefted with the cords.

In this loom fourteen pieces of fatin-guard or bed-lace
are wove at the fame time, either one pattern and breadth,
or all of different patterns and breadths, as may be re-
quired. The figure may be extended to any number of
fhoots defired.

The loom takes up no more fpace than a common fwivel-
loom, fuch as is employed in plain-work. It appears to
work with eafe and expedition, to make good work, and to
be eafily managed. It does not break or chafe the filk
during its working. The weaver can move to any part of
the front of the loom to infpeft the work, and to continue
the motion during that time ; and the figure or pattern may
be formed double the length of thofe ufually done in the
engine-loom. The loom can be flopped when required, at
any one (hoot of the fhuttle ; and it will anfwer to weave
articles made of filk, wool, cotton, or linen, or mixtures of
thofe articles, or gold or filver lace, and performs its work
in half the time of an engine-loom.

The want of uniformity in the technical phrafeology of
the art of weaving, and the intricacy of the fubjeil, have
compelled us to render our defcriptions far more intricate
and difficult than they otherwife would have been.

We mud acknowledge the affiftance which wo have de-
rived from the very excellent " Effays on the Art of
Weaving," by Mr. Duncan, 1808, in 2 vols. 8vo. It is a
TOoft curious and valuable pubhcation, embracing almoft
every thing neceffary to be known concerning the ai't on
which it profefles to treat ; if we except fome of the recent
improvements in machine-weaving, which are only flightly
noticed.

The French have long exctUed in the various branches of
figure-weaving ; but this is more from dexterity of their
weavers than from their machinery. Defcriptions and
drawings of all looms ufed by them, with every detail of
their llrufture, will be found in the different articles of
L'Encyclopede Methodique, and Les Arts et Metiers,
D'Art de Fabriquer le Soie, 5;c.

Weaving of Cloth, Cotton, and Silk. See Weaving
fupra.

Weaving of Tapejlry, &c. See Tapestrv, &c.
Weaving, Stocking. See Stockings.
WEAUME, in Geography, a river of France, which
runs into the fca, near Marfeilles.

WEAUS, or Weeas, Indians dwelling near the head of
the river AVabafh.

WEAUTENANS, Indians of North America, about
N. lat. 40° 20'. AV. long. 87^ 20'.

WED, a fort of plexus, or texture, formed of threads
interwoven with each other ; fome of which are extended in

WEB

length, and called the warp, and others drawn acrofs them,
called the woof or weft. See WEAViNGyi//ira.

Web is alfo a technical term for all weavers and
bleachers, both in Great Britain and Ireland, for a piece of
linen cloth.

Web, Spider's, or Coh-Wel, is a very delicate and won-
derful plexus, which that infedl fpins out of its own bowels ;
ferving it as a fort of toil, or net, to catch flies, &c. See
Spider.

For the manner in which the fpidcr fpins his web, the ad-
mirable mechanifm of the parts fubfervient to it, and the
ufesof it, fee Silk, and Du^ility of Spider-WEB& infra.

Dr. Lifter tells us, that, attending nearly to a fpidcr
weaving a net, he obferved it fuddenly to defift in the mid-
work ; and turning its tail to the wind, it darted out a
thread, with the violence and ftream we fee water fpout out
of a jet : this thread, taken up by the wind, was imme-
diately carried to fome fathoms long ; ftill iffuing out
qf the belly of the animal. By-and-bye the fpider leaped
into the air, and the thread mounted her up fwiftly. After
this difcovery he made the like obfervation in near thirty dif-
ferent forts of fpiders, and found the air filled with young
and old, failing on their threads, and doubtlefs feizing
gnats and other infefts in their paffage : there being often
manifeft figns of flaughter, legs and wings of flies, &c. on
thefe threads, as well as in their webs below.

Dr. Hulfe difcovered the fame thing about the fame time.
In a letter of Dr. Lifter to Mr. Ray, he thinks there is a
fair hint of the darting of fpiders in Ariftotle, Hift. An.
hb. ix. cap. 39. and in Pliny, lib. x. cap. 74. But with re-
gard to their faihng, the ancients are filent, and he thinks it
was firft feen by him. In another letter to Mr. Ray, dated
January, 1670, fpeaking of the height fpiders are able
to fly to, he fays, " Laft Oftober, &c. I took notice
that the air was very full of webs ; I forthwith moimted to
the top of the higheft fteeple on the minfter (in York),
and could there difcern them yet exceeding high above
me."

Duaility of Spider-W EHfi. M. Reaumur ofcferves, that
the matter of which fpid°rs and filk-worms form their
threads, is brittle when in the mafs, like dry gums. As it
is drawn out of their bodies, it affumes a confiftence, much
as glafs-threads become hard, as they recede from the lamp,
though from a different caufc. The duftility of this matter,
and the apparatus for this purpofe, being much more extra-
ordinary in fpiders than in filk-worms, we fhall here only
confider the former. Something alfo has already been faid
of each under Silk.

Near the anus of the fpider are five or fix papillae, or
teats. The extremities of the feveral papiilas are furnifhed
with holes, that do the bufinefs of wire-drawers, in forming
the threads. Of thefe holes, M. Reaumur obfervcs, there
are enough in compafsof the fmalleft pin's-head, to yield a
prodigious quantity of diftinft thread^. The holes are
perceived by their effcfts: take a large garden-fpider
ready to lay its eggs, and applying the fingtr on a
part of its papilla:, as you withdraw that finger, it
will take with it an amazing number of different threads.
M. Reaumur has often counted fevcnty or eighty with a mi-
crofcope, but has perceived that there were infinitely more
than he could tell. In effeft, if he could fay, tliat each tip
of a papilla furnifhed a thoufand, he is perfuaded he fiiould
fay much too little. The part is divided into an infinity of
little prominences, like the eyes of a butterfly, ice. each
prominence, no doubt, makes its feveral threads ; or rather,
between the feveral protuberances, there are holes that give
vent to threads ; the ufe of the protuberances, in all proba-
bility.

W E B

bility, being to keep tlie threads at their firft exit, before
they are yet hardened by the air, afunder. In fome fpiders
thofe protuberances are not fo fenfible ; but in lieu thereof
there are tufts of hair, which may ferve the fame office, viz.
to keep the threads apart. Be this as it will, there may
threads come out at above a thoufand different places in
every papilla ; confequently, the fpider having fix pa-
pillx, has holes for above fix thoufand threads. It is
not enough that thefe apertures are iramenfely fmall : but
the threads are already formed before they arrive at the
papilla, each of them having its little Iheath or duft, in
which it is brought to the papilla from a confiderable
di (lance.

M. Reaumur traces them up to their fource, and Ihews
the mechanifm with which they are made. Near the origin
of the belly he finds two little foft bodies, which are the
firft fource of the filk. Their form and tranfparcncy re-
femble thofe of glafs-beads, by which name we fhall hereafter
denote them. The tip of each bead goes winding, and
makes an infinity of turns and returns towards the pa-
pilla. From the bafe, or root of the head, proceeds another
branch much thicker ; which winding varioufly, forms feve-
ral knots, and takes its courfe hke the other, towards the
hind part of the fpider. In thefe beads and their branches,
is contained a matter proper to form the filk, only that it is
too foft. The body of the bead is a kind of refervoir, and
the two branches two canals proceeding from it. A little
fai-ther backwards, there are two other lefler beads, which
only fend forth one branch a-piece, and that from the tip.
Belide thefe, there are three other larger vcfTels on each fide
of the fpider, which M. Reaumur takes for the laft refer-
voirs, where the liquor is coUefted. The biggeft is near the
head of the infeft, and the leaft near the anus. They all
terminate in a point ; and from the three points of thefe three
refervoirs it is, that the threads, at leaft the greateft part
of the threads drawn out at the three papillx, proceed.
Each refervoir fupplies one papilla. Laftly, at the roots of
the papillae, there are difcerned feveral flefhy tubes ; pro-
bably, as many as there are papillae. Upon lifting up the
membrane, or pellicle, that feems to cover thefe tubes, they
appear full of threads, all diftinft from each other, and
which, of confequence, under a common cover, have each
their particular one ; being kept like knives in ftieaths. The
immenfe quantity of threads contained here, M. Reaumur
concludes, upon tracing their courfe, does not wholly come
from the points of the refervoirs ; but fome from all the
turns, and angles ; nay, probably from every part of it.
But by what conveyances the liquor comes into the beads,
and out of the beads into the refervoirs, remains yet to be
difcovered.

We have already obferved, that the tip of each papilla
may give paftage to above a thoufand thre.ids ; yet the dia-
meter of that papilla does not exceed a fmall pin's-head :
but we were there only confidering tiie largeft fpiders.

If we examine the young growing fpiders produced by
thofe, we ftiall find, that they no fooner quit their egg, than
they begin to fpin. Indeed their threads can fcarce be per-
ceived ; but the webs may : they are frequently as thick,
and clofe, as thofe ot houfe-fpiders ; and no wonder : there
being often four or five hundred littl? fpiders concurring to
the fame work. How minute muft their holes be ? the
imagination can fcarce conceive that of their papillx ! The
whole fpider is, perliaps, lefs than a papilla of the parent
which produced it.

This is eafily feen ; each big fpider lays four or five hun-
dred eggs ; thefe eggs are all wrapped up in a bag ; and as

WEB

foon as the young ones have broke through the bag, tl.ey
begin to fpin. How fine muft their threads at this time
be!

Yet is not this tlie utmoft nature does : there are fome
kinds of fpiders fo fmall at their birth, that thev are not vi-
fible without a microfcope. There is ufually found an in-
finity of thefe in a clufter, and they only appear like a
number of red points. And yet there are webs found
under them, though well nigh imperceptible. What muft
be the tenuity of one of thefe threads ; the fmalleft hair
muft be to one of thefe what the moft maflive bar is to the
fineft gold-wire.

The matter of which the threads are formed, v;e have ob-
ferved, is a vifcid juice. The beads are the firft receptacles
where it is gathered, and the place where it has the leaft con-
fiftcnce. Il is much harder when got into the fix great re-
fervoirs, whither it is carried by canals from the former ;
this confiftence it acquires in good meafure in its paflage ;
part of the humidity being diffipated in the way, or fecreted
by parts dcftined for that purpofe.

Laftly, the liquor is dried ftill farther, and becomes
thread, in its progrefs through the refpeftive canals to the
papillx. When thefe firft appear out at the holes, they are
ftill glutinous ; fo that fuch as fpring out of neighbouring
holes ftick together. The air completes the drying.

By boiling the fpider, more or lefs, the liquor is brought
to a greater or lefs confiftence, fit to draw out into threads ;
for it is too fluid for that purpofe while yet inclofed in its
refervoirs.

The matter contained in thefe refervoirs, when well
dried, appears a tranfparent gum, or glue, which breaks
when much bent : like glafs, it only becomes flexible by
being divided into the fineft threads. And probably it was
on this account nature made the number of holes fo immenfe.
The matter of filk formed in the bodies of fpiders being
much more brittle than that formed in filk-worms, needed
to be wound fmaller. Othcrwife we do not conceive, why
they ftiould form a great number of threads, which were
afterwards to be re-united : a fingle canal might elfe have
done.

The thread of a fpider being ftrong enough to bear five
or fix times the weight of the fpider's body, is cpmpofed of
feveral finer threads, that are drawn out feparately, but
unite together at the diftance of two or three hairs' breadth
from the body of the fpider. The threads are coarfer or
finer, according to the fize of the fpider that fpins them.
Mr. Lcewenhoeck computes that lOO of the fineft threads of
a full grown fpider, are not equal to the diameter of the
hair of his beard ; and confequently, if the hair be round,
lo,oco fuch threads are not bigger than fuch a hair. He
calculated farther, that when young fpiders firft begin to
fpin, 400 of them are not larger than one that is full-grown ;
and therefore the thread of inch a little fpider is 400 times
fmaller than the thread of a full-grown one ; allowing this,
four millions of a young fpider's threads are not fo big as
the fingle hair of a man's beard.

Web, in Ship-BtiiUing, the thin partition on the infide of
the liin, and between the fpokes of an iron or brafs-ftieavc.

Web of a Coulter, in ylgriculliire, that part of it which is
drawn out thin and fliarp, in order to cut and feparatc the
ground, in oppofitiou to the others which are thick and
blunt. In the fock, too, any thin (harp poj-t has the name
of web or wing.

Web on the Eye, among Animals, a term fometimes ufed
to fignify a film on that part. See E^'e, Film, and Whitt
Film.

Web-

WEB

VTz^-Cafe. See Chrysalis.

Web, Pin and. See Pannus.

WEBB, Phiup-Carteret, in Biography, a member of
the fociety of antiquaries, was born in 1 700, and admitted
an attorney in 1724, and diftinguiflied for his acquaintance
with the records of the kingdom, and with conftitutional
and parhamentary law. He was returned in 1754, and again
in 1761, as a member for the borough of Haflemere ; and
being attached to the then exifting adminiftration, he obtained
the place of fecretary of bankrupts in the court of chancery,
and in 1756 became one of the joint folicitors of the treafury.
He was employed in 1 7 63 in condufting the profecution againft
Mr. Wilkes, for writing a number of the North Briton ; and
printed on that occafion " A Colleftion of Records about
General Warrants," and " Obfervations on difcharging Mr.
Wilkes from the Tower." He died at his houfe in Buf-
bridge, Surrey j-in June 1770, and left a valuable library, and
curious colleftion of coins, medals, and relics of antiquity,
which were fold by auftion. He had fold 30 MSS. of the
rolls of parliament to the houfe of lords, and a number of
other MSS. were fold to lord Shelburne, and afterwards to
the Britilh Mufeum. Among his publications we may reckon
" A Letter to the Rev. Mr. Warburton, on fome palfages
of his Divine Legation ;" " Various Pieces relative to the
State of the Law in this Kingdom ;" " Account of fome
Particulars concerning Domefday Book ;" " A fliort Ac-
count of Danegeld ;" " Account of a Copper Table, dif-
covered near Heraclea." Mr. Webb was twice married,
and by his firft wife left a fon of his own name. Nichols's
Lit. Anecd. Gen. Biog.

Webb Pond, in Geography, a town of the diftrift of
Maine, in the county of Oxford, containing 318 in-
habitants.

WEBBER, John, in Biography, who accompanied
captain Cook in his laft voyage to the South fea, in the ca-
pacity of draughtfman, was a native of London, though his
father was a Svvifs. He was born in 1752, and was fent
young to Paris tor his education as an artiit. After his re-
turn he ftudied at the Royal Academy, of which in 1785 he
became a member. His talents for drawing landfcape re-
commended him to the lords of the admiralty, who ap-
pointed him to go with captain Cook on his voyage of dif-
covery ; and when the veflels returned in 1780, they alfo
commiffioned him to fuperintend the engraving of the prints
from his own drawings of the fcenes he had beheld. When
thefe were completed, he was permitted to publifh a
work confifting of other views which he had made, which he
etched and aquatinted himfelf, and publifhed on his own ac-
count ; and thefe produced hfrn a handfome remuneration.
He afterwards applied himfelf to painting, but his pidlures
are weak and unfubftantial, without colour or effeft, or any
great degree of merit, though they pleafe from their neat-
nefs and minutenefs. He died in 1793, aged 41.

WEBERA, in Botany, owes its name to Schreber, who
dedicated this genus to the memory of George Henry
Weber, late profeflbr of medicine and botany at Kiel ; an
excellent cryptogamic botanift, mod celebrated for his Spici-
legium Flora Goettingenjls, pubhfhed in 1778, and one of the
claffical books in that department of the Icience. He died
in 1786, at the age of 35. Hedwig had previoufly comme-
morated Weber in a genus of MofTes, fome fpecies of which
are now referred to Bartramia, others to Bryum. ( See
Musci and Fringe o/"M^j-.) It is to be regretted that
Webera did not take place of Bartramia, the perfon after
whom the latter was named, however meritorious, being
fcarcely at all converfant with molTes. — Schreb. Gen. 794.

WEB

Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1224. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 4. Ait-
Hort. Kew. V. I. 371. (Chomelia ; Linn. Gen. ed. 2. 72.^
Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubia-
cete, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, divided
half way down into five ereft, acute, permanent fegments.
Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube cylindrical, longer
than the calyx : limb in five ovate-oblong, reflexed feg-
ments. Neftary a flefhy ring, furrounding the bafe of the
ftyle. Stam. Filaments five, very Ihort, inferted into the
margin of the tube ; anthers linear, incumbent, fpreading.
Pijl. Germen roundilh, inferior ; ftyle fimple, longer than
the tube of the corolla ; ftigma club-fhaped, with ten fur-
rows. Peric. Berry nearly globular, of two cells, crowned
with the permanent enlarged calyx. Seeds from two to four
in each cell, angular.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, in five permanent fegments.
Corolla funnel-fhaped, five-cleft. Stamens in the mouth of
the tube. Stigma club-fhaped, with ten furrows. Berry
inferior, of two cells. Seeds feveral, angular.

A genus of evergreen Eaft Indian (hrubs, with oppofite
branches and leaves ; and axillary or terminal, aggregate flow-
ers, which are occafionally augmented in the number of their
divifions and ftamens, from five to fix. Canthium of La-
marck's Dift. V. I. 602. Juff. 204. Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 21,
confounded by Willdenow with this genus, is certainly very
diftinft in its habit, peltate ftigma, folitary feeds, and four-
cleft flowers.

1. W. corymbofa. Corymbofe Webera. Willd. n. i.
Ait. n. I. ( Rondeletia afiatica ; Linn. Sp. PI. 244.
Cupi ; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 2. 37. t. 23. Raii Hift.
V. 2. 1494.)

Leaves elliptic-oblong. Corymb terminal, forked, many-
flowered. ^ — Native of fandy ground in the Eaft Indies ; cul-
tivated by Miller in the ftove at Chelfea, in 1759, but it is
not recorded by Mr. Aiton to have flowered, nor do we recol-
left having ever feen the plant in any colleftion. A wild
fpecimen from Dr. Rottler is before us. The Jlem is
(hrubby, about the height of a man, with fmooth, leafy,
fomewhat compreffed, branches. Leaves en fliort thick
ftalks, entire, coriaceous, very fmooth, four inches long,
rather acute, with a ftout rib, and numerous reticulated
veins ; their upper fide fliining ; lower paler. Stipulas in-
tratoliaceous, triangular, fliort, pointed. Flower-Jlaiks hairy.
Flo-jjers three-quarters of an inch long, whitifli, agreeably
fragrant, turning vellowifli as they lade. Berries firm, the
fize of a currant, blackifh, fweetifli, but not eatable. Rheede
defcribes 7 or 2, feeds in each fruit.

This plant has the appearance of an Ixora or Pavetta, as
we have obferved at the end of our article Rondeletia ;
but perhaps the Jligma, very important in this natural order,
may keep it diftnift.

2. W. cymofa. Cymofe Webera. Willd. n. 2. — "Leaves
ovate, pointed. Cymes axillary, ftalked, many-flowered." —
Native of tlie Eaft Indies. " A tree, with round downy
branches. Leaves ftalked, ovate, obtufe with a point, en-
tire, very fmooth, rigid, fimply veiny ; fhining above.
Cymes convex. Floiuer-Jlalks downy. Corolla half the fize
of the former. Style much longer than the corolla. Stigma
capitate, cloven. Berry the fize of Juniper." — Willdenow^
from a dried fpecimen. — We have not feen this fpecies.
The defcription of xki^Jligma does not anfwer to the gene-
ric cliarafter.

WEBHAMET, in Geography, a river of the diftrift of
Maine, which runs into the Atlantic, near Wells.

WEBUCH,

WED

WED

WEBUCH, Cape, a cape on the E. coaft of Labrador.
N. lat. 55° 2i'. W. long. 58^ 10'.

WECHMAR, or Warihmar, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Gotha ; 4 miles S.E. of Gotha.

WECHQUETANK, a Moravian fettlement in Penn-
fylvania ; 30 miles N.W. of Bethlehem.

WECHSELBURG, a townfhip of Germany, in the

1 lordfhip of Schonburg ; 4 miles N.N.E. of Penig.

' WECHSTEN, a town of Germany, in the county of

I Verdeii ; 1 2 miles S.E. of Verden.

I WECHTE REACH, a town of Germany, in the county

' of Ifenburg ; 7 miles S.E. of Budingen.

j WECHTERSWINCKEL, a town of the duchy of

( Wurzburg ; 3 miles' N.N. W. of Neuftadt am Saal.

' WECKHOLM, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Upland ; 22 miles S.W. of Upfa!.

1 WED EL Casaab, a river of Algiers, which runs

I into the Mediterranean, 5 miles S. of Cape Falcon.

Wed el Kibbeer, a river of Algiers, anciently called
Ampfaga, which runs into the Mediterranean, 15 miles S.

>of Sebba Rous. N. lat. 36' 57'. E. long. 0" 28'.

Wed el Mallah, t. e. the Salt River, a river of Algiers,

i which runs into the Mediterranean, 10 miles S.S.E. of

I Cape Figalo.

: Wed el Shaler, a river of Africa, which rifes about 12

I miles E. from the mountain of Zeckar, in the Sahara, and

i after a north-eaft courfe about 30 miles changes its name to

iMailah, and finally lofes itfelf in the Short.

i WEDDER, the name of a certain ftate of (heep. See

. Wether- Wff/i.

WEDDRA, in Commerce. See Vedro.
WEDEKINSTEIN, in Geography, a town of Weft-
iphalia, in the principality of Minden ; 3 miles S.W. of
[Minden.

i WEDEL, George Wolffgang, in Biography, an emi-
inent phyfician, was born in 1645, ^^ Golzan, in Lufatia, and
ftudied phyfic and took his doftor's degree at Jena, in 1667,
iwhere, after a temporary exercife of his profeflion at Gotha,
Ihe became medical profeflbr, in which ftation he continued
Iwith reputation for almoft fifty years. He combined with
;his medical (Icill a confiderable acquaintance with mathematics
jand philology, as well as with the oriental and clafTical
'languages. He was an aflbciate to the Academy Naturae
Curioforum, and to the Royal Society of Berlin, phyfician to
ifeveral German fovereigns, a count palatine, and an imperial
icounfellor. Notvvithftanding thefe high offices and nume-
irous engagements, he was attentive to the poor, and affiduous
rin his literary labours. His pathology was derived from the
ifyftems of Helmont and Sylvius ; in his praftice he depended
imuch on abforbents, and the volatile lalts of vegetables.
iWedel was addifted to aftrology ; but he is chiefly cele-
Ibrated for his pharmaceutical knowledge, and his elegance
bf prefcription, fo that many of his compofitions have been
ladopted in difpenfatorics. Of his works, befides his aca-
;demical differtations, the principal are the following ; viz.
j" Opiologia ;" "Pharmacia in Artis formam redafta ;"
I" De Medicamentorum Facultatibus cognofcendis et appli-
fcandis ;" " De Morbis Infanturfi ;" and " Exercitationes
Medico-PhilologicK." Haller. Eloy.
j Wedel, in Geography, a town of Holftein ; 13 miles

JN.W. of Hamburg Alfo, a town of the New Mark of

iBrandeiibvirg ; 1 1 miles E. of Reetz.

I WEDELIA, in Botany, was fo called by Jacquin, in
Honour of Dr. Jc>hn Wolffgang Wedel, of Jena, whom he
belebrates as a highly merieorious botanift, and who wrote
\\Tentamm Botanicum, publilhed at Jena in 1747, with a
Isreface by his friend Hamberger. The defign of this

work is to combine the fyftems of Rivinus and Linnsus,
the claffes of the latter making fubdivifions of the former.
We prefume that no fcheme could be Icfs natural or ufeful,
whatever the botanical ftill of the author might be ; of which
indeed we are not difpofed to think highly, as he made a
point of excluding the fruit from his principles of claffifica-
tion. He wrote a German eflay againll Haller, on the
fubjedl of botanical terms, of which the latter fpeaks as full
of taunts and reproaches. Wedel died in 1757, at the age
of 49. Some others of the fame name, and probably the
fame family, who were Profeflbrs at Jena, appear full as
well entitled to botanical honours ; efpecially George
Wolffgang Wedel, who died in 1721, aged 76, and has
left behind him numerous differtations on botany and the
materia medica — Jacq. Amer. 217. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3.
2334. JulT. 189. Gartn. v. 2. 435. (Alcina; Cavan.
Ic. v. I. 10. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 164.) — Clafs and
Order, Syngenejia Polygamia-necejfaria. Nat. Ord. Csmpo-
fita oppofuifoliie, Linn. Corymbifera, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx fimple, of four or five large
leaves. Cor. compound, radiant. Florets of the difl< per-
feft, numerous, funnel-fhaped, five-cleft ; thofe of the ra-
dius from eight to twelve, roundifh-ovate, cloven. Stam.
in the florets of the diflc. Filaments five, capillary ftiort ;
anthers united into a tube, as long as the partial corolla.
Pyi. in the fame florets, Germen minute, imperfeft ; fl;yle
thread-fhaped, the length of the anthers ; ftigma fimple or
divided : in thofe of the radius, Germen oblong, quadran-
gular ; ftyle thread-fliaped ; ftigmas two, revolute. Peric.
none, the calyx remaining unaltered. Seeds in the diflc im-
perfeft ; in the florets of the radius folitary, obovate, gib-
bous, crowned vrith four, five, or ten teeth. Recept.
chaffy, flightly convex ; the fcales ovate, concave, as long
as the florets.

Efl". Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed-crown of from five
to ten teeth. Calyx fimple, of four or five leaves.

Obf. This genus is feparated from Polymnia, (fee that
article, ) on account of its fimple calyx, and the prefence of
a crown to the feeds, which appear to us fufficient cha-
rafters.

1. W. frutefcens. Shrubby Wedelia. Willd. n. i.
Jacq. Amer. 217. t. 130. (Polymnia Wedelia; Linn.
Mant. 118. Poiret in Lara. Dift. v. 5. 506.) — Stem
fhrubby. Leaves diftinft, ftalked, lanceolate. Seed-crown
of ten teeth. — Native of Carthagena, South America, in
bufhy woody places, flowering in July and Auguft. Stem
{hrubby, climbing, with round leafy branches, rough in
our fpecimen with minute points. Leaves acute, two or
three inches long, fomewhat ferrated, brifl;ly on both fides ;
the upper rough with callous points ; lower paler. Foot-

Jlalks linear rough, hardly half an inch in length, combined
at the bafe by a narrow annular J] ipula. Flowers terminal,
ftalked, folitary, yellow, near an inch broad, vsnth a rough
calyx ; the outer fcales of their receptacle looking like a co-
loured inner calyx. Seeds, according to Jacquin, each with
a little cup-fhaped crown, having about ten teeth.

2. W. perfoliata. Perfoliate Wedelia. Willd. n. 2.
(Alcina perfoliata; Cavan. Ic. v. i. 11. t. 15. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 5. 164.) — Stem herbaceous. Leaves rhomboid,
tapering at the bafe, perfoliate. Seed-crown of five teeth.
— Native of Mexico, from whence its feeds were brought
to Madrid, and thence difperfed through the botanic gar-
dens of other parts of Europe. This is an annual plant,
with nothing to attraft the attention of florifts. It flowers
late, and does not alvvavs ripen feed in England. The

Jlem is four feet high, angular or furrowed, leafy, branched,
nearly fraooth, often purpbfh. Leaves three or four inches

long,

WED

long, including their narrow bafe, pointed, ferrated, triple-
ribbed, light green, roughifh. Flowers yellow, llalked,
much fmaller than the foregoing. Calyx broad, extend-
ing far beyond the rays. Seeds of the marginal Jlorets
large, tumid, each crowned with four, five, or more, irre-
gularly placed tubercles, or teeth, not agreeing precifely
with the crown of the firft fpecies, but fcarcely affording
fufficient reafon to form a generic diftinftion.

WEDENSCHWEIL, in Geography, a town of Swit-
zerland, and principal place of a bailiwick, in the canton of
Zurich, on the S.W. coafl of lake Zurich ; 9 miles S. of
Zurich.

WEDGE, CuNEUS, in Mechanics, the laft of the five
powers, or fimple machines.

The wedge is a triangular prifm, whofe bafes are ifofceles
acute-angled triangles.

Authors are divided about the priaciple whence the wedge
derives its power.

Ariftotle confiders it as two levers of the firft kind, in-
clined toward each other, and afting oppofite ways. Guido
Ubaldus, Merfennus, &c. will have them levers of the fe-
cond kind. But Fr. de Lanis fhews, that the wedge can-
not be reduced to any lever at all.

Others refer the wedge to the inclined plane. Others,
agam, with De Stair, deny the wedge to have fcarce any
force at .ill ; and afcribe much the greateft part to the mal-
let that drives it.

Its doftrine (according to fome writers) is contained in
this propofition. " If a power be applied to a wedge, in
fuch manner, as that the line of direction C D {Plate XL.
Mechanics, fg. 1 . ) perpendicular to A B, is to the refift-
ance to be overcome, as A B to C D ; the power will be
equal to the refillance."

Or thus : " If the power direftly applied to the head of
the wedge, be to the refiftance to be overcome by the wedge,
as the thicknefs of the wedge is to its height ; then the
power will be equivalent to its refiftance ; and, if increafed,
will overcome it."

In proof of this propofition, they allege, that the firm-
nefs by which the parts of the obftacle, fuppofe wood, ad-
here to one another, is .the refiftance to be overcome by the
wedge ; and that while the wedge is driven into the wood,
the way or length it has gone is B H {Jig. 2.) ; and D C
is the way or length gone in the fame time, by the impedi-
ment ; that is, the parts C and D of the wood are fo far
divided afunder : and according as the wedge is driven down
farther and farther along its height ; fo the parts C and D
of the wood are divided mere and more, along the thicknefs
of the wedge.

But Dr. Defaguliers has proved, that, when the refiftance
afts perpendicularly againft the fides of the wedge, the
power is to the whole refiftance as the length of both fides
of the wedge, taken together, is to the thicknefs of its
back.

According to the preceding theory, if the thicknefs of
the wedge (that is, the way of the impediment, and confe-
quently its velocity) be to the height of the wedge (that is,
tne way, and confequently the velocity of the power) as
the power to the impediment, or refiftance ; then the mo-
mentum of the power, and the impediment, will be equal
the one to the other : and confequently the power, being in-
creafed, will overcome the refiftance.

Hence, I. The power equivalent to half the refiftance, is
to it as A C to D G, {Jig. i.) that is, as the whole fine
to the co-tangent of hjilf the angle of the wedge ADC.
And 2. As the tangent of a lefs angle is lefs than that of a
greater, the power rauft have a greater proportion to half

01

WED

the refiftance, if the angle be greater than if lefs ; confe-
quently, the acuter the wedge is, the more does it increafe
the power.

The above proportion is adopted by Wallis, (Op. Math,
vol. i. p. 1016.) Keil, (Int. ad Ver. Phyf.) and S'Grave-
fande (El. Math. lib. i. cap. 14.); but S'Gravefande, in his
Scholium de ligno findendo (ubi fupra), obfcrves, that when
the parts of the wood are feparated before the wedge, the
force by which it is thruft in is to the refiftance of the wood
as a line, drawn from a point in the middle of the bafe to
the fide of the wedge, and at right angles with the fide of
the feparated wood continued, to the height of the wedge;
but when the parts of the wood are feparated no farther
than the wedge is driven in, the equihbrium will be, when
the power is to the refiftance as the half bafe of the wedge
to its fide.

To this method of eftimating the power of the wedge it
has been objefted that, by allowing each part of the weight
to have moved through a fpace equal to half the back of the
wedge, whilft the power has moved through its height, and
the whole weight to have moved through a fpace equal to
the whole back, the whole is made to move farther than its
parts.

M. Mufchenbroeck ftates the proportion of the power to
the weight in a fimple wedge, or half the wedge {Jig. I.)
bifefting it by a plane pafling through C D, as its back is
to its length, or in that cafe as A C to C D ; and in a dou-
ble wedge or the wedge A B D, as A B to 2 C D. Int.
ad Phil. vol. i. p. 132.

Mr. Fergufon eitimates the power of the wedge, in the
two cafes mentioned by S'Gravefande, in the following man-
ner. When the wood does not cleave at any diftance before
the wedge, there will be an equilibrium (he fays) between
the power impelling the wedge downward, and the refiftance!
of the wood afting againft the two fides of the wedge, if the
power be to the refiftance as half the thicknefs of the wedge
at its back is to the length of either of its fides ; and if
the power be increafed fo as to overcome the friAion of the
wedge, and the refiftance arifing from the cohefion or ftick-
age of the wood, the wedge will be drove in, and the wood
fplit afunder.

But when the wood cleaves at any diftance before the
wedge (as it generally does), the power impelling the wedge
will be to the refiftance of the wood as half its thicknefs is
to the length of either fide of the cleft, eftimated from the
top or afting part of the wedge : for fuppofing the wedge
to be lengthened down to the bottom of the cleft, the
power will be to the refiftance as half the thicknefs of the
wedge is to the length of either of its fides ; or, which
amounts to the fame thing, as the whole thicknefs of the
wedge is to the length of both its fides.

In proof of this proportion we may fuppofe the wedge
divided lengthways into two equal part?, and then it will
become two equally inclined planes ; one of which, as <2 3 «
(j?jT. 3.) may be made ufe of as a half-wedge for fepa-
rating the moulding c d from the wainfcot A B. When
this has been driven its whole length a c between the wain-
fcot and moulding, its fide a c will be at e d, and the mould-
ing will be feparated ^o fg from the wainfcot.

From the property of the inclined plane, it appears, that
to have an equilibrium between the power impelling the
half-wedjre and the refiftance of the moulding, the former
muft be to the latter, is a 5 to a c ; that is, as the thicknefs
of the back which receives the ftroke is to the length of the
fide againft which the moidding adls. Confequently, Cnce
the power upon the half-wedge is to the refiftance againft
its fide, as the half back a 6 is to the whole fide a c, it is

plain,

WED

plain, that the power upon the whole wedge (where the
whole back is double the half back ) muft be to tlie refiftance
againft both its fides, as the thicknefs of the whole back is
to the length of both the fides, fuppofing the wedge at the
bottom of the cleft ; or as the thicknefs of the whole back
to the length of both fides of the cleft, when the wood
fplits at any diftance before the wedge. For when the
wedge is driven quite into the wood, and the wood fplits at
ever fo fmall a diftance before its edge, the top of the
wedge then becomes the afting part, becaufe the wood does
not touch it any where elfe. And fince the bottom of the
cleft muft be confidered as that part where the whole ftick-
age or refiftance is accumulated, it is plain from the nature
of the lever, that the farther the power adls from the refift-
ance, the greater is the advantage.

Some writers have, indeed, advanced, that the power of
the wedge is to the refiftance to be overcome, as the thick-
nefs of the back of the wedge is to the length only of one
of its fides ; but this, fays Mr. Fergufon, feems very ftrange;
for, if we fuppofe A B [Jig- 4. ) to be a ftrong inflexible
bar of wood or iron fixed into the ground at C B, and D
and E to be two blocks of marble lying on the ground on
oppofite fides of the bar ; it is evident that the block D
may be feparated from the bar to the diftance d equal
to a b, by driving the inclined plane or half-wedge ab 0
down between them ; and the block E may be feparated to
an equal diftance on the other fide, in like manner, by the
half-wedge c d 0. But the power impelling each half-wedge
will be to the refiftance of the block againft its fide, as the
thicknefs of that half-wedge is to the length of its afting
fide. Therefore the power to drive both the half-wedges is
to the refiftances, as both the half backs are to the length
of both the afting fides, or as half tlie thicknefs of the
whole back is to the length of either fide. And, if the bar
be taken away, the blocks put clofe together, and the
two half-wedges joined to make one ; it will require as much
force to drive it down between the blocks, as is equal to
the fum of the feparate powers afting upon the half-wedges
when the bar was between them. Fergufon's Left. p. 40,
&c. 4to. See alfo Defag. Exp. Phil. vol. i. p. 107, &c.

Mr. Ludlam, in an EfTay on the Power of the Wedge,
printed in 1770, propofes, with a particular view to the
machines defcribed by S'Gravcfande, Defaguliers, and Fer-
gufon, for eftimating the power of the wedge, to determine
this power, when two equal forces aft on the fides of an
ifofceles triangle in direftions parallel to the back but op-
pofite to each other, and are fuftained by a third force aft-
ing perpendicularly on the back of the wedge. For this
purpofe, let A B C (Jig- 5-) be an ifofceles wedge, whofe
angular point is C, fides A C and B C, back A B, and
perpendicular height H C : let F E reprefent the quantity
and direftion of the force applied to one of the fides ; this
may be refolved into two other forces FD and D E, the
former parallel and the latter perpendicular to the fide A C ;
and tlie obhque force F E will have juft the fame effett
upon the wedge as a lefs perpendicular force D E ; the
former being to the latter as A C is to H C. But tliis laft
perpendicular force on the fide A C is to that on the back
which balances it as A C is to A H ; whence compounding
thefe ratios, the oblique force againft one fide of the wedge
JB to the perpendicular force on the back which balances it,
as A C^ is to A H x H C. The oblique force/c on the
other fide of the wedge, being equal to F E, will require
another perpendicular force on the back to balance it equal
to the former perpendicular force ; whence the whole force
on both fides of the wedge is to the whole force on the
back as A C Ms to A H x H C ; or as the fquare of the

Vol,. XXXVIII.

WED

fide of the wedge to the reftangle under half the back and
the perpendicular height.

For other methods of efl iiating the eff"eft of the wedge
in various cafes, fee Mechanical Powers.

The wedge is a very great mechanical power, fince not
only wood but even rocks can be fpht by it ; which it
would be impofllble to efFeft by the lever, wheel and axle
or pulley ; for the force of the blow or ftroke, (hakes the
cohering parts, and thereby makes them feparate the more
eafily.

To the wedge may be referred all edge-tools, and inftru-
nients which have a fharp point, in order to cut, cleave, (lit,
chop, pierce, bore, or the like ; asr knives, hatchets, fwords,
bodkins, &c.

Wedge, in Ship-Butld'mg, a triangular fohd made of
wood or iron. It is one of the mechanic powers, the moft
fimple, and of the greateft force.

WEDGE Island, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
North Pacific ocean, near the E. coaft of the Prince of
Wales's Archipelago, in the Duke of Clarence's Strait.
N. lat. 55° 8'. E. long. 228° 20'.

WEDGES, in Agriculture, are a fort of levers or dif-
tending powers that are of great ufe to the farmer on many
occafions, as in tearing and fphtting wood of all forts,
the roots of trees in taking them out of the ground, ftones,
and many other forts of hard materials. About farm-
houfes of any extent, it is always of advantage to have a
proper mallet and fet of wedges for tearing up wood and
other matters.

WEDGWOOD, JosiAS, in Biography, was the younger
fon of a Staff^orddiire potter, and born in July 1730. His
education was reftrifted, but his mental powers were of a
fuperior kind, fo that by the fixed and perfevering exercife
of them he made very confiderable improvement in the art
of pottery to whicli his attention was direfted, and gave a
name as well as reputation to the place of his nativity. ( See
Pottery and The Potteries. ) His patrimony was fmall,
but by his fuper-emiiicnt ilvill and fteady apphcation he was
the founder of his own fortune as well as fame. The prin-
cipal feat of the potteries of Staffbrdftiire was Burflem ;
and there is reafon to believe that they have exifted in or
near this place for many centuries, and even, as fome fay,
fince the time of the Romans. But they had continued for
a long time in the fame rude ftate in which Plot found them
when he furveyed this county. The merit of introducing
into this country improvements in the art of pottery muS
be afcribed to two brothers of the name of Eders, who
came hither from Holland about the year 1700, and fettled
in the neighbourhood of the StalFordftiire potteries. They
manufaftured a red unglazed porcelain from a clay, which
they found in the eftate on which they fettled, called
" Bradwell ;" but this was only the brown ilone ware, in
the compofition of which no flint is ufed ; but they made
ufe of fait in glazing it : this fait, or muriate of foda, was
thrown into the oven at a certain flage of the firing procefs,
and the pieces of ware were fo difpofed as to receive the
tumes of it on every part of their furfaces. The fumes,
however, occafioned an alarm in the neighbourhood, which
obliged them to leave the country. A fimilar manufaftory,
however, was foon after eftabUfhed at Shelton, in the Pot-
teries, by one of their workmen, whofe name was Aftbury,
and who had poftefled himfelf of their fecret ; and as it was
found very ufeful, it was tolerated by the inhabitants, though
on the day of glazing, the denfe offenfivc fumes from fifty
or fixty manufaftories filled the valleys, and covered the hills
through an extent of feveral miles. The white ftone ware,
G g and

WED

and the ufe of ground flints in "pottery, were introduced at a
later period, and, as it is faid, (fee Parkes's Chem. Cate-
chifm, ) in confequence of the following incident. About
the year 1720, a potter, fuppofed to be the above-mentioned
Aftbury, flopped at Dunllable in his way to Loudon, and
fought a remedy for a diforder in his horfe's eyes ; and the
oftler of the inn by burning a flint ftone reduced it to a fine
powder, which he blew into them. The potter, obferving
the beautiful white colour of the flint after calcination, in-
ftantly thought of applying the difcovery to the improve-
ment of his art, and afterwards introduced the white pipe-
clays found on the fouth fide of DeTonfhire, inftead of the
iron-clays of his own country, and thus produced the white
ftone ware. At firfl the flints were pulverized to the great
injury of the perfons employed ; till the famous Brindley,
in the early period of his life, conftrufted the mills that are
now ufed for grinding them in a moid ftate. It is farther
faid, that an ingenious mechanic, named Alfager, after-
wards improved the conftruftion of the potter's wheel, fo
as to give much greater precifion and neatneis to the work.
But fl;ill the French pottery exceeded in beauty that of Staf-
fordfliire ; and about the year 1760, a confiderable quantity
of it was imported, and purchafed by perfons of opulence
to the great detriment of the Englifli manufafture. Mr.
Wedgwood directed his attention to this article, and made
fereral improvements with regard to the forms, colours, and
compofition of his manufafture ; and in the year 1763 in-
vented a kind of ware for the table, which gave a turn to
the market, and under the name of queen's ware, conferred
upon it in confequence of the patronage of her majefty,
came into very general ufe. Its materials were the whiteft
clays from Devonfliire and Dorfet/hire, mixed with ground
flint, and covered with a vitreous glaze. By varying and re-
peating his experiments, Mr.Wedgwood difcovered the mode
of manufafturing other fpecies of earthenware and porce-
lain, excellent and beautiful, and adapted to various pur-
pofes both of ufe and ornament. With a view of profe-
cuting his improvement in pottery he applied to the ftudy
of chemiflry, and for his farther afilltance engaged the in-
genious Mr. Chifholme, who had been employed in a fimilar
department by the celebrated Dr. Lewis, author of the
" Commercium Philofophico-Technicum ;" for whom he not
only built a comfortable habitation near the manufaftory,
but liberally afforded him an annuity for his fupport under
the decays of age, which he continued till his death. Aided
alfo by the claffical tafte of his partner, Mr. Bentley, pot-
teries were furniflied which ferved as models for various ar-
ticles, formed of other materials, that were held in high
eflimation. We learn from Dr. Bancroft, that almoft all
the finely diverfifiod colours which Mr. Wedgwood applied
to his pottery were produced only by the oxyds of iron.
In the manufafture of his beautiful jafper ware, which ri-
valled the produftions of antiquity, and which found its
way into the colleSions of the curious in all parts of Eu-
rope, he employed the native fulphate of barytes, and from
this ufe of it he derived great profit, until by the infidelity
of a fervant the fecret was difclofed and fold, fo that others
employed inferior workmen at a reduced falary, and thus
prevented Mr. W. from employing his exquifite modellers
on that branch of the manufafture.

Among other curious produftions of this inventive manu-
fafturer we may mention his imitation of the Barberini or
Portland vafe, which was difcovered in the tomb of Alex-
ander Severus, and for which the late duchefs of Portland
paid iooo guineas. The fubfcription for Mr. W.'s manu-
faAure was at the rate of 50/. each for fifty vafes, but fuch
were the expences of its execution, that the partners loft

9

WED

money by the undertaking. Mr. Webber, it is faid, receited
500 guineas merely for modelling it. See Vase.

We cannot forbear in this conneftion noticing two cameos
of Mr. Wedgwood's manufafture ; one of a flave in chains,
of which he diilributed many hundreds, with a view of ex-
citing the humane to aflift in the abolition of the flave-trade ;
and the other a cameo of Hope, attended by Peace and
Art and Labour, which was made of argillaceous earth
from Botany Bay, to which place he fent many of them, in
order to (hew what their materials were capable of, and to
encourage the induftry of the inhabitants.

To this brief account of fome of the numerous produc-
tions of Mr. Wedgwood, we (hall fubjoin the tribute paid to
his indafl;ry and genius by an elegant modern poet : I

" Gnomes ! as you now dilTeft with hammers fine
The granite rock, the noduled flint calcine ;
Grind with ftrong arm, the circling chertz betwixt.
Your pure kaolins and petuntfes mixt ;
O'er each red faggar's burning cave prefide,
The keen-eyed fire-nymphs blazing by your fide ;
And pleafed on Wedgwood ray your partial fmile,
A new Etruria decks Britannia's ifle.
To call the pearly drops from Pity's eye ;
Or ftay Defpair's difanimating figh.
Whether, O Friend of Art ! the gem you mould
Rich with new tafte, with ancient virtue bold ;
Form the poor fettcr'd flave on bended knee
From Britain's fons imploring to be free ;
Or with fair Hope the brightening fcenes improve.
And cheer the dreary waftes of Sydney-cove ;
Or bid Mortality rejoice and mourn
O'er the fine forms on Portland's myftic urn.
Whether, O Friend of Art ! your gems derive
Fine forms from Greece, and fabled gods revive ;
Or bid from modern life the portrait breathe,
And bind round Honour's brow the laurel wreath ;
Buoyant (hall fail, with Fame's hiftoric page,
Each fair medallion o'er the wrecks of age ;
Nor Time fliall mar, nor Steel, nor Fire, nor Ruft,
Touch the hard polifli of the immortal buft."

The demand for StafFordfliire ware very much increafed,
and it became a commercial article of exportation of very
confiderable value.

The diftrift which Mr.Wedgwood inhabited became by
his means the feat of population and abundance. The vi-
cinity was enriched, and a new canal of importance, called
the Grand Trunk canal, and connecting the Trent and the
Merfey, was obtained and executed by his influence. The
ample fortune which he acquired was liberally enjoyed, and
benevolently applied to many purpofes of private charity and
public utility. Chemiftry and the arts in their mutual con-
neftion were objefts of his attention ; and he contrived an
infl:rument for meafiiring high degrees of heat, called a py-
rometer, of which he gave an account in the Phil. Traaf.
for 1782, 1784, and 1786. See Thermometer.

The difpofition and manners of Mr.Wedgwood were no
lefs eftimable than the powers of his mind ; fo that he was
as much the objeft of admiration and efteem for his moral
as for his intelleftual qualities. So much was he refpefted,
and fo defirable was the continuance of his ufeful life, that
he died, univerfally regretted, at his houfe in Stafford/hire,
to which he gave the name of Etruria, in January 1795, in
the 65th year of his age. Aikin's Chem. Dift. Gent.
Mag. Parkes's Chemical Catechifm. Parkes's Eflays.

WEDINOON, in Geography, a diftrift of Sufe in the
fouthern divilion of Morocco, inhabited by a tribe of Arabs.

This

WED

rhis territory is adjacent to the river Akafla, called by feme
Wed Noon, that is, the river of Noon. Jackfon dates the
copulation of Wedinoon at 200,000 perfons. In this dif-
;riA the fovereignty of the emperor of Morocco is fcarcely
icknowledged ; and the difficulty of paffing an army over
;hat branch of the Atlas, vehich feparates Sufe from Haha,
'ecures to the Wedinoonees their arrogated independence.
IV^edinoon is a kind of intermediate depot for merchandize
3n its way to Soudan, and for the produce of Soudan con-
veyed to Mogodor. Gums and wax are produced here in
ibundance ; and the people, living in a ilateof independence,
ndulge in the luxuries of drefs, and ufe many European
:ommodities. A great quantity of gold duft. is bought and
'old at Wedinoon. The inhabitants fometimes trade to Mo-
godor, but piefer felling their merchandize on the fpot, as
they do not wifh to truft their perfons with property within
the territory of the emperor of Morocco. With Tombuc-
too they carry on a conftant and advantageous trade, and
many of the Arabs are immenfely rich. They alfo fupply
the Moors of Morocco with (ftatas) convoys through the
defert, in their travels to Tombuftoo. The coaft of Wedi-
noon extends a long way to the fouthward, nearly as far as
Cape Bojador. The river Akafla, commonly called the river
of Non or Nun, and in feme maps Daradus, is a large ftream
from the fea to the town of Noon, which is about fifteen
miles inland, and about two miles in circumference : from
hence the river becomes fhallow and narrow ; and it is to the
fouthward of this river that fhips are generally wrecked.
The dillrift of Wedinoon is nominally in the dominions of
the emperor of Morocco ; but lately an army having been
fent farther fouth than Terodaiit, and the Pacha Alkaid Ma-
hommtd ben Delamy being dead, that diftrift has fuffered
negleft, and the people pay no tenth, according to the
mode of raifing taxes in Weft Barbary, viz. ten per cent, on
the produce of the land, and two per cent, on that of cattle ;
and the emperor has recently ordered his Pacha of Haha to
purchafe the Britifh flaves that had been wrecked there.
This place being only thus nominally in his dominions is
another impediment to the redemption of the failors who
happen to be (hipwrecked about Wedinoon ; for if the em-
peror had the fame authority over this dillritt, tliat he has
over the provinces north of the river Sufe, meafures might
be adopted by the conful, afting under his orders, for their
delivery, without pecuniary dift)urfements. Jackfon's Mo-
rocco. See Vled de Nun.

WEDLOCK. See Marriage, Wife, Husband, &c.
WEDNESBURY, in Geography, an ancient market-
town in the fouth divifion of the hundred of OfBow, and
county of Stafford, England, is Ctuated at a fhort dillance
from the fource of the river Tame ; 19 miles S.S.E. from
the county-town, and 125 miles N.W. from London. In
the time of the Mercians, this place had a noble caftle, which
was fortified by Adelfleda, who was forfome time governefs
of this extenfive kingdom : but no part of the fortrefs now
remains, except a few traces of its foundations. At the
Norman Conqueft, the manor became a portion of the royal
demefnes. Henry II. beftowed it on the family of the He-
ronviles, from whom it pafled, after various fucceffions, to
j the Beaumonts. The town is diilinguiftied for its numerous
1 and valuable manufaftures, the principal of which are of
I guns, coach-harnefs, iron axle-trees, faws, trowels, edge-
i tools, bridle-bits, ftirrups, nails, hinges, fcrews, and caft-
• iron works of every defcription. For their proficiency in
j thefe various branches, tlie inhabitants are chiefly indebted to
I the abundance and excellence of the coal obtained in the
I immediate vicinity. This coal is indifputably the bell in the
kingdom for the fmith's forge, on account of the intenfe

WEE

heat which it produces. It extends in a variety of feparate
veins or ftrata, which are particularized by the miners with
the greateft accuracy. Here is alfo found that peculiar .
fpecies of iron-ore denominated blond-metal, ufed in the
manufafture of horfe-fhoes, hammers, axes, and heavy tools.
Some fpots hkewife abound with a fort of reddifli earth,
called hip, employed in painting and glazing vefTels of varioui
kinds. A weekly market on Wednefday affords the town a
plentiful fupply of all kinds of provifions. The population
of the parifh, in the return of the year 181 1, was ftated to
be 5372. the number of houfes 1004. One of the collateral
branches of the Birmingham canal, entering this parifii,
affords the inhabitants great facility of commercial commu-
nication. The church is an ancient ftrufture, and fome
writers abfurdly relate, that it waS built in the year 7 1 1 , by
Dudo, lord of Dudley. At one end rifes a tower, fup-
porting a lofty fpire : the interior is divided into a chancel,
nave, and two aifles ; the latter are feparated from the nave
by a range of arches, fupported by odtagonal pillars. In
the chancel are feveral prebendal ftalls, ornamented with ex-
quifite carved work. Here is alfo a variety of monuments
in honour of the anceftors of the Dudley and Harcourt
families, and feveral other ancient tombs and memorials.
Round the church-yard fome veftiges of the caftle may be
diftinaiy traced. — Shaw's Hiftory of Staffordftiire, folio,
1798. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. Stafford-
fhire, 181 1.

WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, formerly
confecrated by the inhabitants of the northern nations to
Woden or Odin, who, being reputed the author of magic
and inventor of all the arts, was thought to anfwer to the
Mercury of the Greeks and Romans, in honour of whom
they called the fame day dies Mercurii.

Wednesday, yljji. See Asti-lVethefday.

WEDNOCH, in Geography, a river of England, which
joins the Wever, near Northwich, in Cheftiire.

WEDUM, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 18
miles S. of Skara.

WEE-CHAUNG-HOO, an extenfive lake of China,
which divides the province of Shan-tung from that of
Kiang-nan, and fupplies an adjoining canal when it is de-
ficient of water. This lake affords a charming profped,
particularly at fun-rife ; when its borders fringed with wood-
houfes and pagodas on the floping grounds behind, and the
furface of the water almoft covered with veffels crofting it in
different direftions, and by all the various modes of naviga-
tion that poles, paddles, oars, and fails, could furnifh, are
exhibited to advantage. Fifhing forms a confiderable part
of the occupation of the people on this lake, and they have
various modes of condufting it. Befides nets, which are in
moft common ufe, they have another method, which is more
fingular : to one fide of a boat a flat board, painted white,
is fixed at an angle of about forty -five degrees, the edge in-
clining towards the water on moon-light nights ; the boat is
fo placed that the painted board is turned to the moon, from
whence the rays of light ftriking on the whitened furface
give it the appearance of moving water, on which the fi(h
being tempted to leap as on their element, the boatman raif-
ing with a ftring the board, turns the fifti into the boat.
Water-fowl are alfo taken upon this lake by a peculiar
device. Empty jars or gourds are fuffered to float upon
the water, that inch objetts may become famihar to the
birds ; the fiflierman then wades into the lake with one of the
empty veffels on his head, and walks gently towards a bird,
and lifting up his arm draws it down below the furface of
the water, without difturbing or alarming the reft, and thus
prefently fills the bag with which he was provided for fecur-
G g 2 ing

WEED.

ing liis prey. A fimilar praAice exifts, as we learn from
AUoa, among the nations of Carthagena, upon the lake
Cienego de Terias. Staunton's EmbafTy, vol. ii.

WEED, in Agriculture and Gardening, any fort of un-
cultivated and unprofitable plant or vegetable which grov?s
in ground, and which, in confequence of the mifchief it
does, requires to be extirpated and deftroyed.

Weeds may be diftinguifhed, .iccording to the different
periods of their duration, into the annual, biennial, and
perennial kinds.

The firft divifion comprehends all fuch as die after pef-
fefting their feeds in the firft year. Weeds of this clafs,
though abundantly produftive in feeds, and confequently in
plants, are capable of being deftroyed without any great
difficulty.

The fecond divifion includes all fuch weeds as endure a
greater length of time than one year, and which after per-
fefting their feeds in the fecond year perifli. Thefe, hke
the former, are in general abundant in the produftion of
feeds as well as plants, but they are deftroyed with greater
difficulty.

The third divifion comprifes all thofe weeds which are
capable of continuing many years. Some of which have
the property of perfefting their feeds annually, without
being thereby deftroyed ; while others, lefs prohfic in feeds,
have the faculty of reproduftion in their vivaceous roots ;
and there are others that are capable of increafe both by
feeds and roots. The plants of this clafs are therefore much
more troublefome and difficult of deftruftion than the
others.

In the nature and vegetation of the feeds of weeds of
different forts, there is confiderable diverfity . Some are found
to fprout forth as foon as they have a fufficient degree of
moifture, fending down their roots though not in exaft con-
tact with the earth ; others only begin to germinate when
they are depofited and inclofed in a fuitable foil, and have
the proper influence of the atmofphere ; and there are many
of thefe kinds of feeds, even of the very fmall fort, which
are capable of remaining in a dormant or inaftive ftate for
a very confiderable length of time, and afterwards vegetate
on being placed in a favourable fituation, in regard to the
influence of the air, and other matters.

There are other feeds of weeds, too, which are provided
with a foft feathery material which performs, in fome mea-
fure, the office of wings, by which they are conveyed from
their native fituations, and difleminated over lands and places
at a confiderable diftance.

There is likewife a difference of fome confequence in the
vivaceous roots of vegetable weeds ; fome being branched,
others entire ; fome defcending direftly downwards, others
inclining ; fome fibrous, others tuberous ; fome creeping,
others knotted or jointed, &c.

The great variety and multiplicity of weeds render it a
difficult matter to arrange them in any ufeful manner for the
purpofes of the farmer, as different forts of them are found
to prevail in different fituations and kinds of land. A late
intelligent writer has, however, confidered them as affefting
gardens ; corn-fields and tillage-lands ; meadows and paf-
tures ; wafte and uncultivated grounds ; the hedges of in-
clofures ; and woods and plantations.

Weeds injurious to garden grounds are chiefly thefe :

Couch-grafs, or which in fome places is known by the
names of twitch, fquitch, and many others, and which not
unfrequently comprehends the creeping roots of the hardy
perennial graffes, which are particularly tenacious of growth,
as dog's-grafs, white bent-grafs, tall oat-grafs, and fome
others. Of which, the two firft are readily diftinguifhed

by their flowering ftalks, as well as by the ears which coii'
tain the feeds ; and the laft has been obferved to have 3
bulbous-jointed root, that affords fhelter to various deflruc-
tive grubs, worms, and infefts : they fhould all be carefully
rooted out and deftroyed. Thefe are to be deftroyed in
gardens by carefully picking out the roots in digging, and
as carefully rooting up whatever remaining fragments of the
roots may fend out a fhoot above the ground. Thefe fhould
never be allowed to get to any height, but be exterminated
as foon as pofTible. See Triticum Repens, Agrostis Alba,
AvENA Elaiior, Sec.

Sujolk-grafs, or dwarf meadow-grafs, is another grafs,
which, though ufeful in paftures, is a very pernicious weed in
gardens and places about houfes. It is common in places
where the furface is not liable to be often difturbed by mean*
of cultivation. Its prohfic quahty, in refpeft to feeds, is
fo great, that it is faid to be capable of producing and re-
producing itfelf four times in the courfe of one fummer.
It may be deftroyed by rooting it out before its feeds are
perfected and (hed about, otherwife the vegetation of them
will be fo abundant and extenfive as almoft to bid defiance
to the powers of the weeder. See Poa Annua, &c.

Catchiueed, or what in different fituations is called goofe-
grafs, cleavers, hariff, &c. is fometimes a troublefome gar-
den weed, but it is more common in the hedges. This is a
weed that may be readily deftroyed in garden-grounds, by
pulling it up before the feeds are perfefted.

It is faid that young geefe are very fond of the tender
branches of this weed ; and that the feeds of it are capable
of being ufed inftead of coffee. See Galium Aparine.

Garden night-Jhade is faid to be a common weed in the
garden-grounds about Chelfea and Brompton, but which
is feldom found in thofe in the country, though fometimes
met with on dung-hills, and other fuch places. See Solanum
Nigrum.

Goofefoot, which is a weed of the wild orache defcription,
is common and luxuriant in many garden-grounds, being
very proLfic in feeds, and in the produce of weeds there-
from, if not rooted out before the feeds are fcattered about
on land under cultivation. Thefe, like all other annual
feedling weeds, is to be deftroyed only by rooting up be-
fore the feeds of it are fcattered. See Chenopodium
Album, Viride, and Hybridum.

Wild orache, or fat-hen, is a weed nearly allied to the
above, and from which it is diftinguifhed only by fome
of the flowers having pointals only, while others on the
fame weed-plant have both chives and pointals, in common
with the above fort of weeds. The flowers are fmall, fo
that this diftinftion can only be afcertaintd by the micro-
fcope. It is a weed which grows much in kiicfien-gardens,
on rnbbifh, and on dung-hills ; is an hardy annual, very
fertile in feeds ; and which is to be prevented or deftroyed
in the fame way as the above kinds. See Atriplex
Hajiata.

Fools' parjley, or leffer hemlock, is a weed common in
gardens, and which, in its early growth, has murh refcmblance
to parfley, for which it is often miftaken, and when eaten
occafions ficknefs, fwelling, and uneafinefs about the ftomach:
it fhould always be rooted out of garden-ground, when it is
running to feed, as at that time it is eafily known and beft.
deftroyed. See ^thusa Cynnpium.

Knot-grafs is a weed that fometimes grows much on
the gravel-walks of gardens and pleafure-grounds, trail-
ing to a confiderable length in all direftions, being very
prolific in feeds, which readily take root. It is, therefore,
neceffary to root it well up before they become ripe : hogs

are

WEED.

' are faid to be veiy fond of eating it. See Polygonum
^viculare.

Ground-qfJj 'is faid to be a very troublefome weed

1 in the garden-grounds in the neighbourhood of London ;

but which forr.e fuppofe to be moilly confined to the fhade

of hedges. It is believed to be perennial in its nature. In

order to get rid of it, the bed mode is to cut it up on its

firft appearance. See ^gopodium Podragraria.

I Chick-weed is a weed that fometimes grows with

! great rapidity, and in a very luxuriant manner on garden-

i ground that is much pulverifed and reduced by operofe

cultivation by the fpade, and which is much enriched by

' good manure : it is an annual weed, very produdive of

leeds, and where it abounds much, it is perhaps improper

to give the land or ground a fine culture until it in fome

meafure difappears : fwine are extremely fond of this weed,

and it is faid to be a grateful food for young chickens. See

, Alsine Media.

\ Black-bind-nueed in fome places is called bear-bind. It is

a parafitical weed-plant, often chmbing up bean and other

girden crops : it is hardy, and extremely prohfic in feeds.

To keep garden-ground clear of it, the feeds Ihould never

\ be fufFered to ftied or fow themfelves : the feeds contain a

I white flower, and are faid to be good for pigeons, poultry,

[ and fmall birds of different kinds. See Polygonum Con-

I •volvulus.

\ Sun /purge is an annual weed, faid to be not very trouble-
I fome or difficult of eradication, yet not uncommon in gar-
den-grounds. See Euphorbia Hel'wfcopa, &c.

Red dead nettle, or dee nettle, is a weed of the annual kind,
1 according to fome, but which others confider as a perennial.
It is common in garden-grounds, flowering early, and for
I the greater part of the year. The feeds Ihould not be
[ fuffered to flred or difperfe themfelves over the ground, but
j the weeds be cut up as foon as they appear. See Lamium
\ Purpureum.

I Henbit is an annual garden-weed, that fhould likewife
be weeded out before the feeds of it are perfefted and fcat-
I tered. See Lamium Amplexicaule.

I Nettle hemp is a weed of the luxuriant, difagreeable, gar-
1 den kind, that fliould always be rooted out of the ground,
I and kept under in time to prevent its future mifcliief. See
I Galeopsis Tetrahit.

Garden fow-thyile is a common weed of luxuriant growth,
doing great injury to the cultivated crops. It is direfted
that the feeds of this weed (hould never be fuffered to Ihed
and fpread themfelves in any fituation ; for, being furniflied
with feathers, they fly over a country with the wind, dif-
feminating themfelves widely, and vegetate on the firft loofe
or cultivated ground on which they fettle. It is a favourite
food with rabbits and hogs. See Sonchus Oleraceus, and
Thistle.

Fumitory is a common, though not very injurious or
hurtful weed. It is an annual, and may, confeqiiently,
be deftroyed by preventing its feeding in an effeftual manner.
See FuMARiA Officinalis.

Common thljlle is a difagreeable and troublefome weed ;
the feeds of which are numerous, and provided with a downy
material to carry them any diltance before the wind. They
fhould be drawn up by the roots in moift weather with
forceps or tongs for the purpofe, as they cannot be pulled
by the naked hand.

Garden-grounds are always to be kept well freed from
weeds of this fort by all proper means. See Serratula
Arvcnfts, and Thistle.

Groundfel, which is another very common and trouble-
fome weed in garden-grounds, and the feeds of which are

feathered, as in the former cafe, being capable of fowing
and fpreading themfelves far and near, with this farther
chance of propagating themfelves, that the plant or weed
is extremely quick of growth. The eradication of this
weed from gardens mufl; confequently require unremitting
attention, by cutting up the young plants as foon as ever
they can be difcovered, and letting them run to feed as little
as poffible. See Senecio Vulgaris.

Common nettle is a weed that generally grows in hedges
or other fliady places, but which fometimes appears in other
places and in garden-grounds ; in which cafes, it mull be
deftroyed by rooting it up in a complete manner. The
leaves of this weed, when cut fmall, may, it is faid by fome,
be mixed with the food of turkeys, and other poultry, with
benefit. See Urtica Dioica.

MiJIetoe may be ranked as a garden-weed, and is very-
common on fruit-trees, and it is faid to be very hurtful in
preventing their bearing ; it fliould, of courfe, bf pulled off
in time, fo as to prevent that fort of injury. It is fome-
times, too, plucked off as a flieep-food in the winter, in hard
ftormy feafons. See ViscUM Album.

Cultivated early potatoe, though it cannot be properly
ranked as a weed, is often troublefome in gardens. It is
faid, that however valuable as a crop, it is very apt to re-
main in the ground, and intrude itfelf among other after-
crops, to their injury, as well as giving a flovenly appearance
to the culture. As, however, it is now found that the
flioots of this root will crop well after being tranfplanted, it
would feem to be the beft way to have them taken up from
among other crops as they appear, taking the advantage of
fhowery weather, and putting them into a bed by themfelves,
where they may fucceed fome early crop, fuch as winter
greens, fpinach, forward cabbage, and fuch like, by which
means other crops may be rendered clean, and thefe roots
be provided without any expence of feed or fets. See
SoLANUM Tuberofum, and Transplanting.

Weeds injurious in Tillage and Corn Lands. — The principal
of thofe weeds which decidedly infeft and injure grounds
under the plough are thofe given below.

Ivy-leaved chickweed is a weed that is faid fometimes to
abound very much amongft wheat very early in the fpring,
but that as feeding and leaving the ground early, may per-
haps not much injure the crop : the feed is afferted to ripen
in twenty-eight days from the firft vegetation of it and the
fpringing up of the plant, which moftly appears in the
month of March, and often fends forth a plentiful produce
of feeds, which will lie in the ground many years, ready to
vegetate the next time the land is broken down and pul-
verized early in the fpring : this fort of work fliould, there-
fore, in this cafe, be done in the fallow, where that praftice
is in ufe, which would occafion the feeds to vegetate ; but in
other cafes it may be deftroyed by being ploughed under
before the feeds of it begin to ripen. See Veronica Hede-
rifolia.

Lamb's lettuce, or corn-fallad, is a weed that has lately
been obferved to be more frequent in fome diftrifts than
formerly. It has been found in a hard tilled field in great
abundance. It is an annual weed ; and, though not very
formidable, ought to be removed from tillage-lands, as it takes
away a portion of the nourifliment belonging to the culti-
vated crops. This may pretty readily be done by pulling
or cutting it up, or turning it under by the plough, where
it can be ufed, before the feeds of it be perfectly formed.
See Valeriana Locujla.

Couch of tillage-land is the produce of the three graffes
already noticed in a fimilar title, under the head of garden-
weeds, with the addition of the roots of the creeping foft
2 grafs,

WEED.

erafs, and probably fome others. It is faid to be the
plague of arable cultivation ; and that the roots of thefe
weeds are fometimes fo interwoven together in the land or
foil in ground that has been under hard tillage and bad
management, as to form a peifeft matting, and to choak
the plough : they abound molt, it is obferved, m light and
mixed foils, not infefting ftrong clays in an equal manner.
The arable land fquitch-grafs, which is the moft general,
is, it is faid, of the agrojiis family ; but to which particular
fpecies or fort that the moft complained of by farmers be-
longs, is not yet well agreed upon. Some refer it to the fine
bent, while others affert it to be a variety of the white.
And there are others of great authority who think this
fquitch-grafs has never yet been rightly fpecified or referred.
The ear or awn of this grafs has, however, been often ob-
ferved to have the general habit of the agrqftis ; and that it
is very probable that more fpecies than one of this genus
have the property of running in the roots, and producing

It is noticed, in addition, that the creeping red-ftalked
bent grafs, and the creeping fcft grafs, are common fquitch
or couch-grafles on ftrong or cold wet tillage-lands ; and
that the tail oat -grafs is a very ufual fquitch-grafs, on the
light gravelly foils of fome neighbourhoods ; that its roots
are corapofed of a bunch of bulbs, which afford ftielter to
pernicious vermin, as already feen ; and that it is difficult
of eradication, and very pernicious to crops, efpecially m
wet feafons.

The dog-grafs couch, which, in the county of Salop, is
often termed /w/cA, is very common every where, and well-
known to the coft of the farmers.

Withering, after obferving that it can only be deftroyed
by fallowing in a dry fumraer, ftates, that at Naples the
roots are coUefted in quantity, and difpofed of in the mar-
ket to feed horfes. The tafte is much fimilar to that of
liquorice, dried and ground into meal, which has been made
into bread in years of fcarcity. They have befides a deter-
gent quaUty, and may be ufeful in the difeafed hvers of
animals.

However, thefe grafles, though fo troublefome and inju-
rious as weeds on arable lands, are yet probably good as
affording meadow-herbage, where their roots are not fo
liable to run or fpread themfelves as on tillage-land that is
loofened, broken, and reduced, by being conftantly wrought
by the plough, and other tools.

The deftruftion of weeds of this fort on arable land, is
chiefly effefted by the free ufe of the plough, and other
fuitable implements, when the weather is in a proper ftate
ofheat for the purpofe: fome think the bufinefs can only
be effefted by giving an early and complete fpring and
fummer fallow, by repeated ploughings in time of hot
weather, with fufficient harrowings between each ploughing,
to work out the fquitch, and bring it to the top ; and that
unlefs the fummer prove dry for fome length of time, even
this will be infufGcient ; in which cafe, many aftive and
induftrious farmers have it forked together by hand and
burnt : others have it collefted and carried into heaps to
rot ; and it is fometimes mixed with quick-lime, and reduced
into a fort of compoll heap, which is a pradice to be much
commended, as wholly deftroying it, and at the fame time
converting it to ufe : it ftiould not, however, be forgot,
that the great increafe of the roots of thefe weeds is oc-
cafioned by hard tillage, or bad management, and often by
both. In the county of Gloucefter, it is faid by the
writer of the correfted account of the agriculture of that
diftrift, to be a moft troublefome and almoft unconquerable
weed on clay-lands, but that on light lands and loams it

may be dragged out and finifhed by hand-picking with
tolerable eafe ; while on the ftiff foils, and particularly in
the wet furrows, nothing but repeated ploughings and ex-
pofure to the heat of the fun during the fummer can check ,
the increafe of it ; hence, in that county, the vale-lands, |
after a wet fummer, are generally foul. A crop of fpring- j
vetches is faid to be well fuited to fmother and keep it i
down, and other fmothering green crops may be had re- j
courfe to in the fame intention. See Tkiticum Repens, \
5i.C. Alfo Agrostis Stolonifera, HoLCUS Mollis, &c.

Wild oat, or haver, is a common weed on hard tilled '
land, and when abundant, very unfightly and injurious j
to a crop. It has been obferved by Dr. Anderfon, it is ^
faid, that this weed-plant abounds fo much in the corn-fields '
in moft parts of Aberdeenfhire, as in many cafes to con-
ftitute nearly one -half of the bear or fix-rowed bailey-crop,
which is much grown in that part of the kingdom : it may
be deftroyed or greatly reduced by the turnip-culture, or
by well-managed early fallowing : and prevented by fhort
tillages, and frequent feeding down to grafs. Dr. Wither-
ing, and the Flora Ruftica, have ftated, that the awns
of it are ufed for hygrometers, and the feeds inftead of
artificial flies in fiftiing for trout. The author of the
Correfted Report of the Agriculture of the County of
Gloucefter ftates, that it is the growth of particular diftrifts,
and that it cannot be deftroyed ; that in fields where the
greateft care has been taken to hand-pull every ftalk, it has
appeared in the following year in equal abundance. That
in new broken up leys, which have been in turf or fward
beyond the memory of man, thefe weeds often fpring up
with as much luxuriance as if they were the natural produce
of the foil. When the land is planted with beans or peas,
hoeing will check and reduce them ; but when they grow
among wheat, it is not eafy to diftinguifh the plants while
young ; and that in this cafe, they are left until they are
nearly in ear, and are then drawn out by the hand. See
AvENA Fatua.

Wliile dame! is a weed not unfrequently found in wheat-
crops, though, it is believed, almoft always produced from
the feed of it fown with that grain, to prevent which, con-
fequently, great attention fhould be paid to clean feed-
wheat, and particularly that it contain none of the feeds of
this weed, as it is extremely prohfic, very injurious to a
crop while growing, and to the value of the produce at
market. It is an annual weed, which has never been recol-
lefted to have been feen growing, except in a crop, and
but rarely there without negleft in the management of the
feed grain, and in other ways. See Lolium Temukntum,

Goofe-grafs, or catchweed. Sec. is a weed in tillage-land,
the feeds of which are roundifti, rough, two from each
flower, fo large as not all to be eafily feparated from the
grain in drefling. This weed is not very common in well-
managed lands and crops, being more generally reftrifted
to the hedge banks. It is obferved, in the Gloucefter Cor-
refted Agricultural Survey, to be a troublefome and fre-
quent weed, on all forts of foils among corn, and which is
not eafily deftroyed, except by much early care and attention.
See Galium Apar'ine, and Spur'mni.

Field /callus is a weed found fometimes in corn-fields,
as well as paftures, though not very abundant. See
SCABIOSA Avoenjis.

Parjley-piert is a diminutive weed of but fmall account,
though fometimes too much abounding in tillage-lands.
This weed might probably be weakened and leffened when
in too great quantity by pulverifing and reducing the foil
well when in fallow, very early in the fpring feafon, and by

ploughing

WEED.

ploughing it under in due time, fo as to prevent its feeding.
See Apiianes Arvenfis.

Doddfr is a paralitical weed, that is faid not to be un-
common, in feme diftridts, in the corn-lands. This weed
has been obferved twining round the items or ftalks of a
bean crop in the county of Buckingham, climbing in a
fpiral direftion round them, from which, by means of veflels
for the purpofe, it draws its nourifhment and fupport, and
mull, confequently, very much fret and injure any plant to
which it may attach itfelf : it is called in different places,
as dated by writers on hulbandry, beggar's-weed, hell-weed,
and devil's guts, names which fufficiently (hew in what fort
of eftimation it is held by farmers. It is an annual weed, and
produced from feed, which takes no root in the earth, but
in fome part of its fofter-plant. It is remarked, by the
author of the Correfted Report on Agriculture for the
County of Glouceftcr, to be a great enemy to beans,
retches, and fome other fuch plants, but is never there feen
among wheat, barley, or oat-crops. That as foon as it has
fixed itfelf upon the plant, it feparates from the root, and,
like other parafitical weeds, draws all its nourifhment from
the plant it has fo fixed upon and embraced. Large quantities
af beans are, it is faid, often ruined completely by it, fo as
not to carry a fingle pod ; and that no method has yet
been difcovered to deftroy it ; for though the root cannot
ae found, yet it furely returns, it is thought, in fome part
)f the field where it has once begun to grow, whenever
.he plants on which it feeds, form the crop of the feafon.
Sheep, in fome cafes, have been found ufeful in leffening it,
jy feeding upon it and breaking its runners, when they can
je turned into the land where it prevails. See Cuscuta
Huropxa.

\ Corn bind-iveed is another troublefome parafitical weed in
!irable-land, often growing amongft wheat, and, when
ibundant, twining round the ftalks of the corn, and very
nuch injuring the crop, when the wheat has been laid by
'leavy rain. It is faid not to be fo common in fome of the
nidland counties, as in fome of thofc nearer the metropolis,
jvhence they are in the habit of procuring and being fup-
i)lied with feed-wheat ; on which account it has fometimes
jeen feared that it might be introduced more abundantly
|)y fuch means : but as the feeds are fmall, they may eafily
be drefled out in cale of fuch accidents. It is a perennial
veed, and much additted to running in the root. It has
I)een proved by an experienced writer, that cutting it off,
'ven below the furface of the ground, only tends to fpread
it farther : it muft be reduced and deilroyed, if poflible, by
.neans of fallowing, and ufing the fame procefs as for couch
')T fquitch. In fome diilrifts this weed is moft frequently
jbund in clays and deep loams, in which the roots ftrike fo
|lown, that even trenching two fpits and an half deep will
|iot, it is faid, reach their extremities ; and that the fmallefl
i)it of a root left in the ground will fpring and rife to the
,urface. It entwines round and entungles all plants in fuch
!i manner, as eitiier to bring them to the ground, or check
[heir vegetation, by injuring their ftruclure on the furface of
!t. See Convolvulus Arvenfis.

I Wild carrot is a common and fometimes a troublefome
jveed, in dry tillage-land. It is a biennial weed-plant, pro-
ilucing feed in a plentiful manner. Though fome, as
|tVithering, affert tliat this, in its cultivated ilate, is the
|:ommon well-known garden carrot ; yet others, as Miller,
;:ontcnd that the wild carrot could never be improved fo as
|o render the roots in any degree comparable with the culti-
I'ated carrot. However this may be, where it is found in
jiuantity, it fhould be prevented from feeding, in order to
educe it, and bring it properly under, which may be ef-

fedled by cutting or pulling it up in its early growth. See
Daucus Carota.

Shepherd's needle, or beggar's needle, is a weed fometimes
abounding in hard tilled land, and the feeds of which are
not wholly feparable with eafe from grain in drefling. It
is a fmall annual weed, that produces a plentiful crop of
feeds, each feed being furnifhed with a fpike or beak of
from one to two inches long, whence its name of needle.
It feldom abounds much in well cultivated and managed
land. See Scandlx Peden.

Chickiveed is, in fome cafes, a troublefome weed in a
crop on land which has been rendered fine by tillage, and
from which it fhould, therefore, be rooted out. It has
been remarked by the Rev. Mr. Shaw, it is faid, that this
weed is an excellent out-of-door barometer : — that when the
flower expands boldly and fully, no rain will happen for
four hours or upwards ; that if it continue in that open
ftate, no rain will difturb the fummer's day ; that when it
half conceals its miniature flower, the day is generally
fhowery ; but that when it entirely Ihuts up, or veils the
white flower with its green mantle, let the traveller put on
his great coat, and the ploughman with his beafts of draught
reft and retire from their labour. In Gloucefterfliire it is
ftated that it grows moft plentifully on the good and well
cultivated lands. It there mats fo clofely round the plants,
and covers the furface fo completely, as to keep out the in-
fluence of the fun and air ; and confequcntly requires to be
removed, which is .moftly beft performed by the hoe. It
may be thus kept under, if not wholly removed and de-
ftroyed. See Alsine Media.

Curled dock is a mifchievous weed in tillage-land, and
fliould never be fufFered on any account to feed its feeds,
and fpread them on any land, but be rooted up and carried
off in time, to prevent injury. In arable ground, the roots
are beft picked off with care during the time the land is in
tillage, as they will otherwife produce vigorous luxuriant
plants which will draw much nourifliment from the foil, to
the great injury of the ground, and of the intended crop.
It is a hardy perennial weed, which is very tenacious of
growth by its roots, and producing a wonderful increafe of
feeds : too much caution cannot, therefore, be ufed to avoid
fowing it, nor too much pains be beftowed in its extirpation
and dcftruftion. Withering afferts it to be the peft of
clover-fields in Norfolk. See Rumex Crifpus.

Arfmarts, or lake weeds, are plants of this kind, fome-
times met with on the wetter forts of arable lands. They
abound moft in wet feafons, on the heavier and more moiil
forts of ground ; and as being hardy annuals, producing a
plentiful fupply of feeds, are apt to ftiew themfelves in the
crops of grain. They are weeds which are to be deftroyed
by proper fallowing, by the removing of the wetnefs of the
land, and by the rooting out of the plants in proper time to
prevent their feeding. See Polygonum Perficarla, and
Pt'tifylvanlcum.

Knot grafs is fometimes a tillage-weed ; trailing in its
habit of growth ; flourifliing moft by the way-fides : when
out of the fmothering crops, it is very prolific in feeds. It
fhould be got under by preventing its feeding, by rooting
it out fufiiciently early for the purpofe. See Polygon'UM
A'ctculare.

Bearbhid, or black bindweed, is a parafitical weed that
twines round any thing it can lay hold of, and which is
fometimes found among field crops, to their great injury.
It is very produftive of feeds, which, being angular, are
not eafily feparated from grain in drefling or winnowing it.
It is nearly allied, it is faid, to buck-wheat, and to which
it is preferred by Dr. Withering, who afferts that the feeds

WEED.

are quite as good for ufe as thofe of that wheat, are pro-
duced in greater quantity, and the plant bears cold better.
From its twining hurtful nature, when among crops, it
fliould be early deftroyed, and prevented from feeding and
multiplying itfelf. See Polygonum Convolvulus, and Sa-
gopyrum.

Knaiuell is a diminutive weed, but prohfic in feeds, and
of vigorous growth ; it is often found on pieces of poor
thin foil, when in tillage, but is not believed to be very
pernicious : it may probably, when neceflary, be weakened,
reduced, or deftroyed, by an early fpring working of the
land when in fallow. See Scleranthus Annuui, and
Perennis.

Bladder campion is a weed that is common in wheat and
barley crops, growing in tufts, with many ftalks from each
root ; which, when the cafe, fhould be rooted out by the
hand, or other convenient method. It is a perennial weed,
and has the habit and property of increafing from the roots.
See CucuBALUS Behen.

Cockle is a luxuriant, vigorous, annual weed ; perfefting
many feeds, and drawing much from the foil or land : care
fhould, therefore, be taken not to fow the feed of this in-
jurious weed. The feeds are fo large, that they cannot all
be dreffed out from the grain, it is faid : the plant fhould,
therefore, be plucked out by hand, before the feeds ripen
and (hed themfelves. It is a common weed among wheat
and other crops, in many diftrifts. See Agbostemma
Githago.

Red and 'white campion are weeds of the perennial kind,
growing occafionally in hedges, corn-fields, and paftures.
When they become abundant and injurious, they may be
weakened, reduced, or deftroyed, by well-managed fallows,
in moft cafes. See Lychnis Dioica.

Moufe-ear is a weed that has fomewhat the habit of chick-
weed, but is of a duller appearance : it is frequent amongft
corn-crops, and in paftures, but perhaps not very injurious
to the former. See Cerastium Arvenje.

Corn fpurry, or yarr, is a frequent weed in corn-fields,
though not very bulky or luxuriant, yet quick and tena-
cious of growth, and producing feeds in a plentiful manner.
Dr. Anderfon has ftated, that in Aberdeenfhire it is a per-
nicious weed, growing in fuch abundance among the crops
as to choke the grain : it has often been feen fo thick, that
over a vaft extent of furface a pin could not have been put
down, without touching a plant of it ; and that the farmers
there think it indeftruftible : and it is added, that whenever
any of the land had been poached, by being ufed as a road,
efpecially in wet weather, none of this weed appeared there :
that it was evident that this was oc9afioned by the clods,
thus produced, not giving room for the fmall feeds to ger-
minate freely ; which fuggefted, that if, therefore, he could
contrive to bring the ground into a cloddy ftate, when
fown, he (hould be free of the weed for that crop. As a
crop of bear or fix-rowed barley in one field was entirely
loft, the foil or mould being in a loofe, mealy, incoherent
ftate when fown ; it was refolved to delay ploughing it the
next feafon as long as poflible, and to plough it at laft
when it was very wet. Fortunately it came a violent rain in
the beginning of the month of March, and it was ploughed
when nearly in the ftate of a puddle, turning over more like
mud than foil or earth : dry weather fucceeding, this mud
bound, it is faid, a little on the furface, and produced a
kind of clod ; the corn was then fown ; it got a very flight
harrowing, barely to cover the feeds, in an imperfeft man-
ner, and to leave the field as rough as poflible : none of the
weed appeared, and the crop at harveft was one of the moft
Juxuriant that had ever been feen by the writer. The fuc-

cefs of this cafe is not, however, fufficient to recommend it
as a general praftice.

It has been fuggefted, that as fmall birds are very fond
of the feeds of this weed, it is probable that, by the furface
of the ground being left undifturbed through the winter, a
large portion of the feeds would be picked up and devoured
by them. It is believed too, that in all cafes of a ftubble
very full of fmall feeds, it is well to defer the ploughing as
long as it conveniently can, on this account. In refpeft to
land rendered very fine by tillage, it is well underftood, it
is faid, by the farmers of fome diftrifts, as thofe of Staf-
fordfhire, to be a fault, and that it is much better left only
knappy, as they call it, that is, in fmall lumps. This is
attained in fallows, by working the land early in fummer,
and letting it lie to confohdate th»-ough the latter part of it ;
and in the turnip culture, by the treading of ftieep and
cattle: and it is one great reafon, it is fuppofed, why land
ftiould not have too many ploughings, but only a proper
number judicioufly timed ; however, that ploughing in
general, particularly of broken land, is much beft done
when the land is diy.

By fome means of this kind, this fmall weed may be kept
under without much difficulty. See Spergula jirvenjis.

Bafe rocket is a weed of the annual kind, that does not
abound very much, though it is met with in fome places.
It has been obferved among corn in the county of Gloucef-
ter. See Reseda Lutea.

Diuarf /purge is a weed that is common in corn-fields,
and generally in fingle plants, but is not very injurious to
the crops. See Euphorbia Exigua.

Corn-poppy is an annual weed that, produces numerous
feeds, and is fometimes very abundant in corn-fields, being
a pretty fure indication of a light crop. It has been quef-
tioned, whether the lightnefs of the crop be occafioned by
the abundance of this weed, or the increafe of this weed en-
couraged by the hghtnefs of the crop ; and fuggefted, that
probably both are the cafe. In a full crop it is fcarcely to
be found ; its flowers appear in July. In the Corredled
Report on Agriculture for the County of Gloucefter, it is
ftated to be common in all light and fandy foils, parti-
cularly in the neighbourhood of that town. But that fince
the praflice of hoeing has become more general, this weed
has been much diminiftied in quantity. It abounds much,
too, on chalky ftone-brafli poor foils, in fome cafes. And
in fome parts of Berkfliire, it is faid, in the account of its
agriculture, that the poppy almoft conceals the corn, when
it is in bloflbm. It is fuppofed that it might without doubt
be weakened, reduced, or wholly deftroyed, in fallows, by
promoting an early vegetation in common with other feed-
ling plants. See Papaver Rhreus.

Corn croivfoot is a weed that is fometimes very abundant,
and injurious to a wheat-crop, on ftrong moift land. It is
an annual weed of early growth, which can only be brought
into a full ftate of vegetation in the fallow by an early til-
lage ; otherwife the growth of the feeds is, it is faid, de-
ferred to the next fpring, to the great injury of the crop.
In the Flora Ruftica it is noticed, that in fome countries it
has the name of hunger-weed, whence it is fuppofed to in-
dicate a barren foil. The orthography, however, is not, it
is faid, derived from the nature of the foil, but from the
hungry profpeft it holds out to the farmer. In the county
of Gloucefter, it is faid to grow moft abundantly in ftrong
loamy or clayey foils ; and that deep and frequent ftirrings
with the hoe are to be had recourfe to, as the moft proper
means for reducing it, and keeping it under. See Ranun-
culus Arvenfis.

Dee nettle, or dead nettle, is a weed that much abounds

among

WEED.

among tillage-crops, on fome lands, efpecially in moift
fcafoiis. As the weeds are perennial, and produced both
from feeds and the roots, great pains are neceffary to be
iifed in their extirpation and deftruftion. There are fome-
times different forts met with among crops. See Lamium
/i'.bum, and Purpureum.

Calves' fnout is a weed in tillage-lands, in different dif-
trifts. It has been obferved not to be uncommon among
the corn-crops in Hampfhire, in fome fummers. It would
appear too from Withering, that feveral other fpecies of
this genus are common in corn- fields, which are annuals ;
but the nature of them, or how far they are injurious to
cultivated corn-crops, has not yet been determined. See
Antirrhinum Orontlum, Elatine, Spurium, Arvenfe, and
Minus.

Shepherd's purfi, or pouch, which, with fome others, are
well-known weeds, are fometimes troublefome on arable land.
They are annuals of early appearance, and continue a
great part of the year. They are to be reduced and de-
ttroyed by early and well-dircfted fallowing, or by being
rooted up from the ground at an early period. See
Thlaspi Arvenfe, Campejlre, and Bur/a Pajloris.

Whitloiu grafs is faid to be a weed among corn, in fome
cafes and forts of land, early in the fpring ; but how far
injurious is not well afcertained : it fhould, however, when
in quantity, be kept well under. It is but fmall, though
quick in growth, and exhaulled in a fhort time. See
Draba Verna.

Codded moufe-ear is another diminutive weed, that fliews
itfelf early fometimes among corn in tillage-lands ; but
being rapid in its vegetation and decline, is not of much
importance as a weed to farmers.

Smooth and rough-leaved and pale-flowered chadlocks, isfe.
are weeds that are extremely troublefome and diflreffing to
farmers on tillage-lands, in fome places. The writer of
the paper on weeds alluded to above has ftated, that thefe
three plants are fometimes confounded together by farmers,
under the general name of chadlock, pronounced in the
diftrift where he lives kedlock, and in fome others ketlock,
though they are as diftinft to the invefligating inquirer as
wheat, barley, and oats. That they are all extremely com-
mon, or nearly equally fo, if a large range of country be
examined ; though the different forts are more or lefs
abounding in different places ; that in his neighbourhood he
can generally gather the three kinds in the fame field, but
tiie muilard is much the moft abundant. In the vicinity of
Litchfield, where chadlock is indeed very abundant, it is
almofl univerfally wild rape. Some years ago, the writer
obferved, in the common fields of the county of Rutland,
that the whole furiace was tinged over with the flowers of
the wild radifh. They are all great nuifances, and, when
fuffered in abundance to ripen their feeds, mufl of taeceffity
draw much from the foil, to the great injury of the crop
among which tliey are ; and that as they are very quick of
growth, and perfeft their feeds expeditioufly, it is not un-
common for thefe weeds to fhed their feeds at tlie rate of
feveral bufhels on the acre ; and as it is well known that the
feeds are capable of vegetating, after lying many years in
the ground, it is no wonder they fhould produce a plentiful
crop ; yet, being fimply annuals, they are not difficult of
dcflruftion, if due attention and proper means be ufed.
In order to deftroy thefe, as well as all other fecdling weeds,
the land in tillage fliould, it is tliought, be pulveriled and
reduced early in the fpring by ph)ughing and harrowing,
after which warm weather and rain will foon caufe all the
feeds that are near the furface to vegetate ; they may then
be permitted to grow until they beyin to flower, when they

Vol. XXXVIII.

are to be ploughed in, and the land again harrowed ; and
the next rain will then caufe moft of the remaining feeds to
fhoot, which are in due time to be ploughed under as be-
fore ; and if any fhould afterwards appear amongft the
crop, they fhould be hoed or hand-weeded out : by this
means, in one or two tillages, thefe weeds may be totally
eradicated ; but if they be permitted to fhed their feeds
their increafe cannot be wondered at, when their prolific
nature is confidered, as well as the extreme hardinefs of
their feeds. The feeds, when dreffed from grain, have, it
is underllood, been frequently manufadfured into oil.

The weed called charlock, in many places, is faid to be
the moft common of any in the vale of the county of Glou-
cefter. It is moft probably the fame with the wild muftard,
juft noticed. It is faid, that during the fummer, both on
the fallows and in the planted fields, its yellow blon"oms
predominate over every other plant, and that unlefs de-
ftroyed in this ftate, leave an immenfe crop of feeds behind.
In order to check the increafe of this weed, the attentive
farmer fuffers it to come into bloffom on the fallows, and
then turns it in with the plough. This is not always,
however, efFeftual ; as frequently the plants being merely
moved, but not from the roots, and two or three inches of
the tops left above ground, foon recover the injury they
have fuftained, and go on to feed before the next plough-
ing. Women and children fhould, therefore, go over the
ground with the hoe a few days after the ploughing, and
cut up the reviving plants ; or lambs fhould be kept on fuch
fallows, which are faid to eat off the tops with avidity. In
the planted fields they are hoed and weeded, but as fome
will unavoidably efcape, women are put in among the corn,
after it is grown to a confiderable height, to pull out the
weeds in bloffom with the hand. Thougli the farmer will
certainly diminilh the quantity, and prevent any new accef-
fion by this attention, yet many years of good hufbandry
muft elapfe, before the ill effedls arifing from the negligence
of former cultivators can be conquered ; for the feeds being
ftrongly charged with effential oil, will continue in the
ground for an incalculable length of time uninjured ; and as
often as the foil is turned up, a quantity of them will be
brought fufBciently within the influence of the atmofphere
to vegetate. In 1804, in the parifh of Brockthorpe, in
the above county, a confiderable portion of the land in the
common field was feen completely covered with this weed,
and the feeds perfectly ripe and fcattering on the ground.
The ploughing had been negledled until nearly the autumn,
and as the land was not cropped, the charlock grew in great
abundance, and left more feeds than the good hufbandry of
half a century will be able to eradicate.

It has been ftated, that what is vulgarly called charlock
in the vale of the above diftrift, is in reality the common
wild muftard grown in the north for its flour. That it is
there often coUefted by the country-people for the fame
purpofe ; and before the fimple mode of living among the
ancient farmers fell into dilufe, few farm-houfes were with-
out a cannon-ball and bowl, in which the muftard-leeds were
bruifed, and the flour faved for the table with the black
hufts unfeparated from it.

The name charlock is not unufually applied by farmers to
different plants of the weed kind, that are equally noxious
and hurtful in arable lands, and fome of them perhaps more
frequent in fuch fituations than fome of the above, fuch as
wild muftard and rape, &c. See Brassica Napus, SiNAPis
Arvenjts et Nigra, Raphancs Raphamjlrum, &c.

Wild rocket is a weed found in tillage -lands in fome dif-

trids. It is faid, that this weed has made great progrefs in

the corn-fields in fome places, and is confidered as a very

H h formidable

WEED.

formidable and hurtful plant of that kind. All the parts of
this are confiderably acrid, and have a rank difagreeable
fmell ; whence it is called by thofe farmers who have it in
their lands Jltnkiueed. It may, it is fuppofed, doubtlefs, be
reduced and deftroyed by the procefles already recommended
for the deftruftion of chadlock. See Brassica Muralls.

Fumitory is an annual weed, that is not uncommon or un-
ufual in corn-fields, though not very greatly pernicious in
them. It (hould, however, be kept well under where it is
in any quantity. See Fumaria Officinalis.

Reji harrows are weeds fometimes met with in tillage-
lands. They are chiefly two forts, the former of which is
faid not to be uncommon in arable lands, where there are no
very defirable plants. It is common in fome diftrifts among
corn-crops, and an hardy perennial weed. In its deftruftion,
if the root can be got rid of in the fallow, there is httle
danger, it is faid, from the feeds : the roots are fometimes
fo ftrong as almoft to (lop the plough, unlefs the team be
pretty ftrong. The latter is frequently met with in fome
places, but is unknown in fome of the midland counties.
See Ononis Arvenfis, or Spinofa.

Tare, particularly in the wild ftate, is a weed very
injurious to corn-crops. It is faid to be a terrible enemy
to a wheat-crop, where it abounds in confiderable quantity.
Withering fays, that in wet feafons whole fields of corn have
been overpowered and wholly deftroyed by it. Care (hould
be taken, that feed-wheat be perfectly free from the feeds
of tares ; and all land fubjeft to them (hould be got, if
polfible, fo forward in the fallow, as to bring on the vegeta-
tion of this weed previoufly to the fowing of the wheat :
the feeds of this weed are faid to be good food for pigeons,
poultry, and many other forts of birds. See Ervum
Tetrafpermum, and Hirfutum.

Rape, in fome cafes, is a very injurious weed in arable
land. It (hould, in all cafes where it prevails much, be pre-
vented from ripening and (hedding its feeds, as when this is
not the cafe, the farmer has long to regret the confequence
of his negleft. See Chadlock fupra.

Melilot is a weed very troublefome in tiUage-land. The
writer of the paper already noticed fays, that it is a very
injurious corn-weed in many parts of the kingdom. That
Miller marks Cambridge(hire, and Gerard, Effex, as abound-
ing in it. That it has been heard of in Bedford(hire, and
feen among corn in Gloucefter(hire and Rutlandfliire : that
in the latter county, five or fix fliillings the acre have fome-
times been faid to be expended in weeding it out, without
fully effefling the purpofe. According to the Flora
Ruftica, there cannot be a worfe weed among bread corn,
for a few of the feeds ground with it fpoil the flour, by
communicating their peculiarly ftrong tafte to it. That it
flowers in June and the following month, and the feeds ripen
with the corn ; and that it is probably capable of propa-
gating itfelf, both by its roots and feeds, but might doubt-
lefs be much vceakened and reduced by proper fallowing :
that horfes are very fond of it ; cows, (heep, and fwine, eat
it ; and bees are very fond of the flowers : it is, therefore,
though a corn-weed, a good pafture plant. It is faid to be
common in the vale part of the county of Gloucefter, in the
arable lands ; and it has been fuggelkd, that if the feeds did
not afford an unpleafant tafte to the flour of wheat with
which it may happen to be mixed, it might probably be
cultivated with advantage, as all domeftic animals are fond
of it in fome degree. See Trifolium Melilotus officinalis.

Sow-thijlle is a very common and troublefome weed in
tillage-land : it is a perennial, and common among corn-
crops in fome diftrifts ; which, in all cafes, when it happens
to be fo abundant, fliould be drawn up by the hand or other

II

proper means before it tipens and fpreads its feeds ; which,
as being furnilhed vnth a feathery down, would otherwife
fly over the whole country and diftrift, as has already been
feen. See Sonchus Ar'oenfts, and Thistle.

Common thijlle, curfed thiftle, or fow-wort, is, in many
cafes, a troublefome and difagreeable weed in and about
corn-lands and crops. It is commonly called thiftle, grow-
ing almoft every where : when injurious in corn-crops, it
may, it is faid, be weakened and reduced by good tillage
and weeding, but not totally deftroyed, in perhaps thefe or
any other ways, otherwife than by univerfal agreement to
root it up, before its feeds ripen and become fpread, or by
fome regulation of police enforcing the fame. This mif-
chievous weed is produced by its numerous fibrous roots,
which are hardy and ftriftly perennial, and which if fepa-
rated in parts or pieces in ploughing, digging, or working
the land, each part will, when left fre(h in the foil, often
grow or vegetate, and produce a new plant ; and by its ftill
more numerous feeds which are feathered, will fly and
be carried to a great diftance by the wind ; and when it
becomes calm alighting upon cultivated land, will there
vegetate and rife luxuriantly, fo that it would be in vain for
any perfon to attempt clearing his land of this weed, unlefs
his neighbours did the fame likewife : however, the roots of
this weed may, it is faid, be pretty effeftually deftroyed by
a well-managed fummer-fallow, as they will not furvive re-
peated ploughings up in hot weather ; and if due attention
were beftowed to prevent the feeding of the weed, its num-
bers might be dimini(hed very greatly : it is found very
hurtful to all field-crops. Some think it eafily conquered,
however, by proper management and attention in tillage-
lands, and that it may either be drawn by the tool for that
purpofe, or be cut oif deep by the hoe or fpeed-hook.

It is fuppofed, on the authority of the Flora Ruftica, that
the goat and the afs will eat it ; that horfes will fometimes
crop the heads while young and tender ; but that no other
fort of cattle touch it growing. That when burnt, it is
faid to yield a very pure vegetable alkali. See Serratcjla
and Thistle.

Spear, bur, or boar thijlles, are weeds of a very pernicious
nature in corn-lands, m many inftances and parts of the
kingdom. They are faid to be called by the laft of thefe
names in Stafford (hire, to diftinguiih them from the above
weeds, which are likewife termed thiftles. There are feveral
forts of them, and they often abound about the hedge-fides
and borders of corn-fields, whence they (hould be rooted up
after rain as much as poffible, before their feeds ripen and
are ready to fpread, otherwife fuch feeds are hable to fly all
over the country, as has been feen : thefe are weeds that
grow very luxuriantly, drawing much from the ground or
foil, when among the crops, as is frequently the cafe in
many places. They fliould always be drawn out as much
as can be done in fuch cafes in hot weather : they are moftly
weeds of the annual or biennial kinds. It is faid by Wither-
ing, in fpeaking of the ufes of them, that (hould a heap of
clay be thrown up, notliing would grow upon it for feveral
years, did not the feeds of the fpear thiftle, wafted by the
wind, fix and vegetate thereon ; that under the (helter of
thefe, other vegetables appear, and the whole foon becomes
fertile.

They are never to be trufted among crops, but be kept
well cut or pulled up in their early growth. See Carduus
Lanceolatus, Pratenjis, and Acaulis. Alfo Thistle.

Colt's-foot is a weed that is very apt to abound in hard
tilled land. It has been faid that the only time to deftroy
this weed, is by cutting it up in thofe months when it
begins to throw out its flower, at which time, if fo cut, it

will

WEED.

will bleed to death ; thefe months are February and March,
at which time all land in fallow, which is fubjeft to this
weed, fliould undoubtedly be ploughed and harrowed down,
which would, without doubt, check the growth of, and
Tery much weaken the weed ; but when neglefted at this
period, it will foon afterwards ripen its feeds, which fur-
nifhed by nature with feathers, fly all over the country, and
eftabhfli themfelves very quickly on cultivated land, and
banks of earth newly thrown up. This weed may, it is
faid, be confiderably weakened by repeated fummer plough-
ing, and be afterwards, for the moll part, weeded out by
hand, as the ground is thus rendered light. It is a weed
which in Gloucefterfhire is not found, except on foils that
are poor in their nature, and fubje<3. to moifture. The
obvious remedies are confequently fertilization by manure
and the removal of wetnefs by draining. See Tussilago
Farfara.

Groundfel is a mifchievous and troublefome difgufting
weed, not unfrequently found in fallows, on good free foils
rendered fine by cultivation, as its feeds ripen quickly in
fuch cafes, and fly over the country with the wind : it is a
weed that fliould be got quit of in time by being pulled out,
or turned under by the plough, and the feed of it be by no
means permitted to ripen and difperfe. See Senecio
Vulgaris.

Corn marigold, goulans, goul, or buddle in Norfolk, is an
extremely troublefome weed in fome foils : it is an annual,
producing feeds plentifully, which vegetate whenever the
land is cultivated, and very commonly in the crops of corn :
it would, without doubt, it is fuppofed, be deftroyed, as
other annual feedling weeds, by early and complete fallowing
to bring the feeds into vegetation in due time, and after-
wards ploughing them under. According to Withering, in
Denmark, there is a law to oblige the farmers to root it up :
and it is faid to be ftated in the fccond volume of the
" Statifl;ical Account of Scotland," that the late fir Wilham
Grierfon, of Lag, held goul courts as long as he lived, for
the purpofe of fining fuch farmers on whofe growing crop
three heads or upwards of this weed were found ; and it
has been obferved, that fome regulation of pohce for fining
thofe who harbour weeds, the feeds of which may be blown
into their neighbour's grounds, has no injuftice in the prin-
ciple of it.

It is ftated in the Berkfliire Correfted Report on its Agri-
culture, that it may be deftroyed by the application of
chalk as a manure, as well as by extirpation.

On the authority of the Flora Ruftica it is noticed, that
if this weed be cut when young in flower, and dried, horfes
will eat it. See Chrysanthemum Sfgetum.

Corn mint is a weed that is faid by the writer of the Cor-
refted Report of the Agriculture of the County of Gloucefter,
to be common on damp foils ; and that it increafes faft by
the root, where, for want of frequent ploughing, dragging,
and other tillage, it is neglefted. See Mentha Arvenjts.

Corn camomocle is a weed that is fometimes prevalent in
corn-fields : it is very prolific in feeds, which {hould never
be fuffered to flied, as in that cafe it would be multiplied to
an almoft endlefs degree. See Anthemis Arvenfis.

Stinting May-weed is a plant of this kind that is common
in corn-fields among the crops, but which is often con-
founded with the above and other weeds of that fort, from
which it is to be diftinguiftied by its difagreeable fmell : it
IS very injurious to corn-crops, and fliould be prevented or
deftroyed by good fallowing, or by being timely rooted out
of the land. The Gloucefter Report on its Agriculture
ftates, that maithe or mathern there often overruns a whole
field, particularly when planted with peas, fo that only the

white bloffom of the weed is to be feen. The only chance
of deftroying this ftinking weed is, it is fuppofed, by the
drill huftjandry, where room is left for the free ufe of the
hoe. In the broadcaft mode the weeds muft be pulled out
by the hand, which is not only tedious, but, in fome raea-
fure, dangerous, as there is a noxious quality in the plant
which is liable to injure the hands of the weeders, if they
happen to have fores on them. See Anthemis Cotula and
Matricaria Chamomilla.

Blue bottle is a weed that is common in corn where the
tillage of the land has been imperfeft, or too long carried
on, and continued without cleaning by means of turnips or
fallow : it is an annual weed with a fomewhat elegant blue
flower. It is very common in the corn-fields of Shropfhire
and Lancafliire, as well as in fome other counties. It is
faid that, in Glouceilerfliire, blue bonnet, knapweed, or
corn flower, is a weed common in fome fields, principally
where the foil is loamy and mixed with pebbles. It is ad-
vifed to be extirpated at firft by the hoe, and, when grown
to bloffom, by the hand. See Centaurea Cyanus.

Great knapweed is a perennial corn weed, growing in
tufts of many ftems or ftalks from the fame root ; and
which is to be deftroyed in the fallow, or by being weeded
out of the crop. See Centaurea Scaliofa. ,

Panfy is an annual flower weed that is often found
among corn-crops in different diftrifts, where it is produced
by feeds that have not been deftroyed in the preparation for
the corn-crop. It is feldom very hurtful, but when abun-
dant fliould be weeded out in fome way or other. The
beauty of the colours of its flowers has gained it a place us
an ornamental plant. See ViOLA Tricolor.

Corn horfe-iail is a weed often met with in corn-land, the
fertile ftem of which appearing early in the fpring, with
that of colt's-foot, and decaying before the other part of
the plant appears. The author of the paper already
noticed ftates, that Loefel fays, if ewes in lamb eat it, abor-
tion is the confequence ; but it is believed that ftieep or
cows will not eat it, unlefs compelled by hunger. It is to
be deftroyed by the fame kind of tillage and extirpation, as
that recommended for colt's-foot. In the Gloucefter
Report on Agriculture, it is ftated to be found only on raoift
foils, and cannot be eafily overcome, but by draining and
completely removing the wetnefs. See Equisetum Ar-
venjis.

Fern is a weed not uncommon in corn-fields on dry fandy
land : it is a hardy perennial plant, tenacious of growth, and
ftriking a long tap root into the ground, beneath the reach
of the plough, which flioots up vigoroufly when the fun
becomes powerful : it prevails largely and ftrongly on fome
deep dry hazel loamy foils. In order to deftroy it, after
foaking rain, it fliould be drawn or deeply ploughed up ;
though, in fome cafes, it will require much pains and atten-
tion to get quit of it, efpecially on land where it has been
eftabliflied for a great length of time. See Pteris Aqui'
Una.

There are different other weeds which are occafionally
met with in lands of this fort, but which, as their nature,
habits, and effefts, have not been well or fully afcertained,
they have not been noticed here.

Weeds injurious in Meadonv and Pafture Lands. — From its
not having yet been fully and exaftly decided which are to
be confidered as noxious and hurtful, and which beneficial
and ufeful plants, in the herbage of grafs-lands, it may be
proper and of utility to confider them under the heads of
fuch as are really found prejudicial in fuch Ctuations, and
fuch as have not been difcovered to be aftually fo, and the
particular qualities of whieh are not well known.

Hh i Of

WEED.

Of th& firft. fort are thofe which are dufcribcd below, on
the autliority of the writer of the paper on weeds mentioned
above, and that of fome others.

Cotton grafs, hare's-tail, or mofs crops, are weeds that
grow in bogs or boggy meadows ; and with the down of
which poor people fluff their pillows, and make the wicks
of candles. This weed is a certain indication that drainage
has been neglefted, and that it u of courfe necelfary to be
attended to and praftifed, in order to reflore the meadow
or other fuch land to the proper ftate for the growth of
good herbage. See Eriophorum Vaginatum, and Polyjla-
chion.

Hog tveed, or cow parfnip, is a weed often fonnd in mea-
dows, but which is too coarfe and of too weedy a nature
and appearance to be fulfered to abound in well cultivated
and managed grafs-land, though, it is believed, that cattle
will eat it either green or in the ftate of hay : it is thought
that it may probably be weakened or deftroyed, by annually
cutting up in its early growth. See Heracleum Anguf-
t'lJoVnim, and Sphondyliutn.

The latter is frequently met with, efpecially in moift
meadows in Chefliire.

IV'dd cicely, or cow-weed, is a common weed in orchards,
hedges, meadows, and paftures. Cattle are faid to be fond
of it in the fpring, but it is too coarfe to be permitted or
encouraged among good herbage of the grafs kind ; and
as it flowers, and ripens its feeds before the graffes, it is a
bad and improper addition to tlie grafs-plants of both mea-
dow and pafture lands : it is frequent in the meadows of
Chefliire. It has been fuggefled, that this and the lafl
noticed plant may probably be worthy of a trial in cultiva-
tion by themfelves, as being of luxuriant growth, they
would yield a large produce : their value has not, however,
yet been fully afcertained ; nor efpecially in this method of
culture and management. See Ch.'EROPhyllum Syhejlre.

Garlici, in the wild ftate, is a weed that is frequently
found in meadows and pafture lands, and which is confi-
dered as greatly injuring the latter when ufed for cows.
It is faid to give a difagreeable flavour to the produce of
the dairy, as butter and chcefe, but it does not feem that
cows much diflike or refufe to eat it. It is fuppofed, how-
ever, that this may probably happen on account of its being
fo much blended and intermixed with the other grafles, that
they cannot avoid cropping it a little. This weed is fre-
quent in the cow paftures of fome parts of Lancaftiire,
Gloucefterftiire, and moft probably many others. See
Allium Ampcloprafum.

Ram/on is a weed that is found in fome meadows and
other grafs-lands, but more commonly in the hedges ; other
plants will not, it is faid, flouridi near it : cows eat it, but
it, like the above weed, gi.-es their milk and its produce a
garlic flavour : it fhould, of courfe, be weeded out of grafs-
lands as foon as difcovered and be deftroyed. See Allium
Urfinum.

Ri/Jhes of different forts are a fort of weed-plants which
are not unfrequently met with in meadows and paftures,
efpecially when of the cold clayey kind, and which are a
fure indication that the land, in fuch cafes, wants the fuper-
fluous wetnefs removed ; which, when it has been etfefted,
always gives way to better herbage, though their extirpa-
tion arid deftruftion afterwards will be promoted and acce-
lerated by top drefliiigs of aflies and other matters. In the
Gloucefter Report on its Agriculture, it is ftated, that the
common rufli is an inliabitant of foils that are moift and
ftrong, that it abounds in the furrows of pafture-lands, and
on the mecrs or ftrips of grafs-land left between the grounds
in the vale of that county, as the dividing mark of different

3

properties, and that it is deftroyed in the manner above.
See JuNcus, different forts. Alfo Rush.

Docks are weeds that are found in ftrong four heavy
land of the meadow and pafture kind. As thefe weeds are
refufed by moft forts of domeftic animals, they fliould be
rooted up after rain, and every pains be taken to deftroy
and remove them from grafs-land, which they injure greatly
by their fliade, and by caufing tlie herbage about them to
become rank. They are faid to be eaten only by fallow-
deer, by which their flourifliing in parks and pleafure-
grounds is prevented. It is remarked that in Gloucefter-
ftiire docks are extremely injurious to the herbage of paf-
ture-lands, bnt that if taken in time they may be eafily
conquered. If, however, they are permitted to ripen, they,
leave an immenfe quantity of feed for future crops ; and,
that being perennial, the evil is increafing in fuch a multi-
plied proportion, as almoft to exclude the growth of all
other plants. In a large meadow adjoining the county-
town, thefe weeds have matured and ftied their feeds, it is
faid, fo often, and for fo many years, that, at tlie time of
mowing, the whole appears like a crop of docks. Where
thefe weeds are not got up by the roots, it is ufeful, in fome
cafes, to cut through the ftalks under the ground ; and to
repeat the praftice as flioots are again thrown up. Se£
RuMEX Crifpus, Acutus, Obtujifolius, &c. Alfo Weeding
Dock-Sph, &c.

B'ljlort is a weed that, in fome places, occupies large
portions or patches in meadows, to the injury and deftruc-
tion of better herbage : it is a perennial, but may without
doubt be weakened or deftroyed by rooting up repeatedly.
The root is one of the ftrongeft vegetable aftringents, and
may probably be applied to many purpofes in the arts with
benefit. It is the inhabitant of moift meadows in Chefliire.
See Polygonum B'ljlorta.

Wild campions are weeds often found abundantly in paf-
tures formed from ploughed lands : there are two forts, as
thofe with white and red flowers. Care fliould be taken to
exterminate them from fuch paftures by proper fallowing
the land when in the broken up ftate. See Lychnis
Dioica, Sec.

Goo/e-tanjy, filver-weed, or feathered cinquefoil, is a weed
common in many paftures laid down from the arable ftate,
but generally untouched by cattle : it fliould therefore be
deftroyed and got rid of in the tillage ftate of the land, and
by keeping it free of ftagnant wetnefs. See Potentilla
Anferhm.

Tanjey is a weed that is found in Gloucefterftiire, in
fome paftures by the fide of the Severn, and in a few other
places in that county, but not in abundance, as well per-
haps as in fome others, efpecially in the northern parts of
the kingdom. It is an unpleafant weed, it is faid, which
fliould be eradicated by the fpade, or fome other proper
means. See Tanacetum Vulgare.

Pdeiuorl is a wetd that flowers very early in the fpring,
and abounds in fliady or moift pafture ground ; it fome-
times occupies much room in fome meadows, and chokesi
other plants which grow near it ; and not being eaten by
cattle, it fliould certainly be extirpated : nothing difcou-
rages its increafe more than coal and wood-afties, the writers
of the Flora Ruftica fuppofe. See Ficaria Verna, and
Ranunculus Ficaria.

Loufeiuort, or red-rattle, is a weed found in moift mea-
dows and paftures, and, it is thought, rarely but where the
land is in want of being rendered dry : it is faid to be very,
difagreeable to cattle, and injurious to flieep, giving them,
the fcab, and occafioning them to be overrun with vermin :
it is believed, however, that thefe injuries are principally

caufed

s

WEED,

ciufed by the unwliolefome nature or ftate of the land on
which it grows : it may be deftroyed, it is fuppofed, by re-
moving the wetneis and top dreffing. Ste Pediculaius
Sylvatica.

Yelloiu-ratth is a weed that is faid to grow generally in
moitl meadows in the coimty of Glouceller, and which
ripens its feeds, and fheds them before the time of mowing,
when the dry huflcs make a rattling noife under the fcythe :
at this time, it contains no nutritious juice at all, though,
when green, oxen and horfes will fometimes eat it rather
eagerly, and at other times refufe it. Having, however,
no defirabie quality to recommend its cultivation, and often-
times overrunning large patches of ground, it fhould be
eradicated and deftroyed ; and being a biennial, this, it is
thought, may eafily be done, by grazing the land for three
or four years in fncceilion, and taking care that the ftalks
that are left by the cattle be (l<immed off by the fcythe be-
fore they are ripe enongh to Ihed their feeds, or while they
are in full blofTom. In regard to its removal, it is ftated,
that a farmer near the northern borders of the fame county,
fhewed the writer a floping piece of grafs-land which had
been overrun with rattle : without any view to the deftruc-
tion of that he condufted the water of an adjoining ftream,
as well as lie could, over the piece which was not, however,
wholly watered ; but it proved that on the watered part,
the rattle was deftroyed, while it continued to grow on the
portion which had efcaped. No plant is more frequently
found mixed with the graffes in the meadows of Chefliire
than this ; but as it has nothing to recommend it, and the
farmers diflike it, the removal of it fliould be cfFefted to
make way for better herbage. See Rhinanthus Crijla-
gain.

Dyer's-hroom is a weed that is feen very abundant in fome

paftures on ftrong and moift land, whence, as it is often

troublefome, it (hould be grubbed up, and be got quit of.

Wood waxen, dyer's-weed, or bafe broom, grows abundantly,

it is faid, in many parts of the vale of Gloucefterlhire, but

generally on dry paftures : it is refufed by no cattle but

fheep ; yet, being inferior to good gralfes, fhould be rooted

out, except in places where, as in the neighbourhood of

Briftol, it is coUeited and carried while in full blofTom to

the manufafturers, who, by boiling and other means, ex-

traft a fine yellow colour from it. See Genista TinBoria.

Rcjl-harrow, or commock, is faid to be a weed often

found in paftures, where it is eaten by cattle, efpecially the

younger flioots of it ; but that it is too coarfe and rubbilhy

to be fuffered to increafe, and (hould confequently be rooted

out or grubbed up as foon as poflTible. In Gloucefterfhire it

is faid, too, to be a moft troublefome weed, and a pretty fure

proof of want of attention, culture, and manure ; as by the

two former it may be eafdy cleared from arable land, as has

been feen, and by well-rotted horfe-dung even pafture-lauds

may be affifted ; but that rather than fuch a difguftiiig plant

fhould continue to grow, where its place might be fupplied

with good herbage, neither labour nor expence fhould be

fpared. The little advantage it gives to flieep, wliich will

eat the young fhoots before the prickles are formed, is not,

it is fuppofed, a fufiicient inducement in the calculation of

a good farmer to leave it undifturbed. In the parifh of

Elmore, in that county, there is, it is faid, a pallure -ground

almoft covered with it, which lies too far from the farm-

houfe to have manure eafily conveyed to it. In lliis cafe,

the occupier tried the experiment of drawing it out by the

roots, but difcontinued it from the idea that it came up with

greater ftrength, and in more abundance the fucceeding

year. The fail is, that the bufinefs is but half done, if the

roots are not entirely removed, as every broken piece will

throw out fhoots ; and from long continuance of the plant
on the fpot, and the annual fhedding of the feeds of it, it
is probable that a new crop will arife in the following fpring:
but the farmer ftiould not be difcouraged, it is faid, on his
firft attempt ; fince, by continually watchmg the weeds in
their early growth, and cutting them off with the hoe, they
would gradually be deftroyed ; and the procefs would be
much affifted by well dreffing the places with rotten horfe-
dung, as fuggcfted above. See Ononis Spinofa, and Ar-
•uenjis.

Common thijlle is a moft noxious weed among grafs
herbage : it has ftrong roots which (hoot out in a lateral
manner, and is a perennial plant of vigorous growth in fome
foils. It may be got quit of by cutting it off within the
ground, or by being rooted up ; for the former fort of work
the beft time is when the plants are coming into full blofFom,
as they then become fooneft rotten and deftroyed in their
hollow root parts ; and for the latter in pafture-lands when
the ground is well foaked with rain, and they can be drawn
eafily. They are fometimes very hurtful to the hay lands in,
the vicinity of the metropolis, where the management is bad.
See Serratula ylrvenjis, and Thistle.

Rough large thijlles, or boar-thiftles, are weeds of a very
troublefome nature among grafs-crops, and which are always
to be got rid of without delay. They are generally mown
or other wife cut over, but are much better rooted or drawn
up. It is remarked by the writer of the Corredled Account
of the Agriculture of the County of Gloucefter, that thiftles
of all kinds are very unpleafant weeds in grafs-lands ; either
when green or dried with the hay, they annoy the cattle in
feeding, and confequently fiiould never be permitted to grow
long on any fuch land ; to prevent their growing at all, is,
it is thought, perhaps impoffible, but the increale of them
may be checked by early attention : while, however, they
are left to be mown with the grafs, or to remain undifturbed
in the highways during the fuinmer, the feeds will be dif-
perfed by the wind in various direftions over the country :
until a method be therefore adopted to correft the evil in its
infancy, the labour beftowed by good farmers for the extir-
pation of this weed will not, it is faid, produce a complete
effett, although it will prevent the plant from being carried
to the mow in a ftate of equal maturity with the hay, and
its feeds afterwards from being difperfed with the dung in
the fields. Was every farmer to do the fame, the encou-
ragement to perfevere in the praftice would be powerful ;
but that it is not probable, that a farmer will expend much
in doing what the negligence of a neighbour will render in-
cffeftual. Some of thefe thiftle-weeds are annual, others
biennial and perennial ; confeqriently, where the diflinftion is
not known, the fafe method is, it is faid, to cut the root
with a paddle, deep in the ground, or to draw up the root ;
and that this fliould be done for the firft time in the fpring,
and again on the lattermath in autumn. See Carduus
Lanceolatus, &c. Alfo Thistle.

Cudiueed, or chafeweed, is a weed faid not to be uncom-
mon in paftures from arable land. It has been feen abun-
dantly in an upland pafture after barley, where the clover
had failed of fuccefs ; cattle refufe it, but it has been fup-
pofed to be fuccefsful in the bloody flux of cattle and of
the human fpecies : it leldom appears much in a grais-crop,
or efpecially when the artificial graffes fucceed v/cll. See
Gnaphalium German'icum.

Ox-eye, white marigold, or great daify, is a weed common
in fome paftures, and not grateful, but which feldom abounds
fo as to be mucli injurious to the grafs, and which is eafily
drawn out by the hand or other fuch means. See Chrysan-
themum Leucaiilhemum.

Black

WEED.

Black knap-weed is a common and abundant weed in fome
moift and cold meadows and paftures, where it is a very bad
plant, being coarfe, hard, and ftubborn, feldom touched by
cattle, either in the green or Arj ftate, and not extirpated
from the ground without much difficulty : it is a perennial
weed, which increafes much by the root, according to the
Flora Ruftica. It is fuppofed that it might probably be
much weakened and reduced, and be extirpated by degrees
by drawing up after rain. It is ftated too, that in Glou-
cefterfhire the common black knap or knob-weed, provin-
cially hard heads, is a vile and worthlefs weed, which cattle
of no kind will touch, in any ftate ; and yet it is fuffered,
on fome paftures, to grow and increafe to fuch a degree, as
to exclude the appearance of almoft every other plant, and,
though ufelefs, is mowed with the other heibage, and pre-
ferved for winter fodder. That it is a weed which indicates
poor land, though probably, by the ufe of foaper's a(hes,
it might be conquered, otherwife the ground (hould be
ploughed up and converted to a better purpofe. The writer
of this article lately faw it wholly covering a poor pafture
field in the north of Lancaftiire, to the exclufion of all ufe-
ful grafies. See Centaurea Nigra.

Sedge-grajfes, various forts, are weeds that are moft com-
mon in cold, old, four, moift clayey lands of the meadow
and pafture kind, undrained and unimproved ; in which
they are faid, in fome places, to occupy the whole furface :
they are extremely hardy, and flourifti where fcarcely any
thing elfe will grow : feem produced by nature from this
principle in her economy, that a bad plant is better than
none, for thefe plants are not eaten by any fort of cattle
which can get any thing better ; yet, upon getting quit of
the fuperfluous moifture or wetnefs, and top-dreffing the
land, it will commonly give way to a finer and more valuable
herbage. See Carex.

They have provincially the titles of hard-grafs, iron-grafs,
and carnation-grafs, fometimes applied to them.

Common nettle is a weed lometimes growing in tufts on
pafture-land, where it ftiould always be rooted up, as it will
prevent the growth of good herbage, and render the grafs
rank near it : aftes are faid to be fond of it, and cows eat it
in the ftate of hay. See Urtica Dioica.

Mojfes, various forts, are weeds that are fometimes faid
to fpread on pafture and other grafs lands, and, it is be-
lieved, indicate that the herbage is ftarving and torpid,
and ftands in need of a ftimulus to quicken its growth :
proper top-dreffing ftiould be ufed, and the wetnefs be re-
moved, if neceflary. Treading by ftieep, and fcratching the
furface by means of fine-teethed implements, have likewife
been found of great utihty. See Musci, and Moss.

Such plants as the above muft be confidered as proper and
neceflary to be extirpated from grals-lands of moft kinds ;
but there are various others which are of lefs importance,
and the charafters of which are more doubtful, and their
ufes not fo well determined and decided upon.

Of this latter fort or clafs, the following may be noticed
as being moftly improper in iuch fituations.

Crowfoots, butter-flower, butter-cup, king-cup, or gold-
eup, are plants almoft every where lound in meadow and
pafture lands. The pile-wort is common in fome places,
and the bulbous-rooted fort, it is obfervcd, has knotty roote,
rifes little above the ground, bloftbms early in the fpring,
and is chiefly found in meadows that are rather moift, being
eaten only by ftieep. The other forts are common in the
meadows and paftures everywhere, being very abundant in
the hay-grounds near the metropolis. Their good qualities
in fuch lands have been much queftioned and difputed by
many ; but the writer of the paper already noticed is inclined

to think favourably of them, efpecially as promoting the di-
geftion of the live-ftock that feed in fuch paftures ; and as
not having been difcovered to be injurious in fuch fituations
by farmers in their long experience. The writer of the
Glouceiter report, however, ftates, that the feveral forts of
crowfoot, provincially termed crazys, which in the fpring
throw a yellow veil over the meadows, are to be reckoned
among the ufelefs weeds, having little to recommend them
to notice but their gaudy appearance. That the three latter
forts are acrid and biting to the tafte, and are therefore re-
jefted by cattle nearly alike. It is indeed faid, that the
creeping crazy is more mild and palatable to fome cattle,
though it is to be fufpefted that cattle eat it rather from
neceffity than liking ; as from its fpreading along the furface,
it becomes fo matted with the herbage, that it muft be
taken up, in fome degree, with it. The ftalks of the two
others are left Handing when the ground is quite bare about
them ; yet, when made with the hay, they are faid to lofe
the pungent quality ; and the brightnefs of the bloflbm in
the rick, is always a fign of the whole having been well
harvefted.

All the forts of this tribe of plants, though pleafant to
the eye in meadows and paftures, in confequence of their
difplay of yellov/ flowers, are, it is faid in the Berkftiire re-
port, injurious to the herbage, and little reliftied by animals
of any kind. Although difficult to be eradicated, fome of
the larger forts of them may be reduced greatly by proper
care and attention. See Ranunculus Ficaria, Bulbofus,
Repens, and Acris.

IVild mint is a plant found in moift paftures, and which
prevents the coagulation of milk ; fo that when cows have
eaten it, as they are apt to do largely at the end of fummer
when the paftures get bare, their milk can hardly be made
to yield cheefe ; a circumftance which occafionally puzzles
the dairy -maids. It is a plant that ftiould be removed from
paftures, and which, it is fuppofed, may be weakened by
effeftually removing the wetnefs of the land. See Mentha
Arvenjis.

Marjh marigold is a plant that occupies much fpace, and
which IS dangerous to cows. It (hould confequently be re-
moved from paftures and other grafs-lands. See Caltha
Palujlris.

Water hemlock is a plant fuppofed poifonous to horfes,
and ftiould therefore be eradicated from pafture-lands. See
Thellandkium Aquaticum.

Water coivbane, meadow-fafFron, and treacle-muftard, are
plants in pafture and grafs lands, that are faid to communi-
cate an unpleafant odour to the milk of cows, and to be
fometimes fatal to them. When abundant they ought to
be removed from fuch lands. See Cicuta Vircfa, CoLCHl-
CUM Autumnale, and Theapsi Arvenfis.

Moufe-ear fcorpion-grafs is a plant that often proves fatal
to ftieep, it is faid, and ftiould of courfe be extirpated from
ftieep-walks. See Myosotis Scorpoides.

Rag-iuort is a plant in grafs-land which cows and horfes
refufe, and which fheep will only eat when very young : it is
a plant that is ftated, in the Chelhire Report on Agriculture,
to be regarded as worfe than ufelefs both in meadows and
paftures. That it frequents rich foils only ; and that the
farmer there often exhibits the keddle-dock, as it is provin-
cially termed, as a proof of the goodnefs of his land. That
while his vanity is flattered by its prefence, he not only
neglefts to extirpate it, but frequently fuffers it to fpread
over one of his beft pieces of land, to the injury of himfelf
and the annoyance of his neighbour. It is faid that by
mowing it is prevented from propagating its feeds ; but
that the roots are not deftroyed. That this is beft effefted

either

WEED.

cither by eating it down while young with (heep, or pulling
it up by the hand. This laft fliould be done when the
ground is moid, in order that no confiderable fibres may be
loft or left in the land, as if there are the roots will ftrike
again. See Senecio Jacobxa.

Mcadoiv Jorrel is a plant common in meadows, and efpe-
cially where the foil is ftrong and rather wet : it is a coarfe
plant that is injurious by its (hade, and feeds in good grafs-

, lands. See Rumex Acetofa.

Wood or meadow anemone is a plant common in meadows,
though difregarded by farmers ; the whole plant is faid to

1 be acrid. Withering aflerts, that when (heep that are un-

I accuftomed to it eat it, it brings on a bloody-flux. See

1 Anemone Nemorofa.

I Eye-bright is a plant common in paftures, and refufed
by cattle in general ; confequently occupying the place of a
better plant. See Euphrasia Officinalis and Odonthis.

I Dandelion is a difagreeable plant, though common in
grafs-lands in moft diitrifts : it is faid to be confiderably
diuretic, and on that account may probably have a good
efFeft on cattle at firft going to grafs : it is coarfe, but
good in hay with graifes. See Leontodon Taraxacum.
Tarroiu, and fneeze-wort, are plants common in paftures,

I but indifferent to cattle-ftock. The former has been recom-
mended for poor land. The common yarrow has been found

1 plentifully intermixed with the herbage in the vale part of

i the county of Gloucefter, where much fed with horfes.
Some have, it is faid, fuppofed, that cattle are not averfe to
it ; but it has been obferved, that this weed has remained
uneaten until every blade of grafs has been cropped clofe to
the ground, and therefore that it (hould be extirpated by

1 the fpade or fome other means, fuch as the three-pronged

' fork, at the expence of manual labour. See Achillea

' Millefolium and Ptarmica.

! Orchifes of feveral forts are plants that are common in
moft meadows, having broad, entire, fpotted leaves in gene-

' ral, and large bunches of pale or purple flowers. They
generally remain untouched by moft, or all foi-ts of cattle-

j flock. See Orchis Maculata, BifoUa, Sec.

Plants of this fort have hitherto been much too little
examined and inquired into, in fo far as relates to their
utility and importance, or the contrary, for the ufes of the
farmer, to afford any thing fatisfaftory on the fubjeft ; but
that a great many fuch plants fhould be rooted out of grafs-
lands of different kinds there can be no fort of doubt. This
would render the meadows and paftures much better for the
purpofes of hay, and the pafturing and feeding of live-ftock
of every fort, and be greatly beneficial to the farmer in
many ways.

Weeds injurious in 'wajle and uninclofed Lands. — It is ftated
by the writer of the paper on weeds, that thofe confidered
as particularly hurtful to fuch land, are not very numerous;
for though many forts of plants, ufelefs as the food of do-
meftic animals, grow there, yet, as there is no pofTibility of
introducing any thing better until fuch lands are appro-
priated and improved by cultivation, they can hardly be
conceived as noxious, fo long as nothing better can be put
in their ftead. That, as fuch lands in their prefent condi-
tion are ufeful only as (heep-walks, or for producing fuel,
the bettering of them, in the former rcfpeft, is an objcft de-
ferving of attention, particularly as fuch amelioration would
render them of greater value in cafe of inclofure, and would
much fhorten the bufinefs of bringing them into the ftate of
improvement. See Waste Land.

The weeds that encumber fuch lands, and reduce their
value as fhccp-walks, are confidered as of two kinds ; the
common upland rubbiih, and the bog produce of plants :

the former fmothers the land, fo as to prevent the growth
of better herbage ; and the latter are generally hurtful to
animals that feed on them, either from their own nature, or
becaufe the land on which they grow is uncomfortable for
and unwholefome to the health of them, efpecially to
fheep.

Upland weeds are all thofe that rife in high barren fitua-
tions, and which chiefly confift of heaths of different forts ;
furze or gorfe, the petty whin, or hen-gorfe, and broom,
but which is more commonly met with in neglefted dry
lands of the arable kind : thefe (hould all, it isfaid, where
the ground is of tolerable ftaple, or depth of mould, be
burnt off, or grubbed up, early in the fpring ; and if the
land be afterwards fown with grafs-feeds of the hay kind in
moift weather, it will much improve the herbage : the fern
(liould alfo be mown, and carried off in the fummer, the
value of it as litter being well worth the labour and trouble.
See Erica, Ulex Ciiropivus, Genista Anglica, Spartium
Sceparium, and Pteris Aquilina.

Bog weeds are thofe that arife in fwampy places, and are
caufed by ftagnant moifture or wetnefs, being principally
cotton graffes, matt-grafs, rufhes of feveral forts, red-rattle
or loufe-wort, marfh, St. Peter's-wort, kingfpear, which
laft two are of but little confequence in themfelves : they,
however, indicate boggy land ; and in their company are often
found purple-flowered money-wort, fedge graffes of feveral
forts, &c. : all which would give way to better herbage,
upon the ftagnant wetnefs of fuch bogs being removed,
which (hould, it is faid, be done by a rate, levied on the in-
habitants of the neighbourhood, having right of common
upon fuch waftes. See Eriophorum Polyjlachion and
Vaginntum, Nardus StriBa, JuNCUs, Pedicularis Sylvatica,
Hypericum Clodes, Narthecium OJfifragum, Anagallis
Tenetla, and Carex.

The difeafe, termed the rot, in (heep, which fo commonly
arifes in thefe fituations, has been often attributed by ftock-
farmers and others to the fun-dew, mar(h penny-wort, and
common butter-wort, weeds found in fuch lands ; but it is
more probably caufed by the flat infeft known by the name
of flake, fafciola hepatica, which is not unfrequently met
with in fuch watery grounds, fticking to different parts of
the plants, and which has been difcovered in the difeafcd
livers and bile dufts of ilieep thus affefted. See Drosera
Anglica, Hydrocotyle Inundata, isfc.

The writer juft noticed fuggefts, that if the country
(hould not yet be ripe or ready for inclofing all the commons
and wafte lands, the improvement of their ftaple by mea-
fures of this kind, by deftroying weeds and introducing
better herbage, by removing the wetnefs of the bogs, and
deftroying the aquatic weeds growing thereon, would better
their prefent ftate, and improve their value to the pubHc,
would render them capable of maintaining a greater number
of better fheep, and preferve the ftock in better health, as
well as render the land more (ufceptible of a rapid and eafy
improvement by cultivation, whenever the time may arrive
for their inclofure, and for fuch full amendment of their
condition.

IFfeds injurious in Hedges and other fuch Fences. — It is re-
marked in the paper on weeds and weeding, that all kinds
of them are hurtful to young hedges, which conftantly re-
quire to be well cleaned and freed from them for three or
more years after planting, as otherwife the young quick or
other plants would be choked and deftroyed ; and that there
are alfo fome kinds of weed-plants which very much injure
old full-grown hedge-fences. That many kinds of weeds
growing in hedges are a great nuifance if the feeds be fuf-
fered to ripen, becaufe fuch feeds are hable to be carried into

cultivated

WEED.

cultivated land by the wind ; that there are fome kinds of
hedge-weeds, too, which bear the charafter of being inju-
rious to live-dock ; thefe, if the obfervation be well founded,
ought, it is faid, to be well cleared from the hedges that
fuch ftock frequent ; and that, laftly, the improper fpecies
of the vegetable kingdom, compofing or growing in hedges,
may be termed hedge-weeds, becaufe they prevent the main
objeft and end of fuch hedges, that of dividing, fencing out,
and defending the land in a proper manner.

The moft hurtful weeds and plants of this fort are,

Catch-weed, or cleavers, a weed that has a tendency to
choke and injure young hedges, by means of its numerous
creeping and twining rough branches : it (hould, of courfe,
be well cleaned out in due time, before it fpreads itfelf much
in the bottom of the fence. See Galium sparine.

Great blnd-'weed is a plant of this fort that is injurious in
fome hedges, by twining round the growing quick or other
plants, and reftrifting their growth : its roots fhould confe-
quently be extirpated from fuch fituations, which may pro-
bably be worth colledling for medicinal ufes, as the infpif-
fated juice of them compofe fcammony, a powerful purga-
tive remedy. It is eaten greedily, too, by hogs without in-
jury. See Convolvulus Septum.

Great luild climber is a weed-plant common in hedges, and
which, in the chalk counties, is faid provincially to be
called old man's beard, from the hoary appearance of the
plant after flowering, the feeds being furnifhed with nume-
rous grey hoary tails. It is very injurious to hedge-fences,
as the leaf-ftalks twine about any thing they can lay hold
of, and thus fupport the plant, which is large, luxuriant, and
heavy, without any ftrength to fupport itfelf, and by its
weight hauhng down, obftrufting the proper growth, and
deforming the fences of this kind. Withering remarks,
that the fine hairs that give the cottony appearance are, he
apprehends, too (hort to be employed in manufafture,
though, it is probable, they may be ufed to advantage for
the Huffing of chairs. See Clematis Vttalba.

Wild hop, ladies' feal, or black bryony, and wild vine
or bryony, are all weed-plants common in hedges, where
they are fuppofed to be fomewhat injurious to the hedge-
fences. They do mifchief in thefe fituations, by crowding
and fmothering up the hedge-plants, and preventing their
healthy and vigorous growth, as well as by taking away
the proper nourilhment from their roots. See HuMULUS
Cupulus, Tamus Communis, and Bryonia Dioica.

Tiiere are other fpreading, twining, and climbing weed-
plants, which are occafionally very injurious and troublefome
in hedges ; fuch as the common ivy, which fpreads and creeps
on the banks, and runs up and winds round the ftems of the
plants, greatly injuring and impeding their growth and
ftrength; the honey-fuckle, which binds itfelf clofely about
the italks and branches of the hedge-woods, doing them
much injury in different ways ; and the briar, which extends
its rampant (hoots in various direftions, to the great annoy-
ance and mifchief of the hedge -plants in many cafes. All
thefe (hould be eradicated and cleared out from hedges in
moft cafes, as they conftantly tend to weaken and render
them in bad condition. See Heder.\ Helix, Lonicera
Periclym num, and RcsA Canina.

Sotu-thijlkt, large rough thiftles, knap-weeds, and rag-
wort, are weeds that have been already noticed, and are
great nuifances in hedges, if their feeds be fufiered to ripen
in fuc!i fituations. The common nettle, too, is fometimes
found in hedges to their great injury. They (liould all,
therefore, be extirpated and cleared out from hedges in
their early growth, to prevent future inereafe.

In addition to thefe, the writer of the above paper has

given the following, the feeds of which are furnifhed witfi
feathers too, and they are capable of being carried to a great
diftance.

Tellow devil's hit, wild lettuce, yellow hawk-weed, bu(hy
hawk-weed, and fmooth hawk's-beard, are weeds often
troublefome in hedges, and which ihould be Jtept well
weeded out at an early period. See Leontodon Autum-
nale, Lactuca Virofa, Hieracium Murorum et Umbella-
tum, and Crepis TeBorum.

Burdock is a well-known plant of the weed kind, that
(hould not be fuffered to perfeft its feed in hedges, as it is
of very luxuriant growth, and of courfe very injurious and
difagreeable in fuch fituations. Withering afferts, that
before the flowers appear, the ftems, (hipped of their rind,
may be boiled and eat as afparagus ; and that when raw,
they are good with oil and vinegar. See Arctium
• Lappa.

Dog's mercury is a weed faid to be noxious to (heep, and
which is very common and abundant in fome hedges, ap-
pearing very early in the fpring, when fheep-food is the moft
fcarce ; on which account it is thought ftill more danger-
ous, if it be fo at all. When in very large quantity it may
be hurtful to hedges, and (hould be kept under. See Mer-
CURIALIS Perennis.

Barberry is a frequent plant in fome hedges ; if
found to really polfefs a blighting quality, it fhould be re-
moved from the hedges of corn-fields. See Berberris
J^ulgaris.

It is advifed by the author of the above paper, that thefe,
as well as other plants of a fimilar nature, together with all
luxuriant weeds and (hoots of the bramble kind, and what-
ever elfe grows beyond the bounds of the hedge-fence,
(hould be brufhed out of fuch hedges about the middle of
the fummer, as is very often done in fome counties, as Staf-
fordfhire, for the fake of their afhes, which are worth all
the labour and expence incurred in burning them, &c.

Weeds injurious in Woods and Plantations of different
Kinds. — The weed-plants which are neceffary to be con-
fidered under this head, are not very numerous : thofe
which are given below are the chief of fuch as are peculiar
to or commonly found in fituations of this nature, where no
art has been ufed. They are the moft common herbs and
plants which are fpontaneoufly produced in woods and
plantations without attending to the timber and underwood
forts ; but many other kinds are to be met with, which are
lefs common, and which have been lefs noticed and con-
fidered.

Enchanters' night-Jhade is a weed found in the woods of
Bedfordfhire, and fome other counties, and by no means un-
common. See ClRC.E Lutetiana.

Wood-reed is a weed met with in many woods. See
Arundo Arenaria.

Woodroffe is a weed common in many woods about
Enfield, in Sta(ford(hire, and Berk(hire. Sometimes very
plentiful. See Asperula Odorata.

Wild angelica is a weed common both in woods and
hedges, in many places. See Angelica Sylvejlris.

Solomon's feal, or wood lily, is a weed found in woods
in many different parts of the kingdom. See CoN-
vallaria.

Englifh hyacinth, or hare-bell, and willow herbs, are weeds
in fome woods. See HyAclNTHUS non Scrlptus, and Epi-

LOBIUM.

Bilberry is a weed met with in moift woods in many
parts of tire country. See Vaccinium Myrtillus.

Wintergreen is a vveed-plant met with in the moor-land

woods

WEED.

woods in StafForddiire, and fome other counties. See
Pyrola.

Wood-furrel is a weed very common in woods. See
OxALis Acetofclhi.

Wood-fpurge is a weed frequently met in woods, fituated
in a clayey foil. Plentifully in Needwood-foreft, in StafFord-
fhire. < See Euphorbia Amygdaloides.

Rafpberry, dewberry, and common bramble, are weeds
common in moft woods, in fome of the forts. See Rubus.

Wild Straivberry is a weed common in fome woods. See
Fragaria Vefca.

Tormentill is very common as a weed in fome woods.
.See ToHMENTILLA Reptans.

Herb bennet, and wood anemone, are common weeds in
fuch iltuations. See Geum Urbanum, and Anemone
Nemorofa.

IVood crotvjoot is a common weed in woods on a clayey
foil. See Ranunculus Aurkomus.

Stinting Hellebore is a weed in woods, in many parts of
the kingdom. See Helleborus Eatidus,

Wood Jage, betony, hedge-nettle, and baftard baum, are
weeds of the common wood kind. See Teucrium Scoro-
donia, Betonica Officinalis, Stachys Sylvatica, and Me-
LlTTls MeliJfophyUuin.

Co'w-grafs, or cow-wheat, is very common in many
woods, and faid to be an excellent cow-herbage ; but
little found in paftures, in any fituation. Sec Melampy-
KUM Pratenfe.

Fig-'wort, and coral-wort, are weeds in fome woods. See
crophularia Nodofa, and Dentaria Bulbifera.
Pea-everlajling is a luxuriant weed-plant, that has been
ken with the ftem five or fix feet long, in a wood in Rut-
landfhire. See Lathyrus Sylvejlris.

Wood-vetch, wood-peafling, St. John's wort, fhrubby
hawk-weed, fow-wort, hoary groundfel, golden-rod, butter-
fly-orchis, friary -blade, fedge-graffes, and fpurge-ohve, or
fpurge-laurel, are all plants of the weed kind in woods in
different places. See Vicia Sylvatica, Orobus Sylvatica,
Hypericum Perforatum, Hieracium Sabaudum, Serra-
TULA TinBoria, Senecio Crucifolius, Solidago Virguurea,
Orchis Bifolia, Ophryis Ovata, Carex and Daphne
Mezereum and Laureola.

It has been remarked, that as no fort of cattle can be
properly introduced into thefe fituations, in the early
growth of the woods, there appears no particular room for
the choice of the under herbage ; but all large coarfe grow-
ing weeds of thefe and other kinds, (hould be removed or
kept well under, and that briars and brambles, if they ap-
pear, fliould on feveral accounts be grubbed up and de-
ftroyed. Ivy, too, as clafping, confining, fretting, and in-
juring the plants on which it rifes, fhould be early cleared
away to prevent the mifchief of its after removal.

It is hardly neceffary to obferve, as it muft be evident,
that this account is far from comprehending all the plants
which have been confidered as weeds by writers, and thofe
engaged in the cultivation of land ; as fuch as are known to
be prejudicial or hurtful, in fome way or other, to fome
forts of cultivation or other, have, for the moft part, been
only introduced.

Thofe who may wifh for further information on the fub-
jeft, may confult the paper on weeds, by Mr. Pitt, inferted
in the fifth volume of *' Communications to the Board of
Agriculture ;" and alfo the new edition of Miller's Dic-
tionary, by Martyn, in which a very large catalogue of
weed-plants is given ; as well as many of the Correfted
Reports on the Agriculture of different Counties.

It is remarked by the writer of the above paper, that the
Vol. XXXVIII.

plants we term weeds, confidered as refpeaing mankind, are
not totally ufelefs ; many of them have valuable medicinal,
and, perhaps, other quahties and properties, and fome of
them may be applied to ufes fo as to pay fomething towards
the expence of clearing them from the ground : thus, fow-
thiftles are good for rabbits or hogs, the hog-weed is ufeful
for either pigs or cattle : horfes are faid to be fond of
young thiftles when partially dried, and the feed may be
prevented from fpreading by gathering the down, which
makes good pillows ; however, there is fome danger in
trufling them to this ftage of growth, as a high wind would
and frequently does difperfe them over a whole country, as
has been feen already. Chadlock, when drawn, may b«
given to cows, who are very fond of it ; and it is faid in the
Oxford Report on Agriculture, that it can be converted into
good hay. Further, that nettles, fern, and the more bulky
hedge-weeds, may be collefted and annually burnt, as has
been feen above ; their afhes being afterv/ards formed into
balls, which are of confiderable value, as being ufed in eom-
pofing a ley for fcouring and cleaning linen and other
cloths.

It is ftated, too, that pigeons are of ufe in picking up the
feeds of many weeds that would otherwife vegetate ; and
the writer has no doubt but that a prodigious quantity of
the feeds of weeds are eaten by different forts of fmall birds,
particularly of thofe of moft of the lake-weeds, of fpurry,
and in fevere weather, of the different forts of chadlocks, as
well as of many other kinds. But that it has been ob-
ferved, that bees have not thriven or done fo well in this
country fince the extirpation of weeds has been more at-
tended to, and become more general.

It is noticed, that in Japan, and in China, not a weed, it
is faid, is to be feen ; and that they make ufe of night-foil
only as a manure, partly with the view of preventing any
rifle of weeds being produced in that way.

In concluding, it may be noticed, too, that the fame
writer has remarked, that the vegetables we term weeds are
more hardy and tenacious of growth than any others ; nor
can it indeed be otherwife than that thofe plants, which fuc-
ceed in fpite of oppofition, muft be of the moil hardy kind.
But that the produftion or growth of weeds is equally con-
fiftent with the divine goodnefs with that of the moft va-
luable plant, for myriads of diminutive creatures, enjoying
hfe and animation, are fed and fupported by them, and to
whom they are a more natural prsy than the dietetic plants
of mankind : and that man, poffeffed of reafon, refledtion,
and intelhgence, has powers and abihties to feledt and culti-
vate fuch vegetables as are adapted to his ufe, and proper
for his fuftenance, and to deftroy and extirpate others ; and
thus to appropriate to himfelf what proportion he may think
proper of the earth's furface ; which if he fhould negledl to
drefs and cultivate properly, it will, in fome degree, revert
to its natural ftate, producing the hardier and more coarfe
and acrid plants for the fuftenance of numberlefs tribes of
infefts and other little animals, and for an infinity of other
known and unknown ufes and purpofes ; and that indeed
were it otherwife, the indolence of tlie human race might, in
fome meafure, fufpend the bounty of providence, and the
fertile parts of the furface of the earth, inilead of being co-
vered with an univerfal verdure, would, by inexer ton or
negleft, be rendered little di3"erent to the fterile and barren
delert.

Weed, Dyer's. See Dyer'j Weed, Baftard Rocket,
and Weld.

Weed, Fuller's. See Teazel.

Weeo-Hoo^, in Agriculture, a very ufeful implement for

cutting up thiftles, and other ftrong plants of the fame na-

I i ture ;

WEE

ture ; but as thiftles, when cut either at an early period of
the feafon, or before much rain falls, are apt to fpring up
afrefh, and produce four or five ftems in place of one ; they
(hould, perhaps in every inftance, be pulled up by the roots,
or, if they be cut, the operation fhould be done with a
chifel within the ground, which is formed with a divifion
in the mouth of it, fo as to feize the ftem part of the plant,
and cut it deep down. See Weeding Dock-Spit.

Weed, SecA See Fucus.

Weed, Silver. See Cinquefoil.

WEEDA, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of the
ifleof Gilolo. N. lat. o° 15'. E. long. 127° 45'.

WEEDEL, a town of the duchy of Holftein ; 7 miles
S.S.W. of Pinneburg.

WEEDING, in Agriculture and Gardening, the opera-
tion of freeing crops of any kind from noxious weeds. On
the indifpenfible neceffity, and great utility of this praftice,
it is altogether needlefs to enlarge. See Weed.

There are obvioudy two different methods to be princi-
pally employed in the removal and deftruftion of weeds ; one
of which occurs in the preparation of the land, and the
other during the growth of the crop. In the former me-
thod it is neceffary that fuch weeds as are of the root kind
fhould be diftinguifhed from thofe of the feedling defcrip-
tion, as the dellruftion and removal of them mull be effeft-
ed in different ways, and upon different principles.

Weeding in garden-grounds is always a bufinefs that
fhould be regularly and well performed in both the circum-
ftances above-mentioned. Much may be frequently done in
the former cafe by properly ridging or laying up the ground
before the fevere winter-feafon fets in, and in reducing and
breaking it down in the early fpring or other time, forleveUing
it, and making it ready for putting in the neceffary crop, as the
root as well as the feedling weeds may be greatly extirpated
and deftroyed in thefe different operations ; the former
affording the ready means of taking out the firfl fort, and
the latter by putting them in the fprouting ftate, giving the
opportunity of deftroying the other. In the latter cafe, a
great deal will be effefted by the Heady and repeated appli-
cation of the hoe while the crops are upon the ground ; and
by good and careful hand-weeding, before the weeds have
had time to ripen and fhed their feeds.

It has been remarked with great truth, in regard to the
extirpation and prevention of garden-weeds, that many will
almoft conftantly appear, from the feeds being brought by
the vrind ; as well as by being introduced by ufing raw
dung, particularly of hogs and horfes, which often contains
feeds poffefling their vegetative power, and the litter inter-
mixed therewith not unfrequently containing more ; which
ilrongly fhew that raw dung is very improper for gardens,
though often ufed, particularly for early and other potatoe-
crops, as it caufes much trouble and expence in weeding.

Much labour in weeding muft necelTarily be faved, too, by
drawing up all feedling weeds in time, as they appear, and
before they have fown their feeds.

The extirpation and removal of weeds from garden-
grounds are fomewhat differently effefted in various places :
in fome they principally ufe the fpade, and the three-
pronged or fanged fork, for cleaning out root-weeds ; but
the different kinds of hoes are employed for other purpofes,
of which the common ones are moftly made ufe of for
fcufHing over the furface, and thofe of the triangular and
parallelogramic form, for cutting up weeds, moulding up
and clearing growing plants, and loofening the furface of the
ground for promoting the fprouting of any feeds that may
be prefent, and other fuch ufes. With thefe the fcuffle or
fcuffler is fometimes had reconrfe to for cutting the weeds,

WEE

and working the furface of the land over in large gardens.
In the fmall planted broad-caft fown crops, the weeding can
only be well accomplifhed by performing the work by the
hand. See Hoe, Fork, Spade, Scuffle, &c.

In regard to deftroying and removing weeds in tillage-
lands, it has been well obferved by Nailmith, in his " Ele-
ments of Agriculture," that when the ground is greatly
overrun with weeds, a complete winter and fummer fallow
will, for the moft part, be found unavoidable, in order to
get entirely quit of them. Rib-fallowing, before the winter
fets in, will, it is faid, prepare the foil for parting freely
with the vivacious roots, the ploughing and harrowing re-
quifite to tear them up when the fpring drought commences,
will pulverife and reduce it, and provoke the dormant and
inactive feeds to vegetate with the tirft moiifure ; by repeat-
ed turnings, during the fummer, the greateft part may be
made to vegetate, and be deftroyed as they rife ; and the vi-
vacious roots, which lie beyond the reach of the plough, by
being long prevented from exercifing their vegetating
powers, will be impared in vigour. When winter-wheat, or
any crop which is to ttand through that feafon, is intended
to be put in on fuch ground, it would be proper that the
feed fhould be fown in drills, that by ftirring the intervals
in the enfuing fummer, the tendency which moft foils have
to condenfe or confolidate too much when greatly pulverifed
or reduced in their parts, may be counterafted. If fpring-
feed be intended, the laft ploughing fhould be given to
the land before the winter's rain commences, and the field
be accurately and fully furface or furrow-drained, and laid
dry. The influence of the atmofphere during the winter
will, by thefe means, communicate the happy medium ef
confiftence, on which fo much depends ; and the foil, as
foon as it gets dry in the early fpring, will be in the beft or-
der for the reception of the feed at that time, and the
weeds the moft fully and effeftually deftroyed and re-
moved.

But where ground has been under any tolerable manage-
ment, drill culture will, it is faid, for the moft part, fuit all
the purpofes of a clean fallow, or be the means of rendering
the land wholly free of weeds. In repeatedly turning the
intervals, moft of the annual weeds may be attacked in the
group, and be expeditioufly deftroyed as often as they
fpring up ; and the roots of the perennial ones be turned up
and expofed to the heat and drought, which, if not altoge-
ther extirpated, will have their progrefs checked and pre-
vented. But the rows (hould alfo be hand-weeded, and the
hand-hoe will not unfrequently be found an important im-
plement in this work. Drill culture may thus be partially
exercifed, in this intention, it is thought, every where with
great advantage, adapting the application to any particular
fituation or circumilances. For example, where alternate
courfes of tillage and grafs crops are adopted, in a courfe
of three years' tillage, the fecond might always be in the
drill manner ; or if there were manure to fpare, to keep a
field in good condition in tillage -crops for four years, both
the fecond and third might be in the drill method : the firft
on account of the tough turf or fward ; and the laft for the
fake of fowing the land down with grafs-feeds would be
more convenient in the broad-caft ftate : but the weeding
in thefe cafes fhould not be neglefted ; the larger weeds
efpecially ; and all thofe which are moft prevalent, and mofl
produftive of feed, fhould be taken out by hand labour, or
fome fuch means, when they begin to flower. By fuch
ftrift care and attention to weeding tillage-land and crops
and ftocking the ground with proper perennial graflfes when |
laid to reft, weeds would at length be fo much fubdued, it
is fuppofed, as to be feldom injurious to the farmer.

The

WEEDING,

The writer of the paper on weeding has ftated, that it is and fpring up fully after rain, and afterwards ploughing

remarked by the author of the Eflays on Rural Affairs, that under the young plants : alfo that frequent ploughings and

there is only one mode of extirpating annual weeds, the feeds ' ' "' "^ ■"

of v/hich are indeilruftible ; which is to put the ground into

fuch a ftate as to induce them to fprout or germinate, and

then to deilroy the young plants by harrowing them up, or

ploughing them under. This, it is believed, is ftriftly true ;

but the author of the paper juft noticed does not exaftly

agree witli the writer of the eflays in the procefs to be pur-

fued for the purpofe ; the ground, in this intention, in his

opinion, fliould be ploughed before winter, but not har-
rowed, it being better to lie rough through that feafon, fo

as to have the greateft extent of furface poflible expofed to

tlic aftion and mellowing effefts and influence of frofl;s ;
that, as foon as it becomes dry, in or about March, it

fliould be crofs-ploughed and harrowed well down ; many
of the feeds and roots will then vegetate, which fliould in
due time be ploughed under, and the land harrowed again,
and this fort of procefs be repeated as often as neceflary :
this, it is faid, is the true ufe and manner of fummer-fal-
low in this view, which, to have its full and proper eff'eft,
fliould always, it is thought, be attended to early in the fea-
fon, when the powers of vegetation are the greateft, and the
heat of the fun is powerful ; as under fuch circumitances

harrowings are neceflary, to expofe all the'feedhngs con-
tained in the foil to the powers of vegetation. But it is
conceived, that the ploughings and harrowings of fallow
ground fliould not, however, immediately fucceed each
other ; time fliould be given for the confolidation of the
foil, which, after well harrowing, will undergo a flight
fermentation, and fettle, as it were, into a mafs ; after which
it will turn up mellow, and the deftruftion of weeds will go
on apace. It is thought, that the frequent ploughings,
which have been recommended by fome, are not only un-
neceflary, but injurious. It has always been obferved, that
one ploughing of a fallow too foon fucceeding another has
no other effeft, when ufed in this intention, than that of
rooting about the clods, and preventing the general effeft
of confolidation and fermentation in the land. The fuffering
of the weeds to fpread their leaves a little between the fe-
veral ploughings of a fallow, for this purpofe, is not, it is
fuppofed, injurious: care, however, mud be taken not to
carry this notion too far, particularly in the cafe of fquitch
or couch grafs, or fo as to fuff^er any of the quick growing
weeds to ripen their feeds, or the luxuriant ones to become
too large for being buried with the plough. As thefc re-

the greater number of weeds will be brought into a ftate of marks are judicious, and perfeAly praftical, they deferve

growth. the particular attention and confideration of the farmer,

It is thought that the great defedl in the management of wherever the weeding and proper cleaning of his ground is

fummer-fallows in the intention of deftroying weeds would concerned.

feem to be the negleft of working them early in the feafon,
by which omiflion the vigorous annual feedhng-weeds are
not brought into vegetation in due time ; as, after which,
they will not grow until the fpring following, when they
appear in fuch abundance among the wheat or other crop, as
fometimes to choke it up : this is the reafon, it is faid, why
the field poppy, the corn-crowfoot, the tare, and many other
annual weeds, make fuch havoc among wheat, when by a
proper and judicious early working of the fallow, they
might have been brought to exhauft themfelves in the follow-
ing fummer : this appears very clear from the effeft, for if
no wheat were fown, the feeds of thefe weed plants would
often fill the ground with a full crop ; but feeds can vegetate
but once, confequently had this vegetation been brought on

It is ftated too, that in this view, if a fallow for turnips
be crofs-ploughed and harrowed down in the month of
March, it will generally he very well to the beginning of
May ; and that in general no fallow will want ploughing
oftener, in fuch intention, than once in fix weeks, if fuffi-
cient harrowings be given between the ploughings. The
particular time moft proper for thefe operations muft, how-
ever, be determined not by any general rule, but by local
circumftances, experience, and obfervation.

In cafes where lands have not undergone proper improve-
ment, or been under a bad ftate of management, weeds
cannot be deftroyed without much labour and expence.
( See Weed. ) But where lands are already improved, and
have been for fome length of time under a good fyftem of

in the fallow, and the plants afterwards been ploughed under management, the bufinefs is in part performed, and the evil

In due time, none could have appeared in the wheat -crop. much leflened ; ae in fuch cafes, as well as all others, every

It is fuppofed, too, that the turnip-culture is peculiarly rotation or courfe of cropping fliould render the land cleaner

adapted to the deftrudfion of weeds, as for this fort of crop and freer from weeds, which will certainly be the cafe,

the ground muft of neceflity be in early and fine preparation, where there is a proper and correft attention beftowed on

by which weeds of early growth are conveniently brought the bufinefs. The means which are neceflary to be ufed in

into vegetation, and deftroyed ; and thofe which remain in this intention are commonly, it is faid, thefe : complete and

the living ftate in the foil may be exterminated by hoeing.
It has been obferved by the writer, that wet weather is as
necefTary as dry to give a fummer-fallow its whole effeft ; for
without a foaking of rain after the land is pretty well pul-
verifed, numbers of the feeds of weeds will not vegetate,
but remain and grow amongft the crop ; the root-weeds are

well-managed fallows, as above, when fallows are neceflary
or proper ; the ufe of manures, which are free from the
feeds or quick roots of weeds ; the careful choice of fuch
feed grain as is clean ; the praftice of fliort tillages, or that
of not taking too many crops in rotation ; the having re-
courfe to attentive weeding and a fpirited ufe of the hoe, in

therefore to be deftroyed in dry weather, and the feedling which view the drill huftjandry doubtlefsly, it is fuppofed,

ones after rain ; and though the land fliould, after a dry aftbrds fuperior advantages to the broad-caft, in keeping

feafon, be apparently in excellent order for fowing, it will land clean from weeds ; but that land muft be well cleaned

be better to wait the eff'eft of rain, and even give time for before the drill huftiandry is applicable ; the plentiful ufe of

the feedling weeds to vegetate, before the feed for the crop the clean feeds of the beft grafles and trefoils at the end of

be aftually fown. the tillage, in each cafe ; the weeding of the land, when in

It is, therefore, fuggefted, that the deftruftion of root or at grafs, fo as not to fuffer the feeds of any noxious or

weeds, and thofe of the feedling kind, on corn-land, muft injurious plants to fpread themfelves ; and that when upon

be effefted upon different principles, and in different man- again breaking up the land, to purfue fuch a fyftem or

ners ; the former, by working them out of the foil in dry plan of cropping as will not increafe or encourage weeds,

weather only ; the latter, by pulverifing and reducing the But though much might be faid on each of thefe points, it

particles of the foil, fo ae to induce the feed to germinate is thought unncceffary, as the intelligent farmer will readily

I i 2 adopt

WEEDING.

adopt every neceffary regulation and precaution from his above has obferved, that it is not enough to attend to weed-
own obftrvation and experience. It will, therefore, only ing in the time of tillage-culture only : it is proper that grafs-
be needful to flightly touch upon the different particulars fields and lands fhould likewife be kept free of all noxious,

or objefts. As the fubjefk of fallows has been already con-
fidered and explained, it is unneceffary to be further noticed
in this place. In regard to fold-yard manure, it (hould al-
ways, it is fuppofed, in this intention, undergo a ferment-
ation before it is laid upon the land, fufficient to prevent the
future vegetation of any feeds that may be contained in it :
but it fhould Ukewife be kept as free as poffible from the
feeds of weeds ; and perhaps it is bed laid on grafs-land,
applyiuT only lime, or other manures certain of being clean,
to fallows ; or if dung not certainly clean from feeds be
laid on fallows, it (hould be applied on them early enough
to give time to have the feeds to vegetate and fpend them-
felves before fowing for the crop. It is faid, that every
one knows the neceffity of clean feed-corn to the producing
of a clean crop, but fometimes neglefts to apply fuch know-
ledge ; and indeed clean feed-grain is not always to be pro-
cured. If weed-feeds be fufpefted, they (hould, as often

hurtful, and unproiitable herbage. The negligence which
may be feen in this refpeft, in many diftrifts and places, is,
it is faid, (hameful. Paftures and other grafs-lands are
fometimes fo clofe covered with large weeds, that the paf-
turing animals have fcarcely room to pick up a mouthful ;
and thus the vegetable food and other matters, which fhould
nourifh good and wholefome pafture and other grafs-land
herbage, is confumed by ufelefs weeds. And fpeaking of
different coarfe and difgufting weed-plants, fuch as the
dock, ragweed, bur, corn, and fow-thiftles, and fome
others, it is remarked, that the two lail are of the fort
which extend their vivacious roots below the reach of the
plough, when the land is in tillage. It is not, it is faid,
uncommon with thofe who affeft to pay a little more atten-
tion than ordinary to their paftures and grafs-lands, to cut
down thefe plants in the flower. If this be done in a rainy
time, or if fuch rain falls foon after, the water defcending

as poffible and prafticable, be dreffed out before fowing the into the frefh cut wound of the ftem, debilitates the roots,
corn. The weeding of crops is generally imperfeftly per- and difcourages the growth of the plants for a time, though
formed, and is likely to continue fo, it is thought, in many they are feldom wholly deftroyed by it ; but that if fuch

places, on account of the difficulty of procuring hands
enough for work which is only fo temporary in its nature.
Thiftles are generally only cut off, but they fhould always,
it is faid, by drawn up by tongs, or other tools for the
purpofe, and the other forts of weeds by the hand. The
hoe has yet been only of general ufe in turnip crops, nor is
it likely to extend further, unlcfs the drill hufbandry ihould
be more eftablifhcd ; nor even, in its prefent apphcation,
can proper hands enough be always, it is faid, procured at
fufficiently reafonable rates. As much, however, (hould
conftantly be done in all thefe ways as circumftances will
allow. In the laying down of land to grafs, the importance

critical rains do not occur, frefh leaves immediately arife to
fupport the roots, and the cutting over has very little or no
effeft. They fhould confequently be annually pulled up by
the roots as foon as pofTible, after the flower begins to form
and fhew itfelf, taking advantage of the firft fhower which
happens to fall, to foften the ground and make them draw
up more freely. By purfuing this praftice regularly and
ileadily for a number of years, the deep lying perennial
roots are, it is faid, gradually weakened, and fall into de-
cay. Nor is cutting down the ragweed of much avail.
Some of the plants die, but many furvive, and branch out
more copioufly the enfuing year. But this plant not being

of clean grafs-feed is well underllood ; yet the feeds of deep-rooted, is eafdy pulled up when in flower, if the

docks are not unfrequently fown with clover, and thofe of
other pernicious weed-plants with ray-grafs. In all cafes,
the utmoft attention fliould be paid to the fowing of clean
feed of this fmall kind. And in the weeding of grafs-land,
docks and thiftles are often mown, or only cut off, but
they fhould always be rooted up ; for which purpofe,
docking irons formed npon fufficiently good principles are
moftly had recourfe to. They are, it is fuppofed, every

ground be foft at the time. The bur-thiftle being a biennial
plant, may be killed at any time by cutting it under the
firtl leaves. The common dock is the moft troublefome
plant in grafs-land, efpecially in clayey foils, where it is
always the moft frequent. Every bit of its long tap-root
left in the ground will continue to vegetate and grow, and
at length form a new ftem and plant. It fhould, in all
cafes, be fully turned out with the dock-iron, in the manner

where well underftood, confifting fimply of a forked or already noticed, as foon as the flowering-ftem is formed ;

clefted fpike of iron, which is jogged within the cleft, and
fixed to the end of a wooden lever : this being forced down
by the hand or foot, fo as to inclofe the root of a dock, or
large thiftle, will eafily bring it up, particularly after rain ;
but mowing them off, being done with more expedition, is
often pradlifed ; and they are fometimes left undifturbed,
and fuffered to fcatter their feeds without any effort being
made to prevent it, which is very injurious, and always to
be avoided as much as poffible. It is ftated too, that upon
breaking up a turf or fward, it is underftood in the writer's
neighbourhood, that unlefs a wheat fallow or a turnip crop
compofe a part of the tillage, the land will be injured, and
rendered fouler, and more addifted to produce weeds : this
notion is, it is believed, a juft one, though often deviated
from in praftice, for the fake of prefent profit, and under
the delufive idea of cleaning the land again next tillage. It
is, however, well afcertained, that land well gleaned by
former good management will beft bear this deviation ; for

and as the plants of this kind rife at two feafons, the pafture
or grafs fields fhould be weeded twice in the fummer, that
no feeds may be allowed to ripen. The roots fhould be
fully expofed to the heat and drought ; for if they be in a
moift place, they will continue to vegetate on the furface,
as they lie and ftrike out fide-roots into the ground. All
other inefculent herbage on paftures and other forts of grafs
grounds, and all weeds bearing feeds by the fides of roads,
ditches, brooks, and other fuch places, fhould be cut down
too, when they begin to flower, in order to prevent their
increafe by their feeds being difperfed over the grafs fields
and grounds.

The writer of the Gloucefterfhire Report on Agriculture,
in reprobating the praftice of confining the bufinefs of
weeding almoft folely to the tillage-lands, while the mea-
dows and paftures are almoft wholly neglefted, and over-
run with docks, thiftles, nettles, hemlock, and many other
fuch weed-plants, remarks, that it is fuppofed by the

the fewer weeds it contains at breaking up, the lefs will be farmers, that the fcythe will be early enough to cut them
the increafe of them during the tillage or after-culture of off: the feeds, however, are generally ripened and difperfed
the ground. before mowing time ; and if not, they are carried with the

The writer of the Elements of Agriculture noticed hay to the ftall, and mixed with the dung, or into the paf-
ture

WEEDING.

ture for fodder during the winter ; in either of which cafes
they cannot fail, it is fuppofed, of increafing greatly. Be-
fides, the mere cutting off this kind of weeds rather im-
proves than diminifhes their growth, by farcing them to
throw out new fhoots from the roots, and that in greater
abundance than before. Thus, a thiftle, which rifes at firft
with a fingle flem, if cut off above the furface of the ground,
fpreads with feveral lateral branches, and covers a large
fpace of ground. The moft likely method of deflroying
them is to draw tliem up by the roots, as already feen,
which may eafily be done when the ground is moifl, and is
Idone by thofe farmers there, it is faid, who are anxious for
their credit, nice in their herbage, and proud of feeing their
Ipaflures rivalling the neatnefs of a lawn. The negligence,
indeed, of a neighbour often operates as a difcouragement,
and it is an evil not eafily to be prevented : it is, however,
furprifing in another inflance, it is faid, to obferve an almoll
^unanimous encouragement given to the multiplication of
noxious weeds. In- the highways they are left to grow to
maturity, and their feeds are difperfed in iznmenfe quantities in
every direftion, and all over the country, by the wind, or by
being carried by birds. Under thefe circumftances, it is faid
to be certainly of little ufe for one, or even all the occupiers
of ground, to clear their lands of weeds, while this plentiful
fource of them remains unmolefted. One fhould fuppofe,
the writer obferves, that the evident mifchief refulting from
this negleft would excite a general combination againil thefe
deftruftive enemies to the interefls of agriculture : that,
however, not being the cafe, might it not, it is allied, be
convenient to incorporate with the duty of the furveyors, or
overlookers of the roads, the bufinefs of cutting up, and
otherwife deflroying, fuch kinds of weeds within their dif-
trifts or boundaries ? Should the faft of the thoufand-fold
increafe of fuch felf-fown feeds be doubted or difputed, let,
it is faid, any one but obferve a patch on a common, from
which the turf or fward has been pared, how completely it
will be covered vi'ith thiftles in the following fummer ; and
the arable fields adjoiniijg are not much better, where this
negligence prevails.

And the writer of the paper on the fubjeft of weeding
ftates, that there is another caufe of the increafe and propa-
gation of weeds, which may be termed a public caufe, and
which it is not in the power of any individual to prevent ;
but which a flovenly, negleftful, or ill-difpofed perfon may
promote and increafe, and which can only be effeftually pre-
vented by zpolitical regulation, and for which, it is believed,
no provifion has yet been made in our political code : thus
are the numbers of vigorous and luxuriant weeds which
are fuffered to ripen their feeds in our hedges, paflures,
woods, and otlier lands, and the feeds of which being pro-
vided with feathery matters, are difperfed over the whole
territory of the kingdom, and propagate themfelves far and
near, growing in whatever places they alight and fettle, and
producing a mofl abundant crop : the moft common and
pernicious of which are fuppofed to be the different forts of
fow-thiflles, fow-uorts, common thiftles, colt's-foot, ground-
fels, knap-weeds, &c. For as the feeding and fcattering of
the feeds of all thefe forts of plants is clearly a pubhc nui-
fance, and as they are fubjeft to be carried to a great diftance
by the above means, and to do harm to the lands of all oc-
cupiers indifcriminately, they (hould, it is thought, be under
the controul of our political regulations. This would be
the effeftual means of preventing much labour and expence
to the farmer and the occupier, in the weeding of different
kinds of lands and crops, and at the fame time go a great
way in rendering the territory of the country ultimately clear
of a great proportion of its moft noxious and hurtful weeds.

Befides, regulations of the above kind have been applied m
different countries and places to weed-plants, which are much
lefs injurious and hurtful than thefe. See Weed, and the
above paper in the fifth volume of Communications to the
Board of Agriculture.

In fome cafes and parts of the country, the weeds in the
lefs heavy tillage-lands are deftroyed, by an entire and per-
feft fummer-fallow every third year, which is an effeftual
but expenfive method of proceeding ; but on the ftrong loams
and other heavy foils by good hoeing and hand-weedang the
drilled or fet crops of beans, peas, and fome other kinds.
On the fandy and other light loams, by well hoeing and weed-
ing by hand the crops of peas, potatoes, turnips, and fome
others. As foon as the peas or tares are off the land, the
ground is ploughed and well harrowed, and the root-weeds
picked or raked together, and burned or otherwife difpofed
of, as noticed above ; which is moftly repeated after the
crofs-ploughing and harrowing have been performed. The
ground being then in a great meafure free from root-weeds,
the turnips are fown, and the feed-weeds that may arife de-
ftroyed by twice or oftener hand-hoeing and weeding. This
fort of praftice being repeated or put in execution once in
three or four years, is capable of keeping light land tolera-
bly clean and free from weeds. However, in the cafe of a
hot dry fummer, the labour and expence of raking, coUeft-
mg, picking, and burning the weeds, may not unfrequently
be faved, and the roots deftroyed, by only harrowing them
to the furface after every ploughing ; and by that means
expofing them well to the heat of the fun for a fufiicient
length of time to kill them, which is fometimes effeftually
done in the courfe of a week. Care muft, however, always
be taken that they are fully and completely deftroyed, other-
wife much mifchief may be the confequence, as they are
extremely tenacious of life.

In all cafes, where the ftaple or vegetable mould of the
foil is of a fufBcient depth to admit of trench-ploughing,
that fort of ploughing, with the affiftance of heavy rolling,
and other proper means, will in fome circumftances com-
pletely deftroy root-weeds. In fome cafes, it is even more
effeftual for that purpofe, it is faid, than any greater num-
ber of ploughings, and is an excellent method, where it can be
accomplilhed without turning up a poor barren fubfoil. The
great utility and importance of it in cleaning garden-grounds
have been already feen, and it is fuppofed to be equally be-
neficial in deftroying weeds, and preferving the foil moift
in the moft drying weather of the fummer feafon. See
TRENCH-P/oa^^V/f, and Trenching. Alfo Ridging-k/i.

The work of weeding in all cafes fhould be begun fufS-
ciently early in the fpring, that the weeds may not be in
too forward a ftate, and the bufinefs, in whatever way it is
undertaken, be effeftually and completely performed, with-
out any fort of omifTion or negleft. In the meadows and
pafture-lands it fhould be equally attended to as in the corn-
fields, as in all fituations weeds are a very great drawback
upon the farmer's profit, and of vaft inconvenience in many
different ways.

It is prefumed by the writer of the paper on weeding,
that if the above propofed regulations, precautions, and me-
thods of deftroying injurious plants were generally adopted
in praftice, they would render the Britifh empire as free
from weeds as thofe of China and Japan.

It may be concluded that, on the whole, by great, unre-
mitted, and proper attention, with fome fuch regulations as
the above, to the extermination and deftruftion of all forts
of ufelefs and hurtful weeds in cultivated grounds, and from
meadows and paftures, the growth of injurious and worth-
lefs plants may be prevented, and the arable crops be ren-
dered

WEE

WEE

dered much more abundant and produftive than they ufu-
ally are, and thofe of the grafs kind be provided with a
better and more ufeful herbage for the fupport of hve-ftock
of all kinds, which would greatly contribute to the farmer's
profit and advantage.

WEEDlNG-Ci//f/, in Agriculture, an ufeful tool with a di-
vided chifel point for cutting the roots of large weeds within
the ground. See WEKD-Hooi.

Weeding Doch-Spit, the tool ufed in extirpating weeds
of the dock, thiftle, and other fuch large kinds which are to
be got up by the roots. It is a fort of crow or lever, with
a claw at the bottom end of it, a little curved forward, and
divided into two fide parts, in fomewhat the manner of the
thin end of a common hammer ufed for drawing nails : it
has an arm or tread which projefts at about eight or ten
inches from the lower end, for the foot to reft firmly upon
in forcing it into the ground, and at a little diftance above
it, on the back fide, a curve of iron, projefting about three
inches ; on the upper or top end, a handle is fixed, and faf-
tened as in the common fpade : in ufing it the claw feizes the
TOOt of the plant, and, by a gentle preffure of the handle end
downwards, in the manner of the lever, eafily and readily
draws or forces it out of the ground : by means of this
fimple implement or contrivance, many hundreds of fuch
weed-plants may be eradicated or drawn out in the courfe
of a day. It has fometimes the names of weeding-fpud or
fpade, and dock-fpit or fpud given it. See Weeding.

W-EEViltiC- Forceps, or Tongs, the tool of the nipper kind,
which is made ufe of for taking up fome forts of plants in
weeding corn and other crops, fuch as fmall thiftles of dif-
ferent kinds, fmall docks, and various other fuch weeds. It
feizes them by the mouth part, which is fixed upon them by
means of the long handles in ufing it, and readily forces them
up. See Th 1ST le-Z) rawer.

WEEDlNG-For;f, a ftrong three-pronged fork of the fork
fort employed for working root-weeds in tillage-lands,
and forking out the weeds of the fame kind in garden-
grounds ; in both which cafes it is a very ufeful and effeftive
tool. It is fometimes made with fiat prongs, and termed a
fpud in plantation-grounds. See Fork.

Weeding-WiVi, an implement which is conftrufted dif-
ferently to fuit different purpofes, but that which is made
■with a frame fomewhat like that of the common wheel-
barrow, is confidered the beft in the county of Kent, where
tools of this fort are much ufed in the plantation-grounds
for different crops. It is a verv ufeful and convenient tool
for the purpofe of tearing up weeds on fummer-fallows, and
in many other cafes. Its cheapnefs too is a great recommen-
dation of it, as it is capable of being well conftrudled for
about two pounds. See Harrow, &c.

Weeding-5^u(/. See Weeding Dock-Sp'U fiipra.

WEEDS, in Mining, a term ufed by our Englifh diggers
to exprefs anv fort of unprofitable fubftance found among
the ores of metals. They feem to have borrowed the
phrafe from the gardeners ; and as every thing with them
is a weed, except what they have planted, and expeil to
gather, fo every thing is a weed with the miners, except
the thing they are finking for. See Digging.

The principal fubflances known in our mines under the
name of weeds, are mundic or marcafite ; this is of three
forts, white, yellow, and green ; daze, a kind of glittering
talcky ftone, of the telaugium kind, which endures the
fire, and is of various colours and hardneffes ; iron-moulds,
or pyritae ; caul, which is brownilh and fpongy ; and
glifter, which is a fort of talc. Phil. Tranf. N° 69.

Weeds alfo denote a peculiar habit, worn by the relifts
of perfons deceafed, by way of mourning. See Mourning.

WEEK, Septimana, hebdomada, in Chronology, a divifion
of time, comprifing feven days.

The origin of this divifion of weeks, or of computing
time by fevenths, is greatly controverted. Some will have
it to take its rife from the four quarters or intervals of the
moon, between her changes of phafes, which, being about
feven days diftant, gave occafion to the divifion. Be this
as it will, the divifion is certainly very ancient. The
Syrians, Egyptians, and moft of the oriental nations, ap-
pear to have ufed it from all antiquity : though it did not
get footing in the Weft till Chriftianity brought it in : the
Romans reckoned their days not by fevenths, but by ninths ;
and the ancient Greeks by decads, or tenths.

Indeed, the Jews divided their time by weeks, but it was
upon a different principle from the other eaftern nations.
God himfelf having appointed them to work fix days, and
to reft the feventh, in order to keep up the fenfe and re-
membrance of the creation ; which, being effefted in fix
days, he refted the feventh.

Some authors will even have the ufe of weeks, among
the other eaftern nations, to have proceeded from the Jews ;
but with little appearance of probability. It is with better
reafon that others fuppofe the ufe of weeks, among the
heathens of the Eaft, to be a remain of the tradition of
the creation, which they had ftill retained with divers
others.

This is the opinion of Grotius, De Veritat. Relig. Chrift.
lib. i., who like wife proves, that not only throughout the
Eaft, but even among the Greeks, Itahans, Celtse, Sclavi,
and even the Romans themfelves, the days were divided
into weeks ; and that the feventh day was in extraordinary
veneration. This appears from Jofeph. adv. Apion. II.
Philo. de Creatione. Clem. Alexar.d. Strom, lib. v. Though
Helmoldus, hb. i. cap. 84. Philoftratus, hb. iii. cap. 13.
Dion. lib. xxxviii. TibuUus, Lucian, Homer, CaUima-
chus, Suetonius, Herodotus, &c. who mention the fepte-
nary divifion of days as very ancient, fuppofe it to have
been derived from the Egyptians.

The days of the week were denominated by the Jews,
from the order of their fuccefTion from the fabbath. Thus,
the day next after the fabbath, they called the Jirjl of the
fabbath ; the next, the fecond of the fabbath ; and fo of
the reft ; except the fixth, which they call parafceve, or
preparation of the fabbath.

The like method is ftill kept up by the Chriftian Arabs,
Perfiaiis, Ethiopians, &c. The ancient heathens deno-
minated the days of the week from the feven planets ;
which names are ftill generally retained among the Chrif-
tians of the Weft. Thus the firft day was called Sun-day,
dies fulis ; the fecond Moon-day^ dies lunx, &c. a praftice
the more natural on Dion's principle, who fays, the
Egyptians took the divifion of the week itfelf from the
feven planets.

In effeft, the true reafon of thefe denominations feems
to be founded in aftrology. For the aftrologers diftri-
buting the government and direftion of all the hours in the
week among the feven planets, 'jlf(?0?5 D,
fo as that the government of the firft hour of the firft
day fell to Saturn, that of the fecond day to Jupiter, &c.
they gave each day the name of the planet, which, accord-
ing to their doftrine, prefided over the firft hour thereof;
and that, according to the order fpecified above ; and which
is included in the following technical verfe.

Pojl SIM SUM feguitur, pallida 'Lunafubejl.

Wherein, the capital letters SIM SUM, and L, are the
initial letters of the planets. So that the order of the

planets

WEE.

jilanets in the week, bears little relation to that in which
they follow in the heavens : the former being founded on an
imaginary power each planet has, in its turn, on the firft
hour of each day.

1 Dion. Caflius gives another reafon of the denomination,
fetched from the celeftial harmony. For it being obferved
that the harmony of the diateflaron, which confifts in the
ratio of 4 to 3, is of great force and effeft in mufic ; it
was judged meet to proceed direftly from Saturn to tlie
Sun ; becaufe, according to the old fyftem, there are three
planets between Saturn and the Sun, and four from the
Sun to the Moon.

' Our anceftors the Saxons, before their converfion to the
Chriftian faith, named the feven days of the week from
the Sun and Moon and fome of their deified heroes, to
whom they were peculiarly confecrated, which names we
received and ftill retain : thus Sunday was devoted to the
Sun ; Monday to the Moon ; Tuefday, according to fome,
to Tuifto or Tuifco, mentioned by Tacitus ; but, according
to others, to Thyfa or Dyfa, the wife of Thor, and the
goddefs of jullice ; or, according to others, to Tyr ; Wed-
nefday to Woden, the god of war ; Thurfday to Thor,
'who prefided over the air, and was fuppofed to govern the
winds and clouds ; this is the fame with Lucan's Taranis,
Similar to the Welfh word for thunder ; Friday to Friga
or Frtea, the wife of Thor, and the goddefs of peace and
plenty ; and Saturday to Seater, called alfo Orodo, to
iwhom they prayed for proteftion, freedom, and concord,
and for the fruits of the earth. The origin of the lall ap-
pellation, however, is doubtful ; as fome have obferved,
that the name Seater is not mentioned by any writer before
Verftegan. See Verftegan's Reftitution of decayed Intel-
ligence, p. 68. Junii Etym. Angl. and Mallet's North.
Ant. vol. i. p. 91, &c.

To find the accomplifhment of Daniel's propliecy of the
;Meffiah, the deftruftion, rebuilding, &c. of the temple,
chap. ix. ver. 24, &c. the critics generally agree to under-
ftand lueeks of years, inftead of weeks of days.
I Accordingly, Dr. Prideaux, fixing the end of thefe
|weeks at the death of Chrift, in the year of the JuUan
Iperiod 4746, and in the Jewifh month Nifan, dates their
(commencement in the month Nifan, in the year of the
Julian period 4256, which was the very year and month
in which Ezra had his commiflion from Artaxerxes Lon-
;gimanus, king of Perfia, for his return to Jerufalem,
'there to reftore the church and ftate of the Jews. And
I thus he finds, that from the one period to the other, there
I were exactly 70 weeks of years, or 490 years. Conned.
I vol. ii. p. 381, &c.
j Weeks, Ember. See Ember.
1 Weeks, Feajl of. See Pentecost.
I Week, Pajjlon, or the Holy Week, is the laft week in
I Lent, in which the church celebrates the myllery of our
I Saviour's death and paffion.

This is alfo fometiraes called the^r^a/ iveek. Its inftitution
I is generally referred, both by Proteftants and Papifts, to
I the times of the apoftles. All the days of that week were
^ held as falls ; no work was done on them ; no juftice was
! diftributed ; but the prifoners were ordinarily fet at liberty,
j &c. even pleafures, otherwife allowed, were at this time
I prohibited. The ofculum charitatis was now forborn : and
I divers mortifications praftifed by all forts of people, and
j even the emperors themfelves.
i Week, Rogation. See Rogation.
I Week, or Wich of a Candle, &c. the cotton match in a
I candle or lamp. See Candle, Lamp, &c.
I WEEK-Fi/h, in Ichthyology, a nan;i« given by fome to a

WEE

very delicate fiih, caught on the Eaft Indian fhores, asd
called by the Dutch there the luit-vifch. See WiT-Fj/Ij.

Weekly Markets and Fairs, in Agriculture, are of con-
fiderable ufe and convenience to the farmer and land-owner,
as affording the ready means of purchafing, providing, and
furnifhing them with the different articles they are conti-
nually in need of, as well as the various forts and defcrip-
tions of cattle and other Uve-ftock, which are always
wanted in fuch cafes ; as they are common in moil large
towns, the former once or oftener in the courfe of the
week, and the latter in fome iiiftances in that time, and at
more diftant periods. They give the means, too, of readily
difpofing of all forts of produce and Hock of the farm kind,,
which is often a very great accommodation and advantage
to the farmer and ftore-niailer, as is fully feen in the weekly
market of Smithfield in the metropolis, as well as in many
particular markets and fairs in the country, as at Liverpool,
Lancailer, Garftang, and many other towns in the north ;
and at Uxbridge, Reading, Chelmsford, Petworth, and a
variety of other towns in the fouth. See Owen's Book of
Fairs, &c.

WEELING, Anselm, in Biography, born at Bois-le-
Duc in 1675, was an imitator of Godfrey Schalken and
Adrian Vanderwerf; but particularly of the former; and
many of his produttions have been taken for pidlui'es by
that mafter. He died in 1749.

WEELS, in Geography, a river of Germany, which
rifes in the duchy of Oldenburg, and joining the Ochte, in
the county of Delmenhorll, falls into the Wefer, 8 miles
N.W. of Bremen.

WEEN. See HwEN.

WEENINX, John Baptist, in Biography, an excellent
artift, was born at Arafterdam in 1621, the fon of John
Weeninx, an artill of confiderable celebrity. He loft his
father when he was very young, and was placed by his
mother with a bookfeller ; but his taile for painting mani-
felling itfelf decidedly, he was allowed to indulge it, and
was placed as a difciple with John Micker, and afterwards
with Ab. Bloemart. He made a rapid progrefs, and drew
with fuperior power the principal buildings in Amfterdam
and its vicinity. Animals, birds, huntings, &c. he was
Ikilled in reprefenting, and he foon began to paint his
fubjefts with fuccefs. He left Bloemart, and ftudied a
fhort time with Moojaert ; but when he was 18, he found
himfelf fufficiently ellabhflied to truft to himfelf, and his
piftures were favourably received.

A defire to improve led him to Rome, where his talents
recommended him to many of the principal perfonages ;
among others, the cardinal Pamphili gave him a penfion,
and honoured him with many commiflions : he would fain,
indeed, have retained him at Rome, but the fohcitations of
his family, and his natural defire of exhibiting his power
among his countrymen, induced him to return to Holland,
after an abfence of four years. On his return, he found
abundant admiration and employment, which, indeed, he
very well merited, as his extraordinary facility in painting
a vaft variety of fubjefts has rarely been equalled. He
painted hiftory, portraits, landfcapes, fea-ports, animals, and
dead-game ; but he particularly excelled in Itahan fea-
ports, enriched with noble architedlure, and decorated with
figures. There is a very beautiful fpecimen of his power
in the gallery of Cleveland-houfe, which in Britton's Cata-
logue is numbered 243. He unfortunately died very young,
in 1660, being only 39 years old.

WEENINX, John, fon of Baptift, mentioned above,
was born at Amilerdam in 1644, and was inftrufted in
painting by his father until he was i6 years of age, when

he

WEE

WEE

he had the misfortune to lofe that able inftruftor. His
talent was not of fo general a nature as that of his father ;
but in birds, flowers, animals, and fruit, he has feldom been
furpaflTed for the boldnefs, animation, and correftnefs of
touch, or the briUiancy and clearnefs of colour, as well as of
chiaro-ofcuro. The eleilor John William invited him to
his court, and many of his moft confiderable produftions
are at the gallery of Ihiffeldorf. He decorated a hunting
feat of the eleftors, the chateau of Benfberg, with a feries
of hunting of the boar and the ftag, in which he difplayed
his fliill and tafte with brilliant effed. His fmaller works are
exquifitely finiflied, yet with great breadth, and defervedly
efteemed. He died in 1 7 19, at the age of 75.
WEEPER, in Zoology. See Simia Capucina.
WEEPING, in Phyfiology. See Lungs and Tears.
WEEPlNG-/?of/f, in Agriculture, that fort of laminated,
or porous, open rock, through which water palfes in a flow,
gradual, weeping manner. Strata of this kind are not un-
frequently very troublefome in the praftice of draining.
See WALL-Spring and SpRiHG-Drain'mg.

WEEPltiG-Spring, that fort of difcharge of water from
the internal parts of the earth which is produced in a very
flow weeping manner. The draining of fprings of this fort
is fometimes not attended with much difficulty, while in
other cafes they are often very troublefome. See Spring
and SpRiyG-Draining.
WEEK. See Weir.

WEERAWAU, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
on the borders of the defert of Cutch ; 40 miles W. of
Buddakano.

WEERDT, or Werdt, a town of Germany, in the
bilhopric of Munfl:er, on the Old Iffel ; 40 miles W. of
Munfter. N. lat. 51° 52'. E. long. 6^ 33'.

WEERT, or Wert, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Meufe ; 10 miles W. of Ruremond.
N.lat. 5i°i7'. E. long. 5"= 43'.

Weert, Nieder, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Meufe; 10 miles S.W. of Venlo.

WEESDALE, a town of the ifland of Shetland ; 6
miles N.W. of Lerwick.

WEESENSTEIN, or Wesenstein, a town of Sax-
ony, in the margraviate of Meiflen ; 5 miles S.W. of
Pirna.

WEEVER. SeeWEVER.

Weever, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name for the fi{h
called by Willughby and other authors the draco-marlnus,
or fea-dragon.

Belon fays, that this name is a corruption of the French
la ■vive, becaufe this fifh is capable of living long out of the
water.

Mr. Pennant defcribes another fpecies, under the name of
the great weever, the draco major, or araneus of Salvian,
which inhabits the fea near Scarborough. Brit. Zool. vol. iii.
p. 171.

WEEVIL, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a fmall m-
feiSt which does great damage in magazines of corn, by
eating into the feveral grains, and deftroying their whole
fubftance.

This creature is fomewhat bigger than a large loufe, and
is of the fcarab or beetle kind, having two pretty, jointed,
tufted horns, and a trunk or piercer, projefting from the
fore part of its head : at the end of this trunk, which is
very long in proportion to its body, there is a fort of for-
ceps or iharp teeth, with which it gnaws its way into the
heart of the grain, either to feek its food, or to depofit its
eggs there.

By keeping thefe creatures alive in glafs tubes, with a

few grains of wheat, their copulation and manner of gene-
ration have been difcovered. The female perforates a
grain of wheat, and in it depofits a lingle egg, or, at the
utmoft, two eggs ; and this fhe does to five or fix grains
every day, for feveral days together. Thefe eggs, which
are not larger than a grain of fand, in about a week pro-
duce as odd a fort of white maggot, which wriggles its
body very much about, but is very httle able to move from
place to place : this, in about a fortnight, turns to an au-
relia, from which is produced the perfeft weevil. This de-
ftruftive creature is itfelf very fubjeft to be deftroyed, and
when in the egg or aurelia ftate, it is very fubjeft to be
eaten by mites. Baker's Microf. p. 221. Leewenhoeck,
torn. iv. ep. 76.

It is ftated in a feries of communications which contain
different interefting particulars, inferted in the appendix to
the Correfted Report on the Agriculture of the County of
Middlefex, that J. L. Banger, efq. of the ifland of Ma-
deira, has found that iteaming fuch grain as is infelfed with
the weevil has the effeft of preferving it. In comparing
the method ufed by another perfon with his, on portic -s of
the fame cargo of grain, the quantity or weight was greater
in the latter ; but the moft. effential difference was in the
quality, which in the former was almoft unfaleable, while in
the latter, or that of fteaming, it was better and fweeter
than when firft received. The produce of grain from the
ifland of St. Michael it is found cannot be preferved fo long
a time as that which is imported from any other country,
though the manner of keeping it there, which might throw
fome light upon the fubjeft, is not known : of this the
writer has recently obtained fufficient experience, it is faid,
by having ordered a part of a cargo of grain to be placed in
a flore which had lately been ufed witli that ifland wheat ;
and from this caufe, in a very fhort time, had become badly
infedled with the weevil. Another purchafer of a part of
the fame cargo, too, is, from a fimilar caufe, a fufferer.
The writer has not, however, much anxiety about it, as the
grain he purchafed and fteamed once on the iirft of January,
and again on the firft of June, is now, (the time of writing,)
in perfeft prefervation, and free from the weevil. The In-
dian corn too, that was purchafed then in March laft, at
which time it was very full of the infeft, is at prefent free
and perfeft, it is faid, without a fecond heating. It is in-
tended palling it again through the fteam, however, it is faid,
as foon as the apparatus is properly fixed, when no doubt is
made of its keeping through the year. In examining the
particular tendency that the grain lately arrived has to the
generation of the infeft, the writer has imagined it in fome
meafure to proceed from the embargo laid upon American
veffels having obliged the merchants in the different fea-ports
to keep their granaries fo full as to have heated the grain ;
though he has fome reafon to think that the months of March
and September are attended with peculiar circumftances re-
fpefting the increafe of the weevil.

It is found that by the confumption of one hundred
pounds weight of coals in a kitchen portable fteam appara-
tus, three moys, or feventy-two Englifh bufhels of grain can
be fteamed in the common hours of work of one day.

The writer had then lately ffeamed a granary of fixty
moys, or one thoufand four hundred and forty Enghfh
bufhels, in about three weeks. The wafte of grain, not
badly infefted with the weevil, is found to be one per
cent, in weight in one month, and the increafe fo rapid, that
if proper precautions be not taken, in lefs than fix it will
be rendered totally unfit for ufe ; and that in the Wefl
Indies the writer is fatisfied from his own experience, that
three months will be equal, in deflruftion to the grain, to

that

W E G

that of fix months in the temperate climate in which he
' writes. Perhaps, it is faid, no part of the globe would ex-
perience fo much benefit from the ufe of fteam as a rice
: country.

The writer having, by fubftituting copper tubes for thofe
'of tin, which were at firft employed, but tinned to prevent
'mifchief, atlaft fucceeded in getting them fufficiently tight,
[proceeded better in his trials : the fteamed rice remained
ifree from duft, and it is fuppofed that fteam may be ren-
idered very ferviceable in feparating the hulk from the grain
in that cafe, as well as in barley, &c. ; nay, that it may be
'extended to flax, and many other articles.

The attention of the writer more lately has been particu-
larly attrafted, by finding fome grain that had been fteamed
:i.j grow, when fown, in repeated trials ; and from the
very flourifhing ftate of what is come up, and his own ob-
servations, he is led to think that the blight in wheat might
ibe materially prevented by having it fteamed before it is
ifown. It was afterwards difcovered that the flourilhing
(condition of the wheat fown after fteaming furprifed every
•one who faw it ; and it is thought to be an objed; worthy of
Iconfidcration.

' It was found, on taking a certain quantity of wheat that
ihad been fteamed, and of fuch as had not, and fending them
to the mill, that there was an increafe of nearly five per
'cent, in the bread produced from the wheat that was

I ifteamed : but it is not certainly known if this difference
would have arifen, if the latter had been dried in the fun or
an oven, as fometimes praftifed there, but which is trouble-
fomc. The beft bread made there is, it is faid, from a mix-
ture of fine American flour and ifland wheat ; ard the
iwriter has no doubt, that if a baker was to make ufe of
llleam, he might, in the proportion of wheat in the quar-
Itern loaf, fave from five to ten per cent.
' The writer intends to try the advantages to be gained by
fteaming feeds to be fent to foreign countries. Bifcuit, he
is convinced, may be kept any length of time by it ; but
from its fize, the operation of fteaming it is confiderably
(more difficult than grain. Wheat provided in any way, in

i general, it is faid, gets better and more free from the weevil

|by fteaming. See the Paper.

; The weevil, too, is faid to be very injurious and deftruftive

Ito the wheat and Indian corn in America, fo that the means
of preventing it muft be of great utility and confequence.

; WEFERLINGEN, in Geography, a town of Weft-

^phalia, in the principality of Halberftadt, infulated in the
duchy of Magdeburg ; 25 miles N. of Halberftadt.

, WEFT, a kind of web, or thing woven ; as, a lueft or

'trefs of hair. See Web, Hair, Tissue, &c.

j Weft, or Woof, the crofs-threads of cloth. See

I Weaving.

I WEGELEBEN, in Geography, a town of Weftphalia,

iin the principality of Halberftadt ; 5 miles N. of Quedling-

iburg.

' WEGERSDORF, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ; 3

ImilesS. of Salfeldt.

: WEGG's Island, a fmall ifland in Hudfon's Bay. N,

1 lat. 63° 20'. W. long. 90° 25'.

I Wegg'j Lake, a lake of North America. N. lat. 50°

! 25'. W. long. 92° 25'.

I WEGGIS, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of

I Lucerne, and capital of a bailiwick, fituated on the north

I fide of the Lake of Lucerne ; 7 miles E. of Lucerne.

I WEGSTADEL, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of

j Leitmeritz ; 10 miles S.E. of Leitmeritz.

j WEGSTAID, or Vegestaid, a town of the biftiopric
of Paflau, infulated in Auftria ; 12 miles E. of Paffau.

I Vol. XXXVIII.

W E I

WEHAX, Lill, and Stou, two fmall iflands on the E.
fide of the Gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 4c'. E. lonir.
21° 7'.

WEHEN, a town of the principality of Nalfau Saar-
bruck Ufingen; lomiles N.N.W. of Mentz.

WEHLEN, or Wi aLAU, or Wehl-Stddtel, a town of
Saxony ; 5 miles S. of Pirna.

WEHMALAIS, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Abo ; 20 miles N. of Abo.

WEHNER, a town of Eaft Friefland ; 13 miles S. of
Emden.

WEHR, a river of the duchy of Baden, which runs into
the Rhine, 4 miles W. of Seckingen.

WEHRENDORF, a town of Weftphalia, in the
county of Ravenftjurg ; 5 miles W.S.W. of Vlothow.

V\/'EHRENSEE, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 6
miles N. of Luttenberg.

WEHRHEIM, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Naflau Dillenburg ; 18 miles S.S.W. of DiUenburg.

WEIBSTADT, a town of the duchy of Baden; 28
miles E.S.E. of Manheim. N. lat. 40° 17'. E. lomr.
8° 59'. ^

WEICHOLTZHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 6 miles N.N.E. of Schweinfurt.
WEICHSEL. See Vistula.

WEICHSELBURG, a town of Saxony, in the lord-
ftiip of Schonburg ; 14 miles N.N.W. of Waldenburg.

Weichselburg, or IVeixelburg, a town of the duchy of
Carniola ; 28 miles W. of Landftrafs. N. lat. 46° 5'. E.
long. 14° 15'.

WEICHSELMUNDE, a fort built to defend the city
of Dantzic, on the Viftula. In i 734 it was taken by the
Ruffians ; 4 miles N. of Dantzic.

WEICHTERSBACH, or Wechterbach, a town of
Germany, in the county of Ifenburg, on the Kinzig ; 23
miles E. of Francfort on the Maine.

WEICKERSBERG, or Weikersperg, a town of
Auftria ; 5 miles W. of Efferding.

WEICKERSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Hohenlohe, on the Tauber ; 23 miles N.N.E.
of Ohringen. N. lat. 49° 30'. E. long. 9° 58'.

WEIDA, a river of Silefia, which rifes on the confines
of Poland, and joins the Oder, near Breflau.

WEIDELBACH, a town of the principahty of An-
fpach ; 5 miles S.W. of Feuchtwang.

WEIDEMBERG, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; 7 miles E.S.E. of Bayreuth.

WEIDEN, a town of Bavaria, in the principality of
Sulftjach, on the Nab ; 17 miles N.E. of Sulfbach. N. lat.
49° 40'. E. long. 12° 3' — Alfo, a town of the bifliopric
of Bamberg ; 4 miles E. of Weifmain.

WEIDENBACH, a town of Germany, in the marg-
gravate of Anfpach ; 5 miles S. S.E. of Anfpach.

WEIDENBERG, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; 7 miles E.S.E. of Bayreuth. N. lat.
49° 55'. E. long. 11° 46'.

WEIDERAU, a town of Saxony, in the lordfliip of
Schonburg; 4 miles N.E. of Penig.

WEIERN, a town of Bavaria ; 23 miles S.S.E. of
Munich.

WEIF. See Waif.

WEIGEL, Erhard, in Biography, a German mathe- '
matician, was born at Weida, in Nordgau, in 1625, and
educated at Wenfiedel, whither his parents were obliged to
remove, on account of perfecution, when he was three years
old ; and afterwards at the Gymnafium of Haile, where he
enjoyed the advantage of being inftrufted in mathematics by

K k

Bartho-

W E I

W E I

Bartliolomew Schimpfer, a celebrated aftronomer. The
circutnftances of his parents obliging him to return to Wen-
fiedel, he there purfued his ftudies under an able tutor.
Afterwards, encouraged by Schimpfer, he fettled at Halle,
where his reputation drew to him many pupils, by whom
he was enabled to remove to Leipfic for farther improve-
ment ; fo that in 1653 he was invited to be profeffor of ma-
thematics at Jena. By favour of William, duke of Saxony,
he was appointed mathematician to the court, and chief di-
reftor of buildings ; and thus the latter years of his life
were chiefly employed in travelling. In the progreis of his
years he made many improvements in globes, and other in-
ftruments for facilitating the ftudy of allronomy. This in-
genious mathematician died in 1699. For a lift of his
works, which were many, we refer to his article in Gen.
Biog.

WEIGELIA, in Botany, a Japanefe genus, dedicated
by Thunberg to the honour of Dr. Christian Ehrenfried
Weigel, profeffor of Chemiftry in the univerfity of Gripf-
wald, in Upper Saxony, who publiflied at Berlin, in 1769,
when he was only 21 years of age, a Flora Pomirano-
Rugica ; but whofe fame, as a deep and learned pratlical bo-
tanift, chiefly refts on his Ohfervationes Botanica, publiflied
as an inaugural diflertation, under his prefidency, in 1772,
in quarto, with three plates. This work, from its rarity,
is not fo well known as it deferves to be. The author cor-
refponded with Linnxus, and communicated fpecimens of
his new or doubtful plants. — Thunb. Jap. 6. Nov. Gen.
C. Schreb. Gen. 113. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. i. 836. Mart.
Mill. Did. V. 4. JulT. 421. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 105. —
Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogyma. Nat. Ord. un-
certain. Juffieu fufpefts it may belong to his Apocinete, the
Contortte of Linnaeus ; an opinion which the infertion of the
ftyle at t)ie bafe of the germen feems to favour ; but the
ferrated leaves are a great, perhaps infupcrable, objeftion.
If we might fufpeft an error as to the iituation of the ger-
men, the genus would readily range itfelf among Juflieu's
Capr'ijoTia s but the fecond fpecies has more the charaftcr of
his Bignoni/i:, and renders it probable that Thunberg is
merely miftaken in his idea of the fimple nature of the
germen.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of five awl-fliaped,
ereft, equal leaves. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ;
tube the length of the calyx, internally hairy : Umb bell-
fliaped, cloven half way down into live ovate, obtufe,
(lightly fpreading fegments. Slant. Filaments five, inferted
into the tube, thread-lhaped, ereft, nearly as long as the co-
rolla ; anthers ereft, linear, obtufe, cloven at the bafe.
Pijl. Germen fuperior, quadrangular, abrupt, fmooth ;
ftyle from the bafe of the germen, thread-(haped, rather
longer than the corolla ; ftigma peltate, flat. Fruit un-
known. Thunberg fufpefted there was a folitary naked
feed.

Efl". Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped. Style from the bafe of
the germen. Stigma peltate. Calyx fuperior, of five
leaves.

I. W. japonica. Seflile -leaved Weigelia. Willd. n. i.
Thunb. Jap. 90. t. 16. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 331.
(Nippon Utfiigi ; Kasmpf. Am. Exot. 855.) — Leaves fef-
fde, ovato-lanceolate — Native of hilly fituations in Japan,
flowering in April and May. The Jlem is flirubby, with
oppofite, round, fmooth branches, (lightly quadrangular
when young. Leaves oppofite, feffile, pointed, copioufly
ferrated, an inch, or rather more, in length, veiny, fmooth
on both fides, except the veins, which are hairy ; paler be-
neath. Flower-flalis axillary, comprefTed, three-flowered,
longer than the leaves, with two awl-lhaped tradeas at the

bafe of each partial ftalk, and two more about half way
up. Flowers about an inch long, reddilh-purple. Thun-
berg's defcription, in the Flora Japonica, confounds both
fpecies together, and is therefore here neccffarily correfted.

2. W. cor^enjts. Large-flowered Weigeha. Thunb.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 331. Willd. n. 2. ( Korei Utfugi ;
Ksempf. Amoen. Exot. 855. Ic. Seleft. t. 45.) — Leaves
ftalked, obovate. — Native of Corea, from whence Kaemp-
fer fuppofes it was brought to Japan. He defcribes it as a
Jhrub with beautiful flowers, fmelling like cloves, and
changeable in colour, being fnow-white, flefti-coloured, and
red, on the fame plant. His excellent drawing, among
thofe engraved and diftributed through the munificence of
fir Jofeph Banks, throws more light upon this fpecies, and
indeed upon its genus, than any thing elfe we have met with.
It appears to be a climbing or trailing ^n;^, with round
branches, and oppofite ftalked leaves, very like thofe of the
Hydrangea hortenfis in fize and figure, being thrice the length
of the firft fpecies, and obovate with a point. Floiuer-
Jlalis axillary and terminal, three-flowered, an inch and a
half long, with awl-(haped bradeas. Tube of the corolla
(lender, above half an inch long, twice the length of the
calyx; limb bell-ftiaped, twice the length of its tube, di-
vided lialf way down into five broad, obtufe, horizontally
fpreading fegments. Stamens projecting beyond the mouth.
Anthers incumbent. Stigma large, peltate, flat. Nothing
appears refpeAing ihe germett, or its fituacion. We do not
clearly underftand the feeond of Ksmpfer's feparate
figures, which is perhaps an under view of the corolla.

WEIGELSDORF, in Geography, z town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Konigingratz ; 2 miles W. of Trautenau.

WEIGELSH AUSEN, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg ; 5 miles W.S.W. of Schweinfurt.

WEIGENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the lordfliip
of Schwarzenburg ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Schainfeld.

WEIGERST'ORFF, a town of Auftria ; 6 miles S.
of Wells.

WEIGH, Way, or Wey, IVaga, a weight of cheefe,
wool. Ice. containing two hundred and fifty-fix pounds
avoirdupois. Of corn, the weigh contains forty bufliels ;
of barley or malt, fix quarters.

In fome places, as Effex, the weigh of cheefe is three
hundred pounds. See Measure.

" Et decimam cafei fui de Herting, prxter unam peifam,
quE pertinet ad ecclefiam de A. Mon. Angl." where ^cj/a
feems to be ufed for a weigh.

Coke alfo fpeaks of weighs of bay -fait.

Vfv,iGH-Beams are fteel-yards for the weighing of goods
upon wharfs, &c.

WEIGHER, an officer in divers cities, appointed to
weigh the commodities bought and fold, in a pubhc ba-
lance, &c. Thefe weighers are generally obliged by oath
to do juftice to both parties ; and to keep a regifter of the
things they weigh.

In Amfterdam there are twelve weighers, eilablifhed into
a kind of office. As it was formerly allowed them to
touch the ftrings of the balance in weighing, it was eafy
for them to favour either the buyer or feller, according as
the one gave them more money than the other. To pre-
vent which abufe, it was charged on them, by an ordinance
of the burgomafters in 1719, not to touch the balance in
any manner whatever.

WEIGHGATT, in Geography, a name given to the
ftrait called Waygatt, (which fee,) from the wind which
blows through this ilrait [walkan, to blow,) becaufe a
ftrong S.W. wind blows out of it. It is alfo called Hin-
delopen. See Martens's Voyage, p. 27.

WEIGHING,

W E I

■ WEIGHING, the aft of examining a body in the ba-
" lance, to find its weight.

The diftillers in London weigh their veffels when full ;
and for a half hogfhead, which is thirty-one gallons and a
half, allow two hundred one quarter and eleven pounds for
the cade and liquor. For a puncheon, they allow fix hun-
dred one quarter and two pounds ; for a Canary pipe, eight
I hundred a half and feventecn pounds.

; WEiGHiNG-Cfl^f, in yigriculture, a fort of machine or
j contrivance which is made in fomewhat the form or manner
' of an open box or cage, by means of which any fmall ani-
1 mal, fuch as a pig, fiieep, calf, or any other of a fimilar
kind, may be yery eafily and expeditioufly weiglied, and
with fufficient accuracy and correftnefs for the purpofes of
the farmer, ftore-maller, and grazier. It is conftrufted on
the principle of the common fteel-yard. It has a Ilrong
wooden frame, on which there are fteel centres, in which
the pivots of the lever are hung. Upon the (hort fide of
the lever is fufpended a fort of coop, furrounded by Ilrong
oet-work, in which the animal intended to be weighed is
put and fecured ; the point of fufpenfion is connefted with
the coop by means of two curved iron-rods, which at the fame
time form the head of it. A common fcale, in which the
weights are to be put, is hung on the longer fide of the lever.
See Steel- r^zr^.

WEiGHiNG-C^a/r, a machine contrived by Sandlorius,
to determine the quantity of matter carried off from the
body, and that of food taken at a meal ; and to warn the
feeder when he had eat his quantum.

That ingenious autlior, having obferved, with many others,
that a great part of our diforders arifes from the excefs in
the quantity of our foods, more than in the quality thereof ;
as alfo how much a fixed portion, once well adjulled, vifould,
if kept to regularly, contribute to health ; bethought him-
felf of an expedient to that purpofe. The refult was the
weighing-chair : which was a chair fixed at one arm of a
fort of balance, wherein a perfon being feated at meat, as
foon as he had ate his allowance, the increafe of weight made
his feat preponderate : fo that, defcending to the ground, he
left his table, viftuals, and all, out of reach.

WEiGHiNG-i/oi{/J, a building furnirtied with a dock, and
conveniences for gauging or afcertaining the tonnage of
boats that are to be ufed on a canal.

WEiGHltSG-Machine for Turnpike Roads, in Mechanics, a
machine for weighing heavy bodies, and particularly wheel-
carriages. This is commonly done in order to afcertain if
a carriage is within the weight allowed by law to be car-
ried by fuch carriage on the tunipike-roads ; a weighing-
machine, or weigh-bridge, being fixed at every turnpike-
gate. See Turnpike.

Formerly immenfe machines were ufed for this purpofe :
the machine was erefted in an open building, beneath which
the road pafied, fo that a cart, waggon, or other carriage,
could be drawn under it ; ilrong chains were then pafi^ed
beneath the body of the carriage, to attach it to the extre-
mity of an immenfe fteel-yard. The fulcrum of the fteel-yard
was fufpended by a lever, or by pulleys and crane-work,
from the top of the buildmg ; and when the carriage was
properly fecured, the fteel-yard was hoifted up by the crane-
work, fo as to fufpend the waggon, and it could then be
weighed by applying the fliding-weight of the fteel-yard to
different parts of the divided bar. Several curious machines
of this kind are defcribed by Leopold, in his Theatrum
Staticnm, 1724.

This method was tedious and dangerous ; but when
lurnpike-roads became more common, a very fuperior ma-
chine was introduced, and we now find one at almoi every

WEI

turnpike-gate. It is called a weigh-bridge, becaufe the
carriage is drawn upon a wooden platform or bridge, which
is placed over a pit, made in the hne of the road, to contain
the machinery. The pit is walled withinfide, and the plat-
form is exaftly fitted to the walls of the pit ; but as it
does not touch the walls, it is at liberty to move freely up
and down. The platform is fupported by levers, placed
beneath it, and is exaftly level with the furface of the
road, fo that the carriage is eafily drawn on to it. This
is done without any difficulty or lofs of time, becaufe the
platform is in the dircft line of the road, and the carriage is
only required to ftop for a minute whilft its wheels ftand
fairly upon the platform, and the horfes ftand upon the folid
ground beyond the platform. A few fmall weights put into
a fcale, like that of a common balance, determine the weight
of the carriage and its load. If the weight of the carriage
is previoufiy known, the weight of the load may be found,
by dedufling the weight of the carriage from the total.

This weigh-bridge is placed at the fide of a fmall houfe,
which ufually ferves as a lodgement for the gate-keeper,
and the fcale is fituated within the houfe. The platform is
fupported by two double levers contained in the pit ; the ends
of thefe levers are borne up by a long horizontal lever, which
pafTes through one of the fide-walls of the pit, and enters
into the houfe : from the end of this lever, a fmall iron rod
is carried up to one end of a common fcale-beam or balance,
from the other end of which the fcale is fufpended. All
the levers are of the nature of fteel-yards, that is, the weight
or load of the bridge is applied upon the levers which fup-
port it, at points very near to their refpeftive fulcrums, or
centres of motion ; whilft the ends of thefe levers are fup-
ported, at a very confiderable diftance from their fulcrums,
by the long lever, and they bear upon this lever at a point
very near to its fulcrum ; but the counterbalancing force,
that is, the effort of the weights in the fcale, is applied to
the extreme end of the long lever, very far diftant from the
fulcrum. For this reafon, a fmall weight, as one pound
for inftance, placed in the fcale, will bear up a large weight,
for inftance, 60 pounds, or one hundred weight placed
upon the platform, according as the machine is conftruiSted.
This has an advantage, befides the convenience of fmall
weights, viz. that the platform with the carriage does not
fink down any perceptible quantity during the adlion of
weighing ; for when the weight in the fcale is brought 60
equilibrium with the load, any motion or fpace which the fmall
weight paftes through, when the fcale-beam vibrates, muft
be to the fpace which the platform and carriage pafs through
at the fame inftant, in the ratio of the load to the weight.
Sometimes, inftead of ufing a fcale-board and detached
weights, a long fteel-yard is employed, with a weight to^
flide along upon it to different diftances from tlie centre^
until it will counterbalance the load on the platform ; in
that cafe, the lever is graduated to ftievv the weight upon
the platform.

Salmon's Patent Weighing Machine. — This is very generally
ufed in the vicinity of London ; it points out the weight
on a dial.

Plate II., Engines, contains figures of a weighing ma-
chine of the beil kind. Fig. I. is a horizontal plan of the
levers contained in the pit, the platform being taken off to
expofe them. The under fide of the platform is fttewn at
fg. 2, zndjig. 3. is a vertical feftion of the whole machine.

E E [fg. 3. ) is the platform ; its upper furface is exaftly
level with the ground, and the edge of the planking of the
platform is fitted into a border or frame which furmounts
the fide walls of the pit, leaving a fmall crevice all round its
edges, fo that the platform does not touch the fixed frame,

K k 2 although

WEIGHING-MACHINE.

although it is very near to it. Tlie platform is compofed of
a ilroiig frame of wood (as (hewn in Jig. 2.), and the upper
iide is covered with wood planking. It is likewife defended
from wear, by iron-bars and large-headed nails, which are
fattened on the upper fide. Near each of the four angles
of the platform a piece of iron is fixed, as fliewn by b; and
it is on thefe four points that the platform is borne. When
the platform is put in its place, thefe pieces of iron apply to
the pins bb yfig' i.), which are fixed in four ftrong iron
levers, marked A A, B B. Each of thefe levers is fup-
ported at the extreme end c, on a fulcrum or centre-pin
refting on a metal fupport, as fhewn in Jig. 4, which is
borne by a piece of timber 0 0, worked into the walls of the
pit at the angle. At the oppofite ends the levers A A are
brought together, and B B the fame, fo that all four meet
in two points a a, and by means of links, fhewn in Jig. 5,
are all connefted with a long lever CC. This refts on a fup-
port or fulcrum D, borne by a pillar eredled from the bot-
tom of the pit. The end of the lever at I is received be-
tween two uprights to guide it, but do not any way confine
its motion. In the common machine, it is from the extreme
end of the lever C D that the iron rod before mentioned is
carried up to the fcale-beam, or fteel-yard, as before de-
fcribed ; but the patent machine in the figure is differently
conftrufted in that part.

The fixed centres c, of the levers A A and B B, are at
the ends of thofe levers, and the points b b, on which the
platform bears, are very near to the centre c ; but the dif-
tance of the points a from c is nine times as great as from
c to b, confequcntly a force of one pound applied to lift up
the levers at the point a would balance nine pounds laid upon
the platform. In like manner the diftance from the point a
to the fulcrum D is only one-feventh part of the diftance
from the fulcrum to the end of the lever C ; hence, one pound
applied to lift up the end of the lever C would raife feven
pounds applied at the point a, and feven pounds applied at a
would balance fixty-three pounds placed on thg platform.
To weigh with a machine of this kind, if we ufe a fcale and
balance connefted with the end of the long lever, we mult
ufe weights which are only one fixty-third part of the marks
which they bear.

Mr. Salmon's machine operates in a much more perfeft
manner, by the help of a felf-adjulling balance-wheel, which
will weigh every different body, without employing any loofe
weights ; and it (hews the weight by means of an index and
dial, like that of a clock. To efFeft this, another lever or
itecl-yard FG is applied, whereof Fis the fulcrum, andy the
point from which a link C dcfcends to the end of the long
If ver C D. At the extreme end G, a flrap is attached to
afcend to the balance-wheel i /.

Now, as the diftance Fyis only one-tenth of the diftance
F G, one pound applied to lift up the end G would raife
ten pounds at f, or i o x 63 ^ 630 pounds placed on the
platform.

To draw the end G of the lever upwards, a thin leather
ftrap g is attached to it, and the upper end of this is coiled
round a fmall roller h, which is fixed upon an horizontal
axis, as is fhewn on a larger fcale in Jig. 7, where the axis
is marked b b. This is reduced to fmall pivots at the extre-
mities, which are borne by friftion-wheels a a, to render
its motion as free as pofTible. On the fame axis b is fixed a
■wheeli/, (feealfo_/j. 6.), and againll the arms of this wheel a
fpiral ledge is fixed, with a fufficient projeftion to admit a
fine filk line to wind upon the fpiral, when the wheel is
turned round. A weight k, which is fufpended to the line,
forms the counterbalance to the load placed upon the weigh-
bridge [(ecjig. 3. ), and the weight of the load is determined

6

by the diilance which the roller and wheel i are turned round.
This diftance is fhewn by an index c fixed on the extreme
end of the axis b, and pointing to different divifions engraved
round a dial, as fhewn in Jig- 6.

This fingle weight i can counterbalance all the different
weights which may be placed on the platform, becaufe the
line by which the weight /• is fufpended, when it winds
upon the circumference of the fpiral, continually applies
itfelf at a different diftance from the centre of the axis, fo
as to operate with greater force. Hence, when any weight
is placed upon the platform E, it preffes down the levers
A A and B B ; thefe deprefs the long lever C D, and this
again aftuates the lever F G, and draws down the ftrap g,
which unwinds from the roller on the axis b b, fo as to turn
it round, together with the wheel and fpiral. The weight
i winds upon the fpiral, but the fufpending line foon arrives
at that part of the fpiral where its radius is fufSciently
increafed, to enable the weight k to counterbalance the load
upon the platform ; the balance-wheel being then come to
an equilibrium, will move no farther, and the index points
out upon the dial the weight of the load upon the platform.
The fpiral originates in the central part, at a circle which
is of the fame diameter as the roller, upon which the ftrap ^,
_fg. 3. winds; and the weight i muft be equal to the fix-hun-
dred-and-thirtieth part of the weight of the platform and
levers A A, B B, when there is no weight upon it. When
the weight i hangs from this commencement of the fpiral, the
index c Hands at zero, as (hewn in Jig. 6. The fpiral is fo
made, that to turn it round fixty degrees vi'ill require one
ton weight to be laid on the platform, and every additional
ton will turn the wheel and index round another fixty
degrees, fo that the machine will bear fix tons before the
index makes a complete revolution. Each fpnce of fixty
degrees is divided into twenty parts, which reprefent hun-
dred weights ; and each one is fubdivided into halves or
quarters, which divifions are very apparent on a large dial.

In conftrufting a machine of this kind, evepy attention
muft be paid to accuracy in the centres of motion of the
different levers ; all thefe points (liould be made of fteel,
and hardened. The form of the centres fhould be that of a
fliarp edge, like a blunt knife, with the edge refting on a
furface of hard fteel, made rather concave, ({ee Jig. 4.)
Centres, or bearing points of this kind, made (harp, vvilJ
move with very little friftion ; and if the fteel is good, and
perfeftly hard, the edges will not become blunt in many
years' ufe. In all cafes, the bearing-pins with the fharp
edges muft be fixed in the levers ; becaufe if the levers were
made with plain furfaces, and to have (harp pins to bear
upon them, there would be no certainty as to the effeftive
lengths of the different levers, and they would vary in their
power whenever the fharp edge changed its place upon the
fupporting furface.

The four principal levers, A A, B B, are made double,
or with open loops at the ends, as (hewn in Jigs. I and 4 ;
two fteel pins are put throus;h the double part, one of
them marked c, being made with a (harp edge at the lower
fide, but the other, b, is fliarpened on the upper fide. The
former bears upon a fixed fupport faced witli hard fteel, and
the other receives the metal ftems, b,Jig. 2. which are fixed to
the underfide of the platform. The two levers, A A, are
joined together at the point a ; and the two levers, B B, are
alfo joined in a fimilar manner. Each pair of levers are
conr.efted by a crofs-bar, as (liewn in _fg. i , fo as to make
two triangles.

The ends p or s. Jig. 5. of the compound levers A A or
B B, where they join together, have a fcrew fitted through
them, as fhewn in_fig. 5 ; the ends of thefe fcrews are made

of

WEIGHING-MACHINE.

jf Heel, and fharp-pointed, in order to reft in a cup or If the load does not exceed the allowed weight, a cer.
ocket, r, of fteel, formed in the lower part of a loop or tain toll is charged for the carriage ; bot for all e:{cefs of
ink I. The upper end of the loop is fufpended upon a weight, a very heavy toil is charged on each hundred-
harp-edged pin fixed in the lever C D, Jig. I, which lever weight as a penalty, the amount of which is incr»afed in
s marked X and H in^f^. 5. The link belonging to the proportion to the quantity of over-'veight. (SeeTuRNPiKE, )
ever A A is fufpended on one end of this pin, and the It is a valuable prize for a gate-keeper to fiid a carriage
ither loop upon the other end of the fame pin. The lever overloaded.

" G is made juft the fame as a common lleel-yard. W ElGHina-Machinej for /mall Weights. Thefe are of

The fpiral, Jig. 6, muft be made very correftly in brafs, different conftruftions, according to the ufe for which they

nd the line which winds upon it fhould be very flexible, are intended.

nd of equal thicknefs. After every care has been taken In fome the weight of any body is determined by put-

3 make all parts of the machine very accurately, they muft ting loofe weights into an oppofite fcale, and thefe weights

e put together ; and known weights being laid upon the may be either equal weights to thofe which they are to

latform, the divjfions on the dial ftiould be laid down from denote, as in the cafe of a balance with equal arms, or

le pofitions of the index. If the dial is thus divided by the weights may be fmaller and applied to the longer arm

ftual experiment, the machine will weigh very accurately ; of an unequal balance, as iu the fteel-yard. The former is

by far the moft accurate, and from the facility of proving

ut its fenfibility will depend upon the (liarpnefs of the cen-
■es of the levers, and the hardnefs of the fteel. When it

in good order, the addition of a quarter of a hundred
eight to three or four tons, on the weigh-bridge, ought
> produce a motion of the index. In an average ftate
: the machine, it may be depended upon to within half
hundred weiglit.

Mr. Salmon had a patent for this machine in 1796, but
s invention is confined to the balance-wheel and fpiral, as
ewn in Jigs. 6. and 7. Thefe parts, feparated from the
■eat machine, make a very accurate and complete weighing
achine by themfelves, when inclofed in a box ; a common
ale, to contain the goods which are to be weighed, being
fpended from the lower ^end of the ftrap which winds
lund the roller.

The introdudtion of thefe index weighing-machines for
rnpike-roads is of great utility, to diminifh thofe inceffant
fputcs between the gate-keeper and the carriers refpett-
g the weight of their loads. In the common weighing-
achines, the weights, being loofe and of an arbitrary weigiit,
jy be changed or diminiihed by the gate-keefler to make
e loads appear greater ; and the carrier has no means of
tedling this fraud, except by unloading and weighing his
rgo in fmall quantities, which is fcarcely prafticable ;
ither can he be affured of the manner of weighing, even

the weights are juft. Another fource of uncertauity is,
lether the machine be in exaft balance when there is no
id on the platform ; for as the wood imbibes wet and he-
mes dirty, it makes confiderable variations in the balance

the machine. To put the machine in cquililjrio, a heavy
:ight is hung on the end of the lever C i^i^fig. 3, and can

placed nearer to or farther from the centre. This fhould
vays be adjuiled, but is frequently negledted, and is difR-
It of detection.

With the index-machine all thefe difficulties are avoided :
is conrtrufted by a maker whofe charadler is at ftake,
i when once truly made will continue in the fame ftate,
• the whole is locked up, fo that the gate-keeper cannot
ve accefs to the index. The only defect arifing from age
i wear is, that the index becomes lefs fenfiblc, and moves
ggifhly and by flarts. This the carrier can try at any time

preftlng his foot upon the platform ; and he can always
' if the index returns to zero when the load is removed ;
d if it does not, he can fee how much the machine is out

balance.

The law refpetting weighing carriages is an inducement

fraud in the gate-keepers ; a certain weight is allowed

adl of parliament to be carried by each defcription of
'riage, which weight is regulated according to the width

the carriage-wheels, the number of horfcs, and the fea-
1 of the year, whether winter or fununer.

ac
its accuracy by placing the weights in either of the fcales^
it has become the legal mode of weighing. Steel-yards are
accurate if carefully ufed, but afford many opportunities of
fraud in the hands of difhoneft perfons.

Mr. Medhurft's patent weighing-machine is very ufeful
in (hops and warehoufes, being more convenient than the
common balance and fcales, and having the fame property
of equal arms to the lever. The fcale-boards, inilead of
being fufpended from the arms of the balance, are fe-
curtly poifed between the arms of a double balance-beam,
and are placed at fuch a height as is moil coiivenient to re-
ceive the goods which are to be weighed. The weights are to
be put into the oppofite fcale, but can be put in either; and
the load on the oppofite one, if there is any doubt of the
accuracy of the balance.

When more confiderable weights are to be weighed, equal
w-eights are fo inconvenient, tbat fmall machines, fuch as are
ufed for carriages, are to be preferred for convenience, as
they require only fmall weights in the fcale.

There is another kind of weighing-machines which requires
no loofe weights, but fhews the weight by a pointer or index
upon a divided arch, or on a dial-plate.

The index and balance-wheel of Mr. Salmon's machine,
when detached, make a very complete weighing inftrumeat
of this kind, as before defcribed.

Other index machines aft with a pendulum : thus, the
fcale to receive the goods is fufpended from a lever, to which
a pendulous arm is attached with a heavy weight at the ex-
tretnitv to form a pendulum. The application of any weight
in the fcale tends to remove the pendulum from its vertical
pofition ; and it is a property of a pendidum to increafe in its
effort to return to the perpendicular, in proportion to the
diftance which it is removed from it. The quantity of de-
viation from the perpendicular is indicated by an index or
pointer to the divifions on an arch, and thefe divifions are
numbered to denote the weight. The machine ufed for
weighing hanks of cotton is of this kind, and apothecaries
fometim.'S ufe a fimilar inllrument.

Many of the index machines are made with fprings, which
are bent by the application of the weight ; and the degree
of their flexure, as determined by fome indexes, is an indica-
tion of the weight applied. Several machines of this kind
are defcribed in our article Dynanometer ; and although
they are rather differently conllructed, to fit them tor mea-
furing the ftrength of horfes, &:c. all of them may be con-
verted to weighing-machines, by applying a proper fufpend-
ing hook, with a fcale to receive the matter to be weighed.
A curious machine of this kind was made many years
ago by M. Hanin of Paris, and prefentcd to the Society
of Arts. The weight is determined by the degree to which

a femi-

WEI

a femicircular fteel fpring will be bent, when the weight is
applied to force the ends of the fpring to recede from eash
other. The quantity is (hewn by an index, which turns round
over a circular dial-plate, like a clock-hand. The principal
curiofity of this machine is, that the dial contains thirteen
concentric circles, each divided to {hew the weight in the de-
nominations of different countries ; -viz. on the two external
circles are divifions to fhew tioy and avoirdupois weight
in pounds ; within this is a circle to fhew the correfponding
number of Paris livres ; next Portuguefe arrobas, and Spa-
nj(h arrobas ; then Dutch, Swedifh, Danifh, and German
pounds ; fo that the inftrument becomes an univerfal table
for the ratios of thefe different weights.

WBlGHlT^C-Machiiie, in ylgricullure and Rural Economy,
a fort of machine or contrivance made ufe of for the pur-
pofeof weighing neat cattle and fome other kinds of animals
alive, as well as different other ufes. It is a machine which
is perfeftly fimple and eafy in its manner of conftruftion.
It has a beam of the fteel-yard kind, at the top of which is
a pin, on which the fufpenfion of the beam is made. There
is a counterpoife which is moveable along the beam by
means of a Aiding focket, on which is raifed an iron arm,
fupporting a wooden box or fcale to receive the coimterba-
lancing weights m the operation of weighing. There are
different levers, which are hung on a projeding pin of the
beam by one end, the other refting on an iron fupport.
There is a lid or platform, on which is placed the fubjeft to
be weighed ; to the under fide of this, at each corner, are
attached blocks, from which proceed iron pieces, fimilar in
form to the fupporting piece, but reverfed in pofition : by
means of thefe four pieces the hd or platform ftands with
its whole weight entirely on the lever ; other pieces apply-
ing themfelves to the levers at a fmall diftance nearer to the
centre of the machine than to the fupporting piece.

In the operation of weighing, the fubjeft to be weighed
being placed on the lid or platform, preffed by the different
pieces on the levers, which by their fufpenfion on the beam
determine it from its even pofition by a quantity propor-
tioned to the weight of the fubjeft, which is expreffed by
the counterbalancing weights required to be placed in the
box or fcale. See STt-l-h-Tard.

A machine of this nature is of vafl utility and import-
ance in the different fyftems of grazing, feeding, and fat-
tening various forts of live-flock and domeflic animals, ef-
pecially where they are carried on to any confiderable
extent, not only in afcertaining and marking the progrefs
which is made by the different animals, and in {hewing how
they pay for the ufe of any particular kind of food, or
what power and property it may have in promoting the fat-
tening procefs, but in many other ways.

Weighing-machines, conflrufted upon the fame plan as
thofe ufed on the public roads, are applicable, too, in the
above cafes, and many others of the rural kind, being ready
and convenient for fuch ufes.

Weighing of the Air. See Weight of Air.

Weighing Anchor, in Sea Language. See Anchor.

WEIGHT, in Phyftrs, a quality in bodies by which
they tend towards the" centre of the earth, or in a line per-
pendicular to its furface. Or, weight may be defined, more
generally, a property inherent in all bodies, by which they
tend to fome common point, called the centre of gravity ;
and that with a velocity in proportion as they are more or
lefs denfe, or as the medium through which they pafs is
more or lefs rare.

Weight and gravity are generally confidered as one and
the fame thing. Some philofophers, however, diflinguifh
gravity as the quality inherent in the body, and weight as

WEI

the fame quahty exerting itfelf according to its natural ten.
dency. See Gravity, Gravitation, and Density.

Sir Ifaac Newton demonftrates, ill. That the weights
of all bodies at equal diftances from the centre of the earth,
are direftly proportional to the quantity of matter that
each contains : whence it follows, that the weights of bo-
dies have no dependence on their fhapes or textures ; and
that all fpaces are not equally full of matter.

2dly, On different parts of the earth's furface, the
weight of the lame body is different, owing to the fphe-
roidical figure of the earth, which caufes the body on the
furface to be nearer the centre in going from the equa-
tor toward the poles : and the increafe in the weight is
nearly in proportion to the verfed fine of double the
latitude ; or, which is the fame thing, to the fquare of
the right fine of the latitude ; the weight at the equator
to that at the pole being as 229 to 230 ; or, the whole in-
creafe of weight from the equator to the pole, is the 229th
part of the former.

.3dly, That the weights of the fame body at different
diflances above the earth, are inverfely as the fquares of
the diflances from the centre, fo that a body at the diftance
of the moon, which is fixty femi-diameters from the earth's
centre, would weigh only the 3600th part of what it weighs
at the earth's furface.

4thly, That at different diflances within the earth or
below the furface, the weights of the fame body are di-
reftly as the diftances from the earth's centre : fo that, at
half way toward the centre, a body would weigh but half as
much, and at the very centre it.would have no weight at all.
5thly, A body immerfed in a fluid, which is fpecifically
lighter than itfelf, lofes fo much of its weight, as is equal to
the weight of a quantity of the fluid of the fame bulk with
itfelf. Hence, a body lofes more of its weight in a heavier
fluid than in a lighter one, and therefore it weighs more in a
lighter fluid than in a heavier one.

The foregoing principles laid down by Newton are uni-
verfally admitted as correft, with the exception of the pro-
portional weight of bodies on different parts of the earth's
furface ; for it is important to obferve, that he founded bis
calculation of the earth's ellipticity on the hypothefis of
its being homogeneous, w»hicli is not the cafe ; and hence
he makes the equatorial diameter greater than the polar
axis, as 230 to 229. But from the numerous experiments
fince made on the pendulum in different parts of the world,
the ellipticity is found to be not fo great.

By the inveftigations on this fubjeft by the marquis de
Laplace, (Mecanique Celefte, vol.ii. ) the ellipticity is found
to be ^4^; and the calculations and experiments of other
aftronomers concur nearly in this refult, making it on
an average about -^^-. lu our article Standard, we have
given tables of thofe determinations, and hkewife of the
principal experiments made on the pendulum in different
latitudes ; and we fhall here add fome further inveftigations
and new calculations, as effentially connefted with our fub-
jeft Weight, and of pecuhar intereft at the prefent
time. >

The chevalier Delambre, in his " Aftronomie," vol. iii.
p. 585, gives the following fimple and elegant expofition
of the pendulum, with other ufeful formula for finding the
earth's elhpticity, &c.

Let h be the height of the place of obfervation
above the level of the lea ; R, the radius of the earth ;
then the length of the pendulum is to be multiphed by

R + M' f 2Kh + h^\ 2 b

R

— = I +

R =

-y-

I +

R

Let

WEIGHT.

Let L be ihe length of the pendulum at the equator ;
for another latitude, it will be L + a fin.' H, fo that a is
theexcefs of t!ie polar pendulum above the equatorial pendu-
lum, H being the latitude of the place.

Let m and n be the two pendulums obferved in two very
different latitudes.

m = Li -f- (7 fin.' H,
n = L + a fin.' H',

- n = a (fin.' H - fin.' H') = a fin. (H - H') fin.

(H + H') : hence a = — ■ " ~ "

^ ^ ^ fin. (H - H') fin. (H + H')-

If there be a greater number of fimilar equations, put in
each the numerical value of fin.- H, and determine the two
conftant quantities, L and a, by the fum of the obfervations,
employing, if you think proper, the method of the fmaller
fquares.

Now the ellipticity is proved to be 0.00865 '-- We

have then a value of the ellipticity, which may be compared
with that of the degrees. It was in this manner that M.

Mathieu found the ellipticity to be -, by the fix ac-

298.2

tual meafurements of the pendulum made on the meridian
from Dunkirk to Formentera. So far Delambre.

From the above equations and formula it is manifeft, that
if L, the length of the equatorial pendulum, and a, the dif-
ference between it and the polar pendulum, be known, all
other queftions connefted with the fubjeft may be accurately
determined j and hence it is, that the important problem of

meafuring the pendulum has long engaged, and dill con.
tmues to command the attention of the firft aftronomers in
Europe.

Laplace, in the Mecanique Celefte, gives the following
values of L and a; viz. o'".99o63i63i 4- o™. 005637
fin.' latitude, from which formula the lengths of the pen-
dulum may be computed in all latitudes ; but the fame
learned author has recently publiftied another formula in the
Connoiffance des Tems (1820, page 442), which is thus
given.

" Mathieu, by a new difcuffion of all the obfervations of
the pendulum, in ufing the refults of Borda's experiments
reduced to the level of the fea, finds the following expreffion
of the length of the pendulum,

o"". 990787 + o'".oo53982 fin.= latitude.

" In this expreffion I have diminifhed by the two-thou-
fandth of a millimetre the refult of Borda upon this length,
for the correAion of the radius of the cylinder, which formed
the knife edge ; a radius which I value at eight thoufandths
of a millimetre.

" The experiments now about to be made with particular
oare, in the two hemifpheres, will fhed new light on the co-
efficient of the fquare of the fine of the latitude, or on the
variation of weight on the furface of the earth."

From the above formula we have computed the following
table, and have found the earth's ellipticity to be ~-'-j. By
this alfo the increafe of the weight of a body from the
equator to the poles is tJ-b of the whole, wherfas that de-
duced from the Mecanique Celefte is -rf,-, which propor-
tion has been adopted by Poiflbn, Biot, and other writers
on the fubjeft.

Table ffiewing the comparative Weight of Bodies on different Parts of the Earth's Surface, with the proportional
Length of the Seconds Pendulum, and alfo its daily Number of Vibrations in each Latitude : fuppofing it corred
at the Greenwich Obfervatory, that is vibrating 86400 Seconds in 24 Hours.

Dfgiees of LalimJe.

Weight of 1 oolb.

in
different Latitudes.

Lenglli of the Pendulum.

Nuniher of
Vibrations in
each Latitude.

Metres.

Engliili Inches.

Paris obfervatory

Greenwich obfervatory -
London, St. Paul's

0° 0' 0"
500
10 0 0
15 0 0
10 0 0
25 0 0
30 0 0

35 0 0
40 0 0
45 0 0
48 50 14

50 0 0

51 28 40

51 30 49
55 0 0
60 0 0
65 0 0
70 0 0
75 0 0
80 0 0
85 0 0
90 0 0

1 00.0000
100.0042
100.0165
100.0366
100.0637
100.0973
100.1362
100.1793
100.2251
100.2724
100.3088
100.3198
100.3335
100.3338
100.3656
100.4087
100.4476
100.4812
100.5083
100.5284
100.5407
100.5449

0.990787
0.990828
0.990950
0.991149
O.991418
0.991751
0.992136
0.992563
0.993017
0.993486
0.993846

0-993955
0.994091
0.994094
0.994409
0.994836
0.995221
0.995554
0.995823
0.996023
0.996144
0.996185

39.0083
39.0090
39.0147
39.0226

39-0331
39.0462
39.0614
39-0782
39.0961

39-1145
39.1287

39-1330
39-1383
39-1385
39.1509
39.1677
39.1829

39 i960
39.2065
39.2144
39.2192
39.2208

86256.3
86258.1
86263.4
86272.0
86284.0
86298.3
86315.0
86333.6
86353-3

86373-7
86389.4
86394.1
86400.0
86400.2
86413.8
86432.4
86449.1
86463.5
86475.2
86483.9
86489.2
86491.0

In

WEIGHT.

In computing tlie foregoing table we have, as on former
occafions in this work, reckoned the French metre at 39.371
Englifh inches, and the correAnefs of this meafure is of the
greateft importance to fcience. It was that originally deter-
mined by M . Piftet,in the National Inftitute, by comparing the
platina metre with the brafs yard made by Mr. Troughton,
which was agreed upon by the Royal Society of London, as
the beft medium among our different ftandards, and the moft
accurate in its divifions. In making the neceflary deduftions
for the etfcfts of temperature on the different metals, Borda's
tables of expanfion were ufed ; but from other tables and
ftandards different lengths of the metre have been determined ;
particularly by Dr. Maf]<elyne, who made it 39.370226, and
lately by Capt. Kater, who comes ftill nearer to Piftet,
making it 39.37071. But unlefs fuch meafurements are
made from the fame flandard yard, and with the fame tables of
expanfion, perfeft agreement cannot be expefted ; and then it
will be neceffary to determine the important queflion, whe-
ther fuch tables and ftandards are quite corre£h ? In fhort,
an approximation to perfect accuracy is as much as can be
hoped for. It is, however, fatisfaftory to obferve, that the
difference between the determinations of M. Pi&et and Capt.
Kater is fcarcely difcernible, even in the moit delicate opera-
tions of an obfervatory, as it does not amount, when applied
in meafuring the pendulum, to more than one-third of a
fecond in twenty-four hours. But for all general purpofes
the difference is wholly imperceptible.

This near agreement, therefore, confirms the'propriety of
our continuing Piftet's meafure, which is fanftioned by gene-
ral ufage both in England and France, and has the addi-
tional advantage of numerical fimplicity, which, for com-
mercial purpofes, is no flight recommendation.

Before we enter upon the fubjeft of commercial weight,
fome general view ought to be given of the operations now
about to take place on the pefidulum in the two hemi-
fpheres, as alluded to in our quotation from Laplace.

The experiments intended by the French, in a voyage of
difcovery to the fouthern hemifphere, are to be made with
pendulums of an extremely fimple conftruftion, the aftrono-
mical rates of which are previoufly afcertained at the Paris
obfervatory. In thefe pendulums no maintaining power is
applied, nor any compenfation for temperature. The ther-
mometer, therefore, and the magnitude of the arc of vibra-
tion, muff be continually obferved, and the neceffary cor-
reftions applied, as in the experiment of Borda explained in
Delambre's Aftronomie, vol. iii. p. 579. Pendulums of a
fimilarconftruAion were employed bythe French aftronomers,
M. Biot and M. Arago, at the royal obfervatory of Green-
wich, and in other parts of Great Britain during the laft year
(18 17); but the refult of their experiments has not yet
reached us.

A very correA and beautiful apparatus has lately been
erefted at our royal obfervatory, for the purpofe of meafur-
ing the length of the pendulum ; and alfo with a view of
determining, with extreme exaftnefs, the difference of the
force of gravity at Greenwich and Paris, or, in other words,
the comparative weight of bodies in thefe two latitudes.

This apparatus does not very effentially differ from that
of Borda, except that a cyhndrical rod of a given length is
affumed as a flandard, and the difference between this cy-
linder and the whole vibrating fyftem is determined by a
micrometer motion given to the fteel table. In the French

apparatus the fleel table remains fixed, and the meafuring-
rod is lengthened by means of a fcrew, till the lower furface
comes in contaft v.ith the plane of the table.

We have hkewile obferved, that in Mr. Pond's appa-
ratus, the pendulum of the clock is, by an ingenious con-
trivance, brought almoft into contaft with the experimental
pendulum, by which the coincidences can be diflinftly ob-
ferved with a high optical power.

In the expedition which has been lately fent by the
Britifli government to explore the arftic regions, experi-
ments are to be made for fimilar purpofes, but with different
apparatus. Two famous clocks, by Shelton, which were
ufed by captain Cook, are fent. Each is furnifhed with a
new brafs pendulum of an entire piece, which can only vary
in length by change of temperature, and this is to be
allowed for from conftant obfervation of the thermometer.
The rates of the clocks in London have been accurately
determined ; and if the fame can be afcertained at or near
the pole, the refult will be very important.

In concluding our view of the philofophy of weight,
its varieties on the furfaces of the planets fhould be noticed ;
which are determined on the fame principles as on the fur-
face of the earth. See Planet, and System.

The weight of bodies on the furface of the fun is com-
puted by Laplace to be about twenty-five times greater than
on that of the earth ; without, however, allowing for the
diminution of gravity by centrifugal force, which he calcu-
lates to be about -j-. See Centrifugal Force.

Weight, in Commerce, denotes the quantity of any com-
modity or fubflance, which is determined by being placed in
a fcale againft fome known flandard or weight. The art of
weighing is therefore of the utmofl importance, as it fumifhes
the befl pradlical means of afcertaiuing the quantity of mat-
ter in any given body, and thence the value of mofl of the
neceflfaries of life.

Weights are generally made of flone, iron, lead, brafs,
or mixed metal ; and they are moflly flamped by pro-
per authorities, denoting that they have been fized or
compared with fome known or legal flandard. See
Standard, and alfo Measure.

The weights of aU nations differ from each other, and fre-
quently in the fame country a great diverfity prevails. The
common denomination is the pound, of which there are
moflly two forts, one for weighing the precious metals, and
the other for common articles ; fuch are the troy and avoir-
dupois weights in England. The former is generally divided
into twelve ounces, and the latter into fixteen. But their
divifion and multiples, as well as relative proportions,
are extremely various. We fhall confider them here under
two diflinft heads, viz. Ancient Weights, and Modern
Weights.

Ancient Weights. — From the great importance of
weights and meafures, their adjuflments mufl have been co-
eval with the firft regulations of civil fociety ; and hence
their origin is too remote to be traced by any authentic
hiflory. The only ancient weights that are known wirfi
any degree of certainty are thofe of the Jews, Greeks, and
Romans.

The ancient Jews, having no flamped coin, weighed all
their gold and filver in the following fimple manner, di-
viding their talent into 50 maneh, and their maneh into
60 fhekels.

Table

Sl.ekel

60

Maneh

3000

50

WEIGHT.

Table I — Jewifh Weights reduced to Engliflt Troy Weight (from Arbuthnot).

Talent

li/oie. — In reckoning money, 50 fhekels made a maneh ; but in weight, 60 (hekels.
Table II — Grecian and Roman Weights reduced to Englifh Troy Weight (from Arbuthiiot)

lb.

oz.

pwt.

gf-

0

0

9

2 J

2

3

6

10^

'3

10

1

lOi

Lentes

s
Script

ulum

-

'^

Siliqu

s

I 12

3

Obolu

-

f 24

6

2

-

i 72

18

6

3

Drachma

-

i 96

24

8

4

H

Sextula

-

1 144

36

12

6

2

It

Sicilius

; 192

48

16

8

z|

2

i^

Duella

I

i 576

144

48

24

8

6

4

3

Uncia

6912

1728

576

288

96

72

48

36

12

lb. 07. pwt

o

o

O

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

o O. -

o 3w
o 9tV

o 18 A

2 6rV

3 of

4 i3f
6 i^

^^;:, 1

For the fubdivi-
■• fions of the Ro-
man as, libra, or
pound, lee As.

o 18 Sr

Libra o 10 18 13^

Table III Ancient Roman Weights reduced to Englifh Troy Weight (from Paufton)

Siliqu!

I Keration

s of Celfus -

-

3

Simplium

-

3f

It

Sextan

.

6

2

14

Scriptulum

-

18

6

5i

3

Denarius of Nero ...

20f

6f

6

3f

H

Denar

us of Papyrius

24

8

7

4

li

i^

Sextula

36

12

lO-i

6

2

14

It

Sicilicus

48

16

14

8

2-5-

24

2

14

Duella

.

144

48

42

24

8

7

6

4

3

Uncia

1728

576

504

288

96

84

72

48

36

12

Mina

9600

8400

7200

4S00

3600

1200

100

EngliOi
Grains.

-

3

-

9

■ •

. lOf

-

- 18

-

- 54

-

- 6if

-

- 72

-

- loS

-

- 144

-

- 43*

-

.5184

Centumpondiura.

Vol. XXXVIII.

LI

Table

WEIGHT.

Table IV. — Other Divifions of the Roman Pound (from Paufton)

Uncia

-

aiis, triunx, teruncium
Triens

i, femis
Septur

.

2

Sextans

-

3

It

Quadr

-

4

2

1 5

-

5

Zt

I?

14

Quincunx

■ -

6

3

2

i4

iil-

Sexun;

-

7

3r

2i

,3

if U

X - -

8

4

2i

2

14 li

if

Ees, beffis, des

9

4i

3

2J

14

i4

r 2

It

K

Dodrans, nonunciuni

lo

5

3t

2|

2

n

It

H

Iir

Dextans

II

5l

3i

2^

2t

li-

T 4

It

n

l4

lA-

Deunx

12

1

6

4

3

^

2

't

It

I '

i4

i^

Libra, as, po«do

Euglifh

Graii-s.

- 432

- 864

- 1296

- 1728

- 2160

- 2592

- 3^«+

- 345^

- 3888

- 4320

- 4752

- 5184

The weight of tlie Roman denarius, ounce, and pound,
13 otherwife Hated as follows :

Engliftl

Grains.

62,4

437.2
5246,4

415.1
4981,2

By Arbuthnot, the Denarius, (7th part of the!
Ounce) - - - - - 3

the Ounce
the Pound
By Chriftiani, the Denarius, (8th part of the!
Ounce) - - - - - J

the Ounce -

the Pound - - -

See Denarius.

Modern Weights, or rather weights ufed in modern times,
are in general very remote in their origin. We fhall begin
with Britifh weights, and follow with thofe of France,
making accurate comparifons between both ; after which the
divifions of the weights of the principal trading places in
Europe, and other parts of the world, will be given ; with
tables of their relative proportions, extrafted, by permif-
fion, from the Univerfal Cambift.

Engl'ipi Wights. — By the twenty-feventh chapter of
Magna Charta, the Weights are to be the fame all over
Enghi d ; but for different commodities there are two forts,
wz. troy weight, and avoirdupois weight.

Th'.- origin from which they are both raifed is the grain
of wheat, gathered in the middle of the ear: 32 of thefe
■well dried make one penny-weight, 20 penny-weights
I oz., and 120Z. I lb. troy. Stat. 51 Hen. III. 31 Edw. I.
12 Hen. VII.

By the laws of affife, from the reign of William the Con-
queror to the reign of Henry VII., the legal pound weight
contained a pound of 12 ounces, raifed from 32 grains of
wheat ; and the legal gallon meafure invariably contained 8
of thofe pounds of wheat, 8 gallons made a bufhel, and 8
bufliels a quarter.

Henry VII. altered the old Enghfii weight, and intro-
duced a pound, under the name of troy, which exceeded
I

the old Saxon pound by 4 of an ounce : in proof of this it
is alleged, that Henry VIII. when he abolifhed the old
pound in the eighteenth of his reign, and eftablifhed the
troy, declares that the troy pound exceeded the old pound
by 4 of an ounce.

This troy pound now in ufe, confiding of 12 ounces,
contains 5760 troy grains, and the ounce therefore con-
tains 480 grains ; confequently 360 grains, equal to -J- of
the ounce, dedufted from 5760, leave 5400 troy grains,
equal to the weight of the old Saxon pound which he
ahohfhed. It appears, therefore, that the old Saxon pound
was |J-J- of the prefent troy pound ; and as the avoirdupois
pound of 1 6 ounces contains 7000 troy grains, the old
Saxon pound was i-i of the prefent avoirdupois pound.

Although formerly 32 grains made a penny-weight, it
has in later times been thought fufBcient to divide the
penny-weights into 24 equal parts called grains, being the
leaft weights now in common ufe.

The firft ftatute that direfts the ufe of the avoirdupois
weight is that of 24 Henry VIII., which plainly imphes
that it was no legal weight till that ftatute gave it a legal
fanftion ; and the particular ufe to which the faid weight is
thus direfted, is fimply for weighing butcher's meat in the
market. How or when it came into private ufe is not clearly
known. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv. part i. art. 3.

Table V.-
fmiths, &c.

-Of Troy Weight, as ufed by the Gold-

Grains

•

24

Penny-weight.

480

20

Ounce

5760 240

12

The grain troy is diviced into ac mites, the mite into 24

doits.

WEIGHT.

doits, the doit into 20 periots, and the periot into 24 blanks.
Thefe divifions are imaginary, but there arc real weights of
decimal divifions to the thoufandth part of a grain.

Table VI Of Troy Weight, as ufed by the Apo-
thecaries.

I Grains.

20

Scrup

e. 9

60'

3

Drach

m. 5

480
5760

24

8

Ounce

• 3

288

96

12

P

Pound.

This weight is efTentially the fame as troy weight, but
differently divided. It is chiefly ufed for medical prefcrip-
tions : but drugs are moftly bought and fold by avoirdu-
pois weight.

I Table VII — Diamond Weight.

; Diamonds and other precious ftones are weighed by carats,
'the carat being divided into 4 grains, and the grain into 16
jparts. The diamond carat weighs 3^ grains troy: thus,

Diamond Weight. Troy Weight.

16 Parts = I Grain = OtV Grain.

4 Grains =r i Carat = 3^ Grains.

!] Table VIII.— Of Avoirdupois Weight.

Drachms.

16

256

7168

28672

573440

Ounce.

16

448

1792

35840

Pound.

112

2240

Quarter.

80

Hundred.

20 Ton.

I The drachm is fubdivided into three fcruples, and each
Tcruple into ten grains ; the pound or 7680 grains avoir-
idupois = 7000 grains troy, and hence 1 grain troy =
11097 grains avoirdupois.

I Hence alfo

I And

1441b. avoirdupois :=
192 oz. ditto

175 lb. troy.
175 oz. do.

! The ftone is generally 14 lb. avoirdupois weight, but for
ibutcher's meat or fifh it is 8 lb. Hence the hundred equals
18 ftone of 14 lb. or 14 ftone of 8 lb.

I A ftone of glafs is 5 lb. A feam of glafs 24 ftone, or
j 1 20 lb.

1 The fother of lead is generally 195 cwt.

I at Newcaftle, 21 cwt.

at Stockton, 22 cwt.

Ilay and ftraw are fold by the load of 36 trufles.

The trufs of hay weighs 561b. and of'ftraw 361b. The
trufs of new Iiay is 60 lb. until the ift of September.

A view of local varieties of Englifh weights will follow
the prcfent article.

Table IX — Wool Weight.
Wool, like other common articles, is weighed by the
avoirdupois, but the divifions diff'er from the above table :
thus,

7 Pounds - - = I Clove

2 Cloves - . . I Stone

2 Stone ... I Tod

6i Tods ... I Wey

2 Weys . . . , Sack

12 Sacks ... I Laft.

The Weights of Ireland are the fame as thofe of England ;
and they are ufed for corn inftead of meafures, which feems
to be the moft corredl method of dealing.

Weights of Scotland. — By the aft of union pafled in 1707,
the weights and meafures of England vvere to be adopted in
Scotland, but their introduftion there is by no means
general.

The Englifh troy weight and apothecaries' weight, how-
ever, are ufed throughout Scotland, in the fame manner as in
England, with the exception that the Scotch jewellers
divide the troy ounce into 1 6 drops, each drop being 30
troy grains ; whereas the Englifh divide it into 20 penny,
weights, and a penny-weight into 24 grains, as before ftated.

The Englifl^ avoirdupois weight is ufed for the fale of lea-
ther, foap, fugar, tea, flour, candles, and other groceries ;
alfo for feUing rofm, wax, pitch, wrought metals, fome
Baltic goods, and all goods brought from England.

Scotch troy weight, alfo called Amjlerdam and French
Weight, is ufed for weighing iron, hemp, flax, Baltic and
Dutch goods, meal, butcher's meat, unwrought pewter and
lead, and likewife for fome more articles. The pound, 1 6
of which compofe a ftone, contains 7616 troy grains : it is
confequently nearly 9 per cent, heavier than avoirdupois, or
100 lbs. are equal to 1084 lbs. avoirdupois.

Trone Weight. — This weight was aboliftied by aft in
1618. Its name is ftill retained in felling butter, cheefe,
tallow, wool, lint, hemp, hay, and fome other home com-
modities ; but the trone ftone and pound are generally deno-
minated by avoirdupois pounds and ounces. The trone
pound always contains the fame number of ounces avoirdu.
pois, as the ftone contains pounds. The weight of the
ftone, however, is variable. It appears from a recent pub-
lication (Kelly's Metrology), that there are about thirty
different fyftems of weights and meafures in Scotland.

Weights of France. — In order fully to explain this important
part of our article, three different weights muft be noticed ;
■vi-z.. the ancient fyftem, called the " Poids de Marc ;" the
"Metrical Syftem," begun in 1795; and the " Syfteme
Ufuel," fanftioned by an Imperial decree of 1812.

The old French weight (poids de marc), the pound or
livre, contains 2 marcs, 16 ounces, 128 gros, 384 deniers,
and 9216 grains, and equals 7556 grains troy. The new
or metrical fyftem, alfo called the decimal fyftem, has been
already explained under our article Standard. The fol-
lowing are its divifions, with its proportion to the poids de
marc and Englifli troy weight. The gramme is the element
of all weights, and it is multiplied and divided by tens in
the following terms :

The word Deca prefixed means - 10 timet,

HeBo - . - 100 times.

Kilo - . . 1000 times.

Myria . . - loooo times.

On the contrary, for divifors,
the word Deci expreiTes the loth part,

CtnXi - - 1 00th part, and

MiUi - 1000th part.

L I 2 Table

WEIGHT.

Table X.

Poids de Marc.

Eng. Troy Weight.
Ti /-. V ■» livres. on. gios. grs. lb. oz. dwt. grs.

M)Tiagramme 20 6 6 63.5 - 26 9 15 1.46

Kilogramme - 205 35.15 - 2 8 3 12.146

Heftogramme - - 3 2 10.715 - 3 4 8.414

Decagramme - - 2 44.2715 - 6 10.441

Gramme - - 18.82715 - 15.4441

Decigramme • - 1.882715 - I-5444I

Centigramme - - 0.1882715 - 0.15444

The gramme weighs 5.648 drachms avoirdupois, and
the kilogramme 35.3 oz. or 2 lb. 3 oz. 4.8 drachms avoir-
dupois. The Quintal Mctrique, therefore, weighs i cwt.
3 qrs. 241b. avoirdupois.

The pound of the Sypme Ufuel, is the half kilogramme ;
but the divifions are binary, according to the ancient fyftem.

Weights of Spain The Caftilian mark is ufed for the

precious metals. In weighing gold, it is divided into 50
caftellanos, 400 tomines, or 4800 grains ; but for filver, the
fame mark is divided into eight ounces, 64 ochavos, 128
adarmes, 384 tomines, or 4608 grains. The commercial
weight is alfo Caftihan. The pound is divided into 2
marks, 16 ounces, 128 drachms, or 9216 grains — 2$
pounds = I arroba ; 4 arrobas = i quintal.

Weights of Portugal. — Gold and filver are weighed by the
mark of 8 ounces ; the ounce being fubdivided into 8
outavas, 24 efcrupulos, or 576 grains. The commercial
pound is divided into 2 marks or 16 ounces, the ounce into
8 outavas or 576 grains. — 32 lb. = I arroba ; 4 arrobas =
I quintal.

Weights of Holland. — Gold and filver are weighed by the
mark of 8 ounces. The ounce is divided into 20 engels or
efterlins ; the engel into 32 aas. Thus the mark weighs
5 1 20 aas. The commercial pound is 40 aas heavier than
the above pound troy. It is divided into 2 marks, 16
ounces, 32 loots, or 128 drachms. — 8 lb. = i ftone ; 151b. =
I lifpond ; 100 lb. = i centner; and 300 lb. = i fhip-
pond.

A new fyftem of monies, weights, and meafures, fimilar to
the decimal fyftem of France, has been lately decreed for
Holland, Brabant, and Flanders, by the king of the Nether-
lands.

Weights of Germany The weight for gold and filver is

not the fame in all parts of Germany, but the Cologne mark
is every where the rtandard weight for coins. It is divided
into 8 ounces, 16 loths, 256 pfenings, 512 hellers, 4352
efchen, or 65536 richt-pfenings. The pound or pfund
commercial weight is generally divided into 2 marks, 16
ounces, 32 loths, 128 quentins, 512 pfenings, 1024 hellers.
The larger weights are the fhippond, the centner or quintal,
the hfpond, and the ftein ; but they do not in all places con-
tain the fame number of pounds, and their divifions as well
as relative proportions are extremely various throughout the
empire.

Weights of Italy. — The weights of Italy are various both
in their divifions and relative proportions. Thus, at Rome,
the pound for weighing gold and filver is divided into 12
ounces, the ounce into 1 2 drachms, 24 denari or fcrupoli, 48
oboli, 144 fihque or 576 grani. At Naples, the pound or
libra is divided into 12 ounces, the ounce into 30 trapefi, and

the trapefo into 20 acini. At Genoa, Florence, Leghorn,
and Milan, it is divided into eight ounces, the ounce into 24
denari or 576 grani. At Venice, the marc is divided into
8 oncie, 32 quarti, 192 denari, 1152 carati, or 4608 grani.
The commercial weight in moft of the above places is the
fame for light goods as for gold and filver, and is caUed pefo
fottile ; but a heavier weight is ufed for coarfe commo-
dities, and is called pefo groflb. Their cantaro or quintal
varies from 100 to 2501b., and in fome places the great can-
taro is 1 000 lb.

Weights of Denmark. — The pound for gold and filver
contains 2 marks, 16 ounces, 32 lots, 128 quentins, or 512
orts or pfenings. The pound commercial weight is divided
hke that for the precious metals. The (hippond contains
320 lbs. 20 lifponds, or 3-i centners.

Weights of Sweden. — The marck for the precious metals
contains 4384 aas ; but for commercial purpofes there are
four other weights, -viz. the viftuahe-wigt, divided into 32
lods or 128 quentins; the bergs-wigt or miner's weight,
the landftads-vvigt, and the metal-wigt. The pound of
each of the three latter is divided into 16 lods, or 64
quintals.

Weights of Rujfia The pound in Ruflia ufed for all

commodities is divided into 32 loths, or 96 folotnicks. —
40 lb. = I pood, and 10 poods ^ I berqiiet.

Weights of AJta. — The weights of Afia are far too nu-
merous and various in their divifions for our limits ; but it
may be obferved, that decimal divifions are more general
there than in Europe.

Weights of Africa Upon the Barbary coaft and in Egypt,

the weights are fimilar to each other in their divifions, but very
different in their relative proportions. The principal weight
is the cantaro, divided into loorottoli, which is likewife ufed
in Italy, Conftantinople, and feveral places in the Levant.

Weights of America. — The weights and meafures generally
ufed in America, are thofe of the countries by which the
different fettlements were originally colonized. Thus the
Spanifti weights are retained in all parts of South America
except Brazil, where thofe of Portugal are ufed. In the
United States of North America, the Engli/h fyftem of
weights and meafures is ftiU continued, although- feveral
plans have been propofed for changing them.

Comparifon of Weights. — The following Tables fhew the
relation between Englifti and foreign weights. Alfo the
proportion of the latter to each other, which is found by a
lingle ttating in the Rule of Three, as in the following ex-
amples :

Example I. — How many marks of Berlin weight are
equal to 560 kilogrammes of France ?

Becaufe 159.29 marks of Berlin = 100 lb. Englilh
Troy {^per Table XI.), and 37.31 kilogrammes, by the
fame Table, = 100 lb. Enghlh Troy ; it follows that
37.31 kilogrammes = 159.26 marks of Berlin; therefore,
fay.

As 37.31 kilog. : 159.29 marks :: 560 kilog. :
2390.84 marks.

Example 2 How many pounds commercial weight of

Amfterdam are equal to 276 pounds of Leghorn I

Here, by Table XII., 91.81 lb. of Amfterdam =
133.561b. of Leghorn, both being equal to 100 lb.
Avoirdupois ; therefore.

As 133.561b. of Leghorn : 91.81 lb. of Amfterdam ::
276 lb, of Leghorn : 189.7 ^b. of Amfterdam.

Troy

WEIGHT.

Troy WEioHXr

Table XI.— Containing a Comparifon of the Troy, or Gold and Silver Weights of different Countries ; and (hewine
the Number of Pounds, Marks, Ounces, &c. of each Place, tiiat are equal to loo Pounds Englilh Troy; and alfo
the Weight of a fingle Pound, Mark, Ounce, &c. in Englifh Troy Grains.

Amfterdam

Antwerp - -

Augfburg - -

Baiil - - -

Berlin . . -

Bern . - -
Bombay
Bremen
Breflau
Bruflels

Cadiz . . .

Cairo . - -

Calicut - -

China - - -

Cologne - -
Conftantinople

Cracow

Damafcus - -

Dantzic - -

Denmark - -

England - -

Florence - -

Frankfort - -

France . . -

Geneva - -

Genoa ...

Hamburgh and]
Hanover - -J
Holland . .
Konigfberg

Marks - - . .

The fame . - ■

Marks . . - .
( See Cologne. )

Marks - . - .

Marks - - . .

Tolas . . . ,
( See Cologne. )

Marks . . - .
( See Amjlerdam. )
( See Spain. )

Rottoli - . . ,

Mifcals - . . .

Tales . - - .

Marks . . . .

Chekies . - •

Drams - - - .

Marks . . . .

Metecals . - •

Marks . - - .
Marks . . .

Pounds Troy - •

Ounces do. - ■

Pounds - . - ,

Oncie . . - .
( See Cologne. )

Marks - - - .

Ounces - . . .
Kilogrammes .
Hettogrammes

Marks . . - .
( Or like France. )
Libre ...
Oncie ...

■ (See Cologne.)

( See y]mjlerdam. )
Marks - - -

Weight of

100 lbs.

Englifh Troj.

151.68

158.11

159.29

151.18

3232-32

182.39

86.56
8347.82

993-79

15964

117
11700

187.68
8347.82

195.42

158.85!

100
1200

109.90
1318.83

152.44

1219.52

37-31

3731-53

152.15

117.45
1409.40

190.50

Weight of
a fingle lb.
Mark, &c.

E. Grains.

37975
3643

3616
3810
178^

3158

6654
69

579I
3608
49221

494:
3069

69

2947^

3625

5760

480
5241

436I

3780
472

15444
i543t
3785^

4904
4o8f

3023^

Leghorn -
Leipfic
Lifbon - -
Lubec - -
Madras

Madrid
Malabar

Malta - -

Milan - -

Naples - -

Nuremberg

Paris - -

Pegu - -

Perfia - -

Poland - -

Portugal -
Prague

Ratilbon -

Riga . -

Rome - -

Ruffia - -

Sienna . -

Spain - -

Surat . -
Sweden
Tripoli

Tunis - -

Turin . -

Venice - -

Vienna - -

Zurich - -

( See Florence. )
(See Cologne.)
Marks - - -
(See Cologne.)
Seers ...
Pagodas
Rupees ...
( See Spain. )
( See Madras. )
Libre - . -
Marks ...
Ounces ...
Libre . - -
Oncie ...
Marks ...
(See France.)
Ticals ■
Mifcals ...
Marks - -
(See Ltjbon.)
Marks ...
Marks ...
Marks ...
Libre ...
Pounds ...
Solotnicks - -
Libre ...
Marks - . .
Ounces ...
Caftellanos - .
Tolas ...
Marks . - .
Metecals - -
Ounces ...
Marks ...
Marks ...
Marks - - .
Marks ...

Wciglit of

100 lbs.
Englifh Troy

162.62

134.17

10919.40

3217.87

117.83

158.75
1270

116.36
1396.32

156.95

2426.82
8022.25
185

147.09
151.68

178-43
IIO

91.23

8758

III. 22

161.87

1294.96

8093.50

3066.55

177.12

7819

1185.20

151.68

156.44

132.88

159.27

Weight of
a iingle lb.
Mark, &c.

£^ Grains.

3542
4293

52i
479

4888
3629

453§
4950

412^
3670

233J
3113

3916

37975
3228

5236

6314
65I

5178^

3557

444f
71

i87i
3252

731
486

3797^
3682

4334^
3616;.

Avoirdupois'

WEIGHT.

Avoirdupois Weight.

Table XII. Containing a Comparifon of the Commercial Weights of different Places ; and (hewing the Number of

Pounds, &c. of each Place that are equal to loo Pounds Avoirdupois ; and alfo the Weight of a fingle Pound, &c.
in Englifh Troy Grains, 7000 of which weigh one Pound Avoirdupois.

Weight of

100 lbs.

Avoirdupois.

Pounds . . - -
Rottoli of 720 drs.
Do. of 700 drams
Do. of 680 drams
Do. of 600 drams
Okas of 400 drams
Rottoli Forfori
Zaydini . - -
Zauri . . . -
Mine . . . -
Rottoli ... -
Great pounds - -
Light pounds - -
(See Hamburgh.)
Pounds - . - -
Pounds ....
Pounds . - - -

Aix la Chapelle
Aleppo - -

Alexandria

Algiers
Ahcant

Altena - -

Amfterdam

Ancona

Antwerp -

Apothecaries' Weight.

Englifli pounds
Dutch pounds
German pounds -
French pound3{of 1
12 ounces) -J

Archangel - (See Rujpa.)

Augfturg - - Heavy pounds

Light pounds - -

Aurich • - Heavy pounds

Light pounds - -

Bamberg - - Pounds - . - -

Barcelona - - Pounds . - . .

Bafil - - . Pounds - - . -

Baflano - - Pounds - - - .

Batavia - - Catties ....

Bengal ... Seers ....

Bergamo . - Light pounds - -
Heavy pounds

Bergen - - Pounds ....

Berlin ... Pounds ....

Bern ... Pounds ....

Betelfagui . . Maunds ...

Bilboa ... Light pounds - -
Iron weight pounds

Bologna - . Pounds - . . -

Bolfano - . Pounds . . - .

Bourdeaux - Pounds . . . .

Bremen - . Pounds . . . -

Brefcia - . Pounds - . - -

Breflau - - Pounds - . . .

Brunfwick - Pounds - - . .

Bruffels . - ( See Antwerp. )

Cadiz . - . (See Spain. )

Cairo ... RottoU . . . .

96.76
19.89

20.46
21.06
23.87
35.80

107
74.90
48.32
59.92
84
87.48

131.20

91.80

136.05

96.75

121.52
122.89
126.65^

123.50

92-35
95-95
83
91.10

93-42
1 12.60

92.64
132.82

76.78

53-57
139

55.64

91

96.80
86.85
49.04
92.59
63.42
125.31
90.61
91.72

90-93
138.62
1 1 1.90

97.14

105

Weight of
a Unfile lb.
Mark, &.C

E. Grains,

7234

35190
34212

33235

29325

19550

6542

9345
14485
11682

8330
8002

5335
7625

5 '45

7235

5760
5696
5527
5668

7580
7295
8433
7666

7493
6216

7556
5270
9117

13066
5032

12580
7700

7231
8060

14273
7560

11037
5586
7725
7632
7698
5050
6255
7206

6664

Calemberg
Calicut - -
Candia . . .
Carthagena
Caffel - . .
Caftile - - -
Chamberry
China . . .
Civita Vecchia
Cologne . -
Conftance -
Conftantinople

Copenhagen .

Corfu - - .

Corlica - .

Cracow - .

Cremona - -

Cyprus - .

Damafcus - -

Dantzic - -

Denmark . .

Deventer - -

Drefden - .

Dunkirk - .
Elbing ...

Embden - -

England . -

Erfurt - . -
Ferrara . -
Florence

Frankfort - -

France, Poids de

Gallipoli .
Geneva

Genoa ...

Gothenburg -
Groningen
The Hague
Hamburgh
Hanover . .
Havre-de-Grace
Heidelberg
Hildefheim
Holland - -
Holftein - -
Japan ...

Pounds ....
Seyras . . . .
Rottoli . - . .
(See Spain. )
Pounds . . - -
(See Spain.)
Pounds - . . -
Catties . . . .
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
Okas - . . .
Lodras ....
Chekies ...
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
Pounds . . . -
Pounds ....
Pounds . . . -
Rottoli ....
Rottoli ....
Pounds . . - -
( See Copenhagen. )
Pounds - . . -
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
Pounds - - . .
Avoirdupois pounds
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
Marc pounds - .
Kilogrammes . -
Heftogrammes
( See Naples. )
Heavy pounds
Light pounds -
Pefo groflb Rottoli
Pefo fottile pounds
( See Sweden. )
Pounds - - . .
( See Amjlerdam. )
Pounds - - - .
Pounds . . . -
Pounds - . - -
Pounds ....
( See Brunfwick. )
( See Amjlerdam. )
Pounds - - . .
Catties ....

Weight of

Weight of

100 lbs.

aCnglc lb.

Avoirdupois.

Mark, &c.

E. Grains.

93-'9

7511

163.05

4293

85.91

8148

93-32

7501

105.72

6621

75-45

9277

132.90

5267

97

7216

96.09

7285

35-55

19688

80.80

8663

142.22

4922

90.80

7725

1 1 1

6304

131,72

5315

112

6250

138-33

5060

19.07

36708

25.28

27690

103.07

6791

96-43

7259

97.14

7206

105.86

6612

106.73

6558

91.29

7668

100

7000

96.08

7285

133-67

5237

133-56

5241

97.02

7210

92.64

7556

45-35

15436

453-50

15435

82.35

8502

98.82

7085

92.86

7538

142.74

4904

92.69

7552

93-63

7476

93.20

75 1 1

85.78

8160

89.89

7787

93-83

7460

76.92

9100

WEIGHT.

Table XII. — continued.

Kiel . -

Konigfberg

Leghorn -
Leipfic

Liebau
Liege - -
Lindau

Lifbon - -

Lifle - -
London

Lubec - -

Lucca - -
Lucern
Luneburg -

Lyons - -

Madeira
Madras

Madrid
Magdeburg
Majorca
Malabar -
Malacca
Malaga
Malta - -
Manheim -
Mantua
Marfeilles -
Mecca - -
Mecklenburg
Memel - -
Meffina
Milan - -

Minorca

Mocha

Modena
Monaco
Montpellier
Morea - -

Mofcow

Munich
Munfter
Nantes - -
Naples - -

Narva - -

Negropont

Neufchatel

Pounds - . - -
Pounds ....
New ( See Berlin. )
Pounds - . - .
Common pounds -
Butcher's weight lb.
Pounds - . - .
Pounds . - - .
Heavy pounds
Light pounds - -
Pounds - . . .
Pounds . - . .
( See England. )
Pounds - - - .
Pounds - . - -
Pounds . - . .
( See Hanover. )
Poidi de table pound
Silk weight pound
Pounds - - - .

Vis

PoUams - - -
( See Spain. )
(See Berlin.)
Rottolos - - -
( See Calicut. )
Ca'ties - . - .
(See Spain.)
Pounds . - - .
Pounds ....
Pounds . - - .
Pounds - . . -
Rottoli ....
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
{See Sicily.)
Pefo GrolTo pounds
Pefo Sottile pounds
Heavy pound - -
Light pound -
Maunds ...
Vakias . - - .
Pounds . . - .
Pounds ....
Com. weight pounds
Silk weight pounds
Pounds . . . -
Okas ....
(See Rujia.)
Pounds . . . -
Pounds ....
(See France.)
Rottoli - . .
Libre ....
Pounds ....
Rottoli . . . -
Poids de Marc, ( See

France. )
Poids de Fer pounds

Weight of

100 lbs.

Avoirdupois.

95.18
119.27

133-56
97.14
90

1 09 84

95-49
78.58
98.23
98.80
105.61

93-83
135-59
94

105.87
98.81

104.10
.H2

1280

107.82

74.07

143.20
91.65

143-70
III. 63

98

93.86
109.82

60.59
140.90

37.88
113-63

33-33
133335
H«-93
136.87
113.58
113 50

90.79

37-«3

80.87
95-31

50.91

141.41

96.84

84-73

87.18

Weight of I
a fingle IhJ
Mark, &cJ

E. Grains

7354
5869

5241
7206
777'
6373
7330
8908
7126
7085
6628

7460
5163

7447

6612

7084

6724

21875

547

6492

9450

4888
7638
4871
6271

7144
7458
6374

11592
4968

18480
6160

2IOCO
525
4932
5II4
6163
6167
7710

18503

8656

7344

13750
4950
7228
8261

8029

Nice . .
Nimeguen .
Nordlingen
Norway
Novi . .
Nuremberg
Oldenburg
Oporto
Oran . -
Ormus - .
Ofiiaburg -
Oftend - -
Paderborn -
Padua - -

Palermo
Paris
Parma .

Pefo

Pounds - . . .
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
( See Bergen. )
(See Genoa.)
Pounds ....
( See Hamburgh. )
( See Lijion. )
Rottolos ...
Seyras ....
Pounds ....
(See Antwerp.)
( See Munjler. )
Pefo Sottile pounds
GrolFo, ( See Venice. )
( See Sicily. )
( See France. )
Pounds ...

Weight of

100 lbs.

Avoirdupois.

Weight of
a fingle lb.
Mark, &c.

Padau -

. .

Pounds - - - .

Pegu -

. .

Vis

Pernau .

m

Pounds ....

Perugia

. .

Pounds ....

Pillau -

.

Pounds ....

Pifa .

.

Pounds ....

Poland -

- -

( See Warja<w. )

Pondicherry •

Vis

Portugal

(See Lijbon.)

Prague -

Pounds ....

Prefburg

( See Vienna. )

Ragufa

Pounds . . - -

Ratifbon

Pounds . . . -

Ravenna

Pounds - . - -

Reggio

Pounds - . . -

Revel -

Pounds - - . .

Riga .

Pounds ....

Rochelle

. .

( See France. )

Rome -

.

Pounds - - . •

Roftock

. .

Pounds - . . -

Rotterdam

Pounds ....

Light weight pound

Rouen -

- -

Poids de Vicomte'
Pounds . . - '

Ruflia -

. .

Pounds ....

Saltzburg

. .

Pounds ....

St. Gall

-

Heavy pounds
Light pounds

St. Maloes

( See France. )

St. Remo

. .

{ See Genoa. )

St. Sebaft

an .

Pounds ... -

Sardinia

. .

Pounds ....

Sayde .

- -

Rottoli ofDamafcus
Ditto of Acre . .

Scotland

- -

Pounds Dutch - 1
Weight - - j"

Siam

. .

Catties ....

Sicily

Rottoli Groffi . -
Ditto Sottili - -
Libre . . » -

Sienna -

.

Pounds ... -

146.25

91.65
92-53

88.94

90
149-73

91.80

'33-33

»39-33
94.41

30

108.86
130
113.56
139.22

30.88

88.16

124.84

79.81

151.42

137-48
105.32
108.46

133-69
88.75
91.80

96-39

87.40

110.86
81
77.58

97-55

92.64
114.29

24-35

20.75

92.11

38.76

51-93

57-14

142.85

1C1.38

£• Grains.

4786
7638
7565

7870

7775
4675
7625

5250

5024

7414

23333

6430

5382
6164
5028

22668

7940

5607
8771
4628
5092
6646
6454

5236
7887
7625
7262

8009

6314
8642
9022
7176

7556

6125

28746

33740

7600

18060

13475

12250

4900

6904

WEIGHT.

Table XII. — continued.

Smyrna

Spain - -
Stade - -
Stettin - -
Stockholm
Stralfund -
Strafburg -

Sumatra
Surat - -
Surinam
Sweden

Tangiers

Teneriffe

Tetuan

Toulon

Triefte

Okes - - - -
Rottoli . . - -
Caftillian weight lb.
Pounds - - - -
(.See Berlin. )
(See Sweden.)
Pounds - - - -
Pounds - - - -
Or, like France.
Catties . - - -
Seers . . - -
( See ^mjierdam. )
Viftualie weight 1
Pounds - - - J
Miner's weight 1
Marks - - - j
Landftatt weight!
Marks - - - j
Stapelftatt weight 1
Marks ... J
Pounds ....
Pounds ....
Rottoli ....
( See Marfeilles. )
( See Venice and
Vienna. ]

Weight of

100 lljs.

Avoirdupois.

Weight of
a fingle lb.
.Mark, Sic

36.51
81.13

98.40

95.46

93-83

9'5-34

35-56
107.14

106.67
120.68
126.70

133-33

94.27
98.77
63.96

E. Grains
I9172
8628
7II4

7333

7460
7266

196S3
6533

6562

5800

5250

7425

7087

10944

Tripoli (in Syria) Okes
Tripoli ( in Africa) Rottoli
Tunis ... ^'"
Turin ...
Ulm - - .
Valencia - -

Venice ...

Verona ...

Vicenza . -

Vienna . -
Warfaw - •

Weight of

100 lbs.
.\voirdupois.

Weight of
a lingie lb
Mdrk, SiC

Wifmar
Wurtzburg

Yvica - .

Zant . .

Zell . -
Ziriczee

Zurich . -

Zwoll - -

Ditto

Pounds ....
Pounds ....
Heavy pounds
Light pounds - -
Pefo Groflb pounds
Pefo Sottile pounds
Pefo Grwflb pounds
Pefo So; tile pounds
Pefo Groflb pounds
Pefo Sottile pounds
Pounds ....
Old weight pounds
New Polifh wt. 1
Pounds - - - J
Pounds - . - .
Pounds . . . -
Pounds ....
( See Venice. )
( See Hanover. )
Pounds . . . -
Heavy pounds
Light pounds
Pounds ....

37-45
89.28
90.09

122.93
96.77
84.72

127.08

94-74
150
91.19

136.35
92.75

133-33
81

120

112.25

9376
95.08

97-97

103.94
86.03
96.78
94.10

I'.. Grains

1 869 1
7840
7770
5694

7234
8262
5508

7389
4667
7676
5134
7547
5250
8638
5832
6236

7466
7362
7145

6735
8136

7233
7439

Plan for the Revifion of foreign Weights, iffc. — The
commercial world will learn with fatisfaftion that a plan has
lately been commenced, under the aufpices of the Britifli
government, for revifing the tables of comparifon between
foreign weights and meafures ; as it is well known that many
of the tables in ufe abound in contradiftory ilatements ; and
even where they agree, they are frequently found to differ
from mercantile experience.

The origin of thofe tables of comparifon cannot be traced.
It is probable that they have been gradually formed
through a long courfe of ages, from the cafual reports of
individuals in different countries. When, therefore, it is
confidered, how uncertain fuch reports mull have been, and
alfo to what changes weights and meafures are expofed from
decay, accident, or defign, it is not furprifing that fo much
confufion fhould be experienced, efpecially in tables where
no general revifion has ever taken place.

The only comparifon of the kind upon record is that
made in 1 767, by M. Tillet, at the Paris Mint, by order of the
French government. His operations, however, were con-
fined to money weights, and thefe only of a limited number
of places. His tables, as far as they extend, have been
generaUy ufed, although their accuracy is, in many in-
itances, difputed, efpecially by Krufe, and other German
writers. Nelkenbrecker, in his elaborate work on monies,
weights, and meafures, publifhed at Berlin in 18 10, gives a
long ftatemeut (page 508.) of difcrepances between Tillet's
reports and thofe of other affay maflers.
3

But the mofl numerous and important errors are
in the tables of commercial weights and meafures ; and
therefore with a view of remedying an evil fo perplex-
ing to merchants, our government has recently iffued
an order to the Britifh confuls abroad, to fend home
well-attefted copies of foreign ftandard weights, that
they may be accurately compared with thofe of Eng-
land at his majefty's mint. Correft ftatements are likewife
required of the mathematical dimenfions of meafures of ca-
pacity, and of their comparative contents, as eflimated and
afted upon by merchants.

We have authority further to ftate, that the plan was
examined and approved by the Board of Trade, on the
14th of January 1818 ; and, by their lordfhips' recommend-
ation, the order to the confuls has been iffued from the
foreign-office, by Vifcount Caftlereagh.

The copies of ftandards thus tranfmitted to London are
to be weighed and compared by Robert Bingley, efq.
F.R.S., the king's affay-maller of the Mint; and the re-
fults of thofe important comparifons arc to be pubhfhed by
Dr. Kelly, who projefted the plan, and who will perform the
calculations. The revifed tables are expedted to be brought
out in the fecond edition of his Cambift; and fhould
they be printed before our Cyclopsdia is finifhed, we
hope for the author's pernuilJon to infert them in our
jiddenda.

Weights

WEIGHTS.

Weights and Meafures, in Agriculture and Rural Eco-
nomy, are of great confequence to the land-owner and the
farmer, as being the proportions or quantities by which
various forts of produce, of the agricultural and other fuch
kinds, are difpofed of and fold. They are found to vary
very greatly in different diftrifts and parts of the country,
as well as in different places and towns of the fame diftrift
or county, and even in the markets of the fame town. Con-
fequently, the confufion, uncertainty, inconvenience, and
lofs which are thus produced, are often very great and
troublefome. We have already, in the preceding article,
obferved, that the two principal weights eftabliftied in Great
Britain are the troy and avoirdupois weights, and by thefe
moft of the articles of farm produce, and thofe of many
other kinds, are fold in this country.

There are fome, however, that are difpofed of in other
ways, as will be feen below.

However, as the diverfity of weights and meafures (in
different places) creates much perplexity and uncertainty in
the purchafe as well as difpofal of different forts of produce,
it would not only be highly defirable, but convenient and
advantageous, to have one univerfal ftandard or fyftem of
weights and meafures. For an account of the attempts
that have been made to obtain fuch a ftandard, fee
Standard.

Different Weights and Meafures for Farm and other produce
by Troy Weight.
24 Grains make 1 Pennyweight

20 Pennyweights - i Ounce

12 Ounces - - I Pound.

By this weight are weighed gold, filver, amber, bread,
corn, and all liquors — 14 oz. 11 dwts. 15^ grains, or
292 dwts. nearly, are equal to a pound avoirdupois.

By Avoirdupois Weight,
16 Drams make i Ounce

16 Ounces - . . i Pound

28 Pounds ... I Quarter

4 Quarters - - - 1 Hund. weight

20 Hund. weight - - - I Ton.

By this weight are weighed all the farm produce, fuch
as butter, cheefe, and many other articles ; and all metals,
except thofe of the finer kinds. In other cafes,

7i Pounds make i Gallon of train.oil

8 Pounds - - I Stone of butcher's meat

14 Pounds - - I Stone of horfeman's weight

19^ Hundreds - i Fodder of lead.

In Wool Weight.

7^ Pounds make i Clove

I Stone
I Todd

I Weigh or Wey
2 Weys ... I Sack

12 Sacks ... I Laft,

In Hay Weight.
56 Pounds of old hay, orl ^^^^ ^ ^^^^^

2 Cloves

2 Stone

6i Todds

60 Pounds of new ditto
36 Truffes

I Load.

In Bread Weight.

lb. oz.

dr.

A peck loaf weighs

A half ditto ....

17 6
8 II

0

A quartern ditto ...

4 S

8

Vol. XXXVni.

By Dry Meafure.

2 Pints make i Quart

2 Quarts - . . . i Pottlc

2 Pottles .... I Gallon

2 Gallons . . . . f Peck

4 Pecks .... I Bufhel

4 Bufhels .... I Coomb

2 Coombs, or eight bufhels - i Quarter

4 Quarters, or 32 bufhels in thel ^, ■ ,

I ^ ■ T ! r" I v^naluron
country, and 36 m London ^

5 Quarters . . . - i Weigh or Wey
2 Weys, or 10 quarters - - I Laft.

By this meafure are meafured corn, fait, lead, ore,
oyfters, different other fuch matters, and all dry goods.
The ftandard Winchefter bufhe! is a cylinder 18^ inches
diameter, and 8 inches deep.

3 Barleycorns

1 2 Inches -

3 Feet

6 Feet -

By Long Meafure.
make

si Yards -

40 Poles

8 Furlongs

3 Miles -
60 Geographical, or
695 Englifh miles

360 Degrees -

{■

{■

I Inch
I Foot
I Yard
I Fathom
Pole, rod, or
perch
I Furlong
I Mile
I League

I Degree

" The circumfe-
rence of the
Globe.

This comprehends length only, as in the above cafes.
By Square Meafure.

X44 Square inches make I Square foot

9 Square feet . . . i Square yard

100 Square feet . . . i Sq. of flooring

272:J Square feet . . . i Square rod

40 Square rods - - - I Square rood

4 Square roods . - - i Square acre

f I Square yard of
30 Square acres • - - •' - ■'

100 Square acres -
640 Square acres -

Square meafure comprehends length and breadth, and
is ufed in meafuring land, in paving, flooring, painting,
glazing, plaiftering, roofing. Hating, tyling, and for feveral
other rural purpofes.

In land meafuring is ufed Gunter's chain, which is
4 poles or 22 yards, or 66 feet long, and contains 100
links, each link being 7.92 inches long.

And 43560 fquare feet or 4840 fquare yards, or 160
fquare poles, that is, 160 poles in length and I pole in
breadth, or 4 fquare roods, or 10 fquare chains, that is, 10
chains in length and I chain in breadth, make an acre of
land.

By Cubic or Solid Meafure,

172S Cubic inches make i Cubic foot

27 Cubic feet . . - i Cubic yard
40 Feet of rough timber 7 _ j Load

50 Feet of hewn ditto j
This comprehends length, breadth, and thicknefs.
M m

I land
I Square hide
I Square mile.

And

WEIGHTS.

And 1 08 folid feet, that is, 12 feet m length, 3 feet in
breadth, and 3 deep, or commonly 14 feet long, 3 feet
I inch broad, and 3 feet i inch deep, are a ftack of wood.

And 128 fohd feet, that is, 8 feet long, 4 feet broad,
and 4 feet deep, are a cord of wood.

In Coal Meajure.
make

4 Pecks

3 Bufhels . . .

12 Sacks, or 36 bufhels -

21 Chaldrons - - -

I Load of corn
I Laft of ditto

In Corn Meajure.
makes

I Bufliel
I Sack
I Chaldron
I Score

5 Bufhels
43 Do.

It is enafted by 31 George III., that a Winchefter
bufhel of corn fhould weigh as follows :

lb.

Wheat 57 avoirdupois, Wheat meal 56 "1 Flour, 451b. of
~ " "■ 48 I which fhould be

Barley 49
Bigg 42
Oats 38
Rye s-i

Flour
Ditto

41 \ equal to a Win-
32 I chefter bufhel
SZ J ungrouiid.

After thefe ftatements of the different weights and mea-
fures which are in common ufe for different forts of pro-
duce, it may not be improper to notice fome of the dif-
ferences of weights and meafures, as they exifl in different
diftrifts, towns, and parts of the kingdom, according to
the account which has been given of them, and as they are
injurious to the farmer.

In the counties or dillrifts near the metropolis, the
ftatute meafures are pretty commonly employed, though
there are many irregularities and deviations ; but in thofe
at fome diflance there are more frequent and remarkable
variations and differences.

In the county of Middlefex, the weights and meafures
made ufe of are moflly thofe of the flandard legal kind, and
confequently the variations in them are but little.

Wood is fold by the ftack, as packed three feet by
three, and twelve feet long, containing in this manner 108
cubical feet. ,

EfTex is now pretty much in the fame flate as above,
in regard to its weights and meafures, though formerly they
varied very greatly, wheat being fold either by weight or
raeafure, as agreed upon. The meafure then eight gallons
and a half the bufhel ; and the weight, that ufually termed
the peck weight, or the medium of what eight and a half
of good wheat would weigh.

Then all other forts of grain were fold by meafure, but
by that which was very different in different places, and for
different forts, the bufhel of barley, malt, oats, &c. being
often nine gallons ; others eight and a half, and eight and
three pints, &c. There are ftill fome remains of thefe
meafures in the county. Various articles, too, are ftill
fold there by the tale, the dozen, the fcore, and the hun-
dred of fix fcore, fuch as hop-poles, faggots, &c.

The writer of the Berkfhire Agricultural Report re-
marks, that, notwithftanding the fines and forfeitures at-
tached to felling corn by any other than the ftandard buftiel,
and the obvious ill confequences refulting from the praftice
without one counterbalancing advantage, that county, hke
moft others, has its diverfity of meafures, which only en-
courages jobbers, to the prejudice of the grower of corn ;
who, influenced by habit, does not always take into con-
fideration, that if he fhould fell nine gallons inftead of eight
12

to the bufhel, he is giving a bufhel in every quarter of grain
more than the laws allow, or juftice requires, and that the
dealer is probably making that proportion of profit, out of
bis ignorance or obftinacy.

The owners of land cannot, therefore, more effeftually
ferve their tenants, it is fuppofed, than by exerting them-
felves to introduce an uniformity of meafure in their re-
fpeftive neighbourhoods.

The nine-gallon bufhel prevails in fome parts of the
county, but in others the ftandard. At Faringdon and
Wantage, the former is almoft exclufively ufed ; but at
Abingdon both it and the ftandard bufhel are employed.
The former is the cuflom of the market, however, unlefs
the contrary be fpecified ; but malt fold out of the town
is only eight gallons meafure.

Corn is commonly fold by the load of five quarters. In
building, liedging, and ditching, the perch or pole of
eighteen feet is the ufual meafure.

Wood is fold by the foot, and load-underwood by the
cord, in fome places abfurdly called a load, and by the
proper load.

Befides the ftatute acre, there are alfo common field acres,
which are fometimes more, and fometimes lefs, than the
ftatute.

In weights the diverfity is great in moft places.

In the county of Suffex, the weights and meafures moft
commonly ufed are, the pound, ftone, acre, load, bufhel,
&c. There are feveral forts of acres, which are a great
fource of perplexity and confufion — the fhort acre, the
ftatute acre, the foreft acre, and various others : the foreft
acre is nine fcore rods ; the ftatute, eight fcore ; and
the fhort acre, fix fcore in fome places, in others five
fcore. The ftranger, unaware of the variations that pre-
vail in the weights and meafures, is, it is faid, liable to fall
into miftakes in every ftep he takes ; and that until a
radical reform is brought to bear, the prefent confufion in
buving and felhng muft prevail, and the honeft and unfuf-
petling will be taken in by the crafty and defigning.

In the other fouthern diftrifts or counties, the variations
in their weights and meafures are mucli the fame, though
lefs than in thofe of the north.

It is ftated in the Gloucefter Report on Agriculture, that
in the market of that town, the bufhel varies from nine to
ten gallons j in the foreft diftrift it is nearly ten gallons ;
on the Cotfwolds about nine; in the vale nine and a half;
and in the lower vale, and at Cirencefter, nine and a quart,
of all forts of grain.

Near Briftol, potatoes, green peas, &c. are fold by the
double peck, containing two common ones ftruck level
with the top ; while at Gloucefter, and higher up the
vale, it is a common peck heaped up. Wool is generally
fold by the ftone weight of i2|lbs., or the tod of 285lbs.
Butter often by the pound of 18 oz. ; and the quart of
about 3lbs.

In Herefordfhire the peculiar weiglits and meafures
which are at prefent in ufe are thefe, according to the Sur-
vey on Agriculture for that diftridl.

I Pound of frefh butter

1 Stone

I Cuftomai-y acre -

1 Hop acre -

Lugg

18 Ounces
12 Pounds
f Of a ftatute acre
That fpace of ground
which contains 1000
plants ; w'z. about \
a ftatute acre
49 Square yards of cop-
pice-wood

Wood

WEIGHTS.

I Wood a«re
I Day's math

Perch of fencing
Perch of walling
Perch of land
Bufhel of grain
Bufhel of malt

4 Larger than a ftatute,

i. e. as 8 are to 5
About a ftatute acre of
meadow or grafs land,
being the quantity ufu-
ally mown by one man
in one day
7 Yards
l6{ Feet
5^ Yards (as ftatute)
10 Gallons
85 Gallons.

In the Report on Agriculture for Shropihire, it is ftated,
that wheat, barley, and peas, are fold by the ftrike or
buihel, which, in Shrewft)ury market, is 38 quarts, but in
fome other markets it is 40 quarts. That the 38 quarts of
wheat fhould weigh yjlbs., the 40 quarts 8olb. In other
markets in the county, the bufhel of wheat does not weigh
more than yolbs. : this is chiefly applicable to the eaftern
diftrift of the county. The bufhel of flour is every where
c61bs. That 38 quarts of barley weigh about 65lbs.
That a bufhel of oats means three half bufhels of the cuf-
tomary meafure at Shrewfbury, and fhould weigh better
than 93lbs. But that in other markets it means 2^ bufhels,
fometimes heaped, fometimes ftricken, and fometimes a me-
dium between both. That a bag of wheat means three
bufhels cuftomary meafure. The quarter bufhel is called
a hoop or peck ; and the fourth of that is called a quarter.
Butter, when frefh, weighs 170Z. to the pound; when
falted, 16 oz. The lall is reckoned by the gawn, which fig-
nifies lilbs. of 16 oz. in Shrewfbury, and i61bs. of 16 oz.
at Bridgnorth. Cheefe is fold by the cwt., which, at Shrewf-
bury, means 12 libs., and ii3lbs at Bridgnorth. Coals are
fold by the ton, whicli is 20 cwt. of ii2lbs. at fome pits,
and i2olbs. at others : the ftack is now rarely ufed ; it was
a meafure of four feet fquare, and would fometimes weigh
25 cwt. Hay is fold by the ton, of 20 cwt. of ii2lbs.
Home-made hnen cloth is fold by the ell, which meafures
a yard and a half ; and it is added, that the acre is the
ftatute acre. That the workman's rood in digging is eight
yards fquare ; but in hedging eight yards in length.

It is fuggeiled, too, that there is an error in the ftandard
meafure, that in the Exchequer not agreeing with the
requifitions of the 13 Will. III. c. 5. By which ftatute,
the bufhel is ordered to be 18:5: inches round, and 8 deep ;
St would confequently contain

Cubic inches - - - - - 2150

That in the Exchequer contains - - 2 1 24

Eight of the ftandard gallons - - 2168

Thirty -two ditto quarts ... 2240

Sixty-four ditto pints ... 2027

That the difference between the bufhel and 32 of the
quarts is, therefore, 116 cubic inches, or nearly three pints
and a half.

It is ftated, too, that in the northern part of the North
Riding of Yorkfhire, the cuftomary bulTiel exceeds that of
the Winchefter, by full two quarts ; but nearer to the
fouthern extremity, feldom by more than one : the bufhel
of fome individuals in the Riding is ftill larger, meafuring
about 10 per cent, more than the ftatute requires.

And further, that a ftone of wool in York market is
fixteen pounds, and four ounces in each ftone are allowed
for draught ; that is, for the draught of each fleece, the
wool-buyers being empowered by aft of parliament to weigh
each &eece feparaie/y, if they like. That at Ripon market,

a ftone of wool is 16 pounds 12 ounces. And a ftone of
wool in the Waftern Moorlands is 17! pounds; the half
pound, the writer apprehends, is for draught, as in York
market.

But that at Darlington, where the wool grown about
Richmond in that diftrift is chiefly fold, the ftone is 18
pounds. And that in the Eaftern Moorlands, the weights
ufed by individuals vary up to 19 pounds to the ftone.

That the pound of butter in the Riding varies from
16 to 24 ounces. But that a ftone of all other commodities
throughout the whole of it is 14 pounds.

In Cheftiire, though the variety in the weights and mea-
fures is very confiderable, it is lefs on the whole than in
fome other parts of the country.

The weights in this diftrift are ufually the avoirdupois
1 1 2lbs. to the hundred weight. Some articles are fold by
what is called the long hundred of 1 2olbs. Cheefe is one
of thefe. Hay, too, is generally there fold by the cwt.
of i2olbs.

Butter, in moft parts of the county, is difpofed of by
the pound weighing 18 ounces. In fome places it is fold
in lumps, made up in moulds of different forms, called
diflies, or half difhes. Thefe weigh 24 or 12 ounces each.

Potatoes are ufually difpofed of by the bufhel weighing
90 pounds.

Wheat by the bufhel weighing either 70 or 75 pounds.

Oats by the bufhel weighing from 45 to jo pounds, as
the price and bargain may be.

Oatmeal by the load weighing 240 pounds.

Barley is fometimes fold by the bufliel of 60 pounds,
and fometimes by the meafure of 38 quarts.

Malt by the meafure of 32 or 36 quarts.

Land was formerly very generally meafured there by
what is called the Chefhire acre, containing 10,240 fquare
yards ; and this meafure ftill continues to be ufed to a
certain extent, particularly in the northern part of the
county. The ftatute acre is now, however, it is faid, in
much more general ufe.

A rood of laiid is 64 yards. A rood of hedging, ditch.
ing, and other fuch operations, eight yards in length. And
a rood of marl is 62 cubic yards.

In the Lancafhire Report on Agriculture, it is obferved,
that the rod is of no lefs than fix different lengths in dif-
ferent parts of the county ; namely, the ftatute, or <;i
yards, 6, 6^, 7, "j^, and 8 yards, to the rod, pole, or perch :
and that the meafures are equally variable. At Lan-
cafter a load of wheat, beans, and peas, is four and a half
bufhels (Winchefter); barley, fix Winchefter bufhels;
oats, feven and a half Winchefter bufhels : they have alfo
a meafure called a •windle, which is equal to three Win-
cheiler bufhels. But that wheat has been fold lately by
the weight of 28olbs.

That at Ulverftone, a load of wheat is four and a half
Winchefter bufhels ; oats, fix Winchefter bufhels. And
that at Manchefter, a load of wheat is fixteen fcore ; a load
of oats, nine Winchefter bufhels ; a load of beans, five Win-
chefter bufhels ; a load of potatoes, twelve fcore and twelve
pounds, wafhed ; unwafhed, thirteen fcore. That Liverpool
town's bufhel is 34^ quarts for oats, barley, and beans,
making exaftly 36 quarts Winchefter, or one-eighth more
than a Wincheiler bufhel, and by the cuftom of trade, one
given in at every fcore, or twenty-one bufhels ; of late,
wheat, barley, and oats, have been fold by weight, but
never yet beans ; wheat, 7olbs. to the bufhel ; barley, 6olbs. ;
and oats, 45lbs. : and probably this mode by weight is the
faireft for both a buyer and feller ; for, befides the difficulty
of getting a true ftandard bufhel or meafure, the dexterity
M m 2 of

WEIGHTS.

of corn-meters is fuch, that it is alTerted they can gain
either to the buyer or feller from lo to 20 per cent, in dif-
ferent modes of meafurement ; that 5 per cent, can be ob-
tained by this praftice, by even bunglers in the bufinefs :
this is an enormous profit, and the unfairnefs of fuch prac-
tices merits the fevereft reprehenfion.

That at Prefton the windle of wheat, beans, and barley,
is three and a half Winchefter bulhels ; but of late 22olbs.
have been reckoned a windle of wheat : they have alfo a
meafure there caUed a peck, which is twenty-eight quarts,
four of which are called a windle.

In refpeft to weights, there are three different ones ex-
prefled under the general term hundred weight ; namely,
loolbs., ii2lbs., and i2olbs. The ftone, too, varies. In
Liverpool, 2olbs. are the weight allowed for the feveral
articles under that denomination, as beef, hay, ftraw, &c. ;
and probably all the articles produced from land. And
butter is required to weigh 18 ounces avoirdupois, or it
may be feized by the magiitrates.

At Lancafter, and the neighbourhood, they have feveral
different, weights, as the Lancafter peck, of twenty-four
quarts ; the common peck, of fixteen quarts ; the half Win-
chefter ; the windle, of three and a half bufhels ; the met,
of fifty-fix quarts ; the ackendale, or ackentyde, the eighth
part of the above, or feven quarts, and the meafure of four
quarts. The load of malt is fix buihels.

Butter eighteen ounces to the pound ; other articles
fixteen.

There are alfo different local variations in many articles.

In Weftmoreland, the pound confifts of twelve, fixteen,
eighteen, or twenty-one ounces ; and the ftone of fourteen,
fixteen, or twenty pounds. There is alfo a Winchefter
bufhel, a cuftomary buftiel equal to three of thefe, a bu(hel
of two bufhels for the fale of potatoes near Appleby, and
one of two and a half for that of barley. Rye is fold by
the boll of two buftiels, and potatoes by the load of four
bufliels and a half heaped ; or more generally a bag, which
holds feven and a half buftiels, is filled and fold for a load
of potatoes.

There is the ftatute acre, too, of 4840 fquare yards, the
cuftomary acre of 6760 raifed from the perch of fix and
a half yards, and a third acre on the borders of Lancafliire,
raifed from the perch of feven yards, containing 7840,
being the fame as the Irifh plantation acre.

It is remarked, likewife, in the Cumberland Report on
Agriculture, that the fame confufion in weights and mea-
fures prevails there, as in many other parts of the kingdom.

That a Winchefter bufhel is thirty-two quarts ; a Car-
lifle bufhel, ninety-fix quarts ; and a Penrith bufhel, fixty-
four quarts, for wheat and rye ; and eighty quarts, for
barley, oats, and potatoes.

That a ftone of tallow, wool, yarn, or hay, is i61bs. ;
and a ftone of butcher's meat I4lbs., but in many places
l61bs.

That the pound is fixteen ounces, by which butter and
various other articles are weighed.

The writers of the Account of Agriculture for Nor-
thumberland, ftate that their weights and meafures are in a
fad ftate of confufion ; a pound, a ftone, a buftiel, and a
boll, are rarely the fame in different markets, and frequently
vary in the fame market for different articles.

4 Bentments
2 Pecks -
2 Kennings
2 BufheU -

yit Ncwcajlle.
make

^t Hexham, lu'ith Rye and Peaf,
4 Quarts make 1 Forpit

4 Forpits - - - - I Peck

4 Pecks . - - - I Bufhel
2 Bufhels - - - - 1 Boll = 4 Winchef-
ter bufhels.
For Oats and Barley.

4 Quarts make i Forpit

5 Forpits - - - - I Peck
4 Pecks ... - I Buihel

2 Buftiels ... I Boll = 5 buftieU

Winchefter.
At Alnwick.

3 Quarts

make

I Forpit

4 Forpits -

...

I Peck

3 Pecks -

...

I Buftiel, Winchefter

2 Buftiels -

...

I Boll of wheat

6 Buftiels -

Jt IVooler.

I Boll of barley or

oats.

4 Quarts

make

I Forpit

3 Forpits -

.

I Peck

^ Pecks

.

I Bulhcl

6 Buftiels -

...

1 Boll.

I Peck

I Kenning

I Buftiel, Winchefter

I BoU.

That a ftone of wool in fome parts is 24lbs. ; in others>
i8!bs. ; and a ftone of every other article is !4lbs.

As the weights and meafures made ufe of in Scotland'
differ very materially from thofe employed in England, it
ma}', of courfe, not be ufelefs to give a curfory view of them
under the prefent head. It has been obferved by Mr.
Som.erville, in his Account of the Agriculture of Eaft
Lothian, that land is meafured by the Scotch acre, which
is to the EngUfh acre very nearly in the proportion of five-
to four.

That the boll is the denomination of corn meafure. always-
ufed, but the contents vary according to the fpecies of
grain meafured. But that there are uniformly four firlots
in the boll of all grain ; but the firlot differs in fize in the
proportion of 21, 25, to 31. Wheat, rye, beans, and
peas, are fold by the fmall firlot ; malt, barley, and oats,
are fold by the large one. Four fmall firlots are 4.087276
Winchefter bufhels ; four large ones are 5.96263 bufhels
Winchefter. The boll of wheat then is a fmall fraftion
more than half a quarter; and the boll of barley, a fraftion
lefs than three-fourths of a quarter. But this calculation-
applies, it muft be remembered, to the Linlithgow boll,
which is accounted the ftandard meafure of Scotland : the
meafure aiftually ufed in Eaft Lothian is fomewhat larger.

In the Mid-Lothian Report on Agriculture, it is ftated,
that flour, pot-barley, groceries, iron, and ropes, are bought
and fold there, by what is termed Englifh weight, being
16 oz. to the pound, and l61bs. to the ftone. But that
butcher's meat, oatmeal, and flax, are bought and fold by
wliat is called Dutch weight, of which the proportion to
the Enghfh is as ly-j to 16.

That wool, hay, and butter, are bought and fold by
trone weight, of which the proportion is to the Englifh, as-
22 to 16. That other articles are bought and fold by
either of thefe v/eights, as it may happen.

But that in long meafiu-e the inch is t!e root, of which
12 go to the foot, and 37 to the Scotch yard.

And that land is meafured by a chain 24 yards in
length, or 74 feet, divided into 100 hnks, of 8.888 inches,
each in length ; 10 fquare chains make an acre, or 5760
fquare yards Scotch, 'equal to 6084.444 Enghfh ; and aa

the

WEIGHTS.

tlie Eiiglifh acre coniifts of 4840 Iquare yards, hence the
proportion that the Scotch acre bears to the Englifh is,
with a fmall fraAion more, as 5 to 4, as feen above.

That in hqiiid meafure the pint is the root, containing
103.404 c\ibic iiicties ; tlie half and quarter in proportion.
' That the Linhthgow wheat firlot, the only ftandard
meafure for that grain in Scotland, contains 2 1;^ pints;
hence in cubic inches 2197.34. The Winchefter bufhel,
in like manner the Englifh ftandard, contains 2150.42
cubic inches ; hence the Scotch wheat firlot is about 2f
p£r cent, greater than the Englifh bufliel.

And the Linlithgow barley meafure, which is likewife the
ilandard, contains 31 pints, or 3205.54 cubic inches ; hence
5^4 bufhels are very nearly equal to the Scotch boll of
4 firlots.

That ftraw is fold by tale, 40 windlens to a kemple,
generally from 14 to i6 ilone trone weight.

It is noticed, that in Eaft Lothian, meal is fold by the
peck of eight pounds Amfterdam weight ; and that the
boll of meal contains fixteen pecks or eight ilones.

It is ftated in the Clydefdale Report on Agriculture,
that in the dry meafure, ufed in the fale of grain of all
kinds, a boll contains four firlots, a firlot four pecks, and
a peck four forpits or lippies ; 16 bolls make a chalder.
The firlot ufed to meafure bai'ley and oats, is almoft one-
half larger than the firlot for meafuring wheat, beans, peas,
&c. That both thefe meafures are about one-fixteenth
larger than the Linlithgow ftandards of the fame denomi-
nations. But for more than thirty years paft, wheat has
been bought and fold by the Linlithgow ftandard, which is
now attempted to be introduced for other grains.

That in the lower parts of the county potatoes have
been meafured, for thefe forty years, with a difti of the
Ihape of a cafl<, the peck meafure holding fifteen Scotch
pints ; its weight, full of potatoes recently dug, is 43lbs.
avoirdupois. In the higher parts of the county potatoes
are fold by the barley meafure.

That the peck, orjleei, for meafuring pears and apples,
holds about eighteen pints. The confufion occafioned by
the irregularity of weights and meafures, is too obvious,
the writer fays, to require any comment.

In the Argyleftiire Agricultural Report, it is faid that
at Inverary the boll of meal is eight ftone Scotch troy, or
Dutch lyilbs. avoirdupois to the ftone. At Campbelton
it is ten ftone, of the fame weight ; or fixteen pecks of
lolbs. Scotch troy, or lolbs. 15 oz. avoirdupois each.

That in fome parts of the Knapdale and Lorn, the boll
is nine ftone. That in the firft of the above places, oats,
barley, and malt, are meafured by a firlot of 3438.183
cubic inches ; equal to one firlot, two pints, one mutchkin,
Scotch ftandard meafure, which makes the boll (of four
firlots) 7.258 per cent, better than the Scotch ftandard
meafure, and equal to fix budiels, one peck, nine pints,
10.2 cubic inches, Englifti ftandard meafure.

And that in Kiutyre, oats, barley, or bear and malt,
v;ere, for time immemorial, fold by a heaped peck, of
which the ftandard lay with the dean of Guild in Campbelton.
Of this meafure, feventeen pecks made, and ilill make, the
Kintyre boll from Auguft to Patrickmas, and only fixteen
from that date to the new crop ; and the divifions of the
boll are regulated by the fame proportions. But from the
inconvenience of meafuring by the heaped peck, it has been

converted into the ftriked one eontainiiig liie fame qoanlity ;
and this new ftriked peck committed to the dean of Guild,
has been fince the ftandard of the diftrift. The dimen-
fions of it are twelve Englifti inches diameter, equally wide
throughout, and ten and a tenth Englifti inches deep. The
contents of it in cubic inches are 1142.28576, equal to
eleven Scotch pints, and a very httie more than two-thirds
of a gill, which makes the Kintyre boll 19418.85792
cubic inches, before Patrickmas, and 18276.57216 after it.
A lippie more, or ^th of a boll, for town dues, is given
with every boll dehvered in Campbelton. The firft is equal
to nine Winchefter buftiels, and 65.03112 cubic inches,
(about ,V of a bufliel) and equal to one boll eight pecks,
1. 61788 lippie, Linlithgow ftandard meafure. The latter
is equal to eight and a half Winchefter buftiels, excepting
2.0394 cubic inches, and to one boll fix pecks, 3,V!r lip-
pies Linlithgow. The Winchefter buftiel contains 2150.42
cubic inches. The Linlithgow boll ftandard meafure
12822.096.

That at Inverary, the peck of potatoes contains fourteen
pints and one mutchkin, ale meafure. At Campbelton, it
contains about nine Englifti wine gallons, and is given
heaped ; and generally weighs about 561bs. avoirdupois.

But that beans and peas are fold in Kintyre by the
old peck ftriked, or by a meafure one-third lefs than that
for oats and bear. Lineal and liquid meafures are the fame
with the Scotch ftandards. Butter, cheefe, tallow, hay,
wool, and lint, are fold by the ftone of 24lbs. avoirdupois.
Butcher's meat by the pound of twenty-four ounces avoir-
dupois at Inverary, and of fixteen ounces at Campbelton.
The herring-barrel contains thirty-two Englifti gallons of
wine meafure, or 67.28 cuftomary ale pints of 109.866
cubic inches each.

Thefe fafts and ftatements fufBciently ftiew the necefiity
of fome regulation being fpeedily adopted of adjufting
weights and meafures to Tome fimple ftandard, both in this
and the northern parts of the kingdom.

The table of weights conftrufted by lord Somerville,
and introduced below, may be ufeful to the ftock-farmer
and grazier in moft fituations.

Table for the Equalization of different Weights.

Scores.

Stones

14 lbs

, at

Stones
Sibs

,at

Scotch Sioiit-s
16lbs.

Hundred,
1 1 albs.

St.

ll,s.

St.

lbs.

St. lbs.

Cwt.

qrs. lbs.

20 equal

28

8

50

0

25 0

3

2 8

25 —

35

10

62

4

31 2

4

I 24

30 —

42

12

75

0

37 4

5

1 12

35 —

50

0

87

4

43 6

6

I 0

40 —

57

2

100

0

50 0

7

0 16

45 —

64

4

1 12

4

56 2

8

0 4

50 —

71

6

125

0

62 4

8

3 20

55 —

78

8

137

4

68 6

9

3 8

60 —

85

10

150

0

75 0

to

2 24

65 -

92

12

162

4

81 2

1 1

2 12

70 —

ICO

0

'75

0

87 4

12

2 0

75 —

107

2

187

4

93 6

«3

1 16

80 —

114

4

200

0

100 0

H

' 4

WEIGHTS.

Table of Prices.

Scores
ai

i¥-

S^'/-

31'^-

4^.

AkJ-

^¥.

4f^.

Sci.

Diflftrence.

L

5.

d.

/.

5.

d.

L

S.

rf.

I.

5.

d.

I.

5.

rf.

I.

5.

d.

/.

s.

d.

I.

S.

d.

;.

s. d.

I

0

5

5

0

5

10

0

6

3

0

6

8

0

7

I

0

7

6

0

7

II

0

8

4

0

0 5

2

0

10

10

0

1 1

8

0

12

6

0

13

4

0

'4

2

0

15

0

0

15

10

0

16

8

0

0 10

3

0

16

^

0

17

6

0

18

9

I

0

0

I

I

3

I

2

b

I

3

9

I

5

0

0

I 3

4

I

I

8

I

3

4

I

5

0

I

6

8

I

8

4

I

10

0

I

1 1

8

I

13

4

0

I 8

5

I

7

I

I

9

2

I

II

3

I

13

4

I

15

5

I

«7

6

'

19

7

2

I

8

0

2 I

20

5

8

4

5

16

8

6

5

0

6

13

4

7

I

8

7

10

0

7

18

4

8

6

8

0

8 4

25

6

15

5

7

5

10

7

16

3

8

6

8

8

J7

I

9

7

6

9

17

II

10

8

4

0

10 5

3°

8

2

6

8

15

0

9

7

6

10

0

0

10

12

6

1 1

5

0

II

17

6

12

10

0

0

12 6

35

9

9

7

10

4

2

10

18

9

II

13

4

12

7

1 1

13

2

b

13

17

I

14

1 1

8

0

14 7

40

10

16

8

II

13

4

12

10

0

13

6

8

14

3

4

15

0

0

15

16

8

16

13

4

0

16 8

45

12

3

9

13

2

6

14

I

3

15

0

0

15

18

9

16

17

6

17

16

3

18

15

0

0

18 9

50

M

10

10

14

II

8

15

12

6

16

13

4

17

14

2

18

15

0

19

15

10

20

16

8

0 10

55

14

17

II

16

0

10

17

3

9

18

6

8

•9

9

7

20

12

6

21

15

5

22

18

4

2 II

60

16

5

0

17

10

0

18

15

0

20

0

0

21

5

0

22

10

0

23

15

0

25

0

0

5 0

65

17

12

I

18

19

2

20

6

3

21

13

4

23

0

5

24

7

6

25

14

7

27

I

8

7 I

70

18

19

2

20

8

4

21

17

6

23

6

8

24

15

10

26

5

0

27

14

2

29

3

4

9 2

75

20

6

3

21

17

6

23

8

9

25

0

0

26

II

3

28

2

6

29

13

9

31

5

0

II 3

80

21

i,^

4

23

6

8

25

0

0

26

13

4

28

6

8

30

0

0

31

13

4

33

6

8

13 4

85

23

0

5

24

15

10

26

II

8

28

6

8

30

2

I

31

17

6

33

12

II

35

8

4

15 5

90

24

7

6

26

5

0

28

2

6

30

0

0

31

17

6

33

15

0

35

12

6

37

10

0

17 6

95

25

14

7

27

14

2

29

13

9

31

13

4

33

12

II

35

12

6

37

12

I

39

II

8

19 7

100

27

I

8

29

3

4

31

5

0

33

6

8

35

8

4

37

10

0

39

II

8

41

13

4

2

I 8

Table — Continued.

Scores
at

S\d.

5¥-

5|</.

6d.

6i^.

e\d.

6id.

jd.

Difference.

I.

A.

d.

I.

S.

d.

/.

5.

f/.

I.

5.

d.

/.

s.

d.

I.

A'.

d.

I.

5.

d.

I.

s.

d.

I.

i. d.

I

0

8

9

0

9

2

0

9

7

0

10

0

0

10

5

0

10

10

0

II

3

0

II

8

0

° 5

2

0

17

6

0

18

4

0

19

2

I

0

0

I

0

10

I

I

8

I

2

6

1

3

4

0

0 10

3

I

6

3

I

7

6

I

8

9

I

10

0

I

II

3

I

12

6

I

13

9

I

15

0

0

I 3

4

I

15

0

I

16

8

I

iS

4

2

0

0

2

I

8

2

3

4

2

5

0

2

6

8

0

I 8

5

2

3

9

2

5

10

2

7

II

2

10

0

2

12

I

2

14

2

2

i6

3

2

18

4

0

2 I

20

8

15

0

9

3

4

9

II

8

10

0

0

10

8

4

10

16

8

II

5

0

II

13

4

0

8 4

25

10

18

9

II

9

2

II

19

7

12

10

0

13

0

5

13

10

10

14

I

3

14

II

8

0

10 5

30

13

2

6

13

15

0

14

7

6

15

0

0

15

12

6

16

5

0

16

17

6

17

10

0

0

12 6

35

15

6

3

16

0

10

16

15

5

•7

10

0

18

4

1

18

19

2

19

13

9

20

I

4

0

14 7

40

17

10

0

18

6

8

19

3

4

20

0

0

20

16

8

21

13

4

22

10

0

23

6

8

0

16 8

45

19

13

9

20

12

6

21

II

3

22

10

0

23

8

9

24

7

6

25

6

3

26

5

0

0

18 9

50

21

17

6

22

18

4

23

19

2

25

0

0

26

0

10

27

I

8

28

2

6

29

3

4

0 10

55

24

I

3

25

4

2

26

7

I

27

10

0

28

12

II

29

15

10

30

18

9

32

I

8

2 II

60

26

5

0

27

10

0

28

15

0

30

0

0

31

5

0

32

10

0

33

15

0

35

0

0

5 0

<>5

28

8

9

29

15

10

31

2

II

32

10

0

33

17

I

35

4

2

36

1 1

3

37

18

4

7 I

70

30

12

6

32

I

8

33

10

10

35

0

0

36

9

2

37

18

4

39

7

6

40

16

8

9 2

75

32

16

3

34

7

6

35

18

9

37

10

0

39

I

3

40

12

6

42

3

9

43

15

0

II 3

80

35

0

0

3C

13

4

3»

6

8

40

0

0

41

13

4

43

6

8

45

0

0

46

13

4

13 4

«5

37

3

9

3S

19

2

40

14

7

42

10

0

44

5

5

46

0

10

47

16

3

49

1 1

8

15 5

90

39

7

6

41

5

0

43

2

6

45

0

0

46

•5

6

48

13

0

50

12

6

52

lO

0

17 6

95

100

41

1 1

3

43

10

10

45

10

5

47

10

0

49

9

7

51

9

2

53

8

9

53

8

4

19 7

43

15

0

45

16

8

47

18

4

50

0

0

52

I

8

54

3

4

56

5

0

5«

6

8

2

I 8

Weight,

W E I

Weight, Pondus, in Mechanics, is any thing to be raifed,
fuftained, or moved by a machine ; or any thing that in
any manner refifts the motion to be produced. See Mo-
tion, &c.

In all machines, there is a natural ratio between the
weight and the moving power. If the weight be increafed,
the power muft be fo too ; that is, the wheels, &c. are to
be multiplied, and fo the time increafed, or the velocity
diminifhed.

" The centre of gravity F, ( Plate XL. Mechanics, Jig. 6. )
of a body I H, together with the weight of the body, being
given ; to determine the point M, in which, lying on a ho-
rizontal plane, a given weight G, hung in L, cannot re-
move the body I H out of its horizontal fituation."

Conceive a weight hung in the centre of gravity F, equal
to the weight of the whole body I H, and find the common
centre of gravity M, of that and the given weight G. If
the point M be laid on the horizontal plane, the weight G
will not be able to move the body H I out of its place.

" 'The centre of gravity C {jig. 7. ) of a body A B, to-
gether with its weight G, being given ; to determine the
points L and M, wherein props M N and L O are to be
placed, that each may bear any given proportion of the
weight."

In the horizontal line A B, pafling through the centre of
gravity C, alTume the right lines M C and C L in the given
ratio. Props, then, M N, L O, placed in thefe poijits,
will be prefled in the given ratio.

Hence, if in the points M, L, in lieu of props, you
place the (houlders or arms of porters, &c. they will be able
to bear the burden alike ; if their (hares be proportioned to
their ftrengths. Thus we have a way of diftributing a bur-
den in any given ratio.

Weights, Grofs, Neat, Penny, AJfay of, Ancel. See the
feveral articles.

Weight of the Atmofphere. See Atmosphere.

Weight of the Air, is equal to the elafticity thereof.

To find the Weight of a Cubic Inch of Air. — Weigh a round
glafs vefTel full of common air, very accurately ; then ex-
hauft the air out of it ; weigh the exhaulled veffel, and fub-
tra£t the latter weight from the former, the remainder is the
weight of the air exhaufted.

Find, then, tiie content of the veflel by the laws of mea-
furing ; and the ratio of the remaining air to the primitive
air. This done, the bulk of the remaining air is found by
the rule of three ; which being fubtrafted from the capacity
of the veflel, the remainder will be the bulk of air extradled.
Or, if the air-pump be very tight, and the exhauftion con-
tinued as long as any air is got out, the remaining air will
be fo fmall, that it may be very fafely neglefted, and the
content of the veflel taken for the bulk of the exhaufted
air.

Having, therefore, the weight and bulk of the whole ex-
haufted air, the weight of one cubic inch is eafily had by the
rule of three.

This method was firft ufed by Otto Guericke, and after-
wards by Burcher de Voider, who gives us the following
particulars in his experiment, i. That the weight of the
glafs fpherical veflel he made ufe of, full of common air,
was 7 lbs. I oz. 2 drs. 48 grs. ; when exhaufted of air, 7 lbs.
I oz. I dr. 31 grs. ; and when full of water, 16 lbs. 12 oz.
7 drs. 14 grs. The weight of the air, tl>erefore, was i dr.
17 grs. or 77 grs. ; the weight of the water 9lbs. I loz. 5 drs.
43 g""^- °'" 74743 grs. Confequently, the ratio of the fpe-
cific gravity between water and air is 74743 : 77 :: 970y-^ : 1.
Now, De Voider having found a cubic foot of water to
weigh 64 lbs., by inferring, as 970 is to 1, fo is 64 lbs. to a

W E t

fourth proportional, deduced by the rule of thrte, the
weight of a cubic foot of air, iiiz. i oz. 27 grs. or 507 grs.
nearly. Wolfii Elem. torn. ii. p. 291.

From other later experiments accurately made with the
hydroftatical balance, a cubic inch of air appears to be
equal to two-fevenths of a grain, and therefore a cubic foot
equal to 4937- troy grains. There are various ways of efti-
mating the weight of the air ; for which, fee Air, Atmo-
sphere, Barometer, Specific Gravity, &c.

It may be eafily determined by fitting a brafs cap, with a
valve tied over it, to the mouth of a thin bottle or Florence
flaflc, whofe contents are exaftly known, and fcrewing the
neck of this cap into the hole of the plate of the air-pump ;
then, having exhaufted the flafk of its air and taken it off
from the pump, fufpend it at one end of a balance, and
nicely counterpoife it by weights in the fcale at the other
end : when this is done, raife up the valve with a pin, and
the air will rufli into the flaflt, and caufe it to defcend.
When it is full of air, put grains into the fcale at the other
end to reftore the equilibrium ; and if the flafli holds exaftly
a quart, it will be found, that 1 7 grs. will be fufiicient for
this pnrpofe, when the quickfilver ftands at 29^ inches in
the barometer ; and this fhews, that when the air is at a
mean ratio of denfity, a quart of it weighs 17 grs.; and
confequently a gallon weighs 68 grs.: /'. <?. 231 cubic inches
of air are equal in weight to 68 grs., and 1728 cubic inches,
or a cubic foot of air, weighs 509^'; " grs. ; and as a cubic
foot of water weighs about 437702 troy grains, the fpecific
gravity of water will appear to be more than 850 times that
of air. See Air.

The weight oi fea-ivater is different in different climates.
Mr. Boyle having furniflied a learned phyfician, going on 3
voyage to America, with an hydroftatical balance, and re-
commended him to obferve, from time to time, the difference
of weight he might meet withal ; this account was returned
him : that the fea-water increafed in weight, the nearer he
came to the line, till he arrived at a certain degree of lati-
tude, as he remembers, about the 30th ; beyond which, it
retained the fame fpecific weight, till he came to Barbadoes.
Philof. Tranf. N° 18.

The weight of a cubical inch of good brandy, rum, or
other proof fpirits, is 235.7 &''^' > therefore, if a true inch
cube of any metal weighs 235.7 grs. lefs in fpirits than in
air, it ftiews the fpirits are proof; if it lofes lefs of its
aerial weight in fpirits, they are above proof; if it lofes
more, they are under : for the better the fpirits are, they
are the lighter ; and the worfe, the heavier.

As all bodies expand with heat and contradl with cold, in
different degrees, the fpecific gravities of bodies are not
precifely the fame in fummer as in winter. It has been
found, that a cubic inch of good brandy is 10 grs. heavier
in winter than in fummer ; as much fpirit of nitre, 20 grs. ;
vinegar, 6 grs. ; and fpring-water, 3 grs. Hence it is moft
profitable to buy fpirits in winter, and fell them in fummer,
fince they are always bought and fold by meafure. It has
been found, that 32 gallons of fpirits in winter will make
33 in fummer. Fergufon's Left. p. 98. 4to. See Specific
Gravity, and Hydrometer.

Weight of the Human Body. It is to be obferved, that
the heat and drynefs of the air both Icffen the weight of the
body, and the cold and moifture of the air both increafe
this weight. See Moisture.

Much lleep, much food, and httle exercife, are the prin-
cipal things which increafe the weight of the body, and
make animals grow fat. Confequently, if the weight of the
body be too great for good and uninterrupted health, it
may be leffened by diminifliing fleep and food, and by in-

creafing

WEI

eroafmg exercife. On the contrary, if the weight of the
body be too little for good health, it may be increafed by
adding to food and fleep, and by lefTening exercife ; and the
food muit be increafed chiefly by increafing drink and liquid
nourifhment. For the difcharges are commonly lefs from
drink and liquid nourilhment, than from dry and fohd food.

There is but one weight under which a body can enjoy
the beft and uninterrupted heahh, and that weight mua be
fuch, that pcrfpiration and urine may be nearly equal at all
feafons of the year ; for by this means the body will be uni-
formly drained of its moifture : the inward parts by urme,
and the more fuperficial parts by perfpiration, without any-
irregular and unnatural difcharges, and its movmg weight
will continue nearly the fame at all feafons of the year.
Dr. Bryan Robinfon thinks this weight may be fettled by
his obfervations in his Treatife on Food and Difcharges of
Human Bodies.

A quick increafe of weight in human bodies often pro-
duces diftempers ; the beft way to prevent this increafe is
either by fafting or exercife. But amidft a variety of dif-
turbing caufes, nothing fo effeftually prevents fuch an in-
creafe of weight as a very exa<El and regular diet, which
may prevent the difcharges from running into irregularities
and difproportions to one another. See Dr. Bryan Robin-
fon of the Food and Difcharges of Human Bodies, p. 82.
feq.

Men, and other animals of extraordinary weight, are
often recorded in the writings of the learned. See Phil.
Tranf. N° 479, p. 102.

Weight, Athletic, in the Animal Economy, that weight
of the body under which an animal has the greateft ftrength
and aftivity. Dr. Robinfon thinks this happens when the
weight of the heart, and the proportion of the weight of
the heart to the weight of the body, are greateft. For the
ftrength of an animal is meafured by the ftrength of its
mufcles, and the ftrength of the mufcles is meafured by the
ftrength of the heart. Alfo the adlivity of an animal is
meafured by the weight of the heart, in proportion to the
weight of the body.

If the weight of the body of an animal be greater than
its athletic weight, it may be reduced to that weight by
evacuations, dry food, and exercife. Thefe leflen the weight
of the body by wafting its fat, and lefTening its liver, and
they increafe the weight of the heart, by increafing the
quantity and motion of the blood ; fo that by lefTening the
weight of the body, and by increafing that of the heart,
they will foon reduce the animal to its athletic weight. Thus
a game cock, in ten days, is reduced to its athletic weight,
and prepared for fighting. If the food which, with the
evacuations and exercife, reduced the cock to its athletic
weight in ten days, be continued any longer, the cock will
lofe his ftrength and afkivity.

It is known by experience, that a cock cannot ftand
above twenty-four hours at his athletic weight, and that he
has even changed for the worfe in twelve hours. When he
is in the beft condition, his head is of a glowing red colour,
his neck thick, and his thigh thick and firm ; the day after,
his complexion is lefs glowing, his neck thinner, and his
thigh fofter ; and the third day his thigh will be very foft
and flaccid. Four game cocks, reduced to their athletic
weight, were killed, and found to be very full of blood,
with large hearts, large mufcles, and no fat.

It is to be obferved, that the athletic weight of an animal

is a very dangerous weight. Fevers and apoplexies are the

diforders which commonly happen to animals under or near

the athletic weights. Hence, horfes fed upon dry food are

10

WEI

much more fubjcft to fevers and apoplexies than horfes fed
upon grafs. Robinfon's Diflertation, p. 117, &c.

Weights, Sejfions for. See Sessions.

Weight, L'lije and Dead, of Animals, in Agriculture and
Rural Economy, the differences between their living and
dead weiglits as affefting their goodnefs and value for the
purpofe of the breeder and feeder or fattener. But few
correft trials have yet been made in the view of determining
this very important point or particular. It would feem,
however, from the little that has been done on the fubjeft,
that thofe forts of live-ftock that have the beft forms, and
the leaft weight in the different offal parts, are the moft
valuable and beneficial to the ftock mafter and farmer.

In neat cattle ftock the difference or lofs in this way is
fomewhere about a fourth, but the moft in thofe breeda
which are the leaft correft in their forms or (hapes. In
fome unimproved breeds it has been found a good deal
more, while in thofe which have been greatly improved
rather lefs. In calves it will moftly be frorr> a third to a
fourth.

In the good Hercfords, and fome of the beft long horn or
Lancalhire forts, thefe proportions have been found on trial
to be very nearly correft, both in the grown beafts and the
calves.

In fheep ftock, too, the fame principle, for the moft part,
holds good, thofe having the leaft difference or lofs in this
way that are the beft in their forms.

In trials with the South Down breed of (heep, as ftated
in the Correfted Report on the Agriculture of the County
of SulTex, the proportions of the live and dead weight are
thefe :

lbs.
Live weight of the fheep - - 192

Dead weight next day of carcafe - 125

Weight of Offal.

Blood

Entrails

Caul

Gut fat -

Head and pluck

Pelt

lbs.

6
II
16

5
8

15

0^
o
o

4
o

12

12

In an average fpecimen of a wether of the fame breed :

lbs.
Live weight of the fheep - - 133

Dead weight the day after - - 73

Weight of Offal.

lbs.
4

lO

14
16

Blood

Tallow

Entrails . . - . .

Skin and feet ....

Head and pluck ... - 9

In one of general Murray's breed of the fame kind :

lbs.
Live weight - - - - 129

Dead weight .... 62

Weight of Offal.

Tallo

lb>.
6

It is remarked that the lightnefs of the offal, fuch as the
head, horns, feet, entrails, pluck, blood, pelt, &c. is the
ciroumftance which charafterizes a good fheep ; and it is

faid.

lbs.

07. .

192

0

42

0

129

0

21

4

3

12

192

0

WEI

faid, that Difhley wethers well fattened are in the propor-
tion of one ounce of bone to a pound of (lefh.

That the offal, in the fat wether of the South Down
breed firft ftated, was but a fifth part and a fraftion of the
live weight, as below :

Live weight . - - -

Offal

Carcafe ....

Fat - -

Loft by killing ...

Some ufeful information, which has a tendency to eluci-
date the point concerning the proportion between the live
and dead weight of fome different breeds of {heep, has been
given under the head (heep. See Sheep, Pelt, and
Tallow.

In good pig ftock the difference in the proportion be-
tween the live and dead weight of the animals, or the lofs
of weight that is fuftained by the farmer, will be found
probably to be rather lefs than a fourth in the better breeds,
and rather more than that in thofe which are inferior in their
qualities. The beft breeds of pigs have by much the leaft
lofs in this way, and they have advantages in other refpefts.
See Swine.

Thefe fafts and ftatements tend to fhew the advantages
which the farmer has in keeping good live-ftock of all
kinds.

WEIGHTON, Market, in Geography, a fmall market-
town in the Holme-beacon divifion of Harthill wapentake,
Eaft Riding of the county of York, England, is fituated
on a little river called Foulnefs, in the high road between
York and Hull, at the diftance of 19 miles E.S.E. from
York, and 192 miles N. by W. from London. Some an-
tiquaries coniidered this place the Roman ftation, Dolgovi-
tia, till Drake, with great appearance of probability, affigned
that ftation to the village of Londeftjurgh, nearly three
miles north of Weighton. This town confills of one
long ftreet, interfered by a few fmaller : till within the laft
thirty years, the houfes were in general low and mean, and
covered with thatch ; but fince that period, a number of
refpeftable buildings have been eretled, and confiderable
improvements have been made. A weekly market is held
on Wednefdays, when a great quantity of corn is often fold,
though but little is expofed, being chiefly difpofed of by
fample. Two fairs are held annually for horfes, cattle, and
particularly for fheep, and cheefe. The trade of the town
has been confiderably increafed by means of a canal from
the Humber ; whereby coals and other articles are brought
hither, and the barges return laden with grain. By the po-
pulation return of the year i8ii, the inhabitants of this
town are enumerated at 1508 ; the number of houfes as 239.
The church is an ancient maflive edifice ; it formerly had a
wooden fpire, which has been recently taken down, and a
confiderable addition made to the height of the tower ; the
interior of the church has alfo been greatly improved, and
furnifhed with an additional gallery. A meeting-houfe for
Methodifts has lately been erefted. There is no endowed
fchool in the parifti. About two miles eaft of Weighton is
the brow of the Yorkftiire wolds, whence very extenfive
views are obtained. — Beauties of England and Wales,
I vol. xvi. Yorkftiire, by J. Bigland, 1812. Drake's Ebora-
! cum, or the Hiftory and Antiquities of York, fol. 1736.
i Vol. XXXVIII.

W E 1

WEIGSDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflaw ; 8 miles N.N.E. of Krottau.

WEIGSTOTTEN, a town of Auftria ; 6 miles N.W.
of Steyr.

WEIKENDORFF, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles S. of
Zifterfdorf.

WEIKERSTORF, a town of Auftria ; 4 miles S.V/.
of Sonneberg.

WEIKERTSCHLAG, a town of Auftria; 8 miles
W. of Drofendorf.

WEIL, a town of Wurtemberg, on the Wirm. This
was an imperial town, till in 1802 it was given to the duke
of Wurtemberg, by whofe dominions it was furrounded ;
lomilesW.S.W. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 48'. E. long.
S'^ 50'.

WEILACH, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the
Par, near Schrobenhaufen.

WEILBACH, a river of Germany, which runs into
the Lahn, 2 miles S. of Weilburg.

WEILBURG, a town of Germany, which gives name
to a county belonging to the houfe of Naffau, hence called
Naffau Weilburg, fituated on an eminence on the Lahn,
over which it has a bridge of ftone. The prince's palace
here contains fome very elegant apartments ; with a fine
garden belonging to it, and a chapel anfwerable to the
whole. All the roads near the town lie in a direft line, and
are planted on each fide with a row of trees. In the neigh-
bourhood is a large menagerie ; 9 miles W. of Wetzlar. N.
lat. 5o<^26'. E. long. 8" 18'.

WEILE, or Wedel, a fea-port town of Denmark,in
North Jutland, fituated on a bay in the Little Belt ; 38
miles N.E. of Ripen. N. lat. 55°45'. E. long. 9° 30'.

WEILHAIM, orWEiLHEiM, a town of Bavaria; 26
miles S.W. of Munich. N. lat. 47° 44'. E. long. 1 1° 4'.

WEILHEIM, a town of Wurtemberg, on the Lauter ;
20 miles N.E. of Ulm. N. lat. 48° 33'. E. long. 9'^ 35'.

WEILKO Stkzlcze. See Strelitz.

WEILMUNSTER, a town of the principality of Naf-
fau Weilburg ; 5 miles S. of Weilburg.

WEILNAU, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Naffau Weilburg ; 13 miles S. of Weilburg.

WEILTINGEN, a town of Wurtemberg, on the War-
nitz ; 40 miles S.W. of Nuremberg. N. lat. 49° 3'. E.
long. 10° 30'.

WEIMAR, a principality and duchy of Saxony, fitu.
ated in Thuringia, on the fides of the Ilm ; about 24 miles
in length, and 20 in breadth, but confiderable trafts are de.
taclied from the main body. — Alfo, a town of Saxony, and
capital of a duchy of the fame name, with a palace of the
prince, in which the duke has a valuable hbrary, a cabi-
net of medals, a mufeum, and a gallery of pamtings ; and
where are kept the archives of the Erneftine line of the
dukes of Saxony ; 94 miles W. of Drefden. N. lat. 51° 2'.
E. long. 11° 22'.

WEINBERG, a town of Auftria; 4 miles S.E. of
Freyftadt. — Alfo, a town of the principality of Anfpach ;
3 miles N.N.E. of Feuchtwang.

WEINFELDEN, a town of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Zurich, and principal place of a bailiwick, in the
Thurgau ; 4 miles S.W. of Conftance.

WEINGARTEN, a town of the duchy of Baden ; 13
miles S.S.E. of Spire. N. lat. 49° 3'. E. long. 8° 30'.

WEINGE, a town of Sweden, in the province of Hal-
land ; 12 miles S.E. of Halmftadt.

WEINHAUSEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the prm-
cipality of Luneburg Zell ; 6 miles from Zell.
^ ' ^ N„ WEIN-

WEI

WEINHEIM, a town of the duchy of Baden, fituated
in the Bergftrafle, and famous for its wine. The Roman
Catholics, the Lutherans, and the Calvinifts, have each a
church ; 9 miles N. of Heidelberg.

WEINITZ, or ViNizA, a town of the duchy of Car-
niola, on the Kulp ; 10 miles E.N.E. of Gotfchee.

WEINMANNIA, in Botany, a name which feems to
have originated with Dr. Patrick Browne, who, without
due attention, called it Windmannia. The perfon whom he
defigned to commemorate was John William Weinmann, an
apothecary of Ratifbon, author of a huge botanical German
work, enUiledPhylanthozaiconographia, confiding of four thick
folios, with 1025 large coloured engravings of plants. The
firft volume appeared in 1 737, the laft in 1 745, after the au-
thor's dcceafe. There is a preface to the latter by Haller.
Dieterich and Bieler co'ntributed part of the text, and there
are ample indexes, in various languages. The plates are
rude, and gloomily coloured. Trew, whofe candournever-
thelefs is allowed by Haller, fays, " varieties are not diftin-
guifhed," in this work, " from fpecies, the ftrufture of the
flowers is fcarcely exprefled, nor was the author competent
to refer his plants to their true genera." Burmann began a
Dutch edition, with fome additions, in 1736. The book is
neceiTarily expeniive, on account of its bulk, and is rare in
England. We have feldom had occafion to confult it, nor
have we ever done fo without difappointment. — Linn. Gen.
195. Schreb. 263. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 436. Mart. Mill.
Dift. v. 4. JulT. 309. Poiret in Lamarck Dift. v. 7. 578.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 313. (Windmannia; Browne Jam. 212.)
— Clafs and order, Oaandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. akin to
Saxifrage, Juff. ; or rather, we (hould think, as he himfelf
hints, to his Rhododendra.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four ovate, fpreading,
permanent leaves. Cor. Petals four, equal, undivided, larger
than the calyx. Neftary glandular, furrounding the bafe
of the germen. Stam. Filaments eight, ereft, thread-fhaped,
longer than the petals ; anthers roundifh, of two cells. Pifl.
Germen fuperior, ovate, acute ; ftyles two, fomewhat fpread-
ing, the length of the ftamens, permanent ; ftigmas obtufe.
Perk. Capfule elliptic-oblong, with two points, two cells,
and two valves, whofe inflexed margins form the double par-
titions. Seeds about eight in each cell, roundifh.

Efl". Ch. Calyx of four leaves. Petals four. Capfule
fuperior, with two beaks, two cells, and two valves with
inflexed margins. Seeds feveral.

A very handfome genus of extra-European ftirubs, with
oppofite, compound or fimple leaves, accompanied by inter-
foliaceous deciduous fl;ipulas. The flowers are fmall, copi-
ous, racemofe, rarely panicled. Capfules permanent long
after the feeds are fhed. Cusonia, (fee that article,) ap-
pears to diff'er from this genus, merely by adding one-fifth
to the parts of fruftification, which in this cafe is of no
avail whatever.

Seft. I. Leaves compound.

I. W. glabra. Smooth Pinnate Weinmannia. Linn.
Suppl. 228. Willd. n. I. Swartz Obf. 151. (W. pin-
nata ; Linn. Sp. PI. 515, excluding the reference to Browne. )
— Leaves pinnate ; leaflets obovate, crenate, fmooth on both
fides. Capfule roundifli-eUiptical, bluntifh. — Native of the
Weft Indies. The Jletn, ufually fhrubby, fometimes be-
comes a /rff, forty feet high, with round, vnggtA branches ;
when young angular, and coarfely downy. Leaves of fix
pair, more or lefs, with an odd one, of obovate, abrupt
leaflets, half an inch at raoft in length, all nearly equal, fur-
nifhed with one rib and feveral tranfverfe veins ; entire and
wedge -(haped towards the bafe. Common footflaJi jointed,

WEI

each articulation, between the leaflets, winged with a leafy
rhomboid expanfion, tapering moll downward, and hairy at
each end. Clujlers oppofite, at the end of each branch, on
hairy axillary ftalks, denfe, about an inch long when in
flower ; twice as long, and much more lax, when in fruit.
Floiuers very fmall, white, on fafciculated, fliort, thick,
hairy partial ftalks. Capfules about half the fize of hemp-
feed, brown ; their Jlalks elongated ; their valves obtufe,
tipped with the Jlyles, and, as they ripen, turning their pale
narrow edges, which had formed the partitions, outwards.
Permanent Jlyles moftly recurved, rather ftiorter than the
valves. We have not feen the feeds.

2. W. tindoria. Red-tan Weinmannia. (Weinmannia ;
Lamarck t. 313. f. i. Tan-rouge; Commerfon MSS.) —
Leaves pinnate ; leaflets elliptical, crenate, fmooth on both
fides. Capfule ovato-lanceolate, taper-pointed. Seeds hairy.
— Gathered by Commerfon in the ifle of Bourbon, where it
is known by the name of Tan-rouge, becaufe the bark ferves
to dye leatlier of a red colour. The flowers are fuppofed
to furnifli the bees with much of their honey. French bo-
tanifts appear to have confounded this plant with the pre-
ceding. It is certainly what Lamarck has figured, and
what Poiret has quoted, for IV. glabra, the latter having
taken Tan-rouge from hence, for his French generic name of
the whole genus, though without adverting to its ufe in the
ifle of Bourbon, or its being a native of that country. The
leaves are full twice the fize of IV. glabra, with elliptical,
not obovate, leaflets : wings of then footjlalis fimilar to the
laft. Clujlers oi flowers much more lax, and lefs hairy,
three or four inches long ; the flowers twice as large. Cap-
fules of a very diff^t'rent fhape, and paler redder hue, taper-
ing into the ftraiglit ereSt flyles, which are not a quarter fo
long as the valves, nor are the edges of the latter ever
turned outward, or flattened. The cluflers of ripe capfules
are cylindrical, denfe, four or five inches in length. Seeds
clothed with a few long prominent hairs.

3. W. hlrta. Hairy-leaved Weinmannia, or Baftard Bra-
filetto. Swartz Ind. Occ. 691. Willd. n. f. Poiret in
Lam. n. 3. — Leaves pinnate ; leaflets elliptic-ovate, crenate,
hairy at the back. Capfules oblong. — Native of lofty moun-
tains in the fouth part of Jamaica, in St. Andrew's parifh,
near Coldfpring, the rcfidence of Matthew Wallen, efq,
(See Wallenia.) This, according to Dr. Swartz, from
whom we have a fpecimen, is a very rare fpecies. It is
either ^ fljrub, or a handfome tree, from forty to fifty feet
high, crowned at the very top of its fmooth trunk with lax,
hairy, or fomewhat downy, rufty-coloured branches. The
leaves moft refemble the laft in fhape, but are clothed be-
neath, fometimes on both fides, with coarfe, fcattered, pro-
minent hairs. The leafy borders of each joint of the com-
mon footflalk are narrower, and lefs angular, than thofe of
our firft or fecond fpecies, and their midrib is very hairy
beneath. Cluflers alfo very hairy, an inch or two in length,
in pairs at the fummits of the branches. Flowers the fize
of the laft, white. Capfule, according to Swartz, fmall,
oblong, rather pointed, with feveral fmall roundifh feeds.
This tree flowers in September and Odober. Some fpeci-
mens, in the herbarium of the younger Linnaeus, excite a
doubt whether the hairinefs of the fohage may invariably be
relied on. Still we have no doubt of the diftinftnefs of
thefe three fpecies. The third is perhaps moft allied to the
fecond, which appears to be what Dr. Swartz faw marked
JV. arborea, and which Commerfon was faid to have gathered
in the ifle of Mauritius. We do not at all comprehend how
the joints of the covamon footflalk can be termed " fomewhat
heart-fliaped," in JV. hirta; they are rather more truly obo-

1 1 vate

W E I

i?ate than in either of the foregoing, being lefs angular, or
deltoid.

4. W. trichofptrma. Hairy-feeded Weinmannia. Cavan.
Ic. V. 6. 45. t. 567. Poiret n. 2. — Leaves pinnate ; leaflets
elliptic-oblong, ierrated, fmooth on both fides. Capfule
roundifh-elliptical. Seeds denfely hairy. — Gathered by
Louis Nee, at San Carlos, in Chili, bearing ripe capfules
in February. Cavanillei. By the plate above quoted, this
bears mod refemblance to the firft fpecies, efpecially in the
acute angles of the deltoid articulations of the footjlalks,
which in all the other fpecies are rounded. But the leaflett
are longer and more elliptical, ferrated rather than crenate ;
the capfules broadly elliptical, not obtufe, their inflexed
edges, if the figure be accurate, much broader, and con-
tinuing inflexed. The feeds are roundi(h-kidneyfliaped,
clothed with long, copious, projefting hairs, of which no
mention is made by any botanift. who has defcribed the feeds
of //. glabra or W. hirta, and therefore we muft prefume
they do not exift in thofe fpecies. We find fuch hairs, very
fparingly, on the globular feeds of [V. tinSorla, but the cap-
fules of that fpecies are abundantly difierent from the
prefent.

5. W. tomentofa. Woolly Weinmannia. Linn. Suppl.
227. Willd. n. 3. Poiret n. 4. — Leaves pinnate ; leaflets
elliptical, revolute, entu-e, woolly beneath. — Gathered in
New Granada, by Mutis. A very diftinft and remarkable
fpecies. The branches are woody, round, denfely leafly,
rough, fomewhat warty, of a dark brown ; hoary and
downy when young. Leaves hardly an inch and a half long ;
leaflets about five pair, with an odd one, each one-third of
an inch in length, convex, flightly hairy, fingle-ribbed ; the
under fide clothed with copious, loofe, hoary, woolly hairs.
The joints of the common footjlalk are rather fhorter than
the leaflets, obovate, not angular ; their edges revolute, and
the under fide woolly. Stipidas large, ovate, reflexed, co-
loured, hairy externally, deciduous. Flowers in very denfe
cluflers, rather above an inch long, on thick, fliort, woolly,
axillary ftalks. Calyx hairy. Capfules wanting in our
fpecimens.

6. W. trifoliata. Three-leaved Weinmannia. Linn. Suppl.
227. Thunb. Prodr. 77. Willd. n. 4. Poiret n. 5. La-
marck f. 2.— Leaves ternate ; leaflets obovate, crenate,
fmooth. — Gathered by Thunberg, at the Cape of Good
Hope. The whole _/Zirui is faid to be very fmooth. Leaf-
lets equal, about an inch long, being about two-thirds the
length of their commoKi footjlalk, which is fimple and naked.
Cluflers cylindrical, denfe, two or three inches long, on
axillary ftalks about half their own length. The germen in
Lamarck's figure is roundifli and hairy. We have feen no
fpecimen, nor is there any account of the capfule or feeds.

Seft. 2. Leaves fimple.

7. W. racemofa. Smooth-cluftered Simple-leaved Wein-
mannia. Linn. Suppl. 227. Willd. n. 5. Forft. Prodr. 27.
Poiret n. 580. — Leaves fimple, ftalked, ovate, with tooth-
like ferratures. Clufters axillary, folitary, nearly fmooth

Gathered by Forfter, as well as by Menzies, in New Zea-
land. The branches are ftout, woody, repeatedly branched
in an oppofite manner, round and rough. Footjlalks Itout,
fmooth, half an inch long, articulated at the fummit with
the leaf, which is two, or two and a half, inches long, and
one broad, pointed, coriaceous, quite fmooth, ftrongly
veined, befet with blunt, inflexed, wavy teeth, or ferratures ;
paler beneath. Cluflers about the tops of the branches,
though axillary, ftalked, longer than the leaves, cylindrical,
continuous ; their general and partial Jlalks either flightly
downy, or quite fmooth. Capfules obovate, pointed, iome-

W £ I

what downy ; the inflexed edges of their valves finally ex-
panded. We cannot find lifeed in any of our fpecimens.

8. W. parv'tflora. Small-flowered Weinmannia. Forft.
Prodr. 29. Willd. n. 6. Poiret n. 7._« Leaves, fimple,
nearly feffile, ovate, pointed, with tooth-like ferratures.
Clufters terminal, aggregate, hairy."-_Native of Otaheite.
Forjler. Willdenow, who had feen a dried fpecimen, de-
fcribes the branches as hairy when young. Leaves on fliort
ftalks, oblong, fmooth on both fides. Cluflers downy, from
three to fix at the top of each branch, forming a fort of
panicle. Floiuers but a quarter the fize of the preceding.

9. W. ovata. Ovate-Crenate Weinmannia. Cavan. Ic.
V. 6. 45. t. 566. Poiret n. 9 — Leaves fimple, elhptical,
crenate, acute at each end, on fliort ftalks. Clufters axil-
lary, folitary, oppofite, fomewhat downy Native of Peru,

in a large alluvial excavation, near the town of St. Buena-
ventura, flowering in June and July. This is a tree eighteen
feet high, with furrowed, rather knotty branches, thickened
at the infertion of the leaves, which feem very like thofe of
IV. racemofa in (hape, fize, veins, and fmoothnefs, but are
more truly crenate, and ftand on ihoner foot/calks. Clufters
oppofite, at the tops of the branches, though axillary and
fohtary, each two or three inches long ; their partial ftalks
^gg''^g^'s> ''"'1 fomewhat villous. Nothing is known of the
capfule or feeds. We could wifli for better materials than
Cavanilles affords us, for diftinguifliing this fpecies from the
racemofa, n. 7.

10. W. paniculata. Panicled Weinmannia. Cavan. Ic.
v. 6. 44. t. 565. Poiret n. 8. — Leaves fimple, elliptic-
lanceolate, fliarply ferrated. Panicles axillary, compound.
— Gathered by Louis Nee, at the fea-fliore near Talca-
huano, in Chili, flowering in February. A tree about the
ftature of the laft, but the leaves are longer, more lanceo-
late, with parallel veins, and copious fliarp ferratures,
which give them fome refemblance to the fweet-chefnut
leaf. They are fmooth, and ftand on ftout downy fooljfulis.
The panicled injlorefcence is fingular among all the known
fpecies. Flowers yellowifli-red. Capfules elliptical, acute,
downy, beaked with the ftraight_/?y/fj, wliich are as long as
the valves. Seeds obovate, fmooth, on flender ftalks, pen-
dulous. We have a fpecimen from the late abbe Cavanilles.

WEINSBERG, in Geography, a town of Wurtemburg j
a part of which is built on a round hill, on which alfo Hands
a ruined caftle : the other part lies in a valley. In it is a
fpecial fuperintendency. The valley in which it lies is famous
for wine ; 5 miles N.E. of Heilbronn.

WEINSTEIG, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles N. of Korn
Neuburg.

WEINZIERL, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles S.E. of
Ips.

WEIPERSHOFEN, a town of the principality of
Anfpach ; 5 miles S.E. of Creilflieim.

WEIPERT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saatz ; 14 miles W. of Coramotau.

WEIR, one of the fmaller Orkney iflands, containing
about 65 inhabitants. It had formerly a church, which 13
now in ruins ; 2 miles S. of Roufa.

WEIR, or Wear, in Rural Economy, a fort of dam,
bulwark, or ftrong ereftion, formed acrofs a brook, rivulet,
ftream, river, main, or other fuch water-courfe, for the
purpofe of diverting or turning the water, in watering
land. It is occafionally made in different ways, as of tim-
ber alone, fometimes of bricks, or ftones, and timber, and
of different other materials, as will be feen below, having
from two to eight or ten thoroughs or openings for letting
the water pafs through, according as the breadth of the
N n 2 ftream

WEIR.

ftream and other circumftariMS may be. The height of it is
always equal to the depth of the ftream compared with the
adjacent land.

The water of a very fmall and gentle ftream may often be
diverted for this ufe, by means of a few fods firmly put
down, with fome Hones above them : but for lands of any
confiderable extent, the kinds direfted below are necefTary,
according as the ftrength of the refpedive ftreams may hap-
pen to be.

Strong wooden beams or balks thrown acrofs the Itream,
and made clofe by means of boards well fecured, are, m
many cafes, fufficiently ftrong, commodious, and conve-
nient, in (low moving waters, of no great power or
force.

A few cart-loads of ftones thrown properly in acrofs the
ftream, forms alfo a bulwark, wide at thebafe, and narrow-
ing towards the top, the whole being puddled with clay or
oravelly earth, which fometimes anfwers well. Over the
top of this bulwark, the fuperfluous waters pafs in a free
manner, falling down the gentle flope, to which, if well con-
ftrufted, they do no fort of injury.

A weir fuitable for a fmall river may confift too of feveral
rows of ftakes, firmly driven down and interlaced with the
branches of fir-trees, the intervals of the rows being filled
with Hones. The fand and mud that come down with the
floods fill up this fort of weir, and render it fit for effefting
its purpofe. In heavy rains the fuperfluous water pafles en-
tirely over.

But for more powerful rivers, the weirs may be con-
ftru Aed of ftrong frame-works of wood, firmly and ftrongly
joined together, and the different compartments all paved
with large ftones : the weir rifing very gradually againft the
ftream, and being made to flope gradually away before it,
as it flows over it. In this way the largeli and moft power-
ful rivers may moftly be managed, if the weirs be well
fuited to them ; fo that it is but in few cafes advifeable to
attempt the watering lands from rivers that cannot he di-
verted by one or other of thefe forts of weirs, as the ex-
pence and hazard taken together may greatly exceed the ad-
vantage to be derived. It may, however, in fome cafes of
large rivers, be neceflary and proper to have recourfe to
more expenfive weirs, fuch as that defcribed below.

In this weir, which was formed on a large, rapid, and
ftrong river, under the direftion of the Rev. W. H. Co-
ham, in Devonfhire, after the ftream had been temporarily
diverted, and every thing removed for a proper foundation,
a double row of pits was dug into a rocky fubftratum, di-
reftly acrofs the bottom, or bed of the river, at about five
feet afunder lengthways, by four feet in breadth, and about
two feet in depth ; and into thefe pits oak pofts of about
fix or feven inches fquare were fixed. The mafon then raifed
a perpendicular wall, without any cement, about five feet
and a half thick, entirely enclofing the pofts, the labourers
being employed in the mean time in backing up the wall on the
higher fide with fome of the Jliffejl clay to be had. This
was, however, afterwards found to be wrong ; it ftiould
have been done in the puddle manner, by means of mould and
gravelly earth.

When the wall was raifed to fuch a height as was deemed
neceffary, in relation to the level required, and the preferva-
tion of the lands adjacent, the upper parts of the oak pofts
were fawn off, in order to receive crofs-pieces and joifts, the
front pofts being then left to ftand about fix inches higher
than the hinder ones ; and on thefe joifts oak planks were
pinned, about fix feet and a half long by three itiches
thick. Thefe planks were brought forward to projeft about

one foot and a half over the perpendicular of the wall, on the
lower fide, forming a fort of lip, as it has been termed ; the
clay, together with thefe planks, conftituting an inclined
plane, and terminating at the diftance of about fifteen feet
up the ftream, on the common bed of the river.

The entrance for the leat was cut at about thirty feet
above the Up of the weir, where, to regulate the quantity
of water to be admitted, three ftrong flood-hatches, to be
lifted or let down by a lever and windlafs, were placed ;
and through which a column of water, of about eight feet
in width by four feet in depth, may be introduced at any
time. Between the leat and the river a ftoue wall, ftrongly
cemented, is erefted, which is about eight feet in height,
and carried from the head of the leat to about thirty feet
below the weir, in a parallel line with the river, and at the
end of which wall another flood-hatch is fixed on a level with
the bed of the river. This latter hatch will always be of
great advantage when any reparations may be wanting on the
weir ; as on drawing it up when the water is low, the weir
in a few hours will be left perfeftly dry, and the workmen,
with the greateft convenience, may proceed in their opera-
tions. From the top of the fide wall, above the weir, the
ground is made floping to the river, and below it is covered
with turf, and levelled as a foot-path.

Immediately below the weir, m this cafe, there is an out-
let regulated by another flood-hatch, and condufted through
3.JlDoot formed of oak plank, from the leat, and contrived for
the admiffion of falmon, which are there fometimes taken ;
and below the lower flood-hatch, a trap, or luilley, as it is
there termed, is made for the catching of fmaller fifh : this
part of the work does not, however, properly belong to this
kind of weir, therefore it need not be more noticed.

The height of the weir is about four feet above the level
of the river where it is fixed ; and its length, from bank to
bank, direftly acrofs, or at right angles with the ftream, is
about forty-eight feet ; forty feet of which is carried at a
perfedl level, and over which the water falls precifely at the
fame depth, forming a beautiful cafcade. The remaining
portions of the length of che weir, namely, four feet on
each fide, are raifed, gradually afcending to the banks for
the purpofe of warding off the torrent from them in time of
floods, when the river, in this cafe, is very tunuiltuous.

The lip part of the weir is found to anfwer perfedlly ; as
in proportion to the force of the water behind, fo is the dif-
tance which it is thrown over the weir from the foundation of
the perpendicular wall.

If the writer had not been foiled, and had part of the
work to perform over again, in confequence of the ufe of
clay, as already noticed, being under the neceflity of driving
on the weir in a direft line with the former work, into the
fide of the oppofite bank, as before ; and after removing as
much of the clay as could be got at, which will not unite
completely with the foil, but become liable to be under-
mined by the water, by making a puddle, as ufed in canals of
mould and gravel, in its ftead, which fucceeded in a com-
plete manner ; the whole coft of the weir would not have
exceeded 75/.

This weir or wear, from its prefent appearances, may
now, it is faid, feem to bid defiance to time ; and be fafely
recommended as a pattern to thofe who may have occafion to
conftruft any thing of a fimilar kind, either for watering
land, for machinery, or other ufes. See Watering
Land.

In the weirs or wears which are thrown over large rivers

for the purpofe of raifing the water for the ufe of mills, and

in many other intentions, and which are moftly conftrufted

6 of

WEI

of Hone, with ftronfj framed wood-work, in fomewhat the
above manner, there are many different contrivances calcu-
lated for different ufes, fuch as locks for fecuring large fifh,
places for taking and preferving thofe of the fmaller forts,
and different others. . See Dr. Anderfon's Treatife on the
Ereftion of Weirs, &c. where a full explanation of the
principles anc! manner of conftrufting them will be found.

WEIS See, in Geography, a lake of the duchy of Carin-
thia ; lo miles N.W. of Velach.

WEIS A, 3 town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ;
,3 miles S.S.W. of Wolkcnftein.

WEISBRON. See Vesprin.

WEISCHE Oppa, a river of Silefia, which runs N.E.
into the Schwartze Oppa.

WEISCHEN>'ELD,a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 18 miles E.S.E. of Bamberg. N. lat. 49''
49'. E. long. 1 1° 19'.

WEISDORF, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Culmbacli ; 3 "liles E. of Munchberg.

WEISEN, a town of PrufTia, in the province of Ober-
land ; 10 miles W.S.W. of Leibftadt.

WEISENBAD, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Wolkenftein.

WEISENBERG, a townfhip of Pennfylvania ; 60 miles
N. of Philadelphia.

WEISENBERG, or Wossberk, a town of Lufatia ;
8 miles E. of Budiffen. N. lat. 51^ 12'. E. long.
14° 40'.

WEISENBRUN, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 24 miles S. of Cronach.

WEISENBURG, a town of Auftria ; 12 miles S.S.W.
of St. Polten.

Weisenbukg. See Weissemburu.

WEISENHORN, a town of the duchy of Baden,
fituated in a county to which it gives name, on the Roth ;
II miles S.E. of Ulm. N. lat. 48° 17'. E. long. 10" 8'.

WEISENKIRCHEN, a town of Auftria; 11 miles
5.W. of TuUn.

WEISFURT, a river of Silefia, which runs into the
Oder, 3 miles below Beuthen.

WEISKIRCH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflaw ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Krottau.

WEISKIRCHEN, or Hraxitze, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Prerau ; 15 miles E.N.E. of Prerau. N.
lat. 49° 30'. E. long. 17*^43'.

WEISMAYN, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Bamberg ; 20 miles N.E. of Bamberg. N. lat. 50° 6'.
E. long. 11° 18'.

WEISSE, Christian-Felix, \n Biography, a German
poet, was born in 1726, at Annaberg, in Saxony, and
educated, iirfl at the Gymnafuim of Altenburg, and after-
wards at Leipfic. The objefts to which his tafte moft
powerfully inclined him were poetry and the drama ; and
he and his friend Leffing concurred in tranflating for the
ftage from French and Englifh works, and afterwards in
furnifiiing original compofitions. He alfo contended with
his friend in lyric poetry. After completing his courfe of
education, he became private tutor in a family of diftinftion
at Leipfic, purfuing his dramatic and poetical career, and
gaining a great degree of popularity. He alfo edited the
Bibliotheque of Belles Lettres, when Nicholai furrendered
it. Although, in 1761, he obtained a place in the revenue
at Leipfic, he profecuted his employment as a writer for
the ilage ; and when he became the father of a family, he
direfted his attention to education, and publifhed feveral
pieces in this department: particularly, in 1772, a collec-
tion of fhort tales and moral maxims, which had a confider-

WEI

able circulation ; and in 1775 he revived a weekly publica-
tion, which Adelung had difcontinued, under the title of
the " Children's Friend." This work became afterwards
a quarterly publication, and between the years 1775 and
1782, paffed through five editions. From this popular
work Berquin derived the idea of his " Ami des Enfans,"
and he was indebted to it for many of his materials. As
WeifTe's children grew to maturity and fettled in the world,
he altered the plan of his work, and continued it under t'.e
form of Letters ; and Berquin alfo followed him in his
" Ami des Adolefcentes." In 1790 the beautiful eftate of
Stotteritz near'Leipfic, which WeifTe inherited, placed his
family in affluent circumftances, and furnilhed him with a
pleafant refidence. Towards the latter part of his life he
contributed fhort fables and poetical tales to journals and
periodical publications, which were well received, and at
length doled his life with reputation, in December 1804.
His dramatic works, which were continued to five volumes,
are faid to have formed an epoch in the hiftory of the Ger-
man ftage, and both his trandations and original compofitions
were well received. Gen. Biog.

Weisse, in Geography, a river of Pruffia, which runs
into the Rufs, 20 miles N.W. of Tilfit.

WEISSEBERG, a mountain of Bohemia, celebrated
for the defeat of the eleflor-palatine, about 3 miles from
Prague.

WEISSELBURG, a town of PrufTia, in the province
of Oberland ; 5 miles S. of Marienwerder.

WEISSELMUNDA. See Weiciiselmonde.

WEISSEMBURG,orKoRNWEissEMBURG,or/Kj(f^»!-
lurg, a town of France, and principal place of a diftrift in the
department of the Lower Rhine, fituated on the Lauter,
at the foot of the Vofges. This town was formerly impe-
rial, and was ceded to France by the peace of Ryfwick.
The fortifications were deftroyed by Louis XIV.; but
ftrong lines of defence are fixed from this town to the
Rhine, a little to the eaft of Lauterburg, on the S. fide
of the Lauter; 27 miles N. of Strafburg. N. lat. 49^-' 3'.
E. long. 8°.

Weissemburg, a town of Bavaria, called Weijfemhurg near
the Nordgau. It contains two churches and a medicinal
fpring. WeifTemburg was an imperial town, till in 1802 it
was given to the cleftor of Bavaria ; 28 miles S.S.W. of
Nuremberg. N. lat. 48° 58'. E. long. io''55'.

Weissemburg, or Alba Julia, or Carljburg, or Fejervar,
a town of Tranfylvania, capital of a county, and fee of the
bifhop of Tranfylvania, beautifully fituated on the Maros.
It was a long time the metropolis of Dacia, and the feat of
its monarchs, who had a palace here. It was likewife the
feat of a Roman legion. The name Alba Julia it owes to
Juha Augufta, mother of Marcus Aurelius. Charles VI.
named it Carlftjurg ; 90 miles N.E. of Temefvar. N. lat.
46° 16'. E. long. 24° 10'.

WEISSEN See, a lake of Pruffia; 12 miles W. of
Lick. — Alfo, a lake of Bavaria, in the territory of Augf-
burg ; 2 miles S.W. of FuefTen. — Alfo, a lake of Carin-
thia ; 6 miles S. of Saxeiiburg.

WEISSENAU, a princely abbey of Germany, in the
circle of Swabia. In 1802 it was given to the eleftor of
Bavaria ; 2 miles S. of Ravenfburg.

WEISSENBACH, a town of the principality of
Culmbach ; 5 miles E. of Kirch Lamitz. — Alfo, a town of
Auilria ; 12 miles N. of Grein. — Alfo, a town of Auftria ;
9 miles W. of Freyftatt.

WEISSENBERG, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Northampton, containing 1046 inhabitants.

WEISSEN-

W E I

WEISSENBORN, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; ^ miles S.S.E. of Freyberg.

WEISSENBURG, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 5 miles S.S.W. of Zwickau.— Alfo, a village
of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne, celebrated for its
medicinal baths ; 18 miles S. of Berne.

WEISSENDORF, a town of Bavaria, in the biihopnc
of Bamberg ; 9 miles S.W. of Forcheim.

WEISSENFELS, a town of the duchy of Carniola ;
28 miles W.N.W. of Crainburg. — Alfo, a town of Thu-
ringia, on the Saal. It gives title to a branch of llic houfe
of Saxony, called Saxe Weiffenfels, who ordinarily refide
in a citadel above the town, called Auguftufberg ; 18 miles
W.S.W. of Leipfic. N. lat. 51'= 14'. E. long. ii°59'-

WEISSENHORN, a town and citadel of Bavaria,
which gives name to a county belonging to the lords of
Fugger ; 8 miles S.E. of Ulm.

WEISSENKIRCH, a town of Bavaria, in the prmci-
pality of Aichftatt ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Aichftatt.

WEISSENPACH, a town of Auftria ; 4 miles N.W.
of Bohmifch Waidhoven.

WEISSENSEE, a town of Thuringia, near what for-
merly conftituted an inland lake, which was divided into the
Great and Lefs, or into the Upper and Lower, between
both which it lay ; but the former being drained in the year
1705, and converted into arable and meadow grounds, a
fmall part of it only being then left ; and this alfo has been
fince dried up; 14 miles N. of Erfurt. N. lat. 51° 10'.
E. long. 1 1° &.

WEISSENSTADT, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Bayreuth, on the Egra, where it forms a large
pond or lake, abounding in fiih ; 6 miles N.N.W. of
Wonfiedel.

WEISSENTHURN, a town of Sclavonia ; 18 miles
N.N.W. of Verovitza. — Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Stiria; 3 miles E.S.E. of Judenburg.

WEISSESTEIN, a town and caftle of Bavaria ; 10
miles N.N.E. of Deckendorf.

WEISSIA, in Botany, an Hedwigian genus of Moflcs,
is now, by nearly univerfal confent, united to Grimmia, for
reafons given under that article. There is indeed no differ-
ence of habit, nor any certain charaAer, however minute and
obfcure, between them. This is the more to be regretted, as
we have few more meritorious claimants for diftinftion in
cryptogamic botany than Mr. Frederic Wilham Weis, au-
thor of the Plants Ciyptogamic<s Florx Gottingenfis, an oftavo
volume, printed at Gottingen, in 1770. No (tudentin that
department of the fcience can difpenfe with this little book,
in which the fynonyms of the defcriptions are treated with
equal praftical ll<ill. Fungi, and neceffarily Sea-weeds, are
excluded from this Flora. We truft fome refponfible au-
thor will reftore a IVeifia, worthy of bearing the name.
The double _/} is a blunder which requires correftion.

WEISSLAREUT, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Culmbach ; 4 miles S. of Hof.

WEISSNITZ, or Weisseritz, a river of Saxony,
which rifes in two branches, the Wilde and Rothe, which
unite two miles E. of Tharand, and afterwards run into the
Elbe, near Drefden.

WEISTHURN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 6 miles W. of Schlan.

WEISTRA, a town of Auftria ; 5 miles E. of Steyr.
WEISTRFFZ, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Schweidnitz, on a river of the fame name. Gold is found
in the environs ; 2 miles S. of Schweidnitz.

Weistritz, a river of Silefia, which runs into the Oder,
near Schweidnitz.

W E L

WEISWASSER, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflaw ; 6 miles N.W. of Jung Buntzel — Alfo, a town
of Silefia, in the principality of Neifle ; 4 miles S.W. of
Patfchkau.

WEISZBACH, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 5 miles N.N.W. of Wolkenftein.

WEITENFELDS, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
2 miles W.S.W. of Gurck.

WEITENHAGEN, a town of Anterior Pomerania;
2 miles S.S.W. of Griefswalde.

WEFFENSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria;
8 miles S.E. of Windifch Gratz.

WEITRA, or Weitrach, a town of Auftria ; 36 miles
N.W. of Crems. N. lat. 48° 41'. E. long. 14° 59'.

WEITRASILD, a town of Auftria; 2 miles S. of
Hardegg.

WEITTENEG, a town of Auftria, on the Danube;
18 miles above Crems.

WEFFZ, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 11 miles N.E.
of Gratz.

WEITZSBERG, a mountain of Stiria ; lomUesN.E.
of Gratz.

WEIXEN, a river of Auftria, which runs into the Da-
nube, 3 miles below Grein.

WEIZLPACH, a town of Auftria ; 12 mUes W.S.W.
of St. Polten.

WEKLSDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 7 miles N.W. of Branau.

WELACH. See Velach.

WELANG, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea.
S. lat. i°25'. E. long. 130° 30'.

WELAU, a town of Prullia, in the province of Sam-
land ; 28 miles E.S.E. of Konigftjerg. N. lat. 54" 36'.
E. long. 21° 23'.

WELCH Mountains, mountains of Pennfylvania ;
30 miles W. of Philadelphia.

WELCHEIM, a town of Bavaria ; 7 miles N.W. of
Neuburg.

WELCKERSHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
county of Heniieberg ; 3 miles N. of Meinungen.

WELCOME Bay, a bay on the weft end of the ifland
of Java. S. lat. 6° 35'. E. long. 105° 30'.

WELD, or Wold, refeda luteola of Linnaeus, a plant
ufed by the dyers to give a yellow colour ; and for this
reafon called, in Latin, luteola, of luteus, yellow. For the
charafters, (ce Reseda.

When the plants are pulled, they may be fet up in fmall
handfuls to dry in the held, and when dry enough, tied up
in bundles and houfed dry ; care being taken to houfe them
loofely, that the air may pafs between them to prevent their
fermenting. That which is left for feeds ihould be pulled
as fooii as the Iceds are ripe, and fet up to dry, and then
beat out for ufe ; for if the plants are left too long, the
feeds will fcatter. Mortimer and Miller.

Weld is much cultivated in Kent, for the ufe of the
London dyers.

Mr. Hellot obferves, in his Art de Teindre, that for
dyeing with weld, the beft proportions of alum and tartar
for the preparatory liquor are four parts of alum, and one
of tartar, to fixteen of the wool ; the quantity of the tartar
being determined by the greater or lefs brightnefs of colour
propofed ; and that the wool, thus prepared, is to be boiled
again with three or four parts of weld to one of wool, but
often much lefs : that for light (hades, it is cuftomary to
diminiih the alum, and omit the tartar ; and that, in this

cafe.

WELD.

cafe, the colour is more flowly imbibed, and proves lefs
durable.

With a view to economy, the wreaker (hades of colour
are dyed in the fame bath, after the ftronger are finifhed.
A golden yellow, more or lefs orange, is given by a weak
madder bath, after the welding.

Silk is dyed of a golden-yellow, generally with weld
alone, accordiug to the following procefs : the ftuff is firft
boiled in foap-water, alumed and wafhed, then paffed twice
through a weld bath, in which, the fecond time, feme alkali
is diffolved, which gives a rich golden hue to the natural
yellow of the weld. The colour is further deepened by a
little annotto. The folutions of lime with weld give to filk
a bright clear yellow. In order to dye cotton yellow,
Berthollet diredts firft to cleanfe it with wood afhes and
water, to rinfe, alum, and dry without further rinfing, and
then to pafs it through a yellow bath, in which the weld is
fomewhat more than the weight of the cotton. When the
colour has iufficiently taken, the cotton is thrown into a
bath of fulphate of copper and water, and kept there for an
hour ; after which it is boiled with white foap-water, and,
laftly, wafhed and dried. In order to obtain a deeper
jonquil-yellow, the aluming is omitted, and, inftead of this
operation, a little verdigrife is added to the weld bath, and
the cotton finifhed with foda.

Weld is particularly preferred to all other fubftances in
giving the lively green lemon-yellow. It is, however, ex-
penfive ; and it is alfo found to degrade and interfere with
madder colours more than other yellows. We may here
add, that the fine delicate yellow, obtained from weld, is
much ufed by the London paper-ftainers, and fold in the
form of hard lumps, confiding chiefly of chalk faturated with
the colouring matter. Meitrs. CoUard and Frafer have
given the following improved procefs : — Diffufe any quan-
tity of fine whiting in boiling water ; add to it one ounce of
alum for every pound of whiting, which will occafion a
brifk effervefcence, and ftir thefe materials well together till
the gas is wholly difengaged. On the other hand, boil in a
feparate veflel fome weld with water juft fufficient to cover
it, for fifteen minutes, filter the yellow deco£tion, and then
mix it with the whiting and alumine in fuch proportions,
that the earths may appear to be faturated with the colour-
ing matter. Then let the mixture remain a day at reft, and
at the bottom will be the precipitated earth firmly united
with the colour, and of a fine yellow tinge, which may be
conveniently dried on chalk-ftones.

The weld yellow is a water colour, and is never mixed
with oil.

Weld, in Agriculture, is a plant which is not unfre-
quently cultivated in the field by the farmer as a crop, for
the purpofe of giving and affording a briglit yellow and
lemon colour to woollens, filks, cotton, and thread, as well
as for its ufe in the manufafture of check and fuftian, and
in fome other intentions. It is for the flower-ftems that
it is principally grown, as being ufeful in the procefs of
dyeing thefe feveral articles. It is often known by the
names of laoold and dyer's tveed.

It may be noticed, that in the growth and culture of this
plant, the foils moft fuicable are thofe of the fertile mellow
kinds, whether of the loamy, fandy, or gravelly forts ; but
it may be grown with fuccefs on fuch as are of a poorer
quality ; but in the former, the plants will rife to a much
greater height, and produce much larger leaves and fteras,
than in the latter defcription of lands.

It has, however, been ftated, that the foil moft fuitable
to it, in EfFex, is the ftrong ftifF loam moderately moift.

but not wet. A foil rather moift, but mellow, feems the
moil fuitable and proper for it.

It is neceffary, in the preparation of the ground, that
there (hould be a tolerable degree of finenefs produced in
the mould of the foil, which may be effeaed by repeated
ploughings given in the more early fpring months, and fuit-
able harrowings. The furface of the land in the feed furrow
fhould be left as level as poflible, that the feed may be dif-
perfed more evenly over it, and with greater regularity and
exaftnefs.

In this, as in many or indeed moft other cafes, the feed
fhould be collefted from the beft plants, and thofe which
have remained upon the ftems till rendered perfeftly ripe ;
as fuch only vegetates perfeftly, and the plants in fuch cafes
fhould not be left ftand too long, as the feed is liable to fhed.
It fhould be perfeftly frefh when ufed, as old feed never
comes up well, or in fo regular a manner.

In regard to the proportion of feed which is neceffary, it
is commonly from about two quarts to a gallon the acre,
according to circumftances, when fown alone : but when
mixed with other crops, a little more may be required,
which (hould be blended with a little fand, or fome other
fuch material, at the time of fowing it on the land, as ren-
dering it capable of being fown more evenly.

It may be obferved in refpeft to the time of fowing, that
this fort of crop may be put into the ground either in the
fpring, as about the latter end of April or beginning of
May ; or in the latter end of fummer, as the beginning of
Auguft ; being moftly fown in conjunftion with other crops
in the firft period ; but when fown alone at the latter feafon,
the produce is in general tlie beft and moft full. Some of
the writers in the Effex Report on Agriculture fpeak of the
culture of this fort of crop as fimply that of tranfplanting
from the feed-beds about Midfummer. The feed, in thefe
cafes, is fown in the beds in the early fpring, for raifing
the plants. In the county of Norfolk, it is faid, that they
fow it in the month of April with barley, in the proportion
of from a quarter to half a peck to the acre, in the manner
of clover, and frequently with clover at the fame time, to
be mown or fed in the following year, after the weld is.
pulled.

It is moftly fown broad-caft, whether grown in mixture
with other plants or alone ; and as the feeds are of a very
fmall fize, it requires an expert feedfman to perform the
bufinefs with regularity and exaftnefs, which is a matter of
much importance to the fuccefs of the crop, as, where the
plants ftand too clofely together, much unneceffary trouble
and expence muft be incurred in the thinning them out by
the hoe afterwards ; and where they ftand too thinly upon
the ground, there muft be a great lofs from the deficiency
of plants. That the fowing may be executed with more
regularity, it is the cuftom with fome to blend other fub-
ftances, fuch as the above, with the feed that has nearly the
fame weight, as by this means they fuppofe it may be
effefted with greater exaClnefs, facility, and readinefs.

It is ifated that weld, when grown with other forts of
crops, fuch as barley, buck-wheat, beans, peas, clover, or
grafs-feeds, is ufually put in after them ; in fome cafes im-
mediately, but in others not till fome time has elapfed..
With the firft and fecond forts, when fown fo late as the
beginning of May, it is moftly the praftice to fow it direftly
afterwards, giving the land a flight harrowing with a very
light clofe-tined harrow to cover it in. The barley being
fown under furrow, the weld-feed with fome is immediately
fown over the furface, and lightly harrowed in, and then
rolled. Where the barley feeding is performed fo early as

Marchj

WELD.

March, or the beginning of April, the fowing of the weld-
feed is beft deferred till May, when it may be difperfed
over the land, and left in that manner to be wafhed in by the
rains. With bean and pea crops, it is often fown before the
lall breaking or hoeing of the crops in the latter end of
June, or beginning of July. In cultivating it with clover
and grafs-feeds, it is often fown at the fame time with them ;
but a better praftice is, perhaps, to delay it till fome time
afterwards, as both thefe crops require to be fown at too
early a period for this plant to rife fafely. But in cafes
where no other fort of crop is grown with weld, which is
probably the beft method, it is ufually fown evenly over the
furface of the land, and covered in by harrowing with a light
bufli harrow, having afterwards recourfe to the roller in light
forts of land.

Though it is common in cultivating crops of this lort,
not to pay any attention to them after being fown ; yet as
the plants are of flow growth, and hable to be greatly in-
jured in their progrefs by the rifing of weeds, it mull be of
much benefit not only to keep them perfeftly clean, but alfo
to have the mould ftirred about their roots. In about a
month from the time of fowing, the plants are moftly in a
flate to be eafily diftinguifhed ; a hoeing (hould be then
given when the weather is dry, which may be performed in
the fame manner as for turnips only, ufing fomewhat fmaller
hoes for the purpofe. Some direft that the plants in this
operation (hould be fet out to the diftance of three or four
inches ; but it is better to let them have more room, as fix,
feven, or eight inches ; which not only leffens the expence
of the bufinefs, but contributes to the advantage of the
crop. In the fpring, a fecond flight hoeing may be prac-
tifed about March, in a dry time ; and if any weeds rife
afterwards, a third may be given in May. Where the land
has been well prepared, one hoeing in autumn and another
in the fpring may be fully fufficient. Hand-weeding,
though praftifed by fome, is in general too expenfive in
thefe cafes.

It may be obferved, that the proper period for pulling
this fort of crop is when the bloom has been produced the
whole length of the ttems, and the plants are juft beginning
to turn of a light or yellowilh colour, as in the beginning or
middle of July in the fecond year. The plants are ufually
from one to two feet and a half in height. It is thought by
fome advantageous to pull it rather early, without waiting
for the ripening of the feeds, as by this means there will not
only be the greateft proportion of dye, but the land will be
left at liberty for the reception of a crop of wheat or tur-
nips ; but in this cafe, a fmall part muft be left folely for
the purpofe of providing feed. In the execution of the
work, the plants are drawn up by the roots in fmall handfuls,
and fet up to dry, after each handful has been tied up by
one of the ftalks, in the number of four together in a fort of
ereft pofition againft each other, as is done in fome other
kinds of crops.

It is remarked, that fometimes they, however, become
fufiiciently dry by turning, without being fet up. After
they have remained till fully dry, which is moftly effected
in the courfe of a week or two, they are bound up into
larger bundles, that contain each fixty handfuls, and which
are of the weight of fifty-fix pounds each ; fixty of thefe
bundles conftituting a load. Thefe laft are tied up by a
ftring made for the purpofe, and fold under the title of
woold cord, in many places where this kind of crop is much
grown and provided for the dyer and calico-printer.

On account of the weld plant being extremely uncertain
in its growth, and the whole crop feldom becoming in a ftate

to be pulled at the fame time, it is proper to have an ex-
perienced labourer to direft the bufinefs of pulling, in order
that the pullers may not proceed at random, but take the
different parts as the plants become ready, or in danger from
the blic;ht. In which laft cafe, the greateft poffible difpatch
ftiould be made, as the lofs of weight in the produce will
daily increafe, and the grower be of courfe greatly injured in
the quantity of it.

After the weld is become fufiiciently dried, which is
known by the crifpnefs of the leaves, and the ftems turning
of a light colour, and when the plants are ripe, the feeds
flielling out ; according to fome, it ftiould be ftacked up
lightly in the barn, in order to prevent its taking on too
much heat ; while others advife, that it ftiould be ftacked
up clofely in the manner of wheat, being left to fweat in the
fame way as hay, as the more this takes place, the better ;
the quality of the weld being thereby increafed, if there be
no mouldinefs. When the crop has ftood till fully ripened,
the feed may be taken before it is put into the barn, which
may be eafily procured by rubbing, or flightly beating each
of the little handfuls againft each other over a cloth, tub,
or any other convenient receptacle, as, by threftiing, the
quantity of the weld would be much reduced in weight.
The price of this fort of feed is moftly about ten or twelve
ftiillings the bufliel, which may be fold to the feedfmen in a
ready manner.

It may be obferved, that in crops of this kind the pro-
duce is in fome degree uncertain, depending much upon the
nature of the feafon ; but from half a load to a load and a half
is the quantity moft commonly aff^orded, which is ufually
fold to the dyers at from five or fix to ten or twelve pounds
tlie load, and fometimes confiderably more.

This is a fort of crop which is moftly difpofed of to the
dyers and calico-printers, as well as other manufacturers.
The demand for it, however, is fometimes very little ; while
at other times it is fo great, as to raife the price to a very
high degree.

Weld is a crop which is particularly liable to be injured
by the blight, which probably has induced the growers of
it to raife it with thofe of other kinds, efpec4ally of the grafs
fott ; becaufe, where the weld crop does not fucceed, a
portion of ftieep feed may be afforded by the others, for
winter and fpring ufe. It is noticed, that the blight fre-
quently comes on fo fuddenly, that crops which appeared
healthy, and in a vigorous ftate of growth, during the whole
of the winter and fpring, promifing a large produce, are
about the month of May attacked by this vegetable difeafe,
fo as to be nearly deftroyed. It is known to be prefent by
the plants, efpecially about the lower parts of the ftems of
them, turning of a yellowifli or pale reddifti colour, while
the upper parts remain green, and feem healthy. When it
appears early in the month of May, there is always danger
of the crop being deftroyed ; but when it comes on at a later
period, or where the plants from other caufes, as the dry-
nefs of the feafon, begin to change colour in the flianks, the
only chance is that of having them pulled as expeditioufly
as the bufinefs can be performed, and in the readieft manner
poffible.

It may be remarked, that it would feem better and more
convenient to cultivate this crop alone, or without any mix-
ture of other plants ; as, in the former way, it muft be much
injured and confined in its growth, on account of the clofe-
nefs and ftiade produced by the plants of the other crops
that furround it. It is the cuftom, too, when grown with
other crops, efpecially thofe of the grafs kinds, to very
commonly feed them down in the winter and fpring feafous

with

W E L

with (heep, or fome other light fort of live-ftock, under the
notion that they will not touch the weld plants ; but this is
by no means the cafe, as they are found to feed upon them
without any nicety, and mud, of courfe, do very great in-
jury to their growth and flowering. In cafes where weld is
fown among clover, as is not unfrequently the cafe, the beft
method is probably to pull it out when it has got to matu-
rity, beforie the clover is cut. Where fown on fummer
fallowed land with rafie and grafs-feeds, towards the latter
end of that feafon, in which cafe it often does extremely
well, the crops are moftly fed by lambs in the courfe of a
month or fix weeks after the fowing, when little or no in-
jury can be fuftained by the cropping of the weld plants.

Weld, on account of the great confumption of vegetable
food which it caufes, without contributing any thing to the
amelioration of the land, can only be introduced with pro-
priety, probably, in fituations where manure or fubftances
of that kind can be eafily obtained. However, in cafes
where the crops of this kind are cultivated with fufficient
tillage, care, and attention, they may be a good preparation
for wheat or turnips, in fome inftances.

It may fometimes, too, be grown with advantage in the
neighbourhoods of large dyeing, printing, and other fuch
manufaftories, where the confumption, and confequently
the demand for it, are very great. If this fort of produce
cannot be difpofed of foon after it is pulled and tied up, it
may be preferved perfeftly found for feveral years, by being
ftacked either in the barn or on ftands in the open air,
taking care to prevent the attacks and ravages of rats, or
other vermin.

Weld, or Weald, in a Chorographlcal Senfs. See
Wkald.

WELDEREN, or MARIEtJBURO, in Geography, a
town of Germany, in the biftiopric of Munfter ; 3 miles
N.E. of Dulman.

WELDING, in the ManufaBures, denotes the forging
of iron, when intenfely heated ; or, more generally, the in-
timate union which fubfiits between the two furfaces of two
pieces of malleable metal, when heated almoft to fufion, and
hammered. This union is fo ftrong, that when two bars of
metal are properly welded, the place of junction is as ftrong
relatively to its thicknefs as any other part of the bar.
Welding heat is the heat neceflary for producing this effe<ft.
Bar-iron cannot be welded to another piece of iron, unlefs
both be heated to nearly 60'' of Wedgwood's pyrometer,
which is equal to 8.877 of Fahrenheit's fcale, and is called
the welding heat ; but if caft-fteel be heated to this point,
it would be fufed, and run from under the hammer ; and,
therefore, it was for a long time thought to be impoffible to
life it in conjunftion with iron, in the fame manner as the
other kinds of fteel are employed. But fir Thomas Frank-
land at length difcovered, that if the caft-fteel be made only
of a white heat, and the iron of a welding heat, the fteel
will then be foft enough to unite with the iron, and yet the
former will not become fluid by the operation. It will,
however, be proper to give the neceflary temperatures to
the two metals feparately, and then to unite them at one
fingle heat. (Phil. Tranf. for 1795, p. 296.) Mr. Parkes
obferves, that fome nicety is required in the procefs of
welding iron, fo that the outfide of the weld does not oxi-
dize too much and fly off^ in fcales, before the infide is
brought up to a welding heat. When, therefore, a fliilful
workman is about to weld two pieces of iron, he carefully
obferves the progrefs of the heat ; and if one becomes too
hot, he rolls it in fand to preferve it from the aftion of the
atmofphere ; and when one piece acquires the necefl^ary
temperature before the other, he covers that with fand,
Vol. XXXVIII.

W E L

whilft he is bringing the correfponding piece up to a fufli-
cient heat for its uniting properly with the former. Silex,
when mixed with the oxyd of iron, forms a very fufible
compound, which covers the work under operation, and
prevents a further oxidation of the metal. Iron and platina
are capable of a firm union by welding. See fir John Hall's
Experiments, in vol. vi. of Edinb. Phil. Tranf. p. 71.
Parkes's Eflays, vol. iv.

Welding, the proper heat fmiths give their iron in the
forge, in order to double up the fame, when wanted to
weld a work in the doublings, fo as to be in one piece thick
enough for the purpole it is wanted for.

Vfi.LmviG-Heat is the ftrong heat, when the iron is pro-
pereft to bind.

WELDON, Great, in Geography, a fmall market-
town in the hundred of Corby, and county of Northampton,
England, is fituated in Rockingham foreft, 4 miles E.S.E.
from the town of Rockingham, and 84 miles N.N.W. from
London. A weekly market is held on Wednefdays, but on a
fmall fcale ; and here are four annual fairs. The market-
houfe, over which are the feflions-chambers, fupported by
columns, was built by lord vifcount Hatton. The parifh
is famous for its quarries of rag-ftone, whicii takes a high
polilh, and is in great efteem for chimney-pieces, flabs, &c.
In the vicinity of this place were difcovered, in the year
1738, fome fragments of Roman teflelated pavements, one
of which was ninety-fix feet long, and ten broad. Con-
nefted with this were the floors of feven rooms ; the centre
one, being the largeft, was terminated at one end with five
fides of an oftangular projedlion. Among the ruins were
found feveral Roman coins of the lower empire. A wall
has been built round the Roman pavement, and a wooden
roof placed over it. Near Great Weldon, and forming
part of the parifh, is Little Weldon, a village fo called in
reference to the town, though exceeding it in population.
The whole parifh, according to the return to parliament in
the year 181 1, contained 166 houfes, and 815 inhabitantt. —
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xi. Northaraptonfliire,
by Rev. J. Evans, and J. Britton, F.S.A., 18 10.

WELDS, a river of America, which runs into the Con-
nefticut, in the ftate of Vermont.

WELEDIA, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile ; 5 miles N. of Siut.

WELFORD, a town of England, in Northampton-
fliire, with 931 inhabitants, including 683 employed in
manufaftures ; 15 miles N.W. of Northampton.

WELHARTITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Prachatitz ; 8 miles N.W. of Schuttenhofen.

WELIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chrudim ;
12 miles N.E. of Chrudim.

WELITZEN, a town of Pruflia, in the province of
Natangen ; 5 miles S.S.E. of Marggrabown.

WELKI, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim ;
7 miles N.E. of Prague.

WELL, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour ; 12 miles

E.S.E. of Raibaug Alfo, a town on the north coaft of

the ifland of Sumatra. N. lat. 4° 40'. E. long. 97° 20'.

WELL, a hole dug under ground, below the level or
furface of the water coUefted in the ftrata.

It is ufually of a cylindrical figure, and commonly walled
with ftone, and lined with mortar.

In finking wells, it is a confideration of fome importance,
that they fhould be lined with free-ftone, and not, as is
ufually the cafe, with bricks ; becaufe moft of the bricks
which are made in this country, have the property of
hardening the water ; but the fl;one does not produce this

efFea.

O o M. Blondel

WELL.

M. Blondel informs the Royal Academy of Sciences of
a device they ufe, in the Lower Auftria, which is encom-
paiTed with the mountains of Stiria, to fill their wells with
water; viz. that they dig in the earth, to the depth of
twenty or twenty-five feet, till they come to a clammy
earth, which they bore into, continuing the operation
till the water breaks forcibly out ; which water, in all
probability, comes from the neighbouring mountains, in
fubterraneous channels. Caffini obferves, that in many
places of Modena and Bologna, they make themfelves
wells by the fame artifice. Dr. Derham adds, that the
like has been fometimes found in England, particularly
in Effex.

In the Philofophica Tranfaftions we are informed, by
Mr. Norwood, that, in Bermudas, wells of frefh water
are dug within twenty yards of the fea, and even lefs,
wh-^h rife and fall with the tides, as the fea itfelf does.
He adds, that, in digging wells in that idand, they dig
till they come almofl to a level with the furface of the fea ;
and then they certainly find either frefh water, or fait : if it
prove freih, yet, by digging two or three feet deeper, they
always come at fait water. If it be fandy ground, they
ufually find frefh water ; but if hard lime-ftone rock, the
water is commonly fait, or brackifh.

Lay-iuell, near Torbay, ebbs and flows very often every
hour ; though fomewhat oftener in winter than in fummer.
Dr. Oliver obfervts, iits flux and reflux fometimes return
every minute ; though, at other times, not above twenty-
fix or twenty-eight times in an hour. Philof. Tranf.
No. 104.

In Scotland they have a well, which Sibbald has men-
tioned as foretelling florms. It is a deep and large well
near Edinburgh, and from the noifes heard in it at cer-
tain times is called by the people the routing well. They
go to this to liften after the prefagcs of weather, and it is
faid that ftorms are particularly foretold by it ; and that
noifes are not only heard in it before florms happen, but
that they are always heard determinately and diftinftly on
that fide whence the itorm will come.

In the Philofophical Tranfaftions we have an account of
a boiling-well, &c. See Spring.

Well, in Rural Economy, a deep circular opening, pit,
or fort of fliaft, funk by digging down through the differ-
ent ftrata or beds of earthy and other materials of the foil,
fo as to form an excavation for the purpofe of containing
the water of fome fpring or internal refervoir by which it
may be fupplied, for domeftic or other ufes of different
kinds.

It is ufiial to have wells bricked round from the bottom
to the top, and frequently to have pumps fixed in them.
The width is moftly from three to four feet, which, where
the fprings are ftrong, may afford and contain a fufBcient
quantity of water.

As wells are fupplied from fprings, and thefe are formed
in the bowels of the earth, by water percolating through the
upper itrata, and defcending downwards until it meets with a
ftratum of clay or other impervious material that intercepts
it in its courfe, it may naturally be concluded, that an
abundant fpring for this ufe need never be expefted in any
diftrift or place that is covered to a great depth with fand,
without an,y ftratum of clay to force it upwards, as is the
cafe in the fandy deferts of Arabia, and the immeafurable
plains of Lybia. Neither are we to expeft abundant fprings
for wells in any foil that confills of an uniform bed of clay
from the furface to a great depth ; for it muft always be in
fome porous ftratum that the water flows in abundance, and
it can be made to flow horizontally in that only, when it is

fupported by a ftratum of clay, or other fubilance tliat is
equally impermeable by water. By this means is ex-
plained the rationale of that rule fo univerfally eftablifhed in
digging for wells, that if begun with fand, gravel, or other
fuch matters, it need feldom be hoped to find water until
clay is come to ; and that if clay be begun with, none can
be hoped for in abundance till fand, gravel, or porous rock
is met with.

Hence, as the doftrine of wells is fo much and fo inti-
mately connefted with the nature of the ftrata and the
fprings afforded by them, it may not be unneceffary to ob-
ferve, that in cafes where differently formed ftrata of fand,
to a confiderable depth, reft upon beds of clay, and have a
free ifliie at the loweft ends of them, if wells were funk into
the fand-beds higher up no water could be there perma-
nently found until they penetrated quite through the ftrata
of fand, and went to fome depth into the beds of clay that
lie below them. In fuch cafes, the water could never rife
in the wells much higher than a certain point ; becaufe,
whenever it rofe as high as the porous fand, it would flow
along through it until it made its efcape below ; and if the
beds of clay fhould extend backwards under the ground a
great way, and at a great depth below the furface, fo as to
form an abundant and never-ccafing ftream under the beds
of fand, it muft neceffarily follow, that the wells will con-
tinue conftantly at the fame height, exaftly as in the cafe of
a ftrong bafon at a fountain, into which a pipe of water a
conftantly flows, fo as to keep it running over.

If, however, the ftreams that run below the beds of fand
be fmall, and the draught of water from the wells, at par-
ticular times, be uncommonly large, the furface of the water
in the wells will of courfe be made to fink : they may be,
indeed, quite drained of water at times, fo as to require to
be left for a while till they fhall fill again. This may be
occafionally a very ferious inconvenience, and ought to be
guarded againft by enlarging the refervoir, which may be
effedled either by widening the diameter of the wells, or by
finking them to a greater depth in the clay, or by both
thefe means. Hence it appears, it is faid, that in cafes of
this fort, very wide wells ought always to be made.
Other cafes, however, will come to be noticed in the courfe
of this article, in which the ftraiteft well that can be
made, would fupply a quantity of water as abundant as
thofe that are wider. In thefe cafes, pipes as above will be
found very ufeful.

Nor would the phenomena here defcribed, it is faid, be
in the leaft varied if the wells, inftead of being dug in the
fand immediately below the vegetable mould, fhould be firft
funk through a confiderable thicknefs of fome other ftrata.
The depth of the well only would be greater, and all other
circumftances the fame.

It may be here noticed, that quickfand, when it comes in
the way of well-digging, affords impediments which can only
be furmounted with great labour and difficulty. The beft
and moft obvious remedy in fuch cafes when they occur, is
probably to endeavour to find the means of opening an outlet
by which the water may be fuffered to run off or difcharge
itfelf. This, where the quickfand is fituated above the level
of the fea,or fome adjoining plain, may in many cafes be effeft-
ed at very little expence,if due attention be beftowed upon the
pofition and natural dip of the ftrata, which may be dif-
covered bv various means befides boring. But there are
cafes, particularly where the quickfand is produced by a
cavity like a bafon fcooped out of the entire bottom, fo as
to contain water to a confiderable depth, which in fome par-
ticular lituations may be deemed incurable.

It deferves alfo to be remarked, as a circumftance ne-
ceffarily

WELL.

ceffarily accompanying fprings of this kind, that the dig-
ging wells in a higher pofition, will not fenfibly diminifh
the quantity of water that flows over the lower furfaco of
the clay ; for, as the well, as foon as it is filled, mull over-
flow, that will not intercept one drop more water than what
is drawn up out of it. Were it even poflible to pump the
water from the well as fait as it falls into it, fo as never to
allow one drop to run over, the cafe would not be much al-
tered, becauf<? no more water could be thus intercepted than
that which would have flowed into the mouth of the well in
its defcent ; fo that every drop that would pafs the mouth
of the well, on either fide, would flow forward to the lower
fituation, as if no well had ever been made. Hence we fee
that fprings of this fort can never be intercepted by wells,
or fenfibly affefted by other wells placed either higher or
lower than them. Wherever this caufe exifts, water will be
found nearly in equal abundance, whatever the relative fitua-
tion of the well may be in refpeft to others : nothing but
an uninterrupted trench, of a fize fufBcient to intercept all
the water as it flowed, and to carry it off, could dry up the
fprings or wells below it.

It may alfo be obferved, that if the bed of fand be of
great extent, if it be at laft fupported by a bed of clay or
other impervious matter, water will undoubtedly be there
found, whatever may be the depth of the bed of fand above
it, if a well be dug through it ; for, as the water that falls
in (howers upon the earth's furface neceffarily finks through
that pervious ftratiam, it is foon beyond the reach of the fun,
fo as not to be evaporated, and muft; fink downwards till it
meets with an impervious ftratum, fo that there can be no
doubt but that under the immeafurable deferts of Lybia,
there muft be water in abundance to fupply any number of
perfons, were wells there funk to the requifite depth ; nor is
that depth, perhaps, in many cafes, nearly fo great as has
been in general apprehended.

There are many other cafes of ftrata and fprings, as con-
cerned in the opening and forming of wells, that conftitute
different claffes of fprings for this ufe, as thofe where the
water is eonfined and pent up in retentive beds, fo as to be
capable of fupplying wells by fimply boring down into
them, or making flight openings in other ways, by which
the water may flow up. Some inftances of thefe and other
forts will be noticed and confidered below.

In the execution of the work of digging wells, there is
no great difficulty, the perfon employed in the bufinefs
chiefly working down by means of a fmall fliort-handled
fpade and a fmall implement of the pick-axe kind ; the
earthy materials being drawn up in buckets by the hand or
a windlafs fixed over the opening for the purpofe. Where
perfons converfant with this fort of bufinefs are employed,
they ufually manage the whole of the work, bricking round
the fides with great facihty and readinefs ; but in other
cafes, it will be neceffary to have a bricklayer to execute
this part of the bufinefs. As the cxpence and trouble of
digging and getting up the materials in thefe cafes are con-
fiderable, other means have been had recourfe to, in order to
leflen or prevent them. The moft ingenious of thefe is that
propofed by a French philofopher, who has advifed that the
ground fhould be perforated to a fufficient depth by means
of an auger, or borer : a cylindrical wooden pipe being then
placed in the hole and driven downward with a mallet, and
the boi-ing continued, that the pipe may be forced down to a
greater depth, fo as to reach the water or fpring. In pro-
portion as the borer becomes filled with earth, it fliould be
drawn up and cleared, when by adding frefli portions of
pipe, the boring may be carried to much extent under
ground, fo that water may in moft cafes be thus reached and

obtained. It is ftated that wells made in this manner are
fuperior to thofe conftrufted in the common method, not
only in point of cheapncfs, but alfo by affording a more cer-
tain and abundant fupply of water, while no accident can
pofTibly happen to the workmen employed. In cafe the
water near the furface fliould not be of a good quality, the
perforation may be continued to a ftlU greater depth, till a
purer fluid can be procured ; and v.-here wells have become
injured or tainted from any circumftance or accident, when
previoufly emptied, and the bottom perforated in a fimilar
manner, fo as to reach the lower flieet of water, it will rife
in the cylindrical tube in a pure ftate into the body of the
pump fixed for the purpofe of bringing it up.

This is certainly an ingenious, ready, and fafe method of
forming wells ; but it requires a large expenfive boring
auger, and which, if carried to any great depth, would
ftand in need of an apparatus for being wrought by means
of horfe-power. Bcfidcs, other parts would be neceffary,
fuch as punches, chifels, and other fuch mouth-pieces, for
being fixed on occafionally, in order to work through hard
ftrata of m'iny different kinds ; and, in fome inilances, it
would be liable to be wholly impeded by the nature of the
fubftances thrqugh which it had to get in its paflage to the
water or fpring. In fome cafes, it may, however, anfwer in
a ready and perfeft manner, and be of great ufe and conve-
nience. There would be much difficulty, too, in driving
down the wooden pipes in many cafes, efpecially if to any
confiderable depth, and great nicety be required in making'
them fo as pretty exaftly to fit the aperture formed by the
boring auger. And, befides, from their fmallnefs, except
they were made from caft-iron, or fome other proper metal,
they would not by any means be durable, but fpeedily be-
come leaky and out of order. The beft mode would
therefore probably be that of having metallic -pipes caft for
the purpofe, and fo formed as to fit exaftly upon each
other, to any depth that might be neceffary in finking
wells.

In fome cafes and kinds of ftrata, wells formed in this
manner could not, however, anfwer perfeftly, as they re-
quire much width or fpace at the bottom parts, and fome-
times to be dug confiderably into the impervious bed or
matter, as feen above.

It may be neceffary and ufeful to fhew the nature of the
different beds or layers of materials which are dug or funk
through in forming the openings for wells in different cafes,
as well as the manner and heights to whicli the water or
fprings rife in them under various circumftances. Some
cafes of wells are ftated in the Correfted Report on Agri--
culture, for the diftrift about the metropolis, that explain
thefe points in a pretty clear manner.

It is noted, that in the year 1791, the prefent vicar of
Northall, then Mr. archdeacon Eaton, agreed with Mr.
White, of Putney, to fink a well in the court adjoining to
the vicarage. The workmen firft dug through a bed of
folid blue clay 60 feet in depth, under which was a flratum
of rough porous ftone about a foot thick. To this fuc-
ceeded a fecond ftratum of clay, differing a little from the
former in colour, 29 feet in depth ; then a ftratum of fine,
grey fand, intermixed with extraneous foffils, as oyfter-
ihells, bivalves. Sec. This ftratum continued for twenty-
three feet, and was fucceeded by another of clay, of a red
or ferruginous colour, Icfs firm in its confiftence than that
which occurred before, and intermixed now and then with
gravel and ftones of a confiderable fize. After digging
through this ftratum for fifty- one feet, at the depth of one
hundred and fixty-four feet from the furface, water was
found, which, on the removal of the ftone which lay imme-
O o 2 diately

WELL.

diately over, the fpring burft up with fuch force, and in
fuch abundance, that the workmen immediately made the
(ignal to be drawn up. Within the firft four hours after its
difcovery, the water rofe to the height of eighty feet, m the
next twenty-four hours about forty feet more ; after which
it continued to rife gradually for the next fortnight, till it
reached its prefent level, which is only four feet from the
furface of the earth, the depth of the water being now only
one hundred and fixty feet.

Depths of ftrata paffed through :

1 Clay

2 Stone ...

3 Clay - - -

4 Sand ...

5 Clay - - -

Feet.

6o

I
29
23
51

164

At Mr. Monday's brewery at Chelfea, a well was dug
about the year 1793, to the depth of three hundred and
ninety-four feet, within twenty or thirty feet of the edge of
the river, moftly through a blue clay or marl. At the
depth of near fifty feet, a quantity of loofe coal, twelve
inches in thicknefs, was difcovered ; and a httle fand and
gravel were found about the fame depth. The well-digger
ufually bored about ten, fifteen, or twenty feet at a time
lower than his work, as he went on ; and on the laft boring,
when the rod was about fifteen feet below the bottom of the
well, the man felt, as the firft fignal of water, a rolling
motion, fomething like the gentle motion of a coach palTing
over pavement. Upon his continuing to bore, the water
prefently puflied its way by the fide of the auger with great
force, fcarcely allowing him time to withdraw the borer,
put that and his other tools into the bucket, and be drawn
up to the top of the well. The water foon rofe to the
height of two hundred feet.

In 1794, a well was funk at Norland-houfe, for Mr.
Vuliamy, a little on the road towards the town of Ux-
bridge, to the depth of two hundred and thirty-fix feet,
and then a hole of five inches and a quarter was bored down,
and a copper pipe of the fame diameter as the borer, was
driven down to the additional depth of twenty-four feet
into a ftratum of fand filled with water ; when a mixture of
fand and water inftantly rufhed upwards through the
aperture of the pipe in fuch abundance, as to rife one
hundred and twenty-four feet, that is, one hundred feet in
the well part, and twenty-four in the pipe, in the courfe of
eleven minutes, and one hundred and nineteen feet more in
one hour and nine minutes ; or on the whole it rofe two
hundred and forty-three feet in one hour and twenty
minutes. A found line was then let down, which difco-
vered that fand had rofe in fuch quantity as to fill the well
to the height of ninety-fix feet. This was under the ne-
ceffity of being repeatedly dug out, by which the fand was
ultimately reduced fo confiderably as to permit the water to
rife through it more and more freely, until it flowed over
the top of the well at the rate of forty-fix gallons in the
minute. There is ftill, however, a great body of fand in
the welljjthrough which the water filters by afcent, which
13 excellently calculated for freeing it from every fort of im-
purity. If a greater fupply of water at this well were ne-
ceffary for the valuable purpofe of turning machinery of
any fort, or for any other fuch ufe, it might certainly, it is
faid, be obtained after the rate of feveral hundred gallons in
the minute, by continuing to clear out the fand until the

obftruftion it affords fhould become of little confequence ;
but, in this cafe, the quality of its water is of more im-
portance than the quantity. The water, in this inftance, is
now had in a very high ftate of purity, as the originally ex-
cellent water, rendered fo by flowing in a ftratum or body
of clear fand, is further purified and improved by filtrating
by afcent through many feet in thicknefs of the fame
material.

Other circumftances have occurred in digging and form-
ing wells in different fituations. It is ftated in the Rural
Eflays, that in finking a well at Sheernefs, near the mouth
of the river Thames, fometime fince, fome extraordinary
phenomena or appearances occurred, many of which were
deemed, by different perfons, rather of a wonderful kind.
They were thefe : that fort is placed upon a neck of land,
very httle elevated above the furface of the fea. In dig-
ging the well, they paffed firft through a bed that con-
fifted wholly of fand to the depth of thirty feet, the whole
of the water found in which was of a fait tafte, when at that
depth they difcovered a fpring of ya/Z-water, which, not being
irrefiftibly abundant, they found themfelves enabled to wall
out ; which being accompliflied, they then funk further,
through a bed of clay for fome fathoms more. They here
found another fpring of falt-water, as before ; which having
walled out in a fimilar manner, they continued to dig
through the fame bed of clay, for three hundred feet more ;
at the bottom of which they found a bed of gravel, from
which iffued a copious ftream of frefti water, which foon
filled the well within five feet of the top ; at which height
nearly it has ever fince remained.

Extraordinary as thefe circumftances may appear, they
arc perfeftly explicable on the principles and appearances
which take place in boring and lapping fprings. The frefh
water, in this cafe, being confined and pent up at a very
great depth in the earth, by impervious beds of materials,
when the gravel or porous ftratum that contained the water
was funk down into it, was forced up and rofe, of courfe, to
the height of the internal fource or refervoir from which the
water originally came in the diftant high ground. If the
fpring in this inftance fhould afford more water than is taken
from the well, it will continue always about the above
height ; fo that the water can only fink in the top of the
well, when more is drawn from it than the fpring can fup-
ply in a given time. See Tapping Springs.

The fprings of falt-water in this cafe are capable of being
explained on the fuppofition of fiffures or openings having
been formed by the working of fome fort of animal, or other
unknown caufe, fo as to have penetrated the bed of clay,
from the edge next the fea to fome diftance, as far inward,
at leaft, as the opening of the well ; through which, of ne-
ceffity, falt-water would flow into the well as foon as it was
opened. See Philoft)phical Tranfaftions, vol. 74.

Another inftance of a fomewhat fimilar kind, though lefs
complicated, as being divefted of the circumftance of the
falt-water, is mentioned to have taken place at Derby,
under the direftion of a late eminent phyfician and philofo-
pher. A well was funk in that place, which lies in a
bottom, furrounded by many different hills ; in which, after
digging through a bed of clay for fome coiifiderable depth,
an abundant fpring of frefti water was founil, which, as in
moft cafes of this nature, rufhed up with great impetuofity,
and foon filled the well to the top, where it flowed over in a
pretty full ftream. This was ini1:antly feen, and conceiving
that it probably defcended through fome narrow fubter-
raneous paffage, from a height greater than that of the
houfes of the town, readily imagined that if the fides of the
well could be railed to a fuiBcient height, making them at

the

W E L

the fame time ftrong enough to bear the prcffure of tlie
' water within, it might be conveyed by this means to the
' higheft floors of the houfes ; which was aftiially effefted to
the great convenience and advantage of the family.

The fame circumftances might be taken advantage of in
many other fituations and cafes, with equal benefit and con-
' venience in this way, and ilill more in many others, efpe-
cially in the turning of machinery.

Even the fituation of the metropolis itfelf is faid to afford
1 a ftrong example in elucidation of the fame general princi-
ple. It is well known that this is every where built upon a
folid bed of clay, that extends to a great depth, and which
lies above a large bafon of water there confined and pent in,
that can in no way be let off or difcharged ; in confequence
of which, it is with certainty known, that water may be
found by finking a well in any place ; and that the well-
diggers are become fo expert, that thev can with little dif-
ficulty tell, until within a few feet of the depth to which
the well mufl; be funic before water be found. They know,
too, that when the water is found, it always rifes in the well
until it reaches a certain height, where it remains ftationary
ever after, never rifing or falling fcarcely more than an inch
from its level under any diverfity of feafon : and if the
workmen be permitted to take their levels from a known
point, they can tell, before they begin to dig, the precife
length of pump that will be required to raife the water to
the furface.

Thus, if a well be funk in one of the lowed fituations in
the city, as about Fleet-market, and it fhould be found that
it there requires to be dug forty feet before water is met
with, and that the well makes a fort of drawing or tapping,
the water will rife in the well to the height of a certain level,
where it will, of neceffity, become ftationary, which is at
the height of about ten feet from the furface of the ground.
If in St. Paul's church-yard, which by a careful level has
been found to rife fifty feet above the former fituation ; the
well in this place will require to be funk about ninety feet
before it reaches the water, and that the water will rife to
the certain level, and no higher ; fo that there the water
will require to be lifted fifty feet to reach the furface of the
ground. If in a lower part of the town, as about Aldgate
and Fenchurch-ftreet, the water there is found at fixty feet,
andwillrile to within thirty feet of the top. If about Thames-
ftreet, and its continuations near the river, the depths to
which the wells muft be dug, and the diftance from the fur-
face of the ground to the water will be rather various : in
fome cafes, the water would rife within three or four feet of
the furface, and in low places, run over the top. The depth
of digging will be moftly much lefs than in the laft cafe
before the water is reached.

A cafe, which is ftrikingly illuftrative of wells where
they flow over the tops, is recorded by the above writer, as
having alfo lately occurred in the vicinity of the metropolis.
A gentleman bought a houfe and farm a little beyond Ken-
fington gravel-pits, on the right-hand fide of the road, nearly
oppofite to Holland-houfe. The premifes were entirely
deftitute of water, which appeared to the occupier to be fo
great an inconvenience, that he determined to try if he
could find any there by finking a well, and refolved, rather
than not fucceed, to go to a very great depth. He began
digging, and went down very far without difcovering any
fymptoms of water ; but not difcouraged by this circum-
ftance, he ftill proceeded. At length, when he had gone
very deep, he found water, and was infinitely more fortunate
than he expefted ; for he feared that after he had found
water, it would be neceffary to raife it by artificial means
from fo great a depth, as muft greatly enhance the price of

W E L

k. The water, however, rofe in the well very quickly till
it reached the top, and there it ran over in a very copious
ftream, overflowing the field around it, till it found out a
level for itfelf, forming a fiving rill, that continues to flow
at all times of the year. Tlie owner of the ground, after
having made of it a fine piece of water for his pleafure, and
fupplied all his building with it abundantly, made that part
of it ifTue through a pipe into a ftone balon by the road fide
for the accommodation of paffengers of every fort ; where
it ftill continues to flow, running from thence along the
ditch to the bottom of the eminence on which it ftands ; the
furplus water from the pond being conveyed off by another
channel.

Thefe cafes of wells are ftill further illuftrated and ex-
plained by the nature of what happens in finking deep pits
and (hafts in many places for different purpofes, and from
the large burfts of internal waters which take place in many
inftances and fituations. See Quarries, &c. Draining of,
and SpRlfiG-Draining.

On the whole, the fafts and ftatements which have been
given above, may fufiiciently explain and elucidate the man-
ner in which water is fupplied and obtained in the digging
and forming of wells, as well as the nature and diftribution
of the ftrataby which it is conduced, containe<l, and forced
up into them. However, in moft cafes, before the finking
of wells is undertaken or begun upon, the nature of the dif-
ferent circumftances of the particular cafes fhould be well
and fully inquired into and confidered, and the probability
of fuccefs coolly and maturely weighed from a nice examin-
ation of the different fprings and wells in the immediate
neighbourhood ; as where this is not the cafe, much labour,
trouble, and money, may often be expended to little or no
purpofe, and great difappoiiitment be fuftained.

WELL-Digging, the art of finking wells, and lining them
with ftone or brick, that they may preferve their figure ; as
this operation is neceffary for wells in all foils except rock.
There are two methods of building the ftone or brick
within the well, which is called the fteining. In one of
thefe a circular ring is formed, of the fame diameter as the
intended well ; and the timber of which it is compofed is of
the lize of the brick-courfes, with which the well is to be
lined. The lower edge of this circle is made fharp, and
fhod with iron, fo that it has a tendency to cut into the
ground ; this circular kirb is placed flat upon the ground,
and the bricks are built upon it to a coniiderable height, like
a circular wall. The well-digger gets within this circle,
and digs away the e.irth at the bottom ; the weight of the
wall then forces the kirb, and the brick-work with which
it is loaded, to defcend in the earth, and as faft as the earth
is removed it finks deeper, and the circular brick-wall is
increafed orraifed at top as faft as it finks down ; but when
it gets very deep, it will fink no longer, particularly if it
paffes through foft ftrata : in this cafe, a fecoiid kirb of a
fmaller fize is fometimes began within the firtt.

When a kirb would not fink from the foftnefs of the
ftrata, or when it is required to (top out water, the bricks
or ftones muft be laid one by one at the bottom of the work,
taking care that the work is not left unfupported in fuch
a manner as to let the bricks fall as they are laid : this is
called under-pruning.

Well-diggers experience fometimes gjreat difficulty from a
noxious air which fills the well, and fuffocates them if they
breathe it.

The ufual mode of clearing wells of noxious air, is by
means of a large pair of bellows and a long Itathern pipe,
which is hung down into the well to the bottom, and frefti
air is forced down to the bottom by working the bellows.

This

W E L

This is intended to difplace the damp air or gas, but is not
very efficacious, becaufe the damp air is of a greater fpe-
cific gravity than pure air ; fo that ten gallons of frefti air
is perhaps blown into the well, before two gallons of
noxious air is difplaced : and this probably happens be-
caufe the atmofpheric air is fpecifically lighter than the
noxious air, and afcends through the latter to the top of the
well, difplacing but a fniall quantity of it. Such bel-
lows, &c. are feldoni to be procured on the fpot when
wanted, and are too weighty and cumberfome to carry about.
If water is thrown down in a Ihower, it will fometimes clear
the air ; but this is laborious, in a deep well, to draw it up
again.

The following appaiatus may be ufed with great fuccefs
in fuch cafes ; and as with ^fty^ feet of pipe its weight
amounts only to thirty pounds, it may eafily be carried to
any diftance. Tubes of every kind being perpendicularly
fituated, and having their internal air rarefied, caufe a cur-
rent or ilream of air to afcend through them. Suppofe fix
lengths of metal pipe, each eight feet long, and two inches
diameter, all made of tin plate, except the upper one, which
is of copper, the better to bear the heat ; let a cylindrical
vefTel be alfo made of copper, holding about two gallons,
fixed fall to the upper pipe, and having tlu-ough the fides of
it a number of holes to admit air for the fupport of the fire,
which is kindled within it. The veflel muft be fo fixed as
to have at leaft five feet of pipe above its top.

The method of placing it in the well is, firft, to lower
down the bottom length, into the upper end of which, the
lower end of the fecond length is joined, paffing a wire
through both to prevent their drawing apart again in holes
made for that purpofe ; then fill the joint round with oil-
putty, fo as to render it air-tight. The upper end of each
length of tube is wired, to prevent bending ; which wiring
alfo forms a receptacle for the putty. Then proceed in the
fame manner, with the remainder of the pipes, until the
bottom one nearly reaches the furface of the water, but not
quite. The fire-pan is to be fupported on two timbers,
placed for that purpofe acrofs the top of the wall, and a
conical cover may be fitted over it to prevent the heat from
paffing away too rapidly, and to confine it to the fides of
the pipe. The apparatus being thus fixed, it foon be-
comes filled with air of the fame quality as that in the well ;
and as their power of gravity is the fame, both the external
and internal air become ftationary, from which there can be
no good effeft. To put the experiment into execution, fill
the fire-pan with lighted charcoal or wood, &c. the copper-
pipe which is furrounded by the fire, being by this means
heated, a rarefaftion of the internal air takes place, which
air by this means is hghtened, and the external denfe air,
continuing to prefs with the fame weight as firft into the
bottom of the tube, the equilibrium is deftroyed, and a fuc-
ceffion of noxious air pafles up through the pipe, as through
the funnel of a chimney, till the whole quantity is carried
off ; after which the pure air, which has in the meantime
introduced itfelf into the well, begins to pafs off by the fame
paffage fo long as the fire is continued, though the ftream of
air paffing out of the top of the vertical-pipe feems fmall, yet
the effeft is great, becaufe that ftream confifts entirely of
noxious air that is required to be removed. The effe£t will
be greater when the fire-pan is placed lower on the pipe, as
by that means more external air becomes rarefied ; but if the
fire-pan is placed too low down in the well, the charcoal fire
produces carbonic acid gas in great quantities, and renders
the air in the well unfit for refpiration.

Well, in jlgrkuhure, a term fometimes applied to a
fort of pipe-chimney or vent-hole left in a ftack, rick, or

W E L

mow of hay, or other fimilar materials, in order to pre*
vent its being overheated. Such vent-holes fhould be
avoided as much as poffible in all cafes, as injuring and
deftroying much hay about them, and being hurtful in ,
other ways. See Stacking Hay.

Wells, Ebbing and Flonving, in Rural Economy, fuch
as have their waters rifing and falling in an almoll mo-
mentary alternate manner. See Spring, and Well.

Wells, Farm or Field, in Jlgriculture, fuch as are dug
in thefe fituations for the ufe of live-ftock.

Wells of this fort are of much ufe and coHvenience, as
they prevent the trouble and difadvantage of driving cattle
to diftances for the purpofe of getting water. See Pond.

Well, in the Military Art, denotes a depth which the
miner finks into the ground, from which he runs out
branches or galleries, either to prepare a mine, or find
out, and difappoint, the enemy's mine.

Well, in a Ship, an apartment formed in the middle of
a (hip's hold to inclofe the pumps, from the bottom to the
lower deck. It is ufed as a barrier to preferve thofe ma-
chines from being damaged by the friftion or compreffion
of the materials contained in the hold, and particularly
to prevent the entrance of ballafl, &c. by which the tubes
would prefently be choaked, and the pumps rendered in-
capable of fervice. By means of this enclofure, the artifi-
cers may likewife more readily defcend into the hold, in
order to examine the ftate of the pumps, and repair them as
occafion requires. Falconer.

Well of a Fijhing Veffel, an apartment in the middle of
the hold, which is entirely detached from the reft, being
lined with lead on every fide, and having its bottom pierced
with a fufficient number of fihall holes, paffing alfo through
the ftiip's floor, fo that the falt-water running into the well
is always kept as frefh as that in the fea, and yet prevented
from communicating itfelf to the other parts of the hold. .
Falconer. \

Well alfo implies in the fame range, or even with a fur-
face.

WELL-Z)ra;n, in Agriculture, that fort of vent or dif-
charge for the wetnefs of land, which is conftrufted in fome-
what the well or pit manner. See Vi siA^-Draining, and
SpRiNG-Z)ra;n/«^.

WELL-Draining, that means of clearing lands from wet-
nefs which, in certain flat fituations, is accomphftied by mak-
ing large deep pits or wells, and the conftant or occafional
ufe of fuitable machinery. In the execution of the bufinefs
of forming a draining well in loofe ground, a ftrong wooden
frame is neceflary to be funk, as the work of digging the
well or pit proceeds ; the fides of which being made, fo as
in the end to be fufficiently open or permeable, to admit
the water to enter freely within it, and clofe enough to pre-
vent grofler njatters from interrupting the machinery ; efpe-
cially when of the mill kind. The fize of the frame for
this purpofe muft, confequently, be adapted and fuited to
the nature of the engine which is employed. The laves of
a mill, it has been obferved, would require a length of
frame, which muft neceffarily be proportionally ftrong ; but,
that for a pump, a frame of inconfiderable expence would
be fufficient ; whether of wood or uncemented brick-work.

In this fort of draining, which is applicable in many cafes
of cold wet flat lands lying in the valley-trafts in moft parts
of the country, the wetnefs is drawn ofl^ by thefe forts of
powerful machinery, working in the fpring time, after wet
feafons, or at other periods when neceflary or wanted. See
SpRl^G-Draining.

WELL-Grown, in Ship- Building, implies, that the grain of
the wood follows the fliape required, as in knee-timbers, &c.

Well-

W E L

W E L

WELL-Hole, in Building, is the hole left in a floor, for a charter from king John. In July 1758, it is ftated that

the ttairs to come up through. See Stairs. about eight hundred dwelling-houfes, befid'es outhoufes' &c

WELL-i?oom, of a Boat, denotes the place m the bottom were confumed by fire. A new town has been raifed' and

■where the water lies, between the ciehng and the platform now affumes a much more refpeftable appearance than be

of the ft.TTi-nieets, from whence it is thrown out into the fore the conflagration. The church is a fpacious edifice'

fea with a fcoop. Falconer. having at its weft end a tower, furmounted by a fpire • the'

WT.\.i.-lVater. See Water. '"oofs of the aifles, chancel, and chantry chapel, are decorated

WELL AND, in Geography, s. user oi England, which with various carved work ; and on each fide of the chancel are

paffes by Stamford, Market Deeping, Spalding, &c. and three ftalls fimilar to thofe in cathedral choirs : the eaftern

empties itfelf into the German fea, in what is called " The window is richly ornamented with tracery, and'fculpture in

ftone. This church had a guild to the honour of the Bleflbd

Warti," between the counties of Lincoln and Norfolk. —
Alfo, a river of Canada, which runs into the Niagara, be-
tween lake Erie and lake Ontario.

WELLE CoKONDE, Sandy Cinnamon, a name given by
the Ceylonefe to a fpecies of cinnamon, which feels hard
and gritty between the teeth, as if it were f i ' "
of fand, though in reality there is no fand among it

The bark of this tree comes off very eafily : but it is not
fo fit to roll up into quills as the right cinnamon, for it is
more rigid and ftubborn, and apt to burft open. It is of a
Iharp but bitterilh tafte. The roots of all the cinnamon
trees yield more or lefs camphor, but this as fmall a quan-

. tity as any of them. Phil. Tranf. N° 409.

•■ WELLES, in Geography. See Wells.

Virgin ; the revenues of which fraternity were, in the fecond
year of Edward VI., appropriated to the eredion and en-
dowment of a free grammar-fchool. Here are alfo a large
iich feels hard charity-ichool, and two meeting-houfes for the public wor-
uU of particles ihip of Independent DifTenters. A weekly market is held
on Wednefdays ; and three fairs annually. The chief fource
of traffic is corn, the market for which is greatly improved
by the decay of that of Higham-Ferrers, at four miles dif-
tance. Here is alfo a confiderable manufafture of lace ; as
alfo of tammies, harrateens, and other worfted fluffs. ' In
the population return of the year 1811, the inhabitants of
this parifh are enumerated as 3999, occupying 749 houfes.
About lialf a mile north-weft of the town, in an open field, is

WELLESCHIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of a chalybeate fpring, called Red-well, formerly much cele
._l:_ :,,. o -f T>..j..„:r, brated for its medicinal virtues: in the year 1626, king

Charles and his queen reiided here a whole feafon, for the be-

nefit of drinking the water, pure from the fource Beauties

of England and Wales, vol. xi. Northamptonfliire ; by the
Rev. J. Evans, and J. Britton, F.S.A. Bridges's Hiftory
of Northamptonfliire, 2 vols. fol. 1791.

WELLINGTON, a large marbt-town in the hundred

Bechin ; 10 miles S. of Budweifs

WELLESMITZA, a town of Servia, on the Danube;
10 miles S.E. of Orfova.

WELLFLEET, a townfiiip of Maffachufetts, in the
county of Barnftaple, containing 1402 inhabitants, with a
large harbour near Cape Cod. The inhabitants own 25
veffels, from 30 to 100 tuns, employed in the whale, cod.

mackarel, and oyfter fiftiiiig ; 60 miles by water S.E. of of Kingftjury Weft, and county of Somerfet, England, is

Bofton. fituated on the borders of Devonftiire, at the diftanceof'20

Wellfleet Bay, a bay of the ftate of Maffachufetts, mih-s W.S.W. from Somerton, and 149 miles in the fame

on the E. fide of Cape OA Bay. bearing from London. The earlieft hiftorical account of it

WELLIA Tagera, H. M. in Botany, a filiquous plant comments with the reign of Alfred, who beftowed the ma-

of Malabar, with a pejitapetalous flower, and long flat pods, nor on Affer, who had been tutor to feveral of his children

with tranfverfe partitions between the contained feeds. It and was afterwards advanred to the fee of Sherborne and

grows to the ordinary height of a man, with a ftem as big as died poflelfed of that dignity, in the year 88?. After his

a man's arm, and is tranfplanted into gardens only on account death, the king granted the manor to the firft bifliop of

of its beauty. It is an evergreen.

All the parts of this plant, the root excepted, are exhi-
bited, with an addition of cummin, white fugar, and milk,
againft a virulent gonorrhoea. The leaves boiled in cow's
milk, or ufed in baths, expel the gout. The bark, tritu-
rated with fugar and water, is proper for the diabetes. Tlie
bark of the root, and green faffron mixed with milk, give
relief under the nodous gout, called by the Malabariaiis fo-
nida badda. Raii Hift. Plant.

WELLIBALDSBURG.St., inGra^ra/>;?iy,atownand
citadel of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Aichftat, near Aich-
rtat

Wells, for the fupport of the epifcopal honours of him^felf
and his fucceflbrs. It continued annexed to that fee, till
the reign of Edward VI., when it became the property of
the duke of Somerf-t by purchafe from bifliop Barlow.
The town coi.fills of four ftreets, the principal of which,
called the High-ftreet, is very wide and fpacious ; the
houfes are in general well built and commodious. It
is a place of confiderable trade: the chief articles manufac-
tured here are, ferges, druggets, and pottery. A weekly
market, on Thurfdays, is well fuppHed with all kinds of pro-
vifions ; and two fairs are annually held. According to the
population return of the year 181 1, the parifli contained

WELLIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konig- 755 houfes, and 3874 inhabitants, of whom 565 families
■ -^ -' ■- >ir ~c to: were ftated to be employed in trade and manufafture. The

church is a fpacious ftruAure, confifting of a nave, chancel,
two aifles, and two fmall chapels. At the weft end is a
fine embattled tower, a hundred feet in height, decorated
with twelve pinnacles of excellent workmanfliip. In the
fouth chapel is a magnificent tomb in honour of fir John
Popham, lord chief juftice of England, in the reign of queen
Elizabeth. On the table of this monument are the effigies
of fir John and his lady, under an arched canopy, richly
ornamented with the family arms, rofes, paintings, and obe-
liflvf. The whole is fupported by eight columns of black
marble, five feet high, with Corinthian capitals, green and
gilt. Sir John was a munificent patron to Wellington :

among

ingratz ; 16 miles S.W. of Biezow.

WELLINGBOROUGH, a market-town in the hun-
dred of Hamfordlhoe, and county of Northampton, England,
is principally fituated on a red fand-ftone rock, of which
material tlie houfes are generally built. The town is dif-
pofed along the flope of a hill, nearly a mile to the north of
the river Nen, 11 miles N.E. by E. from the county-town,
and 68 miles N.N.W. from London. It appears to have
been of fome note in the Saxon times, when a great part
of it was deftroycd by the Danes. After the Norman Con-
queft, it occurs among the numerous poffeffions annexed to
the abbey of Croyland, in Lincolnfhire ; and at the fuit of
the monks of that houfe, was coiilUtUted a market-town, by

W E L

W E L

among other benefactions, he erefted an hofpital for fix men
and fix women, being old and infirm ; two children were
alfo to be educated here. This edifice is ftill Handing : fir
John endowed it with an eftate in land, which is vetted in
governors, and properly applied. — Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. xiii. Somerfetihire. CoUinfon's Hiftory of So-
merfetfhire, 3 vols. 410. 1791.

Wellington, a fmall market-town in the Wellington
divifion of the hundred of Bradford, and county of Salop,
England, is fituated near the Wrekin-hill, at the diftance of
12 miles E. by S. from Shrewfbury, and 151 miles N.W.
from London. It is neatly built, and contains many good
houfcs. The market, which is held on Thurfdays, is well
fupplied, and much frequented ; and here are three annual
fairs. The church, which has lieen lately rebuilt, is fup-
ported on caft-iron pillars, and the window-frames are of
the fame material, which gives a lightnefs to the edifice :
one of the frames is fifteen feet in height. Near the church
is a very refpeftable charity-fchool. In this town and its
vicinity, at the commencement of the civil war, king Charles,
then on his march to Shrewlbury, muftered his forces, and
after iffuing orders for the obfervance of Arid difcipline,
made a folemn proteftation that he would defend the efta-
bhfhed religion, govern by law, and preferve the liberty of
the fubjedt ; and that if he conquered he would uphold the
privileges of parhament. The parifh of Wellington includes,
befides the town, fix tovvnfiiips. The return of the year 1811
ftates the population to be 8213; the number of houfes
1724. The chief employment of the inhabitants is in the
coal-works ; here are alfo fome mines of iron-ore. About
two miles fouthward from the town is the Wrekin, a ftu-
pendous mountain 1100 feet in height. Through the ad-
jacent country runs the Roman road called the WatHng-
ftreet.

Beneath the Wrekin, and adjoining the road leading to
Shrewfbury, is Orletcn, the feat of William Cludde, efq. of
an ancient family in this county. The manfion at prefent
has a modern appearance, but is of very great antiquity, and
till of late was enclofed with walls and a gate-houfe, and was
furrounded by a moat — Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xiii. Salop ; by J. Nightingale, and R. Rylance, i8i i.

WELLINKOVEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Mark ; 6 miles W. of Schwiert.

WELLOE, (The,) a rock in the Englifh channel, near
the coait of Cornwall ; o miles S.E. of Penzance. N. lat.
5°. W. long. 5° 14'.

WELLS, William Charles, F.R.S., I. and E.,
licentiate of the Royal College of Phyficians, London, and
one of the phyficians to St. Thomas's Hofpital, in Biography,
was the fon of parents who left Scotland and fettled in
Carolma, in 1753, and born in Charlellown, South Carolina,
m May 1757. Few lives have been more diverfified by inci-
dent and more feduloufly devoted to literary and fcientific
purfuits, and therefore more entitled to notice in our bio-
graphical notches than the fubjed of this article. Before
he had attained the age of feven years, he was fent to a con-
fiderable grammar-fchool at Dumfries, where he remained
nearly two years and a half ; and in the autumn of the year
1770 he removed to Edinburgh, and attended feveral of the
lower clafles of the univerfity . At this early age he had the
good fortune to become acquainted with Mr. David Hume
and fir William Miller, now known by the title of lord Glen-
lee, whofe friendfhip he afterwards cultivated and valued,
and whofe kind offices he gratefully acknowledged. In 1771
he returned to Charleltown, and was apprenticed, in the
medical profeflion, to Dr. Alexander Garden, whofe name
is well known among naturalifts ; and during three years of the

time he was with this gentleman, he purfued his ftudies with
fuch diUgence, that he acquired perhaps more knowledge
than in any three fubfequent years of his life. Soon after
the commencement of the American war, in 1775, he came
to London. The occafion of his removal was his refufal,
from confcientious motives, to fign a paper denominated
" The AlTociation," which was drawn up in order to unite
the people in a refillance to the claims of the Britifh govern-
ment. At the commencement of the winter of that year he
went to Edinburgh, and entered upon his medical ftudies,
with the view of taking a degree. To his former two
friends, with whom he had kept up a regular corr< fj^ondence,
he had now the happinefs of adding a third, no lefs intimate
and conftant than the others, the prefent Dr. Robertfon
Barclay. Having purfued his ftudies for three winters, and
parted his preparatory trials in the fiimmer of 1778, he left
Edinburgh without graduating, and returned to London,
where he attended a courfe of Dr. William Hunter's lec-
tures, and became a furgeon's pupil at Bartholomew's hof-
pital. In 1779 he went to Holland as furgeon to a Scotch
regiment, in the fervice of the United Provinces ; but re-
ceiving ofTenfive treatment from the commanding officer, he
refigned his commiffion, and challenged the aggreffor, under
the unjuft charge of military infubordination, for which an
attempt was made to punifti him; but without receiving the
fatisfaftion which he demanded, he went to Leyden in the
beginning of the year 1780, and there prepared an inaugural
thefis on the fubjeft of " Cold," which was publiftied at
Edinburgh in the clofe of that year, on occafion of his
taking the degree of doftor in medicine. At this time he
commenced his acquaintance with Dr. Lifter, a gentleman
no lefs diftinguiftied for his integrity and liberality than for
his flcill in his profeffion ; and it redounds in no fmall de-
gree to the honour of Dr. Wells, that their frienddiip con-
tinued without interruption till his death. Nor was it lefs
honourable to both thefe gentlemen, that they were intro-
duced to an acquaintance with each other by their common
friend Dr. James Currie, the author of " Medical Reports,"
and the biographer of Burns ; whofe premature death was
lamented by all who knew him, and were duly apprized
of the eminent rank which he occupied in the medical pro-
feffion. In the beginning of the year 1782 Dr. Wells vifited
Carolina, then in the pofleffion of the king's troops, for the
purpofe of arranging the aff^airs of his family ; and whilft;
he was there, he fuftained a variety of offices, feemingly very
incompatible with each other, and which no perfon deftitute
of his verfatile talents and peculiar adtivity could have fatif-
faftorily performed. He was an officer in a corps of volun-
teers, a printer, a bookfeller, and a merchant, a truftee for
the management of the affairs of fome of his father's friends
in England, and on one occafion a judge-advocate. In De-
cember 1782, when the king's troops were obliged to eva-
cuate Charleftown, he removed to St. Aiiguftine, in Eaft
Florida, and there edited the firft weekly newfpaper that had
been publiftied in that country, having brought with him a
printing-prefs, which had been taken to pieces for the con-
venience of carriage, and which he contrived, with the affiftance
only of a negro-carpenter, to refit for ufe. During his reC-
dence in Florida, he became captain of a corps of volunteers,
and manager of a company of officers, who had agreed to
aft plays for the relief of the pooreft of the loyal refugees
from Carohna and Georgia, and occafionally an aftor him-
felf. In 1784 he removed from St. Auguftine to London,
and becoming acquainted with Dr. Bailhe, commenced an
intimate, fteady, and affeftionate friendfhip, the benefits of
which he experienced till his death. Having fpent three
months at Paris in the year 1785, he returned to London in

the

WELLS.

the autumn of that year, and fettled as a phyfician in this
city. His father had refided in London from the com-
mencement of the American war, and had amafled a fortune
of 20,000/. ; but by misfortunes in trade his circumftances
were now embarrafled, fo that Dr. Wells, at the outfet of his
profeflion, was obliged to raife money by loans, amounting
to 600/. For the firft few years after fettling in London he
fcarcelytook afee,and after having been engaged for ten years
in the exercife of his profeflion, his receipts from every fource
did not amount to 250/. per annum. However in the next
five years he was able to pay part of his debt, and before his
death he had the fatisfaftion of having paid the whole of it,
both principal and intereft ; and it fliould be mentioned to
his honour, that when his income was very limited, he al-
lowed an annuity of 20/. to a poor relation.

In 1788 he was admitted a licentiate of the Royal College
of Phyficians in London ; and he took part with thofe who
aflerted their eligibility and right of admiffion to the clafs of
fellows. After the decifion of this claim in the court of
king's bench, he applied in 1797 for examination, fo that if
he were found to be fit, he might be returned a fellow. But
this application was unavailing ; and yet about four years
before his death the prefident of the college fent him a mef-
fage, exprefling a wi(h to know if he had any defire to be-
come a fellow ; to which he replied in the negative. In
1790 he was appointed a phyfician to the Finfbury Difpen-
fary, in which conneftion he remained till the year 1798.
In 1793 he was chofen a fellow of the Royal Society ; and
in 1800 he became phyfician of St. Thomas's hofpital,
having been affiftant phyfician from the year 1798. In the
year 1800 he was feized with a flight fit of apoplexy ; but
by adopting a very abftemious mode of living, he efcaped
any fubfequent attack. From this time, however, his health
declined.

In 181 2 he commenced fome experiments on dew, and
after he had an opportunity of purfuing them, he wrote
an " Eflay" on the fubjeft, which was publifhed in Auguft
1814, the year in which he was admitted into the Royal So-
ciety of Edinburgh; and in l8i6 the Royal Society of
London adjudged to him the honour of the gold and filver
medals of count Rumford's donation for this eflay. Al-
though from the year 1814 to the commencement of his lall
illnefs his health was in fome refpefts improved, he was af-
fliAed with painful and threatening fymptoms. Thefe fymp-
toms became gradually more alarming ; and though in his laft
illnefs fome hopes were entertained by his medical friends,
Dr. Bailhe and Dr. Lifter, of his recovery, yet on the 8th
of Augult he was fuddenly feized, while he was fitting up,
with the fenfation of a tremulous motion in the cheft, which
he referred to the heat, from which time his illnefs inter-
mitted. " After this," fays his biographer, _" an expecta-
tion was entertained of his recovery. His life was continued
until the evening of the i8th of September 1817 ; and until
the near approach of its termination, his mind was clear and
aftive, and his fpirits calm and cheerful."

Our limits will merely allow our enumerating his principal
publications. Of his political papers we Ihall only mention
one, which was written in 1781, by the defire of the com-
mandant of the garrifon of Charlettown, general Neft)it Bal-
four. The objeft of this paper was to fhew, by military
ufage, and the nature of the cafe, that perfons in the Ame-
rican fervice who, after having been taken prifoners and
fent to their homes under their military paroles, and who
appeared again in arms againft the Britifh government, fub-
jeAed themfelves to the punifliment of death. This paper
was frequently publiflied in the newfpapers, and it is pro.

Vol. XXXVIII.

bable that it was owing to this publication that general Bal-
four and lord Moira thought themfelves juftified in putting to
death a colonel Haynes, the propriety of which aft was
afterwards a fubjeft of debate in the Britifh parliament.
The philofophical pieces of Dr. Wells were the following :
■viz, " An Eflay upon fingle Vifion with Two Eyes," 1702J
(fee Vision, in the Addenda) ; " Two Letters, in'reply to
Dr. Darwin's Remarks in his Zoonomia upon what Dr.
Wells had written in his Eflay upon Vifion, on the apparent
Rotation of Bodies which takes place during the Giddinefa
occafioned by turning ourfelves quickly and frequently
round," 1 794, contained in the Gentleman's Magazine for
September and Oftober ; " A Paper upon the Influence
which incites the Mufcles to contraft in Mr. Galvani's Ex-
periments," 1795 ; " Experiments upon the Colour of the
BIjod," 1797 ; " Some Experiments and Obfervations on
Vifion," 181 1 ; all publiflied in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions. "An Eflay upon Dew," 181 1. In this eflay the au-
thor has introduced new fadis and ingenious obfervations, of
which we fliall give fome account in our additions to the
article Dew. " An Anfwer to Remarks in the Quarterly
Review upon the ElTay on Dew," and " An Anfwer to Mr.
Prevoft's Queries refpefting the Explanation of Mr. B. Pre-
voft's Experiments on Dew," 1815 ; "A Letter to Lord
Kenyon relative to the Conduft of the Royal College of
Phyficians of London, pofterior to the Decifion of the
Court of King's Bench, in the Cafe of Dr. Stanger ;" "A
fliort Letter on the Condenfation of Water upon Glafs,"
1 8 16; which three laft; appeared in Dr. Thomfon's AnnaTs
of Philofophy. " Some Biographical Sketches by Dr.
Wells" appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine.

Almoft all his writings upon medical fubjefts are con-
tained in the fecond and third volumes of the TranfaSiong
of a Society for the Promotion of medical and chirurgical
Knowledge : and their fubjefts are, — eryfipelas ; the entire
want of hair in the human body ; the dropfy, which fuc-
ceeds fcarlet fever ; aneurifm of the aorta attended with
ulceration of the oefophagus and wind-pipe ; epilepfy and
hemiplegia, apparently produced by a ftiarp projeftion from
the inner table of the flcuU ; tetanus ; aneurifm of the aorta,
communicating with the pulmonary artery ; enlargement of
the caecum and colon ; gangrene of the cellular membrane
between the mufcles and Ma of the neck and chefl: ; rheu-
matifm of the heart ; red matter and ferum of the blood in
the urine of dropfy, which has not originated in fcarfct
fever ; and obfervations on pulmonary confumption and in-
termittent fever, chiefly as difeafes oppofed to each other,
&c. ; to which may be added, a cafe of aphonia fpafmodica,
in the fecond volume of Medical Communications. His
manufcript papers were direfted to be deftroyed, with the
exception of one, relating to the difference of colour and
form between the white and negro races of men, which will
be pubhflied.

The literary produftions of Dr. Wells have fufSciently
eftabhflied his reputation as a learned and (kilful phyfician,
as an acute and inventive philofopher, and as a perfpicuous,
vigorous, and elegant writer ; and it is faid, that thofe who
knew him perfonally eftimated him much more highly than
perfons who were acquainted only with his writings. His
mental powers were ftrong, acute, comprehenfive, and ver-
fatile ; and he was capable of the mofl; clofe and long-con-
tinned attention, and of direfting this attention at pleafure.
Although he was not eminently diftinguifhed as a claflical
fcholar, or as a deep mathematician, he had read fome of the
Greek and moft of the Latin claflics with great attention ;
wrote Latin with facility and corredtnefs ; and made himfelf
P p mailer

W E L

mailer of the elementary books of the inferior branches of
the mathenvatics. He was well acquainted with natural
philofophy, and particularly optics, and alfo with the fads
of modern chemiftry ; he was an acute metaphyfician, and
intimately verfed in the theories of morals and politics, m
ancient and modern hiftory, commerce, and political econo-
my ; he had fuccefsfuUy ftudied belles lettres, and was fa-
miliar with the beft writers in the English language ; and his
own ftyle was pure, perfpicuous, and occafionally forcible
and elegant. In converfation he was inilruftive and inte-
refting ; and in aftive life prompt and decifive, and at the
fame time prudent and cautious. In his habits and manners,
he was indefatigable in his application ; frugal, and yet as
far as his circumftances would allow liberal ; high-minded,
but fenfible of obligation and grateful for kindnefs ; refentful,
yet placable ; irafcible even on trivial occafions, but exercif-
ing felf-command under great provocations when the im-
portance of circumftances and propriety required it ; indig-
nant at infolence and oppreflion, and regardlefs of all per-
fonal confequences in exprefllng his refentment, but fubmiflive
to the appointments of heaven, and calm and cheerful under
the fufferings which flowed from them. " A fenfe of duty,"
fays his biographer, " was the paramount feeling of his mind, to
which other paffions gave way, and which danger and difficulty
ferved only to make more adive and vigorous." Such is
the tribute which has been evidently diftated by a friend ;
and yet we have reafon for being affured that it is, upon the
whole, fuch as the merit of Dr. Wells juftly claimed. Gent.
Mag. for November 1817.

Wells, in Geography, a city of Somerfetfhire, England,
is fituated in the hundred of Wells-forum, at the diftance of
1 8 miles from Bath, 2i miles from Briftol, and 121 miles
W. by S. from London. It is faid to owe its origin to a
remarkable fpring called St. Andrew's well, the waters of
which were fuppofed to poffefs extraordinary medicinal pro-

fertiei. Thefe are recorded to have been higly beneficial to
na, king of the Weft Saxons, whofe religious zeal there-
fore prompted him to found a collegiate church here in the
year 704, and which he dedicated to the above faint. This
church was converted into a catliedral in the year 905, when
three new bilhoprics were conftituted by order of king Ed-
ward the elder, and Wells was then made an epifcopal fee.
This was afterwards transferred to Bath by bifhop Villala,
about the end of the eleventh century, who built a palace
there, and affumed the title of bifhop of Bath. Great con-
tentions foon arole between the two chapters of Bath and
Wefls, refpefting the right of eleftion to the epifcopal office.
The matter being referred to the arbitration of the biftiop
liimfelf, it was determined that hia fucceflbrs ftiould take
their title from both churches ; that an equal number of
delegates from both chapters (hould enjoy the privilege of
voting, and that the inftallation fhould take place in both
cathedrals. This regulation, which was made by bifhop
Robert, about the year 1 135, continued until the reign of
Henry VIII., when an aft of parHament was paffed for
vefting the power of eleftion folely in the dean and chapter
of Wells. Henceforward the cathedral and epifcopal feat
have been fixed at Wells, but the title of the bifhop is of
" Bath and Wells." To the pious zeal of its bilhops, the
city is indebted for that truly interefting ftrufture, its cathe-
dral church. The building of king Ina having, in the courfe
of four centuries, fallen into a dilapidated ftatc, was about the
year 1150 rebuilt on a much larger fcale by its bifhop.
In 1239 it received confiderable additions by bifhop Joce-
line, who altered, or fitted up the choir, and made other
improvements ; the fouth-weft tower was added by bifhop

W E L

Harewell, and other contributors, in 1366: in 141J thenortL-
weft tower was raifed by biftiop Bubwith ; and finally, tlie
chapel of the Virgin Mary was added by bifhop Beckington,
about the year 1 445. Other parts of this interefting fabric
were erefted and adorned by other prelates, but the precife
time of thefe alterations is not recorded. The cathedral, as it
now appears, confifts of a nave, with two aides, a tranfept,
and choir, alfo with fide-aifles ; at the eaftern extremity
of the choir is a fmaller tranfept, and the chapel of the Vir-
gin ; on the north fide is a porch, alfo a covered pafTage to the
chapter-houfe and deanery. Over the interfeftion of the
nave and tranfept is a large quadrangular tower, 160 feet
in height, refting on four broad arches, and at the weft end
are two other towers. The length of the nave is 190 feet j
of the choir to the altar, 108 ; and of the chapel of the Virgin,
52 feet. The whole fabric exhibits fpecimens of the differ-
ent ftyles of architefture which prevailed between the twelfth
and fifteenth centuries ; but the moft interefting part is the
weft front, certainly one of the moft impofing examples of
architeftural and fculptural workmanfhip in the kingdom.
It is adorned with a great number of niches and canopies,
with ftatues of the apoftles, popes, princes, bifhops, &c.
It is divided into five portions in height by bold buttreffes,
and four decided compartments, horizontally. In the centre
is a large entrance door-way to the nave, over which are three
tall lancet -fhaped windows ; above thefe is a pyramidal
facade to the gable of the roof, crowned with pinnacles, and
adorned with numerous niches, ftatues, &c. The buttreffes
are likewife covered with panelling, tabernacles, and ftatues.
The interior of the church is full of intereft and beauty. Its
nave confifts of nine cluftered columns on each fide, fupport-
ing pointed arches, over which is a triforium, or open gal-
lery. A third ftory above this difplays a feries of windows,
which, with the other arches, are moftly of the lancet-fhape.
The columns, crofs-fpringers under the roof, and the whole
architefture of this part of the church, difplay the ftyle of
the early part of the thirteenth century. In the nave are
two elegant monumental chapels, or oratories, to the refpec-
tive memories of bifhops Bubwith and Knight. Adjoining
the latter is a curious ftone pulpit. At the interfeftion of
the nave with the tranfepts is a large central tower, which
refts on four foiid piers, or cluftered columns, fuflaining
four arches, and over which are inverted arches. The choir
is richly ornamented, and lighted by fix highly pointed
windows on each fide, and a large eaftern window over the
communion-table. Behind the latter are three open arches
to the lady chapel, which is fingulai in form, decoration,
and charafter. Immediately behind the altar is a circular
arrangement of columne, eaft of which is an abfis, forming
a half oftagon. The whole is furrounded by large win-
dows, with painted glafs. In this part of the church are feveral
curious and interefting monuments. North of the great
tranfept is the chapter-houfe, an oftangular apartment, in the
centre of which is a lofty cluftered column, from which
diverge feveral ribs.

Southward from the cathedral is the epifcopal palace,
which has more the appearance of a fortified caiUe than of
the refidence of a bifliop. It is furrounded by a wet moat,
an embattled wall, flanked with femicircular turrets, with a
venerable gate-houfe on the north fiJe. The deanery -houfe
is a fpacious quadrangular building ; and here are good
houfes for the prebendaries. The eflabhfhmeiit of the ca-
thedral confifts of a bifhop, a dean, twenty-feven preben-
daries, nineteen minor canons, a precentor, treafurer, chan-
cellor, and three archdeacons ; a number which few other
cathedrals have.

The

W E L

The city of Wells is feated in a valley, furrounded by
lofty hills, and has fome fpacious ftreets. It was firft made
a free borough in the reign of Henry II., by the intereft
of Joceline, its bifhop. It -afterwards received a char-
ter from king John, by which it was provided with a weekly
market ; by queen Elizabeth's charter, the corporation con-
fdts of a mayor, recorder, feven matters, and fixteen common-
council men. Wells has fent two members to parliament
from the earlieft period : the right of eleftion is in the
mayor, mafters, burgelTts, and freemen. The voters are
about live hundred ; the mayor is the returning officer. By
the return to the population aft of the year i8l i, the number
of houfes is Itated to be 930 ; of inhabitants 5156. Six an-
nual fairs are held here ; and markets on Wednefdays and
Saturdays. The corporation have a fpacious town-hall for
the difpatch of their bufinefs ; where alfo the aflizes are held.
Under this hall is an hofpital, founded by bifhop Bubwith,
for the maintenance of thirty poor men and women. Here
are feveral other alms-houfes, particularly thofe endowed by
Nathaniel Steel and fon, for thirty -two men and women, who
are allowed three (hillings each per week, with a great-coat
for the men, and a gown for the women, once in two years.
A charity -fchool was alfo erefted here for twenty boys and
twenty girls, in the year 17 14.

Near the village of Wookey, which is fituated about two
miles north-weft from Wells, is a remarkable cavern, called
Wookey Hole. In its front is an affemblage of vaft rocks,
which rife to the height of at leaft two hundred feet, almoft
covered with trees and plants fpringing out of the fiflures.
On the left fide of a deep ravine is a natural terrace, which
leads to the mouth of the cavern, and through the middle of
it runs a clear rapid rivulet, that rufhes out of an arch thirty
feet in height, and forty in breadth, impetuoufly making its
way over an irregular bed of rocks. Hence, an opening
not more than fix feet high, condufts into a fpacious vault,
eighty feet in height, entirely covered with ftalaftites. Near
this is a fimilar, though fmaller vault ; and beyond them, a
low paflage leads to a fpace nearly circular, and about one
hundred and twenty feet in diameter, with a vaulted roof
forty feet in height. Near this area is what the vulgar call
the Witch's Brewhoufe, where a great number of fingular
configurations of ftalaftite are obfervable, to which corre-
fpondent appellations have been given, fuch as the boiler,
furnace, &c. To the left is what is called the hall, which is
very lofty, the centre of the roof being at leaft one hundred
feet above the ground. The whole length of the cavern is

fuppofed to be fix hundred feet CoUinfon's Hiftory of

Somerfetlhire, 3 vols. 4to. Maton's Obfervations on the
Weftern Counties, 1797. Davis's Concife Hiftory of the
Cathedral Church of Wells, 1 809.

Wells, a townlhip of New York, in Montgomery
county, erecEled in 180J from the N. part of Northampton
and Mayfield, bounded N. by Franklin county, E. by
Eflex, Wafhington, and a fmall part of Saratoga county,
S. by Northampton and Mayfield, and W. by Johnftown,
about fifty-five miles long and eight miles wide. The
country is rough and mountainous, and the foil light, fandy,
and barren. It has numerous lakes and ponds, which
abound with trout and other cold-blooded fifh, affording
good food as well as fport for the angler. Pezeeke lake
bears the name of an Indian, and lake Pleafant is a pleafant
lake, with a fine beach of white fand.

Wells, a fea-port town of England, in the county of
Norfolk, with a harbour at the mouth of a fmall river, of
difficult accefs, on account of the Shifting fands at the en-
trance. The chief trade is in corn, malt, and coals ; and of
late an oyfter-fiftiery has been eftabliftied : it has no market.

W E L

The population in i8ii was 2683. Near on the W. of
Wells IS Holkliam-hall, the magnificent feat of T. W. Coke,
efq. M.P. Wells lies 118 miles N.E. from London.— Alfo,
a town of Weft Florida, fituated on the W. fide of St. An-
drew's bay. N. lat. 30° 25'. W. long. 850 50'.— Alfo, a
town of America, in the diftrift of Maine, and county of
York, at the bottom of a bay to which it gives name,
between Capes Porpoife and Ncddik, containing 4489 inha-
bitants ; 20 miles S.W. of Portland. N. lat. 43° 20'. W.

long. 70° 32' Alfo, a town of Vermont, in the county of

Rutland, containing 1040 inhabitants; 10 miles S.W. of
Rutland.

Wells, a river of Vermont, which runs into the Con-
nefticut.

Wells'x Creek, a river of Kentucky, which runs into the
Ohio, N. lat. 38° 47'. W. long. 84° 27'.

Wells'j Falls, a cataradl in the river Delaware; 13
miles N.W. of Trenton.

Wells'j Pqfage, an inlet on the weft coaft of North
America, branching off from Broughton's Archipe-
lago.

WELMICH, or Welmenach, a town of Germany, in
the circle of the Lower Rhine, on the right bank of the
Rhine ; i mile from St. Goar.

WELMINA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leit-
meritz ; 5 miles W. of Leitmeritz.

WELOVAR, a town of Croatia ; 16 miles S.E. of
Creutz.

WELP, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konig-
ingratz ; 3 miles S.E. of Toplitz.

WELPSHOLTZ, a town of Germany, in the county
of Mansfield, memorable on account of a viftory which
Lothario, duke of Saxony, obtained over Henry V. in tha
year 1 11 j.

WELS, a town of Auftria, on the river Traun. This
is fuppofed to have been an ancient town of the Norici, and
by the Romans called Ovilara, or Ovilaba. Others fay it
was built by the emperor Valerian after his expedition
againft the Scythians in Pannonia. The emperor Maximi-
lian I. died here; 11 miles S.S.W. of Linta. N. lat.
48° 10'. E. long. 14°.

WELSBACH, a river of Thuringia, which runs into
the Unftrutt, near Thomafbruck.

WELSCHBILLIG, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sarre; 18 miles N.N.E. of Luxemburg.

WELSCHBIRKEN, a town of Bohemia, in the eircle
of Prachatitz ; 6 miles N.N.W. of Prachatitz.

WELSE, a river of Brandenburg, which runs into the
Oder, near Vierraden.

WELSH Glaive, or Bill, in Military Antiquities, a
kind of bill, fometimes reckoned among the pole-axes,
which was formerly much in ufe.

WELSHPOOL, anciently Trallwng, a large and po-
pulous market-town, partly in the hundred of Pool and
partly in that of Cawrl'e, in the county of Montgomery,
North Wales, is fituated on the bank of the river Severn,
8 miles N. from the county-town, and 169 miles N.W. by
W. from London. It confifts of one long and fpacious ftreet,
with another fmaller, croffing it at right angles, and feveral
other collateral branches of leffer dimenfions ; and is the
largeft and beft-built town in the county. From the
manners and language of the inhabitants, it has every ap-
pearance of an Englilh town ; theWelffi being fpoken here
by few perfons. An air of urbanity and opuknce pervades
the place, chiefly owing to the intercommunication with the
more polilhed parts of the kingdom, and to the extenfive
trade in flannels ; great quantities of which are nianufadlurecl

P p 2 here.

W E L

here, and ftill greater brought from the hill countries. .This
being the principal mart for that article, a market is held
oa every alternate Monday for the fole piirpofe of expofing
it to fale. A weekly market is alio held on Mondays for
proviiions ; and here are fix annual fairs for horfes, fheep,
and cattle. The Severn becomes navigable at a fmall dif-
tance below the town, at a place called the Pool-ftake ; and
a branch of the Ellefmere canal running near, tends to faci-
litate carriage by water conveyance. Among the recent
improvements ni^de in the town, i* the county-hall, erefted
at the expence of a few private gentlemen. This ftrufture,
with a colonnade and pilafters of ftone in front, confifts of
upper apartments for the adminiftration of juftice, and of
lower ones for the accommodation of trade. Beneath is a
fpacious place, appropriated as a corn-market ; a feparate
fpace for the fale of mifcellaneous articles ; and an ample
court for holding the aflizes or great feffions. On the fe-
cond floor is the county-hall room^ and a handfome room
adjoining is fitted up for the ufe of the grand jury. The
church, though in the pointed ftyle, is apparently of no very
remote antiquity. It Hands fingularly at the bottom of a
hill, and is fo low, that the ground of the cemetery almoft
equals the height of the building. Among the facramental
utenfils is a chalice of pure gold, brought from Guinea on
the coaft of Africa, containing a wine quart : it bears a
Latin irifcription, dating that its infrinfic value was i68/.,
and that it was prefented to the church in the year 1562 by
Thomas Davies, fome time governor-general of the Englifh
colonies on the wellern coaft of Africa. Wellh-Pool has a
very ancient corporation : its original charter was granted
by 0]ie of the princes of Powys Land, about the end of the
eleventh century ; the prefent was a grant from Charles II.,
by virtue of which the town is governed by two bailiffs, a
high fteward, recorder, and town-clerk ; under whom are
two ferjeants at mace. The population of the parifh, which
includes nine adjoinmg townlhips, was in the year 18 1 1 re-
turned to parliament as 2779 ; the number of houfes as 578.
Formerly the town contributed with the borough of Mont-
gomery in fending a member to parhament ; but was dif-
franchifed of this privilege in the year 1728. There are
fome encampments in this parifh, one of which is faid to
have been the Britiih camp of Caraftacus, on the fummit
of the Br)'ddin-hill, where the laft remains of ancient Bri-
te(h liberty were loft by the furrender of that brave fove-
reign : on the centre of this mountain a column was erefted,
to perpetuate the memory of admiral Rodney's celebrated
Tidory over the French fleet in the Weft Indies, April J2.
1782.

About a mile to the fouthward of Wellh-Pool, is Powys
Caftle, formerly the chief manfion of the Convinian Welfti
princes of Powys, and now the refidence of the earl of
Powys. This venerable pile, fituated in a well wooded
park, is built in the ancient ftyle of domeftic architefture,
participating of the caftle and manfion. The entrance is
by a gateway between two maffy circular towers, into the
area or court, round which the apartments range. Several
other towers are ftill ftanding, flanked with femicircular
baftions. In front, two immenfe terraces, rifing one above
another, form the afcent, by means of a vaft flight of
fteps. The interior exhibits little worthy of notice, excepting
the principal gallery, meafuring 1 1 7 feet in length, which
■was originally much longer ; but in the modernizing plan a
large room has been taken from it. The park is formed of
fpacious lawns, and fweUing hills ; the oak, beech, and
chefnut, diverfify the views in rich variety ; and highly
contribute to render the place interefting to the lovers of
foreft fcenery. It is, however, to be regretted, that this
12

W E M

venerable caftle is verging to decay : the buildings are in
a ftate of dilapidation ; the gardens and grounds are neg-
lefted ; and the pride and ornament of the park removing,
for the fake of the timber : fo that at no very diftant pe-
riod, the beauty and magnificence of Powys may be no

more Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvii. North

Wales. By Rev. J. Evans, 1812.

WELSTEIN, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Tonnerre ; 7 miles E.S.E. of Creutznach.

WELSUN, a town of the duchy of Guelderland ; 6
miles W. of Hattem.

WELT-Ro;)T, in Agriculture, a terra that fignifies the
dying away or falling off of wheat-crops, in fome cafes, in
the winter or early fpring fealons. It has been fuppofed
to occur the moft frequently where the wheat -crops have
been put in on clover leys Some incline to think that it
depends upon the want of a lufficient degree of clofenefs
and firmnefs in the foils on the beds of mould into
which the crops have been put ; as where they lie too open
and in too porous a ftate, due nourifhment and fupport is
not fopplied to the young wheat plants from below, that,
of courfe, they do not form their roots in a proper manner.
See Treading.

The term is alfo applied to an operation in the harvefting
of grain. See KooT-lVeli.

WELTENBURG, in Geography, a town of Bavaria,
on the right fide of the Danube; 20 miles E.N. E. of In-
goldftadt.

WELTERSBURG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Leiningen ; I mile S. of Weilerburg.

WELTZENEN, a town of the duchy of Weftphalia ;
5 miles N. of Werl.

WELWARN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Schlan; 8 miles N.E. of Schlan. N. lat. 50° 18'. E.
long. 14° 24'.

WELWIN, a village of England, in the county of
Herts, where the general madacre of the Danes is faid to
have begun in 1012. In this place. Dr. Young, who was
the reftor, wrote his celebrated Night Thoughts. Here is
a chalybeate fpring ; 25 miles N. of London.

WELZHEIM, or Welzen, a town of Wurtemburg,
and capital of a lordfhip to which it gives name, on 4.h«
Lein ; 20 miles E. of Stuttgart.

WEM, a market-town of Whitchurch divifion of the
north part of the hundred of Bradford, in the county of
Salop, England, is fituated near the fource of the river Ro-
den, at the diftance of 7 miles S. from the town of Whit-
church, 10 miles N.E. from Shrewsbury, and 172 miles
N.W. from London. From its fituation Horfley infers,
that it is the fcite of the ancient Rutunium. The manor was
formerly in the poflTeffion of the earls of Arundel, but on the
attainder of earl Philip, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, it fell
to the crown ; and James II. conferred it on the lord chan-
cellor Jeff^eries, of infamous memorj', who had the eftate, and
was created baron of Wem. On his death, the title defcended
to his fon ; but on his deceafe, which occurred (hortly after,
it became extinft. The town of Wem confifts of one large
ftreet, with a few fmaller ones. By the population return
of the year 181 1, the number of houfes was ftated to be
297, and the inhabitants 1395. A weekly market is held
on Thurfdays, and three fairs annually. The church, a
reftory of the real value of about 500/. per annum, is a
handfome edifice, with a lofty tower, and a fine chancel. A
free-fchool was founded and liberally endowed by fir Tho-
mas Adams, who was born in this town in the year 1586,
and was elefted lord mayor of London in 1645. ^^ ^"''^
an inflexible adherent to king Charles I. in his troubles, and

continued

WEN

continued his attachment to Charles II. while in exile, to
whom he is faid to have made a remittance of 10,000/. On
the eve of the Reftoration he was deputed by the corpora-
tion of London to gjo with general Monk to Breda, to con-
duft tlie king to England. The munificence and charities
of fir Thomas were exemplary : among other memorials, is
an Arabic profeflbrfhip founded by him in the univerfity of
Cambridge. He died February 24. 1667, in the Silt year
of his age. Near this town, in 1640, was born William Wy-
cherley, a celebrated dramatic writer, who died January i.
1715. In the fame houfe which gave him birth, was alfo
born John Ireland, author of the " Illuftrations of Ho-
garth," and otherwife well known in the literary world. —
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. Shropfhire. By
Rylance, and J. Nightingale, 181 1.

WEMBDINGEN, a town of Bavaria ; lo miles E. of
Nordhngen. N. lat. 48'' 51'. E. long. 10° 40'.

WEMBERG, a town of Bavaria, in the landgraviate
of Leuchtenberg ; 6 miles S.W. of Leuchtenberg.

WEMDALEN, a town of Sweden, in Hardjeadalen ;
107 miles W.N.W. of Sundfwall.

WEMISTITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Znaym ; 4 miles S.W. of Krumau.

WEMMERBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 50 miles N. of Calmar.

WEMO, a town of Sweden, in the government of Abo ;
22 milt-s N.W. of Abo.

WEMYSS, a fea-port town of Scotland, in the county
of Fife, on the N. fide of the Frith of Forth ; a burgh of
barony governed by bailies and a council : it has a good
harbour, and feveral veflTels belong to it, chiefly employed in
the carrying trade. Coals and fait are the only exports ;
4 miles N.E. of Kirkcaldy. N. lat. 56° 9'. W. long.

Wemyss, Eajler, a town of Scotland, in the county
of Fife, on the coaft, but without a fafe harbour : here are
the ruins of a caftle ufually called Macduff's Caftle, faid to
have been built by Macduff, who was created carl of Fife,
in 1057, by Malcolm Canmure ; 5 miles N.E. of Kirk-
caldy.

WEN, in Surgery, an encyfled fweUing, the particular
nature of which is defcribed in the article Tumours. See
alfo Atheroma, Meliceris, and Steatoma, which are
technical names applied to the three principal varieties of
encyfted tumour^. Scarpo's obfervations on encylled fvvell-
ings of the eye-lids, will be found in another place. See
Eye-lid.

Wen, in Animals, a flelhy fubftance growing out of any
part of an ammal's body, and which not unfrequently
proceeds fron b'ows, bruifes, drains, and other flight
accidents of the fame nature, moft commonly beginning
or taking its origin in the Hcin of fome part, and gradually
enlarging by a continual accumulation in the difealed part,
until by time it becomes of a very confiderable fize in fome
cafes.

Enlargements of this nature are feldom painful, and in
many inftances they are of feveral years duration before
they ever reach any great magnitude ; becoming quite in-
dolent and fomewhat like the natural Hefh, having rarely
any other fenfible effeft than that of caufing a deformity
and weight in the parts where they happen to be fituated.
The fubftance of them is, for the moft part, of a fort of
flefhy and often fpongy nats re, though, in fome cafes, there
IS a kind of fponginels mi- rd with a degree of hardnefs,
and occafionally a frirrlious or cai.cerous difpofition ac-
companies them, efpecially when they take place in the

WEN'

. neighbourhood of parts which are of the more glandulous
kind. °

In moft real cafes of this nature, the wen is contained in
a fort of cyft or bag, which arifes tVom the injured velfels
of the part, and is formed as it flowly advances ; and which
inclofes the whole fubftance, augmenting in thicknefs as well
as fize as it increafes.

In the removal and cure of cafes of this fort when they
make their appearance on any part of an animal'b body,
trials fhould firft be made to diffolve and difperfe them by
proper means, fuch as camphorated fpirituous and mercu-
rial applications : and where this cannot be accomplilhed,
as is often the cafe, the ufe of the knife or cauftic muft be
had recourfe to for the purpofe of taking them off or de-
flroying them. In circumftances where the wens are of the
pendulous fort, and hang only by a fmall neck root, they
may frequently be eafily and conveniently removed by the
ufe of a ligature of the fame kind as is employed in taking
up large blood-veffels, applying it fo as that it may be capa-
ble of being gradually made tighter as there may be occafion,
until the fubftance drops off"; the part being afterwards
drefled and healed by the common digeftive ointment or
cerate. Bathing and wafhing the part frequently with the
tinfture for wounds is alfo, in fome cafes, of great utility.
See Tumour, and Wound, in jinimah.

However, in cafes where wens have large broad-bottom
root parts which are of a knotty ftringy nature, the cure,
if prafticable, is to be attempted by extirpation, or the
ufe of rather mild cauftics, drefiing the parts as in the cafe
of wounds. It is fometimes the beft and fafeft praftice,
however, to meddle as little as pofTible with wens of this
fort.

When enlargements of the wenny kind take place on the
legs and heels of animals, as is often the cafe in the horfe,
in the more fimple kinds of them, the cure may be fome-
times effefted by the ufe of applications fuch as hot vine-
gar and alum ; but in cafe bloody matter be extravafated,
fuppuration ftiould be promoted by the ufe of ftimulant
ointments and waflies, and the parts be opened when proper
by means of a lancet in a fuitable depending fituation, the
openings being drefled by the wound ointment and tinc-
ture.

In thefe wenny enlargements, the contents are of differ-
ent kinds, fometimes watery, and at others of a fuety or
thick pally nature ; which, if care be not taken to digefl;
well out, together with the cyft, will not unfrequently col-
left and fill again. In fome inftances, the ftiorteft method
would be to extirpate them by means of the knife, which,
when well performed, and the flcin properly preferved,
would leave little deformity. However, fome of thefe
forts of enlargements are beft let alone, as thofe of the
watery kind in particular, which will wear away infenfibly
in many inftances, without any application except a little
camphorated mercurial ointment.

Wens of Pearl. See Pearl.

WENBACH, in Geography, a river of France, which
runs into the Rhine, 3 miles above Drufenheim.

WENCESLAUS, or Winceslaus, in Biography, the
fon and fucceffor of Charles IV., whom he fucceeded as
emperor of Germany and king of Bohemia, in his 17th year.
In the progrefs of his life, he became notorious both for
cruelty and debauchery, and for the moft extravagant pro-
fufion, for the means of which he had recourfe to the moit
flagitious condutt.

His extravagance, however, became at length fo in-
tolerable, that the Bohemians, in 1396, with the advice of

his

WEN

his brother Sigifmund, king of Bohemia, put him into con-
fiiiement ; from which he contrived to efcape, and again to
afTume the royal authority. But as he purfued the fame
conduft, his brother Sigifmund, at the requeft of the people,
depofed him, and he was declared regent. Wencedaus,
after having been confined fucceffively m various prifons,
made his el?ape from one of the towers of Vienna, and re-
turning to Prague, recovered his ki_ngdom. After a fecond
marriale, his extravagance involved him in new difficulties,
fo that, in order to his difembarraffment, he was under a ne-
ceffity of felhng his imperial rights to John Galeazo, who
had feized the fovereignty of Milan, and other cities of
Lombardy dependant on the empire. The princes of the
empire became indignant, and affembled a diet in 1400, m
which they formally depofed him. Profeffing himfelf happy
at this event, which would afford him le;fure to pay atten-
tion to the government of his kingdom, he held the crown
of Bohemia for 19 years longer, more tolerable in his vices,
though ftiU unreclaimed from them. The ditturbances ot
Bohemia, occafioned by the preaching of John Hufs, oc-
curred in his time, and he took pains to compofe them.
At length, whilft he was fitting at dinner, he received m-
telligence of a fudden tumult at Prague, which occafioned
a paroxyfm of rage, that was followed by an apoplexy,
which terminated his life in 1419, at the age of 58. Mod.

Un. Hift. Moreri. • tt , j

WENDEL,inG^o^rj/)^;', atownof Sweden, in Upland;

15 miles N. of Upfal. .

WENDELEN, a town of Sweden, in Harjeadalen ;
18 miles S.E. of Langafchants.

WENDELL, a townfhip of Mafiachufetts ; 90 miles
N.W. of Bofton.— Alfo, a townfhip of New Harapfhire,
in the county of Chefhire, containing 447 inhabitants ; 30
miles N.W. of Concord.

WENDELSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Anfpach ; 8 miles S. of Nuremberg. N. lat.
48^ 18'. E. long. 1 1" 4'. — Alfo, a town and ruined citadel
of Thuringia ; 6 miles S.W. of Querfurt.

WENDEN, a town of the duchy of Weflphalia ;
4 miles S. of Olpe.— Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the pro-
vince of Bartenland ; 6 miles N. of Raflenburg.

WENDIA, in Botany, a new umbelhferous genus, thus
named by profefTor Hoffmann, in honour of Dr. Wendt,
profeffor of Phyfic at Erlang, counfellor to the Eleftor
Palatine, and fucceffor to the great Schreber in the diftin-
guifhed fituation of Prefident of the Imperial Academy Na-
tura Curioforum. He is celebrated for the numerous obierva-
tions which he has pubUfhed, refpefting medicinal plants, and
for his zeal in the promotion of botanical ftudiesin general.
— Hoffm. Gen. Plant. Umbellif. v. i. 136. t. I. B. f. 8, a,

b Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Um-

bellatie, Linn. Umhelitfert, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. General involucrum none ; partial of a few
Ihort, unequal, lanceolate or linear, deciduous leaves. Pe-
rianth of five unequal teeth, two of them, in the radiant flo-
rets, twice as large as the reft, ovate, acute. Cor. Unitierfal
irregular ; flowers of the radius perfeft, fertile, except a few
males which are interfperfed : partial of five petals, with
long claws ; the outer ones in the radius very large, the mid-
dle one divided almoft half way down into two divaricated,
linear-oblong, obtufe, (lightly falcate, equal lobes; lateral
ones rather Imaller, unequally cloven, falcate, one lobe three
or four times the length of the other ; inner ones much the
fmalleft, about equal to the petals of the difk, two-lobed
from their incurvation, their point ovato-lanceolate, acute,
channelled. 5tam. Filaments five, fimple, equal, fpreading,

3

W E JSi

the length of the fmaller petals longer than the petals in the
flowers of the diik ; anthers nearly ovate, two-lobed. Fiji.
Germen oval, comprelTed, ftriated, hairy ; ftyles two, ereft,
at length widely fpreading, tapering, their bafe conical,
winged with a membranous crifped border running down
from each ftyle ; ftigmas capitate, obtufe, at length fome-
what globular. Perk. Fruit almoft perfeftly fmooth, obo-
vate, nearly orbicular, compreffed, bordered, ftriated and
ftriped, entire at the edges. Seeds Vfio, uniform, emarginate,
crowned, in the terminal notch, with the conical, winged,
feffile bafe of the two deflexed permanent ftyles : dorfal ribs
three, flender, flightly elevated, converging at each end ;
marginal ones two, parallel : ftripes four, defcending from
the top of the feed between the ribs, obtufe, club-fhaped,
brownifh, not half the length of the feed : border convex,
terminating in a thin, flat, fharp edge, which is channelled
externally, emarginate at the bottom.

Eff. Ch. General involucrum none ; partial obfolete.
Flowers radiant. Calyx unequally toothed. Fruit nearly
orbicular, compreffed, notched, with three ribs, and four
fhort intermediate ftripes ; crowned with the ftyles, whofe
bafe is winged.

Obf. The want of a general involucrum, and the (light-
nefs of the partial one, added to the more orbicular form of
the feeds, and their fmoothnefs, appear to afford the chief
marks of diftinftion b.nween this genus and Heracleum,
(fee that article,) from which we fhould be rather unwilling
to feparate it, any more than Sphondylium.

The only fpecies mentioned by the author is,

I. W. Chorodanum. Long-leaved Wendia. Hoffm.
n. I. (Heracleum longifolium ; Marfch. a Bieberft. Taur.
Caucaf. V. I. 223, excluding all the fynonyms. ) — Native cf
the graffy declivities, furrounding the Caucafian mineral
waters of Nartfana, flowering in July. The root is bien-
nial. Leajlcts two pair with an odd one. General and par-
tial Involucrum fcarcely difcernible. Flo-Jters fnow-white ;
thofe of the radius remarkably unequal. Seeds when bruifed
agreeably fragrant. The author of the Flora Taurico-
Caucafica fays, he thinks this more akin to Heracleum Sphon-
dylium, with which Crantz and Lamarck unite it, than to
the anguJlifoUum of Jacquin, to which it is referred by Will-
denow. The latter, however, proves to be a different
plant, and it is probable that Willdenow had no knowledge
of Hoffmann's Wendia, any more than Jacquin, Crantz,
or Lamarck, all their obfervations referring to the real H.
longifolium of Fl. Auftriac. t. 174. — The fpecific name,
xri^oSciiov, is an old fynonym of the Sphondylium, or Cow-
parfnep.

WENDING, at Sea, a term for bringing a fliip's head
about, and feems only to be a corruption from ivinding.
They fay, Hoiu wends thejhip ?

WENDLANDIA, in Botany, owes its name, though
not its diftinftion as a genus to the late profeffor Willde-
now, who dedicated it to the author of that diftinAion, Mr.
John Chriftopher Wendland, curator of the royal garden at
Herrenhaufen, " a inoft acute botanift, and highly merito-
rious writer." His name appears in the Sertum Hannovera-
num of the very eminent profeffor Schrader, as the deh-
neator and engraver of the plates of that work. Thefe dif-
play great botanical (kill and attention — Willd. Sp. PI.
v. 2. 275. Purfh 252. (" Androphylax ; Wendland
Obf. 37.") — Clafs and order, Hexandrta Hexagynia.
Nat. Ord. Menifperma, Juff.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of fix leaves. Petals fix, fucculent. Styles
reclining. Capfules fix, of one cell. Seeds folitary.

I. W. populifolia. Poplar-leaved Wendlandia. Willd.

n. 1.

WEN

^i I. Purlh n. I. (Meoifpermum caroMnum ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 1468. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 4. 825. Ait. Hor:. Kew. v. 5.
;;.04. M. folio hederaceo ; Dill. Elth. 223. t. 178. An-
drophylax fcandens ; " Wendl. Obf. 38. Hort. 3.1.16."
Cocculus carolinus ; De Cand. Syil. v. I. 524.) — Found
m hedges and woods, from Carolina to Florida, flowering
in June and July. Stem fhrubby. Floivers very fmall,
greenifh-white. Berries red. Purjh. Hardy in the gar-
dens of Europe, where M. De Candolle fays it is very fre-
quent, flowering in Auguit. Stem twining, with round
branches, ftriated and downy when young. Leaves alter-
nate, heart-fhaped, or broadly ovate, entire, tipped with a
fmall point, rarely three-lobed ; an inch and a half or two
inches long, with three or five radiating ribs ; downy be-
neath. Footjlalks round, downy, about an inch in length.
Flower-Jialks axillary ; thofe of the male flowers, (which
are generally, not always, diftinA from the female,) race-
mofe, fimple ; thofe of the female three-cleft.

ProfelTor De Candolle has referred this plant to his genut
Cocculus, feparated from Menispermum, (fee that article,)
on account of the flowers being three-cKft, not four-cleft, to
nfe the Linnsan language ; and the ftamens only fix, inftead
of from fixteen to twenty. We cannot but hefitate to
adopt a genus fo circumllanced, and therefore (hall fay little
concerning the name, which its antiquity can hardly autho-
rize. We regret to perceive that our learned friend feems
inclined to make antiquity paramount to every other confi-
deration in nomenclature ; thus alTuming a principle fub-
verfive of all his own authority, which otherwife might be of
fufficient weight to render the molt important fervice to this
branch of botany. We hope he will foon perceive, that
fenfe and learning are as applicable to it as to any other
part of the fcience, and full as neceflary to preferve the
whole from ruin.

If the name of Cocculus fhould bo difearded, though the
genus be retained, ftill that of IVemUandia can fcarcely take
its place ; there being feveral others, good or bad, certain
or uncertain, which have a prior claim on the fcore of anti-
quity. With thefe we will not here encumber our paper.
The reader may find them in De Candolle.

WENDLING, in Geography, a town of Auftria ; 3
miles W. of Tauffkirchen.

WENDLINGEN, a town of Wurtemberg, on the river
Lauter, near the Neckar ; 12 miles S.E. of Stuttgart. N.
lat. 48°38'. E. long. 9° 27'.

WENDOVER, an ancient borough and market-town in
the hundred of Aylefbury, and county of Buckingham,
England, is fituated in Aylelbury Vale at the diftance of
24 miles S.E. by S. from the county-town, and 35 miles
N.W. by W. from London. It confifts principally of
brick houfes : the inhabitants derive their chief fupport
from lace-making ; but as a branch of the Grand Junction
Canal has been recently conveyed to the town, it will pro-
bably advance in importance. The earlieft charter for a
market at this place is dated in 1403. A fubfequent charter
of the year 1464 confirms the market, and grants two fairs,
which are ftill held. This borough fent members to parlia-
ment in the 28th of Edward I., and again in the ift and 2d
of Edward II. ; after which the privilege was difcontinucd
ior above three hundred years : when in the 21ft of James I.
Mr. Hakeville, a barrifter of Lincoln's-Inn, difcovered, by a
Icarch among the parliament writs in the tower, that mem-
bers had been formerly fent. A petition was accordingly
preferred for the reftoration of the ancient franchife ; and
though ftrenuoudy oppofed by the court, the commons
decided in favour of the borough. The right of eleftion is
vefted in all tlie houfekeepers not receiving alms. The

WEN

voters are not however more than 130, moll of whom
occupy the burgage houfes rent free. The celebrated
John Hampden reprefentcd this borough in five parliaments.
In the population return of the year iRii, Wendover is
ftated to contain 283 houfes, and 1481 inhabitants. The
parifti-church ftands a quarter of a mile from the town, but
contains nothing worthy of particular notice. Near the
town is a large refervoir of water, which covers about feventy
acres : it was made for the fupply of the canal. — Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. i. Buckinghamlhire ; by
J. Britton, and E. W. Brayley, 1801. Lyfons's Magna
Britannia, vol. i. Buckinghamihire, i8n6.

WENFORD, a town of Sweden, in Weil Bothnia ; 25
miles N.W. of Umea.

WENG, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 10 miles N.N.E.
of Rottenmann.

WENGIA, a town of Sweden, in Weft; Gothland ; 32
miles E.N.E. of Gothenburg.

WENHAM, a townlliip of Maffachufetts, in the county
of Eflex, containing 554 inhabitants ; 21 miles E.N.E. of
Bofton.

WENHOFDORF, a town of Auftria ; 5 miles N.W.
of Schwannallatt.

WENJAN, a town of Sweden, in Dalecarlia ; 44 miles
W.N.W. of Fahlun.

WENIGZELL, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 11 miles
W.S.W. of Fridberg.

WENINGS, a town of Germany, in the county of Ifen-
burg ; 4 miles N.W. of Birftein.

WENLOCK, GuEAT, or Much, a borough and mar-
ket-town in the hundred of Wenlock, and county of Salop,
England, is fituated 14 miks S.E. from Shrewftjury, and
147 miles N.W. from London. It is but poorly built, and
confifts of only two ftreets, but contains an ancient corpora-
tion, and is faid to have fent members to parliament, by a
writ from Edward IV. in I478, when it fent one member;
but now, jointly with Brofeley and Little Wenlock, it re-
turns two. The free burgeffes, who are the electors,
amount to one hundred and ten. By a charter from
Charles I., the corporation confifts of a bailiff^, recorder, two
juftices of the peace, and twelve capital burgeftes. The
whole number of the inhabitants, by the population return of
the year 1 8 1 1 , is enumerated as 2079, occupying 494 houfes.
Four annual fairs are held here ; and a weekly market
on Mondays. In the reign of Richard II., Wenlock was as
famous for copper-mines, as it is now for quarries of lime-
ftonc. The parifti-church bears fome marks of Norman
architeflure. A large round arch feparates the nave from
the chancel : at the weft end is a fqiiare tower, with cir-
cular headed windows, from which rifes a flender fpire of
wood, covered with lead. The interior is well fitted up : on
the right of the altar are fome niches ; but there is no monu-
ment of fufficient antiquity or fculpture to attraft the notice
of the antiquary. Wenlock owes its celebrity principally
to the remains of an ancient abbey, which was fubfequently
converted to a priory for Clugniac monks. This houfe was
' founded about the year 680, by St. Milburga, daughter of
Merward, and niece of Wulphere, king of Mercia : ftie pre-
fided as abbefs, and died about the year 716. The Danifti
ravagers are faid to have reduced this nunnery to a ftate of
utter defolation, in which it lay until Leofric was ap-
pointed to the earldom of Mercia. Soon after the year
1017, that earl, at the inftancc of his pious confort the
lady Godiva, reftored it ; but with fo Irale fuccefs, that,
according to Malmftjury, it was found an heap of ruins, by
Roger de Montgomerie, the firft Norman earl of Shrewfbury,
who rebuilt it in 1080, and filled it with monks from Clugni.

It

WEN

It is certain that none of the exifting remains are older than
his time ; and thefe are confined to the chapter-houfe ; for
not a vellige is now to be traced of the pillars of the choir,
which are known to have been circular, maflive, and Nor-
man. The pari(h-church was indeed rebuilding at, or juft
before the time when Malm(bury wrote ( about 1 1 27 ) ; for
it was on the occafion of commencing the building of the
new church, that the difcovery was made of the body of
St. Milburga, whofe facred relics are faid to have effefted
many miraculous cures. The parifh-church ftill retains
evident marks of having been erefted at a period confiftent
with this narrative : but no part of the priory, except what
has been already mentioned, can lay claim to any fuch anti-
quity. The remains of the patron faint appear to have
been transferred from the church of the parifh to that of the
priory, and perhaps fome new works erefted with the trea-
fures which poured in from their fortunate difcovery ; for
when Gervafe Paganel refolved to build a priory at Dudley,
which he appears to have done early in the reign of king
Stephen, " he placed his deed of gift with his own hand
upon the altar of St. Milburga of Wenlock, in prefence of
all the convent, to whofe proteftion he committed his new
foundation." Indeed the priory of St. Milburga was in
fuch high repute for fanftity of life and ftriftnefs of difci-
pline during this century, that in 1 164 it furnifhed a colony
of monks for the abbey of Paifley in Clydefdale. The
number of monks maintained within the priory was forty,
and the fame appears to have been about the original number
of ftalls in the chapter-houfe: though in 1374, when an
inquiry was inilituted into the ftate of the ahen priories, it
was found to contain only feventeen monks. The priory
was furrendered January 31. 1539-40, when a penfion of
80/. per annum was fettled upon the prior, John Creffage,
and the manor-houfe of Madeley was afligned for his refi-
dence. The revenues of the monaftery, according to Dug-
dale, amounted, at the timeof thediffolution, to 401/. oj-. ']\d.
The fcite was granted by Henry VIII. to one Auguflino
de AugulUnis, who fold it, in 1545, toThomas Lawley, efq.,
who made it his refidence, and in whofe defcendants it
continued, till Robert Bertie, efq., fon of his great-grand-
daughter Urfula Lawley, by fir Robert Bertie, K.B., fold
it to the family of Gage. Lord vifcount Gage ahenated it
to fir John Wynn, bart., who devifed this with his other
great eftates, to his kinfman fir Watkin Williams, bart.,
who thereupon affumed the name of the teftator : he was
grandfather of fir Watkin Williams Wynn, bart., the pre-
fent proprietor of thefe venerable ruins.

Few of our Enghlh monaitic remains, perhaps, ar^ capa-
ble of affording more inftruftion and amufement to the
lovers of ecclefiallical architefture, than thofe of Wenlock.
The ruins are feated in a low marfhy bottom, fouthward of
the ancient borough, and adjoining the eaft end of the parifh
church-yard. The chief entrance to the monaftery, from
the town, was by a gate on the north fide of the precinft,
which appears to have been flanked with two plain fquare
towers, one of which is ftanding. The moll prominent
features of the prefent buildings, are the lofty and extenfive
remains of the priory church, which have happily efcaped
the ravages of time. From thefe it is apparent that this
facred edifice partook of the mixed characters of the round
and the pointed arch. Its magnificence fully correfponded
with the opulence of the foundation, and was not furpaffed
by many of the ftately churches of the mitred abbeys. The
plan of the church was cruciform, with a central tower,
but probably without towers at the weft end. The ex-
treme length was 401 feet; that of the tranfept 166 ; the
naye ij6 ; the fpace under the fteeple 39 ; the choir 156 ;

WEN

and the chapel of the Virgin Mary 48. A fragment of
the fouth angle of th"? weft front is ornamented with three
tiers of fmall arches ; a window below is finifhed with a
plain round arch. The gieat weft window is now no more,
but from the remains of one of its impofts, which is a taper-
cluftered pilafter, bound midway with rings, its form may
be conjedured to have confifted of three lof^ty lancet arches.
Three pointed arches on the fouth fide of the nave are per-
feft, and reft on ftrong oftagonal pillars with plain capitals.
Over thefe commences a fecond divifion, feparated by an
horizontal ftring-courfe ; this comprifes a beautiful trifo-
rium, or open gallery, formed bv lancet arches in couplets.
Above thefe is a third co;ipartment, from which rifes a
feries of pointed clereftory v indows, now mutilated, but
evidently in the fame ftyle with the arches of the gallery
beneath. A confiderable fragment of the north, and the
whole of the fouth wing of the traniopt are ftanding', both
in a ftyle coeva! with tlie nave. The latter, a very beautiful
ruin, is compoled of three pointed arches on each fide, reft-
ing on cluftered columns, with plain but well-executed
capitals. The bafes of the four grand piers, which fup-
ported the fteeple over the interfeftion of the nave, tranfept,
and choir, may be traced neariy buried in rubbiih ; and
evident veftiges of cluftered fhafts indicate that they fuf-
tained pointed arches. Of the choir, f-.-arcely a wreck re-
mains, yet within thefe few years, the lower members of
fix pillars, of plain and maffy Norman architefture, might
be difcerned. Further caftward appears the foundation of
the Virgin Mary's chapel, confifting of excellent mafonry,
with feveral deep bafement mouldings. On the eaftern fide
of the quadrangle was the chapter-houfe, a parallelogram
of fixty feet by thirty, of which a very large portion is
ftanding ; and a more rare difplay of Norman architefture
of the eleventh century can hardly be produced. The
north fide is almoft entire. A few paces fouth-eaftward of
the chapter-houfe are the remains of a fecond quadrangle,
the buildings of which, on two fides, are nearly entire.
Thofe on the eaftern fide, it is prefumed, belonged to the
lodge of the prior, and, at the diflblution, were preferved
for a manfion-houfe by the firft lay poffeflbrs of the monaf-
tery. This coiififts of a long range of two ftories, not very
lofty, with a highly pitched and tiled roof. Along the
whole front runs an elegant cloifter, 100 feet in extent,
compofed of a feries of narrow arches in couplets, with
trefoil heads, and ftrengthened at frequent intervals with
flender fhelving buttrefles. The eaftern front of the houfe
is adorned with ranges of rather fingular windows, which
have acute triangular heads, and are arranged in couplets
united by very flender buttreffes. — Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. xiii. Shroplhire ; by R. Rylance, 181 1. Ar-
chiteftural Antiquities of Great Britain, vol. iv. ; by
J. Britton, F.S.A. 1814.

Wenlock, or Winlock, a town of Vermont ; 90 miles
N. of Windfor.

Wenlock, Little, a town of England, in Shropfhire ;
8 miles N. of Much Wenlock.

WENMAN, one of the Gallipago iflands, in the Paci-
fic Ocean.

WENNE, a river of Weftphalia, which runs into the
Roer, 3 miles below Everfberg.

WENNEL, a river of North Wales, which runs into
the Conway, near Llanrwft.

WENNER Lake, thelargeft lake of Sweden, in Weft
Gothland ; nearly 90 miles long, and 40 wide. This lake
is Ilored with great plenty of fifh. Twenty-four rivers
empty themfelves into the W^enner lake, yet none flows out
of it but the large river called Gotha Elbe, by which out-
let

W E N

let it difcharges itfelf into the fea. There are feveral iflands
in this lake. In the year 1744, the diet refolved to make
the pafTage from the Wenner lake and the Gotha Elbe to
Gotheborg, and from thence to Orebro, navigable. See
Canal of Trolhatta.

WENNERSBORG, a town of Sweden, in Well
Gothland, at the fouth-weft extremity of Wenner lake.
This town was once a fortrefs, but at prefent an open
town. It is the ftaple for all the iron fent from the province
of Warmeland to Gotheborg ; 15 miles E. of Uddevalla.
N. lat. 58° 26'. E. long. 12° 9'.

WENOOA-ETTE. See Otakootaia.

WENSBECK, a river of England, which rifes in
Northumberland, paffes by Morpeth, and runs into the
German fea, N. lat. 35° 13'.

WENSYSSEL, a town of North Jutland, anciently
the fee of a bifhop, removed to Aalborg ; 18 miles N.W.
of Aalborg.

WENT, a river of England, in the county of York,
which runs into the Don.

WENTHUSEN, a town of Weftphalia, inthebifhop-
ric of Hildeftieim ; 5 miles E. of Hildefheim.

WENTSCHEN, a river of Pruflia, which forms a
communication between lake Spirding and lake Wentfchen.
— Alfo, a lake of Pruflia ; 20 miles S.E. of Bartenftein.

WENTSUM, a river of Norfolk, which runs into the
Yare, below Norwich.

WENTWORTH, Thomas, in Biography, Earl of
Strafford, was born at London in 1593, and having finilhed
his education at St. John's college, Cambridge, travelled
abroad, and continued more than a year in France. Soon
after his return he was knighted, and married the eldell daugh-
ter of Francis Clifford, earl of Cumberland. By the death
of his father in 1614, he became pofFeifed of a patrimony
of 6000/. a year, which was confiderably incumbered by a
provifion for feven brothers and four fitters, with the title of
a baronet. Upon his entrance into public life he was nomi-
nated Cuftos Rotulorum of the Weft Riding of Yorkfliire.
In 1 62 1 he was returned as a member of parliament
for the county of York, and during two feflions con-
dufted himfelf with circumfpeftion and moderation. In op-
pofition to the king's affumption of unwarrantable authori-
ty, and of his aflertion that the privileges of the commons
were enjoyed merely by his permiflion, Wentworth urged
the houfe explicitly to declare that thefe privileges were their
right by inheritance. In 1622 he loft his wife, and in 1625
contradled a fecond marriage with a daughter of Holies,
earl of Clare, a young lady diftinguifhed for beauty and ac-
comphfhments ; and in this year he was returned for his
county to the firft parliament of Charles I. At this time
he was a zealous oppofcr of the arbitrary meafures that
marked the commencement of this unfortunate reign ; but
as he was deemed a perfon of confiderable importance and in-
fluence, the minifter thought proper to make efforts for con-
ciliating his attachment and fupport. As he was prevented
from obtaining a feat in the new parliament which was con-
voked, by being nominated fheriff in his county, he filently
fubmitted to this arbitrary aft, and took no part in the con-
tention that fubfifted between the court and the houfe of
commons. Buckingham, the tenure of whofe power was
becoming precarious, made overtures to Wentworth, and
though they parted upon the beft terms after a conference, he
received a mandate for refigning the office of Cuftos Rotu-
lorum to fir John Savile, whom he had fucceeded on his dif-
miffion. This conduft on the part of the favourite was at-
tended with fome aggravating circumftances, and very much
incenfed him ; but he ftill expreffed fentiments of un-

Vol. XXXVIII.

WEN

changed loyalty. Neverthelefs he refufed to pay his con-
tribution to the forced loan impofed without the interven-
tion of parliament, and for his oppofition to the meafure
he was firft imprifoned in the Marfhalfea, and afterwards
confined to a range of two miles round the town of Dart-
ford. When a new parliament was fummoned, in 1628,
this reftriftion terminated, and he took his feat for York-
fhire. In this feafon of competition between the advocates
of an arbitrary and thofe of a limited monarchy, Wentworth
took a decided and confpicuous part with perfons of the
latter defcription, and was one of the moft aftive promoters
of the famous Petition of Right. By the meafures which
he then adopted and purfued, he fhewed that he was worthy
the purchafe of the crown, nor had he virtue fufficient to
withftand the temptations by which he was affailed.
Thefe were a peerage, and future promotion to the office
of prefident of the council of York, or court of the north.
He agreed to the propofed terms; and in July 1628 was
created baron Wentworth, Newmarfh, and Overfley, by a
patent gratifying his vanity by recognizing his claim to an
alliance with the blood-royal, through Margaret, grand-
mother of Henry VII, Soon after he was advanced to the
dignity of a vifcount, admitted to the privy -council, and on
the refignation of lord Scrope nominated lord-prefident of
the north, with enlarged jurifdiftion and powers, the exer-
cife of which afterwards exceeded or direftly violated the
common law, and overwhelmed the country with opprefTion
and arbitrary dominion. From this time Wentworth may
be regarded as a minifter and ftatefman, whofe influence at
court was in a little while freed from controul by the aflafTm-
ation of Buckingham, and in a popular affembly by the dif-
folution of parliament. Devoted to the faithful and diligent
fervice of the crown, he obtained the confidence and fup-
port of government ; and thus elevated, he manifefted a
haughtinefs and imperioufnefs of temper which augmented
the unpopularity refulting from a defertion of his former
principles and party. Having cultivated an intimate
friendfhip with archbifhop Laud, who had fucceeded Buck-
ingham in his influence over the king's mind, he was re-
commended by this prelate for the direftion of affairs in Ire-
land ; the pecuhar circumftances of which were thought to
require the vigour and decifion of Wentworth's charafter.
Accordingly his commifTion as lord-deputy of Ireland was
dated in 1632, though he did not remove to that country
till July in the foUownig year. The objefts which he pro-
pofed in the adminiftration of that kingdom were to render
the royal authority uncontrollable, to improve the revenues,
fo as to render them adequate to its own expenditure, and to
afford a furplus for the Englifh treafury, and upon the
whole, to derive from it every poffible advantage to the mo-
narchy. He ftipulated alfo for the uncontrolled exercife of
his own authority . Of the various meafures which he pur-
fued in his government of Ireland, our Hmits will not allow
us to give a minute and correft detail ; but for an account of
thefe we muft refer to the hiftory of that period. His talents
and induftry were unqueftionable, and he certainly improved
the ftate of the country in a variety of refpefts ; but in ac-
complifhing fome beneficial purpofes he was arbitrary and
tyrannical, and chargeable with fevere and vindiftive pro-
ceedings, which made him unpopular both there and in Eng-
land ; and which probably induced the king to mortify him
by refufing his requeft of an earldom. In 1636 he vifited the
Englifh court, and made a fpeech before the king and the
committee for Irifli affairs, in which he gave a minute detail
of his various meafures by which he liad promoted the
good of that kingdom and the intereft of his maieily,
artfully apologizing ^t the fame time for the infirmities of
Q q his

WEN

his temper. As a farther evidence of his merits with the
«ourt, he took notice of his zeal in fupporting the impofi-
tion of fhip-money in the exercife of his ofEce as prelident
of the council of York ; and thus he prepared the way for
renewing his petition for an earldom, which, notwithftand-
ing his earneftnefs to obtain it, was again refufed. Thus
mortified, he refumed his government with ample powers,
and purfued meafures fimilar to thofe which had given fo
great offence. His indefatigable application to bufmefs, and
the irritation occafioned by the complaints and clamours of
thofe who had reafon to be diffatisfied with his conduft,fub-
jeded him to fome fevere paroxyfms of the gout. In 1637
he advifed the king not to engage in a war with Spain, and
he thus incurred the lafting enmity of the queen, who wifhed
for it, as favourable to the interell of France. In the
court conteft between England and Scotland, Wentworth
was both an advifer and aftor. After the failure of the
king's firft expedition againft Scotland, he fent for the lord-
deputy of Ireland, who arrived in November 1639. He
advifed the immediate renewal of hoftilities, and the fum-
moning of a parliament to provide fupplies ; and in order to
fecure his continued attachment and affiftance, he obtained
the earldom which he had once and again fought in vain.
In January 1640 he was created earl of Strafford, decorated
with the garter, and his ftyle of lord-deputy of Ireland was
changed into that of lord-lieutenant, which had been dor-
mant from the time of the earl of Effex. Upon his return
to Ireland he obtained four fubfidies, and levied 8000 men
for reinforcing the royal army. Afterwards the office of
commander-in-chief devolved upon him ; but though the
Scots prevailed, and the northern counties were furrendered
to the enemy, Strafford ftill recommended ftrong and arbi-
trary meafures. His credit at court, however, was . now
declining, and the king was obhged by his neceffities to call
a parliament, which proved eventually to be the " long par-
liament." Strafford, perceiving his own perilous lituation,
requefted leave to retire to his government ; but the king
refufed to comply, and encouraged him by a folemn pro-
mife that " not a hair of his head fhould be touched by the
parliament." The fequel fhewed that Strafford's appre-
henfions were well-founded; for on November the i8th,
1640, Pym, in the name of the commons of England, ap-
peared with the charge of high treafon at the bar of the
houfe of lords ; and Strafford was fequeftered from parha-
ment and imprifoned. The fallen miniller was now become
the objeftof accufation in the three kingdoms ; but the de-
fertion and hatred of Ireland moft deeply affefted him. The
articles of accufation again It him were at firft nine, but in
the courfe of three months they were multipUed into twenty-
eight. The principal objeft of his accufer was to fix upon
him the charge of " having attempted to fubvert the funda-
mental laws of the country." Againll this charge he de-
fended himfelf with wonderful felf-poffeffion and powers of
reafoning. It became neceffary, therefore, to change the
original impeachment into the arbitrary mode of proceed-
ing by a bill of attainder, in purfuing which procefs it was
only neceffary to pafs an enaftment of his having been
guilty of high treafon, and having incurred its punifhment.
The bill paffed the houfe with no more than fifty -nine diffen-
tient voices ; but among thefe were thofe of fome of the
firmeft; friends of the legal liberty of their country, who
thought the principles of juftice fhamefully violated ; and in
the houfe of lords the bill was carried more by intimidation
than conviftion. Hopes were flill entertained from the
king's promife, and his attachment to a faithful fervant.
But firmnefs was not one of the king's diftinguifhing virtues.
His interference to flop the progrefs of the bill in the houfe

W E O

>

of lords had failed ; and he even recurred to the plea of con -
fcientious fcruples. But his counfellors urged the danger of
refilling the torrent of popular fury ; the prelates, Juxon
excepted, afted the part of cafuifts ; and Strafford himfelf
terminated the ftruggle by a letter, in which he perfuaded
the king for his own fafety to ratify the bill, thus concluding
it, " my confent ihall more acquit you to God than all the
world can do befides. To a wilhng man there is no in-
jury." Love of life, however, feems to have induced him
to have placed confidence in the king's promifes : for when
fecretary Carleton informed him of his majefty's final com-
pliance with his folicitations, he hfted up his eyes to heaven,
and with his hand on his heart, exclaimed, "'jPut not your
truft in princes, nor in the fons of men ; for in them there
is no falvation !" Strafford, between his condemnation and
execution, employed himfelf in adminiftering confolation
and advice to his diftreffed family, and making interell for
their proteftion. On the final day, as he was quitting the
tower, he looked up to the windows of Laud's apartment,
and obtaining a view of him, received his fervent blefling,
which he returned with " farewell my lord ! God proteft
your innocence !" At the fcaffold he made an addrefs to
the people, exprelling entire refignation to his fate, and
afferting the good intention of his aftions, however they
might have been mifreprefented ; and then, taking leave of
his accompanying friends, with a pathetic recoUeftion of his
widowed wife and orphan children, he calmly laid his head
on the block, and giving a fignal, received the fingle ftroke
that deprived him of life. He fell in the forty -ninth year of
his age, lamented by fome, admired perhaps by more, and
leaving a memorable, though not a fpotlefs name. The
parliament, not long after his death, mitigated the fentence
as far as it affefted his children ; and in the fucceeding
reign his attainder was reverfed, and his heir was reftored to
his eftate and honours." Lord Strafford was thrice mar-
ried, and left an only fon and feveral daughters. Biog.
Brit. Whitelock's Mem. The Hiftories of the Period.

Wentworth, in Geography, a townfhip of England,
in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, with about 1000 in-
habitants ; near it is Wentworth-Houfe, a feat of earl Fitz-
william ; 5 miles N.W. of Rotheram. — Alfo, a townfhip
of New Hampfhire, in the county of Grafton, containing ■
645 inhabitants ; 3 miles S.E. of Oxford.

WENTZBURG, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ;
40 miles E. of Gnefna.

WEOBLEY, an ancient borough and market-town
in the hundred of Stretford, and county of Hereford,
England, is fituated 1 1 miles N.W. by N. from the city
of Hereford, and 141 miles N.W. by W. from Lon-
don. Anciently it formed part of the barony of the
Lacies, from whom, by a female, it was conveyed in mar-
riage to the Verdons, who, by that alliance, were for fome
time hereditary conftables of Ireland. It afterwards paffed
through various families to the Devereux, earls of Effex,
and formed their principal lordfhip. On the fouth fide of
the town ftood an old caftle, which was taken from the
emprefs Maud by king Stephen. Leland mentions it as
" a goodly and fine liuilding, but fomewhat in decay."
Weobly fent members to all the feven parhaments of Ed-
ward I. ; the privilege was afterwards difcontinued till the
year 1640, when it was reftored by order of the houfe of
commons. The right of voting is poffeffed by the owners
of the ancient burgage houfes, refident at the time of elec-
tion, or by the inhabitants of fuch houfes who have been
refident forty days. The number of voters is about forty-
five : the returning officers are the conftables, in whom the
government of the town is vefted. The church is fpacious,

and

W E R

and contains fome ancient monumental chapels, in which
fome of the Verdon family appear to have been interred.
The population of the parifh, as returned under the aft of
1811, amounted to 626; the number of houfes to 160.
A fmall weekly market is held on Tliurfdays ; and here are
two annual fairs. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vi.
Herefordlhire, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley, 1805.

WEPFER, John-James, in Biography, an eminent
phyfician, was born in 1620 at Schaffhaufen, educated at
Strafburg and Bafil, and after vifits to feveral univerfities
in Italy, took the degree of doctor at Bafil, and fettled in
his native place. His reputation was extenfive in Switzer-
land and Germany, and he attained, by his diffeftions and
experiments, a high rank among thofe who have contributed
to improve medical fcience. In 1658 he publilhed a cele-
brated work, entitled " Obfervationes Anatomicae ex Cada-
veribus eorum quos fuftulit Apoplexia, cum Exercitatione
de ejus loco affefto," 8vo., often reprinted, and in fome
editions with the title " Hiltoria Apoplefticarum." In his
" De dubiis Anatomicis Epiftola," 1664, 8vo., he aflerts
the entire glandular ftrufture of the liver, prior to Malpighi.
Another valuable work is entitled " Cicutae Aquaticae Hif-
toria et Noxae," 1679, 4to.

His conftitution was injured by attendance at an advanced
age on the duke of Wurtemburg, and the Imperial army
under his command ; and he was carried off by a dropfy in
1695. His papers were publifhed by two of his grandfons,
in a work entitled " Obfervationes Medico-Prafticae de
afFeftibus Capitis internis et externis," 1727, 4to. To the
Ephemerides Naturae Curioforum, of which fociety he was a
member, he communicated feveral valuable papers. Haller.
Eloy.

WEPOLON, in Zoology, the Ceylonefe name of an Eaft
Indian ferpent, of a very long and flender body, and in fome
degree refembling a piece of cane.

WERAY, in Geography, a river of Wales, which runs
into the Irifh fea, 7 miles S. of Aberyftwith.

WERBEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Old Mark,
at the conflux of the Havel and the Elbe. This town was
built by Henry the Fowler, on the ruins of the ancient Caf-
tellum Vari ; 33 miles N.N.W. of Brandenburg. N. lat.
52° 53'. E. long. 29° 44'. — Alfo, a town of Pomerania ;
9 miles S.S.W. of Stargard.

WERBERG, a town of Weftphalia, in the bifhopric
of Fulda ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Fulda.

WERBKA, a town of Ruffian Poland, in the palatinate
of Braclaw ; 36 miles S. of Braclaw.

WERD, a town of Carinthia, on a lake to which it
gives name ; 8 miles W. of Clagenfurt.

WERDA, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland ; 6 miles
N.E. of Oelnitz.

WERDAU, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzge-
birg ; 6 miles W. of Zwickau.

WERDEL, St., a town of France, in the department
of the Sorre ; 40 miles S.E. of Treves. N. lat. 49° 30'.
E. long. 7° 11'.

WERDEN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Mark, on the Roer ; 1 1 miles N.E. of Duffeldorp. N. lat.
51"= 18'. E. long. 6° 55'.

WERDENA, a town of Pruffian Lithuania ; 18 miles
N.N.W. of Tilfit.

WERDENBERG, a town of Switzerland, and capital
of a bailiwick, in the canton of Glarus, which was formerly
governed by counts of its own, who were at one time very
powerful. In the year 1485, it was purchafed by the can-

W E R

ton of Lucerne ; and, after changfing owners, in the years
1493 and 1498, was purchafed by the canton of Glarus, in
the year 15 19, and has remained ever fince annexed to that
canton, though the inhabitants have feveral times been mu-
tinous and revoked. The town is fortified ; 1 1 miles S.S.E.
of Appenzell.

WERDENFELS, a town and caftle of Bavaria, which
gives name to a county in the bifliopric of Freyfing ; 20
miles S. of Weilhaim.

WERDER, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle
Mark, on an ifland formed by the Havel ; 4 miles W. of
Potzdam — Alfo, a diftrift; of Pomerania, between the two
branches of the Viftula, about 20 miles long, and 1 2 in its
mean breadth.

WERDING, a town of Auftria ; 4 miles N.N.W. of
Schvvannaftadt.

WERDT, or Wert. See Weert.

WERE, or Wear, a river of England, which rifes in
Northumberland, crofTes the county of Durham, and runs
into the fea at Sunderland ; anciently called " Vedra."

Were, a river of England, which rifes near Warminfter,
in Wiltfhire, and runs into the Avon, near Trowbridge.

Were. See Weir.

Were, IVera, in our old Latu-Books, fignifies as much
as xjlimatio capitis, or prettum hominis ; that is, fo much as
was anciently paid for killing a man.

When fuch crimes were punifhed with pecuniary mulfts,
not death, the price was fet on every man's head, according
to his condition and quality. It^ere fuum, id eft, pretium
fun redemplionis, his ranfom.

WERELADA, among our Saxon anceftors, the deny-
ing of a homicide on oath, in or4er to be quit of the fine,
or forfeiture, called luere.

Where a man was flain, the price at which he was valued
was to be paid to the king, and his relations : for, in the
time of the Saxons, the kilhng of a man was not punilhed
by death, but by a pecuniary mulft, called luera.

If the party denied the faft, he was to purge himfelf, by
the oaths of feveral perfons, according to his degree and
quality. If the guilt amounted to four pounds, he was to
have eighteen jurors on his father's fide, and four on his
mother's : if to twenty-four pounds, he was to have fixty
jurors ; and this was called -werelada. Homicidium lucra
folniatur, aut tvcrelada negetur.

WEREGILD, Weregeld, in our Ancimt Cujloms, the
price of a man's head : pretium feu valor hominis occiji, homi-
cidii pretium ; which was paid partly to the king for the lofs
of his fubjeft, partly to the lord whofe vaflal he was, and
partly to the next of kin.

This was a cuftom derived to us, in common with other
northern nations, from our anceftors, the ancient Germans;
among whom, according to Tacitus (De Mor. Germ,
cap. 21.), luitur homicidium certo armentorum ac pecorum
numero ; recipitque fatisfaSionem uninierfa damus.

In the fame manner, by the Irifti brehon law, in cafe of
murder, the brehon, or judge, compounded between the
murderer and the friends of the deceafed, who profecuted
him, by caufing the malefaftor to give unto them, or to the
child or wife of him that was (lain, a recompence, which
they called eriach. And thus we find in our Saxon laws,
particularly thofe of king Athelftan, the feveral weregilds
for homicide, eftablifhed in progreffive order, from the
death of the ceorl, or peafant, up to that of the king him-
felf. And in the laws of king Henry I. we have an account
what other offences were then redeemable by weregild, and
what were i^ot fo. The procefs called appeal had probably
Q q 2 its

W E R

its rife in the times when weregild was in ufe. Blackft.
Comm. vol. iv.

The weregild of an archbilhop, and of an earl, was
15,000 thrifmas ; that of a bifhop, or alderman, 8000 ; that
of a general, or governor, 4000 ; that of a prieft, or thane,
2000 ; that of a king, 30,000 : half was to be paid to his
kindred, and the other half to the public. The weregild
of a ceorl was 266 thrifmas.

WEREMOUTH, Bishop's, in Geography, aparifhof
England, in the county of Durham, on the river Were, with
7060 inhabitants; 12 miles N.N.E. of Durham. This
parifh is now incorporated in the town of Sunderland. See
Sunderland.

Weremouth, Monk's, a parifh of England, in the county
of Durham, at the mouth of the river Were, oppofite Sunder-
land, with 5355 inhabitants.

WE REN, a river of Wurzburg, which runs into the
Maine, 6 miles below Carolftadt.

WERFEN, a town and fortrefs of the archbifhopric of
Salzburg, on the Salza, with a callle, memorable for hav-
ing been the retreat of the archbifhop of Salzburg, whom
the duke of Bavaria had driven from his capital for having
married ; 15 miles N.W. of Radftadt.

WERGELA, or Guergela, a town of Africa, in
Biledulgerid ; 300 miles S. of Algiers. N. lat. 31° 45'.
E. long. 4''' 10'.

WERINAMA, a town on the fouth coaft of the ifland
of Ceram. S. lat. 3° 15'. E. long. 130° iS'.

WE RING, or WoRiNGEN, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer ; 2 miles S. of Zons.

WERK. SeeWARK.

WERL, a town of the duchy of Weftphaha ; 13 miles
W.S.W. of Lippftadt. N. lat. 51° 33'. E. long. 7° 58'.

WERM, or Worm, a river of France, which runs into
the Roer, near Waflembcrg.

WERMSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Leipfic ; 36 miles N.W. of Drefden. — Alfo, a town of
Bavaria, in the principality of Aichftatt ; 4 miles N. of
Aichftatt.

WERNBERG, a town of Bavaria; 3 miles N. of
Pfreimbt.

WERNBURG, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Neuftadt ; 3 miles N.E. of Rahnis.

WERNE, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of
Munfter; 19 miles S. of Munller. N. lat. 51° 38'. E.
long. 7= 48'. _^

WERNECK, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg, on
the Weren ; 5 miles S.W. of Schweinfurt.

WERNER, Abraham Gottlob, in Biography, a cele-
brated mineralogift, and profeffor of mineralogy at Freyburg,
in Saxony, was born on the 25th of September 1750. His
father was infpeftor of an iron-work in Upper Lufatia,
and at an early period intended to educate his fon for the
fame employment. The firft fcanty rudiments of his edu-
cation were received at a fchool at Bunfleur. He was after-
wards fent to the Mineralogical Academy at Freyburg, and'
from thence to the univerfity of Leipfic, where he applied
himfelf to the ftudy of natural hiftory and jurifprudence ;
but the former he found more attraftive, and it was here
that he employed himfelf in defining the external charafters
of minerals, for which he was endowed by nature with a
Angular quicknefs of perception. At this place, he pub-
Lftied, in 1774, his work on the external charafters of mine-
rals, which was confidered as the bafis of his oryftognoftic
or mineralogiclal fyftem. ( See Systems of Mineralogy. )
It has been tranflated into various languages, but Werner

W E R

could never be perfuaded to publifh a new and enlarged edi-
tion. " In this work," fays profeflbr Jamefon, " he gave the
firft example of the true method of defcribing mineral fpe-
cies. In thefe defcriptions, all the charafters prefented by
the fpecies fuite are detailed with a certain degree of mi-
nutenefs, and in a determinate order ; fo that we have a com-
plete pifture of it, and are furnifhed with charafters that
diftinguifh it from all known fpecies, and from every mine-
ral that may hereafter be difcovered." It cannot be denied,
that previous to this time, the defcriptive language of mine-
ralogifts had been much too indefinite to convey accurate
information, or to enable mineralogifts in diftant countries
to underlland each other. Soon after this publication, Wer-
ner was invited to have the care of the cabinet of natural
hiftory at Freyburg, and to read leftures on mineralogy.

This fituation, fo well fuited to the peculiar ftudies in
which he was engaged, offered abundant materials for the
exercife of his talent for obfervation and claflification. In
1780 he publifhed the firft part of a tranflation of Cron-
ttedt's Mineralogy. In his annotations on this work, he
gave the firft fltetch of his mineralogical fyftem, and pub-
lifhed many defcriptions in conformity with the methods
propofed in his treatife on external charafters. In this fyf-
tem, we find earthy minerals divided into four genera, filice-
ous, argillaceous, talcaceous, and calcareous ; and thefe fub-
divided into fpecies, fub-fpecies, and kinds.

In 1 79 1 he publidied a catalogue of the great mineral
colkftion of Pabft Von Obaine, captain-general of the
Saxon mines. In this work, he gave a tabular view of the
whole mineralogical fyftem, in which the arrangement of
genus, fpecies, fub-fpecies, and kinds, is continued ; feveral
additions aie made to the external charafters, and the ar-
rangement of the fpecies is in fome initances changed,
owing to more extended obfervations. Werner, befides his
leftures on mineralogy, alfo delivered leftures on the art of
mining, which he is faid to have rendered extremely intelli-
gible by his fimplification of the machinery, and by draw-
ings and figures. His fyftem of geognofy, or geology,
was dehvered in his leftures, but never publifhed by himfelf.
(For fome account of this fyitem, fee Geology, and Sys-
tems of Geology.) " In lefturing," fays a writer in the Lite-
rary Gazette of Leipfic, " he ufed to abandon himfelf ( as he
was accuftomed to fay) to his mineralogical name, and
when his fpirit hovered over the waters and the ftrata, he
often became animated with lofty enthufiafm." He caufed
his leftures to be written out by his approved fcholars, and
by revifing them himfelf made them his own in manufcript.
Many parts of thefe leftures have been pubHfhed in differ-
ent countries by his pupils. Werner alfo publifhed fome
mineralogical papers in the Miner's Journal ; and in 1791
appeared his new theory of the formation of metallic veins.
This work was tranflated into French by DaubuifFon, and
into Englifh in 1809.

Werner was appointed counfellor of the mines in Saxony
in 1792, and had a great Ihare in the direftion of the Mi-
neralogical Academy, and in the adminiftration for public
works.

The cabinet of minerals collefted by Werner was un-
rivalled for its completenefs and arrangement, confifting of
loo.cco fpecimens. This he fold for 40,000 crowns, referv-
ing the intereft of 33,000 as an annuity to himfelf and his
fifter, who had no chddren ; and at her death, to be paid an- .
nually to the Mineralogical Academy of Freyburg.

This iUuftrious mineralogift died Auguft 1817, greatly
regretted by all thofe wlio were perfonally acquainted with
him, to whom he was endeared by the Cmplicity of his

manners.

WERNER.

maimers, the cheerfulnefs and benevolence of his difpofition,
his integrity and difinterefted devotion to fcience. Werner
was never married. His favourite purfuit next to mineralogy-
appears to have been the ftudy of antiquities, one branch
of it, the numifmatology of the ancients, had, during the laft
eight years of his life, engaged much of his attention ; and
he had formed a coUeftion of 6000 Greek and Roman
coins, which enabled him to make refearches into the differ-
ent mixtures of the metals and the arts of adulteration ; and
to make tlie fubjeft more clear, he arranged entire feries of
falfe coins. He was alfo attached to the ftudy of medicine,
and had made a humorous table of difeafes from infancy to
old age ; and among his peculiarities may be mentioned his
defire of offering medical advice to his friends, and his habit
of judging of his own fituation, which he often thought
precarious. He was greatly averfe to the ufe of vinegar
and milk, but a determined beef-eater : in other refpefts he
lived temperately, drank but little wine, and was anxioufly
careful about warm-clothing and rooms, a caution not well
fuited to the habits of a geologift. Werner had travelled
little from his own country ; his vifit to Paris appears to
have been the only diilant excurfion he ever made from
Saxony.

Werner mayjuillybe faid to have contributed more to
fextend and improve the praftical knowledge of mineralogy,
than any one who had preceded him. His method of ob-
ferving and defcribing the external appearances of minerals,
has been introduced by his pupils, with fome modifications,
into various parts of the world, and has given a new and
more definite form to the fcience. It has indeed been ob-
jefted to the method of Werner, that confifting principally
in the clafTification of minerals according to their external
charaSers ; and in tlie defcription and arrangement of thefe
charaAers, it may be regarded rather as an empiric art, than
a fcience. But in the mineral kingdom thofe definite
characters are wanting, which ferve to ditlinguifh the genera
and fpecics in the other departments of natural hiftory ; and
he who can but relieve this difficulty, and enable the ftudent
moft eafily to gain a knowledge of minerals under all thefe
varying forms, is entitled to the highefl praife. This palm
may be pre-eminently given to Werner ; and whoever has
juftly appreciated his labours will never ftop to inquire,
whether his method fliould rank among the fciences or the
arts. Mr. Kirwan was the firft who introduced a know-
ledge of the Wernerian mineralogy into this country ; but
for a more complete knowledge of it, we are indebted to
profeffor Jamefon, in his Syftem of Mineralogy, firft pub-
liflied in 1804, and in the fecond edition of 1817.

As a geologift, we cannot allow to Werner the fame de-
gree of immixed praife. His fy ftem of geognofie was formed
on obfervations made on a very limited portion of the
earth's furface in his own vicinity ; and he has laid down a
fucceflion of rock-formations as univerfally fpread over the
globe, becaufe thefe rocks occurred in this order in a par-
ticular part of Saxony, oubfequent obfervations have,
however, demonftrated, that even at a little diftance from
Freyburg, many of the fuppofed univerfal rock-formations
are not to be found, and that other rocks fupply their
place. The reader may confult a defcription of the Saxon
Erzgebirge by M. Bonnard, in the Journal des Mines for
1815, to convince himfelf of this. It is, we confider, for-
tunate for Mr. Werner's fame as a geologift, that no work
of his on the fubjeft has appeared, except the " New
Theory of Veins." This for fome time enjoyed a certain de-
gree of celebrity from the name of the author ; but the new
information which it contains is very fcanty, and the theory
which it fupports fo inadequate to explain the phenomena,

9

and fo much at variance with fafts, that it was in a great
part abandoned by many of the warm admirers of Werner,
even fome years before his death. It will now fcarcely
meet with a fupporter among thofe who have any praftical
knowledge of mineral-veins. Mr. Werner contended for
the aqueous formation of almoft every kind of rock even
pumice-ftone and obfidian he maintained were the produfts
of water ; and when he was repeatedly invited to vifit the vol-
canic diftrifts of Italy, and the ancient volcanoes of France
he declined an examination which might have greatly en-
dangered his own theory. The followers of Werner as a
geologift reft his fame not on his local obfervations, but on
his attempt to generahze his obfervations, in order to form
a theory which fhould explain the ftrufture of the earth and
the mode of its formation. Indeed fuch was their admira-
tion, that they would not admit his fyftem to be a theory,
but confidered it as an expofition of demonftrated fafts.
" This great geognoft," fays Mr. Jamefon, " after many
years of the moft arduous inveftigations, condufted with an
accuracy and acutenefs of which we have few examples,
difcovered the manner in which the cruft of the earth is
conltrufted. Having made this great difcovery he, after
deep refieftion, and in conformity with the ftrift rules of
induction, drew moft interefting conclufions as to the
manner in which the folid mafs of the earth may have been
formed. It is a fpleiidid fpecimen of inveftigation, the
moft perfeft in its kind ever prefented to the world.
(Jamefon's Mineralogy, firft edition, vol. i. p. 22.) We
believe there are few perfons who will not now admit that
the admiration and praife here beftowed were difpropor-
tioned to the objeft, whether we regard the merit of Mr.
Werner's obfervations for accuracy as a geologift, or the
conformity of his theory with exifting appearances.

The method of inveftigation purfued by Werner in at-
tempting to trace the rocks in a diftrift in fuccefTion, from
the lowell or fundamental rock to the uppermoft ilratum,
and marking the limits of each rock where it terminates on
the furface, was confidered by his followers as entirely his
own, and was called by them the method of the JVernerian
geognofie. But this method had been known and praftifed
in England long before we were acquainted with the name
of Werner ; indeed it is the only one which preceding geo-
logifts could praftically adopt in furveying a country. On
a fmaller fcale, it had been praftifed by all intelligent coal-
viewers ; and it had been exhibited on a larger fcale by Mr.
Whitehurft, in the defcriptions and plates which he has
given in his " Theory of the Earth." SaufTure followed
no fyftem ; yet wherever the order of fucceflion was appa-
rent, he has not failed to inform us. But the country
which he inveftigated, (Switzerland,) prefents enormous
maffes, frequently in much apparent confufion, the order of
fucceflion being hid by debris or by glaciers. In other in-
ftances, whole mountains compofed of different rocks ap-
pear to have been formed cotemporaneoufly. SaufTure, who
had no theory of any regular order of fucceffion to fup-
port, has fimply defcribed fafts as they exift. Our own
countryman, William Smith, had been long employed in
tracing the limits and order of fucceffion of the ftrata in
the midland and eaftern counties of England, before the
Wernerian geognofie was known either in England or
Scotland.

The originality of the Wernerian geognofie confifted
more in the invention of a new language adapted to fupport
a theory, than in the difcovery of a new and praftical me-
thod of inveftigation. The language is highly objeftion-
able in many refpefts, as the terms are founded on the prema-
ture affumption of the relative ages and modes of formation

of

W E R

of different rocks ; — fafts which are far from being yet
clearly afcertained.

Whatever may be the defefts of the Wernerian fyftem
as given us by his fcholars, and however premature many
of the generalizations may have been, it was of ufe
by direaing the attention of obfervers in various parts to
an examination of its accordance with fads. Though the
different rocks which Mr. Werner has defcnbed as univer-
fal formations neither occur invariably m the order of iuc-
ceffion which he has defcnbed, nor are univerfally fpread
over the earth's furface ; yet there is a certam fimilarity be-
tween the geological arrangement of diftant countries when
viewed on a large fcale, which indicates that fimilar pro-
ceffes of formation had taken place, and nearly in the fame
order in remote parts of the globe ; but we are far from
knowing whether thefe proceffes were univerfal and fimul-
taneous, or local and fucceffive.

In the above obfervations, which it is our impartial duty
as biographers to ftate, we have not the remoteft wifh to
undervalue the real merits of this eminent mineralogift.
His theoretical errors arofe naturally from the infant ftate
of geology when he commenced his labours ; and his over-
weaning attachment to opinions too haltily formed, was an
infirmity which he fliared in common with many eminent
philofophers. His errors will pafs away with time, but
his more ufeful labours will remain a durable monument of
his talents and perfevering refearch.

WERNERITE, in Mineralogy, a mineral regarded by
Werner as a fubfpecies of fcapolite, but which has been
claffed by other mineralogifts as a diftinft fpecies, to which
they have given this name, in honour of the profeffor at
Freyburg. The name has been applied to foliated fcapo-
lite, compaft fcapolite, and to a mineral which is called
Bergmannite by Stevens and Jamefon. (See ScAPOLlTE. )
Wernerite occurs maffive and cryftallized in oftohedral
prifms, with four-fided pyramidal terminations. The ftruc-
ture is imperfeftly lamellar, with joints on two direftions,
at right angles to each other. The colour is greenifh-grey,
with a pearly or refinous luftre, more or lefs fhining ; it is
tranflucent. Wernerite is fofter than felfpar, yielding to
the knife ; its fpecific gravity is 3.6. It melts with intu-
mefcence into a white enamel.

This mineral is rare : it has been found at Arendal, in
Norway ; in the mines of Northbo and Ultrica, in Sweden ;
and at Campo-Longo, in Switzerland. The conftituent
parts are,

Silex 40

Alumine ----- 34

Lime 16

Oxyd of iron . . - . 8

Oxyd of manganefe . - - 1.5

WERNERSDORF, in Geography, a town of Pome-
relia, on the Nogat ; 7 miles S.W. of Marienburg.

WERNEUCHEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Middle Mark ; 6 miles E.S.E. of Bernau.

WERNFELS, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Aichftadt ; 4 miles N.W. of Spalt.

WERNHAUSEN, a town of the county of Henne-
berg ; 4 miles N. of Wafungen.

WERNIGERODE, a county of Upper Saxony,
bounded on the north by the principality of Halberftadt,
on the eaft and fouth by the principality of Blankenburg,
and on the weft by the Harz foreft ; about twelve miles in
length, and eight in breadth. One part is mountainous,
and the other level. Amongft the mountains, the moft dif-
tinguiflied of all is the Great Brocken, or Blockfberg,

W E R

which is one of the higheft ; or, according to fome, the verj-
higheft mountain in all Germany, On its fummit fcarce
any fmall fhrubs grovv, much lefs trees ; and the fnow re-
mains frequently there till midfummer, and in fome of the
northern parts even yet longer. The levels are very fertile
in all kinds of grain, pulfe, turnips, flax, cuhnary herbs,
and other vegetables and fruits. The mountains afford very
valuable plants, with berries of various kinds, particularly
crown berries, of which great quantities are preferved ;
game and wild fowl are plentiful. In 1807, it was annexed
to the new kingdom of Weftphalia. The inhabitants are
Lutherans.

Weknigerode, a town of Weftphalia, and capital of a
county of the fame name, fituated on a fmall river, and con-
fifting of three parts : " The Old Town," containing two
churches, and about 430 houfes, with a houfe belonging to
the county ; " The New Town," containing one church,
and about 200 houfes ; and the fuburbs, called " Nofchen-
rode," which contain one church, and 150 houfes. On a
high mountain, direftly above the town, is the caftle, in
which the counts' family archives are kept. The principal
bulinefs of the town confifts in agriculture, brewing, diilil-
ling, and manufaftures of cloth and ftuffs ; 12 miles S.W.
of Halberftadt. N. lat. 51° 53'. E. long. 10° 52'.

WERNITZ, a river of Germany, which rifes about
5 miles S. from Rotenburg, paffes by DinkeUbuhl, Waffer-
trudingen, Oettingen, &c. and runs into the Danube, near
Donauwert.

WERNSDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saetz ; 3 miles N.W. of Kadan.

WERNSTADT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; 10 miles W. of Leypa.

WERO, an ifland near the coaft of Norway. N. lat.
67° 43. E. long. 9° 10'.

WERPE, a river of Germany, which joins the Sieg,
near its fource.

WERRA, a river of Germany, which rifes in the prin-
cipality of Coburg, paffes by Eisfeld, Hildburghaufen,
Meinungen, Saltzungen, Vach, Bercka, Gerftungen,
Creutzberg, Trefurt, Wanfried, Allendorf, &c. and join-
ing the Fulda at Munden, forms the Wefer.

Werra, a department of the kingdom of Weftphalia,
compofed of Upper Heffe, with the principahty of Herf-
feld ; with a population of 254,000 fouls. Marburg is the
capital.

WERREAR, a circar or diftrift of Hindooftan, lying
on the right bank of the Puddar, which feparates it from
Guzerat, eaft of Cutch.

WERSALA, a fmall ifland near the coaft of Finland,
at the entrance into the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 46'.
E. long. 31° 6'.

WERSEN, a town of Germany, in the county of Teck-
lenburgf ; 8 miles N.E. of Tecklenburg.

WERSHOCK, in Menfuratton, a long meafure in
Ruflia ; 16 werlhocks being equal to an arftieen, or 28 Eng-
lifti inches ; fo that 9 arftieens are =: 7 Englifli yards, and
4 werftiocks = 7 Englilh inches.

WERST, or WuRST. See Verst.

WERT, in Geography. See Weert.

WERTACH, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the
Lech, a little below Augft)urg.

WERTENSTEIN, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Lucerne ; 6 miles W. of Lucerne.

WERTER See, a lake of the duchy of Carinthia ;
2 miles W. of Clagenfurt.

WERTH, a town of the biftiopric of Ratiftjon ; 1 1 miles
N.W. of Straubing.

WERTHA,

WES

WERTHA, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the
Lech, near Augfburg.

WERTHEIM, a county of Germany, fituated between
the eleftorate of Mentz, and the bifliopric of Wurzburg,
watered by the Maine, which here receives the Tauber.
The ancient counts became extinft in the year 1556.
It was afterv/ards divided among feveral princes, befides
feveral fiefs of the empire, Bohemia, Wurzburg, and
Fulda. — Alfo, a town of Germany, and capital of a
county to which it gives name, at the conflux of the Maine
and Tauber. The magiftrates are principally Calvinifts,
but the Roman Catholics and Lutherans have a church in
common ; 42 miles E.N.E. of Manheim. N. lat. 49° 49'.

E. long. 9° 35' Alfo, a town of Germany ; 22 miles E.

of Frankfort on the Maine.

WERTHER, a town of Wefl;phaha, in the county of
Ravenlherg ; 5 miles N.N.W. of Bielefeld.

WERTINGEN, a town of Bavaria ; 14 miles N.N.W.
of Augfburg.

WERVICK, or Warwick, or Veriutch, a town of
France, in the department of the Lys, on the Lys ; 3 miles
S.W. of Menin.

WESCHNITZ, a river of France, which runs into the
Rhine, oppofite Worms.

WESCHOLOUEN, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen ;
12 miles W. of Marggrabowa.

WESE, a river of France, which runs into the Ourt, a
little above Chiny.

WESEL, a town of France, in the department of the
Roer ; transferred in January, 1808, from the duchy of
Cleves, on the Rhine. This town was formerly imperial,
and governed by its own laws, under the proteftion of the
eleftor of Brandenburg; 17 miles E.S.E. of Cleves. N.
lat. 51° 38'. E. long. 6° 38'.

Wesel, or Oher Wefel, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhine and Mofelle ; 20 miles S. of Coblentz.

Wesel Bay, a bay on the fouth coaft of the ifland of
Java. S. lat. 8° 21'. E. long. 113° 42'.

WESELICH, or Weisling, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer; 7 miles S.S.E. of Cologn.

WESEN, a town of Switzerland, in the county of

Gafter ; 7 miles S. of Utznach Alfo, a town of Holland,

in the department of Guelderland ; 4 miles S. of Hattem.

WESENBERG, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg ;
42 miles N. of Spandau.

WESENSTEIN, a town of Saxony ; 8 miles S.S.E.
of Drefden.

WESEP, a town of Holland, on the Vecht ; well for-
tified towards theeail. The great bufinefsof the inhabitants is
to carry frefh water from hence out of the Vecht to Amller-
dam, for brewing and other ufes, for which traffic they have
a particular kind of barges ; 4 miles S.E. of Amfterdam.

WESER, a river of Germany, formed by the union of
the Werra and Fulda, which pafies by Hameln, Rinteln,
Minden, Nienburg, Hoya, Bremen, &c. and runs into the
German fea, about N. lat. 53*' 48'. E. long. 8°.

Weser, a department of the new kingdom of Weftphalia,
compofed of the bifhopric of Ofnaburg, and part of the
county of Schauenburg ; the number of inhabitants is
33,400. Ofnaburg is the capital.

WESLEY, John, in Biography, one of the principal
founders of Methodifm, was the fon of a clergyman, who,
educated under a father who was ejedted for nonconformity,
became a zealous high-churchman, and compofed the fpeech
delivered by Sacheverel before the houfe of lords. John
was born at Epworth, in Lincolnfhire, of which his father
was redor, in June 1 703. Educated under pious parents,

WES

he was religioufly difpofed from his youth. From the
Charter-houfe, where he received his fchool-education, he
was removed to Chrift-church college, Oxford ; and after
taking his firll degree, was eleftcd, in 1724, fellow of
Lincoln college, and, in 1726, proceeded to the degree of
M.A. At this time he was reputed as a good claflical
fcholar, and particularly converfant with dialetlics. He
was alfo a poet of no mean talents. Soon after his eleftion
to a fellowfhip, he became Greek lefturer and moderator of
the claffes, and undertook the inftruftion of pupils. In
1725 he was ordained by bifhop Potter. During fome
years of his refidence at Oxford, he was much elleemed on
account of his own character and conduft, and for his atten-
tion to difcipline and good morals. Upon the perufal of
fome devotional books, and more efpecially Law's " Serious
Call," he became diffident as to his own religious ftate, and
determined to pay ftrifter regard to what he conceived to be
the effentials of a holy hfe. In 1729 he afibciated with a
feleft number of collegians, who met and read together,
firft the claffics on week-days, and on Sundays only divi-
nity ; but afterwards their meetings became exclufively
religious. They vifited the prifoners and fick poor, con-
verfed together on the flatc of their minds, obferved the
ancient falls of the church, and communicated every week.
This fociety, which confifted of fifteen members, attracted
notice on account of the ftriftnefs of their manners and de-
portment ; and became theobjefts of ridicule to fome young
men in the univerfity, who denominated them Sacramen-
tarians, the Godly club, and Methodists. (See the
article. ) Some of the feniors of the colleges were alarmed
by an introdudtion of fanaticifm ; and others encouraged
them to proceed, and they received the approbation of the
bifhop of Oxford. Wefley, after his ordniation, fettled as
affiftant to his father at Epworth, who being defirous of
retaining this church preferment in his family, wifhed him
to feek interell for obtaining it ; but his attachment to Ox-
ford, and to the fociety which had been there formed, pre-
vailed over every other coniideration. In proccfs of time
he formed a purpofe of going to Georgia, as a miffionary ;
and accordingly he embarked for this province in the year
1735. The profpeft of fuccefs in this miffion fefemed at
firll to be favourable ; but feveral circumftances occurred
which changed his views, and induced him to leave Georgia,
after a refidence of one year and nine months. Thefe cir-
cumftances, as fome perfons have related them, refleft no
great honour on Welley's difpofition and charafter. It ap-
pears, however, upon the whole, more efpecially when we
confider Whitefield's fuccefs in the fame part of the world,
that he was lefs qualified for a miffionary than his fellow-
labourer. After his return to England, he felt diflatisfied
about his own ftate, and entertained fufpicions of the reality
of his own converfion, though he had undertaken to convert
others. Prepared for a fudden converfion, it aftually
happened at a place and time, and in a manner, which he has
recorded. According to his own account, this memorable
event is referred to the 24th day of May, in the year 1738,
at a quarter before nine in the evening, when fome perfon at
a fociety in Alderfgate-ftreet was reading Luther's preface
to the epiftle to the Romans. " He felt his heart ftrangely
warmed. He felt that he trufted in Chrift alone for falva-
tion ; and an affurance was given to him, that Chrift had
taken away his fins, and faved him from the law of fin and
death." Thefe feelings of affurance, however, were blended
with occafional mifgivings ; and it feems that, in his cafe,
enthufiafm could not inftantaneoudy overpower his philo-
fophical reafonings. His cafe is far from being Angular in
the hiftory of perfons of the fame defcription. About this

time

WESLEY.

time he took a jaurney to Germany, in order to derive a
further confirmation of his faith from intercourfe with con-
genial fpirits at the head-quarters of the Moravians, at Hern-
huth. ( See Unitas Fratrum. ) Afier his return to England,
in September 1738, he entered on his courfe of labours;
and preached or exhorted, frequently three or four times a
day, in prifons and other places of the metropolis, as well as
in various parts of the country, where the fervour of his zeal
bore proportion to the degree of obloquy whicli he incurred.
His difcourfes produced wonderful effedts, and occafioned
in the hearers fwoonings, exclamations, convulfions, &c.
which have been often the accompaniments of violent emo-
tions. At Briftol, where he had been preceded by AVhit-
field he coUetled large crowds of attendants in the open
air. But it was now defirable that a building (hould be
erefted for the accommodation of the followers of thefe
popular preachers. In May 1739, the firft ftone of fuch
an edifice was laid at Briftol ; and with this building com-
menced the abfolute and unlimited power which Wefley ex-
ercifed over his followers. " The direftion of the work
was firft committed to eleven feoffees of his nomination ;
but as it became neceflary for him to engage for the pay-
ment of the workmen, and to colleft money for this pur-
pofe, he vifited London, and upon confulting Whitfield
and others, he was told, that they would do nothing in the
matter, unlefs he would difcharge the feoffees, and take the
whole bufinefs into his own hands. They gave various rea-
fons for this determination ; but one," fays Wefley, " was
enough, vi%. that fuch feoffees would always have it in their
power to controul me ; and if I preached not as they liked,
turn me out of the room that I had built." He, therefore,
affembled the feoffees, and with their confent cancelled the
inftruments made before, and took the whole management
into his own hands ; and this precedent he ever after fol-
lowed, fo that all the numerous meetings of his clafs of
Methodifts were either vefted in him, or in trultees who
were bound to give admiffion into the pulpit either to him,
or to fuch preachers as he fhall appoint. Unable to affociate
clergymen in the profecution of his plan, which feems to
have been his firft defign, he determined to employ lay-
preachers as itinerants to the different focieties ; and of their
talents he formed fome judgment by their performances at
the meetings for prayer and mere private exhortation.
Referving to himfelf the nomination of his preachers, his
authority was extended as his focieties were multiplied.
For the ufe of thefe focieties, he and his brother Charles
drew up a fet of rules for the direAion of their moral and
religious conduft, which are faid to have been formed upon
the pureft model of primitive Chriftianity. A circumftance
occurred which threatened injury to the caufe of Methodifm ;
but it eventually contributed to its extenfion, and to the
eftablilhment of Wefley without a rival at the head of his
own body. Whitfield had imbibed a predileftion for the
doftrines of the Puritan divines, which were in general Cal-
viniftic. Wefley's opinions were Arminian ; fo that it was
impoffible for thefe two leaders of feparate tenets to unite.
" The differences between them turned upon the three
points, unconditional eleftion, irrefiftible grace, and final
perfeverance, concerning which topics their notions varied
fo much, that AVhitfield plainly told his brother reformer,
that they preached two different gofpels, and that he would
not only refufe to give him the right hand of fellowfhip, but
was refolved publicly to preach againft him and his brother
wherefoever he preached at all." Although they after-
wards (poke of each other with efteem, yet their feparation
was entire and hfting.

The fyftem of difcipline formed by Wefl©y was admirably

contrived both for gaining profelytes, and for extending
and making permanent his, own influence. As he did not
profefs to eftabhfli a new or diftinft feft, he did not interfere
with the regular n'orfhip either of the eftabhfhment or of
DifTenters, fo that he and his preachers robbed no other
minifters of their hearers ; and they availed themfelves of
thofe feafons, which gave perfons that were defirous of at-
tending leifure for this purpofe. That he might not be
charged with drawing people away from the eftabhfheu
church, or other focieties of Chriftians, he did not ad-
minifter the facrament of the Lord's Supper in his own
chapels, but recommended attendance for this purpofe in
the eftabhfhed church. ( See Methodists. ) The plan of
itinerancy was a political meafure in the fyftem of Mr.
Wefley, as variety ferves to excite curiofity, and to increafe
the number of his followers. It feems alfo to relieve
preachers and hearers, when the ftock of the former is
fmall ; and it alfo prevents thefe miffionaries, if they may be
fo called, from forming permanent conneftions in any place
whither they are fent, and of acquiring an influence, which
would be inconfiftent with the fupremacy of the chief. In
order to maintain an union between the members of this
body, and to exercife a degree of vigilant infpeftion with
regard to their conduft, Wefley has divided each fociety
into companies of ten or fifteen, called clafTes, to each of
which belongs a leader, whofe bufinefs it was every week to
fee every perfon of his clafs, and to inquire into his religious
ftate. Many of thefe companies were divided into fmaller
parties, called bands, in which the married and fingle men,
and the married and fingle women, were ranged apart, and
they were direfted to maintain a confidential intercourfe
with regard to their charafter and ftate with each other.
From thefe bands again were formed feleft bands, confifting
of thofe who had attained to perfeftion. Of his love-
feafts, &c. we have given an account under Methodists.
Stewards were appointed to receive contributions, which
the loweft members were expedled to pay, however fmall
the fums, and to fuperiutend the temporal concerns of the
focieties. In order to preferve a connexion between the
preachers, as well as to maintain their ultimate fubordina-
tion to him, Wefley found it ufeful to fummon annually a
confiderable body of them, in order to take counfel with
him, and with one another, concerning the general affairs
of the focieties. Thefe affemblies were called " Con-
ferences ;" and the great number of them at which Wefley
had to prefide was a principal means of confolidating the
whole frame of the fociety, and maintaining his permanent
authority over every part. Wefley and his firft followers
had many difiiculties with which to contend ; but their con-
ftancy and fortitude, and the apparently beneficial effefts of
their endeavours in reforming fome of the moft abandoned
members of the community, enabled them ultimately to
triumph over all oppofition, and to purfue their labours
without moleftation. On account of his fanaticifm and en-
thufiafm he has fuffered ridicule and reproach ; and fome
have even fufpetted his fincerity in the details which he has
given of the extraordinary maiiifeftations of light that have
been communicated to him, and the no lefs extraordinary
interpofitions of Providence in his favour ; alleging that he
pofTeffed a degree of underftanding which coiJd not be de-
luded, and, therefore, charging him with a defign of delud-
ing others, in order to ferve his own purpofes. But thefe
are harfh reflecflions, the juftice of which we cannot be in-
duced eafily to allow. About the year 1759, Wefley, who
had long been the eulogift of a fingle hfe, thought proper
to marry a rich widow, whofe fortune he fettled wholly
upon herfelf ; but this connexion proved an occafion of in-

fehcity,

WES

felicity, and therefore they feparated. She died in 178 1.
Wefley feems to have adopted his father's high-church
principles, and he perfevered in avowing his connexion with
the eftabliihed church, and in preventing, as far as poifible,
a feparation between his followers and the profeflbrs of the
eftablifhed religion. During the American war he was a
zealous advocate for the meafures of government, and he
inculcated the duty of fubmifTion to the tranf-Atlantic
Methodiil,"!. With this view he publifhed a pamphlet, en-
titled " A Calm Addrefs to the American Colonies,"
which was widely difleminated ; and though fome of his
followers were difpleafed, others were fupporters of the
authority of Great Britain ; whilft, on the other hand, the
Methodifts in the conneftion of Mr. Whitefield were gene-
rally on the fide of American independence. When the
conteft terminated, it became a matter of fome importance
to determine what kind of conneftion fhould fubfift between
the American Methodifts and their Britifli brethren. Mr.
Wefley was induced for this purpofe to take a ftep, which
appeared to be a renunciation of the principle of an epif-
copal church. By his own authority he ordained, with im-
polition of hands, feveral preachers who were embarking for
America, and confecrated a bifhop for the Methodift epif-
copal church in that country, who, on his arrival, confe-
crated another, and ordained feveral as prefbyters. He
alfo alTumed the fame authority with refpeft to Scotland ;
" Setting apart," as he fays, "three preachers in 1785 to
adminifter in that country the facraments of baptifm and
the Lord's fupper." In felf-defence he alleged, that he
had been for feveral years convinced by lord King's account
of the primitive church, that bilhops and preftjyters are the
fame order, and have the fame right to ordain ; but that he
declined exercifing this right in ordaining his travelling
preachers, becaufe he did not wifh to violate the eftablifhed
order of the national church to which he belonged. By
thefe meafures he offended many in his own conneftion, and
particularly his brother Charles ; and it is faid, that before
his death he repented of his proceedings, and ufed all his
endeavours to counteraft the tendency which he then per-
ceived to a final feparation from the church.

In a very advanced age, Wefley retained his ability of
bearing the fatigue which attended his numerous and ex-
tenfive labours ; and thefe were continued till within a week
of his death, which happened on March 2d, 1 791, in the
88th year of his age.

In Wefley 's countenance mildnefs and cheerfulnefs were
blended with gravity, and in old age it was Angularly vene-
rable. " In his manners," fays one of his biographers,
" he was focial, polite, converfible, and pleafant, without any
of the gloom and aufterity common in the leader of a feft.
In the pulpit he was ufually fhort and clear, argumentative
and fedate, often entertaining, but never attempting the
eloquence of the pafTions. His ftyle in writing was of a
iimilar caft ; he expreffed himfelf with facility and precifion,
and even in controverfy feldom elevated his tone beyond a
temperate medium. He was placable towards his enemies,
charitable, and in pecuniary matters extremely difmterefted.
His greateft failing was a love of power, which rendered
him impatient of contradiftion with regard to every thing
that concerned his adminiftration as head of his fociety ; yet
it is certain that he could not have brought his plans to
effeft, without a confiderable fhare of abfolute authority.
It muft alfo be admitted, that he had much of the politician
in his charafter, and could employ artifice when ufeful for
his purpofes. That he was thoroughly perfuaded of the
truth of the fyftem he taught, and had at heart the beft in-
terefts of mankind, it would be uncandid and unwarrantable

Vol. XXXVIII.

WES

to queftion ; and he will be a memorable perfon as long as
the fabric which he fo much contributed to raife (hall en-
^Z^-'\ ^'"^^ °^ •^- Wefley, by Hampfon, Coke, and
Whitehead. Gen. Biog. See Methodists

WESLINGBUHREN, in Geography, a town and
duchy of Holftein, fituated near the coail of the North fea ;
53 miles N.W. of Hamburg.

WESOWKA, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 60 miles
N.N.E. of Zytomiers.

WESSEL, John, in Biography, an eminent philofopher
and divine, was born at Groningen about the year 1409, or
1419 ; and purfued his ftudies with incredible ardour both
at ZwoU and at Cologne. At the latter place his ortho-
doxy was fufpefted, as he propofed difficulties which his
matters could not folve. He taught philofophy for fome
time at Heidelberg, and after vifiting feveral univerfities,
went to Paris, where the difputes ran high between the
Realifts, Formalifts, and Nominalifts. He fluftuated be-
tween the opinions of thefe different fefts. He predifted
the dechne of the doftrines of Thomas Aquinas, Bonavcn-
ture, and other difputants of that clafs ; and intimated his
apprehenfion that they would be exploded by all true Chrif-
tian divines, and that the irrefragable doftors themfelves
would be little regarded. His reputation procured for him
the efteem of Francis delle Rovere, general of the Friars
Minors, whom he accompanied to the court of Bafil, and
with whom he returned to Paris, where he refided many
years. When his patron was made pope, under the name'of
Sixtus IV., he paid him a vilit at Rome, and being told
that his holinefs would grant him whatfoever he afked, he
hmited his requeft to a Hebrew and a Greek bible from the
Vatican. " You fliall have them," faid the pontiff; « but,
fimple man that you are! why did not you aflc a bifhopric ?"
" Becaufe (anfwered WefTel) I do not want one ;" a reply
on which Dr. Jortin has beftowed juft applaufe.

This worthy perfon died at Groningen in 1489. On his
death-bed he lamented to a friend that he had been diflrefl'cd
with doubts concerning the truth of the Chriftian rehgion ;
but at his friend's fecond vifit, he told him with great fatif-
faftion that his doubts were all difTipated. So extraordinary
was his learning, that he was diftinguifhed by the appellation
of the " Light of the World;" and fuch was his fpirit of
free enquiry, that his name is enrolled in the Proteftant Ca-
talogue of Witneffes of the Truth. Of his liberal opinions
fome were, " that the pope might err — that erring he ouglit
to be refifted — that his commands are obligatory only as far
as they are conformable to the word of God — and that his
excommunications are lefs to be feared than the difapproba-
tion of the loweft worthy and learned man." We need not
wonder then that the monks fhould have committed all the
manufcripts found in his ftudy to the flames. Such as
efcaped conflagration were printed coUeftively at Groningen
in 1 614, and at Amfterdam in 1617. Part of them had
been previoufly printed at Leipfic in 1522, under the title
of " Farrago Rerum Theologicarum," with a preface by
Martin Luther. Bayle. MoHieim. Brucker by Enfield.

WESSELY, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Hradifch ; 5 miles N.N.E. of Strafnitz. — Alfo,
a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin ; 5 miles S. of
Sobieflaw. — Alfo, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Brunn ; 36 miles N.W. of Brunn.

WESSEM, or Wessum, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Meufe ; 4 miles S.S.W. of Rure-
mond.

WESSEN, a town of Auftria; 9 miles N.W. of
Efferding.

WESSNITZ. See Weissenitz.

R r WEST,

WES

WEST, GiLBRRT, in Biography, the fon of the Rev.
Dr. Weft, prebendary of Winchefter, and of a fifter of fir
Richard Temple, afterwards lord Cobham, was born in 1 706,
and educated for the church at Eton and Chriftchurch, in
Oxford ; but preferring a military life, he fe^ed in the
army till he received an appointment in the office of lord
Townftiend, fecretary of ftate, with whom he accompanied
king George I. to Hanover. In early life he entertained
doubts concerning the Chriftian religion, which were in-
«illed into him and his coufin Lyttelton by lord Cobham.
In 1729 he was appointed a clerk -extraordinary of the privy
council; and foon after, being married, he fettled at Wick-
ham in Kent. His income was not large, but it was fuf-
ficient to entertain his friends Pitt and Lyttelton, who often
vifited him for hterary recreation at Wickham. Asa poet,
he was known in 1742 by a piece on a dramatic plan, in-
titled " Th° Inftitution of the Order of ihe Garter," diftin-
guifhed by pure and elevated morality, ^nd containing paf-
fag.s or elegant fancy and fpler.did diction. Well's " Ob-
fervatlons on the Refurreaion of Chrill," publifhed in 1747,
engaged the particular attention of the public, and even in-
duced the univerfity of Oxford to confer upon the author
the de>riee of dodor of laws. This work was fo well exe-
cuted.'^that we may well regret his not having lived to have
completed his defign by another work on the evidence of
the truth of the New Teftament. In 1752 the circum-
ftances of our author were improved by fucceeding, when
Mr. Pitt became paymafter-general, to one of the lucrative
clerkfhips of the privy council, and his obtaining the
place of treafurer to Chelfea hofpital. In 1755 he loft an
only fon, and in the following year his life was terminated
by ' paralytic ftroke, March 1756, at the age of fifty.
•< Mr. Weft was a gentleman in manners, agreeable in con-
verfation, and lively though ferious. He was regular in the
performance of family devotion and in attendance on public
worfhip, and was particularly attached to Dr. Clarke as a
preacher." .

The other works of Mr. Weft were, " Tranflatione of
the Odes of Pindar, with a Diflertation on the Olympic
Games ;" " Tranflations from the Argonautics of ApoUo-
nius Rhodius, and the Tragopodagra of Lucian ;" " The
Abufe of Travelling ;" and " Education :" poems in the imi-
tation of the ftanza and manner of Spenfer ; " Iphigenia in
Tauris," from Euripides ;" and " Original Poems on Various
Occafions." Several of thefe pieces were printed in the col-
leftions of Dodfley and Pearch, and alfo in three diftinft vo-
lumes, i2mo. 1766; and entitle the author, fays his biogra-
pher, to a refpeftable rank among the minor poets. John-
fon's Lives. Nichols's Lit. Anecd. Gen. Biog.

West, Occldens, Occafus, in Cofmography, one of the car-
dinal points of the horizon ; diametrically oppofite to the
eaft.

Weft is ftriftly defined, the interfeftion of the prime
vertical with the horizon, on that fide in which the fun fets.

To draw a true weft line, fee Meridian.

West, in AJlronomy, is chiefly ufed for the place, in or
towards which the fun and ftars fink under the horizon.
Thus we fay, the Sun, Mars, &c. are in the weft.

The point in which the fun fets when in the equator, is
particularly called the equinoSial weft, or point of true wejl.

West, and Wejiern, in Geography, are applied to certain
countries, &c. fituated towards the point of fun-fetting with
.refpeft to certain others.

Thus, the empire of Rome, anciently, and of Germany,
at prefent, is called the empire of the IVeJl, or wejlern empire,
in oppofition to that of Conftantinople, which is called the
tmpire of the Eaft.

\

WES

The Latin or Roman church is called the tuefiern thurch;
in oppofition to the Greek church.

The French, Spaniards, Italians, &c. are called wejierh
nations, in refpeft to the Afiatics ; and America, the Wejl
Indies, in refpeft of the Eaft Indies.

V^s&T-AJhton Water, is a chalybeate water, refembling
that of Holt. See Phil. Tranf. N°46l. feft. 20.

West Wind is alfo called Zephyrus, and Favoniui. See
Wind.

West Saxonlage, or the law of the Weft Saxona. See
Law.

West India Companies. See Company, &c.

West Dial. See Dial.

West, Mooring for. See Mooring.

West, in Geography, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in the '
county of Huntingdon, with 1698 inhabitants.

West Bay, a bay of the South Pacific ocean, in Cook't
Straits, between the two iflands of New Zealand.

West Bay, a bay of tl e Englith Channel, on the coaft.
of the counties of Dorfet and Devon, of valt extent. It
begins weft of Portland, and ends at Berry Point near Tor-
bay, according to fome ; according to others, from Portland
to Lyme or Exmouth. The tide is current here nine hours;
high water at ten o'clock at new and full moon ; an E.S.E.
moon makes full fea. The fea off^ the coaft is reckoned the
moft dangerous part of the Channel, efpecially on the weft,
where ftiips, not aware of the currents, are embayed and
driven afhore on the beach. When ftiips are fo deeply em-
bayed, that there is no poffibihty of getting off, efpecially
at the beginning of the ebb, they may run boldly on the
beach, and the mariners are to remain aboard for five or fix
feas, but may then ftep on (hore with fafety ; but if they
leave the fhip inttantly it is dangerous and fatal : light-
houfes have been ferviceable for preventing thefe accidenti.
Where Ihips that come from the weft negleft to keep a
good offing, or are taken fhort by contrary winds, and can-
not weather the highland at Portland, but are driven be-
tween the ifland and the main-land, they perifh without
remedy ; and it has been obferved, that more Dutch veflels
are loft here than any other, almoft every year, efpecially ia
winter, which is thought to be owing to an obftinate ad-
herence to old charts, and not allowing for the true variation
of the compafs. When the variation is W. the true channel
courfe is W. by S. from Dungenefs to the Cafkets ; Port-
land Bill and the Caikets are 15 leagues afunder nearly in a
meridian. Dr. Halley obferves, that the navigation up and
down the Channel is an E. variation : W.S.W. is the true
courfe. The Channel between Portland and the Cafkets is
40 fathoms deep, and in fair weather one mav fee in that
depth the land on both fides : the nearer England the
fhoalier, the nearer the Cafkets the deeper.

West Bay, a bay at the weftern extremity of lake Su-
perior. N. lat. 46° 45'. W. long. 91° 45'. — Alfo, a bay
on the N.W. coaft of Virgin-Gorda, in the Weft Indies.
N. lat. 1 8'= 2 3'. W. long. 62° 48'.

West Bethlehem, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Wafh'ngton, containing 1849 inhabitants.

West Boyljlon, a town of MafFachufetts, in the county
of Worcefter, containing 632 inhabitants.

West Bradford, a townftiip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Cheller, with 12 19 inhabitants.

West Buffaloe, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of Northumberland, containing 2523 inhabitants.

West Cain, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of Chefter, with 1003 inhabitants.

West Cambridge, a town of MafFachufetts, in the county
of Middlefex, containing 971 inhabitants.

W£ST

WES

West Cape, a cape on the W. coaft of Tavai-poe-nam-

moo, the fouthernmoft ifland of New Zealand. S. lat. 45°

54'. W. long. 193° 17'.

West Cappel, a town of Holland, in the ifland of Wal-

cheren ; 6 miles N.W. of Middleburg.

West Chefler, a county of New York, containing 30,272

inhabitants.

The following ftatiftical table is founded upon the cenfus

of 1810.
Towns.

Bedford -

Cortlandt

Eaft-Chefter

Greenfburgh

Harrifon -

Mamaroneek

Mount-Pleafant

New-Caftle

New-Rochelle

North-Caftle

North-Salem

Pelham ...

Poundridge

Rye - -

Scarfdale - . -

Somers ...

South-Salem

Weft-Chefter

White Plains

Yonkers . - -

York-town

Population.

Sen. Eleaors.

- 2.374

241

■ 3.054

182

- 1.039

96

- 1,862

137

■ 1,119

66

■ 496

28

• 3.II9

218

. 1,291

72

996

78

1,366

119

1,204

102

267

19

1,249

124

1,278

85

259

15

1,782

142

1,566

186

1,969

105

693

68

1.365

93

1,924

142

30,272

2,318

It fends three members to the houfe of aflembly. It is
fituated on the E. fide of the Hudfon, N. of New York
county ; bounded N. by Dutchefs county, E. by the ftate
of Connefticut, S. by Long ifland found and Eaft river,
W. by Haerlera river and the Hudfon ; or by New York
county, the ftate of New Jerfey, and the county of Rock-
Land. Its area is about 480 fquare miles, or 307,200 acres,
fituated between 40'' 47' and 41° 22' N. lat. ; 3° and 32'
E. long, from New York.

West Chejler, a poft-town(hip of New York, at the
S. W. extremity of Weft Chefter county, on Eaft river ; 1 2
miles from New York. Its medial extent from N. to S.
may be 4 miles, and from E. to W. about 5, with an area
of 20 fquare miles. It is a valuable traft of land, fome-
what ftony, with a large proportion of clayey loam, which,
with good huft)andry, may be rendered produftive. Weft
Chefter village, fituated at the head of the navigation on Weft
Chefter creek, contains about 25 dwellings, an epifcopal
church, a Friends' meeting-houfc, a fchool-houfe, a grift-
mill, and about 200 inhabitants. Adjoining to it are a bed
of marble and an extenfive common. In the townfliip are
feveral manufaftories, grift -mills, three houfes for worftiip,
one for Friends, one for Epifcopahans, and one for Dutch
Lutherans, and fix fchool-houfes, and many elegant coun-
try-feats. For its population, &c. fee the preceding article.

West Chejler Borough, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in
the county of Chefter, containing 47 1 inhabitants.

West Creek, a river of New Jerfey, which runs into the
Delaware bay, N. lat. 39° 14'. W. long. 74° 57'.

West Fallotufield, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Chefter, containing 1157 inhabitants.

West Gothland, or Wejlrogothta. See Gothland.

West Harbour, a bay on the S. coaft of Jamaica, formed

WES

by a peninfula, called Portland Ridge. N. lat. 1 7° 48'. W
long. 77°.

West Indies, in Geography and Commerce, comprehends
all the iflands that lie in the Caribbaean fea, between North
and South America ; and alfo a few of the neighbouring
fettlements on the continent. (See li^ejl Indies.) The
larger iflands, or greater Antilles, are, Jamaica, belonging to
the Enghfti, Cuba (Spanifli), Porto Rico (Spanifli), and
St. Domingo (French and Spanifli). The fmaller iflands,
or lefler Antilles, called alfo the Caribbee iflands, are di-
vided into leeward and windward iflands. The former are
Tortola, the Saints, Barbuda, Antigua, St. Kitt's, Nevis,
Montferrat, and Dominica (Englifli), Guadaloupe and
Marigalante (French), St. Euftatia and Martin (Dutch),
St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. John (Danifli), and St.
Bartholomew (Swedifli). The latter are, Barbadoes, St.
Vincent, Grenada, and Tobago (Englifli), Martinico and
St. Lucia (French). The iflands on the coaft of Terra
Firma are, Trinidad and Margarita (Spanifli), Curaflbaand
Bonaire (Dutch). The fettlements on the continent of
South America are, Demerara, Berbice, Eflequibo, and Suri-
nam (Dutch). In fpecifying the monies, coins, currencies,
and exchanges of the Weft Indies, we fliall avail ourfelves of
the arrangement of Dr. Kelly in his valuable work, and
clafs the iflands under the five general heads of Englifli,
French, Danifli, Dutch, and Spanifli; premifing, that though
the feveral iflands and fettlements, which we have already
enumerated, are fubjeft to various political changes, they
neverthelefs, for the moft part, retain the weights, meafures,
and denominations of money belonging to the European
nations by which they have been colonized.

In the Englijh iflands, accounts are kept in pounds, ftiil.
lings, and pence currency ; the Weft India currency being
an imaginary money, which varies confiderably in its propor-
tion to fterhng, fo that it is in fome places reckoned at 140,
and in others 200, for 100/. Englifli, more or lefs. The
principal coin circulating in the Weft Indies is the Spanifli
dollar, and this feems to be the ftandard by which the value
of all other monies is regulated ; and with regard to the pro-
portion between fterhng and currency, it fliould be obferved,
that although it has been declared by different authorities,
yet it is chiefly regulated by the courfe of exchange with
London. Of the Englijh iflands, the firft we fliall take
notice of is Jamaica. The currency of this ifland is 140/.,
and its proportion to fterhng is as 7 to 5 ; fo that i/. ftej-
ling is = 28^. currency, and lA currency = 14;. ^^d. fter-
hng. The price of the dollar is 6s. Sd. currency.

The gold coins current in this ifland, with their value in
currency, appear in the following Table.

1

Jamaica

Currency,

dwt. gr.

/. s. d.

Spanifli Doubloon

17 8

500

Two piftole piece

8 16

2 10 0

Piftole -

4 8

I 5 0

Half piftole -

2 4

0 12 6

Portuguefe Johanes (called joe)

18 12

5 10 0

Half joe

9 6

2 15 0

Quarter joe

4 15

I 7 6

Moidore

6 22

200

Half moidore -

3 "

I 0 0

Enghfli Guinea ...

5 8

X 12 6

Half guinea -

2 16

0 16 3

Seven-fliilling piece -

I 19

0 10 10

Rr 2

The

WEST INDIES.

I'he dedudion for every grain of deficiency of weight is
^J. currency.

The filver coins of Jamaica are dollars, with their halvet,
quarters, eighths, and fixteenths, paffiiig for 6j. Sd., 3/. 4^/.,
11. 8(/., 10^., and 5J. currency. Befides, here are bits or
iittj, being Spanilh reals, and palling for 7-^. currency ; fo
that 10 bits and 5J. currency make a dollar, and i bit is
worth 5-rV^. fterling. Piftcreens, or two-bit pieces, which are
Spanilh pecetas, pafs for u. 3^. currency, and are worth
\o\d. fterling. Englilh {hillings and fixpences occafionally
pafs as piftereens and bits. From the above ftatement it
appears, that the intrii.fic par of the currency of Jamaica
with refpeft to fterling is as follows ; the calculations being
made according to the mint price of gold and filver in
England :

In the EngUfti leeward iflands the dollar is ici.koneJ ai
9^., and this rate is generally called the leeward currency.

A fmall circular piece cut out of the centre of the dollar,
about one-twelfth of its value, in order to prevent its ex-
portation, is allowed to pafs for one-eighth, and is ftamped
by authority with the initials of the ifland.

The dollar, thus cut, paffes for Sj. ^d. currency ; it is
called the " cut dollar," by way of diftinftion from the whole
or " round dollar." The piece taken out is fonietimes called
the " bit," and fometimes the " moco," which moco is, in
fome places, one-fourth of the dollar, and in others one-
eighth. In thefe iflands there are fmall copper coins, called
ftampes, dogs, and half dogs, valued as in the following
Table.

bo

8 o

<

Englifti gold coins,
Spanilh ditto
Portuguefe ditto
Dollai-

100/. fterling ■=

By a law of the Jamaica aflembly, the exchange with
England was fixed at 40 /^r ««/. ; but it has confiderably
varied: bills being fometimes at a premium of 20 per cent.
above the legal exchange, and feldom under 10 : dollars oc-
cafionally bear a premium of 3 or 4 per cent.

The currency of Barbadoes is fometimes reckoned at 135,
and fometimes at 140, for loc/. fterling; but it has never
been fettled by legal authority. The value of the coins has
been eftablithed by proclamation, and according to thefe
values the par is above 140.

The gold coins current here, with their legal value, are
(hewn in the following Table.

Barbadoes

Currency.

dwt. gr.

/. 3. d.

Spanilh Doubloon

Two-piftole piece

Piftole -

Half piftole - -
Portuguefe Johanes (called joe) -

Half joe

17 8

8 16

4 8
2 4

18 10

9 S

4 10 0
2 5 0

1 2 6
0 II 3
500

2 10 0

Quarter joe
Moidore
Half moidore

4 14
6 21

3 10

I 5 0
1 17 6
018 9

Englifti Guinea -

Half guinea -
Seven-fhilling piece -

5 8
2 16
I 19

1 10 0
0 15 0
0 10 0

N.B. — The deduflion for hght coin is 2\d. currency for
every grain of deficiency.

The current iilver coins are dollars, with halves, quarters,
eighths, and fixteenths, pafling for 6s. ^d., 3/. i^d., u. 6ld.,
oid., and 4^J. currency. Alio bits, which are Spanilh reals,
and which pafs for -j^d. currency ; thus, 10 bits make i dol-
lar, and 1 bit is worth ^id. fterling. Piftereens, or two-bit
pieces, which are Spanilh pecetas, pafs for ij-. ^d. currency.
There are alfo French bits, called crtmbal, or tfle du vent bits,
which pafs for 75^. currency.

The Barbadoes currency compared with fterling is,

U)

fig

_ [ Englifh coins, 100/. fterlins =
■-| ^ I Spani(h ditto
g '^ j Portuguefe ditto
"i" [. Dollar ditto -

2 Half dogs

make

• ^ Dog - -
6 Dogs or 4 ftampes
li Bit

11 Bits

1 2 Bits or 8 mocos
5 Round dollars -
8 Cut dollars

16 Round dollars -

I Dog - =

I Stampe - =:

I Bit - - =

I Moco - =

I Cut dollar =
I Round dollar :=

I Guinea - =

I Joe - - =

I Doubloon =

Leewar<t Currency.
t. d.

I.

o
o
o
o
o
o

2

3

7

•5
3

o
o
o
o

For a deficiency of weight, an allowance is made of /^^d.
currency for Englilh grain. The exchange with London is
generally about 200 per cent.

In the Englifh luindward iflands the currencies are nearly
the fame as the former, allowing for fome local regulations
and cuftoms.

In the French iflands accounts are kept by the French
fettlers in livres, fols, and deniers ; and by the Englifti (par-
ticularly in exchanges) in pounds, fliillings, and pence cur-
rency ; the livre and ftiifling being of the fame value.

The currency is the fame as that of the Englifti lee-
ward and windward iflands : but the names of the coins are
different ; the dog being called the noir, the ftampe the
tempe, the bit the efcalin, and the dollar the gourde.

The value of the coins appears in the following Table.

Leeward

Currencj.

liv. fol.den.

l.s. d.

The noir, or dog ...

026

00 li

0 0 2I
0 0 6|
00 9

The tempe, or ftampe

The trois tempes ...

The efcalin, or bit . . -

039
0 11 3
0 15 0

The trois petites pieces

The piece de trente fols, or piftereen

I 2 6

I 10 0

0 I li
016

The moco . - . .

250

029

The gourde or dollar

The ecu of fix livres - . -

900
9 17 6

09 0

0 9 io|

The Louis d'or ...

40 10 0

206

Guinea .....

45 0 0

250

Napoleon of 40 francs
Doubloon ....

66 13 4
144 0 0

368

7 4 0

The following gold coins are taken by weight.

Portugal pieces, at - - - - 2 2 livres ^^r gros
Counterfeit ditto, coined in America, at 20 ditto ^cr gros
French and Spanifti coins deficient in 1 ,

weight, at *^ . . - . j 19/- 15^- /"-gros

Englifti ditto at 8 livres, 8 fols per dwt., that is, 7 fols per
Enghfti grain.

In

WEST INDIES:

Ii) the French part of St. Domingo, or Hayti, accounts
are moftly kept in dollars and cents, as in the United States.
The monies in circulation here are nearly the fame as in the
leev^ard iflands. Dollars are valued at /^s■ 6d. fterling,
with halves and quarters in proportion : 1 1 efcalins pafs for
I dollar, and i efcalin is reckoned at 9 cents. Doubloons
pafs for 1 6 dollars ; joes for 8 ditto ; French crowns for
I dollar 9 cents, and the half-crowns in proportion ; French
pieces of 5 francs pafs for 9 efcahns, or 81 cents.

In the Dutch colonies of St. Euftatia, St. Martin, Cura-
50a, accounts are kept in pieces of eight ; that is, piaftres
current of 8 reals or fchillings, each real being fubdivided
into 6 {livers.

The piaftre gourde or Spanifh dollar pafles for 1 1 reals or
bits ; and thus the current piaftre is worth 3^. ^d. fterhng,
reckoning the dollar at 4J-. 8d. fterling.

The joe paftes here for 1 1 piaftres current ; the Spanifli
fingle piftole for 4^ piaftres, more or lefs ; the other Spanifti
and Portuguefe gold coins in proportion.

In the fettlements of Surinam, Berbice, Demerary, and
Eflequibo, accounts are kept in guilders of 20 ftivers ; the
ftiver being divided by fome into 8 duits, and by others into
12 pennings.
. All the coins of Holland circulate here, and are moftly
reckoned at 20 per cent, above their value in Dutch currency.

The following is their general rate, as well as that of
other monies.

called pecetas Mexicanas ; alfo eighths and reals, and fix-
teenths, in due proportion.

Trinidad, having been for many years in the poffefGon
of the Englifti, has adopted the denominations of money of
the Enghfh iflands. Accounts therefore are here kept in
pounds, IhiUings, and pence leeward currei.cy ; and alfo in
dollars and bits, the bit being the 9th part of a dollar.

There are here filver pieces of half bits and quarter bits.

The Spanifti, Portuguefe, and Enghfti gold coins pafs as
follows in Trinidad.

gdrs

. ftlv.

gdrs. ftiv.

10 Dubbelties = i

0

Spanifti dollar =30

The bit - = 0

5

Ducatoon . = 33

Seftehalf - = 0

V^

Gold ducat =66

Schilling - =0

6

Guinea - = 14 10

Guilder - = i

4

Ryder - = 16 16

Dalder - = i

10

Joe - - = 22 0

RixdoUar - = 3

0

Doubloon - = 42 to 44

Leeward

Currency.

dwt. gr.

dol.

bits.

/. s. d.

Doubloon

17 8

I?

8

740

Half ditto

8 16

7

Si

3 12 0

Piftole -

4 8

^

H

I 16 0

Half ditto

2 4

2

0

0 18 0

Joe -

7 12

6

8

320

Guinea

5 8

4

8

240

Half ditto

2 16

2

4

I 2 0

One-third ditto

1 19

I

5f

0 14 8

Gold here is valued at Sj. 3^/. currency per dwt. or i^\d.
per grain.

The weights and meafures here are the fame as in Eng-
land, except that the cwt. is reckoned only 100 lbs. avoir-
dupois.

The monies and currency of St. Bartholomew ifland are
the fame with thofe of the other leeward iflands.

The regulations to which the Weft India exchanges are
fiibjeft are as follow. When bills drawn in the Weft In-
dies on London are not duly honoured, they are returned to
the drawer, with the following charges.

The chief circulating medium here is paper, iffued by
government.

In 1 809 a new filver coinage was minted at the Tower of
London for thefe colonies, confifting of pieces of 3, 2, i, |,
and \ guilders. The larger piece weighs 1 5 dwt. ; and is
1 oz. 6 dwt. worfe than Enghfti ftandard. Its value there-
fore is, 3^. 5^/. fterling, or computing it as the dollar is now
rated in the Weft Indies (/'. e. at 4.f. 8^. ), its value is 3J. S\d.,
and the fmaller pieces in proportion. They are marked on
the reverfe, colonies of essequibo and demerary token ;
and the king's head is on the obverfe.

The exchange with London ftiould be about 12 guilders
for l/. fterling, but it varies confiderably above this, even to
20 guilders and upwards.

In the Danijh iflands accounts are kept in piaftres or rix-
dollars current (called alfo pieces of eight), fubdivided into
8 fchillings or bits, and each bit into 6 ftivers : accounts are
alfo kept in dollars of 100 cents, as in America. The filver
coins ftruck for the Danifti iflands are quadruple, double,
and fingL bits, and pieces of i and 3 ftivers. The Spanifti
dollar pafles for 12-5 bits, and each bit for 6^: ftivers. The
leeward currency is ufed in the Danifti iflands in the purchafe
or negociation of bills on England : gold is valued at i dol-
lar/i^r dwt. or 4^^. currency /ifr Englifti grain.

The monies, coins, weights, and meafures of the Spanifti
iflands are the fame as thofe in Spanifti America, or Mexico ;
accounts being kept in pefos or dollars of 8 reals, fubdivided
into 16 parts, and alfo into 34 maravedis de Plata Mexicanos.
The gold coins are doubloons of 8 efcudos d'oro, worth 15
pefos ; halves and quarters in proportion. The filver coins
are, pefos Mexicanos or dollars, vnth halves and quarters,
6

Jamaica

Barbadoes

Grenada

St. Vincent
Tobago

Trinidad

Dominica
Nevis
Montferrat
Antigua -
St. Kitt's
Tortola -
Demerara
Eflequibo
Berbice (
Surinam '
St. Thomas T
St. John |.
Santa Cruz J

Damages.

8 per cent.
10 ditto

10 ditto

10 ditto
10 ditto

10 ditto

10 ditto
10 ditto
10 ditto
10 ditto
10 ditto
10 ditto

25 ditto
10 ditto

Imereft per
Annum.

Time how charged.

6 per cent.
6 ditto

6 ditto

8 ditto
8 ditto

6 ditto

6 ditto
8 ditto
8 ditto
8 ditto
8 ditto
8 ditto

6 ditto

10 ditto

f from date of
\ the bill.
i from the time
J of prefent-
j ation with
( proteft.
f from the bill
\ falling due.

ditto.

ditto,
f from date of
\ the proteft.

ditto.

ditto.

ditto.

ditto.

ditto.

ditto.

f from date of
\ prefentation.

("from date of
\ the proteft.

There are occafionally other charges befides the above,

fuch

WES '

fuch as poftage, notarial expences, and difference of ex-
change.

If a bill, drawn in the Weft Indies on any part of Great
Britain, be noted for non-acceptance, the holder may oblige
the drawer, by legal procefs, to give fecurity in the ifland
for the amount, without waiting for the bill being protefted
for non-payment. See Kelly's Cambift, vol. i.

West IJland, in Geography, one of the fmaller Philippine
iflands, near the fouth coaft of Mindoro. N. lat. 12° 18'.
E. long. 121° 12'. — Alfo, a fmall ifland at the eaft entrance
of the ftraits of Sunda. S. lat. 5° 27'. E. long. 106"

20' Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the

fouth coaft of Cumbava. S. lat. 8° 49'. E. long. 119° 2'.
West Kiri, a town of the ifland of Weftra, in a bay on
the fouth coaft. N. lat. 59° 8'. W. long. 2° 51'.

West Houghton, a townftiip in the parifli of Dean, and
county of Lancafter, England, contained, in 181 1, 663
houfes and 3810 inhabitants.

West Penn, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of Northampton, containing 947 inhabitants.

West Point, a town of Virginia, on the York river ;
35 miles E. of Richmond. N. lat. 37° 30'. W. long.
76° 56'.

West Point, a town of New York, on the right bank of
the Hudfon river, in the county of Orange. This was a
poft of great confequence, efpecially with refpeft to the
communication between the northern and the middle colo-
nies, and the pofleffion very defirable to the Britifli general,
who entered into a treaty with general Arnold the com-
mander to betray it. The adjutant-general of the Britirti
army, major Andre, was employed by fir Henry Clinton as
the agent on this bufinefs, and being difcovered, he was
executed as a fpy ; 42 miles N. of New York. N. lat.
41' 23'. W. long. 74°.

West Point, a cape at the weftern extremity of the
ifland of Anticofti. N. lat. 49° 50'. W. long. 64° 30'.

West River, a river of Virginia, which runs into Black
bay, N. lat. 36° 30'. W. long. 76° 17'. — Alfo, a river
of Maryland, which runs into the Chefapeak, N. lat. 38°
C4'. W. long. 76*^ 42' — Alfo, a river of the province of
Maine, which runs into Machias bay, N. lat. 44° 45'.
W. long. 67° 19'.

West River, or Wantajllc, a river of Vermont, which
runs into the Connefticut, N. lat. 42° 50'. W. long.
73° 31'-

West River Mountain, a mountain of New Hampftiire,
near Weft river.

West Town, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of Chefter, with 790 inhabitants.

West IVain, the weft ftiore of Hudfon's bay.
WESTBROUGH, a town of Mafl^achufetts, incor-
porated in 1717, in the counter of Worcefter, containing
1048 inhabitants; 33 miles W. of Bofton.

WESTBURY, a market-town and borough in the
hundred of the fame name, and county of Wilts, England,
is fituated at the diftance of 24 miles N.W. by W. from
Salifijury, and 97 miles W. by S. from London. Nothing
is known with certainty of its hiftory, till the reign of
Edward I., when it was conftituted a corporate town by
charter, under the jurifdiftion of a mayor, recorder, and
twelve capital burgefl"es. Weftbury fends two members to
parliament, and has done fo regularly fince the 27th year of
Henry VI., who renewed its charter of incorporation, and
facftowed upon it the additional privilege of being repre-
fented in the national councils. The right of eleftion is in
the holders of burgage tenures, being refident within the
borough, and not receiving alms : the mayor is the re-

12

WES

turning officer. The town confifts principally of one long
ftreet, running nearly in a direftion north and fouth. Ac-
cording to the population return of the year iSii, it con-
tained 351 houfes, and 1790 inhabitants, who were chiefly
engaged in the manufafture of woollens. A market is held
weekly on Fridays; and two fairs annually, when there is
ufually a large fupply of cattle, horfes, flieep, pigs, cheefe,
&c. The borough and hundred of Weftbury form only
one parifh : for the former, a court-leet is held by the mayor
in November annually ; and for the latter, one in May by
the fteward of the lord of the manor, at which two high
conftables are appointed for fecuring the public peace.
The only public buildings in this town which demand par-
ticular notice, are the town-hall and the church. The hall
is a convenient edifice, in which the borough-courts are
held : it is fituated near the centre of the town, and is alfo
appropriated in part as a wool-hall. The church is a large
ancient ftrufture of ftone, with a tower in the middle. In
it are feveral monuments in honour of perfons of confidera-
ble note.

About a mile to the fouth of Weftbury is the village of
Leigh, commonly called Weftbury-Leigh ; fuppofed by
feveral antiquaries to be the place defignated in Afler by
the word .^ggles, where king Alfred encamped on the
night previous to the battle of Ethandune.

Hey wood houfe, fituated about two miles due north from
Weftbury, was built in the reign of king James I., by
James, lord Ley, afterwards created earl of Marlborough.
It was long poflefled by the family of Phipps ; but is now

the property and feat of Abraham Ludlow, efq Beauties

of England and Wales, vol. xv. Wiltftiire. By J. Brit-
ton, F.S.A. 1814.

Westbury, a village in the hundred of Ford, and
county of Salop, England, fituated 8 miles W. by S. fron\
Shrewfljury. In this village is a refpeftable free-fchool ;
and in the church, among other monuments, is one raifed to
the memory of general Severne, who inherited Wallop-hall,
in this parifli. About two miles S.W. of Weftbury is
Cawfe, or Caux-Caftle, which is fuppofed to have been
erefted by Roger Corbett, who held of earl Roger de
Montgomery a traft of land confifting of thirty-nine
manors. It is conjeftured that he gave the above name to
this his capital feat, in allufion to a caftle in the Pays de
Caux, in Normandy. As he and his fon probably joined
with Robert de Belefme in his rebellion, the caftle is fup-
pofed to have been forfeited to Henry I., who gave it to
Paris Fitz-John, from whom it was taken by the Welfh.
It was reftored to the original lords, and in the firit of king
John a weekly market was obtained for it, at the inftance of
Robert Corbett. Its proximity to the Welfti frontiers
rendered its tenure uncertain, and we find that it was again
feized by the Welfli, and reftored by Henry III. In the
reign of Edward III., the male line of the family becoming
extinft, the caftle was transferred, by marriage of a daugh-
ter of the houfe, to the Staffbrds, earls of Stafford ; on the
execution of the laft of whom, Edward, duke of Bucking-
ham, it was forfeited to the crown, but was reftored to his
fon Edward. It was ahenated in the reign of Elizabeth
to Robert Harcourt, from whom it defcended to lord vif-
count Weymouth. The fcite of this caftle is perhaps one
of the mott lofty and commanding in the whole range of
the Salopian frontier. It is an infulated ridge, rifing ab-
ruptly from a deep ravine on one fide, and floping towards
a vaft valley, bounded by the Stiper-ftones on the other.
The keep-mount is fingularly fteep and towering ; it muft
have been afcended by fteps, or by a winding path, but no
traces of either at prefent remain ; part of a well is ftill dif-

tinguifliable j

WES

iiiiguiihable ; the caftle itfelf is nearly deftroyed. Parts of
one of the entrance-gateways, evidently of a more recent
date than the original caftle, are ftill to be difcerned. —
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. Shropfhire. By
R. Rylance, i8i i.

Westbuky, a townrtiip of Lower Canada, on the river
St. Francis

WESTENBERG, a town of the marggravate of
Anfpach ; 6 miles N.E. of Anfpach.

WES TENSEE, a lake of the duchy of Holftein ; 8
miles E. of Rendfburg. — Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Holftein, on the fide of the lake of the fame name ; 8 miles
S.E. of Rendft)urg.

WESTERBURG, a town of Germany, which gives
name to a lordfliip, fituated on the Wefterwald. The lords
of Wefterburg fucceeded the counts of Leiningen. They
are counts of Leiningen and lords of Wefterburg ; i6 miles
W.N.W. of Weilburg.

WESTERHAM, a market-town in the hundred of
Wefterham and Eden-bridge, lathe of Sutton, and county
of Kent, England, is fituated near the confines of the
county towards Surrey, at the diftance of 5 miles W. from
Seven-Oaks, and 22 miles S.E. by S. from London. The
manor was given by Edward L to the abbey at Weftmin-
fter, for the performance of certain religious fervices for the
repofe of the foul of queen Eleanor. He alfo granted
feveral privileges to the abbot, which were confirmed by
Edward III., who alfo gave permiflion to hold a weekly
market at Wefterham, which is ftill continued. After the
diifolution, Henry VIH. conveyed thefe eftates to fir John
Greftiam, younger brother of fir Thomas Greftiam, the
founder of the Royal Exchange : and his defcendant, fir
Marmaduke Greftiam, fold this manor to the Wardes of
Squerries, a refpeftable feat in this parifti, near the weft end
of the town; and John Warde, efq. is now the owner. Wef-
- terham is ftated, in the population return of 1 8 1 1 , to contain
272 houfes, and 1437 mhabitants. The market is now
held on Wednefday ; and here are two annual fairs. The
church, a fpacious edifice, contains a great variety of fepul-
chral memorials ; among which is a neat cenotaph in com-
memoration of major-general James Wolfe, a native of
this town, who was flaiii b-fore Quebec in 1759. This
town alfo gave birth to Dr. Benjamin Hoadley, who, in the
laft century, was fucceffively bifhop of Bangor, Hereford,
Sahftjury, and Winchefter.

Some fingular land flips are recorded by Hafted, as hav-
ing happened at different periods in this parifti. The firft
which is mentioned occurred in 1596, near Oakham -hill,
about a mile and a half fouthward from the 'own ; where
about nine acres of ground continued in motion for eleven
days ; fome parts finking into pits, and others rifiiig into
hills. A fimilar occurrence took place in 1756, at Toy's-
hill, about a mile and a half to the eaft of the town, where a
field of two acres and a half underwent confiderable altera-
tions of iui face, from an almoft imperceptible motion. —
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. viii. Kent. By
E. W. Brayley, l8o8. Hafted's Hiftory of Kent, 1778.

WESTERHAUSEN, a town of the biftiopric of
Halberftadt ; 3 miles E. of Regenftein.

WESTERLEY, a town of America, in Rhode ifland ;
30 miles S.S.W. of Providence.

WESTERLOO, a town of France, in the department of
the Two Nethes ; 15 miles EN.E. of Mahnes.

WESTERMO, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland ;
62 miles W. of Stockholm.

WESTERN Amplitude, Church, Horhon, and Octan.
See the feveral articles.

WES

Western, in Geography, a town of the ftate of Maffa-
chufetts, m the county of Worcefter, containing 1014 inha-
bitants ; 20 miles W. of Worcefter.
Western IJlmds. See Azores.
Western IJlands. See Hebrides.
Western Reef, rocks in the Spanifti Main, near the
Mofquito fhore. N. lat. 14° 42'. W. long. 82° 25'.

WESTERNACH, a river of Bavaria, winch runs into
the Mindel, 2 miles N. of Mindelheim.

WESTEROS, or Westesas. or Wefiem Arofta, fo
called to diftinguifti it from Oftra Aros or Eaftern Arofia,
the ancient name of Upfala, a town of Sweden, and capital
of Weftmannland, fituated on a fmall river clofe to the lake
Maler. This is efteemed by the native writers a place of
high antiquity ; and they derive its appellation, by a fanciful
etymology, from the river Ar, and Os, a mouth, and fuppofe
it alluded to by Tacitus, and by Jornandes the Gothic hif-
torian. However this be, the name occurs in the earlieU
times of Swedifti hiftory. Wefteros carries on a confider-
able commerce with Stockholm acrofs the lake Mseler ; par-
ticularly in copper and iron from the mines, which abound
in the province of Weftmannland. It is a large ftraggling
town, compofed of wooden houfes, and contains the ruins of
an ancient palace, formerly inhabited by the kings of
Sweden. It is a biftiop's fee ; and the cathedral, which is
built with brick, is celebrated for the tower, efteemed the
higheft in the kingdom ; the lower part of this tower is
fquare, and fupports an oftagon fpire, covered with copper.
Within this cathedral is the tomb of Eric XIV. Wefteros
has often fuffered much by fire, particularly in 17 14. It is
36 miles W.S.W. from Upfal. N. lat. 59° 36'. E. long.
16° 30'.

Westeros, a townftiip of New York, in Oneida county,
bounded N. by Boonville, E. by Steuben, S. by Floyd
and Rome, W. by Lee, which was erefted from the W.
part in i8ll. It is watered by fmall head waters of
Mohawk river, and has plenty of mill-feats. The foil, fur-
face, and produfts, are fimilar to thofe of Steuben and the
adjoining towns. In i8io, the population was 2416, and
the number of eleftors was 275. The lands are well cidti-
vated and produftive. The inhabitants are rich, and are
clothed in houfehold manufafture.

WESTERWALD, a diftrift of Germany, in the north
part of Wetteraw, or Wetteravia.

Westerwald Earth, a kind of earth mentioned by
Agricola, of a whitifh-yellow colour, of a like nature to the
terra Silefiaca, but preferable to it, as yielding more fait.
He tells us, that it dilTolves filver fo much better than other
menftrua, as to render it potable, and capable of being pre-
pared into a ufeful medicine in cephalic cafes. Boyle's
Works, vol. i. p. joi.

WESTERWYCK, in Geography, z k^-^ort of Sweden,
in the province of Smaland, fituated in a bay of the Baltic.
This bay is called Sparefund ; and near it is a cuftom-houfe,
where all homeward and outward bound (hips are fearched.
Wefterwyck formerly ftood two Swedifti miles higher up in
the country, on the fpot where the market-town of Gam-
melly now ftands. It has a good harbour, a commodious
quay, and a cloth manufafture, and carries a brifli trade in
fhip timber, and all forts of naval ftores ; 68 miles N. of
Calmar. N. lat. 57° 45'. E. long, le'' 24'.

WESTEY, a townfhip of Ohio, in the county of Wafh-
ington, containinsr 172 inhabitants.

WESTFIELD, a river of MafTachufetts, which rims
into the Connefticut, 4 miles S. of Springfield. — Alfo, a
town of the ftate of MaflTachufetts, in the county of Hamp-
ftiire, containing 2130 inhabitants ; 6 miles W. of Spring-
field.

WES

field.— Alfo, a pod-town of New York, on tlie eafl fide
of lake George ; 6 miles S. of Ticonderoga.— Alfo, a
townfhip of New York, in Richmond county, in Staten
ifland. At its fouthern extremity in the S.W. is a ferry
of three-quarters of a mile to Amboy, in New Jerfey. It
has one church near the centre, and well cultivated land.
The whole population in 1810 was 1444, and the number

of eleaors 139 Alfo, a town of Vermont, in the county

of Orleans, containing 149 inhabitants — Alfo, a town of
New Jerfey, in the county of Effex, containing 2152 mha-
bitants ; 8 miles W. of Elizabethtown.

WESTFORD, a town of Vermont, in Chittenden
county, containing 866 inhabitants. — Alfo, a poft-town of
Maffachufetts, in the county of Middlefex, containing 1330
inhabitants ; z8 miles N.W. of Bofton.— Alfo, a townfhip
of New York, in Otfego county ; 8 miles S.E. of Coo-
perftown, erefted in 1808 from the N.W. part of Worcef-
ter. Its furface is broken by hills and valleys, but has much
rich mould in the valleys. The hills are adapted to
grazing, and it has many trafts of meadow land. Its tim-
ber confifts of maple, beech, a(h, elm, bafs-wood, and
pine ; and the whole is irrigated abundantly by fprings and
brooks. In 1810 the whole population confifted of 1215
perfons, and the number of eleftors was 73, and that of
taxable inhabitants 177.

WESTGATE Bay, a bay of the Thames, on the coaft
of Kent, W. of Margate.

WEST GREENWICH, a town of Rhode ifland, in
the county of Kent, with 1619 inhabitants.

WESTHAM, a town of Virginia; 4 miles N.W. of
Richmond.

WESTHAMPTON, a poft-town of New York, in
the fouth-eaft part of Long ifland. — Alfo, a townfliip of
Mafl"achufetts, in the county of Hampftiire, containing 793
inhabitants ; 7 miles W. of Northampton.

WEST HANOVER, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in
the county of Dauphin, containing 2461 inhabitants.

WESTHAVEN, a townfliip of Connedicut ; 3 miles
W. S.W. of Newhaven.

WESTHOFEN, a town of Franee, in the department
of Mont Tonnerre ; 5 miles N.N.W. of Worms. — Alfo,
a town of France, in the department of the Lower Rhine ;
12 miles W. of Strafburg. ■

WESTHOVEN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Mark, at the foot of a mountain near the Roer ; once the
domain of the celebrated Witikind, and poflefled of confi-
derable privileges ; 4 miles S.W. of Schwiert. — Alfo, a
town of Vermont, in the county of Rutland, containing
679 inhabitants.

WESTING, in Navigation, the fame with departure.
WESTLAND, in Geography, a town of Ohio, in the
county of Guernfey, with 250 inhabitants.

WESTMAES, a town of the ifland of Beyerland ; 12
miles W. of Dort.

WESTM AN, or Westmonia, an ifland in the North fea,
near the coaft of Iceland. N. lat. 63° 20'. W. long. 20° 28'.

The Weftman iflands fuffered very much about the com-
mencement of the feventeenth century, by the piracies of
the Algerines ; almoft their whole population being deftroyed
or carried into captivity. In 1627 a large body of Algerine
pirates landed on various parts of the fouthern coaft of Ice-
land ; and not fatisfied with the booty they obtained, mur-
dered between forty and fifty of the inhabitants, and carried
off nearly four hundred prifoners of both fexes. Thefe un-
fortunate captives, transported to Algiers, were expofed
there to fo much wretchednefs, that nine years afterwards,
when the king of Denmark olstained their liberty by ran-

WES

fom, only thirty-feven out of the whole number were found
to be furviving ; of thefe, thirteen fucceeded in reaching
their native land. A prieft named Olaus Egilfon, a captive,
and releafed in 1629, left a MS. relation of this event, which
has been fince publiflied in Danifli.

Westm AN , a town on theW. coaft of the ifland of Stromoe.
WEST MANCHESTER, a townfliip of Pennfylvania,
in the county of York, containing 978 inhabitants.

WESTMANNL AND, or Westmania, a province of
Sweden, bounded on the north by Dalecarlia, on the eaft
by Upland, on the fouth by Sudermanland, Nericia, and
the Mxler lake, and on the W. by Warmeland ; about 1 10
miles in length, and 80 in breadth where wideft. The foil
is fertile, and confifts moftly of arable lands, with meadows,
paftures, and very fine woods in proportion ; and it is
reckoned the moft famous province in the kingdom for
mines. The iron trade carried on by the inhabitants of
Weftmannland, is the moft confiderable in all Sweden : the
quantity of iron exported annually from Wefteros, Ar-
boga, and Kioping, is very large. The fouth part of the
province chiefly confifts of arable and meadow lands, and
fupplies the inhabitants of the mine diftrifts with corn ; and
the northern parts abound in mine-works, and fine woods.
Weftmannland is well watered, both with rivers and lakes,
which yield a vaft plenty of fifli ; and the Maeler lake is a
great advantage to its commerce, as it opens a paflage from
this province to Stockholm. The chief fubfiftence of the
inhabitants is derived from agriculture and the mines, breed-
ing of cattle and fifliing. The wood, hammer-mills, &c.
alfo employ a great many hands.

WEST MARLBOROUGH, a townfliip of Pennfyl-
vania, in the county of Chefter, containing 917 inhabitants.

WESTMEATH, a county of Ireland, which formerly
was a part of the kingdom of Meath, but on the divifion
into counties was feparated from it, and both now form a
part of the province of Leinfter. It has Cavan on the N.,
Meath on the E., the King's county on the S., Rofcom-
mon, from which it is feparated by the Shannon, and Long-
ford on the W. Its greateft extent from E. to W. is 33
Irifli (42 Enghfli) miles, and from N. to S. 27 Irifli (34
EngUfli) miles. Its area meafures 231,538 acres, or 361
fquare miles Irifli, equal to 371,979 acres, or 577 fquare
miles Enghih meafure. The number of pariflies is 62, of
which 2 1 have churches, and all but three are in the
diocefe of Meath. The population was computed by Dr.
Beaufort to be 69,000. No part of this country is embar-
rafled with mountains, but a great number of acres are ren-
dered unproduftive by large lakes and extenfive bogs ; yet
the convenience of fuel, the abundance of gravelly hills, and
the variety of profpefts which arife from thefe beautiful
lakes, and the undulating form of the furface, render it a
very pleafant and healthful country. The foil is in general
Ught, but in fome places deep and rich ; and though there is
more of it kept under grafs than employed in tillage, yet
the plough is by no means neglefted ; for after fupplying
the home confumption, the farmers of this county largely
contribute to the exportation of oats from Drogheda. The
Royal Canal from Dublin to Tarmonbury, on the Shan-
non, was to pafs through this county, and it has been car-
ried as far as MuUingar ; but the difficulties into which the
company has fallen make it doubtful when the original de-
fign will be completed. Wellmeath is remarkably well
watered. Befides the Shannon, which forms part of its
weftern boundary, the Inny and Brofna, two rivers of
confiderable extent, pafs through its lakes, and infulate the
greater part of it. The Inny rifes in the county of Cavan,
and firft enters Lough Shelin, which feparates that county

from

W E S

From Weftmeath ; then in its courfe paffing; through the
loughs Derveragh and Iron, it is at length loft in that vaft
expanfe of the Shannon, called Lough Ree, or the Royal
Lake. The Brofna, rifing in Lough Iron, flows from it
to Lough Hoyle, after quitting which it paiTes the town of
Mullingar; it then expands into Lough Ennel, and when
again contradtcd, flowing by the town of Kilbeggan, it en-
ters the King's county, through which it proceeds to the
Shannon. As Weftmeath is nearly central, fo its dreams
flow in both direftions. Thofe which have been already
mentioned, joining the Shannon, are mixed with the Atlan-
tic ocean ; whilft other fmall ilreams, being collerted in the
river Dele, take an eailern direftion, and being united with
the Boyne, flow to the Irifli fea.

Befides Lough Shelin on the north, and Lough Ree on
the weftern boundary, there are iix confiderable lakes in this
county, and feveral fmall ones. Thefe are well ftored with
fifh of various kinds, and afford a number of beautiful pro-
fpefts ; yet it is to be regretted that fo many acres fliould be
almofl an unprohtable wafte. The fifh found in thefe lakes
are, perch, pike, bream, tench, trout, and very fine eels.
The trout are often of ten pounds weight, and as red as a
falraon. Such is the abundance, that Mr. Young tells us
that a child with packthread and a crooked pin is able to
catch perch enough in an hour to fupport a family for a day.
This territory once belonged to Mortimer, earl of March,
who married the daughter and heirefs of Lionel, duke of
Clarence, third fon of Edward III. This nobleman re-
fided much in Ireland, and was probably induced by the
beauties of the fituation to build a palace at Fahatty, on the
banks of Lough Derveragh, one of the fineft of thefe
lakes, the remains of which were faid above a century ago
to retain " the lineaments and footfteps of ancient ftate and
magnificence." When Richard II. was depofed by Henry
of Lancafter, Mortimer was the next in fuccefiion to the
throne, and he found it necelTary to conceal himfelf, which
he did by retiring to Fahatty. By a marriage with his
daughter, Richard, duke of York, fucceeded to his Irifh
property, and to his right of fucceffion. This nobleman
refided in Ireland for fome years as lord-lieutenant, before
circumftances enabled him to urge his claim to the crown,
which, after a long and bloody civil war, was obtained by
his fon. The attachment of the fettlers in Ireland to this
family was fliewn in the reign of Henry VII., by their
readily embracing the caufe of Simnel and Warbeck.

Mullingar is the (hire town of Weftmeath ; but Athlone
is a place of more confequence. For an account of thefe,
and of Kinnegad, Kilbeggan, Fore, &c. fee their refpeftive
articles in this work. Weftmeath has three reprcfentatives in
the imperial parliament, two for the county, and one for the
borough of Athlone. — Beaufort, Young, CoUettanea, &c.

WESTMINSTER, a fpacious, populous, and im-
portant city of the county of Middlefex, England, is
fituated on the north bank of the river Thames, and con-
ftitutes the weftern extremity of the metropolis. Although
in every refpeft, local pofition alone excepted, independent
of London, Weftminfter conftitutes a moft eflential portion
of the great metropolis of the Britifh empire. The line of
demarcation between thefe two cities has long indeed, by
the rapid increafe of buildings, ceafed to be perceptible to
general obfervation ; but it is not the lefs real and efficient.
The inhabitants of Weftminfter, it is true, confider them-
felves, in a general fenfe, as belonging to London ; but for
the purpofe of internal difcrimination, they confine the term
Weftminfter to its original fignification, the fcite and the
environs of the prefent collegiate, formerly the abbey-
church of St. Peter. Confidering the city in this reftrifted

Vol. XXXVIII.

W E S

fenfe, and St. Peter's church as the centre, the. latitude of
Weftminfter is 51° 29' 52" N., and the longitude 0° 7' 32"
W., from the meridian of the royal obfervatory in Green-
wich-park. St. Peter's church bears from St. Paul's in
London W.S.W. 2900 yards, or above one mile and five
furlongs. The form of Weilminfter, in its prefent extended
ftate, is triangular, having the bafe along the line of Oxford-
ftreet, which feparates it from Marybourne on the north ;
and the vertex on the Thames, where the buildings termi-
nate at Millbank on the fouth. The bafe, from Tyburn
turnpike, at the weftern extremity of Oxford-ftreet, to the
vicinity of Chancery -lane, at Lincoln's-inn, meafures nearly
two miles. The fide on the weft from that turnpike to the
vertex on Millbank, is alfo about two miles. The remaining
fide on the eaft, in a right hne from the vertex to Chancery-
lane, is one mile and fix furlongs. The ground occupied by
the buildings of the city and liberties therefore contains one
fquare mile and a half, or about one thouland acres. Weil-
minfter and London come into contaft at Temple-bar, the
boundary of the former city commencing at the Thames on
the weft of the Temple-buildings, and running north to
Lincoln's-inn. There quitting London, it turns weftward
to the eaftern extremity of Oxford-ftreet, excluding the
church and parifh of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, which belong
to the county of Middlefex.

General View of IVeJlmiiiJler From the extent of ground

occupied by the city and hberties, and from the general po-
pulation, amounting, by the enumeration of 181 1, to
162,085 perfons, Weftminfter would, in another pofition,
be fully entitled to rank high among the fecondary ca-
pitals of Europe. In common language, the great aggre-
gate of Weftminfter is termed a city ; bu tthat term belongs
only in ftriftnefs to the immediate environs of St. Peter's
church, while all the other parts of the community are
fpread over the diftrift or liberties belonging to the mo-
naftic eftablifhment, of which that church was a principal
member. The city is of great antiquity, in the fenfe in
which antiquity is eftimated in Britain ; but the occupation
of the liberties is of comparatively late date. This portion of
Weftminfter may alfo be diftinguifhed, as to its age, into the
old and the new towns, by a line running north from
Charing-crofs up St. Martin's-h-ine into Crown-ftreet, Soho-
fquare, and terminating near St. Giles's church, at the eaft-
ern end of Oxford-ftreet. On the eaft of this line lies the
old town, and on the weft fpreads out the new. The dif-
tribution of the ttreets, and the conftrutfion of the buildings
of the city, fufBciently indicate their early origin ; an ob-
fervation not unfuitable to the extremities of the old town.
The new town, on the other hand, having been formed
when better notions of diftribution and arrangement began
to prevail, poffeffes a high proportion of all the advantages
which fuch notions were calculated to produce. The abbey-
church of St. Peter is diftant from the limits of London at
Temple-bar, by the prefent ftreets along the Strand and
Whitehall, about 2400 yards, or one mile and three fur-
longs ; but from Temple-bar to the extremity of the Strand,
at Charing-crofs, is only 1500 yards, or feven furlongs.
The origin of this ftreet is manifeil from its name, having
been only a road along the ftrand, or bank of the Thames,
leading through the village of Charing to Weftminfter.
Without keeping however precifely along the margin of the
water, the road, owing to the iteep fall of the bank, was
carried forward at fuch a diftance as to permit fpacious
houfes and gardens to be formed on the flope between it
and the river. The refidence of the court, in early times,
was frequently in the Tower of London, or at fome place at
a diftance from the capital ; but under Henry III., who

S f reigned

WESTMINSTER.

reigned from I2i6 to 1272, iVie court ufually refided in
Weftminfter. The courts of juftice, which had before ac-
companied the king in his motions, were, by his confirm-
ation of Magna Charta in 1225, made ftationary in Weft-
minfter, where the parliament alfo generally met. For the
convenience of attendance on the king, the courts of juftice,
and the parliament, for the enjoyment alfo of good open
air, and an agreeable profpeft, many of the nobles, and ef-
pecially of the bifhops, ereAed palaces along the banks of
the river. Perfons of inferior ftation, whofe chief depend-
ance for bufmefs and fubfiftence reited on thofe great men,
were neceflarily induced to fix their abode m their vicinity.
In this way, a chain of dwellings, of various forts, was pro-
grefGvely raifed between the cities of London and Weft-
minfter, and united both with the intervening village of
Charing. The fituations of thofe palaces, or inns, as they
were called, are preferved to the prefent day, in the fnccef-
fion of ftreets retaining their names, which communicate
from the Strand on both fides, efpecially to the river.
Thus, for inftance, from Temple-bar we come to ftreets
bearing the names of Effex, Arundel, Norfolk, Surry,
Somerfet, Savoy, Beaufort, Cecil, Salilbury, Durham,
York, &c., all calling up perfonages memorable in former
times ; but of the houfes to which thofe names belonged, no
veftige, if we except the fragments of the palace of the Savoy,
and the prefent Northumberland-houfe, can now be faid to
remain. The oppofite fide of the Strand being cut off
from the ufe and the view of the Thames, was of courfe
little frequented ; but Exeter-change ftill indicates the refi-
dence of the celebrated Cecil, lord Burleigh, whofe fon
Thomas became earl of Exeter. Bedford and Southampton
ftreets declare the origin of their names. As late as in the
year 1353, when Edwardlll. was on thetlirone, the Strand
was an open highway, croffed and cut up by water-courfes from
the higher grounds. It was then repaired, but not before great
complaints had been made: for in the petition of the per-
fons who lived near the palace of Weftminfter to Edward II.,
" the footway from Temple-bar to the palace" is ftated to
be fo bad, that " the feet of horfes, and rich and poor men,
received conftant damage, efpecially in the rainy feafon ; the
footway being interrupted by thickets and bufhes." From
Temple-bar to the palace of Savoy, the Strand feems to have
been paved, or properly made about 1385, in the reign of
Richard II. : but the paving went no further till the latter
part of Elizabeth's reign ; and in the 35th of Henry VIII.
the road was ftated to be " full of pits and floughs, very
perilous and noifome." In the year 1533 the Strand took
the form of a ftreet, bordered on each fide with houfes and
gardens ; among which was Covent -garden, corruptcdly fo
called from the garden of the convent, or abbey of Weft-
minfter, to which it belonged. Charing was ftill a detached
village ; St. Martin's church ftood literally in the fields ;
and St. Giles's, alfo furnamed in the fields, ftood in a
diftant hamlet in the country. Such, however, was the in-
creafe of the town in the end of Elizabeth's reign, that in
l6oo St. Martin's-lane was built on both fides; and al-
though St. Giles's church ftill ftood detached, the great
weft road, now called Holborn, (properly Old-bourne, from
the name of a fmall brook running along it,) was formed
into a ftreet all the way into London at Fleet-ditch.
Covent-garden and Lincoln's-inn-fields were partially built
on, as were Drury-lane and Long-acre, and principally in-
habited by the gentry. The village of Charing was long
before this time, or in 1292, adorned with a crofs by Ed-
ward I., being the laft fpot where the body of his queen
refted on the way to Wtftminfter. In 1647 '' ^^^ re-
moved, and in part employed in pavement at Whitehall ;

9

but foon after the Reftoration, its place was filled, as it now
is, by a ftatue of Charles I. on horfeback. From Charing
to Weftminfter, the ,bank of the Thames was occupied by
the refidences of royal, or other diftinguiftied perfonages.
Firft was a palace for the king of Scotland, when he came
to court to attend the parliament, of which, on account of
lands he held in England, he was confidered a member. An
ancient painting, formerly in the college of arms in London,
reprefented Edward I. fitting in parliament, having on his
right-hand Alexander III., king of Scotland ; and on
his left, Llewellyn, prince of Wales. The palace has long
been effaced, but its fcite is ftill called Scotland-yard. To
this fucceeded in pofition the palace of Whitehall, which
will be noticed in another place. The church of St. Martin
ftands within the limits of the old quarter, but its parifli
originally extended over the whole of the new quarter of
Weftminfter ; and out of it, as buildings increafed, the pa-
rifhes of St. Paul, Covent-garden, St. James, St. Anne, and
St. George, have fucceffively been formed.

Among the various improvements lately introduced into
the ftreets of Weftminfter, muft be reckoned the fubltitution
of gas-lights for oil-lamps, now much in ufe in fhops as
well as without doors. The gas, or vapour, is extrafted,
by a fpecies of diftillation, from pit-coal. Purified from the
incombuftible aerial fubftances with which it is extricated
from the coal, by tranfmiflion through a body of water, the
inflammable or carburetted hydrogen gas is conveyed by
pipes, like water, to the places where it is wanted. By the
admiflion of flame to the orifice of the pipe, the gas takes
fire, producing together with a ftrong heat, a lively light of
peculiar force and brilliancy. The coals from which, in
London and Weftminfter, the gas is obtained with the
greateft effeft, are the Lancaftiire cannel, and the Scotch
fplint coals. Newcaftle coal is found to be much lefs
pure, but from its cheapnefs is now moftly ufed.

Origin and Hijlory of Wejiminjler. — Much learning and
more fancy have been employed in devifing an etymology
for the name of London ; but the name of Weftminfter is
too obvious to afford exercife for the fl<ill or the ingenuity
of the philologift or the antiquary. The Saxon terms cora-
pofing the latter name evidently refer to the church of St.
Paul, in London, in the eaft. Stowe indeed, and feme
later writers, carry the reference to a monaftery, not far
from the Tower of London, called the Eaft-mintter. But
that eftablifliment was founded only by Edward III., in the
middle of the fourteenth century, long pofterior to that of
Weftminfter, and could not therefore have given origin
to the latter inftitution. The hiftory of Weftminfter is
founded on, and clofely interwoven with that of the mo-
naftery of St. Peter : for to the exiftence and importance
of the latter, the rife, progrefs, and profperity of the formep
muft be attributed.

The fcite of the church and monaftery of St. Peter was
in early times an ifland, inclofed by the main channel of the
Thames on the eaft, and by a collateral branch of that river
on the weft. Hiftory furnifhes no information concerning
the limits or the extent of this infulated traft ; but by a
careful examination of the ground, even under all its
alterations, the courfe of the collateral branch may ftill
be difcovered. This branch feems to have broken off
from the Thames to the eaft of Chelfea hofpital, to
have paffed northward, along the natural hollow in which
the water ftill flows to fupply Chelfea water-works, and
thence over a fhort interval, now covered with the houfes of
Pimlico, into the depreffion occupied by the canal in
St. James's park, acrofs the fcite of Whitehall into the
Thamea. In this cafe th« iflaad was in length from S.W.

to

WESTMINSTER.

to N.E. about one miie and three-quarters, and in breadth
in the middle about half that diftance. Of this fpacious
tra<ft, by far the greatell portion mull, in former times, have
been regularly overflowed by each returning tide of the
river ; as it would be at the prefent time, were not the em-
bankments bordering the Thames carefully preferved. The
age of thefe mounds is unknown ; J)Ut to no others than the
heads of the monailery to whom the ifland belonged can
their formation be reafonably afcribed ; and to them is
Weftminller therefore indebted for the many advantages de-
rived from the lands refcued from inundation. The em-
bankments mud have been conftrufted, and the ground
within them well improved in 1386 : for in that year abbot
Litlington died in the manor-houfe of Neyte, fituated with-
in that fpace. So defirable was that fttuation, that the duke
of Lancalter, flyling himfelf king of Caftille, had re-
quelled leave to refide in the houfe during the fitting of a
parliament. The name of this place ttill furvives, although
abfurdly corrupted into Neat-houjes. In an authentic char-
ter, dated in 785, Offa, king of Mercia, grants certain
lands to the monailery of St. Peter : its fituation is defcribed
to be in " Torneia in loco terribili ad Weftmunfttr." In the
writings of Sulcardus, a monk of this monailery who wrote
in the eleventh century, the name is Thorneia. Both thefe
names are fuppofed to be formed from the Saxon Thorn-ey,
the ifle of thorns and briars, exprefling the wild uncultivated
ftate of the " terrible fpot" noticed by OfFa. Forbidding
as fuch a fituatlon now would be, it bore a different afpedt
in ancient times ; for it poirefled alike fecurity from attack,
and feclufion from the world. To the religious ellablilh-
ment on Thorney, the rife, progrefs, and profperity of Well-
minfter are to be afcribed ; but the origin and the date of
that ellabhfhment itfelf are involved in obfcurity. The pro-
bability, however, is, that it was founded by Sebert, king of
the Eall Saxons, who died in 616. That it had in 785 ac-
quired celebrity, is evident from the charter before -mention-
ed, granted by Offa. From Sebcrt's time the monailery
feems to have been only a priory ; but by OfFa it was changed
to an abbey, of which the abbots arofe, in the courfe of a
few years, to the highefl dignity of which their rank was
fufceptible. To demonllrate more fully his attachment to
the patron of the abbey, St. Peter, Offa in it depofited his
coronation-robes and regalia. From this circumllance, per-
haps, as much as from fubfequent papal authority, St. Pe-
ter's church afterwards became, and ftill is ufed for the in-
auguration of the Enghlh fovereigns ; and to the dean, as
fuccelTor of the abbot, are intrulled many of the implements
and ornaments employed in that important funftion, which
was firll there performed on WiUiam the Conqueror, in 1066.
After fuffering feverely in common with other works of the
fame charadler, by the ravages of the Danes, the abbey was
reftored by Edgar, who began to reign in 957, on the inlliga-
tion of Dunllan, who removed thither, probably from Glaf-
tonbury, twelve monks of the order of St. Benedift. It is
neverthelefs to Edward the ConfefTor that the inflitution is
principally indebted for its fplendour. Sulcardus informs
us that Edward had vowed to go to Rome, there to exprefs
his pious gratitude to heaven forhis unexpetted ellablilhment
on the Englilh throne. The many inconveniences, how-
ever, by which the performance of this engagement muft
have been attended, induced him to fubllitute in its Head
fome other mode of tellifying his thankfulnefs. He there-
fore undertook to rebuild the church and monailery of St.
Peter in a magnificent manner, and endow them with ample
revenues. Of the llrufture itfelf we only know from Mat-
thew Paris, that " it was conllrufted in a new kind of ar-
rangement, from which many perfons in erefting churches

took a pattern, and ftrove to imitate it." Speaking of the
fame edifice, fir Chrillopher Wren refers to an account
printed from an ancient manufcript. This accouat he tranf-
lates into language proper for builders, in this way. " The
principal area or nave of the church being raifed high, and
vaulted with fquare and uniform ribs, is turned circular to
the eaft. This on each fide is Urongly fortified with a dou-
ble vaulting of the aifles in two llories, with their pillars
and arches. The crofs-building, contrived to contain the
choir in the middle, and the better to fupport the lofty
tower, rofe with a plainer and lower vaulting ; which tower
then fpreading with artificial winding-llairs, was continued
with plain walls to its timber-roof, which was well covered wath
lead." The flriking novelty in this llrufture was probably
the introduftion of an imitation of a crofs in the plan : for
the earlier Saxon churches ar.; fuppofed to have had no
tranfepts. The grants of lands, and of relics, bellowed by
Edward on his new foundation, were ample beyond all pre-
cedent. He likewife inverted it with peculiar privileges,
exempting if. from all fecular fervices and authority, even
from epilcopai fuperintendance. But this lall exemption
brought on each new abbot the trouble and expence of a
journey to Rome, to be confirmed by his hohnefs in perfon.
Edward died on the Jth of January, 1066, having furvived
but a few days the fple.ndid ceremony of the confecration of
the new llrudlure. Frovn thefe privileges, afterwards ex-
tended to a confiderable fp^ce connefted with the abbey,
may be traced in a great meafcire the prefent civil conllitu-
tion of Weftminller. While Laurence was abbot in 11 63,
in the reign of Henry II., the power was obtained from
pope Alexander III. for his ufing the mitre, ring, and
gloves, diftinguilhing marks of epifcop.al dignity. But this
privilege became, in the fequel, of ftill hjgher importance ;
for mitred abbots came to fit in parha\7ient as well as
bifhops, and to enjoy every honour to which bifhops, as
lords of parhament, were entitled. Laurence tiying before
the papal approbation of the meafure was fof.mally an-
nounced, his fuccelTor Walter was the firft abbot of Weft-
minller who afiually enjoyed the honours of the mitre. The
reign of Henry III., of great importance in the hiftory of
England in general, is not lefs fo to that of Weftminller
abbey in particular. In it the greater part of the edifice was
rebuilt, in the lofty elegant ftyle by which it is chiefly cha-
rafterized ; a ftyle which about that time began to be
adopted in ecclefiaftical buildings throughout Europe. As
early as 1220, although then only a youth, Henry laid the
firft ftone of the chapel of the Virgin, which was afterwards
fuperfeded by the gorgeous ftrufture of Henry VII. ; but
it was not until 1245 that he direfted the church to be en-
larged, and the tower, with the eaftern part, to be con-
ftrudled anew. In 1 269 the building was opened for divine
fervice, and the body of Edward the ConfefTor was depofited
in a fplendid ftirine eredled behind the high altar.

The abbey of Weftminfter is entitled to the peculiar ve-
neration of every friend of literature, of fcience, and of
civil and religious liberty ; for within its bounds was erefted
the firft apparatus for printing books employed in this ifland.
WiUiam Caxton, a mercer of London, during a long refi-
dence on the continent as agent for the affairs of his com-
pany, and in 1464 as minifter from Edward IV. to the duke
of Burgundy, became acquainted with the art of printing,
then very recently praftifed in Lower Germany. In 147 1
he printed at Cologne a work which he had tranflated from
the French into Englilh ; and returning home in the follow-
ing year, he, under the patronage of the abbot of Weftmin-
fter, commenced printing in the almonry, or eleemofynary
adjoining to the abbey. In March 1474 appeared his book
S f 2 on

WESTMINSTER.

oil ilic " Game at Chefs," which may be regarded as the firft;
produAion of the Englifti prefs. (See Printing.) The
honour of being the firll proteftor of printing in England
has been frequently affigned to John Iflip : but this mull be
erroneous ; for he became a monk only in 1480, and aroie to
be abbot only in 1500. To one of his predeceflbrs, there-
fore, to Efteney, elefted in 1474, or rather to Millyng,
elefted in 1469, is the introdiiftion of printing to be attri-
buted. The abbacy of Iflip is however memorable on an-
other account. In it was founded, on the 24th of January,
1502-3, the celebrated chapel of Henry VII. Having
obtained the crown as heir to Henry VI., he refolved to
ereft a fumptuous monument for his remains, in the expeft-
ation of his canonization. The firft part of the projeft
■was carried into effeft : but the court of Rome requiring a
greater fum for compliance with his folicitation than the
prudent H-'nry of Richmond cared to beftow, the laft part
of the prcjeft was relinquifhed. Weltminfter-abbey was
now on tLe eve of great alterations. The fchemes of
Henry VIII. bei^an to be put in pradlice. On the 16th of
January, 1539-AC ". furrcnder of the whole eftablifhment
was executed by abbot Benfon of Bollon, and twenty -four
of the monks. The annual revenue is ftated to have then
been nearly 4000/.; a fum of great real value, wiien the
pound of beef was regulated at one halfpenny, and that of
veal and mutton at three farthings.

Prior to the difiblution of th? monafteries, Henry had re-
folved to convert feme of them into epifcopal fees, to be
endowed with a portion of the lands or the revenues which
that difTolution would place at his difpofal. Of the pro-
jefted fees, Weftminiler was to be one ; and on the 17th of
December, 1540, the abbey-church was, by letters patent,
conftituted a cathedral, with a bifhop, a dean, twelve pre-
bendaries, and other inferior officers. The new bifhop was
Thomas Thirleby, then dean of the chapel-royal. The late
abbot Benfon was, for his ready compliance with Henry's
wilhes in the change of the abbey, appointed dean of the
new cathedral : certain monks became prebendaries, minor
canons, and ftudents in the univerfity : the others were dif-
miffed with pcnfions, decrealing from ten pounds down to
five marks. The abbatial manfion was converted into a
palace for the bifhop, whofe annual revenue is varioufly
Hated from fix hundred to eight hundred pounds. The
diocefe included the whole county of Middlefex, with the
exception of FuUiam, the rural refidence of the bifliops of
London. The endowment of the dean and chapter was not
completed till the 5th of Auguft 1542, when lands, in va-
rious parts of the kingdom, were affigned, of the yearly
value of 2598/., out of which, however, the fum of 4C0/.
was to be paid for the falaries of five profeffors of divinity,
law, phyfic, Hebrew, and Greek, in each of the univer-
fities. A farther fum of 166/. ly. ^d. was to fupport 20
ftudents in the univerfities ; and two mailers, with 40 gram-
mar fcholars, were to be maintained in the fchool of Weft-
miniler. The new bifhopric was, however, but of ihort
duration ; for on the 29th of March 1550, bifhop Thirleby
was required to furrender it to Edward VI., and it was foon
afterwards reunited to that of London. Part of the pof-
feffions of St. Peter's cathedral were appropriated to the
repairs of St. Paul's in London ; whence arofe the proverb
of " robbing Peter to pay Paul." In the edicl for fup-
preffmg the fee of Weftminiler, no mention was made of
the eftablifhment of a dean and prebendaries, &c. ; it be-
came confequently a qneftion whether they were to be con-
tinued. To remove all doubt on this head, an aft pafTed in
parhament, declaring the church ftill to remain a cathedral,
with the former eftabliftiment, but within the diocefe of

London. On the acceffion of Mary to the throne, tiic ic-
ftoration of the monaftery to its priftine condition was car*
ried into efteA. The abbot, John Fackenham, furvi\-ing
Mary, was the only ecclefiaftic of his rank who fat in tl:;-
firft parliament of Elizabeth in 1558; and he took th':
lowell place on the bifhops' bench. But on the 21ft of
May 1560, the monks were again difplaced, and the churc!;
again rendered collegiate, on a bafis very fimilar to tb i'.
which had been eftabhfhed by her father, Henry VI 11.
The laft dean of EHzabeth's appointment was the learned
Lancelot Andrews, afterwards bifhop of Winchefter, dean
of the chapel-royal, and a fpecial favourite of James I.
Since the reftoration by Ehzabeth, if we exclude the ge-
neral diforganization of fimilar inftitutions, in confequence
of the internal diforders which commenced in the reign of
Charles I., the collegiate eftablifhment of the abbey-church
of Weftminfter has undergone no material alteration.

Abbey-Church Such is briefly the hillory of the reli-
gious eftabhfhment on Thorney, to which modern Weft-
minfter is indebted for its origin and profperity. Of this
eftablifhment, the church remains in a great meafure entire ;
the buildings appropriated for the abbot and the monks have
undergone great alterations ; but their general arrangement
may ftill be traced, and they are ftill allotted for the refi-
dence of the perfons attached to the fervice of the church
and the dependent fchool. For a fully detailed defcription
of this celebrated church, of its architeftural beauties and
defefts, of the fepulchral monuments it contains, of the cere-
monies performed within its walls, and for a recapitulation
of the important tranfaftions connefted with its hiftory,
recourfe muft be had to the various works publifhed fpe-
cially on the fubjeft. This church is a diftinguilhed fpeci-
men of that mode of architedlure, commonly but abfurdly
ftyled Gothic, a term which, however improper, moft writers
ftill continue to employ, though no fpecific ftyle or clafs of
building is defined by it. Erefted in the 13th century,
when buildings in this ftyle of architefture were well under-
ftood, and fliilfuily conftrufted, it would doubtlefs have pof-
feffed, if not the fpacioufnefs, at leaft the light and airy and
elegant appearance for which fuch ftruftures are generally
remarkable. But by the introduftion of fepulchral monu-
ments, elevated above the level of the choir, many of them
magnificent indeed in themfelves, but certainly mifplaced as
far as regards the internal arrangement of the building, that
attraftive appearance muft very early, perhaps from the be-
ginning, have been injured. Owing to thofe encroachments,
it has been neceffary to bring forward the prefent choir
much beyond its ufual ftation, not only intercepting the
tranfepts, but advancing a confiderable way into the nave,
or body of the church. The building confifts of a nave
and two fide ailles, feparated by ranges of tall, flender,
cluftered columns, fupporting the roof raifed to a great ele-
vation, ftill further increafed in appearance by the narrow-
nefs of the fpace between the columns. The length of the
whole edifice within the walls is 360 feet, the breadth of the
nave and aifles 72 feet, the length of thecrofs or tranfept 195.
Theinfertion of St. Edward's chapel in the choir is particu-
larly unfavourable ; for that important divifion of the build-
ing was from the beginning very Ihort : nor is it eafy to dif-
cover the reafon of this deviation from general ufage. On
entering the great weftern door, the whole body of the
church difplays itfelf to view in a very ftriking manner.
Loftinefs, lightnefs, and elegance, are its marking features ;
but thefe features are much obfcured, and diftrafted by the
numerous difcordant monuments, which fill up the open
fpaces, and cover the walls. The nave is feparated from
the choir by a fcreen ; and eaft of the latter is a chapel,

raifed

WESTMINSTER.

raifed above the level of the pavement, appropriated to the
ihrine of Edward the Confefibr, but alfo occupied by feve-
ral monuments to royal and noble perfons. At the eaft
end of this is a fumptuoiis architeftural chantry to the me-
mory of Henry V. Still more to the eaft is the fplendid
and interefting chapel, called Henry the Seventh's, becaufe
begun by him, and founded for his maufoleum. On the
north and fouth fides of the choir are aides, and alfo fome
fmall chapels, dedicated to different faints.

From the time of Henry VH. little was done, although
very requifite, to the exterior of Weilminfter church, till
that of George H., when many parts of it were coated over
with ftone, and otherwife repaired at the public expence.
Some time before this, the two towers at the weft end were
completed from defigns of fir Chriftopher Wren, as they
now appear. In covering theoutfide of the church, the rich
fculpture, and the ftatues which formerly adorned the but-
treffes, could not be reftored. Thofe parts feem now, there-
fore, unfuited to the highly ornamented building to which
they are attached : nor do the weftern towers affimilate with
the ftyle of the fabric to which they belong. The paint-
ings in the great weft window were executed in 1735 : the
window in the fouth tranfept was alio renewed in 1 705. In
the interior of the church, the pillars dividing the nave from
the fide aifles guide the eye to the fine painted window at
the extremity of the chbir, which, in former times, when the
altar-piece was low, muft have had a fine effedl m giving a
lighter air to that part of the building. The altar-piece
was brought hither by queen Anne iu 1706 : it had for-
merly belonged to Whitehall chapel. The marble columns
of the Corinthian order, however elegant in themfelves, but
ill accord with the ftyle of the ftrudture around them ; an
incongruity but too often fandlioned in other edifices of the
fame kind in England. In front of the communion-table is
ftill to be feen, although woefully mutilated, a curious Mo-
faic pavement of lapis lazuli, porphyry, jafper, ferpentine,
touch-ftone, &c. placed there by abbot Ware in 1272, who
brought it from the continent, where he procured the mate-
rials during a million to Rome. The black and white
lozenged marble pavement of the choir was the gift of the
celebrated Dr. Buftiy, mafter of the fchool annexed to the
church. In the centre of Edward the Confelfor's chapel,
ftands the mutilated body of the Ihrine, containing, in a
wooden cafe, the afhes of St. Edward ; and around the
fides of the chapel are ranged the monuments of feveral
kings, queens, and princefies, from Henry III. to Eliza-
beth, the daughter of Henry VII. ; all of which are ex-
tremely curious and interefting. In this chapel are preferved
the chairs, one very ancient, the other made for the laft
queen Mary, in which our kings and queens are feated
within the choir at their coronation. In the frame of that
ufed by the king is the fatal ftone, to the pofition of which
the fovereignty of Scotland, or rather of the Scotch na-
tion, was attached.

The choir of the church, in the form of a femi-oftagon,
was furrounded by eight chapels, now reduced to feven, by
the appropriation of the central chapel to be the porch of
that of Henry VII.

The crofs-aifles or tranfepts of the church, as well as the
nave, have long been confecrated to the interment of per-
fons in various ways diftinguilhed in the world. The fouth
tranfept has only an eaftern aiflc, the weft being occupied
by part of the cloifters. This tranfept, named Poets'-
corner, contains many interefting memorials of men whofe
genius and talents in Icience, literature, and the arts, entitle
them to the honourable recoUeftion of pofterity. Of thefe
monuments, many are highly interefting as memorials of

eminent charaAers, and others as fpecimens of the fculptor's
art. No fmall number of them, however, and thofe not
the leaft fumptuons and obtrufive, are entitled to no regard
on either account, being vaft maffes of marble devoid of
beauty and tafte. It is, however, to be lemt-mbered, that
to be "numbered among the illuftrious dead, ' within the
walls of the abbey-church of Weilminfter, now is and long
has been purely a queftion of finance with the officers at-
tached to the foundation.

Chapel of Henry V\l. — In ancient cathedrals and other
churches of confiderable extent, it was the practice to appro-
priate to the peculiar fervice of the Virgin, the chapel
fituated immediately behind the high altar, and in the
eaftern recefs of the building. Such a chapel originally
belonged to the abbey-church ; and on its Icile with fome
adjoining fpace, under the fame patronage, but now beft
known by liis own name, Henry VII. conilrufted his mag-
nificent and admirable chapel. When we contemplate this
mott curious fpecimen of Englifli architefture, and confider
the expence which muft have been encountered to complete
it, we are utterly unable, on any rational grounds, to recon-
cile its ereftion with the acknowledged difpofition and
charafter of the founder. In perufing the hiftory of nations,
we muft be ftruck with the frequent recurrence of this faft,
that men of all degrees, particularly of the higheft, have
afted on the vain fuppofition, that, by a fingle oilentatious
aft of beneficence or munificence, not unfrequently pofthu-
mous, they could acquire immortal fame, and even lecure the
favour of heaven, however unworthily they may have per-
formed their duty in life. Of this fact, the chapel of
Henry VII. ftands a memorable example ; for in no one
aft of his life and reign, did that prince give evidence of
any one of thofe feelings from which the conftruftion of
this fuperb ftrufture cuuld be expefted to proceed. Of
benevolence, however, in a certain fenfe, no fovereign ever
had a better conception than Henry. The vaft fums he
exafted under this fpecious title, far exceeded the demands
for which they were required : he accordingly amafTed great
wealth, and at his death his treafury was enormoufly rich.
Towards his end, Henry, fenfible of a mif-fpent reign, endea-
voured to atone for his offences by various charitable works,
by beftowing a large fum on King's-college chapel in Cam-
bridge, and in particular by founding, eredling, and endow-
ing his chapel in Weftminfter. From the elegance and
richnefs of the defign, and from the IkiU and labour neccf.
fary to complete it, we are warranted to conclude that the
moft eminent artifts and artificers of the country were em-
ployed. The firft ftone of the new chapel was laid by the
hands of abbot John Illip, and other perfons of the court, in
the prefence of Henry, on the 24th of January 1502-3.
How much of the work was executed at the king's death,
on the 2 1 ft of April 1509, is unknown ; but moft probably
the mafonry muft have been nearly, if not altogether, com-
pleted. Towards the finifhing of the whole, Henry left, in
the hands of the abbot, 5000/. with provifion for more if
required. The fuperb tomb for the king is particularly
dtfcribed in his will ; but a different plan was followed,
and the work was finifhed by his ion Henry VIII. The
ground-plan of the building confifts of a body nearly a
fquare, terminated at the eaft end by a femicircular part,
compofed of five fides of an octagon. The extreme length
of the whole ch.apel, including the porch, is 134 feet, and
the correfponding breadth 82 feet 6 inches. On viewing
the exterior of the building, we are ftruck by the apparent
flightnefs of the work ; for inftead of walls, the principal
weight and quantity of the whole refts on a few detached
piers and lateral buttreffes. This peculiar charafter of

ancient

WESTMINSTER.

ancient ecclefiaftical buildings, tnanifefts great fcience and
ftill in the architeds ; for to raife lofty walls, and poife
ponderous wide-fpreading roofs on piers and columns, re-
quires the niceft geometrical accuracy. The lides are fup-
ported by five odagonal piers ; thofe of the femicircular
end are united to wedge-fhaped maffes, entering fo far mto
the chapel, as to correfpond with the pillars feparatmg the
aifles from the nave. The interftices between the external
piers are filled by windows of a peculiar plan and great
delicacy of workmanlhip. The roof over the nave refts on
perpendicular walls, fupported by very flender internal
pillars, and is ftrengthened all around by flying buttrelTes or
femi-arches from the external piers. Within, the chapel
is divided by two ranges of pillars into a nave 33 feet
6 inches in width, and fide-aifles each 1 1 feet 3 inches wide.
The internal roof is executed in ftone, with pendants and
numerous ribs. By the advance of the piers in the circular
part, that end is formed into five fmall chapels or oratories ;
but the fide-aifles in their original had no feparation from
the nave, except the ranges of pillars. They are now,
however, unfortunately cut off by a row of ftalls on each
fide, on the line of the pillars, and (hooting up with their
fretted and frittered canopies as high as the roof of the
aifles. What tends to heighten the deformity of thefe ftalls,
is the number of gaudy flags of the knights of the Bath,
who are inftalled in this chapel, fufpended all around, at
once concealinir many beautiful parts of the architefture
and fculpture, and utterly at variance with the elegance and
the defign of the edifice. The entrance to the chapel is by
a flight of fteps to a magnificent gateway, but from its
fituation dark in itfelf, and darkening the extremity of the
adjoining church. The chief objeA within the chapel is
the tomb of the founder, inclofedby a fcreen of giltbrafs: it
is a piece of admirable workmanfliip, executed by Torregiano
of Florence, a rival of Michael Angelo. There alfo, ftill
in oppofition, lie the jealous and vindiftive Elizabeth and
her unfortunate viftim Mary Stuart. Thus in a comer of
the abbey-church, a few feet only of earth now feparate the
once formidable political antagonifts William Pitt and
Charles James Fox. The bronze figure of Margaret
Tudor, mother of Henry VII., is one of the fineft pieces of
fculpture in the whole building. In viewing this chapel,
two fubjefts always excite regret ; the fituation in which it
ftands, and the materials of which the exterior is con-
ftrufted. Attached to the end of the abbey-church, with
which its mode of conftruAion has but a very diflant re-
lation ; although in itfelf, if fumiflitd with a fuitable frontif-
piece, worthy to be a feparate and independent work, it now
finks into a mere appendage. The exterior furface of the
chapel is in many parts corroded and confumed ; and moft of
the fculpture is now quite defaced. Some years ago parlia-
ment voted a confiderable fum of money, to be annually
applied to defray the expence of new-cafing the whole
edifice with Bath ftone, and the work has been carried on
under the direftions of Mr. T. Gayfere, with fcrupulous
attention to the form and manner of the original workman-
fliip. Beneath the chapel is the vault prepared on the
death of Caroline, queen of George II. in 1737, and con-
taining the remains of fevtral members of the prefent royal
family. The cloifter of the abbey, ftill fufBciently entire,
and containing numerous fepulchral infcriptions, communi-
cates with the ancient chapter-houfe, which is of oftagonal
form, and the roof is fupported by a branching central co-
lumn. It was erefted, according to Matthew of Weft-
minfter, in 1250, by Henry III. This building, which,
till the time of Edward VI., ferved as a houfe for the
commons of England, is now employed to preferve public

records ; amongft them, the celebrated Liber de W'mlonia,
as it was called by the compilers, or Domefday-book, as it
was not unaptly named by thofe perfons whom it regarded.
This work, the moft ancient and venerable record, or ftatif-
tical account, as we now fpeak, of which this or any other
country can boaft, was completed about 1086, in the end of
the reign of Wilham the Conqueror. (See Domesday-
Book. ) In the fame chapter-houfe are alfo preferved the
recorded proceedings of the notorious ftar-chamber, fo
called from the ftar-like ornaments of the roof.

School. — The cloifter alfo communicates with the cele-
brated fchool of Weftminfter, which was refounded by
Elizabeth in 1590, with an eftablifliment for the claflical
inftruftion of forty boys. After a certain time, the fcho-
lars, if duly quaUfied, are felecled alternately for their re-
fpective inftitutions, by the dean of Chrift-church, Oxford,
and the mafter of Trinity college, Cambridge. Befides the
youths on the foundation, from three to four hundred, others
ufually receive their education in the fchool, at the ex-
pence of their refpeftive parents.

Parijh Churches of Wejlminfier The city and liberties are

nowdiftributed into ten parifhes. Within the city are St. Mar-
garet's and St. John the evangelift's ; within the liberties, St.
Martin's, St. James's, St. George's, St. Anne's, St. Paul's,
St. Clement's, St. Mary's, and the Savoy. St. Margaret's,
the original church of the city, is a fimple plain ftrufture. It
is handfomely fitted up to accommodate the commons of the
kingdom on certain folemn occafions ; as the choir of the
neighbouring abbey-church is allotted to the peers of parlia-
ment. One pecuhar ornament of St. Margaret's church is
a magnificent painted window reprefenting the crucifixion.
This very interefting piece was executed in Holland as a pre-
fent for Henry VII. St. John's church, belonging to a
parifti formed out of St. Margaret's, furniflies an admirable
example of what imagination, unreftrained by judgment and
tafte, can produce. It ought however to be known, that Mr.
Archer, and not fir John Vanburgh, who has been oftener
blamed than underftood, was the architeft of this fabric.
St. Martin's and St. George's churches are remarkable for
their noble porticoes ; but both are fo unfortunately, not to
fay abfurdly fituated, that it is impoflible to have a view of
them in any way fatisfaftory. St. Paul's, Covent-garden,
is noted for its fimplicity, and its plain, heavy, Tufcan por-
tico. In erefting the latter at the eajl end of the church,
where it can be feen, Inigo Jones effayed a bold deviation
from eftabhihed praftice ; but to change the interior diftri-
bution of parts was perhaps beyond his power. The por-
tico therefore ftands where no entrance can be opened, for
there within ftands the communion-table ; and the entrance is
opened at the wejl end, where there fliould be, but is not, a
portico. The church of St. Mary, like that of St. Clement,
is ftrangely placed in the midft of the Strand, a moft pub-
lic and noify ftreet ; and inftead of poffeffing the fimple dig-
nity of a Chriftian temple, feems rather a model contrived
to flicw the flvill of the architeft in comprifing the greateft
quantity of ornament devoid of utility, within the narroweft
bounds. But Mr. Gibbs thearcliiteft followed his inftruftions
in adorning an edifice to be fo oftentatioufly exhibited. He
had befides but juft returned from Italy, where fimilar ftruc-
tures abound. It is no wonder, therefore, that, in both the
interior and the exterior of the New church of St. JIary,
he was led to imitate the buildings he might, as a mere ftu-
dent of architeftural defign, long have admired.

Befides the churches and chapels of the eftablilhment,
Weftminfter contains places of worfliip for Chriftians of all
denominations, and of profeflions the moft contradiftory,
from the myfterious Swedenborgian, who maintains the fole

and

WESTMINSTER.

' and abfolute divinity, to the fimple Unitarian, who'aflerts the
pure humanity of the great founder of theChriftian religion.
French, Svvifs, Dutch, and German Proteftants, have pro-
per places where the fervice is performed in their own lan-
guages. The Society of Friends or Quakers have a re-
fpeftable place of affembly in St. Martin's-lane ; and various
chapels are open for the members of the church of Rome.
In Denmark-court, in the Strand, is a well-frequented Jewiih
I fynagogue.

Civil and Political State of IVeftminJler. — The firft dwell-
ings conftrufted around the monaftery in Thorney, ftood on
the lands of the eftabUfhment, v/hich confequently had full
authority to govern the inhabitants. Thefe were rapidly
increafed in numbers by the privilege of fanftuary granted
to the abbey for offenders ; but the great caufes of the
growth, population, and importance of Weilminfter, were
the refidence there of the kings, and the tranfaftion of all
public bufmefs within its precinfts. Although the Strand,
i Whitehall, and a few other parts were inhabited, at the
elevation of the abbacy into an epifcopal fee in 1540, yet
the quarter only immediately inclofing the cathedral church
was honoured with the title of city. The whole of this
quarter was included in the original and ancient parifli of
•St. Margaret; but in order to accommodate th« increafed
'body of inhabitants, efpecially in the fouthern parts, a
new parifh was formed out of the old in 1728, and named
,after St. John the evangelift. All the other quarters of
I the prefent Weftminfter, erefted on the liberties of the
abbey, are contained within the following eight pariflies,
arranged in the order of their eftablirtiment. St. Clement's
Danes, St. Martin's in the Fields, and St. Mary's in the
Strand, all of uncertain antiquity. St. John the Baptift's,
:ia the Savoy, alfo ancient, St. Paul's, Covent-garden, St.
James's, St. Anne's, Soho, and St. George's, Hanover-
ifquare ; the laft four all formed within the lad 200 years.
In defignating Weftminfter in the aggregate, the city and
the liberties are neceflarily mentioned ; but in no refpeft
'does any diftinftive rank, right, or privilege exiil between
the inhabitants of thofe different quarters, who are all
'equally citizens and members of the fame community. On
ithe public change of religion, and the converiion of the
labbey of St. Peter into a collegiate eftablifhment of a
'dean and chapter in 1560, the latter were placed, as to all
;their civil rights and authority, in the fituation poflefled by
their predeceffors ; but the fanftuary was, with all other
fimilar privileges, fuppreffed in the 21ft year of James I.
'The dean and chapter of St. Peter's have, therefore, con-
Jtinued ever flnce to be the fupreme magiftrates and adminif-
trators of the inhabitants of the city and liberties of Weft.
Iminfter. Since the Reformation, however, the exercife of all
icivil powers has always been vefted in lay perfons, elefted
'or confirmed by the dean and chapter. Of this lingular and
janomalous fyftem of government, which, how applicable
:foever to the original, feems wholly unfuitable to the mo-
■dern Weftminfter, the following are the principal members,
as fettled by an aft of the year 1585 : — The firft is the
Ihigh-fteward, ufually a refident nobleman of diftinftion
I (the prefent is the duke of Northumberland), who is elefted
iby the chapter of St. Peter's ; the dean afting as high-
jileward during and previoufly to the eleftion. By this
Iprincipal officer a deputy fteward is nominated ; but his
jappointment muft be confirmed by the dean and chapter.
|This deputy afts as a fherifF, holding the court-leet with
■ the other magiftrates : he is always chairman of the quarter-
ifeffions of Weftminfter, which are independent of thofe of
jMiddlefex. Next in rank is the high-bailiff, nominated
jon the other hand by the dean and chapter, but confirmed

by the high-fteward. He is the returning officer in the
eleftion of the reprefentatives in parliament for the eity
and liberties ; and to him all the other baihfFs are fubordi-
nate. He fummons juries, and has a right to all fines, for-
feitures, and ftrays, within his jurifdiftion : he alfo, on due re-
quifition, calls together and is prefent in affemblies of the
eleftors, for the purpofe of petitioning parhament or the
crown, or of tranfafting any other public bufmefs in which
they are all concerned. The high-conftable, chofen at a
court-leet of the magiftrates, has all the other conftables under
his fuperintendance. In addition to thefe officers, fixteen
houfeholders, ftyled burgefles, are chofen, with their afliftants
out of the different parifhes. Thefe refemble the aldermen
and common-council of London, each having a particular
ward or diftrift under his infpeftion ; and of their number
two head burgeffes are chofen, who, at the court-leet, fit next
to the high-baihff. The inhabitants of Weftminfter form
no corporation, nor do they pofTefs as fuch any exclufive
privileges ; neither do any companies of trade or profeffion
exift within the jurifdiftion. The various courts of juftice
belonging peculiarly to Weftminfter are, i . The court of
the duchy of Lancafter, a fupreme court of record, held in
Somerfet-place, for deciding by the chancellor of the duchy
all matters of law or equity concerning the eftates belong-
ing to the county -palatine of Lancafter. 2. The quarter-
feffions of the peace, a court of record, held by the juftices
of the peace at the Guild-hall, near the abbey -church, for
all trefpafles, &c. committed within the city and liberties.
3. The court-leet, held by the dean, or his fteward, for
choofing parochial officers, preventing and removing nuU
fances, &c. 4. Courts of requefts, or of confcience, as
they are called, for deciding without appeal by commiflion-
ers, all pleas for debt under forty fhiUings. 5. Courts of
petty-feflions, held every lawful day at the offices in Bow-
ftreet, Marlborough-ftrcct, and Queen-fquare, for matters
of police, mifdemeanor, or offence. 6. To thefe muft be
added the court of St, Martin-le-grand, in London, but
belonging to Weftminfter. The jurifdiftion of the dean and
chapter of St. Peter's, widely extended as the liberties are,
is not confined to their bounds. In the very heart of Lon-
don, under the walls as it were of St. Paul's, is the precinft,
as it is termed, of St. Martin-le-grand, an integral part of
Weftminfter, and wholly independent of London. This
precinft took its name from a collegiate church founded in
1056, dedicated to St. Martin and qualified le-grand, on ac-
count of the great privilege of fanftuary conferred on it.
By Henry VII. it was beftowed on the abbey of St. Peter ;
but on the furrender to Edward VI. it was pulled down,
and houfes were built on the ground. Being let out to
ftrangers not freemen of London, they claimed the privileges
before enjoyed by the canons of the fuppreffed inftitution.
Thofe claims produced many contefts which were never de-
finitively fettled ; and the exemption of St. Martin's pre-
cinft from the jurifdiftion of London feems now to be efta-
blifhed, rather by long-continued ufage than by any regular
or authoritative declaration of right. This fmall precinft
(a term in London fignifying fpecifically a fubdivifion of a
ward) confifts of one fhort ftreet of its own name, leading
north from the eaft end of Newgate-ftreet to the beginning
of Alderfgate-ftreet, and a few lanes and courts on each fide.
In this precinft perfons not freemen of London, exercife
their feveral trades or profelfions without controul ; the in-
habitants alfo concur in the eleftion of reprefentatives for
Weftminfter, in the fame way with thofe who aftually dwell
within that city. A very material change is now ( l8l8)inpro-
grefs in St. Martin-le-grand. The chief office of the general
poft, domeftic and foreign, fituated in Lombard-ftreet, in Lon-
don,

WESTMINSTER.

don, lias long ceafed to be either central in pofition or commo-
dious in diilribution, for the prodigious biifniL-fs tranfatted in
it. After many attempts, chiefly on the part of the inhabit-
ants of the weft end of the town, where many of the princi-
pal men of bufin^fs refide, parliamentary fanflion has at lad
been obtained for the ereftion of a new poft-office, properly
adapted, in fiCuation and internal arrangement, to the pur-
pofes of the ellablifhment. The fituation fekaed is in St.
Martin-le-grand ; and the neceflary preparations in remov-
ing houfes and clearing the ground, have made coniiderable
progrefs. The expence of this enterprife mud be great ;
but the edifice may be rendered highly ornamental as well
as ufeful to the metropolis. Mr. Kay is the architedl. The
jurifdiftion of the dean and chapter of Weftminfter extends
alfo over feme places in Effex, on that account independent
of the diocefan bifhop of London, and even of the metro-
pohtan of Canterbury ; for while the Roman Catholic reli-
gion prevailed, the abbey was immediately under the pope.
If the jurifdiftion of the abbey thus extended over places
remote from its bounds, it on the other hand compre-
hended within its bounds, a diftrift exempt from its jurif-
diftion. This is what is commonly called " the liberties,
or the duchy of Lancafter." The diftrift comprehends all
the fouth fide of the Strand, from the Temple to Cecil-
ftreet, with nearly the fame extent on the north fide. The
palace and diftrift of the Savoy having been a part of the
pofleffions of the houfe of Lancafter, which were feparated
from the crown by Henry IV., that part of the Strand be-
longing to the Savoy became a diftrift or liberty of itfelf.
It has a fupreme court under the chancellor of the duchy
of Lancafter, as already mentioned ; and formerly no inha-
bitant of this diftrift voted for the reprefentatives of Weft-
minfter. But at the eleftion in March 1795, thofe of the
duchy-liberties who lived within the parifhes of St. Mary
in the Strand, and St. Martin's in the Fields, were admitted
to give their fuffrages. Until after the diftblution of the
abbey, Weftminfter fent no reprefentatives to parliament ;
being virtually reprefented by the abbot, who fat with the
biftiops in the houfe of peers. In the records of the laft
parliament of Henry VIII. no mention appears of any
fummons or returns relative to Weftminfter, Peterborough,
or any other abbey-town. The firft parliament of Ed-
ward VI., therefore, is, that in which the members for Weft-
minfter began to take their place. The two reprefentatives
of the city and liberties are elefted by the inhabitant houfe-
holders, or thofe paying fcot and lot, who are now efti-
mated at about 17,000 ; the number being confiderably in-
creafed by the enlargement before -mentioned in 1795. The
eleftive franchife being thus widely diffufed among all ranks
of the inhabitants, and the popular favour being commonly
in the inverfe proportion of that of the court, one if not
both of the reprefentatives of Weftminfter may generally
be expefted to be decidedly hoftile to the meafures of the
exifting adminiftration. So well is this underftood by mi-
nifters, that, to have at leaft one member favourable to their
views, they have frequently encouraged feme diftinguifhed
naval commander to offer his fervices to the eleftors.

Having for many years been the ordinary refidence of the
fovereign, Weftminfter has of courfe contained the princi-
pal departments of every branch of legiflative and execu-
tive adminiftration. The parhament, originally ambulatory
and attached to the perfon of the king, was rendered ftable
in Weftminfter on the confirmation of Magna Charta by
Henry III. in 1216. Long before that period, the royal
palace was erefted adjoining to the abbey ; and as in thofe
early times juftice was often adminiftered by the king in
perfon, or in his prefence, the various courts of judges were of
6

courfe eftablifhed in or near his refidence. When the palace
of Weftminfter ceafed to be occupied by the monarch, and
Henry VIII., in 1512, tranfported his court to White-
hall, the parliament and the judges Hill retained their ori-
ginal ftation ; but the executive branches of adminiftration,
relative to financial and military affairs, accompanied the
court. Hence we fee thofe departments all eftabliftied in
what is ftill called Whitehall ; although the king has long
ceafed to refide in that quarter, and that a very fmall por-
tion of the old palace is either occupied by pubUc of&ces, or
even in exiftence. Hence alfo it is that all public afts of
government are dated from Whitehall. From the prodi-
gious multiplication and fubdivifion of all pubHc affairs rela-
tive to juftice, finance, and military and naval operations, the
details of various branches have neceffarily been carried on in
other convenient quarters of the metropolis. Such are the
Temple, Lincoln's-Inn, Guildhall, the Bank, the Cuftom-
houfe, the Excife-office, the Tower, &c. ; ftill it is in
Weftminfter alone that the general arrangement of the
whole is condufted

Public Buildings. — Of the ancient refidence of the kings
of England in the vicinity of the abbey of Weftminfter, the
name, the general pofition, and a few mutilated apartments,
are all now remaining. According to a furvey and plan of the
whole buildings and veiliges of this palace, it extended along
the bank of the Thames from north to fouth, and then turned
weftward near to the buildings of the abbey. Of the gene-
ral arrangement, it is impoffible to difcover more than that the
walls and foundations feem to have been all paraOel to the
correfponding walls of the prefent great hall, the only part
ftill remaining in its original ftate. Compofed of parts
erefted at different periods, no balance or fymmetry of plan
feems to have been regarded in their diftribution.

IVeJlminfter Hall, memorable in itfelf as a building, as the
fcene of many important tranfaftions, and for the ufes to
which it is applied, was erefted by WiUiam Rufus, or WiU
liam II., about 1097, as an appendage to the old palace, or
a part of a new projeft. Having fuffered much from acci-
dental fires, as well as from the lapfe of time, the hall, juft
three centuries after its conftruftion, was completely reftored
by Richard II., who heightened the walls, altered the win-
dows, adding a new roof, and built a ftately gateway. The
hall is a vail parallelogram, ftanding north and fouth, in
length, within the vralls, 249 feet, and in breadth 66 feet, not
74, as is generally ftated. The walls, although maflive and
plain, are externally ftrengthened by buttreffes. The roof,
rifing to a high pitch, is ingenioufiy and firmly conftrufted,
not of Irifh oak, as ufually faid, but of chefnut brought
from Normandy. This room is faid to be of greater mag-
nitude without pillars than any other known. In this hall
parliaments have been held ; Richard II. was depofed in it in
1399, and for many ages it has been employed in the corona-
tion-feafts of the fovereigns. In it affembled the court for
the trial of Charles I., in January 1649. It is ftill the
place of inquiry, before the houfe of peers, into the conduft
of perfons impeached by the houfe of commons. In the
middle of the right or weft fide of the hall, is an opening
into the court of common pleas. The fouth end of the hall
is occupiedby wooden ftruftures, to contain on the right-hand
the court of chancery, and on the left the court of king's
bench ; fo called becaufe the king in ancient times aftually
fat, as he is at prefent afferted, by what is ftyled a legal
fiftion, aftually to fit, on the bench to adminifter juftice.
Between thefe two courts ftairs conduft to the apartments
occupied by the two houfes of parliament. That employed
by the peers was towards the fouth end of the old palace ;
but on account of the additional number of ?2 peers enti-

tied

WESTMINSTER.

tied to feats on the union with Ireland, over and above the
unexampled augmentation of the peerage in the prefent reign,
their meetings were transferred to what was the court of re-
quefts ; fo called becaufe the mailers of the court, in ancient
times, received the requefts or petitions of the people, and
gave their opinions on the fubjetls. This room, confider-
ably larger than the former, is alfo within the old palace ;
and is now ornamented with the celebrated tapeftry, repre-
fenting the difcomfiture of the Spanirti Armada, or fleet
and army, deftined for the invafion of England in 1588.
At the upper end of the room is the throne, a highly en-
riched arm-chair ; and at the lower end is an open fpace,
termed the bar. The commons of England, when they
formed a feparate body from the peers, were, by an agree-
ment with the abbot of St. Peter's, allowed to meet in the
chapter-honfe already mentioned. Bnt when, at the Re-
formation, the eftablifhment of the collegiate chapel of St.
Stephen in the old palace was fupprefled, to that place their
meetings were transferred by Edward VI. This chapel,
originally conftrufted by king Stephen, was rebuilt by
Edward III. in 1347. The commons, before the union
with Ireland, were accommodated within the chapel ; but
their number being by that meafure augmented from 558 to
658 members, it became neceffary to enlarge the place of
aftembly. At the eaft, or upper end of the rooni, is the
fpeaker's chair ; before it is the table with the clerks, and at
the bottom is the bar. T!ie feats for the members rife one
behind another, as in a theatre. Thofe on the floor, on the
fpeaker's right-hand, are called the treafury-benches, and oc-
cupied by the members of adminiftration : the bench in front
is ufually occupied by the leading members of the oppofi-
tion. St. Stephen's chapel, highly adorned by Edward III.,
fuffered greatly by its firft adaptation for the commons ;
but much more by the late alterations. By removing the
wainfcot, a great part of the ancient decorations was dif-
clofed, and a very important faft in the hiilory of the fine
arts was, for theiirll time, afcertained. On the i ithof Au-
guft, 1800, was difcovered a feries of fculpture and painting,
the latter exhibiting portraits, fcripture-fcenes, and other de-
corations, interefting in themfelves, and peculiarly fo as fpeci-
Ttiens of the ftate of the arts, as they exifted nearly five
hundred years ago. It has been ufual to afcribe to John Van
Eyck, of Bruges, in Flanders, the invention of painting in
oil-colours, in 1410. This opinion has, however, of late
years, been much invalidated ; by the difcovery in St. Ste-
phen's chapel it is completely overthrown. From original
records of the expences incurred in the conftruftion and de-
coration of tliat building, it now appears that the renovation
was begun in the fourth year of Edward III., or about 1329,
and not in 1347, as ftated by Stowe and others : that the
painters had not begun in 134;, but were at work in 1350,
and ceafed to be mentioned in 1364 : that thofe who painted
on glafs had begun in 1350, and finifhed in 1352 : that the
paintings were unqueftionably in oil : and that, of feventy-
fix painters employed in the chapel, the whole, with the
exception perhaps of two, and they not the matters, were
natives of England. From thefe authentic documents it is
therefore fully afcertained, that piaures, in the ufual fenfe of
the term (not houfd-paintiiig], m oil were executed in Weft-
rainfter palace in 1350, or fixty years before .Van Eyck's
fuppofed difcovery of the art. But the fame genuine re-
cords go ilill farther back : they prove oil to have been em-
ployed in painting pidures in the chapel before the rebuild-
ing by Edward III. ; that is, in the 20th year of Edward I.,
or m 1272, which was one hundred and eighteen years prior
to Van Eyck. ( See Painting; ) Under the old houfe of
Vol. XXXVIII.

lords are the cellars which were prepared for the famous
powder-plot, of the 5th of November, 1605.

Whitehall Palace. — This royal manfion occupied a confi-
derable fpace on the bank of the Thames, including Privy-
Garden, and extending to Scotland Yard, ftretching out in
breadth from the river quite acrofs the ftreet dill called
Whitehall into St. James's-park. It was originally the
property of Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, and grand
jufticiary of England under Henry III. The fituation was
low and marfhy, owing to the concourfe of the branch on
the weft of Thorney ifiand with the main channel of the
Th.imes. In 1248 the palace belonged to the archbifhops
of York, who poflefled it until, on the fall of cardinal arch-
bifhop Wolfey, it was, in 1529, feized, with his charafter-
iftic love of juftice, by the infatiable Henry VIII. Pof-
feflion being obtained, many alterations were made in the
building, of which a portion, commonly called the Cock-pit,
adjoining to the Treafury, (till exifts. Falling into decay,
James I. refolved to rebuild Whitehall in a fuitable man-
ner ; and for fuch a defign the fpacious ground between the
Thames and the park, and commanding both, offered every
facility excepting that of elevation of ground , without a proper
degree of which dignity is hardly attainable in architetlure.
Of the magnificent, although in many parts faulty, pro-
jeft of Inigo Jones, prepared for the intended work, one
portion only was executed. This is the Banqueting-houfe,
fo called from its fucceeding, in deftination as in fcite, to a
part of the old palace appropriated to royal entertainments.
The prefent edifice, one of the few fpecimens of noble and
regular archite&ure in the metropolis, confifts of two ftories,
on a ruftic bafement, ornamented with Ionic and Corinthian
columns and pilafters. This edifice, containing feven win-
dows on a floor, was only one of the angular pavilions of
the intended grand ftrufture. It is fufficiently enriched, but
not overloaded with ornament ; and being conftrufted on a
fcale of very large dimenfions in the parts, had the whole,
even with all the defefts of the projeft, been carried into
effeft, no fovereign in Europe could have exhibited a place
of refidence to be compared with that of the king of Great
Britain. Magnitude of parts was in that projeft held to be
indifpenfable for grandeur of efFeft. The interior of the
Banqueting-houfe has long been converted into a royal, and
lately into a mihtary chapel ; adorned, as is ftill moft in-
Congruoufly imagined, with trophies of war. The ceiling
is peculiarly worthy of obfervation, being the produftion of
the fplendid pencil of Rubens ; exhibiting the allegorical hif-
tory of his patron, James I. This mafterly performance
ought to have diffuaded the advifers of George I. from con-
verting the room into a place of Chriftian worfhip ; for
" its contents are in no way akin to devotion ; and the work-
manfliip is fo very extraordinary, that, in beholding it, the
fpeflator muft either poflefs an uncommon meafure of zeal,
or be utterly deilitute of flcill and tafte, who can attend to
any thing befides." From a window of the Banqueting-
houfe the unfortunate Charles I., unfortunate in living in
times when the art of managing parhaments was either un-
known, or perhaps thought unworthy of a prince, pafled to
the fcafFold eredled in the public ftreet in the front of his
own palace. In a court behind the building ftands one of
the fmall number of public ftatues of the metropolis me-
riting examination. It is the work of Gubbins, and exhi-
bits James II., indicating, as he would do in his deftined
fituation, with an air and attitude full of expreffion, the
fpot where his father fuffered. At no great diftance, on
the former fcite of the crofs in the village of Charing, is
ereAed another fine equeftrian figure of Charles himfelf.

Tt St.

WESTMINSTER.

St. Jamu's Palace.— T\t&i the fovereign of the Britifh
empire was far lefs fuitably lodged in his capital than are
numbers of his fubjefts, has by foreigners been often re-
marked, and by natives been fometiraes converted into a
comphment to the fovereign and to the nation. But the faft
is, that St. James's palace was in its origin an hofpital, of
part of which Henry VIII. availed himfelf to conftruft
the prefent buildings, as an appendage to the palace of
Whitehall, with which it was conneded by St. James's
park. Having been allotted for the refidence of the prin-
cefs, afterwards queen Anne, and her hufband George of
Denmark, St. James's has ever fince continued to be occu-
pied for court or ftate purpofes. The buildings are neither
grand nor regular : the front, overlooking the park, has
alone a certain air of dignity : and the ftate apartments,
although they contain nothing peculiarly magnificent in the
furniture ot the decorations, are commodious and handfome.

Connefted with this palace is the park of the fame name,
ornamented with a long canal in the middle, and with broad
walks, feparated by rows of trees on the fides, the only
fpecies of improvement of which its flat fituation is well
fufceptible. Near the centre of the canal, a wooden bridge,
in the Chinefe ftyle, has been built acrofs the water. On
the north-weft of St. James's-park is an open fpace, called
the Green-park, capable, from its elevation and variety of
ground, of much greater improvement : but its principal
recommendation is that, being in fad a wide extended
green field, it furnifhes a delightful promenade in all direc-
tions, and welcome relief from the hard pavement of the
ftreets.

Buctingham-Houfe. — This edifice, now fettled on the pre-
fent queen in lieu of Somerfet-houfe, and hence called the
Queen's palace, pofleffes peculiar attraAion, as much from
its very favourable fituation, as from its hiftory. It was
built by John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, about the year
1 700, and its gardens were adorned with terraces, canals, &c.
The building is of brick, and moft of the apartments are
fmall. In this palace for feveral years were held his ma-
jefty's levees, while his health permitted his appearance.
Annexed to the palace are an oftagon and other apart-
ments, containing the king's library, rich in various works
of value, particularly in early editions of books. Interior
views of the chief rooms, with an ample hiftory of this edi-
fice, &c. are given in Pyne's Hiftory of the Royal Palaces.

Carlton Houfe, the refidence for a number of years of
the prince of Wales, regent of the united kingdom, as
formerly of the princefs dowager of Wales, his majefty's
mother, occupies a fituation in between Pail-Mall and St.
James's park. The chief front towards the ftreet prefents
the fingular incongruity of a lofty and highly enriched Co-
rinthian portico, giving entrance into a low rufticated edi-
fice. Between the houfe and the ftreet is a court-yard,
bounded by a low wall, fuftaining an open colonnade, with
an entablature. The interior has undergone many changes,
and is fitted up in the moft coftly and fumptuous manner.
The library, confervatory, and the armoury, are very fine
and fplendid. The work juft referred to contains feveral
beautiful prints of the different rooms ; alfo a particular
account of the houfe and its contents.

The ancient palace of Somerfet-houfe has now difap-
peared, being fupcrfeded by the magnificent ftrudlures
comppCng Somerfet-place. Of the Savoy a few portions
itill exift, but much changed from their original deftiiiation ;
and in a few years, perhaps, even the whole may be effaced.

The plan of Somerfet-place, as formed by fir William
Chambers, was to comprehend within one vaft edifice pro-
10

per apartments for tranfafting many branches of the national
bufinefs ; and to this purpofe, incompkte as it is, it is now
applied. Befidcs thefe departments, Somerfet-place con-
tains handfome fuites of rooms for the Royal and Anti-
quarian Societies, and for the Royal Academy of the Fine
Arts. The front towards the Strand, of regular architec-
ture, is fpacious and lofty ; but, on the whole, having the
air, as in faft it is, of the entrance to a ftrudlure of great
extent and magnificence. The front confifts of nine arcades
on the ground- floor, the three in the middle forming the
entrance, by three colonnades fupported on coupled co-
lurhns. Above the bafement is a range of ten Corinthian
femi-columns extending over two ranges of windows.
Above the three centre windows rifes an attic, with ftatues.
The whole is, however, a very great work, and cannot fail,
when beheld from the river, or the new bridge adjoining, ]
to have a powerful effeft on the fpeftator. Situated on a
rapid defcent to the river, the labour and expence of raifing
the fquare to the level of the ftreet has been prodigious ;
and the flcill fliewn in conftrufting the whole edifice well
merits admiration.

Part of the old palace of Whitehall, as already noticed,
may be traced in the building ufually called the Treafury ;
but that part which faces the parade in the Park is com-
paratively modern, and conftrufted in a ftyle announcing
ftrength as well as dignity and accommodation for bufinefs.
Clofe to this edifice Hands that called the Horfe-Guards,
becaufe a party of that clafs of troops daily do duty there.
Conftrufted on a plan and elevation intended to recal the
idea of an antique fortrefs, it contains the chief departments
of bufinefs comprehended under the title of the War-OfBce;
The neighbouring office of Admiralty, fpacious and lofty,
is greatly indebted to the fkreen erefted by the Adams,
by which the enormous portico is brought to bear appa-
rently fome degree of proportion to the building.

The theatres of Drury-lane, Covent-garden, the Hay-
market, and Opera-houfe, have been all noticed in the
defcription of London. See London.

At no great diftance from the magnificent pile of So-
merfet-place, and fimilarly fituated over the Thames, ftands 1
an extenfive range of buildings called the Adelph't. The
ereftion of thefe, a vaft enterprife for private individuals, is
the work of the celebrated architefts, Meffrs. Adam. The]
terrace, which commands the river and furrounding build-
ings, and the ftreets and buildings, are elevated on arcades
rifing from the edge of the wster, adapted for warehoufes, |
and opening into roads leading up to the Strand. In the j
Adelphi is a handfome edifice, belonging to the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce.
The great hall exhibits a feries of paintings, unique in modern
times, by James Barry. An eftabliftiment of a pecuhar cha- 1
rafter has lately begun to appear on the bank of the Thames, 1
a ftiort way above the extreme buildings of Weftminfter.
This is the Penitentiary, defigned for the puniftiment, employ-
ment, and reformation of offenders of fecondary criminality.
When, by the emancipation of the Britifh colonies in North I
America, tranfportation of offenders to that country necef-
farily terminated, the plan was adopted of removing them,
to contribute to the colonization of the newly-acquired ter-
ritories in the xA.fiatic feas. The fyftem, however, when
applied to cafes of limited expatriation, being highly ob-
jectionable, the fcheme of the rifing eftabliihment has been
approved, and its execution begun. The criminals are con-
fined in circular buildings, fo conftrufted that the overfeers
may, from-a central fituation, unfeen, obferve every room.
The edifice will, when complete, form externally a hexagon,

con-

WESTMINSTER.

CMvfifting of fix of thefe circular divifions ; the whole en-
compafled with a wall, inclofing 1 8 acres of ground, and cal-
culated to contain altogether from looo to 1200 prifoners.
Some of them are already placed, and the beneficial effefts of
the inftitution on their general conduft has already been very
perceptible. As a part of Middlefex, the proper prifons
for criminals are thofe belonging to the county ; but in
Tothill-fields is a bridewell for the detention and temporary
punifhmcnt of petty offenders, under the charge of the
magiltrates of the city and liberties. The charitable efta-
bliftments of Weflminiler for the education and maintenance
of youth and the confolation of age, for the relief of difeafe
and accidental calamity, are much more numerous and ufeful
than fplendid. St. George's and the Middlefex hofpital,
(not, however, properly within the town,) the Weftminfter
infirmary, &c. are excellent inftitutions, fuperintended by
medical gentlemen of the higheil profeffional reputation. Of
the diftinguifhed private manfions of noblemen and others,
it is impoffible here to do more than point out a few of
the moft remarkable. Among thefe are Northumberland-
houfe, the only refidence now remaining of our ancient
nobihty in the Strand ; the duke of Marlborough's in Pall-
Mali, erefted by the nation for the great duke John j the
duke of Norfolk's, St. James's fquare ; earl Spencer's in
St. James's place ; Burhngton-houfe ; the duke of Devon-
(hire's and earl of Egremont's in Piccadilly ; the marquis
of Lanfdowne's in Berkeley-fquare ; the earl of Chefter-
field's in South Audley-ftreet ; earl Grofvenor's in Upper
Grofvenor-ftreet ; the marquit of Anglefey's in Burlington-
ftreet ; the marquis of Stafford's, Cleveland-houfe. Thefe
are fome of the beft, as far as the exterior is concerned ;
but many others might be noticed highly deferring of at-
tention, particularly for the admirable paintings by the beft
mafters with which they are enriched.

Bridges. — It is a remarkable faft, that, great and im-
portant as Weftminfter is, until the conftruftion of the
noble bridge of its own name, of 15 arches, and in total
length 1223 feet, completed in 1750, it pofleffed no other
mode of communication acrofs the Thames than by ferries,
or by the embarrafled circuit of London-bridge. The
opening of Blackfriar's-bridge was certainly a great accom-
modation for an extended portion of the town ; but ftill
fomething more was wanted, in a fpace between thofe
bridges of no lefs than 3100 yards, or one mile and three
quarters, of a moft populous and aAive metropolis. About
mid-way of this interval was opened, on the i8th July,
18 1 7, a new bridge, leading from the Strand between the
Savoy and Somerfet-place, called the Strand or Waterloo
bridge : it is a ftrufture of a novel defcription in this
country. The idea of it is not, however, new, having
been frequently fuggefted, particularly by Gwyn in 1766.
(For a particular defcription of this bridge, and the di-
menfions of its various parts, we refer to the article Wa-
terloo. ) The road-way is ftriftly horizontal on the level of
the ftreet in the Strand, but much above the furface of the
Surrey fhore, to which it defcends by a long and gentle Hope.
Each pier, as in Blackfriar's-bridge, is externally ornamented
with two Tufcan columns fupporting a fquare projeAion.
The bridge was opened on the anniverlary of the horrible car-
nage of Waterloo, and from this event it has been attempted
to give it a name. In this cafe, however, as in that of what
was formerly ftyled Pitt's-bridge, in London, in 1 760, the
pubhc, unable to difcover even the moft diftant relation be-
tween the ftruftures and the propofed appellations, know
them only, as they muft naturally do, by their fituation, as
3Blackfriar's and the Strand bridges. This admirable work

does great honour to the engineer and architeft Mr. John
Renme, and to the judgment of the managers of the enter-
prife ; and is, all circumftances of pofition, form, and ma-
terials confidered, without a parallel in Europe. Befides
the Strand-bridge, another of a dift'erent kind has lately-
been conftrufted over the Thames, juft a mile above Weft-
minfter-bridge, leading over from Tothill-fields to Vauxhall,
and thence properly named Fauxhall-hridge. The architeft,
Mr. Walker, has divided the breadth of the river into nine
apertures, covered by frames of caft-iron, refting on ftone
piers. The road is not horizontal, but forms two gently
inchned planes, meeting in a very obtufe angle in the middle.
The length of this light and elegant bridge is 809 feet. A
third bridge, not indeed immediately connefted with Weft,
minfter, but of great importance to the metropolis, is now
in progrefs. This is the Southwark-bridge, commencing
between that portion of the town and the city of London,
on the hne of Queen-ttreet and King-ftreet to Guildhall.
This extraordinary ftrufture, defigned alfo by Mr. Renuie,
confifts of three grand arches of caft-iron, in fegments of
very large circles : the centre arch 240 feet in fpan, and
the two others of 210 feet, each. To enable the reader
to form a comparative idea of the bridges now mentioned,
the following dimenfions of fome other remarkable bridges
are fubjoined. London-bridge, (fee Bridge,) confifts of
19 very unequal arches; Southwark-bridge (the iron part),
730 feet long, and of three arches ; Blackfriar's-bridge,
995 feet long, of nine arches; Strand-bridge, 1280 feet
long, of nine arches; Weftminfter-bridge, 1223 feet long,
of 15 arches ; Vauxhall-bridge, 809 feet long, of nine
arches. On the continent, the moft remarkable ftrudlures
of this defcription are the celebrated horizontal bridge over
the river Loire, at Tours, in the weft of France, in length
'335' ^"^ confifting of 15 elliptic arches ; the bridge over
the Moldaw, at Prague, in Bohemia, 1700 feet long.
Thefe, however, are all far outdone by the antique bridge
over the Rhone, at St. Efprit, in the fouth of France, con-
fifting of a multitude of fmall arches, fupporting a very
narrow road-way, extending in 'all nearly to 3000 feet.
This bridge has the pecuharity, that, inftead of being
ftraight, it is compofed of two lines forming an obtule
angle, turned againft the current, as if the better to with-
ftand its violence.

Literary and fcientific Injlitutions. — Thefe have already-
been noticed in the article London, to which the reader is
referred. It will always be a peculiar iionour for the Britifh
nation in general, and to the metropolis in particular, that,
with very few exceptions indeed, all thofe valuable inftitu-
tions for the promotion of learning, fcience, and the arts,
which add fo much fplendour to the capital, owe their ori-
gin, their maintenance, and their reputation, to the volun-
tary exertions, perfonal and pecuniary, of private individuals.
The two principal exceptions in London and Weftminfter
are the BritiJJi Mufeum, and the Academy of Painting, Sculp-
ture., and Architecture ; but from their nature, without
public aid, neither of thefe inftitutions might ever have been
eftabliftied. (See Museum.) The Britifh Mufeum is in
regular and rapid progrefs, in the acquifition of ftores of
high importance in the departments of natural hiftory, lite-
rature, and art, to which it is devoted. The Elgin marbles,
or the venerable monuments of Grecian fculpture, refcued
by the earl of Elgin, during his embafly at the Ottoman
porte, from barbaric negleft and deftruftion, in their ori-
ginal pofition in Athens, are objefts of attraftion and im-
portance unparalleled in Weftern Europe. Of the Britilh
Mufeum, in general, it is but juftice to obferve, that, in no
T t 2 finiilav

WES

WES

fimjlar eftablifliment, can more attention be (hewn to facili-
tate the refearches, literary or fcientific perfons, of all who
refort to the trcafures it contains.

The population of Weftminfter very fenfibly fluftuates,
according to the feafon of the year. From Oftober to
July, while the pa-liament is affembled, the courts of law
are fitting, and ihe places of amufement are open, the town
is fully inhabited. During the other months, even thofe
whofe bufincfs is flill tranfafted in town retire to their villas
or quarters, in the furrounding villages and country. A
hundred years ago, the inhabitants were computed, but
furely overrated, at 130,000: by the laft returns to parlia-
ment in 181 1, they amounted to 62,085, occupying 17,555
houfes.

The books examined for the foregoing account, and to
which the reader is referred for more minute particulars,
are. Antiquities of Weftminfter ; the literary part by J. S.
Hawkins, efq. ; plates from drawings by J. T. Smith;
I vol. 4to. 1807. The Hiftory of Henry VII. 's Chapel,
by J. Britton, with plan, views, elevations, &c. ; in vol. ii.
of Architeftural Antiquities of Great Britain. The Hif-
tory and Antiquities of the Abbey Church of St. Peter at
Weftminfter, 410. 1818, &c., by E. W. Brayley ; with
numerous plates from drawings by J. P. Neale. The Hif-
tory of the Abbey Church of St. Peter's, Weftminfter,
its Antiquities, and Monuments ; in 2 vols. 410., with
63 engravings ; publifhed by Mr. Ackermann. An Inquiry
into the Time of the firft Foundation of Weftminfter
Abbey, &c., by R. Widmore, 410. 1743. Alfo, The
Hiftory, &c. of the Abbey Church, by the fame author,
1 75 1. Weftmonafterium, or the Hiftory and Antiquities
of the Abbey Church of St. Peter, Weftminfter, by John
Dart; 2 vols. fol. 1723. The general hiftories have been
already referred to in the article London.

Westminster, a town of MalTachufetts, in the county
of Worcefter, containing 1419 inhabitants ; ^^ miles N.W.
of Bofton. — Alfo, a poft-town of Vermont, in the county
of Windham, containing 1925 inhabitants ; iB miles N. of
Brattleborough. — Alfo, a town of Maryland, with a poft-
office ; 26 miles N.W. of Baltimore.

WESTMINSTER-Zi^a//, an ifland in the ftraits of Magellan,
fituated to the N.E. of Cape Pillar. S. lat. 52° 34'. W.
long. 76° 16' — Alfo, an ifland in the Mergui Archipelago.
N.lat. 10° 42'.

WESTMORE, a town of the ftate of Vermont, in
Effex county, containing 71 inhabitants; 6^ miles N. of
Norwich.

WESTMORELAND, Westmorland, or Wejlmere-
land, a northern county of England, furrounded by parts of
Durham and Yorkftiire to the N., N.E., and E. ; by Lan-
caftiire to the S. and to the S.W. ; and by Cumberland on
the W. and N.W. The greater part of the boundary line
is artificial ; but at the S. and S.W., rivers and lakes con-
ftitute natural lines of demarcation. This diftrift is fup-
pofed to have derived its name from being a weftern moorifti
country ; perhaps it was the land of the moors or lakes in
the wefl. It formed a part of the territory of the Brigantes
in that diftrift occupied, according to Richard of Ciren-
cefter, by the Voluntli and the Siftuntli. The Brigantes
were the principal inhabitants of the Roman province
Maxima Cxfarienfis ; and during the heptarchy were in-
cluded in the extenfive kingdom of Northumberland. In
the time of Edward the Confeflbr, this kingdom was divided
into fix (hires, of which one was called " Appulb'ifchtre, to
which belonged the land of Weftmoreland." In this divi-
fion, however, Kendal and its diftrift were not included ; for
II

long after the Norman Conqueft:, they were reckoned to be-
long to the hundred of Lonfdale, in Lanca{hire. Of the
Roman eftabliihments in Weftmoreland, many noticeable vef-
tiges are to be found in ftalions, forts, roads, infcriptions,
and other remains. Among the ftations, or towns, may be
mentioned Amboglana, a name fuppofed to be (lill preferved
in Amblefide, at the N. end of Windermere ; but Horfley
places DlSis at that town. At any rate, bricks, urns,
coins, and other relics, fufficiently prove it to have been OC'
cupied by the Romans. VerUrts, another Roman ftationj
was fituated where now ilands Brough-under-Stanmore,
name announcing an ancient fortification. Ahallaba feeme(
naturally to have given rife to the modern name of Appleby
but no Roman remains have ever been found at that place,
although it be undoubtedly of confiderable antiquity. Go-
lacum is by Camden placed at Whellep ; but by later writers
near Appleby. Bro-vacum is probably Brougham caftle,
near Penrith. This ftation has often been confounded with
Brovonaca, of which remains exift in Kirkbythore. This
ftation Whellep or Whelp caftle lies in the middle of the
village, and is commonly called High Burwens. It occu-
pies an advantageous pofition ; the extent from weft to ead
is about 1 60 yards. The foundations of the vallum are very
plain. Among the infcriptions found in it is one Fortunte
Sfr-uatr'icie. A branch of the great Roman road, called the
Watling-ftreet, paiTed through the county from Stanemore
to Brougham caftle ; and until the modern turnpike-road was
made, the former was very confpicuous almoft all the way.
Between Brough and Kirkby, parts of it are ftill to be ob-
ferved ; keeping, as was the praftice of the Romans, a
ftraight courfe, regardlefs of difficulties. This road mea-
fured about fix yards in width, and is defcribed to have been
formed, in many places, by three courfes of large fquare
ftones. Near the northern border of the county, and not
far from Kirkbythore, is a large encampment, attributed to
the Romans, and meafuring about 300 yards in length, by
150 in breadth. It is reprefentcd as having twelve en-
trances, with baftions to each ; but this is improbable.
Some topographers defcribe a few of the antiquities of the
county as of Celtic, or Druidical origin ; particularly " a fort
of Druidical place of worftiip near Shap." Maybrough
caftle, and Arthur's Round Table, near Penrith, are re-
ferred to the Britifli era. There are alfo feveral cairns, or
heaps of loofe ftones, in the county. At Kirkbythore, a
Roman road, called the Maiden-way, branched off^, and
paifing over the lower end of Crofs-fell, terminated at Caer-
vorran, in Northumberland. Roman infcriptions have been
found in various parts of the county. One in particular was
difcovered at Kirkbythore, infcribed Deo Belatucadro, a local
divinity probably of the original Britons. In 1739, at the
fame place, was found a ftone infcribed Jo-vl Serapt. In the
manor of Milbourne was found an altar to SUvanus, within
a round fort furrounded by deep ditches, called Green-caftle.
This county is divided into the two baronies of Kendal and
Weftmoreland, the latter of which is occaConally called the
barony of Appleby ; and thefe again fubdivided into the
four wards of Eaft, Weft, Kendal, and Kirkby Lonfdale.
In ancient times, the Kendal barony was deemed part of the
county of Lancafter. In the Domefday furvey, an account
is taken of fome places in the barony of Kendal, with fome
neighbouring property in Lancaftiire and Yorkfhire ; but
the Weftmoreland diftrift is unnoticed in that record, and
thence fuppofed to have been uninhabited and wafte at the
time of the Conqueft. The Kendal barony is in the diocefe
of Chefter, and confifts of two rural deanries ; whereas the
other barony is within the diocefe of Carlille, and confifts of

I

WESTMORELAND.

one rural deanry. The whole county contains only thirty-
two parifhes. According to the cenfus of i8 1 1, thefe con-
tained 9064 houfes, and 45,922 inhabitants.

The general appearance of Weftmoreland is marked with
fome of the ftrongeft. features in nature ; immenfe trafts of
mountains, beautiful but contrafted valleys, extenfive lakes,
and large rocky diftrifts, which contain many high, fteep,
and bulging crags. The county is not only encircled with
mountains, but the greateft part of its interior furface is
fwelled into hills. A long range of heavy-looking hills
bounds the eaftern fide of the county ; in front of which is
an extenfive traft of tolerably level ground. The reft of
Weftmoreland is almoft wholly hill and dale. The farm-
houfes and thofe of the fmall villages, covered with blue
flate and whitened with hme, are feated about the bafes of
the hills, with their fmall irregular fields fpreading up the
fides of the mountains, and almoft univerfally divided with
ftone-walls. This laft circumftance gives the country a
naked appearance ; but the numerous trafts of woodland
interfperfed tend to enliven the fcene. Every dell or hol-
low has its little brook, and the fmalleft of thefe are plenti-
fully fupphed with fifh. Several low heathy commons are
feen towards the eaftern fide of Weftmoreland ; and the
weftern part is charafterifed by high rugged prominences,
and even fome rocky plains, fmall coppices, and a large ex-
tent of low rtat peat-mofs ; on the north, the fine woods
about Lowther add a ftriking feature to the landfcape.
Such are the brief but general outlines of the pifture : we
proceed to particularife fome of its peculiar charafteriftics,
the moft prominent of which are its Mountains. Thefe are
provincially called fells, of which the following are the moft
noted.

Farlton-knot, near the borders of Lancaftiire, is a very
protuberant lime-ftone rock ; from the Kendal road, -near
Burton, it is faid to have very much the appearance of the
rock of Gibraltar.

Whitbarrow-fcar is alfo a very high rock, and in fome
parts prefents a perpendicular face of folid lime-ftone. It
rifes its grizzly front between Milnthorp and Cartmel.
The high road leads along its bafe, whence it prefents a
grand, and in fome places a tremendous afpeft.

Langdale-pikes, in the weftern corner of the county, are
conical hills of great height, with pyramidal rocky tops, and
are fituated in the interior parts of a very mountainous dif-
tridl ; their fides and bafes are verdant, and have formerly
been covered with wood.

Hill-bell is alfo a high conical-topped mountain, about
four miles eaft from Amblefide.

Harter-fell, High-ftreet, and Kidfey-pike, are ftupendous
heights, within a few miles of the fouthern end of Haws-
water. From the top of High-ftreet, thirteen lakes, and
the fea in feveral direftions, may be feen.

The chain of hills on the eaft, which is continued north
and fouth through other counties, prefents a heavy and regu-
lar appearance ; and they have moftly mofly and heathy tops,
except two or three conical green hills oppofite Appleby.
They are in general pifturefque ; fome with abrupt decli-
vities, or rocky fronts, form high precipices, or in bulging
(hattered crags projeft over the vales in a frighttul manner ;
while others (hew fmooth, verdant, and fwelling furfaces,
beautifully fpotted with flocks of fheep and herds of cattle.
There are few Caves in Weftmoreland ; one, however,
is to be found at Dun-fell, bordering on Cumberland, and
is of confiderable extent. So intricate are the different
paflages and chambers of this capacious cave, that the Rev.
William Richardfon is faid to have been feven hours in
examining its varied parts. He defcribes the roof in fome

parts to referable pointed arches, in others flat furfaces : he
found m fome places the Jlalaaites, and pieces of rhomboldal
/par. He travelled nearly two miles in a right line, and
difcovered evident marks of fome of the chambers having
been filled with water. The higheft part of the vault is
rather more than 25 yards ; the breadth in fome places
about 150 yards; in other parts there was fcarcely height
fufficient to creep through the hollow. Some other vifitors
have mentioned the aftonilhing luftre of the fpar with
which thefe vaults are encrufted. Nicholfon and Burn, in
their " Hiftory of Weftmoreland," mention three pits, one
of which is generally confidered unfathomable. In the fea-
fon of falmon fmelts, thefe pits abound with thofe fmelts, when
they are to be feen alfo in the river Kent, which induces a be-
lief that they arrive from thence in fubterraneous paffages.

Rivers — Although the rivers or ftreams, (provincially
called becks,) are numerous, they are but fmall, and
moftly rife within this diftrift. Only three of thefe
are fufficiently important to retain their original names
from their fources to the fea. Thefe are, the Eden,
the Lune, and the Kent, or Ken, The firlt fprings in
Mallerftang, and runs north, and having received in its
courfe, befides many leffer ftreams, the conjoined rivers of
Lowther and Eamont, enters Cumberland, which county
it traverfes in its courfe to the fea, at Rowcliff. The Lune,
or Lun, hath its fource in Ravenftonedale, and pafling to the
fouth, through a fine vale, to which it gives name, enters
the county of Lancafter, formerly called Loncafter. The
Ken, or Kent, has its origin in Kent-mere, and runs
through a valley, called Kendale ; paffes the town of Ken-
dal, and empties itfelf in the fea at Cartmel bay. The
different rivulets from the eaftern diftrift empty themfelves
uito the Eden, which, during its courfe through this county,
receives its principal fupplies. An irregular line, drawn
eaft and weft through the centre of Weftmoreland, divides
the direftion of its feveral rivers : thofe on the north falling
into the Eden, either before or at its entrance into Cumber-
land, except two or three fmall branches of the Tees, which
rife on the eaftern ridge of hills on the borders of the county
of Durham. The rivers on the fouthern parts take a con-
trary direftion, and enter the fea at different places.

The Lowther has its fource in the Moors, above Wetf-
laddale, and pafiing Rofgill-hall, there unites with Swindale-
beck, which rifes near the flate-quarries ; with the augment-
ation of a few other ftreams, it joins the Eamont.

The Eamont emerges from Ulls-water, and forms a
boundary to parts of this county and Cumberland ; and
after being augmented by the waters of the Lowther river,
which defcends from the centre of the county, it joins the
Eden as it enters Cumberland.

The Loyne, or Lune, has been defcribed in a previous
volume of this work, under Lancashire.

The Crake, a brook or rivulet, defcending in feveral
heads from a variety of dells on the fide of Brackenthwaite-
fell, paffes through a very extenfive peat-mofs to the Ken,
juft before its influx to the fea.

The Winter, or Winlter-beck, forms the boundary be-
tween the lower part of Weftmoreland and Lancafhire. It
rifes on the hills about two miles eaft from Windermere lake,
and direfts its courfe fouthwards, when it difcharges itfelf
in an eftuary of the fea.

The Trout-beck is a brook iffuing from the mountain
High-ftreet, and unites itfelf with Windermere lake.

Rothay fprings on the borders of Cumberland, ampng a
number of high mountains ; it runs feveral miles weftward,
and receives various ftreams in its progrefs to Grafmere-

Lakes. — Weftmoreland is defervedly celebrated for its

fine

WESTMORELAND.

fine lakes. Among thefe, Windermere, or Winandermere,
and UUs-water, merit particular attention for lize, and for
the pidtiirefque beauty of the fcenery which fiin-ounds
them. They may be, and are by competent judges, re-
garded as unequalled in the kingdom.

Winandermere is a large lake of about ten miles and a
half in length, by a breadtk of from one to two miles ; in-
cluding an area, or ftieet of water, of nearly 45 34 acres. Its
depth is in one place 23 fathoms, in a fecond 29, and m a
third 3 1 fathoms. Four mountain ftreams, or rivers, fup-
ply this lake, and it is fingular that its waters fcarcely ever
appear to be augmented or decreafed. " Even in the
moft violent rains, when the country is drenched in water,
when every rill is fwelled into a river, and the mountains
pour down floods through new channels, the lake maintains
the fame equal temper ; and though it may fpread a. few
yards over its lower Ihores, (which is the utmoft it does,)
yet its increafe is feldom the objeft of obfervation ; nor does
the feverity of the greateft drought make any confiderable
alteration in its bounds." In this lake are thirteen iflands,
the largeft of which is now called Curwen's ifland. It
contains about 27 acres of land, which are laid out in
pleafure-gardens, walks, &c. around a very handfome man-
lion belonging to Mr. Curwen.

Ulls-water, part of which is known by the name of Oufe-
mere, is a large and long lake, fituated at the north-weftern
extremity of the county, and partly in Cumberland. Next
to Windermere, it is the largeft Iheet of water in this part of
England. It covers an area of about nine miles in length
from N.E. to S.W. by two in the broadeft part, though
the general width rarely exceeds a mile. Its fides are very
irriguous, and from its (hores the mountains rife in various
bold, pifturefque, and romantic forms ; occafionally ftarting
abruptly from the lake, and in other places afcending by
gradual flopes. Towards the fouth-weftern end the moun-
tains are on the grandeft fcale. On the northern and weftern
fides the fcenery is moftly rocky and woody. In fome
places its waters are from 29 to 35 fathoms deep. It
abounds with trout, perch, llcellies, and eels ; alfo fome
char, and a large fpecies of trout, fome of which have been
caught of ten pounds weight. In its higheft part are a
few fmall rocky iflands.

Haws-water, in beauty and extent, ranks next. This
lake is fituated between Shap and Ulls-water, in a moun-
tainous diftrift ; it is about three miles in length, and in
breadth from a quarter to half a mile. The hills on the
eaft fide are high and rocky, and partially covered with
wood. Thofe on the weft are alfo high, but have a por-
tion of low cultivated ground along the margin, which is
divided into fmall farms. The narroweft part of this lake
is faid to be fifty fathoms deep.

Grafmere lake is a fmall but beautiful flieet of water,
about a mile in length, and nearly half a mile broad, having
its margin indented with numerous fmall bays with lofty
and rocky eminences. Its fituation is a few miles north of
Amblefide. Near its centre is a fmall green ifland. The
poet Gray defcribes this lake and its fcenery in terms of
high panegyric. " After pafling the romantic mountain of
Helm-Crag," he fays, "opens one of the fweetcft landfcapes
that art ever attempted to imitate. The bofom of the
mountains here, fpreading into a broad bafon, difcovers in
the midft Grafmere-water ; its margin is hollowed into
fmall bays with bold eminences, fome of rock, fome of turf,
that half conceal and vary the figure of the little lake they
command. From the fhore a low promontory puflies it-
felf far into the water, and on it ftands a white village, with
the parilh-church rifing in the midft of it."

. South of this, in the fame vale, is Rydal-water, a fmall
lake nearly a mile in length, and interfperfed with wooded
iflands. Its water is (hallow, and abounds with reeds.

On an elevated fituation, nearly two miles weft from
Amblefide, is a fmall lake called Elter-water.

Broad-water is a fmall lake half a mile long, and a
quarter of a mile broad, fituated a few miles above Ulls-
water.

Kentmere-tarn, a piece of water upwards of a mile
long, and nearly half a mile broad, is fituated in Kentmere-
dale.

Skeggles-water, a very fmall lake, three miles north-
eaft of Kentmere-tarn, is embofomed in the mountains of
Longfleddale.

Sumbiggin-tam, and Whin-fell-tarn, are fmall pieces
of water ; the former four or five miles eaft from Orton,
well fupplied with eels and a red trout, refembling char ;
and the latter about five miles north-eaft from Kendal.

The ybiV of Weftmoreland is moftly dry and gravelly ; but
in the eaft and north, fand and hazel-mould are found. Clay
prevails on a few farms towards the Eden and the eaftern
hills ; and a moift foil appears in fome northern diftrifts.
Peat-mofs abounds on the tops of fome higii mountains,
confifting of a dry foil upon a hard blue rock, provincially
called rag. The foil that lies upon a ftratum of lime-ftone
is efteemed the moft profitable.

The Roads in Weftmoreland, from the rocky nature of
the country, are very firm and good. They are generally
formed to wind gradually round the fides of the hills and
along the vales, in fuch a manner, that the declivities of the
former are moftly avoided. The principal roads leading
through this county are thofe from Scotland and Cumber-
land to London, and the fouthern parts of England. Thefe
roads are united through Cumberland, but divide near Pen-
rith, on the confines of Weftmoreland : one turns eaft wards,
over Stainmoore, and through the centre of Yorkfhire, to
London, &c. ; the other proceeds direftly fouth, through
Kendal, Lancafter, &c. to Manchefter, Liverpool, Wales,
the weftern counties of England, and alfo to London. A
branch from this road goes through Kirkby-Lonfdale to
the manufafturing towns in the Weft Riding of Yorkfliire,
and other fouthern diftrifts.

Before the rebellion of 1715, the public roads of this
county were almoft impaflable ; but in that year the govern-
ment planned feveral new roads : very little, however, was
done to them before the more ferious infurreftion of 1745.
This event impelled the government to direft fome effeftual
repairs to be made. In 1 774 an aft of parliament was ob-
tained to make a turnpike-road from Bowes to Brough. In
this year, the firft ilage-coach from London to Glafgow
was eftabhftied to run this road. A mail began to travel
through Kendal, &c. from London in 1786. Since which
time the great roads have been kept in very good repair.

With the exception of fome trifling veins of lead ore, few
minerals have been found in the eaftern part of this county.
Coal is obtained only in the fouth-eaftern extremity of
Weftmoreland, except an inferior quality called crow-coal,
procured in the neighbourhood of Shap.

The county affords various forts of valuable ftone ; par-
ticularly linie-ftone, marble, gypfum, blue flate, and free-
ftone. There is great abundance of lime-ftone, except
among the weftern hills.

Marble of a beautiful kind was difcovered a few years
ago on the banks of the river Kent, near Kendal, and has
been worked with fuccefs. The fame vein has alfo been
found on the oppofite fide of the river.

Blue flate of various forts is dug from the rocky hills on

the

WES

tlie weftern fide of the county ; though great quantities are
ufed in the country, yet much of the better fort is fen t to
London, Liverpool, Hull, and other large fea-ports. Beds
of lime-ilone are generally incumbent on beds of flate.

The buildings of Weftmoreland are diilinguilhed for their
neat appearance. The houfes are moftly built with lime-
ftone, or blue rag ; thatched roofs are common, but flate
is more generally ufed. In farm buildings, the barn is
ufually built upon the cow-houfe and liable, a, method
which requires the flope of a hill, as carts are carried along
a level on one fide into the barn. As very little corn or
hay is ftacked without, the barns are necel^arily very
fpacious. There are many noblemen's and gentlemen's feats
in this county ; and alfo fome pleafant villas which ornament
the borders of the lakes.

The commerce of Weftmoreland is not extenfive. Its
exports are chiefly a coarfe woollen cloth, ftockings, Hates,
tanned hides, gunpowder, hoops, charcoal, hams, wool, fheep,
and cattle.

The manufaftures of the county confift of filk and
worfted waiftcoat-pieces, knit worfted ftockings, flannels,
tanned leather, and gunpowder.

Formerly the whole county was governed by military
tenure, ;'. e. by homage, fealty, and cornage, " which lalt
drew after it wardfliip, marriage, and 'relief ; and the fervice
of this tenure was military fervice." Cornage appears to
have been peculiar to the border-fervice againft the Scots.
Cornage, horngeld, and noutgeld, were probably fynony-
raous, and implied annual payments of horned cattle, to
provifion the garrifons. The lord's rent was called white-
rent, probably from its being paid in filver. Scutage, or
fervice of the fliield, was another compenfation in money,
inftead of perfonal fervice againft the Scots.

Some veins of copper ore have been found and worked in
different parts of the county ; but the produft has not
been found fufBcient to defray the expence of workmanftiip.
Before the year 1704, great quantities of had were found
near Hartley. Some mines at Dunfell have proved very
produftive of this metal for many years, but latterly there
has not been much ore found. At Dufton are fome rich
and produftive lead mines, belonging to the earl of Thanet.
There are fome conliderable mines at Greenfide, near
Paterdale, and at feveral other places in the county. This
metal is obtained in various quantities.

Crofs-fell, the higheft of the chain of mountains which
extend along the eaftern frontiers of the county of Weft-
moreland and Cumberland, is faid by Robinfon, in his
Nat\iral Hiftory of the County, to have been formerly
called Fiend's-fell, from evil fpirits which are faid in
former times to have haunted its fummit, and continued
their haunts and nofturnal vagaries upon it until St. Auftin,
as is reported, eretled a crofs, and built an altar upon it,
whereon he offered the Holy Eucharift, by which he coun-
tercharmed thofc hellilh fiends, and difturbed their haunts.
Since that time it has been named Crofs-fell ; and unto this
time there is a heap of ftones on the fummit, which bears
the name of Crofs-fell.

Upon this and the adjoining mountains occurs the pheno-
menon, called the Helm-wind; which, in fpite of St. Auftin's
charms, continues its vagaries on its ancient haunts. It is
peculiar to this diftrift, and the confines of Lancaftiire and
Yorkftiire, about Ingleborrow, Pendle, and Penigent. It
alfo occurs on Wildboar-fell, in Ravenftonedale ; and is
moft prevalent in the months from Odlober to April. The
appearances attendmg it are a whitifh cloud hanging half
way down the mountains, bat keeping an exaft parallclifm
with every plane, depreflion, and elevation of their lops,

W E S

which It covers as with a helmet. Above this appears the
blue flcy, and then a white cloud, called the helm-bar, from
an idea that it repreffes the fury of the ftorm : it continues
in a tremulous agitated motion till it difperfes ; and then
the hurricane iflues forth, roaring along the fides of the hills,
and frequently extending two or three miles from their fides.
The following are the heights of the principal mountains,
as afcertained by Mr. Dalton. Helvdlyn is 1070 yards
high. A deep drift of fnow was feen on this mountain
on the 1 2th of July, 181 2. Bowfell and Rydal-head are
each 1030 yards in height. The High-ftreet is 912 yards
high. On its fummit are annual horfe-races, and other
fports, on the loth of July, to which every one brings
the fheep that have ftrayed into their heathing-ground, for
their owners to challenge.

It appears that different grammar-fchools were eftablifhcd
in this county previous to the diflolution. Edward VI.
was patron of the fchool at Kendal ; and queen Elizabeth
founded fchools at Appleby, Kirkby Stephen, and Kirkby
Lonfdale. From thefe feminaries many learned men have
been diftributed over England, fome of whom have obtained
eminence in the literary world. They have alfo contributed
towards the eftablifhment of other public fchools in the
county. Seminaries are, therefore, eftabliflied in nearly
every village in WeftmorelaKd. — The Hiftory and Anti-
quities of the Counties of Weftmoreland and Cumberland,
by Jofeph Nicholfon, efq. and Richard Burn, LL.D.
2 vols. 4to. 1778. An Eft'ay towards a Natural Hiftory
of \yeftmoreland and Cumberland, by the Rev. Tlwmas
Robinfon, 8vo. 1709. General View of the Agriculture of
the County, by Andrew Pringle, 410. 1794. Obferva-
tions relative chiefly to Pidurefque I3eauty of the Moun-
tains and Lakes of Weftmoreland and Cumberland, by the
Rev. Wilham Gilpin, 2 vols. 8vo. 1788. A Survey of the
Lakes, by James Clarke, folio.

Westmokeland, a poft-townflilp of New York, in
Oneida county; 10 miles W. of Utica, and 107 miles from
Albany. Its waters are fmall ; its furface very level, but
the foil is very rich and fertile. It has a church for Con-
gregationalifts, and a competent number of common fchools.
In 1810, the population was 1 135, and the feuatorial elec-
tors were 141. — Alfo, a county of Pennfylvania, containing
26,392 inhabitants, of whom 20 are flaves. — Alfo, a county
of Virginia, containing 8102 inhabitants, of whom 4080
are flaves. — Alfo, a townfhip of New Hampfliire, in the
county of Chefhire, on the E. bank of the ConneClicut,
containing 1937 inhabitants ; 5 miles N. of Chefterfield.

WEST NANTMILL, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in
the county of Chefter, with 1188 inhabitants.

WEST NORTHERN LIBERTIES, a town of
Pennfylvania, in the county of Philadelphia, containing
9795 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of the fame, contain-
ing 168 inhabitants.

WEST NOTTINGHAM, a townftiip of Pennfylvania,
in the county of Chefter, with 642 inhabitants.

WESTOE, a townfhip of Durham, with 2900 inhabit-
ants ; 2 miles S. of Shields.

"W^ESTON, a townfhip of Connefticut, in the county of
Fairfield, with 2618 inhabitants; S. of Fairfield. — Alfo, a
town of Vermont, in the county of Windfor, containing
629 inhabitants ; 30 miles N.N. E. of Bennington. — Alfo,
a town of the ftate of Maffachufetts, in the county of
Middlefex, containing 1008 inhabitants; 12 miles W. of
Bofton.

WEST PENNSBOROUGH, a townfhip of Pennfyl-
vania, in the county of Cumberland, witli 1264 inhabitants.

WESTPHALIA, a circle of Germany, bouuded on

the

WES

the N. by the Dutch ftates, on the W. by the Netherlands,
and elfewhere by the circles of the Rhine, Upper and
Lower. The ancient Saxons were divided into Weftpha-
lians, Angrians, and Eaftphalians. The people inhabiting
between tihe Wefer and the Rhine, were called IVeJIphalians,
and the traft of country inhabited by them, has from thence
been called Wejlphalla. The ducliy of that name, in the
eleftoral circle of the Rhine, conitituted a part of this
country ; but the circle of Weftphalia comprifed alfo under
it other countries, which never belonged to the above-men-
tioned Wellphalia. And thus we muft carefully diftinguifh
from each other the three denominations, which are, the
circle of Wellphalia, WeftphaHa itfelf, and the duchy of
that name. Formerly, not only certain ftates were reckoned
in this circle, wliich at prefent no longer belong to it, as
Utrecht, Guelderland, Zutphen, the bifhopric and city of
Cambray ; but in other refpefts, alfo, the ancient and the
modern lifts of the countries of the Weftphalian circle
differ greatly from each. The following appeared to be
ftates of the Weftphalian circle before the peace of Lune-
ville, iif'z. the biflioprics of Paderborn, Munfter, Liege,
and Ofnabriick ; the duchy of Verden ; the principality of
Minden ; the abbeys of Corvey, Stablo, Werden, Cornelius
Munfter, EfTeii, Thorn, and Hervorden ; the duchy of
Cleves, with the county of Mark ; the duchies of Juliera
and Berg, Naftau Siegen, and Naftau Dillenburg ; the
principalities of Eaft Friefland and Menrs ; the counties of
Sayn, Wied-Runkel, Schauenburg, Oldenburg, Delmen-
horft, Lippe, Bentheim, Tecklenburg, Hoya, Virnenburg,
Diepholz, Spiegelberg, Rietberg, Pyrmont, Gronsfeld,
Reckheim ; the figniories of Anhak and Winneburg ; the
county of Holzapfel ; the figniories of Witten, Blanken-
heim, Geroldftein, Gehmen, Gimborn and Neuftadt, Wic-
kerad, Mylendonk, and Reichenftein ; the county of
Kerpen and Lommerfum ; the figniory of Schleiden, and
the county of Hallermund, to which in the matricula are
reckoned moreover to belong the figniories of Dyck,
Severn, Kniphaufen, Keyl, Mechernick, Eyfs, Schlenacken,
Wylre, Richold, Dreyz, and Schonau, together with the
cities of Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Dortmund. The
fummoning princes, and direftors of the circle, were the
bilhop of Munfter, and with him alternately the eleftors of
Brandenburg and Palatine, as dukes of Cleves and Juliers,
both of whom in this direftory enjoyed together but one
voice. The diets of the circle were ufually appointed at
Cologne. The archives belonging to it were kept at
Dufleldorf. The contribution of this circle in men and
money, to the aids of the empire, was made equal to the
contributions of Upper and Lower Saxony, Burgundy,
and Swabia, and rated at fomewhat more than the ninth,
but lefs than the tenth part of the whole fum granted by
the empire. With relpeft to religion, this circle was one
of the mixed. Indeed the Catholic ftates ufed to nominate
two, and the Proteftant alfo the like number of afleftbrs,
to affill at the Imperial and chamber court of the empire.
By the peace of Luneville, all that part of the circle which
lay on the left bank of the Rhine, was ceded to France.

Westphalia, (Duchy of,) a country of Germany,
bounded on the N. by the bifhopric of Munfter and county
of Lippe, on the E. by Paderborn, Waldeck, and Hefle ;
on the S. by Witgenftein, Nafl"au, and Berg ; and on the
W. by Berg and Mark ; about forty miles in extent from
N. to S. and thirty-two from E. to W. Agreeably to its
natural fituation, this county is divided into three parts.
The firft of thefe, called the Hdlivege, is low, and produces
plenty of com and other neceffaries, with a fufEcient breed
of cattle and falt-fprings. The fecond is the Haarfirani,

WES

which ftands fbmewhat higher, between Hellnuege and the
Sunderland, and has indeed a good, but not fo fruitful a
foil as the Hellnvege. The third is the Sunderland, com-
monly called the Surland, or Saarland, which confifts of
hills and vales. This traft indeed is neither of great, nor
even a fufficient fertihty in corn ; but, on the other hand, it
has fine woods and meadows, together with a good breed
of cattle, game, and fifti, in particular trout, as alfo plenty
of iron ore, calamy, lead, copper, filver, and gold. The
principal rivers are, the Ruhr, the Lenne, the Dimel, and
Lippe. The duchy of Weftphalia contains in it thirty-five
towns. Henry, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, being put
under the ban by the emperor Frederic I. in the year
I J 80, the latter made a donation of the duchy of Weft-
phalia, as alfo a part of the duchy of Engern, which be-
longed to the former, to the archbiftiopric of Cologne, and
invefted therewith the archbiftiop Phihp ; concerning which
donation, in the fame year, a record, or inftrument, was
executed at Gelnhaufen, and the faid donation confirmed
afterwards in the year 1200, by the emperor Otho IV., as
alfo in the year 1 204, by the emperor Philip. In the year
1368, Godfrey, the laft duke of Arenfberg, and his con-
fort Anne, ceded the county of Arenftjerg to the arch-
biftiopric of Cologne ; and, in the year 1371, the emperor
Charles IV. invefted the archbiftiop Frederic therewith.
The county was afterwards added to the ftiare of the duchy
of Engern. The archbiftiops and eleftors of Cologne
governed this duchy, till the year 1442, by marftials, but
afterward under the direction of an eleAoral baihff. Brilon
is the capital. In 1802, the duchy of Weftphalia was
given to the prince of Hefte Darmftadt.

Westphalia, a kingdom formed of feveral principalities,
taken from the king of Pruflia, after the battle of Fried-
land, and acceded to at the peace of Tilfit. Weftphalia is
divided into eight departments. I. That of the Elbe ;
confifting of the greater part of the duchy of Magdeburg, ]
with the Old Mark of Brandenburg. Its population is '
253,000 fouls : the chief place Magdeburg. 2. That of
Fuida: the chief place Caftel. It is compofed of a part of
Lower Hefte, of the countries of Paderborn, Corvey,
Minden, &c. Its population 239,502 inhabitants. 3. That
of the Harz : chief place Heihgenftadt. It confifts of :
Eichsfeld, of the cities of Mulhaufen and Nordhaufen, of !
the principalities of Hohenftein, Grubenhagen, Blanken-
burg, &c. Its population is 210,989 fouls. 4. That of
the Leine: chief place Gottingcn. It is compofed of a part
of the principality of Grubenhagen, and of the countries
of Hildeflieim, Brunfwick, and Hefle. Its population is |
145,537 fouls. 5. That of the Ocher : chief place Brunf- '
wick. It is compofed of the greater part of the duchy of
Wolfenbuttel, and the biftiopric of Hildeftieim. Its popu-
lation is 267,878 fouls. 6. That of Saal : chief place
Halberftadt. It is compofed of the principalities of Hal-
berftadt, Wernigerode, Quedlinburg, &c. The population
is 206,222 fouls. 7. That of the Werra : the chief place
Marburg. It confifts of Upper Heffe, the Hersfeld, &c.
The population is 254,000 fouls. 8. That of the Wefer :
the chief place Ofnabruck. It confifts of the bifhopric of
Ofnabruck, a part of Schaumburg ; and its population is
334,000 fouls.

WESTPHALiA-ZTam. See Ham.

WESTPOND Plantation, in Geography, a town of
the diftrift of Maine, in the county of Kennebeck, con-
taining 481 inhabitants.

WESTPORT, a townfhip of Maft'achufetts, in the
county of Briftol, incorporated in 1787, with 2585 inha-
bitants ; 60 miles S. of Bofton.

Westport,

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WES

Westport, a fea-port and poft-town of Ireland, in the
county of Mayo, fxtuated on a beautiful bay, wooded to the
water's edge, in the S.E. angle of that large haven called
Clew bay, founded by the late marquis of Sligo, whofe re-
fidence was within half a mile of it. Weftport is a neat
regular well-built town, 123 miles W.N. W. from Dublin,
and 8i S.W. from Caftlebar. The following account,
extrafted from a late report to the Linen Board by Peter
Bernard, efq. (hews what judicious indulgence and liberal
proteftion on the part of a landlord, afliiled by the exer-
tions of an induftrious individual, may do. Were the exam-
ple univerfally imitated, many fqualid and decayed villages
would quickly aflurae a more comfortable and exhilarating
afpeft. " The ellablifhment and fuccefs of the hnen ma-
nufadlure in Weftport, is due to the perfevering attention
of the marquis of Shgo and Robert Patten, efq. The
latter, moft fortunately for the neighbourhood, fettled here
in the year 1787 ; at that period Weftport was a very in-
confiderable town, containing but few houfes, and its general
market attended only by two or three hundred perfons ; now
it is a beautiful well-built town, with 3700 induftrious inhabit-
ants, and many gentlemen of the higheft refpeftability re-
fiding in it. Its market at prefent (1817) is attended by
from 4000 to 5000 perfons, whofe manners, appearance,
and drefs, befpeak moit ftrongly the happy effefts of a well-
regulated fyftem of induftry." " The firft linen-market was
held in 1790. For the firft five years it produced only eight
webs per week, and Mr. Patten was the only buyer ; but
he, by giving fair and liberal encouragement to the weavers,
gradually but firmly advanced the trade, which now ftands
on a foundation not likely to be ftiaken. An accefTion of
fettlers from Ulfter in the years 1797, 98, and 99, who
brought their looms, fome capital, and their accuilomed
habits of induftry, completed what Mr. Patten had fo for-
tunately begun." At prefent the market is held every
Thurfday in a fpacious linen-hall built by the marquis of
Sligo, where the goods are meafured by a machine. The
linens are all feven-eighths of three different qualities, and
are all brought to market in a brown ftate. There are fold
weekly about 200 webs, the value of which is eftimated at
above 20,000/. per annum. There are about 1 50 weavers
and about 20 buyers, two of whom have bleach-greens at
Weftport. Mr. Patten has alfo fuccefsluUy introduced at
Weftport the provifiou and corn-trade, and alfo the oil
bufmefs, which is carried on to a confiderable extent, and
gives employment in the feafon to a great number of fifher-
men and boats. In March and April a number of fiih
appear off the coaft, which, from their appearing only on a
funny day, the inhabitants C2&funjijh, though they differ from
the fifti ufually fo called. The fifhermen ftrike thefe with
harpoons, then cut out the liver, and abandon the reft of the
fifh, the liver being fufiicient to load one boat of four tons
burden. A large fifti yields eight barrels of oil and two of
fediment. This trade amounts to fome thoufands annually,
and Mr. Patten's houfe has often bought in one year near
3000/. worth. The oil is efteemed as good as fpermaceti
oil, and is particularly well-fuited for lamps, as it has no
offenfive fmell. The price of the prefent day is five fhiUings
per gallon ; the dregs are ufed by tanners. Bernard's Re-
port to the Linen Board in 1817.

WEST RAY, one of the Orkney iflands, terminating the
clufter on the N.W. quarter, is fituated 20 miles N. from
Kirkwall, and 347 miles in the fame bearing from Edin-
burgh. Its ftiape bears fome refemblance to that of a
^crofs ; of which the longer part extends about eight miles,
the arms or tranfverfe part not more than five, and compre-
hends in the whole about fourteen fquare miles. The ifland
Vol.. XXXVIII.

comprifes two parifties, St. Mary's and Crofs Kirk ; an^
in the population return of the year 181 1 was ftated to con-
tain 248 houfes, and 1396 inhabitants. The only manu-
fafture is that of kelp, of which are produced on an average
300 tons annually. Much corn is raifed, but of an indiffer-
ent quality ; the grafs is excellent for the dairy, and for
the pafturage of black cattle ; and the boifterous feas which
furround the ifland afford great plenty of fifti, of a very
fuperior kind. On the eaft and fouth are two bays ; but
the only harbour that can be depended on is on the north-
eaft, and this is fit for fmall veffels only : formerly it re-
ceived ftiips of much greater burthen ; but from the blow-
ing of the fand the water has become fo ftiallow, they are
now compelled to anchor in a more open road. In two ex-
tenfive plains near the fea-fide, one on the fouth, the other
on the north part of the ifland, a multitude of graves have
been difcovered, all formed in nearly the fame manner ; and,
though tradition is filent, they were probably formed after a
fanguinary conflift at fome remote period ; fome of thefe
graves, on the north fide, have been opened, and were found
to contain flceletons in a reclining pofture, with weapons,
domeftic utenfils, and feveral other articles, the ufe of which
could not be afcertained, — Beauties of Scotland, vol. v.
Orkneys, 1808. CarUfle's Topographical Diftionary of
Scotland, 181 3.

WESTRINGIA, in Botany, was fo named by the
author of the prefent article, in honour of Dr. John Peter
Weftring, phyfician to the king of Sweden, member of the
Royal Society of Stockholm, and author of feveral learned
papers on the Lichen tribe, publiflied in the Tranfaftions of
that body. He has alfo publiflied feven numbers in 8vo. on
the dyeing properties of many Swedifli lichens, comprehend-
ing a full hiftory of the modes of applying them to ufe,
and accompanied with moft elaborate and complete coloured
figures, drawn by the celebrated profeffor Acharius himfelf.
— Sm. in Stockh. Tranf. for 1797, 171. Trafts relating
to Nat. Hift. 277. Mart, Mill. Did. v. 4. Brown Prodr,
Nov. Holl. V. I. 501. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 372 —
Clafs and order, Didynamla Gymnofpermia. Nat. Ord. Ver-
ticillat£, Linn. Labiat£, Juff. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
fomewhat bell-ftiaped, with five fides and five prominent
angles, but no furrows, divided about half way down into
five equal, ereft, lanceolate, beardlefs fegments, permanent.
Cor. of one petal, ringent, twice as long as the calyx :
tube the length of the calyx, hairy in the throat : limb
two-lipped ; the upper lip flat, ereft, divided, rather the
longeft ; low,er in three oblong, equal, fpreading, entire
fegments. Stam. Filaments four, ftiorter than the limb,
divaricated, the two upper ones longeft ; authers of the
two upper ftamens roundifti, halved, thofe of the two lower
deeply divided, imperfeft. P'lfl. Germen in the bottom
of the calyx, four-lobed ; ftyle thread-ftiaped, the length cf
the longer ftamens ; ftigma fmall, cloven, acute. Perk.
none, except the hardened calyx. Seeds four, obovate,
naked.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft half way down, five-fided.
Upper lip of the corolla flat, cloven ; lower in three deep
equal fegments. Stamens diftant ; the two upper with
halved anthers ; two lower with divided abortive ones.

A genus of New Holland ftirubs, chiefly from the colder
parts of that country, having the appearance of our rofe-
mary, deftitute of glands, but moltly downy. Lea-oes
whorled, entire. Flo'wers axillary, fohtary, oa ihort ftalks,
with a pair of IraSeas clofe to tlie calyx. Corolla white,
fometimes dotted with purple or violet. One fpecies only
was, for a long time, known to us, but Mr. Brown has
U u afeeri-

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afcertained fevenitnore, one of whicli, it feeras, was brought
home by the famous old navigator Dampier, and is pre-
ferved in the Sherardian herbarium at Oxford, if we remem-
ber right. They all very much refemble each other in
habit, and prove the genus to be perfeftly natural, though
it has been confounded with Cunila by fome very eminent
botanifts.

1. W. rofmar'miformts. Rofemary-leaved Weftringia.
Sm. in Stockh. Tranf. for 1797, 175. t. 8. f. 2. Trafts
282. t. 3. Brown n. I. Ait. n. i. Donn. Cant. ed. 5.
141. { W. rofmarinacea ; Andr. Repof. t. 214. Cunila
fruticofa; Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 122. )— Leaves four in a
whorl, lanceolate, revolute ; fhining and nearly fmooth
above ; filky beneath. Calyx filky ; its teeth longer than
the tube. — Native of New South Wales, near Port Jack-
fon, from whence fpecimens and feeds were fent by Dr. John
White, in 1791. The Jlem is fhrubby, feveral feet high,
very much branched ; branches either oppolite, or four
together, fquare, fdky with white clofe hairs, denfely leafy.
Lea-ves fpreat^ing, an inch or fomewhat lefs in length,
acute, fingle-i hbed, entire ; dark green, and pohfhed above ;
white with filky hairs beneath. Footjlalks broad and very
fhort, filky, without Jlipulas. Flowers about the upper
part of the branches, fhorter than the leaves ; their corolla
fpreading nearly an inch, white, dotted about the mouth
vsrith violet fpots. Anthers violet. The calyx is filky on
the outfide of the tube, its fegments naked with revolute
margins ; they appear to us variable in length. The plant
is flightly bitter, not aromatic ; nor have the Jloivers any
fcent.

2. W. Dampieri. Dampier's Weftringia. Br. n. 2.
Ait. n. 2 — " Leaves four in a whorl, linear, ftrongly revo-
lute ; nearly fmooth above ; hoary and opaque beneath.
Calyx hoary and opaque ; its teeth half the length of the
tube." — Gathered by Mr. Brown on the fouthern coaft of
New Holland. Sent to Kew in 1803, by Mr. Peter Good.
It flowers in the greenhoufe, from May to July. Alton.

3. W. rlgida. Rigid Weftringia. Br. n. 3. — " Leaves
three in a whorl, linear-lanceolate, divaricated, (harp-pointed,
revolute ; fmoothilli above ; hoary beneath. Calyx hoary;
its teeth half the length of the tube." — Difcovered by
Mr. Brown, in the fouth part of New Holland.

4. W. cinerea. Grey Weftringia. Br. n. 4. — " Leaves
three in a whorl, linear, fpreading, pointed, revolute, hoary
on both fides. Calyx hoary ; its teeth fcarcely a quarter
the length of the tube." — This was found by Mr. Brown,
in the fame country as the laft fpecies.

5. W. angujlifolia. Narrow-leaved Weftringia. Br.
n. 5. — " Leaves three in a whorl, linear, fpreading, revo-
lute ; roughifti on the upper fide ; hoary beneath. Calyx
hoary ; its teeth half the length of the tube." — Found by
Mr.,Brown, in the ifiand of Van Diemen.

6. W. hnglfolia. Long-leaved Weftringia. Br. n. 6. —
Leaves three in a whorl, linear, revolute ; rough with
minute points on the upper fide ; flightly hairy beneath.

Calyx fomewhat hairy ; its teeth equal to the tube

Gathered near Port Jackfon by Mr. Brown. We have
fpecimens, gathered in that country by Dr. White, which
Bnfwer to the fpecific charafter, except that the back of
their leaves, as well as the calyx, are rather hoary than, as
Mr. Brown fays, green, and the leaves are four, or even five,
in a whorl. The corolla is externally downy ; but this laft
charafter is, perhaps, not pecuHar to the prefent fpecies.

7. W. glabra. Smooth Weftringia. Br. n. 7 " Leaves

three in a whorl, linear-lanceolate, flat, fmooth on both fides,
as well as the calyx." — Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the
tropical part of New Holland.

WET

8. W. rubiitfolia. Madder-leaved Weftringia. Br. n. 8.
— " Leaves four in a whorl, elliptic -lanceolate, nearly flat,
very fmooth and ftiining. Calyx nearly fmooth." — Found
in the ifland of Van Diemen, by Mr. Brown.

The two laft fpecies feem to differ remarkably from all
the foregoing, in the flatnefs and fmoothnefs of their leaves.

WEiSTRIZ, in Geography, a river of the duchy of
Stiria, which runs into the Luffnitz, near Furftenfeld.

WESTS, a town of Virginia ; 4 miles S.W. of Leef-
burg.

WEST SALEM, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Mer-
cer county, with 660 inhabitants.

WEST SOUTHWARK, a town of Pennfylvania, in
the county of Philadelphia, containing 6443 inhabitants.

WEST SPRINGFIELD, a town of Maffachufetts, in
the county of Hampfhire, containing 3109 inhabitants.

WEST STOCKBRIDGE, a town of Maffachufetts,
in the county of Berkfhire, containing 1049 inhabitants.

WEST WHITELAND, a townfhip qf Pennfylvani*,
with 636 inhabitants.

WEST WINDSOR, a town of New Jei-fey, in the
county of Middlefex, containing 1 7 14 inhabitants.

WET Air. See Moisture.

Wet Couch, a term ufed by the maltfters for one of the
principal articles of malt -making.

In the making of malt, the ufual way is to foak the
grain in water two or three days, till it becomes plump and
fwelled, and the water is brown ; the water is then drained
away, and the barley is removed to a floor, where it is
thrown into a wet couch, that is, an even heap of about two
feet thick.

In this heap the barley fpontaneoufly heats, and begins
to grow, fhooting out firft the radicle, and, if fuffered to
continue growing, foon after the blade ; but at the eruption
of the radicle, the procefs is to be (lopped (hort, by fpread-
ing the wet couch thin over the floor, and turning it once
every four or five hours for two days, laying it thicker each
time ; after this it is thrown into a large heap, and there
fuffered to grow hot of itfelf, and afterwards fpread abroad
again and cooled, and then thrown upon the kihi to be dried
crifp, without fcorching. Shaw's Leftures, p. 186.

Wet Dock. See Dock.

WET-Glover, a drefler of the (kins of flieep, lambs,
goats, &c. which are flender, thin, and gentle.

WETA, or WiNDAU, in Geography, a river of the duchy
of Courland, which runs into the Baltic, a little below
Windau.

WETERFELD, a town of Bavaria, on the Regen ; 21
miles N.E. of Ratifbon.

WETHER-Getter, among Sheep-Farmers. See
Ram.

WETiiER-Sheep, in Rural Economy, a term applied by
ftock-farmers to a caftrated male flieep of more than one
year old ; but before that time it is called a wedder-
lamb. The wedders of the improved breeds of flieep,
efpeciaUy thofe of the new Leicefter fort, are much more
early than the old kinds. See Sheep.

WETHERBY, in Geography, a market -town in the
upper divifion of tlie wapentake of Claro, Weft Riding of
the county of York, England, is fituated on the river
Wharfe, 7 miles N.W. from Tadcafter, about the fame dif-
tance S.E. from Knarefborough, and 194 miles N.N.W.
from London. The courfe of the river forms an angle,
whofe fides are each about one mile in length ; at the point
of this angle the town is feated. It affords nothing worthy
of notice, but a handfome bridge croffing the Wharfe.
Above this bridge the river forms a beautiful cafcade, by

falling

WET

WET

falling in a (heet of water over a high dam erefted for tlie
convenience of the mills. Over this cafcade, the falmon, in
their way up the river from the fea, are feen to leap with
wonderful dexterity. Wetherby has a weekly market on
Thurfdays, and three annual fairs. In the population re-
turn of the year 1811, the town is ftated to contain 1 140
inhabitants, occupying 243 houfes. In the time of Wil-
liam the Conqueror, this manor was poflefled by two Nor-
man lords, William de Percy and Erneis de Burun. It
•was afterwards given to the knights templars ; and, together
with all their eftates in England, was forfeited on the aboli-
tion of their order, in the year 13 12. In the civil war of
Charles I. this town was garrifoned by fir Thomas Fairfax,
who, in 1642, repulfed fir Thomas Glenham, in two differ-
ent attacks. A httle below the town is St. Helen's Ford,
where the Roman mihtary-way crofled the Wharfe.
Within a mile of the town is Wetherby Grange, the feat of
Richard Thompfon, efq. In the park is an heronry, a
thing rather uncommon in this part of the country. The
herons build their nefts in the tops of the higheft trees ; but
feldom take the trouble, when they can get them ready made
by the rooks, whom they expel, and enlarge and line the
nefts, driving away the original poflefTors, (hould they
happen to renew their fruitlefs claims.

About two miles to the weft of Wetherby, is Stociceld
park, the feat of WiUiam Middleton, efq. His anceftors
defcended from Hypolitus de Brame, lord of Middleton,
•who lived in the reign of Henry II. Not far from the
houfe, and near the high road, is a rock of a very fingular
(hape, 65 feet in circumference, and 30 feet high, ftanding
on the margin of a lake. — Hargrove's Hiftory of Knaref-
borough, 1809. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi.
Yorkfhire. By J. Bigland, 1812.

WETHERSFIELD, a town of Connedicut, in the
.county of Hartford, containing 3961 inhabitants.

WETMORE's Island, a fmall ifland on the coaft of
Maflachufetts, at the mouth of the river Penobfcot.

WETSTEIN, John James, in Biography, was born at
Bafle in 1693, and made fuch proficiency in his early
ftudies, that he was fit to be admitted into the univerfity at
the age of eleven years. In his 20th year he was ordained
minifter, on which occafion he maintained a difputation on
the various readings of the New Teftament, in which he de-
fended the authenticity and integrity of the text. To this
courfe of ftudy he was feduloufly devoted, and in order to
explain the words and phrafes of the New Teftament, he
carefully read the Greek authors, both facred and profane ;
and he alfo confulted the Rabbinical writings, for the pur-
pofe of acquainting himfelf with the opinions and cuftoms
of the Jews. Richly furnilhed with this kind of knowledge,
lie fetout, in 1 7 14, on a literary tour to Zurich, Berne, and
Geneva. From the latter place he proceeded through
Lyons to Paris, where he became acquainted with Mont-
faucon, Courayer, and other eminent men ; and he alfo vifited
England, where he was particularly noticed by the cele-
brated Bentley, and diligently fearched for MSS. of the
New Teftament. During his ftay in this country, he was
made chaplain to a regiment of Swifs troops, and having
obtained leave of abfence, vifited Paris, in order to collate a
particular MS., and, after three months, joined the regi-
ment at Bois-le-duc. Having afterwards vifited Holland
and Germany, he returned to Bafle in 1717, and became
deacon to the church of St. Leonard, which office he held
with diftinguiftied approbation for nine years. In purfuance
of his main objeft, he correfponded with Bentley on the
fubjeft of various readings ; but he was interrupted in his
plan by a violent difpute with a divine of Bafle, who had

been his intimate friend, occafioncd by his publication of a
fpecimen of his various readings in 17 18. In the progrefs
of this difpute, the clergy took a part, and prefented a peti-
tion to the council, requefting that Wetftein's edition of the
New Teftament might be pi-ohibited ; alleging, amongft
other objeftions, that it favoured of Socinianifm. His Pro-
legomena, however, were printed in 1730, and a new accufa-
tion was preferred to the council againft the author. This
kind of clamour proving ineffeftual, his enemies engaged
fome of his pupils to appear as witnefles againft him ; and
they produced extrafts of his leftures from the MS. copies
of thefe pupils to fupport their accufation. The refult of
thefe diflionourable proceedings was a fufpenfion of his func-
tions in 1729, and this was foon followed by his total depo-
fition. This conduft of the clergy was aggravated by a
variety of mifreprefentations ; the minifters of Mulhaufen,
Neufchatel, Vallangen, and Geneva, exprefled their difap-
probation of thefe meafures ; and forty heads of families in
the parifti of St. Leonard prefented a petition for obtaining
Wetftein's re-eftabhfliment. But as this interpofition on his
behalf was unfuccefsful, he left his native country, and re-
moved to Amfterdam, where the Remonftrants elefted him
profeffor of philofophy in the room of Le Clerc, requiring,
at the fame time, that he ftiould juftify himfelf, either by a
pubhc apology, or before the council at Bafle. Adopting
the latter method, he returned to Switzerland, and in the
prefence of thirteen commiflioners, chofen from the council
and body of the profeflbrs, he ftiewed that the extrafts fur-
nifhed by his pupils were not worthy of credit ; that the wit-
neffes had fworn nothing that could prove the accufation al-
leged againft him ; and that the adls of the divines contra-
difted each other. The council, in March 1732, annulled
the decree of condemnation, and reftored him to the full
exercife of his funftions. Tiie Remonftrants at Amfterdam
were fatisfied, and in 1733 he took pofleffion of his office,
the duties of which he faithfully difcharged till his death.
His character being re-eftabliftied at Bafle, he was elefted
in 1744 profeflbr of the Greek language ; but the Remon-
ftrants, in order to retain him, nominated him profeflbr of
ecclefiaftical hiftory, and made an addition to his falary.
Amidft the labours of the offices, which he fuftained with
great honour to himfelf and benefit to his pupils, he pro-
ceeded in collefting and arranging his various readings of the
New Teftament ; grudging no expence, and avaiUng himfelf
of every opportunity that occurred in collating various MSS.
Encouraged by a great number of learned men in Englaud,
Holland, and Germany, he at length publilhed his firft
volume in 1751, and the fecond in the following year ; and
in order to preclude every objeftion, he printed the text
from that commonly received, and the various readings at
the bottom. To the whole he fubjoined a commentary,
comprehending all the remarks with which he had been fur-
niflied by the Hebrew, Greek, and Roman writers whom he
had confulted. His attachment to received principles is
evinced by his mode of explaining feveral paftages, and par-
ticularly thofe which related to the divinity of Jefus Chrift.
To his New Teftament he added two epiftles of St. Clement,
now firft publiftied, with a Latin verfion, and a diflertation
on their authenticity. His literary reputation being now
eftabliflied, he was made a foreign afTociate of the Academy
of Sciences at Berlin, in 1752; and in the following year
eleftcd a fellow of the Royal Society in London. Although
Wetftein's conftitution was vigorous, his inceflant labour
accelerated the infirmities of age ; and he was feized with a
numbnefs and coldnefs in his right leg, which threatened a
gangrene, and all attempts to check the progrefs of this ma-
lady were ineffeftual ; fo that it terminated his valuable life
U u 2 in

WET

ill March 1754, in the 61II year of his age. He beheld the
approaches of death with tranquilUty and refignation. Wet-
ftein was focial, and fond of innocent amufements, though
ftudious. He was an excellent Greek i'cholar, poffeffed a
retentive memory, and fpoke fevera) modern languages.
He was affable even to ftrangers, and kind and condefcend-
ing to his pupils. His benevolence comprehended all of
every nation and communion, and he was prompt in commu-
nicating alTiltance and advice to all who applied to him.
His charafter has been amply vindicated from invidious and
degrading charges by Knghout, in his " Memoria Wet-
fleniana Vindicata," 410. Formey's Elog. Gen. Biog.

WETTELSHEIM, in Geography, a town of Ge.many,
in the principality of Anfpach ; 4 miles N.W. of Treucht-
lingen.

WETTENHAUSEN, a princely abbey, founded in
the tenth century ; 20 miles W. of Augfburg.

WETTER, a town of Germany, in the county of
Mark ; 6 miles S.W. of Schwiert — Alfo, a town of Ger-
many, in the principahty of HefTe ; 6 miles N.W. of
Marburg. N. lat. 50'^ 54'- E. long. 8° 45'.— Alfo, a
river of Germany, which rifes in the county of Solms, and
runs into the Nidda, at Aflenheim.

Wetter IJland, an iiland in the Eaft Indian fea,
about 90 miles in circumference, of an irregular form. S.
lat. 7° 24'. E. long. 126^ 40'.

Wetter Lake, a lake of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland,
fixty-five miles long, and from ten to fixteen wide. This
lake has but one outlet by the river Motala, though above
forty little ftreams difcharge ihemfelves into it. This lake
lies much higher than either the Baltic or the North fea,
and is deep and clear, but very boifterous in winter. It is
fuppofed certainly to prognofticate the approach of ftormy
weather. As this lake, like all inland pieces of water,
furrounded with hills or mountains, is fubjeA to fudden
ftorms in the ftilleft weather, fuperilition and creduUty co-
operating, as in other cafes, have been bufy in explaining and
admitting caufes for this phenomenon ; and accordingly it
has been reported and credited, that tliefe fudden ilorms are
occafioned by a fubterraneous communication with the lake
of Conftance in Switzerland. It is faid, that by a regular
feries of correfpondence and obfervation it was found, that
when the waters of one lake arofe, ihofe of the other fell in
the fame proportion ; and frequently the waters of the Wetter
were violently agitated without the leaft wind, or any appa-
rent caufe, until information arrived that at the fame lime
the lake of Conftance had been difturbed by a tempcll.
The whole is fuppofed to be a fable grounded on fome anti-
quated tradition. See Wadstena.

WETTER AU, or Wetteravia, a country of Ger-
many, Htuated between the county of Heffe and the river
Maine, which takes its name from the river Wetter. It
contains the counties of Siegen, Schaumburg, Dillenburg,
Dietz, Hadamar, Weilburg, Idftein, Hanau, Solms, Wef-
terburg, Ifenburg, Sayn, Witgenftein, Hohenftein, Cron-
berg, and Waldeck, the lordlhips of Weid, and the imperial
towns of Wetzlar, Friedberg, and Gelnhaufen. The
northern part is called Wefterwald.

WETTERINGEN, a town of Germany, in the bi-
fliopric of Munfter ; 7 miles S.W. of Rheine.

WETTING, a town of Weftphalia, in the duchy of
Magdeburg, on the Saal, the principal place of a bailiwick,
which was formerly a county, in the year 1283 granted to the
cathedral of Magdeburg. In the neighbourhood are fome
coal-mines ; 34 miles S. of Magdeburg. N. lat. 51° 37'.
E. long. 12° 3'.
WETTINGEN, a town of Switzerland, and principal
9

W E X

place of a bailiwick, in the county of Baden, on the Lim.
mat, with a celebrated wooden bridge of one arch over the
river, executed by the fame perfon who built the bridge over
the Rhine, at SchafFhaufen ; I mile S. of Baden.

WETZ, a river of Germany, which runs into the Lahn,
near Wetzlar Alfo, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Solms Braunfels ; 5 miles S. of Wetzlar.

WETZLAR, an imperial town of Germany, in the cir-
cle of the Upper Rhine, fituated on the Lahn. The Ro-
man Cathohcs, the Lutherans, and the Calvinills, have each
a church ; 45 miles E. of Coblentz. N. lat. 50''' 34'. E.
long. 8° 33'.

WEVELSBURG, a town and citadel of WeftphaUa, in
the bilhopric of Paderborn ; 8 miles S. of Paderborn.

WEVER, a river of England, in the county of Chef-
ter, which runs into the Dee, 7 miles N. of Chefter. —
Alfo, a river of England, in the county of Devon, which
runs into the Culm, near Bradninch.

WEVERHAM, a townfhip of England, inChefhire;
3 miles W. of Northvvich.

WE VERY, a river of Wales, %vhich runs into the Wye,
near Builth.

WEWER, or Wever, a town of Weftphaha, in d;-;
bifliopric of Paderborn ; 22 miles S.S.W. of Paderborn.

WEWURTZE, a river of Lithuania, which runs into
the Minnie, 3 miles S. of Proeculs.

WEXEL, a mountain of Stiria ; 4 miles N.W. of Frid-
berg.

WEXFORD, a county of Ireland, in the fouth-eaft
part of it, which has St. George's Channel on the E. and
S., the counties of Waterford, Kilkenny, and Carlow, on the
W., and that of Wicklow on the N. It extends from N.
to S. 44 Irilh miles, and from E. to W. 25 ; being j6
Englifh miles in length, by 32 in breadth. It contains
342,900 acres, or 535 fquare niiles Irilh, equal to 5:50,888
acres, or 695 fquare miles in Englifh meafuie. The num-
ber of parifhes 142, h.iving 41 churches, all of which, ex-
cept two parifhes with one church, are in the diocefe of
Farns. The population was eftimated by Dr. Beaufort at.
about 115,000. Wexford forms almoft a peninfula, being
feparated from Waterford and Kilkenny by the haven of
Waterford, and the deep and navigable river Barrow, and
from the counties of Carlow and Wicklow by formidable
ranges of mountains, which admit of few paffes. Being
fituated next to the principality of Wales, and nearly
oppofite to the mouth of the Britifh Channel, it prefcnted
great advantages to the Englifh invaders of Ireland in the
reign of Henry II. ; who, after their firft viftories over
the natives, felefted this county, from its natural ftrength,
for the refidence of the firft colonifts. The inhabitants of
the baronies of Bargie and Forth are fuppofed to retain
traces of their defcent from thefe fettlers. (See Bargie.)
Wexford cannot be called hilly or mountainous, except on
the frontiers of Carlow and Wicklow. Yet it contains a
great deal of coarfe cold land, and ftiff clay foil, which the
want of lime-ftone renders it difficult and expenfive to im-
prove. The baronies of Bargie and Forth, b?ing of a
lighter foil, are well tilled, and produce large quantities of
barley. The river Slaney croffes the county from New-
town Barry to Wexford, receiving the Bann from the
northward, and affords a perpetual variety of pifturefque
and romantic views among its wooded and winding banks.
This river is navigable to Ennifcorthy. The hnen manufac-
ture has made no progrefs in this county, but there is a ma-
nufafture of coarfe woollens. The chief towns are Wet
ford, New Rofs, and Ennifcorthy, of which an account if

given

W E Y

given under their names. Wexford has been notorious for
the events whicli took place in it during the rebeUion
of 1798. In it the mifguided populace was fuccefsful for
fome time, and the maffacres at ScuUabogue, and at the
bridge of Wexford, afford a melancholy proof of what may
be expefted from an ignorant and almoft barbarous pea-
fantry, when they have the afcendancy. Their leaders were
unable to controul them, and if tlie king's troops had not
been fuccefsful, there would have been no bounds to their
exterminating phrenfy. Before the Union, Wexford had
eighteen members, but thefe have been reduced to four, two
for the county, and one each for the towns of Wexford and
New Rofs. Beaufort.

Wexford, a fea-port and poil-town, and alfo the aflize
town of the county of the fame name, in Ireland, at the
mouth of the river Slaney. It was originally built by the
Danes, who named it Wefsford, and it was formerly confi-
dered a place of ftrength, being enclofed by very thick
walls, fome of which are ftill remaining. There are fome
handfome buildings ; on the fcite of the old caftle the bar-
Tacks are erefted, commanding an extenfive view of the
harbour. The church, fituated in the main ftreet, is an ele-
gant modern ftrufture. The market and court-houfe are like-
wife new edifices ; but the chief ornament of Wexford is its
wooden bridge, thrown over an arm of the fea, 2100
feet long, where infurmountable difficulties balBed all
efforts to form a ftone bridge. This bridge is a favourite
promenade, and is as delightfully calculated for a pleafant
recreation, as it conftitutes an ufeful communication. The
harbour, though fpacious, is (hallow, and formed by two
necks of land, between which there is an entrance about
half a mile broad, which was formerly defended by two
forts, erefted at the extremity of each ifthmus. The
mouth of the harbour is choked with a bar, and there-
fore no vefFel drawing more than twelve feet water can pafs
to the town. Provifions of all kinds are very plentiful and
cheap here, particularly the fineft wild fowl. The chief ex-
port is corn, principally barley and malt. Wexford was
taken from the Danes by the Eiiglifh invaders, after a fiegc
of four days, in 1170; it was befieged and ftormed by
Cromwell in 1649; and on being evacuated by the king's
troops, it was taken polTeffion of by the rebels in 1798.
The (hocking murder of the loyal inhabitants, when 97 un-
offending viftims fuffered at the bridge, has been already
alluded to. There are feven parifhes, but they are all
united, and have only one church in common. Wexford is
67 miles S. by W. from Dublin. Carlifle. Traveller's
Guide.

WEXIO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sma-
land, fituated on the Helga lake : the fee of a bifhop, and
refidence of the provincial governor ; 46 miles N.N. W. of
Carlfcrona. N. lat. 56" 52'. E. long. 14° 44'.

WEY, a river of England, which runs into the Thames
at Weybridge, Tliis river is3 made navigable to Guilford
and Godalmin, and a canal has lately been made from it to
Bafingftoke, in Hampfhire. — Alfo, a river of England,
which runs into the fea at Weymouth.

Wey. See Weigh.

WEYBER, in Geography, a lake of Bavaria; 3 miles
W.N.W. of Kempten.

WEYBRIDGE, a confiderable village in the hundred
of Elmbridge, and county of Surrey, England, is fituated
on the river Wey, whence it derives its name, not far from
its conflux with the Thames, at the diftance of 12 miles
N.E. by N. from Guildford, and 20 miles S.W. by W.
from London. It contains fome refpedable houfes, among
which is a large edifice, called Holftein-houfe, from having

WEY

been the relidcnce of a prince of Holftein, when on a vifit
to England ; it has for fome years been ufed as a printing-
office. The church is a fmall, but neat ftrudure, having a
nave and fouth aide, at the weft end of which is the vault
of the earl of Portmore's family, built up about four feet
above the level of the pavement, inclofed with iron rails,
but without any infcription. The population return of the
year 1 8 1 1 (fates the parifh of Weybridge to contain 1 67
houfes, and 918 inhabitants.

In this parifli is Oatlands, the feat of his royal highnefs
the duke of York. This domain came into the polTeffion
of Henry VIII. by an exchange with the family of Rede,
for the manor of Tandridge, in the fame county. It was
fettled by Charles I. on his queen Henrietta Maria for her
life ; and their youngeft fon, called Henry of Oatlands, was
born here. At the Reftoration the queen dowager was
again put in pofTeffion of the eftate ; and after her death
Charles II. granted it to the earl of St. Alban's. In the
next century it defcended to the earl of Lincoln, after-
wards duke of Newcaftle, who fixed his refidence here, en-
larged the park, and made confiderable plantations. In the
park is a large piece of water, formed by fprings which rife
m It. Between the houfe and garden is a grotto, divided
into three apartments, in one of which is a bath, fupplied
by a fmall fpnng, dripping through the rock ; at the end of
it is a copy of the Venus de Medicis, as if going to bathe.

The dnke of York purchafed this eltate of the duke of
Newcallle, together with the manors and parks of Byfleet
and Weybridge, which he held by leafes from the crown.
In 1800 two afts were paffed for inclofing the common fields
and wartes, under which the duke obtained by allotments
and purchafes about 1000 acres of the wafte, fo that the
domain now comprifes about 3000 acres. The manfion
was burned down while the duke was in Flanders, in 1793.
The prefent houfe was then erefted, from defigns by Mr.
John Carter ; and in 1 804 an aCl was palfed for granting to
the duke fo much of this eitatc as was held of the crown.

In a fmall park in this vicinity is Ham, an old manfion,
formerly the refidence of the countefs of Dorcheiler, mif-
trefsof James II. It is now luiinhabited, and in a ruinous
condition. Near it are many large cedars ; one, in particu-
lar, meafures, at five feet from the ground, about thirteen
feet in circumference, and runs up ftraight to a great height.
— Hittory and Antiquities of Surrey. By tlie Rev.
John Manning, and William Bray, efq. 3 vols, folio.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiv. Surrey. By F.
Shoberl.

Weybridge, a townfliip of the flate of Vermont, in the
county of Addifon, feparatcd from Newhaven by the Otter
Creek, containing 750 inhabitants.

WEYDA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Neuftadt,
on the Elfter ; 1 1 miles E.N.E. of Neufta,dt. N. lat. 50®
42'. E. long. 12° i'. — Alfo, a river of Saxony, which
runs into the Elfter, 2 miles N. of Weyda.

WEYDEN. See Weiden.

WEYDENAU, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of NeifTe; 8 miles S.W. of NeifTe. N. kt. 50° 12'. E.
long. 17'' 2'.

WEYDENEN, a town of Pruffian Lithuania; 3 miles
W.S.W. of Pilkallen. .

WEYDENHAYN, a town of Saxony, in the margra-
vate of MeilTen ; 7 miles W. of Torgau.

WEYER, a town of Auftria; 2 miles N.E. of Gmun-
den. — Alfo, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 6 miles S. of
Pruck.

WEYEREN, a town of Aultria ; 6 miles W. of
Gmunden.

WEYERS,

W E Y

WE VERS, a town of Wellphalia, in the bifliopric of
Fulda ; 8 miles E.S.E. of Fulda.

WEYERSHEIM, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Rhine ; 6 miles S. of Haguenau.

WEYHER, atown of Auftria ; 6 miles W. of Bavarian
Waidhoven. -

WEYHILL, a village of England, in the county ot
Hants, celebrated for the great annual fair held here for the
fale of (heep, hops, &c. ; 3 ™1" W. of Andover.

WEYL, or Wyl, a town of Switzerland, belonging to
the abbey of St. Gal, and principal place of a baihwick ;
14 miles 'S.S.W. of Conftance.

WEYLANOO, a town of Hindooitan, in Guzerat, on
the coaft ; to miles S.E. of Puttan Sumnaut.

WEYMOUTH, or Waymouth, a borough and
market-town in the hundred of Uggefcombe, Dorchefter
divifion of the county of Dorfet, England, is fituated on
the fouthern coall of England, at the extremity of a beau-
tiful bay, which forms nearly a femicircle, making a fweep
of about two miles. The town is 8 miles S. by W. diftant
from Dorchefter, and 1 28 miles S.W. by W. from London.
It received its name from the mouth of the little river Wey,
near which it ftands, and communicates with Melcombe
Regis, to which it is united by a bridge erefted in 1770.
That the fcite of Weymouth was known to the Romans is
probable from feveral circumftances ; and Mr. Baxter fup-
pofes it to have been the Clavinio, which is mentioned in the
anonymous Ravennas. In the Saxon ages, however, it is
exprefsly named in a Saxon charter ftill extant, by which
king Ethelred gave a certain portion of land, called by the
inhabitants Weymouth (or Wick), near the ide of Port-
land, to his faithful minifter Atfere. In the reign of Ed-
ward III. the town had become of fome importance, the
inhabitants being ordered, together with thofe of Melcombe
and Lyme, to fend a certain quota of (hips for the king's
expedition to Gafcony. In the 21ft year of that reign,
Weymouth ( for Melcombe is not mentioned, though per-
haps included) furnirtied the king with 20 (hips, and 264
mariners, at the fiege of Calais, according to the roll of his
fleet preferved in a manufcript in the Cottonian Library.
In the year 147 1, Margaret of Anjou, with her fon, prince
Edward, landed here from France, in order to reftore her
hu(band to the throne. In 1507, king Phihp of Caftile,
with his queen, were driven on this coaft, and having run
into the port, were detained by fir Thomas Trenchard, till
an interview took place between the Enghfh and Spanifti
monarchs, from which the former derived fome advantages.
In 1588, Weymouth contributed fix ftiips to oppofe the
Armada, one of which was of 120 tons burthen. During
the civil war of Charles I., this town was alternately gar-
rifoned and befieged by the king, and by the parliament's
forces. In 1649 ^^ corporation petitioned parhament for
an indemnification for the loffes they had fuftained in the
war, and a relief from the burthen of maintaining the gar-
rifon ; but their requeft does not appear to have been
granted, as a letter was foon afterwards received concerning
the " refraftorinefs of the magiftrates." The manors of
Portland and Wike, with the ports of Waimuth and Mel-
combe, and the liberties attached to them, were granted by
charter of Henry I. to the monks of St. Swithun, AVinton ;
and Henry II. confirmed the port of Watmue and the whole
land of Melcombe to that eftabh(hment, with additional
privileges. Weymouth and Melcombe are (as has been
obferved under Melcombe Regis) fo frequently joined in
defcents and ancient grants, that fome difficulty occurs in
feparating them with precifion, Weymouth is the more
ancient borough ; though neither fent members to parlia-

12

WEY

ment till the reign of Edward II., fince which time each
of them returned two. Melcombe, being part of the de-
mcfne of the crown, and poiTefling fome peculiar privileges,
is principally noticed in fucceeding charters. The rivallhip
which fubfifted for centuries between the two boroughs
arofe, in the reign of Elizabeth, to fuch a height, that it was
judged expedient to unite them ; and an aft was paffed in her
13th year (afterwards confirmed by James I.), by which
they were incorporated, and direfted hereafter to be called
" The united Town and Borough of Weymouth and
Melcombe Regis ;" the government being vefted in a mayor,
recorder, two bailiffs, an indefinite number of aldermen,
and twenty-four capital burgeffes : and they now pofTefs, as
one borough, the peculiar right, with the metropohs, of
fending four members to parliament. The reprefentatives
are elefted by the freeholders of Weymouth or Melcombe,
whether inhabitants or otherwife. The number of voters is
about two hundred. Thefe eleftors have alfo votes for the
county members. Leland fays, " The tounlet of Way.
mouth lyith ftrait agayn Milton (Melcombe) on the other
fide of the haven, and at this place the water of the haven is
but a fmaul brede, and the trajeftus is by a bote or a rope
bent over the haven ; fo that in the ferry-bote they ufe no
oars. Waighmouth has certain liberties and priviledges,
but there is no mair in it. Ther is a kay and wharf for
(hippes. By this town on a hill is a chapel of eafe. The
parochc church is a mil o(f." The chapel mentioned by
Leland was remarkable for its elevated fituation ; having,
according to Coker's furvey ot this county, an afcent of
eighty ftone fteps. It was of confiderable antiquity, as ap-
pears by a patent of Henry VI., granting a licence to found
a guild in the chapel of St. Nicholas, in the borough of
Weymouth, by the name of the mafter and wardens of the
fraternity or guild of St. George, in Weymouth. This
chapel was demohfhed in the civil war : the fcite is ftill called \
Chapel Hays, and is now ufed as a bowling-green. Wey-
mouth, fince the time of Elizabeth, had, from a variety of
caufes, been gradually going to decay. The removal of
the wool-ftaple to Poole, the lofs of the Newfoundland
trade, the havoc made by the civil wars, damages by fire,
want of public fpirit, and other circumftances, had con-
curred to produce this e{Feft ; and till it began to acquire
celebrity as a watering place, it was httle more than an in-
confiderable fifhing-town. The late Ralph Allen, efq. of
Bath, about the year 1763, firft contributed to bring Wey-
mouth into repute. Having received great benefit from bath-
ing there, he proclaimed its falubrity to the extenfive circle
of his acquaintance ; and his encomium being exceeded by'
the real beauties of the fituation, it foon began to be the
refort of the firft company from all parts of the kingdom.
Tiie reputation thus acquired was extended by the late
duke of Gloucefter, who, having derived confiderable ad-
vantage himfelf, provided a refidence for the accommoda-
tion of the royal family ; and their majefties, accompanied
by the three elder princefTes, in the year 1789, made their
firft vifit to this place. His majefty experienced its benefi-
cial eflfefts, and became fo attached to the fpot, that he has
repeatedly honoured it with his prefence. The advantages
arifing from thefe vifits have proved of the greateft confe-
quence to the town, which has rapidly augmented in fize and
importance, from the vaft concourfe of people by which
it is now frequented. The chief objefts of curiofity to
ftrangers, are the Efplanade and the Bay. The Efplanade,
a fine level piece of fand, which, but a (hort time ago, was
nothing but a receptacle for all the rubbi(h of the town, is
now converted into one of the moft charming promenades
in England, and adorned by a range of handfome edifices.

This

W E 2J

This public walk is half a mile in length, and about thirty
feet in breadth. The bay, where the company bathe, makes
a femicirciilar fweep of nearly two miles, and is proteftcd
from winds by the furrounding- hills, which render the fea
perfeftly lecure. As foon as Weymouth became a place of
fashionable refort, the expediency of public amufements
was perceived ; and Mr. Sproule of Bath offered propofals
for erefting a fet of affembly-rooms, with an hotel, and
other neceflary appendages. The propofitions were acceded
to ; and about the year 1772, a building, 6co feet in length,
and 250 in width, was erefted on a vacant fpot adjoining
the town, at tlie expence of 6000/., which was defrayed by
fubfcriptions in {hares of 100/. each. The Royal AiTembly
Room is a lofty, hght, and fpacious building, in which
upwards of an hundred couples may dance with eafe and
pleafure. The theatre has been recently fitted up in a ftyle
of elegance that does equal credit to the manager and the
architedl. The boxes are capable of containing 300 fpec-
tators ; and the mode in which they are decorated is little in-
ferior to the London theatres. On the quay is a moll con-
venient hot falt-water bath. The bridge has been rebuilt in
the Chinefe ftyle. The church is a low ftrufture, occupy-
ing the fcite of an ancient chapel belonging to the church
at Radipole, of which parifh this was originally a part, but
in the reign of James I. was made a feparate jurifdiftion ;
within it is a fine altar-piece, reprefenting the Lall Supper,
for which fir James Thornhill, who executed and prefented
it to the town, is faid to have refufed 700/. Eaft of the
church are fome buildings that are connettcd with a Domi-
nican priory, founded here about the commencement of the
fifteenth century. Thefe are now parcelled out in tene-
ments ; and the chapel belonging to the priory is ufed as a
malt-houfe. The Quakers and Independants have each a
meeting-houfe here. The number of houfes in Weymouth,
as returned under the population aft of 181 1, was 447 ; of
inhabitants 1747. Markets are held on Tuefday and Friday;
and here are three annual fairs.

Several fmall forts have at various periods been eredted
to defend the town and harbour. On a high chfF, about
a mile from the town, are the ruins of Sandisfoot caftle, a
fortrefs ereAed by Henry VIII. about the year 1539,
when he expetted the Papal fee to excite an invafion of
this country. Leland denominates it, " a right goodly and
warlyke caftle, having one open barbicane." Its form was
a parallelogram, the greateft length running from north to
fouth. The walls, which were moftly cafed with fquared
Portland ftone, were lofty and very ftrong : in fome places,

the thicknefs was not lefs than feven yards Hutchin's

Hiftory of Dorfetfhire, 3 vols. foHo. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. iv. Dorfetfhire. By J. Britton, and E.W.
Brayley, 1804.

Weymouth, a town of New Jerfey, in the county of
Glouceiler, containing 1029 inhabitants.

Weymouth, or Wassagusset, a town of the ftate of
Maffachufetts, in the county of Norfolk, containing 1889 in-
habitants. This is faid to be one of the oldeft towns in the
ftate. It lies on the coaft, and has fome fmall veflels em-
ployed in fiihing. The cheefe made in its environs is much
cfteemed ; 5 miles S. of Bofton.

Weymouth Bay, a bay on the N.E. coaft of New Hol-
land, to the N.W. of Cape Weymouth.

WEYPERT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Saatz;
25 miles N.W. of Saatz. N. lat. 50° 25'. E. long. 13°.

WEYS, a river of Auftria, which runs into the Danube,
a little to the E. of Ips.

WEZE, a river of France, which runs into the Meufe at
Liege.

W H A

WHALE, in AJronomy, one of the conftelhtions. See
Cetcs.

AVhale, Cete, in the Linnaan fyftem of Zoology, the fe-
venth order m the clafs of mammalia. For the charaders
and diftribution of this order, fee Cete.

For the difcriminating charaders of the genus of baUna,
or whale, and a general account of its fpecies, fee Ba-

LJENA.

The common whale, or baUna mypceliis of Linnaus,
with its variations, &c. is defcribed under the article Mys-
TicETus. Ariftotle is faid to have given it the name of
myjlicettis, uvpx.r{lo,, or bear Jed whale, from its having in its
mouth hairs inftead of teeth.

In old time the whale feems never to have been taken on
our coafts, but when it was accidentally flung on (hore : it
was then deemed a royal fjl ; and the king and queen di-
vided the fpoil ; the king alTerting his right to the head, and
the queen to the tail. The reafon of this whimfical divifion,
as affigned by our ancient records, was to furnifli the queen's
wardrobe with whale-bone.

The anatomy of the bones of the whale has been fo little
underftood, that there have been many very great errors in re-
gard to fuch of them as have been at times found foffile, or
buried in the earth among the teeth of elephants, and the re-
mains of teftaceous and other animals. The moft frequent and
moft ridiculous of all the wrong opinions about thefe, is their
having originally belonged to creatures of the human fpe-
cies ; yet many, even among the more inteUigent part of the
world, have taken them for the remains of giants. The
vertebra: of a whale have been miftaken for thofe of a giant,
and a part of its fins for a hand, and fo of the reft. While
the world, more ready to fpread the marvel, than to enquire
into the truth, have made computations of the height of the
man to whom bones of that fize muft have belonged, and
from their proportion in regard to thofe of the common hu-
man fize, have found the giant who poffefted them muft have
been 90 or 100 feet high; much lefs pains in comparative
anatomy would have taught them, that they never could
have belonged to any human body at all. Mem. Acad. Par.
1727.

Whale, Beahed, Bottle-head, or Nebbe-haul, BaUna Rof-
traia, the fmall whale, with taper fnout, and adipofe back
fin, or with very long and acute beak or fnout. The head,
upper part of the back, fins, and tail, are of a dark or blue-
i(h-brown ; and the fides and abdomen are of a beautiful
white, with a flight tinge of pale rofe or flefli colour ; and
marked for more than half the length of the animal by nu-
merous longitudinal plaits or furrows : the eyes are Imall,
as is alfo the head, and the fnout is more elongated than in
any other fpecies, tapering gradually to the extremity,
which is flightly pointed ; the back fin is fmall, and fituated
at no great diftance from the tail ; the peftoral fins are fmall
and narrow, and the tail is divided into two longifh and
pointed lobes. This is of a more elegant form than thofe of
the larger fpecies. Thefe fifli fometimes, but rarely, grow
to the length of twenty-five feet ; they make little noife in
blowing, are very tame, come very near the fliips, and will
accompany them a great way.

Whale, Fin-bach, BaUna Phyfalus of Linnveus, called
alfo fin-jljh. See Physalus.

Whale, Pike- headed, BaUna Boops of Linnxus, is a fpe-
cies which takes its name from the fhape of its nofe, which
is n:irrower and fliarper-pointed than that of other whales.
The length of one taken on the coaft of Scotland, obferved
by fir Robert Sibbald, was forty-fix feet, and its greateft
circumference twenty ; but it fometimes exceeds this length.
From the Ikinuy flap at the root of the tongue, as well as

from

W H A

W H A

from the inteftines, the Greenlanders prepare windows. See
Boops.

Whale, Round-lipped, or Broad-nofed, or Under-jawed,
BaUna Mufiulus of Linnseus, is charaClerifed by having
the lower lip broader than the upper, and of a femicircular
form. See Musculus.

Whale, Bunched, BaUna Gibbofa of Linnxus, with one
or more gibbous excrefcences on the back, and without dor-
fal fins: the knotenfifch oder knobbelfifch of Anderfon
and Crantz. This fpecies is a native of the Northern feas,
and though not much known, is faid to be of the fame
general form with tlie great whale, but of fmaller fize, and
having its back furnifhed with one or more tubercles. The
variety with a fingle tubercle is found about the coafts of
New England ; the other with fix tubercles along the back
is fuppofed to fwarm about the coafts of Greenland. Their
whale-bone is faid to be of a pale or whitifh colour.

Whale Spermaceti, See Cachalot, Physeter, and
Spermaceti.

See on the fubjefts of the preceding articles, Pontopid-
dan's Nat. Hift. of Norway, vol. ii. p. 1 18, &c. Crantz's
Hill, of Greenland, vol. i. p. 106, &c. Pennant's Brit.
Zool. vol. iii. p. 50, &c. Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. viii. p. 424,
&c. Shaw's Zoology, vol. ii.

"WnALK-Blubber, in Agriculture, the fat oilyrefufe matter
left in making the oil from that fifh. It is a material which
has been ufed as a manure in fome cafes with fuccefs, efpe-
cially when employed in mixture with clayey loam, fandy
loam, or any other common earthy or mouldy fubllances.
Thefe matters Ihould be blended together in fuch a manner,
it is faid by the writer of the " Elements of Agricaltural
Chemiitry," as to expofe a large furface to the aftion of the
air, the oxygen of which produces foluble matter from them.
It is obferved, too, that lord Somerville made ufeof this oily
fubftance with great fuccefs on his farm, in the county of
Surrey ; in which cafe it was made into a large heap with
foil, and retained its powers of fertiUzing for feveral fuc-
ceffive years.

It is noticed, that carbon and hydrogen abounding fo
much in this as well as other oily fubltances, fully account
for their effefts ; and that their durabihty is eafily explained
from the very gradual manner in which they change by the
aftion of the air and water on them, as muft obvioully be
the cafe.

This fatty material, in this fort of union with earthy mat-
ters, may confequently be a very beneficial application in
many cafes of tillage-land, efpecially where the fuperficial
bed of mould or foil is rather of the thin kind. It may
alfo be very ufeful as a top-dreffing to grafs-land, particu-
larly where the fward is thin, tender, and not well fet with
grafly herbage, as tending not only to promote the growth
of the crops, but the clofenefs and firmnefs of the furface
fwardy covering. See Manure, and Oil Compojl.

It (hould therefore be preferved and procured as much as
poffible for thefe ufes and applications.

WHALE-5on^, a commodity procured from the whifkers
ef the whale, ufed as a ftiffening in ftays, fans, bulks, fcreens,
&c. See Whale fupra.

Frederick Martens has particularly defcribed the whale-
bone and the method of procuring it in his " Voyage to Spitz-
bergen." Within the mouth of the fifh is the whale-bone,
hairy as a horfe's hair, and hanging down from both fides, all
about his tongue. In fome whales the whale-bone is bent
like a fcymitar, and in others like a half-moon. The fmalleft
whale -bone is before in his mouth, and behind towards his
throat ; and the middlemoft is the largeft and the longeft,
being fometimes about two or three men's length. On one

fide, all in a row, there are 250 pieces of whale-bone, and
as many on the other, containing in all 500 ; and there are
ftill many more, for the cutters let the leaft of all remain,
becaufe they cannot eafily come at it to cut it out, on ac-
count of the meeting of the two lips, where the fpace is
very narrow. The whale-bone is in a flat row, one piece
by the other, fomewhat bending within, and towards the
lips every where like a half -moon. It is broad at the
top, where it flicks fall to the upper lip, every where
overgrown with hard white finews towards the root, fo that
between two pieces of whale..bone you may put your hand.
Thefe white finews are of an agreeable fmell, break very
eafily, and may be boiled and eaten. Where the whale-bone
is the broadefl, as underneath by the root, there groweth fmall
whale-bone, the other being greater. The fmall whale-bone,
as Mr. Martens fuppofes, does not grow bigger ; from one
end to the other it is equally thick, and full of long jacks,
like horfe's hair. The whale-bone is underneath narrow
and pointed, and all overgrown with hair, that it may not
hurt that which is young ; but vnthout the whale-bone has
a cavity, for it is turned like a gutter, in which the water
runs, where it lies the one over the other, like the fhields
or plates of craw-fifh, or the pantiles of an houfe, that lie
one over the other ; for otherwife it might eafily wound or
hurt the under lip. To cut the whale-bone out is a parti-
cular operation, and many iron tools are ufed for this pur-
pofe. Some whale-bone is of a brown, black, or yellow
colour, with ftreaks of feveral colours. The whale -bones
of fome whales are blue and light-blue, which latter are
fuppofed to come from young whales.

Whale- /'/nx, a name improperly given to whale-bone.

WHALU-FiJhery. See Fishery.

Whale Oil. See Oil.

Mr. Parkes ( Effays, vol. i. ) obferves, that the dealer in
Greenland whale oil might alio increafe the profits of his trade
very much, by preparing his oil for fale when the weather is
fuitable for the operation. This kind of oil is always purified
by palling it through large flannel bags, which retain the im-
purities, and fuffer the finer parts to percolate through them.
When the oil has undergone this treatment, it is called bagged
oil, and is then deemed fit for fale. At a low temperature, a
confiderable quantity even of this latter kind would concrete,
and might be feparated by fimilar means ; whereas in a
warm atmofphere this diffolves, and, being lefs inflammable,
very much injures the oil for burning.

By proper attention to this circumftance, all the oil which
is defigned for burning might be very much improved, and
the portion thus feparated from it, would be worth more to
the foap manufafturer for making yellow foap, than fimilar
oil which had not undergone this procefs.

This intelligent chemifl conceives, that an oil-merchant
would do well always to bag different oils in different fea-
fons ; though many experiments might be neceffary before
it could be afcertained what was the exaft temperature at
which the refpeftive kinds would moft; copioully depofit this
feculence. After obferving that in feveral parts of Germany,
and particularly in the neighbourhood of Gottenburgh, am-
monia is prepared from the dregs which remain after the
expreffion of train-oil, he fuggefls that whale -blubber might be
employed for the diftillation of ammonia. Madder, he fays,
might be devifed for correfting its offenfive fmell, and render-
ing it very produftive of volatile alkali. See Ammonia.

Whale Bank, in Geography, a fifhing-bank on the coaft of
Newrfoundland, 60 miles long, and 21 wide ; 90 miles S. of
Cape Mary. N. lat. 45°. W. long. 53° 50'.

Whale Cove, a bay of the Atlantic, on the north coafl
of the iiland of Manan, near the coaft of Maine.

Whale

W H A

Whale F'tfh IJland, an ifland on the coaft of Guiana, at
the mouth of the river ElTequibo.

Whale IJland, a fmall ifland in the North fea. N. lat.
69° 14'. W. long. 134°. — Alfo, a fmall ifland near the
north-weft coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 4° 10'. E. long.
112° 21'.

Whale IJlands, fmall iflands in Portfmouth harbour. N.
lat. 50° 48'. W. long. 1° 5'.

Whale Point, the fouth-eaft cape of an ifland in the ftraits
of Magellan ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Paffage Point.

Whale Rock, an under-water rock at tlie entrance of the
Bay of Iflands, on which the Endeavour ftruck in 1769;
4 miles S.E. of Point Pocock.

Whale Sound, a channel in the ftraits of Magellan, be-
tween an ifland and the coaft of Terra del Fuego.

WHALFIRTH Voe, a bay on the weft coaft of the
ifland of Yell. N. lat. 60° 58'. W. long. 1° 25'.

WHAME, in Natural Hijlory, the name given by the
people of fome parts of England to the burrel-fly, or wringle-
tail, a fpecies of bee-fly very troublefome to horfes.

WHANG-HO, in Geography. See Hoang-ho.

WHAPLODE, a townfhip of Lincolnftiire ; 2 miles S.
of Holbeach.

WRAPPING'S Creek. See Wapping'j Cretk.

WHARF, a perpendicular building of wood or ftone,
raifed on the fliore of a road or harbour, for the convenience
of landing or difcharging a vefTel, by means of cranes,
tackles, capfterns, 8:c. See Artificial Ports.

The fee paid for the landing of goods on a wharf, or for
ftiipping them off, is called luharfage. And tjie perfon who
has the overfight or direftion of the wharf, receives wharfage,
&c. is called the •wharjinger.

There are two legal denominations of wharfs, viz. legal
quays and fufferance wharfs.

Legal quays are certain wharfs in all fca-ports, at which all
goods are required, by the i Eliz. c. 1 1., to be landed and
Ihipped (except at Hull) ; and they were fet out for that
purpofe by commifTion out of the court of exchequer, in the
reign of Charles II. and fubfequent princes. Others have
been legalized by aft of parliament ; as the London docks,
by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 47. ; Weft India docks, by 39

6 40 Geo. III. c. 69. and 42 Geo. III. c. 113 ; Eail
India docks, by 43 Geo. III. c. 126. and 46 Geo. III.
C.113. (SeeDocKS.) Hull, by 14 Geo. III. c. 56. and
42 Geo. III. c. 191.; Milford, by 30 Geo. III. c. 55. ;
Briftol, by 48 Geo. III. c. 11.

In fome ports, certain wharfs are deemed to be legal quays
by immemorial praftice, though not fet out by commif-
fion, or legalized by aft of parliament ; fuch as Chepftow,
Gloucefter, &c.

Sufferance wharfs are places where certain goods may
be landed and fhipped ; fuch as hemp, flax, raff", and other
bulky goods ; likewife goods carried coaftwife, in Gi'eat
Britain, by fpecial fufferance granted by the crown for that
purpofe.

The conftituting limits to the ports and legal quays is part
of the royal prerogative. Lord Hale's Treatife. Vide Har-
grave's Trafts.

Wharf alfo, in a canal, denotes that wider part of it
where boats lie while loading or unloading.

WHARFAGE, in Commerce, certain rates paid for land-
ing and fhipping goods from the quays.

WHARFE, or Wherfe, in Geography, a ri\<€r of Eng-
land, in the county of York, which runs into the Oufe,

7 miles btlow York.

WHARFINGER, the proprietor or farmer of the
quays where goods are fhipped and landed.
Vol. XXXVIII.

W H A

By the 26 Geo. III. c. 40. no goods entitled to draw-
back or bounty on exportation are to be (hipped in Great
Britam, but by wharfingers licenfed by the commiffioners of
the cuftoms ; and m docked lighters. And they are to give
bonds not to be concerned in illegally landing, relanding, or
(hipping goods. They are alfo liable to certain penalties at
connivmg or knowing of any fraudulent tranfaftion, or land-
ing goods at improper places and times, by i Eliz. c. 11.,
and 13 & 14 Cha. II. c. 11.

WHARTON, Henry, in Biography, an Enghfh divine
of the Eftabhfhed Church, was born in 1664, at Worftead,
in Norfolk, where his father was vicar ; and in his fixteenth
year admitted a penfioner of Gonville and Caius college at
Cambridge, where he afliduoufly purfued the ftudy of va-
rious branches of literature, and particularly of mathe-
matics, under Ifaac Newton, Lucafian profeffor. After
taking the degree of B.A. with great reputation, he a(rifted
Dr. Cave in his " Hiftoria Literaria," contributing almoft
the whole of the appendix of the three laft centuries. In
1687 he took orders, and his degree of M.A. in the follow-
ing year. He had various literary occupations, chiefly in
writing or editing treatifes againft Popery ; until he took
prieft's orders, when he was prefented firft to the vicarage
of Minfter in the ifle of Thanet, and in 1689 to the reftory of
Chartham. By the advice of Dr. Lloyd, bifhop of St. Afapb,
he undertook the work which gave fome celebrity to his
name, intitled " Anglia Sacra, five CoUeftio Hiftoriarum,
partim antiquitus, partim recefiter Scriptarum, de Archiepif-
copis et Epifcopis Anglia a prima Fidei Chriftians fuf-
ceptione ad Annum 1540," 2 vols. fol. London, 1691.
An additional part was publifhed after his death in 1695,
under the title of " Hiftoria de Epifcopis et Decanis Lon.
dinenfibus ; necnon de Epifcopis et Decanis Affavenfibus
(St. Afaph) ; a prima Sedis utriufque Fundatione ad An-
num IJ40," 8vo. The author's " Angha Sacra" was the
refult of great induftry and labour, and evinces the author's
zeal for the church to which he belonged ; but it is charge-
able with incorreftnefs. In 1692 he publifhed " A Defence
of Pluralities ;" in the following year he edited fome ancient
theological pieces ; and, under the name of Anthony Harmer,
publifhed " A Specimen of fome Errors and Defefts in the
Hiftory of the Reformation of the Church of England, by-
Gilbert Burnet, D.D.," a work which excited the indigna-
tion of the author, and caufed him to mention Wharton with
afperity in the introduftion to the third volume of that work.
The laft publication of Wharton was " The Hiftory of
the Troubles and Trial of Archbifhop Laud ;" to which
were added Laud's diary, and fome other pieces. He alfo
edited the Life of Cardinal Pole, by Bacatelli, together
with fome animndverfions on Strype's Memorials of Arch-
biftiop Cranmer. Although his conftitution was ftrong, he
clofed his life, in confequence of intenfe application, fome-
what prematurely, in March 1694-5, '" ^^^ 3'^ Y^^^ of ^»
age, leaving feveral MSS., fome of which were afterwards
printed, as alfo two volumes of fermons. He was interred
in Weftminfter-abbey. Biog. Brit.

Wharton, Philip, Duke of, the fon of the marquis of
Wharton, who was a firm fupporter of the Revolution and
Hanover fucceflion, was born in 1 699 ; and after having
exhibited talents which commanded notice, when he was
13 or 14 years of age, in the courfe of his education under
domeftic tutors, contrafted a premature marriage with
the daughter of major-general Holmes, and thus difap-
pointed his father's views, and hailened his death in 1715.
In the beginning of 17 16, Philip fet out en his travels, pro-
pofing to finifh his education at Geneva ; but the young
marquis, having conti'afted a taft« for gaiety and expence,
X X was

W H A

W H E

was difgufted with the manners of that place, and leaving
his governor there, proceeded to Lyon's, and wrote to the
Pretender at Avignon, accompanying his letter with the
prefent of a fine horfe. The Pretender was highly gratified,
and receiving the marquis at his court, decorated him with
the title of the duke of Northumberland. At Paris he paid
his refpeds to the dowager-queen of James II., and received
notice and good advice from the Englifh ambaffador, lord
Stair. About the end of 1716 he returned to England,
and going over to Ireland, where he poffefTed a peerage, he
was admitted to take his feat in the houfe of lords of that
kingdom. Here, deferting the principles and connexion
which he had lately formed, he defended the eftablKhcd go-
vernment with all the powers of his reafoning and eloquence ;
in confequence of which he was advanced to a dukedom, by
the ftyle of duke of Wharton, in the county of Wellmore-
land. Upon coming to age, he took his feat in the Englifh
houfe of lords, where he diftinguiftied himfelf by an aban-
donment of his lately avowed principles, in the defence of
bifhop Atterbury ; and he alfo pubhfhed a virulent oppofi-
tion paper, intitled " The True Briton." But fuch was
his boundlefs extravagance, that his eflate was veiled, by a
decree of chancery, in the hands of truftees, who allowed
him an annuity of 1200/. Having only this pittance, he de-
termined to live abroad, and to enter into the fervice of the
Pretender. Having vifited Vienna and Madrid, he formed
an acquaintance at the latter place with a young lady of
Irifh extraftion, who was maid of honour to the queen of
Spain, and married her; his duchefs having died in 1726,
without leaving any iffue. From Rome, where he appeared
under the title of the duke of Northimberland, and decorated
with a blue ribband and garter, he returned to Spain, and
obtained permiffion from the king to go as a volunteer to
Gibraltar, which was then under fiege by the Spaniards.
When this fiege broke up, he vifited the Spanifh court, and
was nominated by the king " colonel-aggregate" of one of
the Irifti regiments. Difcouraged in his wifhes to be ac-
tively employed in the fervice of the Pretender, he went to
Paris, and with fingular effrontery paid a public vifit to the
Englifh ambaffador, Horace Walpole ; informing him, upon
taking leave, that he was going to dine with the bifhop of
Rocheftcr, though it had been made criminal to hold any
communication with that exiled perfon. At this time a bill
of indiftment for high trcafon was preferred againfl him in
England, for having appeared in arms againft. his majcfly's
fortrefs at Gibraltar ; but a wifh to reclaim him induced fir
Robert Walpole to fend two friends to offer him his re-
eflablifhment and the pofTeflion of his eftate, if he would
only fue for pardon. This he refufed to do, confenting only
to accept a pardon if freely granted him. His allowance
from home was difcontinued, and he was overwhelmed with
debts abroad. From Rouen, where he had for fome time
refided, he removed to Paris, living meanly, and providing
for himfelf by various difhonourable expedients. Having
obtained a fmall fum, when all his refources had failed, he
took his duchefs with him, and went by water to Bilboa.
From thence he proceeded to join his regiment, fuhjefting
Kis duchefs to extreme diflrefs, in which fhe was occafionally
reheved by the bounty of the duke of Ormond, who was
himfelf an exile. In 1730 his health declined, and he
amufed himfelf in compofing a tragedy, on the flory of
Mary queen of Scots ; but his end was approaching. In
his way to a mineral fpring, in the mountains of Catalonia,
where he had once obtained relief, he was obliged to flop at
a fmall village, when his condition was fo pitiably deflitute,
that the fathers of a Bernardine convent took compaffion
upon him, and brought him to their houfe, where by atten-

tion and cordials his life was prolonged for about a week.
At length, without a friend or acquaintance to clofe his
eyes, having performed the laft duties of penitent devotion,
he expired on May 31, 1 73 1, in the 3 2d year of his age, and
was interred the next day after the manner of a poor monk.
Pope has recorded his charafter, in the firft epillle of his
Moral EfTays, in the following beautiful lines :

•' Thus with each gift of nature and of art,
And wanting nothing but an honeft heart ;
Grown all to all, from no one vice exempt,
And moft contemptible to fhun contempt ;
His paffion flill, to covet general praife ;
His life, to forfeit it a thoufand ways ;
A conflant bounty which no friend has made ;
An angel tongue which no man can perfuade ;
A fool, with more of wit than half mankind ;
Too rafh for thought, for aftion too refin'd ;
A tyrant to the wife his heart approves ;
A rebel to the very king he loves ;
He dies, fad outcall of each church and ftate.
And, harder flill ! flagitious, yet not great."

Wharton was one of the warmefl patrons of Young, who
dedicated to him his mofl celebrated tragedy " The Re-
venge," and gave him the credit of having fuggefled the
moft beautiful incident in that compofition. Biog. Brit.
Pope's Works. Johnfon's Lives of the Poets.

Wharton, Thomas, a phyfician and anatomifl, was
born in Yorkfhire, in 1610, and educated at Pembroke-hall,
Cambridge. Before the civil wars he refided in Trinity
college, Oxford, as private tutor to a natural fon of lord
Sunderland. Upon the commencement of the war, he re-
moved to London, and engaged in the praftice of phyfic.
After the furrender of Oxford to the parhamcnt in 1646, he
returned to Trinity college, and was created M.D. by
the recommendation of general Fairfax. Returning again
to London, he became a member and cenfor of the college
of phyficians, and acquired confiderable praftice and repu-
tation. In 1652 he read leftures before the college on the
fubjeft of the glands ; but labouring, as other anatomills of
that day did, under a fcarcity of human fubjefts, he was
under a neceffity of availing himfelf of animal diffeftion.
In his work, intitled " Adenographia, five Glandularum
totius Corporis Defcriptio," 1656, 8vo., his defcriptions
are alm.ofl wholly taken from brute animals, and therefore
cannot fland the tefl of modern accuracy. Neverthelefs he
revived and improved the knowledge of the falivary dufts on
the fide of the tongue, to which he affixed his own name ;
and he furnifhes ufeful obfervations on the difeafes of the
glands. He died in 1673. Haller. Gen. Biog.

Wharton, in Geography, a townfhip of Pennfylvania,
with 922 inhabitants ; 30 miles S. of Pittfburgh.

WHATLY, a town of Mafl'achufetts, with 891 in-
habitants ; 10 miles N. of Northampton.

WHATOGA, a town of United America, in the Ten-
nafee flate ; 4c miles S. of Knoxville.

WHEAT, in 5o/^nj.. SeeTRiTlcuM.

Wheat, in ylgriculture, a well-known valuable grain,
much cultivated and grown in many parts of this as well as
mofl other sountries, as being the principal fort of corn
from which bread is made. It is not now well known from
what country wheat was firfl introduced into this ; but it
has lately been fuggefled as probable, by fir .Tofeph Banks,
in confequence of having a fmall paper of feeds, on which
were written Hill "wheat, put into his hands, the feeds con-
tained in which were found to be fcarcely larger than thofe
of our wild graffes ; though, when nicely examined, they

perfeftly

WHEAT.

perfeftly refembled grains of wheat, and which on being
fown in a garden very unexpeftedly proved to be wheat of
the fpring kind, and the ufual fize, the grains of which
being nearly, if not wholly, as large as thofe of the ordinary
wheat of the above fort, that the packet and feeds came
cither from the peninfula, or from the hilly country, far
within land from Bengal, as that province itfelf is a flat al-
luvial tradl of land, entirely level. That as this hill wheat
is, however, no doubt, it is fuppofed, known to fome pcr-
fons who are now either in India, or who have lately re-
turned from thence into this country, it is certainly a matter
of fome importance to know what information they can give
on the fubjeft of it, efpecially whether this wheat be a cul-
tivated, or a wild plant ; as we fliall, it is faid, if the latter
be the cafe, afcertain two of the greateft deliderata of cul-
tivators ; as thofe of the country where wheat grows fpon-
taneoufly, and the nature of the grain in its original ftate,
vrhen unaffifted by the foftering hand of man.

It is by no means improbable, from the nature and habits
of wheat, that it may have come originally from the hilly
country of the eafl:, and been rendered hardy by time and
cultivation in this and moft other parts of the world.

Wheat is a kind of grain of which there are two dif-
ferent fpecies, in cultivation as crops, in the climate of this
country ; as the common /moot /i or polled v/heRt, and the cone
rough or bearded wheat. Of the firft of thefe forts, which
is by much the moft cultivated in this kingdom, as being
the moft fuited to the nature and quality of the largeft
extent of the foils or lands in it, and as affording the fineft
kind of flour, there are numerous varieties that arc dif-
ferently preferred in different fituations; and the latter
fpecies, which is often termed rivet wheat, and which has
alfo feveral varieties that differ little except in the colour of
the chaff aad the form of the ears, though it does not afford
the iinett fort of flour, as yielding the largeft quantity of
produce on ftiff moift clayey lands, and as being lefs fubjeft
to injury and difeafe from wetnefs on fuch foils, as well as
lefs liable to lodge from its firmnefs of ftem, is frequently
cultivated and grown on fuch forts of land.

It has been obfcrved by an able and intelligent cultivator
in the county of Kent, Mr. Boys, that the number of forts
of this grain is annually increafing by importation from
foreign countries. But that the old forts are the brown and
yellow lammas, the luhite Jlraiu, Fulham, and the luhlte or
egg-Jhell. That the brown lammas was the kind chiefly cul-
tivated in that county till within thefe twenty or thirty years ;
but that it has now given way to a variety of new kinds, as
well as fome of the other old forts : experiment has, however,
Ihewn it to be the leaft productive of the feveral forts. It
is the common browti-Jlrawed wheat that grows with a long
jointed ear, the cliaff of a dark brown colour, the ftraw
long and apt to fall, the hull or bran thin, the flour very
white, and the corn mellow in grinding, for which reafon it
is efteenied by the millers as the beft of the old forts for
their ufe ; and that the yellow lammas refembles the brown,
in every refpeft, except that the colour of the grain is of a
yellow hue, and the chaff of a fomewhat lighter colour
than the others. A red lammas with a red ftraw, red ear,
and red kernel, is noticed by Young as being reckoned by
many farmers the beft of all the forts hitherto known, as
yielding the fineft and whiteft flour. The firft of thefe
writers ftates, that the wh'itejlranved wheat takes its name
from the colour of its ear, and in other counties has the title
of the Kentijh luhite Jlraiu. That it fends out a greater
number of ttems from the ftool or plant than the other forts,
and in that way is often a very thick crop on the land. That
the ftraw is generally fomewhat ftiorter than that of many

other forts, and not quite fo liable to fall in rainy feafons.
That it is on thefe accounts much fown in the eaftern parts
of that county ; but that from its dull colour, its having a
thick bran, and often grinding very fteely, it is not much
approved by the millers of the diftrift. It is remarked,
that the Fulham fort produces a white ftraw, wl\ich grows
ftiort and coarfe ; but that it is very produftive, particularly
on poor land : the grain is however coarfe, and the bran
thick, which circumftances render it the leaft valuable to
the millers of any of the forts defcnbed above. And that
the white or egg-Jliell wheat is known by its producing a
white ftraw, a fmooth white chaff, and very white grain :
the bran of which is very thick, but the flour remarkably
white. It works mellow in grinding, is very early ripe, and
fo free in the ear as to blow out in wmdy weather, which is a
difadtfantage.

It is noticed, that of the new forts of wheat in that
county, as the hoary white, the nonpareil, the pilbeam, the
fquare ear, the hoary brown, and the hoary white, called by
iome the velvet-eared, the laft is by far the moft valuable, as
being very produdlive, and the beft for the miller's ufe. It
has the ftraw white and fliort, the chaff covered with a
thick fine down, fomewhat of a brownifli hue ; the grain
remarkably fmall, and of a dull white colour, the bran very
thin, fo that the grain in fome cafes is almoft tranfparerft
when held up to the light. It grinds very mellow, and
makes a beautiful fine white flour. But from the quantity
of the down upon the chaff, and its fmall ears binding up
very clofe in the flieaf, it is apt in a rainy feafon to vegetate
too freely in the field ; on which account it is not fo proper
to cultivate in a moift climate, and in fmall inclofures that
are not open to the influence of the fun and winds. That
the nonpareil is a fort faid to have been brought into this
country from America : it has a bright ftraw, with a brown
ear ; and the grain is very white, large, and plump. It is
very produftive on all foils, thrafties very free, and yields in
that operation the greater part of its chaff; thereby pro-
ducing a great quantity of horfe-meat. It grinds very mel-
low, and is well efteemed by the millers in moft diftrifts.
And that the pilbeam is a brown wheat growing very ftiff,
and is generally thick on the land. The grain is fmall and
plump, fomewhat of a yellow-brown. It is accounted very
produftive on rich lands, and is a valuable kind to mix with
others, but will not of itfelf make good bread, from its not
fermenting or working properly in that operation. In re-
gard to the fquare-eared wheat, that it is a very produftive
fort, but is apt to drop out in the field, before it is ripe, and
in gales of wind, on which account it is not fo much culti-
vated. And that the hoary brown is but lately introduced,
confequently little known at prefent. And the hoary white
fort, which has a white ftraw, ear, and grain, is in much
the fame fituation. That the Clarke-wheat, which has a
red bloffom, chaff, and ftraw, but white grain, is much
cultivated in Suflex. That the hedge wheat is alfo white
and very produftive. And that the velvet wheat is diftinft
from the hoary white, but is white, not weighty, yet afford-
ing much flour, being very thin in the fl<in.

There are alfo different varieties of cone or bearded
wheat, a fort which is named from the form of the ear, as
has been feen above. That of the rivet wheat, there are
two forts, the white and the brown, neither of which are
much cultivated in Kent. They both ripen late in the fea-
fon, and are fo coarfe and fteely, as to be unfit for making
bread, unlefs mixed with a large proportion of a better fort
of flour. They, however, produce very abundant crops on
ftrong wet lands, as has been noticed. It is remarked, too,
by Mr. Young, to be a produdive fort on very poor, wet,
X X J cold

WHEAT.

cold land, though a coarfe grain, felling at an inferior price
in the markets. And the bearded or rivet kind of wheat is
likewife thought, by fome cultivators, to be the mod adapted
to fuch kinds of rich lands as have been newly broken up,
and where there may be danger of the crop lodging from too
great luxuriance, as it pofTefTes the property of a greater
firmnefs of ftraw or ftem than the common kinds, as fug-
gefted above.

The white and the red are the forts the moft elleemed in
general among the polled kind ; the former affording the
whiteft flour, but the latter has the greater produce in moft
cafes.

It is obferved, that of the feveral forts of wheat that are
in cultivation in the county of Suffex, the velvet-eared is
preferred in the weald part of it, as having by much the
thinneft ll<in : they there call \ljluffed. It weighs on the
average from fifty-nine to fixty pounds the bufhel. It is
faid by the bed judges that the -while Jlujf on good land
anfwers beft, as being the moft faleable : but that on poor
land, fubjecl to poppies, the ftrong-ftrawed fort that over-
powers this weed ftiould certainly be fown.

There is a fort of wheat that obtains much on the
Down parts, which is what they call Clark wheat. It is
not bearded ; has a red bloffbm, red chaff, and red ftraw ;
white grain, as already feen ; the fample coarfe, being in
price under the fineft forts. It is, however, a great yielder,
and requires to be cut forward.

The Chldham luhhe or hedge wheat is much in cultiva-
tion, being introduced by Mr. Woods of this diftrift. Upon
trial it is found to be a very fine fort : it is white, of a very
fine berry, and remarkably long in the ftraw. It is now
much grown in many of the fouthern as well as northern
counties.

In the county of Effex, according to the Correfted Re-
port on the Agriculture of that diftrift, Mr. Kemp of He-
dingham compared wheat from Italy, from Scotland, and
from Dantzic ; the laft by far the beft, and next the
Scotch ; but the Itahan was full of fmut in fpite of every
attention in brining and liming ; and fowing it a fecond
time with ftill more precaution, the refult was the fame.

About Burnham, fome cultivate a fort of wheat from
Italy, which they approve of much ; the ftraw is remark-
ably ftout and ftiff. They cultivate alfo a fort called the
Sopfodite; red grain, red chaff, and purple ftraw; this is a
very good fort. The Taunton Dean, too, is beautiful, but
will not bear rough weather. For two years paft the Ham-
burgh white, with white grain, and white chaff, has been a
faftiionable fort ; the white American fort is alfo ufed.

The forts moft ufually fown about Kelvedon are the burrel
red chaff, and red grain ; and the white rough; white chaff,
and white grain, the chaff rough : this fort ftands the weather
well, and does not fhell eafily ; but is rather difficult to
thrafti. About Langenhoe they generally fow white wheat
on heavy land, and rarely rivets, rough chaff. Tori -white,
alfo American red. Some other of the above forts are like-
wife in ufe.

It is remarked that a few years ago, as a perfon at Brad-
field wa« walking through his wheat-fields when the corn was
in full bloffom, he was ftruck with the variety of hues, or
colours, which the bloffoms affumed : at firft he conceived
it might be owing to the different ftages of forwardnefs in
the bloffom ; but on particular examination and more mature
refleftion concluded that they were certain figns of a fpeci-
fic difference in the quality of the wheat : impreffed with
this idea, he felefted the ears of different hues, and particu-
larly marked eleven diftinft numbers ; noting very minutely
their charafteriftic qualities and appearances in the field.

Thefe he gathered and kept feparate when ripe, and planted
them apart from each other in his garden ; the fame charac-
teriftic difference was obferved to continue upon the feveral
numbers when growing in the garden as was obferved in the
field the preceding fummer, and are as below.

Firji year in the garden culture. — No. I. A ftiff ftraw,
thick ear, the rows or chefts in which fet clofer than in
any other.

2. Dark ftraw, full blade, and large open ear.

3. A large long ear, ripened late, and well fet,

4. Full fohage, and a long open ear.

5. Straight handfome ftraw, large well-fet ears, flag or
leaf fmall.

6. Red rufty leaf before fpindling, red ftraw with little
leaf at harveft and fmaller ears than any.

7. Very like No. 6. in ftraw, the ears fmall, but well
fet.

8. Straw leafy at harveft, of a good colour, well eared
and handfome.

9. 10. Straw full ol flag or leaf at harreft, ears fet
wide.

1 1. Very like No. j.

Second year in the garden culture. — No. I. Short upright
ftiff ftraw, thick well-fet ears, and later by four or five days
than any of the others.

i. Very dark ftraw, upon which there remained a full
dark blaie at harveft ; long open ears.

3. Strong leafy ftraw, of a good colour, with a thick
long ear, well fet, rather later than Nos. 5, 8, and n.

4. Thick leafy brown ftraw, with a fmall ear.

5. 8, II. Short handfome bright leafy ftraw, ears long,
thick and well fet.

6. Long ftraw with a good deal of flag, ears ill fet and
open.

7. Straw handfome, but fmall ears, and fubjeft to root-
falling.

9, 10. Long weak ftraw, very leafy, and fubjeft to root-
falling.

It is noticed on thefe, that the lemon-coloured bloffom
was obferved to attend Nos. 5, 8, and 1 1 ; but the colour
of Nos. I and 3. was not particularly remembered. Thefe
are the numbers which had been preferved, Nos. 5, 8, and
II, coming to the fickle about a week earlier than Nos. I
and 3, the produce of which, when compared with the re-
jefted numbers, is an excefs of from fix to eight bnfhels^jr
acre, and weighing about three pounds more to the bufliel.

At Bradvvell, it is obferved, a crop of IVindfor wheat
was had, white grain, white ftraw, and white chaff, which
was a moft beautiful fample ; the ftrength of the ftraw
middling.

That of all the different forts of wheat Mr. Hardy has
tried on his farm, the beft has been the white egg-(hell, and
this is the fort moft cultivated in Foulnefs ifland.

That the red American is a fort which yields remarkably
well with fome ; it is much approved in Merfea ifle. Some
have had the beft f\iccefs with it. But Mr. Strutt, at Ter-
ling, fowed a barrel of remarkably beautiful wheat from
New York, in part of a field, the reft of which was fown
with Englifti wheat, and the American was fo bhghted in
the ear as to produce a poor and miferable grain both in
quality and quantity. He fowed it again, and the refult
was the fame, and repeated the experiment the third time,
the refult again the fame, though the adjoining Englifh
wheat in all the three years produced a fair crop free from
all blight. The habit of this wheat, therefore, was not, it
is faid, changed in three years fowing.

That the rough chaff, a white chaff and white grain, with
2 a velvet

I

WHEAT-

a velvet ear ; is found about Burnham to be an excellent
fort ; for there they are fubjeft to ftrong eafterly winds, and
it does not fhell eafily. But fome, however, do not like it
on heavy land, as it has not ftraw enough ; and think that
it (hould ftand till ripe, or it will not thrafh well.

And about Hallingburg Rife, and indeed through all the
diftrict of the Roodings, they find the rivet fort a very ufe-
ful wheat, which is very general, and is found to yield on
that heavy foil much better crops than any common fort ;
but on lighter foils the Kentifh red.

In Norfolk about Reddlefworth they have an opinion
that red ivheat will not anfwer on black fand, white fucceed-
ing to much better advantage. But at Winborough red is
only fown by Mr. Salter, the white forts not anfwering fo
well on the heavy foils : it is termed the old red. Some pre-
fer the red chaff, or red wheat to the white, as being lefs
liable to grow at harveft ; white however is a better fample,
and produces a better price.

In Hertford fhire the rivet or bearded fort is the common
fort on the clays and ifrong loams about Sawbridgworth,
on which it yields more abundantly than the red and white
wheats, four or five quarters ^ifr acre not being uncommon
in favourable years. And a fort termed polled rivets is alfo
very productive, one hundred grains having been feen in an
ear.

About St. Alban's, Z)^jr'j /?ok/, which has the ears grow-
ing with four fets of kernels, is much fown : alfo about
Hitchen, where it was difcovered by a poor labourer who
gathered a few ears. It is faid to yield well. It is fup-
pofed to be the pirls of Ellis. The red Inmmas and Lujiuell,
brought from Cambridgefhire, are likewife much fown. On
the Albury clays the rivets are grown, yielding largely, but
fubjeft to mildew, and feUing badly with indifferent ftraw.
They have a hlue and tvhite fort ; the latter is preferred.

In moft other counties, the fame forts of wheat are like-
wife cultivated and grown with fome other varieties.

In addition to thefe, there is, however, another fpecies or
fort of this grain, which is now much cultivated in fome
cafes, as that which is known by the name of fpring-wheat.
This is a fort of wheat that is capable of being put into the
ground at the fame time with other grain crops, in the early
fpring months. The cultivation of it has been long prac-
tifed, in fome degree, in both the northern and fouthern
parts of the ifland ; but of late a much greater attention has
been beftowed upon it, and at prefent it is raifed and grown
to confiderable extent in different diftrifls and places, as in
the fens of Lmcolnfhire and Cambridgefhire, in many parts
of Oxfordfhire, in fome inftances in Berkfhire, in Hertford-
(hire, where it is found to anfwer well, and in moft of the
other fouthern counties, as well as in many parts of the
north of England, and even in the lower parts of Scot-
land.

The common autumn or winter fort of this grain is in
general moft fuited to the heavier defcriptions of mellow
foils, which do not retain too much moifture. They ftiould
however be of a fertile quality, and capable of afford-
ing a fine furface mould, for the reception of the grain.
But good crops may be raifed on the lighter forts ; though
the introduction of it on fuch kinds of land, has been fug-
gefted as difadvantageous from their being fo much more
adapted to the raifing of other kinds of crops.

The cone, bearded, or rivet forts of fuch wheat are the
moft proper for the heavier, more moift, and lefs broken
down and reduced kinds of land that have been more lately
put in cultivation, on which very weighty crops are not un-
frcquently produced.

All thefe forts of wheat are grown to the moft advantage

and with the greateft fuccefs, where the bottom in the land
is fomewhat inchned to be firm and clofe.

In regard to the fpring fort of this grain, it would feem
to be capable of being cultivated on the ftrong and heavy,
as well as on the lighter forts of land ; but that it is the
moft calculated for the latter, where the vegetation and
growth are rapid, particularly fuch fenny lands as have a firm
turf-earthy bottom. In thefe it rifes in a very quick manner,
and they are not by any means well fuited for the winter forts
of wheat from their lightnefs, rendering them liable to be
thrown out in that feafon.

Preparation of the Land. — Wheat is a crop that is ufually
grown after the land has been prepared by repeated plough-
ing and harrowing or fummer fallowing ; but which is often
capable of being raifed after difft rent kinds of green crops,
as well as thofe of the root and other forts with equal or
more advantage. In fome cafes, flax and hemp alfo afford a
good preparation for this grain ; but fome coiifider beans as
the moft favourable preparation : and experiment has fhewn
tares, and clover, to be nearly equal to them in this inten-
tion. In the county of Norfolk, wheat almoft conftantly
fucceeds clover, except where pea or bean crops are inter-
pofed, the land being fcarcely ever fallowed with this view,
except in the inftances of what are termed lajiard fummer
tills. It has indeed been well obferved, that if there is one
practice in hufbandry proved by modern iitiproveirent to be
worfe than another, it is that of fowing wheat on fallows ;
it is therefore only ftated on this point, that in fon.e counties
the fallows are ploughed jnft before harveft on to two-bout
ridges ready to plough and fow under the furrow in the
fpraining method, a feedfman to every plough which reverfes
the ridges. In others they lay their lands into ten or twelve
furrow-ftitches or ridges, and fow fome under the furrow,
fome under the harrow. That the ridges vary exceedingly,
according to their wetrefs ; and that in Kent they have by
means of the turn-wreft plough, no lands at all, but a whole
field, one even furface. It would be ufelefs to expatiate on
the circumftances of fallow-wheat which ought no where
to be found. If fallows be or are thought neceffary, let
them be fown for barley or oats, or with any thing but
wheat. However, in whatever manner or after whatever
kind of crop this fort of grain may be cultivated, the foil ,
fhould conftantly undergo that fort of preparation that may
be fufficient, according to the particular circumftances of
the land, to bring it into a ftate of confiderable finenefs of
mould, efpecially in the more fuperficial parts, and thereby
prevent as much as poffible the rifing of weeds ; for it has
been well noticed by a late writer, that whoever has attended
to the progrefs of this fort of crop, in fuch lands as have
been well broken down and reduced, and in fuch as have
been left in a lumpy crude ftate at the time of fowing, will
have found the difference to be very confiderable. But it
may be noticed, that when this kind of crop is taken after
clover, the land feldom undergoes more than one ploughing,
which is moftly given immediately before the feed is fown.
However, as the graffy matter, in many cafes where this mode
is adopted, is extremely apt to rife and injure the crops in
the more early ft ages of their growth, it R.ay be better to
follow the praflice adopted in fome diflridts of ufing a fkim-
coultered plough, as by this contrivance the remaii-s of the
clover weeds, and grafly niateiial on the furface, may be cut
or fliimmed off, and turned into the bottom of the furrows,
where they are immediately coveted with the Icofe mould
from below to fuch a depth, that little or no irconvenience
can be fuftained by them, while the land is thus rendered
more clean, and capable of being harrowed in a more per-
fcA manner than where the common plough only is em-
ployed.

WHEAT.

ployed. Befides, perhaps, a better bed of mould is turned
up in this way for the feed to vegetate in, provided the fur-
row is not made of too great a depth and breadth, and re-
main fome time before it is fown ; which (hould conftantly
be attended to by the agriculturift in preparing this fort of
ground for wheat-crops. But it is the ciiitom of fome
counties, as of Norfolk and Warwick, where the land is
often continued for nearly two years in a ftate of clover, to
break them up in the latter end of June ; in the fecond, giv-
ing two, and fometimes three ploughings. Where the fitua-
tion is favourable, and the weather turns out fuitable for
reducing the foil to a proper ftate of tilth, this may be an
advantageous praftice, as by fuch means great benefit may
be obtained by cutting the grafs in the beginning of the fea-
fon, in which it is to be ploughed up ; but where circum-
ftances of fo favourable a nature do not occur, fuch a
method of preparation muft be lefs beneficial than that of
giving only one ploughing. In the preparation of a clover
ley for wheat, Mr. Ducket has noticed a fingular experi-
ment and praftice. He had a field in which wheat rarely
efcaped being greatly root -fallen ; not to lofe fowing it with
that grain, and at the fame time to guard againft the ex-
perienced malady, he fcarified it repeatedly, till he had torn
up the clover, and alfo produced tilth enough for drilling it
in ; then he coUefted the clover fragments, and carted them
into the farm-yard to make dung, and drilled the field ; the
wheat having a firm bottom in an unftirred foil, efcaped the
difeafe, and yielded an ample produce. The clover bulb,
which would have fecured the dreaded loofenefs of foil, had
it been turned down, made a large quantity of dung, and
therefore was not loft to the farm, though the particular
field was deprived of it. And it has been ftated on the au-
thority of a cultivator of much experience, that in cafes
■where the clover-crops have been fuch as to leave the land
in a foul condition in refpeft to weeds, it would be highly
improper to fow them with this fort of grain, as from its
remaining for fuch a great length of time upon the ground
they may be liable to have their feeds perfectly evolved, and
brought into a ftate of vegetation. In fuch cafes, it has
been fuggefted as more advantageous to have recourfe to
fuch fort of crops as may require the operation of hoeing
during the time they are upon the ground. The putting in
of wheat after pea-crops, is a praftice that may probably
be purfued with the nioft propriety and fuccefs in thofe dif-
trifts that are, from the nature of their fituation, fufficiently
early to admit of the land being fully cleaned and prepared
by repeated ploughings and harrowings, after fuch crops
have been removed, before the proper time of fowing fuch
grain. But where they are fo late as only to allow of the
land being prepared by one ploughing before the period of
fowing, it is (uppoied by fome to be an extremely hazardous
praftice to attempt the culture of wheat after fuch crops ;
as unlefs the ground be in a high ftate of tilth, there is httle
chance of a good crop being produced. This is the opinion
of the writer of the work on modern agriculture ; but the
Norfolk farmers are in the conftant habit of fetting or fink-
ing in wheat upon a pea-ftubble witii a finglc ploughing, and
confider it a very fafe and excellent huft)andry . The pea-crop
ought, however, to have been kept clean ; and after it is har-
vefted, the haulm harrowed off. They never plough a bean-
ftubble there more than once. In fome countief, it is the
conftant praftice to cultivate beans and wheat alternately on
the fame land for fome time. This is the cafe on the ftronger
kinds of foil in the county of Kent, on which it is found to
anfwer in a very advantageous manner ; and where wheat is
only occafionally fowii after fuch crops, it is often found an
ufeful praftice ; but in all fuch cafes the beans ftiould be

cultivated in drills at from twenty to thirty inches diftance,
in order that they may admit of being hand and horfc hoed
in the moft perfeft manner. If this method has been fol-
lowed, and the bufinefs of hoeing during the growth of the
crops effeftually performed, the land may be fufficiently pre-
pared for the fucceeding wheat-crops by one ploughing, as
the foil from being thus kept clean, and in high tilth, can
fcarcely fail of affording a good produce. It has been re-
marked, that where the farmer has a bean-ftubble intended
to be fown with wheat, he fhould give it the due tillage as
early as poffible, which ftiould be regulated by the foil, as
on fome it may be better to truft the fcim fcufflers and fcari-
fiers than the plough. That where the land is very clean,
the great flcim of the ifle of Thanet is capable of cutting
through every thing, and loofening the furface fufficiently to
enable the harrows to render it as fine as poffible, being
picked and burned by women. Where not fo clean, the
Kenti/li broodftiare may be more eff'eftive. In other cafes,
the fcuffler may be fufficient for the purpofe. It is noticed
that in this cafe, when the farmer has got the furface to his
mind, he is to confider whether or not he ftiould plough it,
which is advifeable if the foil be of a firm fohd tenacious
quality, and if he does not intend to drill the wheat : if he
Ihould plough fuch a foil he may not have any apprehenfion
of root-fallen wheat, that is, failing roots, from a loofe bot-
tom ; but he will bring up a new furface that may drill with
difficulty, whereas that which has received the influences of
the crop, atmofphere, and of his late operations, will be in
exaftly the right temper for the drill to work in. If the
foil is of a more loofe friable quality, and he ftiould plough
down the fine furface he has gained, he will give the wheat
too loofe a bottom, and he will run the chance of a root-
fallen crop. In all fuch cafes, or in any that have a ten-i
dency to this circumftance, he ftiould determine not to
plough at all, but drill direftly ; a method in which he
faves tillage, and has the probability of a better produce.

This is rather a new praftice on ftrong land, but fuch fuc-
cefs has been feen in it as leaves no reafon for doubting the
foundnefs of its principles. It was done by Mr. Ducket
on a fandy foil for year!, and with great effeft. It ftiould
be remembered, that whatever other circumftances may in-
fluence the growth of this grain, it loves a firm bottom to
root in, and rarely flourifhes to advantage where it is loofe
and crumbly ; nor will a depth of luch mould do, if the
under ftratum, in which it will attempt to fix its roots, bej
from its quahty of a repellent nature. The beft bafis is the!
cultivable earth, firm from not having been lately dif-|
turbed. Thefe obfervations, as being quite praftical, are
certainly deferving of the farmer's attention. Where thel
diftrift is early, and the land is preferved in good order byl
proper modes of cropping, wheat may be grown after!
beans, whether cultivated in the drill or broad-caft fyftem,!
vvich fuccefs, as there may be fufficient time to give the ne-1
ceftary preparation before the time of fowing, which cannoti
be done where they are late, and there is only time for one!
ploughing. But in other fituations it is found advantage-
ous when this crop is to be grown after either peas, beans,!
or tares, to plough the land in as light or ftiallow a manner!
as poffible, and then harrow and take out the roots and!
weeds, fo that they may be confumed on the ground inl
heaps ; the field being after this formed into proper ridgesj
for the reception of the feed by ploughing again a few inches '
deeper than the firft. And in fome cafes, it is even har-
rowed after the fecond ploughing, and ploughed a third
time for the putting in of the grain.

Wheat, too, may fometimes be cultivated after turnip-
crops to advantage on the heavier turnip-foils, particularly
lo where

WHEAT.

where they have been kept clean from weeds by repeated
hoeings, and fed off upon the land at fuch early periods as
to admit of the ground being prepared by once ploughing,
in a liglit manner. In cafes where this kind of crop is in-
tended to be cultivati-d after potatoes, which, from their
having a great tendency to lighten the foil as well as to ex-
hauft it, (hould never be done on the lighter forts of land in
backward fituations, or under any circumftances where a
fufficient proportion of manure has not been applied for the
potatoe-crops, one light ploughing immediately before the feed
may be in moll cafes an adequate preparation ; as where
proper attention has been bellowed in the culture of fuch
crops, the foil is generally left in a fufficiently fine condition
for the purpofe. It has been remarked, that the caufe of
wheat not fucceeding well after potatoe-crops, in many in-
ftances, is, that, befides the land being rendered too light
and porous by the growth and cultivation that are requifue
for them, the wheat is more expofed to the injurious attacks
of the grub, earth-worm, and other infifdls ; and in fome
expofed iituations, from the feed-time being too long pro-
tradled, the praftice becomes obvioufly improper. In
growing the crop after thofe of hemp and flax, as weeds are
apt to rife, it is always proper that the land (hould be
ploughed over two or three times, in order that a fine Hate
of tilth may be produced. The cuftom of giving but one
earth after fuch forts of crops, can feldom or ever enfure
full returns of this grain. It has been remarked in " Prac-
tical Agriculture," on the bell authority, that experience
has (hewn, in the mod clear and fatisfailory manner, that
this fort of crop (liould never, when it can be avoided, be
grown after other kinds of grain-crops, as rye, barley, or
oats ; and that the manure (hould not be applied to it, but
for fuch crops as may precede it. That where the contrary
is praftifed, tht crop is not only liable to be injured by the
rampant growth of weeds, but from its being more apt to
be difeafed.

On the whole, it may be obferved, that whatever the na-
ture or Hate of the ground may be, or the kinds of crops
that precede this fort of grain, it would appear that the pre-
paration for it iliould always be fucli as has a tendency to re-
duce the parts of the foil to a pretty fine (late, as under
fuch circumftances the growth of the crops is not only
more regular and perfeft, but from the even and compaft
(late in which the furface is left, it is more fit for affording
lupport and proteftion to the roots of the wheat-plants, as
allowing them to Ipread and extend themfelves with greater
readinefs in the fine mouldy earth thus provided, as well as
by its falling down more clofely about them. It has, how-
ever, been contended by fome cultivators, that a rough
cloddy ftate of the furface-part of the land is the moll pro-
per fituation of it for the reception of this kind of crop, as
the young wheat-plants are thereby better guarded and fe.
cured againft the effedls of the fevere cold that often takes
place in the winter feafon. It is probable, however, that
cold is feldom hurtful, in any great degree, to winter wheat-
crops, except when accompanied with too much moifture, or
where fudden frofts and thaws have the effeft of rendering
the furface parts of the foil fo hght and open, as to be inca-
pable of affording proper fupport to the roots of the young
wheat -plants.

In Berkfliire they prepare the land for wheat chiefly in
three different ways, as by fummer fallowing, and manuring
with yard-dung, comport, rags, foot, and chalk in fome
cafes ; by folding on it with (heep in cafes where the ground
is not of too deep and wet a nature ; and by putting it in on
the back of clover-leys, after one or two crops of grafs by
one or more ploughuigs.

It IS thought by fome, however, that manuring for beans
or other crops is a much better pradice when followed by
wheat, than the old cuftom of fallowing and manuring for
this crop, which renders the land too light, and confequently
fubjea to blight.

The farmers in Oxfordlhire prepare for wheat by different
numbers of ploughings, as the circumftances of the land
may be ; but the layers are moftly ploughed in a (hallow
manner, as wheat loves a firm bottom to root in, and which,
in fandy land, cannot be too tight. Too loofe a bottom is
apt to caufe a root-fallen crop.

An equally careful preparation of the foil is neceffary for
the fpring fort of this grain, though fewer ploughings will
often be fufficient.

Time of foivhig. — In regard to the proper period of fovv-
ing this fort of crop, it may, the author of Modern Huf-
bandry obferves, be ufefulto remark, that the earlier the au-
tumnal fowmgs can be put into the foil, the greater chance
the young plants will have of being well eftabhftied before
the frolls take place, which has been feen to be a circum-
ftance on which the welfare of the crop in a great meafure
depends. Befides, the ftate of the land and that of the
fealon are much more proper for the procefs of vegeta-
tion, when the crop is put in at an early period, than when
it is delayed till a late one ; the ftate of the weather in the
latter cafe often admitting of only a very languid and imper-
fedl growth till the fpring, by which the crop muft be ex-
pofed to much danger from various caufes. Indeed expe-
rience has abundantly ftiewn that late (own wheats feldom
fucceed fo well, or afford fuch plentiful crops as thofe that
are put in early. But when fown too early there may not-
withftandmg be danger of the crop running too much to
ftraw, and confequently of tlie grain proving light in the
ear. From the beginning of September to the middle, or
even the end of Oftober, may probably be confidered as
the moft favourable period for this bufinefs. This is indeed
confirmed by the eftabUflied praftice of the moft correft
farmers in almoft every diftrift of the kingdom where this
fort of grain is grown. If fown earlier, efpecially on the
heavy kindo of foils, the land is for the molt part in too
hard and lumpy a Hate to allow of tlie feed being properly
covered by the harrow ; and in the lighter ones in too dry a
condition for the grain to vegetate in a proper manner ; and
when delayed later, the ground in one cafe is apt to become
too wet and clofe by the falling of the autumnal rains, and
in the other too loofe and porous from the aftion of the
froft upon it. It is remarked by the writer juft mentioned,
that more than four.fifths of the whole of this fort of grain
is fown between the middle of the firft and the end of the
laft of the above months. Mr. Young thinks September
the beft feafon for cold backward wet foils, and Oftober for
thofe of the more dry and warm kinds, after there has been
a plentiful rain. There are, however, circumftances, it is
farther obferved, on the authority of the Synopfis of Huf-
bandry, that may render the times of fowing different from
the above ; as where the foils are of the rich fertile, loamy,
chalky, or gravelly kinds, it may be better to defer it in
many inftances to a confiderably later period ; as when fuch
warm forts of land are cropped too early, they are apt, it is
faid, to pufti the plants forward in fuch a rapid manner, that
they become weak and fpindling in the early fpring months,
and at the fame time the crops are more liable to be infefted
with weeds, on account of the feafon being then more fa-
vourable to their growth. But that the praftice of putting
in crops of this fort fo late as the latter end of November
and beginning of December, frequently depends on the
crops tliat precede them not being capable, from the latenefs

of

WHEAT.

of the fituation, or other caufes, of being taken off fo
early as that the land may be made for the wheat-crop in the
proper time. This is often the cafe after peas, beans, tares,
turnips, and other fimilar crops. In thefe cafes, on the
lighter forts of foils, and where drill culture is employed, it
may often be an advifeablepraiftice to fow in the fpring, as by
fuch a delay the ground may be brought into a more per-
fea ftate of preparation than could be the cafe in fowing it
fo late in the winter.

It is indeed remarked in the Corre£led Report on Agri-
culture for Middlefex, that thofe perfons who fow wheat in
autumn lofe the great advantage of a previous crop of
turnips, both as to deilroying the weeds and manuring the
land ; and that they create the labour of either hoeing, har-
rowing, or otherwife tampering with the weeds and young
wheat in the following fpring. That a wet feed-time fome-
times renders it impoffible for the farmer of a clayey foil to
fow his ufual quantity of wheat in autumn ; this {hould not
induce him to fow his grain when the land is too wet for the
occafion, but rather let him wait till the firft favourable op-
portunity in the months of February or March, by which
time froft will have rendered the land mellow, and then he
Ihould fow the refidue of his wheat ; as the probability is
great that wheat fown on a mellow foil, in a dry February,
will be more produftive than if it had been fown on the
fame land, in an adhefive flate, during a wet November.

That autumnal-fown wheat precludes cultivation for one
entire year, which, apart from all other circumftances, gives
great encouragement to the growth of weeds ; but that in
order to appreciate the great mifchief done by fowing wheat
in that feafon, its conneftion with the ufual courfe of crops
mufl be taken into confideration. For inftance, firil, in the
ancient, and ftill very common courfe of fallow, wheat, oats,
there is feldom any ploughing from the fowing of the
wheat until the fowing of the oats, which is one year and a
half ; fecondly, in the courfe of wheat, clover, fpring corn,
or pulfe, there are two years together in which the plough
cannot poffibly be put into the ground ; thirdly, in the va-
luable courfe of turnips,barley, clover, and wheat, the plough
is fhut out of the ground for two years and a half. That
thefe three cafes include moft of the arable land in Britain,
and they demonftrate the prodigious encouragement which
fuch courfes give to the growth of weeds. On the contrary,
wheat fown in the fpring occupies the^ground only half a
year; and that when that is placed in a fuccefGon with win-
ter tares and turnips every two years, the weeds have not
time to grow in fuch a manner as to do any material injury.
There is no period in fuch a courfe of more than fiK months
in fummer, or eight in the winter, free from the operation
of the plough. This degree of tilth keeps the land free of
weeds, and, in that manner, preferves it from being exhaufted
by them ; and, by giving the green and root crops to Iheep
and other cattle, on the land, it becomes doubly manured
every other year, which cannot fail to force the growth of
the wheat as though it were growing in a hot-bed.

It certainly is not in every poffible cafe advifeable to re-
frain from fowing wheat in the autumn, in order to fow it in
the fpring. A dry feed-time is of fo much importance to
the occupiers of adhefive and fenny foils, that they fhould
not let any fuch time pafs without fowing their grain. In
the cafe of a dry autumn, which is the fame thing as a fine
feed-time, the farmers (hould fow all fuch land as is then
ready, and thereby enfure the important points of a good
feed-bed for their grain, and againft the danger of a wet
fpring. On the other hand, the more rain that falls in au-
tumn, the better chance there is of having a dry fpring ;
2nd confequently in every wet autumn the wheat-fowing

(hould be poftponed until the fpring. The proof of the-
fuccefs of one inftance of this kind may enable farmers to
judge what is capable of being effefted, even in an unfa-
vourable fituation, by patience in wet feafons, and exertion
in fuch as are dry. A large wheat -farmer, near Hadding-
ton, in Scotland, owing to a wet autumn, delayed fowing
his wheat until after the 19th day of February, between
that time and the middle of March, feeding one hundred and
forty-five acres with wheat, principally the Effex white and
Egyptian red. The harveft in this cafe was about ten days
later than ufual, and the crop yielded from twenty-four to
forty Wincheller bufhels on the acre, which weighed nearly [
fixty-two pounds each. On examination, the wheat was i
found a firft-rate fample.

Such a fuccefsful cafe of railing fine wheat from the feed
fown in the fpring may afford reafon for putting it in at that ;
feafon in many cafes. Such a praftice has never been known
to fail, by the writer, when performed early, and on land 1
in good heart. The advantages of the praftice are faid to
be many, and very conliderable.

When the fowisg is to be done later than the above pe-
riods in the fpring, the true fummer wheat is always to be
ufed.

The exaft periods at which this fort of grain may be put
into the ground in different cafes with the greateft chance of
fuccefs, under different circumftances of foil and chmate,
have not hitherto, however, fo far as we know, been fully
afcertained and (liewn by any correft trials ; but the above
periods of autumn fowing are in very common ufe by the
bell farmers.

In the counties of Eftex, Suffex, Hertford, Oxford, and
many others, moft of the beft farmers are in favour of early
fowing ; but more to the eaft it is done fomewhat later. In
Berkfhire they fow their light lands early, and thofe that are
rich at a later period.

The fpring fort of wheat may be fown from about the
middle of March to the end of the following month, in moft
parts towards the fouth ; but moft probably the fooner it is
put in after that period of the above month, as the ftate of
the feafon will permit, the better it will be in the crop or
produce. ■■

Seed. — In refpeft to the proportion of feed that is necef- ™
fary in different cafes, it muft depend upon and be regu-
lated by a variety of different circumftances, but in general
from two to three bufhels, according to the ftate of the
foil, the nature of the chmate, and the period in which it
is put into the ground, may be the moft fuitable proportion
for foils of a medium ftate of fertihty, under the broad-caft
method of hufbandry ; but where the drill fyftem of cul-
ture is praftilied, a conliderable lefs quantity may be fuffi-
cient for the purpofe. In the drilling and dibbling methods
of fowing, however, which are unqueftionably the beft
where they are performed with correftnefs, fix pecks of feed
are fufficient ; in the latter mode two rows being put in on a
flag, care being taken to have the land rolled after having
been ploughed a fortnight or more, and the feed dibbled in
to a fufficient depth, without fcattering, covering it in by
bu(h harrowing.

Where the lands have a known difpofition to mildew, a
larger proportion of feed (hould be given, whatever the time
or feafon in which it is put in may be. Much lefs feed is
alfo neceffary in early than late fowings. It is remarked
that on the rich foils of Gloucefterfhire, the quantity gene-
rally fown is about feven pecks, while in Yorkshire it is from
eight to twelve. Where the lands are in a fuitable ftate of
tillage for receiving crops of this grain, ten pecks have been
advifed by a praftical writer as the medium proportion ;

but

WHEAT.

but much larger quantities are frequently fown in the
northern parts of the kingdom. It is obvious, however, that
where fuch large proportions of feed are made ufe of, the
plants muft be liable to be drawn up too much, and the
crops in coiifequence to become weak and imperfeftly fed, as
well as fmaller in the fize of the ears. There may be alfo dif-
advantages from making ufe of too fmall proportions of feed,
from the ground not being properly covered with plants ;
but where care is taken in the after-culture of the crops, lefs
danger is probably to be apprehended from this than the
other extreme, as a great number of plants will be fupplied
by the tillering or /hooting out of new ftems from the joints
about the furface, in confequence of the mould being laid
up againft them.

In Hcrtfordfhire, in the broad-caft method, from two to
three bufhels are ufually fown. But in the county of Norfolk
they fow broad-caft, from two to two and a half bufhels ;
and in the drilling and dibbling methods, from five to fix or
feven pecks.

In Eflex they fow broad-caft about two and a half
bufhels ; and in the drilling and dibbling modes, from feven
to ten or more pecks.

In Suffex they fow a large quantity of feed, fome four
bufhels on ley land, and three upon tilth ; others three and a
half : but when this crop fucceeds peas, only three, if it
be early, but if late, more. The medium quantity is about
three.

In Berkfhire commonly from two and a half to three in
the broad-caft fowings of this crop.

And in Oxfordfhire from two to two and a half, and fome-
times three.

In the fowing of the fpring fort of this grain, the quan-
tity made ufe of is various. Some, for a full crop, fow
fourteen pecks to the acre, but with grafs-fecds only nine.
Eight pecks have produced an abundant crop in fome cafes,
on the fame portion of land. Others advife two bufhels to
the acre ; and fay that the earlier it is fown the lefs feed will
be required. Sometimes three bufhels are fown upon the
acre. However, from two and a half to three bufhels on
the acre may be confidered as the moft proper quantity. In
the dibbling method, four pecks and a half have been found
fufficient for an acre and a half.

The broad-caft praftice of putting this fort of crop into
the ground is the moft common on the heavier kinds of wheat-
lands, as thofe of the clayey and loamy forts, the feed being
harrowed well in by a rather light harrow. But in the
lighter forts of wheat-lands, the drilling method is often
praftifed when they are clean, and fuiBciently mellow and
mouldy on the furface. Sometimes, too, the feed is put in
partly by the plough, and partly by the harrow. In fome
diftriAs it is ploughed in on the fallows, and harrowed in
on clover. The clover-leys are alfo occafionally ploughed
in fome cafes, and have the feed fcuffled in, and folded upon
by fheep. See Sowing, Seed, &c. Alfo Under-Furrow
Sowing.

Some farmers prefer a ftale furrow for fowing wheat upon,
while others are in favour of the contrary praftice. A ftale
furrow is probably, however, the beft in many cafes. See
ST/i.LE.-Furroiv.

Preparing feed-wheat for fowing is praftifed in many
cafes and places in different modes and manners. See
Pickling, Steeping, &c. Alfo WnEXT-Seed, Liming

The depth of putting the feed in fhould not probably be
more than from one to two or three inches.

Ill fome parts of Oxfordfhire the laft is the ufual depth,
Vox,. XXXVIII,

and the farmers are generally friendly to depofiting the feed
to a fhallow depth.

It is alfo the praftice with many farmers in thefe different
diftrifts to change their feed-wheat frequently.

In the county of Sulfex, an intelligent and fpirited farmer
has found by long and attentive experience that a change of
feed-wheat is of effential importance to the cultivator, as
that feed which has been repeatedly fown over the fame
ground at length degenerates, and the produce each fuc-
ceeding year becomes inferior in quality ; on which account,
wheat that is apt to run to ftraw is fown on ley-land, and
the Hertfordfhire white fort on pea-ftubbles.

In other diftrifts the praftice is thought by the beft
farmers to be always proper ; and that the feed-wheat
fhould be brought from a colder foil or fort of land than
that on which it is to be fown. See Change ©/"Seed, and
Seed.

As foon as the feed has been put into the land, it fhould
conftantly be laid as dry as poffible by the conftruftion of
proper drains and water-furrows, fo as in all feafons to keep
the water from ftagnating upon it. See WATER-Fur-
rotving.

It has been lately fuggefted as a beneficial praftice to
have the feed-wheat well trodden in at the time of fowing it
by fheep, or ftill heavier ftock, on heavy as well as light foils ;
as by this means the young plants are prevented from dying
away in the winter, from the land lying too light and hollow.
But more fafts are wanting to eftablifh the utihty of this
method of praftice in different cafes. See Treading Wheat
in, and Plough.

Although under the prefent praftice ^ndmanag-ement in the
cultivation of wheat, the autumn or winter fort muft always
neceffarily occupy a large extent of the heavier kinds bf
wheat -lands in this country, and be raifed in the manner that
has been direfted above ; yet in a number of cafes the true
fpring fort may be cultivated, grown, and had recourfe to
with great advantage, fuccefs, and benefit. But in all fuch
culture, the real fummer fort muft always be employed, for
though the winter kind may be put into the ground writh
advantage in many cafes fo late as after the middle of Fe-
bruary, as has been feen above, it is better to have this real
fort for later fpring fowing, as it poffeffes many properties
highly neceffary for the purpofe. By fome it has been fup-
pofed that it would interfere with winter wheat, and that it
may be difficult to find proper courfes for introducing it in.
However, this fort of wheat fhould principally be cultivated
and grown on foils or lands, and in climates which are not well
fuited for winter wheat, or in cafes where that fort is particu-
larly hable to mildew. But though it may not be fuited for
univerfal application, it is moft likely to fucceed in the lighter,
the fenny, and the fofter forts of foil, where the winter wheat
is apt to be thrown out of the earth by frofty feafons. In
fuch cafes the courfes might be turnips, or rape, according
to the nature of the land, fpring wheat, clover, and oats,
or fome fuch rotations, as in fuch, if after the clover or
other grafs, the land be paftured for one year, the oat-
crops will be certain, and abundantly produftive.

The preparation in fome cafes might be the rendering the
land fine and clean by one or more ploughing and proper
harrowing, and in others by ploughing and burning, and
fowing cole and other feeds and crops, for being fed off by
fheep, or in fome other fuch ways.

In this manner large crops have been raifed in many dif-
ferent inftances, as thirty Winchefter bufhels, or more, on
the acre, which were ripe and ready at the fame time with
the other fpring-fown grain. It is a wheat which is faid to
Y y yield

WHEAT.

yield as much flour in any given quantity as other wheats,
and which does not appear to be fubjeft to any difeafe, nor
to have any difadvantages attending the cultivation of it.
It does not require more manure than barley or beans, nor
does it exhauft the land more. It anfwers extremely well
for laying down with clover, in which cafe the clover-feed
fhould be fown and harrowed in with the laft harrowing for
the wheat, and the ufual quantity of grafs-feeds fown. It
is to be preferred to all other forts of corn for raifing crops
of grafs-feeds ; owing to the fmall quantity of leaf which
it bears, and which is of /hort duration, as it fades and falls
down almoft as foon as it has attained its full fize : more air
is thus admitted to promote the growth of the clover, or
other grafs ; and the admifGon of more air may alfo contri-
bute to prevent the mildew with which this fort of wheat is
fo rarely affefted.

There is a further advantage ftated to arife in the cultiva-
tion of this fort of wheat in fome cafes, which is, that on
various foils, and in fome feafons, it often happens that the
autumnal-fown crop of wheat may be feen to fail and to go
off in patches, from the injury of the wire-worms, or other
caufes. Confequently, that in the beginning of April, by
raking fpring wheat into the vacant places, as alfo where
the wheat -plants may appear weak and thin fet, the uni-
formity of the crop may be rcftored, and the fpring wheat
be ready for the fickle quite as early as the autumnal fown.
And that, although fuch a mixed crop would render its pro-
duce highly improper for feed ; for the miller's ufe it would
afford no objeftion.

The remarks that are given below are the refult of much
experience and priAice m the cultivation of this fort of
wheat. It is found that crops of this kind are ready to cut
quite as early as the autumnal-fown wheat in hmilar foils and
fituations. That it is highly probable that the fuccefs of
this fort of wheat on clover ley may be found to depend
more on the coming feafon than autumnal-fown wheat ; as
if the foUoiving feafon fliould prove dry, the crop would be
more hazardous in the former than in the latter. In a dry
fummer it would feem that this wheat would have a better
chance upon land that has been longer upon tillage than
upon clover ley. That turnip and rape fallows, where the
foil is not too li^cht, feem highly proper for fpring wheat.
That pea and bean fallows may alfo in many inftances
prove eligible for fpring wheat ; and efpecially after having
hcen ploughed early in the autumn, and benefited by the
winter's rains and froft. That when the fpring wheat is
liarrowed in, at the lail light harrowing, clover-feeds, &c.
may be fown, the ground will moftly be well fet, and the
feeds profper equal to any in other cafes. That in the ap-
plication of top-dreffings for this fort of wheat, it may feem,
that in a long-continued dry feafon, the moft eligible way
would be by applying them at the fame time when the wheat
is fown. Only once lightly harrowing after may fuffice.
But that, in a moid and continued rainy feafon, top-drefling
would probably prove to aft more powerfully by being
fown upon the furface of the foil ; becaufe top-dreflings are
moft particularly calculated to invigorate the coronal roots
of the wheat-plants, and thereby to caufethem to tiller well.
And that, when top-dreffings are fown on the furface of
the foil, the bed time of applying them, it may feem,
would be when the wheat is grown to the height of three or
four inches ; becaufe if laid on before the blades of the
corn-crop afford a kind of fhelter, the finer particles thereof
are liable either to be exhaled by the fun, or blown away by
high winds, which frequently occur at that feafon. Moift
and fhowery weather, at thaf critical period, will always be

I3t

found of the higheft importance ; therefore, the farmer
would do well by having due attention to the ftate of the
weather when employed on this bufinefs. And that, as a
crop of this fort of wheat is fo much more valuable than
any other kind of fpring-fown corn, there are good grounds
for fuppofing that top-dreffings cannot any other way be
more beneficially employed.

Trials with this fort of wheat in other unfavourable cafes
of poor wet cold land likewife Ihew that this fort of grain
may be had recourfe to with confiderable fuccefs in different
cafes. That five quarters /i^r acre have been had on rich good
landin perfcft cultivation of excellent wheat of this kind, when
put into the foil fo late as the 4th of May. It is evident,
that this fort of wheat has a rapid growth, being equally
forward at harveft with the autumn-fown crops. That on
the whole it feems probable, from the fuccefs that has at-
tended this kind of culture in the fen, in the fouthern and
the more northern diftrifts of the kingdom, that it may be
advantageoufly introduced in many different fituations and
circumflances of arable land.

We have already confidered the hiftory, nature, qualities,
and many other properties and circumflances in relation to
this fort of grain. See Spring- /F/Jfa^

Culture ivhile gro-ving. — In the culture of wheat after it has
been put into the foil, there may be fome difference, according
as it has been fown, according to the preparation of the land,
or other circumflances. But in all cafes it fhould be kept per-
feftly clean and free from weeds, either by the horfe or
hand hoe, as weeds not only injure the crop in its growth,
but leffen the value of its fample when brought to the mar-
ket. And befides, the llirring of the mould on the furface
amongfl the plants may frequently be ufeful in other ways,
in addition to that of preventing the growth of feed-weeds ;
for as in the heavy kinds of foils that are mofl adapted to
this grain, the more fuperficial parts are liable to become fo
hard and baked as not to be eafily penetrated by the new-
formed or coronal roots of the plants in the early fpring
months, efpecially when they are very dry, and have been
preceded by much wet ; loofening of the earth, by any
means whatever, muft of courfe be of great utility. This
effect is generally fliewn to have taken place by the appear-
ance and progrefs of the crop, which becomes of an un-
healthy yellow colour, and advances but little in its growth.
In fuch cafes it has been fuggefted that harrowing once or
oftcner in a place may be of much fervice in the early fpring
months. Where the crops are thin, and of feeble growth,
this operation may produce beneficial effefts, by affording a
fort of earthing up to the weak plants, and thereby pro-
mote a more vigorous growth, at the fame time that a num-
ber of new fhoots are fent off from the joints thus covered,
and the crop in confequence rendered more full and abun-
dant ; and where the grain is too thick upon the ground, it
may alfo be of utihty by drawing out and deftroying many
of the plants. It has likewife been fufpefted by Dr. Dar-
win, that many of the root-fibres, by being torn in the
operation, may prevent the over luxuriance of the flem and
leaves, and by that means promote the more early fruftifica-
tion of the grain.

It has been obferved by a late writer, that the praftice of
fcarifying the young drilled wheat-crops fhould conftantly
be performed in an effeftual manner, and not later than
March : but that fome have not fuppofed it to be fo very
beneficial, from not performing it at the proper time. Mr.
Cook has, it is faid, contrived two implements for this ufe,
a fixed harrow and fcarifier ; the former executing its work
merely by common tines or teeth, having three rov/s, which,

by

WHEAT.

hy varying its pofition diagonally, one, two, or three of
them may be brought to aft in the fpace of nine inches,
without injury to the rows of wheat -plants. If two, they
may, it is faid, be drawn in a breadth of three inches ; if
three, in a fpace of four inches, and thefe fpaces widened
at pleafure, but ftill fo as to keep quite clear of the rows of
wheat ; and that by loading the harrow, the teeth are
forced to a proper depth. Further, that the fcarifier has
teeth of various breadths ; but for working at this feafon,
between nine and twelve-inch rows, the narrowed are to be
preferred. By the aftion of thefe tools the furface mould
is, it is remarked, loofened, and the air admitted, being
performed to the depth of two inches with fafety, and
without mould being raifed fo as to cover or bury the
plants, the earth bemg only loofened, and not difplaced.
By thefe contrivances much work can be accomplifhed in
a very fhort time. This procefs is alfo ufeful againft; the
attacks of the worms. They horfe and hand hoe their
wheat -crops repeatedly in ECTex, and with great advantage,
though very expenfive.

But the drilled and dibbled crops, where this method is
not employed, particularly in the latter mode, where only
one row is placed on a flag, mull be hand-hoed in the inter-
vals, which Ihould be done the firft time in the beginning
of the above month, and a fecond time towards the end of
it, or a little later. Some hkewife do it to the broad-caft;
wheats, but this has been fuppofed injurious by many.
The bufinefs of thiftling the wheat-crops fhould alfo be
carefully performed in May, or in the very early part of
the following month, in all cafes where it may be neceflary.
The praftice of rolling Ihould alfo be employed without
either having recourfe to the harrow, or after it has been
ufed, being highly beneficial where the furface is cloddy,
and the operation is executed when the ground poflefles a
medium degree of moifture, as well by forcing the roots of
the wheat into the earth, as by caufing the new ftems to
rife. And in thin light foils, when this fort of grain is
cultivated upon them, much benefit may alfo be produced
in this way, by the roots of the plants being prevented
from being fo eafily loofened and thrown out of the ground.
And the fame praftice is recommended as generally ufeful
by fome where clover or grafs-feeds are fown with wheat-
crops, as a means of rendering the vegetation more fecure
and perfeft.

In Berklhire, wheat-crops by the beft farmers are hoed
every where, and fometimes hand-weeded, the former on
ftrong foils often twice.

By good cultivators in fome parts of Oxfordftiire, too,
all the wheat -crops are hand-hoed in February or March,
and weeded afterwards.

And in Suffex, the praftice moft commonly adopted is
to hand-hoe wheat in the fpring, fometimes only once, but
frequently twice, as the nature of the preceding crop may
have been. By fome, however, hand-hoeing wheat is difr
approved of, they never hoe white corn, having given it
up, from a conviftion that the crops were never benefited
by the praftice ; but, on the contrary, that mifchief was
always done by it. On which, it is obferved, that fhould
the praftice fometimes be right, and fometimes wrong ; or
right on fome foils, and wrong on others, thefe contrary
fafts may probably depend on the fpring roots, which
are faid to flrike into the air, and enter the ground at
fome fmall diftance from the ftem. If a hand-hoeing be
given juft before the appearance of thofe roots, it may, on
a bounden furface, prepare for their eafy entrance ; but
if given afterwards, it is probable the efFeft would be mif-
chievous, would retard the progrefs of the plant, and force

it to do its work over again, perhaps at a worfe fealon. If
this be the cafe, the benefit which refults from hitting the
time exaftjy, may by no rieans --ual the probability of
mifchief upon a fcale of any extent ; in which the right
time can fcareely be taken for the whob of a crop. It has
been heard declared, too, by excellent farmers, that if a
perfon would pay for the hoeing of their wheat, they would
not permit the operation, being convinced that it does more
harm than good.

It has alfo been recomraenc'ed, in fuch cafes where the
land is not in a fufBcient flate of fertility or preparation to
bring the crops to perfeftion, to maiie ufe of top-drefiings.
Subftances of both the fohd and fluid kinds lave been made
ufe of for this purpofe ; the firll confift ciu'efly of the dung
of different forts of birds, after being brought into a
powdery ftate, bone-duft:, foot, peat-afhes, and various
faline matters. The latter are principally the drainings of
dung-hills, and other fimilar liquid materials. The former
fhould be thinly fown over the crops with as much evennefs
as poffible, as early in the fpring as horfes can be admitted
upon the land without injury ; and if it can be done when
the weather is inclined to be moifl, it is the better ; a roller
may then be paffed over the crop with advantage. Where
the latter fubftances are made ufe of, care fhould always be
taken that the plants be not injured by having too large a
quantity applied to them. In this praftice, the expence
fhould be a primary confideration, and fmall trials firft made
where dungs are not to be ufed. The proper feafon for
performing the bufinefs is the beginning of February. See
Manure, and Top-Drejfing.

It has been fuggefted, too, that the method of tranfplant-
ing wheat may be had recourfe to in particular cafes, vrith
beneficial confequences, as where there are fome parts
of fuch crops too thickly fet upon the ground, while others
are too thin, irregular, or patchy ; as by thinning and fet-
tmg out the plants of fuch overabundant parts, among
thofe that are deficient, much fervice may be done to each
of them. The firft will be rendered more capable of admit-
ting the operation of the hoe, and thereby of fupplying
more abundant nourifhment for the luxuriant vegetation of
the plants, and the latter be fupplied with the proper num-
ber of plants, which could not be accomplifhed in any other
way. And it has been ftated, that when raifed in the gar-
den, one acre would be capable of affording fets for an hun-
dred, when planted, after being properly divided at the
diftance of nine inches from each other ; and that as the
bufinefs of tranfplanting is to be performed in the fpring,
it is fuppofed that crops of this grain may be raifed in this
manner on lands that poffefs a greater degree of moifture
than is fuited to liie healthy growth of wheat in general.
Befides, clean crops may be produced in this way with
much greater certainty, as where the ground is ploughed
over juft before the plants are fet out, the grain may rife
much quicker from the plants than the weeds from their
feeds, and the crop in this way overpowei U'cn noxious
plants. Advantages of oth?r kinds have beeu ftated by
different writers, as the refnlt of this mode of '-fifing wheat-
crops. It is a praftice, which, as well as that of dibbling,
has been had recourfe to with fuccefs, both in Norfolk and
Efl"ex.

The cuftom of feeding down wheat-crops, where too
forward or luxuriant in the early fpring months, by means
of (heep, is a praftice that has been contended to be bene-
ficial in many cafes. The good effefts, in fuch inftances,
according to Dr. Darwin, are fuppofed to arife from the
removal of the upright central ftems, by which means dif-
ferent new lateral items or root fcions are fent off or
Y y 2 brought

WHEAT.

brought forward with more vigour, by the acquiliuon of a
larsrer proportion of nutritions matter from the joints in
confequence, that mull otherwife have been exhaufted in
fupporting the central ftems. It is, however, a method
which has been found by experience to be the moft ufeful
on fuch ftrong and fertile lands as are apt to produce a
larger proportion of ftraw than can be properly fupPO'-t«l-
In which cafes, advantage has been faid to be derived by
feeding off the blade at two or more fucceffive "m^sj but
in effefling the bufinefs, great care is neceffary to fee that
the whole is completed before the crop begins to fp.ndle
otherwife more injury than good may be produced. And
on the lighter and poor defcriptions of foils, the praaice
mud be employed with great caution, as on fuch lands the
erowth of the crops may be fo retarded, as to become
weak and fpindly. Befides, on thofe lands where they are
very liirht, and the crops thin, injury may frequently be
done by many of the plants being pulled up, on account
of the clofenefs of the bite of the (heep. Ihey Ihould,
therefore, never be fuffered to remain upon the crops
when the weather is wet, and the furface of the ground
much loofened, or after fudden frofts and thaws ; as in
fuch cafes much hann may be done by the plants being
pulbd up and deftroyed.

The treading of the animals may, however, be ot great
fervice in all the light forts of wheat-land, and where the
crops are thin ; as by it the earth will not only be preffed
more clofely about the roots of the plants, but the ftems
in many inftances fo forced into the ground and covered up,
that new Ihoots will be fent off laterally, and the crops be
thus rendered more full on the land. But where the foils
are very ftiff and adhefive, the growth of the crops may be
checked and retarded by the pradice, and of courfe the
(hoots thus caufed become weak, affording only fmall ears
and hght grain. Obfervations and experiments have con-
vinced a writer in the Bath Papers, that wheat ought not
to be fed down with (heep, unlefsit be very rank in January ;
and that fuch crops (hould only be fed as were fown early.
And it has been fuggelled, that though this pradice has
much limilarity to that employed in gardening, of ftopping
the growth of the main ftems of fome forts of plants, as
thofe of the cucumber and melon kinds, by rubbing off or
cutting away the central buds, in order to expedite their
fruiting ; yet in wheat-crops, where the principal ftems are
eaten down, except when they are early, and of very
luxuriant growth, the ears of the new fhoots may not have
time to perfetl; the feed, and of courfe become hght and
fhrivelled in the grain, and the new ftems from their
weaknefs be more apt to fall down and be lodged. Thefe
are circumftances that have been frequently obferved to
occur by Mr. TuU, in the feeding down of wheat-crops by
means of ftieep. And that the fame philofophical ob-
ferver fuppofes, that in the culture of wheat-crops, the
moft beneficial method is that of promoting, as much as
poffible, the time of bloffoming, while that of ripening is
protrafted, as it is for the farinaceous refervoir of nutriment,
depofited in the cotyledon of the new feed, in order to
fupport the growth of the ccrculum, or frefh embryon, that
the plant is cultivated ; which farinaceous depofition is
effefted in the interval between the bloffoming and ripening
of the corn, either before the impregnation of the pericarp
or feed-veffel, or afterwards ; and the weight and plump-
nefs of the rain are thus augmented.

The praftice of feeding down young wheats by fheep
may, therefore, be often hurtful, by retarding the period of
bloffoming, as well as by reftriding the growth of the ftems
of the wheat-plants.

Sheep have likewife been employed on young wheat-
crops in other views, as it has been remarked, that as the
coronal parts of the roots of fuch crops are liable to be
laid bare and expofed for fome inches in length about the
furface of the earth, during fevere frofty winters, the turn-
ing in ftieep upon them in fuch circumftances when the
ground- is moift, and keeping them in motion, may tend to
prefs them into the loofe foil, and in that way produce new
roots, as well as afford covering and protetlion to fuch as
have been denudated. And, it is added, that fome farmers
who contend that much advantage is derived from it, turn
fheep upon the crops where danger is apprehended from
worms, flugs, and other infefts ; in order that by keeping
them conftantly in motion, fuch animals may either be
wholly deftroyed, or fo fixed in the furface mould as to
caufe their more gradual death. There is a very great
variety of thefe animals, which are fuppofed injurious to
wheat as well as other crops ; and for the deftruftion of
which, lime, foot, and other faline matters, have been had
recourfe to with fuppofed advantage. See Grub, Soot,
&c.

Wheat-crops are fuppofed to be much injured from dif-
ferent forts of vegetable difeafes, as the Blight, Blqfl, Mil'
Jetf, Smut, Sec. &c. See thefe different heads.

In the Effex Report it is mentioned, that a difeafe which
had not before been noticed or heard of, was met with at
Copdock in that dittrift, which is called the purples. The
ears affetled are perceived at once by their colour, a dirty
brown mixed with green, as if part was ripe, with fome
chefts quite green : they feel nearly, but not quite, like
blighted or abortive ears, which are brown, while the ears
in general of tlie crop are of a bright red or white ;
when rubbed in the hand, as if to get the grain, no wheat is
found, but apparently the fmall grains of a flattened in-
dented globular form, and of a darkifti purple, greenifti or
dark hue. It has not the fmalleft refemblance- in appearance
or fcent to fmutty grains or bladders, and is certainly a
diftinft diftemper. In many of thefe purpled ears are found
fome grains of good wlieat. In order to difcover if all the
ears from the fame root were affefted on trial, in many in-
ftances they were found all fimilar from every root. It is
very Angular that no account that is recollefted ftiould have
been given of fuch a ftrange malady, and fo diftinft from
all others. Smutty ears were found in the fame field, under
all the common circumftances of that diftemper. In Kent,
it is faid, this diftemper is called cockle-eared.

It has likewife been noticed, that particular ftates of the
weather have confiderable influence on wheat-crops, at par-
ticular periods of their growth. As when the feafon is
fufficicntly dry, there is feldom much injury done to them
during the winter months, however fevere they may be in
other refpefts, nor in thofe of the fummer, provided the
weather is not too moift about the time of blooming, as
where that is the cafe the crops are moftly deficient in their
produce.

And feveral forts of weeds are injurious to wheat -crops,
where they have been fown upon lands in an imperfect ftate
of preparation, as charlock on the hght calcareous foils ;
the corn poppy, on thofe of the chalky kind, as well as
cockle, luhite-darnel, puck-needle, and couch : likewife colt's-
foot on the rather heavy kinds of lands. See thefe different
heads, and Weed and Weeding.

This fort of crop is fliewn to be ripe and ready for the
reaper by its ftraw turning of a yellow colour, its ears be-
ginning to bend in the neck and hang down, there being
no greennefs in the middle of them, and the grain becoming
hard and plump. It is remarked, in the Effex Report on

Agricul-

W H E

Agriculture, that fome do not like to cut wheat green,
except it be the American white, which is brittle, and muft
be cut early, to prevent a lofs of ears. It rarely lays.
In Rochford hundred they do not cut till the wheat is
ripe ; but fome few reap while it is yet green. It is, how-
ever, obferved by a good farmer, that moft rough chaff
wheats, if they do not fland till fully ripe, will not threfh
well.

It is ftated, too, in the Norfolk Report on Agriculture,
that Ivlr. Parmenter, miller at Aylefham, a confiderable
farmer alfo, and a very intelligent man, remarked that the
farmers let their wheat Hand too long before cutting. They
are apt to have a notion, that when millers give this opinion,
it is fpeaking for their own intereft ; but he cuts his own
wheat before it is ripe, and would do fo on the largell
fcale, if he was not a miller. The quality is far fuperior,
and the corn juft as good. And Mr. M. Hill prefers cut-
ting green, and never yet commenced harvell but he wifhed
he had begun three days fooner.

In the firft of thefe Reports on Agriculture, a praftice
termed fagging is noticed as being for the firil time met
with. When the wheat-crops are very heavy, with broad
luxuriant leaves, men with fickles move regularly through
it, ftrike off many of them, for lightening the top, as a pre-
fervative againft being beaten down by rain. It fhould be
done carefully, or damage may eufue. See Reaping,
Harvesting of Grain, Stacking, and Threshing.

Produce. — In refpeiS to the quantity of wheat produced
upon an acre, it muit vary confiderably, according to the
circumftances of foil and preparation, as well as the ftate of
the feafon ; for it has been found that in fome years the
yield is under twenty, while in others it is upwards of thirty
buihels the acre, the foil and culture being in every refpedl
the fame. And tlie average return of this crop throughout
the whole of the kingdom, is probably not more than from
three to three and a half quarters. And Mr. Donaldfon
has, indeed, ftated it at not more than three quarters the
acre. The greateft crop of wheat, of which the author of the
Report on Agriculture for Middlefex has any account, is,
it is obferved, fixty-eight bu(hels per acre ; the leaft about
twelve. The medium between thefe extremes is forty,
which, it is conceived, would be the average of land highly
conditioned. But the average produce of Britain does not,
it is imagined, exceed one-half of this quantity, and yet, it
is thought, that wheat is as certain a crop as any that is
cultivated. It is obferved, that the yield of feveral years
varies the proportion which wheat bears to the ftraw in a
very great degree, but that the average is about twelve
buftiels of wheat to each load of ftraw, weighing eleven
hundred weight two quarters and eight pounds. It has
been afterted, and probably with truth, that the ftraw of
autumnal-fown wheat is more harfh, and lefs agreeable to
cattle, than the ftraw of that which is fown in the fpring.
The weight of wheat by the bufliel differs very much in dif-
ferent cafes ; but in moft ftroug land diftrifts it is ufually
about fixty-two or thi^ee pounds to that quantity.

The yield of wheat is the greateft at the time of reaping,
and becomes fucceftively lefs and lefs the longer it is kept,
fo as ultimately, in many cafes, to be a difadvantage to the
farmer of not lefs than nearly one (hilling in the bulhel.

It may be noticed, that it is necelfary, with the view of
afcertaining the goodnefs of a fample of wheat, to deter-
mine by the eye whether the berry be perfectly fed or full,
plump and bright, and whether there be any adulteration
proceeding from fproutcd grains, fmut, or the feeds of
weeds ; and by the fmcll, whether there be any improper
impregnation, and wliethcr it has been too much heated
in the mow or upon the kiln ; and finally by the feel to

W H E

decide if the grain be fufficiently dry, as when much loaded
with moifture, it is improper for the ufes of the miller and
baker. In cafes v.here a fample handles coarfe, rough, and
does not flip readily in the land, it may be concluded not
to be in a condition either for grinding or laying up for
keeping.

Wheat is ufually fold by the farmers to the dealers for
being made into flour ; and, in fome cafes, as feed-wheat
for other diftrifts, which is very advantageous, as the price
in that way is moftly higher. The dealers, who convert
it into flour, difpofe of that to the different confumers, and
the refufe part, as the pollard, to other perfons for the
food of horfes, fheep, hogs, and other animals.

Wheat, Brining of. See Bkining.

Wheat, ^z-i^A, that fort of wheat-crop which is grown
after oats, barley, or any other fuch kinds of grain, on light
foils of the fandy and other fimilar forts.

Brufh-wheat crops are common in many of the more
northern parts of this country, but the pradlice of putting
wheat-crops in, in this way, is by no means to be much re-
commended, as they feldom anfwer any great purpofe.

Wheat, Bud. See HvcK-lVheat.

Wheat, Bud, in Botany. See POLYGONUM Fago-
pyrum.

Wheat, Cow, in Botany and jigriculture. See Me-
LAMPYRUM, and Cow-Wheat.

Wheat, Crnjfing of, the praftice of putting into the foil
in fowing two different forts of this grain of good qualities,
in order to raife a new variety of a flill better kind. The
praftice of croffing in this manner has been found to anfwer
perfeftly, not only in this cafe, but in thofe of peas, apple-
trees, &c. by Mr. Knight. In his trials, in years when
almoft the whole wheat -crops of the country were bhghted,
the varieties procured by croffing alone efcaped, though
raifed on different forts of land, and in very different
fituations and circumftances. See Seed, and Varieties.

Wheat Fallow, that fort of complete naked fallow on
which wheat is fown. See Fallow, and Fallowing.

Wheat Grafs, a fort of grafs met with in land of fome
kinds. In the trials made on graffes at Woburn, the qua-
lities of it ftand as below.

Oz.

Lbs. Or.

From a rich fandy loam, the produce

at the time of flowering was on the

acre 196020=12251 4

Weight of the grafs when dry - 78408= 4900 8

Weight loft by the produce of the

fame extent of ground in drying 735° I*

The produce of the fame fpace of

land in natritive matter - - 7657 = 478 9
In the creeping rooted wheat-grafs,

the produce from a light clayey

loam, at the time of flowering, was

on the acre .... 196020=12251 4

Weight of the grafs raifed on the fame

fpace when dry - . • 78408 = 4900 8

Weight loft by the produce of the

acre in drying ... 7850 12

The fame extent of land afforded in

nutritive matter - - -612510 = 38213 10

Sixty-four drachms of the roots afforded of nutritive mat-
ter 5.3 dr. The proportional value of the roots is therefore
to that of the grafs, as 23 to 8.

Wheat, Grinding and converting of, into Flour, isfc, the
art and means of reducing it into this ftate, in which tliere
are much nicety and difficulty in fome cafes, efpecially with
the thinner-lliinned forts of this grain.

It

W H E

It is ftated by the writer of the work on Agricultural
Ghemiftry, that in this country the difficulty of grinding
thin-flcinned wheat is in fome meafure an objeftion ; but that
this difficulty is eafily overcome by moiltening the corn.
And on the authority of John Jeffery, efq., the conful-
general at Lifton, the following obfervations on the fubjeft
are given, as tranfmitted by fir Jofeph Banks. In order to
grind hard corn of this fort with the mill-ftones ufed m this
country, the wheat muft be well fcreened, then fpnnkled
OTth water at the miller's difcretion, and laid in heaps, being
frequently turned and thoroughly mixed together, which
will foften the hu(k fo as to make it feparate from the flour
in grinding, and, of courfe, give the flour a brighter colour ;
otherwife the flinty quality of the wheat, and the thinnefs of
the flrin, will prevent its feparation, and will render the flour
wnfit for making into bread.

The writer has been informed by a miller of conliderable
experience, and who works his mills entirely with the fl;ones
from this country or Ireland, that he frequently prepares
the hard Barbary corn of this kind by immerGng it in water
in clofe wicker badcets, and then fpreading it thinly on a
floor to dry ; much depends on the judgment and iklll of
the miller in preparing the corn for the mill according to its
relative quality. It is obferved, however, that it is not
from this previous procefs of wetting the corn that the
weight in the flour of hard corn is increafed ; but from its
natural quality it imbibes confider.i)ly more water in making
it into bread. The mill-ftones muft not be cut too deep,
but the furrows very fine, and picked in the ufual way.

The mills fliould work with lefs velocity in grinding hard
corn than with foft, and be fet to work at firft with foft corn,
until the mill ceafes to work well ; then put on the hard
corn. Hard wheat always fells at a higher price in the
market than foft wheat, on an average of from ten to fifteen
per cent. ; as it produces more flour in proportion, and lefs
bran than the foft corn.

Flour made from hard wheat is more efteemed than what
is made from foft corn ; and both forts are applied to every
purpofe.

The flour of hard wheat is in general fuperior to that
made from foft ; and there is no difference in the procefs of
making them into bread : but the flour from hard wheat
will imbibe and retain more water in making into bread,
and will confequently produce more weight of bread. It
is the pradlice in Lilbon, and which it is thought would be
advifeable to adopt in this country, to make bread with
flour of hard and foft wheat, which, by being mixed, wiU
make the bread much better. As the moft flinty wheats
are capable of being readily and eafily ground by thefe
means, much advantage may arife from the mixing of
the flour of the thin-fliinned wheats with thofe of the
thicker-fkinned kinds in the forming of bread, as well as
in preventing the objeftions to the cultivation and growth
of the former, on account of their fteely quality, and grind-
ing hard and with inconvenience. By thele means many of
the well-harvefted and well-kept wheats of this country will
be found to be equal to thofe of any other, for moft pur-
pofes to which the flour is ufually put. See SpRiNG-^ifa/,
and Wheat. Alfo Vegetables.

Iji the Middlefex CorreAed Report on Agriculture, it is
ftated, that the beft flour is moftly ufed by the paftry-cooks,
and the makers of fine bifcuits, and the inferior forts in the
making of bread. That thefe have often the worfe kinds
of damaged foreign wheats, and other materials, mixed with
them in grinding them into flour. And that, if the bread
confumed in the metropolis was prepared from the wheat of
this country, unmixed with the leaner produce of other
nations, the trial detailed below would fhew with accuracy

W H E

the quantity of bread that could be made from a Win-
chefter buftiel of that grain.

One bufhel of the wheat of this country, which weighed
fixty-one pounds, was taken. It was then ground, and the
meal weighed 6of lbs. ; which, on being dreffed, produced
46^ lbs. of flour, of the fort called feconds, which alone is
ufed for the making of bread throughout the greater part
of this country ; and of pollard and bran I2f lbs., which
quantity was bolted, and it produced in ftiarps 3 lbs., which
being fifted produced in good fecond flour i\Vb.

The whole quantity of bread-flour obtained from the 1
bufliel of wheat, weighed - - - - j

lbs.
Fine pollard .... 4^

Coarfe pollard .... 4
Bran ----- 2^

The whole together
To which add the lofs of weight in manufafturingl

the bufhel of wheat

Produces the original weight

48

1 1

59

61

The fack of fftarketable flour is by law obhged to
weigh 240 lbs., which is exaftly the produce of five buftiels
of fuch wheat ; and the fack of flour is conftantly fup-
pofed to make eighty quartern loaves of bread ; and
confequently fixteen of fuch loaves are made from each
buftiel of fuch wheat. It is admitted, however, that two or
three loaves more than the above quantity can be made
from the fack of flour, when it is the genuine produce
of good wheat ; that is, in the proportion of about fix-
teen and a half loaves from each buftiel of found grain,
and, it may be prefumed, fixteen from a buftiel of medium
corn. The expence of making the fack of flour into bread,
and difpofing of it, is about 8j.

Wheat, Indian. See Maize.

Wheat, Mildew in. See Mildew.

Wheat, Mujl of, is, according to the ingenious Mr.]
Hatchett, a taint produced by damp upon the aylaceousi
part of the grain, or ftarch ; and he conceives, that this
taint is, in moft cafes, fuperficial. He propofes the follow-
ing as a fuccefsful method of removing it.

The wheat muft be put into a veflel capable of holding atl
leaft three times the quantity, and the veffel filled with boiling!
water ; and the grain ftiould then be occafionally ftirred, and!
the hollow decayed grains, which float, may be removed.
When the water has become cold, or in about half an hour, it
is drawn off. Then rince the corn with cold water, andl
having completely drained it, fpread it thinly on the floor!
of a kiln, and thus thoroughly dry it, ftirring and turningl
it frequently during this part of the procefs. Phil. Tranf.f
for 1817, part i.

Wheat Ricijland. See Staddle, and Stand.

Wheat, Root-fallen or Welten, that fort of wheat-crop inl
which the roots are thrown out of the ground by its light-1
nefs or porofity, as caufed by frofts or other means. Seel
Wheat, and WELT-i?oo^

Wheat, Riijlin. See Rust.

WHEAT-i'ff^, Liming of, the praftice of drying nioift-
ened corn of this fort by means of powdery lime. It is the
cuftom in fome places to make it wet over-night, with fait or
other water, and to duft it over with the lime the next
morning before it is fown, mixing it well together in the
operation. By the lime, however, thus remaining fo ftiort a
time on the grain before fowing, it has no time to penetrate

into

[ W H E

I into the corn ; whereas, by moiftening the wheat, and leav-
ing it until the fucceeding morning well limed, the lime has
a greater power, it ia fuppofed, in deftroying the fmut-
powder, than when it remains on it only for half an hour,
and is then moftly rubbed off the corn. Half a bufhel of
the ftrongeft lime is fufficient for a quarter of wheat, when

I fifted over and mixed well with it.

I In this laft mode of drying feed-wheat, with lime, it is
found to be very efficient in preventing the crops from
being difeafed in fome diftrifts. See Steeping Seed.

\ As there is an uncertainty whether the effeft in this prac-
i tice is to be afcribed to the wafhing of the grain or the
' lime, fome merely moiften the corn for the purpofe of
' making the lime adhere to it ; while others are extremely
attentive to the liquor made ufe of and the wafhing of the
feed, and fimply make ufe of the lime fur drying it for
fowing. Lime is, however, confidered as a great prevent-
ative of difeafe in the grain by many. It ftiould always be
; ufed while frefh and newly flacked.

' Wheat, Selling of, the praftice of putting it into the

foil by the hand. In many parts of the vale of the county

of Gloucefler, they fet wheat by the hand and line ; but the

difficulty of getting on with the work at the proper feafon,

when on a large fcale, in confequcnce of the want of hands,

, operates againil the more general introdudlion of this prac-

' tice. When wheat is fet by the hand in this way, not more

than three pecks of feed are made ufe of. On clover-leys

\ wheat is often put in by the hand in fmall channels made

II acrofs the beds, which have been formed by the plough to
the width of half a ley, dropping the feed into them, and
leaving a diftance of about feven inches between the different

' channels. This mode is faid to be good for late work ;
and the expence to be about feven fliillings the acre, the
I feed being ufually about fix pecks. In fome other diftrifts
I the fetting of wheat is faid to be praftifed with much fuc-
; cefs and advantage ; but it is probably too tedious and ex-
; penfive a mode to be had recourfe to on any large extent of
I wheat cultivation. See Dibbling, and Setting of Wheat.

Wheat, Spring. See SvRiviG-lVheat, and Wheat.
i Wheat, Smyrna, a peculiar kind of wheat that has an ex-
I tremely large ear, with many leffer or collateral ears coming
I all round the bottom of the great one.

I As this is the largeft of all forts of wheat, fo it will dif-
I penfe with the nourifhment of a garden, without being over-
! fed, and requires more nourifliment than common huf-
; bandry in the large way can give it. In the common way its
1 ears grow not much larger than thofe of our common wheat.
I This fort of wheat feems, of all others, the moft proper
' for the new method of horfe-hoeing hufbandry, as that
i method feems capable of giving as much nourifhment as the
I farmer pleafes, by often repeating the hoeing. Next to
i this, the white-cone wheat is beft for this fort of hufbandry ;
j then the grey-cone wheat.

I Wii^AT-Stubble, Cutting and ColUaing of, the ufeful
! praftice of mowing and raking together the llrong ftubbles
; of wheat-crops, and flacking them up in or near the farm-
i yards as additional litter, and for other purpofes. It fhould
I always be done as foon as poffible after the wheat has been
i taken from the fields. See Stubble.

I Wheat, Tillering of, the throwing out of new fhoots,
I ftems, or ilalks, from about the roots, fo as to increafe the
tbicknefs of the crops on the grounds. It takes place
1 much more extenfively in the autumnal and winter fown
1 wheats than thofe of the fpring fowings. See Tiller, and
I Wheat.

Wheat, Tranfplantation of, the praftice of putting into
I the ground the young plants of wheat that have been railed
j in other places, or which ftand too thick on the land. It is

W H E

obferved in the Middlcfcx Report on Agriculture, that it is
well calculated for increafing the quantity of corn produced
from a fingle grain, and that it may be reforted to for the
fake of curiofity when the cultivator has procured a fmall
quantity of fome new and vjery valuable variety of feed ; but
that a farmer fhould never extend it to his field culture.

There would be much lofs in labour and in other ways,
it is fuppofed, by this praftice, and nothing be gained by it.
See Transplanting, and Wheat.

Wheat, White-cone, a term ufed by our hufbandmen, to
exprefs a peculiar kind of wheat, which is very flrong, and
has a large ear.

It is the beft kind for fowing in fields fubjeft to the
blight ; for the ftalks of it being, for the moft part, folid or
full of pith, like a rufh, not hollow, like thofe of common
wheat ; the infefts that caiife the bhght, feizing on the
ftalks of other wheat, do this no injury, even though they
fhould attack it ; the ftalks of this kind being often found
full of the black fpecks, which are always the maiks of that
infeft having been there, and yet the ear full, and the grain
good.

This wheat makes very good bread, if the miller does
not grind it too fmall, or the baker make his dough too
hard, it requiring to be fomewhat larger than other wheat-
flour, and fomewhat fofter in the dough. A bufhel of
white-cone wheat will make confiderably more bread than a
bufhel of Lammas wheat ; but it gives it a fomewhat yellow-
i(h cart.

WaEAT-Bird, in Ornithology, a name given by the people
of Virginia to a fpecies of bird, which, after the time of the
fowing of the wheat in that country, made its appearance
annually at the feafon of its beginning to ripen, and was
never feen there before. See Migration of Birds.

WuEAT-Ear, the Enijlifh name of the common cenanthe,
or motacilln cenanthe of Linnaeus, called alfo the ivhite-tail
and rhe falloiv-Jinch. See Motacilla CEnanthe.

WHEATEN-Bread. See Theory of Bread, and
Wheat, Grinding of &c.

WHEATFIELD.in Geography, a townftiip of Penn-
fylvania, in the county of Indiana, with 1475 inhabitants.

WHEATLY, Francis, in Biography, was born in
London in 1747, and received his firft inftruftion as an
artift in Shipley's drawing-fchool. Whilft young he re-
ceived feveral premiums from the Society for the Encourage-
ment of Arts, &c. He does not appear to have had any
particular inftruftor in painting, but by his own induftry
and ingenuity contrived to obtain fome knowledge of it ; and
having formed an intimacy with Mr. Mortimer, whom he
affifted in painting the ceiling at Brockett-hall, by that cir-
cumftance obtained confiderable improvements. He had
great employment in painting fmall whole-lengtfl portraits,
to which he added landfcape back-grounds with confider-
able tafte. After pradtifing fome years in London, he went
to Ireland, and was much employed in Dublin, where he
painted a large pifture of the Irifh houfe of commons, with
portraits of the moft confiderable political charafters, by
which he acquired great reputation. On his return to
London he painted a pifture of the foldiery attacking the
rioters in 1780, which was well engraved by Heath.

About this time he appears to have changed his praftice,
and painted rural and domeftic fubjefts in a manner which
evidently exhibits them to have been the offspring of the
natural bent of his mind. He was engaged in the Shak-
fpeare Gallery, but failed to excite intereft : neither his talent
nor his ftyle was fuited to the charafter of the fubjeAs
given to him. In the flighter fubjefts of common life he
was at home, and he touched them and compofed them in a
moft agreeable manner, and with a very pleafing tone of

colour ;

W H E

colour : thefe he executed with rapidity, and, as he always
fold them, he acquired fufScient money to indulge a natural
propenfity to the pleafures of the table. Hence he became
a martyr to the gout, and died of that difeafein 1801, at the
age of 54. He was elefted an academician in 1791.

WHEE, Whey, Whie, or Qui, in Rural Economy, a
term ufed to fignify a young heifer, or heifer-calf, in differ-
ent places and parts of the country.

WHEEANG, or Whang, a provincial term made ufe
of to fignify a thong or itrap of leather for the harnefs
or geer of farm-teams, or other domeflic purpofes.

WHEEL, Rota, in Mechanics, a fimple machine, confift-
ing of a round piece of wood, metal, or other matter, which
revolves on an axis.

For an account of the wheel and axle, as a mechani-
cal power, fee Axis in Perttrochio, and Mechanical
Powers.

The wheel is one of the principal mechanic powers. It
has place in moft engines : in effeft, it is of an aflemblage of
wheels that mod of our chief engines are compofed. Wit-
nefs clocks, mills, &c.

Its form is various, according to the motion it is to have,
and the ufe it is to anfwer. By this it is diilinguifhed into
fimple and dented.

Wheels, Simple, are thofe whofe circumference and axis
are uniform, and which are ufed fingly, and not combined.
Such are the wheels of carriages, which are to ha.ve a double
motion ; the one circular about their axis ; the other refti-
linear, by which they advance along the road, &c. which
two motions they appear to have ; though, in effeft, they
have but one : it being impofTible the fame thing fhould
move, or be agitated, two different ways at the fame
time.

This one is a fpiral motion ; as is eafily feen, by fixing a
piece of chalk on the face of a wheel, fo as that it may
draw a line on a wall, as the wheel moves. The line it
here traces is a juft fpiral, and flill the more curve, as the
chalk is fixed nearer the axis.

The faft, however, has been difputed ; and it has been
alleged, that nothing is more eafy than for any one, who
will take the trouble to make the experiment, to prove its
falfehood. Place the chalk on the face of the wheel, as
direfted, and you will find that, fo far from its defcribing
a jufl fpiral, and that flill the more curve as the chalk is
fixed nearer the axis, the chalk, if placed on the periphery of
the wheel, will defcribe a cycloid, and the nearer it is placed
to the axis, the nearer will the line it defcribes approach to
the flraight line which is defcribed by the axis itfelf. More-
over, it is not true, nor pretended to be fo, that the fame
thing moves two ways at once in the reftilinear and circular
motion of wheels. The local motion, or motion of the
whole wheel, is reftilinear only ; that of the parts of the
wheel circulan. Nor can this latter motion with any pro-
priety be called that of the wheel, unlefs the fame thing
could alfo move quick and flow at the fame time, which the
different parts of the wheel, in revolving round its axis,
evidently do. Jacob's Obf. on the Strufture and Draught
of Wheel-Carriages, 1773, p. 28, &c.

For a very nice phenomenon, in the motion of thefe
wheels, fee Rota Ariflotelica.

We fhall add, that, in wheels of this kind, the height
fhould always be proportioned to the flature of the animal
that draws or moves them. The rule is, that the load and
the axis of the wheels be of the fame height with the power
that moves them ; otherwife the axis being higher than the
beafl, part of the load will lie upon him ; or, if it be lower,
he pulls to difadvantage, and muft exert a greater force.
Though Stevinus, Dr. Wallis, &c. fhew, that, to draw a
lot

W H E

vehicle, &c. over wafte uneven places, it were befl to fix the
traces to the wheels fomewhat lower than the horfe's breaft.
See Wheels of Coaches, &c.

The power of thefe wheels refults from the differences of
the radii of the axis, and circumference. The canon is
this : " As the radius of the axis is to that of the circum-
ference, fo is any power to the weight it can fuftain
hereb)f."

This is alfo the rule in the axis in peritrochio ; and, in
effeft, the wheel, and the axis in peritrochio, are the fame
thing ; only, in theory, it is ufually called by the latter
name, and in praftice by the former.

Wheels, Dented, are thofe either whofe circumference,
or axis, is cut into teeth, by which they are capable of
moving and afting on one another, and of being combined
together.

The ufe of thefe is very confpicuous in clocks, jacks,
&c.

The pov?er of the dented wheel depends on the fame
principle as that of the fimple one. It is only that to the
fimple axis in peritrochio, which a compound lever is to a
fimple lever.

Its doftrine is comprifed in the following canon ; vi%.
" The ratio of the power to the weight," in order for that
to be equivalent to this, " mufl be compounded of the ra-
tios of the diameter of the axis of the lafl wheel to the dia-
meter of the firfl ; and of the ratio of the number of revo-
lutions of the lafl wheel, to thofe of the firfl, in the fame
time." But this doftrine will deferve a more particular
explanation,

1. Then, if the weight be multipled into the produft of
the radii of the axes, and that produft be divided by the
produft of the radii of the wheels, the power required to
fuflain the weight will be found. Suppofe, e. gr. the wright
A {PlaieXL.fg. 83. Mechanics,) — 6000 pounds, B C =
6 inches, C D = 34 inches, E F = 5 inches, E G = 35
inches, H I = 4 inches, H K = 27 inches : then will
BCxEFxHI = i2o;andCD x EG x HK
=: 32130. Hence the power required to fuflain the weight,
will be 6000 x 120 -f- 32130 = 22^ very nearly ; afmall
addition to which will raife it.

2. If the power be multiplied into the produft of the
radii of the wheels, and the faftum be divided by the pro-
duft of the radii of the axes ; the quotient will be the
weight which the power is able to fuflain. Thus, if
the power be 224 pounds ; the weight will be 6000
pounds.

3. A power and weight being given, to find the number
of wheels, and in each wheel the ratio of the radius of the
axis, to the radius of the wheel ; fo as that the power,
being applied perpendicularly to the periphery of the lafl
wheel, may fuflain the given weight.

Divide the weight by the power ; refolve the quotient
into the faftors which produce it. Then will the num-
ber of faftors be the number of wheels ; and the radii of
the axes will be to the radii of the wheels, as unity to the
feveral wheels. Suppofe, e.gr. a weight of 3000 pounds,
and a power of 60, the quotient of the former by the latter
is 500, which refolves into thefe faftors, 4. 5. 5. 5. Four
wheels are, therefore, to be made ; in one of which, the ra-
dius of the axis is to the radius of the wheel, as i to 4 ; in
the refl, as i to 5.

4. If a power move a weight by means of two wheels,
the revolutions of the flower wheel are to thofe of the fwifter,
as the periphery of the fwifter axis is to the periphery of the
wheel that catches on it.

Hence, i. The revolutions are as the radius of the axis
F E to the radius of the wheel D C. 2. Since the »um.

ber

WHEEL.

ber of teeth in the axis F D, is to the number of teeth in
the circumference of the wheel M, as the circumference of
that to the circumference of this ; the revolutions of the
flower wheel M, are to the revolutions of the fwifter N, as
the number of teeth in the axis to the number of teeth in
the wheel M, which it catches.

5. If the facftum of the radii of the wheels G E, D C,
be multiplied into the number of revolutions of the flowed
wheel, M, and the produtt be divided by the faftum of the
radii of the axes which catch into them, G H, D E, &c.
the quotient will be the number of revolutions of the fwifteft
wheel O. .E. ^r. If G E = 8, D C = 12, G H = 4,
D E = 3, and the revolution of the wheel M be i ; the
number of revolutions of the wheel O will be 8.

6. If a power move a weight by means of divers
wheels, the fpace pafled over by the weight, is to the fpace
of the power, as the power to the weight. Hence, the
greater the power, the quicker is the weight moved ; and
vice ver/a.

7. The fpaces pafled over by the weight and the power,
are in a ratio compounded of the revolutions of the floweft
wheel, to the revolution of the fwifteft ; and of the peri-
phery of the axis of that, to the periphery of this. Hence,
fince the fpaces of the weight and the power are recipro-
cally as the fuftaining power is to the weight ; the power
that fuftains a weight will be to the weight, in a ratio com-
pounded of the revolutions of the floweft wheel, to thofe of
the fwifteft, and of the periphery of the axis of that, to
the periphery of this.

8. The periphery of the axis of the floweft wheel, with
the periphery of the fwifteft wheel, being given ; as alfo the
ratio of the revolutions of the one, to thofe of the other ;
to find the fpace which the power is to pafs over, while the
weight goes any given length.

Multiply the periphery of the axis of the floweft wheel
into the antecedent term of the ratio, and the periphery of
the fwifteft wheel into the confequent term ; and to thefe
two produfts, and the given fpace of the weight, find a
fourth proportional : this will be the fpace of the power.
Suppofe, e. gr. the ratio of the revolutions of the floweft
wheel, to thofe of the fwifteft, to be as 2 to 7, and the
fpace of the weight 30 feet ; and let the periphery of the
axis of the floweft wheel be to that of the fwifteft, as 3 to
8 : the fpace of the power will be found 280. For 2x3:
7 X 8 :: 30 : 280.

9. The ratio of the peripheries of the fwifteft wheel, and
of the axis of the floweft ; together with the ratio of their
revolutions, and the weight, being given : to find the power
able to fuftain it.

Multiply both the antecedents and the confequents, of
the given ratios into each other, and to the produft of the
antecedents, the produft of the confequents, and the given
weight, find a fourth proportional : that will be the power
required. Suppofe, e. gr. the ratio of the peripheries 8:3;
that of the revolutions 7 : 2, and the weight 20CO ; the
power wiU be found 214^. For 7 x 8:2 x 3 :: 2000
: 214I. After the fame manner may the weight be found ;
the power, and the ratio of the peripheries, &c. being
given.

10. The revolutions the fwifteft wheel is to perform while
the floweft makes one revolution, being given ; together
with the fpace the weight is to be raifed, and the periphery
of the floweft wheel ; to find the time that will be fpent in
raifing it.

Say, As the periphery of the axis of the floweft wheel
is to the given fpace of the weight ; fo is the given number
of revolutions of the fwifteft wheel to a fourth proportional :

Vol. XXXVIII.

which will be the number of revolutions performed while
the weight reaches the given height. Then, by experiment,
determine the number of revolutions the fwifteft wheel per-
forms in an hour ; and, by this, divide the fourth propor-
tional found before. The quotient will be the time fpent
in raifing the weight. Wolf. Elem. Math. tom. ii. p. 214,
&c.

Wheels of a Clock, &c. are the crown wheel, contratc
wheel, great wheel, fecond wheel, third wheel, ftriking
wheel, detent wheel, &c. See Clock and Watch.

Wheels of Coaches, Waggons, &c. With refpeft to
thefe, the following particulars are collefted from the ex-
periments and reafonings of Camus, Defaguliers, Beighton,
Fergufon, Brewfter, &c.

I. The ufe of wheels, in the draught of carriages, is
two-fold ; 1)12. that of diminifliing, or of more eafily over-
coming the refiftance arifing from the friftion of the car-
riage, and that of more readily furmounting obftacles, which
form angular prominences on the plane over which they are
drawn, and which muft be either deprefled by the weight of
the carriage, or render it iieceffary for the carriage, with its
load, to be lifted over them. They ferve in their firft ufe
to transfer the friftion from the under furface of the car-
riage, and the plane fupporting it, to the furfaces of the
axle and nave of the wheel. The common method of ac-
counting for this advantage is by faying, that the refiftance,
arifing from friftion in planes of equal afperity, increafes
with the velocity of the motion ; fo that this velocity muft
be compared with that of the power neceifary to move the
machine, and overcome the friftion ; and it is obvious, at
the fame time, that the velocity of a circular motion dimi-
niflies gradually from the circumference to the centre. See
Friction.

But to this pofition it has been objefted, that the illuf-
tration is not applicable to the cafe : for, granting that, in
the friftion of fledges or flat furfaces, the refiftance increafes
in proportion to the velocity of their motion, this is not a
parallel cafe with that of a circular furface rolling over a
flat plane. On the contrary, the velocity of motion, in the
outer furface of a wheel, is greater than that of its nave,
moving under the axle ; while at fuch outer furface there is
little or no friftion at all ; whereas at the nave, moving
much flower, there is much more. Indeed, the friftion,
which the wheel would have againft its fupporting plane, if
it did not turn round its axis, is by its turning round trans-
ferred almoft wholly to the axis and nave ; whofe circular
motion is notwithftanding fo much flower. It is, indeed,
notorious, that the great friftion of the wheels of carriages
lies between the axle and nave ; and how then can it be pro-
perly aflerted, that fuch friftion is diminiflied at the axle, as
the velocity of the circular motion is there diminifhed ? Ac-
cordingly it has been alleged by a late writer, it&X friftion
is not diminiflied by the ufe of wheels, but merely trans-
ferred from the outer furface of the wheel to its nave and
axle ; and that in the cafe of a wheel rolHng along the
ground, the fpokes aft only as fingle levers, to overcome
the fridlion of the periphery againft the plane of its fupport,
the prominences, conftituting the roughnefs of the plane
over which it moves, being the fulcra upon which they
turn, and not the common centre of thefe fpokes, as others
have maintained, who fay that the wheel afts, in overcoming
friftion, as an axis in peritrochio. However, in obviating
the friftion of the wheels in loaded carriages, their fpokes
aft as double levers, refting on a fulcrum at each end. See
the author's method of illuftrating and evincing thefe prin-
ciples, in Jacob's Obf. on Wheel-Carriages, p. 23, &c.

If carriages were to move along fmooth horizontal planes,
Z z wheels

WHEEL.

wheels would be ufeful only in overcoming fridion ; but as
they are drawn along roads covered with loofe ftones, indented
with cavities, they are farther ufeful in ferving to deprejs,
or raife the carriage over the one, and in raifing it out of the
other.

4. The axlee of the wlieels ought to be perfeftly ftraight,
and at right angles to the {hafts, or to the pole. When the
axles are ftraight, the rims of the wheels will be parallel to
each other, and then they will move the eafieft, becaufe they
will be at liberty to go on ftraight forwards. But in the

The wheels of all carriages ought to be exaftly round ; ufual way of pradice the axles are bent downwards at their

and the fellies fhould be at right angles to the naves, accord- ends ; which brings the hdes of the wheels next the ground

ing to the inchnation of the fpokes, i. e. the plane of the nearer to one another than their higher fides are ; and this

curvature of the wheel fhould cut the nave at right ang es, not only makes the wheels to drag fideways as they go

tiiouffh it need not pafs through the place where the fpokes along, and gives the load a much greater power of crufhing

• r J • . ..u ,„o them than when thev are parallel to each other, but alio en-

are inferted into the nave. '. f . r 1 f 11.

The fpokes according to Mr. Fergufon and moft dangers the overturning of the carriage when any wheel faUs
other writers on m'echanics, Hiould be incHned to the naves, into a hole or^rut, o-- when the carriage goes on a road
fo that the wheels may be diftiing or concave. If, indeed,
the wheels were always to go upon fmooth and level ground,
it would be beft to make the fpokes perpendicular to the
naves, or at right angles with the axles ; becaufe they
would then bear the weight of the load perpendicularly,
which is the ftrongeft way for the wood. But becaufe the
ground is generally uneven, one wheel often falls into a
cavity or rut, when the other doe? not, and then it bears
much more of the weight than the other does ; in which
cafe difliing wheels are beft, becaufe the fpokes become
perpendicular in the rut, and therefore have the *"

eateft

which has one fide lower than the other, as along the fide of
a hill. Thus, in t'le hind view of a waggon or cart, let
A E and B F {Plate XL. Jig. 9. Mechanics) be the great
wheels parallel to each other, on their ftraight axle K, and
H C I the carriage loaded with heavy goods from C to G.
Then as the carriage goes on in the obhque read A a B, the
centre of gravity of the whole machine and load will be at
C ; and the line of direftion CdT) falling within the wheel
B F, the carriage will not overfet. But if the wheels be
inclined to each other at the ground, as A E and B F are
{Jig. 10.), and the machine be loaded as before from C to

ftrenffth when the obhquity of the road throws moft of its G, the Hne of direaion C ^D falls without the wheel B F,
weight upon them ; whilft thofe on the high ground have and the whole machine tumbles over. When it is loaded

When it is
with heavy goods which lie low, it may travel fafely upon
an oblique road, fo long as the centre of gravity is at C
[Jig.g.), and the line of direftion C(/D falls within the
wheels ; but if it be loaded high with lighter goods from C
to L (fg. II-), the centre of gravity is raifed from C to
K, which ftiews the hne of direftion K k without the loweft

lefs'vveight to bear, and therefore need not be at their full
ftrength. Befides, by this form of the wheels, the bafe of
the carriage is extended, and it is thus prevented from being
eafily overturned, and the feUies are hindered from rubbing
againft the load or the fides of the cart. Dr. Brewfter, how-
ever, is of opinion, that the difadvantages of concave wheels
overbalance their advantages. Mr. Anftice alfo,in his"Trea- edge of the wheel B F, and then the load overfets the wag-
tife on Wheel-Carriages," whilft he recommends concave gon. Mr. Beighton has off'ered feveral reafons to prove, that
wheels, candidly allows, that fome difadvantages attend this the axles of wheels ought not to be ftraight : for which we
conftruftion of them ; for the carriage thus takes up more muft refer to Defaguliers' Exp. Phil. vol. ii. Appendix,
room on the road, fo that it is more unmanageable ; and p. 540, &c. Moreover, if the axle were not at right angles
when it moves upon plane ground the fpokes not only do to the pole or ftiaft, but this was on one fide, then the
not bear perpendicularly, by which means their ftrength is coach or carriage would be drawn on one fide, and almoft
- - . -.-. . . ' ■ -^- all the weight would bear upon one horfe. With fome

mechanics, it is a practice to bend the ends of the axle-trees
forwards, and thus make the wheels wider behind than be-
fore. Mr. H. Beighton maintains, that wheels in this pofi-
tion are more favourable for turning ; fince, when the wheels

leffened, but the friftion upon the nave and axle is made
unequal, and fo much the more as they are the more diftied.
Dr. Brewfter farther (hews, that they are more expenfive,
more injurious to the roads, more liable to be broken by ac-
cidents, and lefs durable in general, than thofe wheels in

which the fpokes are perpendicular to the naves. From are parallel, the outermoft would prefs againft the Imch-pin,
thefe and other confiderations, our author is decidedly of and the innermoft would rub againft the (lioulder of the
opinion, that if wheels are to be compofed of naves, fpokes, axle-tree. In reftilineal motions, however, thefe converging

and felhes, the rim fhould be cylindrical, and the fpokes
perpendicular to the naves ; whereas in concave wheels, the
rims are uniformly made conical, which fubjefts them to a
variety of difadvantages. Every cone that is put in motion
upon a plane furface will revolve round its vertex, and if
force is employed to confine it to a ftraight line, the fmaller
parts of the cone will be dragged along the ground, and
the friftion greatly increafed. Now when a cart moves
upon conical wheels, one part of the cone rolls while the
other is dragged along, and though confined to a reftilineal

wheels occafion a great deal of friction, both on the axle
and the ground, and muft therefore be more difadvantageous
than parallel ones. This faft is allowed by Mr. Beighton :
but he feenis to found his opinion upon this principle ; that
as the roads are feldom ftraight lines, the wheels fhould be
more adapted to a curvilineal than to a reftilineal motion. .
5. Large wheels are always more advantageous for rolling
than fmall ones, in any cafe, or upon any ground whatever.
If we confider wheels with regard to their frittion upon the
axles, it is evident, that fmall wheels muft turn as much of-

direftion by external force, their natural tendency to revolve tener round than the large ones, as their circumferences are

round their vertex occafions a great aod continued friftion lefs ; and, therefore, a wheel which is twice as large as an-

upon the linch-pin, the ftioulder of the axle-tree, and the other will have twice the advantage in refpeCt of the fric-

fides of deep ruts. tion, the holes of the naves and axles, and the weights upon

Dr. Brewfter has made fome farther obfervations on the them, being equal. Again, if we confider the wheels as

conftruftion of certain parts of the wheels. The iron plates, they fink into the earth, or fall into holes, the bearing of

he fays, of which the riras are compofed, ftiould never be the great wheel being double that of the fmall one, it would

lefs than three inches in breadth, as narrower rims fink deep fink but half fo deep ; and if the fmall wheel fhould meet

into the ground, and therefore injure the roads and fatigue with a hole of the fame diameter with itfclf, it would wholly

the horfes. See the fequel of this article. fink in, whilft only a fegment lefs than half of the great

1 2 wheel

WHEEL.

wheel would fall fn : the fame thing would alfo happen in
marfhy ground, where the fniall wheel would fink wholly in
the fame hole which the great one would fink into but in
part. The large wheel would alfo have the advantage of a
fmall one in rinng over eminences or rubs that occurred ; fo
that the former would go over rubs much higher than the
latter ; and indeed over any eminences, provided their height
be not equal to its femidiameter. Defaguliers has reduced
this matter to a mathematical calculation, in his Exp. Phil,
vol. i. p. 171, &c.

A late writer has alfo proved, that a wheel of eight feet
diameter has fomewhat more than twice the advantage in
overcoming obilacles of a wheel of two feet ; and he found,
in praAice, that if it requires a certain power to draw a
carriage of a certain weight over a certain obftacle, with
wheels of any determinate diameter, it will reqiiire wheels
of four times that diameter, to draw the fame carriage over
the fame obftacle with half that power. This writer alfo
obferves, that, in the draught of carriages afcending inclined
planes, the moving power afts not only againft the vis in-
ertias, which is always equal to the abfolute gravity of the
load, but alfo againft its relative gravity, which increafes
with the inclination of the plane ; and with refpeft to car-
riages raifed on wheels, it is to be obferved, that the higher
the axle is removed from the plane, the farther is the centre
of gravity removed out of the perpendicular line of fup-
port ; fo that the lower the wheel, the lefs is the relative
gravity of the carriage. Hence he infers, that fuppofing
the friftion of two carriages of equal weight, but of dif-
ferent fized wheels, to be equal, the low-wheeled one would
be drawn up hill, on a fmooth plane, much more eafily
than the high-wheeled one ; though on a fmooth, horizontal
plane, the latter would be drawn more eafily than the for-
mer. On the contrary, in going down hill, the high-
wheeled carriage will be urged forward, by its relative gra-
vity, more than the low-wheeled one. Jacob, ubi fupra,
p. 63, &c.

It appears, therefore, that the larger wheels are, the more
advantageous they are in proportion, provided that they are
not more than five or fix feet in diameter ; for when they ex-
ceed thele dimenfions, they become heavy ; or if they are
made light, their ftrength is proportionably diminiflied, and
the fpokes, being long, are more liable to break : befides,
horfes applied to fuch wheels, would be incapable of exert-
ing their utmoft ftrength, by having the axles higher than
their breafts, fo that they would draw downwards ; as in
fmall wheels the draught is made more difEcult, by the
horfes drawing upwards.

It is obferved by Dr. Brewfter, in the appendix to his
edition of " Fergufon's Mechanics," that when the wheels
of carriages either move upon a level furface, or overcome
obftacles which impede their progrefs, they aA as mechani-
cal powers, and may be reduced to levers of the firft kind.
In order to elucidate this remark, which is of great import-
ance in the prefent difcuflion, let A be the centre, and B C N
the circumference of awheel 6 feet in diameter, and let the
impelling power P, which is attached to the extremity of a
rope A D P, paffing over the pulley D, aft in the hori-
zontal direftion A D. Then, if the wheel is not affefted
by friftion, it will be put in motion upon the level furface
M B, v/hc-n the power P is infinitely fmall. For fince the
whole weight of the wheel refts on the ground at the point B,
which is the fulcrum of the lever A B, the diftance of the
weight from the centre of motion will be nothing, and there-
fore the mechanical energy of the fmalleft power P, afting
at the point A, with a length of lever A B, will be infi-
nitely greit when compared with the refiftance of the

weight to be raifed | and thk will be the cafe, howi^ver ftnall
the lever A B, and however great be the weight of the
wheel. But as the wheels of carriages are conftantly meet.
ing with impediments, let C be an obftacle fix inches liigh,
which the wheel is to furmount. Then the fpoke A C will
reprefent the \evir, C its fulcrum, A D the direftion of the
power ; and if the wheel weighs 100 pounds, we may repre-
fent it by a weight W, fixed to the wheel's centre A, or to
the extremity of the lever C A, and afting in the perpendi-
cular direftion A B, in oppofition to the power P. Now
the mechanical energy of the weight W to pull the lever
round its fulcrum in the direftion A E, is reprefented by
C E, while the mechanical energy of an equal weight P to
pull it in the oppofite direftion A F, is reprefented by C F ;
an equilibrium, therefore, will be produced, if the power P is
to the weight W as C E to C F, or as the fine is to the co-
fine of an angle, whofe verfed fine is equal to the height of
the obftacle to be furmounted ; for E B, the height of the
mound C, is the verfed fine of the angle B A C, and C E
is the fine, and C F the cofine of the fame angle. In the
prefent cafe, where E B is fix inches, and A B three feet,
E B, the verfed fine, will be 1666, &c. when A B is loCXD ;
and, confequently, the angle B A C will be 33° 33', and
C E will be to E F, as 52 to 83, or as 66 to 100. A
weight P, therefore, of 66 pounds, afting in a horizontal
direftion, will balance a wheel fix feet diameter, and 100
pounds in weight, upon an obftacle fix inches high ; and a
fmall additional power will enable it to furmount that ob-
ftacle. But if the direftion, A D, of the power, be in-
clined to the horizon, fo that the point D may rife towards
H, the line F C, which reprefents the mechanical energy of
P, will gradually increafe, till D A has reached the pofu
tion H A, perpendicular to A C, where its mechanical
energy, which is now a maximum, is reprefented by A C,
the radius of the wheel ; and fince E C is to C A as 53 to
1000, a little more than 53 pounds will be fufficient for
enabling the wheel to overcome the obftacle.

Proceeding in this way , it will be found, fay s our author, that
the power of wheels to furmount eminences increafes with their
diameter, and is direftly proportional to it, when their weight
remains the fame, and when the direftion of the power is
perpendicular to the lever which afts againft the obftacle.
Hence we fee the great advantages which are to be derived
from large wheels, and the difadvantages which attend fmall
ones. There are fome circumftances, however, which con-
fine us within certain limits in the ufe of large wheels. When
the radius A B of the wheel is greater than D M, the height
of the pulley, or of that part of the horfe to which the rope
or pole D A is attached, the direftion of the power, or the
line of traftion A D, will be obhque to the horizon as A i^
and the mechanical energy of the power will be only A e,
whereas it was reprefented by A E when the line of trac-
tion was in the horizontal line D A. Whenever the radius
of the wheel, therefore, exceeds four feet and a half, the
height of that part of the horfe to which the traces (hould
be attached, the line of traftion A D will incline to the ho-
rizon, and by declining from the perpendicular A H, its me-
chanical effbrt~will be diminifhed ; and fince the load refts
upon an inchned plane, the trams or poles of the cart will
rub againft the flanks of the horfe, ^ven in level roads, and
ftill more feverely in defcending ground. Notwithftanding
this diminution of force, however, arifing from the un-
avoidable obliquity of the impelling power, wheels exceed-
ing four and a half feet radius have ftill the advantage of
fmaller ones ; but their power to overcome refiftances does
not inqreafe fo faft as before. Hitherto we have fuppofed
the weight of the large and fmall wheels to be the fame, but
Z E 2 it

WHEEL.

f:

it is evident that when we augment their diameter we add
greatly to their weight ; and by thus increafing the load,
we fenfibly diminifh their power.

From thefe remarks, we fee the fuperiority of great wheels
to fmall ones, and the particular circumftances which fug-
eft the propriety of making the wheels of carriages lefs than
.our feet and a half radius. But even this fize is too great ;
and it may be fafely alTerted that they fhould never exceed
fix feet in diameter, nor ever be lefs than three feet and a

half.

6. Carriages with four wheels, as waggons or coaches, are
much more advantageous than carriages with two wheels, as
carts and chaifes ; for in applying horfes to a carriage with
two wheels, it is plain that the tiller carries part of the
weight, in whatfoever manner it be kept in equilibrio upon
the axle. In going down a hill, the weight bears upon the
Tiorfe ; and in going up a hill, the weight falls the other
way, and lifts the horfe, by which means part of his force is
loft. Befides, as the wheels fink into the holes in the road,
fometimes on one fide, fometimes on the other, the fhafts
Itrike againll the tiller's flanks, which is the deftrudlion of
many horfes. Add to this, that when one of the wheels
finks into a hole or rut, half the weight will fall that way,
whereby the carriage will be in danger of being overturned.

7. It would be much more advantageous to make the four
wheels of a coach or waggon large, and nearly of a height,
than to make the fore-wheels of only half the diameter of
the hind-wheels, as is ufual in many places. The fore -wheels
of carriages have commonly been made of a lefs fize than
the hind ones, both on account of turning (hort, and to
avoid cutting the braces. Crane-necks have alfo been in-
vented for turning yet (liorter, and the fore-wheels have
been lowered, fo as to go quite under the bend of the crane-
neck. See an account of an ingenious contrivance for this
purpofe, under Perch.

Some carriers and coachmen have, indeed, abfurdly al-
leged, that when the fore-wheels are much lower than the
hind ones, they ferve to pulh them on. However, many
difadvantages attend this conftruftion. A confiderable
force is loft that would be effeftual, if they were large : the
carriage would go much more eafily, if the fore-wheels
were as high as the hind-ones; and the higher the better, be-
caufe their motion would be fo much the flower on their
axles, and confequently the friftion proportionably dimi-
niftied. The jolting and uneafy motion occafioned by low
wheels, has induced perfons to contrive fprings, in order to
prevent it. But nothing can be more inconfiftent, even with
this end, than the common method of fixing the braces to
the bottom of the body of a carriage. In confequence of
this practice, the centre of gravity of the fufpended body
is fo high above the centre of its motion, that it is liable to
be continually agitated by the jolting of the carriage, and
its danger of overturning increafed : whereas if, inftead of
praftifing this method, the body were fufpended as near as
pofQble to its centre of gravity, the agitation of the car-
riage, as well as its danger of overturning, would be in a
great meafure avoided.

The effeft of the fufpenfion of a carriage on fprings is to
equalize its motion, by caufing every change to be more
gradually communicated to it, by means of the flexibility of
the fprings, and by confuming a certain portion of every
fudden impulfe in generating a degree of rotatory motion.
This rotatory motion depends on the oblique pofition of the
ftraps fufpending the carriage, which prevents its fwinging
m a parallel direftion ; fuch a vibration as would take place
if the ftraps were parallel, would be too extenfive, unlefs
they were ve»y (hort, and then the motion would be fome-

what rougher. The obliquity of the ftraps tends alfo in
fome meafure to retain the carriage in a horizontal pofition ;
for if they were parallel, both being vertical, the lower one
would have to fupport the greater portion of the weight,
at leaft according to the common mode of fixing them to the
bottom of the carriage ; the fpring, therefore, being flexi-
ble, it would be ftill further depreffed. But when the ftraps
are oblique, the upper one aflumes always the more vertical
pofition, and confequently bears more of the load ; for when
a body of any kind is fupported by two oblique forces,
their horizontal thrufts muft be equal, otherwife the body
would move laterally ; and in order that the horizontal por-
tions of the forces may be equal, the more inchned to the
horizon muft be the greater : the upper fpring will, there-
fore, be a little depreffed, and the carriage will remain more
nearly horizontal than if the fprings were parallel. The
reafon for dividing the fprings into feparate plates has
already been explained : the beam of the carriage, that
unites the wheels, fupplies the ftrength neceflary for form-
ing the communication between the axles : if the body of
the carriage itfelf were to perform this office, the fprings
would require to be fo ftrong that they could have little or
no effeA in equalizing the motion, and we ftiould have a
waggon inftead of a coach. The eafe with which a carriage
moves, depends not only on the elafticity of the fprings,
but alfo on the fmall degree of ftability of the equilibrium,
of which we may judge in fome meafure, by tracing the
path which the centre of gravity muft defcribe, when the
carriage fwings.

There is an inconvenience which attends the ufual method
of loading carriages ; for when a carriage is loaded equally
heavy on both axles, the fore-axle muft endure as much
more friflion, and confequently wear out as much fooner
than the hind-axle, as the fore-wheels are lefs than the hind
ones. However, the carriers commonly put the heavier part
of the load upon the fore-axle of the waggons ; which not
only makes the friftion greateft where it ought to be leaft,
but alfo prefleth the fore-wheeU deeper into the ground than
the hind-wheels, although the fore-wheels, being lefs than
the hind ones, are with fo much the greater difficulty drawn
out of a hole, or over an obftacle, even fuppofing the weights
on their axles were equal ; for the difficulty, with equal
weights, will be as the depth of the hole, or height of the
obftacle, is to the femi-diameter of the wheel. Moreover,
fince a fmall wheel will often fink to the bottom of a hole,
in which a great wheel will go but a very little way, the
fmall wheels ought to be loaded with lefs weight than the
great ones ; and then the heavier part of the load would be
lefs jolted upward and downward, and the horfes tired fo
much the lefs, as their draught raifed their load to lefs
heights. When the waggon-road, indeed, is much up-hill,
there may be danger in loading the hind-part much heavier
than the fore-part ; for then the weight would over-hang
the hind axle, efpecially if the load be high, and endanger
tilting up the fore-wheels from the ground. In this cafe,
the fafell way would be to load it equally heavy on both
axles ; and then as much more of the weight would be
thrown upon the hind axle than upon the fore one, as the
ground rifes from a level below the carriage. But as this
feldom happens, a fmall temporary weight might be laid
upon the pole between the horfes, which would overbalance
the danger.

From Mr. Fergufon's obfervations on the centre of
gravity, it is evident, that if the axle-tree of a two-
wheeled carriage paffes through the centre of gravity of the
load, the carriage will be in equilibrio in every pofition in
which it can be placed with refpeft to the axle-tree ; and

WHEEL.

in going up and down hill, tlic whole load will be fuftained b m muft be four inches, or the angle b A m (hould be equal
by the wheels, and will have no tendency either to prefs the to the inclination of the road, for then the point m will rife

horfe to the ground, or to raife him from it. But if the to a when afcending fuch a road, and will prefs with its
. — . r :... ;. r__ .l__ - .u- ...i_ . — „. ;. „../i „„ greateft force on the back of the horfe.

When carts are not conftrufted in this manner, we may,
in fome degree, obtain the fame end by judicioufly difpofing
the load. Let us fuppofe that the centre of gravity is at
O when the cart is loaded with homogeneous materials, fuch
as fand, lime, &c. then if the load is to confift of hetero-
geneous fubitances, or bodies of different weight, we Ihould
place the heavieft at the bottom, and neareft the front, which
will not only lower the point O, but will bring it forward,
and nearer the proper pofition m. Part of the load, too,
might be fufpended below the fore-part of the carriage in
dry weather, and the centre of gravity would approach ftill
nearer the point m. When the point m is thus depreffed, the
weight on the horfe is not only judicioufly regulated, but the
cart will be prevented from overturning, and in rugged roads
the weight fuftained by each wheel will be in a great degree
equalized.

I" loading four-wheeled carriages, great care ftiould be
when there is the greateft neceflity for his being preffed to taken not to throw much of the load upon the fore-wheels,
it, and he will fometimcs bear a great proportion of the as they would otherwife be forced deep into the ground, and
load when he fhould rather be relieved from it. require great force to pull them forward. In fome modern

The only way of remedying thefe evils, fays Dr. Brewfter, carriages, this is very little attended to. The coachman's
is to aflign fuch a pofition to the centre of gravity, that the horfe feat is fometimes enlarged fo as to hold twoperfons, and all
may bear fome portion of the load when he muft exert great the baggage is generally placed in the front, direftly above
force againft it, that is, in level ground, and when he is afcend- the wheels. By this means the greateft part of the load is

centre of gravity is far above the axle-tree, as it muft ne-
ceflarily be according to the piefent conftruftion of wheel-
carriages, a great part of the load will be thrown on the
back of the horfes from the wheels, when going down a
fteep road, and thus tend to accelerate the motion of the
carriage, which the animal is ftriving to prevent : while in
afcending fteep roads a part of the load will be thrown be-
hind the wheels, and tend to raife the horfe from the ground,
when there is the greateft neceflity for fome weight on his
back, to enable him to fix his feet on the earth, and over-
come the great refiftance which is occafioned by the fteep-
nefs of the road. On the contrary, if the centre of gra-
vity is below the axle, the horfe will be prefled to the ground
in going up-hill, and lifted from it when going down. In
all thefe cafes, therefore, where the centre of gravity is
either in the axle-tree, or diredly above or below it, the
horfe will bear no part of the load in level ground. In
fome fituations, the animal will be hfted from the ground

ing fteep roads ; for no animal can pull with its greateft effort
unlefs it is preffed to the ground. Now, this may in fome
meafure be effetled in the following manner : — Let B C N
{ Plate XL.^/ff. 12.) be the wheel of a cart, A D one of the
fhafts, D that part of it where the cart is fufpended on the

upon the fmall wheels, and the draught becomes doubly fe-
vere for the poor animals, who muft thus unneceflarily fufFer
for the ignorance and folly of man.

There is another great difadvantage attending fmall fore-
wheels ; viz. that as their axle is below the level of the

back of the horfe, and A the axle-tree ; then if the centre horfe's breafts, the horfes not only have the loaded carriage
of gravity of the load is placed at m, a point equidiftant to draw along, but alfo part of its weight to bear, which
from the two wheels, but below the line DA, and before

■Is
the axle-tree, the horfe will bear a certain weight on level
ground, a greater weight when he is going up-hill, and has
more occafion for it, and a lefs weight when he is going
down-hill, and does not require to be preffed to the ground.
All this will be evident from the figure, when we recolleft
that if the fhaft D A is horizontal, the centre of gravity
will prefs more upon the point of fufpenfion D the nearer it
comes to it ; or the prefTure upon D, or the horfe's back,
will be proportional to the diftance of the centre of gravity
from A. If m therefore be the centre of gravity, b A will
reprefent its prefTure upon D, when the fhaft D A is hori-
zontal. When the cart is afcending a fteep road, A H will
be the pofition of the fhaft, the centre of gravity will be
raifed to a, and a A will be the prefTure upon D. But if
the cart is going down hill, A C will be the pofition of the
fhaft, the centre of gravity will be depreffed to n, and c A
will reprefent the prefTure upon the horfe's back. The

tires them fooner, and makes them grow much ftifferin their
hams, than they would be if they drew on a level with the
fore-axle ; and for this reafon, coach-horfcs foon become
unfit for riding. lSo that on all accounts it is plain, that
the fore-wheels of all carriages ought to be fo high as to
have their axles even with the breafls of the horfes ; which
would not only give them a fair draught, but likewife caufe
the machine to be drawn by a lefs degree of power.

Mr. Beighton difputes the propriety of fixing the line of
traftion on a level with the brealt of a horfe, and fays it is
contrary to reafon and experience. Horfes, he fays, have
little or no power to draw, but what they have from their
weight ; otherwife they could take no hold of the ground,
and then they muft flip, and draw nothing. Common ex-
perience alfo teaches, that if a horfe is to convey a certain
weight, he ought, that he may draw the better, to have a
proportional weight on his back or fliouldcrs. Befides,
when a horfe draws hard, he bends forward, and brings his

weight fuftained by the horfe, therefore, is properly regu- breaft near the ground ; and then, if the wheels are high, he

lated by placing the centre of gravity at m. We have ffill,
however, to determine the proper length of b a and b m, the
diftance of the centre of gravity from the axle, and from
the horizontal line D A ; but as thefe depend upon the na-
ture and inclination of the roads, upon the length of the
fhaft D A, which varies with the fize of the horfe, on the
magnitude of the load, and on other variable circumftances,
it would be impoffibleto fix their value. If the load, along
with the cart, weighs four hundred pounds, if the diftance
D A be eight feet, and if the horfe ftiould bear fifty pounds
of the weight, then b A ought to be one foot, which being
one-eighth of D A, will make the preffure upon D exatlly
fifty pounds. If the road flopes four inches in one foot.

is pulling the carriage againft the ground. A horfe tackled
in a waggon will draw two or three ton, becaufe the point or
hne of traftion is below his breaft, by reafon of the wheels
being low. And it is very common to fee, when one horfe is
drawing a heavy load, his fore-feet will rife from the ground ;
and he will nearly ftand on end ; in which cafe it is ufual to
add a weight on his back, to keep his fore-part down, by a
perfon mounting on him, which will enable him to draw that
load, without which he before could not move. The
great ftrefs, or main bufinefs of drawing, fays this ingenious
writer, is to overcome obftacles ; for on level plains the draw-
ing is but little, and then the horfe's back need be preffed
but with a fmall weight. Moft or all of thefe obftacles may be

confidered

WHEEL.

eonfidered as inclined planes. In order to draw the wheel
AB {Plate XL. Mechanics, fg. 13.) over the obftacle
D, M. de Camus, agreeably to the principles above laid
down, would have the horfe draw in the line H C ; where-
as Mr. Beighton fays, fince the obftacle is D, and the tan-
gent of the earth, or line of the floor, is at B, and the line
to be moved in is B D, an inclined plane ; the eafieil pofi-
tion of drawing, to get the wheel over D, is to draw in the
pofition of that inclined plane B T, or its parallel C i. As
all the radii of a wheel are equal, the pulling at the centre is
the fame as a balance in equihbrio ; viz. there is the fame
force at A as at B. But in the cafe of drawing in the ho-
rizontal line H C, when the obftacle is at D, the whole
force which the horfe has for drawing is by the fhort end of
the brachium = f D, againft the force or weight of the
long end of the brachium/ D = c C, which rauft be very
difadvantageous ; therefore, he fays, the line of traftion
fhould be b C. Defag. Exp. Phil. vol. ii. App. p. 542,
&c.

Whilft M. Camus maintained that the line of traftion
fhould be an horizontal line, or always parallel to the ground
on which the carriage is moving, becaufe the horfe can exert
his greateft ftrength in this direftion, and becaufe the line of
draught, being perpendicular to the vertical fpoke of the
wheel, afts with thelargeft poffible lever, M. Couplet, confi-
dering that the roads are never perfeftly level, and that
the wheels are conftantly furmounting fniall eminences, even
in the beft roads, recommends the line of traftion to be
oblique to the horizon. It is, however, to M. Depar-
cieux (Sur le Tirage des Chevaux, Mem. Acad. Roy.,
1760. ), that we are principally indebted for juft ideas on this
fubjeft. He has Ihewn in the moft fatisfaftory manner that
animals draw by their weight, and not by the force of their
mufcles. In four-footed animals, the hinder feet are the
fulcrum of the lever by which their weight afts againil the
load ; and when the animal pulls hard, itdeprefles its cheft,
and thus increafes the lever of its weight, and diminiihes the
lever by which the load refifts its effcfts. Thus in Plate XL.
Mechanics, Jig. 12, let P be the load, D A the hne of trac-
tion, and let us fuppofe F C to be the hinder leg of the
horfe, A F part of its body, A its cheft or centre of gra-
vity, and C E the level road. Then AFC will reprefent
the crooked lever by which the horfe afts, which is equiva-
lent to the ftraight one A C. But when the horfe's weight
afts downwards at A, round C as a centre, fo as to drag
forward the rope A D, and raife the load P, C E will re-
prefent the power of the lever in this pofition, or the lever
of the horfe's weight, and C F the lever by which it is re-
fifted by the load, or the lever of refiftance. Now, if the
horfe lowers its centre of gravity A, which it always does
when it pulls hard, it is evident that C E, the lever of its
weight, will be increafed, while C F, the lever of its refift-
ance, will be diminifhed, for the line of traftion A D will
approach nearer to C E. Hence we may fee the great be-
nefit which may be derived from large horfes, for the lever
A C neceffarily increafes with their fize, and their power is
always proportioned to the length of this lever, their weight
remaining the fame. Large horfes, therefore, and other
animals, will draw more than fmall ones, even though they
have lefs mufcular force, and are unable to carry fuch a
heavy burden. The force of the mufcles tends only to
make the horfe carry continually forward his centre of gra-
vity ; or, in other words, the weight of the animal produces
the draught, and the play and force of its mufcles ferve to
continue it.

From thefe remarks, then, according to Dr. Brewtler's
llatement, we may deduce the proper pofition of the

line of traftion. When the line of traftion is horizon-
tal, as A D, the lever of refiftance is C F ; but if this
line is oblique to the horizon, as A^, the lever of re-
fiftance is diminiftied to C/, while the lever of the horfe's
weight remains the fame. Hence it appears, that inclined
traces are much more advantageous than horizontal ones, as
they uniformly diminifti the refiftance to be overcome. De-
parcieux, however, has inveftigated experimentally the moft
favourable angle of inclination, and found, that when the
angle D A F, made by the trace A d, and a horizontal line,
is fourteen or fifteen degrees, the horfes pulled with the
greateft facility and force. This value of the angle of
draught will require the height of the fpring-tree bar, to
which the traces are attached in four-wheeled carriages, to
be one-half of the height of that part of the horfe's breait
to that with which the fore end of the traces is connefted.

This height is about four feet fix inches, and therefore
the height of the fpring-tree bar fhould be only two feet
three inches, whereas it is generally three feet.

8. The utihty of broad wheels, in amending ^nd pre-
ferving the roads, has been fo long and generally acknow-
ledged, as to have occafioned feveral afts of the legiflature
to enforce their ufe. See Turnpike.

Several excellent and well-devifed experiments have not
long ago been inftituted by Boulard and Margueron, which
have fatisfaftorily evinced the diftinguiftiing advantage of
broad wheels. See a Memoir prefented to the Academy of
Lyons, in the Journal de Phyfique, tom. xix. p. 424.

Neverthelefs, the proprietors and drivers of carriages
feem to be convinced by experience, that a narrow-wheeled
carriage is more eafily and fpeedily drawn by the fame num-
ber of horfes than a broad-wheeled one of the fame burthen.
And though government allowed them to draw with more
horfes, and carry greater loads than ufual, they were per-
fuaded with difficulty to comply with the requifition of le-
giflature ; and methods have been ufed to evade it. Their
principal objeftion has been, that as a broad wheel muft
touch tlie ground in many more points than a narrow wheel,
the friftion muft of courfe be fo much the greater ; not con-
fidering, that if the whole weight of the waggon, and load
in it, bears upon many points, each fuftains a propor-
tionable lefs degree of weight and friftion than when it
bears only upon a few points ; fo that what is wanting in
one is made up in the other, and, therefore, will be juft
equal under equal degrees of weight, as appears by the fol-
lowing plain and eafy experiment propofed by Mr. Fer-
gufon.

Let one end of a piece of packthread be faftened to a
brick, and the other end to a common fcale for holding
weights ; then having laid the brick edgeways on a table,
and letting the fcale hang under the edge of the table, put
as much weight into the fcale as will juft draw the brick
along the table. Then taking the brick to its former place, lay
it flat on the table, and leave it to be afted upon by the fame
weight in the fcale as before, which will draw it along with
the fame eafe as when it lay upon its edge. In the former
cafe, the brick may be eonfidered as a narrow wheel on the
ground ; and in the latter as a broad wheel. And fince the
brick is drawn along with equal eafe, whether its broad fide
or narrow edge touches the table, it ftiews that a broad
wheel might be drawn along the ground with the fame eafe
as a narrow one, fuppofing them equally heavy, even though
they fhould drag, and not roll as they go along. Befides,
as narrow wheels are always finking into tlie ground, efpe-
cially when the heavieft part of the load lies upon them,
they muft be eonfidered as conftantly going up hill, even on
level ground ; and tliejr edges muft fultain much friftion by

rubbing

WHEEL.

rubbing agakift the fides of the rule made by them. But
both thefe inconveniences are avoided by broad wheels ;
which, inilead of cutting and ploughing up the roads, roll
them fmooth, and harden them : though, after all, it mull
be confefled, that they will not do in ftiff, clayey crofs roads ;
becaufe they would foon gather up as much clay as would
be almoft equal to the weight of an ordinary load ; and alfo
in pafilng along roads abounding with loofe Hones and other
obitacles, which a narrow wheel may avoid pafling over,
and a broad one muft furmount, the broad-wheel carriage
will certainly be drawn lefs eafily and lefs fptedily than a
narrow-wheeled one, though not on account of any addi-
tional fritlion arifing from the preflure of the weight on a
greater quantity of furface. Broad wheels are hkewife
more liable to an inequahty of prefTure between the axle and
box than narrow ones, and confequently to a greater wear
and tear.

Jacob's Obf. on the Structure and Draught of Wheel-
Carriages, 1773, P- 8i> &<^- S^^ °" ^h*^ fubjctt of the
preceding article, Defag. Ex. Phil. vol. i. p. 20I, &c.
Fcrgufon's Left. p. ^6, Sec. 4to., and Appendix by Brew-
iler. Martin's Phil. Brit. vol. i. p. 229, &c.

We fliall here fubjoin fome additional remarks on wheels
and axles for carriages. The eflential qualities of wheels
are ftrength and durability, and it is defirable that they
fliould be as light as is confident with ftrengtli : for quick
travelling carriages lightnefs is very neceflary.

Wheels to four-wheel carriages fhould be made as near of
a height as the conftruftion and appearance will admit ; and
if not required for heavy work, the lighter they are made the
better. The fixtures from whence the draught is taken
fliould be placed rather above the centre of the largeft wheel,
for advantage of draught.

The members of a wheel are of three defcriptions ; viz. the
nave, or ftock, which is the central piece ; the fpokes, or radii ;
and the feUies, or circumference. The nave or ftock is made
of elm, in which all the fpokes are fixed, and in which the
axletree-box, or wheel-box, is confined, to receive the axle-
arms on which the wheel revolves. The fpokes are ftraight
timbers made of oak, firmly tennoned in the nave, in the
direftion of radials, to fupport the felhes, or wheel-rim» The
fellies are made of a(h, or beech, and form the rim of the
wheel ; the whole circumference is ufually divided into
(hort lengths, in the proportion of one length to every two
fpokes. When the fellies are fixed on the fpokes, the iron
band, or tire, which maintains the wear, is nailed on in lengths,
and keeps the fellies together. The diameters of wheels
regulate the number of fpokes and fellies they are to con-
tain : for the larger the circumference of the wheel is, the
greater is the number of fpokes required in proportion ; for
they ftiould not in any wheel be more than fifteen inches
diftant on the fellies, or circumference.
' The ufual height or diameter of wheels for coaches and
I travelling carriages extends to five feet eight inches, and
I are divided into four proportions. Thofe which contain
! from eight to fourteen fpokes, and only half that number
< of fellies, are called eights, tens, twelves, or fourteeiis, which
I are the number of fpokes in fuch wheels, or of fellies in a
■ pair of wheels. The height which regulates the number is,
I for an eight-fpoke wheel, not to exceed three feet two inches ;
I for a ten, four feet fix inches ; for a twelve, five feet four

inches ; for a fourteen, five feet eight inches.
! Thefe are the extreme heights for the different numbers
I of fpokes to each wheel, which fliould be rather more than
I lefs, in particular for the fore-wheel of a four-wheel carriage,
which receives more ftrefs than the hind one ; andthecoach-
I maker's rule is, when the hind-wheels are of that height to

require fourteen fpoket, the fore one, if under the neceflary
height before ftated, ihould have twelve; never allowing
the fore-wheels to have but two fpokes lefs than what is
needful for the hind ones.

There are three defcriptions of wheels ; viz. the ftraked,
the hooped, and the patent rim : the differences of thefe
are only in the rims.

The ftraked wheel is made with the fellies in feparate
lengths or pieces, which are joined together at the ends by
dowels ; that is, a round pin which enters part into one piece
and part into the other, being clofely fitted into holes made
in each. The iron with which it is plated is called the
ftrake, and is put on in pieces of the fame length as the
pieces of the feUies, and faftened by nails ; the joints of the
iron are made to fall over the middle of the pieces of wood fo
as to unite them firmly together. The hooped wheel is fur-
rounded by a hoop of iron in one entire piece. The patent
wheel is made with a hoop of wood in one entire piece, by
boiling or foftening the wood until it can be bent into a
circle ; this is furrounded by a hoop of iron in an entire
piece, and faftened by nuts and rivets.

According to the ufual method of conftrufting ftraked
wheels, their peripheries are compofed of a number of pieces or
fellies joined together ; but thefe are weak, and fubjeft to fe-
veral inconveniences. As the joints are the weakeft parts of
the wheel, they are moft liable to yield inward ; for which rea-
fon the wheelwrights leave them higher than the other parts
of the rim, in confequence of which the wheel is not
exaftly round withinfide the circle of the rim. Befides,
the fellies being fegments of a circle, fawed or hewn out of
ftraight wood, they are on this account rendered fo brittle,
from the crofs direftion of the grain near the joints, that
they are with difiiculty kept together, even though almoft
twice the quantity of timber be employed that would other-
wife be neceliary. The ftrength of fuch a wheel depends
on the thicknefs of the iron tire or rim that furrounds it,
and hence the carriage is loaded with an ufelefs weight, both
of wood and iron. To obviate thefe inconveniences, Mr.
Viny invented the procefs for bending timber into a circular
form, pratlifed for fome time by Meffrs. Jacob and Viny,
and is now continued by others. In wheels made of tim-
ber thus bent, the rim confiils either of a fingle piece of
wood, or two fellies only, and is cafed with a fingle hoop
of iron. By this mode of conftruftion, the grain of the
wood is kept parallel throughout, fo that the periphery of
the wheel is every where equally Itrong ; its thicknefs is
confiderably leflened, infomuch that though little more than
half the ufual quantity of timber is employed, the wheel is
of itfelf ftrong enough to fuftain the common burthen laid
on fucli wheels, without the aififtance of iron tires, which
are only applied to them as a fafe-guard, to preferve the
wood from the injuries to which it would otherwife be necef-
farily expofed from the roads ; and hence a lefs quantity of
iron is fufhcient, and even that will be fairly worn out be-
fore it becomes ufelefs. Befides, the wheel is rendered much
lighter, and at the fame time much ftronger and more
durable, than wheels conftrufted of detached pieces of
wood and iron, in the ufual manner. Thefe patent wheels
are very fuperior to the common fort, in their neat light
appearance, and in the length of time they wear, as two fets
of the former will v/ear as long as three of the latter : their
prefervation depends very much on the hoops that the wheels
are rimmed with. Some perfons ftill prefer the common
fort of wheels, on account of their being more eafily repaired
than the hoop-wheel ; but though the repairing of the latter
is more difficult, they are much lefs fubjeft to need it.
As the rims of wheels wear fooneft at their edges, they

ftiould

WHEEL.

ftould be made thinner in the middle, and fattened to the
fellies with nails of fuch a kind, that their heads may not
rife above the furface of the rim. The fellies on which the
rims are fixed fhould, in carriages, be three inches and a
quarter deep, and in waggons four inches. The naves
(hould be thickeft at the place where the fpokes are inferted,
and the holes in which the fpokes are placed (hould not be
bored quite through, as the greafe upon the axle-tree would
infinuate itfelf between the fpoke and the nave, and prevent
that clofe adhefion which is neceffary to the ftrength of the
wheel.

The track in which the wheels of every carriage are to
run is generally the fame, except when intended for par-
ticular roads, where waggons and other heavy carriages are
principally ufed, and leave very deep ruts, in which hght
carriages mud likewife run, or be liable to accident, and are
alfo fare to be heavy in draught. All four-wheel carriages
(hould have the hind and fore wheels regulated to roll in the
fame track. The ordinary width of the wheels is four feet
eight or ten inches ; that of waggons or carts generally mea-
fure five feet two inches ; chaife-wheels, as being princi-
pally intended for the country, are adapted to this width.
It is immaterial to what width wheels are fet if ufed for run-
ning upon ftoncs ; but on marfhy roads, if their exaAnefs is
not attended to, the draught is confiderably increafed. We
have feen a carriage of which the iron axle-tree is made in
two pieces, overlapping each other in the middle where they
are joined, and fccured by proper bands to the wood-work of
the carriage, fo as to admit of Aiding in the direction of the
axle-tree. Thefe parts are cut with teeth like racks, and a
pinion is applied between them ; fo that by turning this pinion
round, the two parts of the axle-tree are made to Aide one
upon the other ; and the wheels which are fitted upon the two
extreme ends of the axle-tree can at pleafure be fixed at
greater or lefs diftance, as the roads require.

The different heights'of hind and fore wheels make alfo a
difference in the length of their axle-trees, agreeable to
the proportion they bear to one another ; the fore-wheel
has the longed axle-tree by one or two inches between the
fhoulders.

The nave of the wheel is pierced through the centre, with
a large hole to introduce the box, or iron tube, for the axle-
arm, as this tends to weaken the wood. It has been fre-
quently propofed to make metal naves, or centre-pieces for
wheels, which (hould contain the box for the axis, and the
mortifes for the fpokes of the wheel all caft of one piece of
metal. Meffrs. Dodfon and Skidmore had a patent for this
in 1799. The objeftion toitis, that.if thewoodof thefpokes
(hrinks, they become loofe in the mortifes, whereas a wooden
nave (brinks at the fame time with the fpoke. This defeft
has been fince remedied by making the metal wheel-ftock
in two parts ; one with receffes, or fockets, to contain the
fpokes, and the other a flat plate to fatten againll the former
with fcrew-bolts, and prefs the fpokes into their cavities.
Mr. Plucknet had a patent for a metal wheel-ftock of this
kind in 1805, which anfwered extremely well for carts,
waggons, and artillery. The fpokes were made to fill up
all the fpace in the nave or (lock, fo that each fpoke touched
its neighbour. The metal ftock was only a flat circular plate,
or flanch, projefting from the box which received the axle,
and another flat plate fitted upon it, and bound againft the
former by fcrew-bolts, one palling through each arm ; thefe
rendered the wheel very ftrong.

Mr. Wilks took a patent in i 8 1 3 for a metal ftock, in which
there are complete cells for each fpoke, and the cells are
dove-tailed ; that is, they are made larger at the central part
than at tiie outfide, to prevent them from drawing out, and

9

they are firmly preffed into the dove-tails by the fcrew-bolts
which confine the moveable plate.

Wheels for railway-waggons are made of caft-iron, and
iifually all in one piece ; but this is objeftionable, becaufe
the unequal contraftion of the arms and rim of the wheel in
cooling, after the wheel is caft, puts the different parts on a
ftrain, and they frequently break without any adequate
force. It is better to caft the rim in one piece and the arms
in another, and put them together with fcrew-bolts, or rivats.
Mr. Hawks had a patent for this in 1807. In this way, the
rims may be replaced when worn out.

The Axle-trees for Wheels of Carriages. — The ftrong iron
bar which extends acrofs beneath the wood-work of the
carriage, is called the axle-tree ; the round parts at each
end, on which the wheels run, are called the axle-arms ; and
the part or item between them, which is fixed beneath the
wood-work of the carriage, is alfo called the axle-tree. In
the form of the latter parts there are but two forts, the
one made flat, and called a bedded axle-tree, it being
funk all its length in the under fide of the timbers of
the carriage ; the other is made of an o^agon form, and flat
only at the ends where they are bedded.

The axle-arms on which the wheels turn (hould be made
perfeftly round, and fomewhat ftronger at the fhoulder than
at the extreme end, which is fcrewed to receive a nut,
through which and the axle-tree the linch-pin paffes, to keep
all tight. The nuts are made with a collar at the face ; and
a temporary collar, or wafher, is driven on the back of the
arms, which form two (boulders for the wheel to wear
againft, and helps to preferve the greafe from running out,
and to prevent dirt from getting in.

As the axle-trees are the principal or only fupport of the
carriage, every attention and care (hould be fixed in the
feleftion of good iron ; and to fee that they be well wrought,
and of fufficient ftrength, rather going to the extreme of
ftrength, than ri(]<ing the life of the paffenger by the over-
fetting of the carriage, which moftly happens when an axle-
tree breaks.

By the bend of the axle-trees, the wheels are regulated to
any width at bottom, to fuit the track of the roads in which
they are to run, and are confined in the carriage by means
of chps, hoops, and bolts. The (hape of the axle-tree be-
tween the (houlders varies according to the fituation they
are placed in, or the form of the timber of the carriage with
which they are united ; thofe are the moft firm that are flat,
bedded in the timber. Axle-tree boxes for wheels are of
various kinds ; thofe which are frequently called long-pipe,
or wheel-boxes, are long tubes fitted accurately to the arms
of the axle-trees, and fecurely fixed in the wheel-ftocks, or
naves; they are ufually made of wrought ftieet-iron of afub-
ftance proportioned to the weight of the carriage ; their ufe
is to contain a fupply of greafe, and to prevent the effefts of
friftion, whereby the wheels are much affifted in their mo-
tion. Thefe are now ufedinftead of the old caft-iron boxes,
which for quick travelling-carriages are totally out of ufe,
being found injurious to the axle-trees, by cutting them at
thofe parts they wear againft, fo as to occafion a frequent
lining of the arms ; but with the wrought metal boxes this
is feldom neceflary.

There are many forts of axle-trees and boxes invented
various ways, with a view of attaining the following ad-
vantages ; viz.. To contain a longer fupply of greafe or
oil, to be more durable, to fecure the wheels, and to lefTen
the draught. Thofe are all certainly great advantages,
and though the expence is great, the utihty of either of
ihem mutt be more than adequate to it, and merits more
general notice.

Some

WHEEL.

Some of (kefe inventors even pretend that aU thefe ad-
vantages are combined in one axle-tree ; but the generality-
extend to the advantage only of retaining a fupply of oil,
and remaining perfeft to a confiderable length of time. The
common fort of axle-tree and box, which is moft generally
ufed, is fimple and cheap in comparifon with the others.

Common Axle-tree. — The arms of the axle-tree are made
round, but rather of a conical form, flrongeft at the back or
flioulders, tapering to the linch end, which is fcrewed for
a nut, and alfo has a fmall hole for a linch-pin, which
prevents the nut from coming off: at the body-end is
a waflier or collar for the back of the wheel-ftock to wear
againft. The box is made of llieet-iron, proportioned in
fubftance to the weight or fize of the axle-tree, having the
edges of the plate, of which it is formed, vcelded in a ridge
which projefts on the outfide ; this fecures the box in the
nave of the wheel, and prevents it turning round therein.

The nut which fcrews on the end of the axle-arm has a
broad face to lie flat againft the wheel, and is tapped or
fcrewed to receive the fcrew-end of the axle-tree. Each of
thofe nuts muft turn on the fcrew the fame way the wheel
goes, and muft have a notch for the linch-pin to pafs
through, for the purpofe of fecuring the nut from turning
off.

The box is what, of the axle-tree, wears moft, and is fre-
quently obliged to be refitted to the arms ; otherwafe they
give to the wheel while in ufe an unfteady motion, and foon
exhauft their ftock of greafe.

Thofe that are well fitted will contain their fupply for
about one week with regular ufe, or a journey of one hundred
miles. They wear at the rate of one fet of boxes to every
two fets of wheels, and require in that time to be twice or
thrice taken out of the wheels and refitted to the axle-tree
arms.

Axle-trees with FriBlon-Wheels. — Thefe were invented by
Mr. Garnet, at leaft the beft kind, which are made in a very
ingenious manner. The wheel-box is made much larger
than the axle-tree, in fuch manner that the fpace all round
between them may receive a number of rollers which fill it
up. ( See a defcription in the article M.l'Lh-Work. ) Mr. Gar-
net had a patent in 1784, and for fome years manufactured
great numbers ; but being very expenfive, they fell into
difufe, although very complete. This invention has been
lately revived by Mr. Panter.

The Patent Anti-Attrition Axle-tree and Box The pro-

pofed advantages of this axle-tree are, eafe of draft by dimi-
nution of friftion ; the retention of oil to fupply a month's
ufe ; the eafe with which it is replenifhed without taking
off the wheels ; the great fecurity for the wheels, which it
prevents from coming off, and the carriage from over-
turning, if even the arm of the axle-tree fhould break ; and
their durability, and even improvement by wear. Thofe
axle-trees, if made with the fecuring-coUar, for the wheels
need no nut or linch-pin, as is generally ufed, but the wheel
may be taken off and put on as eafily as thofe on the
common principle.

Thefe axle-arms are reduced at the bottom from a per-
it6t round, and grooved, to receive two fmall rollers, on
which the weight of the carriage is borne, and which greatly
facilitates the motion, in the fame manner as blocks of ilone
or timber, which require to be removed by the affiftance of
rollers. Thefe rollers form the outer circumference of the
axle-trees at bottom, which are reduced to give a bearing
only on them. A circular box or ciftern is provided to con-
tain a fupply of oil ; it is clofely fitted to the back of the
inner end of the wheel-ftock, and fixed by three bolts.
The oil is here contained within three circular receffee, and

Vol. XXXVIII.

oozes through fmall channels on the arm of the axle-tree,
which it feeds for a confiderable time. This oil-box is
made of caft-metal, and has a cap projefting behind over
the axle-tree, which prevents the dirt from getting into the
box. This axle-tree is alfo provided with what is called
the wheel-fecurity, or ftrap-wafher. It is an iron collar,
fitted on the external part of the wheel-flock, and confined
between the refervoir and ftock, lying as it were in a groove,
fo that the coUar cannot come off. This collar has two
lugs or ftraps extending backwards fome diftance along
that part of the axle-tree which is bedded in the wood-work,
where it is fixed by a nut-fcrew. By means of this ftrap-
wafher, the wheel is fecured to the bedded part of the axle-
tree ; and fhould the axle-arm vrithin the wheel break, the
wheel will continue to aft.

The cap of this axle-tree is alfo fixed on the out-
fide part of the wheel-ftocks ; by the fame three bolts
which faften the oil-box, and by means of a fcrew-plug in
the cap, the axle-tree and refervoir are replenifhed with oil.
The box is of the fame form as the common box, only
made of a very hard durable metal, of a confiderable
thicknefs, and is made in proportion to the weight of the
carriage.

Collinge's Patent Cylinder Axle-tree and Box. — Thefe axle-
trees have been a confiderable time in ufe, and their advantages
have been proved in the length of time they wear, in the filent
and fteady motion they preferve to the wheels, in the
advantage of retaining the oil to profecute a journey of two
thoufand miles without being once replenifhed ; and laftly,
they are very durable, and but little fubjeft to be out of
order.

The axle-tree arm is made as perfeftly cylindrical as pof-
fible, and of a peculiar hard fubftance ; the middle of the
cyhnder is reduced, to contain the oil neceffary to feed the
axle-trees ; fo that the two bearings are at the two ends of
the axle, which has an internal fhoulder, againft which the
inner end of the wheel-box takes its bearings. Behind this
fhoulder is a deep groove for a wafher to preferve the
oil, and prevent noife in its ufe ; alfo a rim, or hollow
box, on the collar of the axle-tree, which overlaps part
of the inner end of the wheel-ftock to keep out dirt,
and anfwer the ufe of a cuttoo. The extreme end of the
arm is double-fcrewed, to receive two nuts for fecuring the
wheel : the one fcrew turns the way of the wheel ; the
other the reverfe, and is meant as an additional fecurity.

The box is made of a very hard metal, nicely polifhed,
and fitted to the arms, having a circular recefs all round at
the end neareft the carriage, for containing there a fupply
of oil. The box is longer than the part which bears on
the axle ; and the projefting part beyond the bearing at each
end is bored out larger than the arm. The back projeftion
fits clofe to the rim of the collar, which it covers : the
fore one projefts outwards beyond the furface of the wheel-
ftock, and is fcrewed on the infide to receive the fcrew of
the cap.

There are many other patents for axle-trees to wheels ;
but as few of them have come into ufe, we fhall only notice
Meflrs. Flight and Brook's patent axles. The axle is fixed
fail to the nave of the wheel, by palling through it. This
axle turns round within the wheel-box ; whereas in others
the wheel-box turns round upon the axle.

The axle is cylindrical, and is received into a cylindrical
box or tube in the end of the iron axle-tree, which is firmly
bolted to the underfide of the timber of the carriage. To
hold the axle in its place, and prevent it from drawing out
of the box, the end of the axle is reduced to a knob or
button, which adheres to the end of the axle by a fmall
3 A neck.

W H E

W H E

\icck. This button is fitted and received into a fockct, in
which it can freely turn round, but cannot draw out end-
ways. It is made in a piece of metal, which is cylindrical
on the outfide, and of the fame fize as the axle. It is made in
two halves, which feparate longitudinally to introduce or
take out the button at the end of the axle ; but when the
two halves are put together, the focket-piece forms as it
were a continuation of the axle. When the axle is put
into the box with this focket-piece at the end of it, the two
halves of the focket will be confined together, fo that they
cannot feparate ; and to prevent them from drawing out of
the box, a fcrew-bolt is put through the box, arid pafles
through both halves of the focket : this holds the focket
and the axle in their places.

Mr. Ackermann has recently obtained a patent (1818)
for a valuable improvement in the application of the fore-
wheels to four-wheeled carriages. In our article Coach-
Maiing, vol. viii. we have defcribed thofe methods which
were then known of applying the fore-wheels, fo as to
make a four-wheel carriage turn with fafety, and in a fmall
fpace. See alfo Perch.

Mr. Ackermann's improvement effefts this in the moft
perfeft manner. Each of the fore axle-trees is connefted
with the carriage by means of a vertical axle, formed in the
fame piece with the horizontal axle, and upon which the
wheel turns, the two axles being fituated at right angles to
each other. Thefe vertical axles are fitted mto focketf,
formed at the two extremities of a crofs beam of the frame
of the carriage, which is called the fore-ipring tranfom.
Upon thefe axles, as centres of motion, the axle-arms and
wheels can be turned about horizontally, in order to place
them obliquely to the direftion of the hinder-wheels when
the carriage is required to turn ; but each axle turns upon
a feparate centre of motion, and thefe centres are very near
to their refpeftive wheels, being at the extremities of the
crofs-beam or tranfom ; hence the fore-wheels do not
change their place upon the ground when they are placed
obliquely. i

In a common carriage, the axles of the two fore-wheels are
both fixed to one piece of timber, called the axle-bed,
which is placed beneath the fore- tranfom, and united to it
by a vertical pin called the perch-bolt, paffing through the
middle of the axle-bed. On this pin, as a centre, the axle-
bed is turned round. When the wheels are to be placed
obliquely, it is evident, that, in fo turning upon a fingle
centre, one wheel muft advance forwards, and the other muft
retreat backwards, fo as to diminifh the bearing of the
carriage-wheels on the ground in a lateral direftion, and at
the fame time the horfes are pulling in that direction which
tends to overturn the carriage. Another inconvenience is,
that one of the wheels will touch the perch of the carriage,
if placed very oblique.

In the new improvement, two feparate centres of motion
being ufed, and thefe being removed from each other as far
as poflible, many defirable properties are attained.

To give the oblique direAion to the wheels, each vertical
axle has a lever proceeding backwards from it ; and thefe
two levers are united together by a conneding-bar, which
obliges both axles to move at the fame time with a fympa-
tbetic aftion. The pole of the carriage is united to the
piece, called the futchel, in the ufual manner ; and the
futchel is united to the fpring- tranfom by a perch-bolt, in
the ufual pofition ; alfo the hinder end' of the futchel is
jointed to the middle of the conneAing-bar, between the
two levers of the vertical axles. The conneding-bar like-
wife anfwers the purpofe of a fway-bar.

When the horfes move to one fide, the pole and futchel
9

turn upon the perch-bolt, as a lever upon a centre of motion ;
and the extreme end of the futchel afts upon both vertical
axles at once by means of the conneAing-bar, fo as to place
both of the fore-wheels in an oblique direAion. This is
the invention of M. Lankenfperger of Munich.

Wheel, Arijlotle's. See Rota Ariflotelica.

Wheel, Bloivlng, a machine contrived by Dr. Defagu-
liers for drawing out the foul air of any place, or for forcing
in frefh, or doing both fucceffively, without opening doors
or windows. See Phil. Tranf. N° 437.

The intention of this machine is the fame as that of
Dr. Hales's ventilator, but not fo effeAual, nor fo con-
venient. See Defagul. Courfe of Exper. Philof. vol. ii.
p. 563. 568.

This wheel is alfo called a centrifugal ivheel, becaufe it
drives the air with a centrifugal force.

Wheels, Bufhes or Boxes of, the infide metal linings of
the naves. See Wheel.

Wheel, Cutting Roller, in Agriculture, a tool of the
cutting and reducing fort, ufed for the purpofe of working
over crops in fome cafes. In Oxfordlhire a cutting roller
of this fort has been invented, which is compofed of twelve
wheels, two inches and a half in thicknefs ; and between
each of them is a fpace of two inches and a half. They are
three feet in diameter. It is a load in working fo as to be
fufBcient exertion for a ftrong team to draw it : it is pafled
over wheat after it has been fown, or after it is come up ;
and if dry, crofs and crofs. It has alfo been ufed in the
fpring upon wheat ; it leaves the furface rough in a fort of
diamond forms, which is found very beneficial in fome of
the wheat-lands of that diftriA. It is alfo capable of being
ufed in breaking down the furface of ftiff tillage -land in
many other cafes and circumftances.

Wheel, Draining, a wheel conftruAed for the purpofe
of cutting or making drains. Wheels differently formed
are ufed for this fort of work. In Eflex they employ
workmen who make ufe of a caft-iron wheel which weighs
about four hundred weight, and which is four feet in diame-
ter ; the cutting edge or extreme circumference of the wheel
being half an inch in thicknefs, which incrcafes in this way
as it approaches towards the nave or centre ; and will, at
fifteen inches deep, fcour out or cut a drain half an inch
wide at the bottom, and four inches wide at the top. The
wheel is fo placed in a frame, that it may be loaded at plea-
fure, and be made to pafs to a greater or lefs depth, as the
nature of the land may be.

The writer of the Middlefex Report on Agriculture
advifes the ufe of a common fix-inch cart-wheel, on the
felly of which, all round, a fort of ridge-formed addition of
wood is to be fixed, and a rim of iron of a triangular fhape
fattened to the wood. A wheel of this kind put on the
axle of a cart, in the ufual way, will, of courfe, reft on the
edge of the rim of iron ; and which, on driving the horfe
forward, will make a fmall indent or depreffion in the
ground merely by the revolution of it ; but in order ..to
make it prefs down to the depth of fix or eight inches, that
fide of the cart (hould be loaded with ilones, iron baUaft,
or any other heavy material that may happen to be at hand,
until the whole of the parts, if neceifary, fink into the foil.
It would however be as well, or better, it is faid, if the rim
parts added to the wheel were in one piece of calf -iron ; as
the iiicreafed weight of it would enable it to cut or fink
without the aid ot ballaft, or with lefs than ufual. The
cart (hould then be drawn along in fuch a manner, that the
cutting or depreffing wheel may revolve where the drains are
intended to be made. In land that is in ridges and furrows,
it will fometimes be neceffary to draw the wheel along every

furrow.

W H E

furrow. When the ground is without ridge and furrow, the
wheel {hould be drawn over it in parallel lines, five or ten
yards diftant from each other. The wheel on the other end
of the axle is a common fix-inch wheel, fupporting only the
empty fide of the cart, confequently will not cut or deprefs
the ground.

The advantage of this contrivance is, that it makes an in-
dent or depreflion in the furface foil of foft wet clayey grafs-
lands, fufficient to carry off the water during the fame win-
ter, by prefling down the fward and herbage without de-
ilroying it. In the following fpring, thefe drains will be
nearly grown up, and clothed with grafs ; confequently,
there will be nothing taken from the pafturage or the
fcythe. It is neceffary to obferve, that the wheel muft be
drawn over the ground every year on the approach of
winter. With it, and two old horfes, a flout boy or man
may, it is faid, drain from ten to twenty acres in eight
hours.

It may be found very ufeful in the grafs and hay land dif-
trifts about the metropolis and other places. See Surface
Draining.

Wheel, Meafuring. See Perambulator.

Wheel, Orffyreus's. See Orffyreus.

Wheel, Perftan. See Persian.

WnEEL-PIoughs, in Agriculture, all fuch ploughs as are
conflrudled with wheels. See Plough.

Wheel, Potter's, is a round board attached to a lathe,
and capable of being moved by it, either rapidly or more
flowly, as occafion may require. This round board moves
in a horizontal pofition ; and when in ufe, the clay which is
to be fafhioned is fixed on the centre of it ; and it is put in
motion either by a perfon who conflantly attends it when at
work,' or by means of a treadle which is moved by the foot
pf the workman himfelf.

As the clay revolves upon this machine, the workman
either models it by his fingers, or forms it, by means of an
inftrument which he holds in his hand, into any kind of cir-
cular fhape that he may defire ; and when the objeft is to
make a number of veflels exaftly fimilar to each other, the
fize is generally determined by a gauge fixed without the
circumference of the revolving wheel, but projefting over
it in fuch a manner that, whenever the yielding clay is
fpread out until it touch this gauge, the artift knows that
the article which he is making has attained the exaft figure
which he intends.

The potter's wheel has lately been much improved by
adapting a flrap to it, which pafTes over a large taper cyhn-
der of wood, and by means of which the artilt is enabled
to increafe or diminilh the rapidity of the motion at plea-
fure. This contrivance is known to mechanics by the name
o( the cone pulley. Parkes's EfTays, vol. iii. See Pottery.

Wheels, Tires of, the iron hoops or bars which are put
round the outfides of the felly-parts of them.

Wheel, Water. See Water.

Wheel is alfo a name of a kind of punifhment, which
great criminals are put to in divers countries.

In France, their afTafTins, parricides, and robbers on the
highway, were condemned to the wheel ; i. e. had their bones
firil broken with an iron bar on a fcaffold, and then to be
expofed and left to expire on the circumference of a wheel.
In Germany, they broke their bones firft on the wheel itfelf.

This cruel punifhment was unknown to the ancients ; as
is obfervcd by Cujas. It is not certain who was the inventor.
Its firft introduftion was in Germany. It was, indeed, but
rarely praftifed any where elfe, till the time of Francis I.
of France ; who, by an edift of the year 1534, appointed

W H E

it to be infliaed on robbers on the highway. Richekt dales
the ed>a in the year 1538, and quotes Brodsus, Mifcell.
lib. 11. cap. 10.

Wheel, in the Military Art, is the word of command,
when a battalion or fquadron is to alter its front, either one
way, or the other.

To wheel to the right, the man in the right angle is to turn
very flowly, and every one to wheel from the left to the
right, regarding him as their centre ; and -vice verfd, when
they are to wheel to the left.

When a divifion of men are on the march, if the word
be, wheel to the right, or to the left ; then the right or left-
hand man keeps his ground, turning only on his heel, and the
reft of the rank move about quick, till they make an even
line with the faid right or left-hand man.

Squadrons of horfe wheel after much the fame manner.

In wheehng, the circle is conceived to be divided into
four parts ; whence wheeling to the right or left refpefts
only a quarter of a circle ; and wheeling to the right or left
about, refers ^to half of the circle. In performing this
motion, each man moves more quickly or flowly, accord-
ing to his diftance from the right to the left. See Bat-

TALION.

Wheel, or Catherine-Wheel, in ArchiteHure, frequently
occurs in the upper part of the north and fouth tran-
fepts of our ancient cathedrals, being divided by mul-
lions, like the fpokes of a wheel : it refembles the engine of
torture faid to have been prepared by the tyrant Maximin to
tear the flefh of St. Catherine of Alexandria. The French,
who have generally placed a large wheel of this fort by way
of a weft^ern window to their cathedrals, call it Rofe du
Portail. ■'

WiiEEL-Aiiimals, Brachionus, in Zoology, a genus of ani-
malcules, which have an apparatus of arms for taking their
prey. (See Brachionus. ) This apparatus has been fup-
pofed, by microfcopical writers, to be a kind of wheels.
This is one of the fmaller animalcules ; and is defcribed by
Dr. Hill to be, when at reft, of a plain fmooth body, conic
figure, obtufe at the pofterior extremity, and open at the
anterior, of a duflcy ohve colour, and femi-tranfparent.
When in motion it protrudes from the open extremity a
part of its naked body, to the whole of which this outer
conic body feems to be but a cafe or fheath ; from the end
of this exerted part of the body, it thrufts out two protu-
berances, which give it the appearance of a double head ;
and in each of thefe is difcovered an apparatus in continual
motion, appearing to be a rotatory one, though really a vi-
bratory one very quickly repeated. Each of thefe pro-
truded bodies has fix arms inferted into it, which it con-
tinually (huts and opens over one another. Each of the
arms is furni(hed with a double feries of fibres at its edge,
which, being expanded, caufe it to fpread to confiderable
breadth. There are feveral fpecies of this genus.

The wheel animal, defcribed by Mr. Baker, has two
feeming vvheels, with a great many teeth or notches com-
ing from its head, and turning round as it were on an axis.
On the leaft touch, this animalcule draws its wheel into its
body into the fheath ; but when every thing is quiet, throws
them out and works them again.

In order to find thefe animalcules, choofe fuch roots of
duck-weed as are long, and proceed from ftrong old plants,
for the young roots feldom afford any ; they fhould not be
covered with that rough matter which is frequently found
about them, nor any way tending to decay, as they will
often be.

In the water found remaining in the leaden pipes, or

gutters on the tops of houfes, there are alfo found great

3 A 2 numbers

W H E

numbers of thefe wheel-animals. Thefe are of a different
fpecies from the former ; and when the water dries away,
they contraft their bodies into a globular or oval figure, and
are then of a reddifh colour, and remain mixed with the dirt,
growing together in a lump as hard as clay. This, when-
ever it is put in water, in half an hour's time difcovers the
animals' living again, and as briflc as ever ; and they have
been found to be living in this manner, after the matter had
been kept dry twenty months.

It fhould feem from this, that as the water dries up, their
pores become (hut in the manner of thofe of fuch animals
as remain torpid for the winter ; and that when they find
water come on again from rain, they then unfold them-
felves, and live and feed as long as it lafts. Baker's Mi-
crofcope.

WHEEL-Baromeier. See Barometer.

WiiEEL-Boats denote a fort of boats with wheels, to be
ufed alternately on the water and upon inclined planes or
rail-ways.

WHEEL-Fire, among Chemtfls, a fire ufed for calcining
metallic fubftances ; properly called ignii rolx.

It is a fire which only encompaffes the crucible, coppel,
or melting-pot, around the fides, without touching it in
any part.

WiiEEL-ShapeJ, in Botany, a term exclufively appropriated
to the corolla. See Rotata.

WHEELER, among Brickmaiers. See Brick.

Wheeler, in Geography, a river of Wales, which runs
into the Clyde, 3 miles N. of Denbigh.

WHEELING, a poft-town of Virginia, at the union
of Wheehng Creek with the Ohio ; 54 miles S.W. of Pittf-
burgh. — Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in the county of Bel-
mont, with 656 inhabitants.

Wheeling Creek, a river of Virginia, which runs into
the Ohio, N. lat. 39° 56'. W. long. 80° 45'.

Wheeling Planks are ftout planks which the navi-
gators or workmen upon a canal make ufe of to wheel
upon.

WHEELOCK, in Geography, a townftiip of Vermont,
in the county of Caledonia, containing 963 inhabitants ; 60

miles N. of Windfor Alfo, a river of Chefhire, which

runs into the Dane.

WHEELWRIGHT Gut, a creek on the north-weft
coaft of the ifland of St. Chriftopher, with a bar before its
entrance.

WHEEZING and Blowing, in Animals, a fort of af-
feftion in the breathing, efpecially in horfes, in which they
draw their breath with difficulty and noife.

The generality of people make this and purfinefs, in
horfes, the fame diftemper ; but the more judicious al-
ways diilinguidi it, as wholly different from that. Pur-
finefs proceeds always from a fluffing or oppreffion of the
lungs ; but this wlieezing is only owing to the naiTOw-
nefs of the paffage between the bones and griftles of the
nofe.

The horfes that are moft of all afRided with this diftem-
per do not want wind ; for notwithftanding that they wheeze
exceffively when they are exercifed, yet all the time their
flanks are not moved, but kept in the fame condition that
they were when the creature ftood ftill. The dealers call
this fort of horfes blowers, and though there is no real
harm in the thing, it is a difagreeable quahty, and few
people will choofe them that have much fervice for them.

There are fome horfes which have a natural defeft in their
breathing, which makes it at all times attended with fome
difficulty, but not with the wheezing before mentioned ;
thefe are called thick-winded horfes.

W H E

People who are careful in the buying of horfes, will pur-
chafe neither of thefe kinds ; but there is this caution to
be obferved in regard to this defeft, that it often feems to
be in horfes where it really is not. When a horfe has been
kept a long time in the liable without exercife, he will at
the firft riding be out of breath, and fetch it in a difficult
and painful manner, though he be neither a blower nor
thick-winded ; but all this will go off with a little exercife.

There are fome temporary wheezers and blowers among
horfes : thefe at times rattle, and make a great noife through
their nofes in taking breath ; but the complaint goes off and
returns. This is only occafioned by a great quantity of
phlegm, for their flanks do not redouble with it at the
worft of times, nor have they any cough with it ; fo that
there is no danger of their being purfy.

It is probable, that in thefe cafes there is, for the moft
part, fome fort of fpafm or conftriftion in the chefts of
the animals, as they are much relieved in moft inftances by
the ufe of warm mafhes, and by having their fodder made
moift.

How far remedies that remove fpafm might be ufeful
has not yet been fully tried, either in thefe or other forts
of animals.

WHELDY-AHAD Lake, in Geography, a lake of
North America. N. lat. 61° 40'. W. long. 103° 30'.

WHELERA, in Botany, was fo named by Schreber,
in memory of the celebrated Englifh traveller and botanift,
fir George Wheler, Bart. F.R.S. who died in 1724, aged
74. His " Journey into Greece," however faulty in the
plates, is a book of the firft authority. — Schreb. Gen. 725.
— Clafs and order, Polygamia Alonacia, Schreb. ; rather
Pentandria Monogyn'ta. Nat. Ord. Sapotn, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, roundifh, ereft, permanent fegments, ftiorter than
the corolla. Cor. of one petal, bell-fhaped, fpreading, in
five deep, ovate, acute fegments. Neftary fomewhat pit-
cher-(haped, in the bottom of the flower. Stam. Fila-
ments five, awl-fhaped, rather longer than the corolla ; an-
thers roundifh. There are five other iilaments, alternate
with the former, and fimilar to them, but ftiorter, and
deftitute of anthers. Pijl. Germen fuperior, conical, vil-
lous ; ftyle thread-ftiaped, twice the length of the corolla ;
ftigma fimple. Perk. Drupa roundifti. Seed. Nut large,
ovate, of one, two, or three cells.

Some flowers, on the fame plant, want the piftil, others
the ftaraens.

This is Schreber's generic defcription, from which we
learn, without difficulty, the natural order of the plant.
But it is one of thofe genera, like his Villaria, (fee that
article,) which cannot be determined without an examination
of the author's herbarium. Such alfo are his Meyera, al-
ready defcribed ; his Wolfia, and Xystris, which will
occur hereafter. We truft fome botanift, who may have
the opportunity of clearing up thefe, the only important
obfcurities in Schreber's claffical work, will favour the
world with an explanation of them. Spartina is in the
fame predicament, except that profeffor Schrader appears to
be acquainted with it. See that article.

WHELKS, Bucc'ina, in Natural Hijlory. See Shells,
and Trumpet -W(?//.

WHELPS. See Hound.

Whelps, in a Ship. See Capstan.

WHENNUIA, in Geography, a fmall ifland among
thofe called the Society iflands, near Otaha.

WHERLICOTES, a fort of open chariots, of the an-
cient Britons' invention, ufed by perfons of quality before
the invention of coaches.

WHERN,

W H E

WHERN, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by fome of
our miners to a kind of flone found in ftrata, but of the
hardnefs and finenefs of flint. It is called alfo chert and
tucomia.

WHERRY. See Vessel, Boat, &c.
Wherry, in Rural Economy, a provincial term applied
to a liquor made from the pulp of crabs after the verjuice
is expreffed. It has not unfrequently the name of crab-
wherry. See Verjuice.

WHERWELL, in Geography, a village of England,
in the county of Hants. Here was formerly a convent of
nuns, founded by Elfrida, widow of king Edgar, to expiate
the murder of her firft huftand, Ethelwolf, and her fon-in-
law, prince Edward ; 4 miles S. of Andover.

WHET-SLATE, or Whetstone Slate, and Hone,
French novaculite, anAfchifle cotlcule, in Mineralogy, a variety
of flate ufed for fti2rpening iron and Heel inftruments. ( See
Slate. ) The hght green coloured variety from the Le-
vant is confidered as the moft valuable. It is brouglit in
mafles to Marfeilles, and is there cut into pieces of various
fizes, and afterwards ground with fand or fand-ftone, and then
pplifhed with pumice and tripoli. Thefe whet-ftones or hones
fhould be kept in damp places, for when much expofed
to the fun, they become too hard and dry for many pur-
pofes. The powder of whet-flati. is ufed for cutting and
poliihing metals, and is by artills confidered as a variety of
emery. It is neceffary to the perfeftion of hones, that they
(hould contain no intermixed fubllances, fuch as quartz, &c.
(Jamefon's Mineralogy, fecond edition, vol. i. ) Whet-ilate,
approaching in appearance to foreign hones, occurs in the
upper part of Long Sleddale, in Weilmoreland ; and at
Howth, in Dublin bay.

WHET-STONE, in Rural Economy, the foft ftone
ufually made ufe of in fharpening edge-tools of different
kinds.

WHEWER, in Ornithology, a name ufed in fome parts
of England for the common wigeon. See Duck.
WHEY, the ferum, or watery part of milk.
In many diforders of the human body, where the llomach
will not bear milk, or when it is not proper, for other rea-
fons, whey may be given with great fuccefs.

We have a diflertation of Fred. Hoffmann on this fubjeft,
De Saluberrima feri LaAis Virtute. Oper. torn. vi. p. 9.
This author recommends a particular kind of ferum or
whey, made by evaporating milk to a drynefs, and mixing
the refiduum with water. See Milk.

There are various methods of making whey, vulgarly
known. That with oranges is very agreeable, and much
recommended by Dr. Cheyne, in his Nat. Method of curing
Difeafes.

Whey, in Rural Economy, a term applied to the ferous
part of milk, from which the curd has been feparated.
There are two forts or colours of whey, the green and white ;
the latter is by much the richer, and that which chiefly af-
fords the butter of this kind. See Dairying.

Whey, Alum, Serum Ahmmojum, a whey made with
alum ; in the proportion of two drachms of alum to one
pint of cow's milk boiled.

This whey is beneficial in an immoderate flow lof the
menfes, and in a diabetes, or exceffive difcharge of urine.
The dofe is two, three, or four ounces, as the Itomach will
bear it, three times a day.

WHEY-5a//i?/-, that which is made from the cream of
whey. It is commonly made in abundance in the dairy dif-
trifts after cheefe-making begins. See Dairying.

WHEY-C«am, that which is coUefted from off the whey

W H I

and made into butter of this fort. A dairy covir ufually
affords eight or ten ounces of it weekly in fome dairies. See
Dairying.

Whey, Mujlard, is made by boiling of bruifed muftard-
feed, an ounce and a half, in milk and water, of each a pint,
till the curd is perfeftly feparated, and ftraining the whey
through a cloth. This, fays Dr. Buchan, is the raoft ele-
gant, and by no means the leaft efficacious method of ex-
hibiting muilard : it warms and invigorates the habit, and
promotes the different fecretions. Hence, in the low ftate
of nervous fevers, it will often fupply the place of wine : it
is alfo of ufe in the chronic rheumatifm, palfy, dropfy, &c.
The dofe is a tea-cupful four or five times a day, which
may be fweetened with a little fugar.

Whey, Scalding of, the heating of it and pouring it
over the curd in making cheefe.

Whey, Scorbutic, is made by boiling half a pint of the
fcorbutic juices, in a quart of cow's milk. The fcorbutic
plants are, bitter oranges, brook-hme, garden fcurvy-grafs,
and water-creffes.

Whey Springy Cheefe, the eyey fpongy cheefe of this
fort, caufed by being improperly made.

Whey-7";/^, the veffel in which the whey Hands for yield-
ing the cream, 5cc.

WHICHCOTE, Benjamin, in Biography, an eminent
divine of the Enghfh church, was born in March 1609-10,
of an ancient family at Whichcote-hall, in Shiopfhire ; and
having finifhed his education at Emanuel college, Cambridge,
in 1626, he paffed through the common degrees, and be-
came fellow of his college in 1633, and a diftinguifhed tu-
tor. In 1636 he took orders, and eftablifhed a lefture at
Trinity church, in Cambridge, and continued it for nearly
twenty years. It was his great objeft to fubflitute a fpirit
of fober and rational piety in the univerfity, inftead of the
enthufiafm and fanaticifm which then prevailed ; nor were
his efforts for this purpofe unavailing. Being married, and
having fettled on a living in Somerfetfhirc, his connexion
with the univerfity was for fome time interrupted ; but in
1644 he returned to it, as the fucceffor of Dr. Samuel Col-
lins, the ejefted provoft of King's, college, allowing to him
part of the emoluments that belonged to this office. In
1649 he took the degree of D.D., and was prefented
to the redlory of Milton, in Cambridgefliire. He is re-
prefented by bifhop Burnet as a friend to liberty of con-
fcience, and in order to promote rational and fublime ideas
of religion, he advifed tlie iludents to perufe the ancient
philofophers, efpecially Plato, Cicero, and Plotinus. At
the Reiloration he was deprived of his provoflfhip, and re-
moving to London, he was chofen minifter of St. Anne's,
Blackfriars, in 1662. Afterwards, when his church was
burnt down, he retired to Milton, but he was recalled to
London to the vicarage of St. Lawrence, Jewry, by pre-
fentation from the crown ; and he ferved this church with
great reputation till his death in 1683.

After his death, a volume of his " Seleft Sermons," 8vo.
1 698, was publifhed, with a preface by lord Shaftefbury, au-
thor of the " Charafteriftics," by whom they were valued,
becaufe the author recognized that fenfe of the beauty of
virtue which is the foundation of his moral fyilera. Two
more volumes were afterwards publifhed by Dr. Jeffery,
archdeacon of Norwich, who, in 1703, prefented to the
public " Moral and Religious Aphorifms coUefted from Dr.
Whichcote's MS. Papers." A fourth volume was pub-
lifhed by Dr. S. Clarke in 1707, and reprinted in 1753 by
Dr. Salter, with large additions, and eight letters between
the author and fome of his friends on important fubjefts.
1 1 Thefe

W H I

Thefe feveral publications affigned to Dr. WhicKcote a
tii<rh rank among the rational divines of this country, and
particularly at the period in which he lived. Biog. Brit.

WHICKS, in ylgrici/iture, a term fometimes applied to
young plants of the white-thorn kind, as well as to couch-
grafs. See Quicks and Couch.

WHIDAH, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, on the
Slave Coaft ; extending about ten miles along the coaft, and
about feven miles into the land. Europeans who have been
in Whidah fpeak of the country with rapture, and extol it
as one of the moft beautiful in the world. The trees are
ftraight, tall, and difpofed in the moft regular order, which
prefent to the eye fine long groves and avenues, clear of all
brufh-wood and weeds. The verdure of the meadows, the
richnefs of the fields, clothed with three different kinds of
corn, beans, roots, and fruits, and the multitude of houfes,
form a moft dehghtful profpeft. A perpetual fpring and
autumn fucceed each other ; for no fooner has the hufband-
man cut his corn, than he again ploughs and fows the
ground ; yet it is not worn out ; the next crop puts forth
with the fame vigour as the former, as if nature here were
inexhauftible. Certain it is, that the kingdom of Whidah
is fo populous, that one fingle village contains as many in-
habitants as feveral entire kingdoms on the coaft of Guinea ;
and yet they ftand fo clofe, that one is amazed how the
moft fertile land on earth can fupply tlie number of people
contained in fo fmall a compafs. One may compare the
whole kingdom to a great city, divided by gardens, lawns,
and groves, inftead of ftreets, the villages in Whidah not
being a mulltet-ftiot diftant from each other. vSome are the
king's, fome the viceroy's villages, and others are built and
peopled by particular private famihes. The former are the
largeft and beft built ; but the latter the beft cultivated, if
there be any difference in a country fo uniformly rich and
beautiful. Notwithftanding the fmall extent of this king-
dom, it is divided into twenty-fix provinces, which take
their names from the capital towns. Thofe fmall ftates are
diftributed among the chief lords of the kingdom, and be-
come hereditary in their families. The kingof Whidah, who
is only their chief, prefides particularly in the province of
Sabi, or Xabier, which is the principal province of the
kingdom, as the city of the fame name is the capital of the
whole. Bujis, which the French by corruption call bauges,
pafs frequently for money at their fairs in"the country : this
is a fmall white fhell, of the fize and fhape of an ohve. In
the kingdom of Whidah and Ardra, thefe bujis ferve equally
for drefs and money, for ornament and ufe. They pierce
each fhell with an iron made for that purpofe ; forty of them
they ftring upon a cord, which they call fcuze, and the
Portuguefe toquos : five of thefe ftrings compofe what the
Portuguefe call a gallinha, and the Negroes a fore. By
thefe the exchange of gold-duft is rated, and the price of
flaves determined. The Europeans, the nobility of Whidah,
and all the rich negroes, are carried, when they go abroad,
in hammocs, or palanquins, on the ftiouldersof flaves. The
natives of Whidah are in general tall, well made, ftraight,
and robuft. Their complexion is black, but not fo glofly
as that of the people on the Gold Coaft, and ftill lefs than
thofe of Senegal and the river Gambia. They excel all other
negroes in induftry and vigilance. Idlenefs is the favourite
vice of the Africans in general ; here, on the contrary, both
fexes are fo laborious and diligent, that they never delift till
they have finifhed their undertaking ; carrying the fame fpi-
rit of perfeverance into every attion of their life. Befides
agriculture, from which none but the king and a few per-
/ons of the firlt diftinSion are exempted, they employ

W H I

themfelves in feveral kinds of manufaftures : they fpin cotton-
yarn, weave fine cotton cloths, make calabaffes, wooden
vefTels, plates, and difhes ; hkewife affagayes, and fmiths'-
work in greater perfeftion than any other people on the
coaft. Whilft the men are thus employed, the women
brew plto, and drefs provifions, which, with their huf-
bands' merchandize, they carry for fale to market. As to
religion, Bofman is of opinion, that the piety of this country
is founded upon no other principles than thofe of intereft
and fuperftition. In the latter, they exceed all other nations ;
for allowing, fays he, the ancient heathens to value them-
felves upon thirty thoufand deities, I dare venture to afErm
that the natives of Whidah may lay juft claim to four times
that number. However, he believes that they have a faint
idea of the one true God, to whom they attribute omnipo-
tence and ubiquity. One of their principal fetiches, or
deities, is the fnake, which they invoke in extrene wet, dry,
or barren feafons, on all occafions relating to thei- rovern-
ment, civil policy, and cattle ; in a word, on all the great
difficulties and occurrences of life. This fnake has a largt
round head, beautiful piercing eyes, a fhort pointed tongue,
refembling a dart : its pace flow and folemn, except when
it feizes on its prey, then quick and rapid ; its tail fharp and
fhort, its fliin of an elegant fmoothnefs, adorned with beau-
tiful colours, upon a light-grey ground. It is amazingly
tame and familiar, permitting itfelf to be approached, and
even handled : they have a mortal antipathy to all venomous
ferpents : they attack them wherever they find them, as if
they had pleafure in delivering mankind from their poifon.
The Europeans find no difficulty in familiarizing themfelves
to thefe inoffenfive animals, with which they play without
any dread or apprehenfion of danger. There is no fear of
miftaking them for the poifonous ferpents, the colour and fize
fufficiently diftinguifhing them. The negroes entertain a
notion that the firft progenitor of this race of fnakes is ftill
living, and growing to an enormous bulk. When the
Englifh firft fettled in Whidah, the captain having unfhipped
his goods on fhore, the failors found at night one of thofe
fnakes in their magazine, which they ignorantly killed, and
threw upon the bank, without dreaming of any bad confe-
quences. Tlie negroes, who foon difcovered the facrilege,
and had it confirmed by the acknowledgment of the Eng-
lifh mariners, were not long in avenging the horrid impiety,
by a method no lefs horrible. All the inhabitants of the
province aflembled ; they attacked the Englifh, maffacred
them all to a man, and confumed their bodies and goods in
the fire they had fet to the warehoufe. Animals of all
kinds are punifhed with death for injuring a fnake. In 1697,
a hog having had the prefumption to deftroy one of thefe
deities, an order was iffued for a general flaughter of fwine
throughout the kingdom, and the deftruftion of the whole
race was hardly prevented by the interpofition of the
king.

Whidah, a town of Africa, in the country of Whidah.
N. lat. 6° 25'. E. long. 1° 24'.

WHIDBY's Island, an ifland in the Gulf of Georgia,
near the weft coaft of America ; about 36 miles long, and
from 2 to 6 broad : fo named from Mr. Whidby, an officer
under captain Vancouver. N. lat. 48° 10'. E. long. 237°
40'.

WHIDDY, an ifland in Bantry bay, in the county of
Cork, Ireland, about 2 miles from the town of Bantry. It
is a pleafant ifland of a triangular form, and the foil is ex-
cellent.

WHIFF, in Ichthyology, the name of a fort of flounder.

WHIFFLER of a Company, in London, a young free-
man.

W H 1

liiaii, who goes before, and waits on the company, on oc-
! cafions of public folemnities.

I WHIG, in Rural Economy, a term provincially applied
to acidulated whey, which is fometimes mixed with butter-
milk and fwcet herbs, to give it a flavour, when it becomes a
, good cooling fummer beverage.

WHIGS, a party or fadion in England, oppofite to
the Tories.

The origin of the names of thefe two mighty faftions is
very obfciire. If fome little trivial circumftance or adven-
ture, which efcapes the knowledge of mankind, gives name
to a party, which afterwards becomes famous, pollerity la-
bours in vain to find the original of fuch a name : it fearches
■ the fources, forms conjeftures, invents reafons, and fome-
times, indeed, meets the truth, but always without know-
ing it afTuredly.

Thus, in France, the Calvinifts are called Huguenots ;
yet nobody was ever able certainly to aflign the caufe of
that appellation.

Whig is a Scottiih, and, fome fay too, an Irifli word, lite-
rally fignifying luhey. Tory is another Irifh word, fignify-
ing a robber or highiuayman.

Under the reign of king Charles II., while his brother,
then duke of York, was obliged to retire into Scotland,
there were two parties formed in that country. That of the
duke was ftrongeft, perfecuted the other, and frequently re-
duced them to fly into the mountains and woods ; where
tliofe unhappy fugitives had often no other fubfiftence for a
long time but cows' milk. Hence they called thefe their
adverfaries lories, q. d. robbers ; and the tories, upbraiding
them with their unhappinefs, from the milk on which they
lived, called them tvhigs. From Scotland, the two names
came over with the duke into England.
I Others give a different origin and etymology of the two
;words, for which fee Tories.

' Bifhop Burnet gives another etymology of the term whigs.
'The fouth-weft counties of Scotland, he fays, are fupphed
with corn from Leith ; and from a word ivhiggam, ufed by
'the carriers in driving their horfes, all that drove were called
^luhlggamoors, and by contraftion ivhigs.
I He adds, that in the year 1648, after the news of the
!defeat of duke Hamilton, who was charged with being a
jconfederate with the malignants, or royal party, in Eng-
land, the minifters animated their people to rife, and march
to Edinburgh : who came up, marching each at the head of
'his parifli, with an unheard-of fury, praying and preaching
'all the way as they came. The marquis of Argyle and his
party came and headed them. This was called the luhlgga-
\moor's inroad ; and ever after, all that oppofed the court were
icontemptuoufly called -whigs : and from Scotland the term
'was brought into England. Burnet's Hift. of his Own
'Times, vol. i. p. 43.

; For the dilUnguilhing principles and charafters of the
whigs, fee Tories.

I WHIMBRAL. See Scolopax Guarauna, and Ph^«
[opus.

I WHIMSEY, Water, a machine confiding of a refervoir,
jor bucket of water, employed for raifing another bucket,
j filled with coals or other materials, by means of a rope or
[chain, coiled round a cylinder or drum, or two drums of
different iizes. When the bucket of water in this machine
I has reached the bottom of the pit or well, a valve is opened
:by ilriking againft a pin, and lets out the water. In a ma-
chine of this kind, ufed in the duke of Bridgewater's coal-
I works, the water defcends thirty yards, and raifes a fmaller
: quantity of coals from a depth of fixty. In fuch cafes, fup-
jpofing the aftion to be fingle, and the ftream of water to

VV H I

be unemployed during the defcent of the refervoir, a con-
fiderable preponderance may be advantageoufly employed in
givmg velocity to the weights, provided that the machinery
be not liable to injury from their impulfe.
WHIN, in Botany. See Gorse.

Whin, in Agriculture, a term fometimes apphed to furze •
which, when cut in the fap and bruifed in a proper way by
flails, or in other modes, makes an excellent green food in
winter for horfes, which eat and thrive on it well. It is
alfo ufeful in fome meafure to fheep-ftock, as well as to
bees. Its encroaches on land may be eafily and readily
prevented by proper means being taken for the purpofe.
See FuKZE.

Win.\, in Gardening. See Ulex.

WniN-v-y/Zi«, in Agriculture and Planting, the aflies pro-
duced in burning whins ; which have lately been found of
great benefit in planting young trees, as well as on land for
other purpofes, promoting their growth in a very high de-
gree. If the land to be planted be fuitable, they are ad-
vifed to be carefully fpread and ploughed in, if of quantity
fufficient, over the whole field, otherwife only on the wet or
colder fpots or parts of it. But if the ground be fuch that
it will not admit of ploughing, the alhes fliould be mixed up
with part of the bell furface mould, to keep them from
blowing abroad ; and in the procefs of pitting, a little of
this compoll fhould be intimately mixed with the mould of
each pit ; previoufly dillributing it in fmall heaps at con-
venient diltances for facihtating the operation : and this extra
trouble will be amply repaid by the progrefs the plants will
make in confequence.

Whin-^.vc, in Agriculture, an iniirument employed for ex-
tirpating whins from land in many cafes. It is an imple-
ment that has one end like a common axe, with four inches
of face ; and the other like an adze, alfo with four inches of
face ; whereby the perfon ufing it, continuing in the fame
pofition by fimply turning it in the hand, can make cuts at
right angles with one another, as circumfl;ances may require.
The head of the tool may be about eight inches in length,
weighing from three to four pounds ; and the handle, of afhj
about four feet long.

Whin, Petty, a name given to a fpecies of ononis, orreft-
harrow.

Whin, Petty, in Gardening. See Genista.

WHINCHAT, in Ornithology, the Englifli name of the
motacilla rubetra of Linnaeus.

It is of the common fize of the water-wagtail. Its head,
neck, and back, are of a reddifh-brown, with regular rows
of black fpots. Over each eye is a narrow white ftroke,
and beneath that a broad bed of black, extending from the
bill to the hind part of the head ; the breaft is of a reddifti-
yellow ; the belly paler ; the quill-feathers are brown,
edged with a yellowilh-brown ; the upper part of the wing
is marked with two white fpots ; the lower part of the tail
is white, the two middle feathers excepted, which are
wholly black ; the upper part of the other is of the fame
colour.

The colours are very uncertain in this bird, and it often
much refembles the ilone-chatter ; but may always, by an
accurate obferver, be dilUnguifhed from that bird by the
white fpots in its wings, by the whitenefs of the under part
of its tail, and the white lines on its head

The colours of the female are much lefs agreeable than
thofe of the male ; in lieu of the white and black marks
on the cheeks is one broad pale brown one ; and the white
on the wings is in much lefs quantity than that of the
male.

In the north of England, the whinchat is a bird of paf-

fage;

W H I

fage ; in the fouth he continues the whole year. Ray and
Pennant.

WHINE, a hunting term, ufed in refpea of the cry of
an otter.

WHINEBACH, in Geography, a town of Africa, on
the Gold Coaft. N. lat. 5° 30'. W. long, i" 30'.

WHIN-STONE, in Geology, the provincial name given,
in many parts of England and Scotland, to bafaltic rocks : it
is alfo applied by miners to defignate every kind of dark-
Coloured and hard unilratified rock, which refills the point of
the pick. Many geologifls in this country clafs all bafaltic
or trap rocks under the term whin-ftone. See Trap.

The fubftance which fills very large mineral veins is gene-
rally dark bafalt, or green-ftone ; hence thefe veins are moft
frequently called whin-dykes. Thefe veins being harder
than moil of the rocks which they interfedl, remain when
the furface on each fide of them is wafhed away, forming
enormous walls extending into the fea, or rifing above the
level of the country in various parts of their courfe, and may
often be traced for many leagues. They occur in the
counties of Northumberland and Durham, and on the coafts
of Scotland ; and when broken down, they form reefs of rock
or iflands. The Earn iflands, off the coaft of Northumber-
land, are parts of a bafaltic dyke. When whin-dykes crofs
rivers, they form ledges of rock conftituting fords ; or, if
very abrupt) they hold up the water on one fide and form
cafcades. The Cleveland bafalt, or whin-dyke, defcribed in
Mr. Bakewell's Introduftion to Geology, (fee Veins,
Mineral, ) has been traced from the coaft of Yorkfhire fe-
venty miles into the weftern part of Durham.

Under the article Mineral Vmss, we have obferved, that
when whin-dykes interfeft coal ftrata, they produce a change
in the fubftance of the coal, and alfo of the other ftrata, fimi-
lar to what might have been expefted from a ftream of
melted lava ; and we have recently obferved a fimilar effeft
produced on primitive rocks of gneifs,in the vicinity of Aber-
deen, by contaft with a powerful whin-dyke. The whin-
ftone is alfo changed near its contaft with the gneifs into a
reddifh horn-ftone. In other parts, it is a dark granular
bafalt or green-ftone. The gneifs has loft its charadlcriftic
ftrufture, and becomes porphyritic when near the whin-
dyke. Between whin-dykes and the rocks which they inter-
feft, there is fometimes a feam of foft argillaceous earth in-
terpofed, which is wafhed out when they are near the fea-
co^ft, leaving the whin-ftone like a wall placed between
two perpendicular precipices. Sometimes the internal part
of a whin-dyke will be compofed of foft iron-clay ; in other
inftances, tlie dyke will be compofed of folid blocks or prifms
of bafalt feparated by fimilar clay. In fome whin-dykes,
the fubftance which fills them appears a compadl and
folid mafs of whin-ftone, which, however, will divide into
four, five, or fix-fided prifms, arranged horizontally.

Thefe are perfeftly fimilar to the perpendicular bafaltic
columns in ftrufture, differing only in their pofition. There
is a dyke traverfing the bafaltic ftrata of the Giant's Caufe-
way, on the coaft of Antrim, in which this pecubarity of
ftrufture is remarkably difplayed. It interfefts beds of
columnar bafalt, in which the columns are arranged with
great regularity, and are perpendicular to the horizon ; but
the whole dyke is compofed of fmall prifms of bafalt placed
horizontally, or at right angles with the former. Some of
thefe prifms do not exceed an inch in diameter, others are
much larger : nthey are for the moft part extremely regular,
and are articulated or jointed.

It has been fuppofed with much probability, that the dif-
ferent arrangement of the columnar ftrufture in the beds
and in the dyke, is to be attributed to the different circum-

W H I

ftances under which they were folidified. If the beds have
once flowed as lava under the furface of the ocean, the ba-
falt would begin to cool and cryftallize from the upper and
lower furface. That this has probably been the cafe may
be inferred from thefe beds refting on ftrata that contain
marine organic remains, and which mull, therefore, have been
formed under the bed of the ocean.

The perpendicular dykes interfefting rocks already formed
would begin to cool from the fides with which they were in
contaft, and the procefs would proceed laterally.

In fome inftances, we find whin-dykes principally com-
pofed of globular maffes of ftone feparated by a large quan-
tity of foft clay, and the globular maffes are incrufted with
ochreous clay : probably the whole of the clay in fuch dykes
has been formed from the decompofition of the bafaltic
maffes by the aftion of water percolating them.

Whin-ftone dykes prefent fo many analogies with volcanic
rocks in their compofition, and the efFefts which they pro-
duce on the ftrata that they pafs through, that we are led
to refer their origin to the aftion of fubterranean fire crack-
ing the upper rocks and ftrata, and forcing the melted matter
into the rent. Under tlie article Volcano, we have ftated
many Inftances of vaft rents made in the earth, and filled by
eruptions of lava ; thefe rents fo filled with lava may be
confidered as whin-dykes of recent formation. This is fur-
ther confirmed by the obfervations of M. Cordier, ( fee Vol-
canic ProduHs, ) who has fhewn that the fubftance which
fills both are effentially the fame, being principally com-
pofed of felfpar and augite, with iron-fand and olivine.
Whin-ftone not only occupies the cavities of perpendicular
dykes ; but it appears to have been, in many inftances,
found laterally between the regular ftrata, producing An-
gular contortions and diflocations, and almoft always effeft-
ing a change in the fubftance of the rock with which it
comes in contaft. Sometimes it produces a change in the
form of the bed or ftratum which it has paifed through,
breaking it into diftinft mafles, or bending it in different
direftions, or enveloping large parts of it in the bafalt or
whin-ftone. Of this a remarkable inftance is defcribed in
the third volume of the Tranfaftions of the Geological So-
ciety, occurring on the north coaft of Ireland, in the county
of Antrim. (See Plate IV. J!g. i^.. Geology.) a a a reprefents
a bed of chalk Angularly bent, and completely enveloped in the
bafalt which forms a part of the bafaltic range extending
from the Giant's Cauieway.

The beds of chalk and the other ftrata on this coaft are
frequently interfefted by whin-dykes, and a moft remark-
able change is obferved in the ftrufture of the chalk in the
vicinity of thefe dykes. In immediate contaft with the
whin-ftone, and to a confiderable diftance on each fide, the
chalk is converted into marble, having the granular texture
of primitive lime-ftone, or what the French call calcaire fac-
caroide, from its refemblance to the grain of loaf-fugar, ( fee
Plate IV . Jig. 5. Geology,) which reprefents two adjoining
whin-dykes ab, interfefting the chalk c <: c ; the dyke a is
thirty feet in width, the dyke b twenty feet, and the inter-
vening mafs of chalk twenty feet. The mafs of chalk be-
tween the two large dykes is interfefted in a zigzag direc-
tion by a fmaller dyke. To a certain diftance from the
whin-ftone, the chalk is perfeftly cryftalline, but it gradu-
ally approaches to the charafter of the chalk at a greater
diftance from the dyke. In various parts of the world we
obferve trap or whin-ftone occurring in apparently regular
beds, either covering ftratified rocks, or interpofed between
them ; fuch have been called by the Wernerian geologifts
floetz trap-rocks, and their occurrence in this pofition has
been urged as an argument for the aqueous formation of

fuch

W H 1

fuch rocks. But it is well known to praftical miners, that
thefebeds are much more variable in their thicknefs than the
regular ftrata, fometimes meafuring twenty, thirty, or forty
feet or more ; and in other parts, the fame bed will diminifh to
a few feet, or entirely terminate. In the ifle of Skye, ac-
cording to the defcriptionof Dr. MaccuUock, in the third and
fourth volumes of the Tranfaftions of the Geological So-
ciety, the whin-ftone is fpread over the regular (tratain beds,
or forms detached conical caps. It is alio to be feen inter-
pofed between the ftrata, and may be traced for more than
a mile in continuous regular beds ; but, fays Dr. MaccuUock,
" there are no inftances but where the alternating beds of
trap detach veins or dykes from the lower to the upper beds ;
or the trap, quitting the interval between two given beds of
!ime-ftone or fand-flone, makes its way acrofs the one im-
mediately above or belovir, and then proceeds with a regu-
larity as great between fome other pair of proximate ftra-
ta." And he adds, " I have no doubt, could fuch ex-
tenfive expofure of the ftrata be oftener procured, all the
inftances of fuppofed alternating trap with regular ftratified
rocks would prove fimilar to the above." Thefe obferva-
tions, which might be confirmed by numerous other in-
ftances, tend to prove, that whin-dykes, and many of the
interpofed ftrata of whin-ftone, are of poilerior formation
to the rocks in which they occur, and have been forced be-
tween the ftrata in a fluid ftate, and fubfequently confoli-
dated. The whin-dykes, or perpendicular veins, are the
channels through which the bafalt flowed up ; but by fuper-
incumbent preflure, it has been driven laterally at different
elevations. As beds of whin-ftone occur in different rocks,
it is probable, and almoft certain, that they have had differ-
ent epochs of formation ; and of courfe fome of the beds of
whin-ftone, which are covered by ftratified rocks contaiiiing
many organic remains, may have flowed as beds of lava
under the ocean, and have been again covered with other
ftrata, on which again aiecond torrent of lava burfting from
below may have flown and formed an upper bed. It is well
known that the beds of toad-ftone in Derby fliire, which are
interpofed between the mountain lime-ftone of that dif-
triti, cut off the metallic veins ; but they are found again on
finking through the toad-ftone into the lower lime-ftone.
This ftone, which varies from a hard, compaft whin-ftone
or trap, to a foft amygdaloidal wacke, (fee 'ToAD-Stone and
Wacre, ) is fuppofed, by Mr. Whitehurii, to have flowed
between the beds of lime-ftone after the formation of me-
talHc veins ; and, could we admit the hypothefis, it would
fatisfaftorily explain the caufe of their difappearance in the
toad-ftone. But though there are many inftances of the
vein entirely difappcaring in the latter rock, there are
others in which a narrow vein paffes through the toad-ftone,
though it is never produftive of ore, being fijled with calca-
reous fpar, and a few particles only of gaUne. The occur-
rence of thefe veins in the toad-ftone proves that this rock
was not found between the lime-ftone after the formation of
metallic veins. Some fofter whin-ftone rocks, of the fpecies
called by mineralogifts wacke, (fee Wacke,) contain cavi-
ties lined, or partly filled with zeolites, agates, or calcareous
fpar ; and fome of thefe rocks envelope marine organic re-
mains, particularly a rock of this kind near Berkley in
Gloucefterftiire. The Euganean mountains are compofed of
a fimilar rock, and alfo contain marine remains. Thefe
rocks have probably been formed by muddy eruptions of
fubmarine volcanoes, fimilar to what take place from fome
of the American volcanoes at tlie prefent time ; and it is not
improbable but that thefe two modes of formation may have
given rife to that diverfity which we obferve in rocks of this
clafs, the fofter and more earthy being the produfts of
Vol. XXXVIll.

W H I

aqueous and muddy eruptions, and the harder and more
cryftalline the produfts of igneous fufion. See Trap, and
Volcanic ProduBs.

WHIP, or Whip-Staff, in a Ship, a piece of timber in
form of a ftrong ftaff', faftened into the helm, for the fteerf-
man, in fmall fliips, to hold in his hand ; thereby to move
the rudder, and direft the ftiip.

Whip denotes alfo a fort of fmall tackle, formed by the
communication of a rope either with a fingle immoveable
block, or with two blocks, one of which is fixed, and the
other moveable. It is generally ufed to hoift light bodies,
as empty cafks. Sec. out of a ftiip's hold, which is accord-
ingly called whipping them up. Falconer.

To ivhip is to tie a piece of pack-thread, fpunyarn, &c.
about the end of a rope, to prevent it from being untwifted
and unloofened.

Whip, in Rurd Economy, the lafli attached to flexible
rods or other fubftances and contrivances, for the purpofe of
driving teams.

Waip-Grafiing, in Gardening, a particular mode of per-
forming the operation. A fort of root-whip-grafling is ad-
vifed by Agricola, in which a graft or fcion is taken from a
young tree, and a fmall piece of the root of another tree of
the fame kind, or like it ; or otherwife, pieces of roots cut
off' from other trees in tranfplanting : thefe are whip-grafted
together, taking care that the two but ends of the graft
and root be united, and that the riiid of the root join that of
the graft ; then plant the root with the part of the fcion
under-ground. See Grafting, and Stocks, Apph-grafi'mg
in,

V7-Riv-Poor-Will. See Caprimulgus Virginianus.

Wmp-Rein, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify a rein
formed of cord or leather, by which a plough or other fort
of team is direfted in working. See Rein

WaiP-Rein-Plough, a term applied to a fmall plough,
drawn by two horfes, or oxen, which are guided and di-
refted by proper reins of this fort, and fo made as to ferve
the ploughman in the way of a whip, in driving them while
he holds the plough.

Wmr'Sa-w. See Whip-SAyr.

WHIPL ADE, in Hujhandry, a term ufed by the farmers
in fome places for a particular fort of cart, whofe hinder
part is made up of boards after the manner of a dung-cart,
having alfo a head of boards, and fliambles over the thills ;
this head being fo as either to be taken out or left in. The
cart may be indifferently ufed to carry dung or other
things ; dung when the head is in, and corn, &c. when it is
taken out.

WHIPPANY, in Geography, a town of New Jerfey ;
20 miles W.N.W. of New York.
. WHIPPER. See Fishing.

WHIPPING, a term ufed by Anglers, when they faften
a line to the hook or rod.

The word is alfo taken for the cafting in of the hook, and
drawing it gently on the water.

Whipping, in Law, denotes an ignominious punifliment
infiifted on perfons guilty of petty larceny, &c.

Whipping Wheat, in Agriculture, a term applied to the
praftice in fome of the northern diftrifts, by which the
wheat-crops are laftied or whipped out on a wooden or wat-
tled frame-work contrived for the purpofe. The former is
conftrufted by nailing two or more thick boards in a flanting
manner, to the height of about two and a half, or three
feet, on a fort of frame of fuitable ftrength, fupported by
legs, having the upper part a little rounded, and made fmooth.
This, which is termed the whipping or lafliing frame, is
3 B placed

AV H I

placed ill fomc convenient fituation, fo as to prevent the
Train from Hying about during the operation, which 19 then
begun. Wliere the latter contrivance is made ufe of, the
frame is woven with ftrong (licks, in the manner of a hurdle,
being placed in the fame fituation when ufed.

The procefs is performed by taking large haudfuls of the
com in the ftraw by the butt end, and ftriking the top or
ear-ends over the upper part of the frame, fo as to force
out the grain from the ears of the top part, without break-
ing the ftraw, which in this way becomes much better for
thatch, and at the fame time the grain is lefs injured than
by the flail method of threfhing it out. The butt parts of
the ftraw are fometimes afterwards thralhed over, in order
to get out any wheat that may have been left in the Ihort
ears. This is an excellent mode of providing feed-wheat, as
the fincft grain is chiefly procured.

And it is fuggefted, too, as a particularly good method in
cafes where wheat is infedted with the fmut, as during the
operation of threfhing, the flail breaks the fmut-balls, and
reduces them to a powdery ilate, which caufes the good
wheat to have a blacker appearance than would otherwife be
the cafe when ground. It may likewife be ufed to advan-
tage with other forts of grain in fome cafes.

The above is alfo a term fometimes applied in the northern
diftrifts, to the praftice of ftriking it over a ilone or other
fuch contrivance, in order to get out the grain, and leave the
ftraw in an unbroken ftatc. In this way it is fometimes
termed lafhing. It is an excellent praftice in getting out
this fort of grain in many points of view, when on a fmall
fcale, but it is not well fuited to large concerns. See
Threshing.

^VHIPPLE-TRF.^, a term ufed to fignify the bar or
wooden part of the contrivance by which a horfe or team is
attached to a plough, harrow, or any other fort of imple-
ment of thefe kinds. They are of different fizes and forms,
according to the nature of the teams and other circumftances.
See SwiNGLE-T/Y/", Indented.

WHIPSTITCH, a term not unfrequently ufed in
ploughing to fignify a fort of half-ploughing, or what in
many places is termed raftering. It is principally made ufe
of for keeping the land more dry and healthy in the winter
feafon. See Raftering.

WHIPSTITCHING, the pradice of working tillage-
land in fomewhat the raftering manner. It is a method often
employed for turning up llubbles of the wheat and other
kinds in the winter time, inftead of making a fallow. The
beft mode of doing it in this intention is firft to make what
is called a whipltitch, rafter, or fort of half-ploughing of
the land ; and that when come back again to the fame
furrow, to turn them both over ; the top parts of both fur-
rows being thus turned in the middle, which leaves the fpace
of four inches betwixt each furrow : then ploughing the
land acrofs the old furrows. If land lies ever fo wet in win-
ter, by ploughing in this manner, it may be kept dry and in
a healthy ftate. It is neceflary, too, to ftrike up the old fur-
rows every day before leaving the ground ; and to let the
main drains be kept well open to receive the water from the
furrows in the land : by this means, the froft will be ad-
mitted four inches deeper than in the cafe of a flat fallow-
work.

This mode of tillage is that which is fometimes called
double whipft.itching in fome diftrifts and places.

Some prefer it before all other methods for winter-tillage,
as it brings the land into much better condition for cultiva-
tion than twice fallowing.

WHIPT Syllabub. See Syllabub.
WHIRL-POOL, an eddy, vortex, or gulf, where the

W H I

water is continually turning round. See Gulph, Eddy,
Vortex, &c.

Thefe in rivers are very common, from various accident?,
and are ufually very trivial, and of little confequence. In
the fea they are more rare, but more dangerous. Sibbald
has related the effefts of a remarkable marine whirlpool
among the Orcades, which would prove very dangerous to
ftrangers, though it is of no confequence to the people who
are ufed to it. This is not fixed to any particular place,
but appears in various parts of the limits of the fea among
thofe iflands. Wherever it appears, it is very furious, and
boats, &c. would inevitably be drawn in and perifh with
it ; but the people who navigate them are prepared for it,
and always carry an empty veflTel, a log of wood, or large
bundle of ftraw, or fome fuch thing, in the boat with them ;
as foon as they perceive the whirlpool, they tofs this within
its vortex, keeping themfelves out ; this fubftance, whatever
it be, is immediately received in the centre, and carried under
water ; and as foon as this is done, the furface of the place
where the whirl-pool was becomes fmooth, and they row
over it with fafety ; and in about an hour they fee the vortex
begin again in fome other place, ufually at about a mile
diftant from the firft. Sibbald's Prodr. Hift. Scotl.

WHIRLIGIG, in Military Antiquities, an inftrument of
punifliment formerly much ufed for trifling offences, com-
mitted by petit futlers, Jews, brawling women, and fuch
perfons. This was a kind of circular wooden cage, which
turned on a pivot ; and when fet in motion, whirled round
with fuch an amazing velocity, that the dehnquent became
extremely fick, and commonly made difcharges through
every operation of the body.

WHIRLING-Table, a machine contrived for exhibit-
ing and demonftrating the principal laws of gravitation, and
of the planetary motions in curvilinear orbits. A A (Plate
XXI. _yf^. 13. AJlrnnomy) is a ftrong frame of wood, B a
winch fixed on the axis C of the wheel D, round which
is the catgut-ftring F, which alfo goes round the fmall
wheels G and K, crofling between them and the great wheel
D. On the upper end of the axis of the wheel G, above
the frame, is fixed the round board d, to which may be
occaConally fixed the bearer M S X. On the axis of the
wheel H is fixed the bearer N T Z, and when the winch B
is turned, the wheels and bearers are put into a whirling
motion. Each bearer has two wires, W X and Y Z, fixed
and fcrewed tight into them at the ends by nuts on the out-
fide ; and when' the nuts are unfcrewed, the wires maybe
drawn out in order to change the balls U, V, which Hide
upon the wires by means of brafs loops fixed into the balls,
and preventing their touching the wood below them.
Through each ball there pafles a filk line, which is fixed to
it at any length from the centre of the bearer to its end by
a nut-fcrew at the top of the ball ; the ftiank of the fcrew
going into the centre of the ball, and prefling the line againft
the under fide of the hole which it goes through. The line
goes from the ball, and under a fmall pulley fixed in the
middle of the bearer ; then up through a focket in the round
plate (S and T) in the middle of each bearer; then
through a flit in the middle of a fquare top (O and P) of
each tower, and going over a fmall pulley on the top comes
down again the fame way, and is at laft faftened to the
upper end of the focket fixed in the middle of the round
plate above-mentioned. Each of thefe plates, S and T, has
four round holes near their edges, by which they Aide up
and down upon the wires which make the corner of each
tower. The balls and plates being thus connedled, each
by its particular line, it is plain that if the balls be drawn
outward, or towards the ends M and N of their refpeftive

bearers,

WHIRLING-TABLE.

bearers, the round plates S and T will be drawn up to the
top of their refpeftire towers O and P.

There are feveral brafs weights, fome of two, fome of
three, and others of four ounces, to be occafionally put
within the towers O and P, upon the round plates S and T ;
each weight having a round hole in the middle of it, for
going upon the fockets or axes of the plates, and being flit
from the edge to the hole, that it may flip over the line
which comes from each ball to its refpeftive plate.

For a fpecimen of the experiments which may be made
with this machine, we fliall fubjoin the following.

1. Removing the bearer M X, put the loop of the line b,
to which the ivory ball a is faftened, over a pin in the centre
of the board d, and turn the winch B ; and the ball will
not immediately begin to move with the board, but, on ac-
count of its inaftivity, endeavour to remain in its ftate of
reft. But when the ball has acquired the fame velocity
with the board, it will remain upon the fame part of the
board, having no relative motion upon it. However, if the
board be fuddenly ftopped, the ball will continue to revolve
upon it, until the friftion thereof ftops its motion ; fo that
matter refills every change of ftate, from that of reft to that
of motion, and "vice •vcrjd.

2. Put a longer cord to this ball ; let it down through
the hollow axis of the bearer M X and wheel G, and fix a
weight to the end of the cord below the machine ; and this
weight, if left at liberty, will draw the ball from the edge
of the whirling-board to its centre. Draw off' the ball a
little from its centre, and turn the winch ; then the ball will
go round and round with the board, and gradually fly far-
ther from the centre, raifing up the weight below the ma-
chine ; and thus it appears that all bodies revolving in circles,
have a tendency to fly off^ from thefe circles, and muft be
retained in them by fome power proceeding from or tending
to the centre of motion. Stop the machine, and the ball
will continue to revolve for fome time upon the board ; but
as the friftion gradually ftops its motion, the weight afting
upon it will bring it nearer and nearer to the centre in
every revolution, till it brings it quite thither. Hence
it appears, that if the planets met with any refiftance in
going round the fun, its attraftive power would bring them
nearer and nearer to it in every revolution, till they fell
into it.

3. Take hold of the cord below the machine with one hand,
and with the other throw the ball upon the round board as
it were at right angles to the cord, and it will revolve upon
the board. Then, obferving the velocity of its motion,
pull the cord below the machine, and thus bring the ball
nearer the centre of the board, and the ball will be feen to
revolve with an increafing velocity, as it approaches the
centre : and thus the planets which are neareft the fun per-
form quicker revolutions than tb'jfe which are more remote,
and move with greater velocity in every part of their re-
fpeftive circles.

4. Remove the ball a, and apply the bearer M X, whofe
centre of motion is in its middle at iv, direftly over the
centre of the whirling-board d. Then put two balls (V and
U) of equal weights upon their bearing wires, and having
fixed them at equal diftances from their lefpeftive centres
of motion txi and x upon their filk cords, by the fcrew-nuts,
put equal weights in the towers O and P. Laftly, put the
catgut-ftrings E and F upon the grooves G and H of the
fmall wheels, which, being of equal diameters, will give
equal velocities to the bearers above, when the winch B is
turned ; and the balls U and V will fly off toward M and
N, and raife the weights in the towers at the fame inftant.
This fhews, that when bodies of equal quantities of matter

revolve in equal circles with equal velocities, their centrifu-
gal forces are equal.

5. Take away thefe equal balls, and put a ball of fix
ounces into the bearer M X, at a fixth part of the diftance
w 2 from the centre, and put a ball of one ounce into the
oppofite bearer, at the whole diftance xy ■= w^; and fix
the balls at thefe diftances on their cords, by the fcrew-nuts
at the top : then the ball U, which is fix times as heavy as
the ball V, will be at only a fixtKp;it of the diftance from
its centre of motion ; and confequently will revolve in a
circle of only a fixth part of the circumference of the circle
in which V revolves. Let equal weights be put into the
towers, and the winch be turned; which (as tie catgut-
ftring is on equal wheels below) will caufe the balls to re-
volve in equal times : but V will move fix times as faft as
U, becaufe it revolves in a circle of fix tim-^s its radius, and
both the weights in the towers will rife r>t unce. Hence it
appears, that the centrifugal forces of revolving bodies are
in direft proportion to their quantities of matter multiplied
into their refpeftive velocities, or into their diftances from
the centres of their refpeftive circles.

If thefe two balls be fixed at equal diftances frorn their
refpeftive centres of motion, they will move with equal
velocities; and if the tower O has fix times as much weight
put into it as the tower P has, the balls will raife their
weights exaftly at the fame moment : /, e. the ball U,
being fix times as heavy as the ball V, has fix times as much
centrifugal force in defcribing an equal circle with an equal
velocity.

6. Let two balls, U and V, of equal weights be fixed on
their cords at equal diftances from their refpeftive centres
of motion lu and x ; and let the catgut-firing E be put
round the wheel K (whofe circumference is only half that
of the wheel H or G) and over the pulley j to keep it
tight, and let four times as much weight be put into the
tower P, as in the tower O. Then turn the winch B, and
the ball V will revolve twice as faft as the ball U in a circle
of the fame diameter, becaufe they are equi-diftant from the
centres of the circles in which they revolve ; and the weights
in the towers will both rife at the fame inftant, which fliews
that a double velocity in the fame circle will exaftly balance
a quadruple power of attraftion in the centre of the circle :
for the weights in the towers may be confidered as the
attraftive forces in the centres, afting upon the revolving
balls ; which, moving in equal circles, are as if they both
moved in the fame circle. Whence it appears, that if
bodies of equal weights revolve in equal circles with unequal
velocities, their centrifugal forces are as the fquares of the
velocities.

7. The catgut-ftring remaining as before, let the diftance
of the ball V from the centre x be equal to 2 of the divi-
fions on its bearer ; and the diftance of the ball U from the
centre w be 3 and a fixth part ; the balls themfelves being
equally heavy, and V making two revolutions by turning
the winch, whilft U makes one ; fo that if we fuppofe the
ball V to revolve in one moment, the ball U will revolve in
two moments, the fquares of which are i and 4 : therefore,
the fquare of the period of V is contained 4 times in the
fquare of the period of U. But the diftance of V is 2, the
cube of which is 8, and the diftance of U is 3c', the cube
of which is 32 very nearly, in which 8 is contained 4 times :
and therefore the fquares of the periods of V and U are to
one another as the cubes of their diftances from x and lu, the
centres of their refpeftive circles. And if the weight in
the tower O be 4 ounces, equal to the fquare of 2, the
diftance of V from the centre x ; and the weight in the
tower P be 10 ounces, nearly equal to the fquare of 3,;, the

3 B 2 diftance

WHIRLING-TABLE.

(liftance of U from tu ; it will be found, upon turning the
machine by the winch, that the balls U and V will raife
their refpeftive weights at very nearly the fame inftant of
time. This experiment confirms the famous propofition of
Kepler, viz. that the fquares of the periodical times of the
planets round the fun are in proportion as the cubes of
their diftances from him; and that the fun's attratlion is in-
verfely as the fquare of the dillancc from liis centre.

8. Take off the firing E from the wheels D and^H, and
let the firing F remain upon the wheels D and G ; take
away alfo the bearer M X from the whirling-board </, and
inflead of it put on the machine A B ( Piute XXI. Jig. 14.
^Jronomy\ fixing it to the centre of the board by the
pins c and d, fo that the end ef may rife above the board
to an angle of 30 or 40 degrees. On the upper part of
this machine, there are two glafs tubes a and 3, clofe flopped
at both ends ; each tube being about three-quarters full of
water. In the tube a is a little quickfilver, which naturaUy
falls down to the end a in the water ; and in the tube ^ is a
fraall cork, floating on the top of the water, and fmall
enough to rife or fall in the tube. While the board b with
this machine upon it continues at refl, the quickfilver lies at
the bottom of the tube a, and the cork floats on the water
near the top of the tube b. But, upon turning the winch
and moving the machine, the contents of each tube will fly
off towards the uppermoft ends, which are farthefl from the
centre of motion : the heaviefl with the greatefl force.
Confequently, the quickfilver in the tube a will fly off quite
to the end/, occupying its bulk of fpace and excluding the
water, which is lighter than itfelf : but the water in the
tube b, flying off to its higher end e, will exclude the cork
from that place, and caufe it to defcend toward the lowefl
end of the tube ; for the heavier body, having the greater
centrifugal force, will pofTefs the upper part of the tube,
and the lighter body will keep between the heavier and the
lower part.

This experiment demonfirates the abfurdity of the Car-
tefian doftrine of vortices : for, if the planet be more denfe
or heavy than its bulk of the vortex, it will fly off in it far-
ther and farther from the fun ; if lefs denfe, it will come
down to the loweft part of the vortex, at the fun : and the
whole vortex itfelf, unlefs prevented by fome obllacle,
would fly quite off, together with the planets.

9. If a body be fo placed upon the whirling-board of the
machine {Jig. 13.) that the centre of gravity of the body
be direftly over the centre of the board, and the board be
moved ever fo rapidly by the winch B, the body will turn
round with the board, without moving from its middle ; for,
as all parts of the body are in equilibrio round its centre of
gravity, and the centre of gravity is at refl in the centre of
motion, the centrifugal force of all parts of the body will be
equal at equal diftances from its centre of motion, and there-
fore the body will remain in its place. But if the centre of
gravity be placed ever fo little out of the centre of motion,
and the machine be turned Iwiftly round, the body will fly
off towards that fide of the board on which its centre of
gravity lies. Then, if the wire C {Jig. 15.) with its little
ball B be taken away from the femi-globe A, and the flat
fide efof the femi-globe be laid upon the whirhng-board,
fo that their centres may coincide ; if then the board be
turned ever fo quickly by the winch, the femi-globe will
remain where it was placed : but if the wire C be fcrewed
into the femi-globe at d, the whole becomes one body, whofe
centre of gravity is at or near d. Fix the pin c in the centre
of the whirling-board, and let the deep groove i cut in the
flat fide of the femi-globe be put upon the pin, fo that the
pin may be in the centre of A (fee _/^. 16. where the

groove is reprefented at b), and let the board be turned by
the winch, which will carry the little ball B [Jg. 15.) with
its wire C, and the femi-globe A, round the centre pin c i ;
and then, the centrifugal force of the little ball B, weighing
one ounce, will be fo great as to draw off the femi-globe
A, weighing two pounds, until the end of the groove at e
ftrikes againfl the pin c, and fo prevents A from going any
farther : otherwife, the centrifugal force of B would have
been great enough to have carried A quite off the whirling-
board. Hence we fee, that if the fun were placed in the
centre of the orbits of the planets, it could not pofllbly re-
main there ; for the centrifugal forces of the planets would
carry them quite off, and the fun with them ; efpecially
when feveral of them happened to be in one quarter of the
heavens. For the fun and planets are as much connefted
by the mutual attraftion fiibfifting between them, as the
bodies A and B are by the wire C fixed into them both.
And even if there were but one planet in the whole heavens
to go round ever fo large a fun in the centre of its orbit, its
centrifugal force would foon carry off both itfelf and the
fun : for the greateft body placed in any part of free fpace
could be eafily moved ; becaufe, if there were no other
body to attraft it, it would have no weight or gravity of
itfelf, and confequently, though it could have no tendency
of itfelf to remove from that part of fpace, yet it might be j
very eafily moved by any other fubflance. I

10. As the centrifugal force of the light body B will not
allow the heavy body A to remain in the centre of motion,
even though it be twenty-four times as heavy as B ; let the
ball A {Jig. 17.) weighing fix ounces be connefttd by the
wire C with the ball B, weighing one ounce ; and let the
fork E be fixed into the centre of the whirling-board; then,
hang the balls upon the fork by the wire C in fuch a man-
ner, that they may exaftly balance each other, which will
be when the centre of gravity between them, in the wire at
d, is fupported by the fork. And this centre of gravity is
as much nearer to the centre of the ball A than to the
centre of B, as A is heavier than B ; allowing for the
weight of the wire on each fide of the fork. Then, let the
machine be moved, and the balls A and B will go round
their common centre of gravity d, keeping their balance,
becaufe either will not allow the other to fly off with it.
For, fuppofing the ball B to be only one ounce in weight,
and the ball A to be fix ounces ; then, if the wire C were
equally heavy on each fide of the fork, the centre of gravity
d would be fix times as far from the centre of B, as from
the centre of A, and confequently B will revolve with a
velocity fix times as great as A does ; which will give B
fix times as much centrifugal force as any fingle ounce of
A has : but then, as B is only one ounce, and A fix ounces,
the whole centrifugal force of A will exaftly balance that
of B ; and therefore each body will detain the other, fb as
to make it keep in its circle.

Hence it appears, that the fun and planets muft all move
round the common centre of gravity of the whole fyfteai,
in order to preferve that jufl balance which takes place
among them.

1 1 . Take away the forks and balls from the whirling-
board, and place the trough A B {Jig. 18.) thereon, fix-
ing its centre to that of the board by the pin H. In this
trough are two balls D and E of unequal weights, con-
nefted by a wire f, and made to Aide eafily upon the wire
C ftretched from end to end of the trough, and made fall
by nut-fcrews on the outfide of the ends. Place thefe balls
on the wire C, fo that their common centre of gravity g may
be direftly over the centre of the whirhng-board. Then,
turn the machine by the winch ever fo fwiftly, and the

trough

W H I

irough and balls will go round their centre of gravity, fo as
neither of them will fly off; becaufe, on account of the equili-
brium, each ball detains the other with an equal force ailing
againft it. But if the ball E be drawn a little more towards
the end of the trough at A, it will remove the centre of
gravity towards that end from the centre of motion ; and
then, upon turning the machine, the little ball E will fly off",
and ftrike with a confiderable force againft the end A, and
draw the great ball B into the middle of the trough. Or,
if the great bail D be drawn towards the end B of the
trough, fo that the centre of gravity may be a little towards
that end from the centre of motion, and the machine be
turned by the winch, the great ball D will fly off, and
ftrike violently againft the end B of the trough, and will
bring the little ball E into the middle of it. If the
trough be not made very ftrong, the ball D will break
through it.

12. Mr. Fergufon has explained the reafon why the tides
rife at the fame time on oppofite fides of the earth, and con-
fequently in oppofite direftions, by the following new expe-
riment on the whirling-table. For this purpofe, let a i c d
i.fis- "9' ) rcprefent the earth, with its fide c turned toward
the moon, which will then attraft the water fo as to raife
them from c to g : and in order to fhew that they will rife
as high at the fame time on the oppofite fide from a to e ;
let a plate A B [Jig. 20. ) be fixed upon one end of the
flat bar DC, with fuch a circle drawn upon it as a 3 c </
(Jig- 19.) to reprefent the round figure of the earth and
fea ; and an ellipfe as efg h to reprefent the fwelling of
the tide at e and g, occafioned by the influence of the moon.
Over this plate AB fufpend the three ivory balls f,y, ^,
by the filk lines h, i, i, faftened to the tops of the crooked
■wires H, I, K, fo that the ball at e may hang freely over
the fide of the circle c, which is fartheft from the moon M
at the other end of the bar ; the ball at_/"over the centre, and
the ball at g over the fide of the circle g, which is neareft
the moon. The bally may reprefqnt the centre of the earth,
the ball g water on the fide next the moon, and the ball e
water on the oppofite fide. On the back of the moon M
is fixed a fliort bar N parallel to the horizon, and there
are three holes in it above the little weights p, q, r. A
filk thread 0 is tied to the line i, clofe above the ball g,
and pafTing by one fide of the moon M goes through a
hole in the bar N, and has the weight p hung to it. Such
another thread n is tied to the line i, clofe above the bally,
and pafiing through the centre of the moon M and middle
of the bar N, has the weight q hung to it, which is fighter
than the weight p. A third thread m is tied to the line h,
clofe above the ball e, and pafTiiig by the other fide of the
moon M, through the bar N, has the weight r hung to
it, which is lighter than the weight q. The ufe of thefe
three unequal weights is to reprefent the moon's unequal
attraftion at different diftanccs from her ; fo that if they
are left at liberty, they will draw all the three balls to-
wards the moon with different degrees of force, and
caufe them to appear as mjig.2\, m which cafe they
are evidently farther from each other than if they hung
freely by the perpendicular lines h, i, k. Hence it appears,
that as the moon attrafts the fide of the earth which is
neareft her with a greater degree of force than fhe does
the centre of the earth, flie will draw the water on that
fide more than the centre, and caufe it to rife on that
)ide ; and as flie draws the centre more than the oppofite
fide, the centre will recede farther from the furface of the
water on that oppofite fide, and leave it as high there as
the raifed it on the fide next her. For, as the centre wiU
be in the middle between the tops of the oppofite elevations,

VV H I

tliey muft of courfe be equally high on both fides at the
fame time.

However, upon the fuppofition, the earth and moon
would foon come together ; and this would be the cafe, if
they had not a motion round their common centre of gra-
vity, to produce a degree of centrifugal force, fufBcient to
balance their mutual attraftion. Such motion they have ■
for as the moon revolves in her orbit every month at the
diflanceof 240,000 miles from the earth's centre, and of
234,000 miles from the centre of gravity of the earth and
moon, the earth alfo goes round the fame centre of gravity
every month at the diftance of 6000 miles from it, ;. e. from
it to the centre of the earth. But the diameter of the
earth being, in round numbers, 8000 miles, its fide next the
moon is only 2000 miles from the common centre of gra-
vity of the earth and moon, its centre 6000 miles from it ;
and its fartheft fide from the moon 10,000 miles. Confe-
quently the centrifugal forces of thefe parts are as 2000,
6000, and 10,000 ; i. e. the centrifugal force of any fide of
the earth, when it is turned from the moon, is five times
as great as when it is turned toward the moon. And as
the moon's attraftion, expreffed by the number 6000, at
the earth's centre, keeps the earth from flying out of this
monthly circle, it muft be greater than the centrifugal
force of the waters on the fide next her ;' and confe-
quently, her greater degree of attraftion on that fide is
fufficient to raife them ; but as her attraftion on the op-
pofite fide is lefs than the centrifugal force of tke water
there, the excefs of this force is fufBcient to raife the water
juft as high on the oppofite fide.

To prove this experimentally, let the bar D C with its
furniture be fixed on the whirling-board of the machine,
(Jig- 14-) ^y pulhing the pin P into the centre of the
board ; which pin is the centre of gravity of the whole bar
with its three balls e, f, g, and moon M. Now, if the
whirling-board and bar be turned flowly round by the winch,
till the ball f hangs over the centre of the circle, as in
Jig. 22, the ball ^ will be kept towards the moon by the
heavieft weight p (Jig. 20.), and the ball c, on account of
its greater centrifugal force, and the lefs weight r, will fly
off as far to the other fide, as in^^. 22. And thus, whilft
the machine is kept turning, the balls i- and^ will hangover
the ends of the ellipfe Ifi. So that the centrifugal force
of the ball e wiU exceed the moon's attraftion juft as much
as her attraftion exceeds the centrifugal force of the ball g,
whilft her attraftion juft balances the centrifugal force of
the bally, and makes it keep in its circle. Hence it is evi-
dent, that the tides muft rife to equal heights at the fame
time on oppofite fides of the earth. See Fergufon's Lec-
tures on Mechanics, left. 2, and Defag. Ex. Phil. vol. i.
left. 5.

WHIRL-WIND, a wind that rifes fuddenly, and is ex-
ceedingly rapid and impetuous when rifen, but is foon fpent.
In this cafe, the gufts of wind proceed from different quar-
ters at the fame time, and meet in a certain place, where the
air acquires a circular, or rotatory, or fcrew-hke motion,
either afcending or defcending, as it were, round an axis,
which axis is fometimes ftationary, and at other times moves
on in a particular direftion. This phenomenon, called a
whirl-wind, gives a whirhng motion to duft, fand, water,
part of a cloud, and fometimes even to bodies of great
weight and bulk ; carrying them either upwards or down-
wards, and lailly, fcattering them about in different direc-
tions.

There are divers forts of whirl-winds, diftinguifhed by
their peculiar names : as, the prejler, typho, turbo, exhydrla,
and ecnephias.

The

W H I

The prejler is a violent wind breaking forth with flalhes
of lightning. This is rarely obferved ; fcarcely ever with-
out the ecnephlas. Seneca fays, it is a typho, or turbo, kindled
or ignited in the air.

The ecnephiar is a fudden and impetuous wind, breaking
out of fome cloud ; frequent in the Ethiopic fea, particu-
larly about the Cape of Good Hope. The feamen call them
travados.

The exhydrta is a wind buriling out of a cloud, with a
great quantity of v/ater. This only feems to differ, in de-
gree, from the ecnephlas, which is frequently attended with

Ihowers. ,■ , ■ j

A typho, or vortex, moft properly called a ivhsrl-ivind, or
hurricane, is an impetuous wind, turning rapidly every way,
and fweeping all round the place. It frequently defcends
from on high. The Indians call it orancan ; the Turks, &c.
oliphant. It is frequent in the Eattern ocean, chiefly about
Siam, China, &c. and renders the navigation of thofe parts
exceedingly dangerous.

Dr. Frankhn, in his Phyfical and Meteorological Ob-
fervations, read to the Royal Society in 1756, fuppofes a
whirl-wind and a water-fpout to proceed from the fame
caufe ; their only difference being, that the latter pafles over
the water and the former over the land. This opinion is
corroborated by the obfervations of M. de la Pryme, and
many others, who have remarked the appearances and effefts
of both to be the fame. They have both a progreffive as
well as a circular motion ; they generally rife after calms
and great heats, and occur moll frequently in the warmer
latitudes : the wind blows every way from a large furround-
ing fpace both to the water-fpout and whirl-wind ; and a
water-fpout has, by its progreffive motion, pafled from the
fea to the land, and produced all the phenomena and effefts
of a whirl-wind : fo that there is no reafon to doubt their
being meteors arifing from the fame general caufe, and ex-
plicable upon the fame principles, furni(hed by eleftrical
experiments and difcoveries. See Hurricane, and Water-
Spout.

For Dr. FrankUn's ingenious method of accounting for
both thefe phenomena, fee his Letters and Papers, &c.
vol. i. p. 191, &c. p. 216, &c.

WHISKET, or WisKET, in Rural Economy, a term
often ufed provincially to fignify a baflcet, efpecially in the
northern counties. See Basket.

WHISKY, a term fignifying water, and applied in the
Highlands and iflands of Scotland and in Ireland to ftrong
water or diftilled liquor. The fpirit drank in the North is
drawn from barley, and is faid to be preferable to any
Englifh malt-brandy : it is ftrong, but not pungent, and
free from the empyreumatic tafte or fmell.

WHISPERING. See Hearing, Attention, &c.
WHlSPERlNG-i'/acfj, fuch as domes and galleries, depend
on this principle, that the voice being applied to one end
of an arch, ealily pafles by repeated refleftlons to the
other.

Thus, let A B C ( Plate XV. Pneumatics, fg. 8. ) reprefent
the fegment of a fphere ; and fuppofe a low voice uttered
at D, the vibrations extending themfelves every way, fome
of them will impinge upon the points E, E, &c. and thence
be reflefted to the points F, F, &c. thence to G, G, &c.
till at laft they meet in C ; where, by their union, they
caufe a much ftronger found than in any part of the feg-
ment whatever, even at D the point whence they firft pro-
ceeded.

Accordingly, all the contrivance in a whifpering-place is,
that near the perfon who whifpers there be a fmooth wall,
arched<either cylindrically, or clliptically ; in which cafe he

I

W H I

will be heard diftinftly by another perfon, who places his ear
pretty near the wall on the oppofite fide. A circular arch
will do, but not fo well. It is demon ftrated by all the wri-
ters on CoNics (which fee), that if from any point in the
circumference of an ellipfe two lines be drawn to the foci,
thofe lines make equal angles with one curve at that point.
Confequently, the found which is produced in one focus of
an elliptical chamber, and is reflefted from the wall to the
other focus, makes all the angles of incidence equal to the
angles of refleftion refpeflively. Hence that focus is the
place where the found is bcft heard.

Places famed for the conveyance of whifpers are, the pri-
fon of Dionyfius at Syracufe, which increafed a foft whifper
to a loud noife ; the clap of one's hand to the found of a
cannon, &c. ; the aquedufts of Claudius, which carried a
voice fixteen miles ; and divers others enumerated by Kir-
cher in his Phonurgia.

The moft confiderable in England are, the dome of St.
Paul's, London, where the ticking of a watch maybe heard
from fide to fide ; and a very eafy whifper be fent. all round
the dome : this Dr. Derham found to hold not only in the
gallery below, but above upon the fcaflc)ld, where a whif-
per would be carried over one's head round the top of the
arch, though there be a large opening in the middle of it
into the upper part of the dome : and the famous whifper-
ing-place in Gloucefter cathedral, which is no other than a
gallery at the eaft end of the choir, leading from one fide
of it to the other. It confifts of five angles and fix
fides, the middlemoft of which is a naked window ; yet
two whifperers there hear each other at the diftance of
twenty-five yards. See Birch's Hift. of the Royal Society,
vol. i. p. 120. See Echo.

WHIST, or Whisk, a well-known game at cards. Mr. M
T. Matthews, one of the laft and moft approved writers on the *
game of whitt, has publiftied {1816) a tenth edition of his
" Advice to the Young Whift Player, &c." in which he has
comprifed, under the detail of 108 maxims, fuch inftruftions
as are neceflary to be obferved by thofe who wifti to play
this game with (liill and fuccefs. It would far exceed our
limits, if we attempted to follow him in this detail ; and an
abridgment, if it were prafticable, would be of little ufe ;
nor indeed is it neceflary, as thofe who are defirous of ac-
quiring a knowledge of the minutise of the game will confult
the author, whofe " Advice" may be eafily and cheaply
procured. We ftiall, however, feleft fome of thofe inftruc-
tions that are the moft important, and fubjoin thofe laws of
the game that ferve to prevent or fettle difputes among
players.

The following maxims comprehend thofe inftruftions that
relate to leads, to which we have annexed fome other direc-
tions that are immediately connefted with them. It is
highly neceflary, fays Mr. M., to be correft in leads. When
a good player plays an eight, and then a feven, it may be
known that he leads from a weak hand ; and the contrar)',
when he plays the feven firft : the cafe is the fame with a
tray or a deuce.

Good players never lead a nine or ten, but for one of
thefe reafons :

I ft. From a fequence up to the king.
2d. From nine, ten, knave, and king.
3d. When the beft of a weak fuit not exceeding three in
number.

I. The fafeft leads are thofe that are . furnifhed by fe-
quences of three or more cards ; in which cafe the player
is advifed to lead the higheft, and to put on the lovveft to
his partner's lead, and to put the higheft on his adverfarj-'s ;
and with a tierce to the king and feveral others, to begin

with

WHIST.

v.'ilh ihe knave. If he has no fequences, he is inftruAed to
lead from his moll numerous fuit ; if ftrong in trumps, to
lead rather from one headed by a king- than a queen ; but
with three or four fmall trumps, Mr. Matthews prefers
leading from a fingle card to a lung weak fuit. But the
players of the old fchool never lead from a fingle card with-
out fix trumps. In fome cafes, Mr. M. obferves, this may
be occafionally done with very great, though not certain,
advantage ; e. g. when A has four fmall trumps, ace, queen,
&c. of the fecond fuit ; king, knave, &c. of a third ; and a
fingle card of the fourth. To lead from three cards, unlefs in
fequences, is bad play, and only proper when you have
reafon to think it is your partner's fuit, and then lead off the
highell. Unlefs, fays Mr. M., you have a ftrong fuit your-
felf, or have reafon to fuppofe that your partner has one, do
not trump out unlefs you have fix trumps. It is generally
right to return your partner's lead in trumps, unlefs he
leads a nine or ten, called an equivocal card, becaufe it is
led with propriety, both from ftrong and weak fuits.

2. With ace, king, knave, and three fmall trumps, play
the ace and king ; with only two, the king, and wait for the
fineffe of the knave. In other fuits, without great ftrength
in trumps, or with the hopes of a particular point, do not
wait for the fineife.

3. Ace, king, and five others, lead the ace in all fuits.
With four or lefs, the loweft, if trumps. In other fuits
always the ace, unlefs all the trumps remaining are with you
and your partner ; in this cafe, a fmall one.

Mr. M. advifes not to lead trumps merely becaufe an
honour is turned up on your left, nor to be deterred from
it if on your right-hand ; either, he fays, is proper, if the
circumftances of your hand require trumps to be led ; but
neither olherwife.

It is equally advantageous to lead up to an ace as through
an ace ; not fo much fo to a king, and difadvantageous to
the queen turned up.

When cards are nearly equal, fays this author, the point
to which all the manoeuvres of good whift players tend, is to
eftabUfti a long fuit, and to preferve the laft trump, to bring
it into play, and to fruftrate the fame play of their adverfa-
ries. With an honour (or even a ten), with three other
trumps, by well managing them, you have a right to expeft
fuccefs. In this cafe, do not over-trump your right-hand
adverfary early in the hand ; but throw away a lofing card,
by which, there remaining but twelve trumps, your own
hand is ftrengthened, and your partner has the tenace, in
any fuit that is led; whereas, had you ' over-ruffed, you
would have given up the whole game, to fecure one trick.
But there are reafons for breaking this rule : — ift. If your
left-hand adverfary has (hewn a decided great hand m
trumps, (in which cafe make your tricks while you can,) or
2d. If your partner decidedly means to force you, — to uii-
derftand if this is the cafe, you are to obferve, if your part-
ner pbys the winning or lofing card of the fuit you have re-
fufed. If the former, it is by no means clear he means to
force you, and you play your own game. If the latter,
you are to fuppofe him ftrong in trumps, and depend on
this, to protcA your long fuit : a due refleftion on this will
convince you of the value of that maxim, which enjoins you
never to play a ftrong game with a weak hand, or -uice
verfa.

It is difficult to judge when to lead trumps. The fol-
lowing fituations will affift the beginner to reafon, and in
general direft him properly :

I ft. With fix trumps, on fuppofition your partner has a
llrong fuit.

yo

2d. If ftrong in other fuits, though weak in trumps
urfelf.

3d. If your adverfaries are playing from weak fuits.
4th. If your adverfaries are at the point of eight, and
you have no honour, or probability of making a trump by a
ruff.

With king, queen, ten, &c. in all fuits, lead the king j
but if it paffes, do not purfue the lead, as certain the ace
is in your partner's hand, as it is often kept up, but change
your lead, and wait for the return from your partner when
you have the fineffe of the ten, if neceffary.

King, queen, and five others, in all fuits, the king.
With four or lefs in trumps, lead the loweft. In other
fuits, always the king, unlefs you have the two only re-
maining trumps, if fo you may play a fmall one.

King, knave, ten, &c. in all fuits, lead the ten. King,
knave, and two or more fmall ones, the loweft.

You fhould not lead from king, knave, and a fmall one,
unlefs it is clearly your partner's fuit, in which cafes
play off your king and knave.

Queen, knave, nine, and others, lead the queen. Queen,
knave, with one other, the queen. Queen, knave, with two
more, tlie loweft. Queen, ten, and two others, the loweft.
Queen, and three fmall ones, the loweft. Queen, or knave,
with only two, the queen, or knave.

The trump card fometimes occafions a deviation from
thefe rules. A has the ace or king, with fequence from the
ten downwards, of the fuit of which his left-hand adverfary
turns up knave, or queen — A fhould lead the ten. If the
knave or queen be put on, you have a fineffe on the return
with the nine ; if not, your partner, with an honour, wfill pafs
it, and it is either way advantageous.

That which is denominated under-play, is returning the
loweft of your left-hand adverfary's lead, though you have
the higheft in your hand, with a view of your partner's
making the third beft, if he has it, and ftill retaining the
commanding card in your hand.

To explain this further, fuppofe A fourth player, has ace
and king of his left-hand adverfary's lead ; to under-play,
he wins the trick with the ace, and returns the fmall one,
which will generally fucceed, if the leader has not the fecond
and third in his own hand. You will fee by this, if you
lead from a king, &c. and your right-hand adverfary, after
winning with a ten or knave, return it, you have no chance
to make your king, but by putting it on.

The following is another fituation to under-play ; A re-
mains with the firll, third, and fourth cards of a fuit, of
which he has reafon to fuppofe his left-hand adverfary has
the fecond guarded ; by playing the fourth, it is often paffed,
and A makes every trick in the fuit.

When it is at your option to be 8 or 9, it is material
always to choofe the former fcore. When at eight, with
two honours, look at your adverfar)''s fcore, and confider if
there is a probabil'ty they fhould fave their lurch, or win
the game, notwithftanding your partner holds a third
honour ; if not you fhould not call, as it gives a decided
advantage againft you in playing for tricks.

Laws of Whijl. — I. If a card is turned up in dealing,
the adverfe party on naming it may call a new deal, unlefs
they have looked at or touched the cards, fo as to have oc-
cafioned it ; but if any card except the laft is faced, it is
undoubtedly a new deal.

2. Should any card-player have but twelve cards, and
the others their proper number, the deal is good, and he
who has the twelve cards pays for any renounce he may

have

WHIST.

have made ; but if either have fourteen cards, the deal is
loft.

3. If the dealer does not turn up the laft card, the deal
is loft. But if the card is fhewn, and falls on its face
by accident afterwards, the deal in this cafe ftiall ftand
good.

4. The dealer fliould leave the laft card on the table till
he has played ; after which nobody can a(k for it, though
they may inquire what is trumps at any time. Should he
leave it on the table after the firft round, it may be called,
as if {hewn by accident.

5. Every perfon has a right before he plays to call on
the players to place their cards before them, which is,
in other words, to afl< who played them. It is therefore
a quibble to fay they have no right to make that
demand.

6. The partner who reminds his partner to call after
the trump is turned up, forfeits a point.

7. If one of the players omit playing to a trick, and
remains with a card too many, it is at the option of the
adverfaries to call a new deal.

8. If A plays out of his turn to his partner's lead,
the laft player may play before the firft : if to his adver-
fary's, his partner may be compelled to, or prevented from
winning the trick at their option.

9. Miftakes relative to tricks may be reftified at any
time during the game, whether called or not. Alfo ho-
nours, if proved to Ijave been called in time, though not
fcored ; but they cannot be claimed after the trump is
turned up.

10. If one party calls at any fcore but eight, the ad-
verfaries may, after confulting, call a new deal ; the fame,
if one calls without two, or the other anfwers without one
honour.

11. If any player calls after he has played, the adver-
faries may call a new deal ; but not confult together.

12. Whoever calls, having only one honour in his hand,
fhould forfeit in proportion to any advantage that aftually
does or may poflibly accrue from the fault. If it ftiould
prevent the adverfaries from calHng, after the hand is played
out, the honours Ihall take place of the tricks.

13. If any perfon plays out of his turn, the adverfaries
have the option to call that card at any time, or di-
reft the player whofe turn it was, to play any fuit they
choofe.

14. If A, fuppofing that he has won a trick, leads again
fjefore his partner has played to it, the adverfaries may
oblige his partner to win it, if he can.

15. Any player may call a card from his adverfary,
if he names it, and proves the feparation. Should he name
a wrong one, he may have his beft or worft card called of
any fuit played during the deal.

16. Cards thrown down cannot be taken up again ; but
may be called by the adverfaries. They may be ftiewn down
by the player, if fure of every trick.

1 7. There are in faft four penalties on a revoke, which
take place of every other fcore. The adverfaries may take
three tricks from the party revoking, or three from their
fcore, or add three to their own ; and if there ftill ftioilld
remain enough to make the party revoking game, they can-
not win it, but remain at nine.

There is often judgment required in taking the penalties
of a revoke. Before the fcore is advanced, if the party re-
voking has won nine tricks, the leaft confideration will fhew,
that the adverfaries ftionld take three of them, for if they add
three to their own fcore, they ilill leave the odd trick to the

former ; but if the revoking party be at eight, it is better
for the adverfary to fcore three points, as the odd trick i
leaves the former at nine, which is in e-^ry refpeft a worfe 1
point than eight. On other occafions, it is only to calculate \
how the different fcores will remain after each mode of 1
taking the penalty ; and it will be obvious which will be
the moft advantageous — never lofing fight of the points of
the game ; /'. e. fcoring eight or five yourfelf, or prevent
your adverfary from doing fo. 1

18. A revoke is not eftablifhed before the party revoking
has played again, or the trick been turned and quitted ;
but the adverfaries, at their option, may call from the
higheft or loweft of the fuit at the time, or the card ftiewn
at any time during the deal.

19. If a revoke is claimed, the adverfaries forfeit the
penalties of a revoke, if they mix the cards before it is
determined.

20. No revoke can be claimed after the cards are cut for
the next deal.

21. A cafe having occurred in which A played out of
his turn, and B, his partner, was direfted to play a trump ;
but B had another fuit, and three or four cards were played
before it was difcovered that B had a trump in his hand : it
was decided, that the cards ftiould be taken up again, and a Jt
trump led by B as direfted. |

22. A cafe occurred in which A called at eight, but his
partner did not anfwer, though he had an honour, becaufe
he had a bet on the odd trick. The adverfaries contended
that the deal ftiould not ftand ; and reference being made _
to Mr. M., he decided that the game was fairly won, be- j|
caufe there could be no poflible advantage made of the cir- '
cumftance as far as related to the game, though it might as

to the trick, if that had been the cafe referred ; and their
cafe produced the following law : viz. No one is obliged to
anfwer to his partner's call, even though he has the other
two honours in his hand.

23. No player, having three honours in his hand, can be
precluded from taking advantage of them at any time pre-
vious to his playing a card. This law was grounded on
the following cafe ; viz. A at the fcore of eight, on gra-
dually opening his hand, faw two honours in it immediately,
and told his partner of it, who did not anfwer : but A con-
tinuing to look over his cards found a third honour, and
ftiewed them down. It was contended that he had no right
to do this, as Mr. M. thought improperly, upon which he
propofed the above-mentioned law. We here fubjoin a
maxim connefted with this cafe.

When at eight, with two honours, look at your adver
fary's fcore, and confider if tliereis a probability they ftiould
fave their lurch, or win the game, notwithftanding your
partner holds a third honour ; if not you ftiould not call,
as it gives a decided advantage againft you in playing for
tricks.

24. Whoever ftiall by viford or gefture manifeftly dif-
cover his approval or difapprobation of his partner's mode
of play, or aflc any queftions but fuch as are fpecifically al-
lowed by theexiiling laws of whift, the adverfary ftiall either
add 3 point to his own fcore, or deduft one from the party
fo tranfgrefling, at his option.

23. It is now fettled, that either of the players may infift
on the cards being placed at any time previous to their
being put together. It is alfo fettled, that where a bet is
made, that either of the parties fcores two, the bet is won
by honours, though the adverfary has won the game by
cards — fuppofing it betted that A makes two points, if B,

his

I

WHIST.

his adverfary, being at feven, makes three by cards, if A has
two by honours, he IHU wins his bet.

The odds of this game are calculated according to the
points, and with the deal, in the following manner :

1 love - - 10 to 9

2 love - - 10 to 8

Sec. &c.

Except that 9 is confidered as fomething worfe than 8.
It is 3 to I in favour of the firft game. The odd trick has
been always fuppofed in favour of the leader ; but Mr. M.
is of opinion, that this is an error, as the dealer has the ad-
vantage in this, as in every other fcore.

We (hall here fubjoin an explanation of two terms that
are univerfally ufed, but not generally underftood, viz.
tenace zndjinejfe.

" The principle of the tenace is fimple. If A has the ace
and queen of a fuit, and B, his adverfary, has the king and
knave, the lead confideration will fhew that if A leads, B
wins a trick, and vice iierfd of courfe ; in every fituation it is
the mutual plan of players by leading a lofing card to put
it into the adverfary 's hand to oblige him to lead that fuit,
whereby you preferve the tenace. So far is eafily compre-
hended ; but it requires attention with praftice to apply the
principle, fo obvious in the fuperior, to the inferior cards, or
fee that the fame tenace operates occafionally with the feven
and five, as the ace and queen, and is produftive of the fame
advantage. A, laft player, remains with the ace and queen
of a fuit not played, the laft trump, and a lofing card : B,
his left-hand adverfary, leads a forcing card. Query — How
is A to play ? Anfmer — If three tricks win the game, or
any particular point, he is not to ruff, but throw away his
lofing card, becaufe his left-hand adverfary being then
obliged to lead to his fuit, he remains tenace, and muft make
his ace and queen. But upon a fuppofition that making
the four tricks gains him the rubber, he fhould then take
the force, as in thefe fituatioirs you are juftified in giving up
the tenace for an equal chance of making any material
point.

" 'Y\\^ Jinejfe has a near affinity to the tenace, except that
the latter is equally the objeft where two, and the former
only where there are four players. A has the ace and queen
of a fuit led by his partner, now the duUell beginner will
fee it proper to put on the queen ; and this is called fineffing
it, and the intention is obvioudy to prevent the king from
m«king, if in the hand of his right-hand adverfary. Should
it not be there, it is evident you neither gain nor lofe by
making the finefie ; but few players carry this idea down to
the inferior cards, or fee that a trick might be made by a
judicious finetTe, againft an eight, as a king ; but to know
exaftly when this fhould be done, requires more fl<ill than
in the more obvious cafes, united with memory and ob-
fervation. Another cafe of fincffe even againft two cards
frequently occurs, and the reafon on refleftion is felf-
evident.

" A leads the ten of a fuit, of which his partner has the ace,
knave, and a fmall one ; B fhould fineffe or let the ten pafs,
even though he knows the king or queen are in his left-hand
adverfary's hand, becaufe he preferves the tenace and pro-
bably makes two tricks ; whereas, had he put on his ace,
he could make but one — in fhort, tenace is the game of po-
fitioQ, and fineffe, the art of placing yourfelf in the moft
advantageous one." Matthews's Advice, &c. ed. 10.1816.

M. de Moivre has folved this problem : To find the odds
that any two of the partners, that are pitched upon, have
not the four honours ? M. de Moivre concludes from this
folution.

Vol. XXXVIII.

1. That it is 27 to 2, nearly, that the dealers have not
the four honours.

2. That it is 23 to i, nearly, that the eldeft have not the
four honours.

3. That it is 8 to i, nearly, that neither one fide nor the
other have the four honours.

4. That it is 13 to 7, nearly, that the two dealers do not
reckon honours.

5. That it is 20 to 7, nearly, that the two eldeft do not
reckon honours.

6. That it is 25 to 16, nearly, that either one fide or the
other do reckon honours, or that the honours are not equally
divided.

The fame learned author alfo determines, that the odds
for the partners who have eight of the game, if dealers,
againft thofe who have nine, is nearly as 17 to 11. But
if thofe who have eight of the game are eldeft, the odds
will be nearly as 95 to 77. And that without confider-
ing whether thofe who have eight are dealers, or eldeft,
there is one time with another the odds of fomewhat lefs
than 7 to 5 ; and very nearly that of 25 to 1 8.

It is a queftion likewife belonging to this game, what the
probability is that a player has a given number of trumps
dealt him ; particularly, it has been often taken as an equal
wager, that the dealer has at leaft four trumps. M. de
Moivre has computed the following tables ; fhewing for
the dealer, as well as the other gameilers, what the pro-
bability is of taking precifely any afiigned number of
trumps in one deal. And thence by a continual addition
of the numbers, or of fuch part of them as is neceffary, it
is eafily found what the probability is of taking at leaft
that number.

Chances of the Dealer to

Chances of any other

have bcfides t!ie Card

Trumi)s.

Gamefter to have pre-

turned np.

cifely.

3910797436

0

8122425444

20112672528

1.

46929569232

41959196136

II.

11 06 I 9698904

46621329040

III.

139863987120

30454255260

IV.

104897990340

121817OZIO4

V.

48726808416

3014663652

VI.

14211985788

455999544

VII.

25^3997416

Tab. I. 40714245

VIII.

284999715 Tab. II.

2010580

IX.

18095220

48906

X.

603174

468

XI.

8892

1

XII.

39

Sum=: 158753389900

476260169700= fum,

is the common de-

is the common de-

nominator ; being

nominator ; being

the combinations of

the combinations of

1 2 cards in 5 1 .

13 in 51.

By the help of thefe tables feveral ufeful queftions may
be refolved; as, i. If it is aflced, what is the probabi-
lity that the dealer has precifely III trumps, befides the

4662 , ,

trump card ? The anfwer, by Table I., is - ; and the

probability of his having fome other number of trumps is
3C 11213

W il I

W H 1

""3. But if the queftion had been, what it the pro-

15875

bability that fome other gamefter, the eldeft hand for in-

ftance, has precifely IV trumps ? The anfwer, Table II., is

104898

476260'

2. To find the chance of the dealer's not having fewer
than IV trumps: add his chances to take o, I, II, which

are 39108, 201127, 41959^! ^""^ '^^^'r 1""" ^5?8/'
taken from the denominator 1587534, and the remainder
made its numerator, the probabihty of the dealer having

IV or more trumps will be ^I^= ^5, a little above

■1-. The wager, therefore, that the dealer has not IV

12

trumps, is fo far from equal, that whoever lays it throws

away above — of his ftake.

But if the wager is that the dealer has not V trumps>
then 466213 (the chances of his having III befides the
trump card) is to be added to the chanceS for o, I, II ;
which will make the chance of him who lays this wager to

be nearly —~ ; and that of his adverfary

455 ^^55

And hence, if wagers are laid that the dealer has not
IV trumps, and has not V trumps, alternately ; the ad-
vantage of him who lays in this manner will be nearly 1 1^
per cent, of hio ftakes.

3. To find the odds of laying that the eldeft hand has at
leaft III, and at leaft IV trumps, alternately; the nu-
merator of the one expeftation is (by Table II.) 31501119,
and of the other 17514720, to the denominator 47626017 ;

whence the advantage of the bet will be — , or three per

tent, nearly.

Again, if it is laid that the trumps in the dealer's hand
fhall be either I, II, III, or VI ; the difadvantage of this
bet will be only 1 5^. 4J. or about ^ per cent.

In like manner, the odds of any propofed bet of this
kind may be computed : and from the numbers in the
tables, and their combinations, different bets may be
found which (hall approach to the ratio of equality ; or
if they differ from it, other bets may be afligned, which,
repeated a certain number of times, fhall balance that
difference.

4. And if the bet includes any other condition befides
the number of trumps, fuch as the quality of one or
more of them ; then proper regard is to be had to that
reftriftion.

Let ihe wager be that the eldeft has IV trumps dealt
him ; and that two of them fhall be the ace and king.
The probabihty of his having IV trumps precifely is, by

Table II., , ■ • and the different fours in 12 cards
476200

are — x — x — -x — . But becaufe 2 out of the 12
1234

trumps are fpecified, all the combinations of 4 in 12 that
are favourable to the wager, are reduced to the different
twos that are found in the remaining 10 cards, which

are — X — • And this number is to the former &» i to

3 *
1 1 : the probability, therefore, is reduced by this reftric-

tion to — , of what elfe it had been : that is, it is re-
II

duced from near — to about — . De Moivre's Doftrine

5 52

of Chances, p. 172, &c. ed. 3d.

WHISTLE, Boatswain's. See Call.

WHisTLE-i^if/5, a name given by the people of Cornwall
to a fpecies of gadus, with only two fins on the back,
otherwife called mujiela JluviatUis. See Gadus, and

MUSTBLA.

WHISTON, William, M.A. in Biography, an Englidt
divine and mathematician, was the fon of the reftor of
Norton near Twycrofs, in Leicefterlhire, and born in the
year 1667. He finifhed his education as a fizer at Clare-
hall, Cambridge, applying with great dihgence to the ftudy
of mathematics, and compofing devout meditations corre-
fponding to the early bent of his difpofition. Having alfo
received the degree of B.A. in 1690, and being elefted
fellow of his college, he took pupils ; and in 1 693 became
M.A. and entered into holy orders. Soon afterwards he
dechned the oftice of tutor, and was appointed chaplain
to Dr. More, bi(hop of Norwich. His acquaintance
with fir Ifaac Newton commenced in 1694, and produced
a change in his philofophical fyftem, from that of Des
Cartes to that of Newton. On the principles of this phi-
lofophy, he publifhed, in 1696, his " Theory of the Earth,"
which was refuted by Keill. Having been prefented by
his patron, the bifhop, to the living of Loweftofft in Suffolk,
he refigned his chaplainrtiip, and in order fully to dilcharge
his religious duties procured the afliftance of a curate. Of
his invincible and moral fcrupulous integrity, he gave an
early inllance by refufing his vote to a perfon who follcited
a fellowftiip of Clare-hall, and who had abandoned the bac-
chanalian party with which he was connefted, and which
he apprehended to be the moft powerful, and promifed
future fobriety ; and giving this reafon for his refufal :
" Sir, you have confeffed that you facrificcd your integrity
to your preferment, and thereby have made it impoffible
for me to ferve you." Being obliged to vacate his fellow-
ftiip by marriage, fir Ifaac Newton nominated him his
deputy as profeffor of mathematics, allowing him all the
profits of the office ; and in 1 703 he furrendered to him the
profefforfhip itfelf. Upon this acceffion, he refigned his
living, fettled at Cambridge, and was appointed by Dr.
More, bifhop of Ely, catechetical leAurer of St. Clement's.
Having already publilhed " A Short View of the Chrono-
logy of the Old Teftament, and the Harmony of the Four
Evangelifts," and " Tacquet's Euclid," he prefented to the
public in 1706 his " Effay on the Revelation of St. John;"
and in the following year he preached the Boyle's lec-
ture fermon on the fubjeft of the " Accomplifhment of
Scripture Prophecies." In the year 1 706 he began to enter-
tain doubts concerning the divinity of Chnft, and in the pro-
fecution of his inquiries he was led to adopt Arian opinions,
which were further confirmed by the perufal of the " Apof-
toHcal Conftitutions," reckoned fpurious by moft writers,
but pronounced by Whiilon to be " the moft facred of the
canonical books of the New Teftament." In 1708 he
offered an " Effay on the Apoftolical Conftitutions" to be
printed at the Univerfity prefs, but it was rejefted ; how-
ever, in 1709, he pubhfhed fermons and effays fupporting
thefe opinions. His invincible perfeverancc caufed him to be

deprived

W H I

deprived of the catechetical lefture, and at the fame time
he declined receiving the falary which the bifhop wilhed
to continue. His fituation at the Univerfity became very
precarious, and in Oftober 1710 he was expelled from it,
in conformity to a ftatute againft maintaining dodlrines
contrary to the eftablifhed rehgion. In the following year
he alfo loft his profefTorfliip ; and having no further em-
ployment at Cambridge, he removed to London, and pub-
lifhed an account of the proceedings againll him, and alfo
books in defence of his fentiments, which he retained with-
out regarding any worldly confiderations. His purpofes
were fixed, and he declared to two friends, who wifhed him
to pay fome attention to his prefent welfare, " you may as
well perfuade the fun to come down from the firmament, as
turn me from this my refolution." Hoadly and Clarke
remonftrated ; but all their pleas were unavailing. All his
future profpefts feemed now to depend on his knowledge
of mathematics, and accordingly in 1710 he pubhihed his
" Prxleftiones Phyficae-Mathematicae ; five Philofophia
Clarifllmi Newtoni Mathematica illuftrata." At this time
Addifon and Steele, and feveral other perfons, exerted
themfelves in procuring a fubfcription to liis aftronomical
leftures. But at the clofe of this year he publifhed the
" Hiftorical Preface" to a propofed work on Primitive
Chriftianity, which fubjefted him to the inquifitorial ani-
madverfion of the low^ houfe of convocation. Efcaping,
however, the apprehended confequences of their interference,
he perfilled in his courfe, and in 171 1 printed this work
which he had announced, and which had occafioned an alarm,
in 4 vols. 8vo. The convocation, not fufficiently informed
with regard to the extent of their power in cafes of herefy,
addreffed the queen in order to obtain the opinion of the
judges, who difagreed upon the fubjeft, and no further
meafures were purfued by this body. However, in 1713,
Whifton was profecuted in the fpiritual court ; and as he
did not appear to its citation, he was declared contuma-
cious. DifBculties occurring on the part of the lay-judges,
the bufinefs was deferred, and the profecution was termi-
nated by an aft of grace in 17 15. Whifton was at this
time a profefled member of the eftabhihed church, and
attended its worftiip, till at length he was refufed admifSon
to the facrament ; and therefore he opened an aflembly for
worftiip at his own houfe, and ufed a liturgy of his own
compofing. He alfo eftabUftied a weekly meeting for the
promotion of primitive Chriftianity, which fubfifted for two
years. Whilft he was thus occafionally engaged, he devoted
himfelf to mathematical and philofophical purfuits ; and in
concert with Mr. Ditton, who was his colleague in his lec-
tures, publifticd a projeft for difcovering the longitude at
fea. But as their fpeculations were of no ufe, it will be
fufiicient to obferve, that he pubhftied at laft a method of
afcertaining the longitude by obfervations of the eclipfes of
Jupiter's fatellites, with tables of fuch eclipfes for four
years from the year 1738.

His zeal in religious difcuffions and projefts remained
unabated; and, among other publications in 17 16 and
the two following years, appeared feveral pieces founded
on the fuppofed genuinenefs and authority of the apof-
tolical conftitutions. In 17 19 he publifhed a letter ad-
dreffed to Finch, earl of Nottingham, on the " Eter-
nity of the Son of God and his Holy Spirit," which
received an anfwer from his lordfhip, that induced the
clergy and univerfities to return him public thanks, and
which caufed Whifton's exclufion from the Royal Society,
wlicn he was propofed as a candidate in 1720. Sir Ifaac
Newton, it is faid, who was of a very timid temper, took
meafures for defeating his eleftion. As he was of opinion

W H I

that the Jews would be fpeedily reftored to their native land,
he procured models of the tabernacle of Mofes and the tern-
pie of Jerufalem, upon which he read public leftures. In
1 741 he undertook a furvey of the coafta of England, in
order to fix the longitude of places, and a chart to this pur-
pofe was publifhed in 1 745. It was in the year 1 747 that he
difcontinued his attendance on the fervice of the church of
England, and joined a Baptift church, in which conneftion he
continued. In 1 749 he publifhed two volumes of memoirs of
his own life, to which a third was added in 1 750. Having
attained to the 85th year of his age, he died at London in
1752, and was interred at Lyndon, where his daughter was
married, and where a handfome tomb was erefted in honour
of his memory. " Fancy," fays one of his biographers,
" predominating over judgment, a warm head and honeft
heart, enthufiaftic fervour, and difregard to common forms
and worldly confequences, were the leading features of his
charafter." He never hefitated in giving his opinion to all
perfons on all fubjefts, freely and without difcrimination.
Being once aflced, in the prefence of Addifon, Pope, Wal-
pole, Craggs, and others, " whether a fecretary of ftate
could be an honeft man confiftently with the duties of his
ftation ?" He gave his opinion that it would be of advan-
tage to fuch an officer to ("peak openly what he knew, and
declare his intentions without difguife. Mr. Craggs re-
plied, " It might anfwer for a fortnight, but no longer."
" Did you never, Mr. Secretary," returned Whifton,
" try it for a fortnight ?" When queen Caroline, who
honoured Whifton's integrity, and was fond of his converfa-
tion, defired him to acquaint her what was particularly
found fault with by cenfurers on her conduft ; he replied,
that her habit of talking at chapel was mentioned with dif-
approbation. She promifed amendment, and wifhed him
to point out any other faults. " When your majefty,"
faid he, " has amended this, I will tell you of the next."
A catalogue is given of Whifton's writings, which are very-
numerous, at the clofe of his " Memoirs of Dr. Clarke."
He has alfo given a valuable " Englifh Tranflation of Jofe-
phus," with plans, notes, and illuftrations, to which are pre-
fixed eight differtations. Biog. Brit. Memoirsof his Own
Life.

WHITAKER, John, B.D. a divine of the eftablifhed
church, was born at Manchefter, about the year 1735, and
educated at Oxford, where he became fellow of Corpus-
Chrifti college, taking the degree of M.A. in 1759, and of
B.D. in 1767. His firft work, -viz. " The Hiftory of
Manchefter," appeared in 1771, 4to., in which he takes
occafion to give a view of the ilate of the kingdom in
general. This work, abounding in literary refearch and
ingenious conjefture, gave reputation to the writer, and was
followed in the fame year by " The Genuine Hiftory of
the Britons afferted." However, it is faid that Mr. Whit-
aker's imagination in the progrefs of his years mifled his
judgment, of which he gave evidence in the fecond volume
of his " Hiftory of Manchefter," printed in 1775, though
he ftill maintained his charafter for deep and learned invef-
tigation. As a clergyman, he became morning-preacher of
Berkeley chapel, London, in 1773, from which fituation he
was foon after removed ; and he refented his removal with
the natural warmth of his temper. Such was his orthodoxy,
that he declined accepting a valuable living that was offered
to him by an Unitarian patron. In 1778 he fucceeded, as
fellow of his college, to the reftory of Rnan-Lanyhorne in
Cornwall, where his conteft about titlies was the occafion of
much uneafinefs to him. When mutual conciliation took
place between him and his parilhioners, he publifhed in
1783 a courfe of Sermons on Death, Judgment, Heaven,
3 C 2 smcj

W H I

and Hell, which were rendered peculiarly impreffive by the
fervid eloquence with which he treated the fubjeft, naturally
awful and interefting. In 1787 he publifhed his " Mary
Queen of Scots vindicated," 3 vols. 8vo., in which he fur-
pafled former writers in the zeal with which he vindicated
this unfortunate queen, and criminated her enemies, Eliza-
beth, Cecil, Morton, and Murray. He alfo prefented to
the public the fruit of his learned refearch in " The Courfe
of Hannibal over the Alps afcertained," 2 vols. 8vo. 1794;
and in 1795 he advanced the higheft monarchical principles
in his work, entitled " The real Origin of Government,"
and alfo his orthodoxy in his " Origin of Arianifm," zea-
loufly defending his fentiments in Ijoth thefe refpefts by
contributions to the Englifh and Jacobin Reviews, and
Britifh Critic. At length a paralytic ftroke warned him
of his approaching end, and after a gradual decline he im-
perceptibly clofed life at his reftory in O^ftober 1808, at
the age of 73, leaving a widow and two daughters. Gen.
Biog.

WHITBREAD, Samuel, an eminent brewer, claims
a place in a work devoted to the record and promotion
of the arts and fciences, on account of the talents which
he difplayed and the character which he maintained in his
advaneement from fmall beginnings, to the poflefiion of a
fortune, that fet him on a level with forae of the firft no-
bility of the country. The family from which he fprung
belonged to the clafs of yeomanry, in the county of Bed-
ford, which pofTefTed fome fmall property, and affbciated
with that defcription of moderate diflenters, who occafionally
conformed to the Church of England. Born in the village
of Cardington near Bedford, about the year 1720, and edu-
cated probably with a view to trade, for which his family
defigned him, he was bound apprentice at a fuitable age, for
the term of feven years, to an opulent brewer in London ;
and after the expiration of that period, he remained for
fome time unfetlled, as he was cautious in commencing bufi-
nefs on his own account. At length, however, actuated by
the laudable ambition of tracing the footfteps of thofe,
who, in a fimilar department, had rifen to opulence and
rank, he determined to make trial for himfelf, how far in-
duftry and aftivity, aided by economy, would avail to his
fuccefs. Having difpofed of his own patrimony, which
could not have been very confiderable, and deriving affift-
ance from perfons of opulence, who were encouraged to re-
pofe confidence in him by his known difpofition and habits,
he laid the foundation of a fuperllrufture of fortune and
reputation, which has had few parallels in the hiftory of
commerce. Simple in his manners, he was accuftomed to
appear at the corn-market in Mark-lane with a white apron,
as the emblem of his occupation ; and liberal in his difpofi-
tion, he contrived to fecure the attachment and aftive fer-
vices of thofe with whom he was connefted in his domeftic
arrangements, and in the condnft of his bufinefs. He well
knew that by making thofe whom he employed partakers
of his bounty, he gave them a kind of intereft in his pro-
fperity ; and'therefore on fettling the annual balance of his
accounts, he dillributed amongft: them donations, correfpond-
ing to their refpeftive ranks and fervices. Whilft he gave
5C0/. to a conlidential clerk, he extended his bounty even
to the horfe -feeders, to each of whom he ufually gave 5/.

Advancing with fure, but rapid progrefs, his brew-houfe
in Chifwell-ftreet became a fpacious quadrangle, confiding
of an ample dwelling-houfe, work-houfes, lloves, cellars,
and every other kind of convenience both for habitation and
bufinefs ; while the (lock, the plant, the dray-horfes that
would have mounted a regiment of cavalry, the ca(ks, &c.
might in procefs of time be eftimated at nearly half a rail-

W H 1

lion of pounds fterling. To this immenfe property, we
might add a floating capital amounting to from 8c to
1 00,000/. ferving to fupply the demand of malt, hops, oats,
&c. as well as the payment of clerks and fervants. Thus
by the direftion and fuperintendance of a fingle individual,
with the co-operation of a number of coadjutors in various
ranks of fubordination, the brew-houfe in Chifwell-ftreet
became the tirft eftabhfhment of the kind, not only in Lon-
don, but in Europe, depending for its fubfiftence and Angu-
lar profperity on the approved quality of the article which
it furnifhed. To the founder and principal proprietor, it
became a mine of wealth, and an immenfe fource of fupply
for purchafes of land and houfes, donations and bequefts,
that have given diftinguiibed celebrity to the name of Whit-
bread. It is needlefs to recount the various eftates which
he purchafed in his native county ; we {hall content our-
felves with mentioning merely the Torrington manors and
eftates, for which he paid the fum of I20,oco/., befides
5000/. as a prefent to alderman Skinner the auftioneer,
when the negotiation refpefting it was completed. Of
his benefaftions and bequefts to various objefts of public
utility and of private charity, it will be fufficient to fay, that
they indicated the hberality of his difpofition, and the am-
plitude of the means which he derived from his fingular
profperity. Mr. Whitbread was twice married; by his firft
wife he had feveral children : but his fecond wife, who was
daughter of the firft earl, and fifter of the firft marquis
CornwaUis, and to whom he was married Auguft 1 2,
1769, died December 27, 1770. He was for fome years
one of the reprefentatives of the town of Bedford, and
afterwards returned for the borough of Steyning. For
the aboHtion of the flave-trade, he was a fteady and ardent
advocate ; and as fuch he generoufly undertook from his
private purfe to make good all injuries that might be fuf-
fered by thofe who attended to give their teftimony for this
purpofe. With this expreffion of benevolence he clofed a
life, during the progrefs of which he had amafled landed
and chattel property to an immenfe amount, without any
of thofe penurious habits, which have been in many inftances
the means of accumulating large fortunes, and of enabling
thofe to die rich who have lived meanly and miferably. His
death happened June nth, 1796.

In 1799 his fon, the fubjeft of the next article, erefted
a fplendid monument to his father's memory, in the church
of Cardington ; which monument was the laft, and has been
thought by fome perfons to be the beft work of the late
J. Bacon, R.A. The principal figure reprefents a dying
man, fupported by religion, in the form of a female, who
points to the glory of heaven as a reward for Lis good ac-
tions ; while the figure of benevolence, in a rechniiig pof-
ture, is weeping at his feet.

Whitbread, Samuel, a diftinguilhed fenator, was the
fon of the preceding by his firft wife, and born in the year
1758. Deftined to the inheritance of a large fortune, and
poflefling talents which by due cultivation would qualify
him for a confpicuous ftation in public life, his father fpared
no expence in his education. At a proper age he was fent to
Eton, where he alfo enjoyed the benefit of private tuition,
and where he commenced an intimate acquaintance with
Mr. W. H. Lambton, afterwards M.P. for the cit)^ of
Durham, and Mr. now earl Grey, witli whofe family he
became connefted by a double alliance. From Eton he
removed to Chriftchurch college, Oxford, and from thence
to St. John's college, Cambridge, where he finilhed his edu-
cation, and was graduated B. A. Mr. Whitbread fenior, fa-
gacious in difcerning the early dawnings of his fon's future
celebrity, liberally oiTered him all the advantages which might

be

WHITBREAD.

be derived from foreign travel, and felefted for his tutor
and companion the prefent archdeacon Coxe, well known
by a variety of valuable publications. Having travelled to-
gether through France, Germany, and Switzerland, they
afterwards feparated with profeffions of mutual regard.
Mr. Whitbread, foon after his return, formed, in 1788, a
matrimonial connexion with Mifs Grey, the fifter of his
Eton afibciate, who afterwards, by the advancement of her
father, general fir Charles Grey, to an earldom, became
lady Elizabeth Whitbread : his lifter alfo, in procefs of
time, married the prefent fir George Grey, bart. then a
captain in the navy. Having acquired every necelFary qua-
lification for occupying a feat in the great council of the
nation, and interefted by an ample fortune either in poflef-
fion or in profpeft, as well as by genuine fentiments of pa-
triotifm, in its deliberations and refolutions, Mr. Whitbread
offered himfelf, on the difTolution of parliament in 1790, as
a candidate for Bedford, a borough which had been repre-
fented by his father, who at the fame time offered himfelf
for the borough of Steyning. Both eleftions were contefted;
but both father and fon finally obtained their refpeftive
feats. Mr. Whitbread, junior, commenced his political
career in parliament with an animated fpeech againfl the
unconftitutional doftrine of " confidence," alTumed on the
part of minifters, who claimed an entire reliance on their
wifdom and integrity. The occafion of this claim was a
propofed war againft Rufiia, for which the minifler (Mr.
Pitt) urged the houfe of commons to vote money, without
previous and fatisfadtory information of the neceffity, and
much lefs of the juftice or policy of this war, the objeft of
which was the refloration of Oczakow to the Turks. The
meafure was unpopular ; and though the miniiler obtained
a majority, when the qucftion was debated, he thought it
mod prudent to give up his objeft, and a pacification en-
fued, which prevented much calamity to the nation. About
this time the abolition of the flave-trade occupied the public
attention, and this was a meafure to which the member for
Bedford had always avowed himfelf a fteady and zealous
friend. In parliament he fupported it not only by his vote,
but by a difplay of eloquence which commanded univerfal
applaufe. As an aftive magiftrate, he directed his particular
attention to the occurrences that took place in confequence
of the fcarcity in the year 1795 ' ''"'^ '" devifing means of
relief, he propofed that as the magiftrates were empowered
to fix a maximum of wages, fo far as refpefts the hufband-
man, a minimum fhould be alfo preferved by law, in order
thus to ellablifh a more accurate proportion between the price
of labour and that of the means of fubfiltence. With this
view he introduced into the houfe a hill, which was ap-
proved by Mr. Fox and many other members ; but as it
was oppofed by Mr. Put, his efforts were unavailing. The
minifler was no Icfs unluccefsful in his plan for amending
the poor laws, and meliorating the condition of the peafan-
try and working clafs. His plan indeed was much more
extenfive and compHcated than that of Mr. Whitbread,
which was fimply calculated to enable the labourer to main-
tain himfelf by his wages, without the degrading as well as
difpiriting neceflity of feeking parochial relief.

The fubjeft of this article was an undifguifed and uniform
oppofer of the French war in 1793, becaufe he thought it
to be unnecefTary and unjuft ; and yet he was a zealous ad-
vocate for meafures of felf-defence againft the fecret ma-
chinations and open attacks of a powerful and vindiftive
enemy. Accordingly he condemned the neghgence of mi-
niflers, on occafion of the French attempt at invafion in
'797i by means of a fquadron which appeared off Bantry
bay, and moved the houfe for a committee of inquiry into

3

their condud. His motion was evaded by the previous quef-
tiori. In every ftage of the conteft with France, and under
every varying form of its government, he was anxious for
peace, and an advocate for treating with its rulers in order
to terminate hoftihties, and to put a ttop to the wafte of na-
tional treafure and the effufion of human blood. His opi-
nion on the conduct of minifters in the profccution of this
war, and their reluttance to enter into treaty for terminating
it, was explicitly avowed in an eloquent fpeech, which he
delivered on occafion of a motion by Mr. Dundas ( then fecre-
tary of ftate ) for an addrefs to the throne in 1 800, for the
purpofe of approving the conduft of his majefty's govern-
ment. Anxious, however, as he was for peace, becaufe
he difapproved the war from its commencement, and becaufe
he thought it effcntial to the true mtereft of the country, he
was no lefs fohcitous to maintain the honour of the nation
in obtaining it. No man in this refpedl was a more noble-
minded patriot than himfelf; and if he confented to make
any facrifice, it was becaufe he thought it abfolutely necef-
fary to the permanent profperity of his native country.
Whilft he claimed and exerciied the privilege of pronounc-
ing his own opinion of public men and political meafures,
he was a zealous advocate for the liberty of others, and in-
terpofed with his moft vigorous exertions for the refcue of
thofe who fuffered imprifonment at home or exile to Botany
bay, for too freely and imprudently divulging their opinions.
During the fhort interval of the adminiftration of Mr. Ad-
dington, (the prefent lord Sidmouth, ) who fucceeded Mr.
Pitt in the year 1801, and made peace with Buonaparte,
feveral popular meafures were adopted, in which Mr. Whit-
bread cordially concurred; and in the year 1805 he diftin-
guilhed himfelf as the pubhc accufer of Mr. Dundas
(created lord Melville) for malverfations that had occurred,
whilft he had occupied the poft of treafurer of the navy.
His charges againft this nobleman were founded on a report
of the commiffioners of pubhc accounts, from which it ap-
peared that, during the exercife of his office, this noble lord
had violated the law, by conniving at mal-praclices and par-
ticipating in unwarrantable emoluments ; and that he was
refponfible for deficiencies amounting to 697,500/. Thefe
charges alfo implicated Meff. Trotter, Wilfon, and Sprott ;
and the former in particular, who was paymafter of the navy
department under lord Melville, and had taken out large
fums of money on his own private account. In the invefti-
gation of this bnfinefs, it was difcovered, that the fums
officially depofited in the Bank had been withdrawn, lodged
with private bankers, and applied to other purpofes befides
thofe that were properly naval. Mr. Whitbread founded on
feveral fafts which he llated, a variety of refolutions which
impeached the fidelity and honour of his lordftiip. To his
motion relative to this bufinefs, Mr. Pitt moved an amend-
ment, which was negatived by a majority of one (217 to
216), in confequence of the vote of the fpeaker. In confe-
quence of thefe proceedings, the vifcount refigned his office
at the Admiralty-Board, and his name was expunged from
the lift of privy-counfellors. Upon the fudden demife of
the premier, and a coahtion between lord Grenville and Mr.
Fox, the two latter came into office ; and Mr. Erflcine, being
raifed to the peerage, and appointed lord high chancellor,
was deftined to prefide at lord Melville's trial. This noble-
man having made his defence within the bar of the houfe of
commons was replied to by the member for Bedford ; and
an impeacliment being agreed upon, proceedings com-
menced in Weftminfter-hall, April 29th, 1806. The refult,
after a fhort trial, was the acquittal of his lordfhip by a ma-
jority, from all the charges alleged againft him. Notwith-
ftanding the unexpected termination of this trial, neither the

friends

WHITBREAD.

friends nor the enemies of the fuppofed delinquent attached
any blame to the pubhc accufer ; but he was allowed to
have condufted the bufinefs affigned to him with a dignity
and propriety fuitable to its dehcacy and importance. In
the cafe of lord Melville, as well as in that of Mr. Pitt, he
knew how to diftinguifh between the man and the minifter ;
and to pay a juft tribute to the talents and difpofitions of
the former, whilft he criminated and condemned the latter.
Having differed with Mr. Pitt with regard to his political
meafures almoft through the whole of his public life,
he took the opportunity which the trial of lord Melville
afforded him of paying a juft tribute of refpeft to his abili-
ties and virtues, when his premature death muft hai-e vin-
dicated the eulogift from the flighteft fufpicion of infmcerity
and adulation.

Of the new adminiftration, he was a fteady fupporter ; but
though he had at an early period enlifted himfelf under the
banners of Mr. Fox, and the earl Grey, his fchool-alFociate
and brother-in-law, who was one of its diftinguifhed members :
he was their friend as minillers, not from perfonal and felfifh
motives, but from a conviftion of his judgment that their
principles and views were moll favourable to the liberty and
welfare of the Britifh empire. Indeed he was regarded by
many as an imprafticable man, becaufe in all great queftions
he was influenced by principle more than by any private and
party attachment. What were his fentiments of the coali-
tion miniftry, and what were the grounds of the fupport
which he afforded them, he had an opportunity of tlating in
the moil explicit manner. At this time fir Francis Burdett
offered himfelf a candidate for the county of Middlefex, and
tranfmitted a circular letter to Mr. W., who had voted for
him twice before, fohciting his fupport. This letter con-
tained refle£lions on the coaHtion miniftry, which led the
fubjeA of this article to decline giving his vote for fir
Francis, and alfo to exprefs his fentiments of the coalefcing
parties, which had been feverely cenfured. " I have fup-
ported the prefent adminiftration," fays Mr. W., " from a
convidlion that they were united upon principles of real
public utility, and for the purpofe of carrying into execu-
tion plans of great national improvement, both in our
foreign and domellic circumftances ; and I cannot abandon
them, becaufe in a fituation more difficult than that in which
any of their predeceffors have ever flood, they have not been
able to effeft what I believe to have been neareil the hearts
of them all — I mean a peace with France ; feeing fuch a
peace could not have been obtained on terms coufiftent with
national honour, and becaufe time has not fufficed to mature
and execute the fchemes of internal improvement, which they
have manifefted their determination to purfue," &c. Having
ftated fome other opinions with regard to the union of
parties, in which he feems to have difagreed with fir Francis,
he concludes : " Thefe radical differences render it impof-
fible for me to affift you in becoming a member of parlia-
ment. Different opinions may be maintained confiftently
with mutual and entire perfonal refpeft ; fuch as I un-
feignedly profefs towards you. The determination you
have' taken to avoid the expence of conveyance and deco-
rations fo confpicuous at your former eleftions, does you
honour ; and I wirti fuch an example could be followed by
all other candidates," Sec. The pubhcation of this corref-
pondence threatened a very undefirable termination ; but it
was happily prevented by the interpofition of friends.

During this period, Mr. Whitbread took an aftive part
in public affairs, and diilinguiCicd himfelf on a variety of
occafions, guarding on the one hand with vigilant jealoufy
againtl an undue exertion of the royal prerogative, and on
the other againft its infringement by the democratical part

of the conftitution. In February 1807, ^^ renewed hi» at-
tention to the exifting fyftem of poor laws, as it was his wi(h
and inceffant endeavour to improve it, and in fo doing to
render the peafantry happier, better, and lefs dependent.
It was alfo an objeft, which he conceived to be of effential
importance, to controul the feveral branches of public
expenditure, and thus to relieve the diftrefles of the coimtry.
Much depended, he well knew, on peace with France, and
to this defideratum his views and efforts were conftantly di-
refted. But he was almoft ready to defpair of this defirable
event, " from the awful moment that death clofed the fcene
upon the enlightened ftatefman (Mr. Fox) who had firil
commenced the negociation." When the Grenville admi-
niftration was obUged to retire, and a new parliament was
convoked by their fucceffors, he pubhfhed a fpirited addrefs
to his conftituents, in which he ftated the meafures which
had been projefted and wholly completed or commenced
during the exiftence of the late miniftry, and the part which
he had taken in the deliberations of the preceding parliament,
clofing with thefe memorable words : " I court your in-
quiry, and if you are fatisfied in the refult of it, I hope for
your votes in the prefent election. If you do me the honour
again to return me, I fhall indeed be proud of it, and I will
again endeavour to do my duty." The next important ob-
jeft of his attention was the education of the poor, as inti-
mately connefted with their morals and religion ; but unable
to obtain a legiflative fanftion to his plan, he was under a
neceflity of recurring to individual exertions and private fub-
fcription. During the important debates that occurred in
1809, with regard to the orders in council, he concurred
with thofe who condemned this meafure, and contributed
firft to their fufpenfion, and at length to their utter difcon-
tinuance. With regard to the fituation of Spain, he was
one of thofe who cenfured the conduft of the French
government, and who wifhed the natives to be ftimulated to
new exertions in behalf of the independence of their native
country. "In 1809," fays one of his biographers, "he
took an aftive part in the inquiry and examination into the
conduft of the royal duke who prefided over the army, and
although he found much to blame on that occafion, yet, at
a future feafon, he feized the firft opportunity to afford his
teftimony in behalf of his royal highncfs, whofe adminiftra-
tion as commander-in-chief had contributed not a little to
the happy and glorious termination of the late conteft.
That event did not prevent him, however, after the over-
throw of Buonaparte's government, from blaming the con-
duft of the Congrefs, and expofing the ambitious views of
fome of the fovereigns, particularly in refpedl to Saxony.
On the return of the emperor from his exile in the ifland
of Elba, the member for Bedford ftrongly and emphatically
cenfured the declaration of the allies, more efpecially that
part of it which feemed to recommend the deteftable princi-
ple of aifaflination. He alfo loudly infilled both on the im-
policy and injuftice of a new war, on the ground that the
executive power of the enemy was vefted in the hands of
any one particular perfon. But above all things he pro-
tefted againft the forcible reftoration of the Bourbons by a
foreign force, and the affumed right of dictating a govern-
ment to France. Yet he moft cordially joined m a vote of
national gratitude to the duke of WeUington, for the me-
morable viftory at Waterloo, although he at the fame tinve
boldly avowed that events had not altered his fentiments in
refpeft to the pretended juftice of the original conteft."

In the variety of his perfonal and domeftic concerns,
in his attendance on parHamentary duties, and in his
efforts for eftablifhing and promoting inftitutions of pub-
Uc utility, and more efpecially fuch as pertained to the

inftruftion

WHITBREAD.

indruAion of tLe poor, Mr. Wliilbread was afliduous
and indefatigable ; and whilft he was overwhelmed by a
multiplicity of occupations, he voluntarily undertook a more
Herculean labour than any other, which was the arrange-
ment of the perplexed concerns of Drury-lane theatre.
With every moment of his time thus occupied, and his
mental powers unremittingly exerted, it is no wonder that
his health (hoiild decline, and that his mind itfelf, though
naturally vigorous and ardent, fhould be impaired by excefs
and intenfenets of application. The confequence thav might
have been appreliended unhappily occurred, and the world
was prematurely deprived of the benefit of his valuable fer-
vices. " His countf-nance changed ; he became drowfy,
lethargic, and irritable ; and he even fuppofed himfclf to
have fallen into contempt." Thefe indications of corporeal
and mental decay were alas! too foon fucceeded by that fatal
cataftrophe, which occurred on Thurfday, ,Iuly 6, 1815.
" An inqiieit having been fummoned by Mr. Cell, the coro-
ner, met at eight o'clock the fame evening, a: the houfe of
the dcceafed. No. 35, Dovcr-dreet, Piccadilly, and having
entered his Ihidv, beheld Mr. Whitbread lying on his back,
his arms and legs extended, with a deep incifion on his throat
from ear to ear, a Imall part in the front of the throat ex-
cepted. A looking.glafs was oppofite to liim ; his apparel
and the floor wr-re covered with blood ; and the fatal razor
was found at ionie dillance !"

1 The verdict of the jury was as follows : — " That the
'deceafed Samuel Whitbread, efq. died by his own hand ;
but that he was in a deranged (late of mind at the time the
fatal a£t was committef'." His principles and charafter
have been juftly delineated by one of his biographers, and
we (hall (fhA fuch particulars as are confiftent with our
Icontradled limits. " In politics he was a whig ; yet a whig
jof the old Ichool ; one who wiihed to balance the royal
'power, by means of a due influence of the popular branch :
!but at the fame time firmly and fledfaltly to uphold both.
Accordingly, he wai always a ftrenuous, conttaut, and uni-
form advoeate for a reform of the houfe of commons ; but
this great inealure WiS grounded on the ancient and acknow-
ledged bafes ; not mu the vifionary plans of annual ^arlia-
,ments and univerfal fufFrage ! As a patriot, he wi(hed for
!the happinefs and prol^perity of his country ; but thefe, he
'deemed moll likely to be acquired, and mod permanently
lenjoyed by cultivating the arts of peace ; advancing the
commerce ; cherilhing the manufaftures ; and encouraging
|the agriculture of his native land. Wars might indeed be
'popular, fuccefsful, glorious ; but it was alio incumbent and
'imperative that they lh;)ul.l be both juil and necelTary. It
was his firm opinion, that economy was to the full as proper
for a (late as for a private family : he was always, therefore,
la decided friend of order, regularity, and good management.
He hated jobs; he viewed- placemen, courtiers, and con-
itraftors, wuh a jealous eye ; and he diflikid both unnecefTary
land exce(rive penfions, not only on account of the fums thu»
perverted from the public revenue ; but alfo from their ob-
vious tendency to produce meannefs, fycophancy, and
idependance.

I " Mr. Whitbread was a ftrenuous advocate for national
|educatioii,or inttruAion on a great fcale. But finding him-
jfelf unable to obtain a national fanftion to this meafure, he
, contented himfelf with his alTiftance and fupport as a private
individual.

I •' He was an encourager of the fine arts ; and always de-
;6rous that they (hoiild enjoy protcftion and applaufe." — "To
|agriculture, as a fcience calculated to advance the bed in-
iterefts of the nation, he paid particular attention." — " Horti-
.:uUurc alfo engaged hie notice, and the gardens, and lawns,

and groves of Southwell, might Lave all been exhibited
as fo many perfctt fpecimens of care, neatnefs, and pro-
priety.

"Although always doubtful of the jnlliceof the late war,
he never htfitated for a fugle moment as to the propriety of
arming and defending his native country agaii.lt tl e menaces
and attacks of her enemies. He himlelt railed and com-
manded a body of flurdy yeomanry ; and while fe thus ex-
cited a martial ardour in his neighbourhood, he foigot not
to enforce his favourite plan of fitting men, by nieans of
education, for their refpiftive fituations in life. On this
occiifKr, he inflituted a fchool for the benefit of the non-
commilriunpd officers ; and contributed by all the means in
his power to rei.<ier it effidual.

"An only for., boiri> and matured with the expeflations of
great opulerce ; it is but Vntle furprifing if he occafionally
difplayed a certain degree of hai.ghtineis in his demeanour.
Indeid it cannot be denied, that ai times he appeared
fomewhat harfh and overbearing; but on \he other hand,
he muft be allowed to have been admirably fitted for com-
mand ; and was feldom known to exceed the bounds of
moderation, but when he combated the injuilice of power,
affailed the infolence of office, or endeavoured to expofefuc-
cefsful guilt to fhame and to punifhment.

" His heart conflantly glowed with all the focial afFeftiong.
He was zealous in his fnendfhips ; while his enmities were
tranfient and fhort-lived. His ear was ever rt ady to liftea
to the tale of the oppreffed : his purfe always open to fuc-
cour thofe who had been reduced to diflrefs by uiiexpefted
calamities. At length, after having lived and aflefl diuing
the Hormy pohtics of the French revolutionary contefl, he
was fuddenly cut off, at a period when his iervices might
have proved highly advantageous to his country ; when the de-
ceitful calm of peace leemed pregnant with greater and more
formidable dangers than thofe arifing out of a long, wide-
ipreading, expenfive, and deflruftivc warfare !

" On the I ith July, 1815, when the marquis of Taviftock,
on moving for a new writ for the borough of Bedford, de-
fcanted on the charafter, worth, and talents of the late
member, his encomium was liflened to amidft the loud
cheerings of both fides of the houfe of commons :

" 'Accuftomed to defend his opinions with warmth and
earneftnefs,* faid he, ' the energies of his ample and com-
prehenfive mind, would never permit the leaft approach to
tamenefs or indifference. But no panicle of animofity ever
found a place in his breaft, and hg never carried his political
enmities beyond the threfhold of this houfe. It was hit
uniform praftice to do juflice to the motives of his politi-
cal opponents ; and I am happy to feel, that the fame jufticc
is done to his motives by them. To thofe who were more
immediately acquainted with his exalted charafter ; who
knew the direftiiefs of his mind, his zeal for truth, his un-
(hakeii love of his country, the ardour and holdnefs of a dif-
pofition incapable of difmay, his unafPefted humanity, and
his other various and excellent qualities, his lofs is irreparable.
But moll of all, will it be felt by the indigent in his neigh-
bourhood. Truly might he be called the poor man's friend.
Only thofe who, like myfelf, have had the opportunity of
obferving his conduft nearly can be aware of his unabated
zeal, in promoting the happinefs of all around him. His
eloquent appeals to the houfe in favour of the unfortunate,
will adorn the pages of the future hiftorian ; while at the
prefent moment, they afford a fubjeft of melancholy retro-
ipeft to thofe who have formerly dwelt with delight on tlie
benevolence of a heart that always beat, and on tne vigour
of an intelleft which was always employed for the benefit of
hig fellow-creatures !' "

He

W H I

He left behind him by lady Elizabeth, his mourning-
widow, two fons and two daughters.

The following memorandum of Mr. Whitbread's fudden
death was written immediately after the lamentable event
was afcertained, in the title-page of a very ancient edition
of Cicero's " Paradoxa," by a friend who highly refpeft-
ed the ftern virtues both of his public and his pnvate
charadler : —

Samuel Whitbread, armiger ;

Vir illuftris ifte, quern omnes liberales brevi in tempore

appellabunt

Anglicum Catonem,

E terra fuit ereptus die fexto Julii, anno'Chrifti 1815.

Ann. Biog. and Obit, for i8i7-

WHITBURN, in G--^graphy, a townlhip of England,
in the county of Parham ; 4 miles N.'of Sunderland.

WHITBV, Daniel, a learned divine of the church
of Eno-land, was born at Rufhden, in Northampton (Iiire,
in 1638, and admitted to Trinity college, Oxford, in
1653, where he took the degree of M.A. in 1660, and
became fellow of his college in 1664, in which year he firll
appeared as a writer againlt popery. In 1668 he was
appointed chaplain to Dr. Seth Ward, bilhop of Salif-
bury, and collated to a prebend in his church. In
1672 he took the degree of D.D., and about this time
was made reftor of St. Edmund's parilh in Saliftury.
From this time he became a confiderable writer in the
popifh controverfy, publilhing " A Difcourfe concerning
the Idolatry of the Church of Rome," 1674; "The
Abfurdity and Idolatry of Holl-Worfhip proved," 1679 ;
" The Fallibility of the Roman Church demonftrated,"
1687 ; and " A Treatife of Traditions," in two parts,
1689. He alfo exprefled, in common with feveral other
liberal perfons at this period, his wifhes for an union of all
Proteltants, in a piece publifhed in 1683, and intitled
" The Protellant Reconciler ; humbly pleading for Con-
defcenfion to Diflenting Brethren in Things indifferent and
unneceffary, for the Sake of Peace, &c." This publica-
tion was too liberal for the times, and called forth a hoft of
adverfaries. But the moft formidable attack was that of
the famous Oxford decree, which paffed a cenfure on the
following propofitions contained in it ; in%. " It is not
lawful for fuperiors to impofe any thing in the worfhip of
God that is not antecedently neceflary :" — " The duty of
not offending a weak brother is inconfiftent with all himiaii
authority of making laws concerning indifferent things ;"
which propofitions were denominated in the decree falfe,
impious and feditious doftrines ; and the book was burnt
in the quadrangle of the univerfity fchools. But it was
ftill more humiliating to the author to be required by his
patron, the bifhop, to declare his forrow for having written
the work, and to renounce by name the two preceding pro-
pofitions. This conduft was very unworthy of a Chriftian
bifhop, and fixes a permanent fligma on the memory of
Ward. It reminds us of the Inquifition and Galileo. (See
Galileo.) Dr. Whitby, aftuated probably by a defire to
conciliate his adverfaries, or urged to adopt this meafure,
publifhed in the fame year a fecond part of the book, in
which he ftrongly prefles the diffenting laity to join in full
communion with the eflablifhed church, and replies to all
the objetlions of the Non-confonmifls againft the lawfulnefs
of their complying with its rites and ceremonies.

No man could more fincerely rejoice in the Revolution
than Whitby, nor more cordially welcome the emancipation

W H I

of Britifh fubjefts from all kinds of tyranny. Accordingly
he pubhflied two trafts in favour of the oath of allegiance
required on the accelTion of king William ; and in one of
thefe trafts he maintains the principle in the Englifh govern-
ment of an original contract between the prince and the
people.

His capital work, however, was the refult of fifteen years'
ftudy, and is intitled " A Paraphrafe and Commentary on
the New Teflament," 2 vols. fol. printed in 1703, feveral
times rfprnited, and held in high eflimation by bibhcal
itudents. To the edition of 1710 he annexed a Latin
appendix, containing an examination of Dr. Mill's various
readings, under an apprehenfion that they might prove in-
jurious to the authority of Scripture. This great work of
Dr. Whitby was followed by feveral trafts on theological
fubjefts, in which he feems to value himfelf on that freedom
of difcuffion which, with new times, he was allowed to in-
dulge, more efpecially as he occafionally ftrays beyond the
fixed boundaries of what has been called orthodoxy.
Among thefe trafts were, " The NecefTity and Ufefulnefs
of the Chriftian Revelation ;" " A Difcourfe concerning
the true Import of the Words Eleftion and Reprobation ;"
" The Extent of Chrift's Redemption ;" " The Grace of
God ;" " The Liberty of the Will ;" " The Perfeverance
or Defeftibility of the Saints ;" " Four Difcourfes on
Eleftion and Reprobation ;" " A Treatife on Original
Sill," in Latin, in which he denies that the imputation of
Adam's fin to his polterity has any fair ground in Scripture.
Upon the publication of Dr. Clarke's " Scripture Doc-
trine of the Trinity," Dr. Whitby adopted his opinion, and
wrote a Latin treatife, intended to prove that the contro-
verfies refpefting the Trinity could not with certainty be
determined from fathers, councils, or Catholic tradition.
In conneftion with this fubjeft of controverfy, he pubhfhed
" A DifFuafive from Inquiry into the Doftrine of the
Trinity ; or, the Difficulties and Difcouragements which
attend the Study of that Doftrine." In the Bangorian
controverfy, he was one of the auxiliaries of Dr. Hoadly,
and printed feveral trafts. He alfo pubhfhed feveral fer-
mons. But his lafl work, which did not appear till after
his death, was " The laft Thoughts of Dr. Whitby, con-
taining his Correftions of feveral Paffages in his Commen-
tary on the New Teflament ; to which are added Five
Difcourfes ; publifhed by his exprefs Order." In the pre-
face to this work, written at the clofe of a long life of
learned and laborious inquiry, the author fays, " when
he wrote his Commentaries, he went on too haftily in the
common beaten road of other reputed orthodox divines ;
conceiving firft, that the Father, Son, and Holy Ghoft, in
one complex notion, were one and the fa.me God, by virtue
of the fame individual effence communicated from the Father ;
which confufed notion (he adds) he is now fully convinced
to be a thing impofTible, and full of grofs abfurdities." A
fhort illnefs clofed the hfe of this eminent bibhcal fcholar,
on March 24, 1725-6, at the age of 88. He is reprefented
by a biographer as a man of great fimplicity of charafter,
Angularly ignorant of worldly affairs, entirely devoted to his
ftudies, but affable, pious, and charitable. He preferved a
tenacious memory to the lafl, but through a defeft of fight
was obliged to employ an amanuenfis. Biog. Brit.

Whitbv, in Geography, is a confiderable fea-port town
of the North-Riding of Yorkfhire, England, fituated be-
tween Flamborough-head and the entrance of the river
Tees. Confidering the ruins of the ancient abbey as the
principal objeft of the town, the latitude of Whitby is 54°
29' 24" N., and the longitude 0° 35' 59" W. from the
meridian of Greenwich. It is 47 miles N.E. of York, and

246

WHITBY.

■546 niilcb from London. Tlic town is placed at llie mouth of
tht fmall river Eflf , which divides it into two unequal parts.
The direftion of the river, running nearly due north towards
the fea, cjetermines that of the town, which extends along
its banks. Thefe banks rife almoft fuddenly from the river
Jon both fides ; particularly on the eaft, fo as to leave but a
■very narrow ftretch of level ground at the bottom, of
which, indeed, a great part has, at different times, been
gained from the bed of the river. This narrow fpace is
literally covered with lioufes ; but the town afcends the
fteep banks on both fides, and thus prefents a romantic
appearance, efpecially when viewed from the fea ; the
whole furmounted by the old weather-beaten church, on the
verge of the eaftern cliff, and the venerable remains of the
abbey behind. The eaftern half of the town extends about
three-quarters of a mile ; but the breadth where greateft
does not exceed 150 yards. The weftern divifion is the
largeft, the moft compaft, and the moll elegant. Although
now of importance, Whitby was but inconiiderable in trade
and population, until towards the beginning of the laft cen-
tury. Its origin may, however, be carried back to the
foundation of the celebrated monaftery in the feventh cen-
tury. That the Romans, or the original Britons, had any
eftablilhment at Whitby, we have no grounds to affirm ; al-
though the opening of the river into the fea muft have
afforded a convenient ftation for fifhing and navigation ; of
which, had the Romans been a commercial people, they
would doubtlefs have availed themfclves, efpecially on a
traft of coall fo little furnilhed with harbours adapted to
their {hipping. On this part of the coaft may, perhaps, be
placed the bay mentioned by Ptolemy, under the romanized
name Dunum Sinus, of which the moll commodious inlet
was the mouth of the river, now, by a pecuhar appro-
priation of a generic Britifh name for water, called the Elli.
After the eilablifliment of the monaftery of St. Hilda in
the feventh century, the vicinity began to be inliabited.
Under her fucceft'or ^Ifleda, daughter of Ofwv, the port
had fome ftiare of ftiipping ; for, in 684, the abbels took
a voyage, with fome monks of the abbey, to the ifle of
Coquet, on the coaft of modern Northumberland, to have
an interview with St. Cuthbert. Suffering and again re-
ftored with the abbey, after the devaftation by the Danes
in 867, Whitby obtained its prefenl name, fignifying the
White town. It was alfo from the monaftery occafionally
called Prefteby, or Priefttown. Although unnoticed in
Domefday-book, Whitby, prior to 1189, had become of
fuch importance, that the abbot erefted it into a borough,
with the cuttomary privileges. Thofe privileges were foon
after confirmed by a royal charter ; and had no unfair means
been employed to fet them afide, Whitby might now
have been a royal borough. But the liberties of Whitby
were of ftiort duration : the monks repented of their libera-
lity to the town, and Peter, the fucceeding abbot, in 1200,
procured from king John a repeal of the charter of his pre-
deceffor. About the year 1538, Whitby is defcribed by
Leland as a " great fifchar toune ;" and nothing more is
added by Camden, who mentions the place fifty years later.
For many years after the diffolution of the abbey, the
veffels of the port were few and fmall ; and the trade was
inconfiderable until the eftablilhment of the alum-works at
Guilborough, at the clofe of Elizabeth's reign. A Ipirit
of emulation being excited by the fuccefs of thofe works,
a fimilar eftablilhment was formed in 1615 at Sand'send,
within three miles of the town. The vicinity of Whitby
abounding with the alum-mineral, other undertakings of the
fame kind were begun. Hence two important branches of in-
dullry were formed in the town ; the one to fupply the
Vol. XXXVIII.

alum-works with coal, the other to export the aluhi to
diltant parts. From thele beginnings, the trade of Whitby
increafed ; the fchemes of the inhabitants were enlarged •
the number of (hipping was augmented ; and new ftiips
were conftruded, tor which timber was drawn from the
oak-woods of the vicinity. In this manner, the trade and
navigation of the town grew up to fuch a height, that
in the beginning of the prefent century, Whitby was the
feventh in rank for tonnage among the ports of England.
In 18 1 6, the number of veffels belonging to the town was
280, carrying 46,341 tons, and navigated by 2674 feamen.
Befides the carrying of coal, with the alum trade, and a
ftiare of foreign commerce, the number of veffels fitted out
from Whitby for the Greenland whale-fiftiery, begun in 1753,
was, in 1800, next to that of thofe faihng from London.
As early as the middle of the i6th century, fmall wooden
piers were conftrufted at the mouth of the Elk, for the
proteftion of the fiftiing-craft : but in 1632 ftone piers were
begun, through the exertions of fir Hugh Cholmley, who,
by the favour of the earl of Strafford, his relation, obtained
a general contribution over England in aid of the work,
when nearly 500/. were coUeded. The navigation of
Whitby becoming of importance, adls of parliament were
obtained, in 1702 and 1723, for conftruding a pier, which
now extends above two hundred yards from the cHff on
the eaft fide of the harbour, weftward to the channel of
the Eflc. By this work, fecurity was obtained for the
town as well as the ftiipping, both of which were greatly
expofed to north-eafterly winds. Another pier, on the
weft fide, was afterwards added, running out about an
eqnal diftance towards the fea. By fubfequent additions
and improvements, the harbour has been effentially bene-
fited. The weft pier, now carried out to the length of
three hundred and forty yards, is couftruded with large
blocks of fquared ftone, and terminates in a circular head,
witli embrafures for a battery. Within the piers, veffels to
the number of five hundred may lie, but all on the ground
at low water. The harbour is divided into the outer and
the inner by a drawbridge, fo conftrucled as to allow
fhips of two hundred tons to pafs through. In the latter,
which is capacious and fecure, on both fides of the river
are conftruded feveral dry docks, and other accommoda-
tions for Ihip-building. The veffels built for the coal-trade
are particularly valued for their ftrength and durability.
One built in 1724 was loft on the Lincolnftiire coaft in
i8io, but did not go to pieces: another, wrecked a few
years ago, was above one hundred years old. In neap-tides
the water rifes from ten to twelve feet at the entrance of
the harbour; but in ordinary fpring-tides the depth ex-
tends from fifteen to eighteen feet. In the equinodial
gales, the depth of water is fometimes increafed to twenty-
three or twenty-four feet. The trade of the port of
Whitby is but fmall in proportion to its (hipping, as many
of the largeft velfels are employed in time of war as
tranfports, and at other times by the merchants of London,
and of other ports. The trade of the town is, however,
confiderable for its fituation, in a country abounding with
moors, where few manufadures are carried on. The alum-
works in the environs are of great antiquity, and may not
improbably be carried back to the Roman times. But
the firft work eftablilhed lu Britain, in later times, was
begun by fir Thomas Chaloner in 1595, on his eftate at
Btlman-rock, near Guilborough, twenty miles to the well-
ward of Whitby. Since that period, alum-mmeral has been
cxtraded in various other places, particularly at Sand's-end,
three miles well from Whitby, where the work is ftill in
a profperous flate. Until the year 1789, the alkaline lees
3 D employed

WHITBY.

employed in the manufafture were prepared from kelp, or
fea-weed, burnt on the (here : but fince that period kelp
has been gradually fuperfeded by black-a(hes, made from
the refufe of foap-boilers' lees. The average annual quan-
tity of alum manufaftured in the Whitby diftrid, for the
laft twelve years, was 2840 tons; but in 1816 the quan-
tity was 3155 tons. Little alum is now exported, nearly
the whole being fent to London. Tbe number of perfons,
including artificers and boys, belonging to the works, is
about 600. (See Alum.) Thm feams of coal have, for
upwards of feventy years, been wrought in the environs of
Whitby, but of a very inferior quality, and ufed only m
the interior parts of the country.

Whitby contains no pubhc building of note. The town-
hall, erefted by the late Mr. Cholmley, is a heavy pile of
the Tufcan order. The poor-houfe, extenfive, and judi-
cioufly managed, affords a comfortable refuge for the dif-
treffed, and tends to diminifli the heavy burthen of the
pari(h-rates. A difpenfary, liberally fupported, for diftri-
buting advice and medicines to the poor, was eUablifhed in
1780. The parifh-church (lands near the top of a hill,
on the eaft fide of the town, a little to the northward of
the ruins of the abbey, acceffible from the bottom by an
inconvenient afcent of 190 ftone fteps. The architefture
of the edifice was originally what is abfurdly ftyled Gothic ;
but it has gone through fo many alterations, that little of
its ancient appearance now remains. The churcii-yard is
excefiively crowded with grave- ftones ; but the fea-air of
Whitby is fo deftruftive of ftones, that infcriptions are
foon effaced. For the ufe of the numerous inhabitants, a
fpacious chapel of eafe has been erefted in the lower part
of the town ; and for the country part of the parilh, which
is of great extent, three others have been built. That
at Sleights, four miles from the town, is a handfome edifice.
Roman Cathohcs, Quakers, and various other claffes of
difTenters, have their refpeftive places of worfhip in the
town. According to the parliamentary returns of 181 1,
the houfes of this town were 1393, and the inhabitants
6969: but in the fpriiig of 18 16, the population was
found, by a careful inquiry, to have increafed to 10,203.
The inhabitants of the country part of the pari(h were then
eftimated at 1477 perfons.

The town of Whitby is clofe, irregular, and unpleafant ;
but the environs are romantic and beautiful. Thefe are
embellifhed with the country-refidences of the opulent in-
habitants, moftly erefted on commanding fituations : the
moft interefting objeft of all, however, is the celebrated
Abbey, of great antiquity, having been originally founded
in the year 655. Before the fanguinary but decifive battle
of Leeds, on the banks of the Oire, in which he utterly
overthrew and flew his invading foe, Penda, king of the
Mercians, Ofwy, king of the Northumbrians, vowed, if
fuccefsful, to ereft and endow a monaftery, and to confe-
crate to the fervice of rehgion in it his daughter ^Ifleda,
then fcarcely a year old. In difcharge of this engagement,
he founded the monaftery of Streonefhalh, of the Benedic-
tine order ; with this pecuharity, that it was to contain
both monks and nuns, all under the government of St.
Hilda, the firft abbefs. It is, neverthelefs, probable, that
the introduftion of the monks, by which the inilitution
became in all refpe&s fimilar to that of the celebrated abbey
of Fontevraud, in the weft of France, did not take place
till feveral years after its eftabhftiment. The monaftery
was began in 657, and dedicated to St. Peter ; but fueh
was the veneration entertained for St. Hilda, that it was
always called by her name, and to her was the foundation
ufually afcribed. While Hilda was abbefs, the fynod of

Whitby was held in 664, in which, notwithftanding her
oppofition, ftrengthened by that of Colman, the feftival of
Eafter was direfted to be celebrated at the time adopted by
the fovereign pontiff, inftead of that which had been in
general obfervance in Britain. Dying in 680, Hilda's place
as abbefs was filled by Ofwy's daughter, iElfleda. Till
the year 867, the abbey continued to profper ; but it was
then overthrown by the fons of Lodbrog the Dane. In
this ftate it remained until after the Norman Conqueft : the
lands in the neighbourhood were granted to Hugh, the firft
earl of Chefter, from whom they pafled to WiUiam de
Percy, anceftor of the Percys of Northumberland. By him
the monaftery was reftored from its ruins under a prior ;
but in the reign of Henry I. it was again raifed to the rank
of an abbey. Although pillaged by a Norwegian fleet in
the time of abbot Richard, who died in 1175, its revenues
at the diflblution, under Henry VIII., amounted to 505/.
^s. id. At this epoch, the fcite and lands, partly by grant
and partly by purchafe, became the property of fir Richard
Cholmley, a defcendant of the family of Cholmondeley, in
Chefhire.

Of Whitby-abbey, the ruins of the church alone remain ;
but by thefe, which are ftill confiderable and confpicuoufly
pifturefque, it appears to have been a magnificent ftrufture.
Tiie exterior length of the church, which is built in the
ufual form of a crofs, is 310 feet ; the breadth at the weft
end, including the buttrefl'es, is 84 feet ; the length of the
crofs 153 feet. The church probably occupies the fcite of
the Saxon building erefted before the Conqueft ; but of it,
nor even of the edifice conftrufted immediately after the
revival of the monaftery, no veftige now remains. The pre-
fent ftrufture is of different ages, and exhibits different
ttyles of architefture. The eaftern part, or choir, evidently
the oldeft, was probably built by Richard de Burgh,
who was abbot from 1148 to 1 175, and who rebuilt the
chapter-houfe. The lower part of the tower, and moft of
the pillars, which are all cluftered, were perhaps erefted at
the fame time : but the north tranfept and the upper part
of the tower are of a later date. The ornaments of the
windows in thofe parts, the beautiful range of niches on the
walls within, the tracery of the circular vv'indow in the north
end, &c. foem to indicate the work of the clofe of the 1 3th
or the beginning of the 14th century. The weft front is the
lateft part of the whole, probably of the time of Edward III.,
or in the end of the 14th century.

The alum-rocks in the vicinity of Whitby are not lefs
curious than valuable, from the variety of petrified fub-
ftances they contain. Befides the ufual petrifaftions of
fhells and other marine bodies, parts of the human fkeleton
have been occafionally difcovered. In the early part of the
lart century. Dr. Woodward, the celebrated naturalift, dug
up on the fear, or cliff, on the eaft fide of the harbour, the
petrified arm and hand of a man, having all the bones and
joints very vlfible. About 1743 was found, in the alum-
rock, the complete flceleton of a man ; but it was broken
to pieces by taking from the bed. A fimilar difcovery is
faid to have been made about nine years ago ; but the
fkeleton was broken without any fcientific perfon having
examined it. In 1758, the bones of a crocodile, as they
were imagined to be, were drawn from the rock, and tranf-
mitted to the Royal Society, by whom an account of them
was pubhfhed in the 50th volume of the Philofophical
Tranfaftions. About tour years afterwards, the fkeleton
of a horfe was found in the alum-works at Salt-wick, thirty
yards under the furface. Ammonites, or cornua-aramonis,
vulgarly called fnake-ftones, abound, with other teftaceous
petrifaftions, in the aluminous fchiftus in the vicinity of

Whitby ;

W H I

Whitby ; on which account, probably, the town has chofen
three ammonites for its arms.

Robin-Hood's Bay, fix miles fouth-eaft from Whitby, is a
noted fifhing-ftation, frequented for proteftion by many a
veffel paffing along that extended tra£t of inhofpitable (hore.
Among the country-feats in the vicinity of Whitby, which
arc not numerous, is Mulgrave caftle, the manfion of the
earl of Mulgrave, fituated five miles weftvvard from the
town, on a lofty eminence, commanding a moil extenfive
profpeft both by land and fea. Near to the fouthward
lland the remains of the ancient baronial caftle of Mulgrave.
Manifefl evidences of Roman occupation are to be feen
in various parts of the furrounding country. The Roman
road from Eboracum (York), northwards by the vicinity of
New Malton, (perhaps the Dei-venl'w of Antonine, ) and
apparently terminating atDurnfley, near the fea, three miles
W. from Whitby, is in many places very perceptible.
Along its courfe ftill remain traces of Roman encampments,
of which the camps at Cawthorn, 19 miles S.W. from
Whitby, fuppofed to be the Delgovitia of Antonine, are
very perfeft. Thefe works are noticed in general Roy's
" Military Antiq'jities of the Romans in Britain ;" but
much more particularly in " The Hiftory of Whitby and
Streonefhalh- abbey, with a Statiftical Survey of the Vici-
nity," by the Rev. George Young, in 2 vols. 8vo. Whitby,
1817.

WHITCHURCH, a populous market-town in the
north part of the hundred of North Bradford, and county of
Salop, England, at the northern extremity of the county, is
fituated 20 miles N. by E. from Shrewlbury, and 160 miles
N. W. by N. from London. The church, the chief objeft of
notice, feated on the top of the hill over the town, is a fpa-
cious modern ftrufture, erefted in 1722, with a fquare tower
108 feet in height. Two recumbent ftone figures are pre-
ferved from the ruins of the old church ; of which one re-
prefents the celebrated John Talbot, the firft earl of
Shrewfbury, and marflial of the realm of France in the
reign of Henry VI. : he was called the Englifh Achilles,
and was greatly renowned in the wars of France. Shak-
fpeare, in his play of Henry VI., defcribes Talbot as a moft
formidable and magnificent charafter: " the terror of the
French : — the fcare-crow that affrights their children : —
whofe grifiy countenance made others fly : — none durft
come near him for fear of fudden death." Another effigy
reprefents Chrillopher Talbot, fourth fon of John Talbot,
fecond earl of Shrewfbury, and who was reftor of Whit-
church and archdeacon of Chefter. The reftory of this
parilh is one of the richeft in the county. The caftle has
long been ia ruins. Whitchurch has a very refpedable
free-fchool, in which many perfons of eminence have been
educated. Here are alfo meeting-houfes for Proteftant
diffenters, a charity-fchool for children of both fexcs, and
Jix alms-houfes for aged women, endowed by Mr. Samuel
Higginfon. A weekly market is held on Friday ; and
here are two annual fairs. The town is a place of much
public refort during the horfe -races which are occafionally
held here. Among the natives of Whitchurch, was dif-
tinguiihed the celebrated linguift Abraham Whelock, who
trandated the New Teftameut into Perfian, and affifted-
Dr. Brian Walton in the compilation of his polyglot Bible.
Whelock publifticd alfo an edition of the writings of the
venerable Bede. He died in 1654. The population return
of the year 181 1 ftates ttie town of Whitchurch to con-
tain 552 houfes, and 2589 iuliabitants : but the parifh com-
prehends, befides the town, thirteen townftiips. The whole
population is returned as 5332 ; the number of houfes as
1 107.

W H I

About nine miles to the northward of Whitchurch is
Hawkftone-park, long the refidence of the ancient family
of the Hills, and a place celebrated for its natural and ar-
tificial beauties and curiofities. The manfion, an elegant
modern building fituated on the north fide of a romantic
hill, is adorned with a lofty portico of the Compoflte order.
With the beauty of the exterior of the edifice, the interior
fully correfponds : the chapel and the faloon are particularly
elegant, and the latter is ornamented with valuable paintings.
The grounds around the manfion are particularly intereft-
ing for their affemblage of naturally romantic fcenes, to
which art has greatly contributed. The grotto, the view
from the cliff, called Paoli's-point, the retreat, or hermitage,
St. Francis's cave, the Svvifs bridge, the terrace, the obelilk,
and the widely-extended profpeft it prefents over the fur-
rounding country, the tower, the artificial river, the cottage,
or whim, are among the many attraftive features of Hawk-
ftone-park, which owes much of its embelliftiment to the tafte
and munificence of the late fir Richard Hill, bart. The
beautiful and romantic fcenery of this noble place is fully
detailed in T. Rodenhurft's " Defcription of Hawkftone."
— Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. Shropftiire ;
by R. Rylance, 181 1.

Whitchurch, a fmall but ancient borough and market-
town in the upper half hundred of Evingar, Kingfclere
divifion of Hampfiiire, England, is fituated on the borders
of Chute Foreft, at the diftance of 1 3 miles N. from Win-
chefter, 24 miles N. by E. from Southampton, and 57
miles W.S.W. from London. It pofleffes the rights of a
borough by prefcription ; and has fent two members to
parliament fince the twenty-feventh year of queen Eliza-
beth. The borough is the joint property of lord Sidney
and lord Middleton ; the freeliolds, which give the right of
voting, being conveyed by them to their refpeftive friends
for the purpofe of performing the ceremony of an eleftion.
The freeholders are nominally about feventy, but the real
eleftors are faid to be appointed and influenced by the noble-
men before-mentioned. The government of the town is vefted
in a mayor, annually chofen at the court-leet of the deari
and chapter of Wincheiler, to whom the manor belongs.
The town, though fmall, is remarkable for a variety of re-
ligions fedts ; there being, befides the church, places of
worfhip for the Independents, Anabaptifts, Quakers, Me-
thodifts, and Sandimanians. A market is held weekly on
Friday, and three fairs annually. The population of the
parifh, as afcertained by the return of the year iBii, was
1407 ; the number of houfes 281 : the labouring claffes are
chiefly employed in woollen manufaftures, and in agriculture.

Adjoining to the wcftern end of Whitchurch is one of
the entrances to the ead of Portfmouth's diif inguifhed refi-
dence, Hurftbourne-park. Of late years the park has been
much enlarged. The grounds contain confiderable diverfity
of furface and fcenery ; and the converfion of a fmall ftream
into a broad piece of water, has tended very much to im-
prove the place. In the old part of the park, trees have
attained a fize much beyond what might be expefted from
the chalk and flint which conftitute fo great a portion of
the foil of North liampfhire. An old manfion-houfe flood
in the bottom near the prefent parifh-church and village :
but the late lord Portfmouth pulled it down and erefted
the prefent building in a much more ehgible and healthy
fituation. It ftauds on elevated ground, commanding ex-
tended and varied profpefts, particularly to the fouth and
the north. This manfion, erefted by Mr. Meadows from
the defigns of James Wyatt, efq. confifts of a centre .nnd
two correfportdent wings conneftcd to it by colonnades.
The eaftern wing contains the library and a chapel, and in
3 D 2 the

W H I

W H I

the wcftern arc apartments for fervants. In the library
were preferved a conliderable body of the MSS. on various
matters, philofophical and theological, of the illuftrious
Newton. They came into the pofTeflion of this family in
confequence of the marriage of John, vifcount Lymington,
(fon of the firil earl of Portfmouth, ) in 1740, with Catharme
Conduit, great niece and coheirefs of lir Ifaac. Thofe
papers were examined by the late learned bifhop (then
docftor) Horfley, while preparing his edition of Newton's
trorks. See Newton, Sir Ifaac.

A little to the eaftward of Whitchurch, near the London
road, is Freefolk, noted for the paper-mills belonging to
John Portal Bridges, efq. where the paper for the notes of
the bank of England has been manufaftured ever fince the
reign of George I. At Laverllock is the feat of William
Portal, efq. ; and in the adjoining pariih of Overton is a

handfome new houfe, the feat of Jarvis, efq. In the

village a fdk-mill has been eftablifhed. In various fpots at
no great diftance from Whitchurch, are ftill vifible evidences
of Roman occupation. The great fofs-way, a Roman
road leading from Sorbiodunum, or Old Sarum, to Vindo-
num, or Silchefter, pafTes acrofs the downs two miles to the
northward of the town. Near the courfe of this way, at
■Egbury, a Roman encampment, forming an irregular qua-
drangle, may be eafily traced, the rampart in moll parts is
ftill lofty ; the longeil fide meafures about 300 yards. On
feveral eminences within the extent of a fevr miles from
Whitchurch are circular or ring-polls, commonly called
beacons ; but evidently military ftations of the ancient in-
habitants of the country, to which they could refort, and on
which they could fecure their families and property, in the
event of hoftile alTault from domedic or foreign foes. —
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vi. Hampihire ; by
J. Britton, F.S.A. and E. W. Brayley.

WHITE, Gilbert, M.A. in Biography, an agreeable
writer of natural hiftory, was born at Selborne in Hamp-
(hire in 1720, and completed his education at Oriel college,
Oxford, of which he was elefted fellow in 1744. In 1746
he took the degree of M.A., and in 1752 became one of
the fenior proftors of the Univerfity. Unambitious in his
temper, and fond of rural fcenery, he fixed his refidence in
his native village, and devoted his time to literary purfuits,
and particularly to the inveftigation of thole fubjects of
natural hiftory, which furnilhed him with leffbns of piety
and benevolence. The refult of his obfervations was com-
municated to the public in his " Natural Hiftory and An-
tiquities of Selborne," 1789, 4to.; the iirft and principal
part of which confifted of letters addreffed to Mr. Pennant,
and affords a variety of remarks, chiefly in the zoological
departments, peculiarly amufing and no lefs inftruft'.ve :
and the fecond part treats of the antiquities of the place.
Highly elleemed by all who knew him, he died in 1793 ;
but after his deceafe, the natural hillory of his work was
publifhed feparately in 2 vols. 8vo. 1802, with the addition
of mifcellaneous obfervations, and a Naturalift's Calendar,
cxtrafted from his papers, and of parallel remarks com-
municated by W. Markwick, efq., an accurate obferver of
nature in the county of Suftiix. Gen. Biog.

White, Joseph, Regius profeffor of Hebrew, and Lau-
dian profeffor of Arabic, in the univerfity of Oxford, was
born in Gloucefterlhire in 1746, and being of humble origin,
but devoted to reading whilft he was purfuing his father's
occupation as a weaver, attrafted the notice of a neighbour-
ing gentleman, who fent him to Wadham college, Oxford.
Having graduated M.A. in 1773, and chofen fellow of his
college, he direfted the main bent of his ftudies to the
oriental languages, uiidtr the advice of Dr. Moore, after-

wards arclibidiop of Canterbury. Such was his proficiency
in this department of literature, that in 1 775 he was elefted
Laudian profeflbr of Arabic, on which occafion he
delivered and printed an oration on the utility of that lan-
guage in theological ftudies. By the recommendation of
bifliop Lowth, he was appointed editor of the Phi'loxenian
Syriac verfion of the four gofpels, which he publifhed in
1778. About this time he was nominated one of the kinor's
preachers at Whitehall ; and in a fcrmon preached before the
univerfity of Oxford, he recommended a revifalof the Eng-
lifh tranflation of the Old Tellament. In 1780 he publifhed a
" Specimen of the Civil and Military Inftitutesof Timour,"
tranflated from a Perfian verfion of the Mogul original,
written by the conqueror himfelf. He alfo added a fpeci-
men of Perfian poetry, and recommended the ftudy of this
language. Thefe Inftitutes havir.g been tranflated entire by
major Davy, were publifhed from the Clarendon prefs in
1783, under the infpedlion of profeftbr White, who annexed
a preface, indexes, and geographical notes.

As Bampton lefturer, to which ofBce he was appointed
in 1 78 1, he preached a courfe of fermons before the aniver-
fity, which were printed in 1784, and much admired for
their learning and eloquence. The general defign of thefe
fermons was to evince the excellence of the Chriftian reli-
gion, on a comparifon with that of Mahomet. (See Al-
coran.) It was difcovered, however, fomewhat to the dif-
grace of the profeffor, that he had derived very confider-
able affiftance in the compofition of thefe fermons from the
mafterly pen of Mr. Badcock, who had been a diffenting
minifter at South Molton, and afterwards conformed to the
church, and that feveral of them were aftually written by
him. It was alfo known, that Dr. Parr, from his ample
ftore of Greek literature, had furnilhed the materials that
had been wrought up into two of thefe fermons. Thefe
fafts were inveftigated and afcertained ; and the charge
againft the profeffor was fufficiently fubftantiated, and it
was founded, not fo much on his want of ability for fuch
productions, as on his indolence, and on certain habits un
favourable to ftudy. His reputation, however, as a de-
fender of Chriftianitv was acknowledged, and he was pre-
fented to a prebend of Gloucefter, and foon after was gra-
duated D.D. About the year 1790 he married, and ac-
cepted a college-living in Suffolk. In this fituation he pro-
fecuted his ftudies, and having fet up a prefs in his houfe,
and furnifhed himfelf with oriental types, he and his wife
performed the bufinefs of compofitors, and a man and maid-
fervant that of the prefs. Hence originated his " .(Egyp-
tiaca," relating to the antiquities of Egypt ; and an edition,
with a verfion, of an account of that country by an Ara-
bian writer named AbdoUatif. In 1799 Dr. White pub-
lifhed from the Clarendon prefs his " Diateffaron," or the
harmony of the four evangelifts, in Greek, a work ufeful to
biblical ftudents. He died in 18 14, at the age of 68. Gen.
Biog.

White, one of the colours of natural bodies.
White is not fo properly faid to be any one colour, as a
compofition of all the colours ; it being demonftrated by
fir Ifaac Newton, that thofe bodies only appear white, which
refleA all the kinds of coloured rays alike, and that the
light of the fun is only white, becaufe it confifts of all
colours.

From the multitude of rings of colours, which appear
upon compreffing two prifms, or objeft-glaffes of telefcopes
together, it is manife<S, that thefe do fo interfere and mingle
with one another at laft,as, after eight or nine refleftions, to
dilute one another wholly, and conftitute an even and uni-
form whitenefs : whence, as well as from other experiments,
10 It

I

W H I

jl appears that wliitenefs is certainly a mixture of all co-
lours ; and that the light which conveys it to the eye is
a mixture of rays endued with all thofe colours.

The fame author (hews, that whitenefs, if it be mod
' ftrong and luminous, is to be reckoned of the firft order of
colours ; but if Icfs, as a mixture of the colours of feveral
orders : of the former fort, he reckons white metals ; and of
the latter, the whitenefs of froth, paper, linen, and mod
other white fubftances. And as the white of the firft order
is the ftrongeil that can be made by plates of tranfparent
fubftances, fo it ought to be ftronger in the denfer fub-
ftances of metals, than in the rarer ones of air, water, and
glafs.

Gold or copper mixed either by fufion or amalgamation
with a very little mercury, with filver, tin, or regulus of
antimony, become white ; which ftiews, both that the par-
ticles of white metals have much more furface, and there-
fore are fmaller than thofe of gold or copper ; and alfo, that
they are fo opake, as not to fuffer the particles of gold or
copper to fliine through them. And as that author doubts
not, but that the colours of gold and copper are of the fe-
cond or third order, therefore the particles of white metals
cannot be much bigger than is requifite to make them
refleft the white of the firft order. See Colour, and Co-
lours from Metals.

Hevelius affirms it as a thing moft certain, that, in the
northern countries, animals, as hares, foxes, bears, &c. be-
come white in the winter time ; and in fummer refurae their
natural colours.

Black bodies are found to take heat fooner than white
ones ; by reafon the former abforb or imbibe rays of all
kinds and colours, and the latter refleft all.

Thus, black paper is fooner put into a flame, by a burn-
ing glafs, than white ; and hence black cloths, hung up by
the dyers in the fun, dry fooner than white ones. See

Bl-ACK.

White of the Eye, denotes the firft tunic or coat of
the eye, called albuginea and conjundiva, becaufe it ferves
to bind together or inclofe the reft. See Adnata, and
Eye.

White y^/if, in Rural Economy, a liquor of the malt kind,
which is faid to be prepared fomewhat in the following man-
ner. Twenty gallons of malt are ma(hed with the fame
quantity of boiling water ; when after ftanding the ufual
time, the wort is drawn off, and fix eggs, four pounds of
flour, a quarter of a pound of fait, and a quart of grout, are
well beaten up together, and mixed with the above quantity
of wort, which, after ftanding twelve hours, is put into a
cafl<, and is ready for ufe the day afterwards.

It is obferved by the writer of the Devonftiire Correfted
Report on Agriculture, who has fupphed the above account,
that this liquor is almoft exclufively confined to the neigh-
bourhood of Kingftjridge, in that county ; and that it is a
beverage which pofleftes a very intoxicating quality, and
which is much admired by thofe who drink not merely to
quench thirft. A myftery, it is faid, hangs over the ingre-
dient called grout, and the fecret is faid to be confined
to one family in the above diftrift only. No difficulty,
however, it is fuppofed, could arife in afcertaining its com-
ponent parts, by fubmitting a certain portion of it to the
left of chemical examination. It is plain, it is faid, that
this liquor is of confiderable antiquity, from the terrier of
the advowfon of Dodbrook, which exprefsly calls for the
tithe of white ale.

This mild pleafant liquor may eafily be made in other
places.

White Antimony Ore, in Miiteralo^y, /Intimo'me Oxydiy

W H I

Hauy, generally occurs diffeminated and cryftallizcd in veins
along with other ores of antimony on primitive rocks. See
Antimony.

White Arfenk, and AJlies. See the fubftantives.

White Bait, in Ichthyology. See Clupea.

White Ream. See Cuat^gus.

White 5^ar. See Polar 5car.

White Brant, the Anas Hyperborea. See DucK.

White Bug, in Gardening, an infeft of the bug kind,
which is often very troublefome and hurtful in v neries,
pcach-houfes, and other fuch forts of houfes for fruit-
trees.

It is obferved in the firft volume of the " Memoirs of the
Caledonian Horticultural Society," that the caufe of this
infeft fo frequently making its appearance in thefe houfes, is
muclc owing to the neglecl in not wafhing the trees pro-
perly every day with the engine in many cafes. That when
a vinery is much overrun with it, in order to its removal, all
the old bark fhould be ftript from off the vinep, and all the
ftioots and trellis be properly fponged over with black foap
and warm water. The writer always makes it a rule, at the
time of the winter-pruning, to take off the outer bark,
whether infefted with them or not, as thefe bugs lodge be-
tween the old and new bark. That in regard to peach-
trees, which are infefted in this way with the white bug,
they ftiould be fponged all over in the fame manner in the
winter feafon ; and if any bugs ftiould appear in the fpring,
it is a good way, it is faid, to tie pieces of mat round the
ftems and large branches of the trees ; as about thefe parts
thefe infefts take flielter from the heat of the fun. Once
every day thefe portions of mat fhould be taken off, and
thrown away out of the houfes. That foon after forcing is
begun, the female of thefe bugs will be obferved to be much
larger than the male, at which time (he conftantly goes into
fome hollow of the trees or bark, and depofits her ova or
eggs moftly in fome thoufands. Thefe are eafily capable
of being difcovered, and may be picked out of fuch hollows
or crevices by means of a large pin, or fmall piece of
fliarpened ftick ; which is an effeAual way of getting quit of
them, and of preventing their future increafe. See Wash-
ing Fruit-Trees.

White Campion, in Agriculture, a pernicious perennial
weed in corn lands, paftures, and hedges, which is often
difficult to deftroy, except by good fummer tillage of the
ground. See Weed, and Weeding.

White Caterpillar, or Borer, in Gardening, a very de-
ftruftive fort of infeft of this kind, but which is not fo
numerous as thofe of the other kinds, nor does it attack and
deftroy the fame parts of goofeberry-bufties, though equally
injurious on others. It is of comparatively a fmall fize too,
in relation to thofe of the other forts, the black and green,
that infeft thefe bufties ; the former of which, the large or
black, may be obferved, it is faid in a paper in the Horti-
cultural Tranfaflions of Scotland, lying during the winter
months in large clufters on the under parts, and in the cre-
vices of the bufties of thefe forts ; and that even in the
month of February they have been found in that ftate.
But that in the courfe of eight or ten days after that, if the
weather be favourable, they will creep up the bufhes in the
day-time, feed on the yqung buds, and return to their neft
during the night. That whenever leaves appear upon the
bufties, they feed upon them until they arrive at maturity,
which is generally about the month of June ; after which
they creep down upon the under fides of the branches, where
they lodge until the cruft or ftiell is formed over them.
That in July they become moths, and lay their ova or eggs
on the under fidcg of the leaves and of the bark. That the

produce

W H 1

produce of thefe ova or eggs, which come into life during
the month of September, feed on the leaves fo long as they
continue green, and afterwards colleft and gather together
in cluilers on the under fides of the branches, and in the
cracks and openings of the bark, where they abide all the
winter, as has been already feen. Confequently that winter
is the moft proper time for attacking and deftroying this
fort of thefe infefts with fiiccefs, as their deftruftion is then
TOoft effeftually and completely accompliftied by merely the
fimple operation of fprinkhng and pouring a quantity of
boiling hot water over and upon them, from a watering-pan
or pot, by which no injury, it is faid, will thereby be done
to the buihes or goofeberry fruit-fhrubs,

That the latter or green fort are in the fhelly ftate in Fe-
bruary, when they lie about an inch under the ground.
That in the following month they come out fmall flies, and
immediately lay their ova or eggs on the veins and under
fides of the leaves. That thefe ova or eggs produce young
caterpillars in the month of May, which feed on the leaves
of the buflies until June or the fucceeding month, when
they call off a blackifh kind of flcin, and afterwards crawl
down from the buihes into the earth, where a fort of cruft
or (hell grows over them, and in that ftate they continue
until the following April.

The only method which this writer has hitherto found
effeftual in deftroying this fort of thefe goofeberry -caterpil-
lars, is firft to dig the ground all around the bufties very
deep during the winter feafon, by which means the greater
part of them are either deftroyed, or buried too deep ever
to rife to the furface : or, fecondly, in the month of April,
when the flies make their appearance, to pick off all the
leaves on which any ova or eggs are to be difcovered, which
is a tedious operation, but may be performed by children.
If any of the infefts fliould efcape both thefe operations,
they will, it is faid, be difcernible as foon as they come into
life, by their eating holes through the leaves, and may then
be eafily deftroyed, without the leaft injury to the buihes or
fruit.

That this white kind bores the berry, and caufes it to drop
off from the buih. That they preferve themfelves during
the winter feafon in the chryfalis ftate, about an inch under
ground, and become flies nearly at the fame time with the
latter of the above kinds. That they lay their ova or eggs
on the bloflbms, and that thefe eggs produce young cater-
pillars in May, which feed on the berries until they are full
grown, and then creep down into the earth, where they re-
main for the winter in the (hell ftate.

This fort of thefe caterpillars, too, may be beft deftroyed
in the winter feafon, by having the land well and deeply dug
all about the goofeberr)' -buihes at that time of the year, and
by preventing them from climbing up the ftems of the plants
in the early fpring feafon, for the purpofe of laying their
eggs, by every poflible means that can be devifed and reforted
to by the gardener.

Thefe are the beft and moft effeftual methods that have
yet been difcovered by this writer, for the deftruftion of this
and the two other forts of goofeberry-caterpiUars. For
though many. other modes of doing it have been tried, none
have been found fo certain and complete as thefe ; and tliey
have this advantage and confideratiou to recommend them,
that they injure neither the bu{h nor the fruit. That the
fame thing cannot be faid either of tobacco-liquor, fnuff, or
foap-fuds, all which render the fruit conftantly bitter and
ill-tafted ; and which, whatever may be the eifeft that they
may have upon the fmaller kind of caterpillars, it is certain,
the writer thinks, that they have none upon the larger kinds,
and that foot, lime, and lime-water, do not affeft. any fort

W H I

of caterpillar whatever, as the writer has fufficiently proved
by repeated experiments with fuch fubftances.

White Centaury, in Agriculture, an annual weed in woods
and other fuch places ; of which animals in general are not
fond. It is faid to form the bafis of the famous Portland
powder for the gout. See Weed.
White Cinnamon. See Cinnamon.
White Clover, in Agriculture, a well-known plant of the
clover kind, which is perennial, and confequently lafts a
number of years in the foil or land. It is faid to require a
deep free foil to bring it to any degree of luxuriant growth.
Confequently but little of the land in many diftrifts fuits it ;
but it is fometimes fovvn with the common clover in about
half the quantity. In the Berklhire Report on Agricul-
ture, it is ftated, that it is frequently confounded with the
Dutch clover, that it affefts a light foil, that it is much im-
proved by rolling, and that it yields a very fweet hay when
mixed with red clover, rye-grafs, and nonfuch. That
(heep are not very fond of it ; and this is, probably, one
reafon why it islefs cultivated than it deferves to be. It ap-
pears, it is faid, to be the Iri(h (hamrock ; and that the
powdered flowers of this clover being made into bread,
were eaten by the natives of the fifter ifland before the intro-
duftion of potatoes. It may be noticed, too, that it is ca-
pable of bearing flooding, which the red clover is not, and
this is a very great advantage in its favour.

It is remarked alfo, that the real Dutch clover is not un- J
frequently fown with other grades, in a larger or fmaller pro-
portion, as the farmer may think proper. That in fome
places of the above county it is the common praftice to fow
of broad clover eight pounds, yellow trefoil, or hop clover,
four pounds, and of Dutch or white clover, two pounds,
to the acre. If it be fown alone, about eight or nine
pounds will be fufBcient. It is getting into high eftimation
in the neighbourhood of Bray, in the above diftrift, and in
other places, and is fometimes called honey -fuckle grafs,
from the fweetnefs of its fmell. That to all forts of cattle
it forms an agreeable pafture, and efpecially to (heep, which
thrive on it prodigioufly. Even fwine will fatten on this
grafs, the feed of which was imported from Flanders for
fome time after it began to be cultivated in this country,
though it appears to be an indigenous plant. It has the ex-
cellent property of never wearing out by being clofe fed.
See Trifolium Repens, and Hybridum. Alfo Clovek.

White clover is laid, in the Gloucellcr(hire Agricultural
Report, to be injurious to cow-ftock, by having them when
in abundance after rain in paftures.

White Colours, in Painting, comprehend the following ;
viz. YhAKK-lVhite, /Ftoc-LEAD or Cerusse, calcined or
burnt Narts-HoRii, the perfeftion of which depends upon
its whitenefs and lirmnefs, diftinguiihable both by fight and
touch, T^AEL-lV/jite, Tv.0Y-JVhitf, and 'EcG-Shell White.
( See the feveral articles. ) The moft delicate and perfeft
white in ufe, in its application to the purpofes of painting
in water-colours, is the artificial fulphate of barytes. Ac-
cording to Mr. Parkes (Eflf. vol. ii. ), it was firft recom-
mended and brought forward by Mr. Hume, of Long-
Acre, who has long fupplied the pubhc with it under the
name of " Permanent White." The fame ingenious prac-
tical chemift fays, that he knows of nothing fo well calcu-
lated as this for marking bottles in a chemical laboratory,
where the gafes foon deftroy the ink of common labels, and
render them illegible. It is equally ufeful for marking jars,
bottles, or boxes, wliich muft be kept in a damp cellar,
for it is not only imperilhable in fuch fituations, but pre-
ferves its extreme whitenefs, and confequently the diftinft-
nefs of the charafters. We learn alfo from fir Humphrey
II Davy's

W H 1

nerally found, that a blue flough covers the whole of the
eye, without any intermixture of red vefTels. That in the
worft cafes, the coloured and tranfparent part of the eve
becomes of a reddifh-white ; by wliich time, the film on the
eye has acquired confiderable thicknefs and hardnefs. That
the inflammation is produced in various ways, and by'various
means; as during the fummer feafon by the reflexion of
heat and light in very funny and dry weather, as it is found
to be more frequent when the hilly fheep-walks become
fcorched, and on hard rocky foils, than on the dark-coloured
hills which are covered with heather. Others fuppofe, that
the difeafe is fometimes caufed by the pollen or duft of
flowers irritating the eyes of the (heep, when blown into
them, in confiderable quantities, by the wind. That in the
winter, the blindnefs is caufed and occurs when the days are
very funny, and the evenings frofty and cold ; or when the
flieep have been long buried under fnow, and the ground is

W H I

Davy's " Elements of Chemical Philofophy," that the
combination of barytes and carbonic acid, made artificially
by pouring a folution of carbonate of ammonia into a folu-
tion of nitrate of barytes, forms alfo a pigment of a very
white colour.

White Colours, in Dyeing. See Colour.

White Copper Ore, in Mineralogy, is one of the rareft
ores of copper, and has frequently been confounded with
copper pyrites, and other ores of that metal. ( See Copper
Ores.) Its colour is between filver-white and bronze-
yellow ; it occurs maffive and difleminated ; it has a metal-
lic luftre. The fraiSlure is fine-grained and uneven ; it yields
eafily to the knife. The fpecific gravity of this ore is 4.5.
It contains about 40 per cent, of copper mixed with iron,
arfenic, and fulphur.

White Copperas, Cordage, Eagle, and Egg-Shell. See
the fubftantives.

White CoJs -Lettuce for Hogs, in Agriculture, the ufe of ftill white and glaring when they get out.
it in feeding thefe animals. A trial of it in this way is ftated But by ftill others, the blindnefs in flieep is believed to
to have been made in Suffex, which is particularly deferving arife from a caufe wholly different from any of thefe. That
of attention : the weaning of young pigs, without much it is induced by a continued fatigue for a length of time

■ milk and fome corn, is often a difficult bufinefs ; but if this which is capable of bringing it on at any feafon of the year!

■ fort of lettuce will do it, which feems to be the cafe, no Thus, ftieep that are long and hard driven, or fuch as are
; farmer ftiould ever be without a rood, or half an acre of this
t fort of crop for this ufe.

In this trial, four ounces of this fort of lettuce-feed were
' fown very thick over two perches of ground in the beginning
of March. A crop of potatoes was in rows at three feet
diftance ; between which a double row of thefe lettuces was
planted in May ; both crops being afterwards kept clean by
hand-hoeing. In the June following, they were begun to be
ufed for three fows with little pigs, which were kept on
thefe lettuces for fix weeks; but thefe fows hadwafh in ad-
dition : the pigs were then weaned a fortnight earlier than
ufual ; and after the weaning, the great ufe of the lettuces
was found, for the pigs did admirably well upon them,
until they all were gone in the middle of Auguft. They
were then fed as ufual, with cabbage, turnip-tops, and other

daily dragged from one part of the ground to another, ewes
that ^re did, or old, and roughly handled and ufed by tlie
vyomen in milking, during the operation, where that prac-
tice is in ufe, and hog-flieep which are tired by driving
through fnow, in order to preferve their fubfifl;ence, are all
liable to this affeftion of the eyes. That their eyes at firft
become fore, and emit a fort of ropy humour ; after which
a white film fettles over them, and if they continue to be
fatigued, it grows thicker, the eyes appeanng perfeftly
white ; in which cafes, they are faid to be proportionably
longer in getting better. The difeafe, too, may proceed
from many other caufes of diff'erent kinds, as all fuch as
tend to caufe local inflammation in the parts, as cold, moif-
ture, and many others of the fame fort.
. . In the cure of the difeafe, where it is fufpefted to arife

fuch vegetable matters, but fell off at once for want of the from the irritating powdery matter of flowers, the flieep

lettuces. See Lactuca, and Lettuce. '' — u l- ^ — i- . 1 , , „ .

White Crops, a term applied to all forts of grain-crops,

as wheat, rye, barley, oats, and fome others, in contra-

diftinftion to thofe of the green and culmiferous kinds, fuch

as cabbages, turnips, rape, tares, beans, and fome others

of a fimilar nature.

White Darnel, a very troublefome and prolific weed

among corn-crops, efpecially of the wheat kind. See

Weed, &c.

White Enamel. See Enamel, and Enamelling.
White Face, or Blaze, in the Manege, a white mark

upon a horfe, defcending from the forehead almoil to the

nofe. It is called in French chanfrin blanc.

fliould be immediately removed to other proper paftures for
a time, until the danger from that caufe is over ; and in
cafes of fnow-blindnefs of this kind, it is always proper
to bring them down, as foon as poffible, from the high
fnowy walks, where they occupy them, to the bare grounds
below.

The inflamed veflTels on the white of the eye, efpecially
thofe next the nofe, are alfo fometimes advifed to be cut with
a lancet or fliarp penknife every fecond morning ; while the
eyes are to be kept defended againft the light, by a fliade
tied over the head, or a piece of crape over the eyes. The
eyes may likewife be bathed two or three times a-day, with
a folution of half a drachm of fugar of lead, or of two
White Film, or Blindnefs, a difeafe in flieep, which is oc- drachms of alum, and the fame quantity of white vitriol, in

cafioned by a white film growing over their eyes, in confe-
quence of fome fort of inflammation, as arifing from dif-
ferent caufes, taking place in them.

The appearances by which it is fliewn to be prefent are,
according to fome, that the animal cannot bear the light,
that the white part of the eye is red and inflamed, and that
it waters a great deal. That this ftate is fucceeded by a fort
of membrane or coat formed by the inflamed veffels, which
firft covers the white, but gradually extends over the eye,
until total blindnefs is the confequence. That this is noticed
to be the cafe, when in folding, the ftieep run againft dykes,
or any other fuch obftacles, and ftart when they approach
them ; that they do not follow the flock, and that they fre-
quently ftumble. That when the eye is infpefted, it is ge-

a pint of foft -water. At the fame time purgatives may be
given internally, fuch as two ounces of fome purging falts,
or, what is better, a fcruple of calomel, once a day for four
or five times. When, by thefe means, the inflammation is
got the better of, but the flough ftill remains, a little oint-
ment, compofed of eight parts of fome mild unftuous fub-
ftance, and one of red precipitate of mercury, made fine
by rubbing, may be infinuated into the eyes every morning;
or a little finely powdered cryftal and loaf fugar be blown
into them twice in the day.

With fome, it is at firft the praftice to bleed the flieep
below the eyes, and to let fome of the blood run into each
of them ; but it is fuppofed that care will infallibly cure the
difeafe m a (pace of time proportioned to the debility that

has

W H I

hat induced the complaint without any thing elfe. The beft
and moft proper means of cure in thefe cafes are, in the firft
place, local or general bleeding, then the ufe of fome fuch
folutions and internal remedies as the above, after fome time
having recourfe to ftronger wafhes and powders of the fame
nature, with fmall quantities of opium, and keeping the
animals all the while as much as poflible from the light, and
the glare of the ground. ( See a paper in the third volume
of the Tranfaftions of the Highland Society of Scotland. )
It is obferved, that certain parcels of fheep are very liable to
blindnefs of this fort, and that although it is not a fatal dif-
eafe in itfelf, it frequently occafions confiderable lofs by the
fheep drowning themfelves, or breaking their necks in fall-
ing down precipices and other fuch places.

White Flag, Flake, and Frojl. See the fubftantives.

White Foot, in the Manege, called in French balzana,
is a white mark that happens in the feet of a great many
horfes, both before and behind, from the fetlock to the
coffin. The horfes thus marked are either tramelled, crofs-
tramelled, or white all four. Some horfemen place an un-
lucky fatahty in the white of the far foot behind. See
Chausse' Trap haul, and Tramelled.

^HITE Friars, a name common to feveral orders of
monks, from their being clothed in a vchite habit.

Such are, the regular canons of St. Augulline, the Pre-
monftratenfes, and Bernardines. See Carmelites.

White Gla/s. See Glass.

WniTE-Hart Silver, candidi cer-ci argentum, a tribute or
mulft paid into the exchequer, out of certain lands in or
near the foreft of White-hart, in Dorfetihire ; which was
continued from Henry HI.'s time, who firft impofed it upon
Thomas de la Linde, and others, for killing a beautiful
white hart, which that king had purpofely fpared in
hunting.

White Hellebore. See Hellebore.

White Honeyfuclh, in Agriculture, a term often applied
to the white clover. It is ftatcd, in the Agricultural Report
for the County of Gloucefter, to be a plant which is brought
forward by manure and (heep-tlock, and a proof of good
land, at leaft of land in a high ftate of cultivation ; and
that, on this account, it has, when it abounds in dairy
paftures, a tendency to raife the quality of the milk, and
make the cheefe hove or heave which is made from it. See
Dairying, and White Clover.

White Horfe-Fijh, in Ichthyology, a common Englilh
name for the raia afpera noltras of Willughby, and the raia
fuUonica of Rondeletius and Linnxus. Its back is rough
and fpiny ; the nofe is (hort and (harp ; at the corner of
each eye are a few fpines ; the niftitating membrane is
fringed ; the teeth are fmall and fharp : on the upper part
of the peftoral fins are three rows of fpines pointing to-
ward the back, and crooked, like thofe of the fuller's in-
ftrument ; whence its name fullonica and fuller. On the tail
are three rows of ftrong fpines : the tail is flender, and
rather longer than the body. The colour of the upper
part of the body is cinereous, ufually marked with many
black fpots ; the lower part while. This fifh grows to a
fize equal to that of the fivate. Pennant.

White JaJ'per, in Mineralogy, or agate jafper, has a pale
yellowifti-white colour, and fometimes occurs reddifli-white.
It is opaque, and has fmall imperfeftly conchoidal fradlures.
See Jasper.

White Land, in Agriculture, a tough clayey foil, natu-
rally of a fomewhat whitifh hue when dry, efpecially when
it has lain fome time untilled, but becoming blackilh after
rain : this appears of a light greyifii colour when turned
'ip by the plough, and Aides off from the plough-fhare with

W H I

eafe, and with a fmooth glofly furface. It has often a yel-
lowifh hue with the grey, and is often veined with large par-
cels of a blue marly earth. See Clay Soil.

White Lead is a fort of ruft of lead, or lead diflblved
with vinegar ; much ufed by painters. See Lead, and
Cerusse.

White Leaf, See Crat^gus.

White Line, among Printers, a void fpace, greater than
ufual, left between two lines. See Printing.

White Line, in Anatomy. See Linea Alba.

White Linen is cloth of hemp, or flax, bleached by
divers leys, and waterings on the ground.

White Manganefi, in Mineralogy, manganefe oxyde car-
bonate, Hauy. Red manganefe ore of fome mineralogifts.
This ore occurs of various colours, from yellowifh-white to
rofe-red. See Ores of Manganese.

White Meats include milk, butter, cheefe, white pots,
cuftards, and other foods confifting of milk, or eggs. Some
add, alfo, filh, veal, and chickens.

White Mortar. See Mortar.

White Mujl-Apple, in Rural Economy, a very fine cider-
fruit in field fruit-grounds. This, with the fox-whelp, red-
ftreak, and fome others, are fine old fruits, but which are
now going off, and afford the beft cider, when mixed in the
mill : the proportions in which they are to be ufed have
never, however, been defined, but depend probably a good
deal on the quantity to be ground at the fame time.

White Muflard, in Agriculture, a fort of plant which is
often cultivated in the field for the ufe of the feed in dif-
ferent places.

The beft fort of foil for it is that of the light loam,
which ftiould be well broken down and reduced by plough-
ing and harrowing. Some, on frefti broken up land, make
a winter fallow for this crop.

It is moftly put in after a wheat-crop, but may fucceed
others where the land is clean and well prepared. In Kent,
they ftrike furrows about eleven or twelve inches apart, and
then fow the feed, two or three gallons to the acre, in the
month of March.

The culture of it while growing is to hoe it, and keep it
free from weeds, to fet it out in the way of turnips, not too
thick on the ground, as that draws up the plants weak.
The crop is reaped about July. In fome cafes, it is laid in
gavels or handfuls upon the ftubble, in the fame manner as
cole-feed. It is ufually threfhed out on a fail-cloth in the
field.

The produce differs from eight to twenty bufiiels the
acre.

It is a ticklifti fort of crop, as one frofty morning will
kill it, and it is liable to be injured and eaten by the black
caterpillar ; but when it turns out well is very profitable.

It is faid not to exhauft the land much, which is greatly
in its favour.

White Nebbed-Crow, a term provincially applied to the
rook in fome cafes.

White Order. See Order.

White Paper is that intended for writing, printing, &c.
in contradiftinftion to brown paper, marbled paper, blotting
paper, &c.

White, Pearl. See Pearl.

White Pepper. See Pepper.

White Poplar, in Agriculture, a tree of the poplar kind,
in which the wood is foft, but convertible to various ufes in
hulbandry, as it grows quickly and bears cropping well. It
is beft grown in low fituations, where the foil is of a clayey
nature. It is fometimes called the abele tree.

White

W H I

White Poppy, a plant fometimes cultivated in the garden
and the field for the ufe of the opium which is obtained from
its juice by means of evaporation. It might be largely cul-
tivated in many lituations with great advantage, as it con-
tains this fubftance or principle in great abundance. See
Papaver Album.

White Porcelain. See Porcelain.

White Pot, denotes milk or cream baked with the yolks
of eggs, fine bread, fugar, and fpice, in an earthen pot.

The cooks furnifh us with a variety of difhes under this
form and denomination : fuch are, Norfolk white-pot, Weft-
minfter white-pot, rice white-pot, &c.

White Pottery. See Pottery.

White Precipitate. See Carbonate q/" Mercury.

White Pyrites, in Mineralogy ; Fr. fulfure blanc, Hauy.
The colour of this ore when pure is of a tin-white colour,
paffing into brafs-yellow and fteel-grey. It occurs in fmall
oftohedral cryftals varioufly modified, alfo ftalaftitical and
botryoidal. It is hard, brittle, and eafily frangible. It
melts before the blow-pipe, giving out a fulphureous vapour ;
it then acls on the magnetic needle. It decompofes much
eafier than common pyrites. It contains 46 parts of iron and
54 of fulphur. See Pyrites.

White Rent, in Rural Economy, a rent or duty of 8(/.
payable yearly, by every tinner in the counties of Devon
and Cornwall, to the duke of the latter, as lord of the foil.
See Blanch Ferme.

White Sab is common or fea-falt dried and calcined by
the fire, fo as not to leave any moifture therein. The che-
mifts call it decrepitated fait.

There are fome falts naturally white, and others that need
to be whitened, either by diffolving and purifying them in
■fair water, which is afterwards evaporated ; or by means of
fire ; or by the fun. See Salt.

White Salt, a term applied to the fine purified fait, in
contradiftinftion to that of the rock kind. The former is
faid in Chefhire to form a much more important objeft in
the way of commerce than the latter. See Salt.

White Sauce, a fort of fauce made of blanched almonds,
and the breaft of a capon, pounded together with cloves,
cinnamon, Sec. We alfo hear of white broth, which is a
fort of broth enriched with fack and fpices, having blanched
almonds fcraped into it, and the whole thickened with the
yolks of eggs, &c.

White Scour. See ScouR.

White Silver Ore, in Mineralogy, an ore of filver always
affociated with lead and antimony. (See Silver Ores.)
Dark white filver contains, according to Klaproth, 9.25
parts in the hundred of filver. Light white filver ore con-
tains 20.40, affociated with the fame minerals as the dark
ore, but in different proportions.

White Soap. See Soap.

White, Spani/h, is a kind of fucus ufed by the ladies to
whiten their complexion, and hide the defefts of it, called
alfo magl/iery of blfmuth.

The ufe of this, as well as of ceruffes, is pernicious ; and
fliould be particularly avoided during the taking of any
fulphureous water, which may change the complexion quite
black. Indeed, all phlogiftic vapours, and even the fun
itfelf, tend to give both the magiftery of bifmuth and cerufle
a yellow colour : an obfervation which ferves to explain a
paffage in Martial, where a cerufed lady is faid to fear the
fun.

" Cretata timet FabuUa, nimbum,
Cerufata timet Sabella, folem.

Ep. lib. ii. Ep. 41.

Vol. XXXVIII.

W H I

White, Spanljh, is alfo a name given to troy white.

White Spurs. See Spur, and Esquire.

White Star, and Sugar. See the fubftantives.

White Stone, in Geology; IVeifs Jlelr., Werner; Etir'tie
of fome French geologills ; a rock enumerated by Werner
as a diftinft fpecies among the primary rocks. It is effen-
tially compofed of felfpar, but contains mica and other mi-
nerals. We think it may fairly be doubted whether white-
ftone ought to be confidered as a diftinft fpecies of rock, or
only as an occafio'nal mode in which gneifs and granite fome-
times occur. According to the account given by M. Bon-
nard of the Saxon Erzgeberge, in the Journal des Mines,
1 81 5, the gneifs of that diftrift often lofes its mica, and
pafles into a rock eflentially the fame as white-ftone or eurite.
In other inftances, the granite, by lofing a great part of its
mica and quartz, palfes into the fame rock, ftill retaining
the geological pofition of granite, and including immenfe
beds of granite within it. The north-weftern acclivity of
the Saxon Erzgeberge is almoft entirely compofed of white-
ftone, including mafles of granite, from a few feet to fome
miles in extent. This rock forms the bafis on which the other
rocks are placed. Bonnard gives the following defcription
of white-ftone or eurite in the above diftrift : — It is compofed
of very fine granular felfpar, which is fometimes compaft, of
3 whitifti-grey or yellowifti-grey colour ; the mica is brownifti.
It occurs in layers, and is fometimes fiffile when the mica is
abundant. In this cafe, the felfpar is almoil as friable as
dolomite. When the felfpar is compaft, and the mica more
rare, the rock nearly lofes its fiflile property. This rock
contains fappare and other minerals diffeminated. The rock
on which it refts is unknown, as the white-ftone ferves as a
bafis for the gneifs and other rocks. In the greater part of
the diftrift a granitic rock occurs in the white-ftone, which
is fometimes a true granite and fometimes a granular eurite.
This granite is compofed of felfpar, which is rarely of a
red colour, but often brown, which is alfo generally the
colour of the mica ; the proportion of the quartz is variable,
and fometimes is entirely wanting. In the few places where
the two rocks can be feen together, the granite appears not
only to alternate with the eurite, but to pafs into it ; or
rather the two rocks may be faid to pafs infenfibly into each
other, both in the fmall and large mafles. The grain of the
granite is often very fine ; but near Penig it contains cryilals
of felfpar of a foot in cubic fize. The only beds which
occur in the white-ftone are of ferpentine ; thefe are in the
upper part of it, and dip to the north. There have been no
metallic veins difcovered in the white-ftone rock. From the
above defcription, there can be little doubt that white-ftone
ought, when viewed geologically on a large fcale, to be
confidered only as a particular form of granite arifing from
the diminution of the quartz and mica. The circumftances,
whatever they may have been, which firft difpofed the gra-
nite to foHdify, permitted the conftituent parts to arrange
therafelves in different proportions in various parts of the
mafs. Thus in extenfive granite formations, notliing is more
frequent than to fee the quartz and felfpar coUefted in large
mafles nearly pure, or with a very fmall admixture of the
other component parts ; and in the white-ftone of Saxony
precifely the fame fafts are exhibited on a larger fcale. See
Rocks, Strata, and Systems of Geology.

White Styre Apple, in Rural Economy, a rich cider-fruit
in field orchards. It is (aid to be the boail of the foreft
diftriA in Gloucefterftiire, and that under proper manage-
ment, it affords a cider fo rich and ftrong, that it is often
valued equally with foreign wine, and fold at extravagant
prices,

3 E White-

WHITE-SWELLING.

WHlTE-S-welfm^, in Surgery. When a difeafeis attended
with great varieties, not only with regard to its progrefs and
fymptoms, but alfo its caufe, and the diforder which it pro-
duces in the parts which are the feat of it, there is as much
difficulty in fixing upon a name that will convey an exaft
idea of it, as in offering a definition or defcription of it appli-
cable to all the cafes which may prefent themfelves to the at-
tentive obferver. Such are the circumftances of the difeafe
of which we arc about to fpeak in the prefent article. Sur-
geons have given it a variety of appellations, d.rived from
feme one particular fymptom with which it is accompanied.
Thus, it has been called ivhite-ftudling, (a navne which is
ftill mod generally adopted,) becaufe the fkin which covers
it retains its natural colour, and exhibits no appearance of
inflammation. It is alio fometimes tervae^ fungus arlicuH, on
account of its foftnefs and elafticity, which allow it readily
to yield to preffure, but make it rife up again immediately
when the compreflioa is difcontinued, like the fungous excref-
cences which grow upon the oak. The diforder is hkewife
often named by foreign writers the lymphatic tumour, or
ferous /'welling of the articulations, in confequence of the great
quantity of thitk lymph which appears to be effufed in the
cellular fubflance around the ligaments, and upon the liga-
ments themfelves. Sometimes the difeafe is called fpina
ventofa. ( See that article. ) The cafe is occafionally deno-
minated a falfs anchylojis, becaufe the difeafe caufes more
or lefs interruption of the motions of the joint. Laftly,
the diftemper is often called a rheumatic, ox fcrofuhus difeafe
of a joint, according as rheumatifm, or fcrofula, is fufpedled
of being concerned in its origin.

White-fwellings are ufually defined to be chronic enlarge-
ments of the joints ; circumfcribed ; without any alteration
in the colour of the ficin ; fometimes hard, and refilling the
preffure of the fingers ; fometimes lefs firm, elaftic, yielding to
preffure, and afterwards rifing up again in the manner of a
fungus, which grows upon certain trees ; fometimes fo foft
as to prefent a deceitful feel of fluftuation, although there
is no fluid in the part. In particular infl;ances, thefe fwell-
ings are indolent ; but, mod frequently, they are attended
with great pain, efpecially when the joint is moved, fo that
tlie patient either cannot exercife the limb at all, or does it
at the expence of confiderable fuffering, and with imper-
feftion and difficulty. The difeafe has its feat in the liga-
ments, cellular fubft;ance, fynovial glands, cartilagas, and
even the bones. All thefe parts, however, are not afFefted
in every inftance ; and fometimes the diftemper commences
ill the bones ; fometimes in the cartilages and ligaments,
according to the pecuUarity in the nature of the cafe. The
foregoing definition is obvioufly merely an enumeration of
the principal fymptoms of white-fwellings, and is far from
giving an exaft idea of a difeafe which prefents fo many
varieties in different individuals, that there are fcarcely two
patients to be met with in whom the complaint follows
precifely the fame courfe, or exhibits altogether fimilar phe-
nomena.

There is no joint which may not be attacked by this inve-
terate difeafe ; but experience proves, that the ginglymoid
articulations are more frequently affefted than the orbicular.
We are, however, to except from this remark the articu-
lation between the femur and os innominatum, in which the
difeafe is very common, and often called by the French
inrgeons fl>ontaneous diflocation of the femur, becaufe the cafe
generally terminates in a difplacement of the head of the
thigh-bone. (See Hip-Joint, Difeafe of.) Amongft; the
ginglymoid joints, the knee is oftener affefted than any other.
Then eome the joints of the elbow, foot, and hand. White-

fwellings attack the fmall joints, like thofe of the fingers -and
toes, with far lefs frequency.

White-fwellings may occur at every period of life ; but
they are more common in infancy and youth than in adulta
and old fubjffts. It is conceived alfo by fome writers, that
thefe cafes begin more frequently in autumn and winter, or
when the atmofphere is damp and variable, than in the other
feafons. But the difeafe is on the whole fo common in this
climate, that it muft be difficult to eftablifh the truth of the
foregoing conjefture.

The difeafe fometimes begins with a more or lefs acute
pain in the articulation, ufually extending along the fafcias and
tendons of the neighbouring mufcles. Sometimes the pain is
of a dull kind, being fuperficial, feated in the foft parts, and
reaching aU round the joint. On other occafions, it is acute,
deeplv fituated, and confined to a fmall fpace, which is
moftly the very centre of the articulation. In particular
examples, the fwelUng of the joint fucceeds a pain which has
been experienced in another part of the body, and fuddenly
ceafed. Sometimes the difeafe begins in fo unexpefted a
manner, that the patient, who went to bed perfeftly well,
rifes in the morning with a llifF painful knee. Cafes of the
latter kind are generally rheumatic.

Whatever may be the manner in which the complaint ori-
ginates, and whatever the circumftances which precede the
attack, it always comes on in the form of a tumour, which
prefents the following charafters : — The fwelling feldom
reaches all round the articulation ; but is almoft always
limited to a more or lefs extenfive portion of the circumference
of the part. In the knee, it occurs above the patella, and
alfo below this bone, at the fides of the ligament, which con-
nefts it with the tibia. In the elbow, it chiefly occupies the
fides of the joint, efpecially the inner fide. In the ankle, it
takes place below and behind the malleoli. Laftly, in the
fingers, it commonly affefts the whole circumference of the
difeafed joint. Such fwelling is circumfcribed, immoveable,
and more or lefs hard and elaftic, not retaining the impref-
fion of the finger, as in oedema (fee (Edema), but ge-
nerally communicating, when handled, a fenfation of foft-
nefs, which leads to a fufpicion of the prefence of a fluid,
when none in reality exifts. The fwelling is more or lefs
painful, efpecially when comprefTed. Sometimes, however,
it is indolent ; the heat of the part is not increafed, and the
integuments continue of their natural colour. The motion
of the joint is impeded, and if the patient will not abftain
from moving the part, he is put to excruciating pain. There
are fome white-fwellings of the knee, in which the leg is-
fixed in the extended pofture ; but, moft commonly, the
limb is bent, even in a confiderable degree, and when an
endeavour is made to ftraighten it, great luffering is excited.
In white-fwellings of the elbow, the fore-arm is conftantly
obferved in a ftate of flexion. In thofe of the wrift, the
hand has a ftrong propenfity to fall into the bent pofition ;
and in order to prevent this occurrence, and hinder an in-
complete luxation of the carpus from taking place back-
wards, the furgeon is fometimes obliged to fupport the hand
upon a fplint.

The conftant flexion of the limb produces a confiderable
retraftion of the flexor mufcles and their tendons, together
with a rigidity which can be felt through the integuments,
which are raifed up by the finews fo affefted. The total
lofs of exercife always arifing from this ftate of the mufcles
and tendons, generally foon renders the joint ftiflf and mo-
tionlefs, fo that it frequently has the appearance of being
in a ftate of real and complete anchylofis. See An-

CHViOSIS.

The

WHITE-SWELLING.

The fwelling may remain a long while in the condition
which has been defcribed ; it may even ceafe to be painful ;
and it may caufe only a ferious weaknefs of the knee, and
more or lefs difficulty in walking. But moft commonly it
continues to make uninterrupted progrefs ; or, if its ad-
vances fhould happen to be checked, and the difeafe be for
a time ftationary, it frequently occurs, that, in confequence
of a fall, a bruife, or even without any external caufe, and,
as it were fpontaneoufly, the complaint afterwards increafes
again. The articulation fwells more and more, and, if it be
the knee which is affefted, the hollow of the ham alfo fwells
up and becomes effaced. The pain likewife augments, being
■felt fometimes at one point of the circumference of the joint,
fometimes at another ; occafionally in the ham, and, in
other examples, in the very cavity of the articulation. There
are, however, fome patients who feem to fufFer little or no
pain of any confequence. The hardnefs of the tumour is
fubjeft to great variety. The older the difeafe is, the more
conliderable is in general the degree of induration. Yet
there are certain white-fwellings which are extremely hard,
although they have not exifted a long while ; and other
cafes which are very foft, notwithftanding they are of long
ftanding. Boyer thinks, that this difference depends upon
the feat of the difeafe, which is fometimes in the bones ;
fometimes in the ligaments and furrounding cellular mem-
brane. The (Icin which covers the fwelling grows thin,
pale, and (hining ; the cutaneous veins become dilated and
varicofe ; and the mufcles of the leg wafte and dwindle
away, fo that the fize of this part of the limb is (Irikingly
diminifhed. Sometimes, however, it is aifefted with oedema,
and has the appearance of being enlarged. The lower part
of the thigh alfo frequently undergoes a very confiderable
<iiminution. This wafting of the limb above and below the
difeafe, makes the joint alfo feem much more fwelled than it
is in reality. Sometimes the lymphatic glands in the groin
become enlarged and hardened ; and when the difeafe makes
much progrefs, the bones are frequently foftened and carious,
and the cartilages deftroyed. Laftly, abfceffes, more or lefs
confiderable, are formed in different parts of the tumour ; and
their formation is attended with a great deal of acute pain,
inflammation, and fever. Thefe abfceffes are more or lefs
deeply fituated, and often communicate with the interior of
the joint. When they burft, or are opened, a large quantity
of matter is difcharged, which is hardly ever of healthy con-
fifteiice, being moftly a fero-purulent yellowifli fluid, fome-
what refembhng turbid whey, and containing flakes of albu-
men. Sometimes, however, it prefents very nearly the ap-
pearances of healthy pus ; but it foon changes into a thin
fetid fanies of very bad quality. Its difcharge, although
very confiderable, is followed by fcarcely any perceptible
diminution in the fize of the fweUing. The openings by
which it efcapes fometimes foon clofe, and frefli coUeftions
of matter enfue which burft of themfelves, and then heal
up like the former ; but, in general, the apertures, inftead
of healing, become converted into incurable fiftuls.

Mr. Brodie has paid confiderable attention to the feveral
difeafes of the joints, which ufually go under the name of
white-fwelling. In particular, he has carefully examined
the morbid appearances which are found upon difTeflion ;
and his obfervations have led him to propofe a claflification
of thefe difeafes.

I . The firft cafe which Mr. Brodie defcribes is, injlamma-
tton of the fynov'tal membrane, which may occur as a fymptom
pf a conititutional difeafe, where the fyftem is affefted with
rheumatifm ; where mercury has been improperly exhibited,
f>T in large quantities ; or where there is general debility

from any other caufe. But, in thefe cafes, the inflammation
is feldom fevere ; it occafions an effufion of fluid into the
joint, but rarely terminates in the extravafation of coaguia*-
ing lymph, or thickening of the inflamed membrane. Some-
times it leaves one joint to attack another ; or, it fuddenly
fubfides without another joint becoming affefted.

At other times, fays Mr. Brodie, the inflammation occurs
as a local affeftion produced by a fprain, the application of
cold, or arifing from no evident caufe. It is then, for the
moft part, more fevere, and of longer duration ; it leaves the
joint with its funftions more or lefs impaired, and occafion-
ally terminates in its total deftrudlion. In itfelf, it is a
ferious difeafe ; but it is often confounded, under the general
name of white-fwelling, with other difeafes ftill more ferious.
In fome cafes, it affumes the form of an acute ; but in the
greater number of inftances, it has that of a chronic inflam-
mation.

When the cafe is acute, the fliin is in general red, and the
joint tender and painful. The pain, which is not confined
to any particular point, and aggravated by motion of the
limb, is foon followed by fweUing. The patient is alfo
affefted with inflammatory fever. In a few days, the
difeafe either fubiides altogether, or alTumes the chronic
form.

According to Mr. Brodie, when the inflammation is chro-
nic, the pain and tendernefs are lefs, fo that the patient is
able to walk about, and often without experiencing any
fevere diftrefs. There is no fever, and the fkin retains its
natural colour. The fwelling alfo increafes lefs rapidly
than in acute cafes. Thefe fymptoms are generally rendered
worfe by expofure to cold and exertions. In the firft in-
ftance, the fwelling of the joint arifes entirely from a preter-
natural quantity of fynovia. But when the inflammation
has exifted fome time, the fluid is not fo plainly perceptible,
becaufe the fynovial membrane is now thickened, which like-
wife augments the ftiffnefs of the articulation. The fliape
of the fwelling is not that of the articulating ends of the
bones, but arifes chiefly from the diftended ftate of the
fynovial membrane, and hence depends in a great meafure on
the fituation of the ligaments and tendons, which refift it in
certain direftions. Thus, when the knee is affefted, the
fwelling is principally obfervable in the fame places where it
occurs in cafes of hydrops articuli.

After the inflammation of the fynovial membrane has fub-
fided, the fluid is abforbed, and, in fome inftances, the joint
recovers its natural figure and mobility ; but in the majo-
rity of cafes, the ftiffnefs and fwelling continue. Whenever
the patient is expofed to cold, or exercifes the limb much,
the pain returns, and the fwelling is increafed. Such cafes
are of frequent occurrence, and, as Mr. Brodie obferves,
they form a large proportion of thofe difeafes which are
called white-fwellings.

Long-continued and negledted inflammation of the fyno-
vial membrane fometimes terminates in the formation of an
abfcefs in the joint, in ulceration of the cartilages, and de-
ftruftion of the articular furfaces. Medico-Chir. Tranf.
vol. V. p. 240, &c.

2. The fame gentleman has favoured the public with a
very circumftantial hiftory of another defcription of cafes,
where the difeafe originates in the fynovial membrane, which
lofes its natural organization, and becomes converted into a
thick pulpy fubftance of a light brown colour, interfefted
by white membranous lines, and from one-fourth to one-
half of an inch, or more, in thicknefs. As this difeafe ad-
vances, it involves all the parts of which the joint is com-
pofed, producing ulceration of the cartilages, caries of the
3 E 2 bones,

WHITE-SWELLING.

bones, wafting of the ligaments, and abfcefics in different
places. The complaint has invariably proved flow in its
progrefs, and fometimes has remained nearly in an indolent
ftate for many months, or even for one or two years ; but
Mr. Brodie informs us, that he has never met with an in-
itance in which a real amendment was produced, much
lefs a cure. ( See Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. iv. p. rzo, &c. )
Mr. Brodie alfo remarks, that the above-defcribed affeftion
of the fynovial membrane is rarely met with, except in the
knee, and that it generally takes place in young perfons
under, or not much above the age of puberty. In the origin
of this difeafe, there is a flight degree of ftiffnefs and tume-
faftion, without pain, and producing only the moft trifling
inconvenience. Thefe fymptoms gradually increafe, fo that,
at lall, the joint fcarcely admits of the fmalleft motion, the
ftiffnefs being greater than what is the ufual refult of com-
mon inflammation. The form of the fwelling bears fome
refemblance to that in cafes of inflammation of the fynovial
membrane ; but it is lefs regular. The fwelling is foft and
elaftic, and gives to the hand a fenfation as if it contained
fluid. If only one hand be employed in making the exa-
mination, the deception may be complete, and the moft ex-
perienced furgeon may be led to fuppofe that there is fluid
in the joint when there is none ; but if both hands be em-
ployed, one on each fide, the abfence of fluid is diftinguiflied
by the want of fluftuation.

" The patient experiences little or no pain, until abfcefles
begin to form, and the cartilages ulcerate ; and even then
the pain is not fo fevere as where the ulceration of the carti-
lages occurs as a primary difeafe, and the abfceffes heal more
readily, and difcharge a fmaller quantity of pus than in cafes
of this laft defcription. At this period, the patient becomes
affefted with heftic fever, lofes his flefli, and gradually
finks, unlefs the limb be removed by an operation." See
Brodie's Obf. in Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. v. p. 251,
&c.

3. Another form of white-fwelling defcribed by the fame
writer, is that which is more particularly charafterized by
ulceration, of the articular cartilages. This change occurs
in the advanced ftage of feveral difeafes of the joints, and it
alfo exifts in many inftances as a primary afleftion, in the
early ftage of which the bones, fynovial membrane, and liga-
ments, are in a natural ftate ; but which, if neglefted, ulti-
mately occafions the entire deftruftion of the articulation.
When ulceration of the cartilages occurs in the fuper-
ficial joints, it conftitutes one of the difeafes which have been
known by the name of white-fweUing. From cafes which
Mr. Brodie has feen, he is led to conclude, that when it
takes place in the hip it is this difeafe, which has been vari-
ouflv defignated by writers, the " morbus coxarius," the
" difeafe of the hip-joint,'' the " fcrofulous hip," the " fcro-
fulous caries nf the hip-joint," &c. At leaft, Mr. Brodie
conceives, that it is to this difeafe fuch names have been
principally applied, though he acknowledges that there are
probably other morbid affeftions whicli have been confounded
with it. {Op. Cit. vol. iv. p. 236.) The ulceration of the
articular cartilages takes place as a primary difeafe, chiefly
in children or adults under the middle age. " Of fixty-
eight perfons affefted with this difeafe, fifty -fix (according
to Mr. Brodie) were under thirty years of age : the youngeft
was an infant of about twelve months ; the oldeft was a
woman of fixty." As the knee is more frequently affefted
with inflammation of the fynovial membrane, fo is the hip
more liable than other joints to ulceration of the cartflaginous
furfaces. In general, the difeafe is confined to a fingle
joint ; but it is not very unufual to find two or tliree joints

affefted in the fame individual, either at the fame time or in
fucceflion. Sometimes the patient traces the beginning of
his fymptoms to a local injury, or to his having been expofed
to cold ; but, for the moft part, no caufe can be afligned
for the complaint. See Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. vi.

For a defcription of the diforder as it occurs in the
hip, the reader is referred to the article HlP-/oin/, Difeafe
of. At prefent, we ftiall merely notice the fymptoms which,
according to the inveftigations of Mr. Brodie, particularly
charaSerize ulceration of the cartilages of the knee. They
differ from the fymptoms of inflammation of the fynovial
membrane, by the pain being flight in the beginning, and
gradually becoming very intenfe, which is the reverfe of
what happens in the latter affeftion. The pain alfo in
the commencement is unattended with any evident fwelling,
which never comes on in lefs than four or five weeks, and
often not till after feveral months. It is not to be inferred,
however, that every flight pain of the joint unaccompanied
with fwelling, muft of courfe arife from ulceration of the
cartilages. But, fays Mr. Brodie, when the pain continues
to increafe, and at laft is very fevere ; when it is aggravated
by the motion of the bones on each other ; and when, after a
time, a flight tumefaftion of the joint takes place, we may
conclude that the difeafe confifts in fuch ulceration. The
fwelling arifes from a flight inflammation of the cellular
membrane on the outfide of the joint ; it has the form of the
articulating ends of the bones ; and for the moft part it
appears greater than it really is, in confequence of the
mufcles being wafted. No fluftuation is perceptible, as
where the fynovial membrane is inflamed ; nor is there
the peculiar elafticity, which exifts, where the fynovial
membrane has undergone a morbid alteration of its ftruc-
ture.

Mr. Brodie, however, has explained, that, in fome cafes,
the fwelling has a different Ihape, and communicates the
feel of a fluftuation. This happens when inflammation of
the fynovial membrane, attended with a colleftion of the
fynovia of the joint, or abfceffes in the furrounding foft
parts, or in the articulation itfelf, occur as fecondary dif-
eafes. When there has been confiderable deftruftion of the
foft parts from abfceffes and ulceration, the head of the tibia
may become diflocated and drawn towards the ham. See
Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. vi. p. 326, &c.

4. There is another fpecies of white-fwelling which is
peculiarly different from others, in being attended with ulcer-
ation of the fynovial membrane. As, however, it does not
appear to us to need a defcription in a work not exprefsly j
devoted to furgery, we fhall only add, that the reader may
find Mr. Brodie's account of the cafe in the Medico-Chir.
Tranfaftions. Thole white-fwellings which are reputed to
be fcrofulous, form a fubjeft, however, on which we cannot
be filent. In the fcrofulous difeafes of the joints, the
bones are primarily affefted, in confequence of which ulcer-
ation takes place in tlie cartilages covering their articular
furfaces. The cartilages being ulcerated, the fubfequent-
progrefs of the difeafe is, according to Mr. Brodie, the
fame as where this ulceration takes place in the firft in-
ftance.

It has been a very prevalent opinion, that, in cafes of
white-fwelling, the heads of the bones are always enlarged.
Mr. Ruffell is, perhaps, the firft writer who expreffed an
oppofite fentiment, and he abfolutely declares, that he had
never heard nor known of an inftance, in which the tibia was
enlarged from an attack of white-fwelling. (On Difeafes
of the Knee, p. 37.) We believe, that a regular expanflon

of

WHITE-SWELLING.

of the heads of the bones, in cafes of white-f welling, is far
from being an ufual occurrence, although it may fometimes
happen. It is frequent, however, to meet with a fort of
enlargement, which arifes from fpiculs of bony matter,
depofited on the outfide of the tibia, ulna, &c., which
alteration is materially different from a regular expanfion of
the heads of thofe bones. We have, however, lately feen
an inftance, in which the upper head of the ulna is confider-
ably increafed in fize by a regular kind of txpanfion. The
preparation is in Mr. Abernethy 's mufeum ; and a few other
fpecimens have, we believe, been occafionally noticed. Yet,
as a general faft, we may ftill remark, that an enlargement
of the heads of the bones in the difeafes called white-fwelling,
is far from being the ufual ftate of things. The change
which the head of the tibia undergoes in many cafes, is lirft:
a partial abforption of the phofphate of hme throughout its
texture, while a foft kind of matter is fecreted into its fub-
ftance. In a more advanced llage, and, indeed, in that ilage
which mod frequently takes place before the limb is ampu-
tated, there are deep excavations in the head of the bone,
arifing from caries, and its flrufture is now fo foftened, that
when a probe is preffed againft the carious part, it readily
penetrates deeply into the bone.

Mr. Brodie alfo joins in the opinion, that the morbid
affeftion has its origin in the bones, " which," he fays,
" become preternaturally vafcular, and contain a lefs than
ufual quantity of earth, while, at firft, atranfparent fluid, and
afterwards a yellowifh cheefy fubftance, is depofited in their
cancelli. From the difeafed bone, vefTeh, carrying red
blood, (hoot into the cartilage, which afterwards ulcerates
in fpots, the ulceration beginning on that furface which
is connefted to the bone." Med. Chir. Tranf. vol. iv.
p. 272.

With rcfpeft to the expanfion of the heads of the bones,
we ought to have mentioned, that the late Mr. Crowther
entirely diibelieved the reality of the occurrence, and every
body knows, that he paid very confiderable attention to the
fubjeft. (See Praft. Obf. on White-SweUing, &c. edit. 2.
p. 14.) The event, however, (liould have been defcribed
as unufual, and not as never happening, fince, as we have
already dated, a few fpecimens of fuch a change have now
been collefted.

Mr. RulTell has particularly noticed how much the foft
parts frequently contribute to the fwelling : " the great mafs
of the fwelling," he obferves, " appears to arife from an
affeftion of the parts exterior to the cavity of the joint, and
which, befides an enlargement in fize, feera alfo to have
undergone a material change in ftrufture. There is a larger
than natural proportion of a vifcid fluid, intermixed with the
cellular fubltance ; and the cellular fubftance itfelf has
become thicker, fofter, and of a lefs firm confidence than in
a ftate of health." (On the Morbid Aff'eftionsof the Knee,
p. 30. ) The manner in which the foft parts are affedled
is alfo defcribed by Mr. Brodie. " Inflammation takes
place of the cellular membrane, external to the joint. Se-
rum, and afterwards coagulable lymph, are eff^ufed ; and hence
arifes a puffy eladic fwelhng in the early and an oedematous
fwelling in an advanced itage of the difeafe. Scrofula
attacks only thofe bones, or portions of bones, which have
a fpongy texture, as the extremities of the cylindrical bones,
and the bones of the carpus and tarfns ; and hence the
joints become affeftfd from their contiguity to the parts
which are the original feat of the difeafe." Med. Chir.
Tranf. vol, iv, p. 273.

All wliite-fwellings which make confiderable progrefs,
and occaCon fevere pain, long confinement, abfce/Tes, Sec.

unavoidably bring on that impairment of the general
health, which is well known by the name of hedic fever.
The patient gradually lofes his appetite and natural reft
and fleep ; his pulfe is fmall and frequent ; an obftinate
debihtating diarrhoea, and profufe noaurnal fweats, enfue.
Such complaints are fooner or later followed by diffolution,
unlefs the conftitution be relieved in time, either by the
amendment or removal of the difeafed part. In different
patients, however, the courfe of the difeafe, and its effefts
upon the fyftem, vary confiderably in relation to the rapi-
dity with which they occur.

Rheumatic white-fwcUings are very diftinft difeafes from
the fcrofulous diftemper of the large joints. In the firft,
the pain is faid never to occur without being attended with
fwelling. Scrofulous white-fwellings, on the other hand,
are always preceded by a pain, which is particularly con-
fined to one point of the articulation. In rheumatic cafes,
the pain is more general and diffufed over the whole joint.

It feems probable, that all cafes in which the ftrutlure of
the bones is found quite undifeafed, and in which all the
mafs of difeafe appears to be confined to the foft parts, are not
fcrofulous white-fwellings. Few perfons who have at-
tained the age of five-and-twenty, without having had the
leaft fymptom of fcrofula, ever experience, after this period
of hfe, a firft attack of the white-fweUing of the fti umous
kind. All cafes, in which the internal itrufture of the
heads of the bones becomes foftened, are probably fcro-
fulous.

Mr. Ruffell has noticed the frequent enlargement of the
lymphatic glands in the groin, in confequence of the irrita-
tion of the difeafe when in the knee ; but, he juftly adds,
that this fecondary affedlion never proves long trouble-
fome.

When the bones are difeafed, the head of the tibia always
fuffers more tlian the condyles of the thigh-bone. ( Rujfell. )
The articular furface of the femur fometimes has not a
fingle rough or carious point, notwithftanding that of the
tibia may have fuffered a great deal. The cartilaginous
coverings of the heads of the bones are generally eroded
firft at their edges ; and in the knee, the cartilage of the
tibia is always more affefted than that covering the condyles
of the thigh.bone. Indeed, when white-fwellings have their
origin in the bones, and the knee is the feat of the diforder,
there is fome ground for fuppofing that it is in tlie tibia
that the morbid mifchief firft commences.

The ligaments of the knee are occafionally fo much
weakened or deftroyed by this terrible malady, that the
tibia and fibula become more or lefs diilocated backward,
and drawn towards the tuberofity of the ifchium, by the
powerful aitioii of the flexor mufcles of the leg.

We have feen a curious fpecies of white-fweUing, in
which the leg could be moved to each fide a very confider-
able diftance, both when the knee was extended and bent.
Such a ftate implies a preternatural loofenefs of the liga-
ments of the articulation.

Scrofulous white-fwellings, no doubt, are under the
influence of a particular kind of conftitution, termed a fcro-
fulous or ftrumous habit. In this fort of temperament,
every caufe capable of exciting inflammation, or any morbid
and irritable ftate of a large joint, may bring on fuch dif-
order as may end in the fevere difeafe of which we are now
fpeaking.

In a man of a found conftitution, an irritation of the kind
alluded to might only induce common healthy inflammation
of the affeded joint.

In fcrofulous habits, it alfo feems probable, that irrita-
tion

WHITE-SWELLING.

tion of a joint is much more eafily produced than in other
conftitutions ; and no one can doubt, that when once ex-
cited in the former clafs of fubjefls, it is much more dan-
gerous and difficult of removal than in other patients.

The doftrine of particular white-fwellings being fcro-
fulouu difeafes, is fupported by many weighty reafons, the
opinions of the mod accurate obfervers, and the etidence of
daily experience. Wifeman (book iv. ch. 4. ) calls the
fpina ventofa a fpecies of fcrofula, and tells us, that in-
fants and children are generally the fubjefts of this difeafe.
The diforder is faidby Severinus to be exceedingly frequent
in young fubjefls. Petrus de Marchettis has obferved both
male and female fubjefts affefted with what are called ftru-
itious difeafes of the joints, as late as the age of five-and-
twenty ; but not afterwards, unlefs they had fuffered from
fcrofula before that period of life, and had not been com-
pletely cured. R. Lowerus alfo entertains a fimilar opinion.
Even though a few perfons may have fcrofulous difeafes of
the joints, for the firll time, after the age of twenty-five,
this occurrence, like the firft attack of fcrofula after this
period, muft be confidered as extremely uncommon.

Another argument in favour of the doftrine, which fets
down particular kinds of white-fwellings as fcrofulous, is
founded on the hereditary nature of fuch forms of dif-
eafe.

Numerous continental furgeons, particularly Petit and
Brambilla, have noticed how very fubjeft the Englifh are
both to fcrofula and white-fwellings of the joints. We
every day fee, that young perfons alHifted with the prefent
difeafe, are generally manifeftly fcrofulous, or have once
been fo. Very often enlarged lymphatic glands in the neck
denote this fatal peculiarity of conflitution ; very often the
patients are known to have defcended • from parents who
had itrumous diforders. Crowther.

Befides the general emblems of a fcrofulous conflitution,
we may often obferve a fhining, coagulated flaky fubftance,
like white of egg, blended with the contents of fuch ab-
fcefles as occur in the progrefs of the difeafe. This kind
of matter is almoft peculiar to fcrofulous abfceffes, and
forms another argument in fupport of the foregoing obfer-
vations relative to the fhare which fcrofula frequently has
in the origin and courfe of many white-fwellings. Cooper's
Dift. of Pradlical Surgery.

The caufes of white-fwellings are divided by furgical
writers into external and internal. Amongft the former
are reckoned mechanical injuries of the joints, fuch as
wounds, contufions, fprains, immoderate exercife in cold
damp weather, refiding continually in a low humid fitua-
tion, &c. It is certain, however, that thefe tumours are
feldom produced altogether by external caufes ; and even
when their formation has been preceded by fome external
Tiolence, this is rather to be regarded only as the determin-
ing caufe of the difeafe, while the real caufe in this, as well
as in other cafes where the complaint begins fpontaneoufly,
is of an internal kind. Rheumatifm and fcrofula are the
ordinary caufes of white-fweUings ; and it may be alleged,
without rilk of error, that more than three-fourths of thefe
tumours are owing to thefe conftitutional difeafes. Thofe
white-fwelhngs which attack ftrong plethoric fubjefts of
adult age, commonly depend upon rheumatifm ; while other
cafes which happen in children, are almoft always caufed by
fcrofula. It is well known that rheumatifm is particu-
larly difpofed to make its attack upon the large joints, and
that it efpecially affeds the ligaments and neighbouring
cellular fubftance, which it thickens and hardens, by caufing
an effufion of coagulable lymph. Hence, fays Boyer, in

fuch white-fwellings as arife from rheumatifm, tfiefe parts
alone are found difeafed in the early ftage of the complaint.
Traite des Mai. Chir. t. iv. p. 501.

With refpeft to fcrofula, every furgeon is aware that it
frequently attacks the head? of the bones, particularly in
children, occafioning thofe morbid changes which we have
already endeavoured to defcribe. We have likewife men-
tioned what is now generally admitted, that in white-
fwellings originating from fcrofula, the difeafe commences in
the bones, the ioft parts becoming affefted only fecondarily.
The contrary is faid to happen in all rheumatic cafes, the
difeafe beginning in the foft parts, and only affefting the
bones in a fubfequent advanced ftage of the complaint.

The prognofis in cafes of white-fwelhng is, generally
fpeaking, unfavourable ; but it is more or lefs fo, accord-
ing to the caufe of the difeafe, its duration, the accompany-
ing fymptoms, the patient's conflitution, &c. White-
fwellings arifing from rheumatifm are the leaft alarming,
efpecially when they are recent. The progrefs of the com-
plaint may then be often ftopped, and fometimes a perfeft
cure accomplifhed. In this kind of cafe, the joint fome-
times returns to its natural ftate, and regains the power of
freely performing every motion ; while in other inftances,
it continues affefted with a greater or lefFer degree of ftiffnefs.
White-fwellings, which appear to depend altogether upon
an external caufe, in perfons in other refpefts healthy and
found, may-terminate well. The worft white-fwellings of
all are thofe which originate from fcrofula ; for they are
very feldom cured, and when they do admit of amendment,
the joint is always left in a ftate of anchylofis.

Whatever may be the caufe of white-fwellings, when
they are of long ftanding, feverely painful, the bones foftened
and rendered carious, the cartilages ulcerated, the articu-
lation filled with fanious matter, and abfceffes have formed,
the openings of which continue fiftulous, "and emit a more
or lefs abundant quantity of a thin fetid difcharge, the
difeafe is in general incurable. In this cafe, the violence of
the pain, the heftic fever, the profufe fweats, and coUiqua-
tive diarrhoea, plunge the patient into a ftate of marafmus,
and foon carry him off, unlefs an attempt be made to fave
him by the timely performance of amputation. Yet, as
Boyer obferves, in fome few cafes of this hopelefs defcrip-
tion, nature, fkilfuUy afCfted by art, has been known to
fubdue the difeafe. The fuppuration then gradually
diminifhes and affumes a better quality, the flow fever,
nofturnal perfpirations, and weakening diarrhoea, en-
tirely ceafe, the appetite returns, digeftion is well per-
formed, the ftrength is reftored, and the patient gets well
with an anchylofis. But fuch fortunate cafes are extremely
uncommon, and they do not juftify us in leaving the difeafe
to nature, inftead of amputating the limb. Traite des
Mai. Chir. t. iv. p. 505. 507.

Of all the difeafes which fall under the care of the fur-
geon, there is not one in which a greater variety of remedies
has been propofed than in white-fwelhngs. Yet, not-
withftanding the numerous means which are occafionally
tried, the praftitioner frequently has the mortification of
finding, not only that he cannot accomplifh a radical cure,
but that he cannot even palliate the complaint, moderate its
violence, or retard its progrefs.

The furgeon, in order to be methodical, fhould adapt
the treatment to the particular form of the difeafe
and its different ftates. But, in every inftance, perfeft refl
of the limb is abfolutely indifpenfable, as exercife always has
the effeft of keeping up pain and irritation, and doing harm,
whatever may be the fpecies of the difeafe.

Rheu-

WHITE-SWELLING.

Rheumatic wliite-fwellings being invariably accompanied,
at their commencement, with an inflammatory character,
there can be no doubt, that, at this period of the complaint,
the great indication is to take fnch meafures as are beft cal-
culated to leflen and fiibdue infldmniation ; and bleeding is
what fhould firft be praftiM. When the patient is ftrong,
robuil, and much fever exifts, he may be bled once or
twice in the arm ; but, in other cafes, we are to be content
with drawing blood from the part afftfted with leeches, or
by Clipping. If leeches be ufed, they (hould be applied to
both fides of the joint, and eight or ten ounces of blood
ought to be thus taken away. The application of thefe
animals (hould alfo be repeated at proper intervals, more or
lefs frequently, according to the violence of the fymptoms,
and the ftrength of the patient. In cafes of this defcrip-
tion, drawing blood from the difeafed part itfelf is found to
be much more efficacious than general blood-letting, which
weakens the patient without proportionately leflening the
fwelling of the joint.

Blilters are another means, as efficacious as topical bleed-
ing. Boyer recommends beginning with the application of
a fmall one to the front of the joint, where the leeches have
not been put ; and he fays, that it (hould be kept open,
until the bites of the leeches are healed on one fide of the
articulation, where a fecond bliller is then to be applied.
As foon as this is nearly healed, we are next advifed to lay
a third bliiler on the oppofite fide of the joint. By thus
continually changing the fituation of the bliller from one
fide of the articulation to another, a permanent counter-irri-
tation is kept up, which, fays Boyer, in all deeply-feated
inflammations, efpecially thofe which proceed from rheuma-
tifm, is much more efFeftual, than carefully maintaining a
difcharge from a fingle bliller.

In conjunftion with the foregoing means, the limb (hould
be kept moderately and uniformly warm by covering it with
flannel ; a low diet is to be obferved, cooling beverages
prcfcribed, and the aftion of the bowels regulated by
clyfters. Thus, the feverity of the pain may generally be
lelTened, and the inflammation diminiihed. If the pain,
however, (hould ftill continue to be violent, Boyer recom-
mends the ufe of topical anodyne and narcotic applications.
He Hates, that, in this circumftance, he has often employed
with fuccefs opiate and camphorated liniments ; fomenta-
tions compofed of a folution of the extra£l of opium in
water ; a llrong decoftion of poppies, &c. He thinks,
however, that fuch applications (hould never be ufed, unlefs
the pain be very fevere.

When the inflammatory (lage is over, topical refolvent
remedies are to be employed, and their e(Feft is to be pro-
moted by exhibiting mild opening medicines at fuitable in-
tervals. The moll eflTeftual refolvent applications, and
thofe which are moll commonly tried in thele cafes, are, dry
fridtions with a piece of flannel, impregnated with the
vapour of benzoin, liniments containing ammonia and
camphor, amraoniacal plallers, foap-liniment, lotions of
vinegar, fpirit of wine, and the muriate of ammonia, &c.
Mr. B. Bell had a very high opinion of the good effefts of
rubbing the joint with camphorated mercurial ointment ;
but Boyer aifirms, that he has often tried the laft applica-
tion, and that his experience leads him to impute whatever
benefit arifes from its employment, chiefly to the fridlions,
which redden and promote the circulation in the fliin.

By a perfeverance in the judicious ufe of the means
above fpecified, rheumatic white-fwellings may fometimes
be cured ; but it often happens, that, after the pain and
fwelling have fobfided, the joint remains quite ftiff and

motionlefs, and every attempt to move it caufes confider-
able (uffering. In the majority of cafes, fuch llifFnefs de-
pends almoll entirely upon the retraaion of the mufcles,
tendons, and ligaments, and lemands the fame treatment as
a falfe ancl'.ylofis. Si-e Anchylosis.

When the difeafe refills the foregoing treatment, and is
of long fl;andiiig, the cure is more difficult, inafmuch as the
thickening of the ligaments, and the effufion of a fero-albu-
minous fluid into the cellular fubftance around them, are
more confiderable, and the bones and cartilages are likewife
at the fame time affefted. In this circumflance, if there be
any hope of cure, the furgeon mull have recourfe to more
powerful means, which we fliall mention in fpeaking of the
treatment of other defcriptions of white-fwel.ing.

In white-fwellings, arifing from an external caufe, fuch
as blows, falls, &c. we mufl; firll lelTen the inflammation by-
general and local bleeding, low diet, cooling aperient beve-
rages, fomentations, and emollient anodyne poultices. Af-
terwards, when the pain and tenfion have fubfided, refolvent
appHcations are to be ufed, and the patient is not to be
allowed to move the limb, as long as there is any danger of
a renewal of the pain and irritation by exercife.

Scrofulous white-fwellings in an early llage prefent
dilFerent indications, according to the circumllances with
which they are accompanied. A fall, or blow upon a
joint, being fometimes the exciting caufe of thefe tumours,
any accident of this kind m a perfon evidently difpofed to
fcrofula demands the utmod attention and care. No
means (hould be negledled which are at all likely to leffen
the pain and irritation in the aflFefted joint, and in particular
the bmb ought to be kept perfeftly quiet for a long time.
Scrofulous white-fwellings frequently come on, as it were,
fpontaneoully, without the concurrence of any external
accident, and their attack is attended with a dull, fometimes
an acute pain in the very cavity of the joint, which at fird is
not affedled with any manifell degree of fwelling. In this
circumllaiice, the furgeon mull endeavour to prevent the
progrefs of the difeafe by enjoining the patient to refrain
from moving the joint, and by direfting the employment of
foothing local applications, which are afterwards to be fuc-
ceeded by blillers, or an iflue.

In the cafes of white-fwelling, which appear from Mr.
Brodie's account to depend principally upon inflammation
of the fynovial membrane, tlie acute (lage of the difeafe is
to be treated by general and local bleeding, aperient medi-
cines, cold topical applications, or fomentations, and emol-
lient poultices. When the aifeftion has become chronic,
this gentleman recommends perfect red, and leeches, or
cupping, followed by the application of a large blifter.
Under this treatment, he fays, " the pain is relieved, and,
in a few days, the fwelling, as far as it depends upon the
fluid c»llefted in the cavity of the joint, is much diminiflied.
Even where the tumour is folid, arifing from the elfufion of
coagulating lymph, it will in a great meafure fubfide, and
fometimes be entirely difperfed, provided the lymph has
not yet become organized. A fingle bliller often produces
marked good eflfefts ; but, it is generally necelFary to repeat
both the blifter and the blood-letting feveral times."
Mr. Brodie confiders the repeated application of bliilers
more efficacious, tlian a fingle bliller kept open witii the
avine cerate. When the inflammation has been much fub-
dued, he thinks moderate exercife of the joint rather bene-
ficial, and commends the ufe of a llimulating liniment, com-
pofed of Jifs of olive oil, and ^fs of fiilphuric acid. This
application, when too irritating, is to be weakened by an
additional quantity of oil, and it is not to be ufed before in-
flammation

WHITE. SWELLING.

flammation is fubdued, left it aggravate the difeafe. Iffues
and fetons, which are ufeful in ulceration of the cartilages,
Mr. Brodie deems ufelefs in the prefent difeafe. Platters
of gum ammoniac, and others of a fimilar nature, are of
little efiicacy while inflammation exifts, but afterwards they
are of ufe in guarding the joint from the influence of exter-
nal cold, and preventing a relapfe. For the removal of a
moderate degree of fwelling and iliffnefs, left by the pail
inflammation, Mr. Brodie entertains a favourable opinion of
exercife of the limb, and friftion with camphorated mercu-
rial ointment, or by the hand with finely powdered ftarch.
When the fridion, however, produces inflammation again, it is
to be difcontinued, and leeches applied. When the fwelling
and iliffnefs areconfiderable, Mr. Brodie has never feen friftion
do much good, and, as it is in fuch cafes particularly apt to
bring on inflammation again, it is to be employed with much
caution. According to the fame author, friftion is more
efficacious, where the ftiffnefs of a joint depends on a con-
trafted ftate of the mufcles, or tendons of the limb, or on
thefe being glued to each other, or the furrounding parts,
than where it is the confequence of difeafe of the joint itfelf.
In fome cafes, the pumping of warm water on the part,
from a height of feveral feet, as praftifed at fome of the
watering places, is beneficial ; but in this plan, the fame
cautions are neceffary, as in the employment of friftion.

With regard to the cafes which Mr. Brodie defcribes as
depending upon a total lofs of the natural ftrufture of the
fynovial membrane, which is converted into a pulpy fub-
itance, one-quarter, or one-half, of an inch in thicknefs, are,
according to this gentleman, quite incurable, and they at
length terminate in ulceration of the cartilages, abfcefles,
&c. Hence, when the health begins to fuffer, he confiders
amputation proper. See Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. v.

When white-fwcUings are accompanied with ulceration of
the cartilages, all motion of the joint is extremely hurtful.
Indeed, as Mr. Brodie well obferves, keeping the limb in a
flate of perfeft quietude is a very important, if not the moft
important circunillance to be attended to in the treatment.
According to the lame writer, it is in thefe cafes, in which
ulceration of the cartilage occurs as a primary difeafe, that
cauftic indues are ufually produftive of fingular benefit ;
but he deems them of little ufe in any other difeafes of the
joints. He thinks fetons, and blifters kept open with the
favine cerate, may alfo be ufed with advantage in the fame
defcription of cafes. Bleeding can only be proper, when,
from the bad effefts of exercife, the articular furfaces are
inflamed, and pain and fever prevail. Mr. Brodie afl^ures
U8, that the warm-bath relieves the fymptoms in the early
ftage, if it does not ilop the progrefs of the difeafe ; but
he condemns plafters of gum ammoniac, embrocations,
liniments, and friftions, as either ufelefs or hurtful. Op.
Cit. vol. vi.

The pumping of warm water upon difeafed joints is a
method which is at prefent very frequently adopted, as
fome conceive, with decidedly beneficial effefts. The plan
is not altogether modern. Le Dran, and feveral other old
praftitioners, recommend throwing warm water upon dif-
eafed joints, and they prove the advantages of this treatment
by a relation of many fnccefsful cafes. In order to derive
the greatefl; poffible good from the plan, the water ftiould
be as warm as the patient can bear it, and it ought to fall
upon the part from a height of feven or eight feet. The
fize of the ftream mull alfo vary according to the degree of
fenfibility in the tumour. When the pain is acute, the end
of the pipe muff be clofed with apiece of tin, perforated by
many holes, like the fpout of a watering-pot. But when
9

the pain is inconfiderable, the pipe may terminate in a fingle
opening, the diameter of which fhould vary from half an
inch to an inch, according to circumftances. The applica-
tion is fometimes to be continued nearly an hour, and when
it is finiflied, the patient ought to go to bed, and the joint
be covered with bladders filled with water as hot as the
patient can bear. Boyer recommends the application of
the bladders to be perfevered in for the fpace of two hours,
after which they are to be removed, and perfpiration from
the part promoted by covering it with warm cloths, or
flannels. In the evening, the bladders are to be repeated for
fome hours. The dafliing of warm water againll the dif-
eafed joint is to be praftifed every day, or every other day,
according as the patient can bear the plan, without too
much fatigue or inconvenience. This treatment, fays
baron Boyer, is proper in all kinds of white-fwellings, and
in every ftage of the difeafe ; but it is much the moft ufe-
ful in thofe'cafes in which the foft parts alone are affefted,
and at an early period, before the complaint has made great
progrefs. Favourable effefts may be expefted from this
method, when, after each application of the water, the part
affefted perfpires copioufly, when it grows gradually
fofter, and when, after a certain number of trials, the
fwelling begins to diminifli. Under thefe circumftances,
the plan is to be continued and repeated very often, as a
long perfeverance in it has frequently produced extraor-
dinary cures. When none of the above-defcribed changes
happen, little benefit can be hoped for from the method ;
but ftill the patient fhould not abandon it, before its ineffi-
cacy has been proved by adequate trials.

When there is no fuitable apparatus for applying the
warm water, it may be injefted againft the part with a large
fyringe, which has a pipe about half an inch in diameter,
made with four or five holes, for the difcharge of the fluid.
The injeftions may be rendered more or lefs aftive, by pro-
pelling the water with more or lels force.

Thefe affufions operate only by the heat and ftrength of
the current of water. Boyer ilates, that their aftivity may
be augmented by adding to the fluid a quantity of the
muriate of foda or muriate of ammonia, or fome potaffa or
foda ; and he thinks it Hill better to employ a fulphuretted
mineral water, either natural or faftitious. The aftivity
of the affufions may alfo be increafed by heating the water
to a high temperature, letting it fall from a confiderable
height, and making the ftream large. It is a plan, faya
baron Boyer, adapted to thofe white-fwellings which are
fituated in the foft parts on the outfide of the joints ; and
which are indolent, and unattended with mucli pain. When
thefe aftive affufions are applied to white-fwellings
which are painful, and which affeft the bones, they
often increafe the patient's fufferings, and accelerate the
progrefs of the difeafe. See Traite des Mai. Chir. tom. iv,
p. 512, &c.

Of late years, furgeons have frequently made trial of dry-
rubbing, as it is termed, or friftion of the joint, performed
with the hand, for feveral hours a day, with the mere apph-
cation of a little powdered ftarch, or hair-powder, in order
to prevent the part from being chafed. It is a method
which was firit praftifed to a confiderable extent at Oxford,
and with great fuccefs. Many poor women there earned
a livehhood by rubbing difeafed joints at the rate of fixpence
per hour. Indeed, there can be no doubt, that, in indolent
rheumatic wliite-fwellings, fimple friftion often removes the
fwelhng in an expeditious manner, as well as the ftiffnefs of
the affefted joint. The plan, however, will not effeft a cure
in fcrofulous cafes ; nor can it be adopted without manifeft

barm

W H I

harm in any examples, in which the difeafe is either in an
inflamed or irritable ftate.

In chronic cafes, the fwelling may alfo be leflened, and
the complaint fometimes much benefited by prelTure, made
either with ftrips of adhefive plafter, or with bandages.
This method will not do much good in inftances where the
bones are difeafed, nor is it applicable to cafes which are
irritable, or attended with heat and inflammation.

For fcrofulous white-fwellings, furgcry cannot yet be
faid to have difcovered any effeftual or certain means of
relief ; and thefe melancholy difeafes frequently compel the
patient to fubmit to amputation, as the only thing by which
a long train of fufferings can be arretted, and the term of
life extended. The common plan of treating fcrofulous
white-fwellings is, by topical bleeding, fomentations, and
cold applications, when they are attended with much pain,
heat, and irritation ; and by ilfues, fetons, and blifters, in
oliher periods of the difeafe. The cautery and moxa have
alfo been much employed abroad ; and, as every body knows,
they were favourite and powerful remedies in the hands of
the ancients. In this country, the ufe of aftual fire in fur-
gery is nearly, if not quite, exploded, on the ground that its
employment is attended with an appearance of cruelly, and
that iffues, made with cauftic, are equally efficacious.
Pouteau, an eminent French furgeon, will ever be famous
for having revived in his own country all the ancient par-
tiality to burning irons. He recommended their ufe for all
■white-fwellings without difcrimination ; and the accounts
which he has left of the fuccefs of the prattice are fur-
prifing, if not incredible. In faft, they are in all proba-
bility great exaggerations ; for we find that baron Boyer,
one of the molt eminent furgeons at Paris at the prefent
time, decidedly declares his opinion, that Pouteau's defcrip-
tions of the efficacy of the aftual cautery in the cure of
white-fwellings do not correfpond with the refults of mo-
dern experience. Boyer himfelf gives a preference to the
moxa, which is a cone of cotton, burnt upon the difeafed
part, fo as to produce an efchar. We confefs, that to us
this plan feems to have no material difference from the
cautery ; and, what is it but the application of aftual fire
in another form ? Indeed, one cannot help thinking, that
Boyer decries the cautery, only for the purpofe of after-
wards recommending the moxa, which is now a more
fafhionable means employed in French furgery. It is
curious to find Boyer particularly forbidding the ufe of
iffues, and the moxa in cafes of white-fwelling, where the
bones and cartilages are difeafed ; the very cafes in which
Mr. Brodie, in common with the generality of furgeons in
England, exprefsly recommends either iffues or perpetual
blifters. Boyer has never feen much good arife from iffues
in any cafes, although, as he affirms, he has made extenfive
trial of them. The time alfo when he thinks the moxa
ufeful, is in that ftage of the complaint which intervenes
between the prevalence of inflammatory fymptoms, and the
commencement of difeafe in the bones and cartilages.
Sometimes, however, the diforder certainly has its very
origin in the bones themfelves.

The late Mr. Crowther introduced the plan of keeping
open blifters with the favine cerate, which is a method fre-
quently attended with great fuccefs in chronic white-
fwellings, and fometimes appears to check the progrefs of
the fcrofulous form of the difeafe. Blifters may be kept
open with this ointment a long time, and with lefs pain,
than what proceeds from the ufe of the unguentum lyttse,
and other ftimulating dreffings. It alfo occafions no rifli of
bringing on ftrangury, or inflammation of the bladder and
wrinary organs, like the ufe of ointments containing can-
VoL. XXXVIH.

W H 1

tharides. In our opinion, Mr. Crowther had much merit
m making known the eligible qualities of the favine cerate ;
and, we believe, no better application for keeping up a dif-
charge from blifters will ever be found out. Sometimes,
however, the repeated application of bhfters has more effeft
upon white-fwellings, than a fingle blifter kept open. This
is a circumftance which the praftical furgeon ought con-
ftantly to remember.

We might enlarge this article vvith obfervations on iffues
and fetons, which are frequently employed in thefe cafes ;
but it would be fuperfluous, as they have been already
defcribed in other parts of the work. See Issue, and
Seton.

It may be fuppofed, that fcrofulous white-fwellings
will require the exhibition of the remedies ufually
adminiftered in cafes of fcrofula. (See Scrofula.)
Boyer, and fome other writers declare, that this is aftually
the cafe. We have never feen thefe remedies, however, do
any good to difeafed joints, if we except fea-air, fea-bathing,
and the ufe of fea-water lotions and poultices, which fome-
times prove ufeful.

After all, we muft acknowledge that white-fwellings, we
mean particularly the inftances accompanied with ulceration
of the cartilages, and difeafe of the heads of the bones, are
cafes which too generally baffle the utmoft fkill, and render
a formidable operation unavoidable.

White Tail. See Motacilla C^nanthe.
White Tartar. See Tartar.
White Thorn. See Crat^gus.

White Thorn, or Hawthorn. See Hedge, and Quick-
SKI-Hedge.

White Thorn Layer, a term applied to fuch plants of
the white thorn kind as are laid down in hedges to grow, in
the operation of plafhing. Alfo to the young roots of this
thorn ufed in raifing this fort of hedges. See Plashikg
Hedges.

WniTE-Throat, in Ornithology, the name of a fmall bird,
very common in our gardens and hedges, and feeming to
have been defcribed under the name oi fpipola by Aldro-
vandus and fome others, though moft approaching to the
Jicedula clafs.

Its beak is black above, and whitifh below ; its feet of a
yellowifii -brown ; its neck and back are of a brownilh-grey ;
its head more grey than either, and the upper part of the
throat white, (he reft reddifh ; its breaft and belly are alfo
a little reddifh ; but iu the female, the breaft is perfeftly
white. The edges of the long wing-feathers are fome
whitifh and others brownifli, and the tail is variegated with
black and white, and fome grey or afh-colour intermixed.
It is extremely common in our gardens and orchards iiT
fummer, and feeds on flies, fpiders, and other infefts, but
leaves us in winter. It builds in bufhes, at a fmall height
from the ground, with ftubble and horfe-hair, and lays five
brownifh-green eggs, with black fpots. Its note is con-
tinually repeated, and often attended with odd motions of
the wings : it is harfh and difpleafing. This bird is fhy
and wild, and feems of a pugnacious difpofition. Ray and
Pennant. See Motacilla Sylvia.

White Trefoil, in Agriculture, is faid, in the third volume
of the Effays of the Higldand Society of Scotland, to be a
humble but fweet plant, which delights in a dry found field,
properly cleaned and limed ; and is alone the delight of
fheep. But that a mixture of it, and of the feeds of rye
and rib grafs, conftitutes one of the beft fheep-paftures
that can be formed by the induftry of man. That this fort
of grafs is likewife perennial, and that it enriches inftead of
impoverilhing the foil or land. This has generally been
a F noticed

W H 1

noticed to be the moft. abundant plant in fucli rich im-
proved paftures ; but that it has feldom been feen in lands
remarkable for inducing the rot among Iheep. See Rot,
Sheep, and White Clover.

White, Troy. See T ROY-lf^hite.
White Varnl/h, and Vitriol. See the fubftantives.
White Vitriol, in Mineralogy, a natural fait or ore of
zinc. ( See Zinc, and Zinx Ores.) This ore is a fulphate of
that metal, but is frequently combined with a fmall portion
of manganefe. It is fuppofed to be formed naturally by
the decompofition of blende or fulphuret of zinc.
W\UT:i>WaJhing, Roughcajl. See Wash /or, &c.
White Water, a difeafe in Sheep, of the dangerous fl.0-
machic kind. It is faid to be caufed by their feeding on
rich fucculent food in cold frofty feafons, or at other times,
and by many other fuch caufes ; and is probably an affeftion
of the inflammatory kind.

It is remarked in the Gloucefter Report on Agriculture,
that the white water is a deftruftive diforder on the Cotf-
wolds ; ufually comes on with rapidity, and fometimes ter-
minates with death in three hours. It is fuppofed to be
owing to their licking up the white froft on their green
food in fpring and autumn. Folding at night on bare
ground, giving them dry meat in the morning, and keeping
them from the turnips till the froft is gone, is the obvious
mode of prevention, if the foregoing caufe be well founded.
If, however, the diforder be owing to gorging themfelves
with watery food, fuch as turnips, it is probable that to
keep them moving, without fuffering them to reft long, nor
fwell with what they have eaten, will carry off the begin-
ning complaint ; and even if the white froft has been the oc-
cafion, this is the beft remedy that reafoning fuggefts ; and
it is faid to be the praftice of the (hepherds in Northumber-
land, in the management of fheep under this complaint.

It is probable that fpeedy evacuation, both by bleeding
and purging, may be found ufeful in this difeafe, and after-
wards the ufe of ftomachic remedies.

It is found to chiefly attack the young healthy (heep. See
Water, Red and Black.

White IFater-Lily, in Gardening, a moft beautiful plant
of this country, which is capable of being propagated in
artificial and ornamental pieces of water in gardens and plea-
fure-grounds, merely by tranfplanting the bulbous roots of
it in the winter feafon. It is perennial in its nature.

White IVax is yellow wax blanched, and purified by
the fun and dew. See Wax.

White upon White, in the Porcelain Manufadory, a name
given by the Englifh merchants to a particular china-ware,
which is formed of three different white fubftances, the body
being of one, the flowers of another, and the varnilh which
covers thefe of a third. See Hoache.

White Wine is that of a clear, bright, tranfparent colour,
bordering on white. It is thus called to diftinguifh it from
the red wines, or clarets.

The generality of white wines are made from white
grapes ; though there are fome from black ones, only the
fldns are carefully kept from tinging them. See Wine.

Whites, the popular name of a diforder incident to
women. See Fluor yllhus.

White, in Geography, a county of Weft Tennaflee, with
4028 inhabitants, including 283 flaves.

White Bay, a bay on the eaft coaft of Newfoundland.

N. lat. 50° 10'. W. long. 56' 25' Alfo, a bay on the

eaft coaft of Kerguelen's Land, fouth of Point Pringle, fo
called from fome white fpots of land or rocks. In the

W H I

bottom are feveral fmaller bays or coves. S. lat. 47'^ 53'.
E. long. 69° 15'.

White Bear Lake, a lake of North America, faid to
be the moft northerly of thofe lakes which fupply the
Miffiftippi. It is about 60 miles in circumference. N. lat.
46° 50'. W. long. 95° 30'.

White Cliff', or Culver Cliff, a cape of the eaft coaft of
the Ifle of Wight. North of it is a bay called White Cliff
Bay. N. lat. 50° 39'. W. long. 0° 56'.

White Deer, a townftiip of Pennfylvania, in North Cum-
berland county, on the Sufquehanna, with 1132 in-
habitants.

White Flag Bay, a bay on the weft coaft of the ifland
of St. Chriftopher ; 2 miles N. of Sandy Point.

White Head, a cape of Ireland, on the coaft of Antrim,
at the entrance into Belfaft Lough, a little to the fouth of
Black Head.

White Hills, a fifliing-town of Scotland, in the county
of Bamff, fituated in a creek ; 2 miles N. of Bamff.

VflinE-Hor/e Vale, a vale of Berkfliire, fo called from
the figure of a horfe in a galloping pofture, cut in the fide
of a chalky hill, as is fuppofed in memory of a great viftory
gained by Alfred over the Danes in the year 871. The
fcouring the horfe is an annual feftival, and celebrated by
rural games. On the top of the hill is a large Roman in-
trenchment, called Uffington caftle, or Woolfton caftle.
There is likewife another camp in the neighbourhood, with
the burial place of the Danifh chief, inclofed by ftones fet
on edge, a cromlech, and feveral barrows.

White Horfes, cliffs on the fouth coaft of Jamaica ; 20
miles E.S.E. of Kingfton.

'WHlTE-Houfe Bay, a bay on the weft coaft of the ifland
of St. Chriftopher, a little to the north of Guana Point.

White Inlet, or Boca de Ratones, an inlet on the eaft
coaft of Eaft Florida. N. lat. 26°. W. long. 80° 20'.

White I/land, an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, near
the eaft coaft of New Zealand, north of Cape Run-away.

S. lat. 37° 31'. W. long. 182° 36' Alfo, a fmall ifland

in the Atlantic, near the S.E. coaft of Nova Scotia. N.
lat. 44° 55'. W. long. 61° 56'.

White Ifland, or Burnt Ifland, a fmall ifland in the
Arabian Gulf, near the coaft of Adel. N. lat. li^ 8'.
E. long. 64° 55'.
White, Ifle of. See IJle o/" Wight.
White Keys River, a river of Africa, which runs iiite
the Indian fea, S. lat. 30° 35'.

White Mountains, mountains of New Hampftiire, pecu-
liarly applied to the higheft part of a ridge, which extends
N.E. and S.W. : the whole circumference at leaft fifty
miles. The height of thefe mountains above an adjacent
meadow is reckoned, from obfervations made by the Rev.
Mr. Cutler, of Ipfwich, in 1784, to be about 55OO feet>
and the meadow 3500 feet above the level of the lea. The
fnow and ice cover them nine or ten months in the year,
during which time they exhibit that bright appearance from
which they are denominated the White Mountains. From
this fumrait, in clear weather, is exhibited a view extending
fixty or feventy miles in every direftion : although they are
more than feventy miles within land, they are feen many
leagues off at fea, and appear hke an exceedingly bright
cloud in the horizon. Thefe immenfe heights, being co-
pioufly repleniflied with water, afford a variety of cafcades.
Three of the largeft rivers in New England receive a great
part of their waters from thefe mountains. Amanoofuck
and Ifrael rivers, two principal branches of the Connefticut,
fall from their weftern fides. Peabody river, a branch of
the Ansorifcogen, falls from the north-eaft fide, and almoft.

the

W H I

t the whole of the Saco defcends from the fouthern fide.

The higheft fummit of thefe mountains is in about 44° N. lat.

White Oak Creek, a river of North Carohna, which runs

into the Atlantic, N. lat. 34° 39'. W. long. 77° 26'.

\ White Oak Mountains, mountains in the weft part of

North Carolina. N. lat. 36° 10'. W. long. 82° 30'.

White Point, a cape on the coaft of Cape Breton, near

Louifburg Alfo, a cape on the fouth coaft of Jamaica ;

20 miles E. of Port Royal — Alfo, a cape on the north
; coaft of the iflaud of Cumbava. S. lat. 8° ij'. E. long.
I 118° 51'.

, White River, a river of Louifiana, formerly thought to
I be a ftream of inconfiderable magnitude, but now known to
' be one of the moft confiderable in the weftern country, and
, likely to become of ftill greater importance. It rifes in the
Black Mountains, which feparate the waters of the Ar-
kanfas from thofe of the MifTouri and MiffifGppi. Several
of its branches interlock with thofe of the Ofage river, the
Maramak, and the St. Francis. It is navigable about 1200
miles, without any confiderable interruption ; 800 of which
may be made with barges, and the reft with canoes or
fmaller boats. Its waters are clear and limpid, its current
gentle, and even in the drieft feafon, plentifully fupplied
from the numerous and excellent fprings which are every
where found. It alfo receives many confiderable rivers in
its courfe, the largeft of which is Black river. The country
which it waters is defcribed by thofe who have traverfed it
as generally well wooded, and abounding in fprings and
rivulets : the foil is rich, though hilly ; and it is faid, that
on the borders of this river a country may be chofen, at
leaft 100 miles fquare, not furpafled by the beft parts of
Kentucky, and one of the beft for fettlements in the weft-
ern world. This river is fituated on the S.W. fide of
the MifTouri, and is 300 miles wide at its mouth.

White River, a river of Guadaloupe. — Alfo, a river of
America, which runs into the Connefticut, 4 miles eaft
of Norwich. — Alfo, a river of Jamaica, which runs into the

fea, 4 miles W. of Morant bay Alfo, a river of Indiana,

in the county of Koog, which rifes about N. lat. 40° 45',
and W. long. 85" 5', and runs into the Wabafti, N. lat. 38°
19', and W. long. 88° 20'. — Alfo, a river of America, which
runs into lake Michigan, N. lat. 43° 40'. W. long. 85° 35'.
— Alfo, a river of Vermont, which runs into the Connefti-
cut, N. lat. 43'' 38'. W. long. 72° 16'.

White Rock, a rocky iflet in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the fouth coaft of Java.

White Rocks, a range of buildings, accommodated for
fmelting-houfes, about a mile from Swanfea, in the county
of Glamorgan, fituated on the river.

White'j Bay, a bay on the coaft of Newfoundland. N.
lat. 50=17'. W. long. 56° 15'.

WHITEBURN, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Linlithgow ; 21 miles W. of Edinburgh.

WHITECLAY Creek, a hundred of Delaware, in
Newcaftle county, with 1701 inhabitants.

WHITEFIELD, Geohge, in Biography, one of the
founders of Methodifm, (fee Methodists,) was the fon of
an innkeeper at Gloucefter, where he was born in 17 14,
and where he received the rudiments of literature, fo as to
be fufficiently qualified for his father's bufinefs, for which
he was defigned. Accordingly he commenced it as drawer
at the Bell-inn. At fchool he is faid to have been diftin-
guiftiedby a retentive memory and good elocution. Of his
early years, he gives a very unfavourable account, fo that
there was nothing about him but a fitnefs to be damned,
with occafional gleams of grace that afforded fome indica-
tion of his future deftination. About the age of 18,

W H I

he was admitted a fervitor at Pembroke college, Oxford,
and affociated with thofe young perfons whofe difpofitions
and habits refembled his own, and whofe converfation and
manners contributed to cherifti that religious enthufiafm to
which he was ftrongly addifted. As foon as Dr. Benfon,
bifliop of Gloucefter, received information concerning the
ftate of his mind and the courfe of his general conduft, he
made him an offer of ordination, when he was about 21
years of age, and he was accordingly ordained a deacon in
1736. Upon his return to Oxford, after preaching hisfirft
fermon at Gloucefter, he took the degree of bachelor, and
diligently employed himfelf in communicating inftruftion to
the poor and the prifoners. During the two following
years, he acquired a great degree of popularity by his pub-
lic fervices in London, Bath, Briftol, and other places ; col-
lefting large auditories, and interefting the attention of his
hearers. His voice was ftrong and mufical, his pronun-
ciation clear and diftinft, his imagination was lively, and his
feelings were warm ; and to thefe natural powers of elo-
quence we may add his feleftion of fubjefts, which were
adapted to roufe the inconfiderate, and to comfort thofe
that were awakened to a fenfe of their guilt and danger : fo
that we need not wonder that he fhould command a nu-
merous audience. Upon receiving information that the pro-
vince of Georgia was likely to open to him an extenfive field
of ufefulnefs, he determined to vifit it, and in May 1738,
arrived at Savannah. Here he met with much greater fuc-
cefs than his predeceflbr Wefley ; and in order to fupply the
defeft of education which he was concerned to obferve in
this province, he refolved to found an orphan-houfe, and in
1739 returned to England in order to colleft money for this
purpofe. In England few of his clerical brethren were dif-
pofed to take much notice of him ; neverthelefs, his original
patron, the bilhop of Gloucefter, gave him prieft's orders :
but upon afterwards vifiting London, none of the churches
into which he obtained admiffion were large enough to ac-
commodate the crowds of people that aftembled to hear him.
It was about this time that he commenced his praftice of
preaching in the open fields, and the firft fcene of his exhi-
bition in this way feems to have been Kingfwood, near
Briftol, where he collefted thoufands, chiefly of colliers, who
without doubt derived benefit from his difcourfes. He alfo
preached at Briftol in the open air, when he was refufed ac-
cefs to the pulpits of the churches ; and he likewife purfued
the fame praftice in Moorfields and Kennington-common,
near London, where, amijft the immenfe multitude that at-
tended him, fome perfons occafionally treated him with rudo-
nefs, but the greater number were commanded by his pecu-
liar power of addrefs into refpeftful attention. Having
fucceeded beyond his expeftations in foliciting contribu-
tions for his projefted orphan-houfe in Georgia, he returned
to America in Auguft 1739 ; and in the following January
laid the foundation of the building at Savannah. He then
extended his tour as far as Bofton, preaching to immenfe
crowds, and coUefting confiderable fums for the completion
of his defign ; and upon his return to Savannah he found
his orphan family comfortably fettled in their houfe ; and in
January 1 741, he embarked for England. His abfence had
occafioned a declenfion among his followers ; fome other
circumftances, befides the intermiffion of his perfonal labours
amongft them, might probably have contributed to produce
this eff'eft. Whilft he was in America he had written, as he
himfelf acknowledges, " two well-meant but injudicious
letters againft England's two great favourites, the Whole
Duty of Man, and archbifhop Tillotfon, who, I faid, knew
no more of religion than Mahomet." His fociety had fuf-
fered from the influence of the Moravians. Mr. Wefley

3 F 2 had

W H I

W H I

had preached and printed in favour of perfeftion and uni-
verfal redemption, and againft the doftrine of elsftion. He
had written a reply, but he acknowledges that he had uied
expreffious that were too ftrongin reference to abfolute repro-
bation, which had offended numbers of his fpiritual children.
His worldly circumftances were embarrafTed, and he owed
looo/. for the orphan-houfe, and fome of his bills were re-
turned. He had fome enemies who circulated reflexions on
his integrity in the contraft of this bufinefs ; but they were
never jullified, and his fhte of fecular affairs at his death
affords a ftrong prefumption that they were groundlefs.
Dr. Franklin, who lived upon the fpot, bears teftxmony to
his honefty. At this time, a feparation had taken place
between him and Wedey, and this had occafioned a decreafe
of his auditors. However, his zeal and perfeverance over-
came thefe difBculties. In order to counteraft Wefley's
popularity, he built a (hed near his chapel in Moorfields,
which he called the Tabernacle ; and in procefs of time this
rofe from a mean beginning to be a fpacious edihce ; and he
alfo renevv-ed his field-preaching. At this time, he paid his
firfl vifit to Scotland ; and though he was a clergyman of
the church of England, which excited fome prejudice
againft him, he was invited into the churches, and preached
to large congregations, and made colleftions for his orphans.
On his return by Wales, he married a Mrs. James, a widow
lady of Abergavenny. His zeal for doing good, and for
making profelytes, induced him, in the fpring of 1742, to
engage in a conteft with the idle people who had booths in
Moorfields, and where they frequented for their amufement
00 hchdays. On Whitmonday he collefted a party of his
attendants, and reforted to the fpot with a view of con-
dufting a religious fervice. Although he was much dif-
turbed in this effufion of his piety and zeal, the refult, as he
fays, was fo much in his favour, that he received 1000 notes
from perfons under conviftion ; and foon after more than
300 were admitted into the fociety in one day. In 1748 he
returned from a third voyage to America ; and then com-
menced his acquaintance with the countefs of Huntingdon,
who appointed him her chaplain, and excited the curiofity
of fome perfons of rank to bear him : among thefe were the
earl of Chefterfield and lord BoUngbroke. About this pe-
riod, it is faid, his fentiments became more rational ; for on
his third vifit to Scotland, it was announced to a fynod aflem-
bled at Glafgow to inveftigate certain charges againfl his opi-
nions, that with regard to certain points which were con-
Cdered as objeAionable, his fentiments had been altered for
upwards of two years ; and that he now feldom preached a
fermon without guarding his hearers againft impreifions, and
admonifhing them that a holy life is the beft evidence of a
ftate of grace. From tlii-? lime, he was fully employed by a
vifit to Ireland, two more voyages to America, and his
Englifh circuits, till the year 1756, when his chapel in Tot-
tenham-court-road was erefted. His labours were inceffant
for many years ; but at length, on a feventh vifit to America,
he was feized with an afthmatic complaint at Newbury-
port, New England, which terminated his life in September
1770, near the completion of his fifty-fixth year.

With regard to his general character, we (hall clofe this
article with the refleftions cf a judicious and candid bio-
grapher. " That he had much enthufiafm and fanaticifm in
his compofition is fufficiently evident from his own journal
and letters ; but whether thefe were accompanied, as they
not unfrequently are, with craft and artifice, is a difputable
point. There are, in his narratives, obvious marks of a dif-
pofition to reprefent himfelf as under the fpecial proteftion of
Providence, and to magnify trifling incidents into little lefs
than miracles in his favour ; and much of what is com-

12

monly called cant is apparent in his confefljons and humiK-
ations. Yet that he was a hypocrite afting a part will
fcarcely be believed by any one who looks at his courfe of
hfe during 34 years. He has been charged with difhonefty
and immorality ; yet as it is certain that he obtained the
efteem of many perfons of worth, it may be concluded that
fuch accufations were deftitute of proof. His intelleftual
qualities were well fuited to the talk he undertook ; and if
in the pulpit he occafionally intermixed buffoonery with his
vehemence, the latter was not lefs effeftual on that account.
His learning and literary talents were mean, and he is a writer
only for his own feft." He publifhed, at intervals, fermons,
trails, and letters, which, after his death, were collected in
fix vols. 8vo. Middleton's Biog. Evangel. Mofh. £ccl.
Hift. Gen. Biog.

Whitefield, in Geography, a town of America, in the
diftrift of Maine, and county of Lincoln, having 995 in-
habitants Alfo, a town of New Hampfhire, in the county

of Cowes, having 51 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town of North
Carohna ; 40 miles W. of Newbern.

Whitefield, or IVhiatfield, a townfhip of Pennfylvaniai
156 miles W. of Philadelphia.

WHITEHALL, formerly called Skenefborough, a
poft-townfhip of Wafhington county, in the ftate of New
York, at the head of lake Champlain, about 65 miles N.E.
from Albany : in medial length about 10 miles from N.
to S., and 7 wide; firft erefted in 1788, with its prefent
limits. The foil is a ftiff clay, and adapted to grafs. Wood-
creek and Pawlet river unite in this town, and afford facility
to navigation and trade, as well as mill- feats. Marble, lime-
ftonc, and iron-ore, and alfo a mineral fpring, are found in '\
this townfhip. It has i Congregational, i Prefbyterian, i
Baptift, and i Methodift congregation, and a competent-
number of common fchools ; 2 grift-mills, 2 faw-mills, a
fuHing-mill, and carding-machine. — Alfo, an incorporated
poft-village at the N. end, with confiderable trade, fituated
principally on the W. bank of Wood-creek, at its entrance
into lake Champlain ; 71 miles N-E. from Albany. About
a quarter of a mile from the village is a handfonie Prefby-
terian church, founded by the donation of John Williams,
efq. of Salem, who endowed it with a parfonage of 60 acres ,
of land. The whole population, by the cenfus of 1 8 10, was
21 19, with 178 eleftors. — Alfo, atownftiip of Pennfylvania,
in Northampton county, with 2551 inhabitants ; 61 miles
N. of Philadelphia.

WHITEHAVEN, a fea-port and market-town in
AUerdale ward, in the county of Cumberland, England,
is fituated between two hills at the northern extremity of a
narrow vale, at the diftance of 40 miles S.W. from Carliflc,
and 305 miles N.W. from London. The rife, progrefs,
and increafing importance of this now rich and flourifhing
town, ftrikingly difplay the effefts of trade, indullry, and
enterprife. From an obfcure hamlet, ,it has advanced,
within lefs than two centuries, to confiderable magnitude
and commercial importance ; and, both in extent and po-
pulation, by far exceeds the capital of the county. In the
year 1566, it confifted only of fix fifhermen's cabins; in
1633, of nine or ten thatched cottages; but in 1693, its
buildings were fufficiently numerous for 2222 inhabitants,
and have been progrefTively increafing ; till, in the year 18 11,
the population was returned to parHament as 10,106, oc-
cupying 1940 houfes. The increafe of fhipping has been
proportionate: in 1685, the whole number of veffels be-
longing to this port was 46, carrying 187 1 tons ; they have
fince gradually increafed to 230 ; the quantity of tonnage is
nearly 74,000 tons. The honour of raifing this town to its
prefent importance muft be attributed to the Lowther

family.

W H 1

family. Sir John Lowther, about the beginning of the
reign of Charles I., purchafed the lands of the difTolved
monaftery of St. Bees for his fecoiid fon, fir Chrillopher,
who, as coals about that period came into general ufe, con-
ceived the idea of improving his pofTt- fTioiis hy opening fome
collieries. No efFeftual progrefs was, however, made till
after the Reftoration, when another fir .John Lowther, who
had fucceeded to the eftate, formed a plan for working the
mines on a very extenfive fcale. To obviate all oppofition
to his operations, he procured a gift of all the ungranted
lands within the dillridl, and alfo of the whole fea-coall for
two miles northward, between high and low water mark.
He then direfted his attention to the port, which was fmall
and inconvenient ; and, by his judicious fchemes, laid the
foundation of the prefent haven. Subfequent improvements
have been made, particularly during the reign of George II.,
when an aft was pafled to perfeft and keep it in repair, by
a tonnage on ftiij^piiig. The mines are faid to be the deepeft
in England, and extend a confiderable way under the fea :
one has hem carried looo yards out from the (hore, at the
depth of 112 fathoms under the water. Mod of the coal
exported from this haven is conveyed to Ireland ; the quan-
tity raifed annually, on the average, is about 90,000 chal-
.drons. (See Coal.) The creek on wlrch Whitehaven is
'built is fo deeply feated, that the adjacent lands overlook it
on every fide. The approach from the north is fingular, as
the heights are fo much above the town, that only the roofs
of the houfes can be feen till near the entrance, which, on this
point, is through an archvsray of red free-flone. The town it-
! felf is one of the moft refpeftable in all the northern counties ;
the ftreets being regular and fpacious, and crofling each
other at right angles ; the houfes in general are well built,
and even the tradefmen's /hops exhibit a degree of elegance.
jHere are three chapels, plain convenient ftruftures : they
were all erefted by fubfcription of the inhabitants, aided by
the benevolence of the Lowther family. St. Nicholas's
chapel was built in 1693 ; Trinity, in 1715 ; St. James's,
in 1752. The latter is neatly fitted up ; the roof and gal-
leries are fupported by ranges of pillars. Befides the eila-
'bliflied chapels, here are three meeting-houfes for Methodifts,
■two for Prefbyterians, and one for each of the following
Ifefts, Anabaptifts, Roman Catholics, Glaflites, and Sande-
manians. The principal manufaftures are thofe of cordage
!and fail-cloth ; the latter was only eftablifhed in 1786, but
already gives employment to feveral hundred workmen,
I though much of the bufinefs is executed by machinery of
I great power. A fair is held annually, and there are three
weekly markets. The caftle, as it is called, adjoining the eaft
;fide of the town, one of the feats of the earl of Lonfdale,
is a large quadrangular building, chiefly erefted by the late
learl, and containing fome good paintings.
' Si. Bees, in which parifh Whitehaven is fituated, derives
I its origin from a religious houfe founded here by Bega, an
' Irifh faint, about the year 650. On her death, a church
was erefted to her honour; but both thefe eftablifiiments
■ having been deitroyed by the Danes, they were replaced, in
I the reign of Henry I., by a new foundation for Benediftine
; monks. The church built at this period had the form of a
Jcrofs, and great part of it yet remains. The eaft end is
I unroofed, and in ruins ; the nave is fitted up as the parifh
jchurch ; and the crofs-aifle is ufed as a burial-place. The
Iwhole IS of a red free-ftone. In this village a free-fchool
'was fou idi'd by a bequeft of archbifhop Grindall, in the
lyear 15K7, under a charter of queen EHzabeth. The en-
dowments were increafed by James I., and have been fince
ifufther augmented by various benefaftions. — Beauties of
jEngrand and Wales, vol, iii. Cumberland, by J. Britton

W H 1

and E. W. Brayley, 1802. Magna Britannia, Cumberland,

by Meflrs. Lyfons, 410. i8i6.

WHITEHEAD, William, in Biography, an Englifh
poet, w^'S born at Cambridge in 17 14-5, educated at Win-
cheiter fcliool, where from his talent in writing verfe he ac-
quired the notice of Pope ; and upon his return to Cam-
bridge, obtained a fcholarfhip of Clare-hall. As a poet.
Whitehead's higheft ambition was to rv*lemble the manner
of Pope ; and of his proficiency he gave a fpecimen in his
" Epiftle on the Danger of writing Verfe," 1741. In the
following year he was elefted fellow of Clare-hall, and pur-
fned his ftudies with a view to the church ; but his poetical
talents produced a change in his circumftances and in his
purpofe. Being recommended to the earl of Jerfey as a
proper tutor for his eldeft fon, he removed in 1745 to the
earl's houfe in London, where his treatment was in the
higheil degree liberal. Having leifure for indulging his
taile for literary purfuits, he turned his attention to dramatic
compofition, and produced a tragedy, entitled " The Ro-
man Father," which was exhibited with applaufe upon the
ftage in Drury-lane in 1750. In 1754 he pubhfhed another,
the title of which was " Creufa," which was alfo favourably
received. With the profits arifing from thefe two perform-
ances he very honourably difcharged the debts of his father,
who had died infolvent. In this year he accompanied his
pupil, vifcount Villiers, and vifcount Nuneham, fon of earl
Harcourt, on their travels, which continued more than two
years ; and on his return he publifiied an " Ode to the
Tiber," and fix elegiac epiftles, which were much ap-
plauded. Lady Jerfey, during his abfence, had procured
for him the appointment of fecretary and regifter to the
order of the Bath ; and in 1757, on the death of Cibber,
he fucceeded to the laureat, which he rendered refpeftable ;
though in the difcharge of the cuftomary duties of the
office, he did not efcape abufe, and efpecially that of
Churchill, whofe popular fatire almoft overwhelmed the re-
putation of the laureat. Lady Jerfey, in confideration ot
his fervices as governor to her fon, invited him to take up
his refidence in her houfe, where lie pafTed fourteen years,
frequently vifiting lord Harcourt, much refpefted by his
noble hofts and his former pupils. He ftill amufed himfelf
by prefenting to the public occafional produftions, one of
which was a comedy of the moral or fentimental clafs, en-
titled " The School for Lovers." After paffing through
life tranquilly and pleafantly, and maintaining an eftimable
charafter, he died fuddenly, April 1785, in his 70th year.
Of his works two volumes were publifhed by himfelf, and to
thefe a third was added by Mr. Mafon, who prefixed me-
moirs of his life and writings, to which we refer. Gen.
Biog.

Whitehead, George, an eminent perfon among the
Quakers, was born in 1636 at Sunbigg, in Weftmoreland.
Attaching himfelf early in life to this fociety, and engaging
in the propagation of its doftrine, he partook of the fuffer-
ings which, in that age, were the ordinary lot of its aftive
members ; and was once, fimply for having preached at
Nayland, in Suffolk, feverely whipped by order of two
juftices as a vagabond ; a proceeding which ferved, as might
have been expefted, to increafe the difpoficion of the people
to hear hira. Soon after the Reftoration of the monarchy,
the Quakers were made the exprefs fubjefts of a law, the
precurfor of others of like nature, which impofcd on their
profefTion and worftiip penalties extending to baniftiment.
In the progrefs of the bill through the houfe of commons.
Whitehead, with three other Q.iakeri!, was admitted to the
bar of the houfe, and heard in defence of the fociety.
They pleaded its caufe with the freedom of confcious inno-

cence.

W H I

W H 1

cence, and the raeeknefs of men prepared to fuffer, but
pleaded in vain : — the bill paffed, and two out of the four,
who had thus advocated the rights of confcience, prefently
fell vi(EUms to the force by which confcience was deliberately
oppreffed, dying in a crowded unhealthy prifon, to which
they were dragged from their peaceable religious meetings.
Whitehead, who was imprifoned with them, furvived to be
liberated.

In the year 1672, when Charles II. iffued his declaration
for fufpending the penal ftatutes againll non-conformifts.
Whitehead fohcited and obtained an order under the great
feal for the difcharge of about four hundred Quakers,
many of whom had been for years under clofe confinement.
He records, with expreflions of fatisfaftion, the circum-
llance that fome other diffenters alfo partook at this time of
the benefit of his exertions. On feveral other occafions he
was concerned in applications on the Quakers' behalf to
Charles II. and James II. And after the Revolution, when
the Toleration Bill was before parliament, he was parti-
cularly ferviceable to his friends in that matter ; as likewife
in taking a part in thofe reprefentations, which procured the
acceptance of their affirmation in lieu of an oath. A pro-
feffion of faith being propofed for infertion in the above
aft, in terms which to the Quakers would not have been
quite fatisfaftory. Whitehead and his coadjutors propofed
the following, as their own belief on the points to which it
relates, and which was adopted as a teft for the fociety ac-
cordingly, viz. " I profefs faith in God the Father, and
in Jefus Chrift his Eternal Son the true God, and in the
Holy Spirit, one God, blefled for evermore ; and do
acknowledge the holy fcriptures of the Old and New Tella-
ment to be given by divine infpiration."

Whitehead hved the greater part of his time in or near
London, which accounts for his being one of thofe Quakers
ufually concerned in applications to the government. He
was well efteemed by his brethren, whom he continued to
edify by his miniftry and example to the end, dying, after a
(hort confinement, by infirmity, at the age of 86. Befides
feveral writings chiefly controverfial, heleft fome memoirs
of his life, which were printed in one volume, 8vo. in
1725.

Whitehead, in Geography, an ifland in the Atlantic,
near the coaft of Maine. N. lat. 44° 43'. W. long.
67° 40'. — Alfo, a cape of Ireland, at the north-eall of the
bay of Carrickfergus, in the county of Antrim.

WHITEHORN, a royal borough and market-town in
the diftrift of Machers, and (hire of Wigtown, Scotland,
is fituated on the weftern fide of the bay of Wigtown, at
the diftance of 1 16 miles S.S.W. from Edinburgh. It is a
place of great antiquity, having been the Roman ftation
Leucophibia, or Candida-Cafa of Bede, and the capital of
the Novantes, who poffefled all Galloway beyond the river
Dee ; and it was fo early the feat of rehgion, that, accord-
ing to Pinkerton, the bifhopric of Galloway, or Whitehorn,
is the oldell in Scotland. The cathedral, of which there
are now fcarcely any remains, was founded in the fourth
century by St. Ninian. A priory of the Premonftratenfian
order was alfo early founded here, and richly endowed by
Fergus, lord of Galloway. The borough now confifts
chiefly of one large well-built ftreet, extending from north
to fouth, interfered by feveral fmaller. A rivulet, over
which is a neat bridge, runs acrofs the main ftreet. Near
the centre of the town is a refpedtable hall for public meet-
ings, adorned with turrets and a fpire, and furnilhed with
a fet of bells. Whitehorn is governed by a provoft, two
baillies, and fifteen counfellors ; and unites with the bo-
roughs of New Galloway, Wigtown, and Stranraer, in

fending a reprefeutative to the imperial parliament. A
weekly market is well fupplied. The tanning of leather
has been carried on feveral years to a confiderable extent,"
and fome cotton manufaftures have been commenced. The
pariih of Whitehorn extends eight miles in length and four
in breadth, and occupies that extremity of the peninfula of
the fhire of Wigtown which is formed by the bays of Wig.
town and Luce. The foil is in general fertile, and the farms
well cultivated. Here are many extenfive plantations in a
flourifhing condition ; confiderable quarries of variegated
marble and ftrong flate ; and promifing appearances of lead
and copper mines, but none have as yet been worked. The
extent of fea-coaft is about nine miles. The ifle of White-
horn, included in the parifh, has a fafe harbour, and a vil-
lage containing 350 inhabitants. According to the return
of the year 1 8 1 1 , the population of the whole parilh was
1935. — Beauties of Scotland, vol. ii. Wigtownfhire. Car-
lifle's Topographical Diftionary of Scotland, vol. ii.
1813.

Whitehorn, a fmall ifland of Scotland, near the fouth-
eaft coaft of the county of Wigtown. N. lat. 54° 46'. W.
long. 4° 27'.

WHITEHURST, John, in Biography, was born at
Congleton, in Chelhire, in 17 13, and brought up to the
trade of his father, who was a watch-maker. At the age
of 21 years he vifited Dublin, in order to acquaint himfelf
with the conftruftion of a curious clock ; but being difap-
pointed, he engaged in bufinefs for himfelf at Derby, about
two or three years after his return, where he diilinguiftied
himfelf by a variety of ingenious pieces of mechanifm ; and
he thus eftabhftied a reputation, which caufed him to be
confulted by all perfons who wiftied to avail themfelves of
fuperior fkill in mechanics, pneumatics, and hydrauhcs. In
1 77 J he was appointed, without any folicitation on his own
part, ftamper of the money weights ; which office required
his removal to London, where he fpent the remainder of his
days, and where his houfe was the refort of fcientific men
of various defcriptions. In 1778 he pubhftied his " Inquiry
into the original State and Formation of the Earth," of
which an enlarged and improved edition appeared in 1786,
and a third in 1792. In May 1779 he was elefted a fellow
of the Royal Society. In 1783 he vifited Ireland, to ex-
amine the Giant's Caufeway, and the northern parts of the
ifland ; and the refult of his inquiries was annexed to his
work above-mentioned. In the courfe of his journey he
erefted an engine for raifing water from a well to the fummit
of a hill, in a bleaching-ground at TuUidoi, in the county
of Tyrone. It is worked by a current of water, and is of
very curious conftruAion. In 1787 he pubhftied " An
Attempt towards obtaining invariable Meafures of Length,
Capacity, and Weight, from the Menfuration of Time."
(See Standard.) Mr. Whitehurft, having been for fome
time fubjedt to the gout, was at length carried off by a
paroxyfm of it in the ftomach, in February 1788, in the
75th year of his age, at his houfe in Bolt-court, Fleet-
ftreet. As a man of fcience, he was much refpefted by all
who knew him ; but he was ftill more eftimable on account of
his moral quahties. In his drefs he was plain, temperate in
his diet, and in his general intercourfe with mankind eafy of
accefs, benevolent in his difpofition, and obhging in his
manners. His papers on Chimneys, Ventilation, and Gar-
den-ftoves, were coUefted and pubhfhed in 1794 by Dr.
Willan. His papers in the Philofophical TranfaAions,
printed afterwards in the coUeftion of his works in 1792,
were the following : viz. " Thermometrical Obfervations at
Derby," in vol. Ivii. ; " An Account of a Machine for
raifing Water at Oulton in Chefhire," vol. Ixv. ; and " Ex-

periments

W H I

periments on ignited Subftances," vol. Ixvi. Hutton'<
Math. Dift.

WHITEKIRK, in Geography, a parifti and village of
Scotland, in the county of Haddington ; 4 miles S.E. of
North Berwick.

WHITELAND, West. See West Whiteknd.

WHITELICK, a town of the ftate of Kentucky; 13
miles S. of Stamford.

WHITELOCK, BuLSTRODE, in Biography, a lawyer
and ftatefman, was born in London in the year 1605, and
finifhed his education as a gentleman-commoner of St. John's
college, Oxford. Being deftined for the profefTion of the
law, he purfued the ftudy of it under the direftion of his
father, fir James Whitelock, who was one of the juftices of
the King's Bench. As he had a tafte for the fine arts, he
was nominated as one of the chief managers of the royal
mafque prefented by the inns of court to Charles I. and his
queen in 1633, of which he has given a florid defcription.
He became foon diftinguifhed in his profcffion at the bar,
and was frequently confulted by Hampden, when he was
under profecution for refilling the impofition of Ihip-money.
In 1640 he was elefted as a rcprcfentative for Marlow in
the Long parliament ; and though his principles were favour,
able to the meafures which then engaged the public atten-
tion, he concurred with Selden and others in deprecating a
refort to arms ; but when the houfe had determined for war,
he accepted the poft of deputy -lieutenant for the counties of
Oxford and Buckingham, and appeared at the head of a
gallant company of horfe raifed among his neighbours.
Neverthelefs he was always averfe from a civil conteft ; and
in January 1642-3, he was one of the commiflioners ap-
pointed to treat of peace with the king at Oxford ; and in
1644 he was one of thofe who prefented to the king pro-
pofitions of peace agreed upon in parliament ; and the king's
anfwer was, at his majefty's requeft, drawn up by him and
Holies, for which they were accufed of high treafon by
parliament, but extricated themfelves with honour. As a
member of the aflembly at Weftminlter for fettling the form
of church government, he avowed himfelf in oppofition to
the divine right of prelbytery. He alfo oppofed the power
of excommunication alFumed by the Prcfbyterians ; being
always, like Selden, an enemy to violent exertions of church
power by any party ; and he was an invariable advocate of
legal rights, and an oppofer of arbitrary power, affumed or
exercifed in either houfe of parliament. When he became
fufpefted by the parliamentary leaders, he joined the army-
party, and oppofed the meafure of difbanding the troops,
which was propofed by fome of his former afTociates.
When it was determined to bring the king to trial, he was
nominated as one of the committee for drawing up the
charge ; but this was a bufinefs in which he did not choofe
to engage. However, he had no objeftion againft taking
an aftive part under the new government, and he was nomi-
nated in February 1648-9 one of the council of ftate. In
fome other inftances he incurred the charge of inconfiftency,
as he complied with meafures which he did not approve.
To Cromwell he was fo agreeable, that he was one of the
four members of parliament appointed to meet him after his
famoui viAory at Worccfter in 165 1. Whitelock avowed
himfelf Readily attached to monarchy, as a part of the ftate
which could not be difpenfed with, and as interwoven with
the laws of the country ; and he therefore fuggeft^ed, that
the late king's eldeft or fecoud fon ftiould be fent for, and
enter into terms for fecuring the liberties of the nation.
Upon the diflblution of parliament by Cromwell, though he
had previoufly refifted the attempts of the army to govern
without the parliament, he obfequioufiy performed the

W H I

fuittions of his office under the new fftabliftimcnt. The
ufurper, however, regarded him with diftruft, and would
rot admit him into his firft or little parliament. His com-
miflion of the feals was fiipcrfeded by the fupprcflion of the
court of chancery ; and he was therefore glad to be occupied
in a ftation which would not require his interference in party
conteiis, which was that of ambaflador from England to
queen Chriftina of Sweden. Upon his departure, Crom-
well affumed the title and authority of lord proteftor, and
iffued his inftrument of government, which Mr. Whitelock
had concurred in preparing, and which was afterwards
found by Cromwell incompatible with his ufurpation.
Having concluded an advantageous treaty with queen Chrif-
tina, who received him in November 1653 with diftinftion,
he returned to his own country, and rcfumed the office of
commiflioner of the great feal, upon the reftoration of the
court of chancery ; and he was returned as a reprefentative
for three counties in Cromwell's fecond parliament. Upon
Cromwell's regulation and limitation of the court of chan-
cery, he again refigned the cuftody of the ftal ; and as fome
compenfation for his lofs, he was appointed a commiffioner
of the treafury. He was free and faithful in giving falutary
advice to the Proteftor, and neverthelefs retained his confi-
dence. Declining the office of ambafTador to Sweden, which
was offered him, he afted as one of the commiffioncrs to treat
with the Swedifti ambafTador in England. He was returned
for Buckinghamfliire in Cromwell's third parliament, and
officiated for fome time as fpeaker. Although he would not
prefent to parliament the " Humble Petition and Advice,"
which was intended to empower Cromwell to affume a higher
title than that of Proteftor, he was chairman of the com-
mittee for conferring with him about it ; and he concurred
in the requeft that he would adopt the royal title. White-
lock contrafted fo decidedly in Cromwell's intereft, that
he was one of thofe wlio were called by him to the upper
houfe ; but he declined being governor of Dunkirk, and
alfo the honour of being created a vifcount. During the
Ihort proteftorate of Richard, Whitelock aftcd as one of
the keepers of the great feal ; and when the army fet up a
repubhcan government, he was nominated one of the council
of ftate ; and as its prefident, he joined in all the meafures
that were adopted for upholding the tottering frame of go-
vernment, on the principle that if no legal authority was
acknowledged, the fword alone would probably govern.
When Monk propofed to reftore the remains of the Long
parliament, Whitelock took a commiffion from the com-
mittee of fafety for raifing a regiment of horfe, and urged
Lambert to march againil that leader. But the defign
failing, and the parliament meeting, he juft appeared in
purfuance of the fpeaker's fummons ; and as he had reafon
for fufpefting a defign to apprehend him, he returned to a
friend's houfe in the country, and fent the great feal by his
wife to the fpeaker ; — and thus terminated his public life.
Upon the Reftoration, he had the good fortune to efcape a
bill of pains and penalties in the houfe of commons, only by
the negative of a fmall majority. After having pafTed fifteen
years in retirement, chiefly at Chilton-park in Wiltfhire, he
there died in January 1676 ; leaving a numerous family, after
having been twice married.

Poffefled of confiderable abilities, and of diftinguifhed
talents for bufinefs, he would have claimed a more general
and cordial refpeft, if he had not been a temporizer in his
public conduft. His principles of government appear,
however, to have been good, and in his temper he was averfe
from every kind of violence and injuftice. He was a well-
wifher to the law and conftitution, and fupported them as
far as it was confiftent with his intereft and fafety. In all

pnvate

W H I

private concerns he maintained an eftimable charafter for
probity and honour. After his death an anonymous edi-
tor, in 1682, publifhed his " Memorials of the Enghfh
Affairs ; or, an hiftorical Account of what pafTed from the
Beginning of the Reign of King Charles I. to King
Charles II. his happy Reftoration," fol. ; an improved edi-
tion of which appeared in 1732. From his MSS. wen^
publifhed in 1709, " Memorials of the Enghfh Affairs from
the fuppofed Expedition of Brute to this Ifland, to the End
of the Reign of King James I.," a chronological epitome
of hiftory for his own ufe. In 1766 Dr. Charles Morton,
fecretary to the Royal Society, publiflied " Whitelock's
Notes upon the King's Writ for Aoofing Members of Par-
liament, 13 Car. II. being Difquifitions on the Govern-
ment of England by King, Lords, and Commons," 2 vols.
4to. The fame editor alfo publifhed in 1772, " A Journal
of the Swedifh Embaffy in the Years 1653 and 1654, from
the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland ;
vsritten by the Ambaffador the Lord Commiflioner White-
lock ; with an Appendix of original Papers," 2 vols. 4to.
Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

The commiflioner, amid all his grave affairs, found leifure
to cultivate mufic, of which he was very fond ; and fecms
to have interefted himfelf in all the remarkable performances
of his time. During the happy days of Charles I., mafques
were fo frequent at court and elfewhere, that in 1633 no
lefs than five mafques were performed at different places
before the king and queen. See Masque.

A very circumflantial account of one of thefe, " The
Triumphs of Peace," has been left to his family by the
commiflioner himfelf, which was in the poffefEon of the late
Dr. Morton of the Britifh Mufeum. The mufical part of
this performance feems to have been wholly afllgned by the
benchers at the Temple to commiflioner Whiteiock. For
in his narrative he fays, " I made choice of Mr. Symon
Ives, an honefl and able mufician, of excellent fkill in the
art, and of Mr. Lawes, to compofe all the aiers, lefTons,
and fongs for the mafque, and to be mafters of all the
muficke under me." See Ives, and Lawes, William.

The commiflioner, befides being a performer, was a bit
of a compofer ; as he fays with great triumph at the latter
end of his narrative : " I was fo converfant with the mufi-
tians, and fo willing to gaine their favour, efpecially at
this time, that I compofed an aier myfelfe, with the aflift-
ance of Mr. Ives, and called it ' Whitelocke's Coranto :'
which being cried up, was firfl played publiquely, by the
Blackefryar's muficke, who were then efteemed the befl of
common mufitians in London. Whenever I came to that
houfe (as I did fometimes in thofe dayes), though not
often, to fee a play, the mufitians would prefently play
• Whitelocke's Coranto ;' and it was fo often called for,
that they would have it played twice or thrice in an after-
noon. The queen hearing it, would not be perfuaded that
it was made by an Englifhman, bicaufe fhe faid it was fuller
of life and fpirit than the Englifh aiers ufe to be ; butt fhe
honoured the ' Coranto' and the maker of it with her
majeilyes royall commendation. It grew to that requeft,
that all the common mufitians in this towne, and all over
the kingdome, gott the compofition of it, and played it
publiquely in all places, for above thirtie years after."

Among other moral refleftions, addreffed to his family,
on fuch vanities as he had been defcribing, lord commifTioner
Whiteiock adds : " Yet I am farre from difcommending
the knowledge of this art (mufic), and exercife of this re-
creation for a diverfion, and fo as you fpend not too much
of your time in it, that I advife you in this as in other ac-
complifhments, that you indeavour to gett to fome per-

W H I

feftion, as I did, and it will be the more ornament and
delight to you."

The lord commifTtoner inferts his aier, in order to pre-
f»rve it for the ufe of his family, if any of them fhould
delight in it. This " Coranto" may be feen in Bumey's
KiO:. Miff. vol. iii. ; and the whole narrative of the mafque,
entitled " The Trimnph of Peace," from " Whitelock's
I abours remembered in the Annales of his Life, written
for the Ufe of his Children," MS.

WHITEMARSH, in Geography, a townfhip of Penn-
fylvania. in the county of Montgomery, with 1328 inha-
bitants .; I J miles N.W. of Philadelphia.

WHITEN Head, a cape on tlie north coaft of Scot-
land. N. lat. 58° 37'. W. long. 4° 22'.

WHITENESS, a town of the ifland of SheUand ;
6 miles N.W. of Lerwick.

WHITENING of Bones, for a flieleton. See Bone.

Whitening of Cloth. See Bleaching.

Whitenikg of Hair. See Hair.

WHiT'iNiNG of Wax. See Wax.

WHITEPx'VINE, in Geography, a town of Pennfylvania,
in l!ie county of Montgomery, with 955 inhabitants ; 20
miles N.W. of Philadelphia.

WHITE-PLAINS, a poll -townfhip and half-fhire town
of Weft Chefter county, in New York; 30 miles from New
Yo.k, and 140 S. of Albany. The whole area of this
town is about 8| fquare miles; and its population, in 18 10,
was 693, vith 68 eledors, and icg tax-.ble inhabitants.
The village of White-plains is pleafantly fituated on a fine
plain, three-quarters of a mile E. of Bronx creek, and con-
tains a court-houfe, prifon, and a handfome colleftion of
houfes. The Anic -^can troops were defeated i:i this place,
by the Britifli under general Howe, in the year 1776.

WHITESAND Bay, a bay on the W. coaft of Eng-
land, in the county of Cornwall, a little to the N. of the
Land's End. N. lat. 50° 6'. W. long. 5° 34'.— Alfo, a
bay on the W. coaft of Wales ; i mile N.W. of St.
David's.

WHITESEA, a large gulf of the North Frozen fea,
on the N. coaft of RulTia, bounded on the N.E. and S. by
the government of Olonetz, in the vicinity of Archangel, ex-
tending from N. to S. within the land, from 69° to 63° of
N. lat., and containing a number of fmall iflands.

WHITESTOWN, the principal town and half ftiire of
the county of Oneida, in the ftate of New York, fituated
on the Mohawk river, 95 nniles N.W. of Albany ; includ-
ing Utica, and having three poft-offices. Its form is irre-
trular, and area about 40 fquare miles. In January, 1785,
Mr. Hugh White, from Coimefticut, with a young farnily,
became the firft fettler. In 1788 the town of German
Flats was divided, and a new town erefted, and named
Whiteftown, in honour of Mr. White. In 1798 the county
of Oneida was eftablifhed, by a fubdivifion of Herkimer,
and Whiteftown included within this county. By iubfe-
quent divifions, Whiteftown was reduced to a medial mea-
fure of 9 miles by 8. It is fituated immediately on the
great thoroughfare between Albany and the Weftern lakes ;
between Canada and the principal commercial fea-ports of
the American ftates on the Atlantic ocean. This town
contains three large poft-villages, Utica incorporated,
Whitefborough, and New Hartford. Whiteftown, includ-
ing thefe villages, is unrivalled, in the United States, with
regard to wealth, population, trade, and improvements,
among inland towns of fuch recent fettlement ; and none in
this ftate, of the fame area, affords fo great a population.
It has feven principal churches ; one Epifcopal, three Pref-
byterian, two Baptift, in one of which the fervice is per-
formed

W H I

formed in the Welfh language, and one of Welfh Inde-
pendents, befides fome fmaller houfes dedicated to the
fame purpofe. Here are three grammar -fchools, one in
each village, and many common fchools. It has alfo a cot-
ton manufa£\ory. This town has been gradually enlarged
and embellilhed. Its population, by the cenfusof 1810, is
4912, with 533 fenatorial eleftors.

WHITEWATER, a townfliip of Ohio, in Henieton
county, with 910 inhabitants. — Alfo, a river of Scotland,
which runs into the Eflc, in the county of Forfar.

WHITGIFT, John, in Biography, an Englifh prelate,
was born at Great Grimfby, Lincolnfhire, in 1530, and in
1548 entered at Queen's college, Cambridge, from which
he removed to Pembroke-hall, where he enjoyed the tui-
tion of John Bradford, afterwards one of the Proteftant
martyrs. In 1555 he became a fellow of Peter-houfe, and
in 1557 commenced M.A. Upon the vifitation of the uni-
verfity by cardinal Pole, about this time, for the purpofe of
purging it of reputed heretics, Whitgift dreaded the fearch ;
but by favour of the vice-chancellor efcaped, and remained
in the univerfity. Upon the acceflion of queen Elizabeth,
he entered into orders in 1560, and obtained preferment
from Dr. Cox, bilhop of Ely. In 1563 he was appointed
Margaret profeflbr of divinity, and chaplain to the queen in
1565. Continuing in the univerfity, and maintaining the
chara&er of a good preacher and vigorous difciplinarian,
[lis falary as profeflbr was advanced, and a licence was granted
him 10 preach in any part of the realm. In 1567 he was
made mafter of Pembroke-hall, and foon after regius pro-
feflbr of divinity. He next became mafter of Trinity
college, and graduated D.D. ; and on his appointment to
keep the commencement-aft, he chofe for his thefis " The
Pope is the Antichrift." In 1570 he formed a body of
ftatutes for the univerfity ; in confequence of which the
heads of houfes gained new powers, by the exercife of which
Sie deprived Cartwright, an eminent Calviniflic divine, of his
Margaiet profeflbrfhip. In 1571 he was vice-chancellor of
the univerfity, in the exercife of which office he manifefted
fo much zeal for the eftablilhed church, that the queen con-
ferred upon him the deanery of Lincoln, befides other dig-
nities and honours. He alfo expelled Cartwright from his
Fellowfhip, and carried on a controverfy with that divine and
ither Puritans in general. In 1 577 he was advanced to the fee
of Worcefter, and the office of vice-pre(ident of the council for
the marches of Wales. Upon his advancement to the prelacy,
he refigned his mafterftiip of Trinity college, and devoted
himfelf to the duties of his new office, taking care to improve
its revenues ; and in the exercife of a power, which he ob-
tained from the crown by the intereft of lord Burleigh, to
beftow the prebends of his church on his own friends ac-
cording to his own feleftion. His zeal, however, againft
popiffi recufants, which was thus recompenfed, and which
he exercifed without due difcrimination in the execution of
his office as vice-prefident of Wales, involved him in dif-
putes with the other judges, and offended the prefident, fir
Henry Sydney, fo that on his return from Ireland, where
he was lord-deputy, he difcharged Whitgift from his poft.
As he occupied new fl;ations, his reputation as a man of
bufioefs increafed ; and in 1582 he was nominated by the
archbiftiop of Canterbury, Grindal, chief commiffioner for
fettling difputes in the diocefes of Lichfield and of Here-
ford. Grindal's remiflhefs in executing the laws againft the
non-conforming clergy difpleafed the queen, and caufed her
to fufpendhim from his funftioiis; and on his death in 1583,
Whitgift, who had fecured her favour by his zeal for the
church and- hollility to the Puritans, was appointed to fuc-
ceed him. He did not difappoiut her expedations ; but
Vol. XXXVIIL

W H I

engaged her to ijii^ a new ecclefiaftical commiffion, more
arbitrary and pofl^ffing more extenfive authority than any
former one. Its jurifdidion extended over the w-hole kin?-
dom, and comprehended all orders of men ; and as Hume de-
fcnbes it, " every circumftance of its authority, and all its
methods of proceeding, were contrary to the cleareft prin-
ciples of law and natural equity." «« In a word," fays he
" this court was a real inqmfttion, attended with all the ini-
quities, as well as cruelties, infeparable from that tribunal."
The meafures of Whitgift were in unifon with the conftitu-
tion and fpirit of this commiffion ; and the council itfelf in-
terpofed to moderate them. In reply to the remonftrance
of the council in favour of fome minifters of Ely, who had
been fufpended for refufing to anfwer interrogatories, he
faid, '< Rather than grant them liberty to preach, he would
choofe to die, or live in prifon all the days of his life." To
the queen he recommended " fuppreffing" the difcipline pro-
pofed by the Puritans, "rather than confuting it by writing ;"
and he advifed that a reftraint fhould be laid upon the liberty
of the prefs at Cambridge. It is no wonder that by fuch
condudt he fhould become the objeft of great averfion to
the puritanical party. Accordingly he was very acrimoni-
oully attacked in a pamphlet, entitled " Martyn Marpre-
late," in which he was compared to the moft ambitious and
tyrannical churchmen of former times. Whitgift, however,
blended with the violence of his temper fome degree of
kindnefs and good humour. This was manifefted in his
conduft towards Cartwright. In his charities he was mu-
nificent, and in his mode of living hofpitable, as well as
fplendid and oftentatious. In 1595 he laid the foundation
of a hofpital at Croydon, on which very large fums were
expended. He maintained feveral ftudents at the univerfity,
and entertained for many years at his palace feveral refugee
divines, that had been recommended to him by Beza and
others. His houfe, it is faid, was as much an academy for
martial exercifes as a fchool for letters. " On his progrefles
he was attended by a numerous and fplendid train ; and at
his firft journey into Kent he rode into Dover with one hun-
dred of his own fervants in livery, of whom forty were
gentlemen wearing gold chains. On feftival days he was
ferved with great folemnity, fometimes on the knee ; and
public worfhip in his chapels was performed with every cir-
cumftance of religious pomp. This external grandeur ex-
alted the church of England in the eyes of foreigners, who
had been led to imagine that the Reformation in this country
had degraded the ecclefiaftical eftabhftiment as much as it
had done in fome others."

Upon the acceffion of king James, Whitgift felt fome
alarm under the apprehenfion of fome changes in the li-
turgy ; and it has been fuppofed-that his agitated ftate of
mind concurred with the debility of age, and the operation of
fome other caufes, in producing the paralytic attack which
terminated his hfe in February 1603-4. A monument was
erefted to his memory at Croydon, where he was interred.
Whitgift was neither a man of learning, the Latin language
bounding his claffical literature, nor a profound theologian.
He was principally diftinguifhed by his vigour and aftivity
as a man of bufinefs. As a preacher he was popular ; and
this talent in which he excelled laid the foundation of his
advancement. Biog. Brit. Hume's Hift. Gen. Biog.

WHITING, in Ichthyology, the Enghfh name of a com-
mon fifh of the afellus kind, commonly diftinguiflied by the
writers in ichthyology by the name of afellus mollis, though
by fome called afellus albus and merlangus.

The whiting, or gadus merlangus of Linnaeus, is a fifh

of an elegant form ; the upper jaw is the longeft ; the eyes

are large, the nofe (harp, and the teeth of the upper jaw

3 G long,

W H I

W H I

long, appearing above the lower when clofcd : the firft dor-
fal fin has fifteen rays, the fecond eighteen, and the lall
twenty. The colour of the head and back is a pale brown ;
the lateral line white and crooked ; the belly and fides fil-
very ; the laft ftreaked lengthways with yellow.

Whitings appear in large (hoals in our feas in the fpring,
keeping at the diftance of about half a mile to that of three
miles from the fhore. They are the moft delicate and whole-
fome of any of the genus ; and feldom grow to more than
ten or twelve inches in length. Pennant.

No whitino- is to be taken in the Thames or Medway of
lefs fize than fix inches from the eye to the end of the tail,
or at any time except from Michaelmas-day to Ember week.
(30 Geo. II. cap. 21.) Nor under fix inches any where
elfe. I Geo. I. ilat. 2. cap. 18.

WiUTiyG-Politui. See Gadus PoUachius, and Pol-
lack.

Whittsg- Pout. See Pouting, and Gadus Barhatus.

Whiting, in Geography, a townfhip of Vermont, in the
county of Addifon, with 565 inhabitants ; 25 miles N. of
Rutland.

Whiting Bay, a fmall bay of the county of Waterford,
Ireland, a little E. of Youghal bay.

WHITLEY, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Greene
county, with 1264 inhabitants.

WHITLOW, in Surgery, called alfo by furgeons
paronychia, panaritium, onychia, &c. is an inflammation af-
fefting one or more of the phalanges of the fingers, and ge-
nerally terminating in an abfcefs. Thefe are the parts
which are the ufual fituation of the complaint ; but fome-
times a difeafe, which is precifely fimilar, makes its attack
upon the toes. It is likewife to be underftood, that in fevere
cafes, the diforder extends itfelf to many other parts befides
the finger, the matter making its way upward higher than
the wrift. Thus, as Calhfen juftly obferves, the il<in, cel-
lular fubftance, fheath of the flexor tendons, and lefs com-
monly that of the extenfors, the tendons themfelves, the an-
nular and capfular ligaments, the periofteum, the very tex-
ture of the finger-bones, and the pulpy fubftance under-
neath the nail, are all parts to which a whitlow may extend
its mifchievous confequences.

From what has been already obfervcd, it mufl; be plain
that whitlows differ very much in their degree of violence,
and in their depth and extent. Hence, furgical authors
ufually defcribe four or five varieties of the complaint.
The divifion adopted by Calhfen comprehends five cafes ;
namely, the cutaneous ovfuperjicial paronychia, l\it fubcutaneous
paronychia, the paronychia of the tendons, or theca, the parony-
chia of the periojieum, and the fubungual paronychia, or that
Jituated underneath the nail.

The cutaneous paronychia begins with a fuperficial inflam-
matory rednefs of the finger, and, as early as the fecond or
third day from the commencement of the attack, the cuticle
of the part affefted becomes raifed in the form of veficles,
which contain a hmpid ferum, but fometimes a bloody fluid.
(Calhfen, vol. i. p. 294.) Mr. Pearfon defcribes the cu-
taneous paronychia as being feated at the end of the finger,
immediately below the cuticle, and as fometimes furrounding
the finger and root of the nail. The flcin, he fays, is very
little difcoloured. The cafe fpeedily advances to fuppura-
tion ; and when this procefs is completed, the cuticle ap-
pears almoft tranfparent. After the contents of this little
abfcefs are evacuated, the ulcer feldom demands any par-
ticular attention. Principles of Surgery, p. 88. edit. 2.

The fubcutaneous paronychia makes its appearance in the
form of an inflammatory tumour, attended with a great deal
of acute pain. The fymptoms, however, are not alarming,
6

nor do they generally extend beyond the inflamed finger.
In fevere examples, the whole hand is more or lefs affedted
with pain and tenfion, and uneafinefs is felt all up the arm.
The feverity of the pain, in fuch cafes, frequently prevents
fleep, and the whole fyftem is thrown into fome diforder.
The attack of this kind of whitlow is attended with a more
acute and throbbing pain than that of the cutaneous paro>
nychia, fuppuration proceeds more flowly, and matter is
frequently formed under the nail. The difeafe is particu-
larly fituated in the cellular membrane under the cutis.

The more deeply-feated hinds of ivhitloiv are thofe affefting
the fheath of the flexor tendons and the periofteum, which
parts, indeed, by reafon of their vicinity to each other, are
often both attacked together. The difeafe commences
with an intenfe, burning, fhooting, throbbing pain in the
finger, accompanied with fevere febrile fymptoms. At firft,
no fwelling whatfoever can be perceived in the part affcfted;
but afterwards a flight cedematous tumour follows, which
gradually afTumes an inflammatory appearance, and the tu-
mefaftion fpreads from the finger to the hand, and fore-
arm, and even to the axilla. On the inner fide of the arm,
red hard ftreaks may alfo frequently be obferved, which are
inflamed abforbent veflels tending to the axillary glands,
which are themfelves fometimes enlarged and very painful.
The pain of the whitlow is particularly felt fhooting up
from the affefted finger to the inner condyle of the hume-
rus, and thence to the arm-pit. Delirium, and other alarm-
ing fymptoms, occafionally attend thefe worit defcriptions of
whitlows, which are alleged to have proved fometimes fatal.
The matter, which is fmall in quantity, is either coUefted
within the fheath of one of the tendons, or it is under the pe-
riofteum in contadt with the bone, which is generally found in
a carious ftate ; and fometimes the fuperincumbent integu-
ments fuffer fphacelation. See Pearfon's Principles, p. 90.

The fubungual paronychia, or that which efpecially occurs
under the nail, commences with inflammatory fymptoms,
which are, however, much lefs urgent and dangerous than
thofe of the preceding cafe ; and the fituation of the difeafe
renders its nature quite obvious.

The ufual exciting caufes of whitlows are various external
injuries, as pricks, contufions, &c. The lodgement of a
thorn or fplinter in the part, is another frequent caufe of
thefe abfcefTes. They are, however, much more common
in young healthy perfons than in others ; and they appear
in many inflances to occur fpontaneoufly, that is to fay,
without our being able to affign any manifeft caufe for them.
There is one particular fort of whitlow, which Mr. Pearfon
has thought proper to call venereal, as will be prefently
noticed.

With regard to the prognoiis in ordinary examples of the
complaint, it may be laid down that the cutaneous and fub-
cutaneous paronychia: are in general unattended with
danger. But thofe whitlows which are frimed within the
theca of the flexor tendon, if they be not relieved by the
timely interference of furgery, very often produce abfcefTes,
extending up the hand and arm, in the courfe of the corre-
fponding tendon and mufcle, which parts become fo altered
and difeafed, that their funftions are permanently injured,
and the bones of the finger deftroyed by necrofis. When
alfo the periofteum is affefted, the matter lying underneath,
or clofely upon it, the neighbouring phalanx of the finger
generally perifhes. Whitlows beneath the nail frequently
occafion a lofs and feparation of the part.

The indications in the treatment of whitlows are ;

I . To endeavour to produce an early refolution of the in-
flammation ; but as this attempt feldom fucceefls, and the
cafe almoft proceeds to fuppiuation,

2. The

WHITLOW.

2. The grezt defideratum is to difcharge the matter as
foon after its formation as poffible.

3. The laft thing is to heal the wound.

With refpeft to the firft indication, experience proves,
that the inflammation, in a very early ftage of the complaint,
may fometinics be difperfed by the adoption of ordinary
antiplilogiftic treatment. Here topical bleeding, efpecially
the prompt and repeated application of leeches to the painful
part feveral times in the day, is highly commendable ; and the
inflamed finger and hand may be covered with a cold, dif-
cutient, faturnine lotion, together with which means fome
writers advife the whole limb to be bound with a circular
roller. Others fpeak highly of the good effefts of an early
immerfion of the afFefted finger in very warm water, or in
lotions made of alcohol, vinegar, oil of turpentine, &c. and
ufed as hot as can be borne. Callifen ftates, that he has
alfo frequently obferved great benefit arife from the affufion
of fuch lotions on the part. He even afferts, that the pain
and more deeply-feated inflammation of the finger may be
fometimes checked by applying cauftic or a blifter to the
integuments. When the patient's fufferings are very great,
the exhibition of opium is indifpenfable after bleeding has
been duly praftifed. The fame writer alfo affirms, that
eleftricity has been found ufeful at the very commencement
of a whitlow.

When two days elapfe without any probability of refolu-
tion taking place, fuppuration ought to be promoted by
the immediate and continued ufe of emollient poultices and
fomentations. Nor Ihould the furgeon wait for the abfcefs
to point, but make an opening with lefs lofs of time, in
proportion as the cafe becomes worfe. In examples where
the pain is exceedingly violent, the jncifion fhould not be
deferred beyond the fourth day from the beginning of the
pain. The opening ought alfo to be made at the part
which was firft painful, and thence the cut fhould be con-
tinued longitudinally, and as deeply as the fituation of the
matter. The lancet, indeed, if requifite, muft be intro-
duced down to the bone, by which means a fmall quantity
of deeply-feated confined matter may frequently be voided,
and the pain and progrefs of the difeafe at once flopped.
Even when no matter is difcharged from the opening, an
early incifion fometimes fpeedily relieves very fevere cafes of
whitlow; probably (as Callifen obferves) on the principle
of removing tenfion, and occafioning hemorrhage from the
part. In thofe inftances, in which an incifion has not been
praftifed in due time, and the matter under the tendinous
theca has fpread extenfively up the hand and arm, it is
fometimes neceffary to make the opening free and ample,
without injuring, however, the annular ligament. The dif-
charge of the abfcefs, and the evacuation of blood from the
incifion, are followed by almoft immediate relief. When
the matter is lodged under the periolleum, the bone is
moftly found affefted with necrofis. In cafes of this de-
fcription, there are fome praftitioners who prefer the re-
moval of the difeafed phalanx, to awaiting a tedious and un-
certain cure by the procefles of nature. CaUifen, however,
informs us, that he has often feen the dead portion of the
bone exfohate, leaving the reft in a itate of prefervation.

When a whitlow under the nail cannot be difperfed, the
matter (hould be let out by an opening, praftifed through
the tranfparent part of the nail, or by the fide of it. Some
furgeons adopt the plan of fcraping the nail, fo as to render
It as thin as poflible, before they cut through it, which is
an ingenious and commendable method. See Callifen's Syft.
Chir. Hod. t. i. p. 293. 295.

In the fifth volume of the Medico-Chirurgical Tranfac-

tions, Mr. Wardrop has defcribed a very inveterate and
troublefome fpecies of whitlow, which, from its malignant
charaAer, he has called the onychia rralhna. " The com-
mencement of this difeafe is marked by a degree of fwell-
ing, of a deep red colour, in the foft parts at the root of the
nail. An oozing of a thin ichor afterwards takes place at
the cleft, formed between the root of the nail and foft parts,
and at laft the foft parts begin to ulcerate. The ulcer ap-
pears on the circular edge of the foft parts at the root of
the nail ; it is accompanied with a good deal of fweUing, and
the fliin, particularly that adjacent to the ulcer, has a deep
purple colour. The appearance of the ulcer is very un-
healthy, the edges being thin and acute, and its furface
covered with a dull yellow, or brown-coloured lymph, and
attended with an ichorous and very fetid difcharge. The
growth of the nail is interrupted, it lofes its natural colour,
and at fome places appears to have but Httle conneftion
with the foft parts. In this ftate (fays Mr. Wardrop), I
have feen the difeafe continue for feveral years, fo that the
toe or finger became a deformed bulbous mafs. The pain
is fometimes very acute ; but the difeafe is more commonly
indolent, and accompanied with little uneafinefs. This
difeafe affefts both the toes and the fingers. I have only
obferved it on the great toe, and more frequently on the
thumb, than any of the fingers. It occurs, too, chiefly in
young people ; but I have alfo feen adults affefted
with it."

With regard to the treatment of the fpecies of whitlow
named by Mr. Wardrop onychia maligna, all local applica-
tions have in many inftances proved quite inefieftual, and the
part been amputated. The only local treatment which Mr.
Wardrop has ever feen relieve this complaint has been the
evulCon of the nail, and afterwards the occafional application
of efcharotics to the ulcerated furface. We have feen a
fimilar plan occafionally fucceed, and the applications which
appeared to anfwer bed. were, arfenical lotions, Plunket's
cauftic, or a very ftrong folution of the nitrate of filver.
Nothing, however, will avail till the nail is removed, and its
total feparation fometimes takes up a good deal of time, un-
lefs the patient fubmit to the great pain of having it Cut
away.

Mr. Wardrop tried with fuccefs the exhibition of
mercury in four cafes of the onychia maligna. The medi-
cine was given in fmall dofes at firft, and afterwards in-
creafed, fo as to affeft the gums in about twelve or fourteen
days. The fores in general foon affumed a healing ap-
pearance when the fyftem was in this ftate, and the bulbous
fwelling gradually difappeared. Wardrop in Medico-Chir.
Tranf. vol. v. p. 135, &c.

Mr. Pearfon has publiftied an account of a peculiar fort of
whitlow, to which he affixes the epithet venereal. He ob-
ferves, that it generally appears in the form of a fmooth,
foft, unrefifting tumour, of a dark red colour, and is
fituated in the cellular membrane about the root of the nail.
It is attended with an inconfiderable degree of pain in the
incipient ftate ; but as fuppuration advances, the pain in-
creafes in feverity. The progrefs of the abfcefs to matura-
tion is generally flow, and is feldom completed.

When the matter is evacuated, the nail is generally found
to be loofe, and a very foul but exquifitely fenfible ulcer is
expofed ; and confiderable floughs of cellular membrane, &c.
come away, fo as to render the fore fometimes very deep.
The difcoloured and tumid ftate of the /kin commonly ex-
tends along the finger, confiderably beyond the margin of
the ulcer. In fuch cafes, the integuments of the finger be-
come remarkably thickened, and the cellular membrane is fo
3G 2 firmly

W H I

W H I

firmly condenfed, as not to permit the (kin to glide over
the fubjacent parts. The bone is not ufually found in a
carious ftate.

According to the fame author, this fpecies of whitlow
is more frequently feen among the lower clafs of people,
when they labour under lues venerea, than in the higher
ranks of life. It does not appear to be connefted with any
particular ilate of the difeafe, nor is it confined to one fex
more than the other. In the Lock Hofpital, it is faid to
occur in the proportion of one patient in five hundred.

In adopting the name oi venereal paronychia, Mr. Pearfon
informs us, that it is not with the defign of implying that
the cafe is a true venereal abfcefs, the matter of which is
capable of communicating fyphilis to a found perfon. Its
progrefs and cure, he obferves, feem to be unconnefted with
the increafed or diminifhed aftion of the venereal poifon in
the coiiftitution, and to be alfo unintluenced by the opera-
tion of mercury. Mr. Pearfon confiders the venereal
difeafe as a remote caufe, which gives occafion to the ap-
pearance of this as well as of feveral other difeafes, which
are widely different from its own fpecific nature.

In the incipient ftate of the venereal whitlow, when no
fevere fymptoms are prefent, Mr. Pearfon thinks it beft
to ufe no external applications, and merely cover the part
with a bit of fine rag. The difeafe will then often gra-
dually difappear of itfelf, without coming to fuppuration.
When matter is formed, Mr. Pearfon fays, the abfcefs may
be permitted to burft fpontaneoufly. Every fpecies of
drefiing will frequently be found to give great pain, and dif-
agree with the fore. The fame writer, however, ftates,
that one application, compofed of equal parts of the balfam
of copaiva and tindura thebaica, may fometimes be ufed
with a good effeft. The principal objeft is to keep the
patient as eafy as poffible, by the internal ufe of opium,
until the (loughs are feparated, and the ulcer becomes clean.
It may then be treated as a common fore : Peruvian bark
will alfo be generally proper. In the thickened difeafed
ftate of the integuments, Mr. Pearfon condemns amputation,
as being likely to produce a ftump, which will change into
a fore, refembling that for which the operation was per-
formed. See Pearfon's Principles of Surgery, edit. 2.

It is not at all clear to us, that Mr. Wardrop's cafe, which
he terms the onychia maligna, is not aftually the fame
difeafe as what Mr. Pearfon has named the venereal whit-
lowi The only doubt arifes from the former gentleman's re-
commending the exhibition of mercury as a means of cure ;
while the latter declares, that the complaint is quite unin-
fluenced by the operation of this medicine. We confefs,
that although fome hundreds of cafes of very bad whitlows
have fallen under our obfervation, we have never met with
any inftance in which the cure feemed to require mercury.

Whitlow in the Feet of Sheep, in Rural Economy, a dif-
eafe that takes place in the latter end of fummer, and which
is more frequent among the long than the rtiort fort of ftieep.
It but feldom happens in clean (heep-walks, though it is
very troublefome on foft, dirty, pafture-lands. It is fre-
quently occafioned in the milking feafon, by the boughts
or folds being dirty, and by the ftieep being confined in the
old houfes. It is of the inflammatory nature, and com-
monly affefts the fore-feet, but fometimes all four. The
outer part of the hoof is '.the ufual feat of the difeafe, and
from the cleft a fharp fetid humour exudes, fometimes en-
gendering maggots, and corroding the flefh, nay even the
bone. All around the hoof there is an inflammation, which
turns black, and this part fometimes drops off. It is a very
painful affection, fo much fo, that the animal often crawls.

As the weather gets more cold, it commonly becomes better,
but it ftill walks in a lame manner.

On the appearance of the difeafe the foot is to be exa-
mined, and the difeafed part opened to let out the acrid,
matter. It is then to be waftied well, and dreffed with mer-
curial ointment and fulphur in mixture, or tar with red pre-
cipitate, binding it up with a flannel bandage, to preferve it
warm and clean. In cafe it does not take on fuppuration,
but degenerates into a foul and tedious ulcer, fuch applica-
tions as fpirit of turpentine and fulphuric acid may be pro-
per. And in all cafes the (heep fhould be kept in a clean,
eafy, dry pafture, until it becomes well. See FooT-iJo*.

WHiTLOW-GrjT/}, or Mountain Knot-Grafs, in Botany.
See Paronychia, or Illecebrum.

WHiTLOW-G/-fl/r is alfo a name given to forae fpecies
of draba.

WmrLOW-GraJs, Rue-leaved, a fpecies of faxifrage.
WHITSTABLE, in Geography, a village and fea-port of
England, in Kent, near the mouth of the Swale. Here is
a confiderable oyfter-fifhery, which employs upwards of
70 boats. Some colliers likewife bring hither coals for Can-
terbury and the neighbourhood ; 7 miles N. of Canter-
bury. N. lat. 51° 22'. E.long. i°2'.

WHITSUN Island, an ifland in the South Pacific
ocean, difcovered by ^captain Wallis on Whitfun-eve, in the
year 1767, about four miles long and three wide, furround-
ed by a reef. The boat's crew got fome cocoa-nuts, and
fome fcurvy-grafs : they met with none of the inhabitants,
but fome huts and feveral canoes building. No anchoring
place for the fhip could be difcovered. S. lat. 19° 26'.
W. long. 137° 56'.

Whitsun, or Whitfunday Ifland, or Pentecofl, one of the
New Hebrides, in the South Pacific ocean, about thirty
miles in length, and eight in breadth. S. lat. 15° 44'. E.
long. 168° 20'. See Nenv Hebrides.

Whitsun Farthings. See Pentecostals.
WHITSUNDAY'S Passage, in Geography, a ftrait
fo called by captain Cook, from the day on which he failed
through it, in 1770; between Cumberland ifland and the
coaft of New Holland.

WHITSUNTIDE, the fiftieth day after Eafter.
The feafon properly called Pentecofl, is popularly called
Whitfuntide ; fome fay, becaufe in the primitive church,
thofe who were newly baptized came to church betweea
Eafter and Pentecoft, in ivhite garments.

Whitsuntide Bay, in Geography, a bay on the north
coaft of the ifland of Kodiack, weft of Cape Whitfunday.
WHIT-TAWER, in Rural Economy, a provincial
term applied to a collar-maker for team-horfes.

WHITTINGHAM, in Geography, a town of Vermont,
in the county of Windham, with 1 248 inhabitants ; 16 miles.
E. of Bennington.

WHITTLE, a provincial name applied to a fort of j
pocket or fheathed knife.

WHITTLEBURY Forest, in Geography;^ royal forefl
of England, in Northamptonfhire.

WHITTLESEA Mere, a lake of England, in theJ
county of Huntingdon, formed by a branch of the riverl
Nen, fituated to the S.E. of Peterborough.

WHITTLESEY, or Whittlesea, a town in the north
part of the hundred of Witchford, Ifle of Ely, and county^
of Cambridge, England, is fituated on the confines of'
Northamptonfliire and Lincolnfhire, at the diftance of 10
mUes W.S.W. from the town of March, and 5 miles E.by
N. from Peterborough. It contains two parifhes, St.
Mary's and St. Andrew's ; but their boundaries cannot be
1 1 diftinftly

WHO

«3iftinftly afcertained, and they are fo far confolidated,
that, though in feparate patronage, the two livings are ge-
nerally held by the fame perfon ; and only one regifter of
births and burials is kept for both. Whittlefey formerly
had a market ; but when or by whom granted, there are no
exifting records. The market-day was Friday ; but it has
long been gradually falling into difufe, and fince the year
1788 has been wholly difcontinued. An annual fair for horfes
is ftill held. Each parifh has a church, in which are various
fepulchral memorials of ancient families. St. Andrew's
church was given to the monks of Ely in the twelfth cen-
tury, by Nigellus, fecond bifhop of that fee, for the purpofe
of augmenting their library, or, as it is expreffed by an hif-
torian of that time, " making books for the hbrary." At
the well end of St. Mary's church is a very handfome tower,
furmounted by a tall and elegant fpire, which from its height
conllitutes a very confpicuous objedl from diftant parts of
this flat country. The tower is much ornamented with
niches, pinnacles, and quaterfoils ; and each angle of the
oftangular fpire, which connefts with the angular pinnacles
of the tower by flying buttrefles, is adorned with foliated
crockets. There is in the town a charity-fchool for the
inftruftiou of twenty-feven children, and feveral alms-
houfes.

Whittlefey, exclutive of the town, is divided into five dif-
trifts, named Ellry, Cotes, Eldernal, WiUow-hall, and
Glaflmoor. At Eldernal was a chapel, confecrated in
1525, but long fince dilapidated. At Glan"moor were found,
about the year 1742, feveral Roman lamps made of the red
ware. The popuLtion of the whole, in the return of the
year 181 1, is (lated to be 4248, occupying 729 houfes.
Lyfons's Magna Britannia, vol. ii. Cambridgefhire, 1808.

WHITTON, a town of England, in Lincolnfliire, on
the fide of the Humber ; ij miles N.N.W. of Glamford
Briggs.

WHOLAGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ;
12 miles N.E. of Fyzabad.

WHOLDYACHUCK, a lake of North America. N.
lat. 60° 20'. W. long. 109° 30'.

WHOLE, ToTUM,in ylrkhmetlc, &c. See Part, Di-
vision, Partition, &c.

Whole, in Logic, is diftinguilhed into four kinds; -viz.
a metaphyftcal, when the efTence of a thing is faid to confill
of two parts, the genus and the difference ; mathematical or
Integral, when the feveral parts which go to make up the
whole are really diftinft from one another, and each of them
may fubfift apart ; phyftcal or ejent'ml, ufually denoting and
including the two elfential parts of man, body and foul, but
more properly including all the eflential modes, attributes,
or properties, contained in the comprehenfion of any idea ;
and logical, called alfo unmerjal, tlie parts of which are all
the particular ideas to which this univerfal nature extends.
Watts's Logic, p. 117.

Whole Blood, Meafure, Number, and Sine. See the
fubftantives.

Whole Milk-Cheefe, in Rural Economy, a term ufed to
fignify fuch cheefes as are made from the whole meal of
milk, in contradiftinftion to thofe which are made from a
part of it only. It is obforved in the Glouceller Re-
port on Agriculture, that coward-cheefe ought to be made
of the whole meal of milk ; but in a dairy of twenty cows,
it is not unufnal to fet by a pan, of about feven or eight
gallons, till the next milking, which is then (Icimmed, and
added to the new meal, from which a fimilar quantity is
taken as before. The cream thus laid by is made into
lailk-butter. Coward-cheefes are either thin, about eight

WHO

to the hundred ; or thick, generally called double Gloucef-
ter, about four to the hundred, or even larger. The latter
are made in May, June, and July, principally, and even as
long as grafs continues good in fome dairies.

It is noticed, too, in the fame fort of report for the
county of Peebles, in Scotland, that in the flieep-farms
there, where flieep's-milk cheefe is made, the whole of that
fort of milk is fddom employed ; but that the whole of the
cow's milk upon the farm is mixed with the (heep's milk.
That the butter, during this period, being ill-tailed, is kept
for mixing with the tar for fmearing the fheep ; and the
milk is afterwards made into cheefe. There are, in confe-
quence, very few farms where cheefe is made of entire
fheep's milk ; and that, from the various proportions of the
admixture of cow's milk, there are few articles in commerce
pafling under one common denomination, of which the qua-
lities are fo various as thofe of flieep's-milk cheefe. See
Dairying, and Cheese.

Whole- Moulding. The impropriety of continuing
whole-moulding in the conftrudlion of Ihips, has been
pointed out in the article Ship-building : but as itisatpre-
fent continued in the formation of boats ; therefore, how
far whole-moulding may be ufed in the conllruAion of
boats, we (hall endeavour to explain by introducing a boat,
which might be whole-moulded from the ftem to the ftern-
poll, if part of the midfliip-bend was approved of for the
fliape of the tranfom ; but as there can be no neceflity
that it fhould be fo far whole-moulded, we fliall omit
it to tiie ftern-poft, but extend it quite forward to the
ftem.

The length, fl:em, and ft.ern-poft, being determined on
in Plate Ship, Jg. i, the next thing is the ftation of the
midlhip-frame, which is not of material confequence, only
let it be before the middle of the boat. Then fet off
all the ftations of the timbers afore and abaft the midlhip-
bend.

The height in the midfliips being given, draw the flieer-
line, or top of the gunwale, fo that it may have an agreeable
appearance. The line below it fliews the breadth of the
Iheer-ftrake, and the ticked hne above it (hews the upper
edge of the wa(h-board.

The next thing is the rifmg-line, which requires fome ex-
perience to determine at once, fo as to anfwer every
purpofe ; for not only the form of the midftiip-bend, but
likewife the defign of the boat mull be kept in mind, to
know how far we may venture to lift the rifing-line
afore and abaft, without occafioning any hindrance to her
ilowage.

Having determined the height of the riling-line, dif-
pofe of the main height of breadth-line at the midihip-
bend, at fuch height as will bed fuit the intended form of
the midfliip-bend, and continue it from thence forward and
aft, parallel to the rifing-line ; for fo far as the boat is
to be whole-moulded, the main height-of-breadth and rifing-
line mull be parallel to each other in the direftion of the
fquare timbers.

In the half-breadth plan, Jig. 2, fquare down from
the flieer-plan, ^g. i, when the height-of-breadth line
crofles the fore part of the rabbet of the ftem, and the aft
part of the rabbet of the ilern-poft, or aft-lide of the
tranfom. But as this line rifes above the tranfom abaft,
obferve where the top of the fide crofles the aft part of
the tranfom, and draw it parallel down from any of the
ftations of the timbers. Alfo fquare down the ftation of the
midfhip-bend.

Set off from the middle-line, A B, Jg. 2, the half,
thicknefs of the ftem, and from thence fwcep an arch to the

thickuefs

WHOLE. MOULDIN<5.

thicknefs of the board ufed for the bottom, the back of
which arch will give the ending of the fore part of the
main-half-breadth line. Then fet off the half-breadth to the
outfide of the timber at the midftiip-bend, and draw C D
parallel to A B. Determine the breadth of the tranfom at
the top of the fide, and fet off the half -breadth on the line
for the aft-fide of the tranfom.

Thus we have three fpots, one at the aft-fide of the
tranfom, one at the midfhip-bend, and one at the item,
through which draw an unlimited curve; obferving to
make it faint about half the length of the boat in mid-
fhips, and to form the bow by part of a circle.

To form the Midjhip-bend. — Draw the horizontal line A B
{fis- 3-)' ^"'^ ereft a perpendicular in the middle; then
take the half-breadth of the boat at the midfhip-bend, in
jig. 2, and fet it off on each fide the middle-hne, and
ereft the perpendicular C D. Take the height from the
line A B, _/^. i. (which is the upper edge of the rabbet of
the keel) to the rifing-Une, and to the height- of-breadth line
at the midfhip-bend ; and fet off above the line A B on the
perpendicular C D, fig. 2, and draw the lines marked
M B, and " Rifing."

The diftance from the rifing-line to the height-of-breadth
line, is the radius of the circle intended for the midfhip-
bend ; which diflance, fet off from the point where the
half-breadth Une interfefts the fide perpendicular, c, on
the height-of-breadth line, will give the centre for the
fweep of the midfhip-bend ; then fweep an arch from
the interfeftion of the perpendicular c to the interfeftion of
the rifing-hne.

From the middle-line fet off the half-breadth of the keel
on the line A B, and draw a ftraight line from the fide
of the keel to the back of the arch of the midfhip-bend :
let the top of the fide above the height-of-breadth line be
perpendicular, complete the other fide of the middle-line the
fame from perpendicular D.

To form the fquare Timbers of the Fore-Body. — Take the
diftance from the line A B, fig. i. to the rifing-line at timber
A B, &c. as far forward as timber I, and fet them off,
and draw lines parallel to the line A B, fig. 3, from the
middle-line towards the line c.

Then take the diflance from the line A B, fig. i, to
the height-of-breadth line at each feparate timber, and draw
them as before in_^^. 3. parallel to A B.

Then take the half-breadth of each timber, A B, &c.
in_^^. 2, and apply each feparate diflance from the middle-
line in fig^ 3, on the lines of their correfponding names for
the height-of-breadth, and there make a fpot.

Make a mould agreeable to the fhape of the midfhip-
bend, the lower part to agree with the rifing-line of the
midfhip-bend, and extend as far beyond the middle-hne as is
neceffary.

Crofs the height-of-breadth on the mould, and the
middle-line, when it lies well with the midfhip-bend.

Take the diftance from the line C D, fig. 2. to the main-
breadth line at timber A B, &c. and fet them off from the
middle-line on the lower fide of the mould, towards perpen-
dicular c, which fhews the narrowing of each timber more
than the midfhip-bend

From the height-of-breadth line in fig. I. take the dif-
tance to the top of the fheer-ftrake at each of the above
timbers, and fet them off above the main-breadth, on the
mould, which gives the heads of all the timbers in the fore-
body.

The lower edge of the mould is fuppofed to be the height
of the rifing-line from the timbers.

Then apply the lower edge of the mould on each rifing-

line, _^j-. 3, and move it till each letter on the lower edge
of the mould agrees with the middle-line, and the main-
breadth on the mould agrees with its correfponding height-
of-breadth line. Then draw the form of the mould from
the head of the timber to the middle-hne, as ticked iafig. 3,
and draw a ftraight line from the fide of the keel, at tlie
upper edge of the rabbet, to touch the outfide of the curve
formed by the mould, except where the rabbet of the keel
and ilem rifes, as at F, G, H, I.

Set off the half-thicknefs of the keel from the middle-
line, fig. 3, and take the height from the line A B, fig. i.
to the lower edge of the rabbet at each timber, and fet it
from the line A B, fig. 3, on the line for the half-thicknefs
of the keel or ftem ; then with compaffes fet to the thicknefs
of the bottom plank, fweep an arch ; from the upper fide
of which draw a ftraight line to the back of each curve of
the mould, which will finifh completely the heels of the
timbers.

The fame method muft be obferved in the after-body
towards perpendicular D, fig. 3, applying the midfhip-
bend mould in the fame manner as direfted in the fore-body,
making ufe of the mould as far aft as timber 12.

The after-fquare timber is 9 ; therefore, to 9 may be
finifhed the heels of the timbers, by drawing a ftraight fine
from the back of the whole-moulding curve to the back of
the fweep at the rabbet of the keel.

In whole-moulding, but few moulds are neceffary to be
made to mould all the timbers. Thus the floor-mould is
to be made to the midfhip-bend in fig. 3, a little above
the diagonal line, a i or ac, which is to be the heads of the
floors, and let the lower part of the mould correfpond
well with the rifing of the midfhip-bend, as is fhewa in

Js- 4-

When the mould lies well, as in fig. 3, mark the middle-
line on the lower edge of the mould, and the head of the
floor on the outer edge. Make the infide of the mould to
its proper fcantling, and let the upper edge correfpond well
with the cutting-down of the infide of the midfhip-floors ;
which cutting-down is fo marked in fig. 1.

Then in fig. 2. take the diftance of each timber from
the line C D to the main-half-breadth line, and fet them off
on the lower edge of the mould, from the middle-line of
the midfhip-bend towards the outer end of the mould, which
is the middle-hne for each floor.

Now fix the lower edge of the mould in fig. 3. on each
rifing-height, in the fame manner as the timbers were
got in by whole-moulding ; and when each mark on the
mould is well with the middle-line, and on its proper rifing,
defcribe on the outer edge of the mould the heads of the
floors, or the diagonal line a b, or a c.

Or, as in fig. 4, fquare the middle-hnes of each timber,
and then take th? half-breadths of each floor from fig. 3.
and fet them off fquare from each middle-hne infig. 4, to
interfeft the edge of the mould.

The lower FuUoct-Mould,fig. 5, is made to the rifing-height
of the midfhip-bend, and from thence to the top of the (heer ;
but need not be made fo long at the heel as the floor-mould.
The infide is made to the fcantling, and the croffing of the
middle-hne and the floor-head, on the lower futtock-mould,
is done in the fame manner as on the floor-mould ; or the
beft way is to lay the floor-mould on the lower futtock-
mould, and crofs it by the floor-mould. When the lower
futtock-mould is laid in its place to the midfhip-bend in
fig. 3, then mark the main-breadth on the mould, which is the
main-breadth for all the timbers. Then take the diftance
in^^. I. from the main-breadth Une to the top of the fheer
at each timber, and fet it off on the mould, from the main-
breadth

WHOLE-MOULDING.

breadth upward, which is the heads of all the timbers ; and
then the crofling of the lower futtock-mould is fini(hed.

To crofs the rlfing Square When the boat is whole-
moulded, the floors and lower futtocks are generally moulded
by the ufe of the rifing-fquare ; which is fo called, becaufe
when the fquare is properly placed to mould any timber, one
fide of the fquare correfponds with the rifing of that tim-
ber. When the timbers are moulded by the outfide of the
mould, and the heels by the rifing-fquare, ( which gives the
upper edge of the rabbet of the keel, or bearding-hne, )
then there is a batton, called a cutting-down batton, with
the heights of all the floors, from the upper edge of the
rabbet of the keel to the cutting-down hne ; which gives
the cutting-down or infide ot all the floors.

To make the rifing-fquare, let one fide of the fquare be
of fufficient breadth to receive the rifing and the cutting-
down, as may be feen by the fquare E.

When moulding the floors, or lower futtocks, the lower
fide of the mould is the rifing of the timber ; and confe-
quently the edge of the fquare, which is to be applied to the
under fide of the mould, is alfo the fame.

Then to mark or crofs the fquare, take the diflanee
I from the rifing-line in Jig. i . to the upper edge of the
1 rabbet of the keel, or bearding-line, at each timber ; and
'. fet them off from that edge of tlie fquare which is to
, be applied to the mould, on the other edge of the fquare,
i and clofe to the edge, drawing a margin to put the
I letters or figures under them. Then take the diftance in
Jig. 1. from the rifing-line to the cutting-down line, at the
' timbers, where the cutting-down is below the rifing, and
: fet them off from the edge of the fquare that is to be ap-
plied to the mould on the other edge of the fquare, but
1 within the rifings, as may be feen on the fquare. The other
I timbers, from 3 to B, where the cutting-down is above the
' rifing, may be marked on the moulds.

From the edge of the fquare where the rifings are placed,

fet off on the other edge of tlie fquare the half-thicknefs of

' the keel, which call the middle-line ; and then the fquare is

ready for moulding.
I To mould the Floors. — The befl way for moulding the
, floors for a whole-moulded boat, is to make two moulds,
\ agreeable to the former direftions, made and croffed both
' alike, but the fides reverfed. Then lay one on the other,
i the fame as ™Jig. 4, keeping the lower edges in a llraight
line, and mooring them till the correfponding middle-lines
, on the moulds agree. The moulds mjig. 4. are fixed at 9,
' but the middle-lines on the lower mould cannot be feen ;
. therefore, before the moulds are put together, it is bell to
mark (in chalk) on the edges of the mould the middle-
' lines of the timber. When the moulds are placed, fix the
' middle-line, marked on the edge of the fquare, to the mid-
dle-line on the mould of the timber, and the other edge of
I the fquare will reprefent the fide of the keel.
J Then apply a llraight batton to the rifing of 9, on the edge
of the fquare, and alfo to the outfide of the floor-mould.
This will give the moulding of the outfide of the floors,
except timber 9, which is fomewhat hollow. Then fquare
the cutting-down for 9, acrofs to the edge of the fquare,
and draw a flraight line to touch the infide of the
I mould.

I In the fame manner mould the other arm of the floor, by
canting the fquare. But the rifing and cutting-down (hould
be marked on both fides.

Before the moulds are moved, mark the heads and fir-
marks, if any, as a guide to fix the lower futtock when put
in its place, if it ftiould not run down to the fide of the
keel.

To mould the lower Futtocks — The lower futtock-mould is
Jig. 5, which is made in the fame manner as the floor-
mould, but continued as high as the top of the (heer. The
upper part being ftraight and perpendicular, and the mould
made to the fcantling, there is no difference between mould-
ing one fide of the floors and moulding the lower futtocks.

The fame method of fixing the fquare for the moulding of
the floors will ferve to mould the lower futtocks, as on the
fquare in the plate, where the middle-line on the fquare is
put to the middle-line on the lower futtock-mould for G. A
ft^raight batton applied to the rifing for G, on the fquare,
and to the back of the lower futtock-mould, gives the
moulding of the outfide of the lower futtock ; and the
cutting-down for G on the fquare brought to the edge of
the fquare, a ftraight batton from thence to the infide of
the mould will alfo be the infide of the lower futtock.

Mark the firmark, or floor-head, in the fame manner as
the floors, in order to place the lower futtock to its proper
height at the fide of the floors, in cafe they fliould not be
required to run down to the fide of the keel.

Likewife mark the main-breadth, and the head for G, be-
fore the mould is moved.

That there is no diflference between the floors and the
lower futtocks in ufing the rifing-fquare, may be feen
more clearly in Jig. 4, where the floor-mould is continued
up to the top of the fide, which makes the lower futtock-
mould ; fo that the form of the lower futtock is feen, as
well as the floor.

The two floor-moulds may be made to ferve for all the
floors, by putting the fore-body on one fide of the mould,
and the after-body on the other ; but obferve to crofs one
mould oppofite to the other, fo that when it is canted
over, it fhall then be proper to mould with.

Two rifing-fquares are fometimes ufed ; one for the fore-
body, and the other for the after-body ; becaufe the fquares
muft be croffed alike on both fides, to mould the arms of the
floors, and likewife to mould the lower futtock for both
fides of the boat. Or, inftead of this, the fore-body may
be put on one fide of the fquare, and the after-body on
the other. When the fquare is wanted on the oppofite fide,
chalk on the edge of the fquare the rifing and the cutting-
down for the timber to be moulded, and then cant the
fquare.

Two lower futtock-moulds may alfo be made, or crofs the
fore-body on one fide of the mould, and the after-body on
the other. In order to mould a timber for that fide of the
fhip where the firmarks are at the under fide of the mould,
chalk the firmarks for the timber wanted on the edge of the
mould ; or make two margins on the edge of the mould, re-
ferving one for the fore-body, and the other for the after-
body, and reverfed on the oppofite fide.

The lower futtocks for boats generally run about halfway
between the floor-head and the fide of the keel ; but if it
were a hoy, or fmall vcfTel that was whole-moulded, the
lower futtocks might then be required to run to the fide of
the keel, or dead-wood ; wherefore, it is proper to fhew
the moulding of them down to the fide of the keel.

Various arc the methods ufed by different artificers
in moulding the lower futtocks ; and it is evident that
the method which has been praftifed moil will appear the
beft.

Some will make no ufe of the fquare, but mark the heels
of the lower futtocks on the mould, and provide a batton,
marked the fame as the fquare ; the lower end ot the batton
being long enough to mould the outfide of the foremofl and
aftcrmoft timbers ; and the upper end ot the batton being
long enough to mould the infide of tlie midfhip-timber.

Mark

WHO

Mark a firmark acrofs the batton, fuppofcd to reprefent
the fide of the fquare, which muft always be fitted well
to the lower edge of the mould ; from which firmark, fup-
pofed to be the rifing for all the timbers, fet off clofe to
the edge of the batton the heels of all the timbers in
the fore-body, or the diftance in^?^. i. from the rifing-Une
to the upper edge of the rabbet of the keel, or beardmg-

line. r 1 ■ 1,

Then draw a margin for the cutting-down of the timbers,
and take the diftance m fg. i. from the rifing-line of each
timber to the cutting-down, and fet them off on the batton
for the cutting-down, as much above or below the firmark
on the batton as the cutting-down is above or below the
rifing at each timber.

On the other fide of the batton may be put the after-
body.

In fome boats or veffels, where the rifing and cutting-
down are farther afunder at the mid(hip-bend, then the bat-
ton will be as ufeful as the fquare ; but inftead of the mid-
dle-lines being marked on the lower fattock-mould, it will
be better to mark the fide of the keel, or where the keels
of the lower futtocks are intended to be, for the better ap-
plying the batton.

If the heels of the lower futtocks do not run down
to the fide of the keel, it will alter the rifings on the
batton ; the heels being marked on the mould (hort of the
fide of the keel.

The proper heels of the lower futtocks fiiould be
marked on the mould, though moulded by the fquare ;
for then the edge of the fquare might be put to the pro-
per mark on the mould for the heels of the timbers.

The middle-lines marked on the lower futtock-mould
in the Flate, were intended only to fiiew that the method
of moulding the floors and lower futtocks were alike.
The fquare is the beft to mould the floors, becaufe the
middle-Unes are the propereil to be marked on the floor-
oioold.

What has been faid may fufSce to (hew that whole-
moulding may, in fome meafure, be ufed, and yet form a
pleafing draught, much more fo than that of the boat in
Jig. I , if lefs ftowage were fufficient to anfwer the purpofe
for which (he is defigned.

WHOLESOME Ship, in the Sea Language, one that
will try, hull, and ride well, without rolling or labouring
in the fea. A long (hip that draws much water may try,
hull, and ride well ; but if (he draws little water, (he may
try and ride well, but never hull well ; and a fhort (hip
that draws much water may hull well, but neither ride nor
try well ; and fuch is called an unmholefome (hip.

•WHORE. See Courtesan, Harlot, Concubine,
&c.

WHORL, in Botany. See Verticillus.
WHORLBAT, or Hurlbat, a kind of gasntlet, or
leathern ftrap, loaden with plumbets ; ufed by the ancient
Romans in their folemn games and exercifes ; and by them
called ciejlus.

WHORLED Plants. See Verticillat^.
WHORLES of Flowers, among Herbalijls, are rows of
leffer flowers, fet at certain diftances about the main ftalk
or fpike, as in penny-royal, &c.

WHORTLE-Berry, Bilberry, or Cranberry, in
Botany. See Vaccinium.

The whortle-berry, with one fiower upon each footftalk,
oval-fawed leaves, which fall off in winter, and an angular
ftalk, called black tuhorti, or bilberries, grows very common
upon large wild heaths, in many parte of England, but is

WHY

never cultivated in gardens, it being with great difficulty
tranfplanted ; nor will it thrive long when moved thither.
The fruit is gathered by the poor inhabitants of thofe vil-
lages which are fituated in the neighbourhood of their
growth, and carried to the market-towns. Thefe are by
fome eaten with cream or milk ; they are alfo put into
tarts, and much efteemed by people in the North, but they
are feldom brought to London.

The (hrub on which thefe grow rifes about two feet
high, having many ftems, which are garnifhed with oblong
leaves, (haped like thofe of the box-tree, but fomewhat
longer, and a little fawed on their edges. The flowers are
(haped like thofe of the arbutus, or ftrawberry-tree, of a
greeni(h-wliite colour, changing to a dark red toward the
top. The fruit is about the fize of large juniper-berries,
and of a deep purple colour, having a flue upon it when
untouched, like the blue plums, which is rubbed off vrith
handling.

The whortle-berry with nodding bunches of flowers ter-
minating the branches, and oval leaves which are entire,
turned back and punftured on their under fide, called "vitis
idaa, and red whorts, is an ever-green (lirub, feldom rifing
above fix or eight inches high, with leaves like thofe of the
dwarf-box, which grows upon moors in fevcral parts of the
North, but is not capable of being eafily tranfplanted : the
berries are red, and have a more agreeable acid flavour than
thofe of the firft fort.

The whortle-berries with oval, entire, reflexed leaves, and
naked, flender, creeping ftalks, called mofs -berries, moor-
berries, and cran-berries, produce branches Imall as thread,
and trailing upon the moffy bogs, which are garni(hed
with leaves refembling thofe of thyme, with the upper fur-
face of a fhining green, and white underneath. The berries,
which grow upon long flender foot-ftalks, fucceeding the
flowers, are round, red, and fpotted, of a (harp acid flavour,
and much efteemed for tarts, or eaten with milk or cream.
This is a native of bogs, and cannot be propagated upon
dry land.

There are feveral other fpecies of this genus, fome of
which are natives of Spain and Portugal, others of Ger-
many and Hungary, and feveral of the northern parts of
America ; from whence thofe large fruits are brought to
England which are ufed by the paftry-cooks of London,
during the winter feafon, for tarts. But as all thefe forts
grow naturally in fwamps and bogs, they are not eafily
tranfplanted into gardens in their native country, fo as to
thpve or produce fruit ; therefore, there can be httle hope
of cultivating them to advantage. Miller.

"WnoKrhY.-Berry, African, a fpecies of RoYENA.

'^ nOKlLM-Berry, Bear's. See UvA Urji.

WHUR, in Falconry, denotes the fluttering of partridges
or pheafants as they rife.

WHY-EA-TEA, in Geography, a bay on theeaft coafl;
of Owhyhee. N. lat. 19° 44'. E. long. 204° 54'.

WHYMEA Bay, a bay on the north coaft of the
ifland of Woahoo. N. lat. 21° 38'. E. long. 202° 51'.

Whymea Road, a road on the fouth-weft coaft of the
ifland of Attowai. Captain Vancouver fays, this bay is
much confined in refpeiJl to fafe anchorage.

WHYTE, Robert, in Biography, an excellent com-
pofer of church-fervices in the ftyle of Paleftrina, which,
however, he could not imitate, as he was anterior to him,
and a great matter of harmony before the produftions of
this chief of the Roman fchool were publilhed, or at leaft
circulated, in other parts of Europe. Whyte was dead in
1 58 1, when his Latin Full Anthems and Services were
beautifully tranfcribed in a fet of books, Hill preferved at

Oxford ;

WHY

Oxford ; as we find by a diftich at the end of a prayer, in
five parts, upon a plain fong : " Precamur Sanfte Domine."

Maxima mufarum noftrarura gloria Whyte
Tu peris ; asternum fed tua mufa manet.

Whyte preceded Tallis and Bird, and died before their
fame was well eftabliftied. His works feem never to have
been printed ; but in the library of Chrift-church, Oxford, a
fufficient number of them has been preferved in the Aldrich
colleftion, to excite not only wonder, but indignation, at
the little notice that has been taken of them by mufical
writers. Morley, indeed, has given him a place in the hll
of compofers at the end of his Introduftion, and ranks him,
with Orlando di Laflb, among excellent men, who had ven-
tured to begin a compofition with a fourth and fixth ; he
likewife places him with Fairfax, Taverner, Shepherd,
Mundy, Parfons, and Bird, " famous Enghfhmen who have
been nothing inferior to the beft compofers on the continent."
And no mufician had then appeared who better deferved to
be celebrated for knowledge of harmony, and clearnefs of
ftyle, than Robert Whyte, as is manifefted in Burney's
Hift. of Muf. vol. iii. by an anthem for five voices.

But befides this mafterly compofition, and a great num-
ber of others, to Latin words, which we fcored from
the Chrill-church books, and which were probably pro-
duced at the latter end of Henry VIII. 's reign, or during
the time of queen Mary, when the Romifh religion was
ftill in ufe, we are in poiteflion of a fmall MS., which, by
the writing and orthography, feems of the l6th century,
entitled " Mr. Robert Whyte, his Bitts, of three Parte
Songes, in Partition : with Ditties, n ; withoute Ditties, 1 6."
Thefe are (hort fugues or intonations in moft of the eight
ecdefiaftical modes, in which the harmony is extremely
pure, and the anfwer to each fubjeft of fugue brought in
with great fcience and regularity. Burney.

WHYTHORNE, Thomas, gentleman, in Mufical
Hijlory, author of a book of fongs, printed by John Daye,
in 1 57 1, under the following title : " Songes of three,
fower, and five voyces, compofed and made by Thomas
Whythorne, gentleman, the which fonges be of fundrie
fortes, that is to fay, fome long, fome (hort, fome hard,
fome eafie to be fonge, and fome between both ; alfo fome
folemne, and fome pleafaunt or mery : fo that according to
the (kil of the fingers (not being mufitians), and difpofition
or delite of the hearers, they may here find fonges to their
contentation and liking."

Our fecular vocal mufic, during the firil years of Eliza-
beth's reign, feems to have been much inferior to that of
the church, if any judgment can be fairly formed of it
from this book, pubhfhed before the fongs of Bird had
appeared, and of which both the words and the mufic are
alike truly barbarous. But we have, in our own time,
mufic-books publifhed in England every day without genius
or fcience to recommend them. And it is not certain that
Whythorne's fongs were ever in much public favour. Now,
if it (hould happen that one of thefe, by efcaping the broom
of Time, fiiould reach pofterity, and fall into the hands of
fome future antiquary, critic, or hiftorian, who (hould con-
demn j//the compofitionsof the prefent age by one, that had,
perhaps, been never performed or heard of by contemporary
judges and lovers of good mufic, the fentence would furely
be very unjuft.

WHYTT, RoBEiiT, F.R.S. in 5/V/"^J'> a diftinguifhcd
phyfician, was born at Edinburgh in 1714, educated at St.
Andrew's, and ftudicd phyfic firil at Edinburgh, and after-
wards at London, Paris, and Leyden. He fettled in his pro-

voL. xxxvrii.

W I B

fellion at Edinburgh, where he became a fellow, then prefident
of the college of phyficians, and in 1746 chairman of the infti-
tutionsof medicme m theuniverfity. Asamedical praditioner
and teacher, and alfo as a writer, he acquired celebrity. The
firft of his pubhcations was an " Effay on the Vital and
other Involuntary Motions of Animals," 1 751, in which he
advances a theory diff"erent from that of Stahl, as he attri-
butes thefe motions not to the foul, afting to a forefeen end,
but to the power of ftimulus. In 1755 he pubUihed " Phy-
fiological EfTays, containing an Inquiry into the Caufcs
which promote the Circulation of the Fluids in the very
fmall Veflels of Animals ; with Obfervations on the Senfi-
bihty and IrritabiHty of the Parts of Man and other
Animals." Here he fuppofes that the aaion of the heart
IS not fufficient to propel the blood through the minuted
veflels, but that it is alfifted by an ofcillatory motion of
the veflTels themfelves. Of this work, an enlarged edition
appeared in 1761. His other works are, " An Effay on
the Virtues of Lime-water in the Cure of the Stone," 1752 ;
" Obfervations on the Nature, Caufe, and Cure of thofe
Diforders which are commonly called Nervous, Hypochon-
driac, and Hyfteric," 1764 ; and fome papers in the Edin-
burgh " Effays and Obfervations, Phyfical and Literary."
A pofthumous work appeared, entitled " Obfervations on
the Dropfy of the Brain." Having long laboured under
a complication of chronic complaints, he died in 1766.
His fon pubhihed an edition of all his works in 1768, 4to.
under the infpedion of fir John Pringle. Haller Bib.
Anat. Gen. Biog.

WIA, in Geography, one of the fmall weftern iflands of
Scotland, a little to the fouth of Benbecula. N. lat. 57° 22'.
W. long. 7° 11'.— Alfo, one of the fmall Weftern iflands,
near the eaft coaft of Barray. N. lat. 56° 58'. W. long.
7° 22' — Alfo, a fmall ifland near the weft coaft of Skye.
N. lat. 57° 21'. W. long. 6^ 27'.

WIAMPA, or WiNlTA, or Sinpa, a town of Africa,
on the Gold Coaft, in the diftrift of Agonna.

WIANDOTS. See Wyandots.

WIAPOCO, or Little Wia, one of the navigable
mouths of the Oroonoko.

WIBALDUS, in Biography, a perfon of note in the
1 2th century, defcended from a noble family in the bifliopric
of Liege, completed his ftudies at Liege, and became a
teacher firft at Vaflb, and afterwards at Stablo. In 1130
he was elefted abbot; and in 1136 he accompanied the
emperor Lotharius on his expedition to Italy, by whom he
was employed in feveral important departments, and fixed
as abbot in the monaftery of mount Caflino. But he
quitted this monaftery in the following year, and returned
to Germany. In 11 46 he became abbot of the monaftery
of Corvei on the Wefer, in which he was confirmed by king
Conrad, to whom he was no lefs an objeft of confidence
than he had been to Lotharius. He was no Icfs a favourite
with Frederic I., who had fent him twice as ambaflador to
Conftantinople ; but on his return from his laft miflion
thither, he terminated his hfe at Buleltia, in Paphlagonia,
in confequence, as it is faid, of poifon, which had been
given to him in the month of July, 1158. His Letters,
mixed with fome other works, one volume of which only
remains, throw confiderable fight on the ftate of fociety at
that time, and on the ecdefiaftical hirtory of Germany.
Gen. Biog.

WIBLINGEN, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, with
a Benedittine abbey, near the conflux of the Her with the
Danube ; 3 miles S.S.W. of Ulm.

WIBORGIA, in Botany. See Viborgia.

3 H WIBURG,

W 1 c

WIBURG, in Gtogr^phy. See Viborg.

WIBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Nericia ;
1 8 miles S.W. of Orebro.

WIC, denotes a place on the fea-{hore, or on the bank
of a river. Though in the original Saxon, it more pro-
perly fignifies a Jlreet, village^ or diuelling-place ; as alfo a
Mjlle. See Wyke.

We often meet with wic in the Saxon writers, as a ter-
mination of the name of a town which had a complete name
without it : as, Lunden-auic, that is, London-town ; which
fignifies no more than London. In the Saxon Annals,
it is mentioned, that king Ethelbert made Melitus bi(hop
of Lundcn-ivic ■

So, Ipfwich is written in fome old charters, vill de Glppo,
and fometimes villa de Gippo tvico ; which is no variation,
but the fame thing ; for Glpps is the complete name, and
the Glpp-'wic is Gipps-town.

WICCAKAW, in Geography, a town of the ftate of
Georgia ; 22 miles N.N.W. of Oakfufl<ee.

WICHRA, a river of Saxony, which rifes three miles
N. of Waldenburg, and runs into the Pleifs, 2 miles N.
of Boma.

WICHTIS, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nyland ; 27 miles N.N.W. of Helfingfors.

WICHTRACH, a town of Switzerland, in the canton
of Berne ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Berne.

WICK, a royal borough, market-town, and the county-
town of the fiiire of Caithnefs, Scotland, is fituated at the
entrance of the fmall river Wick, the eftuary of which
forma a good harbour, at the diftance of 279 miles N. from
Edinburgh. The town is fmall, and the flreets narrow and
confined ; but there are feveral refpedable buildings to
ornament the place. The church is an old, dark, and ill-
conftrufted edifice. A weekly market is held on Fridays,
and is well fupplicd. The chief fources of commerce and
induftry are the fifheries, which are profecuted with great
attention and fuccefs. The town and borough-lands of
Wick were anciently part of the earldom of Caithnefs : on
the petition of George, then earl, a charter was granted by
James VI. of Scotland, Sept. 24, 1589, erefting the town
of Wick into a royal borough, under the fuperiority of
that nobleman. In 1672 the whole earldom of Caithnefs
was difpofed of to John Campbell, afterwards created earl
Breadalbane, by whofe fucceflbrs it was fold to the family
of Sinclair, in whom the fuperiority is ftill veiled. In
1716 the convention of royal boroughs fixed the fett or
government of tlie borough of Wick. By this fett, the
old magiftrates nominate two perfons, out of whom a provoft:
and two baiUics are to be chofen by the free burgefles : the
provoft and two baillies fo elefted have the right of
choofing feven counfellors, a treafurer, and a dean of guild.
Wick, in conjunftion with the boroughs of Dingwall,
Dornock, Kirkwall, and Tain, fends one member to parlia-
ment. The panfh of Wick is twenty miles long and ten
broad; and in the population return of the year 1811 is
Hated to contain 5080 inhabitants. CarUfle's Topographical
Diftionaryof Scotland, 410. 2 vols. 1813. Gazetteer of Scot-
land, 1 806. Beauties of Scotland, vol. V. Caithnefsfliire.

Wick, a river of Scotland, which runs into the Northern
ocean, at Wick, in the county of Caithnefs.

WICKER, a twig of the ofier (hrub, fingle or wrought.

WlCKER-Ba/iet, in Rural Economy, any fort of baiket

which is made of wicker-work, or the plaited or twilled

twigs of the willow, or other fuch kinds of young (lioots.

See Basket.

A fort of wieker-bafket or braid, too, is made ufe of

W 1 c

in grafting in field, orchard, or fruit grounds. It is ob-
ferved in the Gloucefterfhire Report on Agriculture, that
the grafts are fecured immediately after the compoft is put
on, with " braids." Thefe are open wicker-bafkets in the
form of an inverted cone, fitting the ftock below the place
to which the compoft extends, and rifing about two feet
high, and expanding at the top to nearly the fame diameter.
This contrivance ferves not only to guard the grafts in
their early ftate, but alfo to keep the fhoots to a proper
compaft form of growth. The praflice chiefly prevails
on the banks of the Severn, where the ofier [falix viminalis)
is grown in great abundance.

In hop-grounds likewife large wicker-bafkets are em-
ployed for picking the hops into. See Hop.

And wicker-work of the baiket kind is made ufe of for
many other purpofes of different forts.

WicKER-TVcf, a name given by the Enghfh to a tree
common in China, and defcribed by Kircher and others.
It is, as it were, a rope twifted by nature, about an inch
thick, and creeps along the earth often for above a hundred
paces together, much embarralfing the way, but ferving for
cables of fhips, feats, hurdles, beds, mats, and various
other neceffary ufes. It endures no vermin, and is much
valued for being cool and refrefhing in the hot feafons.

WiCKER-lVori, in Agriculture, a fort of bafl<et-work on
a large fcale, ufed for defending land from water of the
fea or other kinds. It is obferved bv Mr. Loudon, in his
work on " Country Refidences," that in fome very fandy
fhores, defences of the embankment kind may be made of
wicker-work ; and that three or four rows of pahng may
be made of different heights, and the intervals between
them be filled with furze, brufhwood, ftraw, or any other
fuch materials. It is thought that thefe materials would
retain the fand as the tide paffed through among them ; and
that in a very fhort time a defence or fort of embankment
would be formed of the fhelving kind, which fhould then be
planted with the upright fea hme-grafs, in order to bind it.
See Emb.\nkment, and Water, Sea, Defending Landjrtm.
Alfo Upright Sea Lyme-Grafs, and Ely.mus Arenariaj.

WICKERAD, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer. It gave name to a lordfhip,
furrounded by the duchy of Juliets ; 3 miles N.E. of
Erkelens.

WICKET, of the Y rex\c\i guichet, a little door within a
gate ; or a hole in a door, through which to view what
pafTes without.

WICKFORD, in Geography, a town of Rhode ifland,
with a poft-office ; 10 miles N.W. of Newport.

WICKHAM, commonly called Mariet-lViciham, to
diftinguifh it from two other places of the fame name
in the county, is a village and parifh in the hundred of
Wilford, and county of Suffolk, England. It has been a
place of much greater confequence than it is at prefent, and
had a weekly market and town-hall, where the quarter-feflions
were held. The fpiritual courts for the archdeaconry of
Suffolk are ftill held here. The parifh-church, being built
on a hill, conftitutes a land-mark for vefTels faihng by the
coaft. From the tower, a fpeftator may fee nearly fifty
other churches. An aifle, or chapel, on the fouth fide of
the church, was built by Walter Fulburn, of this parifh,
who died, and was buried within its walls, in 1489. The
reftories of Wickham, Pettiftree, and Bing, all in the hun-
dred of Wilford, were bequeathed in 1 7 1 8 by Mr. John
Pemberton for charitable ufes. According to the popu-
lation report of 181 1, this parifh contained 133 houfes,
and 906 inhabitants. It is 125 miles N.E. of Ipfwich,

and

W I c

W I c

and 8 1 in the fame direftion from London. The market, ever, though the heart of the county be a cheerlefs wade,
which was formerly held on Saturdays, has long been dif- the hills on the ealt and weft fides, and efpecially along the
continued. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiv. Suf- coaft, are from fix to eight miles in breadth, being many of
folk, by F. Shoberl. them well wooded, and intermixed with profitable and

WiCKHAM Breaux, and Wickham Streyth, the names of fmiling valleys, form a delightful and various fcenery.
two other paridies in Suffolk, England. They are crowded with gentlemen's feats, and are not

WICKLIFFISTS, or Wickliffites, in Ecclefiajlical without fmall towns and villages." This was Dr. Beau-
Hiflory, a rehgious fed, who had their rife in England in fort's account in 1792. In 1801, captain Frazer pubhfhed
the 14th century, and their name from their leader John a ftatiftical account for the Dublin Society. This gentle-
W'ldhffc. ""^n laments, that " the Wicklow farmers foul the land by

Wickliffe, of whofe opinions we give fome account repeated corn-crops, and feldom or never lay it down to
in his biograptiical article, (fee Wicliff,) denied that grafs with feeds." He deplores " the total negleft of the
bifhops were of a different order from priefts, and that improvement of the breed of animals for ftock and labour ;"
by virtue of their office they had any power to do what and under the head of ploughs he remarks, " the common
prielts have not ; and that in the apoftohc times the two plough in ufe in this diftrift is the fwing-plough ; it is
orders fubfifting in the church were thofe of prieft and feldom, however, formed on any fcientific principles, and
deacon. With regard to tithes, he obferves, that we do not is generally very clumfy, and ill-adapted for making clean
read in the Gofpel where Chrift paid tithes, or commanded or regular work." In 18 12, however, when the Rev.
any man fo to do ; and that if they were due by God's com- Thomas RadcHffe publiflied a Report of the Agriculture
mandment, there fhould be every where in Chriftendom one and Live-Stock of' the County of Wicklow, a very great
manner of tithing ; and that thofe things which are due to change had taken place. A few extrafts from this intereft-
priefts fhould be given freely, without exaftion or conftrain- ing publication will furnifh the reader with the moft
ing. In oppofition to the papal claims of fupremacy and authentic information on the ftate of this county, and of
dominion, he maintained that the grants of emperors may be what has been efiFefted by the exertions of the Farming
refumed; that St. Peter and his fucceffors have no rights Society of Ireland, its own local Farming Society, and the
conferred upon them of civil or political dominion ; that the encouragement as well as example of good landlords,
perfons of the clergy and the goods of the church are not The climate of the county is, in general, mild ; but on
exempted from the civil powers ; and that bulls of abfolu- the eaflern fide, along the fea-coaft, is peculiarly warm, and
tion or excommunication are conditional and not abfolute, favourable to vegetation ; infomuch that there is alnioft a
and depend for their effeAs on the difpofition and charafter perpetual fpring ; and land of an apparently light quahty
of thofe to whom they pertain. is known to produce crops equal, if not fuperior, to thofe

Wickliffe defines herefy to be error maintained againft on the richeil foils in other parts of Ireland. The crops
holy writ, and that in hfe and converfation, as well as in commonly cultivated are, potatoes, wheat, barley, and oats,
opinion. He ventured to affirm, that children who die with- With refpeft to potatoes, the valuable fyflem of drilling is
out baptifm may be faved ; that this rite does not confer almoft univerfally adopted. The quantity of wheat is in-
grace, but only fignify that which was before given ; and confiderable : it is generally taken after the potatoe-crop,
he denied that all fins are abohfhed by baptifm. But in fometimes after another white crop, or upon the lea ; but

thefe and fome other points, occurring in his various works,
■which were publifhcd at different times, he is not always
perfeftly confillent ; but in all matters of principal im-
portance he is uniform.

He left many followers in England and other countries,
who were called Wickliffites and LolLirds, and who held
their opinions in private without making any public profcf-
fion of them ; though they were generally known by their

the periodical fallow for wheat is fortunately unheard of.
The barley-crop is taken after potatoes or turnips, and,
like the wheat, is fown under the plough. The oat-crop,
by the common practice, is taken upon the lea ; but if upon
ilubble-ground, it is fown under the plough. The crops
are not exceeded in quantity or quahty in any part of
Ireland. Green crops are not in much ufe among the
tenantry. The manure in this county, befides dung, confifts

difparaging the fuperftitious clergy, whofe corruptions were of brown, blue, and white marl, hme and lime-ftone gravel

fo notorious, and their cruelty fo enraged, that it was no In the grealell part of this county, the implements of the

wonder the people were much prejudiced againft them, beft conllruftion are in very general ufe; fuch as the Scotch

Wherever they could be found, they were terribly perfe- plough, as recommended and fupplicd by the Farming

cuted by the inquifitors, and other inftruments of papal ven- Society, the .Scotch harrow, the Scotch cart, drill-machines,

geance. — Lewis's Hiftory, &c. 8vo. paffim. Mofli. Eccl. and even the threfhing-machine. Moft of the improved

Hift. vol. iii. 8vo. Burnet's Hilt. Reform, vol. i. p. 23.

WICKLOW, in Geography, a maritirnc county of Ire-
land, on the eall coaft, having the county of Dublin on the
north, the Irifh fea on the eaft, the counties of Kildare,
Dublin, and Carlow, on the weft, and that of Wexford on
the fouth. Its extent from north to fouth is 32 Irifh (4O5
Enghlh) miles; from eaft to weft, 26 Irifh (33 Englifh)
miles; and the fuperficial contents are 311,600 acres, or
486 fquare miles, equal to 500,600 acres, or 780 fquare
miles Englifh. Mr. Radcliftc, according to the county
map, flatcs the fuperficial contents at 305,404 Irifli
acres. There arc 58 parifhes, which have 20 cluirches,
moftly in the archbilhopric of Dublin. Dr. Beaufort
ftatcs the population at 58,000. " A great part of Wick-
low is rendered unfit for habitation, and incapable of cul-
ture, by mountains intermixed with rocks and bogs. How-

breeds of cattle have been introduced into this county ;
but Wicklow cannot be confidered as a breeding county.
The dairies are numerous ; but, on a contrafted fcale,
averaging from eight to fixteen cows, and almoft uniformly
engaged in the feeding of veal for the Dublin market. In
the northern part of the county, much of the milk is con-
fumed in fattening early lamb. The county of Wicklow,
though not to be clafled as a breeding county with refpeft
to cattle, is very extenfively fo with refpeft to (hecp, its
vail trafts of mountain fupplying a wholefome, tliough not
an exuberant, pailure to that animal. The breed of this
county is the mountain kind ; and the number of breeding
ewes may be ftated at 20,000. The South Down are the
favourites with the gentlemen ; and many flocks of the
native mountain have been croffed with South Down. The
Merino fheep have alfo been fuccefsfuUy introduced. The
3 H 2 cottou

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W I c

cotton raanufafture is carried on with fpirit at Stratford-
upon-Slaney. The woollen manufafture is chiefly limited
to the flannel-trade. This, however, is carried on largely,
and is a fource of fair profit and induftrious occupation.
It prevails on the property of earl Fitzwilliam, and the
Flauuel-hall at Rathdrum was built at his lordfhip's expence.
The average annual fale is about 5000 pieces of 1 20 yards
each.

The romantic beauties of this county have been often
defcribed. The vicinity to Dublin makes them eafily
acceflible, and few travellers omit to vifit them. The anti-
quities of Glendalough have been noticed in the proper
place, under that name. The mineralogy of Wicklow has
been noticed in Dr. Fetton's valuable Notes on the Mine-
ralogy of the Neighbourhood of Dublin ; and on this
head Mr. Griffith's Report on the Mountain Diftrift of
Wicklow fliould alfo be confulted. This uncultivated
diftrift has many peculiarities, which confift chiefly in the
facihty of accefs by means of roads ; the vicinity of highly
improved lands and induftrious inhabitants ; the frequent
occurrence of beds of lime-ftone, gravel, and marl ; the beft
manure for the amelioration of mountain foils ; and the
uncommon mildnefs of the climate. Thefe uncultivated
lands occupy about 200,000 Irifh acres, of which about
60,000 confift: of black bog ; the remainder is moory foil,
generally covered by coarfe ledgy grafs, or grafs intermixed
with heath. In this diftrift, many rivers have their fources.
The Liffey, with its tributary ftreams, takes a circular
courfe through the county of Kildare, and falls into the
bay of Dublin ; the Slaney runs fouthward to the county
of Wicklow ; the Fartrey difembogues itfelf at Wicklow ;
and the Ovoca at Arklow. ( For an account of the Crone-
bane mines, fee CronebanE. ) At Croghan Kinfhela, in
the fouthern part of the county, a quantity of native gold
has been extrafted by wafhing from the alluvial foil, of
which an account, by Meffrs. Mills and Weaver, may be
found in the Tranfaftions of the Dublin Society. Near
600 ounces of gold, worth above 2000/., were extrafted ;
but the vein could not be difcovered, and the fearch for it
was given up. Oxyd of tin was found in the fame ftream.
The county of Wicklow has no large town, and has only
the two members for the county to reprefent it in par-
liament.— Frazer's Survey. Beaufort's Memoir. Rad-
cliffe's Report. Griffith's Report, &c.

Wicklow, the affize-town of the preceding county,
which is alfo a poft-town. It is pleafantly fituated on a
fmall harbour, and near a beautiful ftrand abounding in fine
pebbles, which is called the Murrough. The ale of Wick-
low has been long celebrated in Dublin. It is 24 miles
S.S.E. from Dublin.

WICKWA, a fmall lake of Canada, at the eaftem ex-
tremity of Lake St. John.

WICKWAR, anciently WiCKEN, a market-town in the
hundred of Grombald's A(h, in the county of Gloucefter,
England, is fituated 19 miles S.W. from Gloucefter, and 108
miles W. from London, andconfifts of one long ftreet. The
town is incorporated and governed by a mayor and twelve
aldermen. It has a weekly market on Monday, and two
yearly fairs. In it two courts are held ; one for the bo-
rough, and another for the tything, or foreign, which have
feparate conftables. The clothing manufadlure, which once
flourifhed here, has long been on the decline ; but the lower
clafles are ftill employed in fpinning for the clothiers of
other places. Wickwar contains a well-endowed free
grammar-fchool, which was founded in 1684. The church,
a handfome building on an eminence, confifts of a nave
and north aille. The reftory is valued in the king's books

at 18/. The refident population in i8oi was 764 ; in
181 1 it had increafed to 805. — Hift. of the County of
Gloucefter, by the Rev. Thomas Rudge, B.D. Gloucefter,
1803, 2 vols. 8vo.

WICLIFF, De Wyclif, Wiclef, or Wickliffe,
John, in Biography, the earlieft reformer of religion from
Popery, was born about the year 1324 in Yorkftiire, near
the river Tees, in a parifli whence he takes his name. He
was educated at Oxford, firft as a commoner of Queen's col-
lege, and then at Merton college, peculiarly celt brated at _
that period for its learned members. His induftry and
talents foon railed him to diftinftion ; and he is faid to have
committed to memory the moft abftrufe parts of Ariftotle,
and to have excelled in his acquaintance with the fubtleties
of the fchool divinity. He was alfo eminently (killed in
civil and canon law, and in the law of the land. But the
ftudy which led to his future fame was that of the Scrip-
tures ; to which he added a diligent perufal of the Latin
fathers, and of the writings of the Englifh divint s, Robert
Grofthead and Richard Fitz-Ralph. In his treatife "Of
the Laft Age of the Church," at the early period of the
year 1356, heremonftrated againft fome Popilh corruptions;
and in 1360 he was aftive in oppofiiig the encroachments of
the Mendicant Friars, who interfered with the jurifdiftion and
ftatutes of the univerfity, and took all opportunities of en-
ticing the ftudents from the colleges into their convents. In
the following year, fuch was the credit he had acquired by his
conduft and writings, he was appointed maftcr of Baliol
college, and was prefented to a living in Liiicolnfhire. At .
this time he was held in fuch efteem by archbifhop Simon
Iflip, that in 1365 he conftituted him warden of Canterbury
college, which he had juft founded ; but on occdfion of a
difpute between the regular and fecular priefts, Wickliffe and
the three fecular fellows were rej-fted ; and on an appeal to
Rome, the fentence againft Wickliffe was cor firmed in 1 370.
His reputation in the univerfity was not at all diminifhed by
his exclufion. In 1372 he took the degree of D.D., and
read leftures, which gained him fuch applaufe, that whatever
he faid was regarded as an oracle. The impoftures of the
monks were the objefts to which his firft attacks were par-
ticularly diredled ; and the circumftances of the times fa-
voured his defign. The court of Rome was now enforcing
by menaces its demands on king Edward III. of the homage
and tribute to the fee of Rome, which had been inglorioufly
ftipulated by king John ; and the parliament had determined
to fupport the king in his refufal. A monk appeared as an
advocate on behalf of the claims of Rome ; and Wickhffe's
reply caufed him to be favourably regarded at court, and pro-
cured for him the patronage of the king's fon, John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancafter. In 1374 Wickliffe was joined in an
embafly to Bruges, the objeft of which was to confer with the
papal nuncios concerning the liberties of the Enghfh church,
on which the ufurpations of Rome had made unwarrantable
encroachments. In the fame year the king prefent-d him to
the valuable redory of Lutterworth, in Leicefterihire ; and
in the following year he was inftalled in a prtbend of the
collegiate church of Weftbury, in Gloucefterfhire. Wick-
liffe, by his foreign mifhon, bad an opportunity of ac-
quainting himfelf with the corruption and tyranny of the
court of Rome ; and both his leftures and converfations
were amplified with inveftives againft the pope. Whilft
he defended the authority of the crown and the privileges of
the nobles againft all ecclefiaftical encroachments, he cen-
fured vice and corruption in all ranks of fociety. This
conduft, though it raifed his reputation among the people,
excited a hoft of enemies, who felefted from his writings
nineteen articles, which they deemed heretical, and which.

WICLIFF.

ai fuch, they tranfmitted to Gregory XI. In 1377 this
pontiff returned three bulls addrefled to the archbiftiop of
Canterbury and the bifliop of London, ordering the feizure
and imprifonment of Wickliffe ; or, if this meafure failed, his
citation to the court of Rome ; and alfo a requifition to
the king and government to affill in extirpating the errors
which he had propagated. Edward died before the bulls
arrived ; and the duke of Lancafter, uncle to the young
king, had great influence m the adminiftration. When
Wickliffe, therefore, was cited to appear at St. Paul's
church bffore the two prelates, poirefling plenitude of power,
he thought it necclTary to fecure himielf by the proleftion
of tliat powerful patron. On the appointed day he ap-
peared at St. Paul's, in the midll of a vaft concourfe of
people, and accompanied by the duke of Lancafter, and
lord Henry Percy, earl-marfhal. The b'fhop of London
was very in lignant, and angry words pafFcd between him
and the two lords ; fo that the whole affeinbly was tumul-
tuous, and nothing was done. Wickliffe afterwards ap-
peared before the two prelates in Lambeth palace, and de-
livered an explanation of the articles objefted agauift him.
The Londoners, who were appreh' nfive that he might be
Severely treated, flocked in crowds to the palace ; and a
imeflTenger from the queen forbade the delegates to proceed
to a definitive fentence. Gregory foon after died, and his
icommiflion expiring with him, Wickhff"e efcaped, but not
[without a fevere illnefs, which was the coniequence of his
janxiety and fatigue. His fpirits, however, were unbroken,
!and he was firm in maintaining opinions which the friars,
[by all the efforts of intimidation, urged him to renounce.
; Upon his recovery, he prefented to the parliament, in 1379,
!a paper againfl; the tyranny and ufurpations of Rome ; and
!he alfo drew up fome free remarks on the papal fupremacy
'and infallibility. But his moft; effeftual attack on the cor-
ruption of rehgion was his tranflation of the Bible into
Enghlh. This occupied many of the laft years of his hfe,
and remains a valuable relic of the age in which it was per-
formed, and a permanent memorial of the talents and in-
duftry of the perfon by whom it was accomplifhed. (See
Englijh Bibles.) By way of preparation for his Bible, he
publiihed a treatife " Of the Truth of the Scripture," in
which, as well as in a prologue or preface to his tranflation,
he held, long before any of onr other reformers or advo-
cates for the fufficiency of Scripture, that this is the law of
Chrift, and the faith of the church ; that all truth is con-
tained in it ; and that every difputation which has not its
origin thence is profane. " The truth of the faith," fays
he, " Ihiiies the more by how much the more it is known —
nor are thofe heretics to be heard who fancy that feculars
ought not to know the law of God, but that it is fufficient
, for them to know what priefls and prelates tell them by
I word of moutli ; for the Scripture is the faith of the church,
i and the more it is known in an orthodox fenfe the better ;
1 therefore, as frcular men ought to know the faith, fo it is to
' be taught men in whatfoever language is bell known to
I them. Befides, fince the tru'h of the faitli is clearer and
' more exaft in tiie Scripture than the priefls know how to
i exprefs it — it feems ufeful that the faithful Ihould tliem-
1 felves fearch out and difcover the feiife of the faith, by
' having the Scriptures in a language which they uiidtrfliand.
j — The laws which the prelates make are not to be received as
I matters of faith ; ijor are we to believe their words or dif-
; courfes any farther or otherwife than they arr founded on
I the Scripture ;" — with much more to the fame purpofe, and
I in the fame admirable rtrain. In thiv preface, and fcveral
I other publications and treatifes llill in manufcript, he re-
fleded feverely on the corruptions of the clergy, condcraned

the worfhip of faints and images, the doarine of indulgencee,
pilgrimages to particular (brines, and confefTion ; and alfo
denied the corporal prefence of Chrift in the facrament,
inveighed againft the wanton exercife of the papal power,
and oppofed the making of the belief of tlie pope's being
head of the church an article of faith and falvatii>n, cenfured
the celibacy of the clergy, forced vows of chaftity, expofed
various errors and irregularities in the hierarchy and difci-
pliiie of the church, and earneftly exhorted all people to the
ftudy of the Scriptures.

In his leftures of 1381, he attacked the Popifh doftrine
of tranfubftantiation, concerning which he laid down this
fundamental propofition ; -viz. that the fubftance of bread
and wine ftill remained in the facramental elements after
their confecration, and that the hoft is only typically to be
regarded as the body of Chrift ; and he deduced from it
fixteen conclufions. This attack alarmed the church,
which regarded tranfubftantiation as the moft facred tenet
of the Romifh religion, and the chancellor of Oxford pro-
nounced a condemnation of thefe conclufions. WickUffe
appealed from this fentence to the king ; but he found
himfelf deferred by his protestor, the duke of Lancafter,
who had no further occafion for his fervices, or who could
not avail himfelf for any political purpofe of his theological
difcuffions. Thus circumft meed, he found himfelf in
danger ; his refolution failed him, and he humbled himfelf
by making a confeffion at Oxford, before the archbifhop and
fix bifhops, with other clergy, who had already condemned
fome of his tenets as erroneous and heretical. In this con-
fefTion, he admitted the real prefence of Chrifl's body in the
facrament, with fome explanations and reafons which were
not fatibfaftory to his perfecutors. It has been faid that he
made a public recantation of the opinions with which he was
charged ; but of this no fufficient evidence appears. The
next ftep in their proceedings againft him was a royal letter,
procured by the archbifhop, addrefled to the chancellor and
proftors, and diredfing them to expel from the univerfity and
town of Oxford all who fhould harbour Wickliffe or his fol-
lowers, or hold any communication with them. Thefe pro-
ceedings obliged him to withdraw, and to retire to his rec-
tory at Lutterworth, where he continued to preach re-
formation in religion, and finifhed his tranflation of the Scrip-
tures. Some have faid that king Richard banifhed him out
of England ; but if that were the cafe, it was only a tem-
porary exile, and he returned in fafety to Lutterworth.
In 13^3 he had a paralytic ftroke, which furnifhed him with
an apology for not appearing to a citation of pope
Urban VL ; and this was fucceeded by a fecoiid attack,
which terminated his life on the laft day of December 1384.
His remains, however, did not efcape the vengeance of his
enemies many years after his death ; for the council of Con-
ftance in 1415, not content with condemning many propofi-
tions in his works, and declaring that he died an obflinate
heretic, with impotent malignity ordered his bones to be
dug up and thrown upon a dunghill. This fentence was
executed in 1428, in confequence of a mandate from the
pope, by Elemming, biihop of Lincoln, who caufed his re-
mains to be difinterred and burnt, and the afhes to be thrown
into a brook. " Thus," fays Fuller, the church hiftorian,
in a figurative ftrain juftified by faft, " this brook hath con-
veyed his afhes into Avon, Avon into Severn, Severn into
the narrow feas, they into the main ocean : and thus the
afhes of Wickliffe arc the emblem of hi^ (ioftrine, which now
is difperfed all the world over." Hi»<^oCtrinc not only fur-
vived thefe impotent attempts to extinguiflt it, but was
perpetuated and difl"ufed by his followers, who were called
Lollards ; and " this germ of reformation," as one of his
1 1 biographers

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W I D

biograpKers fays, " broke forth into complete expanCon,
when the feafon for that great change was fully come."
Of his general charafter, it will be fufficient to fay, " that he
was confefledly learned for his age, and was an acute rea-
foner. In fhort, notwithftanding certain errors and imper-
feftions, he may be regarded as a perfon of extraordinary
merit and quahtications, who is entitled to honourable re-
membrance from every foe to ecclefiaftical tyranny and im-
pofture ;" and we may add that he advanced principles
which have not yet produced their full effed.

The number of trafts he wrote and pubhfhcd, both in
Latin and Engli(h, is very confiderable. From two large
volumes of his works, entitled " Aletheia, /". e. Truth," and
a third under the title of " Trialogus," John Hufs is faid to
have derived mod of his doftrines. We have a full and
complete " Hiftory of the Life and Sufferings, and various
Writings of Wickhtfe," both printed and MS., publifhed in
8vo., at London, in the year 1720, by Mr. John Lewis;
who alfo pubU(hed,in 1731," Wickliffe'sEnglifh Tranfiation
of the New Teftament from the Latin Verfion, called the
Vulgate." This tranflation is enriched with a learned pre-
face by the editor, in which he enlarges upon the life,
aftions, and fufferings of this eminent reformer. Biog.
Brit. Mofh. Eccl. Hift. Neal's Hift. of the Puritans.
Gen. Biog. For an account of his diftingui(hing tenets,
and thofe of his followers, fee Wickliffists and Lol-
lards.

WICOMICO, in Geography, a river which rifes in
the ftate of Delaware, enters the ftate of Maryland, and
paffes into Fifliing bay, on the eaft fide of the Chefapeak,
N. lat. 38° 16'. W. long. 75° 57'.

WICOMOCO, a river of Virginia, which runs into the
Chefapeak, N. lat. 37° 55'. W. long. 76° 25'.

WICQUEFORT, Abraham, in Biography, was born
at Amfterdam in 1598, and having left his own country for
France at an early age, he was nominated refident for the
eleftor of Brandenburg at the French court, and held the
office for thirty-two years. But being fufpefted by cardinal
Mazarin of communicating fecrets to his correfpondents in
Holland with regard to the amours of Lewis XIV., he
was ordered, in 1658, to leave the kingdom ; but in the
mean time he was arretted, and confined in the Baftille.
At length, in 1659, he was releafed and difmiffed. How-
ever, in three months the cardinal recalled him, and fettled
on him a penfion. On occafion of the war between France
and Holland in 1672, he returned to his own country, and
was protefted by John de Witt, who employed him in
writing a hiftory of Holland to his own time. In 1676 he
was arretted and condemned to perpetual imprifoiiment,
under an accnfation of carrying on a fecret correfpondence
with the enemies of the ilate ; and after having been confined
for three years, he made his efcape by the contrivance of
one of his daughters. He then fought refuge at tlie court
of Zell, from which he returned to Holland in 168 1, where
he lived without moleftation, but without recovering the
places of which he had been deprived. In the following
year, 1682, he died. The work on account of which
Wicquefort is bell known, is entitled " L'Ambafladeur et
fes Fondtions," firft^ printed at the Hague in 2 vols. 410.
168 1, and often reprinted. He holds in high eftimation the
privileges of the order to which he belonged, as we may
infer from his cenfure of Cromwell's fpirited aft of juttice
in executing the brother of the Portuguefe ambaffador for
a murder : neverthelefs he inculcates found morality with
regard to the conduA of diplomatifts in the countries to
which they are fent. His other works are, " Memoires
touchant les Ambaffadeurs et les Minittres ;" one volume of

his " Hiftory of the Dutch Republic," which appeared in
French at the Hague in 1719, fol.; and tranflations into
French of the accounts of different embaffies, and alfo
of voyages and travels. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

WICRANGLE, in Ornithology, an Englifh name for
themattagefs, or greater butcher-bird, the lanius cinereus major
of authors.

WICRANTUM, m Natural Hyiory, a name given by
. the people of the Eaft Indies to certain foflile bodies, of the
nature of the pyrites, of the fize of peas, and formed into
varioufly angular figures.

They look black and gloffy, and much of the nature of
blende, or mock-lead ; but when put into the fire, they
fhew us by their fmell that they contain fulphur. They
are found in the diamond-mines.

The natives firft powder them ; and then mixing them
with the juices of certain plants, they dry them, and then
calcine them again. Thefe proceffes they repeat at leaft
fixty times ; but the firft calcinations are made with a mix-
ture of divers urines, as that of the horfe, the camel, the
cow, and the like.

After this tedious preparation, they are given in coughs
and colds, and are faid to be a remedy even in confump-
tions.

WICZENIECZ, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
Podolia ; 6 miles N.W. of Kaminiec.

WIDAWA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 22
miles S.W. of Siradia.

WIDDAU, a river of Germany, which joins the
Rodau at Rotenburg, in the county of Verden.
WIDDY, in Agriculture. See Withy.
WIDE, is ufed in fome places to denote a fmall vale,
and alfo a wide piece of water, or pond.

WiDE-EareJ, in the Manege, is applied to a horfe, when
the root, or lower part of his ear is placed too low, and the
ear itfelf is too large. The French ufe the term oreillard iot
fuch a horfe.

Wide Bay, in Geography, a bay on the eaft coaft of
New Holland, between Double Ifland Point and Indian
Head.

Wide Mouth Bay, a bay of England, on the N.W.
coaft of Cornwall. N. lat. 50° 46'. W. long. 5° 19'.

WIDEKINDI, or Widichixdi, John, in Biographyt
a Swedifh hiftorian, was born in the province of Weftman-
land, about the year 1620, and itudied at Upfal, where he
delivered an oration in 1654, on occafion of queen Chrif- i
tina's acceftion to the throne ; and by her recommendation
he was appointed hiftoriographer of the kingdom. In 1676
he propofed printing his " Hiftory of Guftavus Adolphus,"
and meafures were taken for this purpofe ; but he died at
Stockholm in 1678, before tiie work was executed. The
firft part of this hiftory was publittied in 1691, fol.; but as
it much offended both the Danes and Ruffians, it was fup-
preffed by the king's command. It is not known whether
he completed the work in MS,; but the part publifhed is
written in a dull, heavy ftyle, and it has been carelefsly
printed. The author, however, was a man of learning,
well acquainted with hiftory, and reckoned a good Latin
poet. He poffeffed an excellent library, and was much re-
fpefted by king Charles Guftavus, who called him his phi-
lofopher. The moft important of his works, a catalogue
of which is given in " Schefferi Svecia Litterata," is the
" Hiftory of the Ruffian War," written both in Latin and
Swedifh, 1672, 4to. Gen. Biog.

WIDERDRIESS, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Stiria ; 2 miles S. of Windifch Gratz.

WIDJITZE,

W 1 £

W I E

WIDJITZE, a town of Bohemia, in the circk of

' pzaflau ; 8 miles W. of Czaflau.

I t WIDMINNEN, a town of Pruffia ; 14 miles N.W. of

' tick,

, j WIDOW, Vidua, a woman that has loft her hufband.

' / Some alfo ufe the term wldoiuer, for a man who has loft

' (lis wife. Marriage with a widow is a kind of bigamy in the
jye of the canon law.

The widow of a freeman of London may ufe her huf-
;>and's trade as long as fhe continues a widow.
f Mr. Kerfeboom has given us a table, (hewing how long
four hundred and thirty-two widows lived, and finds, that
\t a medium, each hved fourteen years. Phil. Tranf. N°46H,
;ea. 3.

■ It appears that, in Germany, the number of widows
lying annually is four times the number of widowers : thus,
in Drefden alone, the number of widows who died in four
years was 584 ; the number of widowers 149 : /'. f. 4 to i.
At Wittenberg, during 1 1 years, 98 widowers died, and
376 widows. At Gotha, during 20 years, 210 widowers
died, and 760 widows. And as widows are certainly, one
with another, feveral years younger than widowers, it may
be concluded that the number of the former in life together
iould not be lefs than five times the latter.

Thus alfo, in 1770, the number of widows in life, de-
rived from the whole body of profeflbrs and minifters in
Scotland, was 380 ; but the number of widowers among
i'.hem has, one year with another, been fcarcely 90 ; /. e.
not fo much as a quarter of the number of widows. Price's
Obferv. on Rev. Paym. eff. 4.

I Thefe fafts cannot be accounted for without admitting
the greater mortahty of males. See Marriage, and Mor-

ilALITY.

There have been many fchemes eftabliihed for providing
annuities for widows, for an account of feveral of which,
fee Price's Obferv. &c. chap. ii. fe<£l. i, 2, 3.
j Among the ancient Greeks, widows had the care of the
eternal fire of Vefta committed to them ; which charge
among the Romans could be performed by virgins only,
|who from their office were called veftals. See Vestal.
; Widow of the King, was (he, who, after her hufband's
death, being the king's tenant in capite, was driven to re-
icover her dower by the writ De dote ajjignanda ; and could
not marry again without the king's confent.

Widow Bench, in tlie county of SuiFex, is that (hare
which a widow is allowed of her hufband's eftate, befides
her jointure.

WiDOw'j Chamber, a name given in London to the appa-
rel and furniture of the bed-chamber of the widow of a
freeman, to which (he is entitled.

Widow- /^u;7, in Botany. See Cneorum.

WIDURIS, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a ftone
found in Java, Malabar, and fome other places, and de-
fcribed by Rumphius. Some fpecies of this are all over of
a fine white ; others are of a duUiy colour, with llreaks of
white ; the fimply white ones are femi-pelkicid, and look
very like the white of an egg. Some alto have called this
the hyalops, or achates vitren: pcrfplcuitatis.

WIECK. See Week.

WIED, in Geography, a county of Germany, fituated
[o the north of Treves, in the yi'ar ij6o, divided into two
parts : the Lower County, or New Wied, or Wied New
Wicd ; and the Upper County, or Wied Riinkel. Both
bad feats in the college of Weftphalia counts.

Wied, New. See Neuwied.

Wied, or Old Wied, a town of Germany, in the county
jf New Wicd ; 9 mile» N. of Coblentz.

WIEDENBRUCK, a town of Weftphalia, in the bi-
(hopric of Ofnabruck; 32 miles S.S.E. of Ofnabruck.
N. lat. 51° 45'. E. long. 8^ 18'.

WIEDERAU, a town of Saxony ; 5 miles N. of
Liebenwerda.

WIEDERSBERG, a town of Saxony, in the Vogt-
land ; 8 miles W.S. W. of Oelfnitz.

WIEDERSPACH, a town of Germany, in the raar-
gravate of Anfpach ; 6 miles W. of Anfpach.

WIEGANDSTHAL, or Wiegesthal, a town of
Upper Lulatia ; 1 1 miles S. of Lauban.

WIEHE, a town of Thuringia ; 26 miles N.N.E. of
Erfurt. N. lat. 51° 18'. E. long. 11° 35'.

WIEL AND, Christopher Martin, in Biography, was
the fon of a Proteftan t clergyman at Biberach, in S wabia, where
he was born in September 1733. Educated by his father, he
began at the early age of thirteen to diftinguKh himfelf by
his Latin and German poems ; and he purfued his education
at Magdeburg and at Erfurt. Upon his return home he
became aifedtionately attached to Sophia de Guterman,
afterwards known by her works under the name of Mad. de
la Roche. In the year 1750 he (ludied jurifprudence at
Tubingen ; but his time was chiefly devoted to the writing
of veries, fo that in 1752 he publiihed a didadic poem in
fix cantos, entitled " The Nature of Things ;" " Ante-
Ovid, or the Art of Love ;" and " Moral Letters and
Tales." He alfo began an epic poem, on the fubjeft of
Arminius, the firlt five cantos of which he fent to the famous
Swifs poet Bodmer ; and he was thus led to vifit Switzer-
land, and to cultivate a friendihip with this celebrated poet,
and to refide for fome time in his houfe at Zurich. In this
retired and tranquil fituation, he applied with great dihgence
to the rtudy of the belles lettres, and acquainted himfelf
with the principal modern languages, fuch as Engli(h,
French, and Itahan, to which he afterwards added the
Spani(h and Portuguefe. He alfo read Plato with great at-
tention, and wrote feveral works, among which were the
" Trial of Abraham," and " Letters of the Dead." After
a refidence of feven or eight years in Switzerland, he quitted
this country, having formed his tafte on the models of Eu-
ripides, Xenophon, and Shaftfbury, whofe writings he had
dihgeiitly ftudied ; and in 1758 he publiflied his " Arafpes
and Panthea," a work which manifcfts the afcendency which
judgment and moral fentiment had acquired over his imagin-
ation. Upon his return in 1760 to his native city, he waa
appointed a direftor of the chancery, which olTice he held
till the year 1769, referving, however, fome leifure mo-
ments for the compofition of his philofophical romance,
entitled " Agathon," and his beautiful didaClic poem
" Mufarion." About this time he became intimately ac-
quainted with count Stadion, a nobleman who lived with
fplendour near Biberach, who had cultivated a tafte for li-
terature, and who polfefled an excellent library. He after-
wards received from the eleftor of Mentz an invitation to be
profcfTor of philofophy and the belles lettres at Erfurt, and
during his refidence in this place he became acquainted with
Anna Amelia, duchefs dowager of Weimar, a patronefs of
polite literature, and in 1772 (he appointed him tutor to
the two princes, Charles Augulhisand his brother Conftan-
tine, of whom (he was guardian. In this fituation he occu-
pied hinifcK in preparing a variety of works, botli in profe
and verfe, which have done honour to German literature.
He was at this time aulic counfellor to the duke of Saxe
Weimar, withapenfion, and a counfellor of government to
the eleftor of Mentz. Wieland married his favourite
daughter Charlotte to a bookfeller at Zurich, who was a
fon of the celebrated poet Solomon Gefncr. In 1797 he

vifited

W I E

vifited his children at Zurich, and refided with his family in
a romantic fituation on the border of the lake, where he was
vifited by the moft eminent literati of Switzerland. Con-
ceiving a fond attachment to a rural retreat, he fold his
houfeat Weimar, and purchafed a fmall ellate in the neigh-
bourhood, where he fixed his abode. Although his fortune
was fmall, his difpofition was liberal ; and he affifted many
diftreffed young poets and authors for their contributions to
the German Mercuiv, which he commenced in the year 1783.
To the ex-monk Reinhold, who hadefcaped from Vienna, he
was a generous patron, and gave to him one of his daughters
in marriage. This monk was afterwards profelTor o^ pmlo;
fophy at Kiel. He alfo fupported another monk, who had
fled to him from a Ciftertian monaftery in Swabia, dunng
his refidence at Jena, where he ftudied philofophy. Wreland
had married in 1765 a perfon of good family at Auglburg,
of whom he expreffes himfelf in the higheil terms of re-
fpea and affeaion, and by whom he had thirteen children ;
«' found," he fays, " in body and mind ; with their mother,
they form the happinefs of my life." In 1807 this venera-
ble poet was eleded a member of the floral order at Nurem-
berg ; and in 1808, Buonaparte fent him the crofs of the
legion of honour. After the battle of Jena, he was pro-
tefted by a fpecial order of that conqueror. He died in ,
January 18 13, in his 80th year. For the deUneation of his
talents and charafter by Kiittner and others, and an account
of his works, which were very numerous, we mull refer to
his article in the General Biography, obferving that his
original works have been publiftied in thirty-fix large 4to.
volumes, and fix fupplementary volumes. Leipfic, 1794. —
1802. -

WIELAS, in Geography, a town on the eaft coalt ot
the ifland of Gilolo. N. lat. 1° 9'. E. long. 128° 30'.

WIELCZYNY, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Novogrodek ; 40 miles S.E. of Slonim.
WIELDEMAN. See Wildeman.
WIELEN, a town of the duchy of Warfav? ; 46 miles
N.W. of Pofen.

WIELICHOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ;
25 miles S.S.W. of Pofen.

WIELICZA, a town of Auftrian Poland, celebrated
for its falt-mines, which produce a great revenue to the em-
peror, to whofe lot it fell in the year 1773. The inhabit-
ants refide chiefly in the mines, and the church is under-
ground ; 8 miles S. of Cracow. Thefe falt-mines, with
the territory belonging to them, were afligned to the empe-
ror of Aufti-ia by the treaty at Vienna in 1815.

WIELONA, a town of Samogitia ; 20 miles S. of
Rofienne.

WIELUN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Siradia ; 1 6 miles S. of Siradia.

WIEN, a river of Auftria, which runs into the Danube
at Vienna.

WIENNERHORBEG, a town of Auftria ; 12 miles
W. of Brugg.

WIENNERWALD, or The Forejl of Vienna, the
fouth part of the arch-duchy of Auftria, bordering on
Hungary.

WIEPERZ, or WiPRz, a river of Poland, which runs
into the Viftula, near Stericza, in the palatinate of San-
domirz.

WIER, John, in Biography, a phyfician, was born in
1515, at Grave on the Meufe ; and being domefticated
with the famous Cornehus Agrippa, adopted his opinions
with regard to the occult fciences. After having ftudied at
Paris and Orleans, he took the degree of M.D. about the
year 1534. In the courfe of his travels, he vifited the court

w 1 E ;

of the duke of Cleves, and was appointed his phyfician.
He died at Tecklenburg, in Weftphalia, in 1586. He was a
man of confiderable learning ; and though participating in
a great degree the credulity of the age, he incurred the en-
mity of the monks by afcribing to deception and impofture
the forcery, witchcraft, and magical praftices, which they
fupported, to the operation of natural caufes. The turn of i
his mind is difcernible in his book " De Dsmonum Pref- ',
tigiis et Incantationibus." In his treatife of medical ob- 1
fervations he has given an account of the putrid fore throat, '
under the name of " Angina peftilentialis." Among his
other writings are enumerated " De Irae Morbo, et ejug
Curatione Philofophica, Medica, et Philofophica ;" " Trac-
tatus de Commentitiis Jejuniis ;" " De Tufli Epidemica,
Anno 1580 ;" " De Varenis, Morbo endemic Weftphalo-
rum." Haller. Eloy.

WIERINGEN, in Geography. See Vieringen.
WIERNITZ, a town of Auftria; 8 miles N. of Korn- j
Neuburg. 1

WIESE, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Grot-
kau ; 2 miles N.E. of Weydenau.

WIESEN, a river of Germany, which rifes in the ';

Black Foreft, and runs into the Rhine a little below ■

, Bale. j

WIESENBACHE, a river of Saxony, which runs into I

the WeiflViitz, 4 miles N. of Dippoldifwalda.

WIESENBRUN, a town of the county of Caftell ;
14 miles E. of Wurzburg.

WIESENBURG, a citadel of Saxony, in the circle of 1
Erzgebirg ; 5 miles S. of Zwickau. — Alfo, a town of i
Saxony ; 15 miles N.N.W. of Wittenberg.

WIESENFELD, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ;
5 miles S.S.E. of Gemunden.

WIESENSTEIG, a lordftiip of Bavaria, fituated be-
tween the territories of Ulm and Wurtemberg, about eight
miles long, and nearly as much in breadth. It defcended
from the dukes of Teck to the counts of Helfenftein, and
gave name to a peculiar line. On the failure of the counts
of this houfe, in the year 1627, in the perfon of count Ru-
dolph, one-third of this lordfhip devolved to the houfe of
Furftenberg, but the other two-thirds were purchafed by
the eleftor of Bavaria, of the two elder daughters of the
laft count ; to this the dukes of Wurtemberg indeed would
not give their confent, and in the year 1704 took poflellion
of the lordftiip, but by virtue of the peace of Baden, con-
cluded in the year 17 14, were obliged to reftore it to the
eleftor of Bavaria. — Alfo, a town of Bavaria, and capital
of a lordftiip of the fame name; 25 miles S.E. of Stutt-
gart.

WIESENT, a town of Bavaria, in the biftiopric of
Bamberg ; 3 miles E. of Forcheim.

WIESENTHAL, Bohmisch, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Saatz ; 25 miles N.W. of Saatz. N. lat. 50°
23'. E.long. 12° 57'.

WiESENTHAL, Oier, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Erzgebirg ; 11 miles S.E. of Schwartzenberg.

WiESENTHAL, Uriter, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg. All thefe towns are very near together, a fmall
brook only feparates the Bohemian town from the two Ger-
man ones ; 10 miles S.E. of Schwartzenberg.

WIESENTHEID, a lordftiip fituated between the
duchy of Wurzburg, the county of Caftell, and the mar-
gravate of Anfpach. It takes its name from a citadel be-
longing to the counts of Schonburg.

WIESPINCAN, a river of Louifiana, which runs
into the Mifliflippi, N. lat. 41° 22'. W. long. 91° 36'.

WIESSEN,

W I F

WIESSEN, a town of Germany, in the county of Rie-
neck ; 10 miles N.W. of Lohr.

WIESTERBURG, a town of Weftphalia, in the prin-
cipality of Halberftadt ; 7 miles N.E. of Ofterwick.

WIETHEN, a lake of North America. N. lat. 62°
30'. W. long. 99° 50'.

WIETLISBACH, a town of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Berne ; 20 miles N. of Berne.

WIETMARSEN.or Wittmarsciien, a town of Ger-
many, in the county of Bentheim, with an abbey, which
formerly belonged to the Benediftines, and was in the
1 2th century fecularized for noble ladies ; 4 miles N. of
Northern.

WIFE, Uxor, a married woman ; or one joined with,
and under the protedion of, a hufband. See Marriage.

A wife, in our Englifh law, is termed feme covert;
feemina viro co-operta ; her condition during marriage is
called her coverture ; and, in the judgment of the law, is
reputed to have no will, as being fuppofed entirely under,
and fubjeft to, that of her hufband : uxor fulget radiis
mariti.

A man cannot grant any thing to his wife, or enter into
covenant with her ; for the grant would fuppofe her fepa-
rate exiftence, and to covenant with her would be only to
covenant with himfelf ; and, therefore, it is generally true,
that all compafts made between hufband and wife, when
fmgle, are void by the intermarriage. A woman, however,
may be attorney for her hufband ; and a hufband may be-
queath any thing to his wife by will, for that cannot take
effedl till the coverture is determined by his death.

From the unity of perfon that fubfifls between the huf-
band and wife, in confequence of marriage, it follows, that
whatever perfonal property belonged to the wife before
marriage, is by marriage abfolutely veiled in the hufband.
In a real eftate, he only gains a title to the rents and profits
during coverture ; for that, depending upon feodal prin-
ciples, remains entire to the wife, after the death of her
hufband, or to her heirs, if fhe dies before him ; unlefs by
the birth of a child, he becomes tenant for life by the cur-
tefy. But in chattel interefts, the fole and abfolute pro-
perty vefts in the hufband, to be difpofed of at his pleafure,
if he choofes to take pofTcfBon of them : for, unlefs he re-
duces them to pofTeffion, by exercifing fome aft of owner-
fhip upon them, no property vefts in him, but they fhall
remain to the wife, or to her reprefentatives, after the
coverture is determined.

There is, however, a confiderable difference in the ac-
quifition of this fpecies of property by the hufband, accord-
ing to the fubjeft-matter ; viz. whether it be a chattel real
or perfonal ; and of chattels perfonal, whether it be in pof-
feffion, or in aS'ton only.

A chattel real vefts in the hufband, not abfolutely, but
fub modo. As, in cafe of a leafe for years ; the hufband
fhall receive all the rents and profits of it, and may, if he
pleafes, fell, furrender, or difpofe of it during the cover-
ture : if he be outlawed or attainted, it fhall be forfeited to
the king ; it is liable to execution for his debts ; and if he
furvives his wife, it is to all intents and purpofes his own.
Yet if he has made no difpofition thereof in his life-time,
and dies before his wife, he cannot difpofe of it by will ;
for, having never been transferred from the wife, after his
death fhe fhall remain in her ancient pofTeffion, and it fhall
not go to his executors.

Thus alfo with regard to chattels perfonal (or chofa in
oS'ton), as debts upon bond, contrafts, and the hke ; thefe
the huiband may have if he pleafes ; that is, if he reduces
them into pofTeffion by receiving or recovering them at law :

Vol. XXXVIII.

W I F

in which cafe, they are abfolutely and entirely his own :
and fhall go to his executors or adminillrators, or as he fhall
bequeath them by will, and fhall not reveft in the vvife. But
if he dies before he has reduced them into pofTeffion, fo that
at his death they ftill continue chofes in aaion, they fhall fur-
vive to the wife.

Thus in both the fpecies of property the law is the fame,
in cafe the wife furvives the hufband ; but, in cafe the huf-
band furvives the wife, the law is very different with refpeft
to chattels real and chofes in aSion ; for he fhall have the
chattel real hy inr\\\orihi^^, but not the chofc in aBion ; ex-
cept in the cafe of arrears of rent, due to the wife before
her coverture, which in cafe of her death are given to the
hufband by the flatute 32 Hen. VIII. cap. 37.

As to chattels perfonal (or chofes in poffefflon), which the
wife hath in her own right, as ready money, jewels, houfe-
hold goods, and the hke, the hufband hath, therein an im-
mediate and abfolute property, devolved to him by the
marriage, which can never again reveft in the wife or her
reprefentatives.

The wife alfo, by marriage, acquires a property in fome
of her hufband's goods, called her paraphernalia, which
fhall remain to her after his death, and fhall not go to his
executors. Thefe, fignifying the apparel and ornaments of
the wife, fuitable to her rank and degree, the hufband can-
not devife by his will ; though during his hfe perhaps he
hath the power (if unkindly inclined to exert it) to fell
them or give them away. But if fhe continues in the ufe of
them till his death, fhe fhall afterwards retain them againft
his executors and adminiftrators, and all other perfons, ex-
cept creditors where there is a deficiency of affets. And
her necefTary apparel is protefted^ even againfl the claim of
creditors.

The wife can make no contraft without her hufband's
confent ; and, in all law-matters, fine viro refpondere non
fotefl.

The hufband is bound to provide his wife with neceffaries
by law, as much as himfelf; and if fhe contrafts debts for
them, he is obliged to pay them ; but for any thing befidea
neceffaries, he is not chargeable. Alfo if a wife elopes, and
lives with another man, the hufband is not chargeable even
for neceffaries, at leaft if the perfon who furnifhes them is
fufficiently apprized of her elopement.

If the wife be indebted before marriage, the hufband is
bound afterwards to pay the debt. If the wife be injured
in her perfon or property, fhe can bring no aftion for redrefs
without her hufband's concurrence, and in his name as well
as her own ; neither can fhe be fued, without making the
hufband a defendant. There is indeed one cafe where the
wife fhall fue and be fued as a feme fole, viz. where the huf-
band has abjured the realm, or is banifhed ; for he is then
dead in law. See Custom of London.

In criminal profecutions, the wife may be indifted and
punifhed feparatcly ; for the union is only a civil union.
But in trials of any fort, they are not allowed to be evidence
for or againft each other. However, where the offence is
dircftly againft the perfon of the wife, this rule has been
ufually difpenfed with ; and, therefore, by ftat. 3 Hen. VII.
cap. 2. in cafe a woman be forcibly taken away and married,
fhe may be witncfs againfl fuch her hufband, in order to
convift him of felony. See Forcible Abdudion.

In the civil law, the hufband and wife are confidered aj
two diftinft perfons ; and may have feparate eftatcs, con-
trafts, debts, and injuries ; and, therefore, in our ecclefiaf-
tical courts, a woman may fue and be fued without her
hufband.

But, though our law in general coniiders man and wife
3 I as

WIG

W I G

as one perfon, yet there are fome inftances in which flie is
feparately confidered ; as inferior to him, and afting by his
compulfion. And, therefore, all deeds executed, and afts
done by her during her coverture, are void ; except it be a
fine or the like matter of record, in which cafe (he muft be
folely and fecretly examined, to learn if her afts be volun-
tary. She cannot by will dcvife lands to her hufband, unlefs
under fpecial circumftances ; for at the time of making it
(he is fuppofed to be under his coercion. And in fome
felonies, and other inferior crimes, committed by her
through conilraint of her hufband, the law excufcs her ;
but this extends not to treafon and murder. Sec Feme-
C overt.

The hufband alfo, by the old law, might give his wife
moderate correftion ; but this power of correflion was con-
fined within reafonable bounds, and the hufband was prohi-
bited from ufing any violence to his wife. The civil law
gave the hufband the fame, or a larger authority over his
wife ; allowing him, for fome mifdemeanors, JlageU'is et
fujlibus acriler •verberare uxorem ; for others, only modicam
eajltgatlonem adh'ihere. But, with us, in the politer reign of
Charles II., the power of correftion began to be doubted ;
and a wife may now have fecurity of the peace againft her
hufband, or, in return, a hufband againft his wife. The
courts of law will (till permit a hufband to reflrain a wife of
her hberty, in cafe of any grofs mifbehaviour. Blackil.
Com. book i. book ii.

If a wife bring forth a child during her hufband's abfence,
though of many years; yet if he hved all the time inter
^uatuor maris, wilhin the ifland, he muft father the child ;
and the child, if firft born, ftiall inherit. See Bastard.

If a wife bring forth a child begot by a former hufband,
or any other perfon, before marriage, but born after mar-
riage with another man ; this latter muft own the child, and
that child (hall be his heir at law.

The wife, after her hufband's death, having no jointure
Jettled before marriage, may challenge the third part of his
yearly rent of land, during her life ; and, within the city
of London, a third part of all her hufband's moveables for
<ver. See Dower, Intestate, and Custom of London.

The wife partakes of the honour and condition of her
hufband ; but none of the wife's dignities come, by mar-
riage, to her hufband.

Yet, the hufband, who marries a woman feifed of lands
in fee-iimple, or fee-tail, /. e. of any eflate of inheritance,
and has by her ifTue born alive, which was capable of her
eftate, fhall, on the death of his wife, hold the lands for his
life, as tenant by the curtefy of England.

The Englifh laws are generally efteemed by foreigners as
very hard, in refpeft to the women ; and yet Chamberlayne
is of a very different opinion, afferting, that the condition
of wives in England is better than in any other country.

The difabilities to which the wife is fubjeft are for the
moft part intended for her protettion and benefit. So great
a favourite (fays judge Blackftone) is the female fex of the
laws of England.

Tertulhan has two books, on the ornaments and attire of
Wives. In the fecond, he labours to prove that a Chriftian
wife cannot, in confcience, endeavour to pleafe by her
beauty, which fhe knows to be naturally liable to raife loofe
defires ; and that fhe ought not only to avoid all affefted
beauty, but even to conceal and cover her natural beauty.

Wife, Mid, Obfletrix. See Dehvejiy.

WIFFLISBURG, in Geography. See AvENCHES.

WIGAN, a borough and market-town in the hundred
of Weft-Derby, and county of Lancafter, England, is
feated near the rife of the river Douglas, the banks of which

are noted for a celebrated battle fought between king Arthur
and the Saxons, when the latter were defeated. In the
time of Henry VIII., Wigan is defcribed by Leland as a
" paved town, as big as Warrington, but better builded,
and inhabited by fome merchants, artificers, and farmers.''
In its prefent ftate, it has a neat though irregular appear-
ance ; and has been lately much improved by the opening of
two new ftreets, and the ereftion of feveral handfome
buildings. An extenfive trade is carried on in the manufac-
ture of coarfe home-made linens, checks, calicoes, fuftians,
and other cotton goods. Here are alfo large brafs and
pewter works.

Wigan is a borough by prefcription, and has had its pri-
vileges confirmed by the feveral charters of Henry III.,
Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., and Charles II.
Its corporate body confifts of a mayor, recorder, twelve
aldermen, and two bailiffs. Two members are returned to
parhament ; and the right of eletlion is vefted in the free
burgeffes, in number about 200. The reprefentation ' of
this borough has occafioned iome very expenfive contefts ;
and it is faid to have coft George Byng, efq. 10,000/. in
his oppofition to the intereft of fir Fletcher Norton, and
Simon Luttrell, efq. Returns appear fo early as the 23d
and 35th Edward I., after which the privilege was fuffered
to be dormant for 240 years ; no other return being made
till ift Edward VI.

The parifh-church is ancient, and confidered to be a
handfome ftrufture : it confifts of a nave, a fpacious chancel,
and two fide-aifles. Among the monuments in the church
is one to the memory of fir Roger Bradfhaigh, and another
to fir WilUam and lady Mabel Bradfhaigh. The remains
of George Hole, redlor of this church and bifhop of
Chefter, are depofited within the communion-rails. He
died Auguft 23, 1668. The redlory is one of the beft en-
dowed in the kingdom, and the incumbent is always lord of
the manor. In the town is a chapel of eafe, three chapels
for diffenters, and one for Roman Catholics. A town-hall
was built in 1 721, at the joint expence of the earl of Barry-
more and fir Roger Bradfhaigh, the then reprefentatives of
the borough. A free-fchool was erefted, and liberally en-
dowed, about the beginning of the laft century, by volun-
tary contribution ; and upwards of 30 years ago, the fame
liberahty eftabhfhed a blue-coat fchool for 30 boys. A
commodious workhoufe has been alfo built at the expence of
the inhabitants of the town, where the neceffitous and fuper-
annuated poor are comfortably accommodated ; induftry in
the more able are furnifhed with the means, and the meri-
torious are encouraged and rewarded. A difpenfary has
been erefted, and is fupported by the benevolence of the in-
habitants of the town and its vicinity.

At the north end of the town is a monumental pillar,
erefted in 1679 by Alexander Rigby, efq., then fherifFof
Lancafhire, to commemorate the valour and loyalty of fir
Thomas Tyldefley, who was flain on this fpot in 1651, in
the aftion wherein the earl of Derby was defeated by colonel
Lilburne.

In a field near Scholes-bridge, contiguous to this town,
a fpring was lately difcovered, wliich has obtained the name
of Wigan Spa, or New Harrowgate, as the water refembles
that of Harrowgate in Yorkfhire.

The population of Wigan, which has been progrelfively
increafing, was, in the year 1801, according to the return
to parliament, 10,989; the number of houfes, 2236. In
181 1, the former had increafed to 14,060, and the latter
to 2686.

The parifh of Wigan contains twelve townfhips, in three
of which, befides that in the town, are chapels of the efta-

blifhment,

I

WIG

bii(hment, fubordinate to the mother church. Three of
thefe townfhips, Haigh, Afpinall, and Hindley, are wortliy
of notice for the produftion of the fineft cannel or candle
coal, which is found in large blocks as black as jet, and will
bear a beautiful polifli. ( See Coal, Cannel. ) The Liver-
pool and Leeds canal, and the river Douglas, afford navi-
gable communication between this town and feveral other
towns. On an eminence in this town(hip, about a mile
north of Wigan, is Haigh-hall, the ancient feat of the
Bradfhaighs, a family of high antiquity and diftinftion, but
now extinift ; from whom it defcended by marriage to the
earl of Balcarras, who now relides here. This venerable
manfion was built at different periods ; the chapel is fup-
pofed to be coeval with the reign of Edward IL In the
vicinity of Wigan originally flood the ancient family man-
fion of the Marklands.

Four miles well of Wigan is the village of Holland, or
Up-Holland, whence the illuftrious but ill-fated family of
Holland derived their name.

About three miles north of Wigan is the village of
Blackrode, at which place the Rev. John Whitaker fixes
the Roman ftation, named Coccium. Mr. Percival and
Mr. Watfon both agree with Mr. Whitaker in placing
Coccium here ; but thefe opinions are fatisfaftorily refuted
by the hiftorian of Whalley, who contends that this ancient
flation was at Ribchefler — Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. ix. Lancafhire, by J. Britton, F.S.A.

WIGEON Penelope, Anas Penelope of Linna:us, in
Ornithology, is a well-known bird. (SeeDuCK. ) Its bill
is lead-coloured, and the end of it black ; the head, and
upper part of the neck, of a bright light bay ; the fore-
head paler, in fome almoll white ; the plumage of the back,
and (ides under the wings, are elegantly marked with narrow
black and white undulated lines ; the brealf is of a purplifh
hue, fometimes, thoiigh rarely, marked with round black
fpots ; the belly white ; and the vent-feathers black. In
fome birds the coverts of the wings are almofl wholly white ;
in others of a pale brown, edged with white ; the greater
quiU-feathers are duflcy ; the outmoil webs of the middle
feathers of a fine green, the tips black ; the laft are ele-
gantly ftriped with black and white ; the two middle fea-
thers of the tail are longer than the others, black, and fharp
pointed ; the refl afh-coloured ; the legs dufky.

The head of the female is of a rufly brown, fpotted with
black ; the back is of a deep brown, edged with a paler;
the tips of the leffer quill-feathers white ; the belly white,
Pennant.

WIGGER, in Geography, a river of Switzerland, which
runs into the Aar, 3 miles N.W. of Zoffingcn.
WIGHT, Isle of. See Isle of IVight.
Wight, IJle of, a county of Virginia, on the right fide
of James river, about 40 miles long and 1 5 broad, watered
by the Nanfemond. It contains 9186 inhabitants, includ-
ing 4041 flaves.

WIGLEN, a fmall ifland in the North fea, near the
coaft of Norway. N. lat. 65°.

WIGSTADT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 6 miles N.E. of Geyerfberg.

WIGSTADTEL, or Wakow, a town of Silefia, in
the principality of Troppau ; 10 miles S. of Troppau. N.
lat. 49° 38'. E. long. 17° 47'.

WIGTON, a town of Cumberland, England, ftands in
a fine dry open country ; and within the lafl thirty years has
been greatly increafed in population, from the introduftion
of manufaftures. In the year 1811 its inhabitants amounted
to 2977, who occupied 643 houfes.

WIG

The firft manufaftories eflablifhed here were for different
kinds of coarfe linens ; but fince the year 1785, this bufi-
nefs has received a confiderable check by the encouragement
given to the various branches of the cotton trade, which
flourifh in great vigour. In 1790 a manufaftory for print-
ing cahcoes was eltablifhed at Spittle, about a quarter of a
mile from the town, and feeins likely to become an im-
portant undertaking, as the goods are in high repute, and
the fituation extremely convenient for extending the works.
The prefent church was erefted in 1788 : its neatnefs is
eminently contrafled with the ancient fabric, which was a
dark gloomy flrufture, built, according to the Chronicon
Cumbriac, by Odoard de Logiz, to whom the barony was
given by Waldeof, fon of earl Gofpatrick. The materials
it was conftrufted with were procured from the Roman fla-
tion at Old Carlifle, as appears from the flones being marked
in a fimilar manner to thole that may yet be obtained there.
In removing the foundations of the old tower, two Roman
fepulchral iiifcriptions were difcovered. The ftreets are to-
lerably fpacious, and many of the buildings are handfome
and modern. In the year 1723, an hofpital was founded
here, under the will of the Rev. John Thomlinfon, A.M.
for fix indigent widows of Proteflant beneficed clergymen,
epifcopally ordained ; and incorporated by the name of
" The Governefs and Sifters of the College of Matrons, or
Hofpital of Chrift in Wigton." The endowment has been
augmented by fome fmall benefadlions : the allowance to
each widow is about eight pounds annually. A free-fchool
was alfo eftablilhed here in 1780; chiefly by the contribu-
tions of the inhabitants, aided by the benevolence of Dr.
Thomhnfoii's brother. In this town, obfcrves Mr. Gough,
was anciently an hofpital or free chapel, dedicated to St.
Leonard, to which, Mr. Pegge is of opinion, belongs a feal
found in Pickering-caftle, Yorkfhire : it is of wood, and
has the reprefentation of the Deity, with the crucifix, cir-
cumfcribed Sigillvm Wighton.

About one mile fouth from Wigton are the ruins of the
confiderable Roman flation, now called Old Carhfle, but
generally fuppofed to have been the Olenacum of the Noti-
tia, where the Ala Herculea were in garrifon. Velliges of
ancient buildings are very confpicuous ; the foundations of
numerous ruined edifices being fcattered over many acres,
as well within the vallum as on every fide, without excepting
to the weftward, where the ground defcends precipitoufly
to the brook Wifa. The ftation itfelf occupied an elevated
fcite, and commanded an extenfive view north and north-wefl.
Its form is an oblong fquare 170 paces in length and IIO
broad, with obtufe angles, defended by a double ditch and
vallum, and having an entrance near the middle of each
fide. The military way, on which it ilands, is very broad
and diftinft, and leads immediately to Carlifle and the Wall.
Within the vallum, a well was difcovered a few years ago,
about three feet in diameter, and regularly lined with ftones.
Various iiifcriptions, facrificing inllruments, coins, altars,
fmall images, ilatues on horfcback, urns, and other veftiges
of antiquity, have been found at this flation.

Several antiquities, difcovered near this place in the
courfe of the lail century, have been defcribed in different
volumes of the Gentleman's Magazine, particularly in thofe
for the years 1748, 1756, and 1757.

Clea-hall, a feat of fir Henry Fletcher, bart., whofe fa-
mily obtained it by an intermarriage with the female heir of
a branch of the Mufgraves, ftands on a cultivated fpot in
the midft of an elevated and dreary moor. — Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, vol. iv. Cumberland, by J. Britton and
E.W. Brayley.

3 I 2 WIGTOWN,

W I G

WIGTOWN, a royal borough, market-town, and the
capital of the {hire of the fame name, Scotland, is fituated
on the fide of a hill near the confluence of the river Blade-
nock, at the diftance of 105 miles S.W. by S. from Edin-
burgh. It is of very high antiquity, and appears to have
received its charter of incorporation from king Robert
Bruce. The civil government is vefted in a provoft, two
baillies, and twelve counfellors. Wigtown unites with the
boroughs of Whitehorn, New Galloway, and Stranraer, in
fending one member to the Briti(h parliament. The church
is in good repair. A well-fupplied market is held weekly,
and five fairs annually. Being the fhire-town, the Iheriffs'
courts are holden here. A grammar-fchool is eitabliflied,
and well conduaed. The parifh of Wigtown is in the form
of an oblong-fquare, extending five miles in length and four
in breadth, and comprehends about 5500 acres. The chmate
is cold, but remarknble for producing health and longevity.
A great diverfity prevails in the foil and furface : towards the
fouth it is interfperfed with hills, which are almoft entL>-eJy
arable, with a dry, light, and fertile mould ; the north-weft
corner is more varied and lefs productive ; and the north-
weft part is principally covered with mofs, and appears to
have been formerly an arm of the fea. The greater part is
inclofed ; and the fpirit of agricultural improvement is much
encouraged. Particular attention is paid to the repairs of
the roads and bridges. The population of the parifti, at
the enumeration of the year 181 1, amounted to 171 1. In
the weftern part of the parifh is a large circle of ftones,
called " The Standing Stones of Torhoufe," which is fup-
pofed to have been a temple of the Druids. — Beauties of
Scotland, vol. ii. Wigtownftiire. Gazetteer of Scotland,
1806. Carlide's Topographical Diftionary of Scotland,
2 vols. 4to. 18 13.

Wigtown Bay, a bay of the Irifh fea, on the S. coaft of
Scotland, at the mouth of the river Cree, between the
counties of Wigtown and Kircudbright.

WIGTOWNSHIRE, the weftern part of the diftriA
of Galloway, forms the fouth-weftern extremity of Scot-
land. It is bounded on the E. by Kircudbright, on the
S.E. by Wigtown bay, on the S. and W. by the Irifli
fea, and on the N. by Ayrfhire. It is of an irregular
figure, of which the greateft length is about thirty miles,
and the breadth nearly twelve. The fuperficial contents are
469 fquare miles, or 238,721 Scottifh acres. The {hire com-
prehends three royal boroughs, Wigtown, Stranraer, and
Whitehorn ; alfo the town of Portpatrick, and thirteen other
pariflies. By the pop\(4ation return of the year 181 1, the
number of houfes is ftaftd to be 5402 ; that of the inhabit-
ants 26,891 ; namely, I2,205males,and 14,686 females. The
(hire fends one member to the imperial parliament, and the
three boroughs unite to fend another. Wigtownftiire is one
of the moft level counties in Scotland ; and the hills are in
general free from projefting rocks, and very acceffible to
the plough. The navigation along the coaft is fo uninter-
rupted, that it may be regarded as one of the moft eligible
fituations in the ifland, in point of natural advantages, for
a trading diftrict. The richeft lands lie upon the coaft,
where the means of improvement are to be met with in the
greateft abundance : the inland and more elevated parts have
a confiderable mixture of heath and mofs, but are all in a
greater or lefs degree fufceptible of improvement. There
are few mountains in Wigtownftiire. The Cairnpat, near
Portpatrick, is one of the moft confiderable : it rifes 800
feet above the level of the fea. The fummit bears all the
marks of having been a military ftation, being furrounded
by three ftone walls, with very ample fpaces between them ;

WIG

and commands a profpeft of Loch-ryan, and Luce bay,
which by advancing inland form the peninfula, called the
Rhynns of Galloway, in which Portpatrick is fituated.

The rivers of this county are of no great importance.
The Cree forms part of its eaftern boundary. The next
ftream to the weftward is the Bladenoch, which rifes from a
lake called Loch Macbeary, fituated moftly between the two
parifties of Kirkowen and Penningham. There are feveral
fmall iflands in it ; upon the largeft of which are the remains
of a confiderable building and fmall garden. The river
Bladenoch, which has its fource in this lake, runs in a fouth-
eaftern direftion for about two-thirds of its length ; after
which it takes a more eafterly courfe, and empties itfelf into
the bay of Wigtown : its whole length is about twenty -four
miles. Tarff is a ftream which rifes in the preciniSs of
Ayrftiire, and after a courfe of twelve miles, in a fouth-
eafterly direftion, falls into the Bladenoch in the parifti of
Kirkowen. Luce-water is a fmall river, which runs into the
great bay of that name. Salmon are caught in it ; and it is
obferved that the flcin of the falmon, when it firft goes up
the river, which is deeply tinged with mofs, is of a filveuy
colour, but after remaining fome time, it becomes of a
brownifti-yellow.

Wigtownftiire has feveral frefti-water lakes, but none of
particular importance. In the parifti of Sorbie is one of
three miles in circumference, well ftored with pike, perch,
and eels. It is called Dowalton lake, becaufe the ancient
powerful chiefs, the Macdowals, had their refidence near it.
In the parifti of Ince are fifteen lakes, of different degrees
of extent, abounding with fifti of feveral kinds, and fre-
quented by a variety of water-fowls. Swans emigrate from
Ireland, particularly in fevere winters, and continue in thefe
lakes till fpring. The ftiire of Wigtown is deeply pene-
trated by navigable bays. Wigtown bay and Luce bay ad-
vance in a direftion nearly parallel far into the country to-
wards the north. At the fame time, from the northern part
of the county, the long and narrow bay called Loch-ryan
advances fouthward towards the bay of Luce, and peninfu-
lates an extenfive territory, which appears to have long re-
mained divided from the reft of Scotland. Loch-ryan is a
beautiful as well as a fafe and commodious bay for ftiipping.
It is about ten miles in length from north to fouth : the en-
trance into it is nearly two miles broad. It is bounded on
the eaft by the parifti of Balantrae, in Ayrftiire, and on the
weft by Millar Point, a headland in the parifti of Kirkholm.
About three or four miles from the mouth of the loch, on
the eaft fide, is the little village of Cairn ; contiguous to
which is a commodious bay with good anchoring ground,
and depth of water fufficient for ftiips of any burthen ; and
all veftels entering into or coming out of the frith of Clyde
feek this bay in ftormy weather. King Wilham's fleet an-
chored here in their paflage to Ireland. Befides the Cairn
bay, there are feveral other good anchoring bays in the loch.
Luce bay, which advances from the fouth towards Loch-
ryan, is far more extenfive. In dark and hazy weather,
veftels often miftake Luce bay for the Irifti channel, and
when keeping a northerly courfe, fometimes run on ftiore,
before the error is difcovered. The bay of Luce contains
a great variety of lefler bay?, fome of which are capable of
being converted into convenient harbours ; and mariners ac-
quainted with them find anchoring places, in which they are
in fafety from almoft every wind. The coaft around the
bay of Luce is very various : in fome places it confifts of a
fine gravel beach ; at other points fteep rocks project into the
fea, forming a bold inacceflible ftiore. The moft fouthern
point of the coaft, or rather of Scotland, is called the Mull

of

I

WIG

oF Galloway : in the wellern fide of it rifes a very elevated
coaft : it is about the extent of a mile, and projefts itfelf
as the boundary between the Irifh fea and the bay of Luce.
In a high vifefterly wind a prodigious fwell of fea rolls round
the point, and is then awfully grand. Here the fea has
formed caverns, which are rendered dreadful by a fetting-in
tide and a ftrong wefterly wind. The noife is like loud
claps of thunder. Ships pafs and repafs this point from
England, Ireland, and the weft of Scotland.

Though the agriculture of this county is yet but in an in-
ferior ftate, great exertions are making to bring the foil
under the bell management of which it is capable. Still,
however, the defefts of the foil, added to the imperfeft
ftate of the hufbandry which has hitherto exifted, greatly
deprefs the value of the territory. The earl of Stair's
eftate is faid to extend to about 55,000 acres, but produces
an annual rental of no more than 11,000/. fterhng. There
are in this county great trafts of flow mofs, of that foft
confiftence which renders it almoft inacceflible, and of no
utility either for agriculture or paiturage. Little hopes are
yet entertained of the prafticability ol improving this fort
of territory. But it is confidently afferted, that an immenfe
field of mofs of this defcription below Newton Douglas
might by proper management be floated into the fea, leav-
ing fome thoufand acres of rich clay behind. The great
trunks of trees that are found in the mofles of this county,
afiford full proof of its having been formerly covered with
wood. The renewal of the forefts, however, proves a very
arduous tafl< ; and in certain expofures on the coaft has re-
peatedly baffled the hopes of the moft ingenious and atten-
tive planters. Wood, corn, and potatoes, in thisexpofure, are
more or lefs injured, according to their vicinity to the fea ;
whereas, when protefted from it, they are found to grow
with their ufual vigour. Shelter, therefore, either natural
or artificial, muft be had on this coaft before wood can be
planted with any chance of fuccefs. Scottifli firs, which
ierve to nurfe up plantations in many other parts of the
country, are unfortunately found to thrive worfe here than
any other fpecies of wood. Under this difficulty, the earl
of Galloway fortunately difcovered the valuable proper-
ties of the pinafter, or maritime pine, which he obferved to
grow with a degree of luxuriancy fuperior to any other in
his plantations. He has fince increafed the propagation of
that tree, and now finds that under its proteftion, almoft
any other wood may be planted with fuccefs. Attempts are
making to introduce dairy-farms into this county, for the
purpofe of fupplanting the univerfal pradlice of breeding
cattle. One farmer, upon this plan, has no lefs than eighty
milking cows : he ufes his whole milk in the manufafture of
cheefe, which he exports to the Clyde. A remarkable
breed of fmall white-faced flieep, peculiar to the coaft of
this county, deferves notice. It is called the Mochrum
breed. Thefe are faid to be of Spanifti extraftion, an idea
the more readily adopted, from the quahty of their wool,
which is of the fine clothing fort, of a texture fuperior to
moft in Scotland, and but little inferior to real Spanifh.
This breed, wliich is at prefent of an under fize, is well-
fhaped, hardy, and found by proper attention to improve
much, both ni weight of carcafe and wool.

The mineral produftions of the county are but few : the
parifti of Kirkmaiden, which forms the fouthcrn part of
the peninfula that bounds the bay of Luce on the weft,
contains valuable quarries of flate, of which confiderable
quantities are wrought and fent to market. Here are feve-
ral natural caverns, in one of which is a petrifying water,
dropping from the roof. In the parifti of Inch, fituatcd

W I L

upon Loch-ryan, are feveral mineral fprings : one, with a
fulphurous impregnation, has been found ufeful in ftomachic
and fcorbutic complaints. There is alfo a chalybeate fpring.
Some appearances of coal have been thought to exift here •
but that valuable mineral has hitherto been fought in vain.
In this quarter, towards Ayrfliire, is a bold rocky (hore,
containing feveral natural excavations or caverns, extending
eighty or an hundred yards under ground. The parifti of
Whitehorn, in the fouth-eaftern part of the county, pro-
duces very fine variegated marble, and alfo flate of a ftrong
quality. The chief natural defeft incidental to this county
is the want of coal, a defcft common to it with almoft the
whole of the fouthern border of Scotland. Was it not for
this check to the eftabliftiment of manufaftures, it might be
likely to atTume fome fliare of commercial importance.
Though of fmall extent, it has an ample fea-coaft, which af-
fords great facility for exporting the produce of its agricul-
ture and dairies. This facility is fo great, that the inhabit-
ants of Wigtownfliire are fometimes in dread of fcarcity, in
confequence of the greater part of their produce being car-
ried to Glafgow, Paifley, or Liverpool, where a market is
always to be obtained. — Beauties of Scotland, vol. ii. Wig.
townftiire, 1805. Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806.

WIG WORM Point, a cape on the coaft of Patagonia,
in the ftraits of Magellan ; 3 miles N.E. of Cape Pro-
vidence.

WIHACS, or WiHATS. See Bihacs.

WIHENAIS, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Savolax ; 40 miles N. of Chriftina.

WIHR, or Weyer, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine ; 6 miles W. of Colmar.

WIHRBACH, a river of France, which runs into the
Rhine, 7 miles above Germerflieim.

WIKES, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify temporary
boundaries or marks, fet up in order to divide the fwaths
to be mown ; fuch as the boughs of trees, in the common
fields and meadows in different diftrifts ; as well as fuch
boughs when fet upon hay-cocks and ifouks of corn for the
taking of tithes, and other fuch purpofes.

WIKINISH Creek, in Geography, a river of Pennfyl-
vania, which runs into the Sufquehanna, N. lat. 40° 32'.
W. long. 77° i'.

WILAUF, a river of Wurtemberg, which runs into the
Rems, near Schorndorf.

WILBASSEN, or WiLBADESSEN, a town of Weft-
phalia, in the biftiopric of Paderborn ; 8 miles S.E. of
Dringenberg.

WILBRAHAM, a townfhip of MafFachufetts, in the
county of Hampftiire, with 1776 inhabitants ; 10 miles E.
of Springfield.

WILBURG, a citadel of Auftria ; 8 miles E.S.E. of
Ips.

WILBYE, John, in Biography, one of our beft madri-
galifts of queen Elizabeth's reign. In his firft fet, the fol-
lowing are well-known : " Lady, when I behold the rofes
fprouting ;" and " Flora gave me faireft flowers :" but,
" Hard by a cryftal fountain," which, according to Hearne,
(Lib. Nig. Scacc. ) ufed annually tobefung by the fellows
of New college, Oxon, we are unable to find. Thofe
words are adjufted to the mufic of Giov. Croce, in the
fecond book of Mufica Tranfalpina, and are fet by Morley
in the Triumphs of Oriana ; but appear not either in the
firft or fecond fet of Madrigals publiflied by Wilbye, and
we know of no other.

WILD Alben, in Geography, a mountain of the duchy
of Stiria; 7 miles N.N.W. of Muertzcnfchlag.

' ' Wild

W I L

W I L

Wild Angelica, Bq/il, Briar, Campion, Carlint Thijlh,
Carrot, Chervil, Cijily, Climber, Lettuce, Liquorice, Madder,
Marjoram, Melic, Mint, Majlard, Oat, Radijli, Rape,
Rocket, Tare, Thyme, and Vine, in Agriculture. See
Weed.

WiLB-Fire, or Erjjipelas, a difeafe in fheep, which afFefts
the flcin, and which, if not well attended to, is liable to
fpread very quickly among the flock. It is attended with
confiderable inflammation in many cafes, though but feldom
with bhfters over the body. It commonly takes place
towards the latter end of fummer, and does not continue
more than eight days at a time, although fuch (heep as are
once afFefted with it are very liable to have it again. It
was formerly a praftice with fliepherds to bury the fheep
that were affefted with this difeafe in the ground at the
door of the fold, with their feet upwards, which, they
believed, afted as a charm to drive it from the flock. But
this folly is now done away with.

In the cure of this affeftion of the (Icin, recourfe may be
had to evacuations from the bowels by the ufe of calomel,
or purging-falts, diffolved in warm water, for three or four
days ; then fulphur with nitre may be given in pretty full
dofes, cooling wafhes being ufed at the fame time. Strength-
ening remedies (hould afterwards be employed, fuch as oak,
or other barks of the fame nature. During the cure,
the (heep fliould be kept from being too much expofed
to cold, and in a dry found pafture, being well fed when
neceffary.

WiLD-Fire, Ignis Gregalis, or Grxcus. See IVild-TlRE.

WlLD-Fire Arrows, luch as were trimmed with wild-fire,
and (hot burning, to ftick in the fails or rigging of (hips in
a fight. See YlK^-Arrotv.

VfiLD-Foiul. See fVater-TovFL, and Decoy.

WiLD-Goofe, Anas Anfer. See DuCK.

WlLD-Go<j/i Chace. See Chace.

'WiLO-Honey. See Honey.

WiLTi-Land, Reclaiming of, in Agriculture. See Re-
claiming Lands.

WiLn-Olive. See 'Elmaguvs.

Wild Service-Tree, in Agriculture and Gardening, a deci-
duous tree of confiderable growth, which is much cultivated
in the field and pleafure-ground. It has been obferved,
that this tree is fometimes planted in orchard-grounds
among fruit-trees, but that it (hould be put in pleafure-
grounds, plantations, or on lawns, for its ornamental effeft
in the autumnal feafon.

If trained up with fl^raight clean ftems, fervice-trees
will grow to the height of thirty or forty feet ; in that
cafe, they (hould be planted among foreft-trees, or in the
back parts of large (hrubberies. But thofe who wifh to
plant them as flowering flirubs muft head them down when
young, to make them throw out horizontal (hoots ; they
nay then be planted among the middling-fized (hrubs,
which will make a beautiful variety, both when in flower,
and when bearing fruit. Thefe trees grow to a con-
fiderable fize when properly managed, and are very much
ufed by wheelers and others, on account of the wood
being all, what they call, heart-wood.

The fruit has been found excellent for feeding game, and
other forts of birds and fowls.

WILDAU, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Stiria, on the weft fide of the Muehr ; 12 miles S. of
Gratz.

WILDBAD, a town of Wurtembcrg, celebrated for
its warm-baths ; 30 miles N.E. of Stra(burg. N. lat. 48°
40'. E. long. 8° 26',

WILDBERG, a town of Wurtemberg, on the Nagold ;
3 miles N. of Nagold. N. lat. 48° 33'. E. long. 8° 48'.—
Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Oberland ; 1 2
miles S. of Ortelfburg.

WiLDBERG, or IVildbergen, a town of the Middle Mark
of Brandenburg; 28 miles N. of Brandenburg. N. lat.
52° 55'. E.long. 12° 38'.

WILDE, James, in Biography, a Swedi(h liiftorian,
was born in Courland in 1679, and educated at Riga ; and
having quitted that city in 1695, he fought farther im-
provement in feveral German academies, graduating M.A.
at Griefswald. At the age of 21, fuch was his proficiency
in various branches of literature, he was appointed co-reftor
of the cathedral fchool at Riga, and foon after teacher of
poUtics, hiilory, and eloquence, in the royal gymnafium of
that place. Qualified by his talents and acquirements for a
higher rank in the department of inftruftion, he was invited,
in 1703, to be profe(ror of hiftory in the academy of Pernau ;
but declining this office, he was, in the following year,
nominated by Charles XII. to fill the chair of Latin elo-
quence and poetry, which he occupied for five years.
During his flay at Aix-la-Chapelle, which he vifited in
1 709 for the recovery of his health, the Ruffians made an
irruption into Livonia, and he loll his library, with all his
documents and papers. From hence, inftead of returning
to his native country, he proceeded to Stockholm, and
offered his fervices to the fenate. Such were the exifting
troubles at that time, that it was not till the year 17 13
that government appointed him to be profefTor of eloquence
and poetry at Griefswald. But he preferred a humble and
more private fituation as tutor to the two fons of count
Cronhielm, with whom he made a tour to England, Hol-
land, France, and Germany. Purfuing a fimilar tour with
a young Holftein count, and becoming acquainted with
the duke of Holftein, he was appointed his cabinet-fecre-
tary, in conneftion with the profe(ror{hip of the law of
nature and nations at Kiel. And in the fame year king
Frederick made him hiftoriographer to the kingdom ; on which
office he entered at Stockholm in November 1719. His
works were numerous and learned ; but his conftitution was
feeble, fo that he funk under his labours, and died in 1755.
Although he was more than thirty years old when he went
to Sweden, he obtained a thorough acquaintance with the
Swediflt hiftory : he was alfo well acquainted with the
public law of Germany ; and in his earlier years he had
raifed himfelf by writing Latin poetry. He was alfo a
good philofopher, and a theologian, and often preached.
His memory was fingularly retentive ; and this ferved him
in various works which he compofed after having loft his
fight in 1 741. Many of his works were loft at the capture
of Pernau. During his tour with the fons of count Cron-
hielm, he publifhed at Frankfort, in 1717, " Diatriba de
Jure at Judice Legatorum a Stephano CafGo ;" " Suecias
Hiftoria Pragmatica, quae vulgo jus publicum dicitur, &c."
Holm. 1731, 4to. ; "The Foundation, Nature, Origin,
and Antiquity of the Swedi(h Laws, with an Account of
the Changes and Alterations which have been made in them,"
ibid. 1736, 4to. ; " PufFendorf's Introduftion to the Hif-
tory of Sweden, with Additions, Proofs, and Notes," by J.
Wilde; "I. Pjrt," ibid. 1738, 4to. ; " II. Part," ibid.
1743, 4to. ; " Preparatio hodegetica ad Introduftionem
PulFendorfii in Svethici flatus Hifloriam, &c." ibid. 1743>
4to. Gen. Biog.

Wilde, in Geography, a river of Pruffian Lithuania,
which runs into the Ruffe.

WILDE-

W I L

WILDEBERG, a town of Pomerelia ; 2 miles S. of
Maricnburcr.

WILDEMAN, atown of Weflphalia, in the principality
of Grubenhagen, near which are feme mines of filver and
lead ; 6 miles S.W. of Goflar.

WILDENBERG, or Wildenborg, a town of the
dtichy of Berg ; 10 miles E. of Homberg.

WiLDENBF.RG, a town and caftle of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhine and Mofelle ; 10 miles W. of Kirn.

WILDENBRUCH, a town of Hinder Pomerania ; 5
miles S. of Balm.

WILDENECK, a town of the duchy of Carniola ; 10
miles S.E. of Stein.

WILDENFELS, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgcbirg ; 5 miles S.E. of Zwickau. — Alfo, a citadel in
the territory of Nuremberg ; 3 miles W.S.W. of Bezen-
ftein.

WILDENFURT, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Neulladt ; 2 miles N.N.E. of Weyda.

WILDENHOF, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen ; 23
miles S. of Brandenburg.

WILDENS, John, in Biography, was born at Antwerp
in 1584. He became an admired painter of landfcapes,
but under whom he acquired the art is unknown. He ap-
pears to have been a diligent obferver of nature, and to have
tludied much in the open air ; as his ftudies of forefts, fields,
&c. are numerous. When he had obtained confiderable
reputation, his talents introduced him to the notice of
Rubens, who employed him to aflift in executing the land-
fcape parts of back-grounds, which he did with fo great
felicity, that there appears no diffimilarity in ftyles in the
pictures on which tliey both took their refpeftive parts.
Two of his beft pitlures are in the chapel of St. Jofeph at
Antwerp, embellifhed with figures by Lang Jan : the fub-
jeft of one is the Flight into Egypt, and of the other a
repofo. He died in 1644, aged 60.

WILDENSCHWERT, in Geography, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Chnidim ; 9 miles E. of Ho-
henmaut.

WILDENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the mar-
gravate of Anfpach ; 7 miles S.E. of Creilfheim.

WILDENTHAL, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 7 miles S.S.W. of Schwartzenberg.

WILDERNESS, in Gardening. There is nothing fo
great an ornament to a large garden as a wildernefs, when
properly contrived, and judicioufly planted.

The wildernefs fhould always be proportioned to the fize
of the garden, and fhould never be fituated too near the
houfe : becaufe the trees perfpire fo large a quantity of
watery vapours, as makes the air very unwholefome :
though vegetables ferve, as modern experiments have fuf-
ficiently afcertained, to purify and meliorate the air. See
Air.

The wildernefs (hould never be fo placed as to block up
a good profpetl ; but where the view naturally ends with
the verge of the garden, or little more, nothing terminates
it fo well as a fine plantation of trees. The fize of the trees
fhould be confidered, and tall growing ones fliould be
planted in larger places ; fmaller, in lefs extenfive ; ever-
greens alio fhould be kept by themfelves, and placed mod
in fight, not mingled co.ifufedly among the trees which call
their leaves. The walks (hould be large and not numerous ;
the large walk is bell made fcrpentine, and this (hould not
be entered upon in the grand walks of the garden, but by
fome private walk.

It is too common a method to difpofe the trees in wil-
derneffes, in form of regular fquares, trianglea, &c. but this

W I L

is faulty ; for as nature fhould be ftudied in thefe works of
fancy, the mofl irregular is the moft pleafing plantation.
The walks for the fame reafon are much more pleafing
when they run in wild meanders, than when they interfeft
one another in ftudied and regular angles. The winding
walks ihould be made to lead to an open circular piece of
grafs, with a ftatue, an obeliflc, or a fountain : or, if an
opening large enough for a banqueting-houfe be contrived
in the middle, it will afford a very pleafing fcene. The
trees fhould gradually rife from the fides of the walks and
openings, one above another, to the middle of the quarters,
where the largeft trees fhould fland, by which means the
heads of all the trees will appear in view, but their ftems
will not appear in fight.

Not only the growth of trees is to be confidered in the
planting of a wildernefs, but their nakedneffes are to be
confidered and hid. The larger growing trees are allowed
a proportionable diftance, and their Hems hid by honey-
fuckles, rofes, fpirsas, and other low-flowering fhrubs.
Thefe may alfo be planted next all the walks and openings :
and at the foot of thefe, near the walks, may be fet rows of
primrofes, violets, and daffodils, with other the like flowers;
behind the firft rank of lower flowering fhrubs fhould be
planted thofe of a fomewhat higher ftature, as the althita-
frutlces, the cytifufes and guelder-rofes ; and behind thefe
may be rows of the talleft flowering fiirubs, as the lilacs,
laburnums, and the like ; and behind thefe, the heads only
of the lower growing trees will appear, which fhould be
backed gradually with thofe of higher growth to the centre
of the quarter ; from whence the heads of the trees fliould
defcend every way to the walks, or openings. The grand
walks and openings fhould always be laid with turf, and
kept well mowed ; but, befide thefe, there ought to be
fmaller ferpentine walks through the feveral quarters, where
perfons may retire for privacy ; thefe fhould be left
with the bare earth, only kept clear of weeds, and laid,
fmooth.

Thefe walks fhould be made as winding as poflible, and
a few wood-flowers planted along their fides will have a
very good effeft. The ever-greens fliould be allotted a
pecuhar part of the wildernefs, and fuch as fronts the houfe ;
and in the planting of thefe, the fame regard is to be had to
their growth, that the talleft trees be planted hindmoft, and
their items hid by fhorter ones, and fo on, down to the
verge : as in the firft row may be planted lauruftines, boxes,
fpurge, laurels, junipers, and favins ; behind thefe, laurels,
hollies, and arbutufes ; next behind thefe, yews, alaternuffes,
phillereys, cyprefles, and Virginian cedars ; behind thefe,
Norway and filver firs, and the true pine ; and finally, be-
hind thefe, the Scotch pine and pinafter. Thefe will have
a very beautiful appearance, as their tops will only be feen,
and make a fheet of green, which may alfo be very beauti-
fully varied, from the artful admixtures of the feveral fhades
of green which the various plants have.

In all thefe plantation;-, the trees, however, fhould not be
fet in formal ftiff rows, but in a loofe variety, proportioned
to their manner of growth. Miller.

WILDERSDORF, in Geography, a town of Auftria,
on the Zeya ; 8 miles W.S.W. of Zifterftorf.

WILDESHAUSEN, a town of Weftphalia, with a
diftrift formerly belonging to the archbifhopric and duchy
of Bremen, and afterwards to the duchy of Brnnfwick, in
which it is infulated. It is fituated on the Hante, and
contains about 312 houfes. The inhabitants are partly
Roman Catholics ; in the baihwick are 30 villa'fcs ; 20
miles S.S.W. of Bremen, N. lat. 52° 52'. E. long.

WILDING,

W I L

WILDING, in Rural Economy, a four auftere fort of
apple, often ufed with others that correft thefe qualities,
for making home cyder. See Cyder.

Wilding, Royal, an excellent cyder-apple. It is faid, m
the Gloucefter Report on Agriculture, to be a native of
Dimock ; that it is a free, clean, and handfome grower ;
makes excellent cyder, is a great favourite among the
planters in the upper part of the foreft-diftrift of that
county, and is much introduced in the vale, on the eaft fide
of the Severn. See Cyder.

WILDS, a term ufed by our farmers to exprefs that
part of a plough by which the whole is drawn forwards.

The wilds are of iron, and are of the form of a gallows,
■whence they are by fome called the gallows of the plough,
but improperly ; the gallows of the plough being properly
that part formed by the crow-ftaves, and the tranfverfe piece
into which they are mortifed at the top. The wilds confift
of two legs, and a tranfverfe top-piece : one of the legs, and
the top-piece, are all of one piece of iron ; and the other leg,
which is loofe, has a hole in the top, into which the end of
the tranfverfe piece is received : both thefe legs pafs through
the box of the plough, which is that tranfverfe timber
through which the fpindles of the wheels run. Thefe legs
are pinned in behind the box with iron pins : the holes
through the box at which thefe legs pafs, are not made at
right angles, but (lanting upwards, fo that the forepart of
the wilds is higher than the hinder part ; were it not for
this, the upper part of the crow-ftaves would lean quite
back when the plough is drawn.

The ufe of the notches in the wilds is to give the plough
a broader or narrower furrow ; if the links are moved to
the notches on the right-hand, it brings the wheels toward
the left, which gives the greater furrow ; and, on the con-
trary, a fmaller furrow is made when the links are moved to
the notches on the left. The legs of the wilds ihould be
nineteen inches, and their diftance eight inches and a half ;
they muft be made ftrong, and the links muft be placed in
different notches, that the front of the plough may be kept
fteady, and the wheels not be drawn one before the other.
Thefe links are of iron alfo, and are each fix inches and a
half long, and to thefe are fattened the chains of the harnefs,
by which the whole plough is drawn along.

WILDSAUBACH, in Geography, a river of Germany,
which runs into the Elbe, 6 miles below Drefden.

WILD SEE, a lake of the duchy of Stiria ; 8 miles E.
of Neumarck.

WILDSHUT, a town and caftle of Bavaria ; 5 miles
N.N.W. of Lauffen.

WILDSTADT. See Willstadt.

WILDUNGEN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Waldeck; 7 miles S.S.E. of Waldeck. N. lat. ji°7'.
£. long. 9° 8'.

WILEHENGEN, a town of Switzerland ; 9 miles W.
of Schaffhaufen.

WILEIA, a town of Samogitia, on the Niemen ; 25
miles S.S.E. of Rofienne.

WILF, in Agriculture, a term ufed provincially to fignify
the white willow. See Willow.

WILFERSDORF, in Geography, a town of Auftria ;
4 miles W. of Brugg.

WILHELMSDORF, a town of Pruflla, in Oberland ;
13 miles S. of Holland.

WILHELMSHOF, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Anhalt Bernburg, near Hartzgerode.

WILHELMSPURG, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles S.
of St. Polten.

W I L

WILHELMSTEIN, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Roer ; 7 miles S. W. of Juliers.

WILHELMSTHAL, or Neustadtel, a mine-town
of Silefia, in the principahty of Glatz ; 15 miles S.E. of
Glatz. N. lat. 50° 3'. E. long. 16^42'.

WILIA, a river of Lithuania, which runs into the
Niemen, near Kowno, in the palatinate of Troki.

WILINGO, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Schonen ; 7 miles N. of Helfingborg.

WILITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim ;
5 miles N.N.W. of Kaurzim.

WILKES, John, in Biography, was born in London in
1727, and finiflied his ftudies at the univerfity of Leyden.
Soon a.fter his return to England, h'e married a Mifs Mead,
who was a lady of large fortune, and fettled at Aylefbury.
This lady, "though highly refpeftable both in her charafter
and connections, and belonging to a diffenting family as well
as himfelf, was older than he, and in other refpefts an un-
fuitable wife, fo that the attachment was originally formed,
on his part, from lucrative motives : one daughter was the
fruit of this conneftion. Mr. Wilkes, thus furnifhed with
the means of profufion, lived in an expenfive ftyle, and being
little anxious about domeftic happinefs, aftbciated with the
gay and licentious, to whofe habits and manners his princi-
ples and charafter were facrificed. Urged by his partial
friends who thought him qualified for public life, he offered
himfelf, in 1754, as a candidate for the town of Berwick,
but his views were difappointfed. In this and in feveral
other inftances, he counterafted the inclinations and wifhes
of his wife, fo that their continued conneftion was a fource
of difquietude, and they determined to feparate. In 1757
he was returned as a member for the borough of Ayleftjury,
the confequence of which was an increafe of expenditure,
that involved him in pecuniary embarraffments, and led him
to difhonourable praftices, and particularly to an attempt of
freeing himfelf from the obligation of paying his wife's an-
nuity, in which he failed of fuccefs. His parliamentary
patron was earl Temple, by whofe influence he was chofen
reprefentative for Aylefbury ; and from whofe intereft he
expefted to obtain fome place under government, which the
perplexity of his circumftances rendered particularly de-
firable. But he was once and again difappointed ; and he
afcribed his failure to the interference of lord Bute. In

1762 he connefted himfelf, as a pohtical writer, with lord
Temple and Mr. Pitt, and defended them, whilft he expofed
the miniftry, on occafion of the rupture with Spain, in a pam-
phlet entitled " Obfervations on the Papers relative to the
Rupture with Spain." This publication was followed in

1763 by an ironical dedication to lord Bute, of Ben
Jonfon's " Fall of Mortimer," in which he indulged unre-
ftrained levity againft the " favourite," as he was called,
and his antipathy to the Scottifh nation ; which was further
manifefted in a periodical paper called " the North Briton,"
commenced in 1762, and intended to counteraft "the
Briton," which Smollet condufted in defence of lord Bute's
adminiftration. The North Briton, however, was written
with a fpirit fo confonant to the fentiments of the public at
that period, that it probably contributed to the refignation
of that nobleman in April 1 763. The 45th number of this
periodical work was pubhfhed on the 23d of April, and
contained fo fevere and farcaftic a comment on the king's
fpeech, that his minifters, under the fanftion of the crown-
lawyers, determined upon a profecution : and the home fe-
cretary of flate, lord Halifax, iffued a " general warrant ;"
I. e. a warrant, in which no particular names were fpecified,
for the apprehenfion of the authors, printers, and pubh/hers
of that paper. As foon as it was difcovered that Wilkes

10 hzA

W I L

had given orders for the printing, he was taken into cuf-
tody, and brought before the two fecretaries of ftate.
Perfedly felf-poffefTed, and avowing the illegaUty of his
arreft, he refiifcd to anfwer any interrogatories ; and a
habeas corpus which had been fued out for him being evaded,
he was clofely confined in the Tower. However, he was
foon after brought by habeas corpus before the court of
common pleas, when lord chief juftice Pratt declared the
opinion of that court againft the legality of his commitment,
fo that he was difcharged amidft the acclamations of the
audience and of the populace. In the courfe of thefe pro-
ceedings he was deprived of his commiflion as colonel, by
the king's order ; and his patron, lord Temple, loft his poll
of lord-lieutenant of the county. This nobleman, at his
own expence, availed himfelf of the legal decifion againft
general warrants, and commenced aftions againft the king's
meflengers, the fecretaries, the under fecretary, and the foli-
citor of the treafury ; in all which the profecutors obtained
damages, which were paid by the crown, in confequence of
an exprefs order of council. Thus the doftrine of the ille-
gaUty of fuch warrants was eftabliflied, and for this acceffion to
the caufe of liberty the public were indebted to John Wilkes,
lord Temple, and lord chief juftice Pratt, afterwards lord
Camden. Wilkes, not fatisfied with this triumph, pro-
ceeded, againft the advice of friends, to fet up a prefs in his
own houfe, and to reprint the North Briton ; for which he
was again profecuted to conviftion. Having withdrawn to
France in 1763, he was expelled from the houfe of com-
mons, becaufe he did not appe.ir to anfwer the charges that
were produced againft him. The next attack that was di-
refted againft him was occafioned by his printing an indecent
and profane piece, caUed " Eflay on Woman," and faid to
have been written by Mr. Potter, fon of the archbifhop of
the fame name ; and as fome fcandalous reflexions on a
bifhop were introduced in this piece, complaint of breach of
privilege was made in the houfe of lords ; and on a profecu-
tion, he was found guilty of both the crimes of blafphemy
and hbel. By his continued abfence, he incurred the penalty
of outlawry. Upon a change of miniftry he returned to
England, and delivered himfelf to cuftody ; and confiding
in his popularity, he offered himfelf as a candidate to repre-
fent the city of London ; but faihng in this objedl, he was
immediately ele<fted for the county of Middlefex. Al-
though his fentence of outlawry was reverfed as illegal, he
was condemned for his two libels to an imprifonment of 22
months, and a fine of 1000/. In 1769 he was charged with
being the author of a pamphlet relating to the riots, occa-
fioned by his imprifonment, and expelled from the houfe ;
and being immediately re-elefted, he was declared incapable
of a feat in the houfe during the exifting parliament. He
now became popular as the martyr of liberty, and large fums
were coUefted towards the payment of his debts. He was
again re-elefted, and his eleition was declared void. At the
next eledlion, the court-candidate, colonel Luttrel, whofe
votes were about a fourth of thofe of Mr. Wilkes, was de-
clared the fitting member. This meafure caufed diftatis-
faftion and complaint through the country, and produced
petitions for the diffolution of parliament. Wilkes, though
Jxcluded from parliament, was chofen an alderman of the
:ity of London ; and in the exercife of his office as a magif-
:rate, he refifted with liis ufual fpirit exaftions of authority
vhich he confidered as illegal ; and aftually liberated one of
:he printers of newfpapers in which the fpeeches of mem-
bers of parliament were detailed, and who had been arrefted
3y royal proclamation. Two others were releafed by lord
nayor Crolby and alderman OHver, who being members
l)f the houfe were committed to the Tower. Wilkes
Vol. XXXVIII.

W I L

was ordered to attend at the bar of the houfe ; but in a
letter to the fpeaker, he objefted, that in the order for at-
tendance, no notice was taken of his being a member of the
houfe, and his attendance in his place had not been defired,
which forms, he faid, were eflential : he alfo demanded his
feat, and then he would give a full account and jullification
of his conduft. The houfe, fenfible of the difficulty to
which it had fubjefted itfelf, faved its authority by adjourn-
ing for the day on which Wilkes was ordered to attend. In
1772 Wilkes was chofen one of the fheriffs for London and
Middlefex, and in 1774 lord mayor of London. Having
condufted himfelf with propriety and reputation in his pub-
lic offices, he was re-eletled in 1776 a reprefentative for
the county of Middlefex ; and was allowed to take his feat
without oppofition. In parliament, he oppofed the meafures
that occafioned the American war ; and on the acceffion of
the Rockingham adminiftration, he carried his motion for
refcinding the decifion of the houfe of commons, which gave
Luttrel a feat by a minority of votes. In 1779 he fuc-
ceeded in his application for the office of chamberlain in the
city of London, and retained it during the remainder of his
life. Tired of political conflifts, the latter years of his life
paffi^d off without much notice, fo that, to adopt his own
expreffion, he was an " extinguifhed volcano ;" and he ex-
pired at the houfe of his daughter in 1797, in the 73d year
of his age. His private hiftory affords no memorial that is
either amufing or inftruftive. The early errors of his con-
duft caft a ftiade over his charafter. His literary talents
and attainments, devoted as he was to pleafure, and engaged
in bufinefs, never attrafted much notice ; though as a com-
panion he knew how to render himfelf agreeable. Although
his patriotifm might poffibly originate in difappointed views
and expeAations, he was confiftent and fteady in maiijtaining
the caufe to which he was attached ; and he was, either
intentionally or incidentally, and by an intrepidity and felf-
poffeffion which he polfelfed in an eminent degree, the in-
ftrument of gaining fome important advantages to pubhc
and private liberty. Aim. Mem. of Wilkes. Ann. Reg.
Gen. Biog.

Wilkes, in Geography, a town of Ohio, in- GaUia county,
with 187 inhabitants Alfo, a county of the ftate of Geor-
gia, bordering on South Carolina, containing 7066 inhabit-
ants. Tobacco is the chief produce, of which 3000 hogfheads
were exported in 1788. — Alfo, a county in the N.W.
corner of North Carohna, with 7247 inhabitants, including
790 flaves. — Alfo, a town of North Carolina ; jo miles W.
of Salem.

WILKESBARRE, formerly Wyoming, called alfo
Wilkejburg, a town of Pennfylvania, and chief town of Lu-
zerne county ; fituated on a plain, bounded on one fide by
the Sufquehanna, and on the other by a range of mountains,
and containing about i jo wooden dwelling-houfes, a church,
court-houfe, and gaol, with 1225 inhabitants. A dreadful
maflacre was committed in this place, during the American
war, by the Indians under the command of colonel Butler,
which is recorded in moft hiftoriesof that war, and which will
everremain a blot on the Englifh annals. Several of the houfes,
to which the unfortunate viftims retired to defend them-
felves on being refuted quarter, are ftill Handing, perfo-
rated in every part with balls ; the remains of others that
were fet on fire are alfo ftill to be feen, nor will the inha-
bitants on any account fuffer them to be repaired. N. lat.
45° 13'. W. long. 75'' 50'. Weld's Travels, vol. ii.

WILKINS, David, in Biography, a learned antiquary,

was born in 1685, and in early life more than once made the

tour of Europe, acquiring a knowledge of moft modern

languages. In 1715 he was appointed by archbifhop Wake

3 K keeper

W I L

keeper of the Lambeth library, of which he made a cata-
logue, and for his three years' labour in this way he was re-
corapenfed with feveral preferments, fuch as the reftories of
Hadley and Monk's Ely, the archdeaconry of Suffolk, and
a canonry of Canterbury. Among his principal publica-
tions we may reckon " Novum Teftamentum Copticum,"
Oxon, 1716, 4to.; an edition of " Leges Saxonica; eccle-
fiafticx et civiles," with many valuable additions, 1721, fol.;
" Joannis Seldeni Opera omnia," 1726, 3 vols, fol.; " Pen-
Uteuchus Copticus," 1731, 4to.; " Conciha Magns Bri-
tannise," 4 vols. fol. 1736 ; and a learned preface to bifhop
Tanner's " Britannico-Hibernica." He married the eldett.
daughter of Thomas, lord Fairfax, fettled in Scotland, and
died in 1745, in his 60th year. Nichols's Lit. Anecd.
Gen. Biog.

WiLKiNS, John, D.D., an Englifh prelate, was born
near Daventry, in Northamptonfhire, in 1624, and finifhed
his education at Magdalen-hall, Oxford, where he gra-
duated M.A. He afterwards took orders, and became
chaplain, firft. to lord Say, and then to Charles, count pala-
tine of the Rhine. At the commencement of the civil war
he joined the parUament, took the folemn league and cove-
nant, and became warden of Wadham college. In 1649 he
graduated D.D., and in 1656 married the filler of Oliver
Cromwell. In 1659 he was nominated head of Trinity
college, Cambridge ; but being ejefted on the reftoration of
king Charles II., he became preacher to the fociety of
Gray's-Inn, London, andreftorof St. Lawrence, Jewry ;
about which time he was introduced into the Royal Society
as fellow and one of the council, and advanced to the fee of
Cheller. He was diftinguifhed by his moderation, and was
reproached on this account by his enemies, who reprefented
him as wavering in his religious principles. Several bifhops
cenfured him with uncandid feverity, among whom were
archbifhop Sheldon, bifhop Fell, and archbifhop Dolben,
making no allowance for the favourable difpofition which he
was led to manifeft towards ihe diffenters by his education
under Mr. John Dod, his grandfather, a truly pious and
learned man, who difapproved many things in the church of
England long before the grand feparation which took place
on account of Laud's impofitions and feverities. After the
Reftoration he was a moderate conformift, and difpofed to
be indulgent in many things, for the fake of preventing re-
ligious diflenfions. On this account he incurred hatred and
obloquy. He at length fell a viftim to the ftone, occafioned
by his fedentary habits, and clofe application to ftudy ; and
died, with a tranquillity and firmnefs becoming a wife man
and a Chriftian, at the houfe of his friend Dr. Tillotfon, in
Chancery-lane, London, in November, 1672. Bifhop Wil-
kins was not only an able divine, but a good mathematician
and aftronomer ; and well /killed in mechanics and experi-
mental philofophy. As a writer he was judicious and
plain ; and he lludied more to be ufeful than to pleafe.
Generous in his difpofition, he neither fought honour nor
riches. The revenues which he received from the church he
fpent in its fervice ; and whilft he was fecure from want, he
did not wilh to be richer. His character is thus delineated by
Dr. Burnet : " He was a man of as great a mind, as true
a judgment, as eminent virtues, and of as good a foul, as any
he ever knew ; and though he married Cromwell's fifter, yet
he made no other ufe of that alliance but to do good ofBces,
and to cover the univerfity of Oxford from the fonrnefs of
Owen and Goodwin. At Cambridge he joined with thofe
who ftudied to propagate better thoughts, to take men off
from being in parties, or from narrow notions, from fu-
pcrflitious conceits, and fiercenefs about opinions. He was
alfo a great obfcrver and promoter of experimental philofo-

W 1 L

phy, which was then a new thing, and much looked after.
He was naturally ambitious, but was the wifell clergyman
I ever knew. He was a lover of mankind, and delighted iu
doing good." He alfo poffeffed, according to this hiflorian,
" a courage which could fland againft a current, and againfl
all the reproaches with which ill-natured clergymen ftudied
to reproach him." His principal works are the following :
viz. " The Difcovery of a New World ; or, a Difcourfe
tending to prove that it is probable there may be another
habitable World in the Moon," London, 1638, 4to., writ-
ten when he was only twenty-four years of age ; " Difcourfe
concerning the Poffibility of a Paffage to the World in the
Moon ;" " Difcourfe concerning a new Planet, tending to
prove that it is probable our Earth is one of the Planets,"
ibid. 1640, 8vo. ; " Mercury; or, the Secret Meffenger 5
(hewing how a man may with privacy and fpeed communi-
cate his thoughts to a friend at any diftance," ibid. 1641,
8vo.; " Mathematical Magic ; or, the Wonders that may
be performed by Mechanical Geometry," in two books,
ibid. 1648 and 1680, 8vo. Thefe latter five, compofing his
mathematical works, were printed at London in one volume,
Svo. 1708. " Effay towards a real Charafter and a philofo-
phical Language," ibid. 1668, fol.; " Of the Principles and
Duties of Natural Religion," two books, ibid. 1675, ^^"^
pubhfhed by Dr. Tillotfon. Alfo, " Sermons preached ou ;
feveral Occafions," and fome others. Life prefixed to his '
Philofophical and Mathematical Works.

WILKINSON, in Geography, a county of Georgia,
with 2 154 inhabitants, including 318 flaves. — Alfo, a county
of the Mifliffippi, with 5068 inhabitants, including 2630
flaves.

WILKOMIERS, a town of Lithuania, in the palati-
nate of Wilna, on the Swicnta, near its union with tlie
Wilna ; 44 miles N.N.W. of Wilna. I

WILKS, a county of North Carohna, with 9054 inha- |
bitants.

WILKUSCHKE, a town of PrufGa ; 5 miles N.N.E.
of Ragnitz.

WILL, Voluntas, is ufually defined a faculty of the
mind, by which it embraces or rejefts any thing reprefented
to it, as good or evil, by the judgment.

Others will have it to be the mind itfelf, confidered as em- ;
bracing or refufing ; adding, that as the underftanding is
nothing elfe but the foul, confidered as perceiving ; fo 1
the wiU is nothing elfe but the foul, confidered as <willingyi
&c.

Mr. Locke more inteUigibly defines the will, a faculty
which the foul has of beginning or forbearing, continuing
or ending, feveral aftions of the mind, and motions of the
body, barely by a thought or preference of the mind, or-
dering, or as it were commanding, the doing, or not doing,
fuch and fuch a particular aftion. This power which the
mind has, to order the confideration of any idea, or the for-
bearing to confider it ; or to prefer the motion of any part
of the body to its reft, and vice vcr/a, is what we call the
will. See Power.

The aftual exercife of that power, is what we call volition,
or willing ; and the doing or forbearing of any aftion
confequent on fuch order of the mind, is called voluntary.
So far, according to this writer, as a man has a power to
think or not to think, to move or not to move, according to
the preference or direftion of his own mind, fofar lie is free :
and hence liberty, he fays, is not an idea belonging to vob-
tion or preferring, but to the perfon having the power of
doing, or forbearing to do, as the mind fhall choofe or direft.
On the other hand, wherever any performance or forbearance
is not equally in a man's power ; wherever doing or not doing

will

WILL.

wll not equally follow upon tlie preference of his mind ;
•there he is not free, though perhaps the aftion may be Yolun-
•tary. Accordingly, where thought is wholly wanting, or
the power to aft or forbear according to the direftion of
thought, there neceflity takes place ; this, in an agent capa-
ble of volition, when the beginning or continuation of any
aftion is contrary to the preference of his mind, is called
compulfwn : when the hindering or (lopping of any aftion is
contrary to his volition, it is called rejlralnt. Agents that
have uo thought, no volition at all, are in every refpeft ne-
ceffary agents.

Father Malebranche lays it down, that the will is that to
the foul, which motion is to the body ; and argues, that as
the Author of nature is the univerfal caufe of all the mo-
tions in matter, fo he is of all the inclinations in the mind ;
and that as all motions are direft, unlefs their courfe be di-
verted and changed by fome foreign caufe ; fo all inclinations
are right, and could have no other end but the enjoyment of
truth and goodnefs, were there not fome foreign caufe to de-
termine the natural inipreflion to evil ends.

Accordingly, he defines will to be the impreffion, or na-
tural motion, which carries us towards good indeterminately,
and in the general; and the power the mind has, to direft
this general impreflion towards any particular objeA that
pleates it, is what he calls liberty.

Ariftotle diftinguiihes two kinds of afts of the will, vi%.
BuXrxn;, 'willing, volition ; and TrpoaipEtric, eleSion, The firft,
that employed about the ultimate end ; the latter, about
the means.

The fchoolmen alfo diftinguilh the aftions of the will into
elicit and commanded. Elicit afts, aBiones elicit*, are thofe
immediately produced by the will, and really inherent in it ;
fuch are 'willing and nilling. Commanded afts, aSiones im-
perate, are effefts produced by other powers ; v. gr. the
fenfitive, intellcftive, or locomotive powers, at the command
or inftigation of the will. As to follovi, Jlay, Jight, Jly,
&c.

But others will have the former kind properly to belong
to the underftanding ; and only the latter to the will.

The word will is taken in three fenfes :

1. For the power or faculty of willing, in which fenfe it
is, we have confidered it above.

2. For the aft or exercife of this power ; as, when we
fay. No man wills his own deftruftion.

3. For a habit, or a conftant difpofition and inclination to
do any thing. In which fenfe juftice is defined a conftant
will to give every one what belongs to him : ** Juftitia eft
conftans et perpetua voluntas jus fuum nnicuique tribuendi."
Inftit. Juftin.

Will, Antecedent. See Antecedekt.

Will, Free. See Liberty, and Freedom.

Will, Lajl Will, or Tejlament, in Laiw, a folemn aft, or
inftruraent, by which a perfon declares his mind and inten-
tion as to the difpofal of his goods, effefts, &c. after his
death. See Testament.

This aft or inftrument is emphatically ftyled the will of
the deceafed, becaufe it direfts the difpofal of the whole or
part of his property, by written or oral inftruftions pro-
perly witnefled and authenticated, according to his pleafure.
Some have diftinguifhed between a teftament and a will ;
a will being properly limited to land, and a teftament
only to chattels, requiring executors, which a will only for
land doth not require : fo that every teftament is a will, but
every will is not a teftament. However, the words have
been commonly ufed indifcriminately.

Wills, Hifiory of. Wills or teftaments, fays judge
Blackftoiie, are of very high antiquity. We find them

among the anient Hebrews : not to mention what Eufebius
and others have related of Noah's teftament, made in writ-
ing, and witnefled under his feal, by which he difpofed of
the whole world, a more authentic inftance of the early ufe of
teftaments occurs in the facred writings ( Gen. chap, xlviii. ),
in which Jacob bequeaths to his fon Jofeph a portion of his
inheritance double to that of his brethren ; which will we
find executed many hundred years afterwards, when the pof-
terity of Jofeph were divided into two diftinft tribes, thofe
of Ephraim and Manafleh, and had two feveral inheritances
afligned them ; whereas the defcendants of each of the other
patriarchs formed only a fingle tribe, and had only one lot of
inheritance. Solon was the firft legiflator that introduced
wills into Athens ; but in many other parts of Greece they
were totally difcountenanced. In Rome they were un-
known, till the laws of the Twelve Tables were compiled,
which firft gave the right of bequeathing ; and among the
northern nations, particularly among the Germans, tefta-
ments were not received into ufe. Hence it appears, that
the right of making wills and difpofing of property after
death, is merely a creature of the civil ftate, which has per-
mitted it in fome countries, and denied it in others, and fub-
jefted it to various reftriftions and regulations, where the
law allows it.

With us in England, this power of bequeathing is coeval
with the firft rudiments of the law ; not indeed, that it ex-
tended originally to all a man's perfonal ettate. See Ra-
TIONABILI parte bonorum.

It is alfo fufiiciently clear, that, before the Conqueft,
lands were devifable by will. But, upon the introduftion
of the military tenures, the reftraint of devifing lands na-
turally took place, as a branch of the feodal doftrine of non-
alienation vrithout the confent of the lord. By the common
law of England fince the Conqueft, no eftate, greater than
for term of years, could be difpofed of by teftament ; ex-
cept only in Kent, and in fome ancient burghs, and a few
particular manors, where their Saxon immunities by fpecial
indulgence fubfifted. But when ecclefiaftical ingenuity had
invented the doftrine of ufet, as a thing diftinft from the
land, ufes began to be devifed very frequently, and the dc-
vifee of the ufe could in chancery compel its execution.
However, when the ftatute of ufes, viz. 27 Hen. VIII.
cap. 10. had annexed the poffeflion to the ufe, thefe ufes,
being now the very land itfelf, became no longer devifable :
whereupon the ftatute of wills was made, r/'z. 32 Hen. VIII.
cap. I. explained by 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. cap. 5, which
enafted, that all perfons being feifed in fee-fimple (except
feme-coverts, infants, ideots, and perfons of nonfane me-
mory ) might by will and teftament in writing devife to any
other perfon, except to bodies corporate, two-thirds of their
lands, tenements, and hereditaments, held in chivalry, and
the whole of thofe held in focage ; which now, through the
alteration of tenures by the ftatute of Charles II. 1 2 Car. 1 1 .
cap. 2 J. amounts to the whole of their landed property,
except their copyhold tenements. As for copyhold and
other cuftomary lands, thefe are devifable or not, according
to the cuftom of the refpeftive manors. And generally, a
devife of copyhold will not pafs, without a furrender to the
ufe of the will. In the cafe of a child or widow, a court of
equity, in favour of thefe, will fupply a defeft of fur-
render (2 Vez. 582. 5 Vez. 557.); fo 3lf°> w*"^" '''^r^ '*
a general devife of real eftate to pay debts, and there is no
real eftate but copyhold : alfo where a copyhold is in the
hands of truftees, the perfon for whom the lands are holden
in truft may devife the fame without furrender. ( 2 Atk- 38.
I Vez. 489. ) And though the court will fupply the de-
feft of a furrender for the benefit of children, yet the rule
3 K J doth

WILL.

doth not extend to grand-children, or to a natural child,
and confequently not to any more diftant kindred. ( 2 Vez.
582. I Wilfon, 161. 6 Vez. 544.) And if a man,
ieifed of copyhold lands, furrenders the fame to the ule of
his will, and executes a will, not atteftcd by any witnefles,
yet it fhall dired the ufes of the furrender : for the claufe
in the llatutc, which requires the teftator's Ggnnig in the
prefence of three witnefTes, is confined only to fuch eftates
as pafs by the ftatute of wills of 34 & 35 Henry VIIT.,
which doth not extend to copyhold. ( 2 Atk. 37. 7 Eall s
Rep. 299.) See Mortmain. • n h .

By 29 Car. II. cap. 3. any ellate pur auter -vie (hall be
devifable by a will in writing, figned by the party fo de-
vifing the fame, or by fome other perfon in his prefence
and by his exprefs direftions, attefled and fubfcribed in the
prefence of the devifor by three or more witneffes ; and if
no fuch devife thereof be made, the fame fhall be chargeable
in the hands of the heir, if it (hall come to him by reafon of
a fpecial occupancy, as affets by defcent, as in cafe of lands
ia fee-fimple ; and in cafe there be no fpecial occupant
thereof, it (hall go to the executors or adminiftrators of the
party that had the eftate thereof by virtue of the grant, and
(hall be affets in their hands.

One that hath money to be paid hina on a mortgage may
devife this money when it comes. God. O. L. 391.

And if the feoffee in mortgaije, before the day of pay-
ment which (hould be made to him, maketh his executors
and die, and his heir entereth into the land as he ought ; it
feemeth in this cafe, that the feoffor ought to pay the money
at the day appointed to the executors, and not to the heir
of the feoffee : but yet the words of the condition may be
fuch, as the payment (hall be made to the heir ; as if the
condition were, that if the feoffor pay to the feoffee or to
his heirs fuch a fum at fucii a day, there after the death of
the feoffee, if he dieth before the day hmited, the payment
ought to be made to the heir at the day appointed. I Inft.
209, 210.

And hereby it appearcth, that the executors do more re-
prefent the perfon of the teftator, than the heir doth that of
the anceffor ; for though the executor be not named, yet
the law appoints him to receive the money, but fo doth not
the law appoint the heir to receive the money unlefs he be
named, i Inft. 209, 210.

A perfon may devife by his will the right of prefenting
to the next avoidance, or the inheritance of an advowfon.
And if fuch devife be made by the incumbent of the church,
the inheritance of the advowfon being in him, it is good,
though he die incumbent ; for though the teftament hath no
effea but by the death of the teftator, yet it hath an incep-
tion in his life-time : and fo it is, though he appoint by his
will who fhall be prefented by the executors, or that one
executor fhall prefent the other, or doth devife that his
executors (hall grant the advowfon to fuch a man. Watf.

c. 10.

But where an advowfon was devifed to the firft or other
fon of B, that (hould be bred a clergyman and be iu holy
orders, and if B (hould have no fuch fon, to C ; both de-
vifes were holden by the court of common pleas to be void,
as depending on too remote a contingency ; for the rule of
law is, that the contingency on which fuch an executory
devife'hinges muft take effed within fome life in being, or
21 years afterwards ; but it was uncertain that the fon of B,
if he ever (hould have any, would take, or be able to take
orders within 21 years of the death of his father. Proftor
V. the Bilhop of Bath and Wells, and others, 2 H. Bla.

If upon articles for a purchafe, the purchafer die, having

devifed the land before a conveyance executed, tlie land will
pafs in equity ; for the teftator had an equity to recover the
land, and the vendor ftood truftee for the teftator, and as he
(hould appoint, till a conveyance executed. i Chanc.
Caf. 39. 2 Vern. 679.

For the vendor of the eftate is, from the time of his con-
traft, confidered as a truftee for the purchafer ; and the
vendee, as to the money, is confidered as a truftee for the
vendor. I Atkyns, 573.

So if a man covenants to lay out a fum of money in the
purchafe of lands, generally ; and dcvifeth his real eftate
before he hath made fuch a purchafe ; the money to be laid
out will pafs to the devifee. Id.

But if a man, having made his will, afterwards contrafts
for the purchafe of lands ; the lands contrafted for will not
pafs by the will, but defcend to the heir at law. Id.

But if a good title cannot be made of the lands ; as the
heir in fuch cafe cannot have the lands, fo he fhall not have
the money intended to be laid out. Id.

If a man have a leafe for ever fo many years, determin-
able upon life or lives, that is, if fuch or fuch live fo long ;
this eftate may well enough be given and difpofed by will,
becaufe it is but a chattel. Went. 19.

A leafe for years may alfo be deviled to A for hfe, re-
mainder to B. And if the leafe be renewable, and A renew,
B fhall contribute to the fine fo partaking of the benefit of
the renewal.

If the teftator, by his lail will and teftament, do give or
bequeath to another any debt due unto him, or a thing in
aftion belonging unto him, the legacy is good and effeftual
in the law, and may be recovered in this manner, that is to
fay, if the teftator do make the legatary executor of that
particular debt or thing in adtion bequeathed, then the lega-
tary as executor thereof may commence fuit in his own
name, and recover the fame to his own ufe, againft him by
whom it was due ; but if the teftator do not make the lega-
tary executor of the debt or thing in aftion bequeathed, then
his remedy lieth in the ecclefiaftical court, where he may
convent the executor, and compel him either to fue for that
debt in a court competent, and upon recovery and payment
thereof to pay it over to the legatary, or elfe to make a
letter of attorney to the legatary for the recovery of the
debt or thing in aftion bequeathed in the name of the exe-
cutor to the ufe of the legatary. Swin. 187, f88.

Albeit the teftator have no fuch thing of his own as is
bequeathed, yet neverthelefs the legacy is good in law ;
therefore, if the teftator do bequeath a horfe or a yoke of
oxen, the legacy is good in law, though the teftator have
neither horfe nor ox of his own. But who (hall make
choice, in this cafe, of the thing fo bequeathed, is a quef-
tion not to be neglefted : and the folution is this ; that if
the words of the devife be direfted to the legatary, as if the
teftator ftiall thus fay, I will that A B fhall have a horfe,
the choice doth belong to the legatary ; but if the words
be direfted to the executor, as if the teftator fhall thus fay,
I will that my executor give to A B a horfe, the eleftion
doth belong to the executor. Provided neverthelefs, that
to vvhomfoever the eleftion doth belong, whether to the le-
gatary, or to the executor, they muft not be unreafonable
in their eleftion, but frame themfelves according to the
meaning of the teftator ; otherwife the legatary might make
choice of the beft horfe in the country, and the executor of
the worft, contrary to the meaning of the deceafed. Swin.
188.

If there be two joint-tenants of lands, and one of them
devifeth that which to him belongs, and dieth ; this is no
good devife, and the devifee takes nothing, becaufe the de-
vife

WILL.

viie doth not take effeft until after the death of the devifor,
and then the furviving joint-tenant takes the whole by
prior title, to wit, from the firft feoffment. Gilbert on
Wills, 120.

And although the jointure is fevered before the teftator's
death, yet if the will be made before the feverance, it will
have no effeft ; unlefs there is a republication of the will
after the partition. Bur. Mansf. 1496.

So alfo a man cannot give or bequeath by will any of
thofe goods or chattels which he hath jointly with another :
for if he (hould bequeath his portion thereof to a third per-
fon, this bequeft is void by the laws of this realm ; and the
furvivor, which had thofe goods or chattels jointly with
another, Ihall have that portion fo bequeathed, notwith-
ftanding the faid will. Swin. 189.

But otherwife it is with the tenants in common (God. O.
L. 131.) and coparceners. For there is no furvivor be-
tween coparceners, but the part of each is defcendible, and
confequently may be devifed. (Co. Lit. 185. i.) And a
deed of partition is not a revocation of a devife of his moiety
by tenant in common. Luther -v. Ridley, cited in 3 P.
Wms. 169.

By 20 Hen. IIL cap. 2. widows may bequeath the crop
of their ground, as well of their dowers, as other their
lands and tenements ; faving to the lords of the fee all fuch
fervices as be due for their dowers and otlier tenements.
And this is only in affirmance of the common law. ( 2 Inil.
80.) But by 27 Hen. VIII. cap. lo. a married woman,
having a jointure made, (hall not have any dowry of the re-
fidue of her hulband's lands.

By 28 Hen. VIII. cap. 11. if the incumbent before his
death hath caufed any of his glebe land to be manured and
fown, at his proper cofts and charges, with any corn or
grain ; he may make and declare his teftament of all the
profits of the corn growing upon the faid glebe land fo ma-
nured and fown.

But if the teftator is leffee for years, and fow the land a
ftiort time before his leafe expires, and then dies, before the
corn can pofiibly be ripe within the term, in this cafe a de-
vife thereof is void, becaufe he himfelf could net. have
reaped it after the expiration of the term, if he had lived.
Swin. 191.

Not only that thing may be devifed or bequeathed by the
teftator, which is truly extant, or hath an apparent being
at the time of the making of the will or death of the teftator ;
but that thing alfo which is not in ren/m natura, whilft the
teftator liveth : therefore, it is lawful for the teftator to be-
queath the corn which will be fown or grow in fuch foil
after his death, or the lambs which (lull come of his flock
of fheep the next year, depafturing in fuch a field. But if
there be no fuch corn growing in that foil, nor any lambs
arifing out of that flock, then the legacy is dcftitute of
effeft, becaufe no fuch thing is extant at all as was be-
queathed. But if the teftator devife a certain quantity of
grain or number of lambs, as for the purpofe, twenty quar-
ters of corn or twenty lambs, and doth will and devife, that
the fame ihall be paid out of the corn which fhall grow in
fuch a firld, or arife out of his flieep depafturing in fuch a
ground ; though not fo much or no corn at all there grow,
or not any or not fo many lambs there arife, yet neverthe-
lefs the executor is compellable by law to pay the whole
1-gacies entirely ; becaufe the mention of the foil and of the
flock was rather by way of demonftration than by way of
condition, rather fliewing how or by what means the faid
legacy might be paid, than whether it fhould be paid at all
yea or no. Swin. 186.

Thofe things which after the death of the teftator defcend
6

to the heir of the deceafed, and not to his executor, cannot
be devifed by teftament, except in fuch cafes wherein it is
lawfid to devife the lands, tenements, or hereditaments.

If a man be feifed of a houfe, and poftefled of divers
heir-looms, that by cuftom have gone with the houfe from
heir to heir, and by his will devifeth away thefe heir-looms ;
this devife is void : for the will taketh effeft after his death ;
and by his death, the heir-looms by ancient cuftom are
vefted in the heir, and the law prefers the cuftom before the
devife. And fo it is, if the lord ought to have a heriot
againft his tenant, and the tenant devifeth away all his
goods ; yet the lord fliall have his heriot for the reafon
aforefaid. i Inft. 185.

The teftator may devife all goods and chattels which he
hath in his own right, but not thofe which he hath in the
right of another as executor. Swin. 185.

An adminiftrator cannot make a teftament of thofe goods
which he hath as adminiftrator to any perfon dying in-
teftate ; becaufe he hath not any fuch goods to his own
proper ufe, but ought therewithal to pay the debts of the
dead perfon, and to diftribute the reft according to law.
Swin. 189.

The huftiand cannot devife fuch goods as his wife hath as
being executrix to another, nor fuch things as are in aftion,
as debts due to her before marriage by obligation or con-
tract, unlefs he and his wife recover the fame during mar-
riage, or that he renew the bonds, and take them in his
own name ; otherwife after his death they remain to her.
I Inft. 351.

But the hufband may, at any time during the coverture,
releafe a bond given to his wife. And where the huftand
makes a fettlement, the bonds to his wife, being part of her
fortune, will notwithftanding his death in the life-time of
his wife, before the fecurity be changed, be decreed in
equity to his executor ; he being confidered in that cafe as
a purchafer for a valuable confideration. Cafes in the time
of L. Talb. 168.

A man may by his will difpofe of his chattels and per-
fonal eftate that he (hall for the future acquire, any time
after the making his will, to the time of his death. And
this is neceflary from the reafon of the thing ; becaufe the
chattels and perfonal eftate are in a continual fluftuation ;
and if the law were not fo, it would create very great con-
fulion, or elfe would render it neceiTary for a man to make
a new will every day. Gilb. 122.

But it is not fo with lands, for they are fixed and per-
manent : and, therefore, if a man raaketh his will, and de-
vifeth therein all the lands which he ftiall have at the time of
his death ; and after that, he purchafeth lands, and dieth
without republication or making a new will ; in this cafe,
though his intent to the contrary is very apparent, yet it is
a void devife : for a man cannot devife any lands but what
he hath at the time of making his will. And this was ad-
judged upon great deliberation, by Holt chief juftice and
the court, in the cafe of Bunker and Cook : and the judg-
ment was affirmed afterwards upon a writ of error in the
honfe of lords, Feb. 24, 1707. Gilb. 122.

But, by Holt chief juftice : If he repubhlhed his will, in
fuch manner, and with Inch circumftances, as are neceffary
to complete execution of an original will ; then the pur-
chafed lands will pafs as by an original will. ( 1 1 Mod.
127.) And in truth this feemeth to make it a new will,
to all intents and purpofes ; and not a republication of the
old one.

But a codicil, which concerneth only perfonal legacies,
will not amount to a republication of the will, fo as to pafs
lands purchafed after the making of the will. 2 Vern. 625.

If

WILL.

If a man devifeth all his lands for payment of his debts,
and purchafeth lands afterwards: the lord keeper faid he
would decree a fale, though there were no precedent articles.

2 Cha. Ca. 144. ^ . . -r ,1 .

If a man hath a leafe, and difpofeth of it fpecificaUy by
his wiU ; and after furrenders it and takes a new leaie, and
after dies ; the devifee (hall not have this laft leafe, becaule
this was a plain countermand of his will. Goldf. 93.

But in the cafe of Stirling and Lydiard, Nov. 21, 1744,
where a man devifed all and Angular his leafehold eftate,
goods, chattels, and perfonal eftate whatfoever, and after-
wards renewed a leafe ; it was held by the lord chancellor
Hardwicke clearly, that the leafehold eftate pafTed by the

If a man devifeth a term for years, which he hath not at
the time of the devife, but purchafeth fome time before his
death ; Holt chief juftice doubted whether this would be
good. But Mr. Peere Williams fays, that notwithftanding
the doubt which the court of king's bench feems to have
had in that caf», it hath been clearly held to pafs by fuch
a will. 3 P. Wms. 169.

Wills, Perfons capable of making. Every perfon hath
full power and liberty to make a will, that is not under
forae fpecial prohibition by law or cuftom : which prohibi-
tions are principally upon three accounts ; for want of fuf-
ficient difcretion ; for want of fufficient liberty and free
will ; and on account of criminal conduft.

In the firft clafs are to be reckoned infants, under the
age of fourteen if males, and twelve if females ; which is the
rule of the civil law. By ttatute 34 & 35 Hen. VIII.
cap. 5. wills or teftaments made of any manors, lands, tene-
ments, or other hereditaments, by any perfon within the
age of twenty-one vears, (hall not be taken to be good or
effeftual in law ; for until that time, by the common laws
of this realm, they are accounted infants. (Swinb. 74.)
But by cuftom in particular places, they may devife lands
before the age of twenty-one. (God. O. L. 21. Wentw.
24.) But no cuftom of any place can be good, to enable a
male infant to make any will before he is fourteen years of
age. (Law of Exec. 153.) If the teftator is not of fuf-
ficient difcretion, whatever be his age, that will overthrow
his teftament. Accordingly, madmen, or otherwife non
compotes, ideots or natural fools, perfons grown childifh by
age or diftemper, (uch as have their fenfes befotted with
drunkennefs ; all thefe are incapable, by reafon of mental
difability, to make any will as long as fuch difability lafts.
To this clafs may alfo be referred Tuch perfons as are born
deaf, blind, and dumb ; who, as they have always wanted
the common inlets of underftanding, are incapable of having
anitnum tejlandi, and their teftaments are therefore void. It
has been maintained that perfons deaf and dumb, who under-
ftand what a teftament meaneth, and that are defirous of
making one, may by figns and tokens declare their tefta-
ment : and that a blind perfon may make a nuncupative
teftament, by declaring his will before a fufficient number
of witneffes ; and that he may make hia teftament in writing,
provided the fame be read before witneftes, and in their
prefence acknowledged by the teftator for his laft will.
Swinb. 95, 96r

Perfons of the fecond defcription are by the civil law of
various kinds ; as prifoners, captives, and the like. But
the law of England does not make fuch perfons abfolutely
inteftable ; but only leaves it to the difcretion of the court
to judge, upon the confideration of their pecuhar circum-
ftances of durefs, whether they could be fuppofed to have
liberum anlmum tejlandi. With regard to feme-coverts, our
laws differ ftill more materially from the civil. Among the

4

Romans, a married woman was as capable of bequeathing
as a feme-fole. But with us, a married woman is not only
utterly incapable of devifing lands, being excepted out of
the ftatute of wills, 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. cap. 5. but alfo
ftie is incapable of making a teftament of chattels, without
the licence of her huft)and, who frequently, upon marriage,
covenants with her friends to allow her that licence : his
affent, therefore, muft be given to the particular will in
queftion, without which it will not be a complete teftament.
Her will, therefore, operates in the nature of an appoint-
ment, the execution of which the hutband by his bond,
agreement, or covenant, is bound to allow. The queen-
confort is sn exception, for ftie may difpofe of her chattels
by will, without the confent of her lord : and any feme-
covert may make her will of goods, which were in her pof-
feffion in auter droit, as executrix or adrniniftratrix ; for
thefe can never be the property of her huft)and : and if ftie
has any pin-money or feparate maintenance, it is faid ftie
may difpofe of her favings thereout by teftament, without
the controul of her huftiand. But if a feme-lole makes her
will, and afterwards marries, fuch fubfequent marriage is
efteemed a revocation in law, and entirely vacates the will.

Perfons of the third clafs are, firft, all traitors and felons,
from the time of conviftion ; for then their goods and
chattels, and all fuch lands, tenements, and hereditaments, as
they (hall have in their own right, ufe, or poffcffion, of any
eftate or inheritance, at the time of fuch treifon committed,
or at any time after, are forfeited to the king. The tefta-
ment before made doth, by reafon of the fame convidion,
become void both in refpeft of goods, and alfo in refpeft of ,
lands, tenements, and hereditaments. But if a perfon, at-
tainted of treafon, obtain the king's pardon, and be thus
reftored to his former eftate, he may make his teftament,
and his former teftament is good. (Swinb. 97.) Neither
can a felo de fe make a will of goods and chattels, for they
are forfeited by the aft and manner of his death ; but he
may make a devife of his lands, for they are not fubjefted
to any forfeiture. (3 Inft. 55.) Outlaws alfo, though
only for debt, are incapable of making a will, fo long as
the outlawry fubfifts, for during that time their goods and
chattels are forfeited ; but he that is outlawed in an aftion
perfonal, may make his teftament of lands, for they are not
forfeited. (Swinb. 107.) An outlaw in a perfonal aftion
may in fome cafe make executors ; for he may have debts
upon contraft, which are not forfeited to the king ; and
thofe executors may have a writ of error to reverfe the out-
lawry. (Cro. Eliz. 851.) Coke obfepves, that an excom-
munication (meaning the greater excommunication) is worfe
than an outlawry ; for if a plaintifi", who is an executor, be
outlawed, his outlawry cannot be pleaded to difable hire
from proceeding in the fuit, becaufe it is in the right of
another ; but if he is excommunicated, it is otherwife, be-
caufe every msn that converfes with fuch a perfon is excom-
municated himfelf (i Inft. 134.); that is, after he is
denounced exqpmmunicate, and they are admoniftied not to
converfe with him. (Ayl. Par. 266.) As for perfons
guilty of other crimes, ftiort of felony, who are by the civil
Jaw precluded from making teftaments, (as ufurers, libellers,
and others of a wprfe ftamp,) by the common law their tef-
taments may be good.

Will, Nature an4 Incident! of a. Wills or teftaments
are divided into two forts, vi%. written and verbal or nun-
tupative; of yvhich the former is committed to writing ; the
latter depends merely upon oral evidence, being declared by
the teftator in extremis before a fufficient number of wit-
neffes, and afterwards reduced to writing. A codicil is ?
fupplement to a will.

As

WILL.

As mmcupanve wills and codicils arc liable to great im-

■ potitions, and may occafion many perjuries, the ttatute of

frauds, 29 Car. II. cap. 3. hath laid them under many

reftriftions ; except when made by mariners at fea, and fol-

1 diers in a£lual fervice. As to all other perfons, it enafts,

,1. That no written will (hall be revoked or altered by a fub-

-fequent nuncupative one, except the fame be in the life-time

of the teftator reduced to writing, and read over to him and

approved ; and unlcfs the fame be proved to have been fo

done by the oaths of three witneffes at leaft ; who, by 4 &

5 Ann. cap. 16. muft be fuch as are admiflible upon trials

at common law.

2. That no nuncupative will (hall be good, where the
eftate bequeathed exceeds 30/., unlefs proved by three fuch
witneffes, prefent at the making of it, and unlefs they or
fome of them were fpecially required to bear witnefs to it
by the teftator ; and unlefs it was made in his laft ficknefs,
in his own habitation, or where he had previoufly refided
at leaft ten days, except he be furprifed with ficknefs on a
journey, or from home, and dies without returning to his
dwelling.

3. That no nuncupative will ftiall be proved by the wit-
neffes after fix months from the making, unlefs it were put
in writing within fix days ; nor (hall it be proved till four-
teen days after the death of the teftator, nor till procefs
hath iirft iffued to call in the widow, or next of kin, to
conteft if they think proper.

As to written wills {viz. thofe that concern not the de-
vife of lands), they need not any witnefs of their publication.
A teftament of chattels, written in the teftator's own hand,
though it has neither his name nor feal to it, nor witneffes
prefent at its publication, is good ; provided fufBcient proof
can be had that it is his hand-writing. (Swinb. 353.
Gilb. Rep. 260.) And though written in another man's
hand, and never figned by the teftator, yet if proved to be
according to his inftruftions, and approved by him, it hath
been held a good teftament of the perfonal eftate. How-
ever, it is the fafer and more prudent way, and leaves lefs
an the breall of the ecclefiaftical judge, if it be figned or
fealed by (he teftator, and publifhed in the prefence of wit-
neffes. It is faid in 3 Salk. 396. that by the canon law,
and alfo by the common law, two witneffes are requifite to
prove a will of goods ; for one witnefs by the civil law, unto
which the other laws are conformed in this matter, is as no
witnefs at all. I P. Wms. 1 3.

The ftatute of frauds and perjuries, 29 Car. II. cap. 3.
direfts, that all devifes of lands and tenements (hall not only
be in writing, but figned by the teftator, or fome other per-
fon in his prefence, and by his exprefs dire&ion ; and be
fubfcribed, in his prefence, by three or four credible wit-
neffes. In the conftrudion of this ftatute, it has been ad-
judged that the teftator's name, written with his own hand
at the beginning of his will, as, " I John Mills do make
this my lall will," &c. is a fufficient figning, without any
name at the bottom ; though the other is the fafer way.
(3 Lev. I.) It hath been faid, that if the teftator only
put his feal to the will, without figning it, this is a fufficient
figning within the ftatute ; becaufe figning is no more than
a mark to diftinguilh a man's aft, and foaling is a fufficient
mark to know it to be his will. (Gilb. 93 ) Others,
however, have held that fealing without figning was not
fufBcient. (l Wilfon, 313. 2 Vezey, 459) Signing
being only mentioned in the ftatute, fealing is not neceffary.
(God. O. L, 5. I Wentw. 29.) It has alfo been deter-
mined, that though the witneffes muft all fee the teftator
fign, or at leaft acknowledge the figning, yet they may do
it at different times. But they muft all fubferibe their

names as witBeffes in his prefence, left by any poffibiKty
they ftiould miitake the inftrument. In one cafe determined
by the court of king's bench, the judges would not allow
any legatee, nor confequently a creditor, where the legacies
and debts were charged on the real eftate, to be a com-
petent witnefs to the devife. This determination occafioned
the ftatute 25 Geo. II. cap. 6. which reftored both the
competency and credit of fuch legatees, by declaring void
all legacies given to witneffes, and thereby removing all
poffibility of their intereft affefting their teftimony. The
fame ftatute likewife eftablilhed the competency of creditors,
by direfting their teftimony to be admitted ; but leaving
their credit (hke that of all other witneffes) to be con-
fidered, on a view of all the circumftances, by the court
and jury before whom fuch will (hall be contefted. And in
a much later cafe, M. 31 Geo. II. the teftimony of three
witneffes, who were creditors, was held to be fufficiently
credible, though the land was charged with the payment
of debts. By ftat. 29 Car. II. cap. 3. all declarations or
creations of trufts or confidences, of any lands, tenements,
or hereditaments, (hall be manifefted and proved by fome
writing figned by the party who is by law enabled to de-
clare fuch truft, or by his laft will in writing, or elfe they
(hall be utterly void, and of none effeft. And all grants
and affignments of any truft or confidence (hall likewrife be
in writing, figned by the party granting or affigning the
fame by fuch laft will or devife ; or elfe (hall be utterly
void, and of none effeft.

No teftament is of any effeft till after the death of the
teftator ; and, therefore, if there be many teftaments, the
laft overthrows all the former ; but the republication of a
former will revokes one of a later date, and eftabhlhes the
firft again. Although no man can die with two teftamentt,
becaufe the latter doth always infringe the former ; yet a
man may die with divers codicils, and the latter doth not
hinder the former, fo long as they be not contrary. (Swinb.
15.) All codicils are part of the will ; therefore, a codicil
merely for a particular purpofe, as to change an executor,
and confirming the will in all other refpefts, does not revive
a part of the will revoked by a former codicil. If two
teftaments be found, and it doth not appear which was the
former or latter, both teftaments are void ; but if two
codicils be found, and it cannot be known which was the
firft or laft, and one and the fame thing is given to one per-
fon in one codicil, and to another perfon in another codicil,
the codicils are not void, but the perfons therein named
ought to divide the thing betwixt them. Swrinb. 15.

If codicils are regularly executed and attefted, they may
be proved as wills are. So if they are found written by the
teftator himfelf, they ought to be taken as part of the will,
and to be proved in common form by the oath of the ad-
miniftrator with the will annexed ; and in cafe of oppofition,
by witneffes to the hand-writing and finding : and it hath
been ufual to exhibit an alRdavit of the hand-writing and
finding, before a probate or adminiftration paffes even in
common form.

But in cafe of a real eftate, a codicil cannot operate, unlefs
it be executed according to the ftatute. i Atk. 426.

By ftat. 29 Car. II. cap. 3. no devife in writing of lands,
tenements, or hereditaments, or any claufe thereof, (hall be
revocable, otherwife than by fome other will or codicil in
writing, or other writing declaring the fame, or by burning,
cancelling, tearing, or obliterating the fame by the teftator
himfelf, or in his prefence, and by his direftions and confent ;
but all devifes and beqiiefts of lands and tenements ftiall re-
main and continue in force, until the fame be burnt, can-
celled, torn, or obliterated by the teftator, or by his direc-
tions

WILL.

tions in manner aforefaid, or unlefs the fame be altered by
fome other will or codicil in writing, or other writing of
the devifor, figned in the prefence of tl.ree or four witnefles
declaring the fame.

And no will in writing concerning any goods or chattels
or perfonal cilate fhall be repealed, nor (hall any claufe,
devife, or bequell therein be altered or changed, by any
words, or will by word of mouth only, except the fame be
in the life of the teftator committed to writing, and after the
writing thereof read unto the teftator, and allowed by him,
and proved to be fo done by three witnefles at the leaft.

A will which %\-ill pafs perfonal eftatc is not a fufficient
revocation of ? former will, by which a real eilate is de-
vifed. Com) ;is, 451.

Although the itatute fays, that no will in writing con-
cerning perfonal eftates (hall be rtpealed by word of mouth
only, except the words be put into writing, and read to
and allowed by the teftator, and proved to be fo done by
three witnefles ; yet where a man by will in writing devifed
the refidue of his perfonal eftate to his wife, and ftie dying,
he afterwards by a nuncupative codicil bequeathed to an-
other all that he had given to his wife, this was refolved to
be good : for by the death of the wife, the devife of the
refidue was totally void ; and the codicil was no alteration
of the former will, but a new will for the refidue. i Abr.
Caf. Eq. 408.

Alfo, the ftatute hath not taken away revocations of
wills by aft of law ; as if the teftator afterwards make a
feoff'ment, or do any other aft inconfiftent \\4th the wiU :
but fuch revocation remains as before the ftatute. Carth. 81.
If a man devifes lands to one and his heirs, and after-
wards mortgages the fame lands to another for years or in
fee ; though a mortgage in fee is a total revocation at law,
yet in equity it fliall be a revocation pro tanto only. I Abr.
Eq. Caf. 410.

And the reafon is, becaufe a mortgage is not confidered
as a conveyance of the eftate, but only as a charge upon it ;
being merely a fecurity, and in the confideration of equity
carries only a chattel intereft, the creditor gains nothing
real, it affords no dower, and goes to executors. Sparrow
and Hardcaftle, May 6, 1754. 3 Atk. 798.

But if lands be devifed to one in fee, and afterwards
mortgaged to the fame devifee ; this is a revocation in toto,
being inconfiftent with the devife : but if the mortgage had
been to a ilranger," it had been a revocation quoad the mort-
gage only. Prec. Cha. 514.

If a man feifed in fee devifes it to one in fee or for life,
and afterwards makes a leafe to another for years ; this,
even at law, fliall not be a revocation but during the years.
I RoU's Abr. 616.

So if a huftjand poflefled for forty years devifes it to his
wife, and after leafes the land to another for twenty years,
and dies ; this leafe is not any revocation of the whole eftate,
but only during the twenty years, and the wife fhall have
the refidue by the devife. Id.

But where a man feifed of a leafe for lives devifed it, and
afterward furrendered the old leafe, and took a new one to
him and his heirs for three lives ; it was decreed, that this
renewal of the leafe was a revocation of the will as to this
particular. For by the furrender of the old leafe, the tef-
tator had put all out of him, had diverted himfelf of the
whole intereft ; fo that there being nothing left for the de-
yife to work upon, the will muft fall, and the new purchafe,
being of a freehold defcendible, could not pafs by a will
made before fuch purchafe. 3 P. Wms. 166. 170.

But where the teftator devifed all and fingular his leafe-
hold eftate, and afterwards renewed a leafe ; it was held by

lord Hardwicke clearly, tliat this leafehold eftate paffed by
the will : for that this is not a fpecific legacy, but only an
enumeration of the feveral particulars of the perfonal eftate,
but yet is a general devife of the whole. 3 Atk. 199.

Though a covenant or articles do not at law revoke a
will ; yet if entered into for a valuable confideration,
amounting in equity to a conveyance, they muft confe-
quently be an equitable revocation of a will, or of any
writing in nature thereof. 2 P. Wms. 624.

A woman's marriage is alone a revocation of her wiU.
Id.

A man made a will, and appointed one (who was no re-
lation ) to be his executor. He afterwards went abroad,
where he became a governor of one of the plantations, and
fent over for an Englifli woman of his acquaintance, whom
he married, and had children by ; and died, without an
aftual revocation of his will. Yet it was determined, that
this total alteration of his circumftances was an imolied re-
vocation. I P. Wms. 304.

It is an eftabliflied maxim, that wills fliould be conftrued
favourably. Accordingly, the intention of the teftator is
called by lord Coke the polar-ftar, to guide the judges in
the expofition of wills. In divers inftaCces, relating to the
interpretation of wifls, collateral evidence hath been admitted
in the court of chancery to explain the teftator's intention.
But notwithftanding thefe cafes, the courts have been very
unwilhng to admit of parol evidence in relation to any thing
that appears on the face of a will ; and it is certain that too
much caution cannot well be ufed in this particular, efpe-
cially when it is confidered that the ftatute of frauds and
perjuries, which was made to prevent perjury, contrariety
of evidence, and uncertainty, binds the courts of equity as
well as the common-law courts ; as alfo that little regard
ought in many cafes to be had to the expreffions of the tef-
tator, either before or after the making his will, becaufe
poflibly thefe expreflions might be ufed by him, on purpofe
to conceal or difguife what he was doing, or to keep the
family quiet, or for other fecret motives and inducements
which cannot after his death be found out. 2 Bac. Abr.

Notwithftanding that wills are generally favoured by the
law ; yet where the teftator endeavours to eftablifli a fettle-
ment againft the reafon and policy of the common law, the
judges will rejeft it. Gilb. 110. 2 Bac. Abr. 79.

Alfo where the teftator by his will maketh no other dif-
pofition of his eftate than the law itfelf would have done,
had he been filent ; there fuch a will is ufelefs, and fhall be
rejefted : and, therefore, if a devife be made to a perfon
and his heirs, which perfon is heir at law to the devifor ;
this is a void devife, and the heir fliall take by defcent as his
better title ; for the defcent ftrengthens his title, by taking
away the entry of fuch as may poflibly liave right to the
eftate ; whereas if he claims by devife, he is in as by pur-
chafe. Gilb. no. 2 Bac. Abr. 79.

Alfo devifes are void and rejected, where the words of
the will are fo general and uncertain, that the teftator's
meaning cannot be collefted from them ; and, therefore,
where a man by will gave all to his mother, the general
words did carry no lands to his mother ; for fince the heir at
law hath a plain and uncontroverted title, unlefs the anceftor
difinherits him, it would be fevere and unreafonable to fet
him afide, unlefs fuch intention of the teftator is evident
from the will ; for that were to fet up and prefer a dark
and at beft but a doubtful title to a clear and certain one.
Gilb. 112. 2 Bac. Abr. 81.

The claufe of " perfeft mind and memory" is more ufual
than neceffary in a will, and yet not hurtful. ( Swinb. 7. )

But

WILL.

But in cafe of contell, it is necefTary to prove the fanity of
the teftator. 2 Atk. 56.

For the different modes of devife, and the legal meaning
of the appropriate terms by which they are expreffed, we
refer to Burn's Ecclefiaftical Law, ubi infra.

From the above accounts it follows, that teftaments may
be avoided three ways : i. If made by a perfop labouring
under any of the incapacities before mentioned. 2. By
making another teftament of a later date. And, 3. By
cancelling or revoking it.

The Romans were wont to fet afide teftaments, as being
inofficwfa, deficient in natural duty, if they difinherited or
totally paffed by (without afligning a true and fufficient
reafon) any of the children of the teftator. But if the child
had any legacy, though ever fo fmall, it was a proof that
the teftator had not loft his memory nor his reafon, which
otherwife the law prefumed. Hence probably, fays B4ack-
ftone, has arifen that groundlefs vulgar error of the necef-
fity of leaving the heir a ftiiUing or fome other exprefs
legacy, in order to effeftually difinherit him ; whereas the
law of England, though the heir or next of kin be totally
omitted, admits no querela tnofficioja, to fet afide fuch tefta-
ment. Burn's Eccl. Law, vol. iv. art. Will. Blackft.
Com. book ii.

Wills of Seamen and Marines. By the ftatute 26 Geo. III.
c. 63. no will made by any petty officer or feaman in the
king's fervice, whereby any wages, pay, prize-money, or
allowance of money of any kind due for fuch fervice is be-
queathed, ftiall be valid, unlefs, if made while the party is
in the fervice, it be figned before and attefted by the captain,
or the officer then commanding, and one of the figning of-
ficers of the ftiip to which the party belongs, and unlefs it
fpeeify in the body thereof the name of the ftiip, and the
number at which the maker of the will ftands upon the
(hip's books, and contains a full defcription of the refidence,
profeflion, or bufinefs of the perfon in whofe favour it is
made, and the day of the montli and the place where it was
executed, or by the agent of any of his majefty's hofpitals
or quarters appointed to receive fick and wounded feamen,
in which the party may be at the time ; or if made by fuch
officer or feaman difcharged from the fervice, within the
bills of mortality, unlefs it be attefted by the officer ap-
pointed by the treafurer of the navy to infpe-ft fuch wills %
or if made at any of the ports where feamen's wages are
paid, unlefs it be attefted by the treafurer of the navy, chief
or fecond clerk there ; or if made at any other place, unlefs
it be attefted by the minifter and churchwardens of the parifh
in England or Ireland, or by two elders of the parifti in
Scotland. In order to obtain a probate thereof, the will
muft be fent to a proftor by the infpeftor of wills appointed
I by the treafurer of the navy.

I If any fuch petty officer or feaman (hould die inteftate,
! the perfon claiming adminiitration muft apply by petition to
■ the faid infpeftor, who is to grant a certificate direfted to
; a proftor, that letters of adminiftration may pafs in favour
1 of the petitioner, if entitled thereto by law.
I If any proftor, regifter, or other officer of any ecclefi-
i aftical court fhall be aiding and affifting in procuring pro-
' bate of a will, or letters of adminiftration, for the purpofe
' of enabling any perfon to receive fuch wages, pay, prize-
I money, or allowance of money of any kind, without firft
[ obtaining the certificate from the infpeftor of feamen's
: wills, or perfon authorized to officiate for him, every fuch
' proftor, regifter, or other officer, ftiall forfeit 500/., and for
ever after be incapable of afting in any capacity in any ec-
! clefiaftical court in Great Britain or Ireland.
i And by the 32 Geo. III. c. 34. after the ift day of Au-
Vol. XXXVIII.

guft 1792, noletterof attorney or will of a non-commiffioned
officer of marines or marine ftiall be valid unlefs made accord-
ing to the z6 Geo. III. c. 63.

All are to be deemed petty officers, feamen, marines, &c.
except fuch as are rated upon the books of fuch ftiip, ad-
mirals or flag officers, and their fecretaries, captains, and
lieutenants, mafters, fecond mafters, and pilots, phyficians,
furgeons, chaplains, boatfwains, gunners, carpenters, and
purfers, captains of marines, captain lieutenants of marines,
lieutenants, and quarter-mafters of marines.

Every lieutenant, on board any of his majefty's ftiips,
ftiall upon a page of every mufter book of fuch ftiip fign
his name for the purpofe, and for the purpofe only, that the
infpeftor of feamen's wills, or fuch perfon as ftiall be de-
puted by him, may have an opportunity of comparing the
fame with the name of any fuch lieutenant attefting the will,
&c. executed by or in favour of any petty officer, feaman,
non-commiffioned officer of marines or marine.

And all captains of ftiips ftiall, upon their monthly muf-
ter books or returns, fpeeify which of the men, mentioned in
the faid returns, have granted or iffued any will or teftament
during that month or fpace of time from the preceding re-
turns, by inferting the date thereof oppofite to the party's
name. The mufter books, &c. in cafe of failing from any
foreign ftation, at a time when no opportunity ftiall offer of
tranfmitting them to the navy-board, to be left with the
naval officer of the place, if any, or with forae refpeftable
merchant, with direftions to forward the fame to the com-
miffioners of his majefty's navy by the firft fafe opportunity,
and in cafe of the removal of the commander, to be deli-
vered over to his fucceflbr and a receipt given for the fame.

Provided that it ftiall be lawful for the minifter of anv
parifti, to whom the infpeftor of feamen's wills ftiall trans-
mit his check of any letter of attorney or will, pafted and
allowed by him, to deliver the faid check to the attorney or
executor in the faid letter of attorney or will named and ap-
pointed. And all feamen's letters of attorney, and wills
made prior to the ift of Auguft 1786, and thofe of marines
prior to the ift of Auguft 1792, ftiall be examined and in-
fpefted by the infpeftor of feamen's wills for the purpofe of
preventing frauds, forgeries, or impofitions of any kind
therein ; and if fuch infpeftor ftiall fee no caufe to fufpeft
the authenticity of the fame, he ftiall affix the ftamp of his
office, and iffue checks for the fame, but if he ftiall fee good
caufe to fufpeft the truth and authenticity of fuch letter of
attorney or will, he ftiall report the fame to the treafurer, or
to the paymafter of the navy, and ftiall enter his caveat
againft fuch letter of attorney or will, which ftiall prevent
any money from being had or received thereon until the fame
ftiall be authenticated to the fatisfaftion of the faid treafurer
or paymafter.

The wages, pay, prize-money, or allowances of petty
officers or feamen, non-commiffioned officers of marines, and
marines dying inteftate, are to be paid only upon letters of
adminiftration obtained in the following manner :

The perfon claiming fuch adminiftration ftiall fend or give
in a note or letter to the infpeftor of feamen's wills, ftating
the name of the deceafed, the name of the ftiip or fliips to
which he belonged, and that he has heard or been informed
of his death, and requefting the infpeftor to give fuch di-
reftions as may enable him to procure letters of adminiftra-
tion to the deceafed, or to the like effeft, upon receipt
whereof tlie infpeftor of feamen's wills (hall deliver or fend
to the perfon claiming fuch adminiftration, a paper in a pe-
cuUar form of words, which paper being duly filled up and
certified ftiall be returned to the treafurer, or to the pay-
mafter of his majefty's navy, London, who upon receiving

3L the

W I L

the fame fliall direft the infpeftor of fearaen's wills to exa-
mine the fame, and make fuch inquiry relative thereto as
may appear to him ncceffary on that behalf; and being fatis-
fied, he fhall forthwith make out a certificate for obtaining
letters of adminiftration, and purfue the courfe minutely
defcribed in Burn's Ecclefiaftical Law, art. irills.

By 32 Geo. III. c. 34. the following fums are to be paid
for the feal, parchment, writing, and fuing forth of probates
of wills and letters of adminillration granted in purfuance
of this aft, for the purpofe of receiving wages, or pay, or
allowances of money of any kind, which fliall remain due to

the deceafed, viz.

£. s. d.

For probates of wills, if the goods and chattels')

are under the value of 20/. - - - J

For letters of adminillration . - -

For probates of wills under 40/. - - -

For adminiftration - - . - -

For probates of wills under 60/. - - -

For adminiftration . - . . -
For probates of wills under 100/.

For adminiftration . - . - -
For commiflions or requifitions to fwear executors
or adminiftrators :

Under 20/. . . - - -

And under 100/. . - - -

15

4
8

17

II

8

13
II

15

3

But if the probates or letters of adminiftration be granted
to the widow, children, father, mother, brother, or After,
in purfuance of this aft, for the fame purpofe of receiving
wages, or pay, or allowances of money of any kind, which
ftiall remain due to fuch warrant or petty officer, &c. then
the following fums are to be paid, viz.

15

16

For probates of wills under 20/. - - -
For adminiftration . - . - -

For probates of wills under 40/. - • -
For adminiftration . - . - -
For probates of wills under 60/. - - -
For adminiftration - . . - -
For probates of wills under 100/.
For adminiftration . - . - -
For commiflions or requifitions to fwear executors
or adminiftrators :

Under 20/. ----- O

Under 40/. . . - • - o

Under 60/. ----- o
Under loo/. 0186

And no more than ^s. are to be taken for the fuing forth
of the probate of any will or letters of adminiftration granted
to the widow, children, father, mother, brother, or filler
of any fuch feaman or marine, &c. and jj. for commiffions
or requifitions to fwear fuch widow, &c. unlefs the goods
amount to 100/.: which laft-mentioned charge of ^s. muft
be underftood to be demandable where the probate or letters
of adminiftration are not for the purpofe of receiving wages,
or pay, or allowances of money remaining due, but for ge-
neral purpofes, as to obtain adminiftration of the goods and
chattels of the deceafed.

A bill of the expences of obtaining letters of adminiftra-
tion to creditors, is to be laid before and taxed by one of
the regifters of the prerogative court of Canterbury, or
their deputies, who are entitled to a fee of 3/. 4<i. for the
fame ; and the proftor is to tranfmit fuch letters of admi-
niftration wnth the bill of expences fo certified, to the trea-
furer or paymafter of his majefty's navy. Proctors taking
more than the prefcribed fums forfeit joA, and regifters and

12

W 1 L

other officers of any ecclefiaftical court, procuring letters
of adminiftration or probate contrary to this aft and the
26 Geo. III., to be incapacitated to aft, and forfeit 500/.

Will, Qualijication and Office of the Executor of a. See
Executor, Executor de fan Tort, and ioi'HT-Executors.
See alfo Debts, Ti^wc^^-Executor, Inventory, and Le-
gacy.

Will, Prolate of a. See Probate.

Will, EJlate at, in Law, is where lands and tenements
are let by one man to another, to have and to hold at the
will of the leffor ; and the tenant by force of this leafe ob-
tains pofleffion. Every eftate of this kind is at the will of
both parties, landlord ^nd tenant : fo that either of them
may determine his will, and quit his conneftion with the
other at his ovtn pleafure, under certain reftriftions. For,
if the tenant at will fows his land, and the landlord, before
the corn is ripe, or reaped, puts him out, the tenant fhall
have the emblements, and free ingrefs and egrefs to cut and
carry away the profits. But where the tenant himfelf deter-
mines the will, the landlord fhall have the profits of the
land. The law is careful, that no fuch fudden determina-
tion of the will by one party fhall tend to the manifeft and
unforefeen prejudice of the other. This appears in the cafe
of emblements juft mentioned ; and alfo, the leflee after the
determination of the leffor's will ftiall have reafonable ingrefs
and egrefs to fetch away his goods and utenfils. And if
rent be payable quarterly or half-yearly, and the leffee de-
termines the will, the rent fhall be paid to the end of the
current quarter or half-year. Upon the fame principle,
courts of law have of late years inclined as much as poffible
againil conflruing demifes, where no certain term is men-
tioned, to be tenancies at will : but have rather held them
to be tenancies from year to year, fo long as both parties
pleafe, efpecially where an annual rent is referved : in which
cafe they will not fuffer either party to determine the tenancy
even at the end of the year, without reafonable notice to the
other. Blackft. Com. vol. ii.

Will 'with a Whifp. See Ignis Fatuus.

Will'j Coiie, in Geography^ a creek on the N.E. coall
of the ifland of St. Chriftopher, to the S.W. of Muddy-
Point.

Will'j Creek, a river of Maryland, which runs into the
Potomack, N. lat. 39° 30'. W. long. 78° 47'.

WILLACH. SeeViLLACH.

WILLAERT, Adrian, in Biography, the difciple of
John Mouton, and mafter of Zarhno, has been long placed
at the head of the Venetian fchool of counterpoint by the
Italians themfelves. He was born at Bruges in Flanders,
and during his youth ftudied the law at Paris ; if with the
view of making it his profeflion, there muft have been an
early conflift between legiflation and mufic, which having a
powerful advocate in his own heart gained the caufe ; for
by his own account (fee Josquin) he went to Rome in the
time of Leo X., where he found tliat his motet, " Verbum
bonum et fuave," was performed in the pontifical chapel,
as the work of that renowned compofer ; he therefore muft
have been a contrapuntift fome time, before any of his works
could have travelled to Rome.

The account which Zarlino gives of this motet ( P. i.
p. 175."! having pafled for a work of Jofquin, excited our
curiofity to fee it ; and finding it among the Motetti della
Corona, in the Britifh Mufeum, we fcored it ; but difco-
vered that the predileftion for a great name had operated
too powerfully in favour of this compofition while Jofquin
was imagined to be the author of it ; for it is neither writ-
ten with the clearncfs, dexterity, nor even correftnefs, of
that wonderful contrapuntift : there is not only confufion in

the

r

W I L

the parts and defign, in many places, but fomething veiy
harfh and unpleafing in the harmony, particularly in the
clofes without a fharp feventh, both in the key-note and in
the fifth. The motet is in fix parts, foprano, two counter-
tenors, tenor, baritono, and bafe. Some of thefe fevenths
vpould doubtlefs liave been made fharp in performance by
the fingers of thofe times, in obedience to a rule for fiiarpen-
ing afcending fevenths in minor keys, and flattening them in
defcending.

The Hit of his works, in Walther's Diftionary, though
ample, is far from complete. The motet Verbum bonum,
juft mentioned, was publifhed at FofTombrone in 15 19, forty-
three years before Zarlino made him an interlocutor in his
dialogue (Ragionamente), at Venice ; and it can hardly be
imagined that no others of his compofitions appeared till
1542, when, we are told, that his motets for fix voices were
publifhed. In the Fior de Motetti, lib. i. Venice, 1539,
there is a Pater-nofter, in four parts, by Adriano ; and in
the fame year the firft book of his motets, for four voices,
was republifhed in the fame city by Ant. Gardano, in folio,
under the following pompous title : " Famofiffimi Adriani
Willaert, Chori Divi Marci illuftriflimse Reipublics Vene-
tiarum Magiftri, Mufica Quatuor Vocum (quse vulgo Mo-
teftas nuncupatur) noviter omni ftudio, ac diligentia in lu-
cem edita." This edition, which, we find by the title, was
not the firft, is preferved in the Britifh Mufeum. Indeed,
for near fifty years after his name firfl appeared, hardly a
coUeAion of motets or madrigals was publifhed to which he
did not contribute ; but the moft fplendid and curious work
of this author, that we have feen, is preferved in the Britiih
Mufeum. It was publifhed at Ferrara, 1558, by his fcho-
lar and friend, Francefco Viola, another of the interlocutors
in Zarlino's Ragionamente, under the title of Mufica Nova,
in three, four, five, fix, and feven parts. In the dedication
of this work to Alfonfo d'Efle, duke of Ferrara, the editor,
1 his maeflro di capella, calls Adriano (the name by which he
1 is always mentioned by the Italians) his mafter, and fays,
that he is ftrongly attached to him, not only for his wonder-
I ful abilities in mufic, but integrity, learning, and the friend-
! (hip with which he has long honoured him. Zarlino, in like
1 manner, omits no opportunity of exalting the charafter of
I his mailer. Thefe are honourable teftimonies of regard,
j which feem the more worthy of being recorded, as, either
! from the worthlefTnefs of the mafter, or ingratitude of the
; fcholar, they are but feldom beftowed.
I In the cantus part there is a wooden cut of the author :
I " Adrian WiUaert Flandrii Effigies." And indeed the com-
' pofitions are of that kind for which he was moft renowned,
I and fuch as the editor thought would conftitute the moft
■ durable monument of his glory. In the tenor part there are
I many canons of very curious conftruftion ; fome with two and
' three clefs, and a different number of flats and fharps for the
1 feveral parts, which are moving in different keys at the fame
' time ; and one particularly curious, in feven parts, " Praeter
1 rerum feriem," of which three are in ftrift canon of the
i fourth and fifth above the guide ; the tenor leading off in
I G, the fextus following in C, and the feptima pars in D,
• while the reft move in free fugue.

I Zarlino (P. iii. p. 268.) affigns to Adriano the invention
I of pieces for two or more choirs; and Piccitoni (Guida
j Armonica) fays, that he was the firft who made the bafes in
1 compofitions of eight parts, move in unifons or oftaves ;
i particularly when divided into two choirs, and performed at
1 a diftance from each other, as then they had occafion for a
powerful guide. The dexterity and refources of this author,
i in the conllruftion of canons, are truly wonderful, as is, in-
j deed, his t»tal want of melody ; for it is fcarcely poflible to

W I L

arrange mufical founds, diatonically, with lefs air or mean-
ing, in the fingle parts. But there are many avenues through
which a mufician may travel to the temple of Fame ; and he
that purfues the track which the learned have marked out,
will perhaps not find it the moft circuitous and tedious ; at
leaft theorifts, who are tlie moft likely to record the adven-
tures of pafTengers on that road, will be the readieft to give
him a caft. A learned and elaborate ftyle conceals the want
of genius and invention, more than the free and fanciful
productions of the prefent times.

Adriano lived to a great age, and filled a very high mufi-
cal ftation, macftro di capella of St. Mark's church at Venice.
His works and fcholars were very numerous ; and among
thofe to whom he communicated the principles of his art,
there were feveral who afterwards arrived at great eminence ;
fuch as Cipriano Rore, Zarlino, and Coftanzo Porta. In
the title of a book, publifhed at Venice, 1549, there are
" Fantafie," or " Ricercari," compofed dallo excellentiflimo
Adrian Vuigliart, and Cipriano Rore, fuo difcepolo. P.
Martini, in his Saggio di Contrappunto, P. ii. p. 266. calls
Adrian Willaert the mafter of Coftanzo Porta. Burney.

WILLAFANS, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Doubs ; 3 miles S.E. of Ornans.

WILLAKALA, a town of Sweden, in Finland; 48
miles E. of Biorneborg.

WILLAWAKY, an Indian town on the N.W. coaft
of lake Michigan. N. lat. 47° 45'. W. long. 87° 10'.

WILLDENOVIA, in Botany, received its name from
profefTor Thunberg, in honour of Dr. Charles Lewis Will-
denow, late profefTor of botany at Berlin, well known as
the author of many learned botanical writings, but efpe-
cially by his Species Plantanim, of which the immortal work
of Linnasus, bearing the fame title, is the bafis. The ad-
dition of effential charafters, and of many new fpecies, be-
fides thofe accumulated in profufion, with great intelligence
and difcrimination, from authors fubfequent to Linnaeus,
might entitle this to rank as an original work ; were not
the Linnasan part of it too fervile a tranfcript, not only of
miftakes, of remarks contradiAing each other, and of evi-
dently falfe fynonyms ; but in general of errors of the
prefs, and wrong citations of plates and pages, which prove
that the refpeftive books, though in every body's hands,
were not confulted. The learned editor happily lived to
complete the firft part of the fifth volume, comprifing the
order of Filices, in which he was well verfed. That he
left the reft of the Cryptogamla unattempted, is perhaps ra-
ther fortunate than otherwife. The Mufci, Lichenes, and
Fungi, each form a ftudy by themfelves, and are treated of
feparately by different authors. They would have added
enormoufly to Willdenow's work, and could, after all, have
proved but a compilation. If the fcience goes on as it has
done, an univerfal botanift will be nearly as impoffible a
charafter as an univerfal naturalift is at prefent.

Another genus (fee Schlechtendalia) was dedicated
to Willdenow by Cavanilles, which is retained in Lamarck's
lUuftrations, t. 685, by the name of Vildenovia. The
change of orthography at the conclufion we readily adopt,
inftead of the uncouth IVilldenowa, or Willdeno'wia, and it is
now likewife followed by Thunberg himfelf, in his Flora
Capenfis. — Thunb. in Stockh. Tranf. for 1790, 28. Prodr.
14. Fl. Capenf. v. i. 312. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 717.
Poiret in Lamarck Dift. v. 6. 177. — Clafs and ordei, Dioe'
cia Triandria. (Triandria Monogynia ; Thunb.) — Nat.
Ord. Tripetaloidex, Linn. Junci, Juff. Rejliaceie, Brown
Prodr. V. i. 243.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth inferior, of numerous, im-
bricated, membranous, pointed, permanent glumes, longer
3 L 3 than

W I L

W I L

than the fruit. Cor. Petals fix, equal, ereft, oval, mem-
branous, permanent. Stam. Filaments three, capillary,
fhorter than the corolla ; anthers ovate -oblong.

Female, Calyx and corolla as in the male. Pijl. Germen
fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle very ftiort, two or three-cleft ;
ftigmas two or three, downy. Peric. Drupa dry, roundifh,
fmooth. Seed. Nut folitary, of one cell.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of many imbricated glumes. Co-
rolla of fix petals, permanent.

Female, Calyx and corolla as in the male. Style one.
Stigmas two or three. Drupa with one feed.

Obf. This genus differs from Restio (fee that article),
chiefly in having a fingle-feeded drupa inftead of a capfule,
opening by valves, and containing feveral feeds. We have
here merely altered the phrafeology refpefting the calyx,
which in Rejlio is termed, rather improperly, a catkin.

1. VJ.Jlriata. Striated Willdenovia. Thunb. in Stockh.
Tranf for 1790, 27. t. 2. f. l. Fl. Cap. v. i. 312. Willd.
n. I. Poiret n. 3 — Stem leaflefs, round, ftriated. — Native
of the Cape of Good Hope, as are likewife the two fol-
lowing fpecies. The Jlem is two feet high, or more, ereft,
rufhy, hard and rather (hrubby, branched, ufually fimply
forked, rarely three-forked, round, jointed, ftriated, fmooth ;
the branches alfo round, ftriated. Sheaths at each joint and
fubdivifion folitary, ovate, clofe, brown, fmooth. Leaves
none. Flowers terminal, folitary, ereft, the fize of a pea.
Scales of the calyx about ten, rarely fewer, or more, loofely
imbricated, equal, oblong, pointed, brown, fmooth, the
length of the nail, membranous at the edges. Corolla white,
much fiiorter than the drupa, and prcfled clofe to its fides.
Style in two ftiort, broad, yellow divifions. Stigmas (hort,
obtufe, brown. Drupa ovate, black, dotted ; fometimes,
according to Thunberg, of two cells, which laft circum-
ftance, if real, greatly invalidates the generic charafter.

2. W. teres. Smooth Willdenovia. Thunb. in Stockh.
Tranf. for 1790, 28. t. 2. f. 2. Fl. Cap. v. I. 314. Willd.
n. 2. Poiret n. I. — Stem and branches leaflefs, round,
fmooth and even. The Jlem of this fpecies is fliriibby, much
branched, jointed, fimply or triply forked, ereft, a foot or
more in height, not ftriated ; its branches fomewhat level-
topped. Sheaths at each fubdivifion ovate, brown, fmooth,
as long as the nail. Flowers terminal, folitary, ereft.
Scales of the calyx about fix, ovate, awned, grey and
fmooth. Petals very fhort, emarginate, fliining, furround-
ing the bafe of the fruit. Style undivided, very ftiort.
Stigmas feathery, tapering, purplifli. Drupa hard, ovate,
black, fmooth, of one cell. — This plant differs from the
foregoing in having fewer calyx fcaks, a fmooth and more
branched Jlem, long tapering Jligmas, and a fmooth, not
dotted, fruit. Poiret, who had feen a fpecimen, attributes
to the prefent fpecies the fleftiy cyhndrical body, with fix
notches, furrounding the bafe of the corolla externally, which
Willdenow calls a nedary, and admits into his generic cha-
rafter. We have feen but few and incomplete fpecimens of
any of the genus, and therefore cannot judge of the part in
queftion, but we prcfume the term necliry muft here be mif-
applied. Thunberg does not mention it in his Flora.

3. W. comprejfa. Comprefled Willdenovia. Thunb. in
Stockh. Tranf. for 1790, 28. t. 2. f. 3. Fl. Cap. v. I. 315.
Willd. n. 3. Poiret n. 2 — Stem leafy, fmooth and even ;
branches compreft'ed. Stem two feet high, or more, ftirubby,
ereft, fmooth in every refpeft, fimply or triply forked ; its
branches comprefled, or femi-cylindrical, wand-like. Sheaths
of the fubdivifions ovate, pointed. Leaves on the young
branches, and refembling them, thread-ftiaped, tapering.
Flowers terminal, folitary, upright, the fize of a pea.
Scales of the calyx ovate, awned, fmooth, membranous at

the edges. Petals ovate, acute, as long as the fruit. Stjlg
undivided. Stigmas three, feathery. Drupa ovate, com-
prefled, obtufe, grey. Thunberg.

WILLED ROD, in .S/Vfl/Aj, theapoftleof Frifeland,
was an Anglo-Saxon, and born in Northumberland about
the year 658, and educated in the abbey of Rippon, where
he engaged in the religious profeffion. At the age of
33, he accompanied eleven of his countrymen into Ba-
tavia, and employed himfelf for three or four years in con-
verting the Frifians who were under the French dominion ;
and having met with great fuccefs, he went to Rome, and
received from pope Sergiusthe pallium, ordaining him arch-
bifliop of Frifeland. Pepin gave him a refidence at Wilte-
burg, now Utrecht, of which he was the firft prelate. Em-
barking from Frifeland for the north, he penetrated into Den-
mark, and in his return was caft by a ftoi-m on an ifland
called Fofteland, fuppofed to be the fame with Heligoland.
He afterwards baptized Pepin, fon of Charles Martel, and
fpent the reft of his life in propagating Cliriftianity among
the Batavians. His colleague and affiftant was Winfrid,
his countryman, furnamed Boniface, the apoftle of Ger-
many. He died in 740, at the age of 82 ; was buried
at his abbey of Eilernac, in the diocefe of Treves, and ho-
noured with canonization. His life was written by the
celebrated Alcuin. Moiheim. Moreri.

WILLEMSTADT, or WiLLiAMSTADT,in Geography,
a ftrong town of Holland, fituated upon that part of the Meufe
called I3uttervliet, built in 1584, by William L, prince of
Orange, from whom it receives its name. This fortrefs is one
of the keys of Holland, and defended with feven baftions and
double foflfe ; it has alfo a good harbour, but which it is fome-
times dangerous for veflels to enter at certain times of the
year. It was befieged by the French in the year 1793, ^''*-
by the brave refiftance of the governor and garrifon, aflifted
by the Engllfli, with gun-boats, &c. the befiegers were
compelled to retire with great lofs ; 12 miles S.W. of
Dort. N. lat. 51° 41'. E. long. 4° 18'.

WILLENBERG, or Wildenberg, atownof Pruffia,
in the province of Oberland ; 93 miles S. of Kbnigfljerg.
N. lat. 53° 1 1'. E. long. 20° 53'.

WILLERING, a town of Auftria, on the Danube; 4
miles W. of Lintz.

WILLERSDORF, a town of Bavaria, in the bi-
fliopric of Bamberg ; 5 miles S.W. of Forcheim.

WILLET's Bay, a bay on the north-weft coaft of the
ifland of St. Chriftopher, about a mile to the fouth-weft of
Dieppe Bay.

WILLIAM I., called " the Conqueror," king of Eng-
land, and duke of Normandy, in Biography, was the natu-
ral fon of Robert, duke of Normandy, by Arlotta, the
daughter of a tanner, and born in 1024. When his father
went on a pilgrimage to Jerufalem, and his fon was only
nine years of age, he caufed the ftates of the duchy to
fwear allegiance to WiUiam, as his heir. On his return in
1033, Robert died ; and the confequence was a variety of
diffenfions among the barons of the duchy, in which
Henry I. of France took a part ; fo that when William ar-
rived at majority, he found his dominions in a low and dif-
trafted ftate. But his vigour and exertions foon reftored
order and fubmiflion, and general tranquillity through his
duchy. Edward the Confeflbr, at this time king of Eng-
land, had no children ; and the archbiftiop of Canterbury,
who was a Norman, recommended his adopting William
as his fucceflbr, and he was commiflioned by the king to
inform the duke of his intention. However, as he had not
publicly divulged his purpofe, Harold, the fon of eari God-
win, afcended the throne without oppofition, on his deceafe

WILLIAM.

jii Jo66. Harold, however, liad previoufly taken a folemn
oath to afiill William in accompliihing the purpofe of Ed-
ward refpedling the fucceflion ; and his perfidy excited the
indignation of William, and induccd-him to prepare for dif-
poffefTing Harold of the Englilh throne by force of arms.
His intentions were no fooner announced than he was joined
by a great number of military adventurers ; and upon an ap-
peal to Rome, the pope fanflioned the conteft, and fcnt him
a confecrated banner. Thus encouraged, he affembled a
fleet of 3000 veflels, and an army of 60,000 men ; and de-
termining on invading England, landed on September 28,
1066, at Pevenfey, in Suffex. Harold, as foon as he re-
ceived this intelligence, marched from York, and having re-
cruited his forces at London, haftened to encounter the
Normans, who were encamped near Haftings. On the 14th
of Odlober the two armies engaged, and after a fevere
battle, which lafted during a whole day, the Englifh were
defeated, with the lofs of Harold and his two brothers.
William loft no time in availing himfelf of this viftory ; but
having reduced the town and caftle of Dover, and received
the fubmiffion of the Kentilli men, proceeded towards Lon-
don. In his way he was met by Edgar Atheling, who had
been proclaimed legal heir to the monarchy, Stigand, arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, and fome of the principal nobility,
who made an offer to him of the crown ; and on Chriftmas-
day, 1066, after a kind of tumultuous eleftion, he was
crowned at Weftminller-abbey by the archbilhop of York,
and took the coronation-oath. Having adopted meafures
for conciliating his fubjefts, and overawing thofe who were
adverfe to him, he re-croffed the fea to Normandy, taking
with him as hoftages Edgar, the primate, and feveral of the
principal nobihty. Soon after his departure, the Englilh
were treated contumehoufly and oppreffively by the Nor-
mans, whofe condudl excited infurrettions, and led to a con-
fpiracy for the maifacre of all who remained in the country.
This intelligence occafioned William's return in December
1067 ; and among other meafures of a more conciliatory na-
ture, he imprudently renewed the tax called " danegelt,"
which excited infurreftions through various parts of the
kingdom. As foon as thefe infurreftions were fupprefled,
his queen, Matilda, was crowned at Weftminfter : but new
troubles arofe from the union of the two principal nobles,
Edwin and Morcar, with the kings of Scotland and Den-
mark, and the prince of North Wales, which threatened an
extenifive revolt. The confpiracy for this purpofe was dif-
covered and cruflied, and meafures were taken for prevent-
ing the evils that were likely to refult from it. From this
time WiUiam's government became daily more and more
defpotic ; and the nobility of the country, perceiving that
their ruin was the objeft of his contemplation, prepared to
leave the kingdom. Infurreftions broke out in various parts
of the country, and the means which he adopted for fup-
prefling them were in the higheft degree rigorous and de-
ftruftive. As a meafure of future prevention, he brought
from Normandy the feudal conftitution into England, and
divided moft of the lands into baronies, which he granted to
the mod confiderable of his followers, under the condi-
tion of certain fervices and payments ; and thefe fubdivided
their (hares on fimilar tenures, among others, chiefly fo-
reigners, of inferior rank. The ecclefiaftical property of
the kingdom was regulated upon a fimilar fyftem ; and un-
der various pretences, the Normans fuperfeded the Englifh
in the poffefTion of all church dignities. In order to favour
this expulfion of the Englifh dignitaries, a legate from the
pope was, for the firfl time, admitted into this country, and
a reverence for the fee of Rome, fimilar to that which fub-
lifted on the coatinent, was inculcated on all Britilh fub-

2

jefts ; whilft the king took care, by referving certain powers
to himfelf, to guard the civil fovereignty againfl: papal
ufurpations. In order further to fubjugate the minds of
the Englifh, and reduce them to the ilate of a conquered
people, the king projeded the abolition of their language ;
and by admitting at court no other language befides the
French, he caufed all the youth in the fchools of the king-
dom to be inflrufted in it, and the laws to be drawn up in
that language, which was alfo ufed in all judicial pleadings
and writings.

Having fuppreffed an infurreftion which broke out in
107 1 by the inftigation of the earls Edwin and Morcar, and
in the following year negotiated a peace with Malcolm, king
of Scotland, he was called to Normandy in 1073, on occa-
fion of a revolt in that country. In 1075 his prefence was
neceffary in England to check a confpiracy among the Nor-
man barons, whom he had diftinguifhed by his favour, and
who were joined by Waltheof, an Englifh nobleman, on
whom he had bellowed his niece Judith. Waltheof, in thi»
confpiracy, fell a facrifice to the treachery of his wife. In
the following year, iiiz. 1076, the haughty and ambitious
Hildebrandjwho was now pope Gregory VII., required Wil-
liam to do homage for his kingdom to the holy fee, alleging a
promife to this purpofe, and alfo to pay the accuftomed Eng-
lifh tribute. William denied his promife of homage, which
he refufed to render, but remitted to Rome the Peter-pence ;
and whilft he would not allow the Englifh prelates to attend
a general council fummoned by Gregory, he permitted the
pope's legate to convene a fynod at Winchefter for eftablifti-
ing the ceHbacy of the clergy. On his return to Normandy
in this year, he found the country engaged in a civil war, in
confequence of a rebelhon excited by his fon Robert. On
this occafion the father and fon had a perfonal encounter ;
but when the fon difcovered that he was thus engaged, he
was ftruck with horror, fell at his father's feet, and implored
forgivenefs. The father was at firft unrelenting ; but they
were afterwards reconciled. About the year 1081, William
ordered that furvey of the landed property of the kingdom
to be made which is recorded in Domefday-book. ( See
Domesday. For an account of the impolitic as well as cruel
manner in which he indulged his paffion for the chace, we
refer to the article Forest. ) The latter years of his life fur-
nifhed various occafions of afBiftion and difquietude. The
death of his queen Matilda, to whom he was affectionately at-
tached, was an event that took place in 1083, and was thecaufe
of undifTembled forrow and lamentation. The preparations
made by the king of Denmark and the earl of Flanders for
an invafion of England occafioned to him no fmall degree of
anxiety : and when he was refcued from this danger by the
death of the Danifh king, he was called into Normandy in
1086, to repel the incurfions of fome French barons ; and
fufpeftingthat the king of Francehad inftigated them tothefe
afts of hoftility, he commenced a war againll him in 1087,
in the profecution of which he even laid wafte the country
at the approach of harveft by the moft cruel dcvaftation.
But an accidental injury which he received in mounting his
horfe flopped his career, and terminated in his death.
Alarmed by the near proipeft of diffolution, his mind was
haraffed with remorfe in the review of the atrocious con-
duft with which he was chargeable, and he fought relief
by donations to the church, to which perfons of his charac-
ter have commonly reforted, and by the pardon and releafe
of fome of his enemies. By his laft teftament he bequeathed
to his eldeft fon Robert the counties of Normandy and
Maine, and to his fecond fon William, the crown of Eng-
land, and to his third fon, Henry, the property of his mo-
ther. He expired at the abbey of St. Gervais, near

Rouenj

WILLIAM.

Rouen, on September 9, 1087, in the 63d year of his age,
and the 21ft. of his reign over England, leaving five daugh-
ters, as well as fens. " William the Conqueror at his
death," fays one of his biographers, " was themoft power-
ful and greateft fovereign of his time. He poffeffed fupe-
rior talents, pohtical and martial, and employed them with
Angular vigour and induftry. But his paffions were ftrong,
his difpofition was fevere and mercilefs, and his ambition and
love of rule caufed him to difregard all reftraints of juitice
and humanity. There never was a more fortunate ufurper
of a throne, which he tranfmitteJ to a long and ftill fubfift-
ing line of defcendants ; and the eftablifhment of his dynafty
is the moft confpicuous era of Enghfh hiftory." Rapin.
Hume. Henry. Lyttleton. Gen. Biog.

William H., furnamed Rufus, fecond fon of the Con-
queror, and king of England by his father's nomination, was
crowned at Wettminfler in September 1087, and recog-
nized as king when he was about 27 years of age. His
brother Robert fucceeded to the dukedom of Normandy by
the difpofition of his father, which proved the occafion of
much difcontent and conteft ; partly becaufe the great
barons poffeffed eftates both in England and Normandy, and
under feparate governments ; and partly becaufe Robert
was the eldeft fon, and the molt popular. A confpiracy
was foon formed by the maternal brothers of the late king,
in which many nobles concurred for depofing William.
But William, pofleffing a certain portion of his father's
vigour, took meafures for defeating them. With this view
he conciliated the native Englilh, took pofTefiion of the
caftles and perfons of the unfortunate barons, banifhed them
to Normandy, and bellowed their eftates on his faithful ad-
herents. When he was firmly feated on the throne, he for-
got his promifes of relieving the Enghlh from opprefBon,
and even enhanced the feverity of the foreft laws. The death
of Lanfranc, whom he refpefted, left him at liberty to feize
vacant biftioprics and abbeys, and to bcitow church lands
on his captains and favourites. In 1090 he vifited Nor-
mandy with hoftile intentions refpefting his brother ; but a
negociation took place, and they were reconciled. Robert
accompanied William to England, and commanded an army
which was fent againft Malcolm, king of Scotland. But a
variance foon took place between the brothers, occafioned
by the encroaching and treacherous difpofition of William,
which led him to excite the Norman barons to rebel againft
Robert. Whilft William was profecuting hoftile meafures
againft his brother, he was recalled to England in 1095, to
fupprefs a confpiracy among the barons in the north, whom
he fpeedily defeated and feverely punifhed. The fpirit of
crufading having at this time pervaded Europe, Robert was
feized with the mania, and mortgaged his dukedom to Wil-
liam for 10,000 marks, in order to enable him to unite with
the crufaders in 1096. William, having gone over to the
continent to take pofteffion of Normandy and Maine, was
taken extremely ill, and apprehending danger, refolved to
repair the injury which he had done to the church, and to
fupply the vacancy of the archbifhopric of Canterbury,
which had continued from the death of'Lanfranc. The
ecclefiaftic nominated on this occaCon was Anfelm, who,
notwithftanding the difinclination he had manifefted againft
accepting the appointment, was afterwards a zealous
defender of the rights of the church, and of ecclefiaftical
authority in general. The king and the primate foon dif-
agreed ; and though a fynod was aflembled for the depofi-
tion of the archbiftiop, the king failed in the attempt. But
when Anfelm defired permiflion to leave the kingdom, he
obtained leave ; but his temporahties were feized, and the
pope received him as a confeflbr in the caufe of religion.

William's French acquifitions were the occafion of trouble
to him ; for whilit he was hunting in the New Foreft, he
received information that the citadel of Maine was befieged,
and he therefore haftened to Dartmouth, and determined to
embark without delay. As the weather was tempeftuous,
the mariners cxprefled fome apprehenfion of danger ; the
king, however, was refolute and perfevering, and afl'Ced them
if they had ever heard of a king who was drowned. Having
accompliftied his objeft, he was applied to by the duke of
Guienne, who was under the influence of the paflion for cru-
fading, for the loan of a fum of money, as a mortgage on
his rich provinces of Guienne and Poitou. William ac-
cepted the propofal ; but whilft he was preparing to carry
over the money, and to take pofTefiion of the provinces, he
was accidentally killed in the New Foreft. Having alighted
from his horfe after a chafe, a ftag fprung up near him ;
and a French gentleman, Walter Tyrrel, perceiving the
animal, ftiot off^ an arrow, which glancing from a tree, en-
tered the king's breaft, and penetrated to the heart. Tyrrel
immediately fled, and embarking for France, joined the
crufaders. The king's body was found by the countrj'
people, and interred without ceremony at Winchefter.
This happened on Auguft 2, iioo, when the king was in
the 40th year of his age, and the 1 3th of his reign. The
character of William Rufus has been unfavourably repre-
fented, both on account of the depredations which he com-
mitted in the church, and of his indifference to religion.
" The incidents of his reign," fays a biographer, " prove
him to have poftefied vigour and decifion, courage and po-
licy ; but to have been violent, perfidious, and rapacious,
and void of all fenfe of juftice and honour. One of his beft .
pubhc afts was the fending Edgar Atheling into Scotland,
to reftore prince Edgar, fon of Malcolm, to the throne of
that kingdom, of which he was the lawful heir. He de-
ferves to be regarded as a promoter of the ufeful arts by his
ftill-remaining ereftions of the Tower, London-bridge, and
Weftminfter-hall." Gen. Biog.

William HI., king of England, prince of Orange, and
ftadtholder of Holland, was the pofthumous fon of Wil-
liam n., prince of Orange, and of Mary, daughter of
Charles I., king of England, and born on November 14,
1650, at a very intereiling period. His guardianftiip was
divided between the princefs-royal his mother, the princefs-
dovvager his grandmother, and the eleftor of Brandenburg.
During the negociations that fucceeded the naval war be-
tween the Enghfh and Dutch repubhcs, Cromwell, the pro-
teftor, ftipulated, that the prince of Orange, who was a
branch of the houfe of Stuart, Ihould be for ever excluded
from the ftadtholderate ; but on the event of the Reftora-
tion, the princefs-royal petitioned, in 1662, that her fon
might be inverted with the offices and dignities which be-
longed to his anceftors ; and foon after the att of exclufion
againft him was annulled. Although the ftates of Holland
would not admit, as a condition of peace in the fucceeding
war between England and the United States, the prelimi-
nary propofed by Charles II. of elevating the prince to the
ftadtholderate, they formally adopted him as " a child of the
ftate," and placed him under the care of perfous who
fliould infpire him with principles fuited to his fituation
under a free government. After fome fubfequent debates
concerning the rank which fliould be afiigned him, he was
raifed in 1670 to the dignity of firft noble of Zealand, and
then admitted into the council of ftate. On occafion of the
war, which was declared by Lewis, and his penlioner
Charles, againft the United States in 1672, the pubhc voice
obliged the magiftracy of Holland to revoke the perpetual
edift procured by De Witt for aboliflung the ftadtholder-
ate,

WILLIAM.

ate, and to confer that dignity with all its prerogatives upon
William. Thus authorized by the States to change the
regency in all the moft confiderable towns of Holland and
Zealand, party oppofition was extinguiftied, and every pro-
pofal for the defence of the country was unanimoufly
adopted. The prince, at this early age, fully jullified the
confidence that was repofed in him by the firmnefs and ele-
vation of his mind. At an extraordinary affembly of the
ftates, he pointed out, in an elaborate fpeech, the pernicious
confequences that muft refult from the " peace propofed by
the French king, who was in pofieffion of three of the pro-
vinces ; he fhewed the poflibility of raifing fupplies for a war
in defence of their rehgion and liberty ; and by the cool
intrepidity of his manner and force of his arguments, he
produced fuch an effeft upon his before-defponding audi-
ence, that they concurred in the refolution of making every
facrifice, rather than dcfert the caufe of their country.
Vigorous meafures were entered upon ; foreign alliances
were formed ; fortunate circumftances prevented the further
advance of the French, who evacuated the province of
Utrecht; Charles II. was obhged by his parliament to
make peace, in 1674, with the Dutch, who in the fame
year figned feparate treaties with the bifhop of Munfter
and the eleftor of Cologne ; and at length the three con-
quered provinces were re-united to the States General ; and
the conduft of the prince of Orange fo much ingratiated
him with the ftates of Holland, that the offices of ftadtholder
and captain-general were declared hereditary in his male
line." In all hismiUtary aftions, he difplayed both courage
and wifdom ; fo that the prince of Conde teftified in his
favour, that at the battle of SenefF, " he had in every point
afted like an old captain, except in venturing his life too
like a young foldier." The humiliation of the French
king feems to have been his favourite objeft ; and with this
view he wiftied to fix the Enghfli court in the fame in-
tereft. This was one motive which induced him to conneft
himfelf more clofely with the royal family, by a marriage
with Mary, eldeft daughter of the duke of York. Accord-
ingly he came into England in 1678, and then the nuptials
took place which were fo fatisfaftory to the nation, and
which were afterwards followed by the moft important con-
fequences. Without enlarging on the meafures purfued by
the prince on the continent, we (hall direft our attention to
thofe in which' our own country was more immediately in-
terefted. The fuccefQon of the prince's father-in-law to the
crown of England in 1685, inftead of ftrengthening the
bonds of afGnity by which they were attached to one
another, ferved only to feparate them more widely.
The king was a bigotted papift, and the prince was re-
garded as a great fupporter of the Proteftant caufe on
the continent, and therefore they could not cordially concur
in their views and operations. King James, whofe objeft
was to render the Catholic religion predominant, began with
endeavouring to procure for it a free toleration in Great
Britain, by a repeal of the penal laws and the teft-aft ; and
in order the more effeftually to accomplilh his purpofe, he
ftrongly folicited the prince of Orange to exprefs his con-
currence and that of the princefs; but as they knew how
unpopular the defign was in England, they refufed to grant
it. About this time Lewis XIV., under the impulfe of his
own bigotry, and that of thofe with whom he afted, re-
pealed the edift of Nantes, which had fecured the privi-
leges of his Proteftant fubjefts ; and by his harfli treatment
of them, drove numbers of them out of his dominions, and
thus excited a dread and hatred of popery through all
Proteftant countries of Europe. The effeft of this mea-
fure with regard to the prince of Orange was, that it fuf-

pended all party oppofition to him in Holland, and gave
him additional importance in Europe, as the determined foe
of French ambition. The arbitrary proceedings of king
James alarmed all the friends of civil liberty, and of the
eftabliflied religion in England ; and apprehenfive of danger,
they direfted their views to the prince of Orange as their
deliverer. Accordingly conferences were held with a con-
fidential envoy whom he fent over to afcertain the public
opinion ; applications were made to the prince by feveral
perfons of rank ; and at length, when the birth of a prince
of Wales difappointed all hopes of a Proteftant fuccefRon,
the leading men of different parties concurred in aftually
inviting him to come over, and to undertake the proteftion
of the church and conftitution from threatening ruin. The
prince confented, and with confummate prudence and fecrecy
prepared for the interefting expedition ; and as exifting cir-
cumftances afforded a profpeft of a breach between the
United States and their allies, and the king of France, he
was thus enabled to augment the Dutch forces by fea and
land without fufpicion. Having previoufly difperfed
through the kingdom a declaration, ftating the grievances
of the reign, and announcing his intention of bringing over
an armed force to defend the nation from tyranny, and to
procure the affembling of a free parliament, he put to fea in
Oftober 1688, with a fleet of about 500 veffels, and an army
of 14,000 men. He was once driven back by a ftorm, but
a fecond attempt fucceeded, fo that he gained the Englifh
coaft without oppofition, (the king's fleet being wind-
bound,) and on the 5th of November difembarked his
troops at Torbay. Of the caufes, progrefs, and termina-
tion of the Revolution, we have given an account under the
articles James II. af England, and Revolutiom. King
William feated on the throne became fovereign of a power-
ful kingdom ; but his tranquil poifeffion of the crown de-
pended on a variety of circumftances which he could neither
direft nor controul. The conflift of different parties was
not eafily reftrained ; nor were his difpofition and manners,
which were cold and referved, notv^ithftanding all his excel-
lent qualities, adapted to unite and conciliate the partifans
of the old and new government. Amongft thofe who had
taken an aftive part in the late meafures, or who had ac-
quiefced during their progrefs, fome were diffatisfied with
the total exclulion of James and his infant fon ; and others
could not approve the transfer of the crown by the will
of the people. In Scotland, the appointment of William
was the aft merely of the whigs ; and in Ireland, where the
population was chiefly Catholic, the intereft of James was
predominant. The church zealots in England were not
pleafed with the tolerant principles manifefted by king
William, and with the wifhes he expreffed for the compre-
henfion of the diflenters. Thus circumftanced, the com-
mencement of his reign was embroiled by the open oppofi-
tion and fecret intrigues of his enemies, and in the progrefs
of it the collifion of parties was the occafion of much per-
fonal difquietude both to him and to the queen. His atten-
tion was for a confiderable time diftrafted by the ftate of
his native country, when war with France was renewed m

1689, by James's invafion of Ireland in the fpring of that
year, when his intereft with the Cathohcs was powerful,
and in which he was aided by the French king, and alfo by
an iufurreftion of the Jacobite party in Scotland. Ireland
feemed at this time to demand his principal exertions ; for
though mardial Schomberg had been fent over in 1689 to
oppofe the progrefs of the late king, little had been done
to any important purpofe. Accordingly in the fummer of

1690, he embarked with a reinforcement for this country, and
by the battle of the J3oyne, in which Schomberg was killed,

he

WILLIAM.

lie routed the IrUh army, and totally difperfed it. James
abandoned the conteft, and fled precipitately to France,
leaving the reduftion of the ifland to William, which was
completely efFefted in the following year. Whilft he was
thus engaged in military operations, a party fpirit agitated
his domeftic government. The convention parhament, con-
fifting of whigs, who were his decided friends, dreaded mo-
narchical power, and refufed to fettle upon him the crown
revenue for life. Hence he was led to diiTolve the parlia-
ment in difguft ; but he foon found that the new par-
liament, in which the influence of the tories preponderated,
though it readily indulged his deCres with regard to the
revenue, and voted liberal fupplies for the Irifh war, was
compofed of perfons that were not real friends to the prin-
ciples which placed him upon the throne. We ftiall leave
to the details of hiftory the events that occurred on the con-
tinent in the profecution of the war againft France ; and
proceed to obferve, that in the year 1695 he fufFered a
fevere lofs by the death of queen Mary, who had proved
herfelf an affeftionate wife, and both faithful and zealous in
promoting his interefl; ; nor was his attachment to her lefs
ardent and fincere. The deceafe of Mary revived the hopes
of the Jacobites, and they were bufy and aftive in formmg
confpiracies, not fcrupling to concert the atrocious plan of
aflaflinating the king. In 1697 peace with France was con-
cluded at Ryfwick, and Lewis was reduced to the neceflity
of acknowledging William as the lawful fovereign of Great
Britain, and to make no future attempts for difpoffefling
him of his throne. The next conteft that engaged pohtical
parties at home related to the reduftion of the mihtary efta-
bbfliment. King WiUiam, attached to a mihtary life, and
not very confident with refpeft to his own fecurity on the
throne, wiflied to retain a greater force than parhament was
difpofed to allow ; which was no more than 7000 men, who
were to be all natives ; fo that he was under a neceflity,
though with great reluftance, of parting with his favourite
Dutch guards. The next pohtical objeft that engaged the
king's attention was connefted with the balance of power
in Europe, and that was the fucceflion to the crown of
Spain, upon the death of Charles II., who was in a de-
chning fl;ate of health, and who had no iffue. In 1701 the
king of Spain died, and left a tefl:ament in favour of the
grandfon of Lewis XIV., which will was accepted by the
French king ; and of courfe preparations were made by
Wilham and the Dutch for renewing the war with France.
This meafure was further rendered neceflary by the death
of James II. in the fame year, and Lewis's acknowledgment
of his fon as king of Great Britain. On the meeting of the
parhament at the end of this year, Wilham made a fpeech
on the ftate of aS'airs, on his own propofed conduft, and on
the neceflity of mutual confidence between the crown and
people. This fpeech was much applauded, and was an-
fwered by a very loyal addrefs. Thus was his reign, which
had been diftinguiflied by its viciflitudes and trials, and by
the extenfive and permanent benefits that refulted from it,
drawing to its termination. A fall from his horfe gave a
fhock to his enfeebled conftitution, and brought on a fever,
the iflue of which he tranquilly expefted ; and he expired
on the 8th of March, O.S. 1702, in the 52d year of his
age, and 1 3th of his reign.

The charafter of king William has been varioufly de-
lineated by political writers of different fentiments and difpo-
fitions. All allow that he poflefled confiderable pohtical
talents, and though in his military operations he was often
unfuecefsful, few perfons exceeded him in his abihty for re-
pairing lofles, and making a good clofe of a campaign.
Although, as we have before faid, his manners were cold

and referved, he was not deftitute of fenfibiUty. The par-
tifans of James, and thofe who difapproved of the Revolu-
tion, have cenfured his conduft in depofing his father-in-
law ; but public liberty and the welfare of a nation muft be
ever regarded as paramount to private duties. He never
fought power otherwife than for accomphfliing the import-
ant and beneficial ends to which his views were direfted ;
and therefore he cannot be juftly charged with a culpable
degree of ambition. Whatever may be the opinion of er-
roneous and interefted individuals of the Jacobites and tories
of more ancient or modern times, " he will ever be grate-
fully remembered," as one of his biographers fays, " by the
United Netherlands, as the great founder of their freedom
and independence ; and will be honoured as the deliverer of
the Britifh iflands from tyranny, civil and religious, as long
as a due fenfe of the benefits of that deliverance fubfifts
among their inhabitants."

Though the Jacobites in England would not allow that
this prince had any mufic in his foul. Bonnet Bourdelot, in
his " Hift. de la Muf. et de les Eff'ets," fays, " that he had
been informed by a friend, one of the attendants of the
prince of Orange, afterwards king of England, that in the
year 1688, the prince being then at the Hague, and, as may
be fuppofed, deeply engaged in reflexions on the critical
fituation of his affairs at that time, had three choice mufi-
cians to play to him whenever he found himfelf too much
agitated and thoughtful."

William of Najfau, prince of Orange, and founder of
the Dutch republic, was born in Germany in 1533, and de-
fcended from Lutheran parents, though, being introduced into
the fervice of Mary queen of Hungary, and afterwards of
Charles V., he conformed to the Cathohc rehgion. He
was trained to military and civil employments of high rank ;
and as he had ample pofleflions in the Low Countries, he
attained to the dignity of governor of the provinces of Hol-
land, Zealand, and Utrecht, under the Spanifli government.
His charafter is very highly drawn, and is faid to have com-
bined magnanimity, prudence, bravery, equanimity in all
fortunes, Angular penetration and fagacity, retentive me-
mory, popular eloquence, and the art of conciliating men's
affeftions. Upon the introduftion of the inquifition by the
bigotry of Phihp II., a flame broke out in the Netherlands ;
and the prince of Orange, with the counts Egmont and
Hoorn, did every thing in their power to reftrain the feveri-
ties exercifed on a religious account, and to induce the Spanifh
court to recal cardinal Granvelle, to whofe influence folely
they were owing ; and in this effort they fucceeded in 1564.
On occafion of the fanguinary meafures propofed in the
councils of Philip, and carried into execution by the duke
of Alva, the prince of Orange, the moderation of whofe
temper caufed him to be fufpefted, furrendered his employ-
ments, and retired with his family, in 1567, to his brother at
Naflau. Alva, having arrefted counts Egmont and Hoorn,
and occafioned them to be condemned and executed, cited the
prince of Orange to anfwer charges of fedition and treafon
that were preferred againft him ; and on his non-appearance,
his eftates were confifcated, and his eldeft fon, a ftudent at
Louvain, was carried off' into Spain. William, who about this
time feems to have declared himfelf a Proteftant, levied an
army with a view of penetrating into Brabant ; but Alva's
military fliill defeated his purpofe, and he was under a ne-
ceflity of difbanding his troops. Still determined on reliev.
ing his country, he made another apphcation in 1571 to
feveral Proteftant powers for fuccour, but they were all
averfe from encountering the power of Spain. At lengtk
he obtained from the court of France fome fupplies of mo-
ney, and was then enabled to fit out a fmall fqu^dron, which,

in

WILLIAM.

in 1572, took polTeflion of the port of Brill. This trivial
fuccefs roufed the fpirits of the Netherlanders, and feveral
places in Zealand and Holland declared for the Orange
party. At length a convocation of nobles and deputies from
the principal towns in Holland took place at Dordrecht,
and forming themfelves into an independent Itate, chofe
William for their chief. Convinced by the malfacre of the
Protcftaiits in France, that it was in vain to expeft affiftance
from that quarter, he difmifled his troops, and retired to
Holland ; and whilll Alva was exercifing his ufual feveri-
ties, the people of Holland and Zealand alone remained in
arms again (I the Spanifh government ; and the prefence of
William gave order and liability to the new republic. Al-
though the duke of Alva was recalled from his government
in I573> the caufe of independence was in a very precarious
ftate. However, in 1574, the ftates of Holland and Zea-
land conferred on Wilham the fovereign authority during
the war, and formed a treaty of union and alliance with each
other. Peace with the court of Spain could not be obtained
otherwife than on terms which could not be accepted ; and
the afpeft of affairs in 1576 was very difcouraging. At
length, however, the death of Requefens, who had fucceeded
Alva as governor, and the depredations to which the towns
of Brabant and Flanders were expofed, favoured WilUam
in his efforts to accomplilh a general union of the provinces
of the Low Countries for mutual defence ; and this was
effefted by the treaty, called the pacification of Ghent.
William was now jullly regarded as the true patron of
public liberty. At the beginning of the year 1579, the
duke of Parma being the Spanifh governor, the union of
Utrecht was figned, which was the bafis of the confedera-
tion of the Seven United Provinces, all of which, by their
deputies, concurred in forming it. When the feparation of
the Catholic and Proteftant Netherlands took place, the
latter, being diftreffed, fought the affiflance of France, by
nominating, in 1580, the duke of Anjou, brother to
Charles IX. king of France, for their fovereign, and re-
nouncing their allegiance to Philip ; but the adrainiflration
of Holland and Zealand was ftill entrufled with the prince
of Orange. Philip, afcribing this meafure to William, iffued
an edift of profcription againit him ; in confequence of
which his life was in danger, and an attempt was made to
afTafTmate him. At length he fell a vidtim to the fanaticifm
of a native of Franche-Compte, who was urged forward by
a Cordelier and a Jefuit, who, under pretence of bufinefs,
obtained accefs to him, and (hot him through the body.
He fell, and ejaculating " My God ! have mercy upon me
and thy poor people," inftantly expired, on July 10, 1584,
having nearly completed his 5 2d year. He was interred
with great honour and teftimonies of refpedt, at Delft. He
was four times married, and had iffue by each wife. His
fecond fon, Maurice, fucceeded to his authority in the
United Provinces. (See Maurice.) William, having
been educated in a court, acquired the manners and habits
of a ftatefman, and was charged with diflimulation and proud
ambition. But his objefts were always pure and patriotic,
and he zealoufly preferved the liberties of his country ; and,
though he has been traduced by the advocates of defpotifm,
he has received the higheft tokens of refpeft from a people
who gratefully acknowledge him as the principal author
of their freedom and independence. Univ. Hift. Gen.
Biog.

William of Wykeham, an Englifh prelate, was born in
1324, atWykeham in Hampfhire, and by the liberality of
a patron, educated at Winchefter fchool, and afterwards
recommended to Edyngdon, bifhop of Winchefter, who intro-
duced him into the fervice of king Edward HI. about his

Vol. XXXVIII.

23d year. Acqumng extraordinary fldll in architeaure, he
was appointed in 1356 clerk of the king's works in two
manors, and furveyor of the royal works at the caftle and in
the park of Windfor. The king was fo highly fatisfied
with his conduft in thefe fimilar departments, that he recom-
penfed him by feveral preferments, civil and ecclefiaftical. In
1359 he was nominated chief warden and furveyor of the
royal caftles of Windfor, Leeds, Dover, and Hadlam, and
of feveral other caftles, manors, and parks. Whilft he had
only the clerical tonfure, he enjoyed many ecclefiaftical
dignities ; and, in order to his further advancement in the
church, he was ordained prieft in 1362. In the following
year he was made warden and jufticiary of the royal forefts
fouth of Trent, and in 1364 keeper of the privy-feal. He
was alfo chief of the privy-council, and p-^ jernor of the
great council ; and befides other civil preferments which he
enjoyed, he fucceeded Edyngdon, in 1366, as bifhop of Win-
chefter, which paved the way for his elevation to the poft of
high-chancellor in 1367, of which latter dignity, however,
he was diverted in 1370. Thus poffefTrng ample means of mu-
nificence in a ftate of cehbacy, and a liberal fpirit, liis pro-
fefTion as an architeft led him to repair and ereft numerous
buildings in his fee at an expence of no lefs than 20,000
marks. He alfo directed his attention to the improvement
and proper difcipline of the rehgious honfes comprehended
within his diocefe. For the better education of his clergy,
he laid the foundation of a college in Oxford, which was to
be fupplied with ftudents from a feminary at Winchefter. He
was interrupted, however, in his liberal defigns of general
utility by an impeachment for mifeonduft in the adminiftra-
tion of pubUc affairs, occafioned by the influence of the duke
of Lancafter, who had conceived a prejudice againft him ;
and, in confequence of this impeachment, his temporalities
were feized to the king's ufe, and he was banifhed from court.
The clergy, however, interfered, and the people regarded
him as a fufferer from the duke's exorbitant power ; fo that
a tumult enfued, that procured the reftoration of his tem-
poralities, and his recovery of the royal favour, a little while
before the king's death. During the turbulent reign of
Richard II. Wykeham condufted himfelf with caution, and
fucceeded in the eftablifhment of his two colleges. For that
at Oxford he obtained a patent in 1379, and it was com-
pleted in 1386. It is now known by the name of the New
college. His college or fchool at Winchefter was finifhed
in 1393. He alfo undertook the repair of the cathedral,
which was a Saxon edifice of the eleventh century, and in
the courfe of ten years rebuilt it in the Gothic ftyle. ( See
Winchester.) In 1384 he was induced, againft his incli-
nation, to accept the office of high-chancellor, which he
refigned again in 1391, after having reftored the public
tranquiUity. When the king recovered his authority, he
procured a parliament in 1397, which impeached feveral of
the commifTioners, who had almoft divefted him of his au-
thority, of high treafon ; but Wykeham, who was one of
them, efcaped with a forced loan of 1000/. He attended
the firft parhament of Henry IV. in 1399, which depofed
Richard, but was not prefent at the council, which adjudged
him to perpetual imprifonment. As his health declined, he
was difabled from performing the duties of his office ; and
therefore nominated coadjutors in his bifhopric, fettled all his
temporal and fpiritual concerns, and with tranquillity waited
his difmiflion from the world. This happened in September
1404, when he had finiftied his 80th year. His remains
were interred in his own chapel or oratory in Winchefter
cathedral, where a tomb of white marble was erefted to
his memory, Lowth's Life of William of Wykeham.
Biog. Brit.

3 M William,

W I L

W I L

William, Sweet, in Botany. See Dianthus, and
Pink.

WILLIAMS, Daniel, D.D. in Biography, an eminent
non-conformift divine, was born at Wrexham, in Denbigh(hire,
about the year 1 643 or 1 644. The difadvantages of his early-
education were counterbalanced by the natural vigour of his
mind, and by future apphcation. Devoting himfelf to the
miniftry among Proteitant diffenters, he was one of the
firft who had refolution to engage in it, after the privations
and fufferings which followed the Aft of Uniformity in
1662. At the age of 19 years he was admitted a preacher
among the Prefbyterians, and for feveral years officiated
occafionally in feveral parts of England. Being here in
danger of perfecution, he accepted an invitation to become
chaplain to the countefj of Meath in Ireland, where dif-
fenters enjoyed a greater degree of liberty ; and fome time
afterwards he became paftor to a refpeclable congregation
in Wood-ilreet, Dublin. Here he continued for nearly
twenty years, exercifing his miniftry with acceptance and
ufefulnefs, and conducting himfelf fo as to maintain harmony
with his brethren in the miniftry, and to fecure refpeft and
efteeni from the Irifh Proteftants in general. During his
refidence in Dublin, he married a lady of an honourable
family, with a confiderable eftate. Towards the clofe of
the reign of James II., his oppofition to popery rendered
his fituation in Ireland unpleafant to him, and he therefore
came over to England in 1687, and fettled in London.
Here he joined thofe minifters who oppofed an addrefs to
the king on occafion of his difpenfing with the penal laws ;
and by his lirmnefs and intrepidity contributed in no fmall
degree to their unanimous rejection of it. Out of his own
funds, and by his wealthy connections, he procured relief
for thofe Iriili Proteftants who fought refuge in London
from the tyranny and perfecution of Tyrconnel. After
the Revolution in 1688, which was an event that gave him
and his brethren inexprefiible fatisfaftion, he was often con-
fulted by king WiUiam on Irifli affairs ; and his reports con-
cerning the abihties and character of Irifh refugees, who
were capable of ferving the government, were duly regarded.
On occafion of his vifit to Ireland, in the year 1700, for fet-
tling his own affairs, his conduct in the inftances now fpecified
was gratefully acknowledged. Towards the latter end of
the year 1688, he wasunanimoufly chofen pallor to a numer-
ous congregation of Prefbyterians in Hand-alley, Bifhopf-
gate-ftreet ; and in this connexion he fpent the remainder
of his days, devoting to charitable purpofes the falary
which he received from his congregation. With the famous
Richard Baxter he cultivated an intimate acquaintance ; and
at his death, in 1691, he was chofen to fuccecd him at
the Merchants' Tuefday lefture in Pinners'-hall. Some
of his fellow-lefturers advanced what he conceived to be
, Antinomian tenets ; and thefe dangerous notions he thought
it to be his duty to oppofe. Hence arofe a fufpicion of
his orthodoxy, and an attempt to exclude him from the
lefture. Their defign was fruftrated by a majority of the
fubfcribers ; but as their oppofition was inveterate, it was
thought moft advifable to feparate and to eilablifh another
Tuefday lefture at Sailers'- hall. Three of the moft re-
fpeftable of the old lefturers, viz. Dr. Bates, Mr. Howe,
and Mr. Alfop, feceded with Mr. Williams.

Upon the publication of the works of Mr. Crifp, who
avowed himfelf the champion of Antinomianifm, Mr. Wil-
liams undertook to refute them ; and in 1692 publifhed his
" Gofpel Truth ftated and vindicated, &c." 8vo. ; a work
which, though now almoft forgotten, was defervedly ap-
proved by the prir.cipal London minifters of that period ;
and as it is diftinguiflied by great clearnefs andftrength of

10

argument, as well as a truly Chriftian temper, it ferved
to check the pernicious errors which were then induftrioufly
circulated. It was defended by the author in his " De-
fence of Gofpel Truth, &c." 8vo., and in a " Poftfcript"
to a new edition of his work, and alfo in other pieces.
Againft the charge of Socinianifm, an appeal was made to
Dr. Stillingfleet, then bifhop of Worcefler, and Dr. Jona-
than Edwards of Oxford, who were deemed matters
and judges in this controverfy ; and they honourably ac-
quitted the author, with many expreflions of refpeft for
him. Difappointed in their efforts to induce fufpicion of his
orthodoxy, his enemies indulged their malignity further by
arraigning the purity of his morals. Indignant as he well
might be at this attack, he fubmitted his conduft to the
inveftigation of the United London Minifters, who con-
curred in the report of their committee, " tliat he was
entirely clear and innocent of all that was laid to his
charge." The attachment of his congregation, it fliould
be obferved, was not in the leaft degree diminifhed by the
malignant mifreprefentations of his enemies.

In the year 170 1, Mr. Williams, after having been for
fome time a widower, married a fecond wife of confiderable
fortune and diftinguifhed worth, who furvived him.

During the reign of queen Anne he exerted himfelf,
though ineffeftually, in oppofing the bills againft occafional
conformity, and for impoiing the facrameutal teft upon the
diffenters in Ireland. In 1707 he ufed all his influence
with his friends in Scotland in promoting the union between
the two kingdoms ; and in the year 1709 he was honoured
with the degree of D.D. by the univerfities of Edinburgh
and Glafgow. Availing himfelf of his long acquaintance
with the earl of Oxford, he took the liberty of remonftrating
againft the political meafures which he was purfuing. The
doftor's franknefs did not plcafe the ftatefman ; and his re-
fentment againft him for declaring unfavourable fentiments
of the meafures of his adminiftration, and communicating
them to his friends in Ireland, was deep and permanent.
Upon the acceflion of king George I., he had the honour
of prefenting an addrefs of congratulation to his majefty,
at the head of the Proteftant diffenting minifters of the
different denominations refiding in London and its vicinity ;
and it has been ever fince the cuftom for the body of fuch
minifters to prefent addreffes on all public occafions, and
they have the honour, as a body, of being received on the
throne, and by tlieir committees in the clofet, and of re-
ceiving a written anfwer. Soon after the acceflion of
George I., the health of Dr. Williams began to decline ;
and at length an afthmatic diforder terminated his life on
January 26, 17 15-16, in the 73d year of his age. In the
fequel of this article we fhall take advantage of hterally
tranfcrihing the well-written account given of Dr. WiUiams
by the Rev. Mr. Morgan, the highly refpeftable and much
efteemed librarian of the excellent inftitution which he has
eftabhflied ; under whofe infpeftion and care this hbrary is
gradually rifing into a reputation, which, by the contribu-
tions of its friends in books and money, and by the annual
appropriation of a fmall fum out of the furplus of its
founder's bequefts, will vie with the principal eftablifh-
ments of a fimilar nature in the city of London.

" He had been bleffed by nature," fays our biographer,
" with a ftrong and vigorous conftitution, and poffelfed a
found penetrating judgment, and great ftrength of memory.
The fubjefts of his pulpit performances were always prac-
tical and uleful ; his fentiments folid, pertinent, and diftin-
guifhed by an uncommon variety ; and his manner of en-
forcing them powerful and impreflive. He was remarkable
for his boldnefs and courage in avowing and defending what

he I

W I L

W 1 L

he conceived to be truth of importance, and ' purfued
what he thought right with a blunt integrity and unfhakcn
refohition.' At tlie fame time his candour towards thofe
who differed from him, his kind treatment of perfons who
had endeavoured to injure his own reputation, and his con-
fcientious tender regard for that of others, were prominent
features in his charafter. He was a fleady non-conformift
upon principle ; yet he maintained a charitable difpofition
towards the cilabhflied church, and at the Revolution was
very dcfirous of promoting the fcheme of a coinprehenjt'jn.
Though he poifeiTed an ample fortune, he exercifed great
frugality in his perfonal expences, for the noble purpofe of
being more ufeful to others who if ood in need of afliftance,
and of more effeftually ferving the great interefts of truth
and virtue. The fame laudable views governed him in the
final difpofril of his property. By his Lift will, befides
liberal bcncfaftions to numerous benevolent and charitable
inftitutions in London and Dublin, he provided for the
fupport of an itinerant preacher to the native Irifh, of two
perfons to preach to the Indians in North America, and of
feveral charity-fchools in England and Wales. He directed
that a certain fixed fum, from the income of his eftates,
Ihould be appropriated to the afliftance of poor mini Iters,
the widows of poor minifters, ftudents for the miniilry, and
to other benevolent purpofes. He alfo left eftates to the
univerfity of Glafgow, which at prefent furnifti handfomc
exhibitions to fix ftudents for the miniftry among Protcftant
diffenters in South Britain, who arc to be nominated by liis
truftees. The laft grand bequelt in his will was for the
eftablifhment of a library in London, for the benefit of the
pubhc. Having formed this defign, he purchafed Dr.
Bates's curious coUeftion of books, which he added to his
own, and direfted his truftees to provide a proper building
for their reception. Such an edifice was erefted by them
in Red-Crofs-ftreet, Cripplegate, where the library was
opened in 1729, and admiffion to it is eafily obtained by
perfons of every defcription, without any exception, upon
application to one of the truftees. Since it was firft efta-
bliflied, very confider.able additions have been made to it by
legacies, as well as gifts of money and books ; and it now
contains upwards of 16,000 volumes, many of which are
very valuable and rare, in the various departments of Hte-
rature and fcience. The founder's works were coUefted
together, and printed at different periods, in 6 vols. 8vo. ;
the laft confifting of Latin verfions of feveral of his trafts,
which he direfted to be publiftied in that language for the
ufe of foreigners." Memoir prefixed to his Works.

Williams, in Geography, a townfliip of Pennfylvania,
in Northampton county, with 1243 inhabitants; 60 miles
N. of Ealton.

William'^ Port, a town of Maryland, on the Potomack ;
5 miles S.W. of Hagars Town.

William'^ River, a river of Vermont, w-hich runs into
the Connefticut, N. lat. 43° 10'. W. long. 72° 24'.

WILLIAMSBOROUGH, a poft-town of North
Carolina, on a creek which falls into the Roanoke ; 48
miles N.E. of Hillftiorough.

WILLIAMSBURG, a county of the ftate of South
Carolina. — Alfo, a county of the itate of Virginia. — Alfo,
a town of Virginia, fituated on an ifthmus between York
river and James river, a creek from each river coming up
within a mile of the town, but not navigable for large
veflels. It was at one time the feat of government and
refidence of the governor, now removed to Richmond. It
contains about 200 houfes, and 1200 inhabitants. The
principal buildings are a college and town-houfe, an epif-
copal church, and an hofpital for lunatics ; 50 miles E.S.E.
of Richmond. N. lat. 37° 13'. W. long. 76° 50' Alfo,

a town of Maffachufetts, in Hampfliire, with 11 22 inhabit-
ants ; 8 miles N.W. of Northampton Alfo, a town of

New York, on the Genefee ; 2SS miles N.N.W. of
Philadelphia. — Alfo, a town of the ftate of Ohio, on the
Little Miami, in the county of Clermont, with 125 1
inhabitants — Alfo, a town of Maryland ; 4 miles N. of
Talbot.

Williamsburg, or Jonejlonvn, a poft-town of Pennfyl-
vania ; 23 miles E.N.E. of Harrilburg.

WILLIAMSON, a townftiip of Ontario county, in
Nev/ York, 206 miles from Albany, bounded N. and W.
by lake Ontario. In i8ia the whole population confilled
of II 39 perfons, and it had ^^ fenatorial eleftors. A red
oxyd of iron is found in this town, which is a good pigment
for painting.

Williamson, a county of Weft Tennefiee, with 13,153
inhabitants, including 3985 flaves.

WILLIAMSPORT, a poft-town of Pennfylvania, on
the weft branch of the Sufquehanna, in the county of Ly-
coming, with 344 inhabitants.

AVILLIAMSTOWN, a townftiip of the ftate of Ver-
mont, in Orange county, with 1353 inhabitants; 60 miles
N. of Norwich. — Alfo, a poft-town of North Carolina, on
the Roanoke ; jj mites W. of Halifax. — Alfo, a town of
Maftachufutts, in the N.W. corner of the ilate, in the county
of Berkftiire, with 1843 inhabitants; 132 miles W.N. W.
of Bofton. — Alfo, a poft-townfhip of Oneida county,
in New York, crefted in 1 805, from a part of Mexico,
and confifting of two townftiips of Scriba's patent, each being
fix miles fquare. The population in iSio confifted of 562
perfons, and 82 fenatorial clcftors. The poft-office was
eftabliftied in 1812.

WILLICHIA, in Botany, was fo called by Mutis,
after Dr. Chriftian Lewis Willich, a phyficiau at Claufthal,
in Lower Saxony, who publiflied at Gottingen, in 1747,
1762, and 1766, vai'ious obfervations and illuftrations of
Botany, of more or lefs importance, chiefly relating to the
determination of fpecies and their fynonyms, with curfory
remarks on variations or irregularities of itrufture, exceptions
to received charadlers, &c. The author died in 1776.
— Linn. Mant. 553. Schreb. Gen. 32. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. I. 1 89. Vahl Enum. v. 2. 39. Mart. Mill. Dift.

V. 4. Juft". 418. Poiret in Lamarck Dift. v. 8. 798

Clafs and order, Triandrla Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncer-
tain, Juft". We ftiould prefume Scropbulari^.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in four
ovate, acute, fpreading, permanent fegments. Cor. of one
petal, wheel-ftiaped, twice the length of the calyx : tube
fcarcely any : limb flat, in four roundifli, convex fegments.
Stam. Filaments three, inferted into the clefts of the limb,
except the lowermoft, and Ihorter than its fegments ; anthers
ereft, i-oundifli, of two cells. Pijl. Germcn fuperior,
roundifh, comprefled ; ilyle thread-fliapcd, the length of
the ftamens, declining towards the lower cleft of the corolla ;
ftigma obtufe. Perk. Caplule roundifli, comprefled,
fliarp-edged, of two cells and two valves, with an oppoCte
partition. Seeds feveral, roundifli, minute. Receptacle glo-
bular, formed of two hemifpheres.

Efl". Ch. Calyx four-cltft. Corolla four-cleft. Sta-
mens in three of its clefts. Capfule fuperior, of two cells,
with many feeds.

I. W. repens. Creeping Willichia. Linn. -Mant. 558.

Willd. n. I. Vahl n. i Gathered in Mexico, by Mutis,

whofe defcription, communicated to Linnaeus, is our only
fource of information concerning this plant. The root is
fibrous, annual. Stem herbaceous, creeping, thread-fhaped,
branched, hairy, about two feet in length. Leaves alter-
nate, flalked, rather diilant, orbicular, fomewhat peltate,
3 M 2 crenate.

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crenate, hairy, an inch in diameter ; reddifh underneath.
Footfialks very long, hairy, thicker than the ftem. Floiver-
Jlalhs axillary, in pairs, fingle-flowered, thread-ihaped, hairy,
the length of the footftalks. Flowers fmall, rofe-coloured,
with a hairy calyx.

There is no fyecimen in the Linnsean herbarium.

WILLIESBURG, in Geography, a poft-town of Vir-
ginia ; 2 1-' ifiiles S.S.W. of Wafhington.

WILLIMANTIC, a river of Connefticut, which runs
into the Sh. tucket at Windham.

WILLINCK, a large tovvnfhip of New York, at the
S. end of Niagara county, erefted in 1808; 315 miles W.
of Albany. It comprifes about eighteen townfhips of the
Holland company lands. The general charafter of the
foil is, that it is good land for farming. In 18 10 the popu-
lation confiftcd of 2028 perfons, and there were 260 fenato-
rial eledlors.

WILLlNG's Creek, a river of Weft Florida, which
runs into the Miffiilippi, N. lat. 30° 49'. W. long. 91° 21'.

WILLINGBOROUGH, a town of New Jerfey, in
Burlington county, with 619 inhabitants; 14 miles N.E.
of Philadeluhia.

WILLINGTON, a town of Connefticut, in Tolland
county, with 1 1 61 inhabitants ; 6 miles E. of Tolland.

WILLIS, Bkowne, in Biography, an eminent antiquary,
the grandfon of Dr. Willis, a celebrated phyfician, was
born at Blandford in 1682, and was removed from AVeft-
minfter-fchool in the year 1690 to Oxford, where he was
admitted a gentleman-commoner of Chrift-church ; and
after leaving the univerfity he profecuted his ftudies for
three years under Dr. Wotton. When he came into pof-
feffion of the family eftate, he wa? returned in 1705 as a re-
prefentative for the town cf Buckingham. In J715 and
1716 he publifhed two parts of a work, intltl-d " Notitia
Parliameutaria ; or, a Hiltory of the Counties, Cities, and Bo-
roughs in England and Wales, with Lifts of all the Knights,
Citizens, and Burgefles," 8vo., to which in 1750 he added
a third part, being an appendage to the journals of the houfe
of commons, then printed. On the revival of the Society
of Antiquaries in 1717, he was chofen a member; and he
fuftained his reputation as an antiquary by various writings,
among which are, " Surveys of the Four Welfh Cathedrals ;"
" Hiftory otf the United Parliamentary Abbeys and Con-
ventional Cathedral Churches ;" " Survey of the Cathedrals
of England, with Parochiale Anglicanum," 3 vols. 4to. ;
" Hiftory and Antiquities of Buckingham." In 1 723 he
received, in confideration of his literary merit, from the
univerfity of Oxford, the degree of A.M. by diploma.
He manifefted his attachment to the chnrrh by expending
confiderable fums in repairing thofe in the country, and
thus injured his own fortune. But frugality in his perfonal
and domeftic expences compenfated this injury. He pof-
fefied a fine cabinet of Engllfh coins, which in 1741 he
prefented to the univerfity of Oxford ; the univerfity, in
confideration of his family, liberally paying for thofe of
gold by weight, and conferring upon him the degree of
LL.D. With many peculiarities in his charafter, he
claimed refpeft as a man of moral worth from thofe who
knew him. To him belonged the honour of having firll
placed the Englifh ecclefiaftical hiftory and antiquities
upon the firm bafis of records and regifters, which he
afliduoufly fearched. He died in 1760, in the 78th year of
his age. Biog. Brit.

Willis, Thomas, an eminent phyfician, was born in
1621-2, at Great Bedn-in, in Wiltftiire; and in 1636 ad-
mitted into Chrift-church college, Oxford, whi-re he took
the ufual degree with a view to the clerical profeflion.
3ut he changed his purpofe, and ftudied phyfic, taking his

W I L

bachelor's degree in 1646, and commencing medical praAicc
at Oxford. He diftinguiftied himfelf by his fteady attach-
ment to the church of England, and alfo by his love of
fcience, fo that he became one of the firft members of that
philofophical fociety at Oxford, which laid the foundation
of the Royal Society of London. As a chemift, which
was tlie charafter under which he was ambitious of excelling,
he publiftted in 1659 a work, intitled " Diatribie duac ;
prior agit de Fermentatione, altera de Febribus. His acceflit
Diftertatio epiftolica de Urinis." The recompence of his
attachment to the caufe of epifcopacy and loyalty was the
Sedleian profeflorftiip of natural philofophy at Oxford, con-
ferred upon him after the Rcftoration, by the recommend-
ation of archbilhop Sheldon, foon after which he received
the degree of doftor. Upon the eftabUftiment of the Royal
Society, he was one of its firft members. In the year
1664, when he is faid to have difcovered, and brought into
ufe, the mineral water of Aftrop in Northamptonftiire, he
publifiied his " Cerebri Aiiatome ; cui acceffit Nervorum
Defcriptio et Ufus." This work, on which his reputa-
tion principally depends, was followed in 1667 by his
" Pathologia Cerebri et Nervofi Generis, in qua agitur de
Morbis convulfivis, et de Scorbuto." Before this year he
was fettled in London, and being nominated a phyfician in
ordinary to the king, was advancing to the firft rank in
praftice. His next publication was intitled " Adfeftionum
quas dicuntur Hyftericae et Hypochondriacae Pathologia
Spafmodica, vindicata contra refponfionem epiftolarem
Nath. Highmori. Cui acceflerunt Exercitationes Medico-
Phyficse de Sanguinis Accenfione, et Motu mufculari,"
1670. On occafion of the lofs of his wife, a daughter of
dean Fell, he amufed himfelf by writing his work " De
Anima Brutorum qua Hominis Vitalis ac Senfitiva eft ;
Exercitationes duae," 1672, in which he confidcrs the foul
of brutes as the fame with the vital principle in man, cor-
poreal in its nature and perifliing with the body. After his
fecond marriage, he began to print in 1673 his " Pharma-
ceutice Rationahs, five Diatriba de Medicamentorum 1
Operationibns in Humano Corpore ;" but he did not live
to pubhftt this work, as he was carried off^ by a pleurify in
1675, ^' ^^^ premature age of 54, in the full vigour of his
faculties and zenith of his reputation. Dr. Willis had no I
powers for appearing witb advantage and brilliancy in
fociety ; but he was intent on fcience and praftice, frugal, '
pious, and charitable. His works engaged great attention j
on their firft publication ; but in confequence of modern im-
provements, they have funk in the public eftimation,
though they are not altogether neglefted. They are written
in a rich and elegant Latin ftyle. Haller. Biog. Brit.

Willis, in Geography, a town of the ftate of New
Jerfey ; 33 miles S.E. of Burlington.

WiLLisV Creek, a river of Virginia, which runs into
James river, N. lat. 37° 40'. W. long. 78° 18'.

WlLLiSi'j IJland, a fmall ifland in the South Atlantic
ocean, near the north-weft coaft of the ifland of Georgia,
fo named by captain Cook, from one of his crew who
difcovered it in the year 1775. S. lat. 54°. W. long.
38° 23'.

WILLISAU, a town of Switzerland, and capital of a
bailiwick, in the canton of Lucerne ; 15 miles W. of Lu-
cerne.

WILLISTON, a pofttown of the ftate of Vermont,
in the county of Chittenden, with 1195 inhabitants; 25
miles N. of Newhaven.

WILLISTOWN, a townfiiip of Pennfylvania ; 15 miles
S.W. of Philadelphia.

WILLMAR, a town of the county of Henneberg ;
7 miles S.E. of Meinungen.

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WILLOBOCKE, a river of York(hire, which runs
into the Swale.

WILLONGTALYS, a lake of Vermont. N. lat.
44° 45'. W. long. 71° 58'.

WILLOUGHBY, a town of England, in the county
of Warwick, luuactti on a navigable canal, on the borders
of NorthamptfMifhire ; 14 miles S.E. of Coventry.

WiLLOUGHBY Bay, 3 bay on the foutheaft coaft of the
ifland of Antigua. N. lat. 17° 10'. W. long. 61° 25'.
WiLLOUGHBY Lake, a lake of the ftate of Vermont.
WILLOW, &c., in Botany. See Salix.
Our common willows in the fpring feafon, when they are
in flower, produce a quantity of cottony matter, which
might be put to fome ufe.

The Chinefe are induftrious enough to coUeft this cotton
as it falls from their willows ; and the women and children,
among the poorer people, card it, and pick out the feeds,
and render it fit for many ufes in the place of cotton.

The poor people, in fome part of the Indies, make a fort
of liquor of the flowers of their willow= before they are
opened, which intoxicates them very fuddenly ; and the
dry huflfs of the fame tree remaining after the flowers and
feeds are fallen, are wholefome as food, people in time of
famine having lived upon them, boiled in water.

The wood of the willow, though in itlelf very light and
fpongy, is yet of a nature to bear the injuri s of wet better
than alinoft any other kind. It is uled by the Chinefe on
this occafion, in the making of their wel!s, and on all other
occafions where wood is to ftand under water, and fucceeds
perfeftly well. Obferv. fur les Coutumes de I'Afie. For
the ufes to which willow-bark and wood are applied, fee
Salix, and Gunpowder.

Willow, in Agriculture, a well-known tree, of which
there ar.; feveral different fpecies or kinds ; but thofe moftly
cultivated for farm purpofes are, the common white willow,
the purple or red willow, the fallow, and the broad-leaved
or Huntingdon willow.

The firft is a ta'l-gro.ving tree, of the deciduous kind.
It has a fine filvery appearance in the leaves ; is quick of
growth, and the wood is very uleful where light ncfs and
cleannefs of the grain is beneficial, as fur hurdles, gates,
hop-poles, &c.

The fecond is a free-fhooting willow ; but its wood is in-
ferior for many ufes, efpeciallv thofe of the farmer.

The third fort delights in a rather dry foil, being a tree
below the middle growth. It has numerous br.mches, of
a fmooth appearance, and dark green colour. Its wood
is very ufeful for hurdles and other fimilar purpofes of the
farmer.

It has two varieties, the long-leaved, and the ftriped fal-
low, both which are very ufefi.l.

The fourth fort, or red-hearted willow, is fuppofed by
fome as the beil fort for planting, for the ufe of the farmer,
as growing quickly ; but the great ufe to which they are ap-
plied is that of making hurdles, ftakes, gates, and farming
implements, being a wood uncommonly tough and light, ow-
ing, as is conceived, to a new method ufed in planting them
clofe to the ground. If it is the defign of the planter to
let them grow into timber, (which would be far fiiperior to
deal for the purpofe of flooring, or other light work, par-
ticularly as It will neither fplinter nor fire ; and if fuffered
to remain for twenty or twenty-five vears, would make
good mails for fmall craft, as they flioot up perfectly
ftraight, and without any collateral branches,) it is neceflary,
at the firft or fecond year's growth, to obferve which pole
is the ftrongeft, as the remaining poles muft be cut away.
3n about fifteen years' time it is fuppofed they will want

3

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thinning ; of courfe the inferior muft be taken out and the
fuperior be fuffered to remain.

In cultivating them on wafte moift lands, laying out the
ground into lands, like hop-lands, as from three to four
yards wide, with a ditch on each fide ; three feet wide at
the top, one foot at the bottom, and two and a half deep,
is advifed by a late writer as the beil mode from much ex-
perience. The earth that comes out of the ditch fhould be
thrown on the land. But if there is not fully fufficient fall
for the water to get off, the ditch fliould be deeper and
wider, till there is near a yard of earth above the level of
the water. As foon as this is done, the ground muft be
double dug, that is, trenched two fpades' depth, except it
be very boggy, which will aff"ord room for the plants to
Ihoot, and will fave the expence of weeding, which other-
wife muft be incurred in the firll fummer after the plants
are fet ; for if they are not kept clear of weeds the firft year, ,
the hopes of the planter will certainly be deftroyed.

In refpeft to the times of planting, they muft be from
.January to the end of March ; but the ftts for that purpofe
fhould be cut from December to the end of February, when
the fap is down. And the reafon is, that if poles are cut-
in the fpring (the fap being up), the llool will at leaft be
weakened by bleeding, if not killed ; and of courfe pre-
vented troin fliooting fo vigoroufly as if cut at the preceding
time.

In regard to the fets or truncheons, they may be cut
from twenty inches to two feet long ; particular care fhould
be taken in the cutting, that the bark be not fridged or
bruifed, or in any other refpeft injured ; for in that cafe the
plant will be weak and puny.

The poles have bfen fold at eight years' growth for 214/.
per acre, net-money ; the kids or bruftiwood pay for the
felling. Had they been fuffered to have flood two years
longer, they would, it is faid, have produced 30c/. per acre.

The plantation of the baflcet and cooper's willow is an
objedl of importance in thofe wafte and negletted corners
which are to be found upon everv eftate and farm.

The refufe dwarf willow^ or offal, as it is termed, are
ufed in the fifheries and ballcct-work, and will pay, commu-
nilus annls, for the labour. The cooper's-willovv differs
from the common or baflcct-willow ; the former is known
by a fingle bud or eye throughout the rod, wliich fimply
throws out a leaf ; the latter by a double or flattened eye,
which produces a branch or fprig. The former is applica-
ble to every purpofe ; the latter the cooper rejedls : of
courfe the former fhould be propagated.

Plantations of the willow kind have been vaftly in-
creafed, indeed, in many parts of the country within thefe
few years.

WiLLOW-Galls, in Natural Hi/lory, the name given by
authors to certain protuberances found very frequently on
the leaves of the feveral Ipecies of willow, which are pro-
perly galls, each containing the worm of a fly, and owing
its exillence to that infedl.

The galls are ufuaily of a roundifh or oblong figure, and
are equally protuberant on each fide of the leaf: they are
of a pale green at firft ; but they afterwards become yel-
lowifh, and finally reddilli. The fiirface of thefe is feldom
perfedlly even, but ufnally has feveral little prominences and
cavities in it. When this gall is opened, there is found in
it a worm refembling a caterpillar in figure, having a fmooth
annulated body, a hard brown head, and twenty legs ; and
by Reaumur called falfe or baftard caterpillar. Ttiis crea-
ture, when the gall is young, is blue ; it afterwards becomes
greenifh ; and finally, when the gall becomes red, it is white.
This infed feems to eat in its prifon more voragioufly than

any

W I L

any other gall-infeft whatever ; for while the gall grows in
fize, it becomes alfo thinner in every part ; fo that the crea-
ture, at the proper time, has but little difficulty to get out.
Reaum. Hifl. Infeft. vol. vi. p. 211.

When the time of the lail change of this infedl draws
nigh, it leaves the tree, and defcending to the earth
makes its way into it in a proper place, and then becomes
a nymph, out of which at a proper time ilfues a four-
winged fly.

The flies which are produced in April copulate almoft
as foon as freed from their exuvije of the chryfalis ftate, and
the females foon after lodge their eggs in the leaves of the
willows. Tliis is all done before the end of April, and the
young ones hatched of thefe eggs live but a fhort time be-
fore they pafs into the chryfalis ftate, and living flies are
hatched from thefe in June. The young ones of this brood
pafs their chryfalis flate in the earth, and appear not during the
whole winter, till the fpring fun enlivens them again. There
isjbefide thefe, another kindof galls of the willow-leaves, which
are of the clafs of thofe, each of which contains feveral cells ;
in each cell of thefe there is found a fmall white maggot, the
offspring of the egg of a two-winged fly, which, after paff-
mg the chryfalis ftate in the earth, alfo comes out in the
form of its winged parent. The cells in the galls are dif-
ferent in number in the feveral galls, and are from four or
five to twenty : they have no communication with one an-
other, but each worm lives in its own cell.

Befide thefe there is alfo fometimes found in thefe galls
a worm of a brownifti-white colour, having two liooks in
its head, and no logs at all. This has all the appearance of
a carnivorous animal, and probably was depofited there in
the egg-ftate by its parent, not to feed on tlie gall, but on
Its defencelefs inhabitant. This worm finally becomes a
fmall blueifli beetle, and is often found alone in the cavity
of the gall, often in company with its proper inhabitant,
fucking its juices as it feeds on thofe of the plant. There
feem to be feveral fpecies of thefe devourers common to
thefe galls ; lince Vallifiiieri obferved, in the boxes where he
kept thefe galls to produce the animals from thence, many
fpecies of fmall beetles, and feveral diftinft kinds of flies,
which were probably the laft ftate of feveral kinds of carni-
vorous worms, which had preyed upon the proper inhabit-
ant of the galls. Vallifnieri, bialog. des Infeft.

WiLhow-Herl/, or French Willow, in Botany. See
Epilobium.

WlLLOW-Herb is a name fometimes given to the lytbriim
or purple loofe-ftrife. See Lyturum.

Willow, Sweet, Dutch Willow, Gale, or Candle-
Berry Myrtle, in Botany. See CAii-Di.TS.-Berry-Tr.e, and
Candle-Berry Myrtle.

Willow -IVeed, in ./Agriculture, a term provincially ap-
plied to fmart-wecd, or perficaria, which is a tronblefome
weed on many places in the corn-fields and other tillage-
lands. See Weed.

WILLS, in Geography, a town of Ohio, in the county
of Guernfcy, with 659 inhabitants.

WILLSBOROUGH, a poft-townfliip of Effex county,
in New York, with a poft-office, 530 miles from Wafliing-
ton, crafted in 1788, then in Clinton county, and very exten-
five ; from which feveral towns have been fince erefted. It
is bounded N. by Chefterfield, E. by lake Champlain, in
the ftate of Vermont, S. by Eftex, and W. by Le wis. Along
the lake the land is level and tolerably produftive. A fmall
well-drain affords many fcites for water-works ; and iron-
ore of the beft quality is found in great abundance. The
population confifts of 668 perfons, and the fcnatorial elec-
tors are 57. Here are, one diftillery, a forge for making

W I L

bar-iron, an anchor-ftiop, a carding-machine, and a clothieiy,
befides a confidcrable number of grain and faw mills.

WiLLSBOROUGn, a townlhip of New York, near Crown
Point.

WILLSTADT, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 50 miles W. of Wexio. — Alfo, a town of Ger-
many, in the county of Hanau Lichtenberg ; 7 miles S.E.
of Straftmrg.

WILLUGHBEI A, in Botany, was fo named by Schre-
ber, in memory of our great Engliffi naturalift, Francis
Willughby, efq. of Middleton-hall, Warwickfliire, the friend
of Ray, in our biographical account of whom the reader
will find many particulars relating to Mr. Willughby and his
family. This gendeman may well claim botanical diftinftion,
on account of his enquiries into the philofophy of vegeta-
tion, in conjunftion with his illuftrious aflbciate, during the
fpring of 1669. — Schreb. Gen. 162. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i.
1231. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. ( Ambelania ; Aubl. Guian.
265. .Tuff". 148. Lamarck Dift. v. i. 125. lUuftr. t. 169.
Pacouria ; Aubl. Guian. 268. Jufl". 148. Lamarck Dift.
v. 4. 691. lUuftr. t. 169.) — Clafs and order, Pentandrla
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Contorta, Linn. Apocinea, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cah Perianth inferior, of one leaf, flefliy, in
five deep acute fegments, very fmall. Cor. of one petal,
falver-ftiaped : tube cylindrical, enlarged at the bottom :
limb horizontal, in iive deep, obhque, acute, wavy feg-
ments, more dilated at one fide than the other, lying over
each other at the bale. Stam. Filaments five, very fliort,
inferted into the tube juft above the bafe ; anthers arrow-
ftiaped. P'ljl. Germen fuperior, roundifti ; ftylc quadrangu-
lar ; ftigma capitate, ovate, thick, ftriated, double -pointed,
fubtended by a flat orbicular dill<. Per'ic. Berry ovate,
coated, of one or two cells. Seeds numerous, angular,
compreffed, imbedded in pulp.

Efl". Ch. Corolla falver-ftiaped, contorted. Stigma ca-
pitate. Berry coated, with many angular feeds.

l.W.acida. Acid Willughbeia. Willd. n. i. (Am-
belania acida ; Aubl. Guian. 266. t. 104.) — Stem ereft.
Flower-ftalks the length of the footftalks. — Native of ex- ,
tenfive forefts in Guiana and Cayenne, bearing flowers and j
fruit in September. The trunk of this tree is feven or eight- ^
feet high, and feven or eight inches in diameter, with a
greyifh bark, and foft white wood. The head confifts of
very numerous, ftraight, knotty hranches, fubdivided in an
oppofite manner. Leaves oppofite, on ffiort ftalks, ellipti-
cal, fomewhat pointed, entire, wavy, fmooth and fliining,
with one rib, and many tranfverfe parallel veins ; their
greateft length feven inches, by three in breadth. Flowers
axillary, three or four together on one common ftalk, which
IS hardly fo long as the adjoining footftalk. BraBeas fcaly,
folitary at the bafe of each general as well as partial ftalk.
Corolla whitifti, fcarcely fo large as that of Vinca minor.
Fruit lemon-coloured, oval, corrugated or warty, two inches
long, feparated by a longitudinal fleffiy partition, into two
cells, filled with acid vifcid pulp, and containing many
brown rough feeds. This fruit, though milky, is whole-
fome. After the rind is taken off', the remainder is foaked
for a while in water. The flavour is agreeably acid, not-
withftanding a great degree of vifcidity, by which the pulp
adheres to the lips and teeth. This fruit, with or without
its rind, is preferved in fugar. In the latter ftate it is cool-
ing, flightly acid ; in the former moderately purgative, and
efteemed ufeful in dyfenteries. The whole plant when
wounded difcharges a milky, very tenacious, juice.

2. W. fcandens. Climbing Willughbeia. Willd. n. 2.
(Pacouria guianenfis ; Aubl. Guian. 269. t. 105.) — Stem
twining. Flower-llalks branched, as long as the leaves. —

Native

W 1 L

W I L

Native- of woods about the mouth of the creek of the Ga-
libis in Guiana, bearing flowers, as well as fruit, in May.
The tru7iji is about three inches in diameter, fending off
long, knotty, trailing branches, which twine round the neigh-
bouring trees to their very fommits, from whence the ex-
tremities hang down, clothed with oppofite, oval, fmooth,
entire leaves, not unlike the foregoing, and about as large,
on fliort (lalks ; their rib, as well as lateral veins, are pro-
minent and reddiih. TYit: Jlower-Jialks are axillary, folitary,
wavy, alternately branched, refembling tendrils, terminating
in fevcral little tufts, or umbels, of yellow flowers, rather
fmaller than the firll fpecies. Fruil roundilh or obovate,
the fize and colour of a quince, of an agreeable fcent when
ripe, pulpy, yielding but a fmall quantity of milky juice if
cut, though all the other parts of the plant contain a great
quantity of the fame kind of glutinous milk as the pre-
ceding. Aublet does not mention any ufe to which this
fpecies, or its fruit, is applied.

WILLUGHBY, Francis, in Biography, was born in
1635 of a good family in Lincolnlhire, and educated in
Trinity college, Cambridge, under the tuition and in habits
of friendly intercourfe with the excellent philofopher and
natural hillorian, John Ray. They were intimate affoeiatcs,
and made a foreign tour together in the years 1663 and
1664. To birds and fifhcs Willughby paid particular atten-
tion, and he formed a rich mufeum of animal and foflile pro-
duftions. In 1668 he married the daughter of fir Henry
Bernard, and his family refidence at Middleton, in War-
wickfhire, was the place of Ray's frequent refort, where
he and his hoft profecuted their philofophical experi-
ments and obfervations, the refult of which they com-
municated to the Royal Society, of which they were both
members. This inflruftive and pleafant intercourfe was,
however, prematurely interrupted by the death of Wil-
lughby in 1672, at the age of 37. His confidence
in Mr. Ray was manifefted by appointing him one of
his executors, and committing to him the charge of edu-
cating his two infant fons, bequeathing to him an annuity
for life as a compenfation. Ray afcribcs to him, without
any trace of adulation, fingular moral excellence and high
mental endowments. His pofthumous work, publifhed
under the infpeftion of Mr. Rav, was entitled " Francifci
Willughbeii Arm. Ornithologis Libri tres ; in quibus Aves
omnes hadlenus cognitae, in methodum iiaturis fuis conve-
nientem reduftse, accurate defcribuntur. Defcriptiones
iconibus elegantiflimis at vivarum avium fimillimis «ri incifis
illuftrantur. Totum Opus recognovit, digeflit, fupplevit
Johannes Rams," Lond. fol. This work was alfo tranflated
into Engliih bv Ray, and publifhed in 1671 with large ad-
ditions. Mr. Ray alfo collefted and arranged Willughby 's
papers on Ichthyology. He added the two firfl books, and
with the affiftance of the Royal Society publifhed them in
1686 under the following title: " Fran. Willughbeii Arm.
de Hiftoria Pifcium, Libr. q'latuor, julfu et fumptu Soc.
Regime Lond. editi. Totum Opus recognovit, coaptavit,
fupplevit librum etiam primum et fecuiidum integros adjecit
J. Rains." Oxon. fol. The papers of Willughby in the
Phil. Tranf. relate to vegetation, plants, and infeCls. The
coUeftion of Ray contains fome of his letters. Biog. Brit.
Pulteney's Sketches of Botany.

WILLY, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
into the A^on, near Salifbury.

WILLYKA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna ; 60 miles E. of Wilna.

WILMANSTRAND. See Vilmakstrand.
WILMANTON, a town of New York; 50 miles N.
of New York.

WILMINGTON, a fea-port town of the Hate of Dela-
ware, on Brandy-wine Creek ; 22 miles S.W. of Philadel-
phia. N. lat. 39° 45'. W. long. 75° 34'._Alfo, a fea-port
town of North Carolina, with about 250 houfes, on a branch
of Cape Fear river. In January 1781, this town was taken
by the Britilh troops ; 76 miles S.S.W. of Newbern. N.
lat. 34° II'. W. long. 78° 5'.— Alfo, an iflaud near the
coafl of Georgia, at the mouth of the Savanna. N. lat.
32°. W. long. 81° 6'. — Alio, a pofl-towu of V. rmont, on
Deerfield river, in Windham county, with 1 193 inhabitants;

10 miles E S.E. of Bennington Alfo, a town of Maffa-

chufetts, in the county of Middlefex, with 716 inhabitants;
16 miles N. of Bofton. — Alfo, a town of New York; 53
miles N. of New York.

WILMOT, John, in Biography, e^ivl o[ Rochefter, was
the fon of Henry, earl of Rocheller, an eminent loyalift in
the reign of Charles I., and was born in 1647, at Ditchley,
in Oxfordfhire. In 1659 he was entered at Wadham col-
lege, Oxford, and afterwards travelled into France and
Italy under a tutor, who is faidto have reclaimed him from
his early licentioufnefs ; but upon his return to the profligate
court of Charles II., in which he was a gentleman of the
bed- chamber, he relapftd into his former intemperance. In
1665 he went to fea, and, as it is faid, behaved with great
intrepidity in the attack of a caifle at Bergen, in Norway,
which character for courage he alfo maintained when he af-
terwards ferved under fir Edward Spragge. In fome of his
domeftic adventures, however, he forfeited this kind of re-
putation. Welcomed in all companies on account of his wit
and vivacity, he became habitually intemperate, infomuch
that, on a fubfequent review of his conduft, he acknow-
ledged that for five fuccefli-ve years he was never free from
the inflaming effefts of wine. His various adventures, in his
real, or in a difguifed charadler, have furniflied many anec-
dotes, that have been circulated in converfation, or in books
of mere amufement, but which are not worth recording in
graver publications. His wit furniflied in the focieties
which he frequented a kind of apology for his profanenefs
and licentioufnels ; and as for his poetical compofitions, they
were for the moft part lampoons or amatory effufions, the
titles of which would ftain the page of biographv. " In
all his works, ( fays Dr. Johnfon, meaning probably thofe
which can be read, ) there is fprightlincfs and vigour, and every
where may be found tokens of a mind which ftudy might
have carried to excellence." The juftice of Walpole's fen-
tence, in his " Catalogue of Noble Authors," will be ge-
nerally allowed : " Lord Rochefter's poems have much
more obfcenity than wit, more wit than poetry, more poetry
than politenefs.'.' His courfe of debauchery was of no
long duration ; for foon after the age of 30 he funk into
a ilate of debility and difeafe, which induced him to
ftudy phyfic, and this Ifudy permitted him to reflect on the
courfe of his pail life, the irremediable tffetfts of which he
learnt from experience. Towards the clofe of his fhort life,
he became acquainted with bifliop Burnet, who convinced
him of the truth both of natural and revealed religion, and
his mind was then imprefled to fuch a degree, that he is faid
to have became a fincere penitent. His life terminated in
July, 16S0, foon after he had commenced his 33d year.
He left a fon and two daughters. Biog. Brit. Johnfon.
Burnet.

WiLiHOT, in Geography, a town of Nova Scotia, near
Ainiupolis. — Alfo, a town of New Hauipfliire, in the county
of Hdlfborough, with 298 inhabitants.

WILNA, a city and capital of the duchy of Lithuania,
on the Wilia, founded in the year 1305. This city lies in
a moimtainouo country, on feveral little eminences. It is

very

W 1 L

very large, and has two confiderable fuburbs, called Anto-
kolla and Rudaifzka. In the old ruinous royal palace is
the arfenal, and the hall where the court of jullice is held ;
and ovcr-againft it is the magnificent church belonging to
the callle, which was built in the year 1386. The treafury
belonging to this church is very rich ; and it is alfo remark-
able for the elegant marble chapel of St. Cafimir, whofe
filver (brine is faid to weigh thirty quintals. There are
upwards of forty churches in this city, and among thefe are,
one Lutheran and one Calvinill church, a Jewilh fynagogue,
a Tartarian church, and a Greek church ; but all the rell are
Popifh churches. Not to mention the devailation which
Wilna formerly fuffcred from the Ruffians in the years 1610
and 1655, and from fire in 1737, it was deilroyed by a
dreadful conflagration in the year 1748, when 13 churches,
the Jewifh fynagogue, 25 palaces, 469 Hone edifices, con-
fifl;ing of private houfes, hofpitals, inns, baths, convents,
and mills, with 146 tradefmen's (hops, and difpenfaries,
befides a great number of granaries and warehoufes, were
confumed to afhes. In 1749 another fire happened by
lightning, which confumed 6 churches, the council-houfe,
8 palaces, and 277 other (lone buildings. The chapel
of St. Cafimir was alfo burned, and the lofs fudained by the
deftruftion of this edifice only amounted to a vafl (um. The
churches have been fince rebuilt at a very great expence, and
fome of them in a more elegant manner than before ; but
the city has not recovered its former grandeur. Wilna is
the fee of a biihop, founded in 1387. The univerfity was
founded in 1570. It gives name to a palatinate. In 1794
it was taken by the Ruffians, and with its territory annexed
to that empire ; 168 miles E. of K6nig(berg. N. lat. 54^
36'. E. long. 25° 18'.

WILRE, a town of France, in the department of the
Ourthe ; 4 miles E. of Fauquemont.

WILS, a town of the county of Tyrol, on the borders
of Bavaria; 5 miles N.N. W. of Reutten.

WILSCOW, a river of Brandenburg, which empties
itfelf into a large lake, communicating with the Rega, 4
miles S. of Treptow.

WILSDEN, a town(hip of England, in the Weft
Riding of York(hire, near Halifax.

WILSDRUF, or WiLSDORF, a town of Saxony, in
the margravate of Mei(ren ; 9 miles W. of Drefden. N.
lat. 51°. E.long. 13-8'.

WILSELMAUR, a town of Auftria ; 3 miles W. of
Brugg.

WILSNACH, a town of Brandenburg, in the Mark
of Prignitz. This town was anciently famous, there being
no lefs than three hofts wor(hipped at this place, which
hofts they fay, in 1383, remained untouched in the church
when it was burned down, and upon each of them was feen
a drop of blood. To thefe hofts numerous pilgrimages were
made from the remoteft countries ; by which means this
place rofe from a village to a fmall town. At length the
hofts were burned in the year 1552, by the Lutheran
preacher, Joachim Ellefeldt ; 8 miles S. of Perleberg.

WILSON, Richard, in Biography, the moft eminent
landfcape-painter of the Engliih fchool, was the fon of a
clergyman, and was born at Pineges, in Montgomery (hire,
in 1 7 14.

Having received from his father a good claffical education,
in the courfe of which he had evinced a decided difpofition
for drawing, he was fent to London at the age of 15,
and placed as a difciple with an obfcure portrait-painter,
named Wright. After a lapfe of fix years, he commenced
profeffor, and under the patronage of Dr. Hayter, bi(hop
of Norwich, he foon afterwards had the honour to paint

W I L

portraits of his prefent majefty and his brother, the late
duke of York ; both at that time under the tuition of the
bidiop. He continued to praiftife portrait-painting forae
time in London, but with no great fuccefs, and at length
went to Italy to cultivate his tafte. Even there he conti-
nued to praftife it. Hill unacquainted with the genuine bias
of his genius, although occafionally exercifing his talents
and employing his time in ftudies of landfcape. At Venice
Wilfon painted a portrait of the late Mr. Lock, of Nor-
bury-park, one of the moft creditable of his performances
in that branch of the art ; and it was there that accident
opened his eyes to his own pecuhar gratifications, and led
him into that path, by purfuing which he has obtained a
name among the worthieft in art.

As a matter of relaxation and amufement, he had painted
a landfcape, which being feen by Zuccarelli, fo warmly ex-
cited that eminent artill's admiration, that he advifed Wilfon
to purfue that line of art exclufively. From this time it is
believed that he abandoned portraiture, and followed the ju-
dicious advice of a rival artift ; and foon after he left Venice
in company with Mr. Lock, and travelling flowly to Rome,
made numerous ftudies on the way, which are ftill preferved
at Norbury-park. On his arrival at Rome, the advice of
Zuccarelli was confirmed by Vernet and Mengs, both then in
high repute. So much were they delighted with Wilfon's
landfcapes, that they each offered to exchange a pifture
■with him ; a propofal far too flattering for refufal. This
liberality, as commendable as it is unufual, was followed by
Vernet in the handfomeft manner, as he hung the pitlure by
the Engli(hman in his exhibition-room, and recommended
him to the particular attention of the cognofcenti.

His progrefs in landfcape-painting muft have been very
rapid ; indeed it muft have had the charafter of being almoft.
intuitive, fince lie obtained a very great degree of reputation
during his ftay in Italy, and painted many pidlures there of
known celebrity. He travelled with the late earl of Dart-
mouth to Naples, and made a number of very fine drawings
for that nobleman, now preferved by his grandfon ; and for
him alfo he painted two pidures, one a very fine one, a view
of Rome, which has been beautifully engraved by Middi-
man. He was alfo employed by the late duke of Bridge-
water to paint a landfcape with the ftory of Niobe ; but his
grace had the bad tafte to employ Placido Conftanza to re-
paint the figures. To preierve his reputation, Wilfon
painted another of the fame fubjeft, and both are now in
England. He returned from Italy in 1755, and occupied
apartments over the north piazza of Covent-Garden. He
had merited, and here he alfo obtained celebrity, and for a
while employment. Many of his principal performances ap»
pear to have been painted about this time, moft of which are
known by the fine prints engraved from them by Woollett
and others ; in which the grandeur, breadth, and purity of
compofition in mafs and in line, contend for admiration with
the talents confpicuous in the engravings.

Hitherto the life of Wilfon was honoured as his talents
defcrved ; the remainder of it exhibited a gradual declenfion,
not fo much of power as of patronage. 'Tis true he was
often too free in his pencil, and too much mannered in his
ftyle ; repeating himfelf, perhaps, till it became irkfome :
'tis faid, alfo, that he was not of the moft tradable
humour, and was low in his purfuits and BflTociations.
Whencefoever it arofe, he was doomed to undergo indif-
ference and negleft, and confequently the inconveniences of
lownefs of purfe. Sometimes he was employed to paint
views of gentlemen's feats, but probably the occupation
fuited the artift as little as the refult gratified the patron.
Wilfon's view of nature was far too broad for fuitable

adaptation

W I L

adaptation to fuch a purpofe, and confequently there are not
many piftures of this clafs to be met with which have pro-
ceeded from his pencil. The great charafteriftic of his
works is grandeur, refulting from breadth, purity, and fim-
plicity, united in fullnefs of colour and mellownefs of touch.
He was perfeftly original in feeling and execution, more
grand in general conception than Claude, though infinitely
lefs perfett in detail ; and far from travelling through his
career in art, with fo even a pace as his great predeceflbr and
only rival in the more exalted ftyle of landfcape-painting be-
fore our time. Now a third fhines in the fame hemifphere,
and Claude and Wilfon find no ill-fuited aflbciate in the name
of Turner.

At the inftitution of the Royal Academy, Wilfon was
chofen one of the founders ; and after the death of Hay-
man he was made librarian. That ftation he retained till his
death, which happened in May 1782, in the 68th year of
his age.

WiL.so>f, Thomas, an Englifh prelate, was born in
1663, at Burton-in-Wirral, Cheftiire, and finiflied his educa-
tion in Dublin college, where he took his degree of arts.
In 1689 he was ordained prieft, and in 1692 became do-
meftic chaplain to the earl of Derby, and attended his fon,
lord Strange, who was his pupil, on a tour to the continent.
Upon the death of the young gentleman, he returned to
England, and in recompence of his faithful fervices, was
nominated to the bilhopric of the Ifle of Man, by the earl of
Derby, who then poflefled the fovereignty of the ifland.
The nomination was approved by king William, and he was
confecrated in January 1697-8, having received at Lambeth
the degree of LL.D. The revenue of the bifhopric did
not amount to more than 300/. a year ; but by fome col-
lateral advantages the bifhop was enabled to exercife hofpi-
tality and charity, to repair his ruined palace, and to found a
new chapel at Caftletown. He alfo eftablifhed parochial libra-
ries, which he furnifhed with religious books, among which
was a fmall traft, the firft that was ever printed in the Manks
language. He improved the agriculture of the ifland by
introducing into it corn, horfes, cattle, and Iheep, from
England ; and he ftudied phyfic with a view of adminifter-
ing to the relief and comfort of the iflanders. He publiflied
ecclefiaftical conftitutions, which were fo much approved,
that lord chancellor King faid of them, that " if the ancient
difcipline of the church were loft, it might be found in all its
purity in the Ifle of Man." Bifliop Wilfon, chiefly with a
view to the intereft of religion and morality, was anxious to
maintain a due regard to epifcopal authority, and this
anxiety led him in two inftances to exceed the bounds of
prudence and propriety. When fome copies of the " Inde-
pendent Whig" had found their way into the ifland, he or-
dered them to be feized, apprehending that they inculcated
fentiments hoftile to Chriftianity and the eftabhflied church.
He alfo involved himfelf in difficulties and incurred reproach
by excluding from the communion the wife of the governor,
on account of an aft of defamation, for which flie refufed to
afk pardon of the injured party. This led to a ferious al-
tercation with the governor, who fined both the bifliop and
his two vicars-general, for fufpending his chaplain for dif-
obedience in admitting the wife to communion, and who ar-
refted them for refufing to pay the fine. Accordingly they
were kept clofe prifoners in the caftle for nine weeks, till the
bifliop, by application to the council in England, obtained
their releafe. The pious and mild-tempered bifliop after-
wards declined profecuting the governor for damages.
From his piety and attachment to the church, he was ho-
noured in 1707 with the degree of D.D. from the univerfity
I Vol. XXXVIII.

W I L

of Oxford, in full convocation, and in which he was after-
wards aggregated at Cambridge.

Such was the biftiop's zeal for doing good, that he would
not quit the fphere affigned him for this purpofe, though he
was off^ered an Englifli bifliopric ; in reference to which cir-
cumftance queen Carohne, direfting her attention to Wilfon,
among a number of other prelates who happened to be at
court at the fame time with him, faid to them, " Here, my
lords, comes a bifliop whofe errand is not to apply for
a tranflation, nor would he part with his fpoufe be-
caufe flie is poor." His charafter was in fuch eftimation
with the French minifter, that he procured an order that no
French privateer fliould commit ravages on the Ifle of Man.
In this retired fituation his hfe was prolonged to his 93d
year, when he calmly expired in March, 1755, leaving one
furviving fon, known in the political world as reftor of St.
Stephen's, Walbrook, and patron of the celebrated hiftorian
Mrs. Macaulay. After his death a colleftion of his works
was publiflied in two vols. 4to. 1781. His notes to Crut-
well's Bible, which was pubhflied under the bifliop's name
in three vols. 4to. 1785, are of little value. The tranfla-
tion of the New Teftament into the Manks language, which
he had undertaken, was completed by his fucceffor, Dr.
Mark Hillefley. Biog. Brit. Life prefixed to his
Works. Gen. Biog.

Wilson, Dr. John, a native of Feverfliam, in Kent, was
a gentleman of Charles the Firft's chapel, and fervant in
ordinary to his majefty, in the charafter of chamber-mufi-
cian. His infl;rument was the lute, upon which he is faid
to have excelled all the Engliflimen of his time ; and, ac-
cording to Ant. Wood, his royal mafter was fo pleafed with
his talents, and had even fuch a perfonal regard for him,
that he not only liilened to him with the greateft attention,
but frequently condefcended to lean or lay his hand on his
flioulder, while he was playing.

For the excellence of his performance we muft now
wholly depend on tradition, as the compofitions he has left
behind him for the lute are but feeble teftimonies of a great
hand. Nor will his vocal produftions, or Fantafias, either
in print or manufcript, generate very exalted ideas of his
genius or abilities as a compofer. That he was admired by
his majefty, and by the lovers of mufic at Oxford, where he
was honoured with the degree of doftor in mufic, 1 644, and
where he long refided, proves more the low ftate of the art
at this time, before the ears of the public were rendered dif-
criminative, by a variety of great and rival talents, than his
own perfeftions. Little had been heard, and but little was
expefted. Swift fays, " we admire a little wit in a woman,
as we do a few words fpoke plain by a parrot :" and it
might more ferioufly be faid, that the beft mufic, during
times of ignorance and inexperience, is perhaps more admired
than the moft exquifite produftions and performance of a
more enlightened period. Nothing can prove this more
clearly than the unbounded and hyperbolical praifes be-
ftowed in France on the operas of Lulli, of which, at pre.
fent, the whole nation is aftiamed.

Dr. Wilfon, indeed, feems to have fet words to mufio
more clumfily than any compofer of equal rank in the pro-
feflion ; but as he was refpefted by his contemporaries, and
held an exalted rank in his art, a liil fliall here be inferted of
his works ; not fo much for their intrinfic worth, as to
enable curious enquirers to judge for themfelves of the pro-
grefs which mufic had made in this kingdom, when fuch
produftions were in high favour, not only with the greateft
perfonages but principal profeflbrs of the times.

" Pfalterium Carolinum, the devotions of his facred ma-
3 N jefty

W 1 L

jefty in his folitude and fufferings, rendered in verfe, fet to
mufic for three voices and an organ or theorbo." Folio,
1657.

" Cheerful Aires or Ballads, firft compofed for one fingle
voice, and fince fet for three voices." Oxon. 1660.

" Aires to a voice alone, to a theorbo or bafs viol ;"
thefe are printed in a colleAion entitled " Seled Aires and
Dialogues." Folio, 1653.

" Divine Services and Anthems," the words pf which are
in Clifford's Colleftion. Lond. 1663.

He alfo compofed mufic to feveral of the odes of
Horace, and to fome feleft paflages in Aufonius, Claudiaii,
Petronius Arbiter, and Statins ; thefe were never publilhed,
but are preferved in a manufcript volume ciirioufly bound in
blue Turkey leather, with filver clafps, which the doftor
prefented to the rmiverfity, with an injunftion that no perfon
fhould be permitted to perufe it till after his deceafe. It is
ftill among the archives of the Bodleian library.

The compofitions of Dr. Wilfon will certainly not bear
a fevere fcrutiny either as to genius or knowledge. It is,
however, not eafy to account for the ignorance in counter-
point which is difcoverable in many lutenifts of thefe times ;
for having harmony under their fingers, as much as the per-
formers on keyed inftruments, it facihtates their ftudy, and
(hould render them deeper contrapuntifts than the genera-
lity of flute-players, whofe flimfy compofitions are pro-
verbial.

On the furrender of the garrifon of the city of Oxford,
1646, Dr. Wilfon left the univerfity, and was received into
the family of fir William Walter, of Sarfden, in Oxford-
fhire ; but, in 1656, he was conftituted mufic-profeffor, and
had lodging affigned him in Bahol college, where, being af-
fifted by fome of the royalifts, he lived very comfortably,
exciting in the univerfity, according to A. Wood, fuch a
love of mufic, as in a great meafure accounts for that
flourifhing (late in which it has long fubfifted there, and for
thofe numerous private mufic-meetings, of which this writer,
in his own life, has given fuch an amufing relation. At the
Reftoration, Dr. Wilfon was appointed chamber-mufician to
Charles II. ; and, on the death of Henry Lawes, 1662, was
again received into the chapel-royal, when, quitting the uni-
verfity, he refided conftantly in London, till the time of his
deceafe, at near 78 years of age, in 1673. Burney.

Wilson, in Geography, a town of 3outh Carolina ; 15
miles S.W. of Queenborough. — Alfo, a town of Scotland,
in the county of Lanerk, founded in the latter end of the
1 8th century, by MelTrs. Wilfon of London, to accommo-
date the workmen employed in an iron foundery there ; 5

miles E. of Lanerk Alfo, a county of Weft Tenneffee,

with 11,952 inhabitants, including 2297 flaves.

WILSONIA, in Botany, received that appellatioo from
Mr. R. Brown, who commemorates by it the remarkable
zeal and perfeverance of Mr. John Wilfon, an inhabitant of
Kendal, Weftmoreland, author of a " Synopfis of Britifh
Plants in Mr. Ray's Methoa," publiihed at Newcaftle-upon-
Tyne in 1744. This work, however, is incomplete, the

f'affes, trees, ftirubs, and all the cryptogamic tribe, except
ems, being omitted. The author, whom Dr. Pulteney
fuppofes to have died about the year 1750, is (aid to have
left thefe clafles finifhed in MS. ; but they were never pub-
Ulhed. His performance indeed is now altogether obfo-
lete, being chiefly tranllated from Ray and Tournefort ;
though with fome alterations of the fyllem of the former,
and much additional matter, refpefting the ftations of rare
plants ; all which evinces a confiderable portion of praftical
knowledge. Copioue medical information is interfperfed,

12

W I L

and a botanical diftionary is prefixed. But the botanift of
whom we are fpeaking is principally worthy of memory, for
that indefatigable love of fcience, which even the mofl:
humble fituation, and the moft limited circumftances, could
not counteraft. Whether he was employedin the manufafture
of knitted ilockings, formerly very extenfive in his native
town, or whether he made Ihoes, his biographers are not
agreed ; but he contrived to attain more knowledge, and
cultivation of mind, than perhaps a great majority of the
gentry around him. He muft have had a competent as-
quaintance with Latin, and he may rank as an Enghfii writer
among the moft refpedlable, upon fcientific fubjefts, in his
time. We cannot commend his prudence, if we compaf-
fionate his difficulties, when he would have fold his only
cow, the fupport of his wife and family, to buy a copy of
Morifon's work. But we may be allowed to regret that
his mental application did not tend to fo ample a pecuniary
reward, as that of the famous fir Richard Arkwright, who
repeatedly incurred the ceufure of many a prudent friend,
for negledl of bufinefs, while he was planning a fcheme of
unbounded profit for himfelf and family. We rejoice to
read that the book fo much defired, was prefented to
Wilfon by a benevolent lady, who lived near him, and who
by this aft has afforded a lafting teftimony to the worth of
his charafter. An honeft man may always hope for indul-
gence and affiftance, if he fmooths the path of hard duty
with a little mental excurfion, inftead of mere unprofitable
recreation or difGpation, whatever may be his fituation
in life. Many a cow has been fold in confequence of evil
propenfities ; few have been facrificed to procure food for
the mind. — Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 490. Clafs
and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Convohuli,
Juff. Convolnyulaceis, Brown.

EfT. Ch. Calyx pitcher-ftiaped, five-fided, five-toothed.
Corolla funnel-fhaped, of one petal ; imbricated in the bud.
Germen with two feeds. Style cloven. Stigmas capitate.
Capfule ....

I. W. hum'tUs. Humble Wilfonia. Br. n. I. — Difco-
vered by Mr. Brown, in the fouth part of New Holland.
A httle, dwarf, (hrubby, proftrate, much branched, downy
plant. Leaves fmall, feflile, thickifh, imbricated in two
ranks. Flowers axillary, folitary, feffile, without bra8eas.
Mr. Brown remarks, that the natural affinity of this genUs
muft be uncertain while its fruit continues unknown. He
met with the plant after the Jloiuers were faded, before the
feed-vejfel was formed, nor is he certain whether the germen
confiited of one cell, or of two. He ranges Wilfonia next
after Crejfa, of whofe place in the natural fyftem Linnaeus
had formed no opinion, but which Juflieu well refers to hi^
ConvolvuU, notwithftanding the folitaryy^i?;/.

WILSONVILLE, in Geography, a town of Pennfyl-
vania ; 120 miles N. of Philadelphia.

WILSTER, a town of the duchy of Holftein, on the
river of the fame name ; 8 miles N. of Glnckftadt.

WILSUM, a town of Germany, in the county of Ben-
theim ; 11 miles W.N.W. of Nienhuus.

WILTER, a town of the Tyrolefe, on the Inn ; 3 miles
above Infpruck.

WILTON, an ancient market, borough, and county-
town of Wiltfhire, England, derives its name from the river
on which it was originally built. By old writers, it was
called Wile, or Wily-Vilodunum and Ellandimum; and ac-
cording to Baxter it was a chief feat of the Britifti prince,
Carvihus, and thence denominated Caer-Guilou. Henry of
Huntingdon fays, it afterwards became the capital of the
Weft-Saxon dominions ; but Leland and Dr. Milner con-
tend,

W I L

W I L

tend, that Wincheftcr was the chief town of that mo-
narchy. It is not improbable that both places were at
different periods pofleffed and occupied by the Weil-Saxon
kings.

Antecedent to the Norman Conqueft, Wilton was cer-
tainly a place of diftinguiihed confequence. It contained
feveral religious eftablilhments ; and was the principal town
of the county, as appears from its having given name to the
(hire. Leland itates, that it pofleffed twelve parifii-churches
at the period of Henry III. ; a ftatement, if fully authenti-
cated, would afford decided proof both of its great extent
and population. The Weft-Saxon monarchs moft pro-
bably had a palace here, and conferred on this place many
marks of their royal favour. During their dynafty, Wilton
was a royal borough, and appears to have been the fcene of
feveral important hiftorical events. In 823, Egbert gave
battle to and defeated the Mercian army near this town,
which army was commanded by their king, Beornwulf.
Several other engagements between the Saxons and Danes
took place at and near Wilton. One of thefe occurred in
871, when the valiant Alfred commanded the Saxon army
againft a vait horde of the Danifli marauders, who having
plundered and laid watte feveral other places, were checked
in their fanguinary career near this town, and after a defpe-
rate battle were compelled to petition for mercy and peace.
Again in 1003, Wilton was vifited by the Danes, when part
of the town was confumed. During the civil warfare be-
tween king Stephen and the emprefs Maud, this place was
the fcene of much flaughter.

Wilton continued for many centuries after the Conqueft
celebrated for its monaftic inftitutions, and particularly for
its abbey. This was inftituted in 773 by Wulftan, earl of
Wiltfhire, who, having defeated Ethelmund, king of the
Mercians, repaired " a certain old church of St. Mary, at
Wilton, which had been deftroyed by the Danes, and
placed in it a college of fecular priefts." After the Conqueft,
king William and feveral of his fucceffors added greatly to
the opulence of this abbey, which was diffolved in the thirty-
fifth year of Henry VIII. The other monaftic inftitutions
in this town were, a houfe of black friars, an hofpital de-
dicated to St. Mary Magdalen, a collegiate church, and an
hofpital dedicated to St. John.

Wilton, though much decayed, ftill retains many of its
ancient privileges. It is a borough both by prefcription
and by charter, and is governed by a corporation of its
own, confifting of a mayor, recorder, five aldermen, three
capital burgeffes, and eleven common-councilmen, with a
town-clerk, and other ofBcers, as fixed by the laft charter
granted in the i-eign of Henry VIII. The town fends two
members to parliament, and has regularly done fo fince the
twenty-third year of Edward I. In 17 10, it was agreed
that the eleftive franchife was vefted " in the mayor and
burgeffes, who are to do all corporate afts and receive the
facrament." The number of voters is ftated at twenty-
four in the Hiftory of Boroughs, where it is alfo obferved,
that " the rfeftion of any perfon to be a burgefs of Wilton,
who has not taken the facramertt of the Lord's fupper, ac-
cording to the rites of the church of England, within one
year before fuch eleftion, is avoid eleftion." The mayor is
the returning officer ; and the patron of the borough is the
carl of Pembroke, whofe feat is in the vicinity of the town.

The county courts of juftice are fometimes held here ; as
are likewife the eleftions for the county members. The
precife fpot where the eleftors meet to choofe their repre-
fentatives, is marked by a large ftone in the Warren, at a
fhort diftance fouth of the town. The market-days here

were formerly Wednefday and Friday in every week ; but
a fmall one on the former day is now only continued. The
fairs are held on the 4th of May and the 12th of Sep-
tember.

The principal public buildings in this town are the
parifli-church and the town-hall. The other buildings
here appropriated to public purpofes are two chapels,
one belonging to the Methodifts, and another to the Inde-
pendents, a free-fchool, and eight alms-houfes. Wilton,
including the borough and parifh, contains, according to
the parliamentary returns of 181 1, 393 houfes, and a popu-
lation of 1 963 perfons. It was formerly celebrated for its
carpet manufaftories, which gave employment to a large
proportion of its inhabitants. The firft carpet made in
England was manufactured at Wilton. Fancy woollens
and flannels are now the only articles of manufafture. At
the eaftern end of the town is,

Wilton-houfe, feated in a fine park. This edifice is
a large, extenfive pile, erefted at different periods, and
difplays different ftyles of architefture. It was formerly
an abbey, but the alteration of Mr. James Wyatt has de-
ftroyed every monaftic part of the building. This archi-
tedl (now no more) was employed by the prefent noble
proprietor, to enlarge the manfion and adapt it for the better
difplay of its rich ftores of ancient fculpture and paintings.
A principal feature in this alteration is the formation of a
glazed cloifter, round a central court, which contains nearly
the whole colledlion of ftatues, butts, baffo-relievos, &c.
Another confiderable novelty is a large court-yard on the
north, furrounded by offices, a lodge, and a new fide to the
houfe. The approach is through a triumphal arch, which
is furmounted by a bold equeftrian ftatue of Marcus Aure-
lius. A veftibule leads to the cloifter, both of which are
filled with ancient marbles.

The coUeftion of works of art at Wilton-houfe has long
been highly celebrated, and different publications have been
given to the world, with catalogues and accounts of the
various fubjefts. Thefe are, the " ^des Pembrochianje," by
Mr. Richardfon, i2mo. 1774; an eleventh edition of which
was publittied in 1788. Gambarini of Lucca publiftied
a " Defcription of the Earl of Pembroke's Piftures,"
in 1 73 1. Kennedy alfo produced a " New Defcription of
the Piftures, &c." in 1764. Another volume in 4to., with
feveral engravings of the fculpture, was publiftied in 1786.
Wilton-houfe was formerly exhibited to ftrangers, but the
prefent nobleman has ftiut it up. Several perfons of the
Pembroke family have been particularly diftinguiftied in the
annals of the country ; particularly in Clarendon's hiftory.
Philip Maffinger, an eminent dramatic poet, was probably
born at Wilton-houfe, as his father lived in the fervice of
the earl of Pembroke. See Giffard's Life and Works of
Maffinger.

About a mile eaft of Wilton is Bemerton, the living of
which is poffeffed by the Rev. William Coxe, author of
feveral valuable works of Hiftory, Travels, and Topo-
graphy. It is rather fingular that the reftory of Bemer-
ton has been enjoyed by feveral eminent literary charafters,
among whom we find the names of Walter Curie, bifhop
of Winchefter, &c. George Herbert, ( commonly called the
divine Herbert,) and John Norris. — Beauties of England,
Wiltfliire, 8vo. 1814; by John Britton, F.S.A.

Wilton, a town of the diftrift of Maine, in the county
of Kennebeck, containing 770 inhabitants ; 60 miles N.N.E.
of Portland.— Alfo, a town of New Hampftiire, in Hillf-
borough county, with 1017 inhabitants; 30 miles E. of
Chefterfield. — Alfo, a town of Connefticut, in the coimty
3 N 2 of

W 1 L

W 1 L

of Fairfield, with 1728 inhabitants. — Alfo, atownof South
Carolina ; 27 miles S.W. of Charleftown.

WILTOWN, a town of South Carolina; 21 miles
W.S.W. of Dorchefter.

WILTPERG, a town of Auftria; 8 miles S.W. of
Freyftadt.

WILTSHIRE, an inland county, fituated towards the
fouth-weftern diviilon of England, derives its name from the
town of Wilton, which, according to fome ancient hiftorians,
was the metropohs of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Weflex.
On the north and north-weft it is bounded by Gloucefter-
fhire, on the fouth-weft by Dorfetlhire, on the fouth and
eaft by Hampfhire, and on the north-eaft by the county of
Berks. Thefe boundaries are in general artificial, and form
a figure approaching that of an ellifpe. Concerning the
extent and fuperficial area of this county, various are the
ftatements of different writers. In the Magna Britannia it
is faid to be thirty-nine miles in length from north to fouth,
and thirty in breadth from eaft to weft. Gough, in his
additions to Camden's Britannia, eftimates its length at
forty -nine miles, and its breadth at thirty-feven. Its cir-
cumference, according to the fame author, is one hundred
and fifty miles, and the number of acres it contains 876,000.
Mr. Davis, whofe authority on this fubjeft is highly re-
fpeftable, in his Agricultural Report on the County, ftates it
to be in length fifty-four miles, and in breadth thirty-four.
The fame writer computes the fuperficial area to be 1372
fquare miles, or 878,000 acres.

The county of Wilts is a diftrift peculiarly interefting to
the topographer and antiquary. To the latter, indeed, it
offers a wider and more varied field for refearch than per-
haps any other county in England. The grand and myfte-
rious monuments of Stonehenge and at Avebury, and the
numerous barrows which cover its plains, are relics of an
age anterior to hiftorical record, and of which the annals of
the world do not furnifti a parallel example. Like the
proud pyramids of Egypt, the former were calculated by
their conftruAion to have remained entire to almoft endlefs
futurity, if the agency of the elements had not been aflifted
by the deftruftive influence of man. In the Wanfdyke,
Bokerly-ditch, and Grimfditch, and in the Ampler in-
trenchments with which the county abounds, we behold the
remains of Britifti towns, and perceive the mode adopted by
the Britons to mark boundaries and form communications.
The caftles of Old Sarum, Scratchbury, Battlefbury, and
Bratton, difplay the efforts of a more advanced period; and
many other of the Wiltftiire intrenched works bear marks
of fucceffive occupation by the Romans, the romanized
Britons, the Saxons, and the Danes. This part of the
kingdom, indeed, feems to have been the principal theatre of
the military and civil events which were confequent on the
Saxon and Danifh invafions. Here the far-famed Arthur
and the ftill more illuftrious Alfred contended at different
periods for the liberties of their country, and checked for
a time the tide of invading conqueft. At Ludgerfhall,
Devizes, Malmfbury, and Marlborough, the veftiges of
Norman fortrefles may yet be traced ; and in Clarendon-
park ftood a fumptuous palace, eredled by king John.
Malmlbury yet preferves the ruins of a magnificent abbey ;
and in the cathedral of Salilbury, we behold an edifice fur-
paffing every fimilar ancient ftruAure in uniformity of ftyle
and fymmetry of parts. Many of the parochial churches

head, and Longleat, we are prefented with manfions alike
celebrated for magnificence and beauty of fcenery, and for
popular attraftions to the connoiffeurs and artifts of the
country.

At the period of the invafion of our ifland by Julius
Caefar, a people called the Belgae inhabited a portion of
this county. The Hedui are faid to have occupied its'
north-weftern divifion, near the fource of the Avon and
about Cricklade. Another diftrift is mentioned by Carte,
in his Hiftory of England, as being fubfequently poflefTed
by the Carvilii, fo named from their prince Carvilius ; but
whether thefe people were fome of the Belgae, or a diftinft
tribe, does not appear. Other authors fuppofe that the
Cangi inhabited the northern parts, if not at this era, at leaft
foon after it.

When the Romans, after the lapfe of nearly a century,
from the final departure of Casfar, again invaded Britain in
the reign of Claudius (A.D. 44.), they found the political
condition and relations of its feveral tribes very materially
altered. The opinion of Camden, in his Britannia, is, that
the Belgae had fubdued the whole of Wiltfhire, and alfo had
poflefled themfelves of all the territories of the Hedui.

It is very generally admitted, that the Belgae were the
moft powerful people in the fouth-weftern divifion of Eng-
land at the era of which we are now fpeaking ; and no doubt
is entertained of their having occupied all the fouthern dif-
trift of this county, as far as the Wanfdyke, which is there-
fore defignated by the appellation of ' The great Belgic
Boundary.'

Under the Romans, Wiltfhire formed part of Britannia-
Prima, and many ftations, encampments, and other military
vettigia of that people can be traced in different parts of it.
Subfequent to the departure of the Romans, the earlieft
event of political importance which occurs in hiftory relating
to Wiltfhire is the maffacre of three hundred Britifh nobles,
on the fpot where Stonehenge is fituated, by the orders of
Hengift (leader of the firft Saxon expedition to England),
who had invited them here to a banquet under the pretence
of *ffefting a reconciliation between the Britons and him-
felf. The truth of this dreadful cataftrophe, however,
is extremely doubtful, as it does not appear to be mentioned
by any of the Saxon writers, and feems to reft folely upon
the authority of Nennius, and a few of the Britifti or Welfh
bards, who were evidently interefted in the propagation of
ftories calculated to excite feeUngs of enmity and revenge in
the breafts of their countrymen, againft a people, once their
allies, but afterwards their inveterate and barbarous enemies.
Carte fays, that this " ftory was borrowed from Witikind,
who relates it of the Thuringians, who were murdered by
the Saxons on a hke occafion, and upon a fignal given in the
fame words made ufe of by the Britifh writers." Turner,
in his Hiftory of the Anglo-Saxons, regards it as an incident
which can neither be authenticated nor difproved ; and
Whitaker, in his Hiftory of Manchefter, afferts, that the
conquefts of Hengift never extended beyond the hmits of
Kent ; a circumjlance which, if fully eftabhftied, would no
doubt tend to invaUdate our belief of the tranfaftion.
Hume, in his Hiftory of England, calls it a ftory " in-
vented by the Welfh authors, in order to palliate the weak
refiftance made at firft by their countrymen, and to account
for the rapid progrefs and licentious devaftations of the
Saxons." About the year 520, Cerdic, founder of WefTex,

in the county are alfo objefts worthy the examination of having received confiderable reinforcements from Saxony,
the antiquary, as fpecimens of architeftural fkill and fcience ; and cut off a body of Britons which had been difpatched to
and in Wilton-houfe, Longford-caftle, Font-hill, Corfham- intercept them, collefted all his difpofable forces, and ad-
houfe, Bowood, Tottenham-park, Charlton-park, Stour- vanced to Mount Badon, Badbury-caftle, a Britifli pofl

11 then

WILTSHIRE.

then confidered of great ftrciigth and importance, on account
of its commanding fituation, and its proximity to the con-
currence of the Roman roads, which interfeft the north-
eaftern divifion of this county. The diftingui(hed Arthur,
who fo long upheld the falling fortunes of his country,
relieved the garrifon with a large army formed under his
own infpeAion : Cerdic, apprized of his intention, abandoned
the liege, and waited the approach of the enemy. The con-
flift was fevere ; the genius of Arthur, however, ultimately
prevailed over the fuperior fcience of the Saxon general, and
the more fteady conduA of his veteran troops. The fub-
jugation of Wiltftire was not again attempted till the year
552, when warfare was once more renewed. Kenric, the
fon of Cerdic, and his fucceflbr in the Weil-Saxon monarchy,
again pafTed the frontiers of his dominions, and threatened
Sorbiodunum or Old Sarum.

The Britilh army took a pofition to fecure its fafety, and
fought with their ufual intrepidity, but were defeated by
the fuperior difcipline of the Saxons. At " Beranbyrig,"
Barbury-c?aftle, in the vicinity of Marlborough, another
decifive battle was fought, in which the invaders were again
the conquerors ; and Wiltfhire in confequence became in-
corporated in the kingdom of Weflex.

After feveral Ikirmifhes, a decifive battle was fought at
Wodneibury, in which the ufurper of Weflex was defeated.
The Danes made a defcent on the ifland in the thirty-fecond
year of Egbert's reign, and effefted great ravages in Wilt-
ftiire. Kmg Alfred afterwards attacked the Danes near
Wilton, and routed them ; but elated by fuccefs, he incau-
tioufly fuffered them to rally when they gained a viiftory.

Alfred engaged them in feveral battles with varied fuccefs,
and ultimately compelled them to fue for peace, which was
granted ; yet in the following year, regardlefs of their recent
engagements, they fuddenly advanced to Chippenham, then
a royal refidence, and eftablifhed themfelves in that town.
They had gained fuch confiderable reinforcements, that the
king, with a part of his army, retired into Somerfetrtiire.
Here he remained feveral months, occalionally fallying out
upon the enemy, deftroying their magazines, and carrying
off their provifions. Having muflered a confiderable army,
Alfred quitted his retirement, and advanced to iEthandune,
where the Danirti forces lay encamped, attacked them by
furprife, and gained a complete vidory. No other particu-
lar event occurred in Wiltfhire until 976, when a fynod was
held at Calne, in which the refpeftive rights of the regular
and fecular clergy underwent a folemn difcuffion : the fecu-
lar clergy would not rehnquifh their pretentions ; another
council was, therefore, convened the fame year at Ame/bury,
in which it appears the canons were unfuccefsful.

The next hiftorical occurrence in Wiltfhire happened in
1003, when the towns of Wilton and Sarum were plundered
and nearly burned to the ground by the Danifh monarch.

In 1006 another army of Danes vifited Weffex, and
retiring to the coaft through Wiltfhire, when fome of its
natives attacked it in the vicinity of Kennet ; the Saxons
were, however, defeated, and purchafed peace by fubmitting
to the tribute called Danegelt.

England now remained tranquil five years, when in 101 1
king Swein and his fon Canute again landed on the fouth
coaft, and entering this county, levied heavy contributions
on the inhabitants. King Edward at this time being indif-
pofed at Corfham, hi« fon Edmund took the field, and put
the invaders to flight. An obftinate battle was fought,
about this time, at " Scearftan," or Sherfton, on the north-
weftern verge of the county, by Edmund (who had jufl
fucceeded his father, Edward) againft the Danes; the deci-
lion of the battle turned in favour of king Edmund by the

unexpefted flight of Canute. Subfequent to the Norman
Conqueft, WUtfliire retained a confiderable fhareof political
intereft.

In the year 1086, the conqueror held a great council at
Sarum ; « where," fays Blackftone, " all the principal
landholders fubmitted their lands to the yoke of military
tenure, became the king's vaffals, and did homage and fealty
to his perfon." Thus was the feudal fyflem formally in-
troduced into this country.

Clarendon, in this county, is remarkable for the laws
pafled there in the reign of Henry II.; " whereby," fays
Blackftone, " the king checked the power of the pope and
the clergy, and greatly narrowed the total exemption they
claimed from the fecular jurifdiftion ;" though the comple-
tion of his wifhes was prevented by the murder of the proud
and arrogant prelate, archbifhop Becket. Thefe laws are
ftill familiar to the antiquary, by the appellation of the
' Conftitutions of Clarendon.' At Marlborough, in 1267,
Henry III. held a parliament, or a general afTembly of the
' E Hates of England,' to provide for " the better ftate of
the realm, and the more fpeedy adminiftration of juftice ;"
and here were confequently enafted thofe flatutes for the
fupprefTion of tumults, which have ever fince been deno-
minated, ' The Statutes of Marlbridge.' In the contefts
between the houfes of York and Lancafler, the inhabitants
of Wiltfhire were confpicuous for their attachment to the
fortunes of the Henries. Many of them were prefent at
the battle of Tewkfbury, an event which tended to fix the
crown on the brows of Edward.

In the deplorable events of the 17th century, this county
was equally diftinguifhtd. Many aAions between the par-
hamentary and royal forces were decided within its bound-
aries ; particularly at Malmfbury, at Ludgerfhall, and at
Round-a-way-hill, in the neighbourhood of Devizes. War-
dour and Longford caftles were alternately befieged and
taken by both parties within one year.

The remains of antiquity in Wiltfhire, firfl; entitled to
notice in a collective view, are the ftupendous monuments at
Avebury and Stonehenge, both of which are regarded as
druidical temples. In thefe fl.ru6tures we are prefented
with the mofl wonderful works of a rude but powerful
people ; works in which the bodily flrength of affociated
numbers, with the fcience and cuftoms of their age, are
ftrongly manifefted, and which are calculated not only to
excite the aftonifhed gaze and amazement of the multitude,
but alfo to roufe curiofity and awaken inquiry in the minds
of antiquaries and hillorians. See Avebury, and Stone-
henge.

Next to thefe immenfe temples, becaufe refembling them
in relative magnitude, though totally diiTimilar in kind, the
Wanfdyke may properly claim attention. This vaft earth-
work, which is fuppofed to have originally interfeAed the
whole country, is now only diftinAly vifible in detached
places, throughout the range of hills to the fouth and weft
of Marlborough, where it ftill remains tolerably entire, and
in one place is feen in a bold and connefted line for the
fpace of ten or twelve miles.

Barrows, or Tumuli. — Of correfponding antiquity to the
monuments already named, are the artificial hillocks or
mounds of earth which abound in this county, and which,
appear to have an intimate conneftion with thofe temples,
as they are more numerous around Stonehenge and Ave-
bury than in any other places. Thefe memorials were un-
doubtedly appropriated to fepulchral purpofes. By the
refearches of Mr. Cunnington, fir Richard C. Hoare's
" Ancient Wiltfliire," the Rev. James Douglas's " Nennia
Britannia," and a few other enlightened antiquaries, we are

made

WILTSHIRE.

made familiar with the contents of thefe facred depofitories.
See Barrow, and Tumuli.

The Roman Itations mentioned in the Itinerary of An-
toninus, as being fituated within the county, are three in
number, Sorbiodunum, Verliicto, and Cunetlo. The firil of
thefe is placed by all antiquaries at Old Sarum ; but the
fituatioH of the other two has been much difputed. Camden
fixes Verlucio at Weftbury ; Horfley, at Lackham ; and
Stukeley, whofe opinion is the moft probable, in the neigh-
bourhood of Heddington. Cunetio was formerly fuppofed
by fome writers to be at the village of Kennet, and by
others at the prefent town of Marlborough ; but it is now
generally allowed to have been fituated at a (hort diftance
eaft from the latter place, near the north-ealtern boundary
of Savernake foreft. Befides thefe, the Romans had feveral
other fettlements in this county ; particularly at Eafton-
Grey, at Wanborough, at Pitmead near Heyteftury,
and at Littlecot, at each of which places teffellated pave-
ments and other Roman remains have been found. Of the
Roman roads which pafTed through Wiltlhire, the principal
was a continuation of the Julia Strata, which entering the
county from Bath, left it near Hungerford on the eaft.
The Fofle road branched off from the Julia Strata at Bath-
ford, at the north-weft corner of the county, where in many
places it is ftill confpicuous. Several other roads connefted
Sorbiodunum with neighbouring ftations ; and of thefe,
three are traced with confiderable certainty : firft, one
which led to Durnovaria, or Dorchefter ; fecondly, that to
yenta-Belgarum, Winchefter ; and thirdly, another to Vin-
donum, or Silchefter.

The numerous encampments and other intrenched earthen
works with which Wiltfhire abounds vary not only in fize
and fliape, but in method of conftruftion and pecuUarity of
fituation. Some of thefe are doubtlefs the works of the
BritOHS, others of the Belgae, of the Romans, of the
Saxons, the Danes, and the Normans. Many of them,
however, have been in all probability fucceffively occupied
and altered by the armies of one or more of thefe nations, at
different periods fubfequent to their original formation.
The immenfe fortifications of Old Sarum, Chidbury-hill,
near Warminfter, and Vefpafian's camp, near Amefbury,
conftitute the moft diftinguifhed monuments in this clafs of
antiquities.

Cajiles. — That this county, at an early period, contained
a number of thofe baronial fortified ftruftures, which are
ufually defignated by the term caftles, and which are fup-
pofed by feveral writers to have been firft introduced by the
Normans, is undoubted. Moft of them, however, are now
totally demolifhed, fo that it is even difficult to afcertain
their aftual fcites ; and the reft have been fo much altered
in later times, as almoft to efface every veftige of the ori-
ginal building. The more celebrated of thefe edifices, and
thofe which moft frequently occur in the ancient hiftorians,
are the caftles of Marlborough, Devizes, Ludgerftiall,
Wardour, Combe, and Malmftury.

General AJped.. — In a geographical arrangement, Wilt-
fhire may be faid to be naturally divided into two portions,
by an irregular range of hills, which extends tranfverfely
through the greater part of the county in a direftion in-
clining from the north-eaft to the fouth-weft. Thefe dif-
trifts are ufually denominated South and North Wiltfhire,
and differ very materially from each other, not only in ap-
pearance, but in almoft every diftinguifhing quality.

South Wihjhire, which claims priority of notice on account
of its fuperior extent, forms the weftem divifion of a vaft
traft of chalk-hills, which extends into Hampfhire, and
having for its boundaries the rich lands of Berkfhire, and

the extreme verge of the Marlborough hills on the north ;
the broken ground of Somerfetfhire on the weft ; the new
foreft of Hampfhire on the fouth ; and the heaths of Surrey
and SufTex, together with the Weft Downs of the latter
county, on the eaft. The furface of the higher downs, to
ufe the words of Gilpin, is " fpread out like the ocean, but
it is like the ocean after a ftorm ; it is continually heaving
in large fwells." In fome parts, the hills alfume the form of
rotund knolls, and are feparated by fmoothly-fided hollows,
which vary confiderably both in depth and extent. At
other places they range along for a fliort diftance in con-
neftcd ridges, fhewing on one fide of the range rather a
rapid declivity, from the top of which, on the other fide,
the hills fink in irregular gradation, till at length they fre-
quently fhelve into a perfeA flat. This effeft, fays Mar-
fhall in his " Obfervations on" what he terms " the Weftem
Diftrift" of chalk hills, is of courfe more particularly dif-
tinguifhable, " where the range of hills is narrow. Jingle,
than where a congeries of fuch ranges are crowded to-
gether diforderly." The whole of this diftrift, generally
fpeaking, is feparated into two divifions, the one called
Marlborough-Downs, and the other Salifbury-Downs or
Plain.

The principal valleys in this divifion of the county lie
along the banks of the rivers, the moft remarkable of which
diverge like irregular radii from the country around Salif-
bury and Wilton. Thefe difplay rich meadow and corn
lands, interfperfed with feats and villages, and finely covered
in various parts with plantations of wood.

North Wiltjhire differs entirely from the fouthern divifion
of the county in its general appearance. Inftead of a con-
ftant feries of " chalky waves," the afpeft of this diflrift,
which extends from the verge of the Downs to the hills of
Gloucefterfhire, is nearly that of a perfeA flat ; the few
deviations from the ordinary level being fo gradual as
fcarcely to be perceptible, on a curfory view. The country
here is fo clofe and well wooded, that when viewed from
any of the furrounding hills, it appears like one vaft plant-
ation of trees. If examined in detail, however, it is found
alfo to contain many extenfive trafts of rich pafture land,
fituated on the banks of the Lower Avon and the Thames,
and of fmaller ftreams which flow into both of thofe rivers.

Rivers. — Wiltfhire abounds with rivers, which either
take their rife within the county, or on its immediate con-
fines. Two of thefe, the Thames and the Lower Avon,
are unqueftionably important ftreams. All the others are
much inferior both in extent and confequence ; but feveral
of them deferve to be particularly noticed, -viz. the Upper
or Salifbury Avon, the Nadder, the Willey, the Bourne,
and the Kennet. See Thames.

The Lower Avon rifes in the hilly diftrift of North
Wiltfhire, at a fhort diftance from the town of Wootton-
Ban"et.

The Upper Avon is formed by the confluence of feveral
fmaller ftreams, which take their rife among the hills near
the centre of the county. The Kennet rifes near Avebury,
and running in an eafterly direftion, unites with the Thames
at Reading. The Willey and the Nadder join their ftreams
at Wilton, and unite with the Avon at Salifbury.

The cheefe of North Wiltfhire has long been defervedly
celebrated ; though for fome time after it became the ftaple i
commodity here, it was fold in the London market as the
manufafture of Gloucefterfhire. See Cheese.

JVaJle Lands. — It is a common idea that the Wiltfhire .,
downs confift entirely of " wafte land." This notion, '
however, is completely erroneous ; for if the correft appro-
priation of land is to be eftimated by its comparative utility

WILTSHIRE.

in difFerent conditions, the application of the grounds in the
chalk diftriift cannot be very eafily improved, or materially
altered for the better.

In North Wiltfhire the number of common fields is very
great, but none of them are of any confiderable extent. It
is fubjeft of regret, however, that they (hould exift at all,
as many of them are difperfed over the richeft foil in the
diftrift ; and if brought under regular cultivation would be
extremely produftive.

The chaces within Wiltfliire are fuppofed to have been
numerous formerly, but only three woodland diftrifts novir
retain that peculiar appellation : thefe are Cranbourn-chace,
Vernditch-chace, and Albourn-chace. The firft and fecond
join each other, and occupy a long narrow traft of country
on the fouthern confines of Wiltfhire. There are three
canals which interfeft parts of this county : firft, the Thames
and Severn ; fecondly, the Kennet and Avon ; and thirdly,
the Wiltfhire and Berkfhire. See Canals.

The manufadures of Wiltfhire are various, and of great
extent. Salifbury is noted for its flannels and fancy wool-
lens ; and befides carries on a confiderable manufaftory of
cutlery and fteel goods, which are probably fuperior in
workmanfhip to any in the kingdom. Wilton was cele-
brated for a large manufaftory of carpets, and Mere for
another of fancy woollens ; and in its neighbourhood a great
I quantity of linen is made, chiefly dowlas and bed-ticks.
Broad cloths, kerfeymeres, and fancy cloths, are the prin-
cipal produce of the towns of Bradford, Trowbridge, War-
minfter, Weftbury, Mclkfham, Chippenham, and all the
adjacent towns and villages from Chippenham to Heytef-
bury. At Albourn is au excellent manufaftory of cotton
goods, of which fuftians and thickfets form the moft valu-
1 able portion. Swindon and its vicinity has been long famed
I for its manufadlory of gloves.

Ecclifmjlical and Civil Divifion and Government. — The
' whole of this county is fituated in the province of Canter-
! bury ; and, with exception of the parifli of Kingfwood, is
in the di^cefe of Salifbury. It comprehends two arch-
I deaconries, Sarum and Wilts ; the former comprifing the
' deaneries of Salifbury, Amefbury, Chalk, Pottern, Wilton,
I and Wily ; and the latter, with the annexed reftory of
! Minety, thofe of Avebury, Cricklade, Malmfbury, and
I Marlborough.

As in the other counties of England, the chief civil
' magiftrates of Wiltfliire are, the lord-lieutenant, the cuftos
! rotulorum, and the high fheriff; which laft is elefted an-
I Dually, and whofe official bufinefs is chiefly condufted by a
deputy-fheriff. The other local members of government
; are, juftices of the peace, mayors and baihffs of boroughs,
; and a variety of fubordinate officers. The afting magiftrates
' are feventy-three, and the petty feffions for the county
' thirteen.

; Wiltfhire is comprehended in the weftern circuit, and
i fends thirty-four members to parliament, -viz. two knights
! of the fhire, two citizens for Salifbury, and two burgeffes
[ for each of the following boroughs ; Chippenham, Calne,
I Cricklade, Devizes, Heytefbury, Hindon, Downton, Great
I Bedwin, Marlborough, Malmfbury, Ludgf-rfliall, Weft-
:bury, Wilton, Wootton-Baffet, and Old Sarum. At an
I early period the whole county was divided into twenty-nine
[portions, called hundreds; and thefe are again fubdivided
I into two hundred and ninety-five fmaller dillnfts, called
■parifhes; with parts of fourteen others. In the county is
I one city, Salifbury; and twenty-three market-towns, -y/'z.
I Amefbury, Bradford, Calne, Chippenham, Cricklade, De-
vizes, Downton, Great Bedwin, Heytefbury, Hindon,

Ludgerfhall, Malmfbury, Marlborough, Market-Lavington,
Melkfham, Mere, Swindon, Trowbridge, Warminfter,
Weftbury, Wilton, and Wootton-Baffet.

The government, provincial management, number, and
ftate of the poor in this county, as laid before parliament
in the year 1804, and publifhed by authority of the houCe
of commons, are detailed in the following particulars. It is
ftated, " that returns were received from three hundred and
thirty-fix parifhes, or places, in the county of Wilts, in the
year 1803 ; in 1785, the returns were from three hundred
and thirty-fix ; and from three hundred and twenty-five, in
1776." It is then further ftated, " that forty -one parifhes,
or places, maintain all or part of their poor in workhoufes ;
the number of perfons fo maintained, during the year ending
Eafter 1803, was one thoufand fix hundred and feven ; and
the expence incurred therein amounted to 14,547/. 2s. o\d.,
being at the rate of 8/. 19^. Sd. for each perion maintained
in that manner. By the returns of 1776, there were forty
workhoufes capable of accommodating two thoufand and
feventy-nine perfons. The number of perfons relieved out
of workhoufes was forty thoufand five hundred and eleven,
befides four thoufand five hundred and thirty -fix, who were
not parifliioners. The expence incurred in the relief of the
poor, not in workhoufes, amounted to 113,888/. I'js. g-^a.
A large proportion of thofe who were not pariftiioners ap-
pear to have been vagrants ; and, therefore, it is probable
the relief given to this clafs could not exceed 2s. each,
amounting to 453/. 12s. od. This fum being dedu£ted from
the above 113,888/. i']s. g^d., leaves 1 13,435/. 5J- Sfi*^- »
being at the rate of 2/. i6s. od. for each parifhioner relieved
out of any workhoufe. The number of perfons relieved in
and out of workhoufes was forty -two thoufand one hundred
and twenty-eight, befides thofe who were not pariftiioners.
Excluding the expence fuppofed to be incurred in the relief
of this clafs of poor, all other expences relative to the main-
tenance of the poor amounted to 131,864/. igs. gld., being
at the rate of 3/. 2s. 'jd. for each pariftiioner relieved. The
refident population of the county of Wilts, in the year
1801, appears from the population abftraft to have beea
one hundred eighty -five thoufand one hundred and feven ;
fo that the number of parifhioners relieved from the poor's
rate appears to be twenty-three in a hundred of the re-
fident population. The number of perfons belonging to
Friendly Societies appears to be fix in a hundred of the
refident population. The amount of the whole total
money raifed by rates is i6s. o^d. per head on the popula-
tion. The amount of the whole expenditure on account
of the poor appears to average at I4J-. ^^d. per head on the
population. The expenditure in fuits of law, removal of
paupers, and expences of overfeers, and other officers, ac-
cording to the prefent abftrad, amounts to 3682/. 15^. od.
The amount of fuch expenditure, according to the returns
of 1785, was then 3501/. l$s. gd. The expenditure in
purchafing materials for employing the poor, according to
the prefent abftraft, amounts to 849/. Ss. ']\d. The
amount of fucb expenditure, according to the returns of
1785, was 434/. lis. 9(/. It does not appear from the re-
turns received, that the poor of any parifh or place in this
county are farmed or maintained under contraft. The poor
of fix parifhes are maintained and employed under the re«
gulations of fpecial afts of parliament. Thirty-fix Friendly
Societies have been enrolled at the quarter-feffions of this
county, purfuant to ttie aft of 33 & 35 Geo. III." —
Beauties of England and Wales, Wiltfhire, by J. Britten,
F.S.A. 8vo. 1 8 14. Ancient Wiltfhire, by fir Richard

C- Hoare, bart., folio, 18 15.

Wiltshire,

W 1 M

Wiltshire or Ekven-fiared Plough, in Agriculture, zn
Implement of this kind invented and ufed in that diftnft.
In Oxfordlhire it is employed for many different purpofes ;
as for cleaning the land, and with (hares contrived for fur-
rowing the land previous to fowing. The crops principally
fown, or put in after the ufe of this implement, are thofe of
tares or vetches and turnips. See Plough.

WILZ, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Forefts ; 6 miles N.W. of Dicrich.

WILZBURG, a fort of Germany, in the principality of
Anfpach ; 23 miles S.E. of Anfpach.

WIMACOMACK, a town of New York, in Long
ifland ; 44 miles E. of New York.

WIMBA, or WiNiPA, a town of Africa, on the Gold
Coaft ; 20 miles S.W. of Acra.

WIMBLE, in Rural Economy, a term provincially made
ufe of to fignify a boring auger. See Auger.

WIMBLEDON, in Geography, a village of England, in
the county of Surrey ; fuppofed by Camden and others to be
the place where Ethelbert king of Kent was defeated by
Ceaulin king of the Weft Saxons. According to hiftory,
the battle was fought in the year 586, at Wibandune. At
the fouth-weft corner of Wimbledon common is a circular
encampment, with a fingle ditch, containing a fpace of about
feven acres ; 9 miles S. of London.

WIMBORNE or Winbourne Minjler, a market-town
of remote antiquity, in the hundred of Badbury, Shafton
divifion of the county of Dorfet, England, is fituated on the
river Allen, near its confluence with the Stour, at the diftance
of 28 miles E.N.E. from Dorchefter, and lOO miles S.W.
by W. from London. It was called by the Romans Vindo-
gladia, alluding to its fituation on a river. The appellation
of Wimbourne is Saxon, derived from Bourne, a vale, and
Wim, a fmall river which flows near the town. The term
Minfter, from the church, was added to diftinguifh it from
other places of the fame name. Camden ftates this town to
have been a place of great confequence in the Saxon times,
and that it then retained many marks of Roman grandeur.
The prefent appearance indicates no veftiges of its former
profperity ; though large and populous, it has little to re-
commend it to notice ; the ftreets being irregular, and the
houfes deficient in uniformity. The trade carried on is
chiefly confined to the woollen manufaftory and the knitting
of hofiery. The great objeft whence Wimborne derived its
ancient reputation, and to which it is folely indebted for
its modern celebrity, is the Nunnery, which was founded
among the earlieft of its kind in the kingdom. It was
ereAed, as Leland informs us, in the beginning of the
eighth century, by St. Cuthburga, daughter of Kenred, and
fifterof Ina, king of the Weft Saxons. In the reign of Ed-
ward the Confeflbr, or of one of the Edwards his predecef-
fors, this edifice having been deftroyed by the Danes, the
eftabUfhment was dilFolved, and converted into a college of
fecular canons, confifting of a dean, four prebendaries, three
vicars, and other inferior officers. This college fubfifted till
the year 1547 : on the diflblution the revenues were vefted
in the crown. Great part of the lands was granted to
Edward, duke of Somerfet ; and part was by queen Elizabeth
vefted in the corporation of the college towards the found-
ation of a grammar-fchool. In the reign of Charles I. all
the pofleflions of the church and fchool were granted, in
truft, to twelve governors, who, among other conditions,
were to find for the fervice of the collegiate church three
priefts, three clerks, and lubordinate members. This efta-
bliOimeut, with feme temporary obftruftions, has been kept
up ever fince. The revenues at prefent amount to between

WIM •

three and four hundred pounds. The church merits parti-
cular notice for its age and venerable appearance, and for
the pecuharities of its architefture. Mr. Gilpin fays, its
form dates its antiquity, being of the heavieft and earlieft
Saxon ftyle. Dr. Stukeley, however, and other antiquaries,
were of opinion, that the eaftern tower, and moft part of
the church, were built foon after the Conqueft. Many
parts are of early Norman architefture, particularly the
femicircular arches in the eaftern tower, the falfe windows
in the fouth tranfept, and feveral others. The church is
cruciform, with two quadrangular towers, one ftanding on
the middle of the roof, and the other at the weft end ; the
former was anciently ornamented with a fpire, faid to be of
an extraordinary height. The whole edifice confifts of a
chancel, nave, choir, and fide aifles, a tranfept, and three
porches. Its length, from eaft to weft, is 180 feet. Both
chancel and choir are fupported by eight pillars, over which
are five windows on the north and three on the fouth fide.
The nave is fupported on each fide by fix mafty pillars of
an irregular form, above which are pointed arches, with zig-
zag mouldings : the whole enlightened by a fimilar number
of windows, apparently of a more modern ilyle. Many
royal and noble perfons have been interred in this church,
moft of whom were anciently commemorated by fuitable
monuments. Of thefe time has deftroyed many, and the
hand of violence more. Among thofe remaining, the moft
confpicuous is that of king Ethelred, who, as the infcription
ftates, was flain by the Danes April 23, 872. This tomb
ftands in the choir on the north fide of the altar. On the
oppofite fide is that of the duke and duchefs of Somerfet
(parents of Margaret, countefs of Richmond, mother of
Henry VII.), with their effigies in alabafter. Within this
church were once ftanding ten altars for the celebration of
divine fervice, all of which were compofed of alabafter and
other coftly materials, and fuitably ornamented. The furni-
ture of the high altar was particularly fplendid ; confifting
of a variety of croffes and images, and other objefts of
worfhip, of filver-gilt, and adorned with precious ftones.

Exclufive of the church, the pubhc buildings of Wim-
borne are few and uninterefting. The town-hall was fuf-
fered to fall to decay ; near its fcite is an open fpace, called
the Square. Here are two meeting-houfes for Preftyyte-
rians and Anabaptifts ; and a large commodious workhoufe.
Two annual fairs are held, and a weekly market on Fridays.
The north part of the town has been long ftyled a borough,
and confifts of two ftreets, Eaft Borough and Weft Borough
ftreets. It was never incorporated, but is governed by tw» j
bailiff's annually chofen. The fouth part of the town, in-
cluding all that is not in the borough, compofes the tything
of Wimborne Minfter. The population of the whole, by
the return of the year 18 11, was enumerated at 3158 ; the
houfes at 701. About a quarter of a mile from the town
is an hofpital, or alms-houfe, with a chapel adjoining,
called St. Margaret's hofpital. The time of its foundation
is entirely unknown ; but by feveral curious deeds preferved
in the chapel, it appears to be at leaft as old as the time of
king John, when it was fet apart for the relief and fupport
of poor perfons affliAed with the leprofy. It does not ap-
pear to have had any endowment, but to have been fup-
ported by voluntary donations, for which pope Innocent IV.,
in the year 1245, granted fpecial indulgences. Since the
year 1688, the alms-people are not required to have the
original qualification of leprofy, but only to be poor aged
people. A fecond hofpital, or alms-houfe, was founded and
endowed by Gertrude Courtney, marchionefs of Exeter, for '
the maintenance of fix poor men and women ; and a patent

was

W I N

was procured from queen Elizabeth for incorporating the
" governor and poor perfons :" they were invefted with a
common feal and other corporate privileges. But notwith-
ftanding this parade, the charity has dwindled to nearly
nothing ; the fix perfons now on the foundation having only
each a room, and the poor pittance of fifty-two (hillings
yearly. — Hutchins's Hiftory of Dorfetihire. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. iv. Dorfetfhire. By J. Britton and
E. W. Brayley.

WIMBREL, in Ornithology, the Englifli name of a bird
of the curlew kind, the fcolopax phaopus of Linnseus,
and known among authors by the name of arquata minor,
or the lefTer curlew, and called in the Venetian markets
taraniola.

It is much of the (hape of the common curlew, but is
not more than half its fize. Its beak is about three fingers'
breadth long, duflcy above and red below ; its feet are green-
i(h ; the feathers on the head and neck brown tinged with
red, marked in the middle with an oblong black fpot ; the
upper part of the back, coverts of the wings, fcapulars,
and fartheft quill-feathers, of the fame colour with the neck,
but the black fpots fpread out tranfverfely on each web ;
the quill-feathers duflty, their (hafts white, and their ex-
terior webs marked with large femicircular white fpots ; the
breaft, belly, and lower part of the back, are white ; the
coverts of the tail are of a pale whitifh-brown, eroded with
black bars. Its haunts and food are much the fame with
thofe of the curlew, but it is much lefs frequent on our
(hores. Pennant.

WIMES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the ftraits of Calais ; 9 miles S.S.W. of St.
Omer.

WIMMERBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 62 miles N. of Calmar.

WIMMIS,a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne,
on the Sibuen ; 18 miles S. of Berne.

WIMPEL, of the Dutch tuimpel, a muffler, a plaited
linen cloth, which nuns wear to cover their necks and breafts.
The word is alfo fometimes ufed for a ftreamer, or flag.

WIMPFFEN, in Geography, a town of Germ^any, on
the Neckar, near which it is joined by the Jaxt. This place
confifts properly of two towns, the moll confiderable of
which is called Wimp(fen-auf-dem-berg, or Wimpffen
on the hill ; and the other Wimpffen-inthal, or Wimpffen
in the vale. In the former of thefe are a Lutheran parifh-
church and a grammar-fchool, as alfo a Roman Catholic
hofpital ; but in the latter is a Roman Catholic abbey, with
a convent of monks. The magiftrates here are wholly Lu-
therans. The Huns are faid to have ravaged this town ;
but an inftrument of donation by king Henry VII. bearing
date in the year 1228, (hews it to have entirely recovered from
that calamity. On the failure of the dukes of Swabia, it gra-
dually procured its freedom, and the emperors Charles IV.
and Wenceflaus promifed to maintain it in its immediate de-
i pendency on the empire. In the years 1645 and 1688, it was
I taken by the French. In 1 802, it was given to the duchy
I of Baden ; 8 miles N. of Heilbronn. N. lat. 49° 15'. E.
I long. 9° 15'.

; WIN, at the beginning or end of the names of places,
I fignifies that fome great battle was fought, or a viftory
I gained there. The word is formed from the Saxon minnan,
I to win, or overcome.

j WINANDER Mere, or Winder Mere, in Geography,
I a lake of England, in the county of Weftmoreland, in which
I is an ifland, with a village. This is one of the largeft lakes
I in England, being 15 miles long, and two broad, and from
i 90 to 200 feet deep, well furnifhed with fifh of feveral forts,
I Vol. XXXVIII.

W I N

but efpecially char ; 17 miles S.S.E. of Kefwick, and 270
N.N.W. of London. '

WINBERG. See WiNTERBERG.
WINCANTON, or Wincaunton, a market-town in
the hundred of Norton-Ferris, and county of Somerfet
England, is fituated on the weftern (lope of a hill near the
river Cale, at the diftance of 108 miles W. by S. from Lon-
don. It is a place of remote antiquity ; and was probably
occupied by the Romans, as numerous coins of that peo-
ple were difcovered here in the early part of the laft century.
The Saxons were long in poffeflion of it ; and it is recorded
in Domefday-Book to have been held by one Elfi in the
reign of Edward the ConfelTor ; but when William came to
the throne he gave it to Walter de Dowcri. It afterwards
palTed to the Lovels, lords of Caftle Cary, and through the
families of St. Maur and Zouch, till by attainder itlapfed to
the crown, i Henry VII., who granted it to Giles, lord
Daubery. The town, in its prefent (late, confifts of four
principal ftreets. A fire which occurred in 1747 opened a
way towards the improvement of the buildings. The turn-
pike-road from Taunton to Sahlbury runs through it. A
confiderable market is held on Wednefdays for cheefe, but-
ter, pigs, and (lax-yarn for the linen manufaftures, which
are chiefly thofe of dowlas and ticking, in which mofl of
the poorer inhabitants find employment. Here are alfo
three annual fairs. The town-hall is a refpeftable brick
ftrudlure, with a ruftic (lone bafement : here is likewife a
fmall old market-houfe, with a few fhambles. At the weft
end of the town, in the road to Caftle Cary, is a ftone bridge
of two arches over the Cale : there is another of one arch
over the fame ftream in the road to Bruton. Wincanton
church is a fpacious edifice, and confifts of a nave, chancel,
and two aifles. The church is ancient ; but the chancel was
rebuilt, and the church new-roofed and windowed in the
year 1748. At the weft end is a plain fquare tower. The
pariih extends nearly feven miles from north to fouth, and
three miles from eaft to weft : it includes, befides the town,
five fmall hamlets. The population return of the year 181 1
ftates the whole to contain 380 houfes, and 1850 inhabitants.
Within this pari(h, at the diftance of about three miles
north-eaft from the town, are the remains of the priory of
Stavordale, founded in the reign of Henry III., by Richard
Lovel, then lord of the manor, for canons of the order of
St. Auguftine. The priory is now converted into a farm-
houfe and barn, in which feveral arches and other parts of
the original ftrufture ftill remain. — Collinfon's Hiftory of
Somerfet(hire, vol. iii. 4to. 1791.

WINCH, a popular term for a windlafs,
WixcH alfo denotes the crooked handle for turning round
wheels, grind-ftones, &c.

Winch, a fmall windlafs, with an iron axis, hung in
rhodings or gudgeons, abaft fome velfels' mafts to hoill the
main-fail, &c. with a conical piece of timber at each end
without the cheeks. It is hove round by two iron handles,
formed by cranks or winches, from whence it takes its
name.

Winches, the large iron handles by which the main-
pumps in (liips are worked.

Winch, ufed by rope-makers, is made of wood, having four
fpokes at each end, connefted together by four blades, to
form the body. Through the centre of the fpokes is a hole
to receive an iron bolt, on which it turns by a handle in one
of the fpokes. Its ufe is to wind the yarn on as it is fpun.
Winch, to twift or make fpun.yarn with, is fimilar to
the former, but much lefs. The motion given to this winch
is by the hand in twilling the yarn : on the edges of the
fpokes is a fmall iron hook to ftop the yarn in twilling,
3 O after

W I N

W I N

after which the fpun-yarn is wound round the body of the
winch.

WINCHCOMBE, in Geography, a market-town in the
lower divifion of the hundred of Kiftfgate, Gloucefterfhire,
England, is fituated on the Cotfwold-hills, 15 miles N.E.
by E. from the city of Glouceller, and 9J miles W.N.W.
from London. It was anciently a town of confiderable im-
portance, was written Wincelcumbe in Domefday-Book,
and was there ftyled a borough when only Gloucefter and
Briftol, in the fame county, were dignified with that title. It
was the fcite of a caftle, and of a mitred abbey fufficiently
capacious for the reception of 300 monks ; but every veftige
of thefe buildings has long been levelled with the duft, and
the places where they ftood are only conjeftured. By whom
the caftle was eredled is unknown ; but the abbey was
founded in 798, by Kenulph, king of Mercia, and was con-
fecrated with great folemnity in the prefence of three kings,
and a great number of prelates and nobles. Being deftroyed
by the Danes, it was rebuilt in 98 1 by Ofwald, biftiop of
Worcefter, who converted it into a college of feculars, and
reftored it to great fplendour. It was largely endowed ;
and in the reign of the Conqueror nineteen manors in this
county were annexed to it, independently of Winchcombe
itfelf. In 1265 its abbot was fummoned to parliament, and
the privilege was continued to all the fucceeding abbots.
The twenty-eighth abbot, Richard Ancelme, furrendered
his abbey and its poITeiTions to Henry VIII. in 1539. The
edifice was foon after totally deftroyed. Tradition reports
it as very magnificent ; but no defcription of it is now ex-
tant. Winchcombe, with a fmall territory adjoining, is faid
to have been, in the Anglo-Saxon time, a fheriffdom or
county of itfelf; but in the reign of Canute, it was divefted
of its independence, and annexed to Gloucefterdiire. The
town now confifts chiefly of two ftreets, interfeCling each
other; the houfes are low, and principally of ftone. The dif-
ficulty of approaching it, through the badnefs of the roads,
has prevented it from being much vifited ; but the new turn-
pike-roads have now opened a ftiort and eafy communication.
The church is a fpacious ftrufture, with a nave, chancel,
two aifles, and an embattled tower : the body of the church
is alfo ornamented with battlements and pinnacles. The
old church ftood at the weft end of the town ; but having
fallen to decay, the prefent fabric was begun in the reign of
Henry VI. by the abbot, WiUiam Winchcombe, who com-
pleted the eaft part : the remainder was finiftied by the pa-
riftiioners, aflifted by the munificence of Ralph Boteler, lord
Sudeley. The government of the town, which is a borough
by prefcription, is vefted in two baihff's and ten alTiftants ;
from the latter, the bailiff^s are annually chofen. A weekly
market is held on Saturdays, and here are three annual
fairs, which are well attended ; but from the reclufe fitua-
tion of the town very little trade is carried on, a paper-
mill and a tan-yard being the chief fources of employ. The
workhoufe is an ancient irregular building, in which the
poor are employed in fpinning and weaving linen. Here are
alfo an alms-houfe for twelve poor women, and three charity-
fchools. The population of the town in the year 181 1, ac-
cording to the return to parliament, was 1256, occupying
299 houfes : the parifti extends twelve miles in circum-
ference, and includes nine hamlets ; tiie enumeration of the
whole was 461 houfes, and 1936 inhabitants.

About a quarter of a mile to the fouth-eaft of the town
are the ruins of Sudeley -caille, erefted by Ralph, lord Bote-
ler, an eminent ftatefman in the reign of Henry VI., on the
fcite of a more ancient caftle which appears to have been the
refidence of Herald, fon to Radulf, earl of Hereford, in the
time of the Norman conqueror. In this family, which aiTuraed

the name of Sudeley, the manor continued till the 41ft of
Edward III., when it was conveyed by marriage. Sudeley
was attached to the crown till the reign of Edward VI.
when it was granted to fir Thomas Seymour, who fettled
here with Catharine Parr, the queen-dowager, whom he
had married, and who died here in child-bed, not without
fufpicion of poifon. Seymour being afterwards attainted,
Sudeley was granted to Wilham Parr, marquis of Northamp-
ton, who forfeited it foon afterwards. It now belongs to
the marquis of Buckingham. Of this once-famed fortrefs,
very little remains : parts of towers, the hall, and the chapel,
ferve to fhew the ftyle of architefture and charafter of the
buildings. — See WiUiams's Hiftory, &;c. of Sudeley Caftle,
folio. Alfo Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. by J.
Britton and E.W. Bray ley.

WINCHELSEA, a borough and market-town on the
coaft of Suffex, England, fituated about 3 miles W. from
Rye, 8 E. from Haftings, and 67 from London. It is a
member of the Cinque Ports, and an incorporated town,
the officers of which confift, according to its charters, of
a mayor and twelve jurats ; but thefe are feldom compofed
of more than four or five perfons. Winchelfea is a place of
antiquity ; but by the ravages of the fea, the fcites of its
houfes, at different periods, have totally changed. The
epoch of the rapid though gradual overthrow of the ori-
ginal town is fixed by Leland between 1280 and 1287.
During that time the inhabitants petitioned Edward 1. for
ground to found another town, who accordingly granted
them the fcite of the prefent town, which he furrounded
with walls, and to it the inhabitants gradually removed.
The new town afterwards fell into decay, from a caufe juft
the reverfe of that which ruined the old ; for the fea deferted
its neighbourhood, and left in its place a dreary marfh.
This began to be fenfibly felt in the end of the reign of
queen Elizabeth. The channel leading to the harbour was
choaked, the coaft was deferted, and the town, abandoned
by the trader, foon declined. The houfes and churches fell
to ruin, fo that a town, once covering a furface two miles
in circuit, is now reduced to comparatively a few houfes in
a corner of its ancient fcite, now a mile and a half from the
fea. Of the ancient church, the lofty and fpacious chancel,
now ufed for divine fervice, and three aifles, alone remain en-
tire. In it are two monuments, with effigies of knights
templars. Some fragments of the walls and of three gates
of the town ftill exift. From the fituation of Winchelfea,
and the fpacious vaults frequently difcovered, it is probable
that the town was the principal mart for French wines, im-
ported into England before the wine-trade with Portugal
was eftablifhed. Winchelfea fends two members to parlia-
ment, who are elefted by about forty freemen. The houfes
in this parifti, in j8ii, were 126, containing 131 families,
and 652 perfons. — Beauties of England, vol. xiv. Svo. 1 81 3,
Suflex, by F. Shoberl.

WiNCHELSEA IJland, an ifland in the Pacific ocean ; 30
miles S.E. of fir Charles Hardy's ifland.

WINCHENDON, a town of the ftate of MalTachufetts,
in the county of Worcefter, with 1 173 inhabitants ; 56 miles
N.W. of Bofton.

WINCHESTER, an ancient and eminent city in
Hampfliire, or the county of Southampton, in England,
II miles N.N.E. from Southampton, and 62| W.S.W.
from London. The buildings are difpofed on the eaftern
declivity of a low hill, which gently flopes to the valley of
the river Itchen, the chalky cliffs of which, and the chalky
foil of the furrounding heights, in the opinion of Camden,
occafioned the ancient name of the city, Caer-Gnvent, figni-
fying the • white city.' The latter portion of the name,

under

WINCHESTER.

under the Romans, became Vinta, with the addition of
Belgarum, from its fituation in the country occupied by tlie
Belga, by which it was diftinguiflied 'from Fenta Silurum,
now Caerwent, in Monmouthlhire, and Venta Icenorum,
now Caftor, near Norwich, in Norfolk. From Giuent or
yenta we have the firft part of the name, and chejler, the
laft part, is a corruption of cajlra, tlie Roman term for en-
campments of different kinds ; a frequent name, or appen-
dage of a name, of various places in England, and perhaps
invariably an indication that fuch places owe both their
origin and their primitive form to the military ftations of the
earlieft conquerors of Britain.

Hijloric Events. — The origin of Winchefter, remote as it
unqueifionably is, has been carried back to an epoch far
beyond belief, even a century and half anterior to the
foundation of Rome. Without referring to fuch remote
and uncertain time, we may fafely infer that this fpot was
occupied by the Belgse, a Germanic tribe, who pafling
from Gaul, took pofleffion of the country bordering the
fouthern coall of England. (Casfar's Bel. Gal. ii. 4.)
Previous to their occupancy, it is conjeftured that Win-
chefter was the Caer-Gwent, or white city, of the aboriginal
Britons. After the Romans had fubdued the Belgae and
the Britons, they took poireffion of this town, and fortified
it with ramparts and walls. Thefe were difpofed on the
floping fide of a hill, and in the ufual form of a parallelo-
gram. Within this inclofure the town was conftrufled and
arranged ; and from the importance of this flation, and its
conneftion with other ftations by military roads, there can
be little doubt that Venta Belgarum, the Roman name, was
a place of confiderable importance. Among the antique
relics of the Romans, which have been difcovered at Win-
chefter, are feveral coins, urns, &c. ; alfo fome fine coins of
Caraftacus, called the firft Britifh emperor. After the
Romans left the ifland in 446, Gortheryn, or Vortigern,
was eleAed chief of the weftern diftrift, and he fixed his
feat of government at Winchefter. This town, as well as
the whole ifland, was foon deftined to experience a total
change of pohty, cuftoms, and manners, by the introduc-
tion and domination of the Saxons in 519. On this occa-
fion, the name of the city was changed from the Britifti
Caer-Gwent and the Roman Venta to another of equal im-
port, Wintan-ceajler, from which the modern name, Win-
cTiefter, has gradually been formed. In 635 an important
event occurred in Winchefter, the arrival there of Birinus,
deputed by pope Honorius to preach the gofpel in thofe
parts of the country ftill involved in paganifm. Favoured
by king Kinegils, Birinus's apoftolic labours were eminently
fuccefsful ; for the king founded a new cathedral on the
fcite of that deftroyed under Diocletian, which was confe-
crated under his fon and fucceffor, Kenewalch, in 648.
Egbert, king of the Weft-Saxons, fucceeding in the fub-
jeftion of all the other Saxon princes, was in 827 crowned
king of all England in the cathedral of Winchefter, thus
created or confidered to be the metropolis of the whole
kingdom J and there, about 854, Egbert's fucceflbr, Ethel-
wolf, granted his famous charter, eftablifhing a general
fyftem of tythes. About this period the commerce of the
city is recorded to have greatly increafed, and the principal
inhabitants are ftated to have conftituted a guild, under the
royal protedlion ; the earlieft affociation of the kind, by a
century, recorded in hiftory. During the greater part of
this and the fucceeding reign, the fee of Winchefter was
filled by the celebrated St. Swithun, by whofe advice king
Ethelbald raifed fortifications for the defence of the cathe-
dral againft the Danes. Landing at Southampton, they
advanced to Wiocbefter, where they committed horrible

excefles ; but the cathedral efcapcd their fury. About 871,
however, that greatly fufFered by them, and all the clergy
belonging to it were maftacred. On the ultimate fuccefs of
the great Alfred, Winchefter refumed a portion of its
former fplendour ; it became again the feat of government ;
tlierc the public records of the kingdom were depofited, in
particular the general furvey, called, from this circumftance,
Codex Wintonknjis, afterwards imitated by William the Con-
queror in 1086, in the famous Roll of Winchefter, or
Domef day -booh. ( Sec Domesday. ) The fucceffion of
Edgar the Peaceable increafed the importance of Win-'
chefter. Among tiic judicious laws which he eftablilhed
was one to prevent frauds arifing from the diverfity of mea-
fures ufed in the country, by providing a ftandard legal mea-
fure for the whole of his dominions. This was the origin of
the eftablifhed W'tnchcjler meafures ; the ftandard veftels for
meafurement made by Edgar's orders being depofited in that
city, where the original buftiel is ftill preferved. In the
reign of this prince, in 980, the cathedral, having been
partly rebuilt, was folemnly re-con fccrated. About the
fame time the married canons of the cathedral were, at the
fuggeftion of St. Dunftan, removed, to make room for
Benedi(Sine monks. In Winchefter, in 1002, and in the
reign of Ethelred, furnamed the Unready, commenced the
general maffacre of the Danes, in mercilefs vengeance for
the atrocities they had committed on the inhabitants of the
country. Thence 3.To{e \.\\e noteA hock-tlde /ports, of which
fome traces may ftill be obferved in remote corners of Eng-
land. But this vengeance remained not long unrequited by
Swayne the Dane, who obtained pofleflion of Winchefter
eleven years afterwards. St. Elphage II., then biftiop, is
faid to have firft introduced organs into the cathedral.
Canute, obtaining the fovereignty of England by the death
of Edmund Ironfide in 1016, chofe Winchefter for his
capital, and, with other rich gifts, beftowed on the cathe-
dral his crown, which was placed over the crucifix on the
high altar : for Canute had vowed never more to wear that
enfign of royalty, from the day when, by commanding in
vain the flowing tide not to approach his feet, he proved to
his flatterers the emptinefs of their adulation, in hailing him
lord of the ocean. Winchefter cathedral is defcribed to have
been the fcene of a legendary tale relating to queen Emma,
mother of Edward the Confeffor, who is faid, but very im-
probably, there to have eftablifhed the purity of her ch>
rafter, by walking unhurt over nine burning plough-fhares.
In the reign of the fame Edward, the broad feal of the
chancellor of England was firft made and kept in Win-
chefter.

The Norman invafion produced many changes in the ftate
of the city : there king William I. founded a caftle, as he did
in many other parts of the kingdom, with the view of over-
awing, under the pretence of protefting, the inhabitants.
It continued, however, to be a principal royal refidence,
although London then began to aflume the pre-eminence.
The politic monarch knew the influence of the clergy over
the people ; he confequently afligned all or moft of the chief
offices in England to his relatives, dependants, and oftenfible
friends. Councils were held in Winchefter, in which the
new clergy, with the primate Lanfranc at their head, drew
up canons or laws levelled at the Saxons, and framed to
proteft or juftify themfelves. Winchefter, the refidence of
the court, was of courfe filled with the priefts, the officers,
and the followers of the king. The curfew [counire-feu],
or eight-o'-clock-bell, was firft rung in Winchefter. The
year 1079 is memorable in the hiftory of Winchefter, for
then was commenced the prefent fpacious and magnificent
catbedral church. In the reign of Henry I. a Angular
3O 2 tranfadion

WINCHESTER.

tranfaftion is recorded to ba«e taken place in Winchefter. oppodte parties ; but after the fatal battle of Nafeby in

The current coin of the realm having been greatly debafed 1645, " was finally reduced by CromweU. The works of

by the different mint-mafters, the king iu 1125 affembled the caftle were blown up, the fortifications of the city were

them in this city, when all, except three who dwelt in Win- deftroyed, together with the bifhop's caftle of Wolvefey,

chefter were found guilty and feverely puniflied. The bafe and feveral churches, and other public buildings. During

money 'was cried down, and an entirely new coinage ordered the latter part of the reign of Charles II. Winchefter had

to be made by the three matters who had preferved their a profpeft of recovering fome portion of its former fplen-

honeftv. About the fame period Henry caufed to be made dour ; for he chofe it for his ufual refidence, when not re-

a ftandard yard, from the length of his own arm, '" order
to prevent frauds in the meafurement of cloth. This ftand-
ard is fuppofed to have been depofited with other mea-
fures, &c. in Winchefter. The city fuffered greatly in the
diffenfions confequent on the death of Henry, by the

quired by prefence in the capital. In imitation of his ex-
ample, many of the nobility and gentry likewife erefted
manfions in the city; but by Charles's death in 1685, the
projeft was laid afide ; the palace was left unfiniflied ; and
fo completely has its original deftinaliou fince been changed.

ftruggle between his nephew Stephen and his daughter, the that, after being frequently ufed as a prifon of war, it is
»mr.pprs Matilila. or Maud. Stephen's party held the now converted into military barracks for the diftrift.

hile

empre'fs Matilda, or 'Maud. Stephen's party
bifhop's palace, the cathedral, and adjoining quarters, w
Maud's poffeffed the caftle and the remainder of the city.
By fire from Stephen's party, the whole north portion, then
the moft populous, the royal palace, the abbey of St.
Mary, and twenty churches, the magnificent monaftery of
St. Grimbald, the fuburb of Hyde, &c. were deftroyed.
Many privileges were conferred on Winchefter by Henry II.,
in particular, in 1 1 84, that of being governed by a mayor,
?nth a fiibordinate bailiff. His fucceffor, Richard Cccur-
de-lion, was folemnly re-crowned in the cathedral in 1194,
on his return from captivity under the duke of Auftria.
In the end of 1207 was born in Winchefter Henry III. ;
and fo in afterwards his father John, for the fum of zcx)
m

the city
poratio

itary

Fortifications: Palace. — The ancient walls of Winchefter
form an irregular parallelogram, inclofing a portion of the
flope of the weftern hill, and of the level valley %vatered by
the Itchen. But the walls are now nearly deftroyed, and
the fofs in many places filled up. The four gates feemed
to have been conftrufted where thofe of the Roman in-
trenchment were opened. Through two of them, on the
north and fouth fides, paffed the great Roman road com-
municating between Vindonum, now Silchefter, and Clau-
fentum, near Southampton. Through the gate in the weft
fide of the inclofure, correfpondiiig to the Praetorian gate-
of the intrenchment. ran the road communicating with Sor-
biodunum, where now ftand the remains of Old Sarum.

arks paid at once, and 1 00 marks /"cr annum, conferred on This gate ftill exifts, but much altered from its ancient
le city all the great and unprecedented privileges of a cor- ftate : part of it is fuppofed to be coeval with the city walls,

^ Thus Winchefter became the firft of all the

corporate cities or towns in the kingdom, nearly two years
before London had even obtained the privilege of being
governed by a mayor. The dignity of the city was in fome
meafure rettored by the refidence of Henry III. during his
minority ; but it again feverely fuffered in the contefts be-
tween the king and the barons. A heavy blow on Win-
chefter proceeded from the removal of the royal refidence,
in the reign of Edward I. ; who neverthelefs held feveral
parliaments there. Under Edward III. it was conftituted
one of the fixed markets, or ftaples for wool ; but by the
removal of the ftaple in 1363, the decline of Winchefter
from commerce and wealth was fenfible and uniform. In
this reign the rebuilding of the nave of the cathedral was
begun by bifhop Edington ; but the honour of completing
it, with material alterations, was referved for his cele-

To Winchefter

but the whole weftern face difplays workmanfhip of much
later date. The eaft or Decuman-gate opened accefs to
the lively and wholefome waters of the Itchen.

The caftle, now entirely deftroyed, overlooking the city
from the weft, owes its origin to the fyftem of dominion
adopted by WiUiam of Normandy. Within its boundary,
of an elliptic form, 850 feet from north to fouth, and in its
greateft breadth 250 feet from weft to eaft, ftands the ori-
ginal chapel dedicated to St. Stephen, and apparently
erefted by the king of that name. It is in length 1 10 feet,
divided into a nave and fide-aifles. At the eail end is fuf-
pended the antique curiofity called king Arthur's round-
table ; but with more accuracy attributed to king Stephen,
and probably introduced by him to prevent difputes for
precedency, during their entertainments, among the chi-
valrous champions of that age. It is 18 feet in diameter,
compofed of llout oaken planks, painted with the figure of

brated fucceffor, William of Wykeham _ - . . „

Henry VI. was a confiderable benefaflor ; for in his reign the renowned Arthur, and the names of his twenty-four
it was fo reduced in trade and population, that the in- knights, as collefted from the romances of the 14th and
habitants, in a petition to the king, reprefented 997 houfes 15 th centuries. The coftume is, however, of the time of
to be unoccupied, and 17 churches fliut up. The fee of
Winchefter was held for a (hort time by cardinal Wolfey ;
but in the time of his fucceffor, Gardiner, the final diffolu-
tion of the monafteries, and the confequent deftruftion of
religious houfes, reduced the city to be little more than the
fkeleton of what it had formerly been. It revived for a
fhort time in the reign of Mary, who there folemnized her
union with Philip of Spain, and reftored to the fee many
lands which had been alienated by her father and brother.
The city itfelf, however, had, as appears by a charter of
Elizabeth, fallen " into great ruin, decay, and poverty."
The commencement of 1603 was diftinguiftied by the pro-
clamation of James I. in Winchefter, by the fule authority
of the ftieriff of the county, without waiting for the orders

Henry VIII., when the table was painted. This chapel
was, in Cromwell's time, converted into a county-hall, a
deftination to which it continues to be applied. In the year
1792, feveral thoufands of French ecclefiaftics fought re-
fuge on the Britifti ftiores. In their deftitute fituation, they
were generoufly fuccoured by the ftate and the people ;
and at one time one thoufand of them were accommodated
with lodgings, and all other neceffaries, in this deferted
abode of royalty.

Winchefter poffeffed alfo another fortrefs at the oppofite
end of the city : this was Wolvefey caftle, the epifcopal
refidence erefted by the powerful bifhop Henry de Blois,
brother of king Stephen.

Cathedral. — The grand objeft of attraftion in Winchefter

of the privy council in London, who had paffed feveral is its cathedral, one of the moft interefting Itrudures of its

hours in dehberation on the fubjeft. In the civil wars of kind in England, whether confidered with refpeft to the an-

Charles I.'» time, Winchefter was fueceffively held by the tiquity of its foundation, to the importance of the tranf-

r aftion*

WINCHESTER.

ftftions of which it has been the fcene, or to the charafters
«f the perfonages whofe mortal remains it contains. This
magnificent and venerable ftrufture has been called, and not
without fome propriety, a fchool of ecclefiaftical archi-
tefture; for it difplays to the ftudent an interefting and
varied feries of examples of the ancient architefture of Eng-
land, from an early age down to a recent period. If the
ftudent fail to fatisfy himfelf as to Roman remains, or
genuine Saxon work ; if, after careful examination, he
retire either doubtful or perfiiaded that no fuch architefture
is there to be difcovered ; ftill he will have ample evidence
and examples of Norman works. The plans and magnifi-
cent defigns of thofe proud invaders and innovators are in
that fabric amply difplayed. There he will fee that the
Normans built not for themfelves only, but for pofterity ;
that their edifices were fohd and fubftantial, fimple in their
forms, and large m their parts ; that as their fyftem of re-
ligion was intended to awe, terrify, and foothe the mind,
fo its primary temple in England was calculated moft eflen-
tially to promote thofe ends.

The cathedral of Winchefter is of great extent, its ex-
treme external length being 556 feet, that of the crofs or
tranfepts 230 feet ; the external breadth of the whole body
and choir 1 18 feet, and that of the tranfepts 88 feet. The
body of the church is divided by ranges of cluttered co-
lumns into a nave and two fide-aifles, as are alfo the tran-
fepts, witli the unufual addition of aides at the extremities.
The great central tower refts upon four piers of great foli-
dity, and rifes 140 feet from the pavement. The prefent
fabric may be confidered as the foundation of bifhop Wal-
kelyn, a chaplain and relative of William of Normandy,
who began it in 1079, conftrufting the crypts, the tran-
fepts, and tower ; alfo the internal parts of the piers and
•walls of the nave. The work was continued under fucceed-
ing prelates, in particular by bifhop de Lucy, who built part
of the eaft end ; by Edington, who erefted the well front
about 1 3 30 ; and above all by Wykeham, who, between
1370 and 1400, brought the nave to completion. The
exterior of the cathedral prefents but few beauties, or at-
traAive features. Its length of nave, plainnefs of mafonry,
fliortnefs and folidity of tower, width of eaft end, and
boldnefs of tranfepts, furnifh, however, fo many pecuhar
and fpecific charafteriftics. The interior of the cathedral will
amply compenfate for any defefts or deficiencies of the out-
fide. While the fine and fublime architefture of Wykeham,
in the nave and aides, produces the moft impreflive effeft,
and claims general admiration ; the large, plain, and fub-
ftantial works of Walkelyn, in the tower and tranfepts, are
limply grand and impofing. The tranfepts and tower are
entitled to attention, as unrivalled fpecimens of Norman
architefture. The choir and eaftern end are elevated above
the nave and aides, by an afcent of feveral fteps ; the choir
itfelf occupying the fpace moftly beneath the Norman tower,
an<i fitted up with ftalls of elaborate workmandiip. On the
north fide ftands the pulpit, curioufly carved in the time of
Silkftede, who became prior in 1498. On the fame fide of
the choir is placed the organ, in an unufual fituation, under
one of the lofty arches of the tower. The choir is fepa-
rated from the nave by a fcreen of the Compofite or Roman
order of architefture, faid to have been defigned by Inigo
Jones. The lofty ftone fcreen erefted behind the high
altar is an elaborate and fumptuous work, covered with
riches, canopies, buttrefles, pinnacles, crockets, pediments,
&c. ; and when in its original colour and condition, with
ftatues and coftly ornaments, muft have been pecuharly
fplendid and beautiful. On entering the church by the
weft door, the attention is firft arrefted by the vaft and lofty

columns of the nave, which have been made to alTimilats
with the pointed ftyle, by furrounding them with cluftered
diafts and other ornaments. Between the fifth and fixth
columns, on the fouth fide, ftands the chantry or mortuary
chapel, containing the tomb of biftiop William of Wykeham,
erefted in his life -time, or prior to the clofe of the year 1404.
On an altar-tomb within the chapel is the marble effigy of
the founder. On the fame fide of the nave is the chantry of
bifliop Edinglon, who died in 1 366 ; within an open fcreen
is an altar-tomb fupporting his effigy. Immediately behind
the altar-fcreen in the fouth aide is placed the fumptuous
chantry of bidiop Fox, containing neither tomb, ftatue, nor
infcription, to commemorate the founder, or to explain his
works in the church. In a recefs beneath is the effigy of an
emaciated human figure, the head ornamented with a mitre,but
the feet refting on a (kuW. Oppofite to this chantry in the
north aide ftands that of bifhop Gardiner, who died in 1555.
Towards the eaftern extremity of the church are the chan-
tries of cardinal-bifhop Beaufort on the fouth fide, and of
bifhop Waynflete, the munificent founder of St. Mary's
college, Winchefter, and Magdalen college, Oxford, on the
north fide ; each containing the tombs and figures of the
refpeftive prelates. The eaftern extremity of the church is
terminated by the fpacious Lady-chapel, with a fmaller
inclofed on each fide. In the middle of the prefbytery, be-
tween the choir and the altar, lies a coffin-tomb, faid to cover
the remains of William Rufus, who was killed while hunting
in the New Foreft, and buried in this cathedral in 1 100. On
the top of the fide-fcreens, between the prefent choir and
the aides, are placed fix wooden cherts, the work of bifhop
Fox, containing memorials and relics of Saxon monarchs,
princes, and other illuftrious perfonages, former proteftors and
benefaftors of the cathedral. Another objeft of undoubted
antiquity is the curious font, now placed between two co-
lumns on the north fide of the nave. It is a large fquare block
of black marble, charged on each fide with fculptures, the
whole fupported by fmall columns at the corners. The fub-
jeft of the fculptures is a matter of difpute ; and although
as produftions of art they are beneath criticifm, yet as repre-
fentations of coftume, manners, implements, &c. they de-
ferve particular attention.

Epifcopal Cajlle, or Palace. — Of this ftrufture, better
known by the name of Wolvefey caftle, the ruins diew it to
have been an imperfeft parallelogram of about 230 feet by
160. What ftill remains belonged to the keep. Much
was removed to make way for the new palace erefted by
bidiop Morley, under the fuperintendance of fir Chriftopher
Wren, after its deftruftion by Cromwell. The front of
Morley 's palace was pulled down by the prefent bifhop, who
never occupies the prefent houfe.

College. — One of the moft celebrated inftitutions of Win-
chefter is the college, founded by bifhop Wykeham, and
completed in 1393, on the fcite of an ancient grammar-
fchool ; intending it as preparatory for his eftablifhment of
New college, Oxford. The eftablidiment in Winchefter
confifts of a warden, 70 fcholars, 10 fecular priefts, who
are perpetual fellows, 3 priefts' chaplains, 3 clerks, 16
chorifters, and a firll and a fecond mailer. So judicious
and complete were the ftatutes drawn up by Wykeham
for the government of his college in Winchefter, as to be
adopted, with very little alteration, by Henry VI., for his
own fplendid inftitutions at Eton and King's college, Cam-
bridge. On the confirmation, by Edward VI., of the ge-
neral difl'olution of colleges, &c. introduced by his father,
Winchefter college, with thofe of Eton and the univerfitiee,
were fpecially excepted. The buildings of the college
occupy a confiderable extent of ground, and confift prin-
cipally

WINCHESTER.

cipally of two courts, with a cloiller. The entrance to the
flrft court is under a fpacious gateway, having the mutilated
bulls of a bifhop and a king, to reprefent the founder and
his royal patron, Edward III. The fecond court is alfo
entered by a tower gateway. The chapel and hall form
the fouth wing of the quadrangle, and are enlightened by
lofty windows. The interior of the chapel has a fine and
lofty vaulting, ornamented with tracery. In the centre of
the cloifter is the hbrary, originally conftrufted for a chantry
in 1430, but converted to its prefent ufe in 1627. In the
fouth-weft corner of the fecond court is the hall or refeftory,
between which and the pafTage to the chapel is the fchool,
a plain brick building, erefted by fubfcription in 1687 ; over
the door is the ftatue of the founder in bronze, by Cibber.

Ciiy. — The prefent city of Winchefter confiils chiefly of
one main ftreet, extending from the well to the eall, with
a number of collateral ftreets and lanes branching off on
each fide. Towards the middle of the High-llreet Hands
the city crofs, an elegant fpecimen of the llyle of the age of
Henry VI., confilling of three llories adorned with open
arches, niches, pinnacles, and fmall crolTes. The ecclefiaf-
tical buildings in Winchefter, and its fuburbs, were once
very numerous, and, according to fome writers, amounted
to upwards of ninety. Scarcely twelve now remain. St.
Laurence's church, near the crofs, is confidered as the
mother-church of the city, and by a folemn entry into it the
bilhop takes poireflion of his fee ; but the principal paro-
chial church is now that of St. Maurice. The town-hall, or
more properly the hall of the guild of merchants of Winchef-
ter, rebuilt in 17 13, occupies the place of one erefted about
1 1 12. There the city archives, the original Winchefter
bulhel of king Edgar, and other meafures of length and
capacity fixed as ftandards by fucceeding princes, and
various curious memorials of antiquity, are now preferved.
The front of the building is ornamented with a ftatue of
queen Anne. A neat market-houfe was erefted in 1772.
The ancient building on the north fide of the High-ftreet,
called St. John's Houfe, was originally founded as an hof-
pital, apparently fo early as in the loth century ; but falling
into the polTeflion or the adminiltration of the knights tem-
plars, or of St. John of Jerufalem, it was on the fuppreflion
of their order granted by Edward II. to a citizen of Win-
chefter, who refounded the inftitution for the fick and lame
foldiers, pilgrims, and wayfaring men, to have their lodging
and diet there gratis for one night or longer, as their ina-
bility to travel might require. At the general diflblution
of hofpitals and monalleries, the revenues and moveable pro-
perty were feized by Henry VIII. ; but the corporation of
the city refervedthe building itfelf to be ufed for municipal
bufinefs. In 1554 it again became a charitable foundation,
being endowed by Richard Lamb, cfq. for the fupport of
fix widows. The principal chamber or hall, which is 62
feet in length, 38 in breadth, and 28 in height, has been
handfomely fitted up, chiefly by a donation from the late
colonel Brydges of Avington. Among the decorations of
this hall, in which public feafts, raufic-raeetings, and aflfem-
blies are held, is a whole-length pifture of Charles II. by
Lely, prefented to the city by that king liimfelf. In the
adjoining council-chamber are fufpended the city tables, as
they are called, containing a chronological arrangement of
the raoft remarkable occurrences relating to Winchefter.
The ancient chapel of the hofpital is now ufed as a free-
fchool. The celebrated monaftery founded by the great
Alfred, called the ' Newen Mynftre,' and afterwards Hyde
abbey, occupied nearly the whole fpace between the cathe-
dral and the High-ftreet. Completed under his fon Edward,
it was firft filled by canons regular, who, in 953, gave place

to Benediftine monks. Alwyn, the eighth abbot, with
twelve of his monks, fell in the battle of Haftings, in fup-
porting the caufe of his nephew, Harold, which drew upon
the abbey the vengeance of WiUiam of Normandy. But the
pofition being unhealthy and inconvenient, a new and mag-
nificent church and monaftery were erefted juft without the
north wall of the city, on the fpot called Hyde-meadow, to
which the monks removed in mo, carrying with them the
remains of feveral illuftrious perfonages who had been buried
in the former abbey, among which were thofe of Alfred
himfelf and fome of his defcendants. The annual revenues of
Hyde abbey, of which the abbot fat in parliament, were at
the diflblution valued at 865/. iSs. The church and mo-
naftery were foon afterwards demolilhed, and even the tombs
of Alfred and other eminent perfons were defpoiled. What
now remains of this inftitution is the fmall and mutilated
parilh-church of St. Bartholomew. Precifely on the fpace
occupied by the abbey-church was fome time ago erefted a ,
bridewell, or houfe of correftion, on the plan of the bene- '
volent Howard. In digging the foundations, ftone coffins, 1
rings, and veftels for the fervice of the church, were dif-
covered, together with fragments of architeftural fculpture. '
But between fifty and fixty years ago, among the remains
of the buildings, was found a ftone with this infcription in
Saxon charafters, ' Alfred Rex DCCCLXXXI.' An-
other remarkable religious eftabhlhment in Winchefter was
the Nunna Mynftre, or abbey of St. Mary, founded by
Alfred's queen, Alfwitha, and the place of her retirement
after his death. Scarcely any vellige of the conventual build- !
ings now remain, excepting in a modern manfion built out
of the ancient materials, and the name of the abbey ftill ap-
plied to the inclofure where it ftood.

Winchefter, befides the numerous churches of the efta-
bhlhment, contains meeting-houfes for diflenters of various '
denominations, among which the principal building is the Ro- I
man Cathohc chapel, rebuilt by Dr. Milner in 1792, on the '■■
foundations of one more ancient. A large and commodious
county-gaol, from the defigns of Mr. Moneypenny, has been
lately erefted on the north fide of the city.

Many privileges have at various times been beftowed on i
Winchefter by Enghlh fovereigns. Its chief magiftrate, as '
was before noticed, received the title of mayor in 1 184, fome
years before the title was granted to the chief magiftrate of
London. The firft charter was conferred by king John ;
but that under which the city is now governed was the gift
of Elizabeth, " in confideration," as it is ftated, " of the city
of Winchefter having been moft famous for the celebration ;
of the nativities, coronations, fepulchres, and for the pre- I
fervation of other famous monuments of the queen's pro-
genitors." By this charter, the government is veiled in a
mayor, recorder, fix aldermen, a town-clerk, two coroners,
two conftables, and a council of twenty-four of the " better,
difcreeter, and more honeft fort" of inhabitants. The firft
return of reprefentatives to parliament for Winchefter took
place in the twenty-third year of Edward I. The right of
cleftion is vefted in the corporation.

Winchefter poflefles very little trade but what arifes from
its fituation in the centre of an extenfive and populous
county. An ancient wool-conibing manufaftory, however,
is ftill in exillence, and of late years the filk manufafture
has been introduced. All the public bufinefs of Hamp-
Ihire is tranfafted in Winchefter, which occafior.s a fre-
quent and ample influx of ftrangers from all quarters. The
cathedral and the college fecure to the city the refidence of
a number of fuperior clergy. When in the height of its
profperity, and pofieffing the benefit of the wool-llaple, the
wealth of the inhabitants was greatly increafed by the multi-
tudes

W 1 N

tudes refortiug to its fairs, the principal of wliicii was held
on the neighbouring hills of St. Giles and St. Mary Magda-
len. St. Giles's fair was, at one time, by far the great-
eft in England. By a grant from William the Conqueror,
it was originally to be held for one day only ; but by
Henry II. its duration was enlarged to fixteen days ; and
in that time no mercantile bufinefs was permitted to be tranf-
afted in Southampton, nor in any other place within feven
leagues of St. Giles's hill. This fair has long become very
infigniiicant ; that of St. Mary Magdalen is ftill, however,
much frequented. Since the year 1770, various improve-
ments have been made in the general appearance of the city,
by paving, repairing, and cleanCng. As early as 1736 was
eftablilhed in Winchefter an hofpital or infirmary for the
county, a very ufeful inftitution, condufted on a plan judi-
cious in itfelf, and honourable to thofe entrufted with its
adminiftration. According to the parliamentary returns
of 181 1, the number of houfes compofing the city and
ifuburbs was 1 134, and the inhabitants 6705.

Hofpital of St. Crofs — About a milefouth from Winchef-
; ter, in the valley watered by the Itchen, ftands the venerable
hofpital of the holy crofs ; an inftitution ftill retaining more
of its original charafter. " The lofty tower," obferves Dr.
' Milner, " with the grated door and porter's lodge beneath
lit, the retired ambulatory, the feparate cells, the common
jrefeftory, the venerable church, the flowing black drefs,
land the filver ci'ofs worn by the members, the conventual
jappellation 'brother' with which they addrefs one another,
ithe filence, the order, the neatnefs, in Ihort, that reign here.
Teem to recall the idea of a monaftery to thofe who have
Teen one, and will give no imperfeft idea of fuch an efta-
bhftiment to thofe who have not had that advantage." But
'this eftablilhment was never a monaftery, being only an hof-
pital originally founded by bifhop Henry de Blois, between
1 132 and 1136, for the refidenceand maintenance of thirteen
poor men, and the relief of a hundred others of the moft
indigent of the city, but of creditable charafter. Each of
thefe was to be provided daily with a loaf of bread, three
quarts of fmall beer, and two meflei for his dinner, in a hall
(appointed for the purpofe. In the hofpital was an endow-
iment for a mafter, a fteward, four chaplains, thirteen clerks,
land feven chorifters. Before the time of William of Wyke-
jham, biftiop of Winchefter in 1 366, the revenues of St. Crofs
ihad been employed in a way very different from the inten-
tions of the founder ; but that munificent prelate fucceeded,
lafter long litigation, in reftoring the inftitution to its original
|Ufes, re-eftabliftiing it on a fecure and well-ordered found-
lation. The plan was afterwards refumed and enlarged by
.cardinal-bifliop Beaufort, for the additional fupport of two
ipriefts and thirty -five refident poor men : he alfo rebuilt
■a confiderable portion of the hofpital. The prefent efta-
ibliihmentof St. Crofs is but the wreck of its ancient inftitu-
itions, having been feverely fleeced, though not quite de-
iftroyed, like many other charitable eftabliftiments, at the
|Reformation. Infteadof feventy refidents, clergy and laity,
entirely fupported in the place, and one hundred out-
ipenfioners, the inftitution at prefent confifts of but ten
Irefiding brethren, and three out-penfioners, with one chaplain
land the mafter. Certain doles of bread, it is true, continue
|lo be diftributed to the poor of the neighbourhood ; and, as
(perhaps the only veftige remaining in the kingdom of the
Ifimple hofpitality of ancient days, the porter is daily fur-
|[iiftied with a certain quantity of good bread and beer, of
j which every traveller, or other perfon whatever, who knocks
|it the lodge and calls for relief, is entitled to partake gra-
Ituitoufly. The buildings of the hofpital once compofed
|;wo courts ; but the fouth fide of the interior quadrangle

WIN

has been of late years pulled down. On the eaft fide of the
outer court is the ' hundred-menne's hall,' about forty feet
long, now converted into a brewhoufe ; on the fouth fide ig
the handfome tower- gateway, with the ftatue of the founder,
Beaufort, in the upper part. In the fecond, or inner court,
is the church, built in the cathedral form, with a nave and
tranfepts, and a low maffive tower at their interfeftion.
The architefture of the edifice is fingularly curious, as it
throws fome light on the progrefs, if not on the origin, of
the pointed, or Englifh ftyle. The whole edifice feems to be
a colleaion of architeftural effays, with refpeft to the form
and the difpofition, of both the eflential parts and the fubordi-
nate ornaments. It prefents the ponderous pillar of a height
equal to its circumference, but fupporting an incipient pointed
arch. The lower part of the nave contains maffive Norman
pillars ; and the portal of the weft front is an elegant fpeci-
men of the time of king John, or beginning of that of
Henry III. The weft wing of the remaining buildings con-
tains the apartments of the Brethren, each of whom has for
his own ufe three chambers and a feparate garden. Adjoin-
ing to the hall on the north fide are the apartments of the
mafter, which are fpacious and convenient ; and on the eaft
fide is the ambulatory or open portico for exercife.

Si. Catherine's Hill, or College Hill, feparated from the
meadows of St. Crofs by the branches of the Itchen, is re-
markable for the intrenchment carried round its fummit :
the former name it acquired from an ancient chapel on it,
deprived of its endowments by cardinal Wolfey ; the latter,
becaufe it is a frequent place of refort for the ftudents of
the college.

About three miles north-eaft from Winchefter is Avington,
anciently Abyngton, a feat and manor of the prefent marquis
of Buckingham, in confequence of his marriage with the
fole daughter and heirefs of James, the laft duke of Chandos.
The manor, originally a royal demefne, was granted, in 961,
by king Edgar to the monaftery of St. Swithun, in Win-
chefter ; but in confequence of the diffolution, it became,
in the reign of Elizabeth, the property of the ancient family
of Bruges, or Brydges, firft fettled in Shropftiire at the Con-
queft. Inter-marrying with the family of lord Chandos,
renowned in the wars in France under Edward III., the
honours of the two families have ever fince continued united.
Avington is fituated in a fecluded valley, well planted and
nearly inclofed by high downs. The prefent manfion is
moftly of brick, and has been greatly improved by the pre-
fent poffeflbr, having been previoufly difmantled by the late
duke, for the purpofe of adding two wings. Some of the
apartments are fitted up with great elegance, and enriched
by a feleftion of excellent paintings. The park formed by
the late duke, about three miles in circumference, contains
a piece of water fupplied by the river Itchen. — Hiftory,
&c. of Winchefter, by the Rev. John Milner, D.D. F.S.A.,
2 vols. 4to. 2d edit. 1809. Beauties of England, vol. vii.
Hampftiire, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley. Hiftory,
&c. of Winchefter Cathedral, by J. Britton, i vol. 4to. with
30 Prints.

Winchester, a town of New Hampftiire, in the county
of Chefliire, with 1478 inhabitants ; 13 miles S.E. of Chef-
terficld — Alfo, a town of the ftate of Connefticut, in
Litchfield county, with 1466 inhabitants ; 22 miles N.W.
of Hartford — Alfo, a town of the ftate of Kentucky, with
4 churches, and 2000 inhabitants.

Winchester, or Frederlcktown, a town of Virginia j
56 miles W.N.W. of Waftiington. N, lat. 39° 15'. W.
long. 78° 2z'.

WINCING, in the Manege, is faid of a horfe when
he kicks, fpurs, or throws out his hind feet.

WINCKHEIM,

WIN

WINCKHEIM, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 4 miles N.N.W. of Lauringen.

WINCRANTUM, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given
by the people of the Eaft Indies to a foffile fubftance refem-
bling, in fome degree, the plated lead ores of Europe, but
containing very little of that metal ; it is properly a fpecies
of blende, or mock-lead, of a talcky appearance ; it is
confiderably hard, and is ufually found in other ftones. It
is given in medicine in the Indies as a provocative to venery,
being firll calcined and beat to powder.

WIND, Ven'tus, a fenfible agitation of the air, by
which a large quantity of it flows in a current or ftream out
of one place, or region, into another. See Meteoro-
logy.

The winds are divided into perennial, Jlated, and variable.

They are alfo divided into general and particular.

Winds, Perennial or Conjlant, are fuch as always blow
the fame way.

Of thefe we have a very notable one between the two tro-
pics, blowing conftantly from eaft to weft ; called the gene-
ral trade-tvind.

Winds, Stated ot Periodical, are fuch as conftantly return
sX certain times. Such are the fea and land breezes, blow-
ing from fea to land in the evening ; and from land to fea m
the morning.

Such alfo are iheJhiftingoT particular trade-winds, which,
for certain months of the year, blow one way, and the reft
-of the year the contrary way. See TRAiiK-lVinds.

Winds, Variable or Erratic, are fuch as blow now this,
row that way ; and are now up, now hufhed, without any
•rule or regularity, either as to time or place.

Such are all the winds obferved in the inland parts of
England, &c. though feveral of thefe claim their certain
times of the day. Thus, the <wej} wind is moft frequent
about noon ; ihefouth wind in the night ; the north in the
morning, &c.

Wind, General, is fuch a one, as at the fame time blows
the fame way, over a very large traft of ground, almoft all
the year. Such only is the general trade-wind.

But even this has its interruption : for, i. At land it is
fcarcely fenfible at all, as being broken by the interpofition
of mountains, valleys, &c. 2. At fea, near the ftiore, it is
difturbed by vapours, exhalations, and particular winds,
blowing from landward ; fo that it is chiefly confidered as
general, only at mid-fea : where, 3. It is liable to be dif-
turbed, by clouds driving from other quarters.

Winds, Particular, include all others, excepting the
general trade-winds ; which fee.

Thofe peculiar to one little canton, or part, are called
topical or provincial winds. Such is the north wind, on the
weftern fide of the Alps, which does not blow above one or
two leagues lengthwife, and much lefs in breadth : fuch alfo
is the pontias in France, &c.

Winds, Phyfical Caufe of. Some philofophers, as Des
Cartes, RohauTt, &c. account for the general wind, from
the diurnal rotation of the earth, and from this general wind
derive all the particular ones. The atmofphere, fay they,
invefting the earth, and moving round it ; that part will
perform its circuit fooneft which has the fmalleft circle to
defcribe : the air, therefore, near the equator, will require
a fomewhat longer time to perform its courfe in, from weft
to eaft, than that nearer the poles.

Thus, as the earth turns eaftward, the particles of the
aiir near the equinoftial, being exceedingly light, are left be-
hind ; fo that, in refpeft of the earth's furftce, they move
eaftwards, and become a conftant eafterly wind.

This opinion feems confirmed by this, th.at thefe winds

W I N

are found only between the tropics, in thofe parallels of la-
titude where the diurnal motion is fwifteft. But the conftant
calms in the Atlantic fea near the equator, the wefterly
winds near the coaft of Guinea, and the periodical wefterly
monfoons under the equator in the Indian feas, declare the
infufficiency of this hypothefis.

Befides, the air, being kept clofe to the earth by the prin-
ciple of gravity, would, in time, acquire the fame degree
of velocity that the earth's furface moves with, as well in
refpeft of the diurnal rotation, as of the annual, about the
fun, which is about thirty times fwifter. See Trade-
mndi.

Dr. Halley, therefore, fubftitutes another caufe, capable
of producing a like conftant effeft, not liable to the fame
objeftions, but agreeable to the known properties of the
elements of water and air, and the laws of the motion of
fluid bodies. Such a one is the aftion of the fun's beams
upon the air and water, as he pafles every day over the ocean,
confidered together with the quahty of the foil, and the
fituation of the adjoining continents.

According to the laws of ftatics, the air, which is lefs
rarefied or expanded by heat, and confequently is more pon-
derous, muft have a motion towards thofe parts of it which
are more rarefied, and lefs ponderous, to bring it to an equi-
librium ; alfo, the prefence of the fun continually ftiifting
to the weftward, that part towards which the air tends, by
reafon of the rarefaftion made by his greateft meridian heat,
is, with him, carried weftward ; and, confequently, the ten-
dency of the whole body of the lower air is that way.

Thus a general eafterly wind is formed, which being im-
prefled upon the air of a vaft ocean, the parts impel one the
other, and fo keep moving till the next return of the fun, by
which fo much of the motion as was loft is again reftored ;
and thus the eafterly wind is made perpetual.

From the fame principle it follows, that this eafterly wind
ftiould, on the north fide of the equator, be to the north-
ward of the eaft, and in fouth latitudes to the fouthward of
it ; for, near the line, the air is much more rarefied than at a
greater diftance from it ; becaufe the fun is twice in a year
vertical there, and at no time dittant above 23^ degrees ; at
which diftance, the heat, being as the fine of the angle of
incidence, is but little fhort of that of the perpendicular ray ;
whereas under the tropics, though the fun ftay longer verti-
cal, yet he is a long time 47 degrees off', which is a kind of
winter, in which the air fo cools, as that the fummer heat
cannot warm it to the fame degree with that under
the equator. Wherefore, the air towards the north and
fouth being lefs rarefied than that in the middle, it fol- i
lows, that from both fides it ought to tend towards the
equator.

This motion, compounded with the former eafterly wind,
accounts for all the phenomena of the general trade-winds,
which, if the whole furface of the globe was fea, would
undoubtedly blow quite round the world, as they are found
to do in the Atlantic and the Ethiopic oceans. But fee-
ing that fo great continents do interpofe, and break the con-
tinuity of the ocean, regard muft be had to the nature cf
the foil, and the pofition of the high mountains, which are
the two principal caufes of the variations of the wind from
the former general rule ; for if a country lying near the fun
prove to be flat, fandy, and low land, fuch as the deferts of
Lybia are ufually reported to be, the heat occafioned by the
reflexions of the fun's beams, and the retention of it in the
fand, is incredible to thofe who have not felt it ; by which
the air being exceedingly rarefied, it is neceflary that the
cooler and more denfe air fhould run thitherwards, to reftore
the equilibrium. This is fuppofed to be the caufe, why,

near

\

WIND.

near the coaft of Guinea, the wind always fets in upon the
land, blowing wefterly inflead of eafterly, there being fuf-
iicient reafon to believe that the inland parts of Africa are
prodigioufly hot, fince the northern borders of it were fo
▼ery intemperate, as to give the ancients caufe to conclude
that all beyond the tropics was uninhabitable by excefs of
heat.

Mr. Clare, in his Motion of Fluids, p. 302. mentions a
familiar experiment, that ferves to illuftrate this matter, as
well as the alternate courfe of land and fea breezes. Fill a
large difh with cold water, and in the middle of it place a
water-plate, filled with warm water : the firft will reprefent
the ocean, the other an ifland, rarefying the air above it.
Then holding a wax<andle over the cold water, blow it out,
and the fmoke will be feen, in a Itill place, to move toward
the warm plate, and rifing over, it will point the courfe of
the air (and alfo of vapour) from fea to land. And if the
ambient water be warmed, and the plate filled with cold
water, and the fmoking wick of a candle held over the
plate, the contrary will happen. (See Breeze.) For the
phenomena of the wind obferved by Dr. Halley, and ex-
plained by his theory, fee Wind, in Navigation.

From the fame caufe it happens, that there are fo conftant
calms in that fame part of the ocean, called the rains ; for
this traft being placed in the middle, between the wefterly
winds blowing on the coaft of Guinea, and the eafterly
trade-winds blowing to the weftward of it ; the tendency
of the air here is indifferent to either, and fo ftands in equi-
hbrio between both ; and the weight of the incumbent at-
mofphere being diminifhed by the continual contrary winds
blowing from hence, is the reafon that the air here holds not
the copious vapour it receives, but lets it fall in fo frequent
rains.

But, as the cold and denfe air, by reafon of its greater
gravity, preffes upon the hot and rarefied, it is demonftrable
that this latter muft afcend in a continued ftream as faft as it
rarefies ; and that, being afcended, it muft difperfe itfelf,
to preferve the equilibrium ; that is, by a contrary current,
the upper air muft move from thofe parts where the greateft
heat is : fo, by a kind of circulation, the north-eaft trade-
wind below will be attended with a fouth-wefterly wind
above ; and the fouth-eaft, with a north-weft wind above.

That this is more than a bare conjefture, the almoft in-
ftantaneous change of the wind to the oppofite point, which
is frequently found in palling the limits of the trade-winds,
feems ftrongly to aflure us ; but that which above all con-
firms this hypothefis, is the phenomenon of the monfoons,
by this means moft eafily folved, and without it hardly ex-
plicable. See Monsoons.

Suppofing, therefore, fuch a circulation as above, it is to
be confidered, that to the northward of the Indian ocean
there is every where land, within the ufual limits of the lati-
tude of 30^ ; wz. Arabia, Perfia, India, &c. which, for
the fame reafon as the Mediterranean parts of Africa, are
fubjeft to infufferable heats when the fun is to the north,
pafling nearly vertical ; but yet are temperate enough when
the fun is removed towards the other tropic, becaufe of a
ridge of mountains at fome diftance within the land, faid to
; be frequently, in winter, covered with fnow, over which
i the air, as it pafles, muft needs be much chilled. Hence it
' happens, that the air coming, according to the general rule,
! out of the north-eaft, to the Indian fea, is fometimes hotter,
If-ometimes colder, than that which, by this circulation, is
I returned out of the fouth-wcft ; and, by confequence, fome-
I times the under-current, or wind, is from the north-eaft,
fometimes from the fouth-wcft.

That this has no other caufe is clear from t!ie times in
Vol. XXXVIII.

which thefe .winds fet, viz. in April ; when the fun begins
to warm thefe countries to the north, the fouth-weft monfoons
begin, and blow, during the heats, till Oftober, when the
fun being retired, and all things growing cooler northward,
and the heat increafing to the fouth, the north-eaft winds
enter, and blow all the winter till April again. And it is,
undoubtedly, from the fame principle, that to the fouth.-
ward of the equator, in part of the Indian ocean, the north-
weft winds fucceed the fouth-eaft, when the fun draws near
the tropic of Capricorn. Phil. Tranfadl. N° 183. or
Abridg. vol. ii. p. 139.

Some philofophers, diflatisfied with Dr. Halley's theory
above recited, or not thinking it fufficient for explaining
the various phenomena of the wind, have had recourfe to
another caufe, vi%. the gravitation of the earth and its at-
mofphere towards the fun and moon, to which the tides are
confeffedly owing. See Tides.

From the laws ot univerfal attraftion it has been inferred,
that thefe celeftial bodies muft aft upon the atmofphere, or
that they muft occafion a fl'ix and reflux of the atmofphere,
as well as of the ocean. Hence it has been alleged, that
though we cannot difcover aerial tides, of ebb or flow, by
means of the barometer, becaufe columns of air of unequal
height, but different denfity, may have the fame prelfure or
weight ; yet the protuberance in the atmofphere, which is
continually following the moon, muft, they fay, of courfe
produce a motion in all parts, and fo produce a wind more or
lefs to every place, which, confpiring with or counterafted
by the winds arifing from other caufes, makes them greater
or lefs. Several differtations to this purpofe were pubhftied,
on occafion of the fubjeft propofed by the Academy of
Sitiences at Berlin, for the year 1 746.

Although the atmofpherical air is much more variable than
water, and the aftion of the fun and moon upisn it becomes
much lefs apparent to us, becaufe they muft frequently con-
cur with or be counterafted by the much more powerful
effefts of heat and cold, of drynefs and moifture, of winds,
&c. fo that their aftion upon the barometer has been long
difputed and even denied, (fee Moon, Influence of,) yet
that the moon in particular, as well as the fun, has fuch an
aftion has been for a confiderable time furmifed ; and of late
years it has^ been in a degree obferved and rendered fenfi-
ble by means of very accurate and long-continued barome-
trical obfervations, and perceived only by taking a mean of
the obfervations of many years.

Toaldo, the learned aftronomer of Padua, after a variety
of obfervations made in the courfe of feveral years, found
reafon to aflert, that, aetsris paribus, at the time of the
moon's apogeum, the mercury in the barometer rifes the
0.105 of an inch higher than at the perigeum ; that at the
time of the quadratures, the mercury ftands 0.008 of an inch
higher than at the time of the fyzygies ; and that it ftands
0.022 of an inch higher when the moon in each lunation
comes neareft to our zenith, (meaning the zenith of Padua,
where the obfervations were made,) than when it goes
fartheft from it. Journal des Sciences Utiles.

In the feventh volume of the Philofophical Magayine,
there is a paper of L. Howard, efq. which contains feveral
curious obfervations relative to this fubjeft. This gentle-
man found, both from his own obfervations, and from an ex-
amination of the Meteorological Journal of the Royal So.
ciety, which is published annually in the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions, that the moon had amanifeft aftion upon the baro-
meter. " It appears," he fays, " to me evident, that the
atmofphere is fubjeft to a periodical change of gravity, by
which the barometer, on a mean of ten years, is depreffed at
leaft one-tenth of an inch while the moon is pafling from the
3 P quarters

WIND.

quarters to the full and new ; and elevated, in the fame pro-
portion, during the return to the quarter." A great fall of
the baroineter generally takes place before high tides, efpe-
cially at the time of new or full moon.

The caufes, it is faid, which render the diurnal tide of
the atmofphere infenfible to us, may be the elafticity of the
air, and the interference of the much more powerful efFefts
of heat, cold, vapours, &c.

It has been calculated by D'Alembert, from the general
theory of gravitation, that the influence of the fun and
moon in their daily motions is fufficient to produce a conti-
nual eaft wind about the equator. So that, upon the whole,
we may reckon three principal daily tides, -viz. two arifing '
from the atlraftions of the fun and moon, and the third from
the heat of the fun alone : all which fometimes combine to-
gether, and form a prodigious tide.

In corroboration of the opinion of the influence of the
fun, and principally of the moon, in the produftion of
wind, we mult likewife mention the obfervations of Bacon,
GafTendi, Dampier, Halley, &c«; namely, that the periods
of the yea"- moft hkely to have high winds are the two equi-
noxes ; that ttorms are more frequent at the time of new and
full moon, efpecially thofe new and full moons which hap-
pen aboiit the equinoxes ; that, at periods otherwife calm, a
fmall breeze takes place at the time of high water ; and that
a fmall movement in the atmofphere is generally perceived a
fhort time after the noon and the midnight of each day.

M. Mufchenbroeck, however, will not allow that the at-
traftion of the moon is the caufe of the general wind ; be-
caufe the eaft wind does not follow the motion of the moon
about the earth ; for in that cafe there would be more than
twenty -four changes, to which it would be fubjeft in the
courfe of a year, inftead of two. Introd. ad Phil. Nat.
vc'. ii. p. II 02.

Some aftion in the produftion of wind may alfo be derived
from volcanoes, fermentations, evaporations, and efpecially
from the condenfation of vapours : for we lind that, in rainy
weather, a confiderable wind frequently precedes the ap-
proach of every fingle cloud, and that the wind fubfides as
foon as the cloud has pafled over our zenith.

Wherever any of the above-mentioned caufes are conftantly
more predominant, as the heat of the fun within the tropics,
there a certain direftion of the wind is more conftant ; and
where difierent caufes interfere at different and irregular pe-
riods, as in thofe places which are confiderably diftant from
the torrid zone, there the winds are more changeable and
uncertain.

In fliort, whatever difturbs the equilibrium of the atmo-
fphere, viz. the equal denfity or quantity of air at equal dif-
tances from the furface of the earth ; whatever accumulates
the air in one place, and diminifhes it in other places, muft
occafion a wind both in difturbing and in reftoring that
equilibrium, as above ftated.

Mr. Henry Eeles, apprehending that the fun's rarefying of
the air cannot fimply be the caufe of all the regular and irre-
gular motions which we find in the atmofphere, afcribes them
to another caufe, Wz. the afcent and defcent of vapour and ex-
halation, attended by the eleftrical fire or fluid ; and on this
principle he has endeavoured to explain at large the general
phenomena of the weather and barometer. Phil. Tranf.
vol. xlix. art. 25. p. 124.

M. Briffon (Principes de Phyfique) alfo is of opinion
that eleftricity is the principal and more general caufe which
produces winds ; but Mr. Cavallo is of a different opinion.

After making various obfervations on the nature and
theory of winds. Dr. Darwin recapitulates his opinions in
the following manner, i. The north-eaft wind conCfts of

9

air flowing from the north, where it feems to be occafionally
produced ; and has an apparent direftion from the ealt, owing
to its not having acquired in its journey the increafing velo-
city of the earth's furface. Theie winds are analogous to the
trade-winds between the tropics, and frequently continue in
the vernal months for four or fix weeks together, with
a high barometer, and fair and frofty weather. They
fometimes confift of ■fouth-weft air, which had pafled by us
or over us, driven back by a new accumulation of air in the
north ; and they continue but a day or two, and are attended
with rain.

2. The fouth-weft wind confifts of air flowing from the
fuuth, and feems occafionally abforbed at its arrival to the
more northern latitudes. It has a real direftion from the
weft, owing to its not having loft in its journey the greater
velocity it had acquired from the earth's furface from
whence it came. Thefe winds are analogous to the mon-
foons between the tropics, and frequently continue for
four or fix weeks together, with a low barometer, and rainy
weather. They fometimes confift of north-eall air, which
had paflied by us, and which becomes retrograde by a
commencing deficiency of air in the north. Thefe winds
continue but a day or two, attended with fevere froft, with
a finking barometer ; their cold being increafed by their
expanfion as they return into an incipient vacancy.

5. The north-weft wind confifts firft of fouth-weft winds
which have been pafled over, been bent down, and driven
back towards the fouth by newly-generated northern air.
They continue but a day or two, and are attended with rain
or clouds. They confift of north-eaft winds bent down
from the higher parts of the atmofphere, and having there
acquired a greater velocity from the earth's furface are
frofty and fair. They confift of north-eaft winds formed
into a vertical eddy, not a fpiral one, with froft or fair.

4. The north winds confift firft of air flowing flowly from
the north, fo that they acquire the velocity of the earth's
furface as they approach it ; they are fair or frofty, but
feldom occur. They confift of retrograde fouth winds ;
thefe continue but a day or two, are preceded by fouth-weft
winds, and are generally fucceeded by north-eaft winds,
cloudy or rainy weather, the barometer rifing.

5. The fouth winds confift firft of air flowly flowing
from the fouth, lofing their previous weftorly velocity by
the friftion of the earth's furface as they approach it ;
tiiey are moift, but feldom occur. They confift of retro-
grade north winds ; thefe continue but a day or two, and
are preceded by north-eaft wind?, and are generally fuc-
ceeded by fouth-weft wind;, colder, and the barometer
finking.

6. The eaft winds confift of air brought haftily from the
iiortli, and not impelled farther fouthward, owing to a fudden
beginning abforption of air in the nort'oern regions ; they are
very cold, tlie barometer high, and are generally fucceeded
by fouth-weft winds.

7. The weft winds confift of air brought haftily from the
fouth, and checked from proceeding farther to the north,
by a beginning produftion of air in the northern regions ;
they are warm and moift, and generally fucceeded by north-
eaft winds. They confift of air bent downwards from the
higher regions of the atmofphere ; if this air be from the
fouth, and brought haftily, it becomes a wind of great velo-
city, moving perhaps 6c miles in an hour, and is warm and
rainy : if it confifts of northern air bent down it is of lefs
velocity, and cooler.

Various other interefting remarks and refleftions on winds
may be feen in the notes to the Botanic Garden, by the fame
writer.

The

i

WIND.

The iiiduftry of fome late writers having brought the
theory of the produftion and motion of winds to fomewhat
of a mathematical demonftration ; we (hall here give it the
reader in that form.

Winds, Laws of the ProditB'wn of. If the fpring of the
air be weakened in any place, more than in the adjoining
places ; a wind will blow through the place where the di-
minution is.

For, I . Since the air endeavours, by its elaftic force, to
expand itfelf every way ; if that force be lefs in one place
than another, the effort of the more againft the lefs elaitic,
will be greater than the effort of the latter againft the
former. The lefs elaftic air, therefore, will refift with lefs
force than it is urged by the more elaftic : confequently,
the lefs elaftic will be driven out of its place, and the more
elaftic will fucceed.

If, now, the excefs of the fpring of the more elaftic above
that of the lefs elaftic air, be fuch as to occalion a little al-
teration in the barofcope ; the motion both of the air ex-
pelled, and that which fucceeds it, will become fenfible, :. e.
there will be a wind.

2. Hence, fince the fpring of the air increafes, as the
comprening weight increafes, and compreffed air is denfer
than air lefs compreffed ; all wnids blow into rarer air, out
of a place filled with a denfer.

3. Wherefore, fince a denfer air is fpecifically heavier
than a rarer ; an extraordinary lightnefs of the air in any
place muft be attended with extraordinary winds or ftorms.

Now, an extraordinary fall of the mercury in the baro-
meter, (hewing an extraordinary lightnefs of the atmofphere,
it is no wonder if that foretels ftorms. See Barometer.

4. If the air be fuddenly condenfed in any place, its
fpring will be fuddenly diminifhed : hence, if this diminu-
tion be great enough to afFeft the barometer, there will a
wind blow through the condenfed air.

5. But fince the air cannot be fuddenly condenfed, unlefs
it have before been much rarefied, there will a wind blow
through the air, as it cools, after having been violently
heated.

6. In like manner, if air be fuddenly rarefied, its fpring
is fuddenly increafed : wherefore, it will flow through the
contiguous air, not afted on by the rarefying force. A
wind, therefore, will blow out of a place, in which the air
is fuddenly rarefied ; and on this principle, in all probabi-
lity, it is, that,

7. Since the fun's power in rarefying the air is noto-
rious, it muft neceffarily have a great influence on the gene-
ration of winds.

8. Moft caves are found to emit wind, either more or
lefs. M. Mufchenbroeck has enumerated a variety of
caufes that produce winds, exifting in the bowels of the
earth, on its furface, in the atmofphere, and above it. See
Intr. ad Phil. Nat. vol. ii. p. 1 1 16, &c.

The rifing and changing of the wind are determined ex-
perimentally, by means of weather-cocks, placed on the tops
of houfes, &c. But thefe only indicate what paffes about
their own height, or near the furface of the earth : Wol-
fius affures us, from obfervations of feveral years, that the
higher winds, which drive the clouds, are different from the
lower ones, which move the weather-cocks. And Dr.
Derham obferves fomething not unUke this. Phyl. Theol.
lib. i. cap. 2.

The author laft-mentioned relates, upon comparing fe-
veral feries of obfervations made of the winds in divers
countries ; w'z. England, Ireland, Switzerland, Italy,
France, New England, &c. that the winds in thofe fe-
veral places feldom agree ; but when they do, it is 'Com-

monly when they arc ftrong, and of long continuance in
the fame quarter; and more, he thinks, in the northerly
and eafterly than m other points. Alfo, that a ftrong wind
in one place is oftentnnes a weak one in another, or mo-
derate, according as the places are nearer, or more remote.
Phil. Tranf. N° 267 and 321.

Wind, Laws of the Force and Velocity of. Wind being
only air in motion, and air being a fluid fubjeft to the laws
of other fluids, its force may be regularly brought to a pre-
cife computation : thus, " The ratio of the fpecific gra-
vity of any other fluid to that of air, together with the
fpace that fluid, impelled by the prelfure of the air, moves
in any given time, being given ; we can determine the fpace
through which the air itfelf, aded on by the fame force,
will move in the fame time." By this rule :

I. As the l^pecific gravity of air is to tliat of any other
fluid ; fo, reciprocally, is the fquare of the fpace, which
that fluid, impelled by any force, moves in any given
time, to the fquare of the fpace which the air, by the fame
impulfe, will move in tlie fame time.

Suppofing, therefore, the ratio of the fpecific gravity of

that other fluid to that of air, to be = — ; the fpace de-

c

fcribed by the fluid to be called s ; and that which the
air will defcribe by the fame impulfe, x. The rule gives

V/

/ b.

Hence, if we fuppofe water impelled" by the given forctf,
to move two feet in a fecond of time, then will j = 2 ;
and fince the fpecific gravity of water to the air is as
800 to I, we fhall have b = 800, and <r = i ; con£e-
quently, .v = ^/ 800 x 4 = .y 3200 = 57 feet nearly-
The velocity of the wind, therefore, to that of water>
moved by the fame power, will be as 57 to 2 ; ;'. e. if
water move two feet in a fecond, the wind will fly 57
feet.

2. Add, that s = \ /

/"

and therefore the fpaee

any fluid, impelled by any imprefTion, moves in any time,
is determined, by finding a fourth proportional to the
two numbers that exprefs the ratio of the fpecific gravi-
ties of the two fluids, and the fquare of the fpace the
wind moves in, in the given time. The fquare root of
that fourth proportional is the fpace required.

Mr. Mariotte, e. gr. found, by various experiments, that
a pretty ftrong wind moves 24 feet in a fecond of time,
which is at the rate of 1440 in a minute ; i. e. at the rate
of fomewhat more than 16 miles in an hour: wherefore, if
the fpace which the water, aAcd on by the fame force as
the air, will defcribe in the fame time, be required ; then
will c = I, 4; = 24, b cz. 800 ; and we fhall find s =

Derham eftimated the velocity of the wind in very great
ftorms at 66 feet per fecond ; and de la Condamine at 90^
feet per fecond.

3. " The velocity of wind being given, to determine the
preffure required to produce that velocity ;" we have
this rule. The fpace the wind moves in one fecond of
time, is to the height a fluid is to be railed in an empty
tube, in order to have a preffure capable of producing
tliat velocity, in a ratio compounded of the fpecific gra-
vity of the fluid' to- that- of the air, and of quadruple the
3 P 2 altilude

WIND.

altitude a body defcends in the firft fecond of time, to the
aforefaid fpace of the air. . , , .

Suppofe, <f. ?r. the fpace through which the air moves
in a fecond, « = 24 feet, or 288 inches ; call the alti-
tude of the fluid x; and the ratio of mercury to air,

£^8oox_i4^ n2oo_ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^^ through which

r I • '

a body defcends in the firft fecond of time, 16 feet i
inch; then, by the theorem, we (haU have 288 : x ::

288 X 288

1 1 200 X 762 : 288, and confequently x = ^^^^ ^ ^^^

= 01 &c. of an inch. Hence we fee why a fmall
butfudden change in the barometer is foUowed with
violent winds. See an account of the principle upon which
thefc calculations are founded under the article Water.

When the direftion of the wind is not perpendicular, but
oblique to the furface of the folid, then the force of the
former upon the latter will not be fo great as when the im-
pulfe is direft, and that for reafons which are eafily derived
from the theory of the refolution and compofition of forces,
and from the theory of dired and obhque impulfes. In
(hort, the general propofition for compound impulfes is, that
the effeaive impulfe is as the furface, as the fquare of the
air's velocity, as the fquare of the fine of the angle of inci-
dence, and as the fine of the obliquity of the foUd's motion
to the direaion of the impulfe, jointly ; for the alteration of
every one of thofe quantities will alter the effea in the fame
proportion. But th.-fe general rules, as we have already
more than once obferved, »re fubjea to great variations ; fo
that their refults feldom coincide with thofe of aaual
experiments. . .

Philofophers have ufed various methods for determining
the velocity of the wind, which is very different at different
times. The method ufed by Dr. Derham was that of
letting light downy feathers fly in the wind, and accurately
obferving the diftance to which they were carried in any
number of half feconds. This method he preferred to that
of Dr. Hooke's mola alata.or pneumatica. ( See Phil. Tranf.
N° 24. and Birch's Hift. Roy. Soc. vol. iv. p. 225.)
He tells us, that he thus meafured the velocity of the wind
in the great ftorm of Auguft, 1705, and by many experi-
ments found, that it moved at the rate of thirty-three feet
fer half-fecond, or of forty-five miles per hour : whence he
concludes, that the moft vehement wind (as that of Novem-
ber, 1703) does not fly at the rate of above fifty or fixty
miles per hour, and that at a medium the velocity of wind is
at the rate of twelve or fifteen miles per hour. Phil. Tranf.
N° 313. or Abr. vol. iv. p. 411.

Mr. Brice obferves, that experiments with feathers are
fubjea to uncertainty : as they feldom or ever defcribe a
ftraight line, but defcribe a fort of fpirals, moving to the
right and left, and rifing to very different altitudes in their
progrefs. He, therefore, confiders the motion of a cloud,
or its (hadow, over the furface of the earth, as a much more
accurate meafure of the velocity of the wind. In this way
he found, that the wind, in a confiderable ftorm, moved at
the rate of 62.9 miles per hour ; and that, when it blew a
frefti gale, it moved in the fame time about twenty-one
miles ; and that id a fmall breeze, the wind moved at the
rate of 9.9 miles per hour. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ivi. p. 226.

But it has been obferved by Cavallo and others, that this
method is very fallacious, partly becaufe it is not known
whether the clouds do or do not move exaftly with the air
in which they float ; and partlv becaufe the velocity of the
air in the region where the clouds float is by no means the

fame with that of the air which is nearer to the furface of
the earth, and is fometimes quite contrary to it, as indicated
by the motion of the clouds themfelves. Others have efti-
mated the velocity of the wind by the changes effeded by
it upon the motion of found, which muft of courfe be very
inaccurate. A very fimple method of determining the ve-
locity of the wind is that which M. Coulomb (Mem. de
I'Acad. Roy. 178 1, p. 70.) employed in his experiments
on wind-mills, becaufe it requires neither the aid of inftru-
ments nor the trouble of calculation. Two perfong were
placed on a fmall elevation, at the diftance of 150 feet from
one another, in the direaion of the wind ; and, while the
one obferved, the other meafured the time which a fmall and
light feather employed in removing through this fpace.
The diftance between the two perfons, divided by the num-
ber of feconds, gave the velocity of the wind per fecond.
The beft method, fays Cavallo, of meafuring the velocity
of the wind, is by obferving the velocity of the fmoke of a
low chimney, or by eftimating the effeft it produces upon
certain bodies, and thus may be determined its force as well as
its velocity. We fhall here obferve, that from the concurrence
of experiments made with various inftruments, and different
modes of calculation, it has been inferred, that in currents of
air, of the denomination which are expreffed in the 4th
column of the annexed table, the air moves at the rate of
fo many feet per fecond as are expreffed in the 2d column,
or of fo many miles per hour as are expreffed in the ift
column.

A Table of the different velocities and forces of the
vnnds, conftruaed by Mr. Roufe with great care, from a
confiderable number of faas and experiments, and com-
municated to Mr. Smeaton, and firft publilhed by him in
the 51ft volume of the Philofophical Tranfaaions.

Veloci'v of die
Wind.

Pei-pendicular
Force on one
fquare Foot,
InAvuirdupois
Pounds.

Common Appt llations of ihe
Forces of Winds,

Miles
in one
Hour.

^ Feet in
one Second.

I
2

3

4

5

10

15

1.47

2-93
4.40
5.87

7-33
14.67
22.00

.005
.0201

•044/
.079
.123
.492

1. 107

Hardly perceptible.
Juft perceptible.

Gentle pleafant wrind.

Pleafant bri/k gale.

20
25
30
35
40

45

29-34
36.67
44,01

51-34
58.68
66.01

1.968'

3-075.'

4.429

6.027

7-873!
9-963 J

Very bri/k.
High wind.
Very high.

50
60
80

75-35

88.02

117.36

12.300
17.715
31.490

A ftorm or tempeft.

A great ftorm.

A hurricane.

f A hurricane that tears

100

146.70

49.200

i up trees, and carries
(.buildings, &c. before it.

The force of the wind is as the fquare of its velocity ; as
Mr. Fergufon has fhewn by experiments on the whirling,
table i and in moderate velocities this will hold very nearly.

Upon

WIND.

Upon this principle the numbers in the third cohimn are cal-
culated. The propofition upon which this column has been
formed feems to be, that the impulfe of a current of air,
flrikin^ perpendicularly upon a given furface, with a cer-
tain velocity, is equal to the weight of a column of air
which has that furface for its bafe, and for its height the
fpace through which a body muft. fall, in order to acquire
that velocity of the air.

It is obferved, with regard to this table, that the evidence
for thofe numbers, where the velocity of the wind exceeds
fifty miles an hour, does not feem of equal authority with
that of thofe of fifty miles, or under. Phil. Tranf. vol. li.
p. 165.

Dr. Hales found (Statical Eff. vol. ii. p. 326.) that
the air ruflied out of a pair of fmith's bellows, at the rate of
63.73 f*^^^ '" ^ fecond of time, when comprefled with a
force equal to the weight of one inch perpendicular depth
of mercury, lying on the whole upper furface of the bel-
lows. The velocity of the air, as it pafled out of the trunk
of his ventilators, was found to be at the rate of three thou-
fand feet in a minute ; which is at the rate of thirty-four
miles in an hour. Dr. Hales fays, that the velocity with
which impelled air paffes out at any orifice may be deter-
mined by hanging a light valve over the nofe of a bellows,
by phant leathern hinges, which will be much agitated and
lifted up from a perpendicular to a more than horizontal
pofition by the force of the rufhing air. There is another
more accurate way, he fays, of eftimating the velocity of
air, -viz. by holding the orifice of an inverted glafs fiphon
full of water, oppofite to the ftream of air, by which the
water will be deprefled in one leg, and raifed in the other,
in proportion to the force with which the water is impelled
by the air. Defcript. of Ventilators, 1743, p. 12, &c.

The velocity and force of the wind are determined ex-
perimentally by a peculiar machine, called an anemometer
or ijjind-meaftirer. Of thefe there have been many, varioufly
conftrufted. See Anemometer, Anemoscope, and Wind-
Gage.

Wind, Qualities and EffeRi of. I. " A wind blowing
from the fea is always moift ; in fumrher, it is cold ; and
in winter, warm, unlefs the fea be frozen up." This is
demonftrated thus : there is a vapour continually rifing
out of all water, (as appears even hence, that a quantity of
water, being left a little while in an open vefTel, is found
fenfibly diminiflied,) but efpecially if it be expofed to the
fun's rays ; in which cafe, the evaporation is beyond all
expeftation. By this means, the air incumbent on the fea
becomes impregnated with a quantity of vapour. But the
winds, blowing from off the fea, fweep thefe vapours along
with them ; and confequently they are always moiit.

Again, water in fummer, &c. conceives lefs heat than
terreftrial bodies, expofed to the fame rays of the fun, do ;
but in winter, fea-water is warmer than the earth covered
with frofl and fnow, &c. Wherefore, as the air contiguous
to any body is found to partake of its heat and cold, the
air contiguous to fea-water will be warmer in winter, and
colder in fummer, than that contiguous to the earth. Or
thus : vapours raifed from water by the fun's warmth in
winter, are warmer than the air they rife in, (as appears
from the vapours condenfing, and becoming vifible, almoft
as foon as they are got out into air. ) Frefh quantities of
vapour, therefore, continually warming the atmofphere over
the fea, will raife its heat beyond that of air over the land.
Again, the fun's rays reflefted from the earth into the air,
in fummer, are much more than thofe from the water into
air : the air, therefore, over the earth, warmed by the re-

fledtion of more rays than that over water, is warmer.
Hence, /ea-ivinds make thick, cloudy, hazy weather.

2. " Winds, blowing from the continent, are always
dry ; in fummer, warm ; and cold in winter." For there
IS much lefs vapour arifing from the earth, than from
water; and, therefore, the air over the continent will be
impregnated with much fewer vapours. Add, that the
vapours, or exhalations, raifed by a great degree of heat
out of the earth, are much finer, and lefs fenfible, than thofe
from water. The wind, therefore, blowing over the conti-
nent, carries but httle vapour with it, and is therefore dry.

Farther, the earth in fummer is warmer than water ex-
pofed to the fame rays of the fun. Hence, as the air
partakes of the heat of contiguous bodies, that over the
earth in fummer will be warmer than that over the water :
therefore, the winds, &c.

After the like manner it is (hewn, that the land-winds are
cold in winter. Hence, we fee why land-winds make clear
cold weather.

Our northerly and foutherly winds, however, which are
commonly efteemed the caufes of cold and warm weather.
Dr. Derham obferves, are really rather the effeft of the
cold or warmth of the atmofphere. Hence it is, that we
frequently fee a warm foutherly wind, on a fudden, changed
to the north, by the fall of fnow or hail ; and that in a
cold frofty morning, we fee the wind north, which after-
wards wheels about toward the foutherly quarter, when
the fun has well warmed the air ; and again, m the cold
evening, turns northerly, or eafterly. See Darwin's Obfer-
vationsyi/^ra.

For the manner in which north-eafterly winds contribute
to blights, fee Blight. For the effeft of winds on the
barometer and thermometer, fee Barometer, &c.

The utility of winds has been univerfally acknowledged.
The ancient Perfians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans,
facrificed and erefted temples to the winds ; as we learn
from Voffms, Theolog. Gentil. lib. iii. part i. cap. i.
Befides their ufe in moving bellows, mills, and other ma-
chines, applied in various ways to the fervice of mankind,
and the benefits refulting from them to navigation and
trade, they ferve to purify and refrefh the air, to convey
the heat or cold of one region to another, to produce a
regular circulation of vapours from the ocean to countries
remote from it, and to fupply, by wafting them in their
progrefs againfl hills, &c. fprings and rivers.

Wind has been, by many authors, made the bafis of many
different difeafes : among others, Dr. Reyn has given it as
his opinion, in a Treatife on the Gout (De Arthritid.), that
flatufes, or wind inclofed between the periodeum and the
bone, are the true caufe of that difeafe ; and accordingly,
that all the methods of cure ought to tend to the expelling
of that wind.

He is alfo of opinion, that head-aches, palpitations of the
heart, tooth-ache, plturify, convulfions, colics, and many
other difeafes, are originally owing to the fame caufe, and
only differ in regard to the place affeAed, and to the various
motions and determinations of the wind. The moveablenefs
of the pain in gouty perfons from one part to another, he
looks on as a proof of this, and thinks that the curing of
the gout by burning moxa, or the cotton of the mugwort
leaves, upon it, is owing to its giving way to the wind in
the part to evaporate itfelf.

That thefe winds are cold, appears from the fliivering fits
which generally precede a paroxyfm of the gout ; and that
the fhiverings in the beginning of fevers, and before all
fits of agues, are owing to the fame caufe, is fuppofed by

tkis

WIND.

this author a natural conclufion from the former obfer-
vations.

Their differences, he fays, principally proceed from the
various ferments producing in lis a variety of humours ;
which afting upon one another, do in their effervefcences
create wmds of various effeifts, and denominate difeafes
from the places which are the fcenes of their aftion. It is
on this account that the acupunftura, or pricking with
long needles, among the Chinefe, is of ufc : the Japanefe,
and other neighbouring nations, having no other cure for
moll difeafes than the pricking with the needle, and the
burning of the moxa on the part.

The hufbandman often fuffers extremely by high winds
in many different refpefts. Plantations of trees, at a fmall
dillance from the barns and houfes, are the bed fafeguard
againft their fuffering by winds ; but they muft not be
planted fo near as that their fall, if it (hould happen, would
endanger them. Yevs-s grow very flowly, otherwife they
are the bell of all trees for this defenlive plantation. Trees
fuffer by winds, being either broken or blown down by
them : but this may he in a great meafure prevented by
cutting off great part of the heads and branches of them, in
places where they Hand moll expofed.

Hops are the mofl fubjeft to be injured by winds of any
crop ; but this may be in a great meafure prevented by a
high pale, or very thick thorn-hedge ; this will both keep
off the fpring wind, which nips the young buds, and be a
great fafeguard againft other winds that would tear the
plants from their poles. The poles fhould always be very
firm in th'? ground ; and the beft fecurity to be added to
this, is a row of tall trees all round the ground.

Winds, attended with rain, do great injury to the corn,
by laying it flat to the ground. The bell method of pre-
venting this, is to keep up good cnclofures ; and if the acci-
dent happens, the corn fliould be cut immediately, for it
never grows at all afterwards. It fliould be left on the
ground, in this cafe, fome time after the cutting, to harden
the grain in the car. Mortimer's Hufbandry, p. 302.

Wind, in Naingat'irm, is the fame agitation of the air,
confidered as fcrviiig for the motion of veffels on the water.

If the wind blows gently, it is called a breeze; if it
blows harder, it is called a galcy or a ftiff gale ; and if it blows
very hard, it is called ?iJlorm.

The following obfervations on the wind have been made
by fkilful feamen, and particularly by Dr. Halley.
. I. Between the limits of 60°, •viz. from 30° of notth
latitude to 30° of fouth latitude, there is a conftant, or
almoft conflant, eafl wind through the year, blowing in
the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, called the trade-'w'tnd ;
which fee.

2. The trade-winds, near their northern limits, blow be-
tween the north and eafl ; and near their fouthern limits they
blow between the fouth and eafl.

The trade-wind feems to depend principally upon the
rarefaftion of the air, which is occafioned by the heat of
the fun progrefhvely from the eafl towards the wefl. The
air which is rarefied, and, of courfe, elevated by the heat
of the fun immediately over it, is condenfed, and defcends
as foon as the fun is gone over another place to the weft of
the former ; then the air of the latter place is rarefied, and
the condenfed air of the former rufhes towards it, &c.
From the northern and fouthern parts of the world, the air
likewife runs to the place which is immediately under the
fun ; but thofe direftions, combining with the eaflerly wind,
which blows nearer to the equator, form the above-mentioned

north-eafterly and fouth-cafterly winds on the borders of the

trade-wind.

3. Thefe general motions of the wind are difturbed on
the continents, and near their coafts.

In places that are farther from the equator, the rarefac-
tion which arifes from the heat of the fun, and from the
attraftion of the fun and moon, is lefs aftive ; and is befides
influenced by a variety of local and accidental circumftances,
fuch as extenfive continents, mountains, rains, iflands, &c.
which difturb, interrupt, or totally change the direftion of
the wind. Hence, in thofe latitudes north and fouth,
which are beyond the limits of the trade-vpind, or near the
coafts, the winds are very uncertain ; nor has any good
theory been as yet formed refpefting them.

4. In fome parts of the Indian ocean there are periodical
winds, which are called Monfoons ; which fee.

For the explication of thefe, it is (aid, that as the air,
which is cool and denfe, will force the warm rarefied air in
a continual ftream upwards, there it muft fpread itfelf to
preferve the equilibrium. Therefore the upper courfe or
current of air muft be contrary to the under current ; for
the upper air muft move from thofe parts where the greateft
heat is ; and fo, by a kind of circulation, the N.E. trade-
wind below will be attended with a S.W. above ; and a
S.E. below, with a N.W. above.

5. In the Atlantic ocean, near the coafts of Africa, at
about a hundred leagues from the fhore, between the lati-
tudes of 28° and 10° north, feamen conftantly meet with a
frefli gale of wind blowing from the N.E.

6. Thofe bound to the Caribbee iflands, acrofs the Atlan-
tic ocean, find, as they approach the American fide, that
the faid N.E. wind becomes eafterly ; or feldom blows
more than a point from the eaft, either to the northward or
fouthward. Thefe trade-winds, on the American fide, are
extended to 30°, 31°, or even to 32° of N. latitude ; which
is about 4° farther than they extend on the African fide :
alfo to the fouthward of the equator, the trade-winds extend
three or four degrees farther toward tiie coaft of Brafil, on
the American fide, than they do near the Cape of Good
Hope, on the African fide.

7. Between the latitudes of 4° N. and 4'^ S., the wind
always blows between the fouth and eaft : on the African
fide, the winds are ncarefl the fouth ; and on the American
fide, neareft the eaft. In thefe feas, Dr. Halley obferved,
that when the wind was eaftward, the weather was gloomy,
dark, and rainy, with hard gales of wind ; but when the
wind veered to the fouthward, the weather generally became
ferene, with gentle breezes, approaching to a calm. Thefe
winds are fomewhat changed by the leafoiis of the year ;
for when the fun is far northward, the Brafil S.E. wind
turns to the fouth, and the N. E. wind to the eaft ; and
when the fun is far fouth, the S.E. wind gets to the
eaft, and the N.E. winds on this fide of the equator veer
more to the north.

8. Along the coaft of Guinea, from Sierra Lecne to
the ifland of St. Thomas, under the equator, which is above
five hundred leagues, the foutherly and fouth-weil winds
blow perpetually ; for the S.E. trade-wind, having paffed
the equator, and approaching the Guinea coafl within
eighty or a hundred leagues, incfines toward the fhore, and
becomes fouth, then S.E., and by degrees, as it comes near
the land, it veers about to fouth, S.S.W., and in with the
land it is S.W. and fometimes W.S.W. This traft is fub-
jeft to frequent calms, violent fudden gulls of winds, called
tornadoes, blowing from all points of tfie horizon.

The welterly wind on the coaft of Guinea is probably

Crtviiig

I

WIND.

owing to the nature and fituation of the land, which, being
greatly heated by the fun, rarefies the air exceedingly ;
hence the cooler and heavier air from over the fea will keep
rufliing in to reftore the equilibrium.

9. Between the fourth and tenth degrees of north latitude,
and between the longitudes of Cape Verd, and the eafternmoft
of the Cape Verd ifles, there is a traft of fea fubjefl to
perpetual calms, attended with frequent thunder and lijjht-
ning, and rains ; whence this part of the fea is called ' The
Rains.' Ships in faihng thefe fix degrees are faid to have
been fometimes detained whole months.

The caufe of this feems to be, that the wefterly winds
fetting in on this coaft, and meeting the general eailerly
wind ni this traft, balance each other, and caufe the calms ;
and the vapour carried thither by the hotteft wind, meeting
the cooleft, is condenfed, and occafions the very frequent
rains.

The three lad obfervations account for two circumftances
which mariners experience in failing from Europe to India,
and in the Guinea trade.

T\iQ JirJ} is the difficulty which fhips, in going to the
fouthward, efpecially in the months of July and Auguft,
find in paffing between the coaft of Guinea and Brafil,
although the breadth of this fea is more than five hundred
leagues. This happens, becaufe the S.E. winds at that
time of the year commonly extend fome degrees beyond the
ordinary limits of four degrees north latitude ; and befides
coming fo much foutherly, as to be fometimes fouth, fome-
times a point or two to the weft ; it then only remains to ply
to windward : and if, on the one fide, they fteer W.S.W.
they get a wind more and more eafterly ; but then there
is a danger of falling in with the Brafilian coaft, or (hoals ;
and if they fteer E.S.E. they fall into the neighbourhood of
the coaft of Guinea, from whence they cannot depart without
running eafterly as far as the ifland of St. Thomas ; and this
is the conftant praftice of all the Guinea fliips.

Secondly, With regard to all fliips departing from Guinea
for Europe, their diieft courfe is northward ; but on this
courfe they cannot go, becaufe the coaft bending nearly eail
and weft the land is to the northward : therefore, as the winds
on tlris coaft are generally between the S. and W.S.W., they
are obliged to fteer S.S.E. or S., and with thefe courfes
they run off the (hore ; but in fo doing they always find the
winds more and more contrary ; fo that when near the fhore
they can lie fouth, at a greater diftance they can make
no better than S.E., and afterwards E.S.E. ; with which
courfes they commonly fetch the ifland of St. Thomas and
Cape Lopez, where, finding the winds to the eaftward of
the fouth, they fail wefterly with it, till coming to the lati-
tude of four degrees fouth, they there find the S.E. winds
blowing perpetually.

On account of thefe general winds, all thofe that ufe the
Weft India trade, even thofe bound to Virginia, reckon it
their beft courfe to get as foon as they can to the fouthward,
that fo they may be certain of a fair and frefti gale to run
before it to the weftward ; and for the fame reafon, thofe
homeward-bound from America endeavour to gain the lati-
tude of thirty degrees, where they firft find the winds begin
to be variable ; though the moft ordinary winds in the North
Atlantic ocean come from between the fouth and weft.

10. Between the fouthern latitudes of ten and thirty
degrees in the Indian ocean, the general trade-wind about
the S.E. by S. is found to blow all the year long in the
fame manner as in the like latitude in the Ethiopic ocean ;
and during the fix months from May to December, thefe
winds reach to within two degrees of the equator ; but

dunng the other fix months, from November to June, a
N.W. wind blows in the traft lying between the third
and tentli degrees of fouthern latitude, in the meridian of
the north end of Madagafcar ; and between the fecond and
twelfth degree of fouth latitude, near the longitude of
Sumatra and Java.

11. In the traft between Sumatra and the African coaft
and from three degrees of fouth latitude quite northward
to the Afiatic coafts, including the Arabian fea and the
gulf of Bengal, the monfoons blow from September to
April on the N.E., and from March to Oftober on the
S.W. In the former half year the wind is more fteady and
gentle, and the weather clearer than in the latter fix months ;
and the vvind is more ftrong and fteady in the Arabian fea
than in the gulf of Bengal.

12. Between the ifland of Madagafcar and the coaft of
Africa, and thence northward as far as the equator, there
is a traft, in which, from April to Oftober, there is a con-
ftant frefh S.S.W. wind ; which to the northward changes
into the W.S.W. wind, blowing at that time in the Ara-
bian fea.

13. To the eaftward of Sumatra and Malacca on the north
of the equator, and along the coafts of Cambodia and
China, quite througli the Philippines as far as Japan,
the monfoons blow northerly and foutherly ; the northern
fetting in about Oftober or November, and the fouthern
about May : thefe winds are not quite fo certain as thofe in
the Arabian feas.

14. Between Sumatra and Java to the Aveft, and New
Guinea to the eaft, the fame northerly and foutherly winds
are obferved ; but the firft half-year monioon inclines to
the N.W., and the latter to the S.E. Thefe winds begin
a month or fix weeks after thofe in the Chinefe feas fet in,
and are quite as variable.

15. Thefe contrary winds do not Ihift from one point to
its oppofite all .at once : in fome places, the time of the
change is attended with calms ; in others, by variable winds :
and it often happens on the ftiores of Coromandel and
China, towards the end of the monfoons, that there are
moft violent ftorms, greatly refembling the hurricanes in the
Weft Indies ; in which the wind is fo very ftrong, that
hardly any thing can refift its force.

All navigation in the Indian ocean muft ncceflarily be re-
gulated by thefe winds ; for if mariners fliould delay their
voyages till the contrary monfoon begins, they muft eitlier
fail back, or go into harbour, and wait for the return of the
trade-wind.

16. The irregularities of the wind in countries which are
farther from the equator than thofe which have been men-
tioned above, or nearer to the poles of the earth, are fo
great that no particular period has as yet been difcovcred,
excepting tliat in particular places certain winds are more
hkely to tilow than others. Thus at Liverpool the winds
are faid to be wefterly for near two-thirds of the year ; in
the fouthern part of Italy, a fouth-eaft wind (called the
fchiroccu) blows more frequently than any other wind, &c.

17. The temperature of a country with refpeft to heat
or cold is increafed or diminiftied by winds, according as
they come from a hotter or colder part of the world. The
north and north-eafterly winds, m this country and all the
weftern parts of Europe, are reckoned cold and drying
winds. They are cold, becaufe they come from the frozen
region of the north pole, or over a great traft of cold land.
Their drying quality is derived from their coming principally
over land, and from a well-known property of the air';
namely, that warm air can dilTolve, and keep diffolved, s

9 greater

WIND.

greater quantity of water than colder air : hence the air
which comes from colder regions, being heated o»er warmer
countries, becomes a better folvent of moifture, and dries
up with greater energy the moift bodies it comes in contaft
with ; and, on the other hand, warm air coming into a
colder region depofits a quantity of the water it kept in fo-
lution, and occafions mills, fogs, clouds, rains, &c. " In
fhort," fays colonel Roy, " the winds feem to be drier, denfer,
and colder, in proportion to the extent of land they pafs
over from the poles towards the equator ; but they appear
to be more moift, warm, and light, in proportion to the ex-
tent of ocean they pafs over from the equator towards the
poles. Hence the humidity, warmth, and lightnefs, of the
Atlantic winds to the inhabitants of Europe. On the eaft
coafts of North America the feverity of the N.W. wind is
univerfally remarked ; and there can fcarcely be a doubt,
that the inhabitants of California, and other parts on the
weft fide of that great continent, will, hke thofe on the
weft of Europe, feel the ftrong effefts of a N.E. wind."

i8. In warm countries, fometimcs the winds, which blow
over a great traft of highly-heated land, become fo very
drying, fcorching, and fufFocating, as to produce dreadful
effefts. Thefe winds, under the names of Blooms, Samiel, and
Solanos, are often felt in the deferts of Arabia, in the neigh-
bourhood of the Perfian gulf, in the interior of Africa, and
in fome other places. There are likewife in India, part of
China, part of Africa, and elfewhere, other winde, which
depoCt fo much warm moifture as to foften, and aftually to
ditiblve glue, falts, and almoft every article which is foluble
in water.

19. It is impoflible to give any adequate account of irre-
gular winds, efpecially of thofe fudden and violent gufts as
come on at very irregular periods, and generally continue
for a fhort time. They fometimes fpread over an extenfive
traft of country, and at other times are confined within a
remarkably narrow fpace. Their caufes are by no means
rightly underftood, though they have been vaguely attri-
buted to peculiar rarefaftions, to the combined attractions
of the fun and moon, to earthquakes, to eleftricity, &c.
They are called in general hurricanes, or they are the princi-
pal phenomenon of a hurricane, that is, of a violent ftorm.

Almoft every one of thofe violent winds is attended with
particular phenomena, fuch as droughts, or heavy rains, or
hail, or fnow, or thunder and lightning, or feveral of thofe
phenomena at once. They frequently (hift fuddenly from
one quarter of the horizon to another, and then come again
to the former point. In this cafe they are called tornadoes.

In mountainous countries, the wind fometimes rages with
extreme violence, and the mountains generally exhibit figns
of the approaching ftorm. Thus, at the Cape of Good
Hope, there are four remarkable mountains, called Table
Land, or Mountain ; Sugar Loaf, or the Lion's Head ;
James Mount, or the Lion's Rump ; and Charles Mount,
called alfo the Devil's Tower, or Devil's Head, from the
violent fqualls of wind which come from it. In the fummer
feafon Table Mountain is fometimes fuddenly covered with a
white cloud, called the Table-cloth ; when this cloud feems
to roll down the fteep face of the mountain, it is a fure in-
dication of an approaching gale of wind from the S.E.,
which generally blows with great violence, and fometimes
continues a day or more, but in common is of fhort dura-
tion. On the firft appearance of this cloud, the fhips in
Table bay begin to prepare for it, by ftriking yards and
top-mafts, and making every thing as fnug as poffible. If,
in the morning, the cloud extends from the Table to Mount
Charles, or the Devil's Tower, which are almoft contiguous,

it is a general faying among feamen, that the old gentlema.n
is going to breakfaft ; if in the middle of the day, that he
is going to dinner ; and if in the evening, that the cloth i»
fpread for fupper.

There are various other periodical winds : of thefe, how-
ever, that generally known by the name of Limbat, which
is common in the ifland of Cyprus, fhall only be mentioned
here. The period of this wind is five days : on the firft day,
it begins to blow at eight in the morning, and increafes till
noon ; from thence it gradually weakens, and ceafes entirely
about three P.M. On the fecond day, it arifes at the fame
hour; but it does not attain its greateft ftrength till about
one in the afternoon, and ceafes at four. On the third day,
it begins as before ; but it falls an hour later. On the re-
maining days, it follows the fame progrefTion as on the third ;
but it is remarked, that a little before it ceafes, it becomes
extremely violent. Upon the N.W. fide of the above ifland,
this wind is confidered as a fea-breeze ; and upon the S.E.
as a land-breeze. See Wiai}, Qualities of, fupra. See alfo
Hurricanes, Tornadoes,' and Whirl-W'/W. See Phil.
Tranf. N° 183, or Abr. vol. ii. p. 133, &c. Robertfon's
Elem. of Nav. b. vi. f. 6. Cavallo's Philof. vol. ii.

The winds are divided, with refpeft to the points of the
horizon from which they blow, into cardinal and collateral.

Winds, Cardinal, are thofe blowing from the four car-
dinal points ; eaft, weft, north, and fouth.

Thus, a wind that blows from the E. towards the W. i*
called eajl luind ; when it blows from the W. towards the
E., luejl ivind; when it blows from the N. to the S., it is
called north wind; and when it blows from the S. towards
the N., it is cA\ed fouth ivind.

Winds, Collateral, are the intermediate winds between
any two cardinal winds. The number of thefe is infinite, as
the points from which they blow are ; but only a few of
them are confidered in praftice ; /'. e. only a few of them
have their diftinguifhing names.

Thofe winds which deviate a little from the cardinal points
are called northerly, eajlerly, foutherly, and nvejlerly winds.
But for the fake of greater diftinftion, the fpace or arch
which lies between any two contiguous cardinal points, is
fuppofed, by the mariners, to be divided into eight equal
parts, or points, and each point into four equal parts, called
quarter-p$ints. So that the horizon is fuppofed to be divided
into thirty-two principal points, which are called rhumbs, or
•winds, to each of which a particular name is afligned ; and
thofe names are derived from the names of the adjacent car-
dinal points. See Compass.

The ancient Greeks, at firft, only ufed the four cardinal
ones ; at length they took in four more. Vitruvius gives
us a table of twenty, befides the cardinals, which were in
ufe among the Romans.

The moderns, as their navigation is much more perfeft

than that of the ancients, have given names to twenty-eight

collateral winds, which they range into primary zxiA fecondary ;

and the fecondary they fubdivide into thofe of the Jir/i and

fecond order.

The Enghfh names of the primary collateral winds and
points are compounded of the names of the cardinal ones,
north and fouth being ftill prefixed.

The names of the fecondary collateral winds of the firft
order are compounded of the names of the cardinals, and
the adjacent primary one. Thofe of the fecond order are
compounded of the names of the cardinal, or the next ad-
jacent primary ; and the next cardinal, with the addition of
the word by. The Latins have diftinft names for each j all
which are expreffed in the following Table.

WIND.

Name* of the Winds aiicl Points of the Compafs.

EnKlifli.

Latin and Greek.

North.

North by eaft.

North-north-eaft

North-eaft by-
north.

North-tajl.

North-eaft by 1
eaft. \

Eaft-north-eaft.

Eaft by north.

II,

12.

>3-
14.

'5'
16.

Eafl.

Eaft by fouth.

Eaft-fouth-eaft.
South-eaft by 1

eaft. J

South-eajl.
South-eaft by 7

fouth. J

South-fouth-eaft.
South by eaft.

«7-
18,
19,

20.

South.

South by weft.

South-fouth-

weft.
South-weft by

fouth.

SI. South-tve/l.

22.

23'

24,

South-weft by
weft.

Weft-fouth-weft.

Weft by fouth.

1

Septentrlo, or Boreas.
Hyperboreas.

Hypaquilo.

GaUicus.
Aquilo.
f Mefoboreas.

< Mefaquilo.
l_ Supernas.
r Ar3apeliotes.

< Borapeliotes.
[_ Grtecus.

Hypocaefias.

Caefias, Hellefpontius,
f Mefocaefias. 1

\ Carbas. J

Diitances of
the Point*,
&c. from
the North.

f Solanus, fuhfolanus, \
\ apeltotes. )

JHypeurus, or hy-l
\ pereurus. J

Eurus, or volturnus.

Mefeurus.

Notapeliotes, eurajler.

Hypophoenix.

PhoEiiix, phoenicias,
leuco-notus, gan-
geticus.

Mefophoenix.

1

1

Aujler, nolus, meridies.
f Hypolibonotus, al-l
\ fanuB. J

( Libonotus, notoliby- /
\ cu8,auftro-africus. J

Mefolibonotus.

r Noto-ztphyruj.

< NotO'iibycus.
(. Afr'uus.
f Hypolibs.

< Hypafricus.
(_ Subvefperus.

Libs.

fMefolibs. "}

\ Mefozephyrus. J

o" o'

II 15

22 30

33 45

45

56 15

67 30

78 45

From the E

0° o'

II 15

22 30

33 45

45

56 15

67 30
78 45

From theS.

0° o'

II 15

22 30

33 45
45

56 15

67 30

78 45

Names of th« Wind* and Points of the Compafg.

Englifli.

25. Wejl.

26. Weft by north.

27. Weft-north-weft.

28. North-weft by

weft.

29. North-wejl.

30. North-weft by

north.

31. North -north- 1

weft. J

32. North by weft.

Latin und Greek.

' Zephyrus, favonius,
Qcc'idens.
Hypargeftes.
'_ Hypocorus.
" Argeftes.

Caurus, corus,
iapyx.
'_ Mefargeftes.
Mefocorus.
Zephyro-boreas, horo-

libycus, olympias.
' Hypocircius.
■ I Hypothrafcias.
Scirem.

Circius, thrafcias.

Mefocircius.

Diftatices of
the Poinia,
&c. from
the Wert.

O" O'

II 15

22 30

33 45
45

56 .5

67 30

78 45

Note. — The ancient names are here, after Ricciolus, adapted
to the modern ones ; not that the winds formerly denoted
by ihofe were precifely the fame with thefe, (for the ancient
number and divifion being different from the modern, the
points they refer to will neceflarily be fomewhat different,)
but thefe are what come the neareft. Thus, Vitruvius, only
reckoning twenty-four winds, difpofes the points they refer
to in a different order ; as in the following Table.

Names of the Winds.

Difiance
from North.

Names of the Winds.

Diftanee
from Eaft.

1. Septentrlo.

2. Gallicus.

3. Supernas.

4. Aquilo.

5. Boreas.

6. Carbas.

0°
15

30

45
60

75

7. Solanus.

8. Ornithias.

9. Cxfias.

10. Eurus.

1 1. Volturnus.

12. Euronotus.

0°

15

30

45
60

75

Names of tlie Winds.

DiftaTice
from South.

Names of the Winds.

Diflance
fr,.,„ Weft.

13. Aujier.

14. Alfanus.

15. Libonotus.

16. Africus.

17. Subvefper.

18. Argeftes.

0°

»5

30
45
60

75

19. Fa-vomus.

20. Etefije.

21. Circius.

22. Caurus.

23. Corus.

24. Tbrafcias.

0°

15

30

45
60

75 I

Vol. XXXVIII.

iQ

The

WIND.

Tlie following Table (hews the angles which every rhumb or point of the compafs makes with the meridian : by meal
of wliich the direaion of the wind, &c. may be determined.

North.

South.

Points.

D.

M.

North.

South.

i

2

49,

i

T

374

3

4

8

26

N. by E.

S. by E.

I

II

'5

N. by W.

S. by W.

, I

H

4,

H

i6

5^i

'f

19

41

N.N.E.

S.S.E.

2

22

30

N.N.W.

S.S.W.

H

2?

19

H

28

74

H

3°

0

N.E. by N.

S.E. by S.

3

35

45

N.W. by N.

S.W. by S.

3^

36

3^^,

3?

39

22i

3i

42

11

N.E.

S.E.

4'

4>

0

N.W.

S.W.

4i

47

49

45

50

374

4f

73

26

N.E. by E.

S.E. by E.

5

56

15

N.W. by W.

S.W. by W.

5i

?9

4

si

61

524

5i

64

41

E.N.E.

E.S.E.

6

67

30

W.N.W.

W.S.W.

6i

70

19

4

73

74

79

J6

E. by N.

E. by S.

1

78

45

W. by N.

W. by S.

Ik

7i

81

84

224

7l

a7

II

^

East.

East.

8

90

0

West.

West.

For the ufe of the winds in navigation, &c. fee Sailing.

Wind, a difeafe in fheep of a very dangerous and dif-
treffing kind.

It is obferved in the Shepherd's Guide, that in this com-
plaint, the ftieep, immediately after being clipped or fhorn,
appear to be in violent pain, their fides are fomewhat ex-
tended, and their breathing very fhort, the head is hung
down drooping, and they have a great averfion to moving
or walking. Thefe fymptoms continue to increafe until
the fheep dies, which is in a very few hours, uiilefs a violent
purging comes on, which generally gives immediate relief.
On inquiring for the name of this affeftion, the writer fays,
he found it was called the wind, but where the feat of it
lay few could tell him ; fome thought it was in the head,
others in the lungs ; and the remedies they applied were as
various as their opinions of the nature of the difeafe.

Not being fatisfied with thefe accounts, he endeavoured,
by infpefting the carcafes of Iheep that died of the dif-
eafe, to difcover the caufe and feat of the complaint.
Oa opening four (heep that died of the difeafe, he found all

12

the inteftines rather diftended with flatus, but not ia any
great degree. Their blood-vefiels were very turgid, and of
a deep red, particularly thofe of the large inteftines, except-
ing the reftum, or what is called the bum-gut, which had a
healthy appearance, as likewife had the ftomach, milt, caul,
liver, heart, lungs, and in fhort all the vifcera contained in
the cavity of the trunk. From thefe appearances he will
venture to fay, that the difeafe in queftion is a violent in-
flammation of the inteftines, perhaps in fome meafure arifing
from bruifes in fhearing, but more fo from lofing a warm
clothing, and being fuddenly expofed to cold air and cold
feeding.

He therefore recommends to farmers, that on the firft
appearances of the complaint they put the fheep into a liable
or other warm place, and immediately bleed it freely. Then
to bruife a quarter of an ounce of fome carminative feed,
fuch as carraway, anife, cummin, or fennel, and to mix
thefe with two ounces of Glauber's purging falls, in a pint
of water, placing it on a fire, and making it boil for a few
minutes, then to ftrain it off. Then to add a quarter of an

ounce

WIN

ounce of powdered jalap, and while lukewarm to give tht
Sleep a quarter of a pint of this liquor, well (haken toge-
ther, every half hour till it dungs. It fhould have no food
or cold water until recovered, but a little warm water might
be of fervice in fome cafes.

This is a diforder which is in general fo fuddenly fatal,
that recourfe fliould be inftantly had to any remedy that
may have been found beneficial ; but bleeding is probably
that on which the greateft dependence may be placed, with
calomel in fome inftances.

Wind, among Animals, 19 another name for the breath,
or rather for the power with which the lungs are endowed
in the exercife of their funftions, which in many cafes is a
fort of morbid affedion of them, efpecially in horfes, fwine,
calves, and fome others. Horfes are often thick-winded
and purfive, which is this ftate, and require much exercife
and management, and the other two are fometimes affedled
in much the fame way.

Wind, in Rural Economy, a term applied to a winch or
wince in fome places.

Wind, FrcJIj. See Fresh.

Wind, To haul the. See Haul.

Wind, Large, in the Sea Language. See Large.

Wind, Quarter, at Sea. See Quarter.

Winds, Reigning. See Reigning.

Winds, Tropic. See TRADE-IVinds, zndWiHD fupra.

Wind, Side, at Sea, that which blows on the fide of the
fhip.

To Wind a Ship or Boat, in Sea Language, is to change
her pofition, by bringing the ftern to lie in the fituation of
the head, or diredlly oppofite to its former fituation.

Wind, in the Manege. A horfe that carries in the wind,
is one that toffes his nofe as high as his ears, and does not
carry handfomely.

The difference between carrying in the wind and beat-
ing upon the hand is, that a horfe who beats upon the hand
(hakes his head, and refifts the bridle ; but he who carries
in the wind, puts up his head without fhaking, and only
fometimes beats upon the hand. The oppofite to carrying
in the wind is arming and carrying low.

Wind, Whirl. See WmRL-lVinJ.

Wind, Colic. See Colic.

WiSD-DropJy. See Tympanites.

WiND-£Vg-, an addle egg, or an egg that has taken wind.
See Egg.

WiND-/a// denotes fruit blown off the tree by the
wind.

WitiTy-Flower, in Botany. See Anemone.

"Wm-D- Furnace. See Furnace.

WiND-G.3gc, in Pneumatics, an inftrument ferving to de-
termine the velocity and force of the wind. See Anemo-
meter, Anemoscope, and Laivs of the Force, l^c. of the
Wivtofupra.

Dr. Lind, of Edinburgh, has contrived an apparatus of
this kind, which is fimple and eafy of conllruAion, and
which feems to be well adapted for meafuring the force of
the wind with a fufficient degree of accuracy. This in-
ftrument confifts of two glafs tubes A B, C D, ( Plate XV.
Pneumatics, jig. 9. ) five or fix inclies in length, and about
four-tenths of an inch in bore ; which are connefted toge-
ther like a fiphon, by a fmall bent glafs tube a h, the bore of
which is one-tenth of an inch in diameter. On the upper
end of the leg A B there is a tube of latten brafs, which is
kneed or bent perpendicularly outwards, and has its mouth
open towards F ; on the other leg C D is a cover, with a
round hole G in the upper part of it, two-tenths of an inch
in diameter. This cover and the kneed tube are connefted

WIN

together by a flip of brafs, c d, which ftrengthens the whole
inftrument, and ferves to hold the fcale H I. The kneed
tube and cover are fixed on with hard cement, or fealing-
wax. To the fame tube is foldered a piece of brafs, e, with
a round hole in it, to receive the fteel fpindle K L, and at
/ another fuch piece of brafs is foldered to the brafs hoop
g h, which furrounds both legs of the inftrument. There is
a fmall ftioulder on the fpindle at/, upon which the inftru-
ment refts, and a fmall nut /, to prevent it from being blown
off the fpindle by the wind. The whole inftrument is eafily
turned round upon the fpindle by the wind, fo as always to
prefent the mouth of the kneed tube toward it. At the
end of the fpindle there is a fcrew, by which it may be
fcrewed to the top of a poft or ftand : it has alfo a hole at
L, to admit a fmall lever for fcrewing it into wood with
greater facility. A thin plate of brafs k is foldered on the
kneed tube, about half an inch above the round hole G, fo
as to prevent rain from falling into it. There is alfo a
crooked tube A B (jig. 10.), to be put occafionally upon
the mouth of the kneed tube F, in order to prevent rain
from being blown into the mouth of the wind-gage, when
it is left expofed to the rain.

This inftrument ferves to afcertain the force of the wind,
by filling the tube half full of water, and pufhing the fcale
a little up or down, till o upon the fcale, when the inftru-
ment is held perpendicularly, be on a line with the furface
of the water, in both legs of the wind-gage. The inftru-
ment being thus adjuftcd, hold it up perpendicularly, and
turning the mouth of the kneed tube toward the wind, ob-
ferve how much the water is deprefled by it in one leg, and
how much it is raifed in the other. The fum of the two
is the height of a column of water, which the wind is capa-
ble of fuftaining at that time ; and every body that is op-
pofed to that wind, will be preffed upon by a force equal to
the weight of a column of water, having its bafe equal to
the furface that is oppofed, and its height equal to the alti-
tude of the column of water fuftained by the wind in the
wind-gage. Hence the force of the xvind upon any body,
where the furface oppofed to it is known, may be eafily
found ; and a ready comparifon may be made betwixt the
ftrength of one gale of wind, and that of another, by know-
ing the heights of the columns of water which the different
winds were capable of fuftaining. The heights of the co-
lumn in each leg will be equal, provided that the legs are
of equal bores ; but unequal if their bores are unequal.
For fuppofe the legs equal, and the column of water
fuftained by the wind to be three inches, the water in the
leg which the wind blows into will be depreffed \\ inch
below o, and raifed as much in the other leg. But if the
bore of the leg which the wind blows into be double that
of the other, the water in that leg will be depreffed only
one inch, whilft it is raifed twice as much, or two inches,
in tlie other, and •vice verfd.

The force of the wind may likewife be meafured with
this inftrument, by filling it till the water runs out at G.
For if it be then held up to the wind as before, a quantity
of water will be thrown out ; and if both legs of the inftru-
ment are of the fame bore, the height of the column fuf-
tained will be equal to double the column of water in either
leg, or the fum of what is wanting in both legs. But if the
legs are of unequal bores, neither of thefe will give the true
height of the column of water which the wind fuftained.
For, obtaining in this cafe the true height. Dr. Lind has
fubjoined the requifite formuls. The ufe of the fmall tube
of communication ab {jg. 9.), is to check the undulation
of the water, fo that the height of it may be read off from
the fcale with eafe and certainty ; and alfo to prevent the
3^2 water

WIN

water from being thrown up to a much greater or lefs alti-
tude than the true height of the column which the wmd is
able at that time to fuftain. The author has calculated a
table, by means of which, having the height of the column
of water fuftained in the wind-gage, the force of the wind
upon a foot fquare may be determined.

Force of the

Heiglii of

Wnid on One

the Water in

Foot Square

Common Defignations of fuch Winds.

the Gage.

in Pounds
Avoirdupois.

Inches.

12

62.500

II

57-293

lO

9

52.083!
46.875 J

Mod violent hurricane.

8

41.667

Very great hurricane.

7

36.548

Great hurricane.

6

3'-7SO

Hurricane.

5

26.041

Very great ftorm.

4

20.833

Great ftorm.

3

15.625

Storm.

2

10.416

Very high wind.

I

5.208

High wind.

0.5

2.604

Bride gale.

O.I

0.521

Frefh breeze.

0.05

0.260

Pleafant wind.

0.025

0.030

A gentle wind.

When the height of the water is not exaftly mentioned
in the table, then that height may be feparated into fuch
parts as are mentioned in the table, and the fum of the
forces anfwering to fuch parts will be the force of the
wind correfpondent to the height in queftion : thus, if the
height of the water be 4.6 inches ; then this height is equal
to 4 4- 0.5 4-0.1, which parts are all in the table; there-
fore,

nches.

Pounds.

4

0.5 ■

20.833
2.604

O.I

0.521

The fum is 23.958, which exprefles the force of the
wind when the height of the water in the gage is 4.6
inches.

Any alteration that can ufually take place in the tempe-
rature of the water, makes no fenfible difference in this in-
ftrument.

In frofty weather this gage cannot be ufed with common
water. At that time fome other liquor muft be ufed, which
is not fo fubjeft to freeze ; and, upon the whole, a faturated
folution of common fait in water is the moft eligible : but
in that cafe, ( fince the fpecific gravity of a faturated folu-
tion of fait is to that of pure water, as 1.244 ^° '') ^^^
forces which are ftated in the preceding table muft be mul-
tiplied by 1.244. Thus, if in the preceding example the
faturated folution of fait had been ufed inftead of water
only, the force of the wind on a fquare foot would have
been 29.8 pounds.

When falt-water is ufed, the force of the wind, which is
ftated in the table, muft be increafed in the proportion of
the fpecific gravity of falt-water to that of common water ;
thus, ufing the preceding example, we muft fay, as i : 1.244
: ; 23.958 to a fourth proportional, which muft be found by

W 1 N

multiplying the fecond term by the third, and then dividing
the produA by the firft term ; but, the firft term being
unity, we need only multiply 23.958 by 1.244.

On the 9th of May, 1775, Dr. Lind obferved, that
the wind fiipported a column of water in his wind-gage
6tt,^ inches in height j and from his table it appeared,
that the force of the wind in this hurricane, which did
great damage to the gardens in his neighbourhood, was
equal to 34.921 pounds avoirdupois, on every fquare
foot.

If the Telocity and denfity of the wind in any particular
cafe were accurately determined, this inftrument, which
gives its force or momentum, would enable us to afcertain
the velocity in every other cafe, the denfity being known :
for the force of the wind is as the fquare of its velocity.
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv. part ii. art. 34. p. 353, &c.

Mr. Martin, from a hint firft fugg«fted by Dr. Burton,
contrived an anemofcope, or wind-gage, of the following
conftruftion. ABCDEFGHI [Jig- 11 ■) is an open
frame of wood, firmly fupported by the fhaft or poftern I.
In the two crofs pieces H K, L M, is moved an horizontal
axis Q M, by means of the four fails ai, c d, ef, g h, in a
proper manner, expofed to the wind. Upon this axis is
fixed a cone of wood M N O, upon which, as the fails move
round, a weight S is raifed by a ftring on its fupcrficies,
proceeding from the fmall to the largeft end N O. Upon
the great end or bafe of the cone is fixed a ratchet-wheel
i k, in whofe teeth falls the click X, to prevent any retro'-
grade motion from the depending weight.

From the ftrufture of this machine, it is eafy to under-
ftand, that it may be accommodated to eftimate the variable
force of the wind, becaufe the force of the weight will con-
tinually increafe, as the ftring advances on the conical fur-
face, by afting at a greater diftance from the axis. And,
therefore, if fuch a weight be put on, on the fmalleft part
at M, as will juft keep the machine in equilibrio with the
weakeft wind ; then as the wind becomes ftronger, the
weight will be raifed in proportion, and the diameter of the
bafe of the cone N O may be fo large in comparifon of that
of the fmaller end or axis at M, that the ftrongeft wind ftiall
but juft raife the weight to the great end.

Thus, for example, let the diameter of the axis be to
that of the bafe of the cone N O as i to 28 ; then if S be
a weight of one pound at M on the axis, it will be equiva-
lent to twenty-eight pounds, or \ of an hundred, when
raifed to the greateft end. If, therefore, when the wind is
weakeft, it fupports one pound on the axle, it muft be
twenty-eight times as ftrong to raife the weight to the bafe
of the cone. Thus may a line or fcale of twenty-eight
equal parts be drawn on the fide of the cone, and the
ftrength of the wind will be indicated by that number
therein from which the ftring (hall at any time hang.

Furthermore, the ftring may be of fuch a fize, and the
cone of fuch a length, that there fhall be fixteen revolutions
of the ftring between each divifion of the fcale on the cone;
fo will the ftrength of the wind be exprefled in pounds and
ounces. And if greater exaftnefs be required, let the peri-
phery of the cone's bafe be divided into fixteen equal parts;
then whenever the equihbrium happens, the ftring will leave
the conic furface againft one of thofe divifions, and thus
ftiew the force of the wind to a drachm avoirdupois weight.
Martin's Phil. Brit. vol. ii. p. 211, &c.

M. Bouguer contrived a very fimple inftrument, by means
of which we may immediately difcover the force which the
wind exerts on a given furface. This is a hollow tube
A A B B {Jig. 12. ), in which a fpiral ftring C D is fixed,
that may be more or lefs coropreffed by a rod F S D,

pailiDg

W I N

paffing through a hole within the tube at A A ; then
having obferved to what degree different forces or given
weights are capable .of compreffing the fpiral, mark
divifions on the rod in fuch a manner, that the mark
at S may indicate the weight requifite to force the fpring
into the fituation C D ; afterwards join at right angles to
this rod at F, a plane furface E F E of a given area, either
greater or lefs, at pleafure ; then let this inftrument be op-
pofed to the wind, fo that it may ilrike the furface in the
direftions V E, V E, parallel to that of the rod, and the
mark at S will (liew the weight to which the force of the
wind is equivalent.

The ingenious profeiTor Leflie ( Enquiry into the Nature
and Propagation of Heat) having found, in the courfe of
his experiments on heat, that the refrigerant, or cooling
power of a current of air, is exaftly proportional to its ve-
locity, derives from this principle the conllruftion of a new
and fimple anemometer. " It is in reality nothing more,"
fays he, " than a thermometer, only with its bulb larger
than ufual. Holding it in the open ftill air, the temperature
is marked : it is then warmed by the application of the
hand, and the time is noted which it takes to fink back to
the middle point. This I (hall term the fundamental mea-
fure of cooling. The fame obfervation is made on expofing
the bulb to the imprefTion of the wind, and I fhall call the
time required for the bifeftion of the interval of tempera-
tures, the occalional meafure of coohng. After thefe pre-
liminaries, we have the following eafy rule : Divide the
fundamental by the occafional meafure of cooling, and the
excefs of the quotient above unit, being multiplied by 4^,
will exprefs the velocity of the wind in miles per hour.
The bulb of the thermometer ought to be more than half
an inch in diameter, and may, for the fake of portability,
be filled with alcohol, tinged, as ufual, with archil. To
fimplify the obfervation, a Hiding fcale of equal parts may
be applied to the tube. When the bulb has acquired the
due temperature, the zero of the Aide is fet oppofite to the
limit of the coloured liquor in the Hem ; and after having
been heated, it again (lands at 20° in its defcent, the time
which it thence takes until it finks to 10° is meafured by a
ftop-watch. Extemporaneous calculation may be avoided,
by having a table engraved upon the fcale for the feries of
occafional intervals of cooling."

WiND-Grt//, a difeafe in horfes and fome other animals.
It is a puffy kind of fwelling or tumour, which yields to
the preffure of the finger, but upon removing the preffure
recovers iti'elf, and puihes out as before. Thefe fwellings
have been thus named from a falfe notion of their contain-
ing nothing but air or wind. Thefe tumours are often
feated on both fides of the back-finew of a horfe, above
the fetlock on the fore-legs, but moll frequently on the
hind-legs. They are quite loofe and detached from the
parts on which they grow, and exhibit the fame figns where-
ever they are met with, whether in the hocks or about the
knees ; for thefe fwellings are not confined to the lower
limbs only, but appear in any of thofe parts of a horfe's
body where the cellular membrane can be eafily feparated ;
and they exift, for the moll part, without occafioning any
pain. They are ufually caufed by riding on very hard
roads, or on dry hilly grounds. Sometimes traveUing
horfes, when they are worked too young, before the limbs
are grown firm and vigorous, will have them. And Gibfon
obferves, that they fometimes proceed from conftitutional
weaknefs, efpecially in bulky horfes, that are fomewhat
under-Umbed and flefhy about the fetlock-joint. Thefe, it
js laid, have been known to have wind-galls without any
iirain, hard riding, or other ill ufage of any kind.

WIN

It has been obferved too, that when thefe tumours appear
upon the hind-legs they never caufe lamenefs, though fuch
horfes are often ftiff behind after riding. When on the
fore-legs they always make a horfe go lame at firft ; but
afterwards that tcndernefs goes off in a great meafure, and
they feldom go lame, but iliff, and inclinable to ftumble.
They generally recover, however, with a day's reft. Thofe
flatulent fweUings indeed that come in the ligaments of the
hocks are always troublefome, disfigure the animal, and,
unlefs fpeedily affiiled, will caufe incurable lamenefs. At
firft they are but fmall, but in time they grow to the fize of
a pullet's egg, perhaps, and pufh out on each fide of the
hollow of the hock. Swellings of the fame kind alfo ap-
pear before the knee, where they often precede a difeafed
joint. Very fmall fimilar fwellings under the fore part of
the knee, in the interftices of both fides of the joint, are
alfo dangerous ; but thefe feldom happen, and are ufually
caufed by fome violent ftrain, efpecially when a horfe falls
down upon a defcent with his whole weight upon his knees.
The other flatulent fwellings which horfes are fubjeft to
feldom caufe lamenefs, but are, for the moil part, eafily
cured. We mean thofe that arife in the interftices of the
large mufcles of the hips and thighs, which are diftended
like little bladders filled with air. Thefe come by llrains
and over-exertion ; for draught-horfes are the moft fubjeft
to them.

Wind-galls that proceed from mere weaknefs are feldom
curable, unlefs the conftitution can be improved ; but we
often fee horfes that were fubjeft to wind-galls when young,
get the better of them as they advance in age. The me-
thods of cure in thefe cafes is by means of bhllering, firing,
and the ufe of aftringent applications.

As thefe are enlargements of the capfules, or lurfa mucof<t,
fituated between the tendons, that contain an oily lubricat-
ing fluid for the prevention of frittion and to facilitate mo-
tion, arifing from long exertion producing inflammation of
them, and an increafed fecretion of the contained fluid,
they are capable of being eafily removed in their beginning
ftates, by reft and the ufe of blitters to the parts compofed
of cantharides and corrofive fublimate with olive oil ; after-
wards turning the animals out to grafs or the ftraw-yard.
Or where this cannot be permitted, the parts may be ftrength-
ened by the ufe of a flannel roller, made and continued wet
by a wafti compofed of equal parts of ftrong vinegar and
Goulard water, or the latter alone in fome cafes. If, how-
ever, the difeafe may have been neglefted, recourfe muft be
had to the hot iron ; after which the bliftering Ihould be
pradlifed as before advifed.

WiND-Gun. See Air-Gu«.

WiKTi-Hatch, in Mining, a term ufed to exprefs the place
at which the ore is taken out of the mines.

The word hatch is the general term ufed by the miners
to exprefs an opening from the furface into the mine, or in
the attempting to find a mine.

Thus the word ejfay-hatches fignifies the openings made
in fearch of the trains of fhoad-ftones ; and the tin-hatch in
Cornwall is the name of the opening by which they defcend
into a tin-mine.

The word 'wind-hatch feems to be a corruption of luinder-
hatch ; for at thcle places they have a winder conveying
two buckets, the one conftantly up, the other conftantly
down ; the man below fills the bucket that delcends ; and
when that which afcends full is emptied at the mouth of
the hatch, the perfon who lias the care of that part of the
work, delivers it empty to go down again. Phil. Tranf.
N° 69.

'WmO'Hover, in Ornithology, the name of a fpecies of

hawk,

WIND-MILL.

hawk, called alfo by fome thejlannel, but more ufually the
keftrel, and known among authors by the names of the lin-
nunculus and cenchris.

WiSD-InJIruments, in Mufu, are inftruments played by
wind, chiefly by the breath ; in contradiilindlion to ftringed-
inftrunients, and inftruments of the pulfative kind.

The wind-inftruments known to the ancients were, the
tibia, fjlula, or fyringa of Pan, confifting of feven reeds,
joined fidewife ; alfo, organs, tubit, cornua, and the itiuus.
Thofe of the modems are, the JIule, bagpipe, hautboy, trum-
pet, &c. See lNSTRUi\fENT, and Music.

VJiSTt-Mill, in Mechanics, a machine which is put in
motion by the force of the wind. Wind-mills are in gene-
ral applied to the purpofe of grinding corn, but are occa-
fionally ufed to give motion to machines for raifing water,
fawing-mills, or for other piirpofes. We lliall in this article
confider the wind-mill as a firft mover, or primum mobile,
which may be applied to many purpofes.

The invention of wind-mills is not of very remote date.
According to fome authors they were firft ufed in France
in the fixth century ; while others maintain that they were
brought to Europe in the time of the crufades, and that they
had long been employed in the Eaft, where the fcarcity of
water precluded the application of that powerful agent to
machinery.

The wind-mill, though a common machine, has fome
things in it more ingenious than is ufually imagined.
Add, that it is commonly allowed to have a degree of per-
fedion, which few of the popular engines have attained to,
and which the makers are but httle aware of : though the
aid of mathematics has furnilhed ample matter for its im-
provement.

The vertical wind-mill, which is the kind in moft common
ufe, confifts of an axis or (haft A B, [Jig. i . Plate II. IVind-
MiU,) placed in the direAion of the wind, and ufually in-
clining a little upwards from the horizontal line. At one
end of this, four long arms or yards, S, T, V, W, are fixed
perpendicular to the axis, and crofs each other at right
angles ; into thefe arms fmall crofs-bars are mortifed at right
angles ; and other long bars are joined to them, which are
parallel to the length of the arms ; fo that the bars rnterfeft
each other in the manner of lattice-work, and form a furface,
on which a cloth can be fpread to receive the aftion of the
wind. Thefe are called the fails ; they are in form of a tra-
pezium, and are ufually nine yards long an<l two wide.

The circular motion is produced by the obliquity of the
planes of thefe furfaces, from the plane in which all the four
arms are fituated ; by thefe means, when the wind blows in
the direftion of the axis, it does not impinge upon the fails
at right angles to their furfaces, but ftrikes obliquely ; hence
the effort of the fail to recede from the wind, caufes it
to turn round with the common axis, and the four fails are
all made obhque in the fame direftion, fo as to unite their
efforts for the common objeft.

That the wind may aft with the greateft efficiency upon
the fails, the wind-lhaft muft have the fame direftion as the
wind. But as this direftion is perpetually changing, fome
apparatus is neceffary for bringing the wind-(haft and fails
into their proper pofition : this is done by turning the axis
and fails round in an horizontal direftion. There are two
methods of effefting this. In the old mills, like^^. i , the whole
of the mill or building which contains tce machinery is fuftained
upon a vertical poft, firmly fixed as a ftand or foot, upon which
the whole machine can be turned by a lever, to prefent the
fails to any quarter of the horizon from whence the wind
blows ; and hence thefe are called poft wind-miUs, and are
neceffarily made of wood. The other kind,/^. 2, is called a

fmock-mill, in which only the dome-cap or head, which
contains the axis of the fails, and covers the great cog-
wheel, turns round horizontally ; the other parts of the
machinery being contained in a fixed building, which rifes
up in form of a conical tower of mafonry, and is furmounted
by this moveable cap or dome, which is fupported on rollers,
fo as to turn round eafily.

As both the common methods of adjufting the wind-lhaft
require human affiftance, it would be very defirable that
the fame effeft ftiould be produced folely by the aftion of
the wind. This may be done by fixing a large wooden vane
or weathercock at the extremity of a long horizontal arm,
which lies in the fame vertical plane with the wind-ftiaft.

By thefe means, when the furface of the vane and its dif-
tance from the centre of motion are fufficiently great, a very
gentle breeze will exert a fufficient force upon the vane to
turn the machinery, and will always bring the fails and
wind-fliaft to their proper pofition. This weathercock, it
is evident, may be applied either to machines which have a
moveable roof, or to thofe which revolve upon a vertical
arbor. This method is praftifed in fmall machines ; but a
vane of fufficient power to turn a large mill about would
be unwieldy. A much better method is therefore praftifed
in the beft mills, as we (hall foon defcribe.

In a. pqfi-mi!l the building muft neceffarily be of fmall fize,
and it can only contain one pair of mill-ftones. For this pur-
pofe, a large cog-wheel is fixed upon the main-fhaft or axis
of the fails ; the cogs are placed in the face or flat furface of
the wheel, and aft upon the teeth of a pinion, which is fixed
upon the vertical axis or fpindle of the mill-ftones. The
mill-houfe is of a rcftangular figure, but narrow in the
direftion which is prefented to the wind: it is two ftories
high, the main-fhaft and mill-ftones being in the upper
chamber, whilft the lower is only ufed to contain facks of
flour, and alfo to receive the poft on which the mill turns
round horizontally to face the wind. This poft is a very
ftrong tree, and is held perpendicularly by fixing it upon
the middle of long timbers, which form a large crofs on the
ground, and are the bafement of the whole mill. The poft
is fixed perpendicularly by means of feveral oblique braces,
extending from the ground-crofs to the middle part of the
poft ; but ten or twelve feet of the upper end of the poft
muft be round, and clear from the obftruftion of the braces.
This part of the poft rifes up through the middle of the lower
chamber, in the floor of which a circular collar is formed,
to furround the lower part of the poft exaftly. At the upper
end of the poft is a pivot or gudgeon, which enters into a
focket fixed in the middle of the upper floor, and to one of
the ftrongeft crofs-beams, becaufe this beanimuft fuftain the
whole weight of the mill. In this manner, the whole mill
can turn about upon the vertical poft, but remains always in
equihbrio. To make it firm, and prevent it from turning
about at every moment, a ftrong framing is united by joints
to the back part of the mill-houfe, and defcends in a Hoping
direftion till it touches the ground : this is fumifhed with
fteps, fo that it ferves as a broad ladder to afcend to the
mill ; but another ufe is to fteady the mill, becaufe the end
of this frame, which is very heavy, refts on the ground, and
(hort pofts are fixed in a circle round the mill at regular
intervals, to which the end of the ladder is faftened with
cords. In order to turn the mill about, a rope is faftened
to the end of the (loping ladder, and is carried up to the top
of the mill in an inchned direftion. By means of a ftrong
lever, or a tackle of pulleys, this rope can be (hortened, fo as
to hft up the ladder clear of the ground ; and then, by pu(h-
ing it like a long lever, the whole mill is turned round. To
obtain more force, a fmall capftan is often provided to draw

a rope

WIND-MILL.

a rope attached to the end of the ladder. This capftan is
moveable, and is faftened at pleafure to any one of the pofts
which are fixed in the ground.

The internal raechanifm of a port wind-mill is exhibited
mjig. 3. Plate II. Wind-Mill. A H O is the upper room ;
Hoz the lower one ; A B the axis pafling through the mill ;
S, T, V, W, the fails, covered with canvas, fet obliquely to
the wind, and turning round in the order of the letters in
fig. I ; C the cog-wheel, having about forty-eight cogs,
which carry round the lantern £, having eight or nine
rounds, together with its fpindle G N ; K is the upper mill-
ftone, and L the lower one ; Q R is the bridge fup-
porting the axis or fpindle G N ; this bridge is fupported
by the beams c and X Y, wedged up at c and Q ; 2 Y is
the lifting-tree, which ftands upright ; a b and ef are
levers, whofe centres of motion are a and u ; f g h i is a
cord, with a flone, i i it goes about the pins^ and h, to wind
up and raife the ftone at pleafure. The fpindle / N is
fixed to the upper miU-ftone K, by a piece of iron called
the rynd, and fixed in the lower fide of the ftone, which is
the only one that turns about, and its whole weight refts
upon a hard ftone, fixed in the bridge Q R at N. The trundle
E, and axis G /, may be taken away ; for it refts by its
lower part at / by a fquare focket, and the top runs in the
;dge of the beam tv. By bearing down the end/ of the
lever/ e, b is raifed, which raifes a Y, and this raifes Y X,
ivhich lifts up the bridge Q R, with the axis N G, and the
jpper ftone K ; and thus the ftones are fet at any diftance.
rhe lower immoveable ftone is fixed upon ftrong beams, and
s broader than the upper one : the flour is conveyed through
:he tunnel « 0 into a cheft ; P is the hopper, into which is
put the corn, which runs along the fpout r into the hole t,
ind fo falls between the ftones, where it is ground. The
ixis G / is fquare, which fliaking the fpout r, as it goes
•ound, makes the corn run out ; r j is a ftriiig going about
:he pin s, and ferving to move the fpout nearer to or farther
"rom the axis, fo as to make the corn run fafter or flower,
iccording to the velocity and force of the wind. And
when the wind is great, the fails S, T, V, W, are only in
3art or one fide covered ; or perhaps only one half of
:wo oppofite fails. Toward the end B of the axis another
;og-wheel may be fixed, with a trundle and mill-ftones,
ike that already defcribed ; fo that the fame axis moves
;wo ftones at" once; and when only one pair is to grind,
he trundle E, and axis G /, are taken out from the
Jther ; xy / is a girt or gripe of pliable wood, fixed at the
!nd X ; and the other end / is tied to the lever /5 m, moveable
ibout k ; and the end m being put down, draws the gripe
t y I clofe to the cog-wheel ; and thus the motion of the
nill is ftopped at pleafure ; /i ^ is a ladder for afcending to
he higher part of the mill ; and the corn is drawn up by
neans of a rope, rolled about the axis A B, when the mill
s at work.

The ftrufture of the mill-ftones, or grinding parts, is the
ame as the water-mills. See Mill.

It is plain that this conftruftion confines all the machinery
o the two chambers, or that part of the mill which
s poifed upon the vertical poft ; hence this kind of wind-
nill is unfit for any other purpofes than that of grinding
:orn, and for expreffing oil, becaufe there is fo httle room
or the machinery. The Dutch, who are famous for wind-
nills, make them fometimes with a very large poft, which
las a hole down through the centre of it, like a trunk, and
hrough this, a perpendicular axis paffes to convey the
jower of the mill down into a buildmg below, and upon
he top of which, as a roof, the fouBclation-beams of the

poft are fixed. ( See/f^. 4. ) In this way, the mill is applied
to faw wood, or to make paper, or any other purpofe ; but
the conftruAion is complicated, and lefs effeftive than the
other kind of mill, in which only the head or top turns
round, as we ftiall now defcribe.

The Smock-Mill. — This is the beft kind of mill, becaufe
the building which contains the machinery may be made of
any required dimenfions, the fails and turning cap being all
at the top of the houfe. Fig. 3. in Plate I. Wind-Mill,
IS a vertical feftion of one of thefe mills. K K are the
walls of the houfe, and O O ftrong timbers forming a roof '
to it ; upon thefe eight principal timbers H are erefted, to
form an oftagonal pyramid of carpentry, the fides of which
are filled up by diagonal bracing, and fmall uprights to
nail the boarding to.

The four fails are fixed on an iron axis B N, by fcrewing
them to an iron crofs formed at one end of it. Two of
thefe fails are marked A A ; but the other two are end-
ways, and cannot be feen. Upon the axis within the mill
the cog-wheel C is fixed ; and this turns a trundle or lantern
D, fixed on the upper end of a ftrong vertical ftiaft, E E,
extending from the top to the bottom of the mill, to turn
the machinery : on the lower end of it is a large wheel,//,
which turns two pinions, g g, upon the fpindles of the
mill-ftones i h. Thefe are on the fame conftruftion as thofe
defcribed in our article Mill, to which we refer. At / is a
wheel upon the main axis, giving motion to a pinion on a
horizontal ftjaft or roller, k, which has a rope wrapped
upon it, to wind up the facks of corn. The wheel / alfo
turns a fimilar horizontal axis with feveral wheels, to receive
endlefs ropes for turning the bolting and drefling machines.
We will now enter more fully into the mechanifm of the
upper part of the mill, which is called its head or cap,
marked G, and contains the axis B N. This is fupported
upon bearings, one being near its fails, and the other at
its extreme end, as is ftiewn mjig. 5. Plate II. Wind-Mill,
which is an horizontal feftion of the head, (hewing the cir-
cular kirb, or wooden ring, K, and the framing which ig
bolted upon it to fupport the axis.

The conftrudlion of the axis is ftiewn \n Jig. 6. of the
fame plate. It confifts of an oftagonal iron (haft with two
cylindrical necks at c and d, where it refts upon its bearings.
At the end it has a kind of box, which has two mortifes,
e and/, through it in perpendicular direftions to receive the
fails. At the back of one of thefe mortifes, and the front of
the other, a projedling arm is left in the cafting to receive
fcrew-boks, which hold the fails faft in the mortifes. The
cog-wheel is fixed on by bolting its arms againft a flanch C,
caft on the axis. The fails are braced by a rope-ftay to
each arm, proceeding from the end of a pole, which is fixed
at the end of the caft-iron axis. Each fail is formed of a
fail-cloth, fpread upon a kind of lattice-work or framing,
compofed of rails mortifed into the arms of the fails. The
plane of this frame is inclined to the plane of the fails' mo.
tion at fuch an angle, that the wind blowing in the direftion
of the axis afts upon the fails as inclined planes, and turns
them about with a power proportionate to the fize of the fails
and force of the wind. It is neceflary, as the wind changes its
direftion, to turn the fails about, that the axis may be always
in the direftion of the wind. ( See^g. 3. Plate I.) This mo-
tion is effefted by turning the head of the mill round upon
the fixed part, on a circle or kirb at the top of the frame com-
pofing the houfe of the mill. At the bottom of the frame of the
wood-cap is a circular or moveable kirb, between which and
the fixed kirb a number of rollers are placed ; and the move-
able kirb of the cap lie* upon thefe rollers, which sre kept

equidiftant

WIND-MILL.

equidiltant from each other by their centre-pins being fitted
into a circular hoop : by thefe means, though the head of the
mill with the wheels and fails weigh feveral tons, they can be
made to turn round to face the wind by a flight power.

The head is contrived to turn itfelf about w henever the wind
changes in the following manner : — A fmall pair of fails, or
fans, M, are fixed up in a frame L, projefting from the back
of the head : it has a pinion often leaves upon its axis, engag-
ing in a wheel of 60 teeth upon an incUned axis b ; and this
has a pinion doi 1 2 leaves at the other end of it, turning a bevil-
led wheel of 72 teeth upon a vertical iron axis, at the lower
end of which is a pinion e oi 11 teeth : this works in a circle
of 1 20 cogs, fixed round on the outfide of the fixed kirb. By
thefe means, whenever the fan M is turned, it moves the head
of the mill (lowly round, and with proportionate power.

Now if ever the wind varies in the leaft from the direftion
of the main fliaft of the fails, it afts obliquely upon the
»anes of the fan, and turns them round, at the fame time
fetting the head right again, fo that the axis points to the
wind. But when the axis is in this fituation, the wind blows
in the planes of the vanes of the fan, and has no effeft upon
them. The head of the mill is kept firmly in its place when
it turns about by rollers ; the axles of which are bolted
to the infide of the framing of the head, and the rollers
apply to the infide of the fixed kirb : there are four of thefe
rollers. The pivot at the upper end of the vertical fliaft is
fupported in a bearing bolted to a crofs-beam in the framing
of the head of the mill ; and this is fixed precifely in the
centre of the head, that it may not vary in its fituation as
the head turns round. Many other things are fo evident in
the drawing as to need little farther explanation ; fuch as
the different floors of the building, and the circular gallery,
I I, all round the mill, for the miller to go round to take the
cloth off the fails in high winds, or when the mill is to ftop.
This is done by untying the cloth at the extremity of the
fail, and twifting it up like a rope ; then tying the end of
it again to the lattice, in which ftate it prefents no furface to
the wind. At i is a roller turned round by a wheel /, fixed
on the middle part of the vertical fliaft : it is ufed to draw
up the facks of corn from the bottom of the mill into the
upper part, which is ufed as a ftore-houfe for the corn, be-
ing divided into as many compartments as the miller requires.
The miU-ftones are made the fame as thofe ufed in water-
mills. A pairof regulating balls areattached to the upperpart
of the miU-ftone fpindle, to regulate the velocity of the mill.
The manner of applying this regulator is explained in Jig. 5.
Piatt II. Wind-Mill. The lower end of the iron fpindle
F is fitted to a fquare, formed on the top of the mill-fl:one
axis, and the pinion ^^ is fixed on the upper end, to give mo-
tion to the ftones : immediately beneath the pinion two rods
are jointed, hanging downwards, having a heavy iron ball, I,
fixed faft on the lower end of eacli : two links are jointed to
the arms at m, and fufpend a collar, which is capable of
Aiding freely up and down upon the fpindle F. It is evident
that when the balls fly out from the fpindle by their centri-
fugal force, that the collar will be elevated, and the con-
trary when the balls approach the fpindle. Tlie Aiding col-
lar is embraced by a fork formed at the end of a fteelyard,
lying horizontal, and fufpended by the rod^ as a fulcrum ;
an iron rod y defcends from the extreme end of the fl;eelyard,
baving its lower end formed to a hook, by which it is con-
nefted with a lever, r, whofe fulcrum is j ; this, by an iron
rod t, fufpends one end of the beam called the bridge, on
■which the lower pivot of the miU-ftone axis refts, the other
end bearing on a fulcrum or centre. Now it follows from
this arrangement of levers, that by elevating the forked end

of the fteelyard, or tlie Aiding collar, that tlie fpindle o^
the ftones will be fuffered to defcend a very minute quantity.
This regulates the velocity of the mill, becaufe when the
wind increafes, and the motion of the mill is accelerated, the
balls fly out by the centrifugal force ; this lets the upper
ftone down nearer to the lower, thereby increafing the re-
fiftance to the mill, and counterafting the increafed force of
the wind. On the other hand, if the wind falls, and the
mill moves more flowly in confequence, the balls fall toge-
ther, and let down the Aiding collar; this raifes the ftone
up, and increafes tlie diftance between them, thereby dimi-
niftiing the refittance ; for this pnrpofe, a weight 0 i ^g. 5.)
is hung upon the fteelyard, fufiicient to elevate the ftone
whenever the clofing of the balls and confequent defcent of
the collar will permit it to do fo. There are feveral notches
made in the fteelyard for different pofitions of the fulcrum p
and rod q ; by means of thefe the quantity of the regulation
can be adjufted to the following rule. If when the wind
blows ftronger the mill goes flower, contrary to the effeft
expefted, it ftiews that the regulation is too a£tive ; then in-
creafe the leverage of the balls by ftiortening the diftance
between the fulcrum p of the fteelyard and the fufpenfion
of the rod q, by ftiifting either of them into different
notches. On the contrary, if the mill goes much fafter
when the wind increafes, it fliews that the regulation does
not aft fufiSciently ; then increafe the diftance between the
rod q and the fulcrum p. If the whole limits of the
notches in the fteelyard fliould not be fufEcient to effeft
this, the afting length of the lever rs muft be increafed or
diminiflied by removing its fulcrum / to a greater or leffer
diftance from the fufpending-rod / ; by means of this con-
trivance the miller is enabled, without mnch inconvenience,
to regulate the velocity of the ftones to that degree which
is found beft for reducing the greateit quantity of grain to
flour, without damaging it by heating, as is the cafe when
the ftones move too quick.

Theory of the Motion of a Wind- Mil!, ivith the Poftion of
its Sails or Vanes. — The angle which the furfaces of the fails
are to make with their common axis, that the wind may have
the greateft effeft, or the degree of weathering, as the mill-
wrights call it, is a matter of nice inquiry, and has much
employed the thoughts of the mathematicians.

To conceive why a wind-mill moves at all, the theory of
compound motions muft be fuppofed. A body moving
perpendicularly againft any furface, ftrikes it with all its
force. If it move parallel to the furface, it does not ftrike
it at all : and if it move obliquely, its motion, being com-
pounded of the perpendicular and parallel motion, only afts
on the furface, confidered as it is perpendicular, and only
drives it in the direftion of the perpendicular. So that
every oblique direftion of a motion is the diagonal of a
parallelogram, whofe perpendicular and parallel direftions
are the two fides. Add, that if a furface, which, being
ftruck obhquely, has only received the perpendicular direc-
tion, be fattened to fome other body, fo as that it cannot
purfue its perpendicular direftion, but muft change it for
fome other ; in that cafe, the perpendicular itfelf becomes
the diagonal of a new parallelogram, one of whofe fides is
the direftion which the furface may follow ; and the other,
that which it cannot.

Thus, a rudder fattened obliquely to the keel of a veffel,
being ftruck by the current of water parallel to the keel,
and, of confequence, obliquely with regard to itfelf; it
will appear, by drawing the line of perpendicular impulfe,
that it tends to tear the rudder from the keel, and to carry
it away : and that this direftion, perpendicular to the rud-
der,

VV^IND-MILL.

der, is oblique to the keel. The rudder, then, would be
carried otF in an oblique direftioii ; but as, in reality, it is
fo fecured, that it cannot be torn and carried off, we are
only to confider, in this compound motion, that of the two
direftions wherewith it can move without being torn from
the keel ; and leave the other, which would tear it off, as
ifelefs.

Now, the direction in which it can move without parting
Tom the keel, is that whicli carries it circularly about its
;xtremity, as about a centre. So that the efFeft of the
jblique impulfe of the water on the rudder is reduced, firfl
0 a perpendicular impreflion, which is again reduced to the
nere turning of the rudder round ; or, if the rudder be im-
noveable, to the turning of the veflel. Now, in an oblique
ind compound motion, where only one of the direftions is
)f fervice ; the greater ratio the other has to it, the lefs
iffedl will the motion have, and vice ver/d. In examining
he compound motions of the rudder, we find, that the
nore oblique it is to the keel, the ratio of the direftion that
erves to turn it to the other is the greater. But, on the other
land, the more obliquely it is to the keel, and, of confe-
[uence, to the courfe of the water which is fuppofed parallel
o it, the more weakly it ftrikes. The obliquity of the
udder, therefore, has, at the fame time, both an advantage
nd a difadvantage ; but as thofe are not equal, and as each
if them is ftill varying with every different polition of the
udder, they become complicated varioufly ; fo that fome-
imes the one prevails, and fometimes the other.

It has been a point of inquiry to find the pofition of the
udder, in which the advantage (hould be the greateft.
A. Renau, in his famous theory of the working of fhips,
as found, that the beft fituation of the rudder is, when
: makes an angle of fifty-five degrees with the keel. See

lUDDER.

If, now, a wind-mill, expofed direftly to the wind, (hould
lave its four fails perpendicular to the common axis in which
hey are fitted, they would receive the wind perpen-
iicularly ; and it is vifible that impulfe would only
end to overturn them. There is a necelfity, therefore,
0 have them oblique to the common axis, that they may
eceive the wind obliquely.

For the greater eafe, let us only confider one vertical fail.
rhc oblique impulfe of the wind on this fail is reducible
0 a perpendicular impulfe ; and that direftion, as the
ail cannot abfolutely keep to it, is compounded of two ;
ne of which tends to make it turn on its axis, and the
thcr to fall backwards. But it is only the firft of thefe
lireftions that can be obeyed. Of confequence, the whole
mpulfe of the wind on the fail has no other effeft but to
aake it turn from right to left, or from left to right,
s its acute angle turns this way or that. And the llruc-
ure of the machine is fo well contrived, that the three
ither fails are determined, from the fame caufes, to move
he fame way.

The obliquity of the fails, with regard to their axis, has
irecifely the fame advantage and difadvantage with the
ibliquity of the rudder to the keel. And M. Parent,
eeking, by the new analyfis, the moft advantageous fitu-
tion of the fails on the axis, finds it precifely the fame angle
f fifty-five degrees.

For the farther illuftration of this point, let A B ( Plate 1 1 .
Vtnd-MlU, Jig. 7. ) be the axis of the mill, C D a fail, and its
ngle of obhquity (wz. that which it makes with the axis)
e E C G ; then if G C be the force of the wind in the di-
|e£l; pofition of the fail, G E (the fine of the angle of inci-
!ence GC E) will be the force of the wind in its oblique
j ofition ; but the force of G E is refolvable into two

Vol. XXXVIII.

others, E F and G F ; of which the latter, being parallel to
the axis, avails nothing in turning the fails about it ; but the
other, E F, being perpendicular to it, is wholly fpeiit in
compelling the fail to turn round. The force of the wind
on the fail will be as the fquare of the fine of incidence, or
as GE'; and if the area of the fail, and the velocity
of the wind, be fuppofed conltant, the force of the wind
in the direft pofition will be to that in the obhque
one, as G C to G E ' ; but when G E is the whole force,
that part which turns the fail is reprefented by E F ;

andGE : EF ( :: GC : CE) :: GE'

CE X GE'
GC

= to the force which turns the fail, when the whole

force is reprefented by G E ' . This expreffion

CE X GE'
GC

begins from nothing, when the angle of incidence begins
to be oblique, and increafes with the obhquity of the
faid angle to a certain number of degrees ; becaufe
that part of the force which is parallel to the axis, be-
comes lefs in proportion to that which is perpendicular
to it ; but after it has pafled this limit, it again de-
creafes, and becomes nothing, when the angle of incidence
vanifhes. There is, therefore, one certain pofition of the
fail, in which the force of the wind upon it is a maxi-
mum. In order to find this, put radius G C = a, E C =
X ; and we have CE.^ z= aa — x x, and confequently the

f CExGE^

torce —

-, which muft be a maxi-

GC - a

therefore its fluxion aax— ■3,x''x=^o: whence

and fo X

v/?=

(in logarithms)

20.000000— 0.477121

= 9.761439, which is the loga-

rithmic fine of the angle 35° i6'=CGE; and there-
fore the angle E C G = 54° 44', when the force of the
wind is a maximum. Thus, alfo, if / m [Jig. 7. ) parallel
to the axis Q M, be equal to a, and reprefent the whole
force of the wind on the fail ; this force is reduced to / n,
and this again to n 0, which afts perpendicularly to the
axis, and turns the fail. This force, putting m n = u.

is exprefled by

-, and thus, as before, when it

IS a maximum

.«=v/^«=Vi=

3 ^3

Martin's Phil. Brit, vol

and the angle

I. p. 22c,

Imn =■ 54° 44'.
vol. li. p. 212.

This angle, however, is only that which gives the wind
the greateft force to put the fail in motion, but not the
angle which gives the force of the wind a maximum upon
the fail when in motion : for when the fail has a certain
degree of motion, it yields to the wind ; and then that
angle muft be increafed, to give the wind its full effed.
Mr. Maclaurin, in his Fluxions, vol. ii. p. 734. has fhewn
how to determine this angle.

It may be obferved, that the increafe of this angle ftiould

be different, according to the different velocities from

the axis to the extremity of the vane or fail. At the axis

it fliould be C4° 44', and thence continually increafe, givinj

3R the

WIND. MILL.

the vane a twift, and Co cauling each rib of the vane to lie
in a different plane.

It is obferved, that the ribs of the vane or fail ought to
decreafe in length from the axis to the extremity, giving
the vane a curvilineal form ; fo that no part of the force
of any one rib be fpent upon the reft, but all move on
independent of each other. The twift above-mentioned,
and the diminution of the ribs, are exempHfied in the wings
of birds. As the end of the fail neareft the axis cannot
move with the fame velocity which the tips or fartheft ends
have, although the wind afts equally ftrong upon them,
Mr. Fergufon (Left, on Mechanics, p. 52.) fuggefts, that
perhaps a better pofition than that of ftretching them along
the arms direftly from the centre of motion, might be to
have them fet perpendicularly acrofs the farther ends of the
arms, and there adjufted lengthwife to the proper angle.
For, in that cafe, both ends of the fails would move with
nearly the fame velocity ; and being farther from the centre of
motion, they would have fo much the more power, and then
there would be no occafion for having them fo large as they
are generally made ; which would render them lighter,
and, confequently, there would be fo nuich the lefs
friftion on the thick neck of the axle, when it turns in the
wall.

M. Parent confidered what figure the fails of a wind-mill
fhould have, to receive the greateft impulfe from the wind ;
and he determined it to be a feftor of an ellipfis, whofe
centre is that of the axis, or arbor, of the mill ; and the
little femi-axis the height of thirty-two feet : as for the
greater, it follows neceffarily from the rule that direfts the
fail to be inclined to the axis, in an angle of 55 degrees.

On this foundation he alfumes four fuch fails, each of
which is one-fourth of an ellipfis ; which, he Ihews, will
receive all the wind, and lofe none, as the common ones do.
Thefe four furfaces, multiplied by the lever with which the
wind afts on one of them, exprefs the whole power the wind
has to move the machine, or the whole power the machine
has when in motion.

The fame manner of reafoning, applied to a common
wind-mill, whofe fails are reftangular, and their length
about five times their breadth, fhews, that the eUiptic wind-
mill has about feven times the power of the common
one.

A wind-mill with fix elliptic fails, he (hews, would ftill
have more power than one with only four. It would only
have the fame furface with the four, fince the four contain
the whole fpace of the ellipfis as well as the fix. But the
force of the fix would be greater than that of the four, in
the ratio of 245 to 231. If it were defired to have only
two fails, each being a femi-ellipfis, the furface would be
ftill the fame ; but the power would be diminifhed by near
one-third of that with fix fails, becaufe the greateft of
the feftors would much (horten the lever with which the
wind afts.

Befl Form and Proportion of reSangular Wind- Mills

As elliptical fails would be fomething fo new, that
there is little room to expeft they will come into common
ufe, the fame author has confidered which form, among the
reftangular ones, will be the moft advantageous. And by
the method de maximis et minimis, he finds it very different
from the common ones.

The refult of this inquiry is, that the width of the reft-
angular fail (hould be nearly double its length ; whereas
the length is ufually made almoft five times the width.
Add, that as we call length the dimenfion which is taken
from the centre of the axis, the greateft dimenlion of the
new reftangular fail will be turned toward the axis, and the

II

fmalleft from it ; quite contrary to the pofition of the com-
mon fails.

The power of a wind-mill with four of thefe new reft-
angular fails, M. Parent ftiews, will be to the power of four
elliptic fails, nearly as 1 3 to 23 ; which leaves a confiderable
advantage on the fide of the elhptic ones ; yet will the force
of the new reftangular fails be confiderably greater than that
of the common ones.

M. Parent likewife confiders what number of the new
fails will be moft advantageous ; and finds, that the fewer
the fails, the more furface there will be, but the lefs
power. The ratio of the power of a wind-mill with fix
fails will be to another with four, nearly as 14 to 13. And
the power of another with four will be to that with two,
nearly as 13 to 9.

For a variety of curious experiments and obfervations
concerning the conftruftion and efFefts of wind-mill fails,
by the ingenious Mr. Smeaton, fee Phil. Tranf. vol. ii.
p. 138, &c.

Mr. Smeaton's experiments did not reali-ze M. Parent's
theory ; for he found the fails fixed at the angle of 55 de-
grees with the axis, to be the leail advantageous of any
which hp tried ; but if the fails are included from 72 to 7?
degrees from the axis, or 15 to 18 degrees to the place of
their motion, the greateft effeft will be produced that can
be when the fails are plane furfaces.

He alfo found, that the elliptical fails, which intercept
the whole cylinder of wind, do not produce the great-
eft effeft, for want of proper interftices for the wind to
efcape.

The following maxims, deduced by Mr. Smeaton from
his experiments, contain the moft accurate information upon 1
the fubjeft.

Maxim I. — The velocity of wind-mill fails, whether un-
loaded or loaded, fo as to produce a maximum effeft, is ■
nearly as the velocity of the wind, their ihape and pofition
being the fame.

Maxim 2. — The load at the maximum is nearly, but :
fomewhat lefs than, as the fquare of the velocity of the
wind, the fhape and pofition of the fails being the fame.

Maxim 3 The effefts of the fame fails at a maximum

are nearly, but fomewhat lefs than, as the cubes of the velo-
city of the wind.

Maxim 4. — The load of the fame fails at the maximum
is nearly as the fquares, and their effefts as the cubes of
their number of turns in a given time.

Maxim 5 — When fails are loaded, fo as to produce a
maximum at a given velocity, and the velocity of the wind
increafes, the load continuing the fame : ift. The increafe
of effeft, when the increafe of the velocity of the wind is
fmall, will be nearly as the fquares of thofe velocities.
2dly, When the velocity of the wind is double, the effefts
will be nearly as 10 to 27I. But, 3dly, When the velo-
cities compared are more than double of that where the I
given load produces a maximum, the effefts increafe nearly I
in the fimple ratio of the velocity of the wind.

Maxim 6. — In fails where the figure and pofitions are
fimilar, and the velocity of the wind the fame, the number
of turns in a given time will be reciprocally as the radius or
length of the fail.

Maxim 7. — The load at a maximum that fails of a fimilar
figure and pofition will overcome, at a given diftaiice from
the centre of motion, will be as the cube of the radius.

Maxim 8. — The effefts of fails of fimilar figure and pofi-
tion are as the fquare of the radius.

Maxim 9. — The velocities of the extremities of the
fails, in all their ufual portions, when unloaded, or even

loaded

WIND-MILL.

loaded to a maximum, afe confiderably quicker than the
velocity of the wind.

Rules for modelling the Sails of Wind-Mills. — Fig. 4.
Flatell. Wind-Mill, is a front view of one of the four fails of
a wind-mill. The letters of reference will ferve to explain
the terms made ufe of in the following defcription.

1. The length of the arm or whip A A, reckoned from
the centre of the great fhaft B, to the outermoft bar 19,
governs all the reft.

2. The breadth of the face of the whip A, next the
centre, is one-thirtieth of the length of the whip ; its thick-
nefs at the fame end is three-fourths of the breadth ; and
the back-fide is made parallel to the face for half the length
of the whip, or to the tenth bar ; the fmall end of the whip
is fquare, and as its end is one-fixtieth of the length of the
whip, or half the breadth at the great end.

3. From the centre of the {haft B, to the neareft bar i
of the lattice, is pne-feventh of the whip ; the remaining
fpace of fix-fevenths of the whip is equally divided into
nineteen fpaces, fo as to make nineteen bars ; one-ninth of
one of thefe fpaces is equal to the mortifes for the bars, the
tenons of which are made fquare where they enter and go
through the whip, and confequently the mortifes mull be
fquare alfo.

4. To prepare the whip for mortifing, itrike a gage-
fcore at about three-fourths of an inch from the face on each
fide, and the gage-fcore, on the leading fide 4, 5, will give
the face of all the bars on that fide ; but on the other fide,
the faces of all the bars will fall deeper than the gage-fcore,
according to a certain rule. To find the fpace to be fet off
for this purpofe fpr each bar, conftruft a fcale in the fol-
lowing manner.

5. Extend the compaffes to any diftance at pleafure, fo
that fix times that extent may be greater than the breadth
of the whip at the feventh bar ; fet thofe fix Ipaces oft upon
a ftraight line for a bafe, at the end of which raife a per-
pendicular ; fet off three fpaces upon the perpendicular, and
divide the two fpaces that are fartheft from the bafe line
into fix equal parts each, fo that this quantity of two fpaces
may be equally divided into twelve fpaces marked out by
thirteen points ; from each of thefe points draw a fine to
the oppofite end of the bafe, as fo many rays to a centre,
and the fcale is finiflied.

6. To apply this fcale to any given cafe, fet off the
breadth of the whip at the lad bar, ( that is, the bar at the
extremity of the fail,) from the centre of the fcale along
the bafe towards the perpendicular ; and at this point raife
a perpendicular to cut the ray neareft to the bafe ; alfo fet off
the breadth of the whip at the feventh bar in the fame man-
ner, and at this point ereft another perpendicular to cut the
thirteenth radius. From the interfeftion of the perpendicular
(drawn upon the breadth of the laft bar) with the firft of
the thirteen radii, to the interfeftion of the other perpendic ular
with the thirteenth radius, draw an oblique line cutting all
the reft, and the diftances of each of thefe laft-mentioned
points of interfedlion from the bafe line is the fpace which
the face of each bar is diftant from the gage-line on the
driving fide.

7. Thefe diftances give a different fet-off" for each bar
till the feventh, which fame muft be fet off for all the reft
to the firft.

8. The mortifes muft be fquare to the leading fide of the
whip.

9. When the mortifes are cut, let the face of the whip
be floped off fo as to agree with the face of the bars in
every part.

10. Two-fifths of the whip are the length of the laft or
longeft bar.

11. Five-eighths of the longeft bar muft be on the dri»-
ing fide of the whip, and three-eighths on the leading fide,
each being reckoned from the middle of the whip.

12. The proportion of the mortifes already given deter-
mines the fize of the bars at the mortifes, but their thick-
nefs muft be diminiftied each way, fo as to be only one -half
at the ends ; but the face muft be kept of equal breadth all
the way.

13. The leading fide goes no farther than the fourth bar,
and there only projefts one-third of the proieftion of the
laft bar.

14. All the bars on the driving fide are made hollowing
in the arch of a circle, which begins to fpring one-third of
the length of the bars on the driving fide from the whip ;
and the fweep is fuch, that if a ftraight line is applied to
the face of the bar from the whip to the end, the face of
the bar fhould leave the ftraight fine about the breadth of
the bar.

15. There ought to be three uplongs, as 3, 2, la. Jig. 4,
to the driving, and two to the leading fide, as at 5, 4, to
ftrengthen the lattice.

Self-regulaling wind-mills are thofe which adapt theni-
felves to the irregularities of the wind, by diminiftiing or in-
creafing the furface on which the wind can aft to turn them
round. If the wind increafes in force, the furface expofed
to its aftion is diminiftied ; on the contrary, if it decreafes
in force, the furface will be ihcreafed in the fame pro-
portion, fo as in fome meafure to render their motion
uniform.

The following felf-regulating wind-mill is ftated as the
invention of Mr. Andrew Mickle in 1772, the inventor of the
threftiing-machine. The length of the fail was divided into
eleven compartments, by the bars forming a number of oblong
openings, which were each filled up by a fquare frame of
wood covered with canvas, and mounted on pivots at their
ends ; one pivot turning in a hole in the whip, and the other
in the bar which lies parallel to it, in the manner of a Venetian
blind : the pivots were not placed in the middle of the breadth
of the frames, but at one-third from that edge, towards the
ftiaft or axis of the fails. On the end of each pivot which
enters the whip a fmall roller is fixed, round which a chain
paffes, and its end is attached to a fteel fpring, placed at
right angles to the whip, and in the direftion of the length
of the canvaffed frames. Now, if the wind blows too hard,
it afts to turn the frames edgeways, in which cafe the wind
pafles through the fails, and exerts lefs force to turn them
round ; but as foon as the wind becomes moderate, the fteel
fpring brings up the frames into a plane, prefenting their
whole furface to its aftion. A rod of iron extends the
whole length of the whip, and is connefted with the feveral
fprings, to afford the means of ftrengthening or diminiftiing
their aftion, according to the feafon of the year. This rod
was formed into a fcrew at its outer extremity, and a nut
put on to enable the miller to adjuft the ftrength of the
fprings conveniently, from the circular gallery furrounding
the outfide of the mill.

Mr. Wilham Cubit of North Walfham, in the county of
Norfolk, took out a patent, in 1807, for a method of
equalizing the motion of wind-mill fails. It is fimilar to
Mr. Mickle's, in the fails being made like a Venetian
bhnd ; but inftead of the fprings, he applied racks and
pinions on the ends of the bhnd pivots, and a Aiding rod,
which paffed in a fmall hole made through the length of the
axis of the fails ; the end of this rod within the mill was
3 R 2 made

WIND-MILL.

made into a rack, working in a wheel upon which a weight
was hung. By this means, when the wind blows too hard,
the blinds turn upon their pivots, and by the racks draw out
the rod which partes through the axis, and raife the weight ;
but as foon as the wind abates, the weight brings the bhnds
to their former pofition.

A patent was granted in 1804 to Mr. John Bywater of
Nottingham, for a method of clothing and unclothing the
fails of wind-mills while in motion. The invention confifts
in a manner of rolling or folding up, and unfolding again,
the cloths of common wind-mill fails while in motion. It
is effected by placing a long roller in the direiSion of the
length of the whip round which the cloth is rolled ; the
inner end of the roller is furniflied with a pinion, which
engages in the teeth of a circular ring of cogs fixed to the
rtiaft-head, clofe behind the back-ftocks, with the hberty of
turning round independent of the (haft. Another roller is
placed at the back-fide of the fail, round which feveral
cords pafs, and are conveyed over pulleys at the edge of
the fail, and then made faft to the cloth at different diilances
along its length. The objeft of this fecond roller is to
clothe the fail, in the fame manner as the firll-mentioned roller
unclothed it. The inner end of the back roller is furnifhed
with a bevelled pinion, which afts in the teeth of a ring of
cogs placed concentric with the one before defcribed, which
has alfo the liberty of turning round independent of the
fhaft. Suppofe the fails to be completely clothed, and
turning round by the wind, the two rings of cogs revolve
with the axis, and therefore produce no effedt on the
pinions ; but if the wind blows too violent, and it becomes
neceffary to partly unclothe the fails, the miller pulls a cord
which is connefted with a lever in the head of the mill.
This lever comes in contaft with a projeAion on the ring
of cogs belonging to the rollers, upon which the cloth winds.
Now it is evident, that if the ring of cogs is held faft, and
the fails continue to revolve, it will caufe the pinions to
turn round and roll up the cloth upon the rollers ; on the
contrary, if the wind falls, the fails will require to be more
clothed, which is effected by the fame lever being moved
farther, fo as to quit the ring of cogs it held before, and
hold the other fail, which will put the rollers at the back of
the fails in motion, and by winding the cords upon them,
draw the cloth off the fail-roller, which increafes the fiirface
for the wind to aft upon. We have not entered into the
minute details of this invention, as given in the patent, for
it would have exceeded our limits, but only given a fufR-
cient defcription to enable a perfon to underftand the means
of effefting the regulation.

Horizontal Wind-Mills. — Thefe are of various kinds ;
but only one kind that we know of has been put to any
valuable ufe.

Horizontal wind-mills were a favourite fpeculation a cen-
tury ago ; and the Theatruni of the celebrated Leopold con-
tain a great variety, but they are all upon one or other of
two principles. In one of thefe, a very large wheel, like a
water-wheel, is mounted witli its axis in a perpendicular
direftion. It confifts of feveral circular wheels fixed upon
the axis ; and it has large boards or vanes fixed parallel
to its axis, and arranged at equal diftances round the cir-
cular wheels. Upon thefe vanes the wind can act to blow
the wheel round ; but if the wind were to aft upon the
vanes at both fides of the wheel at once, it would have no
tendency to turn the wheel round ; hence one ilde of the
wheel muft be ftieltered from the wind, whilft the other is
fubmitted to its full aftion. For this purpofe, the whole
wheel is inclofed within a large cyhndrical framing of wood,

which is furnifhed with doors or (butters on all fides to open
at pleafure, and admit the wind, or to (hut and ftop it. If
all the (butters on one fide are open, whilft all thofe on the
oppofite fide are (hut, the wind, afting with undiminifhed
force on the vanes at one fide, whilft the oppofite vanes are
under fhelter, turns the mill round ; but whenever the wind
changes, the difpofition of the open vanes muft be altered,
to admit the wind to ftrike upon the vanes of the wheel in
the direftion of a tangent to the circle in which the vanes
move. A horizontal wind-mill is thus defcribed in Leopold's
Theatruni Machinarum for grinding corn with one pair of
ftones. A ftrong upright axis is fo poifed on a pivot at
the lower ends, and fuftained in a collar or bearing, as to
turn round. Into this feveral long arms are fixed, in the
manner of radii, and at the extreme ends of each arm a
vane is fixed, to receive the aftion of the wind. Thefe
vanes are made of two or more moveable leaves, which
clofe up flat like a book, when they are ?t that fide of the
circle which moves in a direftion to advance towards the
wind ; fo that only the edges of the boards are oppofed to
the wind ; but when thefe vanes arrive at the oppofite fide
of the wheel, fo that the wind blows upon them, the leaves
fly open, and expofe their full furfaces to the wind, and
receive the impulfe thereof.

A horizontal wind-mill is defcribed by Dr. Hooke in the
Philofophical CoUeftions for 1681. It confifted of four
vanes mounted upon vertical axes, and arranged round in a
circle by the upper and lower pivots of the vanes being
received into holes in the rims of two horizontal wheels
fixed upon the fame vertical fhaft. The vanes were dif-
pofed in fuch a manner, that on one fide of the wheel each
vane prefented its furface to the wind, whilft the one on the
oppofite ttood edgeways, fo as to move through the air
without much refiftancc. This was effcfted by cog-wheels
placed on the lower pivots of the vanes, and fo arranged,
that as one vane turned round upon its pivots, the whole
number moved together, and the motion was given to them
by a cog-wheel fixed faft to the framing over the wheel,
but concentric with it. This wheel communicated, by
means of an intermediate wheel, with the wheels on the
axes of the vanes.

The aftion of this machine is as follows: — Suppofe
the wind blowing at the wheel ; it afts againft that vane
which is at right angles to its motion, to turn the wheel
round upon its axis. The oppofite vane prefenting its edge
to the wind oppofes very little refiftance. The motion of
the wheel upon its axis turns the vanes round upon their
pivots, by means of the fixed cog-wheel before defcribed ;
fo that by the time that one has paffed out of the di-
reftion of the wind, another arrives in the fame perpen-
dicular pofition ; and when the wheel has made half a
revolution, the vane which ftood edgeways will be perpen-
dicular to the vvind, and the one which before ftood per-
pendicular will be edgeways ; thus a continued motion is
produced without the wheel being cafed up.

Horizontal wind-mills, which are inclofed in a houfe with
blinds on all fides, are very fully defcribed in Jacob Leo-
pold's Theatrum Machinarum, 1724; but we believe they
were firft praftifed in this country by captain Hooper,
who erefted one at Margate, and another at Batterfea.
The latter is upon a very large fcale, and is ufed for
grinding corn ; but at prefent it does not work with much
advantage, as the repairs are more confiderable in propor-
tion to the power it exerts, than in the mills with fails con-
ftrufted in the common manner.

In Plate JVind-Mill,Jig. I, is an upright feftion, and^f^. 2.
10 a plan

WIN

a plan of the horizontal mill erefted at Margate by captain
Hooper. H H are the fide walls of an oftagonal building
which contains the machinery. Thefe walls are furmounted
by a ftrong timber-framing G G, of the fame form as the
building, and conneftcd at top by crofs-framiiig to fupport
the roof, and alfo the upper pivot of the main vertical fhaft
A A, which lias three fets of arms, B B, C C, and D D,
framed upon it at that part which rifes above the height of
the walls. The arms are ilrengthened and fupported by
diagonal braces, and their extremities are bolted to ofta-
gonal wooden frames, round which the vanes or floats E E
are fixed, as feen in outline in^^g-. 2, fo as to form a large
wheel refembhng a water-wheel, which is lefs than the fize
of the houfe by about eighteen inches all round. This
fpace is occupied by a number of vertical boards or blinds
F F, turning on pivots at top and bottom, and placed
oblique, fo as to overlap each other, and completely (hut
out the wind, and Hop the mill, by forming a clofe cafe
furrounding the wheel ; but they can be moved all together
upon their pivots to allow the wind to blow in the direc-
tion of a tangent upon the vanes on one fide of the wheel, at
the time the other lide is completely fliaded or defended by
the boarding. The pofition of the blinds is clearly ftiewn at
F F,^^. 2. At the lower end of the vertical ihaft A A, a
large fpur-wheel aa is fixed, which gives motion to a
pinion c, upon a fmall vertical axis d, whofe upper pivot
turns in a bearing bolted to a girder of the floor N.
Above the pinion c, a fpur-wheel e is placed, to give motion
to two fmall pinions f, on the upper ends of the fpindles g
of the mill-ilones h. Another pinion is fituated, at the op-
pofite fide of the great fpur-wheel a a, to give motion to a
third pair of mill-ilones, which areufeJ when the wind is very
ftrong ; and then the wheel turns fo quick, as not to need
the extra wheel e to give the requifite velocity to the ilones.
The weight of the main vertical Ihaft is borne by a itrong
timber b, having a brafs box placed on it to receive the
lower pivot of the fhaft. It is fupported at its ends by
crofs-beams mortiied into the upright polls l/b, as fliewn in
the plan,^^. 2. A floor, or roof, I I, is thrown acrofs the
top of the briclc building, to proteft the machinery from
the weather ; and to prevent the rain blowing down the
opening through which the fhaft defcends, a broad cir-
cular hoop K IS fixed to the floor, and is furrounded by
another hoop or cafe L, which is fixed to the arms D D of
the wheel. This laft is of fiich a fize, as exaftly to go
over the hoop K, without touching it when the wheel turns
round. By this means, the rain is completely excluded
from the upper room M, which ferves as a granary,
being fitted up with bins m m, to contain the different forts
of grain which is raifed up by the fack-tackle. A wheel i
is fixed on the main fhatt, having cogs projefting from
both fides. Thofe at the under lide work into a pinion
on the end of the roller k, which is for the purpofe of draw-
ing up facks. Another pinion is fituated above the wheel i,
which has a roller projefting out over the flap-doors feen
at p, in the_/f§-. 2, to land the facks upon. The two pinions
mm. Jig. 2, are turned by the great wheel a a, and are for
giving motion to the drefiing and bolting machines, which
are placed upon the floor N, but are not fliewn in the
drawing, being exaftly fimilar to the drefTing-machines ufed
in all flour-mills. The cogs upon the great wheel a are not
fo broad as the rim itfelf, leaving a plain rim about three
inches broad. This is enconipaffed by a broad iron hoop,
which is made fall at one end to the upright poft 3 ; the
other being jointed to a llrong lever n, to the extreme end
of which a purchafe 0 is attached, and the fall is made fall
to iron pins on the top of a frame fi.sed to the ground.

W I N

This apparatus aiifwers the purpofe of the brake or eripe

in<r tne ran or tne ourchale n. it canfpo tt,^ ;,„„ ftrap to

in common wind-mills to fliop their motion. By pull-
the fall of the purchafe 0, it caufes the iron ftrap to
embrace the great wheel, and produce a refillance fiifficient
to flop the wheel. The mill can be regulated in its motion,
or llopt entirely, by opening or fliutting the blinds F,
which furround the fan-wheel. They are all moved at
once by a circular ring of wood fituated jiill beneath the
lower ends of the blinds upon the floor I I, being connefted
with each blind by a fliort iron fink. The ring is moved
round by a rack and fpindle, which defcend into the mill-
room below, for the convenience of the miller.

A fort of wind-mill has been long much employed in
Portugal, in which, from the difference in the conflruftion
of the fails, it is fnppofed by fome, as lord Somervdle,
who has infpefted it when working, to pofTefs a fuperiority
in having the broad part of the fail at the end of the levers
or booms ; in confequence of which equal rcfifi;ance is
overcome with lefs length of branches : and that from this
fliortnefs a confiderable faving is made in the timber of
both the booms and fpindles, as well as in the height, firft
cod of the mills, and their future repairs.

The advantages of making ufe of thefe forts of
wind-mills in preference to others are, that as there are
four booms, as well as four maft;s for the fails, they are
capable of being more eafily braced out to the wind, and in
cafe of a fudden gale or guil of it, are more eafily caft loofe
than in thofe of the common conflruftion ; and that as
the fails in thefe mills are placed in the beil pofTible direc-
tion by the booms, it is prefumed that a wind-mill built on
this plan and principle will do more work than any common
wind-mill with an equal quantity of canvafs.

Thefe forts of mills have alfo lately been very much im-
proved by conft,rufting and difpofing thofe fnrface parts
upon which the wind is intended to aft, in fuch a particular
manner, as that by alternately oppofing a refilling and non-
refifling furface, the whole force or impulfe may operate in
a direft manner upon the refilling fide of the fail or vane,
in proportion to its extent ; and that when the non-refilling
fide is returning againft thefe powers, the mill being fo
contrived that there is very httle refifl.aiice, however large
the furface. Thefe improvements, when applied to hori-
zontal wind-mills, the power of them, even with the fame
quantity of fail, or afting furface, may too be increafed or
diminiftied at pleafure, which is a circumfl:ance of very
great utility and convenience in many cafes.

Wi\D-PiimJ>, that fort of pump which is fo contrived
.ind formed as to be driven by the wind. Thefe kinds
of pumps are very ufeful for draining and lifting water
in many cafes, as where the depth of it is too great to ad-
mit of cutting drains, or the fuperftrata too loofe for form-
ing them, and when the height to which the water is to
be raifed is great. See SpKl^G-Draini/ig and SuRFACE-
Drmning.

V^lSD-Roau, in Agriculture, a term lignifying the green
parts or borders of a field, dug up, in order to carry the
earth on other land to mend it ; fo called becaufe it is laid
in rows, and expofed to the wind. It alfo figiiifies a row
of peats fet up to dry for fuel. Likewife a row of hay ex-
pofed to the wind and fun to get dry. And alfo of turfs
or fward cut up in paring and burning.

The peats are fet up in thefe rows in an open manner, to
the height of two or three feet or more, that the wind may
pafs between and dry them. The rows of hay of this kind
are either fiiigle or double, the former for that which is in
the more gralTy ftate, and the latter for that which has been
more made ; and the work is performed by different perfons

raking

W I N

raking the fpicad hay in oppofite direAions towards them-
■ felves, and by fuch means forming a row between them of
double the extent of that of the fingle wind-row. See
HiY-Mailng.

The turf or fods for burning are fet up in thefe rows,
in leaning direftions againft each other, fo as to let the wind
readily pafs among and dry them in a quick manner for
burning.

Whins are fomelimes, too, formed into wind-rows for
being burnt for the aihes. See WlllN-y^^j-.

WiUD-SaH, or Ventilator, in a Ship, is made of
canvas, and uied for circulating frcfli air between the decks,
and is in the form of a cylinder, or an obtufe-ending cone,
and is adapted to the fize of the fliip. Four breadths of
canvas are fewed together, and the outer felvages are joined
with an inch feam, leaving one cloth four feet fhort of the
top. A three-inch tabling goes round the top and bottom.
It is kept diftended by circular hoops, made of afli, fewed
to the infide, one at top, and one at every interval of fix
feet. The upper part, or top, is covered with canvas, and
a fmall rope fewed round the edge ; into which are fpliccd,
at the quarters, the ends of two pieces of rope, that are
fewed up to the middle, and an eye formed by feizing the
bights. The length of a wind-fail is taken nine feet above
the deck, to three or four feet below the lower hatchway ;
the quantity of canvas is obtained by multiplying the num-
ber of cloths by the length.

Thefe, of which there are generally three or four in our
capital fliips of war, have the advantage of taking little
room, of requiring no labour in working, and of a fimple
contrivance, fo that they can fail in no hands. But their
powers are faid to be fmall in comparifon with thofe of
Dr. Hales's ventilators : they cannot be put up in hard
gales of wind, and are of no efficacy in dead calms, when a
refrefhmcnt of air is moil wanted. See Ventilator.

WiXD-5W, in Botany. See Arctotis.

Wiyo-Shock, a name given by our farmers to a diftcm-
perature to which fruit-trees, and fometimes timber-trees,
are fubjedt.

It is a fort of bruife and fhiver throughout the whole fub-
ftance of the tree; but the bark being often not affefted by
it, it is not feen on the outfide, while the infide is twilled
round and greatly injured.

It is by fome fuppofed to be occafioned by high winds ;
but others attribute it to lightning. Thofe trees are moll
ufually affefted by it, whofe boughs grow more out on one
fide than on the other.

The bed way of preventing this in valuable trees, is to
take care in the plantation that they are flickered well, and
to cut them frequently in a regular manner while young.

The winds not only twill trees in this manner, but they
often throw them wholly down : in this cafe, the common
method is to cut up the tree for firing, or other ufes ; but
if it be a tree that is worth preferving, and it be not broken
but only torn up by tiie roots, it may be proper to raife it
again by the following method : — Let a hole be dug deep
enough to receive its roots, in the place where they before
were ; let the draggling roots be cut off, and fome of the
branches, and part of the head of the tree ; then let it be
raifed, and when the turn-up roots are replaced in the earth
in their natural fituation, let them be well covered, and the
hole filled up with rammed earth; the tree will, in this cafe,
grow as well, and perhaps better, than before. If nature be
left to herfelf, and the tree be not very large, the pulling off
the roots will raife it. Mortimer's Hulbandry, vol. ii. p. 79.

WiND-Taci/f Blocks, in a Ship. See WiNDiNG-7ac/J/c.

W liiD-Taught, in Sea Language, denotes the fame as (liff

W I N

in the wind. Too much rigging, high marts, or any thing
catching or holding wind aloft, is faid to hold a fhip wind-
taught ; by which they mean, that Ihe ftoops too much in
her failing in a ftiff gale of wind.

Again, when a fliip rides in a main ftrefs of wind and
weather, they llrike down her top-mafts, and bring her
yards down, which elfe would hold too much wind, or be
too much diftended and wind-taught.

WiND-ThruJh, in Ornithology, a name given by fome to
the red-wing, and fuppofed to be given from their generally
firft appearing with us in windy feafons ; but it appears
more probably to be derived from the German name nvint-
trojjel, or vine-thrufh, from its doing great mifchief there
in the vineyards, by eating and deftroying the grapes. Ray.

WitiB-Tumcurs. See Tumour.

WiND-/K(ir^, in Sea Language, denotes any thing to-
wards that point from whence the wind blows, in refpeft of
a ihip.

WiND-lVard, Sailing to. See Sailing.

Wiao-lVartl Tide denotes a tide which runs againft. the
wind.

Wind, in Geography, a river of America, which runs into
the Connefticut at Windfor.

Wind Gap, a pafs in the Blue Mountains of Pennfylvania.

WINDAGE of a Gun, is the difference between the
diameter of the bore and the diameter of the ball.

The windage is not the fame in England as it is abroad.
With us, if the diameter of the ftiot is divided into twenty
equal parts, then the diameter of the bore is twenty-one of
thefe parts. The French fuppofe the diameter of the ftiot
divided into twenty-fix parts, arid the diameter of the bore
to be twenty-feven. Mr. Muller obferves, that the le£s
windage there is, the truer the fliot will go, and having lefs
room to bounce from one fide to another, the gun will not
be fpoiled fo fooq. Accordingly, he divides the diameter
of the ftiot into twenty-four equal parts, and makes the bore
twenty-five, which is a medium between the Englifti and
French method. Artillery, p. 84.

Dr. Hutton obferves, that if the windage be one-twentieth
of the calibre, which is the ufual fize, no lefs than one-third
or one-fourth of the powder efcapes, and is loft. As the
balls are often fmaller than the regulated fize, it frequently
happens, that half the powder is loll by unneceflary windage.

Dr. Hutton alfo recommends the diminiftiing of the
windage. See Gunnery.

WINDALA, in Geography, a tovi'n of Sweden, in Eaft
Bothnia ; 65 miles E. of Waia.

WIND A LI., a town of the ftate of Vermont; 22 miles
S.S.W. of Windfor.

WINDASS, Wandass, or Wanlass, an ancient term
in hunting. Thus, to drive the windafs fignifies the chafing
of a deer to a Hand, where one is ready with a bow, gun, or
to fiioot. This is one of the cntlomary fervices of fiefs.

" Omnes illi qui tenuv.'runt in bondagii tenura,

folcbant vocari cuftumarii : & quotiefcunque dominus ad
venandum venerit, illi cuftumarii folebant fugare windaflum,
ad ftabulum, in venatione ferarum beftiarum fecundum
quaiititatem tenurx fus." MS. de Confuetud. Manerii de
Sutton Colfield, an. 3 Ed. II.

WINDAU, in Geography, a fea-port town of the duchy
of Courland, near the mouth of the Wera, on the Baltic.
It was the capital of a palatinate, and has a caftle, once the
refidence of the Livonian knights ; the Hates of Courland
likewife held their affemblies here, which made it populous ;
but it is now much decayed, and cliiefly fupported by ftiip-
building, and exporting pitch, tar, wax, &c. ; 8 miles
N.N.E. of Piltyn. N. lat. 57° 10'. E. long. 21° 32'.

WiNDAU.

W I N

WiNDAU. See Weta.

WINDECK, a towa of France, in the department of
the Scheldt ; 9 miles S.S.E. of Ghent. — Alfo, a town of
the duchy of Berp; ; 21 miles E. of Bonn.

WINDECKEN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Hanau Munzenburg ; 4 miles N. of Hanau.

WINDELSBACH, a town of the margravate of
Anfpach ; 22 miles N.W. of Anfpach.

WINDER, in jlgriculture, a term ufed provincially to
fignify to clean corn with a fan-machine. See Fan-
Machine.

WiNDER-Jffi, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of
the larus, or gull-kind, the larus cinerarias of Linnxus, mo-
derately large, and defcribed by Aldrovandus under the name
of larus major.

Its head is remarkably large and thick, and is of a mot-
tled colour of white and grey ; its brealt and belly are alfo
variegated with the fame colours, but they are fomewhat
paler ; its beak is thick and ftrong, of a yellow colour, and
very fharp, and the opening of its mouth very wide ; its
wings are variegated with white, grey, and chefnut colour,
and both thefe and the tail have much black in them ; the
feet are webbed and yellow, the claws are (harp, and the
hinder toe larger than in moft birds of this kind. Ray's
Zoology, p. 267.

WINDE RS of Wool. See 'Wool- Winders.

WINDHAM, or WymondHAM, in Geography, a town
of England, in the county of Norfolk, with a weekly
market on Friday. The chief trade of the place is making
wooden ware. In 1549, William Kett, one of the Norfolk
infurgents, was hanged on the fteeple of the church ; 9
miles W.S.W. of Norwich. N. lat. 52° 34'. E. long.

'° 7'-

Windham, a large poft-townihip of Greene county, in
New York, comprifing all that part of the county on the
S. and W. of the fummit of the Catfbergs or Catilvill moun-
tains ; bounded N. by Durham, Cairo and Catflcill, E. by
the northern angle of Ulfter county, S. by Ulfter and a part
of Delaware counties, and W. by Delaware county. It
has a poft-ofEce, and is about 24 miles in length, its
medial breadth being about 12 miles.

It is mountainous, with much good pafturelands that
yield excellent dairy. It is watered by the Schoharie
creek, which has feveral mill-feats and fmall branches.
Along thefe Itreams are fome alluvial land?, which are rich
and fertile. The view from the Catfbergs, over which is
a road, is very grand and intereiting. The W. part of
Windham is about 35 miles W. from Catfliill, its principal
market. The population confifts of 396^ perfons, and the
fenatorial eleftors are 267.

Windham, a town of the ftate of Connecticut, on the
Thames. It is the chief town of a county, to which it
gives name. The county contains 28,611 inhabitants, and
the town 2416; 63 miles S.W. of Bolton. N. lat. 41° 38'.

W. long. 72° 1 1' Alfo, a town of the ftate of Vermont,

in the county of Windham, with 782 inhabitants ; 20 miles
E. of Bennington. — Alfo, a county in the S.E. part of the
ftate of Vermont, bordering on the MafFachufetts. It con-
tains 26,760 inliabitants. — Alfo, a poft-town of New Hamp-
fhire, in Rockingham county, with 743 inhabitants ; 40
miles S.W. of Portfmouth.

WINDING, twifting from an even furface, or not a
direft plane.

WiNDijiG a Call, in Se.i Language, denotes the aft of
blowing or piping upon a boatfwain's whiftle, fo as to com-
municate the neceflary orders of hoifting, heaving, belaying,
flackening, &c. See Call.

W I N

Vf i^Tnao-Engiue, in Mining, a machine employed to
wind or draw up corves or buckets out of a deep pit or
lliaft. There are feveral different machines employed for
this purpofe, and each has a different name.

The moft fimple winding-machine is a roller placed
horizontally over the pit, to wind up the rope, by which the
bucket is fufpended ; the roller is turned round by a handle
at each end. This fimple machine, which is called a wind-
lafs, wind-up, or roller, is commonly ufed for well-digging,
and formerly was the common machine for mines ; but for
mining on the prelent fyftem more powerful machinery is
required. In Derbyfhire it is called a ftovvfe, and the con-
ftruftion is very minutely direfted in tlie ancient mining-laws
of the diftrift, called ' The King's Field.' A fmall model or
effigy of a ilowfe, conftrufted according to law, and fixed
up " in fight of all men," is ftill the fign of legal poffelTion
of a lead-mine, and one of thefe mull be conltantly main-
tained at every thirty -nine yards in length of the vein of ore ;
for by thofe laws no man may work more than thirty-nine
yards, and it is fuppofed that each one of thefe is a feparate
working and drawing up of the ore from the mine.

With this fimple machine a man can work continually to
draw up a weight of 3750 pounds, at the rate of one foot
per minute, or any fmaller weight with a proportionably
quicker motion. This is a fair averajje of the ftrength of
man, which has been determined by a number of experi-
ments, as fhewn in our article Water. The radius of a
winch or handle fhould not be above fourteen inches, which
defcribes a circle of 73- feet circumference ; a man can turn
this round twenty times per minute with convenience, and
the motion of his hands will therefore be 146^ feet per
minute, at which rate a man can exert a force of 255 pounds
according to our itandard. To apply a man's force to the
greateft advantage, we muft not depart much from thefe
proportions ; but the load which is drawn up at one time
may be varied according to the diameter of the roller or
barrel on which the rope winds : for inftance, if this barrel
is feven inches diameter, it will draw up the weight only
one-fourth as fall as the man moves the handle ; and in con-
fequence the weight may be 4 x 255 =: 102 pounds, and
this he will be able to wind up at the rate of thirty-feven
feet per minute. It is befl to employ two men, and make
the two handles at right angles to each other ; the roller may
then be 14 inches diameter, and they can draw up the 102
pounds at the rate of 74 feet per minute. The roller fhould
have two ropes wrapped upon it in oppofite direftions, and
a bucket being fufpended from each, one bucket will be
drawn up as the other is let down, and no time will be loft.

The next machine is the horfe-gin : it has a large drum or
barrel to wind up the rope ; the barrel is mounted on a
vertical axis, which is provided with one or more long levers,
to the extreme ends of which a horfe is harnelfed, and by
walking round in a circle, the barrel is turned round, and
the rope which defcends into the pit or fliaft, is wound up
by wrapping round the barrel. The gin is placed at a con-
venient diftance from the mouth of the pit, and the rope is
condufted over a pulley at the top of the pit, to change the
direftion from horizontal to vertical. The horfe-gin ufually
has two ropes wrapping round the barrel in oppofite direc-
tions, and one winds up as the other unwinds. The two
buckets or corves which are fi-fpended in the pit at the fame
time, go up and down alternately, one full and the other
empty, and the weight of the empty corve, which is de-
fcending, tends in fome meafure to balance that which is
coming up full.

The barrel muft be turned in a contrary direftion every
time a bafliet is drawn up, and for this purpofe the horfe is

turned

WINDING-MACHINE.

turned round every time, fo as to draw the barrel round in
one direftion the firfl time, and in a reverfe direftion the
next time. The horfe turns at the fame time that the
bafliets are unhooked and changed at the top and bottom
of the pit, and very httle time is loft. A boy is required to
lead and direft the horfe. In fome large horfe-machines
wheel-work is. introduced, to communicate the motion of
the vertical axis of the horfe -levers to the barrel on which
the rope winds ; and this work may be fo contrived as to re-
verfe the motion of the barrel at pleafure, although the
horfes always walk in the fame direftion.

In very deep pits an inconvenience is experienced from
the weight of the great length of rope which muft be em-
ployed ; for the whole weight of this rope is added to the
weight of the loaded corve when it is at the bottom of the
pit ; and at the fame time, the other corve being at the top
of the pit, there is no length of rope on that fide to counter-
balance. As the corve is drawn up from the bottom, the
other defcends into the pit ; this (hortens the length of the
afcending rope, and increafes the defcending rope, fo that
by the time that the corve is half drawn up, the other is let
half down, and the weight of the rope is equally divided, fo as
to be in balance ; but after this, the defcending rope becomes
the longeft, and its weight tends to weigh up the loaded
corve, and in very deep pits, the weight of the rope ex-
ceeds that of the corve fo as to draw it up : hence, there
is a great inequality in the force required to turn the
machine. To remedy this, the barrel is often made of a
conical fhape, being fmalleft in the middle, and larger to-
wards the upper and lower ends ; the ends of the two ropes
are made fail to it in the middle, or at the fmalleft. part, and
therefore the horfe has greater power when the corve is to
be drawn from the bottom, and all the length of rope is
added to its weight, becaufe the rope winds on a fmaller
radius ; but as the rope coils on the barrel, it winds on a
larger part of the cone, and the power or leverage diminifhes ;
therefore, the horfe will draw up the corve with a rapidity
which increafes in proportion to the diminution of the load,
by the fhortening of the rope.

A very convenient mode of conftrufting a double conical
barrel is to fix two circular wheels upon the axis, one for the
top of the barrel, and the other for the bottom of the
fame. Two old cart-wheels are frequently employed for
this purpofe. The barrel on which the rope is wound is
formed by a number of ftraight pieces of wood, which are
fixed to the rims of the wheel, and extend from the upper
to the lower one. Thefe pieces arc not fixed in a direftion
parallel to the vertical axis of the barrel, but are fixed crofs-
wife in an oblique direftion, and thus form a barrel, which
is fmall in the middle, and larger at the ends. When a cy-
lindrical drum is fixed upon the main ftiaft to wind up the
rope, if the pit is deep, a counterbalance to the weight
of the rope muft be appHed to a fmaller conical drum fixed
on the vertical axis above the great drum. The circumfer-
ence of the conical barrel is grooved with a fpiral groove,
like the fiifee of a watch ; upon this fufee a rope is applied,
which defcends into a fmall pit made on purpofe, and has a
counter-weight at the end of it : this balances the unequal
weight of the great rope, if the rapidity of the cone is pro-
perly proportioned. Tiiis anfwers very well for fmall depths ;
but for a deep pit, the fufee muft be placed on a feparate
barrel. This barrel may be placed horizontally over the pit
in which thebalance-wi-ightdeicends, and muft have a wheel
upon it to communicate by a rope with a wheel fixed upon
the vertical axis of the gin ; by this means, the fame motion
is communicated to a fpiral, as if it was placed immediately
on the vertical axis.

A perfeft equal motion is not neceftary for horfe-work,
and if it is not fo much in extremes as to ftrain the horfe in
one part of his journey, whilft he has nothing to do in an-
other, he will work very well. Gentle afcents and defcents
in a road are found as advantageous to the aftion of horfes
as a road upon a perfeft flat. The following is the conftruc-
tion recommended by Mr. Smeaton for a two-horfe gin for
a lead-mine : — The horfe-track 36 feet diameter, and two
horfes are employed at once ; the diameter of the drum
14 feet ; the weight to be drawn at once 5^ cwt. or 644 lbs.
exclufive of the bucket, becaufe there are two, and the one '
ferves as a balance for the other ; depth of the pit 45 fathom,
or 270 feet ; the girt of the rope 6^ inches. The counter-
balance for the unequal weight of the great rope is con-
ftrufted as follows : — Above the drum or rope-wheel,a fmaller
one, or balance-drum of one-fourth the diameter of the»
great drum, or 3 feet 6 inches, muft be firmly fixed to the
upright axis ; alfo a httle ftiaft or pit muft be funk at a con-
venient diftance from, the machine : if this is oppofite the
great pit, it will require lefs bracing to keep the fixed parts
of the framing at their proper diftances. A hole muft be
made in the circumference of the fmall wheel, or balance-
drum, through which the end of a rope is pafted, and fe-
cured by a knot. This rope, which is for the counter-
weight, is to pafs over a pulley of 3 feet or more diameter,
fuch as is ufed to direft the great ropes down the main ftiaft ;
but it muft be ftrongly and fubftantially fixed, becaufe there
will be a greater ftrain upon it. Over this pulley the ba-
lance-rope goes down into a little pit funk for the purpofe,
and a balance-weight is hung to it, which muft be double
the weight of 45 fathom of the main pit-rope, and it will
aft as a counter- weight to the great pit-rope. The counter-
weight muft not, however, go down fo as to touch the bot-
tom of the little pit ; and it muft be fo regulated as to be
at the loweft point when the two buckets are at their meet-
ings, half way down the main pit. Hence, whichever way
the main drum turns round, the counter-weight will be
drawn up, and will arrive at the top when either of the
buckets arrive there : by this means, whatever be the weight
of the rope, though it exceeds the weight of matter in the
bucket, yet the horfe will always have fomething to draw ;
whereas in the old horfe-gins made at Newcaftle, they had
no other metliod than turning the horfes at the point of equi-
librium ; and after that letting them draw the backward
way, which obliged them alfo to walk backwards, till
the bucket arrived at the top.

As a 6i-inchrope is far more than equivalent to the weight
required to be drawn, the fame fort of rope will do for the
counter-weight alfo ; but as there will be a great deal of
chafing at the hole where it is fixed to the little drum-wheel,
in confequence of its bending alternately one way and then
the other, it will be proper to fortify it there with the white
leather made of horfes' fliins, and the hole itfelf ftiould be
rounded off on each fide, f» as to make the rope bend eafily.
In the finking of the little ftiaft, if there is any particu-
lar advantage or obftacle, the depth may be greater or lefs
than a quarter part of the main fhaft ; but then the fize of
the little drum and counter-weight muft be proportioned
accordingly. If prafticable, the pit had better be deeper ;
and if it was half the depth, then the little drum might be
half the diameter of the large one, and the counter-weight
would be no more than the weight of the rope in the great
pit. On account of the expence of the balance-pit, the
double conical drum, which requires no counter-weight, is
much preferable to any machine with a counter-weight.

In our article Water we have ^ven the experiments on
the ftrength of horfes ; from which it appears that a proper

load

WINDING-MACHINE.

load for a horfe to work eight hours in a day is 22,000 lbs.
aToirdupois, to be raifed one foot in a minute, or any fmaller
weight to be drawn quicker in proportion ; hence the weight
of 644 lbs. may be drawn by two horfes at the rate of 7 1
feet per minute, or the whole depth of 45 fathoms in 3 J mi-
nutes. The horfes will then walk in their circle rather more
than three miles /><>/• hour ; but 25 miles is the beft pace.
Horfes are frequently loaded much more than this, and in-
deed one ftrong horfe may work this machine ; but as he
could only work a (hort time each day, it is better to em-
ploy two.

When mines were funk to very great depths, the drawing
of the ore by horfe-gins became too expeniive, particu-
larly for coal-mines, and more efFeftive winding-machines
•were introduced. The water-gin was the firft of thefe.
The moil fimple of thefe is called a whimfey, and confifts
of a bucket, which is let down full of water, and by its
defcending force, draws up a loaded bafl<et or corve from
the bottom of the pit. ( See Whimsey. ) This machine
requires a very confiderable fall of water, and it can rarely
be lefs than one-fourth or fixth of the whole depth from
which the coal or ore is to be drawn.

In cafes where the fall is fmaller, an over-fliot water-
wheel is employed ; and in order to make the wheel turn at
pleafure either way round, fo as to wind up or let down,
the wheel is made double ; that is, with two rows of buckets,
one row adapted to receive the water from a fpout, which
will caufe it to turn round in one direftion, and the other
row of buckets is fupplied with water from a different
fpout, and will turn the wheel in the oppofite direftion.
Each fpout is provided with valves to flop the ftream at
pleafure, and when one is open the other muft be fhut, and
thus the wheel may be made to turn either way round.
This is a very old invention, and is fully defcribed by Agri-
cola in his De Re MetaUica, 162 1. It was at one time in
very common ufe in the coUieries, and they raifed up the
fupply of water for it by a pump applied to the- beam
of the great tleam-engine, or fometimes by an engine on
purpofe.

Mr. Smcaton made a machine, in 1774, for drawing coals
\ at Griff, in Warwickfhire, by a water-wheel, in which the
I motion of the wheel is always continued in the fame dlrec-
1 tion ; and by a change in the communication of the wheel-
: work, the barrel is made either to draw up or to let down.
I In 1777 Mr. Smeaton made a larger machine for Long
■ Benton colliery, at Newcaftle, which is worked by the
, water raifed by a fteam-engine on Newcomen's principle.
The water-wheel and machinery are reprefented in Plate
'Winding-Engine, in feveral different elevations. X is the
1 OTcr-ihot water-wheel, which is jo feet in diameter : it is
mounted on a caft-iron axis, which is clearly reprefented in
I the drawing. The water is delivered upon the wheel by a
i fpout from a trough or ciftern, which is fupplied by the
I pump of the fteam-engine. This trough is fupported on tall
! piers of mafonry, one of which is (hewn in the fl<etch.
I Upon the axis of the water-wheel are fixed two cog-wheels,
!U V, of 88 cogs each, and the cogs are turned towards each
lother ;. W is a trundle, which is fituated between the two
Iwheels, and is turned round by either of them, according as
[it is placed ; but it is fmaller in diameter than the fpace be-
|tween the two wheels, fo that it cannot engage wdth both
Iwheels at the fame time. The trundle is fixed at the extre-
•jmity of a long {haft, as fhewn in the plan. Jig. i ; and the
I oppofite end of this (haft is connefted with the barrel on
Iwhich the ropes are wound : this barrel is compofed of two
jcones, joined together at their bafes. The ropes from the
(barrel are condufted over pulleys at the top of the pit, as
Vol. XXXVIII.

(hewn in the elevation, ^_f. 2, and defcend into the fame.
The baflcets, or corves, in which the coals are brought up,
are hooked to the ends of the two ropes ; fo that by the
motion of the water-wheel one baflcet is drawn up whilft
another is let down.

To regulate the motion of the machine, two brakes or
gripes are applied : one encompaffes the great cog-wheel IT,
which is fixed on the axis of the water-wheel, in the fame
manner as the brake of a wind-mill ; and in like manner, the
fixed circle or brake is provided with a lever, as fhewn in
Jig. 4, by means of which the brake can be drawn tight
round the wheel, and will then caufe fuch a fridtion as to
ftop the water-wheel and all the machine.

The other brake-wheel DC [Jig. I.) is fixed near the
end of the long axis, and has clogs or pieces of wood ap-
plied at the top. This piece of wood is fupported by a
lever A B, as fhewn m Jig. 2, A being the centre ; and to
the other end, B, a box E is fufpended, and contains as much
weight as will prefs the clog upon the wheel, with the force
neceffary to retain the corve from defcending when it is full
loaded. To enable the man at the mouth of the pit to
lower down the corve, a cord is fattened to the lever A B,
and is condufted over the pulleys, g k and /, to the mouth
of the pit, where it hangs down in a knot, which the man
can always reach, and by pulling it, he raifes up the lever,
and releafes the wheel from the clog. To prevent acci-
dents, if the clog and lever A fhould fail to ftop the ma-
chine, another clog and lever F G are applied beneath the
wheel ; this lever is drawn upwards by a cord and a block
of pulleys O, which are attached to the lower part of the
weight for the upper lever. This cord is condufted to the
pit's mouth, and hangs down, fo that the man can always
reach it, and by pulling this, he compreffes both the upper
and lower clogs upon the wlieel at the fame time, which
will be certain to ftop it even if it be in a rapid motion ;
but he only reforts to this lower clog on occafion, as the
curb-rein is ufed for a horfe ; the weight of the upper lever,
like a horfe's bridle, being a fufScient check for common
ufe.

To make the machine wind either up or down, the
trundle W muft be changed from one of the wheels, U or
V, to the oppofite one, and this v^ill caufe the barrel to
turn in an oppofite direftion. The pivot of the trundle W
is fupported by the long upright beam ftiewn in Jg. 3,
which is moveable on a centre at the lower end, fo that by
inclining it to the right or left, the trundle may be engaged
with either of the wheels U or V. The requifite motion is
given to the upright beam by two tackles of pulleys ap-
plied to the upper end of the beam, as (hewn wjg. 3.

The ropes of both thefe tackles are fattened together,
and hang down in a loop in reach of a boy, who can pull it
either way, and make the trundle engage with either wheel,
fo as to wind up or let down the corves at pleafure. This
boy is always ftationed in a fmall room immediately over the
wheels U V, fo as to have the brake-lever, as well as the
upright lever, always at his command ; likewife the (huttle
of the water-wheel, which is fixed, as is (liewn injg. 3. A
lever is made to communicate with it, and from the oppo-
fite end of the lever a rod defcends into the room, fo that
the boy, by pulhng it, can open or (hut the (huttle at plea-
fure. This he muft do whenever the corve comes \up, or
rather before ; and notice of the proper time is given by a
large knot in the main rope. The water being then (hut
off, the wheel will continue to turn by its momentum until
the corve comes fully up, but by that time will have di-
miniihed its velocity, fo that the application of the brake
will ftop it without any flrain : the man at the mouth of

3 S the

AV I N

the pit alfo applies the brake on the wheel C D. Imme-
diately the motion ceafes, the boy pulls the tackle, which
difengages the trundle W from the wheel, but without en-
gaging it with the oppofite one, and in confequence the
barrel is detached from the water-wheel. A man now feizes
the corve with a long hook, like a (hepherd's crook, and
draws it afide ; then another man releafes the clog or brake
on the wheel C D, and the wheel and the corve immediately
defcend upon the ground at the fide of the pit. The pul-
ley over the pit is raifed up to a confiderable height, be-
caufe the machine cannot be flopped exaftly at the precife
fpot ; but if the corve fhould be drawn up a few feet
higher than necefTary, no harm can enfue as foon as the full
corve is landed and exchanged for an empty one ; and the
fame is done at the bottom of the pit. The boy throws the
trundle in gear with tlie oppofite wheel, then draws the
fhuttle to let the water flow upon the wheel, and the wheel
refumes its motion.

For the facility of flopping the machine at the proper
moment, Mr. Smeaton applied a piece of machinery, which
he called a count-wheel. This received its motion from a
pinion of 15 teeth, fixed upon the extremity of the pivot of
the lantern W ; the pinion gave motion to a fmall cog-wheel
of 60 teeth, fituated between the two great cog-wheels U V,
being fixed at one end of an horizontal fpindle ; and at the
oppofite end of it was a pinion of eight teeth, which gave
motion to the count-wheel. This wheel had 80 teeth, and
was fixed in a vertical pofition. It had afBxcd to its plane
two projefting pieces of iron, which operated upon a lever
that was connefted with the lever which lets down or draws
up the fhuttle to regulate the flow of water upon the wheel.
Thefe projeftions were fo fixed to the wheel as to be ca-
pable of regulation in fuch manner, that when the machine
had worked long enough to have brought up the corve to
the top of the pit, the projeftion of the count-wheel would
feize the lever, and let fall the (huttle fo as to flop the
water-wheel at the proper moment, without any attention
on the part of the boy. This could be eafily regulated by
the pofition of the projeftion on the count-wheel, and w'hen
once adjulled always operated corredlly ; for as the count-
wheel turned only once for forty turns of the barrel, the
machine would therefore draw up a corve from the bottom
of the pit before the count-wheel made a complete turn.

As the two corves in the pit afcend and defcend mutually,
they muflpafs each other at half the breadth of the pit ; and
it fometimes happens that they flrike together, and overfet
the coals. The beft remedy for this is to divide the pit in
two, or make two feparate pits, and the barrel may be
fituated between the two. As it is frequently impradli-
cable to do fo, a fmaller projeftion was applied in Mr.
Smeaton's machine upon the count-wheel, which adledin the
middle of the courfe upon the lever, and raifed it up fo as
to diminifh the opening of the water-fliuttle, and make the
machine move flowly at the moment when the corves met
and pafTed each other : this prevented accidents.

The principal dimenfions of this machine were as fol-
low : — The cyhnder of the fleam-engine 26 inches diameter,
and 5 feet 8 inches the length of flroke. It made 14
ftrokes^^r minute. It was on the principle of Newcomen,
i. e. atmofpheric, with injeftion into the cylinder. The
pump was i8i inch bore, and 5 feet 8 inches fl;roke : it
raifed the water 33 feet high. This water, being conveyed
in a trough to the machine, was dehvered upon the water-
wheel, which was 30 feet diameter, with 72 buckets; its
caft-iroii axis was 7 inches diameter ; the great cog-wheels
12 feet diameter, with 88 cogs; the trundle 20 cogs, fo
that the barrel turned 4.4 times for once of the water-
10

WIN

wheel. The barrel was 5 feet 3 inches diameter iu the
middle, and 2 feet 11^ inches diameter at the ends; the
whole length being 10^ feet. Upon the circumference of
the barrel a fpiral line is traced, and a groove funk, which
receives half of the rope, to prevent the rope from flipping
on the barrel.

The depth of the pit was 165 yards ; and it was found,
on a long courfe of experiments, that the total confumption
of coals was one corve of coals to draw up 82^ corves from
that depth. The machine would draw 18 fcore of corves,
each containing 20 pecks and weighing 5^ cwt., every
12 hours.

The more modem winding-engines by fleam are upon a
much more fimple conflruftion. The power of the fteam-
engine is applied at once to the barrel which winds up the
rope, with only one pair of cog-wheels ; viz. a large wheel
fixed on the axis of the barrel, and a fmaller one on the axis
of the fly-wheel of the fleam-engine. Thefe engines are
frequently made on Newcomen's principle, as the confump-
tion of coals is a fmall objeft, but Mr. Watt's engines are
more manageable. As the fleam-engine with a crank will
turn either way, according as it is fet in motion, it is very
well adapted for winding-machines ; the boys who manage
them are very dexterous in flopping and turning them the
contrary way. See STEAM-Engine.

There are many ingenious contrivances for facilitating
the landing of the corves when they come up to the pit's
mouth. The befl: is a platform, which runs upon wheels,
and can be pufhed over the pit's mouth, when the corve is
drawn up, by means of a light carriage with one horfe,
which is backed on the platform beneath the corve, and
pufhes the platform over the pit by the fame motion. The
corve is lowered down upon the carriage, and then the horfe
draws the corve away ; the fame motion withdraws the
platform from the pit's mouth, ready to let down an empty
corve and draw up another full one.

In many modern pits, conduftors are fixed in the pit.
Thefe are perpendicular rods, and the bafliets have pro-
jefting parts which embrace the conduftors, and guide the
corve regularly up or down the pit.

In many collieries flat ropes are ufed. Thefe are com-
pofed of four fmall ropes placed flat, fide by fide, and fewed
together by a packthread, which pierces all the four ropes.
When thefe flat ropes are ufed, a barrel or drum of fmaU
fize is ufed, and the coils of the rope wind one upon the
other, fo as to form a fpiral, and increafes the diameter of
the effeftive barrel as the rope winds up, fo as to balance j
the weight of the rope. This was invented by Mr. John ]
Curr, of Sheffield, who has fcveral patents for machinery (
for manufafturing fuch flat ropes, as they are extenfively
ufed in Yorkfhire.

In others, iron chains are ufed inflead of ropes, and are
found to anfwer extremely well.

Winding of Cotton. See Cottox Manufadure.
WiNDiNCi of Silk. See Manufadure of Silk.
WiXDiNG-.S'(r/-fw Cheefe-Prefs, in Rural Economy, a con-
trivance of this fort, in which the weight is faid, in the
Gloucefl;erniire Report on Agriculture, to be capable of
being gradually let down on the vats. It is thus defcribed : —
A ftrong platform, or fill, is raifed on four legs, about a foot
from the floor ; near the edge is made a channel all round,
to carry off the whey as it is exprefTed, by a lip, into the pan
or receiver. Two flrong fide-pofls are mortifed into the
fill, reaching about fix feet high ; acrofs which, about four
feet high, is firmly faflened a flrong bar, with an aperture
in the centre large enough to let in the fcrew with eafe. This
fcrew is fised, at the lower part, into a heavy cubical flone

of

W I N

oF two feet dimenfions, or nearly : the upper part of the
fcrew, having pafled tlie perforation in the crofs-bar, enters
a nut or female fcrew, large in the middle, but worked off
at the two ends fine enough to be grafped by the hand : by
turning this nut, the weight is raifed or let down on the
cheefe-vats underneath.

Where ftones of the required weight and dimenfions are
not to be had, a wooden frame of the fame fize is ufed, which
is filled with fand, pebbles, or rubble-ftones.

The fcrew part of this prefs has, in many dairies, been
lately fuperfeded by the adoption of an apparatus lefs fimple
in its conftruftion, though more eafily worked. In which,
on the right fide of the prefs, a third upright is raifed from
the floor, and connedled by two crofs-bars, about a foot
long, with the upright poll parallel with it. About four
feet high, a cylinder of wood, from five to fix inches dia-
meter, is inferted, pafling quite through the additional up-
right, but kept to its place by a (houlder. To the end are
fixed four fpokes, or levers, or an iron handle, to which
manual power is applied. • A ilrong rope is faftened to
and coiled round the cylinder, which pafling over a pulley
let lengthways into the upper bar, proceeds horizontally to
another pulley, fixed direAly over the centre of the weight,
and by an iron hook attached to it. Very moderate ftrength
will raife the weight, which in this conftruftion Aides with
grooves fitted to the fide-pofts. The mechanical powers
are varied in fome prefles by the ufe of a wheel of a foot or
eighteen inches diameter, inftead of the pulley ; but the
effeft is fimilar. In either way of working the weight,
there is a fuperiority over the old prefs, and little difference
in the ex pence.

Winding Stairs. See Stair.

Winding of Wool, in Rural Economy, the praftice of put-
ting it up into fleeces. There is fome nicety required in this
operation ; all the loofe ragged parts are to be turned inwards,
fo as to form a neat folid fort of fleece, and all the dirty
parts removed. The work is done on a large table or bench
for the purpofe. In fome cafes of expert winders, four
hundred fleeces can be wound in the courfe of the day.

WINDISCH Feistritz, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Stiria, on the river Plufcka ; 40 miles S. of Gratz.
N. lat. 46° 30'. E. long. 15° 28'.

WiNDiscH Gra/z, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; iSmiles
N.N. W. of Cilley. N. lat. 16° 35'. E. long. 15°.

WiNDiscH Landjberg, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 13
miles E. of Cilley.

WiNDiscH Mark, a part of Camiola, bordering on Hun-
gary and Croatia.

WiNDiscH Matray, a town of the archbilhopric of Salz-
burg ; 54 miles S.S.W. of Salzburg. N. lat. 46° 55'. E.
'long. 12*36'.

I WINDISH, a village of Switzerland, near Konigsfel-
:den, at the conflux of the Aar and the Reufs, in the canton
Df Berne, in which are found the ruins of the ancient city
\)f VindonilTa, a fortrefs mentioned by Tacitus, which the
[Romans made a place of arms to flop the irruption of the
(Germans, and is faid to have been the fee of a biftiop. It
jivas deftroyed in the 7th century ; 3 miles W. of Baden.
1^ WINDISHGARTEN, a town of Auftria ; 16 miles
ij.W. of Bavarian Waidhoven.

I WINDLASS, or Windlace, a machine ufed for raifing
'leavy weights, as guns, ftones, anchors, &c.
; It is very fimple, confilling only of an axis, or roller,
|upported horizontally at the two ends by two pieces of
jvood and a pulley. The two pieces of wood meet at top ;
|)eing placed diagonally, fo as to prop each other. The
|;xis, or roller, goes through the two pieces, and turns

WIN

in them. The pulley is fafi;ened at top, where the pieces
join.

Laftly, there are two ftaves, or handfpikes, which go
through the roller, by which it is turned ; and the rope,
which comes over the pulley, is wound off" and on the
fame.

Windlass, an horizontal machine, compofed of timber,
&c. and moft ufed in merchant-fliips for heaving up their
anchors in lieu of a capftan. The body of the windlafs is
oftagonal, and is tapered from the middle to the ends by
given dimenfions. It is fawn from oak-timber of the belt
quality, and the length between the cheeks is in one piece.
But when fitted with an iron axle or fpindle in the middle,
it muft be in two pieces. The ends without the cheeks are
fitted with iron fpindles, and have a hoop driven over their
ends. The fpindles muft be very accurately let into the
ends and middle of the body, that the axis of each may
exaftly agree in a right line. A bolt is driven through the
body of the windlafs and each end of the fpindles. On
each end of the body is let on and fecurely bolted an iron
pall-hoop, with teeth or notches at every two or three inches.
The palls, which are iron, are fixed againft the aft-fides of
the pall-bits, and fall into the teeth or notches of the pall-
hoop, fo as to prevent it turning backwards when charged
by the effort of the cable, &c. Holes or mortifes ara cut
through, along the middle of the windlafs on each fquare,
to admit the handfpikes, and each fquare of the body is
covered with elm or fir facings between the cheeks, on the
working fide in particular. It is fufpended by its axles or
fpindles in brafs rhodings, or gudgeons, which are let in and
bolted into a frame of oak-timber called the cheeks, which are
let down through the deck, and bolted to the pall-bits.

There are other methods of fitting windlafles, but this is
recommended as the beft.

WiNDLAss-CA«/fj, pieces of oak or elm faftened to the
fides of fmall veflels, and by which the ends of their vnnd-
lafles are fufpended.

WINDLE, in Geography, a townfliip of England, in
Lancafliire ; 10 miles N.E. of Liverpool.

WINDLESTRAW, in Agriculture, a term applied to
the naked ftems of the crefted dog's-tail, and other natural
grafles.

It is obferved in the third volume of the Tranfaftions of
the Highland Society of Scotland, that the common poa
there fometimes goes by the name of windleftraw-grafs. See
Grass, and Poa.

WINDMANNIA, in Botany. See Weinmannia.
WINDO, in Geography, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the
province of Smaland ; 85 miles N. of Calraar.

WINDORS, a town of the bilhopric of Paflfau ; 10 mjlea
W. of Pafl'au.

WINDOT Creek, a river of America, which runs into
the Ohio, N. lat. 37° 59'. W. long. 86° 48'.

WINDOW, y. d. WiND-DOOR, an aperture, or open
place, in the fide of a houfe, to let in the air and light.

Before glafs windows came into ufe, (for the antiquity and
firft introduftion of which, fee Glass,) the window cafe-
ments were commonly made of a tranfparent ftone, called
fpecularis lapis, and thence called fpecularia ; and before the
fpecularia, veils were the only defence they had againft the
weather. Pitifc. Lex. Antiq. in voc. Specularia.

We have various kinds and forms of windows j as glafs-
windows, wire-windows, horn-windows, &c. Arched win-
dows, circular windows, elliptical windows, fquare and
flat windows, round windows, oval windows, Gothic win-
dows, regiJar windows, ruftic windows ; to which add iky-
lights.

3 S 2 The

W I N

The chief rules with regard to windows are, i. That
thev be as few in number, and as moderate in dimenfions, as
may confift with other refpeds ; inafmuch as all openings
are weakenings.

3. That they be placed at a convenient diftance trom the
angles, or corners of the building ; becaufe thofe parts ought
not to be opened and enfeebled, whofe of&ce is to fupport
and faften all the reft of the building.

3. That care be taken the wmdows be all equal one with
another, in their rank and order ; fo that thofe on the right- . _

hand may anfwer to thofe on the left, and thofe above be apartments, tenements, lodgings, or landings,
right over thofe below ; for this fituation of windows will inhabited by two or more perfons or families, 1

W I N

fuch change in the occupation for the year that fuch houfe
fhall have been affefTed : provided, that where a tenant fliall
quit the fame, on the determination of the leafe or demife
after an afTelTment made, and fhall have given notice thereof
to the affefTor, the duty fhall be difcharged by the commif-
fioners for this aft for the remainder of that year, in cafe it
fhall appear to them at the end of fuch year, that fuch
houfe, &c. fhall have continued wholly unoccupied during
the remainder of fuch year.

Where any dwelhng-houfe is or (hall be let in different

and (hall be
the fame (hall
neverthelefs be charged as if inhabited by one perfon or
family only ; and the landlord or owner (hall be deemed
and taken to be the occupier, and (hall be charged with
the faid duties : provided, that where the landlord (liall not
refide within the limits of the colleftor, or the fame (hall
remain unpaid by him for twenty days after the fame is due.

not only be handfome and uniform, but alfo, the void being
upon the void, and the full upon the full, it will be a
ilrengthening to the whole fabric.

As to their dimenfions, care is to be ufed to give them
neither more nor lefs light than is needful ; therefore regard
is to be had to the bignefs of the rooms which are to receive

the light It is evident, that a great room needs more light, the duties fo charged may be levied on the occupier or occu-
and, confequently, a greater window, than a little room ; -:-" -^r„„A:.„i,. ,„a r„„i, „„.„.„. ft.,11 k» ^..l,.A„^ .,.A

and c contra.

The apertures of windows, in middle-fized houfes, may
be four and a half or five feet between the jambs ; and in
the greater buildings, fix and a half or feven feet ; and their
height may be double their length at the leatt. But in
high rooms, or larger buildings, their height may be a
third, a fourth, or half their breadth, more than double the

length

Such are the proportions for windows of the firft ftory ;

piers refpeftively, and fuch payment fhall be dedufted and
allowed out of the next payment on account of rent.

Every houfe, of which the keeping is left to the charge
of any perfon or fervant, fhall be fubjeft to the like duties
as if it were inhabited by the owner or by a tenant ; and, if
fuch perfon or fervant fhall not pay rates to the church and
poor, the faid duties (hall be paid by the refpeftive owners
or tenants of the faid houfe.

Every diftin£t chamber or apartment in any of the inns
of court, or of chancery, or in any college or hall in either

and according to thefe, muft thofe in the upper ftory be of the univerfities of Oxford or Cambridge, or any public

for breadth ; but, as to height, they muft diminifh ; the
fecond ftory may be one-third part lower than the firft ; and
the third ftory, one-fourth part lower than the fecond.

Windows, Jrchitrave. See Akchitrave.

Windows, Dormer, or Lutherns. See Lutherns, &c.

Windows, Scenography of. See ScENOGRAPHY.

Windows, Tranfom. See Transom

hofpital, being feverally occupied, fhall be fubjeft to the
fame duties as if an entire houfe, which (liall be paid by the
refpeftive occupiers ; provided, that every fuch chamber
or apartment, which (hall not contain more than feven win-
dows or lights, fhall be charged at the rate of 3^. dd. for
every fuch window or light.

All dwelling-rooms in any hall or office whatever, belong-

WiNDOW and Houfe Tax, is one of the afTefled taxes ing to any perfon, or to any body pohtic or corporate, or to

transferred to the commilTioners for the affairs of taxes. The
duties charged annually with refpeft to the windows or hghts
in every dwelling-houfe, (for which, fee Tax,) are fubjeft to
the following regulations.

All daylights, and all windows or lights, however con-
ftrufted, in ftaircafes, garrets, cellars, paffages, and all other

parts of dwelling-houfes, to what ufe or purpofe foever dows or lights, fixed in one frame, is of the breadth or fpace
apphed, and whether fuch windows or lights fhall be in the of twelve inches, the window or light on each fide of fuch

any company, lawfully charged with the payment of any
other taxes or pari(h-rates, (hall be fubjeft to thofe hereby
payable, and be refpeftively charged as dwelling-lioufes ; and
the perfon, &c. to whom the fame fhall belong (hall be
charged as the occupier or occupiers thereof.

When a partition or divifion between two or more win-

applied,

exterior or interior parts of fuch dwelling-houfes, to be

charged to the faid duties.

Every window or light in any kitchen, cellar, fcuUery,
buttery, pantry, larder, waflihoufe, laundry, bakehoufe,
brewhoufe, and lodging-room, belonging to or occupied
with any dwelling-houfe, whether the fame (liall be within
or contiguous to or disjoined from the body of fuch dwell-
ing-houfe, ftiall be charged to the faid duties.

The faid duties to be charged yearly upon the occupier
or occupiers of the houfes, cottages, or tenements, in refpeft
■whereof the faid duties (hall be charged, and to be in force
for one whole year, from the 5th day of April in the year
in which the fame fliall be charged, to be levied on them,
or on their refpeftive executors or adminiftrators, except as

partition or divifion (liall be charged as a diftinft window
or light.

Every window extending fo far as to give light into more
rooms, landings, or ftories than one, fhall be reckoned and
charged as fo many feparate windows as there are rooms,
landings, or ftories enlightened thereby.

Every window or Ught, including the frame, partitions,
and divifions thereof, which by due admeafurement of the
whole fpace on the aperture of the wall of the houfe or build-
ing, on the outfide of fuch window or light, fhall exceed in
height twelve feet, or in breadth four feet nine inches, not
being lefs than three feet fix inches in height, fhall be
reckoned and charged as two windows or lights, except
fuch windows or lights as (hall have been made of greater
dimenfions at any time prior to April 5, 1785 ; except alfo
the windows or lights in fuch parts of dwelling-houfes as

hereinafter provided.

Where any change in the occupation of any houfe, cot-
tage, or tenement, fhall take place after the affeffment fhall are ufed for ftiops, workihops, and warehoufcs, and except
be made, then the faid duties ftiall be levied upon and paid the windows or hghts in the public room of any houfe
by the occupier, landlord, or owner, for the time being, or licenfed to fell wine, ale, or other liquors by retail, which
on both or all of them, according to their times or poffef- (hall be ufed for the entertainment of guefts ; and the win-
fion thereof, without any new affeffment, notwithftanding dows or lights in farra-houfes efpecially exempted from the

5

duties

W I N

duties in the fchedule marked (B. ), or in any dvvelling-
lioufe not chargeable to the duties mentioned in the faid
fchedule.

Where any dwelhng-houfe fliall be divided into different
tenements, being diftinft properties, every fuch tenement
fliall be fiibju'ft to the fame duties as if the fame were an
entire lioufe, which duties fhall be paid by the refpeftive
occupiers ; provided, that every fuch tenement, which fhall
not contain more than feven windows or lights, (hall be
charged at the rate of 3^. 6d. for every fuch window or
light ; and every fuch tenement in Scotland, which fhall not
contain more than feven windows or hghts, (hall be charged
at the rat ■ of 3^. for every fuch window or light.

The cal'es in which windows are exempted are the fol-
lowing.

1. Any houfe belonging to his majefty, or any of the
royal family, and every public office, for which the duties
heretofore payable have been paid by his majefty or out of
the public revenue.

2. Any hiifpital, charity-fchool, or houfe provided for the
reception and rehef of poor perfons, except fuch apartments
therein as are or may be occupied by the officers or fervants
thereof, which (hall feverally be affelTed, and be fubjeft to
the faid duties as entire dvvelHng-houfes.

3. The windows in any room of a dwelling-houfe, licenfed
according to law as a chapel for the purpofes of divine
worfhip, and ufed for no other purpofe whatloever.

Provided that every fiich hofpital, charity-fchool, houfe
for the reception and relief of poor perfons, or room licenfed
as a chapel as aforefaid, fliall be brought into charge by the
afieffor or alTeffors, or in their default, by the furveyor or
infpeftor, and fliall be ftated on the certificate of affeflments
as fuch ; and on due proof of the faft before the commiflioners
by the aflcffors, it (hall be lawful for the commiffioners for
executing the faid aft to difcharge fuch hofpital, &c. from
the faid duties, or fuch part thereof as is hereby intended
to be exempted, in like manner as they are authorized to
difcharge the afl'efl'ment on poor perfons by this aft, but not
otherwife.

4. The windows or lights, in any dairy or cheefe-room
belonging to and occupied with any dwelhng-honfe, charge-
able with the faid duties, although the fame (hall be part
thereof, which (hall be ufed by the occupiers for the pur-
pofe of keeping butter or cheefe, being their own produce,
for fale or private ufe ; provided, that the wmdows or lights
in fuch dairies or cheefe -rooms (hall be made with fplines or
wooden laths, or iron bars, or wires, and wholly without
glafs, and that the occupiers of the dwelling-houfes to which
fuch dairies and cheefe-rooms belong (hall caufe to be painted
on the outer door thereof, or on the outfide of the windows
thereof, or one of them, in large Roman letters, the words,
" dairy, or cheefe-room," as the cafe may require, and fliall
keep fuch words fo painted diltinftly legible, during all
fuch time as fuch exemption fliall be claimed ; and pro-
vided, that fuch dairies or cheefe-rooms (hall not be ever
ufed to dwell or to fleep in by any perfon, but fliall be
wholly kept for the feveral purpofes hereinbefore mentioned ;
and provided alfo, that an aflefTment of all fuch windows or
lights fhall be duly made, and the faft be truly returned in
the manner direfted by this aft, in other cafes of exemption
from the faid duties, fo that the number of windows fo to
be exempted may be afcertained, and the exemption be
allowed by the commiflioners for executing this aft.

The provifions that refpeft the exemptions of windows
from aifeflment by 43 Geo. III. c. 161. are as follow.

Windows are to be ftopped up with ftone or brick, or the
fame kind of materials as the outfide of ihs houfe ; allow-

W I N

ance being made for thofe in the roof made of the fame ma-
terials with the outfide of the roof, or ftopped up before the
commencement of this aft ; or windows are not to be made,
reftored, or ftopped up wrthout fix days' previous notice
given to the furveyors, under a penalty of 10/. : and fiir-
veyors are to charge windows newly made or reftored, and
omitted in the aiTeflment ; and the penalty on flopping up
windows to elude payment is a charge on the occupier of the
tenement, at the rate of double the fum by which the afteff-
ment fliall be augmented, by reafon of fuch certificate, fub-
jeft to appeal, provided it be proved to the fatisfaftion of
the commiffioners for executing this aft, that the fame win-
dows or lights were refpeftively ftopped up according to
the direftions of this aft, previous to the commencement of
the year on which the faid affelfment fliall or ought to have
been made.

The duty on dwelling-houfes (for which, fee Tax) com-
prehends every coach-houfe, ftable, brewhoufe, waflihoufe,
laundry, woodhoufe, bakehoufe, dairy, and all other
offices, and all yards, courts, and curtilages, and gardens,
and pleafure-grounds, belonging to and occupied with any
dweUing-houfe, within the limits of one acre.

All fhops and warehoufes which are attached to the
dwelling-houfe, or have any communication therewith, (hall,
in charging the faid duties, be valued together with the
dweUing-houfe and the houfehold and other offices aforefaid
thereunto belonging, (except fuch warehoufes and buildings
upon or near adjoining to wharfs which are occupied by
perfons who carry on the bufinefs of wharfingers, and
who have dwelling-houfes upon the faid wharfs for the
refidence of themfelves or fervants employed upon the faid
wharfs. )

And alfo except fuch warehoufes as are diftinft and fepa-
rate buildings, and not parts or parcels of fuch dwelling-
houfes, or the fhops attached thereto, but employed folely
for the purpofe of lodging goods, wares, and merchandize,
or for carrying on fome manufafture (notwithftanding the
fame may adjoin to or have communication with the dwelling-
houfe or (hop.)

Every chamber or apartment in any of the inns of court,
or of chancery, or in any college or hall in any of the uni-
verfities of Great Britain, being feverally occupied, fhall
be charged thereto as an entire houfe, and on the refpeftive
occupiers thereof.

Every hall or office whatever belonging to any perfon or
to any body pohtic or corporate, or to any company law-
fully charged with the payment of any other taxes or parifh-
rates, fhall be fubjeft to the duties as inhabited lioufes ; and
the perfon, &c. to whom the fame (hall belong fliall be
charged as occupier.

Where any houfe fliall be let in difl"erent ttories, tene-
ments, lodgings, or landings, and fhall be inhabited by two
or more perfons or families, the fame fliall nevcrthelefs be
charged to the faid duties as if inhabited by one perfon
or family only, and the landlord or owner fhall be deemed
the occupier, and fhall be charged to the laid duties : pro-
vided, . that where the landlord fliall not refide within the
limits of the coUeftor, or the fame fhall remain unpaid by
fuch landlord for the fpace of twenty days after the fame is
due, the duties fo charged may be levied on the occupier
or occupiers refpeftively ; and fuch payment fliall be de-
dufted and allowed out of the next payment on account
of rent.

No dwelling-houfe, or other fuch prcmifes as aforefaid,
fliall be efti'mated or rated at any lefs annual value than
the rent or value at which the fame premifes ftand charged
in the laft rate made on or before the time of making the

aflelTment

WIN

alTeffment for the relief of the poor in the fame parifh or
place, under certain fpecified reftriftions with regard to
the poor rate.

Where any dwelling-houfe fhall be divided into different
tenements being diftinA properties, every fuch tenement
fhall be fubjeft to the fame duties as an entire houfe, which
duty fhall be paid by the occupiers refpeflively.

The cafes of exemption are the following.

1. Any houfe belonging to his majefty, or any of the
royal family, and every public office for which the duties
heretofore payable have been paid by his majefty, or out of
the pubhc revenue.

2. Every dwelling-houfe, being a farm-houfe occupied
by a tenant, and bond Jide ufed for the purpofes of huf-
bandry only.

3. Every dwelling-houfe, being a farm-houfe occupied by
the owner thereof, and bond jide ufed for the purpofes of
hufbandry only, which, together with the houfehold and other
offices aforefaid, fhall be valued under this aft at 10/. per
annum, or any lefs fum.

4. Any hofpital, charity-fchool, or houfe provided for
the reception or relief of poor perfons.

5. Every houfe whereof the keeping is committed to the
care of any perfon or fervant, who doth not pay rates to
the church and poor, and who refides therein for the pur-
pofe only of taking care thereof: provided, that an afTeff-
ment fhall be duly made in every fuch cafe, and the faft
be truly returned in the manner direfted by this aft in
other cafes of exemption from the faid duties, and the
exemption be allowed by the commilTioners for executing
this aft.

Any perfon inhabiting a dwelling-houfe, containing not
more than fix windows in the whole, ihall be exempted from
the duties in fchedule (A.), in cafe fuch perfon fhall be on the
books of fuch parifh or place as receiving parochial relief;
and fhall not be affefTed, or liable to be affeffed to any of the
duties contained in fchedules (B. ), (C), (D.), or (E.) ;
which feveral exemptions fhall be proved or claimed in the
manner hereinafter mentioned.

And, in order to reheve fuch perfons who may be charged
to the feveral duties fet forth in the fchedules (A.) and ( B.l,
or either of them, it is enafted, that where any fuch houfe,
cottage, or tenement, as is defcribed in the preceding claufe,
(hall be brought into charge, and the occupier thereof fhall
be entitled to the faid exemption by reafon of poverty, in
every fuch cafe, the affeffors fhall, on the certificate of alfeff-
ment, fet oppoiite the fum charged on the occupier thereof,
the faft of his or her being poor, and fhall return the fame,
together with the affefTment and a certificate, as hereinafter
mentioned, to the commiflioners for executing this aft in the
diftrift where fuch affefTment fhall be made ; who, before
allowing any fuch affefTment, or making any order thereupon,
ftiall examine the affeffors, who fhall refpeftively attend them
for that purpofe, at fuch time as they fhall appoint, touching
the return fo made ; and if the faid commiflioners fhall, from
fuch examination, and from the certificate hereinafter men-
tioned, be fatisfied that any fuch occupier is entitled to fuch
exemption, they may, after fuch proof, flrike out the charge,
leaving his name, and the number of windows and rent of
fuch houfe in the affeffment, and every fuch occupier fhall
be exempted accordingly ; which exemption fhall, in the
like cafes, extend to, and fhall be allowed on aU affeffments
on fuch poor perfons, of the duties payable at the time
of paffing this aft, which fliall have been, or fhall be made,
at any time after the commencement of the prefent year.

But before any fuch exemption or abatement fhall be al-
lowedj the affeffors fhall produce to the commiflioners a

WIN

certificate under the hands of five or more fubftantial houfe-
holders of fuch parifh or place, in veflry affembled, of
whom the refident minifter fhall be one ; but in cafe there
fhall be no fuch minifler refident therein, then at leaft two
or more churchwardens and overfeers of the poor of fuch
parifh or place fhall concur with fuch houfeholders in fuch
certificate, certifying thereby, that they have carefully ex-
amined the affeffment of the faid duties, and the allegations
therein made by the affeffors, touching fuch perfons who
fhall be therein ilated to be poor, and that in their judg-
ment and behef the perfons therein certified to be poor are
entitled to be exempted by reafon of their poverty, and are
wholly unable to pay the duties affeffed upon them ; pro-
vided, that if in any parifh or place there fhall not be five
fubftantial houfeholders, then fuch certificate may be made
by the fubftantial houfeholders there refiding ; or if there
fhall be no churchwardens or overfeers, then the fame may
be granted by the refident minifter, or by any two church-
wardens or overfeers of any adjoining parifh or place, who
can certify the truth of fuch allegations, concurring therein
with the fubftantial houfeholders refiding in the parifh or
place where fuch affeffment fhall be made.

And. where the occupier of any houfe, cottage, or tene-
ment, containing more than the number of windows or
lights before fpecified, fhall be brought into charge, and the
occupier thereof fhall, at the commencement of the year for
which fuch affeffment is made, be poor and indigent, or fhall ■
become fo during that year, in every fuch cafe, fuch occu-
pier may give notice thereof in writing, ftating the caufes to
the affeffor, or to the furveyor of the diftrift in which fuch
houfe is fituate, annexing thereto a certificate, under the
hands of fuch perfons as aforefaid, certifying that, in their
judgment and belief, fuch perfon is juftly entitled to reUef
on account of poverty for the caufes mentioned in fuch
notice ; and every affeffor fhall dehver the notices by him
received to fuch furveyor : and if fuch furveyor fhall be
fatisfied of the truth thereof, after due examination of the
fafts and circumftances, and that fuch perfon is unable to pay
the duties charged on him or her, and has no probable means
of bettering his or her condition within that year, he is
hereby required to certify the fame to the commiflioners ;
and if fuch furveyor fhall not be fatisfied, then, on notice
thereof to fuch occupier, he may appeal from fuch charge
to tlie commiffioners, giving ten days' previous notice thereof
to the faid furveyor.

And in every cafe where the furveyor fhall certify to the
faid commiffioners that he is fatisfied of the truth of the claim
made by any fuch occupier, and that he is, and will be unable
to pay the duties charged on him or her within that year ;
or if, upon appeal, it fhall appear to the fatisfaftion of the
major part of the faid commiflioners prefent, on the oath of
fuch appeUant, or by other lawful evidence on oath produced
by fuch appellant, that he or fhe is entitled to maintain fuch
appeal, and wholly unable to pay the duties charged on him
or her, the faid commiffioners may give fuch relief, either by
ftriking off the whole of the duty fo charged, or diminifhing
the fame, as to them fhall feem meet and neceffary ; and
which appeals, for the caufes in this claufe mentioned, may
be heard and determined, either on the days mentioned in
this aft for hearing appeals in other cafes, or at the end of
the year, or any days to be appointed by the refpeftive
commiffioners for executing this aft ; which exemption fhall,
in the like cafes, extend to, and ihall be allowed on all
affeffments on fuch poor perfons of the duties payable at
the time of paffing this aft, which fhall have been or fhall
be made at any time after the commencement of the pre-
fent year.

Unoccupied

W I N

Unoccupied houfes are to be inferted in the aflefiment,
aud the aiTeflbrs, or the furveyors and infpeftors, are to cer-
tify when they become occupied ; and the perfon occupy-
ing fhall give notice to the aflenbr, fnrveyor, or infpeftor,
within twenty days after occupation, under a penalty of
5/., and be liable to be charged for the reft of the pre-
ceding quarter ; and houfes becoming unoccupied after afleff-
ment are to be charged for the whole year, unlefs notice is
given. Notices are alfo to be given by occupiers of houfes
or managers of hofpitals, charity-fchools, poor-houfes, or
licenfed chapels, entitled to exemptions ; and the exemp-
tions are to be alloyved by the commiflioners after exa-
mination. Burn's Juftice, vol. v. See Tax and Commu-
tation.

Window, in /Inatomy, &c. See Fenestra.

WINDRUSH, in Geography, a river of England, in the
county of Oxford, which runs into the Thames, 5 miles
S.S.W. of Witney.

WINDSBACH, a town and citadel of Germany, in
the principahty of Anfpach ; 10 miles S.E. of Anfpach.
N. lat. 49° 13'. E. long. 10° 46'.

WINDSHEIM, a town of Bavaria. The inhabitants
are chiefly Lutherans. This town was imperial till 1802,
when it was given to the eleftor of Bavaria ; 28 miles S.W.
of Wurzburg. N. lat. 49° 34'. E. long. 10° 26'.

WINDSOR, commonly called New Windsor, to dif-
tinguilh it from a parilh named Old Windfor, a market and
borough town of Berklhire, England, is eminent in the hif-
toric annals of the kingdom, on account of containing one
of the palaces of the fovereigns, and from the many diftin-
guifhed events which are identified with the place. Some
of our moft eminent military and chivalrous fovereigns have
made the caftle, or palace of Windfor, their chief refidence,
and confequently the fcene of various celebrated feftivities,
tournaments, and national aflemblies. In the annals of the
caftle, this is fully verified. When the Domefday-book
was compiled, the caftle, which had been then lately built
by William the Conqueror, was within the manor, and it is
probable within the parifli of Clewer, of which Windfor
was formerly a chapelry : it afterwards became the feat of
an extenfiTe honor.

We are told by the Saxon Chronicle, that William the
Conqueror kept his Whitfuntide at Windfor in 1071 ; and
that a fynod was held there in 1072, wherein the province
of York was made fubjeft to Canterbury. It is probable,
that William Rufus kept his Whitfuntide at Windfor in
1095, his Chriftmas in 1096, and his Eafter in 1097 :
but in all probabihty all thefe feftivals were held at the
palace at Old Windfor. Windfor-cattle feems to have
been intended by William the Conqueror more for a mili-
tary poft, for which by its fituation it was well adapted,
than for the refidence of himfelf and his fuccefTors. ■*

Several monarchs kept their Chriftmas and other feftivals
at Windfor ; on fome of which occafions there were tour-
naments and otlier chivalrous fetes performed. After the
contentions between Stephen and Maud, Windfor-caftle,
as the fecond fortrefs of the kingdom, was committed to
the cuftody of Richard de Lacy.

It appears that a new barbican, or out-work, was built
to the caftle by king Henry III. In 1263, during the
wars between that monarch and his barons, prmce Edv^ard
garrifoned Windfor-caftle with foreigners, who nearly de-
ftroyed the town, and did much injury to the furrounding
country. The fame year it was given up to the barons, and
the king made an order that Eleanor, wife of prince Ed-
ward, with her daughter and all her houfehold, fhould,
without delay, retire from the caftle.

W I N

A great tournament was held in Windfor-park on the
9th of July, in the fixth of king Edward I. That mo-
narch and his fucceftbr, king Edward II., refided frequently
at Windfor, where feveral of their children were born.

John, king of France, and his fon Philip, were prifoners
in Windfor-caftle. David, king of Scotland, is alio faid to
have been prifoner there at the fame time.

All hiftorians agree, that Windfor-caftle owes its magni-
ficent fabric to the afFeftion which king Edward III. bore
to the place of his nativity. Walfinghani relat s, that in
1334, he built a chamber, which he called the round table,
200 feet in diameter : this, by other accounts, appears to
have been only a temporary ftrufture. Holingftied fays, that
m 1 359, " the king fet workmen in hand, to take down much
old buildings belonging to the caftle of Windfor, and caufed
divers other fair and fumptuous works to be fet up in and
about the fame caftle, fo that almoft all the mafons and
carpenters, that were of any account within the land, were
fent for, and employed on the fame works." But it ap-
pears that various commiflions for appointing furveyors
and imprefllng workmen had been iffued fome years before;
and that in 1356, William of Wykeham, then one of the
king's chaplains, was made clerk of the vvorks with ample
powers, and a fee of one (hilling a day whilft at Windfor,
and two ftiillings when he went elfewhere upon bufinefs :
his clerk had a falary of three ftiillings a week. In 1359,
the architeft's powers were further enlarged, and he was
appointed keeper of the manors of Old and New Windfor.
The next year 360 workmen were imprefled to be em-
ployed on the buildings at the king's wages, fome of whom
having clandeftinely left Windfor, and engaged in other
employments for greater wages, writs were iffiied to prevent
perfons employing them, on pain of forfeiting all their
goods and chattels, and to commit fuch of the workmen as
ftiould be apprehended to Newgate. The plague having
carried off" a great number of the king's workmen in 1362,
new writs were ift^ued to the ftieriff^s of feveral counties to
imprefs 302 mafons and diggers of ftone to be employed in
the king's works. The counties of York, Salop, and
Devon, were to furnifti fixty men each. Glaziers were im-
prefled in the year 1363 ; very few commiflions were ifl^ued
after the year 1369, and none after 1373, fo that it may be
prefumed that this noble work was then completed ; com-
prifing the king's palace, the great hall of St. George, the
lodgings on the eaft and fouth fides of the upper ward, the
round tower, the chapel of St. George, the canon's houfes
in the lower ward, and the whole circumference of the
walls, with the towers and gates.

The appeal of high trcafon, brought by the duke of
Lancafter againft Thomas Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, in
1398, was heard by king Richard II., on a fcaff^old erefted
within the caftle at Windfor, when, it being found impoffi-
ble to reconcile the opponents, a day of combat was ap-
pointed to take place at Coventry. The caftle continued
to be the occafional refidence of our monarchs, who from
time to time made various alterations in the buildings, par-
ticularly king Henry VII. Windfor-caftle was garrifoned by
the parliament, foon after the breaking out of the civil war be-
tween Charles and his fubjeCls ; and colonel Venn, who was
afterwards one of the king's judges, was appointed tiie go-
vernor. Prince Rupert made an unfuccefsful attack upon
it in the autumn of 1642. The caftle continued under the
jurifdittion of parliament during the war, and in the year
1648 became ihe pril'on of its unfortunate monarch. Judge
Jenkyns was alfo a pvKoner here for feveral years ; whence
he was removed to Wallingford, in 1656.

Upon the Reftoration, king Charles II. finding the build-
ings

WINDSOR.

ings of the caftle much dilapidated by plunder and negleft,
caufed it to be thoroughly repaired and richly furni(hed.
During the greater part of his reign, he made Windfor his
fummer refidence. King James II. in 16S7 received the
pope's nuncio at Windfor-callle. Queen Anne, when prin-
cefs of Denmark, lived in a fmall houfe adjoining the little
park, and was very partial to Windfor.

During the reicn of his prefent majeiiy, Windfor-caftle
has undergone coiifiderable improvements, under the direc-
tion of the late James Wyatt, efq. furveyor-general of his
majefty's works.

The caftle confifts of two courts, between which is the
keep, or round tower. The upper court contains on the
north fide the Hate apartm.'nts, chapel, and the hall of St.
George. The eaft and fouth fides liave been lately fitted
up for the refidence of their majefties and the royal family.
Our limits will not allow ih to enter into a detail of the
piagnificent rooms whicli conftitute the ftate apartments, or
of dwelling on the valuable coUeAion of pictures therein
contained.

St. George's hall, on the north fide of the upper ward,
was built by king Edward III., as a refeftory for the
knights companions of the garter: it is a noble room 108
feet in length. The ceiling and walls are painted by Verrio ;
the fubjeds are the triumphs of the warlike founder, and
his brave fon, Edward the Black Prince.

In the area of the upper court is a bronze ftatue of
king Charles II. on horieback, executed by Stada at the
expence of the munificent Tobias Ruftat.

On the north fide of the caftle is the terrace made by
queen Elizabeth, which was extended by king Charles II.
along the eaft and fouth fides : its whole length is 1870 feet,
and it may be regarded as the nobleft walk ot the kind in
Europe, as well as the moft interefting in fituation.

The chapel of St. George is fituated on the north fide
of the lower court of the caftle. King Henry I. built a
chapel at Windfor, dedicated to St. Edward the Confeflbr,
and placed in it eighty canons, who wei-e maintained out
of the king's exchequer. This chapel appears to have
been rebuilt, or confiderably enlarged and decorated, by
king Henry III. : that monarch, in the year 1243, i^ued
a coramiflion to Walter de Gray, archbiftiop of York,
to expedite the works at the king's chapel at Windfor,
direfting that the workmen fiiould proceed as well in
winter as in fummer, till the whole was completed ; that
a lofty wooden roof, like the roof of the new work at
Lichfield, ftiould be made to appear like ftone-work, with
good ceiling and painting : that the chapel fiiould be co-
vered with lead, and four gilded images be put up in it,
where the king had before direfted images of the fame kind
to be placed ; and that a ftone turret fhould be made in
front of the chapel of fnfficient fize to hold three or four
bells. Some remains of Henry III.'s buildings, as may be
prefumed by the ftyle of the arches and architeftural deco-
rations, may be feen on the fouth fide of the dean's cloifters,
and at the eaft end of the chapel behind the altar.

King Edward HI., who had been baptized at Windfor,
rebuilt St. Edward's chapel there, and dedicated the new
ftrufture to the Virgin Mary and St. George. In the year
1349, he augmented the number of canons to twenty-three,
befides a warden ; and appointed 24 poor knights, for all
of whom he built habitations, and granted land for\heir fup-
port. In 1351, the biftiop of Winchefter made confiderable
alterations in the college ; and Henry IV. changed the
title of warden to that of dean.

The prefent fplendid and truly interefting chapel of St.
George may be regarded as the moft perfeft and moft

beautiful pile of ecclefiaftical architeAure in the kingdom.
It was commenced by king Edward IV. and committed to
the fuperintendance of Richard Beauchamp, biftiop of Sa-
hftiury. The work was not completed till the reign of
king Henry VIII. : the beautiful roof of the choir was
put up in the year 1508. Sir Reginald Bray, prime minif-
ter to king Henry VII., and one of the knights companions
of the order of the gai'ter, who died in 1502, fucceeded
biftiop Beauchamp in the fuperintendance of this great
work, and was a liberal contributor to the building of the
choir and other parts of the fabric : his cognizance is fre-
quently repeated on the roof of the choir, as are the royal
arms and thofe of feveral noble families with the order of
the garter. The rood loft and lanthorn were erefted in
1516; the prefent organ-gallery and fcreen at the end of
the choir are of Coade's artificial ftone. The ftills of the
knights companions, which a-e very richly carved in wood,
exlubit the n imes and arms of the feveral illuftrious and
noble perfons by whom they have been refpeflively filled.
The altar-piece, which reprefents the Laft Supper, is
by Mr. Wert, from whofe defigns the eaft window, repre-
fenting the Refurreftion of our Saviour, was executed in
painted glafs by Jarvis and Foreft, and put up in 1788:
the expence of the latter was about 4000/. Another win-
dow by the fame artifts difplay the angels appearing to our
Saviour. Moft of thefe improvements, as well as feveral
others in the chapel and caftle, have been executed under
the patronage, and partly at the expence, of his prefent ma-
jefty. Beneath the choir repofe the remains of Henry VIII.,
his queen, lady Seymour, and king Charles I. Henry VI.
was alfo interred in this chapel ; alfo his rival and fucceffor,
Edward VI.

At the eaft end of the fouth aifie is the Lincoln chapel,
which contains the monument of Edward, earl of Lincoln,
lord high admiral of England for thirty years, who died in
1584. Sir Henry Clinton, bart., a defcendant of the earl
of Lincoln, was buried in this chapel in 1795. In the
fame aifle is an elegant chantry chapel, built by John Oxen-
bridge, canon of Windfor. Farther weft is a chapel built
by Dr. Oliver King, biftiop of Bath and Wells, who died
in 1492.

In the middle of the fouth aifle is a fpacious chapel,
founded by fir Reginald Bray, who died in 1502, and is
here interred : his arms and creft appear in feveral parts of
the chapel, particularly in the beautiful fcreen which fepa-
rates it from the aifle.

At the weft end of the fouth aifle is the Beaufort cha-
pel, in which is an altar-tomb with the effigies of the
founder, Charles Somerfet, earl of Worcefter, who died in
1526, and his lady ; and a fplendid monument, fupported
by Corinthian pillars, to the memory of Henry, the firft
duke of Beaufort, who died in 1699.

Near the fouth door of the choir is interred Charles,
duke of Suffolk, a favourite minifter and brother-in-law of
king Henry VIII., who died in 1545.

On the weft fide of the choir-door in the north aifle is a
chapel built by Elizabeth, wife of William, lord Haftings,
who is buried here.

At the eaft end of the chapel is a diftinft though attached
building, called the tomb-houfe, which was commenced by
Henry VII. ar.d intended for his burial place. It was
granted by Henry VIII. to cardinal Wolfey, who began
a fumptuous monument for himfelf within its walls. This
was deftroyed in the civil wars. James II. fitted up the
building as a Roman Catholic chapel ; and pubhcly attended
the celebration of mafs. After that monarch's deceafe the
chapel was deferted; but in 1800 bis prefentt majefty gave

oidera

W I N

WIN

orders for it to be repaired, beautified, and appropriated for
the interment of his family. The princefs Mary and the
: princefs Charlotte of Wales have been committed to its
vault. On the north and eafl fides of the chapel are houfes
and lodgings for the dean and canons. The fouth and well
fides of the lower ward are occupied by houfes appro-
priated to the poor knights.

Between the two wards or courts of the cattle is the
keep, or round tower, for the refidence of the governor of the
cattle. It confills of a lofty, artificial, conical mount, fur-
; rounded by a moat, and furmounted by a ftrong fortified
tower, which is approached by a flight of loo fteps. The
circumference of the whole cattle is 4180 feet; its length
from eaft to weft 1480 feet; and the area, exclufive of terrace
walks, is about twelve acres.

On the fouth fide of the cattle is a modern manfion, called

' the Queen's-lodge, where the royal family refided for feve-

ral years ; but it is now unoccupied. About half a mile

S.E. of the cattle is Frogmore, a modern feat belonging to

the queen. It is principally noted for its beautiful garden.

To the fouth and weft of the town is Winilfor Fortfl,

, which formerly was computed to meafure 120 miles in cir-

• cuit. At prefent it is about 56 miles. A part of this,

called the great park, confifts of 3800 acres. The little

park, on the north and eaft fides of the cattle, contains

about 500 acres.

Windfor is a large irregular town, difpofed on the fides
of a hill, and at its bafe, on the fouthern banks of the
Thames. In 1276 it was declared a free borough by king
Edward I., who granted to the burgefles a mercatorial
, guild, and various privileges and exemptions. He confti-
tuted it the county-town. King Edward IV. incorporated
ithe burgefles by the name of mayor, bailiff's, and burgefles.
By the laft charter of king Charles II., the corporate
body is made to confift of twenty-eight or thirty members.
■ A weekly market is held by royal grant, as well as three
annual fairs. Near the centre of the town is a guildhall or
itown-houfe, which wa« built in 1666.

i This borough fent two members to parliament in the
reign of Edward I. ; but omitted making any returns from
II340 to 1446. The right of eleftion has frequently been
jcontefted, but was finally fettled to be vetted in all the in-
habitant houfeholders not receiving alms. Windfor has
continued to increafe in population for the laft 300 years.
In 15J5, there appears to have been loooperfons ; in 1801,
they amounted to 3461 ; and in 181 1 to 6155, who occupied
1051 houfes. The parifti-church is a fpacious building, and
;part of it ancient, though it was formerly only a chapel
;fubordinate to the church of Clewer. In it are feveral old
'monuments. On the weft fide of the town are estenfive
'barracks, and an hofpital for fick foldiers.

Windsor, QU, a village about two miles S.E. of New
Windfor, was a place of fome confequence at the time of
the Domefday- furvey, as by that record it is ftated to con-
;tain 95 houfes, which paid gabel tax to the crown. Some
tof the Saxon kings had a palace here, and Edward the Con-
jfeflbr fometimes kept his court at this place. After Wil-
liam the Conqueror had ereftcd a cattle at New Windfor,
'the old palace and the furrounding houfes were gradually
Ideferted. A great part of Windfor-park is within the pa-
infli of Old Windfor, and includes three lodges : i . The great
•odge built in the reign of Charles I. and occupied by the
jUuftrious William, duke of Cumberland ; 2. The little
jodge or dairy, occupied by the deputy ranger ; and 3. The
'n<inor lodge near Virginia water. Beaumont lodge, the
j'eat of lord vifcount Aftibrooke, was originally built by
lord Weymouth, who died in 1705. There are other fa-
' Vol, XXXVIII.

mily manfions and villas in this parifli ; one of which was
lately fitted up and occafionally occupied by the princefs
Elizabeth, now princefs Romberg The Magna Bri-
tannia, by S. Lyfons and the Rev. D. Lyfons, Berkftiire,
4to. 1806. The Beauties of England, &c. vol. i. by
J. Britton, F.S.A. and E. W. Brayley, 8vo. i8gi. The
Hiftory of Windfor and its Neighbourhood, by J. Hake-
will, ArchiteA, 4to. 1813. This elegant volume contains
accounts and views of feveral places in the vicinity of
Windfor. The Hiftory of the Royal Refidences, 4to.
1817, by J. Pyne, a very handfome and interefting work,
contains feveral views of the ftate apartments in Windfor-
cattle. The Architeftural Antiquities of Great Britain,
4 vols. 4to. by J. Britton, contains feveral views, and a full
hittory and defcription of St. George's chapel.

Windsor, a large townfhip in the fouth-eaft corner of
Broome county. New York, erefted in 1807 from the eaft
part of Chenango; fituated 15 miles E. of Chenango;
bounded north by Chenango county, eatt by Delaware
county, fouth by the ftate of Pennfylvania, and weft by
Chenango. Its extent is nearly 15 miles fquare, and it has
two pott-offices. It is traverfed by the Sufquehanna river.
In 18 10 it had eleven faw-mills, feven grain-mills, a fulling-
mill, and carding-machine, eight fchool-houfes, one houfe
of worfhip, a population of i960 fouls, 138 eleftors, and
nearly 300 families.

Windsor, a town of Nova Scotia ; 25 miles N.W. of
Halifax. — Alfo, a town of the ftate of Vermont, capital of
a county of the fame name, which contains 34,877 in-
habitants; the town contains 2757 inhabitants; 92 miles

N.W. of Bofton. N. lat. 43° 33'. W. long. 72° 22'

Alfo, a town of the ftate of Connedlicut, on the weft fide
of the Connecticut river, in the county of Hartford, with
2868 inhabitants ; 3 miles N. of Hartford — Alfo, a town
of Maffachufetts, in the county of Berkfliire, with 1108
inhabitants; 136 miles W. of Bofton. — Alfo, a townfhip
of Pennfylvania, in Berks county, with 1358 inhabitants;
70 miles W. of Philadelphia.— Alfo, a townftiip of Penn-
fylvania, in York county, with 1739 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
town of New Hampfhire, in the county of Hillfborough,
with 238 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town of North Carolina;
23 miles S.W. of Edenton. — Alfo, a townfhip of Lower
Canada, on the St. Francis.

Windsor, EaJ}, a town of New Jerfey, in Middlefex
county, with 1747 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town of the
United States of America, in Connefticut, on the eaft fide
of theConnefticut, oppofite Windfor, with 3081 inhabitants.
Windsor, IVefl, a town of New Jerfey, in Middlefex
county, with 1 7 14 inhabitants.

Windsor, New, a poft-townlhip of Orange county,
New York, on the weft bank of the Hudfon ; 100 miles S.
of Albany ; bounded north by Montgomery and Newburgh,
eaft by the Hudfon, fouth by Cornwall and Blooming-
grove, weft by Montgomery and Wallkill. Its medial ex-
tent eaft and weft is eight miles, and north near four, giving
an area of about 30 fquare miles. Its population in 1810
confifted of 2331 perfons, and its fenatorial eleftors were
147. It has two poft-oflices, viz. the village of New
Windfor, pleafantly fituated on the weft bank of the Hud-
fon, and having confiderable trade ; and Little Britain, faid
to be difcontinued in 1813. This townfhip has feveral
mill-ftreams, and the land is occupied chiefly by farmers, who
enjoy much of the independence refulting from profperous
induftry. The whole is well watered by fprings and brooks.
Windsor Forejl. See Windsor.
Windsor River, a river of the ftate of Connefticut,
which runs into the Connefticut, 4 milci N. of Hartford.
3 T Windsor

WIN

W I N

Windsor Bean, in Agriculture and Gardening. See
Bean, and Vicia.

WINDTBERG, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Holftein ; 4 miles S.S.E. of Meldorp.

WINDTHAAG, or Windthag, a town of Auftria ;
3 miles E, of Bavarian Waidhoven.

WINDWARD Passage, a name given to a courfe
from the fouth-eaft angle of the ifland of Jamaica, in the
Weft Indies, and extending from 160 leagues to the north
fide of Crooked ifland, in the Bahamas. Ships have often
failed through this channel, from the north part of it to the
ifland of Cuba, or the gulf of Mexico, notwithftanding the
common opinion, on account of the current which is againil
it, that they keep the Bahama fliore on board, and that they
meet with the wind in fummer for the moll part of the
channel eafterly, which, with a counter current on fliore,
puflies them eafily through it.

WiKDWARD IJlands, in oppofition to Leeward. Thefe
iflands in the Weft Indies extend from Martinico to Tobago.
See West Indies.

Windward Point, a cape on the north-eaft coaft of the
ifland of St. Chriftopher. N. lat. 17° 23'. W. long. 62° 22'.

WINDY Tumours. See Tumour.

WINE, the fermented juice of the grape. The name is
alfo applied to the fermented juice of other fubacid fruits.

It is impoflible to fix the era when mankind firft dif-
covered fermented liquors. Some hiftorians have afcribed
the difcovery to Noah, others to Saturn, others to Bacchus,
&c. In Ihort, almoft every country in which the vine is
indigenous has boafted of fome individual or native deity,
to whom the honour has been attributed ; and if we refleft
upon the firaplicity of the procefles eflentially neceflary to
be had recourfe to in making mne, it will appear exceed-
ingly probable that the difcovery was not made by one
perfon or country exclufively, but by different individuals
and nations at very different periods. A poet has elegantly
reprefented wine as a recompence given by the deity for the
miferies brought upon mankind by the general deluge :

• Deus nobis fehcia vini

Dona dedit, triftes hominum quo munere fovit,
Reliquias ; mundi folatus vite ruinam."

Praedium Rufticum.

Different kinds of 'wine were known at a very early
period ; and as civilization and luxury advanced, the number
was greatly extended. Hence the cultivation of the vine
became an objeft of importance, and many new varieties
were produced, which, favoured by foil and fituation, ren-
dered particular places more famous than others. Thus the
ancient Romans not only poffeffed a great variety of native
wines, but, in the days of their greateft fplendour, thofe
alfo of diftant and ftill more favoured climes, as the V'inum
Chium, Lejlium, Leucadium, Rhodium, &c. &c. See Pliny,
xiv. 6.

Little is known refpefting the modes of manufacturing
fome of the moft celebrated of the ancient wines. The
general proceffes, however, did not perhaps differ much
from thofe at prefent in ufe. The fruit was collected,
bruifed by the feet, and fubjefted to prefTiire, as now prac-
tifed. The juice that firft flowed fpontaneoufly was called
xjdiToffov by the Greeks, and by the Romans vlnum prlmarlum ;
fuch as was obtained by prefliire was denominated "SivTi^itt,
or vlnum fecundarlum, and confidercd as inferior.

Both Greeks and Romans appear to have frequently con-
centrated their wines, either by fpontaneous evaporation, or
by boiling. For the former purpofe, the wine was fome-
times introduced into bladders or large jars, and expofed in

the chimney to the heat of the fire, or in the upper parts of

the houfe to the heat of the fun. Sometimes the fruit was i

converted into raifins by drying, and the wine prepared i

from fuch fruit was denominated pajfum. At other times ;

the mujl was reduced by boiling to one-half. This formed [

the -vlnum defrudum : occafionally even to one-third, when j

it was termed Sapa. ( See Phny, xiv. 9.) By one or per- 1

haps more of thefe methods, the wines were reduced to the I

ftate of fyrup, or in fome inftances even to drynefs, and j
were capable of being preferved for a very long time. Thus

Ariftotle ftates, that the Arcadian wines required to be i
diluted with water before they were drank, as indeed was

the cafe with moft of the ancient wines ; and Pliny fpeaks '

of wines as thick as honey, which it was neceffary to dif- ;

folve in warm water, and filter through linen, before they ■

were ufed. This was the cafe with the wine of Csecuba, ;

according to Martial : (

" Turbida folicito tranfmittere Cascuba facco." j

Pliny mentions Staphylus as the firft who mixed \yjne |
with water ; but Athena:us gives the credit of it to Am- j
phitryon, king of Athens. On this occafion a fable was .
invented, that Bacchus, having been ftruck by a thunder- i
bolt, and being all inflamed, was prefently caft into the
nymphs' bath, to be extinguifhed.

Thefe remarks, however, are applied by the above au- ■
thors chiefly to very old wines. Thus the wine compared
by Pliny to honey had been made two hundred years be-
fore, in the time of conful Opimius : indeed wines of a
hundred years old, and upwards, feem not to have been
uncommon among the luxurious citizens of ancient Rome. .
(See Hor. od. iii. 14. 18. Juvenal, v. 34.) And fimilar
allufions will be found in various other authors. Seven
years was the fliorteft period, according to Ariftotle and
Galen, for keeping a wine before it was fit for drinking.

Among the Romans, the age of wines was, as it were,
the criterion of their goodnefs. Horace, in his odes, which ;
one may call Bacchic fangs, boafts of his drinking Falernian ■
wine, born, as it were, with him, or which reckoned its
age from the fame confuls.

The age of wine has been reckoned by leaves : thus they
fay, wine of two, four, or fix leaves, to fignify a. wine
that was two, four, or fix years old ; taking each new leaf '
put forth by the vine, fince the wine was made, for a year.
The moderns keep no wine to fuch an age as that mentioned
by Pliny. Where they are kept the longeft, as in Italy ;
and Germany, there are fcarce any to be found of above '
fifteen leaves. In France, the wines that keep heft, as
thofe of Dijon, Nantz, and Orleans, are reckoned fuper-
annuated at five or fix years old.

Wine kept in a cool vault, and well fecured from the ex-
ternal air, will preferve its texture entire in all the conftituent
parts, and fufficiently ftrong for many years, as appears not
only from old wines, but other foreign fermented liquors,
particularly thofe of China, prepared from a decodlion of
rice, which being well clofed down in the veffel, and buried
deep under ground, will continue, for a long feries of years,
rich, generous, and good, as the hillories of that country
univerfally agree in affuring us.

Sir Edward Barry, in his Obfervations, hiftorical, criti-
cal, and medical, on the AVines of the Ancients, fuggefts,
that our beft modern wines, cfpecially thofe of a delicate
texture and flavour, may be more effeftually preferved in
earthen veffels of a larger fize than our bottles, well glazed
externally and internally : that dry fand is preferable for
covering the bottles in the binns to faw-duft j and that a

fraaU

WINE.

fniall anti-cellar, built before all large cellars, would b? a
coiifiderable defence and improvement.

The ancients were fond of giving their wines an artificial
flavour, and for this purpofe they introduced pitch, turpen-
tine, and different herbs into the mujl ; a practice ftill fol-
lowed by the modern Greeks. Plin. ul'i fupra.

Such are the principal fafts known refpefting the cele-
brated ancient wines, which, as Chaptal jultly remarks,
appear in general to have rather deferved the name of extralis
or fyrups than wines. They muft have been fweet and little
fermented, and confequcntly have contained a very fmall
proportion of alcohol. Indeed it is difficult to fuppofe how
they could contain any fpirit whatever, or pofiefs in confe-
quence any intoxicating properties.

The above remarks, however, can be only applicable to
thofe wines which the refinements of luxury or caprice had
rendered valuable, from their uncommon occurrence, or the
difficulty with which they were procured. It is certain that
the ancients were well acquainted vsdth the fermentative pro-
cefs, and ordinarily took advantage of it in the formation
of their wines : hence it is extremely probable that the wines
ufed in the primitive ftates of fociety, and perhaps at all
times by the common people, confifted fimply of the fer-
mented juice of the grape, and therefore differed in no
refpefts whatever from the wines in common ufe at the pre-
fent time.

General Principles of IVine-making. — We fhall confider this
interefting fubjeft under two principal points of view :
ift, The manufafture of wine from grapes ; and 2d, From
other fruits.

I. The manufafturing of wine from grapes is liable to be
influenced by a great variety of circumil;ances, fuch as cli-
mate, foil, afpeS, Jeafon, &c. ; of fome of the moft important
of which we (hall take a curfory view.

The vine is a native of the middle regions of the temperate
zone, that is to fay, between the latitudes of 25° and ^0°,
and here only does it flourilh and mature its fruit in abfolute
perfeftion. Indeed a belt comprifed between the latitudes
of 40° and 5o\ may be faid to include all the moll cele-
brated vineyards of the northern hemifphere ; thofe, namely,
of Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Auftria, Styrla, Carin-
thia, Hungary, Tranfylvania, and part of Greece. The
vine grows beyond the latitude of 50°, but its juices
are auilere, and without the requifite degree of faccharine
matter to form good wine. The fine aromatic odour and
flavour of its fruit alfo are not developed much beyond this
latitude. In the foulhern hemifphere, which is colder than
the northern, the vine flourifhes fomewhat nearer the
equator.

The vine grows in every foil, but that which is light and
gravelly is bell adapted for its cultivation. It flourifhes ex-
tremely well alfo in volcanic countries. Thus fome of the
befl wines in Italy are made in the neighbourhood of Vefu-
Vius. The famous Tokay wine is alfo made in a volcanic
diftrift, as are feveral of the befl French wines ; many parts
of the fouth of France bearing evident marks of extinft
volcanoes. The vine alfo flourifhes well in primitive coun-
tries, and efpecially among the debris of granite rocks : thus
the celebrated Hermitage wine is made from a foil of this
defcription.

The fame climate, foil, and mode of culture, however,
often produce wines of very different qualities. Pofition and
afpeft alone, all other circumflances being the fame, make
a prodigious difference. The fame vineyard, for example,
according as its different parts have a northern or fouthern
afpecl, will produce wines of oppofite charafters, as will
alfo the fame hill, at its top, middle, and bottom. The

afpeft mod favourable for a vineprd is upon a rifing
ground or hill facing the fouth-eafl, and the fituation fhould
not be too confined :

Bacchus amat coUes."

apertos

If the foil be not favourable for the vine no art can make
it fo. Manure of different forts will indeed render the fruit
more abundant, but the wine will fuffer in quality. Tht;
befl manure is flated to be the dung of pigeons or poultry.
Burnt fea-wrack alfo is a favourite manure with fome. Fai
and putrid manures are abfolutely to be rejefted, as they
defliroy the wine altogether, by vitiating its flavour.

The qualities of wines are very much affedled by the fea-
fons. In cloudy and wet feafons the wine is always inferior.
Rain is mofl to be dreaded at the feafon of the vintage.
Moderate rains jufl after the feafon of bloom are of great ad-
vantage, and caufe the fruit to fwell very rapidly. Rough
winds are very prejudicial to vineyards. Mifts are ftill more
fo, efpecially during the feafon of bloom, as they are apt to
deftroy the flower, and confequently the fruit : the reafon
of this is perhaps not very evident, but it feems to depend in
part upon the rapid evaporation of the moifture left by the
fogs, when the fun breaks through them, and the great and
fudden change of temperature which takes place in conie-
quence. Too great a degree of heat is injurious to the vine ;
the perfeftion of their fruit, as well obferved by Chaptal,
depends upon a due equihbrium between the quantity of
water affording aliment to the plant, and the degree of heat
neceffary to elaborate this water into its juices.

Towards the northern limits of the vine country, the
plants are always fupported on poles, and in cold and wet
feafons they fometimes ftrip off the leaves, or twift the ftalks
of the clufters, in order to fupprefs vegetation and facilitate
the ripening of the grapes. The latter praftjce was not
unknown to the ancients : " Ut dulcia praeterea fierent, af-
fervabant uvas diutius in vite, ^fffifu/o in^or/o." Pliny. But
in warmer climates, on the contrary, the earth requires to be
fhielded from the heat, and here the vine is generally left to
fpread over the ground, and thus by its foliage to protect
the foil, as well as its fruit, from the direft rays of the
fun. With refpeft to the beft methods of pruning and train-
ing vines, fee the articles Vine, and Vitis.

Of the Vintage. — It is of the utmoft importance in the
manufafture of wines, to attend to the precife moment when
the grapes have arrived at their full maturity ; and then, and
not before, ought the vintage in general to commence.
This may be known, according to Chaptal, by the follow-
ing figns.

1. The green end of the clufter becomes brvown.

2. The clufter becomes pendant.

3. The feed lofes its hardnefs, and the (kin becomes thin
and tranfparent.

4. The clufter and feeds are eafily detached.

5. The juice is fweet, bland, thick, and clammy.

6. The kernels of the feeds are free from glutinous
matter.

The fall of the leaves denotes rather the approach of win*
ter than the maturity of the fruit, efpecially in the more
northern climates. This therefore is a fallacious fign. Ne-
verthelefs, when the froft has been fo fevere as to deftroy
the leaves, it will feldom be proper to delay the vintage much
longer, as the fruit can hardly be expefted after this to be-
come ripe ; and by delay it may ftand a chance of being
fpoiled entirely.

On the contrary, in the manufafture of particular wines,

tlie grapes are permitted to remain till they wither, or they

3 T 2 are

WINE.

are gathered and dried in the fun. Thus the celebrated
Tokay wine is made of dried fruit, as are alfo many of the
lufcious wines of Italy. Some of the French wines like-
wife are made with fruit that has been fuffered to ripen
and wither upon the vines.

It is defirable in general that the weather (hould be fet-
tled, and the foil and fruit dry during the vintage. It is
therefore recommended to abftain from gathering till the
fun has difperfed the dew. As a general rule, this is proper ;
but in Champagne they commence gathering the fruit before
the fun is rifen, and ceafe their labours about nine o'clock,
unlefs there be a fog, when they continue to gather all day ;
by thefe means they improve the whitenefs and brilknefs of
their wine, which are the qualities that chiefly render them
celebrated. They alfo increafe their quantity. Thus it is
found in Champagne, that they gain a tun in every twenty-
four where they coUeft the fruit moift. with dew, and a great
deal more if there happens to be a fog.

When the fruit is ripe, a proper number of experienced
hands (hould be procured, fo as to be able, in a fingle day, to
fill the fermenting tub or vat, in order to enfure an uniform
degree of fermentation. Women are comrnonly employed
for the purpofe, but the prefence of an intelligent male over-
feer is abfolutely necefTary. In fome parts of France the
fruit is feparated with fciffors ; in others with the nail ; and
in Champagne they ufe a knife. The fciifors is undoubtedly
preferable, as it does not (hake the ftock. The ripe fruit
only (hould be collefted, if the objeft be to make good
wine, and what is unripe or decayed (hould be carefully re-
jefted ; indeed they have always two or three feparate vin-
tages in thofe countries, where they are careful of the qua-
lity of their wines ; and the wine made firft is always confi-
dered the beft. In thofe parts, on the contrary, where the
wine is chiefly diftilled, as in Languedoc and Provence,
they ufually coUeft all the fruit indifcriminately at one time.
In fome diftriiSs, where the fineft wines are made, as in
Bourdeaux, &c. the fruit is carefully picked, and only the
prime of the clufters taken. On the contrary, they care-
fully avoid having the fruit too ripe in Champagne, and other
diftrifts where fparkling wines are chiefly manufaftured, and
prefer the prefence of a certain proportion of unripe fruit.
It need fcarcely be remarked, that the greateft care (hould
be taken to prevent the fruit from being bruifed or other-
wife damaged.

The next important ftep is the management of the fruit
after it has been coUefted. In different countries different
preliminary fteps are purfued before the fruit is fubraitted
to preffure. Thus in Spain, efpecially in the neighbour-
hood of St. Lucar, they leave the fruit expofed for two
days to the rays of the fun. In Lorraine, part of Italy,
in Calabria, and the ifland of Cyprus, as before obferved,
they dry the fruit completely, and this is the cafe in the
nianufafture of all the rich white wines.

A queftion that has been much agitated is, whether it be
advantageous to ftrip the grapes from the ftalks and remove
the latter, or fuffer them to remain. Both thefe methods have
their advocates ; but Chaptal remarks very properly that
neither ought to be followed exclufively. It is true, the fame
celebrated chemiil obferves, that the ftems have a rough and
auftere tafte; but this appears to be of advantage to fome wines,
efpecially thofe made in the more northern diftrifts, where the
flight aftringency imparted by the ftems correfts their infipidi-
ty, and appears to have the property of making them keep
better, perhaps by rendering the fermentation more complete.
In the neighljourhood of Bourdeaux, indeed, they remove
the ftalks from the red grapes in the manufafturing of their
beft wines, but they modify that part of the procefs in fome

degree according to the ripenefs of the fruit : when the
fruit is unripe, or has been injured by the froft, they remove
nearly the whole of the ftalks, but if the fruit be over-ripe
they leave a very large proportion of them. A certain por-
tion, however, is always permitted to remain with the view of
facilitating the fermentative procefs, and rendering it more
perfeft. From the v/hite grapes, the ftalks are never re-
moved. In (hort, in the colder diftrifts, where the wines
are of an inferior quality, or where the objeft is to render
the wines as ftrong as polTible, with the view of diftiUing them,
the ftems in general do not require to be removed ; but in
warmer countries, where the finer-flavoured and richer wines
are manufaftured, every thing liable to afFeft thefe defirable
qualities is to be carefully removed, and the ftems among the
reft. The ftems are feparated in various ways : fometimes
by agitating the grapes in the veffels in which they are de-
pofited with three-pronged forks, fometimes by coarfe fieves
made of oziers, &c.

The next important ftep is bruifing the fruit, which is
generally performed by treading them with the feet in per-
forated tubs or bafl'Cets placed over the -vat or tub deftined
to receive the muft. This mode of bruifing grapes, though
as ancient perhaps as wine-making itfelf, is very imperfeft,
as a great deal of the fruit remains unbroken. In England
we (hould adopt the ufe of machinery.

Of Fermentation, the Circumflances affe8\ng it, Phenomena,
ProduHs, &c. — The juice, or mujl, as it is termed, is no fooner
in the -vat than it ufually begins to ferment. The vat is a
capacious veffel made of wood or fometimes of mafonry, and
its fize correfponds, or ought to correfpond, with the quan-
tity of wine to be made. Before it is ufed, it requires to
be tkoroughly walhed, and its fides in France are ufually
covered with lime, which has the effeft of faturating a por-
tion of the malic and other acids which exift in abundance
in the muJl.

The fermentative procefs has been already defcribed (fee
Fermentation ); we (hall therefore be very brief upon the
fubjeft here, and confine our attention principally to a con-
cife recapitulation of the particulars, in order to prefent
our readers with a general and connefted view of the art of
wine-making.

The vinous fermentation is influenced by feveral circum-
ftances, fuch as temperature, prefence of the air, the volume
of the muft, &c. The muft of the grape requires a tem-
perature of at leaft 55°, to enable it to commence the fer-
mentative procefs. Some have denied that the prefence
of the air is necefTary to fermentation. The recent ex-
periments of Gay LufTac, however, feem to prove the
reverfe. This celebrated chemift found that the muft
would not begin to ferment in clofe veflfels, but that
the introduftion of a little oxygen inftantly fet it going ;
the oxygen being firft rapidly abforbed. Perhaps we may
explain the oppofite conclufions of different experimentalifts
upon this fubjeft, by fuppofing that the prefence of oxygen,
though necefl'ary to enable the muft to commence ferment-
ation, is not neceffary to fupport it afterwards. The fer-
mentative procefs is much influenced by the bulk or quantity
of the muft. It is a well-eftabh(hed faft, that the greater
the quantity the more violent is the fermentation. An ex-
perienced manufafturer of wine, therefore, will take care to
proportion the quantity of muft to the qualities of his fruit,
or rather perhaps to thofe of the wine which it is his objeft
to procure : the fweeter and more lufcious the muft, the
greater the quantity in general, which it will be proper to
lubmit to the fermentative procefs in one mafs.

Other important circumftances which influence the fer-
Bientative procefs arc the requifite quantities and due relative

proportions

WINE.

proportions to one another of the neceflary principles. The
iaccharine and fermentative principles, tartar and water, are
the principles (as explained under the article Fermentation)
cfleutial to the produftion of wine. The fweeteft grapes do
not always make the bell wine, nor actually contain the
greateft proportion of fugar, at leaft of real fugar, fuch as
is proper for the formation of alcohol. An experienced
tafte, it is faid, can readily diftinguifh between a really fac-
(har'int grape and ^ftucet grape ; and confequently pronounce
k priori whether it be adapted for making good wine or not.
Pure faccharine matter, however, will not ferment alone,
but requires a certain proportion of other principles to put
it in motion. When the mull contains too large a proportion
of water, the fermentative procefs is feeble, and the wine is
confequently bad. The ancients obviated this, as we before
mentioned, by boiling the mud ; a praftice ftill fometimes
followed in the northern diflrifts, efpecially in wet feafons.
The fame objeft is gained alfo by drying the fruit ; and
fometimes by the introduftion of hme into the vat. The
juice of the grape always contains a certain proportion of
tartar. This quantity is greater in general as the quantity
of fugar is lefs. If the juice contains too large a propor-
tion of fugar in relation to the tartar, it is cullomary to add
a portion of the latter principle. On the contrary, if the
faccharine principle be deficient and the tartar in excefs,
■fugar is to be added.

The fermentative procefs is accompanied by the produc-
tion of heat, by the difengagement of carbonic acid gas,
and the formation of alcohol. Thefe phenomena have been
already difcuffed under the article above alluded to. An-
other important circumftance, however, which takes place
during this procefs, is the celourmg of the mull. The
juice of the black grape, as well as of the white, is nearly
colourlefs ; and if the fermentation be not permitted to take
place in contaft with the hulks or marc, a colourlefs wine is
obtained in all cafes. The colour of red wines is derived
from the marc, by permitting the wine to ferment in contaft
with itj the colouring principle of the marc or huflcs being
foluble in alcohol. Hence, when alcohol begins to be de-
veloped by the fermentative procefs, it a£ls upon the colour-
ing principle and diflblves it, and the mud becomes coloured.
The following are the principal fafts connefted with this part
of the fubjeft. The wine is more coloured the longer the
fermentative procefs is continued, and vice verfd. The wine
is more coloured in proportion as the fruit is more ripe and
I lefs watery. Wine obtained by preffure is more coloured
I than other wine, and laftly wines manufaftured in the fouth
r are in general deeper coloured than thofe produced in more
[ northern diftrifts.

i Great attention and praftical knowledge are required in
I managing the fermentation properly, as on this important
! procefs depend entirely the future qualities of the wines.
I The fame fruit in different feafons, and from various caufes,
; requires to be managed differently ; and almoft every kind
i of wine requires a different, and, in fome cafes, even an
I oppofite, mode of treatment. Thus the fine bouquet of Bur-
: gundy is completely diffipated by a too violent or lafling
! fermentation ; while, on the contrary, the fermentation of the
I ftrong wines of Languedoc, celebrated chiefly for the quan-
jtity of alcohol which they contain, ought to be long and
I complete. In Champagne, as we formerly mentioned, they
I coUeft the fruit deftined to form their white wines while moid
' with dew or mill : on the contrary, in the manufaifture of their
I red wines, they prefer fruit as dry as pofTible. In the for-
imcr cafe, the fermentative procefs is fo languid, as often to
I require a gentle heat ; in the latter, fo violent, as to require
to be moderated. Weak wines opght in gena-al to be fer-

mented in cafl<3 ; ftrong wines in the vat. No general rules,
however, can be given that will apply in all inflances ; but
the proceffes muft be varied according to circumflances, and
the judgment of the manufafturer.

The fermentative procefs, for obvious reafons, is moft
difficult to manage in the northern diftrifts, where the fruit
is more imperfeft. To encourage the procefs, they fome-
times introduce a little warm mult to the bottom of the vat
by means of a long funnel. They alfo agitate it frequently,
and to preferve a due degree of temperature, cover the vat
with blankets, or heat the room artificially.

The theory or rationale of the fermentative procefs has
been explained, as far as it is known, under the article Fer-
mentation, before alluded to ; we fhall therefore pafs it over
entirely here, and confine our attention to praftical points
only.

A mofl material point in the manufafture of wines is to
know the precife moment when the fermentative procefs has
been carried far enough, and the means neceflary to prevent
its getting farther than this point. In the wine countries al-
moft every nianufa£lurer boafts of his knowledge in thefe
particulars, and often adopts different methods. Chaptal
lays down the following rules to be attended to.

1. The wine ought to ferment fo much the lefs time as it
contains lefs faccharine matter. Thus the light wines of
Burgundy require to ferment no longer than from fix to
twelve hours.

2. The muft ought to ferment a lefs time in the vat when it
is intended to retain the carbonic acid gas, and make fparkling
wines. In this cafe, the muft is feldom left longer in the vat
than twenty-four hours before it is put into caflis ; and fre-
quently it is introduced into the caflcs as foon as it is fepa-
rated from the fruit ; by thefe means the fermentation is
checked, and the carbonic acid gas prevented from efcaping.

3. The fermentation ought to be of ihorter duration, in pro-
portion as it is the objeft to obtain wines more free from colour.
This (hould be, therefore, particularly attended to in the ma-
nufafture of thofe wines where the abfence of colour is an
elFential requifite.

4. The fermentative procefs is more aftive in warm wea-
ther, and when the mafs is large, &c. than under the oppo-
fite circumttances ; and therefore, ceteris paribus, is fooner
completed.

5. When the objeft is to preferve to the wine the origin^
perfumed flavour of the grape, the fermentation requires to
be checked fooner than under ordinary circumftances.

6. On the contrary, the fermentation requires to be con-
tinued longer in proportion as the muft is more thick, and
the faccharine matter more abundant.

7. It will alfo require to be longer when the objeft is to
manufafture wines for ditlillation.

8. It will be longer in cold weather, and efpecially if the
fruit has been gathered on a very cold day.

9. Laftly, it will be longer in proportion as it is the ob-
jeft to make a deeper coloured wine.

Thefe principles fteadily kept in view will perhaps be fuf-
ficient, with a little praftice, to enable any perfon of ordi-
nary knowledge and powers of obfervation to decide upon
the important points in queftion.

Great care is requifite in the preparation of the cafks for
receiving the wine. When they are new, they will fpoil its
flavour if not prevented. For this purpofe, boihng-water,
holding fait in folution, is introduced into them, which is
frequently agitated, and permitted to remain in them a long
time. After this they are to be wafhed out with a portion
of boiling muft in a ftate of fermentation, or fometimes with
a little wine, &c. If the caflce are old but fweet, the top is
2 merely

WINE.

merely taken out, and the tartar removed ; they are then
waflied well with warm water. If the calks have acquired
a bad odour, Chaptal recommends to commit them to the
flames ; for though it may be poffible to cover in fome de-
gree their bad odours, yet they are very likely to re-appear
and fpoil the wine.

The veflels being ready, the wine is introduced into them,
for which purpofe it is drawn off from the vat by a cock
placed a few inches above the bottom into an open veflel,
from whence it is conveyed to the calks. That portion of
the wine retting immediately over the muft is termed /ur;non<
in Burgundy. This is carefully defecated, as it confti-
tutes the moft dehcate and paleft of the wine. The Hquor
is drawn off till the head comes in contacl with the marc.
The head is then carefully removed, and the mare is fub-
jefted to repeated prelFure. The wine thus farther obtained
is ufually mixed with the reft. That produced by the firil
preffure is ftrongeft ; that obtained by the laft is ufually more
harfh and coloured. Sometimes, however, when it is the
objeft to make vinegar, the marc is preifed but once. At
other times, they keep the wine obtained by all the different
prefTures in feparate ca(]<;s. In Champagne they ufually mix
together the wines obtained by the different prefTures, though
they are known by different names. The wines obtained
without any preffure, or a very flight one, they call vinsgris ;
thofe obtained by the firft and fecond preffure, ceil de perdrix ;
thofe by the third, vin de tallle, which are moft coloured,
though fufBciently agreeable.

The marc is employed in various ways in the different dif-
triAs. Some fubmit it to diftillation ; others, efpecially
in the vicinity of Montpellier, prepare verdigris from it ;
others vinegar. In fome diftrifts, they feed cattle with it ;
in others, they burn it for the fake of the potafh it yields, Sec.
Of the Management of the IVine in the Cajhs. — The wine
receives its laft degree of elaboration in the caflis ; this con-
fifts in a fort of fermentative procefs, to which the name of
infenfible fermentatitn'hs.i been applied. Almoft immediately
after the wine is introduced into the caflcs, a fcum begins to
be formed upon its top, and efcapes by the bung-hole, which
at firft requires to be covered flightly only with a leaf or
tile. In proportion as the fermentation fubfides, the mafs of
wine diminifhes in bulk ; and they watch this cautioufly, in
order to fupply its place from time to time with new wine,
fo as to keep the caflc always full : this procefs is denomi-
nated in France ouiller, which may be rendered filling up.
In fome diftrifts x\iey fill up every day during the firfl month,
every other day during the fecond, and every eight days
afterwards, till the time of racking. This is the method
they adopt with the wines of Hermitage. In Champagne
they permit the vins gris to ferment in cafks for ten or twelve
days, and when the ebulHtion has ceafed, they clofe the
bung-hole, leaving, however, a fmall fpigot-hole by its fide,
which is permitted to remain open for eight or ten days
longer ; after which they clofe this veith a plug, in fuch a
manner as to be able to open it at pleafure. When
the bungs are introduced, they fill up every eighth day
by the fpigot, for twenty-five days. After this every fif-
teenth day, for one or two months ; and finally, every two
months during the whole time the wine remains in the cellar.
When the feafon has been wet and unfavourable, and the
wines want body, or when it has been dry and hot, and
they are too rich, twenty-five days after they have been
made, they roll the caflis five or fix times, in order to mix
the grounds, and re-excite the fermentative procefs, and this
they repeat every eighth day for a month.

The fermentation of the Champagne wines, which are de-
figned to be briflt and fparkling, is very long and tedious.

It is generally underftood that they will be fparkling, pro-
vided they are bottled any time between the vintage and
the following May, and that the nearer the vintage the
briflver they will be. It is, however, generally taken for
granted, that they will be fufficiently fparkUnglf bottled
about the middle of March. Wines begin to fparkle in
about fix weeks after they have been bottled ; thofe, how-
ever, produced on mountains become fparkling fooner
than others. Wines bottled in June and July will be
very little fparkling, and quite fiill if bottled fo late as
Oftober and November.

In Burgundy, after the fermentation has relaxed in the
cafk, they put in a bung pierced with a fmall hole, in which
they introduce a plug that can be eafily removed at pleafure,
in order to fuffer the gas that may be extricated to efcape.
In the diftrift of Bourdeaux, they begin to fill up eight or
ten days after the wine has been introduced into the calk.
A month after this they introduce the bung, zndfill up
every eight days. At firft they bung the caflcs loofely,
and then fallen them down by degrees, without run-
ning any rifle. The white wines are racked and fulphured
in December, and thefe require much more care than the
red wines, from their containing more fediment, and their
being more liable to become ropy. The red wines are not
racked till towards February or March, and as thefe are
much more apt to become four than the white wines, they
require to be kept in cooler cellars during the fummer.
There are fome who, after the fecond racking, turn the
caflvs fo as to place the bung on one fide ; and thus
the caflcs being hermetically fealed from there being no
lofs, there is no need of filling up. They then rack off
annually, at any time of the year they find it convenient.

Methods nearly fimilar are adopted in other wine coun-
tries ; hence it will be needlefs to repeat them. We fhall,'
however, give a fhort account of the methods followed in
the manufaAure of Port, Madeira, and Sherry, the moft
popular wines of this country.

In Oporto, the complete fermentation of the muft takes
place in the vat. The wine is then introduced into large tuns,
capable of holding twenty -five pipes each ; and at this ftage
the brandy is added according to the judgment of the ma-
nufafturer.

In Madeira, the fecond or infenfible fermentation is car-
ried on in cafks, and the wine is racked from them at the erhd
of three or four months, at which lime a portion of the
brandy is added. The remainder is referved to be mixed at
the time of exportation.

In the manufafturc of Sherry, the grapes are firft flightly
dried, and fprinkled with quick-lime. They are then wetted
with brandy on being introduced into the prefs, and a por-
tion of brandy is added to the muft before the fermentation
commences. The fnbfequent proceffes confift in repeated
rackings at intervals of a month or two, till March, brandy
being added at each racking.

The objeft of racking the wines is to feparate the dregs
confifting of tartar, &c. depofited from the wine, ar.d which,
if left, are liable to render it four, by re-exciting from time
to time the fermentation. The tendency to fermentation is
counteraftcd by a procefs termed fulphuriiig, and the fpon-
taneous feparation of the dregs is rendered more complete by ■
Clarification, which fee. See alfo Fining and Forcing.'

The fulphuring of wines confifts in impregnating them
with the vapours of burnuig fulphur, or fulphurous acid, and
is generally effefted by burning fulphur-matches in the cafks.
(See Matching.) Thefe matches are made in different
ways, aromatics being fomctimes mixed with the fulphur ;
but the fulphur is the only ufeful and neceffary ingredient.

Sometimes

WINE.

Sometimes a wine highly impregnated with fulphurous acid is
prepared, a little of wliich mixed with the reft anfwero the
purpofeof burning matches in the caHv. Other fubftances,
according to Dr. MaccuUoch, anfwer the fame pnrpofe as
Julphuring ; namely, the blaci oxyd of maiiganefe, and parti-
cularly the fulphite of potajh. A drachm of which fait is
fufRcient for a pipe of wine, and is very efFeAual in counter-
afting the fermentative procefs. The theory of thefe pro-
ceffes is very obfcure.

We have before obferved that the mere racking of wines is
not fufGcient to render them pure, and various methods are
adopted at the racking periods to render this operation more
effedlual, and thefe altogether conftitute the procefs termed
clarification.

Lord Bacon mentions a practice among the ancients of
putting wine into veffels well Hopped, and letting it down
into the fi-a. That this practice is very ancient is manifell
from the difcourfe of Plutarch (Quasft. Nat. 27. ) about the
efficacy of cold upon muft.

Different periods, as before -mentioned, are chofen in dif-
ferent dillrifts for racking wines. Thus the wines of Her-
mitage are racked in March and September, thofeof Cham-
pagne about the middle of Oftober, the middle of February,
and the latter end of March. If poflible, a ierene and fet-
tled ftate of the atmofphere, and a dry and cold day, fhould
be chofen for the purpofe, as the wine is always turbid in
damp clofe weather, and during the prevalence of foutherly
winds.

In racking wines, it is in general defirable to expofe them
as little as poflible to the atmofpheric air. In fome didrifts,
a fyphon is employed for the purpofe. In Champagne they
ufe a fort of pump. Dr. MaccuUoch recommends that the
wine (hould be transferred from one caflc to another by means
of a leather hofe, and this method is undoubtedly preferable.
For clarifying wines, a great variety of fubftances are em-
ployed. Ifinglafs and albumen either from eggs or blood
are the moft common ; but gum, ftarch, rice, milk, the
(havings of beech-wood, gypfum, fand, &c. are ufcd in dif-
ferent wine countries. An ounce of ifinglafs, or about
eighteen or twenty whites of eggs, are fufficient for one
hundred gallons of wine.

Two very important circumftances in the praftice of wine-
making require yet to be mentioned ; thefe are the medication
of wines, and the means of remedying thofe difeafes to which
they are liable.

The medicaiion of wines confifts in altering the colour,
the flavour, or the ftrength of any given wine, or in fo mixing
two or more together, as to produce a compound differing
from, or fuperior to, either. It is difficult to give any gene-
ral rules for this purpofe, and the proper management of the
proceffes depends chiefly upon the experience and tafte of
the maker.

It generally happens that when two wines are mixed, the
fermentative procefs is partially renewed, or the mixture is
technically faid to fret, whence the praftice itfelf has derived
the name oi fretting In. Mixed wines appear to unite into
one durable and homogeneous liquor, only in confequenceof
this fermentation. It is therefore defirable, if poffible, to
mix wines only at thofe periods when they both ftiew a ten-
dency to fretting, which, according to Chaptal, in the wine
countries, appears to be at three principal feafons of the
year, viz. when the vines begin to {hoot, when they are in
flower, and when the fruit begins to acquire colour. The
wines being then proportioned according to the fancy or
experience of the maker, a ftrong fermentation is excited,
which is ilill farther affifted by agitation. The wine thus
becomes homogeneous, and fticws no more tendency to far-

II

ther change than if it had been originally produced by one
operation ; and the repetition of the proceffes of fining and
racking renders it perfeft.

In wine countries, particular wines, diftinguiftied either by
their ftrength, harflmefs, colour, or flavour, are often ma-
nufaftured for mixing with others, and are applied ac-
cording to circumftances. For making fuch wines, dif-
ferent fruit and pecuhar management are often reforted to.
The ufual faults of wines requiring correftion 3.Te, fweetneft,
drynefs bordering on acidity, and excefs or defeft of brifk-
nefs. Connefted alfo with this part of the fubjeft are the
means of imparting to wine colour, flavour, andflrength, and
other remarkable properties. Sweetnefs arifes from the
prefence of too much faccharine matter, and may be gene-
rally remedied by prolonging the fermentation. On the
contrary, when the fermentation has been carried fo far as
to decompofe the whole of the fugar, the wine is faid to
be dry ; and if the original quantity of fugar has been rather
defeftive, it will have a ftrong tendency to become four.
The remedy in this cafe is, to add fugar, or fometimes
brandy. The modes of enfuring a due degree of bri/inefs
in thofe wines intended to poflefs this quahty have been
already pointed out.

Many of the proceffes followed in imparting colour,
flavour, firength. Sec. to wines, are unknown to the public, and
confined to the cellars of the manufafturer or the merchant.
The general principles, however, are fufSciently obvious.
The roughnefs and colour of red wines are derived, as we
formerly ftated, from the huflcs of the fruit ; and when it is
wifhed to impart thefe qualities in a higher degree, the
manufafturers fometimes mix a certain portion of wild and
high-coloured grapes with the other fruit. At other times,
various aftringent and coloured drugs are employed, as
catechu, kino, logwood, &c. : popular ingredients are the
juices of floes or elderberries. The chips of oak and
beech-wood are alfo employed. With refpedl to yellow
tints, thefe can be all accurately imitated by means of burnt
fugar. As to flavours, in general thofe which are foreign
and unufual are commonly unpleafant. Cuftom, however,
has reconciled us to many. The ancients, as formerly men-
tioned, feem to have been much more accuftomed to arti-
ficial flavours than the moderns, and the moft in requeft
was the turpentine or relinous flavour, which was imparted
by means of chips of fir-wood, a pradlice ftill followed in
modern Greece. In Madeira wines, as well as thofe of
Xeres and San Lucar, it is the praftice at prefent to ufe
fweet and bitter almonds ; hence the nutty flavour of thefe
wines. In Egypt, the flower of the vine itfelf has been
employed from time immemorial, and is ftill ufed in different
wine countries ; its odour is very like that of mignonette,
which may be doubtlefs fubiHtuted for it. Rafpberries,
orris-root, elder-flowers, worm-wood, and a variety of other
fubftances, are employed for a fimilar purpofe. In ufing
thefe different articles, the eftabliflied praftice is to fufpend
the flavouring ingredients in the caflc a few days during the
ftage of infenfible fermentation ; by which means their
flavour is retained without a chance of being diffipated.
Where the ftrength of wine is deficient, brandy is added,
according to circumftances ; and to render the mixture of
this more complete, it fliould be added while the procefs
of infenfible fermentation is going on. If there be a necef-
fity to add it after the wine is completed, it Ihould then be
managed by the fretting-in procefs.

The laft of the circumftances conncdled with wine-making
is the means of obviating thofe difeafes to which wines are
liable.

One of the moft common difeafes of weak wines is acidity.

Strong

WINE.

Strong wines, for obvious reafons, feldom become four.
When acidity is prefent only in a very flight degree, it may
be palliated confiderably by fugar, or by the addition of mud
concentrated by boiling. It is obvious, however, that the acid
can only be got rid of by neutralizing or deftroying it. For
this purpofe, the alkalies and alkaline earths have been era-
ployed, but they impart a difagreeable flavour to the wine.
Of thefe fubftances, lime is the fafeil and beft. It was for-
merly the praftice to employ lead, in fome form or other,
for counteradting acidity in wines ; but we truil that this
murderous pradlice has been long fince laid afide. Ropi-
nefs is another difeafe to which wines are liable. This
occurs more particularly in thofe which contain a good deal
of extraftive matter. It may be much relieved, and fome-
tiraes cured, by expofing the bottles to the fun and air, by
agitating and fubfequently uncorking them, by adding a fmall
quantity of vegetable acid, and by fining. The laft difeafe
we fhall notice is perhaps the moft formidable of any,
namely, a mujlinefs, or other ill-flavour communicated by
the calk or cork. This appears to be, in general, abfo-
lutely incurable, though it may be fometimes diminifhed by
agitating the wine in contaft with the air, or by the intro-
duAion of common air or carbonic acid by pumping. Such
is a fummary account of wine-making from grapes, as
praftifed in the co^intries where that delicious fruit comes
to perfeftion, and more efpecially in France. (See Birch's
Hift. of the Royal Society, vol. i. p. ij6. ) We come now
to confider,

2. The Manuf alluring of Wines from other Fruits, or

artificial Wines In the above llietch we have endeavoured

to prefent our readers with a general view of the principles
of wine-making, at the fame time that we defcribed the
praftice. Thefe principles are equally applicable to the
manufafture of wine from all forts of fruit ; we (hall there-
fore take the prefent opportunity of briefly recapitulating
them here, as they cannot be too ftrongly imprefled upon
the memory, and as they at the fame time conftittite the moft
appropriate introduftion to the prefent feftion that occurs
to us.

The juice of the grape confifts of a large proportion of
water, holding in folution certain proportions al faccharine
matter, of the fweel or fermenting principle, which appears to
be a modification of the faccharine principle, of -various acids,
efpecially the tartaric and malic, and of various ill-defined
extraltive matters. Thefe principles, left to themfelves for
a (hort time in a medium temperature, foon begin to re-aft
upon one another, and fome of them at length undergo re-
markable changes. This procefs is termed fermentation,
and conftitutes the grand principle of wine-making. When
this procefs has begun to fubfide, it will be found that the
greater portion of the faccharine principle has difappeared,
and that its place is fupplied by a correfponding portion
of ardent fpirit or alcohol. This is the moft ftriking feature
of the change that has taken place, but all the other prin-
ciples of the juice or mujl appear to have undergone like-
wife fome change either in quality or quantity. In Ihort,
the fweet and crude juice of the grape is found to be con-
verted into ivine.

In this ftate, the nvine is introduced into cafks, where it
undergoes further changes, and is matured by a modification
of the fermentative procefs, which has been called the infen-
Jihle fermentation. This is a moft important Itep in the
procefs of wine-making, as by different modes of manage-
ment in this ftage almoft the whole of that infinite variety
which exifts among wines is produced. Here alfo it is
that all foreign fubftances defigned to impart flavour, &c.
to wines are in general introduced with the greateft pro-

priety. When the infenfible fermentation has been carried t<»
the point defired, it is checked by the procefles of raciing, '
fulphuring, clarification, &c. ; and thus the v/ine is rendered
capable of being preferved at any point or ftate we choofe.

Let us now apply thefe principles to the manufadture of
wines from other fruits.

We ftart upon the grounds that artificial wines are
intended to be imitations of wines prepared from grapes.
In tlie firft place, therefore, we have to prepare a
juice or muft fimilar to the juice or muft of the grape
in its general compofition. Now, no fruit whatever
yields a juice precifely fimilar to that of the grape.
In our northern climate more efpecially, the faccharine
principle, which is the fundamental principle in wine-
making, exifts in very minute proportion in moft fruits. .
It muft be, therefore, fupplied artificially. The tartaric .
acid, or rather tartar, which appears to be another elTential
principle in wine-making, is likewife wanting in moft of
our fruits. This, therefore, muft be fupplied. On the
contrary, other principles, and particularly the malic acid,
appear to exift in too large a proportion in moft of our
fruits, which, in their natural ftate, are thus better adapted
for making cyders than wines. To get rid of the malic acid,
and to prevent its deteriorating effefts, as well as the dete-
riorating effefts of other foreign principles, is difficult, or
perhaps impolllble ; and this will doubtlefs always render arti-
ficial wines in general inferior to thofe of the grape, though
very near approaches may be made by judicious manage-
ment.

The praftical mode of obviating thefe diiBculties is to
dilute the juice of the fruit to fuch a degree, that a given
quantity of it when diluted (hall contain no more of the
malic acid, for example, than a given quantity of the juice
of the grape ; and, as before obferved, to fupply artificially
the two grand principles, fugar and tartar, which are wanting.
Having thus prepared an artificial muft, as nearly refembling
in its compofition that of the grape as pofTible, the appli-
cation of the other principles will be obvious, as we have
nothing to do but to manage, in general, all the fubfequent
proceffes precifely as if we were operating upon the muft of
the grape. We (hall now, therefore, defcend from generals
to particulars, and, after having made a few remarks upon
our native fruits, endeavour to point out the modes in which
the more important foreign wines may be beft imitated by
them.

Fancy or caprice has led to the formation of wine from an
infinite variety of fubftances, and almoft every good houfe-
wife boafts of fome favourite receipt for making wines from
what nature never intended for the purpofe. Such com-
pounds hardly deferve the name of ivine ; we (hall, therefore,
principally confine our attention to fruits. The follow- _
ing are the domeftic fruits moft ufually employed for the '■
purpofe : ■

Goofeberry, and three varieties of currant.
Strawberry, rafpberry, blackberry, mulberry.
Sloe, damfon, elderberry.
Qpince, cherry.
Britifh grapes.
To them may be added the foreign fruits

Raifins.

Orange, lemon.
The goofeberry and cnrrant are of all others the fruits
moft commonly employed for the fabrication of artificial
wines ; and, perhaps, upon the whole, they are beft
adapted for the purpofe. Wlien ufed in their green ftate,
both goofeberry and currant may be made to form light

brilk

WINE.

brifk wines, falling little fhort of Champagne. Ripe
goofeberries are capable of making fweet or dry wines ; but
thefe are commonly ill-flavoured, particularly if the hulk
has not been carefully excluded. Ripe currants, if pro-
perly managed, make much better wines than goofeberries.
Thefe fruits are much improved, according to Dr. Maccul-
loch, by boiling previoafly to fermentation. This, he
ftates, is particularly the cafe with the black currant,
which, when thus managed, is capable of making a wine
<lofely refembhng fome of the beft of the fweet Cape wines.

The ilravrberry and rafpberry are capable of making
both dry and fweet wines of agreeable quality. As com-
monly managed, however, their peculiar flavour is diffipated
in the procefs ; hence, as Dr. Macculloch obferves, little is
gained by their ufe to compenfate for their comparatively
nigh price. A fimple infufion of thefe fruits, in any
flavourlefs currant wine during the period of infenfible fer-
mentation, will, with greater cheapnefs and certainty,
enfiire the produftion of their peculiar flavour. The
blackberry and mulben-y are capable of making coloured
wines, if managed with that view : they are deficient, how-
ever, in the aftringent principle ; neverthelefs, they may be
occafionally employed with advantage when a particular
objeft is to be gained.

The floe and damfon are fo aflbciated in qualities, that
nearly the fame refults are obtained from both. Their
juice is acid and aftringent ; and hence they are qualified
only for making dry wines. By a due admixture of cur-
rants or elderberries with floes or damfons, wines not much
unlike the inferior kinds of port are often produced. The
elderberry is capable of making an excellent red wine. Its
cheapnefs alfo recommends it. It does not, indeed, poflefs
any great degree of flavour, but it poflefles no bad one,
which is a negative property often of great importance in
artificial wine-making.

The quince, from its analogy to the apple and pear, is
better qualified for making a fpecies of cyder than wine.
The cherry produces a wine of no very peculiar charafter.
If ufed, care fliould be taken not to bruife too many of the
Jftones, otherwife a difagreeable bitter tafl;e will be im-
iparted to the wine.

Grapes of Britifli growth are capable of making ex-
|cellent fparkling and other wines, by the addition of fugar.
iDr. Macculloch informs ns, that he has fucceeded in making
wines from immature grapes and fugar fo clofely refembling
Champagne, Grave, Khenifli, and Mofelle, that the beft
judges could not diftinguifti them from foreign wines. The
[grapes may be ufed in any ftate, however immature ; when
sven but half grown and perfeftly hard they fucceed com-
ipletely.

1 The cottagers in Suflex, fays Dr. Macculloch, are in the
babit of making wine, almoft annually, from the produce
pf vines trained on the walls of their houfes. Many indi-
viduals through various parts of the fouthern counties, and
!ven as far north as Derbyftiire, pradtife the fame with fuc-
:efs. But the experiment is well known to have been made
tor many years on a large fcale, and with complete refults,
lit Pain's-hill, by the Hon. Charles Hamilton, in a fituation
;vith refpeft to foil and expofure of which parallel in-
ilances are to be found throughout the country, and pro-
,iuced from land of no value whatever for the ordinary pur-
I'ofes of agriculture. That our anceftors made wine from
'Ss produce of their vineyards there can be no doubt, and
Or. M. juftly remarks, that we can ftill make by far better
I'ine from our grapes, even as produced at prefent, than
rom any other fruit whatever. Thefe, therefore, are cogent
,;afon8 for the cultivation of the vine, efpecially as, the £rae

Vol. XXXVIII.

gentleman obfefves, we might, with care, inure and domcfti-
cate to our climate many of the richer and more dehcate
varieties of fouthern latitudes. See Vine, and Varieties ;
under the laft of which articles fome intcrefting experiments
on this fubjeft are related.

Raifins are extenfively ufed in this country for making
domeftic wines, and alfo for the fraudulent imitation and
adulteration of foreign wines, although not a native fruit ;
therefore they deferve to be mentioned here. When pro-
perly managed, they arc capable of making a pure and
flavourlefs vinous fluid, well adapted for receiving any
flavour which may be required, and thus of imitating many
wines of foreign growth. See the clofe of this article.

The orange and lemon are likewife ufed for making do-
meftic wines. Upon the whole, however, they are not very
well adapted for the purpofe, as they contain too much acid,
and too little of the extraftive and of the fweet or fer-
mentative principle.

From what has been faid of the manufafture of wine from
grapes, our readers will obferve, that different methods
are purfued, according to the kind of wine which it is in-
tended to make. Now thefe remarks are equally appli-
cable to artificial wines, in the manufafture of which it is
abfolutely ncceffary that the maker fliould determine before-
hand upon the kind of wine which it is his objeft to pro-
duce, and to modify his proceffes accordingly. We may,
with Dr. Macculloch, confidcr wines as of four general de-
fcriptions : fweet wines ; fparkling or ejfervefcing wines ; dry
and light wines, analogous to hock, grave, and Rhenifli, in
which the faccharine principle is entirely decompofed during
fermentation ; and laftly, dry and Jlrong wines, as Madeira
and flierry.

Thofe of the firft and moft fimple clafs are t\\t fweet wines,
or thofe in which the fermentative procefs has been incom-
plete. It is to this clafs that by far the greater number of
our artificial wines bear the greateft refemblance ; a refem-
blance, fays Dr. M., fo general as to fliew that few makers of
this article poffefs fufficient knowledge of the art to enable
themfelves to fteer clear of what may be firmly called the
radical defeft of domeftic wines. Sweet wines may be made
from almoft any ripe fruits. Thofe moft generally em-
ployed, however, are the goofeberry and currant. We
fliall fuppofe that we wifli to make the quantity of ten
gallons of fweet wine from one or other of thefe fruits.
For this purpofe, the following are the proportions and other
circumftances to be attended to. Forty pounds of fruit
are to be introduced in a clean and fufficiently capacious
tub, in which it is to be bruifed in fuccefllve portions, by a
preffure fufficient to crufli the berries without breaking the
feeds, or if goofeberries be employed, without materially
compreffing the fliins. Four gallons of water are then to
be poured into the veffel, and the contents are to be care-
fully ftirred and fqueezed in the hand until the whole of the
juice and pulp are feparated from the folid matters. The
materials are then to be permitted to remain at reft for a
period of from fix to twenty-four hours, when they are to
be ftrained through a coarfe bag by as much force as can
be conveniently applied to them. One gallon of freih
water may afterwards be paffed through the marc, for the
purpofe of removing any foluble matter which may have re-
mained confined. From thirty to forty pounds of fugar,
according to the defired ftrength and fweetnefs of the wine,
and about fix ounces of cream of tartar, or, what is better,
crude tartar, are now to be difTolved in the juice thus pro-
cured, and the total bulk of the fluid made up with water,
to the amount of ten gallons and a half.

The liqupr thus obtained is the artificial mufl, which is
3 U equivalent

WINE.

equrvdent to the juice of the grape. It is now to be intro-
duced into a tub of fufficient capacity, which is to be well
covered, and placed in a temperature varying from 55° to
60°. Here it is to remain two or three days, more or lefs,
according to the fymptoms of fermentation which it may
(hew, and from this tub it is to be drawn off into the cadv,
where the fermentative procefs is intended to be brought to
the point defired. As the fermentative procefs proceeds the
bulk of the liquor diminifhes, and its place muft be fup-
plied from time to time by the fuperflaous portion of muft
made for the purpofe, fo as to keep the liquor always near
the bung-hole. When the fermentation has fubfided a httle,
the bung may be driven in, taking care, however, to leave a
fmall hole open by its fide, which may be flopped with a
peg, and opened occafionally to give vent to any air that
may be generated.

When the wine has arrived at the defired point of fweet-
nefs, &c. it muft be racked and clarified in the manner de-
fcribed in the former part of this article; and thefe pro-
cefles muft be repeated, and tlie callcs fulphured, if necef-
fary, in order to prevent the fermentative procefs from pro-
ceeding farther. In general, however, one racking in the
following December or January will be fufficient, after
which it may be kept in the cade for any length of time, or
it may be bottled without the ufual precautions. A fine
ferene and cold day (liould be chofen for thefe operations.
Sometimes the fermentative procefs will ftop before the wine
has arrived at the defired point, in which cafe it may be
commonly eafily re-excited by raifing the temperature,
and fliaking the calk ; or, if thefe fail, by having recourfe to
the means formerly defcribed for that purpofe.

By attending to thefe general directions, fweet wines may
be made from other fruits, care being taken to increafe or
diminifh the quantity of fugar according to the natural
f-weetnefs of the fruit employed.

The fecond general defcription of wines comprehends the
bri/k OT ffarklingwmes ; which maybe, at the fame time, either
Jweet or comparatively dry. Our readers will recoUeft the me-
thods adopted in Champagne, and other countries where they
jnanufafturefparkling wines from the grape, and which are de-
fcribed in the former part of this article. Now thefe principles
are to be held in view in the manufadlure of artificial wines in-
tended to poffefs fimilar properties. The fruits moft generally
employed tor forming wines of this defcription, are the imma-
ture goofeberry and currant ; fometimes alfo immature grapes,
and even vine leaves are made ufe of for a fimilar purpofe,
but grapes are doubtlefs preferable when they can be pro-
cured. Wines of this defcription are more difficult to be
made than the laft, at leaft they require much more care.
If goofeberries are employed, they mult, be gathered when
they have nearly attained their full growth, but before they
have (hewn the leaft tendency to ripen. The variety of
goofeberry is perhaps indifferent, but it will be advifable to
avoid the ufe of tliofe, which in their ripe ftate have the
higheft flavour. Dr. MaccuUoch recommends the gre.'n
bath as amoijr the beft. Thofe which are unfound, as well as
the remains uf the bloflbm and footftalk, fhould be carefully
removed. Forty pounds of this fruit, thirty pounds of fine
white fi gar, and about fix ounces of tartar, are fufficient for
making ten gallons of wine. All the pieUminary proceffes are
to be condufted precifely in the fame manner as thofe above-
defcribed for making fweet wines. The miijl, however,
ought to remain in the fermenting tub for about twentv-
four hours, or two days only, when it is to be transferred to
the calk, and the proceffes of Jill'mg up, &c. managed as
before, except that the wooden peg or fpile muft be perma-
nently tightened as foon as the danger of burfting the cafk

9

has fubfided. The wine thus made may commonly remain
during the winter in a cool cellar, as it is no longer neceffary
to excite the fermenting procefs. To enfure its finenefs,
however, it is a good praftice to draw it towards the end
of December into a frefti caflt, fo as to feparate the lees ;
and if at this time it fliould prove too fweet, inftead of
decanting, it will be better to ftir up the lees fo as to renew
the fermenting procefs, taking care alfo to increafe the tem-
perature at the fame time. At whatever time the wine has
been decanted, it is to be fined with ifinglafs in the ufual
manner. Sometimes it will be neceffary to decant it a
fecond and even a third time into a frelh call;. All thefe
operations (hould take place, as formerly mentioned, in dry
cool vi'eather, and the wine muft, at any rate, be finally bot-
tled in March. If immature currants be employed, which are
perhaps upon the whole preferable to goofeberries, the fame
proportion of fruit, fugar, and tartar, and the fame modes
of management, may be had recourfe to ; care being taken
to feparate carefully the llalks of the currants. If grapes be
ufed for the purpofe, they may be fafely taken of different de-
grees of ripenefs, n r is it neceffary to attend to the feleclion of
anv particular variety. The fame proportions of fruit and
fugar will be proper as when goofeberries and currants are
employed, but the tartar muit be omitted. The hulks alfo
may be permitted to ferment with the liquor in the vat. :
The fubfequent management is to be precifely the fame as
that defcribed above. An excellent wine of the prefent de-
fcription may be made from the leaves and tendrils of the
vine. About forty pounds of thefe, and twenty-five or
thirty pounds of fugar, will be fufficient for ten gallons of
wine. To prepare it, feven or eight gallons of boiling
water are to be poured upon the leaves in a tub, and per-
mitted to remain for twenty-four hours. The liquor being
poured off, the leaves muft be ftrongly preffed, and fubfe-
quently wafhed with another gallon of water. The fugar ;
and the remainder of the water are then to be ad^ed, and the
fermentative and all the fubfequent proceffes condufted pre-
cifely the fame as before. The prefent clals of wines, if
the procefs has been fuccefsful, ( which is not always the
cafe,) is briik, and precifely fimilar in their qualities (flavour
excepted) to the wines of Champagne, with the ftrength of
the beft Sicily.

The third variety of wines is that of which hock, grave,
and Rhenifh may be taken as examples. In thefe the fac-'
charine principle is entirely overcome by a complete fer-
mentation, while their future change is prevented by a care-
ful application of the proceffes laid down for the preferv-
ation of wines of this clafs. Makers of domeftic wines have '
rarely, fays Dr. Macculloch, fucceeded in imitating thefe
wines. The reafons obviouily arc, the great difproportion
of the fugar to the fubfequent fermentation in the firft in-
ftance ; and that want of the after-management, the negleft
of which foon configns thefe wines to the vinegar callc, if
chance (hould even at firft have produced luccefs. In
making thefe wines, the relative proportion of fruit and fugar
in common ufe muft be materially altered, and the fermenta- |
tive procefs be condufted in a very careful manner. The
fubfequent proceffes alfo of racking, fulphuring, and fining, i
muft be praftifed with great afliduity, in order to preferve
thefe wines after we have fucceeded in making them. Dr.
Macculloch ftates, from his experience, that thefe wines may
be fuccefsfully imitated, and that they conftitute fome of the
very beft of thofe which can be made from domeftic fruit.
The proportion of fruit (generally of immature fruit) to the
fugar, in the manufafturing of fweet wines, muft be the
greateft. The bung muft remain open, but the fluid withir
muft not be allowed to efcape, wliile, if the fermentation pro

ceed

WINE.

ceeds languidly, it muft be accelerated by lieat and agitation.
If, when it is finifhed, the wine continues too fweet, it may
be bunged down till the fpring without racking or fining,
when the fermentation muft again be renewed. The re-
newal of the fermentation may alfo be effefted by adding
fome frefh juice of the fame fruit. At whatever time, and
under whatever of thefe procefTes, it has become dry, it is
to be carefully fined and racked into a fulphured caflc, and
bottled, after being once more carefully fined.

The fourth and laft clafs of wines confifts of thofe which are
both dry in their quality, and ftrong in their nature ; fuch are,
Madeira, (herry, &c. ; the theory of thefe, from what has
been faid, will be fufficiently apparent. With due atten-
tion to the fermentative procefs, fuch wines may be made of
the requifite degree of ftrength without brandy. By means
of this, however, if managed as formerly direfted, the
operator has it always in his power to produce wines of any
required degree of ftrength.

We need not here repeat the methods of imparting dif-
ferent flavours to domeftic wines, or of correfting their
faults, fince they differ in no refpeft from thofe recom-
mended to be adopted in the manufafture of wines from
grapes, to which therefore we refer.

The following general remarks upon the fabrication of
domeftic wines, will not perhaps prove uninterefting to our
readers.

The great radical defeft in the manufacture of domeftic
wines, is ufing too fmall a proportion of fruit compared
with the fugar employed. It is this circumftance chiefly
which renders the fermentative procefs incomplete, and
thus imparts that fweet and mawkifli tafte to our domeftic
wines, which renders them intolerable to many people, and
even to all, perhaps, without the addition of brandyi The
proportions of fruit and fugar given above may be confidered
as mean ftandards, which may be varied either way, accord-
ing to circumftances and the nature of the wine intended
to be produced. A very fuperior clafs of fruit wines may
be manufa£tured by ufing the juices of our different fruits,
either alone or very flightly diluted with water.

We mentioned that fome fruits, and efpecially the black
currant, were much improved by boiling. For this pur-
pofe, it will be fufficient that the fruit be fimply brought
to the boiling point before ufing it, the water in the veffel
being fo managed as to avoid any rifli in burning. The
black currant thus treated, and fubfequently managed upon
the principles we have endeavoured to lay down, is capable
of making a wine very nearly refembling fome of the beft
fweet Cape wines.

The fermentative procefs being rendered tardy and in-
complete, by the improper adjuftment of the fugar to the
fruit, is frequently endeavoured to be excited by yeajl :
nothing can be more injudicious than this. Teajl invariably
fpoils wines, by imparting to them a flavour that nothing
will ever overcome. The only ferment to be employed in
wine-making, is that furnifhed by nature ; and when this is
defedive, as is fometimes the cafe in our domeftic fruits,
the ferment of the grape muft be fupplied artificially. This
may be done by introducing a certain proportion of crude
tartar, the dofc of which may vary from one to fix per cent.
without materially afFefting the wine, as a great proportion
of what efcapes decompofition will be fubfequently de-
pofited. All fruits, except the grape, will require more or
lefs of tartar.

The laft circumftance we fhall notice is the introduftion
of brandy, or other fpirit, into domeftic wines. As com-
monly manufaftured, they often require, as we have juft
ilated, this addition to render them tolerable. We truft,

however, that from the attention that has been lately paid
to the fubjeft of artificial wines, the modes of manufafturing
them will be better underftood, and that this will no longer
be the cafe. Fine wines are invariably fpoUed by the addi-
tion of ardent fpirit, which feems to have the efFeft of
flowly decompofing them, and thus of deftroying that deli-
cate, lively, and briflc flavour, fo eminently pofTeffed by all
natural wines. Hence it is feldom or never ufed in wine
countries ; or rather It is confined to the manufadlure of
thofe wines deftined for this country, where only this bar-
barous practice is tolerated. We again repeat, that if the
fruit and fugar be duly adjufted to one anothir, and the
fermentative procefs be properly managed, an infinitely
better wine will be produced without the ufe of brandy,
than can ever be produced with it.

General Chemical Properties and Compofition of Wines. —
The juice of the grape, as we formerly meiitii i.i-j, confifts
of a large proportion of water, of certain proportions of
the faccharine and fermentative principles, of .various acids,
efpecially the tartaric, and fome ill-defined extraftive prin-
ciples. Thefe were ftated during the fermentative procefs
to undergo difTerent remarkable changes, one of the moft
important of which is the converfion of the faccharine
principle into alcohol. The nature of the other changes
are not fo well underftood, nor does the little we know at
prefent of the compofition of wines throw any very fatif-
faftory light upon the fubjeft. One principle indeed, -viz.
the fermentative principle, does not exift in perfeft wines, and
therefore muft be decompofed or feparated during the pro-
cefs of fermentation. The principles formed In wines may
perhaps be arranged under the four following heads :
I. ylcids ; 2. Extradive and colouring matters; 3. EJfenticd
oils ; and 4. Alcohol. Water is not mentioned, becaufe it
forms the bafis of all potable fluids, and confequently of
wines.

I. Acids. — All acids have the property of reddening
turnfolc or litmiiS papers, and therefore contain more or
lefs of a free acid. The acids found in wines are, the tar-
taric, the mahc, the citric, the carbonic, and occafionally
the acetic.

The tartaric acid, in combination with pota^i, or tartar, as
it is ufually termed, exifts in great abundance in the juice
of grapes, as formerly ftated, and appears to be one of its
moft important ingredients. A large proportion of this
tartar is doubth.fs decompofed during the fermentative
procefTes, and a confiderable quantity of what remains is
fubfequently depofited in the cafks or veffels in which the
wine is kept, conftitutlng what is termed the crujl. It ap-
pears probable, however, that the whole is not feparated, and
confequently, as Dr. Thomfon juftly remarks, that wines are
never entirely deftitute of tartar. Satisfaftory experiments,
however, upon an extenfive fcale, are at prefent wanting upon
this part of the fubjeft. The malic acid, according to the ex-
periments of Chaptal, exifts in the greater number of wines, if
not in all, and that in much greater proportion than any other
acid. If this be really the cafe, it is probably, in part at
leaft, a produft of ftrmentatlon, for the juice of grapes ap-
pears to contain very little of this acid. Traces of the citric
acid were found by Chaptal to exift in fome wines. This
acid alfo exifts in thejuice of the grape, but in fmall quantity.
All wines that have the property of effervefcing, or fparkling,
when poured from the bottle into a glafs, contain carbonic
acid. Champagne, for example, owes its charafterlftic pro-
perties to this acid. Sparkling wines are ufually weak, and
contain lefs alcohol than ufual, for reafons that have been
already explained. The acetic acid is not an effential in-
gredient of wine, nor in faft ought it ever to exift in it. tf
3 U 2 the

WINE.

the fermentation, however, be permitted to go too far, this
acid will be formed, and hence it occafionally occurs in in-
ferior wines.

2. Extraai-ve and colouring Matters. — Thefe ill-defined
fubftances exift more or lefs in all wines. Their properties,
however, are not well afcertained, nor are they probably
uniformly the fame in every inftance. They have a ten-
dency to feparate fpontaneouny, and along with the tartar
form what is termed the crujl; hence, as wines become older,
from their containing lefs of thefe matters, they ufually
become paler. Thefe extraftive matters may be alfo fepa-
rated artificially by means of animal charcoal, the fubacetate
of lead, and even partially in feme inltances by lime-water,
or the heat of the fun. The colouring matter, as we for-
merly noticed, is not derived from the juice of the grape,
but from its huflt.

3. EJential Oils Wines, though effentially the fame in

their general compofition, are diftinguifhed from one another
principally by their flavour and odour, no lefs than by the
proportion of alcohol they may contain. Now their fenfible
properties evidently depend upon fome volatile and fugacious
principle, which has been confidered to be analogous to an
eifential oil. This principle is fometimes derived imme-
diately from the fruit, as, for example, in the wines made
from the Frontignac and Mufcat grape. At other times, it

is the produft of fermentation. Thus the finer flavour* of
claret, hermitage, and Burgundy, bear no refemblance to
thofe of the grapes, from whence they are formed. Very
often, as before ftated, the principles of odour and flavour are
communicated to wines artificially, by the introduftion of
foreign ingredients, as orris-root, grape, and elder-flowers,
mignonette, &c. The menftruum of this volatile principle
is doubtlefs, in moft inftances, the alcohol contained in wines ;
but its quantity is fo minute as to be incapable of fepa-
ration.

4. Akohol. — The charafteriflic ingredient of wines is
alcohol. Indeed, wines may be confidered as more or lefs
dilute folutions of alcohol, impregnated with different
flavouring fubftances, and a little acid. There have been great
differences of opinion in what ftate alcohol exifts in wines.
Some chemifts maintain, that alcohol does not exift ready
formed in wines, but that its elements only exift in a pecu-
liar ftate, and that their union is determined, and confe-
quently alcohol formed, by the aft of diftillation. This
opinion was advanced by Fabroni, and feenis to have been
adopted by fome fubfequent writers. Mr. Brande, how-
ever, has fliewn by very decifive experiments, that all wines
contain alcohol ready formed, and that this fluid is merely
feparated during the diftillation of thefe liquors ; and his ex-
periments have been fince fully confirmed by Gay Lnflac.

I

The following Table, reprefenting the Quantity of Alcohol and other Principles in different Wines, is taken from
Dr. Thomfon's Chemiftry, though it was compiled originally by Neumann. The refults are not abfolutely to be
relied upon, as the ftate of chemical Knowledge, at the time Neumann wrote, was very imperfea.

A Quart of contains

Higlily recSiSed
Spirit.

Thick, oily,

un6luGus, refinous

Matter.

Gummy
tartareous

and
Matter.

Water.

07.. dr.

g'-

oz. dr. gr.

oz.

dr.

gf-

lb.

oz.

dr. ^t.

Aland . . . - -

I 6

0

3 2 0

I

5

0

2

5

3 0

Alicant

3 6

0

6 0 20

0

I

40

2

2

6 0

Burgundy . - - -

2 2

0

04 0

0

I

40

2

9

8

0 20

CarcafTone . . - -

2 6

0

0 4 10

0

I

20

2

4 30

Champagne . . - -

2 5

20

0 6 40

0

I

0

2

8

3 0

French

3 0

0

0 6 40

0

I

0

2

8

0 20

Frontignac - - - -

3 0

0

340

0

5

20

2

4

6 30

Vin de Grave . . - -

2 0

0

060

0

2

0

2

9

0 0

Hermitage . . - -

2 7

0

I 2 0

0

I

40

2

7

5 20

Madeira

2 3

0

3 2 0

2

0

0

2

4

3 0

Malmfey . . - -

4 0

0

4 3 0

2

3

0

2

I

2 0

Vino de monte Pulciano

2 6

0

030

0

2

40

2

8

0 20

Mofelle

2 2

0

0 4 20

0

I

30

2

9

0 10

Mnfcadine . . - -

3 0

0

240

I

0

0

2

5

4 0

Neufchatel . - - -

3 2

0

400

I

7

0

2

2

7 0

Palm fee ....

2 3

0

2 4 0

4

4

0

2

2

5 0

Pontac . . - - -

2 0

0

0 5 20

0

2

0

2

9

0 40

Old Rhenifli - . - -

2 0

0

100

0

2

20

2

8

5 40
I 6

Rhenifti

2 2

0

0 3 20

0

I

34

2

9

Salamanca . . - -

3 0

0

340

2

0

0

2

3

4 0

Sherry . . . - -

3 0

0

600

2

2

0

2

0

6 0
6 0

Spanifti . . . - -

I 2

0

240

9

4

0

I

10

Vino Tinto . . - -

3 0

0

640

I

6

0

2

0

6 0

Tokay

2 2

0

430

5

0

0

2

0
8

3 0
6 0

Tyrol red wine ...

I 4

0

I 2 0

0

4

0

2

Red wine ....

I 6

0

0 4 40

0

2

20

2

9

3 20

White

2 0

0

070

0

3

0

2

7

0 0

The

WINE.

The following Table has been given by Mr. Brande,
reprefenting the quantity by meafure of alcohol, fp.
gr. .825, contained in difFerent wines, and other fermented
liquors. The wines were all genuine.

Proportion of

Spirit per Ceiit,

by Meafure.

- - - - 26.47

, LifTa
Ditto

Raifin wine
Ditto -
Ditto

Marfala
Ditto -

Port

Ditto -

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Madeira

Ditto

Ditto (Sercial)

Ditto

Currant wine

Sherry

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

TenerifFe
Colares

Average

Average

Average

Average

Average

Average

8.

9-
10. Lacryma Chrifti

Conllantia white

Ditto red

Lifbon

Malaga kept fince 1 666

Bucellas

Madeira red -

Ditto ...

Cape Mufchat
Cape Madeira
Ditto
Ditto -

Grape wine

Calcavella

Ditto

Average

Average

Average

26,

Vidonia
Alba flora

Malaga . . .
White hermitage

RoufiUon . . .

Ditto . . . .
Average

Claret Chateau Margot -

Ditto . . . -

Ditto Lafite . - .

24-35
25.41
26.40
25.77
23.20
25.12
26.30
25.05
25.09

25-83
24.29
23.71

*3-39
22.30
21.40
19.00
22.96
24.42

23.93
21.40
19.24
22.27
20.55
19.81
19.83

18.79
18.25
19.17
19.79

19-75
19.70

19-75
18.92
18.94
18.94
18.49
22.30
18.40
20.35
18.25
22.94
«o.50
18. II
20.51
18.11
19.20
18.10
18.65
19.25
17.26
17.26

17-43
19.00

17.26
18.13
17.11
16.32
14.08

Proportion of

Spiril

I per Cml-

by

Meafure.

Claret Lafite -

.

12.91

Average

.

.

15.10

27

. Malmfey Madeira

.

•

16.40

28,

. Lunel ....

•

,

15.52

29,

. Sheraaz - . -

-

.

15.52

30'

, Syracufe ...

.

.

15.28

3''

. Sauterne ...

.

.

14.22

32.

, Burgundy ...

.

.

16.60

Ditto ....

.

.

15.22

Ditto ....

.

.

14-53

Ditto ....

.

.

11.95

Average

-

.

14-57

33-

Hock ....

-

.

14-37

Ditto ....

..

•

13.00

Ditto (old in callc)

.

.

8.88

Average

.

-

12.08

34-

Nice ....

.

.

14.63

35-

Barfac ....

.

.

13.86

36.

Tent - . - - ■

.

•

13-30

37-

Champagne (ftill)

-

-

13.80

Ditto (fparkhng) .

.

-

12.80

Ditto ....

.

.

12.56

Ditto (red) .

T

.

11.30

Average

-

-

12.61

38.

Red hermitage

-

-

12.3a

39-

Vin de grave

^

-

13-94

Ditto ....

-

-

12.80

Average

-

-

13-37

40.

Frontignac ...

-

■^

12.79

41.

Cote Rotie

.

.

12.3?

42.

Goofeberry wine

.

-

11.84

43-

Orange wine (average of fix famples made|^

1 I .26

by a London manufafturer

) -

.

s

44-

Tokay ....

.

-

9.88

45-

Elder wine ...

-

-

*

8.79

Other fermented ]

Liquon.

1.

Cyder, higheft average

.

-

9.87

Ditto, loweft average

-

-

5.21

2.

Perry, average of four famples

-

7.26

3-

Mead ....

.

7-3»

4-

Ale (Burton)

*

8.88

Ditto (Edinburgh)

•

6.20

Ditto (Dorchefter)

-

i-l^

Average

-

6.87

5-

Brown ftout ...

-

6.80

6.

London porter (average)

-

4.20

Ditto fmall beer (ditto)

-

1.28

7-

Brandy ...

.

53-39

8.

Rum ....

-

53.68

9-

Gin . - - •

.

51.60

10.

Scotch whiftey

-

54-32

11.

Iriih ditto ...

=

53-90

12.

Hollands (genuine)

-

56.00

On the Ufes of Wine in a Dietetic and Medicinal Point of
yiew. — Mankind in every ftage of civilization and fociety
betray a propenfity for fermented liquors. This indeed is
fo ftrongly marked, that fome have been induced to confider
it as the refult of an inftinftive faculty, and confequently
have been led to fuppofe that fermented liquors are the pro-
per and natural drink of the human race. Others, on the
contrary, have contended that fermented liquors are of no
real ufe to mankind, and are often even prodnftive of mych

pofitivo

WINE.

pofuive evH, and hence have alrtved at a conclufion diame- of ardent fpirit, either diluted with water, or in any otlier

tritally oppoCte to the former. It is difficult to decide be- way. Some have concluded from this circumftance that the

tween thefe opinions. We confefs, however, that we do above experiments are not to be relied upon ; but from the

not think it neceflary, on the one hand, to have recourfe to manner in which they were condufted there is no reafon to

the fuppoution of an inftinftive faculty to account for doubt their general accuracy ; the faft therefore remains to

wine-drinking ; ncr, on the other, do we believe that the be explained. The moft probable explanation is, that the

moderate ufe 'of natural wines is produftive of any bad alcohol in the wine is in forne ftate of combination, which

effefts. The propenfity for ftrong drinks feems explicable prevents its immediate aSion upon the ftomach, and thus

upon the general principle that all animals feel a pleafure in renders it liable to be digefted or altered in its properties be-

Itving fqfltr, or, as it were, crowding a greater portion of fore it can exert its fpecific effeds. The peculiar nature,

exiilence into a ftiorter fpace than natural ; an effedl in fome however, of this ftate of combination is at prefent unknown,

detrree produced by the exciting eftefts of fuch liquors. What renders this opinion the more probable is, that fome

As to the bad effefts too frequently produced by fermented bad wines, and efpecially domcilic wines, which are often

liquors, they may, in almoft every inftance, be fairly traced little better than mere mixtures of brandy and water, exert
to the badncfs of their quality, or to an excefs in quantity.
While, however, we do not objcft to the moderate ufe of

what providence has fo liberally bellowed upon us, no one
can objeft more ftrongly than ourfelves to its abufe. The
melancholy effefts of habitual intoxication are too well
known to requ?k-e particular defcription here. Severely do
the viftims of this degrading propenfity fuffer in mind,
body, and fortune; nor are their fufferings confined tothem-
felves, but entailed upon their ill-fated pofterity. For
proofs of thefe pofitions, we refer our readers to the articles
Gout, Calculus, Apoplexy, Epilepsy, Insanity, &c.
&c. in this work, where they will find thefe and other dif-
eafes juftly ranked among the moft painful and diftreffing to
which humanity is liable, frequently afcribed to habitual in-
temperance as their caufe.

But putting out of the queftion thefe effefts of drunken-
nefs, what a horrible pifture of moral depravity does it pre-
fent for a man to fit down deliberately, day after day, with
the profeffed objeft of annihilating his intelleftual faculties,
and thus degrading himfelf below the vileft of the brute
creation ! And even fuppofing he has arrived at the en-
viable point of being able to fwallow two or three bottles
without lofing his fenfes, and that this quantity has becom.e ne-
ceflary to his comfort, nay even perhaps to his very exittence,
to what a wretched ftate of dependence has he reduced his
bloated carcafe ; what a tax is fuch a being upon fociety,
who, to prolong a loathfome exiftence, is obliged to confume
daily in an unneceftary fuperfluity more than is fufficient to
fupport a whole family for a week ! See Drunkenness.
With refpeft to the operation of different wines upon the
animal economy, they vary exceedingly according to their
properties. New wines in general are unwholefomc, and
often prove purgative. Sweet wines are upon the whole
perhaps the moil wholefome, and, where the tafte has not
been previoufly vitiated, doubtlefs the moft agreeable.
Weak and acid wines are very apt to difagree with the fto-
mach, efpecially when that organ has been accuftomed to
ftronger wines. Hence an occafional debauch with fuch
wines is notorious for inducing a fit of the gout, efpecially
in this country, where the ufual wines are immoderately
ftrong. The fame is true alfo, though perhaps in a fome-
what lefs degree, with the effervefcing wines. Red wines,
in general, are of a more aftringent and tonic nature than
white wines, and commonly contain more fpirit. There are,
however, many exceptions to this ride.

It will be feen by confulting the above table, that port,
Madeira, and ftierry, the three wines in moft common ufe in
this country, contain from one-fourth to one-fifth of their
bulk of alcohol. A perfon, therefore, who takes his
bottle of wine every day, will thus take nearly half a pint of
alcohol, or almoft a pint of pure brandy i This at firft
ilght will appear ahnoft incredible, efpecially as the fame
perfon would not perhaps be able to take a fimilar quantity

much more effeft upon the animal economy than fine old
wines, though they may not contain nearly fo much
fpirit.

With refpeft to the medicinal ufes of fermented liquors,
when cordials are required, wines are by far the moft effi-
cient of the whole tribe, and of thefe port wine is perhaps
the beft. For full information on this head, we refer our
readers to the articles Fever, Gangrene, and Analogous
Difeafes o/"Debility. See Chaptal's excellent Eflay on the
Manufafture of Wines, Annates de Chimie, vol. xxxvi.
and xxxvii. Dr. Macculloch's Effay on Wine-making.
Mr. Brande's Eflays in Phil. Tranf. for 1811 and 1813,
&c.

For the diftillation of wines, fee Distillation.
Wine being a liquor moftly of foreign produce, the dif-
ferent names, forms, kinds, diftiniStions, &c. of it are bor-
rowed from the countries where it is produced, particularly
France.

Wine, in France, is diftinguiftied, from the feveral de-
grees and fteps of its preparation, into

Merre-goutte, mother-drop ; which is the virgin wine, or
that which runs of itfelf out of a tap of the vat, in which
the grapes are laid, before the vintager enters to tread, or
ftamp, the grapes.

Alujl, furmujl, or Jlum, is the wine, or liquor, in the vat,
after the grapes have been trodden, or Itamped.

PreJJed Wine, Fin tie Prejfurage, is that fqueezed with
a prefs out of the grapes, when half-bruifed by the treading.
The imflis left of the grapes are called rape, murk, or
marc ; by throwing water upon which, and prefrmg them
afrefti, they make a liquor for fervants' ufe, anfwerable to
our cyder-kin, and called hoijfun ; which is alfo of fome
ufe in medicine, for the cure of diforders occafioned by
vifcid humours.

S'weet Wine, Vin doux, is that which has not yet worked,
or fermented. This is turbid, and has an agreeable and
very faccharine taile. It is very laxative, when drunk too
freely, or by perfons difpofed to diarrhoeas, it is apt to oc-
cafion thefe diforders. Itsconfiftence is fomewhat lefs fluid
than that of water, and it becomes almoft of a pitchy
thicknefs when dried.

Bouru, that which has been prevented working, by caft-
ing in cold water.

Cwve, or luorked wine, that which has been let work in
the vat, to give it a colour.

Cuit, or boiled ivine, that which has had a boiling before
it worked ; and which, by thefe means, ftill retains its native
fweetnefs.

PaJJe, or Jlrained wine, a fort of raifin-wine, made by
ileeping dry grapes in water, and letting it ferment of
itfelf.

Wines are alfo diftinguiftied with regard to their colour,
into white wine, red •wine, claret wine, pale wine, rofe or

black

WINE.

Macl taint. And, with regard to their country, or the
foil which produces them, into French •wines, Spanijh ivines,
Rheni/h luines, Hungarian wines, Greek ivines, Canary -wines,
&C. And, more particularly, into Port wine, Madeira
luine. Burgundy wine. Champagne wine, Falernian wine,
Tokay wine, Schiras or Sheraa% wine, &c.

Wines, again, are diftinguifhed, with regard to their qua-
lity, into fweet wines, rough or dry wines, and rich or
lufcious wines, vins de liqueur ; of which laft fome are ex-
ceedingly fweet, others fweet and poignant ; and all chiefly
tifed by way of a dram after meals, &c.

Such are French, Frontignac, Madeira, the Canary, the
Hungary, Tokay, the Italian Montejiafcone, the Perfian
Schiras, the Malmfey wines of Candia, Chio, Lelbos, Te-
nedos, and other idands of the Archipelago, which an-
ciently belonged to the Greeks, but now to the Turks.
Thefe are fometimes called Greek wines, and fometimes
Turkey wines.

The chief wines drank in Europe are as follow, i. The
Madeira ifland, and Palma, one of the Canaries, afford
two kinds : the firft called Madeirafec, the latter, which is
the richefl and beft of the two, Canary or Palm fee. The
mmtfec (corruptly written yacf) fignifies dry ; thofe wines
being made from half-dried grapes. There is another fort
of fee wine, prepared about Xcres, in Spain, and hence
called, according to our orthography, Sherris, or Sherry.
3. The wines of Candia and Greece are of common ufe in
Italy. Malmfey was formerly the produce of thofe parts only,
but is now brought chiefly from Spain : it is a fweet wine, of
a golden or hrownifh-yellow colour, and to this is applied
an Italian proverb, fignifying. Manna to the mouth, and bal-
fam to the brain. Almoft all the wines ufed in the Venetian
territories come from Greece and the Morea. 3. Italy pro-
duces the vino Greco, which is a gold-coloured unftuous
wine, of a pungent fweetnefs, the growth of mount Vefu-
vius, but much fophifticated by the Neapolitans- In the
neighbourhood of mount Vefuvius is made the Mangiaguerra
wine, and a thick, blackifh one, called Verracia ; and at the
foot of the hill the delicious vino vergine. The king-
dom of Naples affords the Campania or Paujilippo, Muf-
catel, Salernitan, and other excellent wines, and alfo the
Chiarello, much drank at Rome. But the principal is
the red, fat, fweet, and grateful poignant one, called
Lachryma Chrifll. 4. The Ecclefiaflical State produces
the bright, pleafant Alhano, and the fweet Monttfiafcone,
a yellowifh not very ilrong wine, refembling good Flo-
rence, &c. 5. In Tufcany are the excellent white and
red Florence ; the celebrated hot, ftrong, red wine, de
Monte Pulciano, &c. 6. In Lombardy, the Modenefe and
Montferrat are tolerable ; between Nizza and Savona is pro-
duced an incomparable Mufcadine. 7. .Piedmont and part
of Savoy have excellent light wines. 8. Tlie Sicihan, Sar-
. dinian, and Corfican wines are alfo good. 9. Moft of the
Spar.ifh wines are compofed of fermented or half-fermented
wine mixed with infpiffated mufl, and varioufly manufac-
tured, or of an infufion of dry grapes in weak muft. Of
thefe wines, there are a few in Germany, as the Micant,
which is a thick, ftrong, very fweet, and almofl naufeous
wine. Sherry, Spanifh, Malmfey, &c. 10. In Portugal
there is plenty of red Port, which is much drank in Eng-
land. The beft Vino tinto, a. blackifh-red wine ufed by the
coopers for colouring other wines, is faid to be the produce
of Portugal. This kingdom alfo deals largely in Madeira.
• 1 1. In France there is a great variety of wines ; of which
the ftrong, fweet, full-bodied, fpirituous ones, are called
Fins de liqueur. Languedoc and Provence afford the
(weeteft wines, and the fame provinces, with Champagne

and Burgundy, the ftrongeft ; the wines of the northern
parts, as Picardy and Bourdeaux, are the worft, and thofe
about the middle of the kingdom, as Paris and Orleans, of
a middling kind. The moft celebrated of the French wines
are. Champagne, Burgundy, Fin de beaune, or partridge-eye,
Frontiniac, Hermitage, &c. 12. In Switzerland, the beft
wines are, tlie Neufchatel, Falteline, Lacote, and Reijf: the
Valteline ftraw-wine, fo called from the grapes being laid for
fome time upon ftraw before they are prefled, is particu-
larly celebrated. 13. The dry-grape wines of the Upper
Hungary are in general excellent, and much fuperior to
thofe of the Lower. (See Tokay.) 14. Among the
German wines, thofe of Tyrol are very delicate, but do not
keep. 15. Of Auftrian wines, thofe of Klofler-Newburg
and Brofenberg are deemed the beft : and there are alfo good
wines in other parts of the Imperial dominions. 16. In the
Palatinate, the beft wine is that of Worms, efpecially the
fort called Women's Milk. 17. Among the more efteemed
German wines may be reckoned alfo Rheni/h, Mayne, Mo-
felle, Neckar, and Elfafs : a certain writer calls the Rheni/h
made in Hockheim (Hock) the prince of the wines of
Germany.

Wine is alfo varioufly denominated, according to its
ftate, circumftances, qualities, &c. e.g.

Natural Wine, is fuch as comes from the grape, without
farther mixture, or fophiftication.

Brewed Wine, or Adulterated, is that in which fome
drug is added, to give it ftrength, finencfs, flavour, briflcnefs,
fweetnefs, or fome other quahty which is wanted.

Pricked Wine, or Eager, is that turned fourifh.

An eafy method of recovering pricked wines may be
learned from the foUovvingexperiment : — Take a bottle of red
port that is pricked, add to it half an ounce of tartarized
fpirit of wine ; ftiake the liquor well together, and fet it by
for a few days, and it will be found very remarkably altered
for the better.

This experiment depends upon the ufeful doftrine of
acids and alkalies. All perfeft wines have naturally fome
acidity, and when this acidity prevails too much, the wine
is faid to be pricked, which is truly a ftate of the wine
tending to vinegar : but the introduftion of a fine alkaline
fait, fuch as that of tartar, imbibed by fpirit of wine, has a
direft power of taking off the acidity, and the fpirit of wine
alfo contributes to this, as a great prefervative in general of
wines. If this operation be dexteroufly performed, pricked
wines may be ablolutely recovered by it, and remain faleable
for fome time : and the fame method may be ufed to malt-
liquors juft turned four- Shaw's Leftures, p. 214.

Flat Wine, is that fallen weak and vapid, for want of
being drank in time.

Sulphured Wine, is that put in caflcs in which fuJphur
has been burnt ; in order to fit it for keeping, or for car-
riage by fea.

Colour, is a thick wine, of a very deep colour, ferving
to dye the wines that are too pale, &c. as the black wine in
ufe among vintners. See Vfinzfupra.

Tlie method of converting white wines into red, fo much
praftifed by the modern wine-coopers, is this : put four
ounces of turnfole rags into an earthen velTel, and pour upon
them a pint of boiling water ; cover the veffel clofe, and
leave it to cool ; ftrain off the liquor, which will be of a
fine deep red, inchning to purple. A fmall proportion of
this colours a large quantity of wine. This tinfture might
be either made in brandy, or mixed with it, or elfe made
into a fyrup, with fugar for keeping. A common way
with the wine-coopers is to infufe the rags cold in wine for
a night or more, and then wring them out with their hands ;

but

WINE.

but the inconveniency of thie method is, that it gives the
wine a difagreeable tafte, or what is commonly called the
tafte of the rag, whence the wines, thus coloured, ufually
p»fs among judges, for prefled wines, which have all this
tafte from the canvas rags in which the lees are preiTed.

The way of extrafting this tinfture, as here direfted, is
not attended with this inconvenience ; but it loads the wine
with water ; and if made into a fyrup, or mixed in brandy,
it would load the wine with things not wanted, fince the
colour alone is required. Hence the colouring of wmes has
always its inconveniences. In thofe countries which do not
afford the tinging grape, which affords a blood-red jujce,
wherewith the wines of France are often ftained, m defed
of this, the juice of elderberries ia ufed, and fometimes log-
wood is ufed at Oporto.

The colour, afforded by the method here propofed, givea
wines the tinge of the Bourdeaux red, not the Port ; whence
tlie foreign coopers are often diftreffed for want of a proper
colouring for red wines in bad years. This might perhaps
be fupphed by an extrad made by boiling ftick-lack m
water. The fluns of tinged grapes might alfo be ufed,
and the matter of the turnfole procured in a folid form,
not imbibed in rags. Shaw's Leftures, p. 2 1 1 .

Chip Wine, is that poured on chips of beech-wood, to
fine or foften it.

Rape IVine, is that put in a cafk half-fuU of frefh grapes
picked for the purpofe, to recover the ttrength, bnllinefs,
&c. which it had loft by keeping, &c.

Burnt Wine, is that boiled up with fugar, and fome-
times with a httle fpice.

There is alfo a fort of Malmfey wine made by boiling
of mufcadine.

Wines, Condenfing of, a phrafe ufed by Stahl, and fome
other writers, to exprefs what is more ufually called the
concentrating of them, that is, the freeing of them from
the fuperfluous humidity which they contain, and by thefe
means rendering them more rich and noble, freemg them
from their taftelefs part, reducing them to a fmaller bulk,
and thus making them fitter for tranfportation, and finally
rendering them more durable in their perfeft ftate, and much
lefs fubjeft to the various accidents that make them decay.
See Concentration.

Various methods have been attempted for the effefting of
this, as by means of heat and evaporation, or by percolation,
&c. and great objeftions found in the way of aJl of them,
except the lateft, brought into ufe by Stahl, and fince re-
commended greatly to the world by Dr. Shaw in his Che-
mical Effays.

If any kind of wine, but particularly fuch as has never
been adulterated, be, in a fufScient quantity, as that of a
gallon or more, expofed to a fufficicnt degree of cold in
frofty weather, or be put in any place where ice continues
all the year, as in our ice-houfes, and there fuffered to
freeze, the fuperfluous water that was originally contained
in the wine will be frozen into ice, and will leave the pro-
per and truly-effential part of the wine unfrozen, unlefs the
degree of cold fhould be very intenfe, or the wine but
weak and poor. This is the principle on which Stahl
founds his whole fyftem of condenfing wine by cold.

When the froft is moderate, the experiment has no dif-
ficulty, becaufe not above a third or fourth part of the
fuperfluous water will be frozen in a whole night ; but if
the cold be very intenfe, the beft way is, at the end of a few
hours, when a tolerable quantity of ice is formed, to pour
out the remaining fluid hquor and fet it in another veffel to
freeze again by itfelf.

If the veiTel, that thus by degrees receives the feveral

10

parcels of the condenfed wine, be fuffered to ftand in the
cold freezing place where the operation is performed, the
quantity lying thin in the pouring out, or otherwife, will
be very apt to freeze anew ; and if it be fet in a warm
place, fome of this aqueous part thaws again, and fo weakens
the reft. The condenfed vrine, therefore, fliould be emptied
in fome place of moderate degree as to cold or heat, where
neither the ice may diffolve, nor the rinous fubftance mixed
among it be congealed. But the beft expedient of all is to
perform the operation with a large quantity of wine, or
that of feveral gallons, where the utmoft exaftnefs, or the
danger of a trifling wafte, needs not be regarded.

If the wine now once concentrated fliould, by a long
continuance in the freezing cold, be again congealed to the
utmoft (unlefs the cold were very fevere indeed), and then
again be drained from its ice, there, foon after this, falls to
the bottom of the veffel a pure white powder or tartar, and
even the icy part afterwards depofits alfo a little of the fame
fubftance after thawing ; and after ftanding two or three
days, there is always more and more of this tartar preci-
pitated, and that conftantly the more in proportion as the
wine was more auftere, or lefs adulterated with fugar,
brandy, or the like ; for thefe things contain no tartar.

The ice of the fecond operation on a quantity of wine
differs in nothing from that of the firft, provided only that
the wine was poured clear off from it, before the ice is fet
to melt, by which means it diffolves into a clear phlegm.
This fliews the excellency of the operation ; as it lofes not
its efficacy upon repetition, but brings away mere water as
well at laft as at firft, without robbing the wine of any of
its genuine or truly valuable parts. The remaining un-
frozen liquor is a real concentrated wine, as appears by its
colour, confiftence, tafte, and fmell, and is aftually become
a nobler and richer wine than could have been procured
without fuch a contrivance.

This operation, though it be perfeft in regard to wine,
yet does not fucceed fo well in regard to the malt-hquors.
The experiment has been fairly tried by Stahl on a gallon
of ftrong malt-drink, and the fuccefs was as follows : — The
ice feparated in the firft operation, when thawed by heat,
refolved into a liquor of the colour and tafte of fmall-beer ;
and the fecond concentration afforded an ice of much the
fame kind, which might have paffed for ordinary fmall-beer,
but for a flafhy watery tafte that manifeftly predominated
in it. The liquor unfrozen was but a pint and a half by
meafure, but it was extremely rich and thick, and feemed
very ftrong and fpirituous, and perfectly aromatic, or
highly flavoured. The confiftence was fomething like that
of a thin fyrup, and it had a pleafing foftnefs that fheathed
the acrimony of the fpirit, and covered the bitter tafte of
the hop.

The mucilaginous nature, which is predominant in all
malt-liquors, occafions a great inaccuracy in this experiment,
as not fuffering the water to run clear, or be feparated from
the richer tincture of the malt, nor letting the condenfed
liquor be obtained clean from the ice ; but as the lofs occa-
fioned by this is not great, and the liquor is much cheaper
than wine, if this fliould ever come into ufe in the large way,
the thawed hquor of the ice might be ufed again in a new
brewing, and fo the lofs of that part of the ftrength which
was carried away by the freezing be recovered.

Wines in general may by this method be reduced to any
degree of vinofity or perfeftion. Thus, for example, if a
wine of a moderate ftrength hath a third part of its water
taken away, in form of ice, by congelation, the remaining
pan will thereby be doubled in ftrength and goodnefs : for
if we allow, in the better forts of wine, that one-third part,

wliich

WINE.

' which is near the truth, is truly good or vinous, and two-
third parts are nothing but water, one-thirj part of the
good wine being blended among th'^ two-third parts of
water, of no ftrength or value ; it follows, that if one of
thefe third parts of water be taken away, and all the wine
left, that which was before but one-third wine, is now one-
half wine, no \v;ay reduced in its ftrength, and therefore the
whole muft be ftronger in that proportion.

But if this operation of congelation be canned to the

I utmoft, and be praftifed on a large quantity of wine, and

1 with a very intenfe cold, and the ice taken away feveral

' times, and the wine, thus freed from a part of its water,

j again and again expofed, it will be found that good wines

; will be reduced to one-fixth part of their original quantity :

;i and the vintner will eafily find out the ufe of this remaining

fixth part, which is a true quinteflcnce of wine, and will be

of the utmoft benefit, by mixing it in fmall quantities with

poor and low-flavoured wines, to meliorate and improve

' them ; and even to convert the low-flavoured and leaft

valuable ones into thofe very wines from which this con-

denfed part was procured.

This method is not praAicable to advantage in the wine
countries alone. Dr. Shaw aflures us, that he has himfelf
, experimented it here, and with the ufe of proper freezing
ii mixtures has reduced wines in England to a much fmaller
i| quantity, in proportion to the whole, than in the ftrongeft
i of Stahl's experiments. It is evident, that by how much
I the quantity is fmaller, by fo much it is richer and ftronger,
j provided that the operation has been properly performed.
The doftor an"ures us, the noble eflence or rob, thus pre-
I pared, is capable of working almoft miracles, by turning
I water into wine, and the like ; but that, in order to its fuc-
j ceeding well, there requires great care in the operator, when
[the congelation is repeated the laft times. Shaw's Chem.
,Efl". Stahl's Schediafm. de Concentrat. Vin.

Wine, Clarification of. See Clarification, and Wine
ifupra.

Wine, Colouring of. See Wine Colour, and Wine
\fupra.

' Wine, Fining of. See Fining, and Wine fupra.
\ This operation is praftifed in Germany in the following
.manner : they have in fome vaults three or four ftoves,
iwhich they heat very hot : others make fires almoft before
'every vat ; by which means the muft is made to ferment
with great vehemence. When the ebullition, fermentation,
iand working ceafe, they let the wine ftand, and then rack
lit. This fining is only ufed in cold years, when the wine
happens to be green,
i Wine, Forcing of. See Forcing.
Wine, Domiflic. See Wine fupra.
In the Mufeum Rufticum we have the following direflions
(for making raifin wine : put thirty gallons of foft water
linto a veftel at leaft one-third bigger than fufFicient to con-
Itain that quantity ; and add to it one hundred weight of
Malaga raifins, grofsly picked from their ftalks. Mix the
I whole well together, and cover it partly with a linen cloth.
;When it has flood a little while in a warm place, it will
jbegia to ferment, and nmft be well ftirred about twice, in
jtwenty-four hours, for twelve or fourteen days. When the
ifweetnefs is nearly gone off, and the fermentation much
jabated, which will be perceived by the fubfiding and reft
jaf the raifins, ftrain off the fluid, preffnig it, firft by the
jband, and afterwards by a prefs, out of the raifins. L.et
!:his liquor be put into a found wine-caflc, well dried and
'warmed, adding eight pounds of Lift)on fugar, and a little
lyeaft, and referving part of the liquor to be added from
itime to time, ae the decline of the fermentation will give
I Vol. XXXVIII.

room. In this ftate, the liquor muft remain for a month,
with the bung-hole open ; and having filled the veffel with
the referved liquor, let it be clofely ftopped, and kept for
a year or long-r, and then bottled off. At the end' of a
year and a half it may be drank, but will improve for four
or five years.

Some faving may be made in the expence, by diminifliing
the quantity of raifins, and increafing that of the fugar, in
the proportion of four pounds of raifins for one of fugar ;
or by diminifliing the proportion of both raifins and fugar,
and adding clean malt-fpirits, when the bung of the cafli is
clofed up. Any other large raifins may be ufed, as well as
the Malaga ; but the thinner the flcins and the fweeter the
pulp, the ftronger will be the wine.

If this wine be perfeftly fermented, and kept a long time,
fo that no fweetnefs remain, it will refemble Madeira.

An artificial Frontignac may be made of this wine, in
which the proportion of fugar or of malt-fpirits to the raifins
is large, and the whole body weaker : the mufcadel flavour
being communicated by an infufion of the flowers of raea-
dow-fweet. In the making of this artificial Frontignac, the
ferment ftiould be ftopped, by clofing the caflc and adding
the fpirit, while a confiderable degree of fweetnefs remains,
and the wine may be drank after it has been a little while in
the bottles.

Cyprus wine may be imitated by the fame means, ufing
three or four pounds more of fugar than the quantity above
prefcribed, and flopping the fermentation while a confider.
able degree of fweetnefs remains.

Artificial Mountain may be made by preferving a fmall
degree of fweetnefs, giving the nut-like flavour, and keep-
ing the beft kind of the above wine to a due age. The
flavour may be obtained by the infufion of the Florentine
orris-foot, powdered, with a very fmall proportion of orange
and lemon peel ; and the wine may be rendered more dry or
fweet, by continuing the fermentation for a greater or lefs
time, and adding a correfponding proportion of clean malt-
fpirits, when the fermentation is ftopped fooner. The add-
ing of fome of the ftony feeds of the raifins well bruifed will
give the nut-like flavour ; and the putting in a part of the
ftalks will add a iharpnefs, found generally in this kind of
wine.

The racy tafte of Canary, commonly called fack, may be
counterfeited by the addition of a proper quantity of the
juice of white currant-berries to the wine, made with a large
proportion of fugar to the raifins, and left very fweet in the
fermentation. But it is faid that a fpirit, diftilled from the
leaves of clary and clean malt-fpirits, put to the wine, will
give it a very ftrong refemblance of fack. It is faid alfo,
that the juice of the bramble-berries, added to the mixture
of the wine, before the fermentation, will give both the
colour and flavour of claret : but in this cafe the quantity of
raifins ftiould be confiderably diminiflied, and that of the
fugar increafed, as the fermentation muft be continued till
the fweetnefs be wholly deftroyed.

Wines of this kind fliould be kept at leaft a year before
they are drank. See Sweets.

Wine, Extemporaneous. A hundred weight of good
treacle will produce, according to the art of the diftiller,
from four to feven gallons of pure alcohol ; that is, from
eight to fourteen gallons of the common-proof melaffes
fpirit. The ftill-bottoms have many ufes. The diftillers
fcald and recover their mufty caflcs with them, and they
may be ufed for all thofe purpofes of cleanfing where argol
is required. Mr. Boyle's acid fpirit of wine, or a fpirit
very like it, may alfo be procured from them, and a matter
5 X analogous

WINE.

analogous to that Becher calls tlie media fubftanUa vim.
This liquor gives a durable extemporaneous wine.
Wine, Stooming of. See Stooming.
Wines, Lew, in Diflillation, a term applied to the liquor
which firft comes over, when the tvq/h is fubjefted to dif-
lillation, and which is concentrated by a fecond operation.
See Distillation.

Wines, Medicinal or Medicated, in Pharmacy, a term
;ipplied to thofe preparations, confifting of wine holding
different aflive ingredients in folution. They were for-
merly very numerous, but at prefcnt their number is very
limited. See Vinum, under which article thofe at prefent
in ufe are defcribed.

Wine, Lees of, are the impurities of it, or the thick
fediment remaining at the bottom of the calks, when the
wine is drawn out.

The diftillation of wine-lees into fpirit is condufted very
much in the fame manner with that of the malt-wa(h, when
diftilled with the mealy part in it : the principal difference
is on this account, that the oil of the malt being very nau-
feous and difagreeable, the utmoft care is to be ufed to keep
it back in all the proceffes of primary diftillation, and of
reftification ; whereas, on the other hand, the oil of the
wine-lees being a very agreeable and pleafant one, as much
care as pofiible is to be taken to bring it over with the fpirit.
Glauber has written a peculiar treatife on this fubjeft, in
which, without touching upon the moft advantageous pro-
duftion of all, he has proved the work to be fo very profit-
able, that the whole ufually pafles for one of his wild flights,
rather than a folid bufinefs.

The method of diftilling a liquid ley for its fpirit is a
thing univerfally known ; but the advantageous thing, on
this bafis, is the diftilling of a dry ley preffed and pre-
ferved, and the managing of the bufinefs in fuch a manner
as at firft or laft to procure and feparate all its valuable
parts. The folid ley, here mentioned, is that ufually fold
to the hatters in England, and is the fame thing that in
France and other wine countries the vinegar- makers difpofe
of in cakes, after they have prefled out all the wine, and which
was afterwards burnt, and makes what Lemery and others
call cineres c/avellati ; and the Engliih gravelled ajhts, a fixed
alkaline falt-like potafh.

This ley, when ufed for diftilling, ftiould be that of the
French wines, and either fuch as is newly prefled, or has
been well fecured by packing in a clofe manner in tight
caiks, with fome proper contrivance of dry fand, or the
like, to keep its external furface from the contaft of the
air, which is very apt to corrupt or putrefy it.

If this ley is intended to be kept many months, it will be
very proper to fecure it by fprinkling the layers as they are
packed up with a little brandy. The expence of this is no-
thing, for the brandy is recovered again in the operation.
Shaw.

Wine, Oil of, a very precious liquid, kept as a fecret in
the hands of fome dealers in fpirits, and ufed to give the
brandy flavour to fpirits of lefs price. It is certain that all
the fpirits we ufe take their flavour from the eflential oil of
the fubftance they are made from ; that of malt is very nau-
feous and ofFenfive, and renders the fpirit horribly difagree-
able, if not carefully kept back in the diftillation of it ; that
of the grape, on the other hand, is extremely agreeable,
and ifi what gives the delicious flavour to French brandy :
this, therefore, is to be carefully brought over among the
fpirits in diftillation.

This is that oil of wine fo much celebrated among our
<tiftillers, and is for their ufe made feparate, and is of fuch
e.f?ei5, that half xa ojnce of it wtU determine a pure and

clear malt fpirit to be French brandy, fo as to ftand the teit i
of the niceft palate, and all the trials that can be invented, ,
provided the oil and the fpirit have both been carefully '•
made.

The manner of making the oil is this : they take fome i
cakes of dry wine-lees, fuch as are ufed by our hatters, and
diflblving them in fix or eight times their weight of water,
they diftil the liquor with a flow fire, and feparate the oil
by the feparating pot, referving for this nice ufe only that
which comes over firft, the oil that follows being coarfer,
and more refinous. To render this bufinefs pcrfeftly fuc-
cefsful, there muft be feveral things obferved : i . The ley
mull be of the right kind, that is, of the fame nature with
the French brandy propofed to be imitated. 2. The malt-
fpirit muft be extremely pure. 3. The dofe of the oil muft
be very well proportioned. And, 4. The whole muft be
artificially united into one fimple and homogeue liquor.
Thefe cautions all regard only the tafte, and befides thefe,
in order to come up to a nice counterfeit, feveral other par-
ticulars muft be attended to ; fuch as the colour, proof,
tenacity, foftnefs, and the like ; fo that, in (hort, the opera-
tion has too much nicety in it to be hit off by every ordinary
dealer. When this fine oil of wine is procured, it may be
mixed into a quinteflence, with pure diftilled alcohol, or |
the totally inflammable fpirit of wine, to prevent its growing
diftafteful, rancid, or refinous ; and thus it may be long
preferved in full pofleflion of its flavour and virtues.

The ftill-bottoms, or remaining matter after the diftilla-
tion of this oil, will yield many produAions to advantage,
particularly tartar, and fait of tartar, as alfo an empyreu-
matic oil, and a volatile fait, like that of animals. Some
kind of lees afford all thefe in much greater quantity than
others ; the lees of Canary and Mountain wines yield very
little of them ; and, indeed, fcarce any tartar or fixed fait
at all ; but the white French lees of thofe thin wines that
afford the ordinary brandies, yield them all very copioufly,
infomuch that fometimes a fingle hogfhead of dry and clofe-
pi'cffed lees will afford, by this procefs, three gallons of
brandy, forty pounds of clean tartar, a large proportion of
empyreumatic oil, and volatile fait, befide full four pounds
of good fait of tartar. It is not to be expefted, however, ;
that every parcel of this ley fhould yield fully in this pro-
portion. Shaw's Effay on Diftillery.

Wine, Piece of. See Piece.

WiNE-Z'ri?/}, a machine contrived to fqueeze the juice
out of grapes, and confifting of feveral pieces of timber,
varioufly difpofed, which compofe three bodies of timber-
work, clofely united to the axis, which ferves as a fwing,
by which it may be moved by the vice. Of thefe there
are different fizes as well as different conftruftions.

Wine, Prifage of. See Prisage.

Wine, Racking of. See Rack, and Wi^n fupra.

Wine, Spirit of. See Spirit.

V7inK-Spirit, a term ufed by our diftillers, and which may
feem to mean the fame thing with the phrafe fpirit of
•wine; but they are taken in very different fenfes in the
trade.

Spirit of wine is the name given to the common nialt-
fpirit, when reduced to an alcohol, or totally inflamma- ■
ble ttate ; but the phrafe ivine-fpirt is ufed to cxprefs
a very clean and fine fpirit, of the ordinary proof-ftrength, I
and made in England from wines of foreign growth.

The way of producing it is by fimple diftillation ; and it I
is never reftified any higher than common bubble-proof.
The feveral wines of different natures, yield very different
proportions of fpirit ; but in general the ftrongeft yield
one-fourth, the wcakeft in fpirits one-eighth part of proof-

fpirit ;

WINE.

fpirit ; that is, they contain from a fixteenth to an eighth
part of their quantity of pure alcohol.

Wines that are a little four ferve not at all the worfe for
the purpofes of the diftiller ; they rather give a greater
vinofity to the produce. This vinofity'is a thing of great
ufe in the wine-fpirit, whofe principal ufe is to mix with
another that is tartarized, or with a malt -fpirit, rendered
alkaline by the common method of reftification. All the
wine-fpirits made in England, even thofe from the French
wines, appear very greatly different from the common
French brandy ; and this has given our diftillers a
notion that there is fome fecret art praftifed in France,
for giving the agreeable flavour to that fpirit ; but this
is without foundation.

When we diftil Sicilian or Spanifh wines, we do not
produce Sicilian or Spanifh brandies ; and the true reafon
of this is, that the wines which they diftil on the fpot
into brandy, are very different from thofe which they
export as wines.

Thofe they diftil are fo poor and thin, that they will not
keep many months, nor can poffibly bear exportation.
If we had in England thofe poor wines they diftil into
brandy near Bourdeaux, Cognac, or up the Loire, there
is no doubt that the fpirit we made from them would be
univerfally allowed to be French brandy. We have proof
of this from fome of the Scotch diftilleries, where they,
with no peculiar art, or fecret method, procure from
fome of the poor pricked and damaged wines received
here, brandy fo nearly refembling that of Francf, that
a good judge will fcarcely be able to make the diflinc-
tion. Wine-fpirits and brandies, therefore, are the fame
thing, only with this difference, that the former is the
produdl of a rich wine, and the latter of a poor one ; or,
at the utmoft, they differ only as our two home produfts,
the cyder-fpirit and the crab-fpirit, do.

The wine-fpirit, diftilled in England, is not eafy to be
had pure and unmixed at our diftillers, nor under a price
almoll equal to that of French brandy ; fo that if it
ever be required out of the trade, it is as well to ufe the
French brandy, which will, in all cafes, ferve the fame
purpofes, unlefs where a high flavour or a copious effen-
tial oil are required. All other fpirits are carefully di-
vefted of their oil in the reftifications ; but the wine-
fpirit is coveted only for its oil, and all that can be ob-
tained is preferved in this, its principal ufe being to give a
flavour to a worfe fpirit, and to cover the tafte of a dif-
agreeable oil in it.

When a caflc of wine chances to turn four in private
hands, it is worth while to diftil it for the fpirit. The
lees, alfo, if in any confiderable quantity, will yield fuch
a proportion of the fame fort of fpirit, as to render it
worth while ; and as the high flavour is not required
in this intent, it will be beft to draw off the fpirit very
gently, either by the cold or hot ftill, and afterwards it
may be reftified without any addition, and reduced to
the ftandard-ftrength of proof. It thus makes a very
clean and pleafant fpirit, though very different from the
brandy from the fame country whence the wine came.
Shaw's Effay on Diftillery. See Spirit.

Wine, Philofophic Spirit of, in the writings of fome che-.
mifts and phyficians, a phrafe that often occurs as the
name of a liquid prepared from wine, and endued with
very remarkable properties.

It is generally fuppofed that this was the fame fort of
liquor, which we at this time call by the name of fpirit of
wine ; but this is a very erroneous opinion, and has led
many into errors, about the operations in which it was

concerned. It was truly no diftilled liquor, but the fpi-
rituous parts of wine condenfed and concentrated by the
freezing of the more aqueous part.

Wine Vinegar, Method of making of . See ViNEGAR.

Wine, Laivs relating to.

Wine may be imported only in Britifh-built fhips, or
veffels of the built of that country of which the wine is the
produce, legally navigated ; or in fhips the built of the
country in Europe under the dominion of tlie fovereign or
ftate in Europe, of which the wine is the produce, or of
the ufual place of fliipping. Penalty, forfeiture of the
wine and the ftiip. 12 Car. II. c. 18. and 27 Geo. III.
c. 19.

No other than Rhenifh wine may be imported from the
Netherlands or Germany, on forfeiture of fliip and goods.
13 & 14 Car. II. c. II. But wine, the produce of Hun-
gary, may come from Hambro' ; alfo wine, the produce of
Hungary, the Aultrian dominions, or any part of Ger-
many, may come from the Auftrian Netherlands, or any
place fubjeft to the emperor of Germany or houfe of
Auftria. I Ann. ftat. i. c. 12. and 22 Geo. III. c. 78.
Wine may not be imported in veffels under fixty tons bur-
then : wine and veffel forfeited. 24 Geo. III. c. 47.
26 Geo. III. C.J9. and 45 Geo. III. c. 121. Spanifh
and Portugal wines may not be imported in any cafl< con-
taining lefs than a hogfhead, except for private ufe.
18 Geo. III. c. 27. and 25 Geo. III. c. 69. French
wine the fame ; and, except French wine in bottles, from
France, Guenifey, Jerfey, or Alderney. 18 Geo. III.
c. 27. and 27 Geo. III. c. 13. By the 5 Ann. c. 27. a
hogfhead is to contain 63 gallons, or 231 cubical inches of
wine. Wine {i.e. not Spanifh nor Portugal) may not be
imported in flafl<s, bottles, or calks, containing lefs than
25 gallons, except of the produce of the dominions of the
grand duke of Tufcany, in open flaflcs, or any part of the
Levant, and alfo wine for private ufe. i Geo. II. ftat. 2.
c. 17. and 25 Geo. III. c. 69. Wine may be imported in
cafes containing fix dozen reputed quart bottles at the
leaft. 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 83. 42 Geo. III. c. 44.
and 45 Geo. III. c. 121. Five reputed quart bottles
deemed a gallon in charging duty. Wine not to be im-
ported unlefs accompanied by a manifeft, attefted by tlie
conful at the place of fhipment. 26 Geo. III. c. 40.
Wine muft be entered at the cuftom-houfe and excife-office
within 20 days after the fhip has reported, or it may be
fold for the duties, and muft be removed from the quays in
10 days. 26 Geo. III. c. 59. and 35 Geo. III. c. 118.
Wine landed without payment of duty is forfeited
( 20 Geo. III. c. 59.) ; but wine may be warehoufed under
fchedule B, without payment at the time of entry of tlie
duties due on importation, on the importer giving bond to
export the fame, or pay the duties within 12 months. But
duty muft be paid when taken out, on any excefs or defi-
ciency, from the quantity taken at the time of landing ; and
no wine to be warehoufed in caflcs lefs than 45 gallons.
43 Geo. III. c. 132. Wine that has been warehoufed
may be exported, and wine that has paid duty may be
fliipped for drawback ; but muft be packed in the pre-
fence of the proper excife-officers, and the caflis to be
fealed with tlieir official feals, and if they are afterwards
damaged or broken, the party offending to forfeit 50/. for
each caflc or package. Due notice to be given in writing
of the times of packing and fhipping. 26 Geo. III. c. 59.
f. 46, 47. The exporter to give bond before fliipping
that the fame fhall be exported to the place entered for, and
fliall not be relanded or unfhipped. To be landed in Great
Britain, on forfeiture. 26 Geo. Ill, c. 59. f. 48.
3X2 35 Gvo.

WIN

3J Geo. III. c. 118. Wine may be exported to Douglas,
in the Ifle of Man, in Britifh veflcls of 50 tons, by licence
of the commiflioners of the cuftoms. 52 Geo. III. c. 140.
All the duties paid upon wine {hipped for the aftual
confuraption of officers of the navy on board fhip, to be
drawn back according to the following proportions.
33 Geo. III. c. 48.

W I N

See Squills.
See Me.'V.sure, and Laws relating to

Admiral .....

Vice-admiral . - . . -
Rear-admiral ....

Captain of a firft and fecond rate
Captain of a third, fourth, and fifth rate
Captain of every inferior (hip -
Lieut, and other officer in conmiiflion

Tons

6

5

4

3

2
I

Officers of marines to be allowed half a ton per annum.
53 Geo. III. c. 44. But to be fliipped only at the ports
of London, Rochefler, Dover, Dartmouth, Portfmouth, Sic.
Officers may remove their ftock from one (hip to another,
and difpofe of it to other officers. 38 Geo. III. c. 33.

Dealers in foreign wine to enter their premifes at the
excife -office, on penalty of ico/. for every place not en-
tered, and forfeiture of the wine found therein. 26 Geo. III.
c. 59. f. 12. Dealers to have the words 'Dealers in
foreign Wines' painted over their doors, on penalty of 50/.
feft. 15. Retailers to have the word ' Wine' exhibited in
fome confpicuous part of their premifes, on penalty of ten
ffiillings. . 30 Geo. II. c. 19. and 32 Geo. II. c. 19.
Dealers to take out a licence, to be renewed ten days before
the expiration of every year, on penalty of 100/. ; but not
to apply to auctioneers felling wine by auftion. 26 Geo. III.
c. 59. Retailers of foreign wines, and dealers in fweets or
Britifh wines, to take out licences alfo ; and felling them
after its expiration, and before renewed, fubjefts them to
50/. penally. 30 Geo. III. c. 18. Retailers not to fell
wine in their houfes, unlefs they have a beer licence granted
by the magiitrates, on penalty of 20/. (See Al.^-Houfes.)
Officers may enter at any time to take an account of the
ftock, but if they go in the night they muft be attended
with a conftable. The party refufing them admittance, or
obftrufting them, forfeits 100/. 26 Geo. III. c. 59.
f. 17. No wine to be brought into a dealer's pofieffion
without a permit, and dealers to mark on a confpicuo\is
part the content of each caflc. 26 Geo. III. c. 59. f. 32.
Any excefs in dealer's ftock from the account lail taken,
after dedufting the quantity fold and entered in their
books, deemed not to have paid duty, and is forfeited, and
double the value. 26 Geo. III. c. 5. f. 59. 27 Geo. III.
c. 31. Difierent kinds of wine and liquors, (cyder,
fpirits, &c. ) to be kept feparate. 26 Geo. III. c. 59.
42 Geo. III. c. 93. And no dealer in foreign wine to have
any fweets or Britiffi wines in his pofleffion. Penalty loj.
per gallon, zf Geo. III. Account of wine daily fold to
be kept, and r.r quantity above three gallons to be removed
without permit, .n forfeiture of the fame, and the carriage
and horles. 26 Geo. III. c. 59. 42 Geo. III. c. 95.
Wine, in poffeffion of perfons not dealers, may have permits
granted for its removal, on proving to the fatisfaftion of
the commiffioners of excife, or the colleftor or fupcrvifor of
the diflrift, that the duties have been paid. 26 Geo. III.
*^- 59- f- 33- Permits not ufed to be returned to the
officer.on penalty of treble the value of the wine. 26Geo.III.
c- 59- f- 37» 38 > ^^^ perfons forging or counterfeiting
them to forfeit 500/. Ibid. fed. 39.

For the laws relating to low wines and domeftic wines,
fee DisTiLLEB, and Sweets.

Wine of Squills.

WlNE-Mfiz/arf.
WifiE/upra.

WitiE-Fly, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a fmall black 1
fly, found in empty wine-cafks, and about wine-lees, and I
called by the Latins, Bibio.

It is produced of a fmall red worm, very common in the j
fediment of wine.

The drippings of wine or beer veffels, the preffings of
the wine or cyder prefs, the pots in which honey has been
kept, and in which a little remains fticking to the fides,
and turning four, all afford vail numbers of a fmall fpe.
cies of worm or maggot. This is of a white colour,
and has two hooks placed near the head ; in (hort, it re- '
fembles in all the parts the maggot of the common ■
flefh-fly. Multitudes of thefe fmall creatures live and I
move very brilkly about in thefe fubftances for feveral !
weeks together ; but at the end of that time, when they !
have arrived at their full growth, they enter into the
nymph-ftate under a covering or cafe made of their own
lliin, which dries, and becomes of a brown colour.
After eight or ten days in this ftate, the cafe is opened
by the falling off of a fmall piece at the end, and the fly
makes . its way out. The fly is extremely fmall when
its wings are not extended.

It does not exceed the fize of the head of a middling
pin ; it is however very beautiful ; the breaft and body
are yellow, the reticulated eyes are red, and the wings
have all the rainbow-colours. The bell way of procur-
ing thefe little flies, which make a very beautiful mi-
crolcope objeft, is to keep the matter, in which the
worms are placed, in a glafs, covered down with a pa-
per ; as foon as the cover is taken off, at the time of their
being in the fly-flate, they rife up at once in the form of;
a cloud ; enough of them for obfervation will however
remain about the fides of the veflel. When examined, they
are found to have all the regular parts of the larger flies ;
their antennas are oval and flatted, and their legs, and every
other part, are as elegantly perfeft, as they are feen to be
in the moll elegant large fly.

It is not known whether they are oviparous or viviparous ;
but this is to be obferved, that they give us great light
into the origin of animalcules in different fluids.

Since we fee in thefe the evident courfu' of nature in their
origin, what prevents but that there may be numbers of
flies yet fmaller then thefe, whofe eggs may be depofited in
the fluids in which we find our microfcope animalcules.
Reaum. Hift. Inf. vol. ix. p. 82.

WINEBAGO, in Geography, a lake of North America.
N. lat. 43° 50'. W. long. 87° 46'.

WiNEBAGo Ri-ver, a river of America, which runs from
Winebago lake to Green bay into lake Michigan. The
Winebago Indians inhabit near this river and lake, in about
N. lat. 43° to 44°. W. long. 84° to 89".

WINEBAGOES C.-vstle, an Indian fettlement in
North America, near Winebago lake.

WINEE or Black River, a river of South Carolina.
See Black River.

WINERSTA, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland ;
18 miles N.W. of Linkioping.

WING, in Botany and Vegetable Phyjiology, is generally
ufed for any appendage to a feed, which ferves to affill in
its flight through the air. In this fenfe, the feathery
crown of the Dandehon, and other fyngenefious plants ;
the membranous expanfion at the top of the fcabious feed,
fo curioufly and varioufly conftrufted in different fpecies ;
the long feathery avra of the Stipa ; and the delicate filky

plumage

W 1 N

W 1 N

plumage of many feeds among the order of Contorig, are
juftly denominated wings. In a more limited and technical
fenfe, the Ala, or wing, properly fo called, is a thin mem-
branous expanfion, enabling the feeds to flutter to a fmall
diftance from their native capfule, rather than to fly very
far. Such is found in Embothhium, Grevillea, Bank-
SIA, CoNCHlUM, (fee thofe articles,) as well as in our
Englilh genera Rhinanthus and Spergula ; in the
latter we believe this part to vary, in degree at leaft.
Gartner meant to confine the term ala to a membranous
expanfion of the upper part of a feed, or feed-veflel, but he
has not adhered to this intention. Winged capfules,
which do not burft, are feen in the Afh and the Maple.
One which does burft occurs ia the curious exotic genus
Begonia. The feeds of fome umbelliferous plants, as
Thapsia, have feveral wings ; thefe are always lateral and
longitudmal in that natural order ; but it is far more gene-
ral for them to be folitary. When the wing encompaffes
the feed, as in the beautiful inftance of Bignonla cchinata,
figured in Gaertner, t. 52, that author properly adopts the
term ala, and yet the expanfion to which it applies is really
a margo membranaceus, (membranous expanfion,) furround-
ing the feed entirely, except at the very bafe.

The appellation of wing is given alfo to any membra-
nous or leafy dilatation of a footftalk, or of the angles of a
Hem, branch, or flower-ftalk, as well as of a calyx. The
wings of a papilionaceous corolla are the two lateral petals,
both ahke, which embrace the bafe of the keel, and are
fheltered by the llandard. Thefe fpread remarkably in fine
weather. They differ greatly in fize and (hape in different
genera. See PAPiLiONACEiE.

Wing, in Geography, a village of England, in Bucking-
hamfhire, with 993 inhabitants ; 7 miles N.E. of Aylef-
bury. — Alfo, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ; 40
miles E. of Gotheburg.

Wing, in Ornithology. See Feather, and Flying.

The wings are adapted for flight in all birds, except the
dodo, oftriches, great awk, and the penguins, whofe wings
are too fhort for the ufe of flying : but in the dodo and
oftrich, when extended, they ferve to accelerate their motion
in running ; and in penguins perform the office of fins, in
fvvimming or diving. The wings have near their end an
appendage covered with four or five feathers, called the
bajlard wings : the leifer coverts are the teSrices : the
greater coverts are thofe which lie beneath the former, and
cover the quill-feathers and the fecondaries. The quill-
feathers, or primores, fpring from the firft bones of the
wings, are ten in number, and broader 011 their inner than
exterior fides : the fecondaries are thofe that arife from the
fecond part, or cubitus, are about eighteen in number, and
equally broad on both fides. The primary and fecondary
wing-feathers are called remiges. The tertials are a tuft
of feathers placed beyond the fecondaries, near the junction
of the wings with the body. This, in water-fowl, is gene-
rally longer than the fecondaries, and cuneiform. The
fcapulars are a tuft of long feathers arifing near the junftion
of the wings with the body, and lie along the fides of the
back, but may be eafily diftinguilhed, and raifed with one's
finger. The inner coverts are thofe that clothe the under
fide of the wing.

The wings of fome birds are inftruments of offence : the
anhima of Marcgrave has two ftrong fpines in the front of
each wing ; a fpecies of plover has a fingle one on each ;
as have alfo the whole tribe of jacana, and the gambo, or
fpur-winged goofe of Willughby. Pennant's Geneva of
Birds, pref. p. 4.

Wings, among the Fly-dafs, afford feveral fubordinate
12

diftinftions of the genera of thofe animals, under the ancient
general claffes.

Several fpecies of flies, while they are in a ftate of reft,
or only walking, (hew feveral regularly diftinft manners
of carrying their wings. The much greater numbers,
however, carry them in a parallel or plain pofition : fome
being perpendicular to the length of the body without
covering it, others covering the body without covering
one another : the wings of others crofs one another on the
body of the animal, fome of which round themfelves there,
the upper wing being more elevated on the middle of the
body than on the fides. Some flies have their wings placed
on their backs, and applied againft one another, in a per-
pendicular pofition : the wings of others are applied
obhqucly againft their fides, and meet above the bodv of
their inner edges, forming a kind of hollow roof under
which the body is placed ; others form at their junftion on
the back a flat depreffed roof, and others have them meet-
ing under their bellies.

The ftrufture of the wngs of different flies might alfo
furnifh matter of farther diftinftions. The greater part of
them are of a fine ftrufture, and reprefent the fineft gauze,
and are equally tranfparent, or nearly fo, in all parts.
Some flies, however, have wings of a lefs degree of tranf-
parence, and fome even opaque ones. Others of the four-
winged flies have obfcure fpots alfo diftributed near their
very tranfparent texture ; fuch are the wings of the fcorpion-
fly ; and fome of the two-winged flies have wings partly
opaque, partly pellucid, the opaque fpots being feparated
by tranfparent lines. Reaumur's Hift. Inf. vol. iv. p. 136,
&c.

Wings of Bulterjlles. The beautiful wings of this genus
of infefts are diftinguilhed from thofe of the fly-kind, by
their not being thin and tranfparent, like them, but thicker
and opaque. This opacity in them is owing only to the
duft which comes off" from them, and fticks to the fingers
in handling them, and it is alfo to this dufl that they
owe all their beautiful variety of colours. The earlier
naturalifts, for this reafon, diftinguiflied thefe infefts by
the appellation of fuch as had farinaceous wings. The
ufe of the microfcope has taught us, that this duft is not
the refult of fome other fubflance broken into fragments ;
but every particle of it is a regularly figured body, made
for the place and order it has in the covering of the wing.

The feveral fpecies of butterflies, and even the different
parts of the fame wing, afford thefe bodies of different
fhapes and figures. Moft of the authors who have written
of microfcopic objefts, have given the figures of the prin-
cipal varieties of thefe ; but no one has given fo many as
Bonani in his Micrographia, in which work the figures of
the various kinds take up four quarto plates.

It has been the general cuftom of authors to call thefe
feathers ; but they are by M. Reaumur, with much greater
juftice, called fcales. Their ftrufture has no refemblance
to that of feathers, for they are little flat and thin bodies,
of more or lefs length, and always having a fhort pedicle
which enters into the fubftance of the wing.

When the wing of a butterfly is viewed by a microfcope,
the arrangement of thefe feveral bodies in it is feen to be
extremely beautiful and regular. The fcales he as regu-
larly and evenly one over another, as the tiles on a houfe
or the fcales on the fifh-kind, every feries of them covering
a fmall part of that feries which runs below it. The upper
and under part of the wing are equally furnifhed with thefe,
and tliere is no fpecies of this creature, in every wing of
which there are not feveral figures of thefe fcales in feveral
parts.

The

W I N

W I N

The ftrufture of the wing itfelf which fupports thefe
feveral feales, hairs, &c. is very worthy our attention. In
order to examine this, it is neceflary to rub off all the duft
or feales. We then find that the wing itfelf is framed of
feveral large and ttrong ribs, which all take their origin at
that part where the wing is fixed to the body, and thence
extend themfelves along the feveral fides of the wing.
The largeft and thickeR of thefe furrounds the outer edge
of the wing, the largeit next to this extends itfelf round the
interior edge, and the others dired their courfe along the
middle of the wing, and then divaricate, and become rami-
fied in the manner of the ribs in the leaves of plants. The
fubftance which connedls and fills up the fpaces between
thefe ribs, is of fo peculiar a nature, that it is not eafy to
find any name to defign it by, at leall there is no fubftance
that enters the compofition of the bodies of the larger ani-
mals, that is at all analogous to it: it is a white fubftance,
tranfparent and friable, and feems indeed to differ in nothing
from that of the large and thick ribs, but in that it is ex-
tended into thin plates ; but this is faying but little toward
the determining what it really is, fince we are as much at a
lofs to know by what name to call the fubftance they are
compofed of. Malpighi, indeed, calls them bones; but
though they do ferve in the place of bones, rendering the
wing firm and ftrong, without making it heavy, and are,
when cut tranfverfely, found to be hollow ; yet, when
llriaiy examined, they do not appear to have any thing of
the ftrufture of bones, but appear rather of the fubftance
of feales, or of that fort of imperfeft feales, of which the
covering of thofe infefts which we call cruftaceous is
compofed.

The wings of butterflies, thus large, and thus light, are
very well able to fuftain them a long time in the air, and thus
they might be expefted to fly better than molt other infefts ;
but many people have obferved the irregular manner in
wliich thefe infeds ufually fly, which is not ftraight for-
ward, but up and down, and to one fide and the other :
this has been fuppofed owing to fome imperfeftion of the
wings ; but, in reality, it is their great perfeftion that
enables the creatures to do this, and this manner of flying is
abfolutely neceflary to the prefervation of their life, as birds
of many kinds are continually after them while they are on
the wing ; and it is a pleafant fight to obferve in what
manner this fort of dodging motion in the butterfly dif-
appoints the bird that flies ftraight at it, and often preferves
it fafely for a long way together.

The beautiful variety of colours, feen in the wings of
thefe infefts, is owing to the feales and feathers. Reau-
mur's Hift. Inf. vol. i. part i. p. 255, &c.

Wings of Gnats. Thefe are of a very curious ftruAure,
and well worthy the ufe of the microfcope, to fee them
diftinftly.

It is well known that on touching the wings of butter-
flies, a coloured powder is left on the fingers, which,
though to the naked eye it appear a mere ftiapelefs duft,
yet when examined by the microfcope, it is found to be
very regularly-figured beautiful bodies, encompaffed with a
furbelow of long feathers, and with veins or ribs that feem
to ftrengthen them, in form of feathers or feales, or fome-
times befet with prickles : thefe are of various figures, and
all of them very elegant. The generality of flies have no-
thing of this kind ; but the clofe examination of the wings
of the gnat will ftiew, that they are not wholly deftitute of
them ; they are much more fparingly beftowed indeed upon
the gnat than on the butterfly, but then they are arranged
with great regularity. Between the ribs of the wings there
is extended a very thin tranfparent membrane, full of little

black fliarp-pointed hairs, ranged throughout with the ut-
moft regularity. The wings in different forts of gnats are
very different : fome have a border of long feathers, others
of (hort ones, and others have none at all. Reaumur's
Hift. Inf. vol. iv. p. 577. Baker's Microfc. 8vo. 1743,
p. 204.

Wings, Warbiing of the. See Warbling.

Wings, in Heraldry, are borne fometimes fingle, fome-
times in pairs, in which cafe they are called conjoined; when
the points are downward, they are faid to be inverted;
when up, elevated.

Wings, in Gardening, &c. denote fuch branches of trees,
or other plants, as grow up afide of each other.

Quintiny fays, the term is particularly applied to arti-
chokes, whofe wings, or alie, are the lefler heads, or fruits,
that grow up with the principal one on the fame italk.

Wings, Alx, in the Military Art, are the two flanks, or
extremes of an army, ranged in form of battle ; being the
right and left fides thereof, and including the main body.

The cavalry are always pofted in the wings, i. e. on the
flanks, on the right and left fides of each line ; to cover the
foot in the middle.

Pan, one of Bacchus's captains, is faid to have been the
firft inventor of this method of ranging an army ; whence,
fay they, it is, that the ancients painted him with horns on
his head ; what we call wings, being by them called cornua,
horns. This at leaft is certain, that the method of arranging
in wings is very ancient. The Romans, we know, ufed
the term alie, or wings, for two bodies of men in their
army ; one on the right, the other on the left, confifting
each of four hundred horfe, and four thoufand two hundred
foot ufually, and wholly made up of confederate troops.
Thefe were dcfigned to cover the Roman army, as the
wings of a bird cover its body.

The troops in thefe wings they called alares, and alares
copiie ; and we, at this day, diftinguifh our armies into the
main body, the right and left wings.

Wings are alfo ufed for two files, that terminate each
battalion, or fquadron, on the right and left. The pikes
ufed to be ranged in the middle, and the mufqueteers in the
wings.

Wings, in Fortijlcation, denote the longer fides of horn-
works, crown-works, tenailles, and the like outworks, in-
cluding the ramparts and parapets, with which they are
bounded on the right and left, from the gorge to ttieir
front.

Thefe wings, or fides, are capable of being flanked,
either with the Ijody of the place, if they ftand not too far
diftant, or with certain redoubts ; or with a traverfe made
in the ditch.

Wings, in a Ship, the places next the fide upon the orlop,
ufually parted off' in ftiips of war, that the carpenter and his
crew may have free accefs round the fhip in time of aftion,
to plug up fhot -holes, &c.

Wings are alfo the fkirts or extremities of a fleet, when
it is ranged into a line a-breaft, or when bearing away upon
two fides of an angle.

It is ufual alfo to extend the wings of a fleet in the day-
time, in order to difcover any enemy which may fall into
their track. To prevent feparation, however, they are
commonly fummoned to draw nearer to the centre of the
fquadron before night, by a fignal from the commander-
in-chief, which is afterwards repeated by fliips in the in-
tervals. Falconer.

^mc-Tranfom, the uppermoft tranfom in the ftern-frame
of a ftiip, &c., upon which the peels of the counter-timbers
are refted. It is by fome called the main-tranfom.

Wings,

W 1 N

Wings, Goofe. See Goose.

Wing, St. Michael's, is the name of a military order in
Portugal, inllituted, according to the Jefuit Mendo, in
1165 ; or, according to di Michieli, in his Teforo Militar.
de Cavalleria, in 1171. Its inftitutor was Alphonfus
Henry I. king of Portugal ; and the occafion was a viAory
gained by him over the king of Savil, and his Saracens ;
for which he thought himfelf beholden to St. Michael,
whom he had chofen for his patron in the war againft the
infidels.

The banner they bore was a wing refembling that of the
archangel, of a purple colour, encompaffed with rays of
gold. Their rule was that of St. Benedift ; the vow they
made was to defend the Chriftian religion, and the borders
of the kingdom, and to proteft orphans. Their motto,
Quis ut Dens !

WitiG-lVal/s, of a bridge or lock, are fplaying-walls for
diminifhing the width of the canal to fuch bridge or lock,
and for keeping up the banks.

WINGE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Demer, 2 miles W. of Arfchot.

WINGED, in Botany, a term applied to fuch ftems of
plants as are furni(hed, all their length, with a fort of mem-
branous appendage.

Several kinds of thiftles have winged ftalks and branches.

Winged Leaves are fuch as confift of divers little leaves,
ranged in the fame direction, on each fide of a rib or Italk,
fo as to appear no more than one and the fame leaf. Such
are the leaves of agrimony, acacia, afh, &c. See Wing.

Winged Seeds are fuch as have down or hairs on them,
by which the wmd taking hold blows them to a diftance.

Winged Stali. See Stalk.

Winged, in Heraldry, is applied to a bird when its wings
are of a different colour, or metal, from the body.

Winged is alfo applied to any thing reprefented with
wings, though contrary to its nature ; as •winged or fiylng
hart, S:c.

WINGER, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the pro-
vince of Aggerhuus ; 2 miles S. of Kongfwinger.

WINGHAM, a village and parilh in the hundred of its
own name, and lathe of St. Augulline, in the county of
Kent, England, is fituated 34 miles E. from Maidftone, and
62 E. by S. from London. A college of a provoft and
fix fecular canons was projefted here by Kilwardby, arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, but fettled and endowed by his fuc-
cefTor, Peckham, in 1286. It was valued at 84/. per annum
at the general fuppreflion. By Edward VI. the college,
with the patronage of the church and all tythes, were
granted to fir Henry Palmer. The building, now called the
college, and which formed the manfion of the Palmers,
appears to have been the provoft's lodge. The church con-
tains memorials of the Palmers and the Oxendens, who
have a feat at Deane, in the pari{h. A double row of ftalls
llill exifts in the chancel. Wingham gives a title to earl
Cowper, who, however, has no eftate in the pari(h. It
gave birth to Henry de Wingham, chancellor of England,
bifhop of Winchefter, and afterwards of London. In 1811
the inhabitants of the parifh were 859, who occupied 162
boufes. — Beauties of England, Kent, by E. W. Brayley.

Wingham'j IJland, a fmall ifland in the North Pacific
ocean, near the W. coaft of North America; 3 miles N.W.
of Kaye's ifland. N. lat. 60° 4'. E. long. 215° 46'.

WINGROD, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ;
16 miles N.W. of Sniatyn.

WINHALL, a townfhip of Vermont, in the county of
Bennington, with 429 inhabitants ; 30 miles N.E. of Ben-
nington.

WIN

WININGEN, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhine and Mofelle, on the N. fide of the Mofelle ; 5
miles W. of Coblentz.

WINKEL, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Tonnerre ; 14 miles W. of Mentz.

WINKELMAN, Abbe John, in Biography, a German
antiquary, was born at Stendal, in the Mark of Branden-
burg, in 1 7 18. Although born in very humble life, he
fortunately enjoyed favourable opportunities of cultivating
his talents in that department in which he afterwards
attained to eminence. He had arrived at the age of 37
years before he was known to the public as an author. ,
His firft work was " Rcfleftions on the Imitation of the
Greeks in Painting and Sculpture ;" and it was received in
a manner that very much contributed to ellabhlh his repu-
tation. At the court of Auguftus, king of Poland, he was
profelyted to the Catholic faith, more, as fome have faid,
by arguments addreffed to his worldly intereft, than to his
fpiritual welfare. It is certain, however, that he much
wifhed to vifit Italy for the fake of examining thofe mafter-
pieces of art that were to be found in that country. With
this view he left Drefden, and in paffing through Florence
in 1756, he made a defcriptive catalogue of the antiquities
in the coUeftion of the celebrated baron de Stofch, which
feemed to introduce him with advantage to Rome, whither
he proceeded towards the clofe of this year. His acquaint-
ance with the famous painter Mengs, Bianconi, and feveral
other ingenious artifts, forwarded his accefs to two of the
moll celebrated literary men at Rome, cardinal Paffionei
and the prelate Giaconelli ; from whofe library and learning
he derived much ufeful information, fo that he was foon ac-
knowledged as a man of fine tafte, and a diftinguilhed con-
noifleur in works of art. Afluming the ecclefiaftical habit,
he fucceeded the abbe Venuti as keeper of the pope's
cabinet of antiquities ; and he was alfo appointed copyift
in the library of the Vatican. Under the patronage of the
pope, who increafed his income out of his privy-purfe, he
completed his Hiftory of Art among the Ancients, and then
left Rome in 1768 to vifit his friends in Germany, and to
revife his work to be tranflated into French by M. Touf-
faint of Berlin. On his return to Rome by way of Triefte,
he was aflaflinated, in June 1768, by a wretch who had
joined him on the road, and who had fo far gained his con-
fidence, that he had (hewn him fome gold medals and valuable
prefents which he had received at Vienna. " Abbe Win-
kelman," fays one of his biographers, " was of the middle
fize, with a very low forehead, a (harp nofe, and black hollow
eyes, which gave him rather a gloomy appearance. An
ardent and impetuous difpofition often hurried him into
extremes. Naturally enthufiaftic, he frequently indulged
an extravagant imagination ; but as he pofleffed a ftrong
and folid judgment, he knew how to give things their jull
value. In confequence of this turn of mind, as well as a
neglefted education, he was a ftranger to cautious referve.
If he was bold in his decifions as an author, he was ftill
more fo in his converfation, and often made his friends
tremble for his temerity." The tranflation of his Hiitory
of the Arts was completed only in part by Touffaint.
Another French tranflation was publifhed by Huber, pro-
feffor at Leipfic. It is faid that the laft French tranflation
is far preferable to the firil, as it was made from an enlarged
edition of the original, printed at Vienna in 1776, after a
MS. left by the author. Among the other works of
Winkelman were, " Letters on the Difcoveries made at
Herculaneum," tranflated into Enghfli by Mr. Gough ;
" Unpubliftied Monuments of Antiquity, fuch as Statues,
ancient Paintings, engraved Stones, Bas- Reliefs, in Marble

and.

WIN

W I N

and Terra Cotta," of which there is a French tranflation
from the ItaHan, Paris, 1808, 3 vols. 410. with plates; " On
Allegory, or Treatifes on that Subjeft," 2 vols. 8vo. ; and
" Remarks on the Architefture of the Ancients," 8vo.
Winkelman's " Letters to his Friends" were publifhed in
German, in 2 vols. 8vo., with an account of his life pre-
fixed by Heyne. Nouv. Dift. Hift. Gen. Biog.

WINKOOP's Bay, or mne Cooper's Bay, in Geogra-
phy, a large bay on the fouth coaft or Java. S. lat. 7° 5'.
E. long. 106° 38'.

WiNKOOp'j- IJland, a fmall ifland near the fouth coaft of
Java. S. lat. 7° 28'. E. long. 106'=' 36'.

WiNKOOP'j Point, a cape on the fouth coaft of Java.
S. lat. 7° 25'. E. long. 106° 36'.

WINLATON, a townlhip of Durham ; 6 miles W. of
Newcaftle.

WINNEBAGO. See Winebago.

WINNENBURG, a citadel of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sarre, which heretofore gave name to a lordfhip
within the archbifhopric of Treves ; i mile N.W. of
Cocheim.

WINNENDEN, a town of Wurtemberg. In the
year 1693, this town was laid in afties by the French ; 12
miles E.N.E. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 53'. E. long.

9° 30'-

WINNICZA, a town of Poland, in the palatmate of

Brack w ; 32 miles N.N.W. of Braclaw.

WINNING OF Hay, in Agriculture, a term fometimes
applied to the operation of making hay in certain ftates of
the weather. See Yin.\-Making.

WINNINGE, in Geography, a river of Lancafhire,
which runs into the Lune, 6 miles N.E. of Lancafter.

WINNINGEN, a town ofWeftphalia, in the princi-
pality of Halberftadt ; 4 miles N. of Afcherfleben.

WINNIPEG, or WiNipic, a lake of Upper Louifi-
ana, being the great refervoir of feveral large rivers, and
fuppofed to be the largeft of the inland feas, near the heads
of the Mifliflippi, which difcharges itfelf by the river
Nelfon into Hudfon's bay. It is conneAed with other
lakes to the N.W., and has, from the rivers entering into
it, an inconfiderable portage to the waters of lake Supe-
rior. This lake is faid to be 240 miles in length, and from
50 to 100 in breadth, though in fome places it is hardly
five. N. lat. 52° 10'. W. long. 97° 30'.

Winnipeg or Winipic River, a large body of water, in-
terfperfed with numerous iflands, caufing various channels,
and interruptions of portages and rapids. The lake Du
Bois difcharges itfelf at both ends of an ifland, on which is
the carrying-place out of the lake, and vphich is named
Portage du Rat, in N. lat. 49° 37', and W. long. 94° 25',
about 50 paces long, and forms this river. In fome parts,
the river has the appearance of lakes, with fteady currents :
its winding courfe to the Dalles is eftimated at 8 miles ; to
the Great Decharge 25^ miles, which is a long carrying-
place for the goods ; from thence to the Little Decharge
li mile ; to the Tunejaune Portage 2^ miles ; then to its
galet or rocky portage, 70 yards ; 2f miles to the Tune
Blanche, near which is a fall of from four to five feet ; 3^
miles to Portage de I'Ifle, where is a trading port, and
about 11 miles on the N. ihore a trading eftablifliment,
which is the road, in boats, to Albany river, and from thence
to Hudfon's bay. There is alfo a communication with
lake Superior, through what is called the Nipigoes country,
that enters the lake Winipic above 35 leagues E. of the
Grande Portage. Mackenzie's Voyages, &c. Introd. p. 60.

Winnipeg, Little, a lake of North America, 80 miles
long and ij wide. N. lat. 52* 10'. W. long. 100° 15'.

WINNIPISIOGEE, or Winnipissiokee, a lake of
New Hampfliire ; 80 miles N. of Bofton. N. lat. 43° 35'.
W. long. 71° 18'.

WINNOW, in agriculture, fignifies to fan, or feparate
corn from the chkff by wind.

WINNOWING, and WiNNOWiNG-MacAiW. See Fan-
Machir.e, ard TnKUfU^.c- Machine.

WINNSBOROUi"'-H, in Geography, a town of South
Carolina ; 30 miles N. of Columbia. N. lat. 34° 28'.
VJ. long. 81° 15'.

WINNY Hav, in Agriculture, a term applied to hay in
fome conditions oi it. See Hay'.

WINSCHOTE, or WiNsciiOTTEN, in Geography, a
town of Holland, in the department of Groningen, near
which the Spaniards wi^re defeated by Louis, brother to
the prince of Orange, on the 24th of May 1568. The
Spaniards loft 2500 mpii, all their baggage, and fix pieces of
cannon. This was the tirft battle fought on account of
the Revolution, and gave the prince a happy prefage of
fuccefs ; 19 miles E. of Groningen.

WINSDER, a river of Norfolk, which runs into the
Yare, 12 miles W.N.W. of Norwich.

WINSEN AM DER Aller, a town of Weftphalia, in
the principality of Luneburg, on the''AlIer ; 6 miles below
Zell.

WiNSEN am der Luhe, a town of Weftphalia, in the prin-
cipality of Luneburg, on an ifland in the lake ; 1 2 miles
S.E. of Hamburg.

WINSLOW, James Benignus, in Biography, an emi-
nent anatomift, was born in 1669 at Odenfee, in the ifle of
Funen, and having ftudied a year under Borrichius, was
fent with a penfion from the king of Denmark to feek im-
provement in the principal univerfities of Europe. In 1698
he became a pupil of the celebrated anatomift Duverney at
Paris, and during his refidence in this capital, he abjured
Proteftantifm, and was confirmed by Bofl^uet, afluming in
addition to his own baptifmal name that of his converter,
Benignus. Haller denominates Winflow " fimple and fu-
perftitious," and of courfe his converfion to the Catholic
faith afforded no great occafion for triumph. This event,
however, detached him from his family and native country,
and was the means of fixing his abode in France, where the
patronage of Boftuet was highly favourable to his advance-
ment, and ferved to obtain for him the degree of doftor in
1705. In 1707 Duverney recommended him to be an eleve
of anatomy in the Academy of Sciences. He afterwards
read leftures of anatomy and furgery for Duverney at the
royal garden ; and in 1 743 was promoted to the profeflbr-
Ihip in this inftitution. In the meanwhile, he communicated
feveral papers on anatomical and phyfiological fubjefts to
the Academy of Sciences, by which body, as well as by
the Royal Society of Berhn, he was admitted into the num-
ber of aflbciates. His great work, mentioned by Haller
as fuperfeding all former compofitions of anatomy, and en-
titled " Expofition Anatomique de la StruAure du Corps
Humain," firft appeared at Paris in 1732, 4to. It was fre-
quently reprinted, and tranflated into various languages ;
and is ftill regarded as of ftandard authority. Winflow
planned, but never finiflied, a larger work, of which this was
merely an abridgment, and he was alfo the author of dif-
putations and treatifes on particular topics. He died in
1760 at the advanced age of 91. Haller. Eloy. Gen.
Biog.

WiNSLOw, in Geography, a market -town in the county of
Buckingham, England, 6j miles from Buckingham, and 51
N.W. from London. The market, now inconfiderable, was
granted in 1235 to the abbot of St. Alban^s, lord of the

manor,

W I N

W I N

manor, by king OfFa. The manor is now the property of
William Selby, efq., who has a feat in the town. The
parifti-church, a fpacious ftrufture confilling of a nave,
two aifles, a chancel, and a tower, contains no monuments of
note. According to the population return of 1811, the
houfes in the parifli were 223, and the inhabitants 1222.
Here is a fmall market on Thurfdays, and five annual
fairs. — Magna Britannia, by the Rev. D.Lyfons and S.
Lyfons, efq. 410. 1806.

WiNSLOW, a town of the province of Maine, on the
Kennebeck, in the county of the fame name, containing 658
inhabitants ; 88 miles N.N.E. of Portland.

WINSTER, a fmall market-town in the hundred of
High Peak, and county of Derby, England, is fituated 5 miles
W. by N. from Matlock, and 152 miles N.N.W. from
London. The manor belonged to Henry de Ferrars when
the Domefday-furvey was taken. At a later period it was
lield by the Mountjoys, who were fucceeded by the Mey-
nells. The latter fold it to the freeholders in the reign of
queen Elizabeth. The town affords nothing worthy of par-
ticular notice. It has a chapel of eafe to the pariih of
Youlgrave, of which Winder forms a part ; and alfo a
chapel for the Wefleyan Methodifts. A market is held on
Saturdays, which appears to be by prefcription ; for there
is no grant of it on record : till lately here was an annual
fair, but it is now difcontinued. The population return of
the year 181 1 flates Winder to contain 217 houfes, and 852
inhabitants ; the latter are chiefly employed in the mining
bufinefs, and in the inferior branches of the cotton trade.
On the commons, in the vicinity of the town, are feveral
cairns, or ftbne barrows, and alfo two or three barrows of
earth : in one of the latter, which was opened in the year
1768, two glafs vefTels were difcovered, about nine inches in
height, containing a pint of water, of a light green colour,
and very limpid. With thefe a filver collar or bracelet was
found, together with fome fmall well-wrought ornaments,
feveral beads of glafs and earth, and remains of brafs clafps
and hinges, with pieces of wood, that feemed to have be-
longed to a box in which the ornaments had been depofited.
Thefe antiquities induced Mr. King to fuppofe the barrow
to have been raifed over fome Briton of diftinftion, though
long after the Romans were in poffeffion of the ifland. —
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iii. Derbyfliire ; by
J. Britton and E. W. Brayley, 1803. Lyfons' Magna
Britannia, vol. v. Derby (hire, 1817.

WiNSTER, a river of the county of Lancafter, which
runs into the Ken, at its mouth.

WINTBERG, a town of Pruffia, on the Curifch Haff;
14 miles N. of Preckol.

WINTENAU, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 2 miles
iS. of Marburg.

! WINTER, , in Biography, a German opera com-

ipofer, of great abilities, who fucceeded Bianciii at our
Lyric theatre in 1803 ; during which year he produced, in
11803-4, ^^^ miific of the ballet of Achille and Deidamia,
jand for Mrs. Billington's benefit.

Winter, one of the four feafons or quarters of the
iyear._

I Wmter properly commences on the day when the fun's
idiftance from the zenith of the place is the greateft, and
itnds on the day when its diilance is at a mean between
;the greateft and lead.

I Notwithftanding the coldnefs of this feafon, it is proved,
lin aftronomy, that the fun is really nearer to the earth in
livifiter than in fummer. The reafon of the decay of heat,
l&c. fee under Heat.

Under the equator, the winter, as well as the other fea-
I Vol. XXXVIII.

fons, return twice every year ; but all other places have
only one winter in the year ; which, in the northern hemi-
fpherc, begins when the fun is in the tropic of Capricorn ;
and in the fouthern hemifphere, when in the tropic of
Cancer : fo that all places in the fame hemifphere have
their winter at the fame time.

Winter Management of Flowers, in Gardening, among
florifts, moftly confids in placing them in proper fituations
and expofures, in properly protefting them, in duly earth-
ing them on the approach of the fpring feafon, and fome
other matters of lefs confequence. Different kinds of flower-
plants require different forts of management in thefe refpefts ;
but in thofe of the primrofe kind, efpecially in the auricula,
(fee Auricula and Primula,) the plants, after being
placed out in proper frames, in a full fouthern expofure,
from about the middle of Oftober throughout the winter,
and having a rather warm proteftion given them the whole
of that time, when the weather is fevere, fhould in all the
autumnal and winter months, until the beginning of April, or
later, be expofed during the day to the full open air, .by
wholly removing the glaffes, except in the time of very
heavy rains, and fevere frods or dorms, though the com-
mon praftice is that of keeping them on, and only letting in
air by raifing the lights behind. In the mid-winter feafon
they fliould be kept very dry, as fevere froft has in that cafe
lefs effeft on the roots ; confequently, when rain obliges the
lights to be kept on, they (hould be raifed behind. Heavy
rain, or much wet, is very prejudicial and fometimes de-
druftive to thefe plants, which are otherwife hardy. Much
expofure to the free air in dry weather has likewife great
effeft on the richnefs and brilliancy of their ground colours
and good fpring bloom, as well as on their health, vigour,
and hardinefs. In the afternoon, as about four o'clock,
however, the plants (hould be covered by the lights at this
feafon in a clofe manner, and have two or three thickneffes
of mats thrown over them, to remain \mtil about nine
o'clock on the morning following, when, fhould there not
be rain, hail, or fnow, they may be expofed to the full open
air as above ; but in the contrary circumdances, the mats
fhould only be removed fo as to give light, air being plenti-
fully let in behind. In the two beginning months of the
year much mud depend on the date of the weather ; when
mild and open, the plants may be managed nearly as above ;
but in fevere froft and fnow much more caution muft be
ufed in regard to expofure, fo as not to have the mould of
the pots much frozen, as the bloom is now beginning to form,
and would be injured thereby ; but in long frods air fhould
be let in as much as pofTible in the above manner, and light
be given, with the influence of the fun, when there is any,
in the middle of the day ; the plants being always clofely (hut
and covered up by three o'clock in the afternoon. Though the
plants fhould be very dry, they fhould have but little water,
either in rain, or from the watering-pot, in the two pre-
ceding months, and only a fmall quantity, or fome fmall
light foutherly fliowers in thefe, fo as to render the ground
in a moderately moid condition. Towards the middle or
end of February, the plants ftiould be drefied, cleaned, and
new-earthed with frefh mould for the fpring, when there is
mild open weather, removing thofe from the fmall pots into
larger, and expofing them fully to the gentle rains and
fhowers, but conftantly defending them well from frofts,
hail, and dorms, as they now begin to ftioot new fibres more
quickly, and to grow fad. This manner of managing them
fhould be continued until nearly the middle of March, after
which they fhould be covered more warmly in the nights,
for fear of frofts, and that they may be bloomed very
fine.

5 Y From

W I N

From the middle period of the above month, and through
the following, they muft alfo be defended from froil, in
order to promote the coming bloom. Great care and atten-
tion are efpecially neceflary for blooming the plants well from
the above time in March to near the end of the fucceeding
month, as in this time they will moftly attain their greateft
perfedlion and beauty. It is only neceflary, as it is thought,
for blooming fuch flower-plants in the greateft perfeftion, to
have them continually under glafs, night and day, for about
twenty-four of the laft days, as they will then have their
middle pips well expanded. In very ftrong fun they muft
be (lightly fliaded by a thin mat, but in other cafes they may
be thrown open and expofed to the full free air.

After the beginning of April, as the fifth or fixth, the
glafles of the frames are to be kept completely over the
plants night and day, until they are in full bloom, only let-
ting in proper fupplies of air from behind the frames, and
giving the Ihade of old thin mats when neceflary. This
mode is to be purfued to about the middle of this month ;
but the plants are not to be over-haftened in their b'oom by
too much fun, as that may fade their fine colours ; but in
fuch cafes they muft be removed from the full fouUiern ex-
pofure to a full eaftern one, though by no means yet to
a northern afpeft, as that would endanger their bloom ; if
tiie feafou be fuitable, the protection of a privet-hedge,
wall, or paling-fence, is the moft proper, being covered by
hand-glafles ; when about the end of the month, they may
be removed to a northern expofure on ftages, or in other
proper places.

In this finidiing blooming eaftern expofure, all the mats
and other coverings (hould be taken off" from the glafles that
are placed over the flowers, about feven o'clock in the morn-
ing, and in funny weather the plants be fliaded from about
nine to twelve or one, the thin mats being then removed.
The covering-glafles are to be prepared by well wafliing,
and other means.

The flowers in blooming are moftly much benefited by
having a fouth-weft expofure as much as poflible, and by
carefully attending to the north and north-eaft winds, as well
as by receiving all mild moderate rains from about the begin-
ning of February until towards the end of March. In the
latter part of this time, before the trufles are too forward,
and the blofToms open, three or four hours rather heavy mild
rain greatly promotes the fwelling of the pips, and much
increafes the fize of the foliage, efpecially if care be taken
immediately after it is over to fttut the flowers clofe down,
and cover them up in a v^arm manner, as below. Watei-insj
them from a pot with a fine rofe in a vv'arm funny day all
over the leaves in the afternoon, in the manner of rain, and
direftly covering them up warmly while the fun is upon
them, has likewife been found beneficial. They are now, too,
to be well guarded from late frofts, as they are fo foon de-
ftroycd by them.

In the late winter, or early fpring, night-covering, as from
the middle of the above month, the following mode has
been found highly beneficial, in not only repelling the cold
frofty night-air, but in aflifting the bloom, and preventing
its being checked in any way thereby.

The heat at this period being ufually from about forty-
five to fifty degrees in the day-time, die flowers may be ex-
pofed to the open air in it, and in covering them in for the
night, be kept nearly to that ftate ; which is only to be
effefted by an artificial covering of fome fort or other, for
other forts of heat do not anfwcr the purpofe ; as thofe
of the warm blanket, horfe-cloth, fticep-flcin, and other
fimilar kinds, laid next to the glafles, over which mats may
be placed fo as fully to proteft the flowers, and keep the

WIN j

other coverings from being injured by rain or other wetnefsf, !
Where wood-frames and not brick ones are ufed, it is alfo i
often neceflary to have hay, fern, ftraw, or fome other fuch j
material, applied on the outfides of them, to guard againft :
the penetration of the cold frofty air, as is otherwife liable
to be the cafe in fevere feafons. But fuch full coverings |
ftiould not be had recourfe to in the winter feafon fooner than ;
about the middle of March, as they might not only injure !
the fine ftrong blooming plants, but counteraft the good 1
effeft they are intended to have in aflifting nature to gra- |
dually bloom the flowers in fine condition as the feafon ap- '
preaches. The keeping the flowers fc warm on the nights j
at this period of the feafon is fuppofed to prevent any check ,
to the vegetation of the plants ; and another great effeft i
which it has is, tliat as foon as the pips open, they proceed
vigoroufly, expand freely, and come out level, fine, and
nearly flat ; while, if they once get a complete chill by cold
night air, their bloflbms will not expand flat, but on the con-
trary, ruffle or furbelow.

In the leaves of the auricula and fome other kinds of ,
plants, there is as much variety produced by tliefe means in I
the fliades of their green as in the colours of their flowers.
The green of the leaves, or grafs, as it is termed, in this fort i
of flower-plants, fliould conftantly be that which aff'ords the
beft contraft, and has the moft power in fetting ofl" the
flower to which it belongs. Diff^erent varieties in the (hape
of the leaves alfo proceed from the nature of the culture and
management, as well as from the raifing them from feed.
They have from thefe caufes leaves with fmooth even edges,
with thick and flefliy edges, and with thin edges. Thefe
varieties in the leaves of fuch plants are often of importance
to the florift in different ways. In the grafs or green leaves
of thefe plants, there is likewife fome variety in the mealy
duft or farina which is upon them : in fome the whole plant
is nearly covered with it ; but thofe with blueifh or pea-green
leaves are commonly the moft powdered with this fort of
duft, which contributes not only to the beauty of the ;
plants, but ferves in fome degree to preferve them from the
effefts of the fcorching heat of the fun during the fummer
feafon.

The different other fine flower-plants are to have fome-
thing of the fame fort of winter-management purfued for
them, only making proper allowances and diftinftions, in fo
far as their differences in the nature of their growths or
other habits are concerned.

The diverfities of the auricula, as well as moft other :
flower-plants, owe their prefent perfedlion, in a great mea- i
fure, to the care, ingenuity, cultivation, and management
of the florift-gardener, and fome of thofe private indivi-
duals who cultivate flowers for the amufement and delight
which they afford. By thefe means, this and many other
forts have been wonderfully improved, which were at firft
lingle and fimple, and their variety, fize, and beauty, have
been increafed in an aftoniihing manner. The fportivenefs
of nature has likewife done much, as is evident in fo many
flower-plants ; as in the daify, ranunculus, the anemone, the
(lock, the wall-flower, the pink, the carnation, the Siberian
larkfpur, and a vaft many more.

There is, indeed, fomething extraordinary in the great
and uncommon diverfity of the colours, and the differences
of the fliades and hues of this as well as fome other flowers ;
and it is not lefs fingular or true that out of more than an
hundred flowers of this fort, which are raifed from feed in
this way, there will not, perhaps, be two which are exaftly
alike ; and that yet, in all thefe deviations, the changes take
place in the moft naturally pleafing, agreeable, and un-
thought-of manner poffible.

By

WIN

By attention to proper winter and other management, ftill
more diverfity and variety may moft probably be produced
in this and different other flowers.

Winter, among Printers, that part of the printing-
prefs, ferving to fuilain the carriage, &c. See Printing-
Prefs.

WlfiTER's-Bari, Cortex WiNTERI, or WinteRANUS,
W INTERA ^romatim; which fee. See Cortex.

This is one of the largeft foreft-trees upon Terra del
Fuego, often rifing to the height of fifty feet. Dr. Solan-
der has given an accurate botanical defcription of it, illuf-
trated by a figure, in Med. Obf. and Inq. vol. v. p. 46,
&c. Its leaves are ever-green, fmooth, oval, and entire ;
the flowers confift of feven petals, with from fifteen to
thirty ftamina, and from three to fix germina, terminating
in as many iligmata ; each germen becomes a leed-veffel,
containing feveral feeds : the bark of the trunk of the tree
is externally grey, and very little wrinkled. The pieces of
this bark brought over by the Dolpliin are about three or
four inches fquare, of different degrees of thicknefs, from
one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch. It is of a dark
brovi'n cinnamon colour, an aromatic fmcll if rubbed, and
of a liot, pungent, fpicy tafle, which is lafting on the palate,
though imparted flowly. 7^ watery infufion of it ftruck a
black colour with a folution of green vitriol. An infufion
of two ounces, coarfely powdered, yielded on evaporation
two drachms and twenty-four grains of extraft : the fame
quantity, with reftified fpirit, afforded two drachms of
extraft.

This bark, though much celebrated as an antifcorbutic
by the firft difcoverers, is unknown in the praftice of phy-
fic ; the canella alia, (fee Canella,) which is totally dif-
ferent from it( having been confounded with it in the fhops;
and no quantity having been brought to Europe, except as
a curiofity, till the return of the ftiips fent out on an expe-
dition to the Soi\th feas. It has been thought to be a ufeful
antifcorbutic ; but it feems to poffefs in this refpeft no ad-
vantage over the other pungent aromatics, and it is now
generally fuperfeded by the canella alba.

From fome experiments on this bark by Dr. Morris, it
appears to be an aftringent of a particular kind, and there-
fore likely to be of ufe in feveral manufaftures ; and that
water is the proper diffolvent of it.

It is hoped that this tree, no lefs ufeful than elegant,
may be cultivated in our country, where it would • probably
grow luxuriantly, as in a much warmer region than its own,
and furnifli, not only a valuable ever-green, bearing our fe-
vereft winters, but alfo a valuable medicine. Med. Obferv.
jibifupra.

VfiNTER-Barley, in Agriculture, a term applied to an ex-
cellent fort, which is put into the ground in the autumn,
and which Itands the winter. It is found by fome farmers
to be very produftive in its nature, and when made into
malt to form a much ftronger fort than that which is pro-
duced from common barley.

In fome diftrifts, it is a good deal fovvn and cultivated as
an early fheep-feed, in which intention it often anfwers very
well. See Barley.

WiNTER-^^rry. See Prinos.

WiNTER-jB/ooni. See Azalea.

WiNTER-CAcrry. See Physalis Alkekengi.

WinTER-Creffes. See Erysimum Barbarea.

WwTEix-Crops, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify all
fuch as are put into the foil to grow or rife at that time of
the year, which arc capable of withllanding that fcvere fea-
fon, or which can be converted to the purpofe of fodder for
animals at that inclement and necclTitous period.

W I N

WiviTER-Fal/oio. See Fallow.

WiNTER-Garilen, a term often applied to that kind of
ornamental garden which is chiefly for ufe and amufement
at that feafon of the year. It has been advifed by Mr.
Loudon, that a winter-garden fliould contain all fuch trees,
flirubs, plants, and other vegetable produdions, as are in a
ftate of perfeftion, or retaining their beauty and verdure, at
and during this feafon, in the moil complete manner ; as
mod of the ever-green tribe or clafs of trees and flirubs,
many flowering plants, as the aconite, fnow-drop, Chrift-
mas-rofe, and feveral others of fimilar kinds ; that thefe
(liould be grouped and arranged in the natural manner in
fuch garden-grounds ; and that a dry gravel or other fimilar
kind of walk fliould be conduAed throughout, or carried
round-about the whole, in the viev/ of being walked upon
at this feafon without inconvenience ; that thefe forts of
gardens fhould be fituated near the manfion or refidence, in
order that they may be comfortably and conveniently ap-
proached in the different winter months ; and that the con-
fervatory too, as well as fome other fuch houfes, fliould be
placed in them.

WiNTER-G/-f«;, in Botany. See Pyrola.

The greater round-leaved winter-green, or pyrola rotundi-
folia major, is generally brought over from Switzerland with
other vulnerary plants, in which clafs it is ranged, and by
fome greatly commended. Miller.
' WiNTER-Grm;, Ivy-fotuering. See Kalmia.

WlNTER-Gr«n, with Chicktueed Flotxiers. See TrieN-

TALIS.

WiNTER-^;'_yn;n^, in our Statutes, a feafon between the
eleventh day of November, and the three-and-twentietli
of April, which is excepted from the liberty of common-
ing in the forefl of Dean, &c. Stat. 20 Car. II. cap. <?.
Blount. ^ ^

WitiTER- Pears, in Gardening, fuch as will keep, and are
ready for ufe in that feafon. It has been fuggefted in a
paper in the fecond volume of the " Memoirs of the Cale-
donian Horticultural Society," that in the cultivation of
pears of this fort, thofe of the 77:i}/-bearing forts fliould be
carefully avoided'; that they fliould be fuited as much as
poffible to the nature of the climate or region where they
are to be grown ; that they fliould have their fituation in
a proper expofure, and in a proper foil ; that they fliould be
well pruned, trained, and managed, iu all other refpefts;
that thofe kinds which can be mofl depended on be had
recourfe to ; that new varieties may probably be raifed
from feed with advantage in this view ; and that endeavours
Ihould be made to bring into ufe any good late forts of this
fruit.

The number of winter-pears in the northern parts of this
ifland are fuppofed to be fcanty indeed. That if the few
that have been favourably fpoken of by fome cannot be
liad, there are not, it is believed, above five more to be
depended on in thefe fituations ; which are t!iefe, the fwan-
egg, achan, brier-bufli, the John Monteth, and to which may
be added the muirfowl-egg, which keeps there much longer
than the fxan-egg, and muil be allowed to be a winter-pear,
though commonly fet down as an autunm fruit. The fwan-
egg has there, it is faid, never kept good longer than the
end of November, while tiie muirfowl has fometimes re-
mained in good prefervation until towards the end of April.
In the then lafl: feafon they were taken from the tree, it is
faid, fooner than ufual ; confequently were earlier ripe or
fit to eat, and of courfe have decayed more fpeedily, than
ordinary. They were, however, pcrfeftly good until to-
wards the end of January in the following year, after which
they fpoiled in a very fudden manner. The muirfowl-egg
.=i y 2 may

W 1 N

may alfo, however, with great fafety, be allowed to remain
on the tree ten or twelve days longer than the fwan-egg ;
the leaves of the latter, too, fall, it is faid, much fooner than
thofe of the former.

On walls, in different proper afpefts, the following forts
of winter-pears have, it is faid, been recommended to be
planted : the creffanne, the colmar, the boncretien d'hyver,
the chaumontelle, and fome others, which are certainly ex-
cellent pears, but that fome of them are yj^y-bearers, and
others do not ripen well in thefe parts, except in the moll
favourable fituations. Some have found the four following
forts particularly nfeful on walls, efpecially in high fitua-
tions in thofe northern parts of the country where the
Other finer forts do not ripen in a proper manner : the green
yair, muirfowl-egg, fwan-egg, and winter achan. But it
is noticed, that the fecond and the laft of thefe forts of
pears, when planted as ftandards, produce not only better
crops, but fruit of a higher flavour. Many other forts are
mentioned by different writers as very good winter-pears
for the purpofe of cultivation in thefe and other places ; as
may be feen in the above ufeful paper.

WiNTER-Proui/, in Agriculture, a term applied provin-
cially to fuch winter-wheat, or other crop, as puts on a
more green and luxuriant growth and appearance than it is
able to maintain and fupport in the following fummer fea-
fon J or in which the tillering (hoots, branches, or ramifica-
tions of the feed-grain, become too numerous to be nou-
riihed and brought to maturity in confequence of the pre-
vious over-exertion of the foil or land. In thefe cafes, the
crops dechne during the fpring and fummer months, and at
the harveft time yield imperfeftly, falling much below the
quantity afforded by fuch crops as had a more backward
appearance in the winter feafon.

It is of courfe always of advantage to have thefe forts of
crops in rather a backward ftatc in the winter period of the
year.

Winter- Qujr/fr/. See Quarters.
Winter-/?;^, among Hujbandmen, fignifies to fallow or
till the land in winter.

WisTER-SolJlUe. See Solstice.

WINTERA, in Botany, is fo called in memory of the
companion of fir Francis Drake, captain William Winter,
who brought the bark, of the firft fpecies, from the ftraits
of Magellan in 1579, and introduced it to the knowledge
of European phyficians, as a valuable tonic, more efpecially
ufeful in the fcurvy. Linnseus, meaning to commemorate
this difcovery, eftablifhed a genus by the name of Wintcrana,
G. PI. 238, the bark of which he conceived to be what
captain Winter introduced. But the Linnxan plant is the
Canella alba, to the fruftification of which alone the de-
fcription applies. Browne had already founded this genus,
by the name of Canella, { fee that article, ) and Swartz, as
well as Murray, have confirmed it. Meanwhile Forfter,
having found and inveftigated the fruftification of the
Winter's-bark tree, defcribed it by the name of Drimys,
alluding to its hot and pungent flavour. This is retained
by the younger Linnseus in his Supplementum, with a remark
properly diilinguifliing it from the Canella alba, though his
father, like prof. Bergius, Mat. Med. v. i. 381, had con-
founded them. Finally Murray, in Linn. Syjl. Veg. ed. 14,
awrare of thefe various errors and mifconceptions, very pro-
perly eftabhflies Browne's genus, by its right denomination,
Canella, and reftores Winter's name to the plant to which it
properly belongs, and with which Linnaeus intended to affo-
ciate it. Murray, however, prefers Winter a to Wintcrana,
which is the more judicious, as his genus is not really the
Wintcrana of Linoasus. The name be has chofeu is oow,
12

WIN

except by an accidental miftake of De Candolle in chrono-
logy, univerfally adopted. Perhaps Winteria would have
been better ; but we refrain from embroiling the fubjeA
with any further alteration, of what has received the fanc-
tion of fuch men as Murray and Schreber. — Murr. in Linn.
Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 507. Forft. Prodr. 86. Schreb.
Gen. 368. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1239. Mart. MiU. Dift.
VI 4. (Drimys; Forft. Nov. Gen. t. 42. G. Forft.
Nov. Aft. Upf. V. 3. 181. Linn. Snppl. 43. Lamarck
lUullr. t.494. De Cand. Syft. v. I. 442. Drymis ;
Juil. 280. Lamarck Dift. v. 2. 330.) — Clafs and order,
Polyandria Tetragynia. Nat. Ord. Magnolia, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fplitting
into two or three fegments. Cor. Petals fix, or more,
ovate, fpreading. Stam. Filaments numerous, (horter than
the corolla, dilated upwards ; anthers terminal, of two la-
teral ovate cells, feparate at the bafe, converging at their
points. PiJ}. Gernnens four to eight, crowded, obovate ;
ftyles none ; ftigmas depreffed, flat. Peric. Berries four to
eight, ovate, fomewhat triangular. Seeds feveral, difpofed
in two rows.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fplitting unequally. Petals numerous.
Stamens club-ftiaped, v^'ith terminal two-lobed anthers.
Styles none. Berries fuperior, aggregate. Seeds feveral,
in a double row.

Obf. Willdenow copies what we fnfpeft may be d
cafual error of the younger Linnxus, germina clavata, for
Jlamina clavata. De Candolle, who defcribes two new
fpecies, firft gave a correft account of the arrangement of
the feeds, an important circumftance in this natural order.
His obfervations, confirming thofe of Linnxus, (hew the
petals to be indeterminate in number. PolTibly the hne is
not drawn diftinftly between them and ihejlamens, of which
Nymphxa alfords another iiiftance, fo that an inner feries of
fmaller petals may occafionally occur.

I. W. aromatiea. Officinal Winter's-bark. Murray
n. 1. Willd. n. I. Mart. n. I. Forft. PI. Magell. 24.
t. 7. Comm. Goett. v. 9. 34. t. 7. Soland. in Med. Obf.
and Enq. v. 5. 41. t. I. Woodv, Med. Bot. t. 257.
(Drimys Winteri ; Forft. Aft. Upf. v. 3. 181. Linn.
Suppl. 269. Winteranus cortex ; Cluf. Exot. 75. Dale
Pharmac. 324. Laurifolia magellanica, cortice acri ;
Bauh. Pin. 461. " Periclymenum reftum, foliis laurinis, cor-
tice aronnatico acri ; Sloane in Phil. Tranf. v. 17. 923. 1. 1,
f. 1,2.") — Leaves elliptical, obtufe, coriaceous. Flower-
ftalks aggregate, terminal. Pitti's about four. — Native of
the country on both fides of the ftraits of Magellan, in
valleys expofed to the fun, where it was firft obferved by
captain Winter, and has fince been found by feveral follow-
ing navigators, but no one has brought living plants or
feeds to Europe. This is a tree of confiderable fize, often 50
feet high, with twifted knotty branches, and a thick rugged
bark, of an aromatic fmell, and pungent permanent flavour.
This bark is not mi ch ufed in praftice at prefent, there being
many drugs of equal, or fuperior, powers ; as the Canella alia,
which has taken its place, and caufed the botanical miftake
above-mentioned. (See Winter'/ 5ari.) The /fflxicj are al-
ternate, crowded about the ends of tlie branches, ever-green,
two or three inches long, and one and a half wide, thick and
rigid, entire, fomewhat revolute, with a ftout midrib, and
fcarcely vifible veins, very fniooth on both fides ; fomewhat
glaucous, but not invariably or permanently fo, beneath.
Footjlalks broad and thick, fmooth, half or three-quarters of
an inch long. Stipules none. Floiver-Jlalks at the ends of'
the branches, two or three together, fimple or three-cleft,
fmooth, not half the length of the leaves, accompanied at
their bafe by feveral ovate, pale, deciduous hraScas. FUivirt

fmaller

WIN

tmaller than a hawthorn blofTom, white. Calyx reddifh,
unequally three-lobed. Berries from three to fix, each with
four itunguXvir feeds. By the above fynonyms to this fpe-
«ie8 it appears, that even G. Forfter, who with his father
eftabli(hed the genus an! unexceptionable name of Drimys,
gave way to thofe eminent botaiiilts who wilhed to retain
the memory of the original difcoverer. Ind 'cd the name of
Winter may claim even a right of priority, though a mif-
take attended its commemoration and publication by Lin-
naeus, in his Gen. PI. We truft our amiable friend M. De
Candolle will forgive our not joining with him, in overturn-
ing what has been finally fettled, with the approbation of
all the world. If chronology is to be our ablolute guide,
without attention to fenfe, or expediency, the nomenclature
of botany mult relapfe into its priftine barbarifm, and in
this cafe Bauhin's name Laurifolla (hould have been adopted.
Even on this ground, weak as it is, we can however defend
the name we have retained ; for Clufius's JVinteranus corte:i,
erroneoufly printtd Cortex Winteranus by De Candolle, may
be confidered as the firll commemoration of captain Winter,
being the firft publication of any thing relating to the
genus in queftion.

2. W. granadenfis. New Granada Winter's-bark.
Murr. n. 2. Wifld. n. 2. Mart. n. 2. " Humb. et
Bonpl. PI. Equinox, v. i. 205. t. 58. Lozano in Sem.
Nov. Gran, for 1809,180." (Drimys granadenfis ; Linn.
Suppl. 269. De Cand. n. 3.) — Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
obtufe. Flowrr-ftalk< axillary, folitary. Piftils eight. —
Sent by Mutis from New Granada. It grows on the moft
lofty mountains of that country, Quito, &c. The tree is
18 or 20 feet high, with round branches, more ftraight,
and lefs rugged, than the foregoing. Leaves four or five
inches long, and near one inch and a half broad, obtufe, not
acute, fcarcely revolute, perfeftly fmooth ; very glaucous
beneath, like thofe of Magnolia glauca, the longer-leaved
variety of which they greatly refemble. FotAJialks fmooth,
an inch long. Flotuer-Jialks fometimes nearly the length of
the leaves, always half as long, fimple, divided, or three-
cleft. Floiuers twice the fize of JV. aromatica, with about
J 2 petals, and a deeply three-cleft calyx. Berries fix or
eight, obovate, fometimes confluent, each with from four to
fix fetds. The hark is aromatic, like the former. The
younger Linnseus imagined this to be a variety of that fpe-
cies, caufed by a warmer climate. They are indeed more
nearly related than appears at firll fight, and yet we can
fcarcely think they belong to one fpecies, though well
aware that the leaves, in this natural order, are liable to
vary confiderably in Ihape ; witnefs the Magnolia juft men-
tioned, if more than one fpecies be not confounded under
that name.

3. W.ehilenjis. Chili Winter's-bark. ( Drimys chilenfis ;
De Cand. n. 4. ) — Leaves oblong-obovate ; glaucous be-
neath. Flower-ftalks either aggregate or compound, axil-
lary. Pillils five or fix. — Gathered by Dombey,in marlhy
fituations in Chih. A taW Jljruli, with a very aromatic bark,
and round branches. Leaves nearly obovate, coriaceous,
very fmooth, tapering at the bafe, on Ihort ftalks, refem-
bling the foliage of Magnolia glauca. Floiuer-Jlalks axillary ;
fometimes very fhort, bearing an umbel of four or five
elongated fimple ftalks ; fometimes four or five fimple ones
all together, each an inch long at moft, fingle-flowercd.
Calyx in two or three ovate blunt divifions, not foon deci-
duous, and perhaps lafting till the fruit is ripe. Petals fix
to nine, oblong, bluntilh, twice the length of the calyx.
Stamens very ftiort. Germens five or fix, ovate, crowded, on
a fmall globofe receptacle. Berries oval, rather compreffed,
obtufe. De Candolle.

W I N

4. W. mexicana. Mexican Winter's-bark. (Drimys
mexicana ; De Can '. n. j. '• Mu^. et Sen"e PI. Mex. ined.
t. .,.") — Leaves obloug-lanceolate, pomted at each end.
Flower-ftalks elon^ratd, umbellate, f )ur.flovvered. Petals
twenty to twenty-four, acute. Germens four.— Native of
Mexico. AJhrui, with round braiiches," t. rmiualing in a
ftlarp bud, as ni thu Magnolia. Leaves llalkej, tap?ring at
earh end. Common Jluiuer-Jlullis an inch, or an inch and a
half long, divided at the top into an umbel of four long,
fingle flowertd, partial Jlaiis. Calyx divided, permanent,
concave. Petals white, fpreading, oblong, in a double row.
Stamens very ftiort. Berries four, or, from occafional abor-
tion, only two or three, obovate, tapering at the bafe, of
a blueifli-violet colour. De Candolle from a coloured
drawing.

5. W. axillaris. Small-flowered Winter's-bark. Forft.
Prodr. 42. Willd. n. 3. Mart. n. 3. (Drimys axillaris ;
Linn. Suppl. 270. Forft. Aft. Upf. v. 3. 182. De Cand.
n. I. Lamarck f. 2, copied from Forft. Nov. Gen. 1.42.
f . a — 1.) — Leaves obovate, pointed, reticulated with veins.
Flower-ftalks fimple, aggregate, thread- ftiaped. Calyx or-
bicular, lobed, reflexed — Native of woods in New Zealand.
A tree, with round branches, rough to the touch, but not
warty. Leaves on ftalks rather above half an inch long,
broadly obovate, tapering to abluntifti point, fmooth, more
thin and membranous than in any of the other fpecies, co-
pioufly reticulated with innumerable veins, not obfervable in
any of thofe ; their length three or four inches, breadth
two ; their under fide glaucous when young only. Flower-

Jlaiis two or three together, feldom folitary, from the bofoms
of moft of the leaves, fimple, very flender, each bearing a
fmall green Jl','uier. Calyx difcoid, foon reflexed, about a
line broad, fplitting into two principal, and two fmaller,
lobes, not diff'ering in any particular refpeft from the divi-
fions of the calyx of the other fpecies, though Forfter's
figure has milled De Candolle to fuppofe otherwife. Petalt
fix, oblong, flat, equal, four times the length of the calyx.
Stamens about fixteen. Germens four, turbinate, all perfeftly
and evidently diftinft, in the numerous flowers of the Lin-
nsan fpecimen ; fo that Forfter might well wonder how
the younger Linnasiis, who had this very fpecimen before
him, could make a " fohtary piftil" a part of the fpecific
charafter. Stigmas dilated, peltate, terminal. Berries four,
globofe, black, with a tawny pulp, lodging four ovate,
acute, fomewhat triangular, f(\hhou^ feeds. The flavour of
the whole plant, efpecially of the bark, is extremely acrid
and pungent. G- Forjler.

WIN TERANA. See Canella, and WiNTERA>/ra.

WINTERBERG, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Weftphalia ; 37 miles S. of Paderborn. N. lat. 51'^ 11',
E. long. 8° 39'.

WiNTERBERG, or Winlerg, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Prachatitz ; 10 miles W. of Prachatitz. N. lat.
49° 2'. E. long. 13° 39'.

WINTERBURG, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhine and Mofelle ; 10 miles W.N.W. of
Creutznach.

WINTERHAM, a place in Virginia, where black-lead
is found ; 30 miles N. of Richmond.

WINTERHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg, on the Maine ; 4 miles S. of Worzburg.

WINTERINGHAM, a town of England, in the
county of Lincoln ; 166 miles N. of London.

WINTERTHUR, atown of Switzerland, in the caiton
of Zurich. This was formerly an imperial town. In the
year 1467, it was mortgaged to the canton of Zurich, and
by fubfequent treaties entirely ceded, fince which Winter-

thur

W i N

thur has acknowledged Zurich for its fovereign. It is go-
verned, however, by a magiftracy and police of its own.
The government is ariftocratical ; the fupremc power, in all
things not interfering with the claims of Zurich, refiding in
the Great and Little council, in all criminal proceedings
thefe two tribunals unite, and pafs fentence of death without
appeal. In civil caufes, an appeal lies from the Little to
the Great council. In all cafes refpefting the burghers,
appeals may be carried from the town-court to the council
of magiftracy, and no farther ; but if either of the parties
be a foreigner, an appeal lies from the council to the fenate
of Zurich. A bailiff from this latter place likewife refides
here, but without any authority over the town, excepting
that of afiifting at the ceremony of an annual homage paid
to Zurich by the burghers on St. Alban's day. In cafe of
a war, Winterthur furnifhes Zurich with 200 men, either
burghers or dependents, but to ferve under its own colours.
Except in the articles of filk manufacture, and the eftablilh-
ment of a printing-prefs fo profitable to Zurich, the com-
merce of Winterthur is under no reftraint. The principal
manufactures are, muflin, printed cottons, and cloth : it has
fome vitriol works ; and the earthen-ware made here, par-
ticularly the white, together with its painted ftoves, are in
great repute for their beauty and durablenefs. The town is
fmall, and the inhabitants, who are about 2000, are very in-
duflrious. The fchools are well endowed and regulated.
Ober Winterthur, or Upper Winterthur, is a fmall village
near the town, on the high road leading to Frauenfeld, on
the fcite of the ancient Vitodurum, which was a Roman
ftation. Here are found the foundations of ancient walls
and numerous Roman coins and medals. The caftle of
Kyburgh, feated on an eminence overlooking Winterthur,
is a pifturefque objeft ; 14 miles N.E. of Zurich.

WINTERTON, a town of England, in Lincolnfhire ;
9 miles N.N.W. of Glanford Brigs. — Alfo, a town of
England, in the county of Norfolk, near the coall. The
market is difcontinued ; 7 miles N. of Yarmouth.

WiNTERTON Nefs, z cape on the E. coaft of the county
of Norfolk, on which is a light-houfe ; 10 miles N. of Yar-
mouth. N. lat. 52° 44'. E. long. 1° 41'.

WINTFELDEN, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Rhine ; 10 miles S.W. of Colmar.

WINTHAG, a town of Auftria ; 6 miles N.E. of
Freyftadt.

WINTHROP, a poft-town of the province of Maine,
in the county of Kennebeck, with 1444 inhabitants ; 57
miles N. of Portland.

WiNTiiROi''j Bay, a bay on the N. coaft of Antigua.

WINTON, a county of United America, in the ftate of

South Carolina Alfo, a poft-town of North Carolina ; 30

miles E. of Halifax.

WINTONI^ RoTULus. See Rotulus.

WINTZENBERG, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in
the principahty of Neifle ; 5 miles S.E. of Grotkau.

WINTZENHEIM, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine ; 3 miles W. of Colmar.

WINTZIG, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Wohlau ; 9 miles E.N.E. of Steinau. N. lat. 51° 27'.
E. long. 16^ 36'.

WINWEILER, a town of France, in the department
of Mont Tonnerre ; 24 miles N.E. of Deux Fonts.

WINWOOD, Sir Ralph, in Biography, a ttatefman in
the reign 01 James I., was born at Aynho in Northampton-
(hire, aoout the year 15^4., educated at St. John's college,
Oxford, and having paiT.d through feveral ftages of prefer-
ment, wa5c'nofen proftor of the univerfity in 1592. After
having iuftaiiied feveral diplomatic charafters and miffions.

W 1 R

he was made fecretary of ftate in 1614, which office he
occupied till his death in 161 7. " He was married, and
left one fon. Sir Ralph was an accomplifhed gentleman,
well acquainted with bufinefs, and particularly converfant
with commercial and mihtary affairs." A work, intitled
" Memorials of Aff"airs of State in the Reign of Queen
Elizabeth and King James I., coUefted chiefly from the
Original Papers of the Right Honourable Sir Ralph Win-
wood, Knt. &c. &c." was publiihed in 1725 by Edmund
Sawyer, efq. in 3 vols, fol., and contained a valuable record
of the political tranfaftions of thofe times. Biog. Brit.

WINYAH, in Geography, a county of South Carolina.

WINZAH Harbour, a bay on the coaft of South
Carolina, a little to the N. of the mouth of the Santee. N.
lat. 33- 12'.

WINZE R, a towm of Bavaria, on the Danube ; 9 miles
S.S.E. of Deckendorf.

WIOCHIST, among the Indian Natives of Virginia,
is their prieft, who is alfo generally their phyfician ; and
is the perfon in the greatelt honour amongft them, next
to their king, or great war- captain. Phil. Tranf. N° 454.
fed. I.

WIOGRODEK, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
Volhynia ; 14 miles E.S.E. of Kreminiek.

WIP, a town of Pruffia, on the Curifch Half; 23 miles
S.W. of Tilfit.

WIPACH, a town of the duchy of Carniola ; 5 miles
S. of Hydria.

WIPE, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Smaland ;
28 miles N.E. of Konigfberg. — Alfo, a river of Pruffia,
which runs into the Curifch Haff', 10 miles E.N.E. of
Labiau.

WIPFELN, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 5
miles N.N.W. of Volckach.

WIPPELSPACH, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 17
miles S.W. of Voitfberg.

WIPPER, a river of Germany, which rifes in the county
of Mark, about 6 miles S.S.W. of Lunfchede, paffes by
Wipperfurt, Elberfeld, Solingen, &c. and runs into the
Rhine, between Cologn and Zons. — Alfo, a river of Thu-
ringia, which rifes 2 miles N. of Dingelftadt, and runs into
the Unrtrutt, 4 miles N.E. of Kindelbrucken. — Alfo, a
river of Pomerania, which runs into the Baltic below
Rugervvalde. — Alfo, a river of Saxony, which runs into the
Saal, near Bernberg.

WIPPERAU, a river of Weftphalia, which runs into
the Ilmenau, near Ultzen.

WIPPERFURT, a town of the duchy of Berg; 27
miles S.E. of Dufleldorf. N. lat. 51° 5'. E. long.

7° 27'-

WIPPINGEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Friburg ; 12 miles S.S.W. of Friburg.

WIPPRA, a town of Weftphalia, in the county of
Mansfeld, on the Wipper ; 10 miles W.N.W. of Eifz-
leben. N. lat. 51° 30'. E. long. 11° 30'.

WIRBEN, a town of Weftphalia, late in the Old Mark
of Brandenburg, on the left fide of the Elbe ; 1 2 miles N.
of Stendal.

WIRBENTHAL. See Wurbenthal.

WIRDOIS, a town of Sweden, in North Finland ; 6^
miles N.N.E. of Biorneborg.

WIRE, in the Mechanic Arts, is a very ufeful prepara-
tion of different metals, in form of a regular and even thread,
which can be obtained in very great lengths, and of any re-
quired Cze or Ihape.

Wire is made of any duftile metal, as platina, gold, filver,
copper, brafs, zinc, iron, or fteel. The procefs of making

wire

WIRE.

wire confills in drawing the piece of metal tlirough a hole
in a plate of Heel, by which means the metal is rendered of
an equal fize, and cither round or of any other figure cor-
refponding with the figure of the hole in the draw-plate ;
the metal is thus reduced in fize, and at the fame time is
lengthened in proportion. From the great regularity of
wire, and from its toughnefs and duftility, it is extremely
ufeful to all artifts who work in metal.

The operation is called wire-drawing, and the plate of
ftcel a draw-plate. The machine by which the wire is drawn
is called a draw-bench.

The common draw-bench is of a fimple ftrufture. A ftrong
plank of wood is fixed on legs, like a ftool or bench, ^^. i.
Plate Wire. At one end is a roller or axis. A, fixed in an
horizontal pofition, fo that it can be turned round by means
of four levers, B B, fixed like radii on the end of the axis of
the roller. If the refiftance is great, the workman applies
both his hands and his feet to the levers, to turn them round
in the fame manner as for a rolling-prefs. It is ufual to
have a ftrong ilrap, or chain, C, to wrap and wind up round
the roller ; and at the end of it a pair of pincers, D, are
hnked; thefe take hold of the end of the piece of metal, and
draw it through the hole in the draw-plate E, which is
lodged againft two ftrong iron pins, a a, fixed in the bench,
and ftanding up perpendicularly, fo that the plate bears
againft them.

The pinoers are {hewn in^^. 2. They are adapted to bite
the end of the wire ; and the infide of the jaws, d d, are cut
with teeth like a file, that they may hold the metal very
tight. The oppofite ends of the handles are bent in form
of hooks at ^ f ; and a triangular hnk of iron f, which is
faftened to the end of the ftrap or chain C, embraces both
hooks e e, and from its triangular figure, it tends to approach
the two hooks at the ends of the tongs together : by thefe
means, the ftrain of drawing the wire clofes the pincers, and
makes them bite more forcibly in proportion as the wire
makes a greater refiftance, fo that they rarely let the wire
(lip.

The draw-plate,^^j. 3 and 4, is a thick plate of fteel, with
holes made through it of various fizes, and in a regular grada-
tion from the largeft to the fmalleft. The holes are made large
on that fide where the wire enters, and they diminifti with a
regular taper to the other fide ; the goodnefs of the draw-plate
is an objeft of the firft importance. The diff^erent holes muft
diminifti by very fmall gradations, or there will be danger of
breaking the wire by forcing it too much at once.

In fome draw-benches a rack and pinion are employed, in-
ftead of a ftrap or chain ; and a train of wheel-work may be
ufed like that of a crane to obtain a fufEcient power. ( See
_y%. 5.) If the workman turns the machine by a winch
or handle, it is preferable to four levers, becaufe the motion
is more regular ; this is of importance for fome purpofes.
Suppofe a piece of elaftic metal is forcibly drawn through
a hole in a plate with a tolerably quick motion, it will be
comprefled at the moment of pafling through the hole; but
after it quits the hole, the metal will expand a little. When
it is drawn very flowly, this effeft will not take place ; for if
the compreffion is continued long enough it becomes per-
manent : hence, if a piece of large wire be drawn with an
irregular motion, firft quicker, and then (lower, it will be
fenfibly larger at all the parts which pafs quickly through
the hole, and fmaller where it is drawn flowly : if the
motion is fufpended for a few feconds, that part of the wire
which remains in the hole will have a ring or indentation
round it. Tliis is moft obvious in drawing hollow tubes, or
copper-wire, which is plated over with gold or filver.

In the machine which is ufed for drawing ftrong pieces

of metal, and for the very largeft, the roller is ufually
placed in a vertical pofition, like a capftan, with four levers,
at which feveral men pufti, whilft they walk round in a
circle to turn the capftan, and wind up the chain which
draws the wire through the draw-plate.

A powerful machine of this kind is defcribed in our
article Pipes, for drawing lead-pipe through a fteel plate.

We have feen a very powerful wire-drawing machine
ufed for forming large hollow tubes of brafs or copper, on
which the power to draw the tube was obtained by a fcrew,
like that of a prefs. This fcrew was turned by a ti'ain of
wheel-work, with a fly-wheel to regulate the motion.

Another plan, which is perhaps the beft mode for a very
powerful drawing-machine, is to apply the force of the
hydroftatic machine originally invented by Pafcal, and re-
vived by the late Mr. Bramah. ( See Machine, and Press. )
By this means, very large wires for piilon-rods of fteam-
engines, and other fimilar pieces, may be rendered ftraight
and true with little expence.

All thefe machines are confined to draw pieces of metal,
which are only a few feet in length, that is, the length of
the bench. But when the metal by repeated drawing
becomes lengthened into a regular wire, if it is required to
reduce it to a ftill fmaller fize, it muft be drawn through
fucceeding plates, by wrapping the wire itfelf upon the roller
or barrel, inftead of employing a long chain. This method is
not applicable at firft, becaufe a thick bar of iron could not
be made to bend eafily round a roller ; but when the wire
becomes fmall and flexible, it can be praftifed very advan-
tageoudy, and admits of drawing a very great length of
wire by a fmall and commodious machine.

The common wire-mills ufed in France do not, however,
employ a roller or windlafs, but the pincers are attached to
a lever, which draws them backwards and forwards alter-
nately by the power of the water-wheel.

The pincers are fo conftrufted, that the jaws open when
they move towards the draw-plate, and releafe themfelves
from the wire ; but when the pincers are drawn back from
the draw-plate, the link caufes the pincers to clofe and bite
the wire with fuch force, that they will draw it through the
plate.

A machine of this kind is fliewn in Jig. 7. of the plate.
The bafe of the machine is a very ftrong log of timber R ;
one end of it is cut open to receive a wooden lever A B,
which moves round an iron pin or bolt n, as a centre of
motion ; this lever is fliaped like the letter L. To the
upright arm A of this lever, an iron link C is jointed, and
the other end of this link is formed like a ring, to receive
the handles of the pincers D. The pincers are fupported
upon a plate of iron d, which is placed in an inclined pofi-
tion, and there is a groove in the plate, into which the end
of the pin or joint of the pincers is received, and they are
by that means guided in their motion backwards and for-
wards : a a are the pins which fupport the draw-plate E ;
there are four of them, and the plate is faftened between
them by wedges.

The end B of the lever is operated upon by cogs fixed on
the axis of the water-wheel, which, as it turns round, de-
preft'es the end B of the lever ; and the end A pulls the
pincers back, and draws the wire through the draw-plate ;
but when the cogs quit the end of the lever, it is returned
by means of a rope faftened to the end of B, and going up
to a ftrong wooden pole fixed on the roof of the building;
and it ads as a fpring. Wlien the pincers return, they
open to releafe the wire, and Aide down the inclined plate d
by their own 'weight, till they are near the draw-plate ; the
wire being all the time included between the jaws, though
4 they

WIRE.

thej do not bite. The nest cog which feizes the end of
the lever draws back the pincers, which immediately clofe
upon the wire, and draw it through the plate.

A wire-mill ufually contains three fuch machines of
different fizes : the largeft only draws two inches of the
wire at each ftroke, and makes about forty-eight ftrokes in
a minute ; the fecond machine, four inches ; and the third,
fiye inches. This works quicker than the other two, and
makes fixty-four ftrokes per minute. This is a fimple
machine, but very defeftive, for much time is loft in the re-
turning of the pincers ; they fometimes fail to take good hold
of the wire, and they always make deep marks upon the
wire at every place where they bite, which are not more
than two inches diftance in the great wire, and five inches in
the fmaller.

Fine wire is always made from large wire, by reducing it
and lengthening it out by repeated drawings. The large
wire is ufually manufaftured at the wire-mills in the country,
and fome part of it is reduced to fmall wire at the fame
eftabUfhments, but more commonly the large wire is bought
by thofe who have occafion for it, and they reduce it by
drawing until it becomes as fmall as it is wanted.

The hand-machine for this purpofe, reprefented in^^. 8,
is extremely fimple. A is the roller on which the wire is
wound up ; it turns round upon a vertical pin, fixed in the
bench R, and to the upper end a handle B is fixed, for the
workman to turn it round ; E is the draw-plate, and a a the
pins againft which it refts. The wire which is to be drawn
is put upon a fmall circular reel F, which turns round upon
a vertical pin ; this pin is fometimes fixed in the table, or
otherwife in a fmall cafk containing ftarch-water, or beer
which has become acid. The ufe of this is to loofen the
oxyd from the furface of the wire, for it is neceffary to
anneal or foften the wire very frequently, by putting it in
the fire, and this produces a black coat of oxyd on the
furface, which will be removed when the wire is again drawn
through the plate, and the wire will come out bright and
clean. The removal of this oxyd will be facihtated by
fome nightly corrofive menftruum.

Fig. 9. is a very fimple and complete wire-drawing
machine, to draw three wires at once. A R are two rollers
or barrels with cog-wheels, T V, on the ends of their axis,
which wheels are engaged together. S is a pinion, which
is turned round by means of a handle B, and gives motion
to the wheels T V. Both thefe wheels are fitted upon
round parts of the axis of their refpeftive rollers, fo as to
flip or turn freely round upon the fame; but a fquare is
formed on the axis outfide of the wheel, and a clutch or
catch, t or v, is fitted on this fquare part, fo as to turn
always round with the axis. The catch is at liberty to^flide
upon the axis in the direftion of its length, by means of a
lever W, which operates upon both catches at once. When
either of them is pufhed back in contaft with the wheel, it
intercepts two ftuds which projeft from the face of the
wheel, and then compels the axis and roller to turn round
with the wheel ; but when the catch is drawn away from
the wheel, then the wheel will flap round upon its axis,
without communicating any motion. By means of the
lever W, only one wheel can be engaged at once, and the
other muft be free. The draw-plate E is firmly fixed
between the two rollers, and it has a great many holes ; the
sollers are long enough to receive three wires at the fame
time. Each roller has a groove in it parallel to the axis,
into which a bar of metal is fitted, and will exaftly fill it
up. When the wires are introduced through the holes in
the plate, th« ends are laid acrofs this groove ; the bar is
then put in and fattened by a fimple contrivance, and it

faftens the ends of the wires beneath it, fo that they become
attached to the roller ; then by turning the handle B round, ,
the two wheels are put in motion in contrary direftions ; and '
that wheel which is connected with its axle by its catch,
will turn its barrel round, and wind up the wires fo as to 1
draw them through the plate E. The other roller being at I
the fame time detached, its wheel is at liberty to turn round
in a contrary diretlion to the wheel, as faft as the wires arc
drawn off from it. When the whole length of the wires
has been drawn through the plate, they are detached from '
the roller, the ends introduced through fmaller holes in the ;
plate, and fattened again to the roller ; then the lever W is I
fhifted, to difengage that wheel which operated before, and ]
engage the other. This being done, the rollers will be
turned in an oppofite direftion, and will wind back the
wires, although the handle B is turned the fame way round. ,

After the wire has been then drawn three or four times, I
the metal becomes fo hard and fibrous, that it would not j
draw any more without breaking ; it therefore requires to be J
heated in the fire to reftore its duftility ; for this purpofe it 1
muft be taken off the barrels. A roller M is provided to '
wind the wire upon and draw it off from the barrel ; this (
roller is turned round by a handle m, fixed on the extremity I
of its axis; and the wire which is wound upon it in a coil is j
flipped off fideways. This machine is well adapted to be
worked by a mill, becaufe the handle may always be turned
the fame way.

Fig. 10. reprefents the machine ufed at the wire-mills
for reducing the wire which is to be ufed for mufical inftru-
ments, or for making cards for wool and cotton. The
rollers A are fituated in a vertical pofition, being fitted on
the tops of iron fpindles, which are fuftained in a vertical
pofition by bearings in the frame of the table or bench.
Thefe fpindles are kept in continual motion by wheel-
work fituated beneath the bench, but the fpindles are
round, fo that the rollers A are not turned with the fpindles,
unlefs any one of the rollers is lifted up upon the fpindle.
A crofs-bar, which is fixed on the top of the fpindle, then
engages with two projefting knobs fixed in the roller,
within a hollow recefs made at the top of it, and turns the
roller round. The draw-plate E is fupported by two
pins, as before defcribed ; and the wire which is to be
drawn is wound on a reel, which is put into a caflc of ftale-
beer grounds, or ftarch-water. The end of the wire,
which is put through the draw-plate, is made fatt to the
roller, which does not turn round as long as it is dropped
down upon the fpindle ; but when all is ready to begin
drawing, the roller mutt be lifted up, and the clutch at the
top of the fpindle will engage with the two knobs within
the hollow at the top of the roller. This puts it in motion,
and draws the wire through the draw-plate. The ttrain of
drawing is fufficient to keep the roller up upon the fpindle ;
but as foon as the whole of the wire is drawn through the
plate, the refiftance ceafes, and the roller drops down on its
fpindle, and becomes difengaged until the workman puts it
again in aftion.

ManufaHure of Iron Wire. — Iron is a very duftile metal,
but requires a careful treatment in the procefs of wire-
drawing, becaufe it becomes very hard and brittle when the
fibres are greatly compreffed by repeated drawing. Its
duftihty muft then be reftored by heating the wire to red-
nefs ; this is called anneahng : it renders the wire foft, and
it will then draw finer and longer ; but it will foon require
annealing again, and fo on.

The iron which is felefted for wire-drawing muft be of
good quality, to bear the requifite extenfion without break-
ing. It muft be of an uniform fubftance, without any grains

of

WIRE.

of hard or foft parts. The fofteft iron 18 not always found
the beft, as it will dimiiiifh by the ftrain of drawing it
through the holes alone : and to obviate this, the workman
muft draw fuch iron through a greater number of holes to
Dbtain the required extenfion.

The iron is wrought at the tilt-mills from fquare bars
nto round rods of a proper fize to commence drawing.
The operation of tilting is nearly the fame as tilting ofjleel.
'See that article.) The tilt-hammer for a wire-work
generally makes twenty ftrokes per minute, and weighs
ibout fifty pounds. There is alfo a larger hammer worked
)y the fame mill, which ftrikes about 130 times ^cr minute,
md weighs 100 pounds. This hammer is only ufed for the
irft preparation of the iron, or for welding a faggot of
mall bars together, in order to give the iron a better
juality by a preparation fimilar to the German fteel. To
[raw out the iron bars into rods of a proper fize to begin
Irawing, the workman heats fix or eight inches of the end
)f a large bar, which comes from the great forge where the
ron is made, and when properly heated he works it regu-
arly under the fmall tilt, until it is drawn out to a fmall
ind regular round rod of five or fix feet in length. A
[ood workman can thus draw out two hundred weight of
ron in a day, or an ordinary workman one and a half
lundred weight. The lofs of metal in the operation is near
\6 ptr cent, by weight.

The fmall rod, before it is cold, is taken by another
workman, who itraightens the rod with a hammer upon an
nvil, then cuts it off, and places the end of the great bar
gain in the forge. This fame workman alfo fuperintends
he heating of the iron, and muft be very careful not to
iverheat it, but to heat the whole regularly.

It is a good praftice to pafs the iron-rod through a pair
(f grooved rollers, the grooves of the two rollers being
)ppofite, fo as to form a round between them. By thefe
neans, the iron may be reduced fmall, and rendered very
rue, previoufly to beginning the drawing. For common
vire, the whole reduAion may be done by the rolHng-mill
vithout a tilt ; but the hammer will give a more tenacious
[ualily to the iron than can be obtained by rolling.

A fmall round bar, thus prepared, muft be drawn through
I hole in a draw-plate, by a ftrong machine with a chain,
ir elfe by the lever-machine,^^. 7. The end of the iron
s firft reduced, fo that it will enter the hole in the draw-
jlate, and pafs through fufBciently for the pincers to take
lold. This is done at the forge by a hammer and anvil.
By pafling through the plate the wire becomes lengthened,
n proportion as it is diminifhed in fize. It muft then be
innealed to foften it, the end pointed anew, and again put
hrough a fmaller hole.

The workman who attends the procefs muft ftudy the
lature of the iron, and regulate the manner of drawing ac-
:ordingly. This he does by altering the figure of the hole
hrough which the wire is drawn. The hole muft be conical ;
:he fmalleft part, being that which afts principally on the
•netal, muft be at that fide of the plate where the wire
comes through. If the taper of the hole is not properly
proportioned, the iron will be ftrained in drawing ; for
jhough the machine will force it through, grains of harder
inetal than the reft of the wire will form themfelves, which
jvill occafion the wire to break when it comes to be much
deduced. This is particularly the cafe in foft iron. To
iivoid this, the hole muft be chofen very httle fmaller than
Ihe iron, and muft be made with a regular taper. It muft
1)6 well fupplied with greafe, to diminiih as much as pof-
|ible the friftion ; and the motion of the draught muft be
regulated according as the metal will bear it.
I Vol. XXXVIII.

Much depends upon the quality of the draw-plate ; al-
though the metal of the plate is fufliciently hard to draw
the wire, it will not refift the blow of a hard fteel hammer
and punch. The punch is driven into the hole from he-
hind, until it enlarges it to the required fize and figure. In
the operation of drawing, the hole becomes gradually en-
larged, and that in a greater degree at the fmalleft end of
the hole, fo that it becomes nearer to a cylinder. To rectify
this, the punch muft be applied, or the wire would not pafs
eafily ; that is, if the fame degree of rcduftion in the fize of
the wire was attempted, it would break or ftrain the wire,
if the hole was cylindrical, although it would pafs through
a regular taper hole. The hole fometimes wears irregularly,
and lofes its circular figure. In this cafe, the plate is ham-
mered around the fmall end of the hole, and the hole is
thereby reduced. The punch is then driven in, to enlarge
It again to the required fize : fometimes the punch is intro-
duced at the fmall end, and then at the large end, as it may
be required to form the hole. In all cafes, the punch
muft be driven very gently ; and after every ftroke of the
hammer it muft be loofened in the hole, and turned round
before another blow is ftruck, and without this precaution
it would fix faft in the hole.

The French draw-plates are the moft efteemed ; and,
in time of war, a good French draw- plate has been fold for
its weight in filver. M. Du Hamel, in Les Arts et Metiers,
vol. XV. gives the following account of the procefs of making
the draw-plates for the large iron-wire.

A band of iron is forged of two inches broad and one
inch thick. This is prepared at' the great forge. About
a foot in length is cut off, and heated to rednefs in a fire of
charcoal. It is then beaten on one fide with a hammer, fo
as to work all the furface into furrows or grooves, in order
that it may retain the fubftance called the potin, which is
to be welded upon one fide of the iron, to form the hard
matter on which the holes are to be pierced. This potin
is nothing but fragments of old caft-iron pots ; but thofe
pots which have been worn out by the continued aftion of
fire are not good : the fragments of a new pot which has
not been on the fire are better.

The workman breaks thefe pieces of pots on his anvil,
and mixes the pieces v/ith charcoal of white wood. He
puts this in the forge, and heats it till it is melted into a fort
of pafte ; and to purify it he repeats the fufion ten or twelve
times, and each time he takes it with the tongs to dip it in
water. M. Du Hamel fays, this is to render the matter
more eafy to break into pieces.

By thefe repeated fuilons with charcoal, the caft iron is
changed, and its qualities approach thofe of fteel, but far
from becoming brittle ; it will yield to the blows of the
hammer and to the punch, which is ufed to enlarge the holes.
The bar of iron which is to make the draw-plate is covered
with a layer of pieces of the potin, or caft iron, thus pre-
pared. It is applied on the fide which is furrowed, and
(hould occupy about half an inch in thicknefs. The whole
is then wrapped up in a coarfe cloth, which has been dipped
in clay and water mixed up as thick as cream, and is put
into the forge. The potin is more fufible than the forged
iron, fo that it will melt. The plate is withdrawn from
the fire occafionally, and hammered very gently upon the
potin, to weld and in fome meafure asnalgamate it with the
iron, which cannot be done at once ; but it muft be re-
peatedly heated, and worked until the potin fixes to the
iron. The workman then throws dry powdered clay upon
it, in order, they fay, to foften the potin.

The union being complete, the plate is again heated, and

forged by two workmen, who draw out the plate of one

3 Z foot

WIRE.

foot to a length of two feet, and give it the form it is to
have. It is well known that caft iron cannot be worked
at the forge without breaking under the hammer ; but in
the prefent inftance, it is alloyed with the iron-bar, and is
drawn out with it. It has alfo acquired new properties by
the repeated fufions with charcoal.

The holes are next pierced whilft the plate is hot. This
is done with a well-pointed punch of German fteel, applied
on that fide of the plate which is the iron-bar. It requires
four heats in the fire to pierce the holes, and every turn a
finer punch is employed, fo as to make a taper hole. The
makers of draw-plates do not pierce the holes quite through,
but leave it to the wire-drawers to do it themfelves when
the plate is cold, with Iharp punches, and then they open
the hole to the fize they defire ; and although this potin is
of a very hard fubftance, the fize of the hole may be re-
duced by gentle blows with a hard hammer, on the flat fur-
face of the plate, round the hole.

A great many holes are made in the fame plate ; and it
is important that they (hould diminiih in fize by very im-
perceptible gradations ; fo that the workman can always
choofe a hole fuitablc for the wire he is to draw, without
being obliged to reduce it too much at once.

To afcertain the fize of the wire, gauges are ufed. They
are commonly made of a piece of wire bent in zigzag, as
(hewn in^^. 1 1 ; and the fpace between every bend is of a
different width ; but a better fort is made of a fteel-plate,
with notches on the edge. ( Seejg. 12. for the ftandards. )
Thefe {hould be hardened, that they may not be fubjeft to
wear.

Fig. 13. is another kind of gauge, which is very accurate.
It confifts of two ftraight rules of fteel, put together at an
angle. The diameter of the wire is indicated by the depth
to which it will enter into the angle ; the edges of the
rulers are divided into equal parts for that purpofe, and
cumbered, to correfpond with the different fizes of wire.

The wire manufaftory of MefFrs. Mouchel, fituated at
I'Aigle, in the department de I'Orne, is one of the moft
confiderable in France. It furnifhes annually, in cards for
wool-combing only, an hundred thoufand quintals of iron-
wire, each loolbs. A part of this is confumed in France,
and the reft is exported to Portugal, Spain, Italy, and even
to the fiiores of the Levant.

They employ the iron manufaftured in the departments
of rOrne and La Haute Saone, as being of the beft qua-
lity. The firft produces the beft wire for making fcrews,
nails, and pins, as much on account of its hardnefs as its
fine pohfh, which refembles fteel-wire. In this relpeft, it is
fuperior to the iron of Haute Saone, but from its duflihty
the latter can now be made extremely fine, and it appears to
be moft free from heterogeneous particles.

The fmelted iron, prepared and hammered, being in a ftate
nearly fit for their purpofe, is tranfported, at a fmall ex-
pence, to I'Aigle, by the rivers and canals. They have a
forge to reduce the fteel and iron of Normandy, which
arrives in large pieces, into fmall and regular bars.

When the iron is formed into an irregular bar of about
a centimetre, near four-tenths of an inch in diameter, they
begin to draw it into wire. Although it be already
much extended by hammering, it is in the firft place pafied
four times through the drawing-plate ; then its molecules
become difpofed lengthways, and exhibit fibres at their
utmoft extenfion. The fibres muft be removed by means
of heat, which difperfes and divides them ; and after that
the wire may again be reduced three numbers. The fibres
which are re-produced by this operation are again removed
by heat. The whole procefs is five times repeated ; confe-
8

quently the wire is pafled through fifteen numbers ; aftez
which, a fingle expofure to the fire is fufficient to fit it for
paffing fix others, whereby it is reduced to the thicknefs o(
a knitting-needle.

The fteel-wire, being much harder, requires to be pafled
through forty-four numbers, and to be annealed every othei
time.

The machine which draws the fteel-wire muft go flowei
than that which draws the iron ; for the firft being verj
hard, and offering more refiftance to the drawing-plate,
fhould be pulled out with more care, fince the quickneft
ought to be proportioned to the refiftance, and reciprocally;
and if they depart from this principle, the refults will vary
Thus, for example, the iron of the department de I'Orne,
which is more compaft than that produced at Haute Saone,
if drawn by the fame machines, augments in hardnefs, and
is weakened when it is brought to too great a degree of
finenefs. But this iron, which is very hard, and capable of
receiving a very high polilh, is to be preferred for certain
ufes.

In order to anneal the wire, they formerly employed a
large and elevated furnace, with bars of caft iron to fupport
the wire in the middle of the flames. It contains feven
thoufand pounds weight, fo contrived as to contain equal
portions of each number. They are fo arranged that the
thickeil wires receive the ftrongeft heat ; therefore, the whole
is equally heated in the fame fpace of time. The operation
lafts three hours with a fire well kept up, and it might be
imagined that this apparatus was completely adapted to the
purpofe ; but there are imperfeftions in this method, be-
caufe it leaves the wire expofed to the contaft of the at-
mofpheric air, the oxygen of which feizes it with extreme
avidity; whence a confiderable quantity of oxyd is occa.
fioned, and alfo an operation to free it from the fcales,
which confifts of beating the bundles of wire with a wooden;
hammer wetted with water.

Notwithftanding this precaution, there often remains 8,
portion of oxyd adhering to the furface of the metal, whicb'
ftreaks the draw-plate, or fixes on the wire, and gives it :
tarnifhed appearance, and caufes it to break when it ii
brought to a great degree of finenefs. This furnace is only
ufed for the fteel-wire, or the iron from I'Orne, which is
lefs liable to change, and befides being harder is not fc
ealily attacked by the oxygen.

In order to diminifti the waf^e that the fire occafions.
they have contrived another procefs, which confifts in dip.
ping the bundles of wire into a bafin of wet clay before
they put them into the furnace ; and they are left in tk
furnace to dry before the fire is lighted, without which pre-
caution the clay would peel off" from the iron.

For making wire for cards, M. Mouchel invented anothei
furnace. It is round, and about one metre fix decimetres it
diameter, and one metre eight decimetres in height, without
including its parabolic arch and the chimney above it. Th(
interior is divided by horizontal grates into three ftories ; tht
loweft receives the cinders, the fecond is the fire-place, anc
into the third or upper place they Hide a roleau of wire, weigh-
ing one hundred and fifty kilogrammes, which is inclofec
in a fpace compriled between two caft-iron cylinders, beinj
luted to prevent the admiflion of air between them. Tb(
flames circulate about the outfide of the firft, and withii
the interior of the fecond, which defends the wire from at-
mofpheric air. The diameter of the largeft cylinder ii
about one metre four decimetres, that of the fecond oni
metre. Thus the fpace comprifed between them is two de-
cimetres, on an elevation of five decimetres. There muf
be feveral pairs of cylinders provided ; becaufe whilft om

pai

WIRE.

pair is in the furnace another muft be prepared to receive a
frefli roleau of wire. Tliey are changed every hour by
means of a long iron lever, with which a iingle man can
eafily puth them in and draw them out again, as the cylinder
flides on caft-iron rails.

They are very careful not to open the cyhnders imme-
diately on their being drawn out of the fire ; for the roleaus
of wire contained in them, being ftill red, would oxydate
quite as much as if they had been heated in the midft of the
flames without the leaft precaution.

The opening contrived for the paflage is on the fide, and
has a door of caft iron, with a groove which winds round the
furnace. The fire-place has one fomething fimilar to it.
That of the afh-hole is vertical, in order that it may be
raifed to increafe the fire at will.

When the iron-wire is reduced to the thicknefs of a
knitting-needle, it is made up in bundles of 1 25 kilogrammes
( 275 pounds) each, into a large iron veflel, in order to anneal
it fufRciently to be reduced for the lall time. This vefFel is
placed upfide-down in the middle of a round furnace, which
is fo conltrufted as to fulain burning coals all round it, and
of which it confumes 35 kilogrammes (77 pounds) before the
operation is completed. The cover muft be carefully luted,
as the flighteft admiffion of air is fufficient to burn the ex-
ternal furfaces of the wire to an oxyd, which cannot after-
wards be reduced.

When one of thefe veflels is fufBciently heated, it is filled
with water, containing three kilogrammes (fix pounds and a
half) of tartar, and fufpended over the flames of the fur-
nace to make it boil. This folution, without attacking the
metal, frees it from the greafe and the little oxyd that ad-
heres to it. This is the laft operation in which the wire is
expofed to the fire ; and it is then in the proper ftate for
being reduced to the utmoft degree of finenefs it is capable
of fuftaining, and will preferve enough of the effedl of the
annealing to require it no more. But when the natural
hardnefs of the iron varies, this laft expofure to the fire
fliould take place in proportion to its thicknefs. As fteel
lofes its capacity of extenfion much fooner than iron, it is
annealed until it is no thicker than a fewing-ncedle. The
fpace which is left in the veflel is filled up with charcoal-
duft, which prevents it from lofing the quality of fteel, and
preferves the heat long enough to give it the proper degree
of pliancy.

As Meflrs. Mouchel always ufe iron and fteel of the fame
manufadlory, ihey have been able to reduce their operations
to a general fyftem ; and to attain this end, have determined
a graduated fcale, by which the wire will not be more
ftretched in the drawing-plate in one number or fize than
another. The following is the method they contrived, in
order to form this fcale for the iron-wire. They take a
certain quantity of various thicknefles, which has been
drawn as fine as the iron would bear. The fmalleft fize is
100,000 metres ( 1 09,3 3 3 yards ) in length to the kilogramme,
2.2 pounds avoirdupois. They note the weiglit that each
might be capable of fupporting without breaking. This
being expreffed by figures, it is eafy, by a few interpola-
tions, to cxprefs them in a prpgreffive form. This kind of
fcale has been partly formed by comparing the weight of
the different fizcs with equal lengths, from which gauges or
calibres may be made for the ufe of the workmen. Thefe
gauges are certain guides, which they cannot miftake except
through great carelen"nefs. If they had not thefe guides
they would often pafs the wire through holes in the drawing-
plate that are too large for it, whence it does not acquire
the ftrength it fhould have in proportion to its thicknefs, and
lofes its hardnefs. They might alfo pafs it through holes

that were too fmall, which would weaken it, and render it
very brittle. In the latter cafe, it frequently happens that
the fteel of the drawing-plate, being unable to fuftain the
force to which it is expofed, will give way, as if the plate
were too foft ; and the wire will be brittle at the beginning,
and foft and too thick at the other extremity.

The greateft part of the fine wire of Meflrs. Mouchel'a
manufaftory is drawn by workmen who are difperfcd about
the country ; but they have alfo a machine which moves
twenty-four bobbins in a horizontal direftion, which only
requires the workman to look after it. It is upon the bob-
bins that the wire is reduced to the different degrees of thin-
nefs defired ; therefore, this is the laft operation in the art of
making iron and fteel wire ; although it has all requifite
qualities given to it in the work-ftiop of the wire-drawer.

Wire is ftill incapable of being made into needles and
carding-hooks, until it has undergone another operation
for drefling or ftraightening the wire, by which it is made
to lofe the bend or curve that it acquires on the bobbins.

This work confifts in drawing the wire between nails fixed
in a piece of wood, and which aft to bend the wire, firft in
one direftion, and then in the oppofite, in a waving line, of
which the waves are at firft larger, but decreafe gradually,
and the laft bend of which tends to force the wire into a
ftraight fine. The drefler is obliged conftantly to adjutt
the nails, by inclining or raifing them with ftrokes of the
hammer. Alfo for each number of wires the pins muft be
at different and calculated diftances. This requires a work-
man of intelligence, diligence, and addrefs.

An ingenious inftrument is now appropriated to this ope-
ration, and removes all difficulty. Six little puppets of
very hard fteel are fubftituted for the nails of the ordinary
inftrument, and are fixed on parallel bars of metal, fo
jointed together that the movement of them all will be pa-
rallel, and the puppets are widened or brought nearer to-
gether by fcrews. The wire is drawn between thefe puppets
in a zigzag or waving line, and the repeated flexures break
the finuofities of the wire. There is a conductor of the
wire to the puppets, and another conduftor which ferves to
prevent the wire from being fliaken. There are flight
grooves at the extremity of the puppets, to give a paflage to
the wire. A fcale fuftained by a fcrew indicates the dif-
tance at which the puppets fliould be placed from each other,
to ftraighten each fize of wire. This forms an invariable
rule, and the drefler (who may be a child) faves a third of
the time which is employed in regulating the nails of the in-
ftrument formerly ufed. There is nothing more to be done
but to draw out the wire by means of a wheel, on which he
reels it, and then forms it into bundles to be delivered to the
confumers.

The fteel-wire of France is proper for many purpofes.
It is brought from MeflTrs. Mouchel, for making knitting-
needles in the Enghfti fafliion, flioemakers' needles, and
other fimilar articles. It may alfo be ufed for needles of all
fizes, and even for cards for wooKcombing ; but as this
fteel is much more expenfive than the iron-wire, it is very
feldom ufed for the latter purpofe.

The method of preparing the draw-plates is defcribed
by Meflrs. Mouchel, and is different from that before
defcribed.

For making wire for cards, two forts of drawing-plates
are ufed, large and fmall ones. The firft, for the fort of
wire that we have been defcribing, is drawn with the pincers,
as^. 7, and with the bobbin or roller, which is a cylin-
der adapted to the axis turned by the water-mill, and i» ufed
in preference, to avoid the marks made on the wire by the
pincers. The fmall drawing-plates are ufed for fuch wire
3 Z 2 as

WIRE.

as may be drawn by hand. The fteel which they employ
for thefe drawing-plates fhould never vary in quality, ex-
cept that the fmaller plates are made of the fineft fteel.
Several pieces of iron are difpofed in the furnace in the
form of a box without a lid, their weight being according
to the ufe for which they are intended to be employed.

The workman fills each of thefe boxes with caft fteel,
and having covered it over with a luting of clay, it is ex-
pofed to a fierce fire until the fteel be melted. His art
confifts in feizing the proper moment to withdraw the plate
from the fire : he raifes the luting, and blows on it through
a tube, in order to drive off" all heterogeneous parts, and
then amalgamates it with the iron by light blows. After it
is cool, he replaces it at the fire, where the fufion again takes
place, but to a lefs degree than before ; he afterwards
works the fteel with light blows of the hammer, to purify
and folder it with the iron. This operation is repeated
from feven to ten times, according to its quality, which
renders it more or lefs difficult to manage. During this
procefs, a cruft forms on the fteel, which is detached from
it the fifth time of its expofure to the fire, becaufe this cruft
is compofed of an oxydated fteel of an inferior quality.
It fometimes happens that two and even three of thefe
crufts are formed of about two millimetres, or one-fixteenth
of an inch in thicknefs, which muft alfo be removed.

After all thefe different fufions, the plate is beaten by a
hammer wetted with water, and the proper length, breadth,
and thicknefs, are given to it. When thus prepared, the
plates are heated again, in order to be pierced with holes by
punches of a conical form ; the operation is repeated five or
fix times, and the punches ufed each time are progreffively
fmaller. It is of importance that the plate never be heated
beyond a cherry-red, becaufe if it receives a higher degree
of heat, the fteel undergoes an unfavourable change. The
plates, when finiftied, prcfent a very hard material, which
neverthelefs will yield to the ftrokes of the punches and the
hammer, which they require when the holes become too
much enlarged by the frequent paffing of the wire through
them.

When the plates have been repaired feveral times, they
acquire a degree of hardnefs, which renders it neceflary to
anneal them, efpecially when they pafs from one fize to
another ; fometimes they do not acquire the proper quality
until they have been annealed feveral times. Notwithftand-
ing all the precautions which are taken in preparing the
plates, the fteel ftill varies a little in hardnefs, and accord-
ing to this variation they fhould be employed for drawing
either fteel or iron wire ; and if the workman who proves
them finds that they are too foft for either the fteel or iron,
they are put afide, to be ufed by the brafs-wire drawers.

A plate that is beft adapted for drawing fteel-wire is
often unfit for the iron ; for the long pieces of this latter
metal will become fmaller at the extremity than at the be-
ginning, becaufe the wire as it is drawn through the plate is
infenfibly heated, and the adhering parts are fwelled, confe-
quently preffed and reduced in fize towards the latter end.
The plates that are fit for brafs are often too foft for iron,
and the effect rcfulting is the reverfe of that produced by a
plate that is too hard.

The fmalleft plates which Meffrs. Mouchel ufe are at the
leaft two centimetres, or eight-tenths of an inch in thick-
nefs, fo that the holes can be made fufficiently deep ; for
when they are of a lefs thicknefs, they will feize the wire
too fuddenly and injure it. This inconvenience is much
felt in manufaftories where they continue to ufe the plates
for too long a time, as they become exceedingly thin after
frequent repairs. One of Meffrs. Mouchel's Large plates
3

reduces 1 400 kilogrammes (3080 pounds a-voirdupois) frons
the largeft fize of wire to No. 6, which is of the thicknefs
of a knitting-needle ; 400 kilogrammes (880 pounds) of this
number are afterwards reduced in one fingle fmall plate to
No. 24, which is carding wire ; and to finilh them, they are
paffed through twelve times fucceffively.

For the tenacity of iron wire, fee Iron.

The firft wire-mill in England was fet up by a Dutch-
man at Sheen, near Richmond, in 1663.

Wires are frequently drawn fo fine, as to be wrough'
along with other threads of filk, wool, or hemp : and
thus they become a confiderable article in the manufac-
tures. See Ductility.

Wire, Gold. See GoLU-lVire.

Mufchenbroeck records, that an artift of Augrtjurg drew a
wire of gold fo flender, that 500 feet of it weighed onlj
one grain ; and Dr. Wollafton, fecretary of the Royal So-
ciety, has (hewn, that a wire of gold may be drawn much
finer than this, and that wires of platiiia may be drawn much
more flender, with the utmoft facihty. Thofe who draw filver-
wire in large quantities for lace and embroidery, fometimes
begin with a rod that is about three inches in diameter, and

ultimately obtain wires that are fo fmall as of an inch in

•' 100

thicknefs. If in any ftage of this procefs a rod of filver-wire
be taken, and a hole be drilled through it longitudinally,
having its diameter one-tenth part of that of the rod, and if
a wire of pure gold be inferted, fo as to fill the hole, it is
evident that by continuing to draw the rod, the gold within
it will be reduced in diameter exaftly in the fame propor-
tion as the filver ; fo that if both be thus drawn out

together till the diameter of the filver is of an inch, then

that of the gold will be only ; and of fuch wire, 550

feet would be requifite to weigh one grain. In order to re-
move the coating of filver that furrounds it, the wire muft
be fteeped for a few minutes in warm nitrous acid, which
diffolves the filver without any injury to the gold. Dr. W.,
in his endeavours to make flender gold- wires by the method
above-defcribed, found it difficult to drill the central hole
in a metal fo fine as filver, and therefore tried whether pla-
tina might not be fubftituted for the gold, as in that cafe its
infufibility would allow its being coated with filver, with-
out the neceffity of drilling. Having formed a cyhndrical
mould one-third of an inch in diameter, he fixed in the centre

of it a platina wire previoufly drawn to the — - of an inch,

'^ "^ ' 100

and then filled the mould with filver. When this rod was

drawn to — , his platina was reduced to — — , and by fuc-
30 1000

eeffive reduftion he obtained wires of

and , and

4000 5000

excellent for applying to the eye-pieces of aftronomical in-
ftruments, and perhaps as fine as can be ufeful for fuch pur-
pofes. The extremity of a platina wire having been fufed
into a globule near 5 of an inch in diameter, was next ham-
mered out into a fquare rod, and then drawn again into a

wire of an inch in diameter. The fufion was effefted

253
by the following fimple and eafy method fuggeftcd by Dr.

Marcct :

W 1 R

W 1 11

Marcrt : — A piece of wire, about fix inclies lonor, having
been bent to an angle in the middle, one half ol its length
was held in the flame of a fpiritlamp impelled by a current
of oxygen, and its extremity was thus fufed in about half a
minute. An inch of the wire above-mentioned duly coated
with filver was drawn, till its length was extended to
182 inches ; confequently the proportional diminution of
the diameter of the platina will be exprefled by the
fquare root of 182, fo that its meafure had become

The fpecific gravity of the coated

253 X '3-5 3425

wire was affumed to be 10.5, and ITnce the weight of 100

inches was 1 14 grains, its diameter was inferred to be

— - of an inch, and juR eighty times of the platina thus
^2>8

contained in it. With portions of the platina wire thus
obtained, and fuccefllvely reduced in diameter, its tenacity
was afcertained ; and the refults of feveral trials (hewed in
general, that the procefs of wire-drawing, which is known
to improve the ftrength of metals within moderate limits,
continued alfo to add fomething to the tenacity of platina,

fven as far as — of an inch, which fupported i\ grain

18.000 '^'^ ^

:>efore it broke ; but the wire in which the experiments
i\'ere made began then to be impaired by repetition of the
operation ; fo that although he afterwards obtained portions

af it as fmall as

of an inch in diameter, it was in

30.000

many places interrupted, and he could not rely on any trials
if its tenacity. For other particulars with regard to thefe
line wires, we refer to the Phil. Tranf. vol. ciii. pt. i.

Wire, Silver, is the fame with gold wire, except that
the latter is gilt, or covered with gold, and the other is not.
There are alfo counterfeit gold and filver wires : the firft
made of a cylinder of copper, filvered over, then co-
rered with gold ; and the fecond of a like cylinder of
:opper filvered over, and drawn through the iron, after
:he fame manner as gold and filver wire.

By 43 Geo. III. c. 68. feveral duties are impofed on
ivire imported, as fet forth in tables annexed to the aft ;
md by c. 69. fched. A. duties are laid upon wire made in
Great Britain ; and by 49 Geo. III. c. 98. new duties are
impofed. Every wire-drawer who (hall draw any gilt or
filver wire, commonly called ' big wire,' (hall take out a
licence, for which he (hall pay 2/., to be renewed aimually on
pain of 20/. 24 Geo. III. c. 41. One licence fuffices for a
partnef(hip. Notice is to be given of working on pain of
20/., and the place of working is to be approved by the
commifTioners under the fame penalty. Wire, and bars for
making it, and utenfils, found in any private workhoufe, of
which no notice hath been given, (hall be forfeited.
Officers (hall be permitted to enter and furvey, and the
penalty of obftrufting him is 20/. 10 Ann. c. 26. Pre-
venting him from taking a juft account incurs a forfeiture
of 100/. 26 Geo. III. c. 77. Juft fcales and weights (hall
be kept on pain of 10/. Perfons ufing falfe fcalcs and
weights forfeit 100/. 10 Geo. III. c. 44. And the fame
(hall be forfeited and feized. 28 Geo. III. c. 37. Ingots
or bars of filver, defigned for gilt wire, (hall be weighed
m the prefence of the excife officer, before they be covered
with gold, and again weighed and marked after the gold is
laid on, under penalty of 2c/. 15 Geo. II. c. 20.

By lo Ann. c. 26. an allowance of one-fifth is made

for wafte in reducing the big wire to fmall wi;e. Removing
wire before it is furveyed incurs a penalty of 40/. ; and
unfurveyed wire is to be kept feparate,on pain of 10/. ; and
the puniihment of conceahng wire, &c. is a forfeiture of 20/.
The wire made (hall be entered every month, on oath, on
pain of 100/. The duty muft be cleared off in fix weeks
after entry, on pain of double duty.

By 15 Geo. II. c. 20. and 22 Geo. II. c. 36. no
foreign embroidery, or gold or filver brocade, thread, lace,
fringe, or work made thereof, or of copper, brafs, or
other inferior metal, or gold or filver wire, or plate, (hall
be imported. And by 10 Ann. c. 26. if any perfon
(hall export any gold or filver thread, or lace or fringe
made of plate wire fpun upon filk, he (hall have a draw-
back after the rate of ^s. a pound avoirdupois, of fuch
filver thread, lace, or fringe, and of 6s. SJ. a pound of
fuch gold thread, lace, or fringe.

For regulations concerning the true making of gilt and
filver wire, fee the llatute 15 Geo. II. c. 20. and for pro-
hibiting the felling or working up of foreign gold or filver
lace or thread, fee 22 Geo. II. c. 36.

Wire, Brafs, is drawn after the fame manner as the for-
mer. Of this there are divers fizes, fuited to the divers
kinds of works. The lineft is ufed for the ftrings
of mufical inftruments, as fpinete, harpfichords, mani-
chords, &c.

The pin-makers likewife ufe vaft quantities of wire of
feveral fizes, to make their pins of. See Pjn.

Wire, Iron. See WiRv^fupra.

WiRE-Gauze Safety-Lamp, and Safety-Lamp, in the virts,
are lamps conftrufted to prevent the explofion of inflam-
mable air in mines, by intercepting the communication of
the flame on the infide of the lamp with the furrounding
atmofphere. The difcovery of fafety-lamps for this pur-
pofe belongs exclufively to our own country, and will form
a new era in mining operations. We fliall, therefore, ftate
the hiftory of their invention with as much accuracy as pof-
fible, amidft the contending claims of the different inventors
for priority. The explofions of inflammable air in coal-
mines arife from the ignition of carburetted hydrogen evolved
from the ftrata, and mixed with the atmofpheric air that
circulates through the mine. Thefe explofions very fre-
quently occafion the moft fatal efFedts, deltroying the hves
of all the perfons employed as well as of the horfes, and
producing great mifchief to the fubterranean works. Some
mines are much more liable to accidents from this caufe than
others. In fome the carburetted hydrogen accumulates
flowly from the want of due circulation ; in other mines,
it is generated very rapidly, iifuing from fiifures called
blowers, which occur either in the roof, the floor, or the
fides of the mine.

In the coal-fields of the Tyne and the Wear, it has been
eftimated that fix hundred men and boys were deftroyed in
two years by explofions in the mines ; but thefe accidents,
unlefs they took place on a large fcale, were as much as
poffible kept from public notice, partly from the fear of
alarming the workmen, and partly from the apprehenfion of
blame to the viewers and managers of the works. Of thefe
melancholy cataftrophes, few regifters are kept in any part
of Great Britain ; but in the year 1810 an explofion took
place in a mine in the pan(h of Felling near Newcaftle,
which, from the magnitude of the evil it occafioned, excited
a general fenfation of horror throughout the country. In
this mine, the property of v/ealthy and liberal owners, no
expence had been fpared in the introduftion of machinery
and the moft approved methods of ventilation. ( See Ven-
tilation of Mines.) Notwithftaoding this, on the 25th of

May

WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY. LAMP.

May i8i2, the inflammable air exploded in two difcharges
from one of the pita, which was fhortly followed by a third
from anotlier pit.

The depth of thefe explofions under the furface ob-
tunded the found of the reports ; but for half a mile round
the vibrations of the earth announced the occurrence of the
accident before the noife cfcaped, and an alarm was created
four or five miles round by low and hollow rumblings m
the air. Immenfe volumes of denfe vapour and coal-duft,
with pieces of wood and coal, were driven high into the
atmofphere ; and the mangled bodies of feveral men and
boys were abfolutely thrown out of the fliaft. The country
in the immediate vicinity was enveloped in darknefs, and
every kind of machinery near the mouths of the pits was
blown to pieces, or fet fire to. Out of a hundred and
twenty men and iDoys employed in the mine only thirty -two
were faved, three of whom afterwards died. The coal
being fet fire to, and the fubterranean works blown down or
dettroyed, the owners were compelled to clofe the mouths
of the pits in order to extinguirti the fire ; and it was not till
the feventh or eighth of the following month that it could
be re-opened to extraft the bodies, which were, many of
them, too much mangled, and in too putrefcent a ftate, to be
identified by the relatives. A feries of fimilar difafters, m
each of which from twenty to thirty-five human beings were
deftroyed, occurred foon afterwards in the fame dillrifts,
and even in the Felling mine another explofion took place m
December 1813, by which twenty-three men and boys and
twelve horfes were killed. The only method that had been
adopted to prevent explofions, befides the ufual modes of
ventilation for clearing the mine, was the fubftitution of
fteel-mills for candles.

The iteel-mill is an inftruraent for producing light by the
coUifion of flint and fteel : it confifts of a brafs wheel about
five inches in diameter, with fifty-two teeth, which works a
pmion with eleven teeth. On the axis of the pinion is fitted a
thin jagged fteel wheel, from five to fix inches in diameter ;
againft the circumference of this wheel the fharp edge of a
flint is fixed, and the toothed wheel has a handle, which is
turned by a boy ; the whole machine being fixed in an iron
frame fufpended by a leather belt. The fteel wheel revolves
with great velocity, and eUcits a ftream of fcintillations, which
give a confiderable light. Where the mines were fufpefted
to contain inflammable air, thefe machines were ufed ; but
befides aff'ording only an unfteady light, and being difficult
to manage, many inftances had occurred of the air igniting
from the fcintillations of fteel-mills. For the purpofe of
exploring the unworked and more dangerous parts of the
mine, the fteel-miU was both an inconvenient and incomplete
inftrument ; but until the year 1809 no method of lighting
had been attempted which might fuperfede its ufe.

Aboutthat lime Dr. Reid Clanny, a fcientific and ingenious
phyfician at Sunderland, commenced a feries of experiments,
with a view to infulate the gas which might explode in a
lamp, and cut off its communication with the furrounding
air in the mine. With this intent, he conftrufted a lamp
in which the combuftion of the oil or tallow is fupported by
the ordinary air of the coal-mine fupplied by a pair of bel-
lows, and pafling through a ftratum or refervoir of water
below the light ; at the fame time, a portion of the air already
in the lamp is driven through another refervoir in the upper
part above the light, and thus the air fupplied may explode
within the body of the lamp without communicating the
flame to the external air, however highly it may be charged
with carburetted hydrogen gas. The moment the air en-
ters the lamp it comes in contaft with the flame, and con-
fequently only a fmall portion of it can be exploded, inftead

of the whole contents of the lamp ; by this means feveral
obvious advantages are fecured. The air paffing in a briflc
current clofe by the flame carries the fnuff with it, fo that
the light is always clear and fteady. The other parts of the
lamp were air-tight, and the whole made very ftrong, with
a glafs nearly half an inch thick to prevent it from being
broken by any common accident. It is capable of being
managed by a boy at a much lefs expence than the fteel-
mill. This lamp, wliich, for ftrength and for fecurity from
explofions and accidents, exceeds any other that has fmce
been invented, excited little attention among the coal-workers
wliere it was firft made known. Had not the prejudices
againil improvements prevented its general introduttion, more
than one thoufand lives might have been preferved, which
were deftroyed in tlie mining diftriftsof the Tyne and Wear
in a few years after its difcovery. In its firft form, the
lamp, though fecure, was not made fufficiently light to be
portable without being placed on a barrow ; but Dr. Clanny
afterwards improved it in this refpeft, by fubilituting a fmall
pair of bellows to be worked under the right arm ; the lamp,
being fufpended by a leather belt from the left fide of the
boy who carried it, might in this way be moved into the
narroweft or moft dangerous parts of the mine. A defcrip-
tion of Dr. Clanny's fafety-lamp, with a plate, was firft
given in the Philofophical Tranfaftions of the Royal Society
for 18 1 3, part ii. p. 200. In this lamp, however ftrong may
be the currents of air in the mine, the flame cannot be af-
fefted by them, and the moft dangerous blower may be ap-
proached in perfeft fafety. When an explofion takes place
in the lamp it extends no farther, and the flame is inftantly
extinguiftied ; and wherever there is fufficient atmofpheric
air to fupport life, this lamp will afford a fafe and abundant
light. The conftruftion of the lamp was rendered more
fimple by paffing the air thi'ough the oil, by which the necef-
fity of the lower refervoir of water was avoided.

In Plate I. Jig. 2. Geology, is given an outline of the lamp
on its original principle, which, though lefs portable, is, we
confider, the fafeft that has yet been employed. A is the
body of the lamp, conftrufted of copper or block-tin ; B,
the upper part of the lamp, ending in a conical bent tube,
by which the air is difcharged after fupporting combuftion
through the water-ciftern C and D, the part D being filled
with water to keep the lamp cool; if neceflary ; E, the
window of the lamp, made of very thick glafs ; F, the
candle, fupported on a tin ftand ; G, a ciftern containing
water, through whicli the air is forced by the bellows ; H,
a tube from the bellows, which conveys air to the lamp.
A flexible leather tube may be fixed to the valve of the
bellows, to fend atmofplieric air from a diltance, if neceflary.
If the lamp be in order, it is fcarcely poffible to conceive
any infulation of the flame more perfeft than it prefents ; and
to Dr. Clanny muft be allowed the undoubted claim of
priority in having firft direfted the attention of miners to a
method of avoiding danger before unknown, and of ftiew-
ing praftically how it might be effeAed. In the improve-
ment which Dr. Clanny made in this lamp afterwards, to
render it more portable, [fee Jig. 3. in the fame plate,) a is
the tube fixed to the lamp, and which conveys the air ; i,
the oil-ciftern ; c, the air aperture, under the burner of the
oil ; d, the flexible tube connefted with the bellows ; e,f,
the glafs. In both thefe lamps, the air being fupphed by
bellows, required the conftant attention of a boy ; this, how-
ever, was the cafe with the iteel-mills, which were in general 1
ufe before. A lamp that would fupply itfelf with atmo-
fpheric air was ilill a defideratum ; when Dr. Clanny dif-
covered, in November 1815, as he was making experiments
with the original fafety-lamp in an atmofphere of fire-damp

WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY-LAMP.

in the Horrington mine, near Sunderland ; that if the infnla-

tion of the lamp were made with hot water, the fire-damp

burned filentl)' at tlie wick, and did not explode within the

lamp, as formerly. T- is he afcertained to be owing to the

fteani ; and he farther dilcovered, that one part in volume

of fteam to two of the moft explofive mixtures deftroyed

their inflammability. A fimilar effeft of lleam had been

before noticed by Von Grotthus, in the Szd volume of

, the Annales de Chimie, but had not been applied to any

; ufeful purpofe. In December of the fame year. Dr. Clanny

conllrufted a fteam fafety-lamp, which he exhibited to the

1 Society, for preventing accidents in coal-mines, and received

i their unanimous thanks; and in 1817 he received a gold

medal from the Society of Arts for the difcovery.

In the fteam fafety-lamp there is a refervoir of water at
the top of the lamp, which is a clofed tin box, or ciftern.
The water is kept boiling by the flame of the lamp, and
the fteam mixing with the carburetted hydrogen prevents
all riflv from explofion. The air is fupplied through a
tube to the upper part of the ciftern above the water, and
defcends, mixed with the fteam, down two other tubes, into
the body of the lamp. By this means, the fire-damp burns
filently and fteadily at the wick of the lamp alone for any
length of time. Should the carburetted hydrogen exceed
the proportion of atmofpheric air for fupporting combuf-
tion, the light is extinguiflied, but this can rarely hap-
pen. It has alfo the valuable property of keeping cool
throughout every part, and under all circumftaiiees ; this
is eff^efted by the evolution and motion of the fteam.
This lamp, fays Dr. Clanny, is now well known to
burn moft brilliantly in an atmofphere of fire-damp, even
after the original fafety-lamp has had the fire-damp ex-
ploded within it. The fteam-lamp has now been extenfively
ufed in feveral of the northern collieries. Its great recom-
mendation over other inventions is the fuperior light which
it affords. Thefe lamps are made of the ftrongeft tinned
iron, with a flat glafs in front, three-eighths of an inch in
thicknefs. They are exceedingly ftrong and durable, and
coft about twelve ftiillings, but might be manufaftured on a
large fcale for half the price.

Fig. 4. reprefents the ftiort tube by which the air enters
into the tube b, and this tube fupports the water-ciftern c at
the top, being fitted into the tube a at the bottom, fo as to
be taken out and replaced when the water is to be poured in
or removed from the ciftern c. The air which afcends the
tube b mixes with the fteam of the water-ciftern, and pafles
down the two tubes d, d, to fupport the combuftion of the
flame, and afterwards afcends by the fide of the ciftern
through the chimney of the lamp. Thefe tubes are clofed at
the bottom, and perforated oa the fides, to retard the pro-
grefs of the air, and mix it with the fteam before it reaches
the fl^amef. The bottom is air-tight ; ythe glafs, and g the
oil-lamp. Thefe lamps are twelve inches in length, exclu-
sively of the chimney. They ftinild be cleared of water,
and well dried, after they have been in ufe, that tftey may be
more durable. When the lamp is firft lighted it is neceflary
to eftablifti a current, which is beft done by turning the
lamp, fo that the tube a may be expofed to the current of
air ; this will be effeAed in five minutes, and the lamp will
afterwards continue to burn regularly and fteadily.

Dr. Clanny farther applied the fame principle to the con-
ftruftion of a larger lamp, in which were three wicks to
burn the inflammable air as it was made to iftue through the
oil ; this is intended to confume the hydro-carburetted gas
as it ruflies from a blower.

In the hiftory of ufeful inventions, perhaps no inftance of
fupinenefs can be adduced, among thofe iutereftcd in any dif-

covery, which equals the inattention fliewn for feveral years
by the coal-workers in the north to the valuable labours of
Dr. Clanny. We had an opportunity of examining his
lamp in 18 13, and were fatisfied with the complete fecurity
which it affords. At that time, however, fo far from re-
ceiving the patronage he highly merited, he was regarded
by many with a ilrange jealoufy, as an officious intruder into
the myfteries of mining ; myfteries which he had no right to
inveftigate. To Dr. Clanny, however, the firll difcovery
of a fafety-lamp is undoubtedly due ; and we have no hefita-
tion in aflerting our belief that his original fafety-lamp is the
moft fecure of any that have fince been invented, where
dangerous parts of the mine are to be explored, on account
of its more complete infulation, and its greater ftrength.
His lamp had alfo the merit of firft fuggefting the poffibility
of infulating the flame in the different lamps which have fince
been conftrufted.

The attention of the public was at length direfted to the
dangerous fituation of the men working in the mines by a
few gentlemen, who formed a fociety, in 18 13, at Sunder-
land, entitled A Society to prevent Accidents in Coal-Mines.
Dr. Gray, reftor of Bifhop-Wearmouth, an aftive mem-
ber of this fociety, invited fir H. Davy, in 1815, who was
then on a vifit in the north of England, to examine the col-
lieries with a view to affift the efforts of the fociety to pre-
vent the accidents to which they were fubjeft. From the
information communicated to him by perfons employed in
the mines, lie was induced to commence a feries of experi-
ments on carburetted hydrogen gas, which led to feveral \in-
expedled refults, not lefs interefting to fcience than ufeful in
their application to the arts. Before proceeding to defcribe
thefe, we muft notice the labours of Mr. Stephenfon, an en-
gineer in the Killingworth main colliery, who previoufly to
this time had, as he afferts in a pamphlet on the fubjeft, enti-
tled " ADefcriptionof the Safety-Lamp invented by George
Stephenfon," made the difcovery that inflammable air will
not explode through fmall apertures. In the fame pamphlet
he ftates,that a lamp conftrufted by him on this principle was
tried in the above colliery on the 2 1 ft of Odober 18 15,
the lamp being carried in fafety into a part of the mine
where a ftrong blower of inflammable air was iffuing. The
experiment, he adds, was immediately repeated in the pre-
fence of two perfons employed in the works.

Thefe lamps, judging from Mr. Stephenfon's own de-
fcription, yielded but a feeble light. They were after-
wards improved ; but thefe improvements bear fo clofe a re-
femblance to parts of fir H. Davy's lamp, hereafter to be
defcribed, that we conceive Mr. Stephenfon muft labour
under no fmall difficulty in eftablifliing his claim for their
original invention. The queftion, at prefent agitated with
much warmth, can only be decided by a reference to well-
eftablifhed dates and authentic evidence ; an inveftigation not
fuited to the nature of the prefent work.

We have little doubt that the infulation obtained in Dr.
Clanny's lamp by water firft fuggefted to Mr. Stephenfon the
poffibility that fmall apertures might intercept the extenfion
of the flame as effeftually as water. On this fuggellion his
firft lamp appears conftrudled, the tube which admitted the
air being covered with a Aide, to diminifli the aperture at
pleafure ; but the quantity of air which could be fafely ad-
mitted through one aperture being inadequate to the fupport
of the flame, it was obvious that the only way to enfure
both light and fafety was to increafe the number of apertures,
diminifliing the fize of each. In this manner, it appears that
Mr. Stephenfon proceeded mechaEiically, without a corredl
knowledge of the properties of the gas, or the principles
on which the eftcdls were produced. Wc think, however,

that

WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY-LAMP.

that as an approximation to a valuable difcovery, Mr. Ste-
phenfon's lamp entitled him to the patronage and fupport
which he has received. It ought alfo to be recoUefted that
Dr. Clanny and Mr. Stepheiifon both laboured under the
difadvantage of living at a diftance from the refidence of in-
genious praaical mechanics to execute their inventions in the
moft fimple, cheap, and portable manner ; an advantage only
to be obtained in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, or
of large mechanical manufadories.

Sir H. Davy, after afccrtaining that the fire-damp, or in-
flammable air in coal-mines, is the light carburetted hydrogen
gas, as ftated by other chemifts, proceeded to examme ac-
curately its combuftibility and explofive nature. When one
part of fire-damp was mixed with one of common air, the
mixture burned on the approach of a taper, but did not
explode. Two of air and three of fiie-damp produced
fimilar refults. When four of air and one of fire-damp were
expofed to a Ughted candle, the mixture being in the quan-
tity of fix or feven cubic inches in a narrow-necked bottle,
the flame defcended to the bottom, but there was no noife.
One part of gas inflamed with fix parts of air in a fimilar
bottle, producing a flight whiftling found. One part of
gas with three of air rather a louder found. One part with
ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, and fourteen parts, ftill in-
flamed, but the violence of the combuftion diminiihed. In
one part of gas and fifteen parts of air, the candle burned
without explofion, with a greatly -enlarged flame. The fame
effeft was obferved, but in a gradually diminiihing ratio, as
far as thirty parts of the gas to one of common air. The
mixture which feemed to pofl"efs the greateft explofive
power was feven or eight parts of air to one of gas ; but
the report produced by fifty cubic inches of this mixture
•was lefs than that produced by one-tenth of a mixture con-
fiding of two parts of common air and one of pure hy-
drogen.

It was alfo very important to afcertain the degree of heat
required to explode the different mixtures of fire-damp. A
common eledlrical fpark, he found, would not explode five
parts of air and one of fire-damp, though it exploded fix
parts of air and one of the latter gas. Very itrong fparks
from the difcharge of the Leyden jar feemed to have the
fame power of exploding different mixtures of the gas,
as the flame of a taper. Well-burned charcoal, ignited to
the flrongeft heat, did not explode any mixtures of the gas ;
and when a fire of the fame charcoal, which burned without
flame, was blown to whitenefs by an explofive mixture with-
out producing inflammation. An iron rod at a red or
even at a white heat did not inflame explofive mixtures of
the gas ; but when in brilliant combuftion it produced that
effea.

The flame of gafeous oxyd of carbon, as well as of ole-
fiant gas, exploded the mixtures of the fire-damp.

In refpeft of combuftibility, fays fir H. Davy, the fire-
damp differs materially from the other common inflammable
gafes. defiant gas, when rendered explofive by a mix-
lure of common air, is fired both by charcoal and iron,
heated to a dull rednefs. Gafeous oxyd of carbon, which
explodes with two parts of air, is hkewife inflammable by
hot iron or charcoal. And hydrogen, which explodes when
mixed with three-fevenths of air, takes fire at the loweft
vifible heat of iron or charcoal ; and the cafe is the fame
vnth fulphuretted hydrogen.

The importance of thefe experiments is too obvious to
require illuftration. Having afcertained the above faft?, fir
H. Davy proceeded to examine the degree of expanCon of
mixtures of firedamp and air during their explofion, and
likewiCe their power of communicating flame through aper-

tures to other explofive mixtures. It is to this latter part
of fir H. Davy's experiments and its application to fafety-
lamps, that the controverfy relpefting the priority of the
difcovery refers.

When fix parts of air and one of fire-damp were exploded
over water by a ftrong eleftrical fpark, the explofion was
not very ftrong ; and at the moment of the greateft expan-
fion, the volume of the gas did not appear to be increafed
more than one-half. In exploding a mixture of one part
gas from the diftillation of coal, and eight parts of air in a
tube one-quarter of an inch in diameter, and one foot long,
more than a fecond was required before the flame reached
from one end of the tube to the other, and he could not
make any mixture explode in a glafs tube one-feventh of an
inch in diameter ; and this gas was more inflammable than
fire-damp, as it confifted of carburetted hydrogen mixed
with fome defiant gas.

In exploding mixtures of firedamp and air in ajar, con-
nefted with the atmofphere by an aperture of half an inch,
and connefted with a bladder by a ftop-cock having an aper-
ture of about one-fixth of an inch, the flame paffed into the
atmofphere, but did not communicate through the ftop-cock
fo as to inflame the mixture in the bladder ; and in compar-
ing the power of tubes of metal and thofe of glafs, it ap-
peared that the flame pafTed more readily through tubes of
glafs of the fame diameter, and that explofions were flopped
by metallic tubes of one-fifth of an inch, when they were
one inch and a half long ; and this phenomenon probably
depends upon the heat loft during the explofion, in contaft
with fo great a cooling furface, which brings the tempera-
ture of the firft portions exploded below that required for
firing the other portions.

Metal is a better conduftor of heat than glafs ; and it has
been already fhewn, that the fire-damp requires a very ftrong
heat for its inflammation.

A mixture of the gas with air, he alfo found, would not
explode in metaUic canals or troughs when their diameter
was lefs than one-feventh of an inch, and their depth con-
fiderable in proportion to their diameter, nor could explo-
fions be made to pafs through fuch canals.

Azote and carbonic acid, even in fmall proportions, dimi-
nifhed the velocity of inflammation in explofive mixtures of
fire-damp. Azote, when mixed in the proportion of one to
fix of an explofive mixture containing twelve of air and
one of fire-damp, deprived it of its power of explofion ;
when one part of azote was mixed with feven of an explo-
five mixture only, a feeble blue flame paffed through it.

One part of carbonic acid to feven of an explofive mix-
ture deprived it of the power of exploding ; fo that its
effefts are more remarkable than thofe of azote, probably
in confequence of its greater capacity for heat, and pro-
bably likewife of its higher condufting power connefted
with its greater denfity.

The confideration of thefe various fafts, fir H. Davy in-
forms us, led him to adopt a form of lamp in which the
flame, being fupplied with only a limited quantity of air,
fhould produce fuch a quantity of azote and carbonic acid
as to prevent the explofion of the fire-damp ; and which, by
the nature of its apertures for giving admittance and exit
to the air, (hould be rendered incapable of communicating
any explofion to the external air.

If in a clofe lantern fupplied with a fmall aperture below
and another above, a lighted lamp having a very fmall wick
be placed, the natural flame gradually diminifhes, till it ar-
rives at a point at which the fupply of air is fufficient for
the combuftion of a certain fmall quantity of oil ; if a
lighted taper be introduced into the lantern through a fmall

door

WIRE-GAUZE SAFETV-LAMP.

door in tlie fide, which is inftantly clofed, both lights will
burn for a few feconds, and be extinguifhed togeth'^r.

A fimilar phenomenon occurs : if in a clofe lantern fup-
plied with a quantity of air merely fufficient to fupport a
certain flame, a mixture of fire-damp and air is gradually
admitted, the firft effeft of the iire-damp is to produce
a large flame round that of the lamp, and this flame con-
fuming the oxygen which ought to be fupplied to the
lamp, and the ilandard of the power of the air to fupport
flame being lowered by the admixture of fire-damp and by
its rarefa<9tion, both the flame of the fire-damp and that of
the lamp is extinguifhed together ; and as the air contained
a certain quantity of azote and carbonic acid before the ad-
miflion of the fire-damp, their effeft by mixing it is fuch
as to prevent an explofion in any part of the lantern.

In an experiment which fir H. Davy made, to afcertain
, that the flame was extinguiflied in the lantern, though
, the mixture was ftill explofive which fupplied the flame,
} the lantern was placed on a ftand under a large glafs re-
; ceiver ftanding in water, which was of fuflicient capacity to
enable the candle to burn for fome minutes. A quantity of
1 fire-damp was thrown in from a bladder, fo as to render the
I atmofphere explofive. As the fire-damp mixed with the
I air, the flame of the taper gradually enlarged till it half
I filled the lantern; it then gradually diminifhed, and was fud-
] denly extinguifhed without the flighteft explofion. The air
! in the receiver was found after the experiment to be highly
! explofive.

Sir H. Davy then introduced into a glafs jar, containing

an explofive mixture of one part fire-damp and ten parts of

air, a lighted lantern, to which air was fupplied by two glafs

'tubes one-tenth of an inch in diameter, and half an inch

llong. The taper burned at firft with a feeble light, the

'flame foon became enlarged, and was then extinguifhed.

!Thefe experiments were feveral times repeated with a con-

flancy of refult. It is evident, he fays, from hence, that it

' is only neceffary to ufe air-tight lanterns fupplied with air

from tubes or canals of fmall diameter, or from apertures

.covered with wire-gauze, placed below the flame, through

'which explofions cannot be communicated, and having a

chimney at the upper part on a fimilar fyftem for carrying

off the foul air.

This principle fir H. Davy adapted to a variety of glafs
lanterns, in which the air was admitted through fmall aper-
itures or wire-gauze, with a top protefted by the fame.
Theie lanterns, however they might have anfwered for ex-
iperiments in the laboratory, were not, however, well fitted
;for praftical ufe; for befides the frangibihty of common
glafs, which expofed the miner to explofions from the en-
ilargement of the flame, the glafs was liable to become heated
I and to break, however ftrong it might be made. This in-
I convenience was, however, removed by the fubftitution of a
icylinder of fine wire-gauze, forming a clofe lamp or lantern,
I into which the air is admitted, and from which it paffes
: through very fmall apertures. In the firft experiments, the
[wire was of brafs the ^irth part of an inch in thicknefs, and
'the apertures were not more than the -rT^th part of an inch ;
Ithis was found to ftop explofions as well as the long tubes or
|canals,and to admit a free current of air. The wire-gauze lamp,
jin its prefent improved form, is the moft fimple and portable
Ithat has yet been introduced. P/ate V. Jig. 5. Geology, re-
Iprefents the lamp as at prefent ufed ; a reprefents the fin-
jgle cylinder of wire-gauze ; the foldings aaa muft be very
Iwell doubled and failened by wire. If the cylinder be of
Itwilled gauze, the wire fhould be at leaft of the one-fortieth
|Of an inch of iron or copper, and thirty in the warp, and
. fixteen or eighteen in the weft. If of plain wire-gauze, the
I Vox-. XXXVIII.

wire fhould not be lefs than one-fixtieth of an inch in thick-
nefs, and from twenty-eight to thirty both warp and weft ;
i reprefents the fecon'd top, which fits upon a ; c reprefents a
cylinder of brafs, in which the wire-gauze is faftened by a
fcrew, to prevent its being feparated from the lamp by any
blow ; c is fitted into a female-fcrew, which receives the main-
fcrew b of the lamp/, furnifhed with its fafe-trimmer h, and
fafe-feeder for oil /.

Lamps on the fame principle were conftrufted, in which
the cylinder is made of copper of one-fortieth of an inch in
thicknefs, perforated with longitudinal apertures of not
more than one-fixteenth of an inch in length, and the one-
thirtieth in breadth. {See P/ate I. Jig. 6. Geology.) In
proportion as the copper is thicker, the apertures may be
increafed in fize. Tliis form of the lamp may be proper
where fuch an inftrument is only to be occafionally ufed, but
for the general purpofe of the collier, fir H. Davy ftates
that wire-gauze is much fupcrior from its flexibility, and the
eafe with which new cylinders are introduced.

To this lamp a valuable addition has been lately made
by the application of a lens before the flame, to condenfe
the rays of fight, and direft them to any particular fpot.
It has the farther advantage of protefting that part of the
wire-gauze from coal-duft, by which it is liable to be
choaked and obfcured in a few hours.

In fubfequent experiments,\ fir H. Davy difcovered that
much thicker wires and larger apertures might be ufed
than were at firft applied. This gave to the lamp greater
ftrength, and tranfmitted more fight.

Gauze made of brafs wire ^^-oth of an inch in thicknefs,
and containing only loo apertures in the fquare inch, did
not communicate explofion in a mixture of one part coal-gas
and twelve of common air, fo long as the wire was cool ;
but as foon as the top became hot an explofion took place.
A quick lateral motion alfo enabled it to communicate ex-
plofion. With 196 apertures to the fquare inch, the ex-
plofion was not communicated till the wire became ftrongly
hot.

Iron wire-gauze, containing 240 apertures to the fquare
inch, was fafe in explofive mixtures of coal-gas, till it be-
came ftrongly red-hot at the top.

Iron wire-gauze, of 576 apertures to the fquare inch, or
the -rrih part of an inch each in diameter, appears, fays
fir H. Davy, to be fafe under all circumftances, in explo-
five mixtures of coal-gas. With very fine wire-gauze,
mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen gafes may be burned
without explofion until the brafs wire begins to melt.

The explanation which fir H. Davy gives of the effeSt
of wire-gauze, and fmall tubes in arrefting the progrefs of
flame, is as follows : — Thefe refults are beft explained
by confidering the nature of the flame of combuftible bodies,
which in all cafes muft be confidered as the combuftion of
an explojive mixture of inflammable gas, or vapour and air ;
for it cannot be regarded as a mere combuftion at the fur-
face of contaft of the inflammable matter : and the faft is
proved by holding a taper, or a piece of burning phofphorus,
within a large flame made by the combuftion of alcohol ; the
flame of the candle, or of the phofphorus, will appear in
the centre of the other flame, proving that there is oxygen
even in its interior part.

The heat communicated by flame muft depend upon its
mafs : this is fhewn by the fad, that the top of a flender
cylinder of wire-gauze hardly ever becomes dull-red in the
experiment on an explofive mixture ; whilft in a larger
cyhnder made of the fame material, the central part of the
top foon becomes bright-red. A large quantity of cold air
throwa upon a fmall flame, lowers its heat beyond the
4 A explofive

WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY. LAMP.

explofive point ; and in extinguifhing a flame by blowing
upon it, the effeft is probably produced principally by this
caufe, affifted by a dilution of the explofive mixture.

If a piece of wire-gauze fieve is held over a flame of a
lamp, or of coal-gas, it prevents the flame from paffing it,
and the phenomenon is precifely fimilar to that exhibited
by the wire-gauze cylinders: the air paffing through is
found very hot, for it will convert paper into charcoal ;
and it is an explofive mixture, for it will inflame if a lighted
taper is prefented to it ; but it is cooled below the ex-
plofive point, by paffing through wires even red-hot, and
by being mixed with a confiderable quantity of air com-
paratively cold. The real temperature of vifible flame is,
perhaps, as high as any we are acquainted with. Mr.
Tennant was in the habit of fliewing an experiment which
demonftrates the intenfity of its heat. He ufed to fufe a
fmall filament of platinum in the flame of a common candle ;
and it is proved by many fafts, that a ftream of air may
be made to render a metallic body quite hot, yet not be
itfelf luminous.

A confiderable mafs of heated metal is required to in-
flame even coal-gas, or the contaft of the fame mixture
with an extenfive heated furface. An iron-wire of yVth of
an inch, and eight inches long, red-hot, when held perpen-
dicularly in a ftream of coal-gas, did not inflame it, nor did
a (hort wire of one-fixth of an inch produce the effeft held
horizontally ; but wire of the fame fize, when fix inches of
it were red-hot, and when it was held perpendicularly in a
bottle containing an explofive mixture, fo that heat was
fucceffively communicated to portions of the gas, produced
its explofion.

A certain degree of mechanical force, which rapidly
throws portions of cold explofive mixture upon flame, pre-
vents explofions at the point of conta£k. Thus, on preffing
an explofive mixture of coal-gas from a fyringe, or a gum
elaftic bottle, it burns only at fome diftance from the aper-
ture from which it is difengaged.

Taking all thefe circumftances into account, there ap-
pears no difficulty in explaining the combuftion of explofive
mixtures within, and not without the cylinders : for a cur-
rent is efl.abli(hed from below upwards, and the hotteft part
of the cyhnder is where the refults of combuftion, the
water, carbonic acid, or azote, which are not inflammable,
pals out. The gas which enters is not fufficiently heated
on the outfide of the wire to be exploded ; and as the
gafes are no where confined, there can be no mechanical
force preffing currents of flame towards the fame point.

Two papers by fir H. Davy, connefted with this fub-
jeft, virere afterwards publifhed in the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions for 1817, entitled " Some Refearches on Flame."
In thefe papers, a number of new and extremely interefting
experiments on the properties of flame are detailed. The
praftical application of the refults to fafety-lamps we ftiall
briefly ilate, as they explain more clearly the principle on
which their fafety depends, and the circumftances eflentially
rtquifite to their proper conftruftion. Sir H. Davy com-
mences the paper by informing us, that the intenfity of the
light of flames depends principally upon the produftion and
ignition of folid matter in combuftion ; and that the heat
and light in this procefs are in a great meafure independent
phenomena : and he afterwards defines flame to be gafeous
matter, heated fo highly as to be luminous, and that to a
degree of temperature beyond the white heat of folid bodies,
as is fliewn by the experiment ; that air not luminous will
communicate this degree of heat ; for if we hold a fine
platina wire one-twentieth of an inch from the exterior of
the middle flame of a fpirit-lamp, and conceal the flame by

9

an opaque body, the wire will become of a white heat in a
fpace where there is no vifible light.

When an attempt is made to pafs flame through a very •
fine mcfli of wire-gauze at tlie common temperature, the
gauze cools each portion of the elaftic matter that pafles
through it, fo as to reduce its temperature below that
degree at which it is luminous ; and the diminution of tem-
perature muft be proportional to the fmallnefs of the mefti
and the mafs of the metal. The power of a metallic or
other tifl'ue, to prevent explofion, will depend upon the heat
required to produce the combuftion, as compared with that
acquired by the tiflue ; and the flame of the moft inflam-
mable fubftances, and of thofe that produce moft heat in
combuftion, will pafs through a metallic tiflue that will in.
tercept the flame of lefs inflammable fubftances, or thofe
that produce little heat in combuftion. Or the tiflue being
the fame, and impermeable to all flames at common tem-
peratures ; yet when heated it will become permeable to
each different kind of flame at diff'erent temperatures :
thofe which produce moft heat will moft readily pafs
through it. A tiflue of one hundred apertures to the
fquare inch, made of wire of one-fixtieth part of an inch,
will, at common temperatures, intercept the flame of a
fpirit-lamp, but not that of hydrogen ; and when ftrongly
heated will no longer arreft the flame of the fpirit-lamp.

The ratio of combuftibihty of the different gafes is to
a certain extent proportionate to the mafles of heated matter
required to inflame them. Thus, an iron-wire of one-for-
tieth of an inch heated cherry-red will not inflame olefiant
gas, but will inflame hydrogen gas : and a wire of one-
eighth of an inch heated to the fame degree will inflame
olefiant gas ; but a wire of one-five-hundredth part of an
inch muft be heated to whitenefs to inflame hydrogen.

Thefe circumftances will explain why a mefli of much
finer wire is required to prevent the explofion from hydro-
gen and oxygen from paffing ; and why fo coarfe a texture
of wire is fufficient to prevent the explofion of the fire-damp^
the leaft combuftible of the known inflammable gafes.

The following experiments afford a fatisfaftory and Am-
ple explanation of the caufe of the ftoppage of flame by the
wire-gauze lamp. Let the fmalleft poffible flame be made
by a fingle thread of cotton immerfed in oil, and burning
immediately on the furface of the oil ; it will be found to
be about one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter. Let a fine
iron-wire one-hundred-and-eightieth part of an inch be
made into a circle of one-tenth of an inch in diameter, and
brought over the flame. Though at fuch a diftance it
will inftantly extinguifh the flame if it be cold ; but if it
be held above the flame, fo as to be flightly heated, the
flame may be paffed through it without being extinguifhed.
The effeA depends entirely on the power of the metal to
abftraft the heat of the flame. This is (hewn by bringing
a glafs capillary ring of the fame diameter and fize over the
flame : this being a much worfe conduftor of heat will not
extinguifli it even when cold. If its fize, however, be made
greater, and its circumference fmaller, it will aft like the
metalhc wire, and require to be heated to prevent its ex-
tinguifliing the flame.

Suppofe a flame to be divided by the wire-gauze into
fmaller flames, each flame muft be extinguifhed in paffing its
aperture, till that aperture has attained a temperature fuf-
ficient to produce the permanent combuftion of the explo-
five mixture. Where rapid currents of explofive mixtures
are made to aft upon wire-gauze, it is of courfe much more
rapidly heated, and therefore the fame melh which arrefts
the flames of explofive mixtures at reft will fuffifr them to
pafs when in rapid motion ; but by increafing the cooling

furface.

WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY-LAMP.

furface, by diminiftiing the fize or increafing the depth of
the aperture, all flames, however rapid their motion, may-
be arretted. Precifely the fame law applies to explofions
afting in clofe veffels : very minute apertures, when they
are only a few in number, will permit explofions to pafs
which are arrefted by much larger apertures, when they fill
a whole furface. A fmall aperture was drilled at the bottom
of a wire-gauze lamp, in the cyhndrical ring which con-
fines the wire-gauze ; this, though lefs than one-eighteenth
part of an inch in diameter, pafled the flame, and fired the
external atmofphere, in confequence of the whole force of
the explofion of the thin ftratum of the mixture included
within the cyhnder driving the flame through the aperture ;
though, had the whole ring been compofed of fuch aper-
tures, it would have been perfeftly fafe. Nothing, fays fir
Humphrey Davy, can demonftrate more decidedly than thefe
fimple fafts and obfervations, that the interruption of flame
by folid tiffues permeable to light and air, depends on no re-
condite or myfterious caufe, but to their cooling powers
fimply confidered as fuch.

When light, included in a cage of wire-gauze, is intro-
duced into an explofive atmofphere of fire-damp at refl;, the
maximum of heat is foon obtained, the radiating power of
the wire and the cooling effefts of the atmofphere, more
efficient from the mixture of inflammable air, preventing it
from ever arriving at a temperature equal to that of dull
rednefs. In rapid currents of explofive mixtures of fire-
damp, which heat common gauze to a high temperature,
twilled gauze, in which the radiating furface is confiderably
greater and the circulation of air Tefs, preferves an equal
temperature. Indeed the heat communicated to the wire
bycombuftion of the fire-damp in wire-gauze lamps is com-
pletely in the power of the manufadlurer, for by diminifti-
ing the apertures, and increafing the mafs of metal, or the
radiating furface, it may be diminiftied to any extent. One
important circumftance, however, is not here adverted to
by fir Humphrey Davy ; by increafing the thicknefs of the
wire and diminiftiing the aperture, the quantity of light
tranfmitted is greatly reduced, and its power of illumination
rendered nearly inefficient. Hence the power of the manu-
faAurer to conilruft a lamp perfeftly fafe and fufficiently
Luminous mull be limited by certain conditions. However,
fir Humphrey Davy informs us, he has lately had lamps made
Df thick twilled gauze formed of wires the one-fortieth of
an inch, fixteen to the warp and thirty to the weft, which
being rivetted to a fcrew cannot be difplaced, from its flexi-
bility it cannot be broken, and from its ftrength cannot be
cruftied, except by a very fl;rong blow.

From fome very ingenious experiments on the combuftion
9f inflammable fubilances at low temperatures, fir Hum-
phrey Davy difcovcred that a coil of platina wire, one-
feventieth of an inch thick, remains at a white heat when the
quantity of coal-gas is increafed fo as to extinguifti the
flame of the lamp ; hence he has fuggefl;ed the advantage of
introducing a coil of fuch wire into the fafety-lamp, but we
do not learn that it has yet been found of praftical ufe. An
account of thefe experiments is given in the Phil. Tranf. for
1817.

The principal objeftions to the ufe of wire-gauze fafety-
Lamps in mines, and alfo to other fafety-lamps, may be
briefly ftated ; namely, the accidents to which the lamps
may be unavoidably fubjeft, and the accidents which may
arife from negligence in the ufe of them ; the injury to
the health of the men, from remaining in explofive mixtures
of fire-damp longer than they would have done before the
introduftion of thefe lamps into mines ; and lalUy, the tempt-
ation they prefent to negleft the more expcnfive methods of

ventilating mines, and trufting too much to the fecurity of
the lamp. The accidents which may happen to the lamp
from one or more of the mefties being broken, when made
of fuch flender wire, and expofed to the corrofive effefts of
mineral waters in the mine, or the rapid oxydation from
moifture alone, mufl: be very frequent, independently of ac-
cidents from the falling of pieces of coal on the lamp. The
breaking of a fingle wire being fufficient to enlarge the
aperture and occafion an explofion, it is obvious that ex-
treme caution is required in the ufe of the lamps, and a
careful infpeftion of them (hould be made every day before
they are delivered to the men. This we underftand is done
in extenfive collieries, a perfon being appointed for the fole
purpofe of infpefting and trimming the lamps. The acci-
dents which may arife from the negligence of a fingle man,
in extenfive mines where more than fifty or one hundred per-
fons are employed, are lefs eafy to guard againft ; the lives
of a great number are conftantly depending on the carefuU
nefs of each perfon ; and, however perfeft the inftrument
may be, no one can feel perfeftly fafe when the air in the
mine is in an explofive ftate. Some of the lamps were at
firft fo conftrufted that they could not be opened except by
the key of the infpeftor ; but we beheve this precaution is
not generally introduced, the great objeft being to get the
lamps made as cheap as poffible. We conceive it, however,
elfential to the fecurity of the miners, that the lamp ftiould
be clofed by a lock, to prevent the men from uncovering the
flame. The lamp itfelf, by the enlargement of the flame,
gives due notice when the air of the mine is in an explofiw
ftate, and at fuch times the proper remedy is to be fought
in ventilation ; for we conceive it to be neither wife nor hu-
mane to fuff"er the men to remain working in an explofiv«
atmofphere, unlefs under particular circumllances. Should
the invention of fafety-lamps induce coal proprietors to
allow their workmen to remain for a longer time inhaling
the fire-damp, or lead them to negleft the only permanent
fecurity, that of efficacious ventilation, we ftiould confider
the difcovery as injurious to the interefts of humanity. It
would, however, be extremely unfair to decry the merit of
any invention from the poffible mifufe of it. Were coal-
mines firft opening in a diftrift where they had never before
been worked, we believe that in moft; cafes it would be prac-
ticable to fecure a conftant and fafe ventilation through all
the works : but in diftrifts like thofe on the Tyne and the
Wear, there are numerous old excavations remaining filled
with impure air, of which the prefent miners have little
knowledge, having been worked out in remote periods.
Any communications accidentally opened with thefe old
workings may fuddenly fill a mine with a mixture of fire-
damp, in which cafe the fafety-lamp offers the only means
of fecurity with which we are acquainted. For viewing the
old workings or wajles of the mine, which cannot be ap-
proached with a common lamp or candle, the fafety-lamp is
a moft invaluable inftrument ; and in all cafes where the fteel-
mill was formerly ufed it affords a far more fecure and con-
venient light. Though we have thought it neceffary to ftate
the objeftions which may be urged againft the fafety-lamp,
we conceive that they apply principally to the mifufe of it ;
and the following ftatement made by fir Humphrey Davy-
offers the moft fatisfaftory proof of its utihty. " It has
now been (Jan. 181 7) for ten months in the hands of hun-
dreds of common miners in the moft dangerous mines in
Great Britain, during which time not a fingle accident has
occurred where it has been employed, whilft in other mines
much lefs dangerous, where it has not been adopted, fome
lives have been loft, and many perfons burned."

The farther experience of another year, on a more ex-
4 A 2 tended

W I R

tended fcale, has fully confirmed the conclufions to be drawn
from the above ftatement, and we may juitly confider the
fafety-Iamp as one of the moft valuable prefents which phi-
lofophy has made to the ufeful arts.

WiRE-Grato, in Gardening, are contrivances formed of
fine wire-work, and ufed for keeping various kinds of large
infefts out of vineries, hot-houfes, and fuch places, as being
very mifchievous to the frviit in them.

WiRE-Hee/s, isfc. a defeft and confequent difeafe in the
feet of the horfe or other animal. Some, as Gibfon, think
that narrow heels are for the moft part a natural defedl, but
that they are often rendered incurable by bad fhoeing.
Some, in fhoeing, hollow the quarters fo deep and fo thin,
it is faid, that one may almoft pinch them in with one's
fingers, and think by that means to widen them out by a
rtrong broad-webbed fhoe; but this turns them narrow
above and mires their heels, and dries up or rots the frog.
The bed way in all fuch cafes is, it is fuppofed, not to hol-
low the foot in fhoeing, and to pare nothing out but what
is rotten or foul. If the foot be hard or dry, or inclined
to be ragged, it may be bathed often with chamber-ley ; or
two pounds of linfeed bruifed may be boiled in two quarts
of chamber-ley to the confiftence of a poultice, then adding
to it fix ounces of foft-foap, and the foot be foftened
with it every day, rubbing a little of it upon the fole ; or, a
compofition formed of two ounces of bees'-wax, fix ounces
of hog's-lard, one ounce of tar, and linfeed oil as much
as will make it into the confiftence of a fmooth ointment,
may be mixed together, and be ufed daily in the fame man-
ner as the foregoing poultice.

The difeafes and affeftions of the feet of thefe animals
have of late been more accurately underftood, and better
means of relief and cure recommended.

In the cafe of narrow or contrafted heels, attended with
inflammation, and moftly confined to the fore-feet, there is
great pain ; the animal is conftantly moving its legs, and
generally inchned to lie down. When firft taken out, it is
almoft incapable of performing any of the paces ; the
weight being fo much thrown on the hinder legs. In trot-
ting, the legs are fcarcely lifted above the furface of the
ground ; the fteps are very fhort, and a walk or canter is
gone into inftead of any other pace. In the gallop, the
weight of the body is thrown on the fore-part of the foot ;
and in trotting, on the heels ; which produce very con-
fiderable pain, on account of the adion of the foot being
confined to the quarter in a backward direftion.

The difeafe is moftly caufed by improper fhoeing, very
great and hard exercife, ftanding in confined fituations on
litter, and many other fuch caufes.

In effefting a cure in all the more frefh cafes of this fort,
■where the variation from the natural round form of the hoof
is not confiderable, it may be accomphfhed without the
animal being entirely made to reft, by removing the fhoes,
and if pofTible reducing the heels on a line with the inferior
part of the frog. The fole parts may be thinned, and that
portion which is between the bars of the foot and the cruft
be hollowed out. The hoofs fhould likewife be thinned
with a proper tool, efpecially at the quarters. The fhoes
fliould not be put on again for two or three weeks in fuch
cafes, and the parts from near the coronet to the fetlock be
anointed with a bliftering liniment, compofed of half an
ounce of finely-powdered cantharides and four ounces of
Barbadoes tar, well mixed together.

And when necefTary, three or four pints of blood may
be taken from the plate vein, and a rowel be put in the
chelt.

Mafhes, containing nitre in the quantity of an ounce,

10

W I R

are to be occafionally had recourfe to. . At the fame time,
the feet of the animal fhould be put in . a trough of warm
water for two or three hours every day, fo filled as juft to
cover the hoof-parts of them ; gentle walking or trotting
exercife being ufed on fuch ground as is foft.

Afterwards the fhoes which are made ufc of fhould be
thinner at the heels than thofe which were taken off, the
heels refting well and firmly on the bars and cruft. The
patent frog may be ufed when the animal is at reft, as by
continuing its ufe in a proper manner, the foot will gra-
dually regain its natural form and aftion. See Frog.

In fuch cafes, too, the coronet may now be bathed
every day with an embrocation compofed of an ounce and
a half each of marfh-mallow ointment and Barbadoes tar,
with half an ounce of fpirit of turpentine, well incorpo-
rated together ; which vn\l promote and haften the growth
of the hoof-part of the foot.

In cafe the animal has been lame fome length of time,
and the contraflion of the heels is very confiderable, it
fhould be put in moift pafture-grounds, to run for fome
time, carefully lowering the heels every four or five weeks,
or oftener if necefTary. As foon as the hoof has been
elongated from the coronet to the fole, the cure will be
completely effefted ; which will in moft cafes be accom-
plifhed in the courfe of about five months ; at the end of
which time the animal will have regained an entirely new
circular foot of the natural fhape. The animal fhould then
be fhod with thin-heeled fhoes, which admit the frog-part
of the foot to reft upon the ground.

In cafes in which the animals cannot be turned out in
this manner, they fhould be provided with a large fhed
building, well clayed on the bottom part, and preferved
foft and moift by the occafional apphcation of water
flightly over it.

But though this fort of management may moftly recover
and reftore the natural fhape of the foot, the proper aftion
of it is. not reftored with fuch facility. In a great number
of cafes, the feet become fo much altered in their ftrufture
and power on account of the long-continued inflammation,
that the means of expanfion are wholly deftroyed ; as is often
the cafe in the cartilages that are fituated at the higher and
hinder part of the foot, which not unfrequently become
bony, and, of courfe, it becomes impolTible to regain the
aftion of the foot. As in thefe cafes, the more the foot
is expofed, the greater will be the injury and mifchief
afforded ; the only means of relief that can be made ufe of,
is the covering of the foot with fuch a fhoe as is calculated
to prevent concuflion, which may be accomphfhed by the
application of a bar-fhoe that will reft on every part of the
cruft, and not upon the frog-part of the foot. This is fup-
pofed to be the beft form of fhoe that can be ufed for the
purpofe.

In thefe cafes, when the animals are at reft, the feet
fhould be flopped with an ointment, compofed of one ounce
and a half each of common turpentine and tar, and two
ounces and a half of mallow ointment, well mixed to-
gether.

In the cafes of cracks or feparations of the fibres of the
hoofs in a perpendicular manner, which when they extend
to the coronet are often very troublefome ; the animals moft
liable to them, are thofe which have either ftrong brittle
hoofs or narrow heels. Blood animals of the horfe kind are
more fubjedl: to them than others.

In the management and cure of them, the parts around
the cracks fhould be made thin by the rafp, when the firing
iron fhould be drawn over above and below them, to the ex-
tent of the fiffures, in order to prevent their extenfion. It

fhould

W 1 R

fhould likewife be carried over the cracks, by which means
a flight quantity of tenacious moiilure will exude, and glue
up the feparated parts ; which may be covered over with
an ointment compofed of four ounces of marfh-mallow
ointment, and two ounces of common turpentine, fpread
upon tow, and kept on the parts by bandages.

The animals fhould have bar-lhoes, which may reft firmly
on the frogs, and be made hollow in the parts oppofite to
the feats of the complaints, in order that no preffure may be
given to thofe parts of the feet ; reft being given for fome
days, and then only moderate exercife allowed, until the
cracks have defcended towards the lower parts of the feet.
The coronets and hoofs may be bathed twice a day, as in
the above cafes of contrafted heels, in order that the growth
of horn may be promoted. By the ufe of thefe means, the
animals moftly foon get better.

Wires of AJlerix, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by
authors to a fort of extraneous foftil belonging to the
afleriit, and being a fort of branches from the body of
that column.

Vf iK^ of Lapland. The favage inhabitants of Lapland
have a fort of fhining flender fubftance in ufe among
them on feveral occafions, which is much of the thicknefs
and appearance of our fdver wire ; and is therefore
called, by thofe who do not examine its ftrufture or fub-
ftance, Lapland wire.

The people of this miferable country find many ufes in
every thing nature has afforded them, and, among the
reft, that fpecies of ftag called the rein-deer, which is

■ the moft frequent animal among them, is not only fer-
viceable in furniftiing them with meat, clothes, houfes,

! and the means of carriage and travelling ; but its bones
! make many of their moft neceftary utenfils ; and the
' finews, which are all carefully feparated in the eating,
I are, by the women, after foaking in water, and beating,
fpun into a fort of thread, which is of admirable fine-
nefs and ftrength, when wrought to the fmalleft fila-
ments ; but when larger, is very ftrong, and fit for the
I purpofes of ftrength and force. Their wire, as it is called,
I is made of the fineft of thefe threads, covered with tin.
' The women do this bufinefs, and the way they take is to
i melt a piece of tin, and placing at the edge of it a horn
! with a hole through it, they draw thefe finewy threads,
covered w-ith the tin, through the hole, which prevents
I their coming out too thickly covered. This drawing is
performed with their teeth, and there is a f mall piece of
bone placed at the top of the hole, where the wire is made
jflat, fo that we always find it rounded on all fides but one,
I where it is flat.

I This wire they ufe in embroidering their clothes as we
I do with gold and filver ; and they often fell it to ftrangers,
) under the notion of its having certain magical virtues.
Scheffer, Hift. Lapland.

i VJiRE-lVorm, in yfgrkulture, a moft mifchievous worm in
j different forts of grain-crops. It has been defcribed by
iBierkander, in the Swedifti Tranfaftions, as having in the

■ grub-ftate a yellow colour, with the head brown, and the
lextremitlfs of the jaws black ; the body conftituted of
|twelve joints, ftiining, and hard-flvinned ; when it changes
jits (Itin it is for fome time white ; a few hairs are fcattered
Ihere and there, but moftly upon the head and laft joint ;
junder the three firft joints are fix horny and pointed feet,
land at the beiiinning of the 'laft joint, which is round,
Ithere are two black fpots, one on each fide, which
[are, probably, apertures through which it breathes.

j It is confidered by fome, notwithftanding the almoft
Igencral opinion of farmers to the contrary, that the djfeafe

W I R

of wheat -crops, which is attributed to this infeft or worm,
depends upon fome other caufe, as a fault in ploughing, by
which the land is left in too light, open, and porous aftate
or condition, and which prevents the young plants from
being fully and properly nouriftied, .ind conl^t-quently from
forming their roots in a proper manner in the ground.
And this notion is in fome meafure fupported by the cir-
cumftance of the benefit which is afforded by roUing, tread-
ing, and otherwife comprelfing the land.

It has been proved and ftiewn by many different trials,
that this worm is one which is extremely tenacious of life,
and confequently not eafily deftroyed or got quit of by
any means which have yet been made ufe of for the
purpofe.

Wire, in Geography, one of the fmaller Orkney iflands,
feparated from Roufa by a ftrait called Wire Sound, abovt
three-quarters of a mile in breadth. N. lat. 58° 58'. W.
long. 2° 51'.

Wire. See Wyre.

WIREDY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sma-
land ; 16 miles N.E. of Jonkioping.

WIRESTA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 26 miles S.W. of Wexio.

WIRI, two fmall iflands in the gulf of Finland. N. lat.
59° 50'. E. long. 27°.

WIRING, among j4mmals, the operation of putting a
fiiarp-pointed wire up the noftrils of a flieep, fo as to pafs
up into the brain, and produce a difcharge in cafes of the
fturdy, turn, gid, or vertigo. It feems, however, a danger-
ous remedy, though it is faid to have been fuccefsful io
curing the difeafe in many cafes.

Wiring Fruit-Trees, in Gardening, the operation and
pradlice of paffing a fine wire round their branches, in order
to bring on the fruiting ftate.

WIRKOWENES, in Geography, a town of Poland,
in the palatinate of Kiev ; 44 miles W.N.W. of Biala-
cerkiew.

WIRKS WORTH, an ancient market-town in the
wapentake of the lame name, in the county of Derby, Eng-
land, is fituated near the fouthern extremity of the mining
diftritt, in a valley nearly furrounded by hills, at the diU
tance of 14 miles N.N.W. from the county-town, and 140
miles N.W. by N. from London. In the year 83J, the
manor belonged to the abbey of Repton ; after the deftruc-
tion of that monaftery by the Danes, it became veiled in
the crown, to which it appertained at the time of taking
the Domefday-furvey. King John granted it to WiUiatn
de Ferrars, earl of Derby. Having been forfeited by the
attainder of earl Robert in 126 J, it was granted, together
with the wapentake, by Edward I. to his brother, Edmund,
earl of Lancafter ; and has ever fince formed part of the
earldom or duchy of Lancafter. It is now held under the
duchy by Richard Arkwright, efq. A market on Wed-
nefdays, and a fair of three days, were granted for this
town to Thomas, carl of Lancafter, in 1305. The market
is now held on Tuefday, chiefly for butcher's-meat, butter,
eggs, and pedlar's-ware : the corn-market is fmall. Four
annual fairs are now held. The town-hall, a handfome
brick ftruftnre, was built in 1773, by the diredtion of
Thomas, lord Hyde, the chancellor of the duchy. In this
hall are held coiirts-baron for the manor, courts-lect for the
wapentake, and barmote-courts for regulating the minea
and mineral concerns. The church, a fpacions edifice, ap-
parently of the fourteenth century, confifts of a nave and
fide-aifles, a north and fouth tranfept, a chancel, and a
fquare tower, fupported by four large pillars. In the
church-yard is a gramniar-fchool, founded ip 1576, by

Anthony

W I s

Anthony Gell, efq. who endowed it with lands which now
produce \-ol. per annum. He alfo founded an alms-houfe
for fix poor men, to which he gave a rent-charge of 2o/. ;
this has been augmented by fubfequent benefaftions. In
the town was formerly a meeting-houfe for Prefbyterians,
but it is now occupied by a congregation of Independents.
Here are alfo chapels for Baptills and Wefleyan Metho-
difts. In the population return of the year i8i i, the inha-
bitants of this town are enumerated at 3474, occupying 777
houfes. The pariih of Wirkfworth is extenfive, and in-
cludes, befides the town, fourteen townfhips or villages,
fome of which are very populous. — Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. iii. Derby (hire. ByJ. Britton and E.W.
Brayley, 1803. Lyfons' Magna Britannia, vol. v. Der-
by (hire, 1817.

WIRNAU, a town of the county of Henneberg ;
c miles S.E. of Smalkalden.

WIRRAL, or WiREHALL, a ftrip of land in the
county of Chefter, extending from the city of Cheiler
to the fea, between the rivers Dee and Merfey.

WIRREY, or St. Andrew, one of the Shaint iflands.
N. lat. 57° 53'. W. long. 6" 19'.

WIRSRUM, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 46 miles N.N. W. of Calmar.

WIRSTBERGHOTZEN, a town of Weftphalia,
in the bilhopric of Hildefheim ; 8 miles S. of Hilde-
fheim.

WIRSUNG, John George, in Biography, was a native
of Bavaria, ftudied medicine at Padua, and was a difciple of
Veiling. In 1642 he publilhed the difcovery of the
pancreatic duft, with which his name is connefted ; and in
the following year he was affaninated by a Dalmatian,
under the influence of a paflion excited by having been
filenced by him in a pubhc difputation. Haller. Eloy.

WISANGI, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Weft Bothnia, on the Tornea ; 95 miles N.N.W. of
Tornea.

WISBADEN, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Nalfau Saarbruck Ufingen. This town was known
to the Romans, and the Heidentfche Maur, or Heathen
Wall, which runs through the prefent town of Wilbaden,
appears to be a work of that nation ; and a part of the
boundaries of this town are derived from the hned trenches
thrown up by Drufus, oppofite to Mentz, for the covering
of the Rhine. In the days of the kings of the Franks, in
this town was a royal court. At Widjaden are fome medi-
cinal fprings, formerly in great repute ; 5 miles N.W. of
Mentz. N. lat. 50° 3'. E. long. 8° 9'.

WISBECH, a large market-town in the county of
Cambridge, England, gives name to a himdred and a
deanery, and is fituated m the extreme northern part of the
county, about 30 miles N. from Ely, 42 from Cambridge,
and 90 from London, in the fame direftion. Wilbech is a
great mart for corn, about 100,000 quarters being annually
exported from thence by the river Oufe, and the canals
communicating with Cambridge, Lynn, and other towns.
Other articles of export are rape-feed and long wool, of
which great quantities are fent to the York(h;re clothiers.
Timber, from Northampton(hire, is alfo embarked for the
fervice of the navy. The principal imports are, coals, deals,
ui(d wine. The river is navigable up to Wifbech, at fpring-
tides, flowing fix or eight feet, for veflels of 60 tons, which
are conftantly employed in the corn trade, to London,
Hull, and other ports. Prior to the Norman Conqueft,
Wifbech belonged to the convent of Ely. In 107 1 Wil-
liam of Normandy ere^ed a caftle of ftone at the town ;

WIS I

but this being difmantled, a new caftle of brick was built '
on the fcite, between 1478 and 1483, by Morton, bi(hop '
of Ely, and which became the epifcopal refidence. Being
purchafed by fecretary Thurloe during the interregnum, it j
was rebuilt after defigns by Inigo Jones. Reverting at the \
Reiloration to the fee of Ely, it was fold fome years ago, \
and on the ground of the detached buildings fome good j
houfes have been erefted. The church is a fpacious, hand- j
fome fabric, although of a fingular conftru&ion, having two
naves and two aides. The naves are lofty, and feparated '
by fight flender pillars, with pointed arches ; the aides,
which are the moft ancient, are divided from their refpeftive
naves by low maffy pillars and femicircular arches. The
tower of the church is beautiful, and notwithftanding the
antiquity attributed to it, is proved by records to have
been erefted polterior to 1520. Wilbech, with the ad- ,
jacent country, has frequently fuffered by inundations, par-
ticularly in 1236, when great numbers of fmall craft,
cattle, and men, were dellroyed. In 1437, by a breach in
the bank of Wifcech fen, upwards of 4000 acres of land
were overflowed. But the greateft devaftations of this kind
occurred in Nov. 16 13, by the fpring-tide concurring with
a violent N.E. wind ; and in March 1614, by the melting
of the fnow in the country. In 161 1 the inhabitants ob-
tained a renewal of their charter, which conftituted them
a body corporate, by the ftyle of the burgeffes of Wid)ech ;
but the right of the eleftion of the ten capital burgeffes was
limited to the poffeffors of freeholds of the value of 40J. per
annum. The executive officer, the town-baihfi^, although a
perfon wholly unknown to the charter, has the entire ma-
nagement of the eftates and affairs of the corporation.
The annual income under the management of thefe capital
burgeffes, allotted to public and charitable purpofes,
amounts to about 80c/. A principal objeft of this charge
is the maintaining of beacons and buoys, and the clearing of
the channel of the river Oufe or Wis, from which the town
takes its name ; precautions highly neceffary, on account of
the fhifting fands between the town and the fea. Among
the improvements made in Wifbech of late years, muft be
mentioned the flone bridge of one elfiptic arch, and the new
cuflom-houfe. The ftreets are paved, lighted, and watched,
at the expence of the corporation. The trade of Wifbech
has much increafed of late years, through the improved ilate
of the drainage and navigation of the fens. The neighbour-
ing lands are in high cultivation, and are chiefly appropriated
to grazing. The fheep and oxen grow to a great fize ; and
confiderable numbers are fent off twice every week to
London. The inhabitants are almoft wholly employed in
commerce, the town pofTefling no kind of manufafture, al-
though the furrounding country produces vaft quantities of
wool, hemp, and flax. The canal, opened not many years
ago, extending from Wifbech river to the river Nene at
Outwell, and thence to the Oufe, affords a communication
with Norfolk, Suffolk, and the weftern counties, and which
proves very beneficial to the town. In 1781 a literary
fociety was eftablifheJ in Wifbech, and the education of
youth is provided for by a free-fchool, and by two charity-
fchools, fupported by fubfcription. The diflenters from
the eftablifhed church are not numerous, but have their re-
fpeftive places of worfhip. The parifh, containing 6308 •
acres, is in the greateft part a very rich arable and pafture
land. In 1676 the inhabitants of Wifbech were computed
to be 1705; in 1801 they amounted to 5004 ; and in 181 1
to 6300: the inhabited houfes were 1237. — Beauties of
England ; Cambridgefhire. By J. Britton and E. W.
Brayley, 8vo. 1802. Magna Britannia, by the Rev. D.
Lyfons and S. Lyfons, 4to. 1808.

WISBERG,

W I s

WISBERG, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach ; 8 miles E. of Culmbach.

WISBY, a town of Sweden, on the weft coaft of the
ifland of Gothland. This is a very ancient ftaple, and in
former times one of the Hanfe towns. When Wineta, a
place of great trade in the ifland of Ufedom, near the coaft
of Pomerania, was deftroyed by an inundation, feveral of
its wealthieft inhabitants removed to Wifby. It was likewife
frequented by Swedes, Goths, Danes, Normans, French,
Englifli, Saxons, Livonians, Spaniards, Ruffians, Greeks,
and other nations. The maritime laws of Wifby were
famous in all parts, and adopted along the coaft of the Baltic.
(See Insurance.) The wall of Wifby, and the towers
with which it is flanked, were built in the year 1289. This
town continued in a flouriftiing condition till the year 1361,
when the Danes almoft totally deftroyed it. The harbour is
fafeand commodious, but not very large. N. lat. 57° 38'.
E. long. iS" 18'.

WISCASSET, a fea-port town of America, in the
province of Maine, in the county of Lincoln, on the Sheep
cut, with 2083 inhabitants ; 30 miles N.E. of Brunfwick.

WISCHAU, or Wiskau, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Brunn ; 15 miles E. of Brunn. N. lat. 49° 1 7'.
E. long. 16° 54'.

WISCHBACH, or Fischbacii, a town of the duchy
sf Stiria ; 5 miles S. of Mnertzenfchlag.

WISCHGROD, a town of the duchy of Warfaw, on
:he Viftula ; 27 miles S.E. of Poloczk.

WISCHITEN, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
oi Troki ; 70 miles W. of Troki.

WISCHKOWA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saatz ; 5 miles N.N.E. of Saatz.

WISCHNOWA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Beraun ; '^ miles E. of Przibram.

WISDIM, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw ;
14 miles W.N.W. of Jung Buntzel.

WISDOM, Sapience, ufually denotes a higher and
more refined knowledge of things, immediately prefented to
the mind, as it were by intuition, without the affiftance of
ratiocination.

In this fenfe, wifdom may be faid to be a faculty of the
nind, or at leaft a modification and habit of it.

Sometimes the word is more immediately ufed in a moral
'enfe, for what we call prudence or difcretion ; which confifts
n the foundnefs of the judgment, and a conduft anfwerable
:o it.

The fcliool-divines fometimes reftrain wifdom to the know-
ledge of the more fublime and remote objeAs, as that of
God, &c. In which fenfe, theology is properly faid to be
wifdom.

The Latin word for wifdom is fapientia, which literally
Jxpreffes the fenfe of tafting ; to which wifdom is fuppofed
to have fome conformity. The fight, and other feiifes, only
reprefent to us the furface of things : tafte goes deeper, and
penetrates into the fubftances ; fo that what, e. gr. to the
Feeling feemed cold, to the tafte will be found hot : fo wif-
iom, arifing from a deep attention to our ideas, goes farther,
and frequently judges otherwife than the common apprehen-
fions of men would reach to.

WISE, Michael, in Biography, an admirable compofer
For the church, foftered in the Chapel Royal after the Ref-
;oration, under captain Henry Cook, at the fame time as
Humphrey and Blow, three muficians, who not only far
"urpafled their mailer in genius and abilities, but all our
:hurch compofers of the 17th century, except Purcell.
However, they prepared the way for his bold and original

W I s

genius to expand; as feveral new melodies, modulations,
and happy licences, which we ufed to think entirely of his
invention, upon an attentive examination of their works, ap-
pear to have been firft fuggefted by thefe three fellow-
ftudents. Yet, what they had (lightly and timidly touched,
Purcell treated with the force and courage of a Michael
Angelo, whofe abilities rendered the difficult eafy, and gave
to what, in lefs powerful hands, would have been diftortion,
facility, and grace.

Dr. Boyce has printed fix verfe and full anthems, by Wife,
which are admirable ; and in Dr. Tudway's colleftion, Brit.
Muf., there are feven more, and a whole fervice in D
minor.

He was author of the celebrated two-part fong, «' Old
Chiron thus preached to his pupil Achilles," which is ftill
too well known to need an encomium here.

Michael Wife was killed in a ftreet-fray at Salilbury, by
the watchman, in 16S7.

The firft movement of his verfe-anthem for two voices,
" The ways of Zion do mourn," is mo'-e beautiful and ex-
preffive than any grave and pathetic compofition for the
church of other countries, of the fame kind and period of
time, that we have hitherto difcovered.

The ufe which the author has made of chromatic intervals
at the word mourn, is not only happy and mafterly, but new,
even now, at more than a hundred and twenty years diftance
from the time when the anthem was produced ! The whole
compofition feems to us admirable ; and befides the intelli-
gence and merit of the defign, the melody is truly plaintive,
and capable of the moft touching and elegant expreffion of the
greateft fingers of modern times ; the harmony too and mo-
dulation are fuch as correfpond with the fenfe of the words,
and enforce their expreffion.

There is an elegance of phrafe in a paflage of the fecond
movement of the preceding anthem, at the word down,
which has been lately revived, and in great favour, with a
very minute diiFerence, among the firft fingers of Italy.
The difference confifts only in pointing the firft note if a
crotchet or quaver, and making the fecond and third notes
femiqnavers or demifeiniquavers.

Wife was a native of Saliftjury, in which cathedral he was
appointed organift and mafter of the chorifters, in 1668;
and in 1675, ^ gentleman of the chapel royal. In 1686, he
was preferred to the place of almoner and mafter of the
boys at St. Paul's. He is faid to have been in great favour
with Charles II., and being appointed to attend him in
a progrefs, claimed, as king's organift for the time, the
privilege of playing to his majefty on the organ, at what-
ever church he went.

Wise Men of Greece, Seven, in the Hiflory of Phtlofophy,
an appellation given to feveral eminent men, on whom was
beftowed the praife of civil and moral wifdom. The hiftory
of thefe perfons, originally without doubt plain and fimple,
has been rendered obfcure and uncertain by traditionary re-
ports. The incident to which this appellation was at firft
owing was as follows :

In the third year of the 49th Olympiad, it happened that
certain youths of Ionia, purchaiing from a fiftierman of Mi-
letus a large draught of filh, which he had brought to
ftiore, found in the net a golden tripod of great value.
Upon this a dil'pute arofe between the fifherman and the pur-
chafers : the former maintaining that he had only fold them
the capture of fifti ; the latter afterting that they liad bought
the chance of the draught, whatever it might be. The
queftion was referred to the citizens of Miletus, who were
of opinion, that in an affair fo extraordinary, the Delphic

oracle

WIS

W I s

oracle fhould be confulted. The anfwer of the oracle was
• To the Wifeft.' In obedience to this anfwer, the Mile-
fians unanimoufly adjudged the tripod to Thales. Thales
modeftly declined the honour intended him by his fellow-
citizens, and fent the tripod to Bias, a wife man of Priene ;
from him it was palTed on through feveral hands, till it came
to Solon, the Athenian legiflator, who judging that the
charafter of ' the wifeft' could not properly belong to any
human being, fent 'the prize of wifdom to Delphos to be
dedicated to Apollo. The ftory, as above related, has in it
fomething fabulous ; and the circumftances that attend it are
differently related by different writers. It is more probable,
fays Brucker, that in fome pubhc alTembly a tripod was pro-
pofed as an honorary prize to the man who fhould recite, in
verfe, the moft excellent maxims of political and moral wif-
dom, and that the fages who engaged in this generous con-
teft afterwards agreed to dedicate the prize to Apollo. In
confirmation of this conjefture it is alleged, from a patfage
in Plato's Protagoras, that the wife men of this period met
together to frame concife precepts and maxims for the con-
duft of life, and agreed to fend fuch fentences as were
thought moft valuable to Delphos, to be infcribed in the
temple. Hence Apollo is faid by the ancients to have been
the author of the precept ' Know thyfelf.' — ' E coelo
defcendit, r»iiOi a-ixJlot.' The names commonly included
under the appellation of the Seven Wife Men of Greece
are, Thales, Solon, Chilo, Pittacus, Bias, Cleobulus, and
Periander. Brucker's Philof. by Enfield, vol. i.

WISECK, in Geography, a river of Heffe, which runs
into the Lahn, near Gieifen.

WISELL, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 4 miles
N.E. of Rein.

WISEMAN, Richard, in Biography, was firft known
as a furgeon in the civil wars of Charles I., and accompa-
nied prince Charles, when a fugitive, in France, Holland,
and Flanders. He ferved for three years in the Spanifli
navy, and returned with the prince to Scotland, and was made
prifoner in the battle of Worcefter. After his liberation,
in 1652, he fettled in London. When Charles II. was re-
ftored, he became eminent in his profeffion, and was made
one of the ferjeant-furgeons to the king. In May 1676 he
appears, from the preface to his works, to have been a fuf-
ferer by ill health for twenty years ; but the time of his
death is not known. The refult of his experience appears
in " Several Chirurgical Treatifes," fol. 1676, 1686, and
in 2 vols. 8vo. 1 7 19. The fubjefts of thefe treatifes are,
tumours, ulcers, difeafes of the anus, king's-evil, wounds,
gunfhot-wounds, fraftures and luxations, and lues venerea.
The courfe of his praftice comprehended more than 600
cafes, of which he gives apparently an honeft account, re-
cording his failures as well as his cures, and the detail merits
attention. In his relation of the miraculous effefts of
the royal touch in fcrofula, it is not eafy to reconcile his
honefly with his fagacity, though from his own narration,
duly confidered, the fallacy is eafily detefted. His writings
have long been regarded as ftandard authority in the exa-
minations at Surgeon's-Hall. Gen. Biog.

Wiseman, Mr., a worthy Enghfh mufician, who went
early in life to Italy, in order to receive leffons on the
violin from Tartini, in Padua, who recommended him,
in 1736, to one of his favourite fcholars, Pafqualino Bini,
at Rome, where, after fome time, finding himfelf likely
to thrive as a profeffor, by the patronage of the Englifh
nobility and gentry with which that city always abounds
in their travels, fettled there for the reft of his life ; and
though not a performer of the firft clafs, being a good

mufician, and a man of probity and good conduft, he was
not only refpefted by his countrymen, but by the natives of
that city, which, though no longer the capital of the world,
is ftill the capital of Italy and the fine arts.

Mr. Wifeman had refided fo long in Italy, that he had
almoft forgotten his native tongue. In 1770 he lived in the
Palazzo Rafaele, without the gates of Rome, where, during
the firft winter months, he had a weekly concert till the
operas began. It was here that the great Raphael lived and
died, where there were ftill fome of his paintings in frefco,
and where the late duke of York, the prince of Brunfwick,
and feveral other great perfonages, gave concerts to the firft
people of Rome.

WISEN, in Geography, a river of Baden, which runs into
the Rhine, near Bale.

WISENT, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the Red-
nitz, near Forcheim, in the bifhopric of Bamberg.

WISEPPE, a town of France, in the department of the
Meufe ; 3 miles S. of Stenay.

WISFTARDA, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Smaland ; 22 miles N. of Carlfcrona.

WISHART's Island, an ifland in the Pacific ocean.
This is one of the Solomon iflands, and by the Spaniards
called Artreguada. S. lat. 2° 20'. E. long. 150° 55'.

WISIR, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the
weft coaft of Aroo. S. lat. 15° 21'. E. long. 134° 51'.

WISK, or WiRSK, a river of England, in the county of
York, which runs into the Swale.

WISKA, a river of Sweden, which runs into the fea,

3 miles S. of Waro, in Weft Gothland,

WISKI, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Beraun ;

4 miles N. of Przibram.

WISLAUFF, a river of Wurtemberg, which runs into
the Rems, N.E. of Schorndorff.

WISLITZA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Sandomirz ; 48 miles W.S.W. of Sandomirz.

WISLOCH, a town of the duchy of Baden, in the pa-
latinate of the Rhine ; 14 miles E. of Spire. N. lat. 49° 18'.
E. long. 8° 45'.

WISMAR, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg, fitu-
ated in a bay of the Baltic, with a good harbour ; large,
well fortified, and defended by a citadel. This is one of j
the beft and largeft places in the country ; as, befides fix
churches, it has alfo a particular confiftory of its own, with i
a grammar-fchool, under the direftion of eight mafters, and
is the feat of a Swedifti court of juftice, eredled in the year
i6j3, both for the diftriA and Swedifh Anterior Pomera-
nia. The court confifts of a prefident, a vice-prefident, and
four alTeffors. It was formerly a Hanfe town, and poffeffed
of the privilege of coining : the firft origin is not known
with any degree of certainty. In the year 1238, it was en-
larged ; and in the year 1266, obtained the Lubeck rights.
In the year 126 1, it was annexed to the duchy of Schwerin ;
in the year 1627, the Imperiahfts got poffefTion of it ; but in
the year 1632 were driven out by the Swedes, to whom it
was ceded, at the peace of Weftphalia, in 1648; 33 miles
E. of Lubeck. N. lat. 53° 55'. E. long. 1 1° 26'.

WISMATH, a town of Auftria ; 14 miles S. of Eben-
furth.

WISNA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 70 miles
N.E. of Warfaw.

WISNUM,atown of Sweden, in the province of Warrae- ]
land ; 25 miles E.N.E. of Carlftadt.

WISOKIA, a town of Lithuania ; 20 miles N.N. W. of !
Brzefc.

WISP, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying a fmall bunch

of

W I s

of fti'aw which is ufed in rubbing horfea down. Wifp h
alfo a term fometimea applied to a rowel or feton put in
animals.

WISPEL, in Commerce, a corn meafure in Germany. A
laft of wheat contains 3 wifpels ; and a laft of oats only 2
wifpels. See Scheffel.

WISSANT, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the flraits of Calais ; 1 2 miles N. of Boulogne.

WISSING, William, in Biography, was born at Am-
fterdam in 1656. He received inftrudtions in the art of
painting from Dondyns, an hiftorical painter at the Hague,
but on leaving that mailer went to Paris, and in the year
1680, came to England, and aflifted Leiy in his numerous
works. After Lely's death, he became rather a favourite, and
promifed to become a formidable rival to Kneller. He drew
all the royal family, and was particularly favoured by the
duke of Monmouth, whofe portrait he painted feveral times.
The duke of Somerfet alfo patronized him, and employed
Lim to paint himfelf and his duchefs, and the piftures are
now at Petworth.

Wiffing was appointed principal painter to James II., and
was fent by him into Holland, to paint portraits of William
and Mary. He did not long furvive his return to England,
and died at Burleigh, the feat of the earl of Exeter, in 1687,
at the age of 3 1 . His heads were painted with foftnefs and
delicacy, in a ftyle quite diftinft from that of his maftcr,
Lf ly, or his rival, Kneller ; too foft, indeed, for charafter ;
and his larger piilures lack compofition and harmony, both
ill line and colour.

WISSOKY-MEYTO, in Geography. See Hohen-

MAUT.

WISSOWATIUS, Andrew, in Biography, a Socinian
divine, was born of a noble family in Lithuania, in 1608,
educated in the New Unitarian college at Racow under Crel-
lius, and for fome time purfued his ftudies at Leyden, flriftly
adhering to the principles of his tutor. Finding, on his
return to Poland, that his brethren fuffered perfecution from
the diet of Warfaw, he exerted himfelf courageoufly in their
defence, and encountered many perfonal difficulties and fuf-
ferings in the exercife of his minillry in various parts of
Poland. He was not filenced by the decree iffued againlt
Unitarians in 1658, but leading an unfettled hfe, he was
induftrious in feizing every opportunity that occurred for
making profelytes. In 1660, he was the only perfon of his
party who was prefent at the " Colloquium Charita-
tivum," where he firmly maintained his opinions againft the
jefuit Chichovius and others. He is faid to have refilled
large bribes, as well as to have encountered fevere trials, in
maintaining his fentiments. Removing to Hungary, he
fpent two years in learning the language fo as to be able to
inftrudt and fortify his brethren in that kingdom. Laft of
all he retreated to Holland, where he was employed in fuper-
intending an edition of the " Bibliotheca Fratrum Polo-
noruni," in 9 vols, fol., and where he died in 1678. His
integrity and conftancy are highly applauded by the hifto-
rians of his fcft ; his writings were numerous, and one of
them, publifhed after his death, was entitled " Religio
rationalis, feu de Rationis judicio in controverfiis, etiam
theologicis ac religiofis adhibendo, traftatus." Gen. Biog.

WISSO WITZ, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Hradifch ; 20 miles E.N.E. of Hrndifch.

WIST, WisTA, a quantity or meafure of land among
our Saxon ancellors ; of different dimenfions, in different
places. In the Monailicon, it is faid to be half a bide, or
fixty acres : in an old chronicle of the mon'aftery of Battle,
it is faid to be forty -eight acres.

Wist, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Eall Gothland ; 6 miles S.S.E. of Linkioping.

Vol. XXXVni.

WIT

WISTE, a town of the duchy of Bremen ; 10 miles S.W.
of Bremen.

WisTE, a river of the duchy of Bremen, which runs into
the Wumme, i mile E. of Otterlberg.

WISTERNITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Olmutz ; 4 miles E. of Olmutz.

WisTERNiTZ, Unter, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Brunn ; 22 miles S. of Brunn.

WISTON, or WizTON, a town in the hundred of Dan-
Gladdan, county of Pembroke, South Wales, at the dif-
tance of 5 miles N.E. by E. from Haverford Weft. It is
a contributory borough with Pembroke and Tenby in
fending one member to parliament, and is governed by a
mayor. The parifti contains about 6000 acres : and in the
return of the year 181 1, the population was enumerated as
607 perfons, occupying 1 03 houtes. An annual fair is held
on the 8th of November. In ancient times here was a
caftle of great extent ; but it is now in ruins. — Carlifle's
Topographical Didtionary of Wales, 4to. 181 1.

WISTRIZ, or Wesseriz, a river of Bohemia, which
runs into the Egra, 3 miles E. of Schlakenwerth.

WISTYCZA, a town of Lithuania ; 5 miles N. of
Brzefc.

WISZOGZOD, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 52
miles N.W. of Warfaw.

WIT, De, in Biography. There were feveral painters of
this name very refpedlable in their profefllon. Peter Candido
de Wit, born at Bruges in 1548, went to Italy, and became
a friend and co-labourer with G. Vafari. He was afterwards
employed by the grand duke of Tufcany at Florence, and
painted in oil and frefco. The emperor Maximilian invited
him to Munich, and there he terminated his career. Gafper
de Wit, his brother, painted fmall landfcapes very highly
finifhed, in which he introduced Italian architeftural ruins.
Of later date was Emanuel de Wit, born at Alkmaer in
1607, and a painter of ftill life. He afterwards became a
painter of architefture and perfpeftive views of churches,
&c. which were touched with great clearnefs, animation, and
fpirit. He died in 1692. Another of the name, Jacob de
Wit, is the flower of the flock. He was born at Amfter-
dam in 1695, and having exhibited a defire for the purfuit
of art, was placed with Van Spiers, an hiilorical painter, for
three years. He afterwards went to Antwerp to contem-
plate the admirable produftions of Rubens and Vandyke,
which adorned that city ; and there he became the pupil of
Jacob van Halen, continuing with him two years.

To him we are indebted for the prefervation of the com-
pofition made by Rubens for four cielings, divided into
thirty-fix compartments, in the church of the Jefuits, which
was deftroyed by lightning in 17 18. They have been fince
engraved from de Wit's (ketches by John Prout.

He was principally employed in adorning cielings and the
walls of apartments ; and generally chofe allegorical and
emblematical fubjefts, which he compofed with confiderable
ingenuity, and coloured in a clear and pleafing manner. He
was employed by the magiftrates of Amfterdam, in 1736, to
adorn their great council-chamber ; and his work has had
the honour of being applauded by fir J. Reynolds. His
flietches for his larger works are touched with great freedom
and neatnefs, and with good colour. He was living in 1744.
Wit, a faculty of the mind, confifting, according to
Mr. Locke, in the aflembhng and putting together of thofe
ideas with quicknefs and variety, wherein can be iound any
refemblance or congruity ; by which to make up pleafant
piftures, and agreeable vifions, in the fancy.

This faculty, the fame great author obferves, is juft the
contrivy o{ judgment, which confifts in the feparating care-
fully from one another, of fuch ideas wherein can be found
, 4B the

WIT.

the lead difference, thereby to avoid being mifled by fimili-
tude, and, by affinity, to take one thing for another : and
hence he accounts for the reafon of that common obferva-
tion, that men who have much wit and prompt memories,
have not always the cleared judgment, or deeped reafon.

It is the metaphor and allufion wherein, for the mod
part, confid the entertainment and pleafantry of wit ; which
ftrikes in fo lively a manner on the fancy, and is therefore
fo acceptable to all people, becaufe its beauty appears at
firft fight, and there is required no labour of thought, to
examine what truth or reafon there is in it. The mind,
without looking any farther, reds fatisfied with the agree-
ablenefs of the pifture, and the gaiety of the imagination ;
and it is a kind of affront to go alsout to examine it by the
fevere rules of truth, or reafon. Whence it diould feem,
that wit confids in fomething that is not perfeftly conform-
able to them. Effay on Human Underd. b. ii. c. xi. f. 2.

Profeffor Diigald Stewart (Elem. of the Philofophy of
the Human Mind, p. 302.) adds to Locke's definition of
wit, that it implies a power of calling up at pleafure the
ideas which it combines ; and he inclines to believe, that the
entertainment which it gives to the hearer is founded, in a
confiderable degree, on his furprife, at the command which
the man of wit has acquired over apart of the conditution,
which is fo little fubjeft to the will. Hence it is, that we
are more pleafed with a bon mot which occurs in converfa-
tion than with one in print ; and that we never fail to receive
difgud from wit, when we fufpeft it to be premeditated.
The pleafure, too, which we receive from wit, is heightened,
when the original idea is darted by one perfon, and the
related idea by another. Accordingly Dr. Campbell has
remarked, that a witty repartee is infinitely more pleafing
than a witty attack ; and that an allufion will appear excel-
lent when thrown out extempore in converfation, which
would be deemed execrable in print.

To the fame purpofe another ingenious writer has ob-
ferved upon Mr. Locke's defcription of wit, that every
refemblance of ideas is not that which we call wit, unlefs it
be fuch an one that gives delight and furprife. Thefe two
properties, he fays, feem eflential to wit, more particularly
the latter of them. In order, therefore, that the refem-
blance in the ideas be wit, it is necefiary they diould not lie
too near one another in the nature of things ; for where the
likenefs is obvious, it gives no furprife. Speftator, vol. i.
N°62.

From this account of the nature of wit, it is eafy to per-
ceive what good reafon Cicero had for faying (De Orat.
lib. ii. cap. 54.) Wit is a thing not to be learned: it is the off-
fpring of nature, and proper effeA of a bright and lively
fancy. Cicero reduces wit to two kinds, •vi-z,. cavillatio,
which, in our language, may be called continued luit, or h\i-
mour, and JiifrtcrtdJ, which may be termed concife viit, orjeding.
The ingenious profeifor above cited fuggeds the follow,
ing difference between invention in the arts and fciences and
wit. The former depends, in mod indances, on a com-
bination of thofe ideas which are conneAed by the lefs ob-
vious principles of affociation ; and it may be called forth in
ahnod any mind by the preffure of external circumdances.
The ideas which mud be combined in order to produce the
latter are chiefly fuch as are affociatcd by thofe flighter con-
neftions which take place when the mind is carelefs and dif-
engaged. " If you have real wit," fays lord Chederfield,
" it will flow fpontaneoufly, and you need not aim at it ; for
in that cafe, the rule of the gofpel is reverfed ; and it will
pMve, Seek and you fhall not find." Accordingly wit is
promoted by a certain degree of intoxication, which pre-
vents the exercife of that attention which is neceffary for in-
vention iu matters of fcience.

For the nature of wit in general, the different kinds of
it, its ufe to an orator, and the manner in which it ought to
be condufted, fee Ward's Orat. vol. ii. p. 195, Sec.

Wit is alfo an appellation given to perlons poffeffed of
the faculty called luit, efprit.

A French author, who, in 1695, pubhdied a " Treatife
of Wit, du Bel Efprit," lays down four charafters of it.

1. A man, who, with an open air and eafy motions,
affefls thofe he converfes with agreeably ; and on any
fubjeft that prefents itfelf, advances new thoughts, and
adorns them with a fprightly turn ; is, all the world over,
a wit.

2. Another, who, lefs folicitous about the choice and de-
licacy of his fentiments, knows how to make himfelf valued
by I know not what elevation of difcourfe ; who draws
much attention, and ihews great vivacity in his fpeaking, and
readinefs in his anfwers ; is hkewife acknowledged a wit.

3. A third, who takes lefs care about thinking than
about fpeaking well : who aftefts fine words, though per-
haps low and poor in matter ; who pleafes by an eafy pro-
nunciation, and a certain tone of voice, is placed in the
fame rank.

4. Another, whofe chief aim is not to make himfelf
edeemed, fo much as to raife mirth and laughter ; who
jokes pertinently, rallies pleafantly, and finds fomething
to amufe himfelf with in every petty fubjeft ; is likewife
allowed a wit.

Yet, it may be obferved, that in all thefe cafes, there is
nothing of real wit, as above defined ; but the whole is
imagination, or memory at mod : nay the whole is no more
than what temperament may give.

A true wit mud have a jud faculty of difcernment ; mud
have, at the fame time, both great energy, and peculiar de-
licacy, in his fentiments ; his imagination mud be noble,
and at the fame time happy and agreeable ; his expreffions
polite and well turned ; without any thing of parade or
vanity in his difcourfe, or his carriage. It is not at all ef-
fential to a wit, to be ever hunting after the brilliant ; dill
dudying fine thoughts, and affefting to fay nothing but
what may itrike and furprife.

This is a fault very frequent in dramatic perfons : the
duke of Buckingham rallies it very judly.

" What is that thing which we flieer wit do call ?
'Tis when the wit of fome great writer fhall
So overflow, that is, be none at all,
That ev'n his fools fpeak fenfe ."

From the account we have given in the preceding article
of the difference between invention and wit, it appears, that
thofe who have the reputation of wits are commonly more
confident in their own powers, who allow the train of their
ideas to follow, in a great meafure, its natural courfe, and
hazard in company every thing, good or bad, which occurs
to them. Men of modedy and tade feldom attempt wit in
a promifcuous fociety ; or if they are forced to make fuch
an exertion, they are feldom fuccefsful. Such men, however,
in the circle of their friends, to whom they can unbofora
themfelves without referve, are frequently the mod amufing
and the mod intereitiiig of companions ; as the vivacity of their
wit is tempered by a correft judgment and refined manners:
and as its effedl is heightened by that fenfibihty and delicacy,
with which we fo rarely find it accompanied in the common
intercourfe of life. When a man of wit makes an exertion
to didinguith himfelf, his fallies are commonly too far-fetched
to pleafe. He brings his mind into a ilate approaching that '
of the inventor, and becomes rather ingenious than witty.

Genuine wit, fays lord Chederfield, never made any man
laugh fince the creation of the world : upon which profef.

for

1

W I T

for Stewart remarks, that this obfervation is juft, if by ge-
nuine wit we mean wit wholly diverted of every mixture of
humour ; and if by laughter we mean that convulfive and
noify agitation which is excited by the ludicrous. But
there is unquellionably a fmile appropriated to the flafhes
of wit ; — a fmile of furprife and wonder : — not altogether
unlike the effeft produced on the mind and the countenance
by a feat of legerdemain when executed with uncommon
excefs.

Humour, fay our critics, is the genuine wit of comedy.

Wit, Child. See CaiLB-Wit.

V/iT-F't/h, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Dutch in
the Eafl. Indies to a ii(h common on thofe coalts, and feem-
ing to be of the tcenia kind. It is of the fize of our common
whiting. Its back is ftraight and even, and its belly pro-
minent ; its fnout is pointed fomewhat upwards, and tail
forked. It has one fingle fpine or prickle on its back, and
has a long belly -fin reaching from the head to near the tail;
its whole body is ftriated, and it has two long filaments or
beards hanging from its fnout, and is a very fine and delicate
fifh. Ray.

WiT-Fi/h is alfo the name given by the Dutch to an Eaft
Indian fi(h, called by Mr. Ray, Allula Indica.

WITASARI, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Ta-
vaftland ; 70 miles N.N.E. of Jamfio.

WITCH of Endor, in Biblical Hi/lory, a woman who had
a familiar fpirit, and who was employed by Saul to confult
the deceafed Samuel concerning the iiTue of his conteft with
the Philiftines. See i Sam. xxviii.

The explication of this part of facred hiftory has greatly
perplexed commentators and critics. Some, in deference to
the authority of the ancient fathers of the Chriftian church,
who afcribed to magicians and necromancers the power of
caUing up the fouls of the dead, have given a literal inter-
pretation of this hiftory, and fuppofed that Samuel aftually
appeared to Saul. But to this opinion it has been juftly
objefled, that it is repugnant to the order of the natural
world, and to the doftrines of revelation refpeding the ftate
of the dead. It cannot be fuppofed confident with a juft
reverence of God to believe, that he has fubjefted the fouls
of the departed, not excepting thofe of the moft eminent
faints and prophets, to be remanded back from their dillindl
abodes, by the praftice of the moft execrable rites, and at
the call of fome of the vileft mortals, and compelled to re-
veal what he has feen fit to conceal. Natural reafon confirms
the fuffrage of fcripture, when it brands the whole magic
art, to which evocations of the dead, and all necromantic
divinations appertain, as founded in impofture. Others,
who cannot admit that witches are able to difturb the fouk
of good men, much lefs of propliets, are neverthelefs of
opinion, that tliefe wretched women can caufe the devil to
counterfeit the fouls of the dead ; and that in the cafe before
us, an evil fpirit appeared before Saul in the likenefs of
Samuel. (See Patrick on I Sam. xxviii. 12.) But this
opinion gives an unwarrantable advantage for the fupport of
idolatry to thofe impoftures that were praiStifed by heathen
forcerers and diviners. Befides, the very apparition of a fpi-
ritual and incorporeal being, and tiie gift oi prophecy, are
real miracles, and cannot take place but by divine appoint-
ment : and laftly, the hiftorian calls the appearance to Saul
Samuel, wliich he could not do with truth, if it was no
other than the devil, who here appears, not as a tempter,
but as a very fevere reprover of impiety and wickednefs.

Many learned men have, therefore, maintained, that it
was neither Samuel, nor an evil fpirit, who here appeared
to Saul ; but that the whole was the work of human im-
pofture. In fupport of this opinion it may be pleaded, that

\V I T

the woman to whom Saul applied to call up Samuel was
merely a ventriloquift, pofTeffing an art very ferviceable to
thofe who counterfeited the anfwers of the dead. This opU
nion, hpwever, hke the foregoing one, contradids the fa-
cred hiftorian, who not only reprefents the Pythonefs as
affirming, but himfelf affirms, that ftie faw Samuel, and
that Samuel fpoke to Saul : nor has he dropt the leaft hint
that it was not the real Samuel of whom he was fpeaking.

Others have fuppofed, that the appearance of Samuel to
Saul was a divine miracle : though whether the miracle
confifted in raifing Samuel, or in prefenting an image or re-
prefentation of him before Saul, it is not neceflary to de-
termine. Accordingly, the apparition muft be afcribed,
not to the power of inchantment, but to the immediate ap-
pointment of God, as a rebuke and punifliment to Saul.
This opinion is maintained by Dr. Waterland, in his Ser-
mons, vol. ii. p. 267, and defended by Dr. Delany in his
Life of David ; but combated by Dr. Chandler, with ob-
jeftions which, as far as they aff'eft the fcripture hiftory of
the matter, are anfwered or obviated by Mr. Farmer, in his
Diflertation on Miracles, p. 486, &c.

"WlTCH-Hazle, in Botany. See Hazle.

Witch IJland, in Geography, one of the fmaller Virgin
iflands ; 6 miles E. of St. John.

WITCHCRAFT, the crime of forcery, efpecially in
women.

Many think there maybe fome foundation for what we
call fafcination and witchcraft. We have innumerable in-
ftances and hiftories to this purpofe ; which it would not
be fair to fet afide, merely becaufe they are not reconcileable
to our philofophy : but, as it happens, there feems to be
fomething in philofophy to countenance fome of them.

Indeed, the ridiculous ftories that are generally told, and
the many impoftures and delufions that have been difcovered,
in all ages, are fufficient to demolifti all faith in fuch a du-
bious crime ; if the contrary evidence were not alfo ex-
tremely ftrong. Wherefore, (fays judge Blackftone,) it
feems to be the moft eligible way to conclude, with an in-
genious writer of our own (Speft. N° 1 17.^ that in gene-
ral there has been fuch a thing as witchcraft, though one
cannot give credit to any particular modern inftance of it.
Some readers will, however, probably diftent from this in-
ference of Mr. Addifon, and the opinion of the learned
judge, and incline to confider witchcraft in general as
a fpecies of impofture. See Magician, and Miracle.

What the writers in favour of the opinion advance, as
their reafons, is as follows :

All hving things, they fay, emit effluvia, both by the
breath and the pores of the fliin. All bodies, therefore,
within the fphere of their perfpiratory or expiratory efflu-
via, will be aft'efted by them ; and that, in this or another
manner, according to the quahty of the effluvia ; and in
this or that degree, according to the difpofition of the
emittent and recipient parts.

This, indeed, is inconteftible ; nor need we produce iu-
ftances of animals exhahng fweet or ftinking fmells ; or of
infectious difeafes conveyed by effluvia, &c. in confirmation
of it.

Now, of all parts of an animal body, the eye, we know,
is the quickeft. It moves with the greateft celerity, and in
all the variety of diredions. Again, its coat and humours
are permeable as any other part of the body (witnefs the
rays of light it fo copioudy receives. ) The eye, therefore,
no doubt, emits its effluvia like the other parts. The fine
humours of the eye muft be contiuually exhaling. The
lieat of the pervading rays will rarefy and attenuate them :
and that, with the fubtile juice or fpirit of the neighbour-

4 B 2 iiig

WIT

jng optic nerve, fupplied in great abundance by the vici-
nity of the brain, muft make a fund of volatile matter to
be difpenfed, and, as it were, determined by the eye.

Here, then, we have both the dart, and the hand to fling
it. The one furniflied with all the force and vehemence,
and the other with all the fharpnefs and aftivity, one would
require. No wonder if their etfeds be great !

Do but conceive the eye as a (ling, capable of the fwifteft
and intenfeft motions and vibrations: and again, as communi-
catino- with a fource of fuch matter, as the nervous juice ela-
borated in the brain ; a matter fo fubtile and penetrating, that
it is fuppofed to fly inftantaneoufly through the fohd capil-
laments of the nerves ; and fo adive and forcible, that it
difl;ends and convulfes the mufcles, and diftorts the limbs,
and alters the whole habitude of the body, giving motion
and aftion to a mafs of inert, inadive matter. A projedile
of fuch a nature, flung by fuch an engine as the eye, mull
have an efFed wherever it ftrikes : and the efi^ed will be
limited and modified by the circumftances of the difl:ance,
the impetus of the eye, the quaUty, fubtilty, acrimony, &c.
of the juices, and the dehcacy, coarfenefs, &c. of the objed
it falls on.

This theory, it is fuppofed by many, may account for
fome of the phenomena of witchcraft, particularly of that
branch called fafcination. It is certain the eye has al-
ways been efteemed the chief feat, or rather organ, of
witchcraft ; though, by moft, without knowing why, or
wherefore : the efFed was apparently owing to the eye ;
but how, was not dreamed of. Thus, the phrafe, to have
an evil eye, imports as much as to be a witch. And hence
Virgil,

" Nefcio quis teneros oculus mihi fafcinat agnos.".

Again, old bilious perfons are thofe moft frequently
fuppofed to have the faculty ; the nervous juice in them
being depraved and irritated by a vicious habitude of
body, and fo rendered more penetrating and malignant.
And young perfons, chiefly children and girls, are moft
affeded by it ; becaufe their pores are patent, their juices
incoherent, and their fibres delicate and fulceptible. Ac-
cordingly the witchcraft mentioned by Virgil only reaches
to the tender lambs.

Laftly, the faculty is only exercifed when the perfon is
difpleafed, provoked, irritated, &c. it requiring fume ex-
traordinary ftrefs and emotion of mind to dart a proper
quantity of the effluvia, with a fufiicient impetus, to pro-
duce the effed at a diftance. That the eye has fome very
confiderable powers is paft difpute.

The ancient naturalifts affure us, that the bafilifli and
opoblepa kill other animals merely by flaring at them. If
this fail of credit, a late author an"ures us to have feen a
moufe running round a large fnake, which flood looking
carneftly at it, with its mouth open ; flill the moufe made
lefs and lefa circles about it ; crying all the while, as if
compelled to it ; and, at laft, with much feeming reluc-
tance, ran into the gaping mouth, and was immediately
fwallowed.

Who has not obferved a fetting-dog ; and the efFeds of
its eye on the partridge ? The poor bird, when once its eyes
meet thofe of the dog, ftands as if confounded, regardlefs
of itfelf, and eafily lets the net be drawn over it. We re-
member to have read of fquirrels alfo ftupified and over-
come by a dog's flaring hard at them, and thus made to
drop out of the trees into his mouth.

That man is not fecure from the hke affedions is matter
of eafy obfervation. Few people but have, again and again,
fek the effeds of an angry, a fierce, a commanding, a dif-

5

W I T

dainful, a lafcivious, an intreating eye, &c. Thefe effeds
of the eye, at leaft, make a kind of witchcraft. But our
readers will excufe our enlarging.

Witchcraft prevailed to fuch a degree both in England
and Scotland in the 1 6th century, that it attraded the at-
tention of government under the reign of Henry VIII.,
in whofe 33d year was enaded a ftatute which adjudged
all witchcraft and forcery to be felony without benefit of
clergy ; and at the commencement of the reign of Eliza-
beth, the evil feems to have been very much on the increafe ;
for bifliop Jewel, in a fermon preached before the queen in
1558, tells her ; " It may pleafe your grace to uuderftand
that witches and forcerers within thefe four laft years are
marvelloufiy increafed within your grace's realm. Your
grace's fubjeds pine away even unto the death, their colour
fadeth, their flefli rotteth, their fpeech is benumbed, their
fenfes are bereft ; I pray God they never pradife further
than upon the fubjed." Of the prevalence of this delu-
fiou in 1584, we have the teflimony of Reginald Scot, in
his treatife intitled " The Difcoverie of Witchcraft,"
written in behalf of the poor, the aged, and the fimple, as
the author informs us ; and it refleds Angular difcredit on
the age in which it was produced, that a detedion fo com-
plete, both with regard to argument and i^ad, ihould have
failed in effeding its purpofo. The mifchief, inftead of
being reftrained, was rapidly accelerated by the pubhcation
of the " Dsmonologie" of king James, at Edinburgh, in
the year 1597 ; and the contagion was promoted by the
fuccefiion of James to the throne of Elizabeth. In the
year 1603, the royal treatife was printed at London, with
an alarming preface concerning the increafe of witches or
enchanters, " thefe deteftable flaves of the devil ;" and it
was accompanied by a new ftatute againft witches, which
defcribes the crime in a variety of particulars, and enads,
that offenders, duly and lawfully convided and attainted,
(hall fuffer death. Reginald Scot, in the treatife above-
mentioned, has pourtrayed at large the charader of thofe
who were branded with the appellation of witches, ftating
the deeds that were imputed to them, and the nature of
their fuppofed compact with the devil. The abode of a
witch is admirably defcribed by Spenfer, the defcription
being formed from an exifting fubjed :

" There in a gloomy hollow glen flie found
A little cottage built of ftickes and reedes
In homely wife, and wald with fods around ;
In which a witch did dwell, in loathly weedes
And wilful want, all carelefs of her needes :
So choofing folitarie to abide
Far from all neighbours, that her devilifh deeds
And hellifli arts from people ftie might hide,
And hurt far off unknowne whom ever /he envide."

Faerie Queene.

Scot has, with Angular induftry, coUeded from every
writer on the fubjed the minutiae of witchcraft, and he has
annexed comments for the purpofe of refuting and expofing
them ; whereas James, the royal pedant, wrote in defence of
this folly, and, unfortunately for truth and humanity, the
dodrine of the monarch was preferred to that of the fage.

The old laws made in England and Scotland againft con-
juration and witchcraft are repealed by a late ftatute, and no
perfon is to be profecuted for any fuch crime. 9 Geo. II.
c. 5. See Conjuration.

WITCHES-BuTTER, a name given by the common
people of England to a fort of tremella growing on the
bark of old trees, in form of a corrugated membrane.

WITELSHOFEN, in Geography, a town of Ger-

many.

W I T

many, in the margravate of Anfpach ; 7 miles S.E. of
Creilfheim.

WITGENAU, or Witchenau, a town of Liifatia,
on the Elder ; 13 miles N.N.W. of Budiflen. N. lat. 51°
20'. E. long. 14" 16'.

WiTGENAU, or W'uteiigau, or Trjelon, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Bechin, on the river Laufnicz ;
22 miles S.S.E. of Bechin. N. lat. 49° 4.'. E. long.
14° 40'-

WITGENSTEIN, a county of Germany, fituated
between the principalities of HefTe Darmftadt, NafTau Dil-
lenburg, and the duchy of Weftphalia ; about 18 miles long,
and 12 broad. Some parts are mountainous and woody,
and contain mines of filver, copper, and iron ; the paftures
are good, but the arable land inconfiderable. The principal
rivers are the Lahn and the Eder. It is united to the county
of Sayn, and that princely houfe is divided into two
branches, Sayn Witgenflein of Witgenftein, and Sayn Wit-
genftein of Berleburg, each of which had a diftinil vote in
the Imperial college, and in the diet of the Upper Rhine.
The county takes its name from a feat, the refidence of the
counts, which is fituated on a mountain ; i mile N. of
Laafphe.

WITGEWALT, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ; 8
miles N.E. of Ollerrode.

WITH-ViNE, or Wine, in Agriculture, a term pro-
»incially fignifying couch, or couch-grafs. See Bind-
Wccd.

WITH AM, in Geography, a market -town and parifh in the
hundred of the fame name, in the county of Effex, England,
fituated on a branch of the river Blackwater, 8|- miles N.E.
from Chelmsford, and 375^ in the fame direftion from Lon-
don. By the parliamentary returns of 181 1, the number
of houfes in the parifh was 466, and the inhabitants amounted
to 2352. Witham has a weekly market on Tuefday, and
fairs on Friday and Saturday of Whit- week, on the 14th
of September, and 8th of November. The petty feflions
for the Witham divifion of the county are alfo held in the
town. Witham is fuppofed to have been conftituted a town
by Edward the Elder, though perhaps it was only reltored
by him, at lead the part on Cheping Hill round the
church, which (lands about half a mile N.W. from the
other part of the town. On this eminence are confiderable
remains of a circular camp, inclofed by a double ditch and
rampart. From this work, and the quantity of Roman
bricks worked up in the body and tower of the church,
Witham has been thought to occupy the pofition of the
Canonium of Antoninus. The manor was anciently pof-
feffed by earl Harold, and afterwards by Euftace, earl of
Boulogne, who married the filler of Edward the Confeflbr.
Near the eaft end of the town is a manfion, now poffefled
by Thomas Kynafton, efq., but formerly belonging to the
late earl of Abercorn. Fanlkbourne-hall, between one
and two miles N.W. from Witham church, is the feat of
colonel Bullock, formerly member of parliament for the
county of Effex. Here is a cedar-tree, about nineteen feet
in circumference near the ground. A coin of Domitian
and veftiges of w:ills indicate the Romans to have had a villa
at this place. — Beauties of England and Wales, Effex.
By J. Britton and E.W. Brayley, 8vo. 1808.

Witham, a river of England, in the county of Lincoln,
which rifes in the fouth part of Lincolnfhire, on the borders
of Leicefterfhire, paffes by Grantham to Lincoln, where it
becomes navigable ; from thence it palTes by Tatterfall,
Bofton, &c. and runs into the German fea, 5 miles below
BoftoD, in what are called the IVafbes.

WIT

WITHE, in Agriculture, a fmatt twifted (lick of any
kind ufed as a band.

WITHE R-Band, in Rural Economy, the band or piece
of iron which is laid underneath a faddle, about four fingers
above the withers of the horfe, to keep tight the two pieces
of wood that form the bow of the faddle.

WiTH-EK-Wrung, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to
be wither-wrung, when he has got a hurt in the withers ;
which fort of hurts it is very hard to cure. See
Withers.

WITHERING, William, M.D. F.R.S., in Biogra-
phy, was born in 1 741, and finifhed his medical education
in the univerfity of Edinburgh, where he took his degree of
doftor in 1766. From Stafford, where he firft fettled and
married, he removed to Birmingham, and fpeedily attained by
hisflvilland affiduityto very extenfive and profitable praAice;
without feeking much fociety or neglefting his fcientific
purfuits in order to fecure it. The chief obje£ls of his at-
tention, independently of his profeffional engagements, were
botany and chemiftry. The refult of his fcientific inquiries
and labours appears in the following lid of his valuable pub-
lications ; wz. " A Botanical Arrangement of Britith
Plants," in 2 vols. 8vo. 1776, which paffed through two
more editions, in 1787, 3 vols., and in 1796, 4 vols.,
with numerous improvements and additions, fome of which
were fuggefted by his friends, and particularly by Dr.
Stokes. In chemiftry and mineralogy, a tranflation of
Bergman's " Sciagraphia Regni Mineralis," 1783, and the
following papers in the PhilofophicalTranfaftions ; " Expe-
riments on different Kinds of Marie found in Staffordfhire,"
1773; 2n "Analyfis of the Toad-ftone of Derbyfhire,"
1782; "Experiments on the Terra Ponderofa," 1784;
and " Analyfis of a Hot Mineral Spring in Portugal," 1 798.
In the improvement of his own profeflion, " Account of the
Scarlet Fever and Sore Throat, particularly as it appeared at
Birmingham in the year 1778 ;" and " An Account of the
Fox-glove and fome of its Medical Ufes ; with Praftical
Remarks on the Dropfy and other Difeafes," 1785. Sub-
jeft to pulmonic attacks, which weakened his lungs, he
thought it neceffary, in 1793 and 1794, to pafs the winter in
a warmer climate, and he fixed on Lifbon. Afterwards he
became incapable of his former profeffional exertions, and died
at the Larches, near Birmingham, in November 1799, at the
age of 58. In his intelleclual charafter he joined unremit-
ting application with fagacity and difcernment. In his medi-
cal praftice he limited prefcription to that quantity and
kind of medicine which was abfolutely neceffary for his
patients ; and if any in the inferior branches of the profef-
fion difliked this modeof praftice, their difapprobation of it
was a teftimony in its favour. In his difpofition he was mild
and humane ; and his natural rcferve did not preclude him
from the pleafure of rational fociety. His valuable library
and handfome property were inherited by an only fon.
Gen. Biog.

Withering, in Medicine. See Aridura.

Withering of a Cow, is when, after calving, Hie does
not caff her cleanfing, which, if not timely remedied, will
kill her.

WITHERINGIA, in Botany, was fo named by the
great French botaniil, M. L'Heritier, (fee that article, )
in compHment to tlie late Dr. William Withering, F.R.S.
F.L.S., the well-known auihor of a moft ufeful and popular
Enghffi work, entitled an " Arrangement of Britifh Plants,"
which has gone through feveral editions, in fome of the ear-
lier of which Dr. Stokes was his coadjutor. (See Stokesia.)
— L'Herit. Sert. Angl, 33. Sclu-eb. Gen. 791. Willd.

Sp.

WIT

Sp. PI. V.I. 622. Mart. Mill. Dift. V, 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. I. 248. ed. i. v. i. 149. Jufl". 450. Lamarck

Ilkiftr. t. 82 Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia.

Nat. Ord. Luridit, Linn. Sola/tea, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, very (hort,
obfcurely four-toothed, permanent. Cor. of one petal,
wheel-(haped : tube very Jhoit, nearly globular : limb
in four deep, lanceolate, acute, recurved fegments. Nec-
tary four (lightly-bordered cavities, in the tube of the
petal. Stam. Filament? four, ereft, roundilh, downy,
inferted into the bafe of the corolla ; anthers converg-
ing, ovate, two-lobed, burfting at the fides. Pijl. Ger-
men fuperior, ovate ; ftyle thread-fliaped, rather longer
than the jlamens ; ftigma capitate. Peric. Berry round-
iHi, of two cells. Seeds numerous, inferted into the di-
vided receptacle.

EfT. Ch. Corolla deeply four-cleft, reflexed ; its tube
with four external prominences, internally concave. Calyx
obfcurely four-toothed. Anthers converging, burfting la-
terally. Berry with two cells, and many feeds.

l.'W.folanacea. Yellow-flowered Witheringia. Willd.
n. I. Ait. n. I. L'Herit. Sert. Angl. 33. t. i.— Native
of South America. A ilove plant, flowering moft part of
the year, and cultivated as early as the year 1742 by tlie
celebrated lord Petre. Its appearance and charafters, fo
nearly approaching to Solanum, had caufed this plant to be
neglefted by botanifts, till the eager and piercing eyes of
M. L'Heritier detefted its differences, and eftabhflied its
generic charafters. The mode of buriting of the anthers
more efpecially ftamp the genus as diftinft from Solanum.
The root isperennial. Stem herbaceous, hardly a foot high,
round, downy, reddifh, rendered (lightly angular by the
decurrent footjlalks. Lea-ves in alternate pairs, (talked,
ovate-oblong, acute, wavy, entire, rather downy, four or
five inches long. Flowers about the fize and (hape of
Solanum nigrum, except being only four-cleft, pale yellow,
drooping, in many-flowered, axillary, felTile umbels ; their
Jialis round, fmooth, lialf an inch, or more, in length.
Stamens whitifli, internally hairy. Few exotics are lefs
likely to be cultivated for ornament, however interefting
for the fake of its name and chaiafters to a fcientitic
botanift.

WITHE RITE, in Mineralogy, a name given to the
carbonate of barytes, in honour of Dr. Withering, by whom
tliis mineral was (Irft difcovered, as containing an earth
before unknown. (See Bahvtes.) Witherite occurs
generally maffive, and fometimes cryftaUized, in fix-fided
prifms terminated by fix-iided pyramids, in which the edges
and points are often truncated. It occurs alfo in double
Cx-fided pyramids. When maffive, it is often found in
globular concretions, which have a radiated diverging ftruc-
ture. The principal frafture has a fliining luftre ; the crofs
frafture is glimmering. It is tranflucent, and is moft gene-
rally of a yellowi(h-white colour, but is fometimes of a pale
bluei(h-grey, or fle(h-red. Witherite is eafily frangible ; it
breaks into wedge-fliaped fragments ; it yields eafily to the
knife.

The fpecific gravity 134.3 ! it decrepitates (lightly before
the blow-pipe, and melts very readily into a white enamel.
It is foluble with etfervefcence in dilute muriatic or nitric
acid. It contains,

Barytes -
Carbonic acid -
Water

79.66
20.
•33

Witherite was (irft difcovered at Anglefark, in Lanca-
(hire, in a vein of lead-ore, accompanied vfith heavy fpar.

W 1 T

It occurs in confiderable quantities on the weftern fide of
Yorklhire, and in the counties of Northumberland, Dur-
ham, and Weftmoreland, in veins which traverfe mountain
lime-ftone and fand-ftone. In fomeof thefe veins it has been
obferved, that when the vein palTes through the lime-ftone,
it contains Witherite, or carbonate of barytes ; but where it
paffes through the fand-ftone, it contains fulphate of barytes,
or heavy fpar. It fometimes occurs in a ftalaftical or cel-
lular form, and diffeminated in other minerals.

Witherite is rather a fcarce mineral on the continent.
It is a very aftive poifon. It has not been ufed in the arts
in this country. It is probable that it may be employed
on the continent in the decompoiition of the alkaline ful-
phates, as foreigners fometimes obtain it from the mines in
York(hire in confiderable quantities.

WITHERNAM, in Lam, a reprifal, or taking of other
goods or cattle, in lieu of thofe unjuftly taken and elToined,
or other wife withholden.

The word is compounded of the Saxon -wither, contrOf
againjl; and nam, captio, taking. See Naam.

Where goods are taken by colour of diftrefs, and driven
to a hold, or out of the county, fo that the flieriff cannot,
upon replevy, make deliverance thereof to the party dif-
trained ; in this cafe, the writ of capias in ivitbernam, or Je
vetito namio, is iffued, direfted to the (heriff, for the taking
as many of the party's beafts, as he did thus unlawfully dil-
train ; or as much goods of his, till he has made deliverance
of the (irft diftrefs : and, therefore, goods taken in wither-
nam cannot be replevied, till the original diftrefs is forth-
coming.

Withernam, Nomine capto in. See Homine.
WITHERS of a Horfe, the junfture of the (houlder-
bones at the bottom of the neck and mane, towards the
upper part of the (houlder.

Thefe parts (hould be well raifed and pretty ftrong, for
this is a fign of ftrength and goodnefs in the horfe. They
keep the faddle from coming forward upon the horfe's
(houlders and neck, which immediately galls and fpoils him.
A hurt in this part is very difficult to cure, and, for this
reafon, they (hould be lean rather than flefliy, as they are
then lefs fubjeft to be bruifed and hurt by the faddle.

When there are fores on the withers, the caufe muft be
looked to, in order to determine a proper cure, and prevent
a return. If the hurt be caufed by the largenefs of the
faddle-bands, provided that it be not too great, it may be
eafily cured by the following remedy : take the whites of
fix eggs, beat them with a piece of alum as big as an egg
for a quarter of an hour, or till the whole is reduced to a
thick fcum or froth ; let the fweUing be rubbed well with
this mixture, and then covered over with more of the froth ;
this is to be left to dry on, and the application is to be re-
peated every ten or twelve hours ; notwithftanding that the
heat and fwelling remains, this, by degrees, will take place,
though not at firft.

If the hurt be great, recourfe muft be had to bleeding;
and this may be repeated after two days, if the fwelling and
inflammation continue.

If a tumour, with great inflammation, follow a bruife
with the faddle-bows, the part affefted is to be rubbed with
lime-water, and covered with a lamb's flcin, the woolly part
next the back ; after the wafliing, the ointment, well known
among our farriers by the name of the duke's ointment, is to
be applied ; and if the tumour inclines to fuppurate, the
ointment muft be walhed oft with a mixture of vinegar and
water, warmed, mixed with a handful of fait to every quart
of it : an ointment is then to be made of half a pound of
populeon, and a quarter of a pound of black foap, and as

much

W I T

much honey : thefe are to be thinned with a large glafa of
fpirit of wine, and the part is to be well rubbed with fome
of this three or four times a-day, covering it afterwards
with a lamb's (li'in. Some ufe inftcad of this ointment a
poultice made of powder of cummin-feed, linfeed-oil, and
pigeons' dung, which does as well.

Where thefe means are not fufficient to remove fuch tu-
mours or fvvelhngs, a more effeftual remedy may frequently
be found in the bliftering liniment.

But wherever matter is formed and diftinftly felt by the
finger, an opening fhould be made as near as poflible to the
mod depending part of it, to allow of a free difcharge of
it, and a rowel be introduced through the whole extent of
the cavity, and be frequently moved, and wafhed with fpi-
rits of turpentine ; the healing procefs being promoted by
the injeftion of ftimulating warfies.

In cafes where finufes are formed, and thefe means are in-
fuflicient for healing the parts, the cure muft be performed
by making an incifion through the whole extent of the
hollow parts ; dreffing them afterwards in fuch a manner as
to keep down the proud flefli, and preferving the wounds
"clean, as well as aiding the growth of new flefh by proper
means. See Ulcer, and Wound, in Animals.

WiTHEKs of the Botv of a Saddle, in the Manege. See
Bow.

WITHY, a large fpecies of willow, fit to be planted
upon high banks and fides of ditches, within reach of the
water, or on the weeping fides of hills.

WiTHY-Cragged, a term fometimes applied to a difeafe
in horfes. See Strain.

WITLAGE, in Geography, a town of Weftphaha, in
the bifhopric of Ofnabruck ; ii miles E.N.E. of Vorden.

WITLAH, a town of Germany, in the county of Ver-
den ; 3 miles S.E. of Verden.

WITLOWIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Gitfchin.

WITMARSEN, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric
of Munfter ; 7 miles W. of Lingen.

WITNESS, Testis, a perfon who certifies or afferts
the truth of any fa£t.

All witneffes are deemed competent, who, having the ufe
of their reafon, are neither infamous nor interefted in the
event. See Evidence.

Among the Romans, it was a cuftom to pull or pinch
the ears of witneffes prefcnt at any tranfaftion ; that they
might remember it when they were called to give in their
tellimony. Two eye-witneftes, or Je vifu, not fufpefted,
are to be deemed a conclufive proof.

Falfe witneffes, fuborners of witneffes, &c. in England
are punifhcd with the pillory ; in feveral other countries,
with death. See Perjury, Subornation, &c.

In a fynod at Rome, under Conftantine, in the year 320,
it was decreed, that there fhould be feventy-two witneffes
heard, to condemn a bifliop ; which was called libra tejlium,
a pound of witneffes. Accordingly there were feventy-two
witneffes heard againil pope MarceUinus ; who, fays the hif-
torian, erant ekBi libra occidua.

Anciently there were fynodal witneffes, tejles fynodales, in
each parilh, chofen by the bifhop, to inquire into the here-
fies, and other crimes, of the parifhioners ; and to make
oath thereof on the relics of the faints. See Synodales.

Witness, Attic. See Attic.

Witnesses, Trial by, in Lain, is a fpecies of trial, with-
out the intervention of a jury. This is the only method of
trial known to the civil law ; in which the judge is left to
form in his own breaft his fentence upon the credit of the
witneffes examined : but it is very rarely ufed in our law,

WIT

except only that when a widow brings a writ of dower, and
the tenant pleads that the hufband is not dead ; this is, in
favour of the widow and for greater expedition, allowed to
be tried by witneffes examined before the judges ; and alfo
in fome other cafes mentioned by fir Edward Coke, as, to
try whether the tenant in a real aftion was duly fummoned,
or the vahdity of a challenge to a juror : wlio obferves that
ill every cafe the affirmative muil be proved by two witneffes
at the leaft. Blackft. Com. book iii.

WITNEY, in Geography, in the hundred of Bampton,
and county of Oxford, England, is a long and irregular,
but large and populous market-town, fituated 1 1 miles
W.N.W. from Oxford, and nearly 66 in the fame direftion
from London. Through the town runs the little river
Windrufh. Witney was one of the eight manors given to
his cathedral in 1040 by Alwin, bifhop of Winchefter, in
confequence of the fufpicion of his improper conduft with
Emma, the mother of Edward the Confeffor. The queen-
mother cleared herfelf by the fiery ordeal ( an experiment of
probably little danger), and the bifliop made reparation for
the fcandal he had, although innocent, brought upon his
church by a transfer to the clergy belonging to it of eight
of his manors. In 117 1 the manor was, by bifhop Blois,
beftowed on his new foundation of St. Crofs, near Winchef-
ter. In the fifth year of Edward II. Witney became a bo-
rough, and continued to fend members to parhament till the
33d year of Edward III. when the privilege was declined:
it is ftill, however, called a borough, and governed by two
bailiffs. The church, terminating the principal llreet, is large
and handfome, with crofs aides, furmounted by a tower and
fpire. A free-fchool was founded here in 1 660, and other
charitable inftitutions for the education of youth have lately
been formed. Witney has long been celebrated for the ma-
nufafture of blankets, of which the weavers were incorpo-
rated in queen Anne's reign. When Dr. Plott pubhlhed
his Natural Hiftory of Oxfordfhire, in 1677, the weaving
bufinefs employed no fewer than 3000 perfons, " from chil-
dren of eight years old, to decrepit old age ;" a number pro-
bably not exaggerated, if it be confidered, that, in his time,
every part of the manufafture was performed by manual
labour. But in the latter half of the laft century the
blanket trade fuffered a great defalcation. In 1768 about
500 weavers only were employed, a number which gra-
dually funk to lefs than one half: the confequence of which
was great diftrefs among the inhabitants. Machinery was
introduced into the manufafture, by which one man per-
formed the work of two. The blanket bufinefs again re-
vived ; but the working hands reaped no benefit from its
revival. In 1807, when the price of blankets was five
pounds the pair, the workmen earned but twelve (hiUings
/iifrweek, the fame fum as in 1768, when the pair brought
only three pounds. The ftaple, or blanket-hall, ftands in
the high ftrect, as does alfo the town-hall, under which is a
place for the market. The reftory of the parifh is united
with the vicarage, and in the patronage of the bifhop of
Wincheiler. The town contains meeting-houfes for dif-
ferent defcriptions of diffenters. According to the popula-
tion return of 1811, the honfes in the town were 543,
and the inhabitants 2722. — Plott's Natural Hiftory of
Oxfordfliire, 1677 and 1705, fol. Beauties of England,
Oxfordfhire, by J. N. Brewer, 8vo. 1 8 13.

WITRY, a town of France, in the department of the
Marne ; 6 miles N.E. of Reims.

WITSENIA, in Botany, was fo named by profeffor
Thunberg, in comphment to Mr. Witfen, " Counfellor to
the Chief Magiftrate of Amfterdam," whom he ftyles a moft
eminent patron and promoter of every kind of fcience.

Profeffor

W I T

Profeflbr Martyn fuppofcd the honour had been defigned
for Nicholas Witfen, a writer on {hells, who gave one of the
earlieft accounts of New Holland. (See Phil. Tranf. v. 17
and 20. ) Thunberg's miffion to Japan appears to have been
furthered by the influence of the above-named gentleman.
We can only rely on him for the propriety of the appellation
in queftion. — Thunb. Nov. Gen. 33. Murray inLinn. Syft.
Veg. ed. 14. 83. Schreb. Gen. 37. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 1.
247. VahlEnum. v. 2.47. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ker
in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. i. 236. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. I. 109. Jufl". 59. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 30. — Clafs
and order, Trianrlria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Enfata, Linn.
Ker. Irlcles, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. none, unlefs the upper pair of the IraBeas
be fo confidered. Cor. of one petal, tubular, ereft : tube
cyhndrical, flender at the bafe, gradually dilated at the top :
limb fpreading, regular, in fix deep, equal, obovate feg-
ments. Stam. Filaments three, very (hort, inferted into the
mouth of the tube, at the bafe of three alternate fegments
of the limb ; anthers oblong, eredl. Pijl. Germen fuperior,
roundifh, fmall : ftyle thread-fliapcd, ereft, longer than the
tube of the corolla, (lightly curved at the extremity ; ftigma
in three (hort, equal, rather fpreading fegments. Peric. Cap-
fule membranous, of three cells and three valves. Seeds
feveral, angular.

Eir. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla with a cyhndrical tube ;
limb in fix deep, equal, obtufe fegments. Stigma (lightly
three-cleft. Capfule of three cells, with feveral angular
feeds.

1. W. maura. Downy-flowered Witfenia. Thunb.
Nov. Gen. 34. t. 2. f. I. Fl. Cap. v. I. 255. Willd. n. i.
Vahln. I. Ait. n. I. Redout. Lihac. t. 245. (Antho-
lyza maura; Linn. Mant. 175.) — Flowers terminal, in
pairs. Outer fegments of the corolla exterally downy. —
Native of the (hady fides of hills, at the Cape of Good Hope,
flowering in April and May. Sent to Kew by Mr. Ma(ron,
in 1790, but it does not appear to have blolTomed in that
coUeftion, nor elfewhere in Europe, M. Redoute's fine
figure being made from a dried fpecimen, aided by defcrip-
tion. The root is perennial and woody. Stem (hrubby,
ereft, more or lefs branched, two feet high, compreded ;
naked in the lower part, and appearing as if jointed, from
the fears left by former foliage ; leafy above. Leaves nu-
merous, alternate, feflile, two-ranked, equitant, four or
five inches long, compre(red, ftriated, acute, entire. Floivers
in pairs at the extremities of the (hort terminal branches,
crowded, more or lefs numeroufly, into a corymbofe tuft.
Corolla two inches long : its tube yellow at the bafe, dark
blue for a confiderable extent in the upper part ; limb yel-
low, fcarcely fpreading, full half an inch long, clothed ex-
ternally with deiife (haggy pubefcence of a very pecuUar
kind, confined to the tips of the inner fegments.

2. W. corymbofa, Corymbofe Witfenia. Ker in Curt.
Mag. t. 895. Ait. n. 2. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 2. 17. t. 68.
—Corymb many-flowered. Corolla externally fmooth. —
Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Raifed from feed by
G. Hibbert, efq. in 1803. A green-houfe plant, flowering
in fpring and autumn. The Jlem is flirubby, from four to
fix inches high. Leaves\i\ie the laft, but only half the fize,
fomewhat glaucous. Flowers very numerous, bright blue,
in a forked corymbofe, compound panicle, fupported by a
long ftalk, at firft terminal, but foon becoming lateral.
BraQeas two pair at the bafe of each flower, concave, ob-
tufe. Corolla about an inch long, including its horizontal
limb.

3. W. ratnofa. Branching Witfenia. Thunb. Fl. Cap.
V. I. 256. Vahl n. 2. (W. fruticofa ; Ker in Ann. of

W I T

Bot. v. I. 237. Ixia fruticofa; Thunb. Difl". n. 1. t. i.
f. 3. Lamarck Illufl;rat. t. 31. f. 4. Linn. Suppl. 93.)
— Stem much branched. Corolla externally fmooth ; its
tube capillary, twice the length of the limb. — Native of hills
at the Cape of Good Hope, flowering in Oftober, No-
vember, and December. The Jlem is a fpan high at moft,
remarkably woody, repeatedly branched in a corymbofe
manner ; naked below ; the branches compreffed, two-edged,
knotty or fcarred as if jointed, leafy at their extremities.
Leaves equitant, two-ranked, linear, narrow, one and a half
or two inches long, rather glaucous ; reddi(h at the bafe.
Floivers terminal, very few together, if not quite foli-
tary, blue, remarkable for the length and (lendernefs of
their tube, which fometimes meafures nearly two inches ;
the hmb is rather lefs fpreading, and more bell-(haped,
than that of corymbofa. BraSeas membranous, elongated,
brownifli.

4. W. pum'tla. Dwarf Witfenia. Vahl n. 3. (Ixia
pumila ; Forfl:. Comm. Gott. v. 9. 20. t. 2. I. magella-
nica ; Lamarck lUuftr. v. i. 109. Morsea magellanica ;
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 241, excluding Cavanilles' fynonym.
Tapeinia, Jufl". 59. ) — Stems fimple, fingle-flowered. — Ga-
thered by Forfter, Commerfon, and others, at the ftraits of
Magellan. Tlie root is perennial, long, branched, bearing
denfe tufts of numerous, fimple, leTify Jlems, an inch or inch
and a half high. Leaves crowded, two-ranked, awl-(haped,
compreffed, rtrongly ribbed, about an inch long. Flowers
whitilh, fmall, folitary, nearly feflile, among the uppermoft
leaves, which form a kind of (heath, but each appears to
have alfo a bivalve Jheath, or pair of hraHeas, which are
permanent. Capfule brown, with rather rigid, emarginate
valves.

Mr. Ker obferves, that this is the only genus of its na-
tural order whofe habit is in any degree (hrubby. He
mentions, in the Annals of Botany, another fpecies, by the
name oi partita, feen by himfelf in Mr. Hibbert's herbarium ;
but without any indication of its charafters, fo that we have
no means of knowing how it diflFers from the foregoing.

WITSIO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of'Schonen ; 28 miles N.N.W. of Chriftianftadt.

WITT, John de, in Biography, the fon of a burgo-
mafl:er of Dordrecht, was born in 1625, and educated in
various ufeful fciences, fo as to excel in a knowledge of
jurifprudence, politics, and mathematics, in the latter of
which he was fo great a proficient, that he wrote a treatife
on the elements of curve-lines, which was pubhihed under
the infpeftion of Francis Schooten. For further improve-
ment he fpent fome years in travel, and upon his return was
elefted to his father's poft of penfionary of Dordrecht.
Attached by his defcent to the principles of republicanifm,
and jealous of the houfe of Orange, he oppofed the eleva-
tion of this houfe, and diffuaded the province of Zealand
from conferring the office of captain-general upon the
young prince, William III. His conduft in tliis bufinefs
was much approved, and he was henceforth regarded as at
the head of the political adminiftration of the United Pro-
vinces. This was a period pecuUarly critical and interefl:ing.
The war with the new Enghfli republic dillreffed the ftates ;
it was injurious to their trade and finances ; and prefented
to the Oranfre party a favourable opportunity for advanc-
ing prince Wilham to the power and dignities poffefled by
his anceftors. Peace at length became abfolutely neceffary ;
and one of the articles concluded upon in 1654, and dic-
tated by Cromwell, was the perpetual exclufion of the
prince of Orange from the high o(Bces formerly held by his
family. This article was agreed to by the (lates of Holland
alone, and when De Witt drew up a declaration for divulging

it.

WIT

it, fome of the provinces cenfured it, and charged the anti-
Orange party with having fuggefted it to Cromwell. The
province of Holland, however, carried the point, and the ge
neral tranquillity was little difturbed. De Witt now direfted
h?s attention to the ftate of the finances, and fucceeded in
reducing the intereft of the public debt, and perfuading the
people to acquiefce in this meafure. The reftoration of
Charles II. was generally agreeable to the United States,
and more efpecially to the Orange party : but the reftored
fovereign foon declared his diflatisfaftion with De Witt, be-
caufe he had been hoftile to the elevation of the houfe of
Orange. From this time, the Dutch ftatefman favoured the
politics of France more than thofe of England. At length
a war took place between the Dutch and Englifh in 1665 ;
during the progrefsof which De Witt was often unpopular,
though he was the main fpring which kept in aftion the
refources of the ftate, and remedied every calamity. Peace
with England in 1667 developed the ambitious projefts of
Lewis XIV. in taking pofTeflion of the Spani(h Netherlands ;
and the alarm which this meafure produced in the United Pro-
vinces gave occafion to the friends of the houfe of Orange
to propofe the elevation of the young prince to the dignities
which his family had pofTeffed. De Witt, with a view of
counterafting this purpofe, obtained a refolution on the part
of the ftates of Holland for feparating the offices of captain-
general and ftadtholder (fee William III.), which refolu-
tion gave great offence to the other provinces, and rendered
De Witt, with whom it was fuppofed to have originated,
extremely unpopular. Scnfible, however, of the dangers
arifing from French ambition, he concurred in the triple
alliance between England, Sweden, and the United Provinces,
concluded, in 1668, by himfelf and fir WiUiam Temple.
The ftates of Holland were fo fatisfied with his conduft, that
they nominated him for five years more to the office of their
penfionary, which he had already occupied for fifteen years.
Confiding in the triple alliance, and the fubfequent peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, he again indulged his jealoufy of the Orange
party and a ftanding army, and confidered the danger from
France as a fecondary objeft. But the ambition of Lewis
had no bounds ; the unprincipled Charles II. could not be
relied upon ; the triple alliance was fet afide ; and the Eng-
lifli cabinet joined the French in direft war with the United
Provinces ; fo that in the year 1672 a French army made an
irruption into the territories of the ftutes, and threatened to
overwhelm the whole country. The anti-Orangifts were
then compelled to confer the chief command on William.
The conduft of the French had been fo atrocious, that every
perfon who had manifefted the flighteft attachment to their
politics was charged with treafon. De Witt became the ob-
jeft of public indignation, and to him were afcribed all the
calamities which were felt or feared. Four aflaffins attempted
his life, as he was returning home from an aflembly of the
ftates of Holland, attended by a fingle fervant ; but though
he received many wounds, none of them were mortal. One
of the affaffins was taken and executed ; but fuch is the in-
fluence of party, the friends of the houfe of Orange regarded
the wretch as a martyr. Cornelius de Witt, on his return
from the fleet, where he had ferved as deputy of the ftates,
narrowly efcaped from a fimilar attempt. The prince was
now elevated to the ftadtholderate ; and the penfionary, as
foon as he was recovered from his wounds, vifited him with
congratulation on the event, but was coolly received.
Finding that, as he was become an objeft of the public
hatred, he could be no longer of any fervice, he requefted
permiffion from the ftates of Holland to refign his office,
which was granted him upon the moft honourable terms.
His brother was at this time imprifoned among common
Vol. XXXVIII.

W I T

felons at the Hague, under a charge, preferred by a perfon
of infamous charafter, of having formed a plot againft the
hfe of the prince of Orange. On his trial he was put to
the torture, in the mofl cruel form of applying it ; but
though he endured the moft aggravated fufferings, protefting
his innocence, and citing his judges before the tribunal of
God for their treatment of him, they pronounced fentence,
which deprived him of all his dignities, and banithed him
for life from tlie province. Although no criminal charge
was brought againft John de Witt, the enemies of the fa-
mily refolved that neither of the brothers fhould efcape witli
life. Decoyed by a fiftitious meflage to vifit his brother
Cornelius in the prifon, a furious mob affembled to prevent
his return. The ftates of Holland ordered a guard to dif-
perfe the people, and requefted fome companies of horfe and
foot to be fent from the camp of the prince of Orange.
But the commanding officers were inveterate in their enmity
againft the De Witts ; and the inflamed populace, not re-
ftrained from executing their bloody purpofe, forced open
the doors of the prifon, dragged out the two brothers, and
inhumanly maffacred them. This cataftrophe took place in
Auguft 1672, John de Witt being in the 47th year of his age.
Although the ftates of Holland pronounced the deed to be
deteftable, and requefted the ftadtholder to take proper
meafures for avenging the death of thefe two brothers, it
was pretended that it would be dangerous to inquire into a
deed in which the principal burghers of the Hague were con-
cerned, and therefore none of the murderers were brought
to juftice. It fliould, however, be recoUefted, that th«
prince never fpoke of this malTacre without the greateft
horror.

The charafter of De Witt has been defcribed in honour-
able terms by fir William Temple, who knew him well,
both in private hfe and in his pubUc ftation. He fpeaka of
him as a perfon of indefatigable application, of invincible
refolution, of a found and clear judgment, and of irre-
proachable integrity, infomuch, that if he was blinded in
any refpeft, it was in confequence of his paffion for pro^
moting what he thought the welfare of his country. He
bears teftimony to the penfionary's knowledge of the interefts
of foreign courts, though he did not make fufficient allow-
ance for the treachery of princes, or rather their minifters,
and was thus milled with regard to the ambitious views of
France. If he had any wrong bias in his political condudi,
it was that of an hereditary jealoufy and diflike of the houfe
of Orange, which led him in fome cafes to aft rather as a
party leader than an unprejudiced patriot. No man could
be lefs influenced than De Witt by views of avarice or often-
tation. His manners and appearance were adapted to the
ancient fimplicity and frugality of his country, even in the
height of his power. When his papers and private letters
were fubmitted to a rigorous fcrutiny after his death, nothing
was difcovered that could impeach his integrity. When one
of the commiffioners was all<ed what they had found in De
Witt's papers ; " What (faid he) could we have found —
nothing but probity !" As a man of bufinefs, he was fcru-
puloufly attentive to order and method ; and when he wa&
once aflied, How he was able to tranfaft fuch a multiplicity
of aff'airs ? he replied, " By doing only one thing at a time."
Mod. Un. Hift. Gen. Biog.

WITTBACH, in Geography, a river of Germany,
which rifes near Hackenburg Sayn, and after a circuitous
courfe runs into the Rhine, about a mile below Neuwied.

WITTELM, a fmall ifland in Steinhuder lake, with
a fort ; 3 miles N. of Hagenburg.

WITTELOHE, a town of Germany, in the county of
Verden ; 10 miles S.E. of Verden.

4 C WIT-

WIT

W I T

WITTEM, a citadel of France, in the department of
the Roer. It heretofore gave name to a lordfhip, wholly
furrounded by the duchy of Limburg ; 6 miles S.E. of
Aix-la-Chapelle.

WITTEN, in Commerce, a money of account at Pernau
and Stettin, &c. At Pernau a current rix-doUar is reckoned
at 60 widens, or 75 copecks ; and an Albert's rix-doUar
is eftimated at 80 wittens, or 100 copecks ; a Pernau mark
is worth 3 wtttens ; a LettiHi mark = 2 wittens ; and 4
wittens = 5 copecks. At Stettin the rix-dollar was for-
merly divided into 36 (hillings current, 72 (hillings Sundifh,
or 144 wittens ; which monies of account are now nearly
difcontinued.

WiTTEN, in Geography, a town of Gernnany, in the
county of Mark ; 7 miles S.E. of Bockum.

WiTTEN See, a lake of the duchy of Bremen ; 10 miles
S.E. of Bremen.

WITTENA-GemoTE, among our Saxon Jncejlors, a
term literally fignifying a council, or affembly of fages, or
wife men ; applied to the great council of the land, m later
days cz&eA parliament ; which fee. See alfo Gemote.

In the Saxon times, this was the chief court of the king-
dom, where all matters, both civil and criminal, and thofe
relating to the revenue, were determined. In civil and
criminal matters, 5t was a court, in the iirft inftance only,
for fads arifing in the county where it fat ; but it heard
aad determined caufes from all other counties by way of
appeal. To this court were fummoned the earls of each
county, and the lords of each leet, as alfo the reprefentatives
of towns, who were chofen by their burgeffes. This was
the legidative and fupreme judicial aflembly of the Anglo-
Saxon nation. As higheft judicial court of the kingdom,
it refembled our prefent houfe of lords ; and in thofe
periods, when the peers of the realm reprefented terri-
torial property rather than hereditary dignities, the
comparifon between the Saxon wittena-gemote, and the
upper houfe of our modern parliament, might have been
more correftly made in their legiOative capacity. The
German ftates are recorded by Tacitus to have had national
councils, and the continental Saxons are alfo Hated to have
pofleffed them. When the Cyning was only the tempgrary
commander of the nation for the purpofes of war, whofe
funftion ceafed when peace returned, the wittena-gemote
muft have been the fupreme authority of the nation ; but
when the Cyning became an eftabh(hed and permanent dig-
nity, whofe privileges and power were perpetually increafing
till he attained the majeftic prerogatives and widely-diffufed
property which Athelilan and Edgar enjoyed, the wittena-
gemote then affumed a fecondary rank in the ftate. This
council was called by different names, and it was compofed
of perfons who were denominated witan from their prefumed
wifdom, and with reference to their rank and property
eadigan, (the wealthy,) optimates, principes, primates,
proceres, cucionatores angliae, &c. The gemotes of the
witan, without doubt, varied, as our parliaments vary, in
the number and quality of the perfons who from time to
time attended. Moll of thofe whofe names are fubfcribed
to councils or charters, and who appear to have been the
witan who conftituted the gemote, have fome titles after
their names ; but there are fome gemotes which have names
without any addition. It is not eafy to afcertain all the
qualifications which entitled perfons to a feat in the wittena-
gemote. There is, however, one curious paffagCj cited from
the Book of Ely, in Gale's Script, vol. i. p. 513, which
has been alleged by fome writers as afcertaining that a
certain amount of property was an indifpenfable requifite,
and that acquired property would anfwer this purpofe as
12

well as hereditary property. The pofleflion ftated to be
neceflary to conftitute one of the proceres was forty
hides of land. The incident to which this paflage refers
occurred in the reign of Edward the Confefror. It
related to the brother of an abbot, who, though nobly
born, could not be reckoned among the nobility of the
kingdom, bccaufe he had not an ellatc of forty hides of
land ; and, therefore, he was refufed by a lady, whom he
fought in marriage, till his eftate was increafed to that
magnitude by grants of land from his brother. This pafiage
merely proves, that a certain portion, and that a very large
one, of landed property in dominio was a neceifary qualifica-
tion, under the Anglo-Saxon government, to admit any
perfon to the "rank and degree of . nobility." But no
argument, fays lord Littelton, can be juftly drawn from
hence, that, in order to be qualified for a place in the Saxon
great council, or wittena-gemote, it was requifite to be
lord of forty hides of land. Such a notion does not agree
with any accounts that are given us of that affembly in the
writings or records of thofe times. By a paffage in the
preface to Ina's laws, as trandated by ^\ ilkins, it appears,
that the Saxon legiflature was compofed of the king, cum
omnibus fuis fcnatorihus, which fenators Littelton fuppofes
to have been the " nobility of the kingdom," fnch as after-
wards formed the ordinary council of lords under our kings
of Norman race ; et cum feniorihus fapientilus popuU fui, by
whom he underftands the deputies or reprefentatives of the
people, either by ele(Sion or magiftracy ; et cum mulla etiam
fuietate minijlrorum Dei, which words evidently denote the
inferior clergy, mentioned by Eadmer as prefent in the
parliaments of thofe times. It appears alfo, by a paragraph
in Spelman's Councils Sub. Ann. 855, that the Saxon con-
ftitution required not only the " prefence," ( fee BoROUGll,)
but the " approbation of the people," to the cnafting of a
law ; though, by way of marking the diftinftion between
thefe and the higher orders of the ftate, the nobility alone
fet their hands to the aft. " Whoever," fays fir John For-
tefcue Aland, who was very learned in the Saxon language
and legal antiquities, in his preface to the book of chancellor
Fortefcue on the difference between an abfolute and limited
monarchy, " carefully and flcilfully reads the Saxon laws,
and the prefaces or preambles to them, will find, that the
commons of England always in the Saxon times made part
of that auguft affembly." In a pafiage occurring in lib. iii.
f. '^(s. of William of Malmfbury, we have an exprefs decla-
ration, that by the Saxon conftitution eftabliflied in England,
the " people," as well as the nobles, had a right to be
called to the " General Affembly" upon affairs of great
moment, and to join in. the " edifts" made there; fo that,
without " their confent," the fucceflion to the crown
could not be fettled. The term Senatus ufed by this
hiltorian denotes the ordinary affembly of the nobles, which
he diftinguiffies from the •' people ;" but he fuppofes that
the latter ought to be joined to the former, in order to
compofe the entire legiflature and great council of the nation,
upon extraordinary occafions. This was agreeable to the
cuftom afcribed by Tacitus to the Germans, from whom
they fprung ; " De minoribus rebus principes confultant,
de majoribus omnes ; ita tamen, ut ea quoque, quorum apud
plebum arbitrium eft, apud principes pertraftantur." See
Borough.

It has been, among conftitutional antiquarians, an intereft-
ing queftion, whether they who poffeffed this quantity of land
had thereby the right of being in the wittena-gemote ; or
whether the members of this great council were elefted
from the territorial proprietors, and fat as their reprefenta-
tives \ One perfon is mentioned by Mr. Turner (ubi infra),

whofe

W I T

whole defignation feems to hare the force of expreffing an
eledled member. Among the perfons figning to the adl of
the gemote at Clofelhoe in 824 is, " Ego Beonna ekdus
confent. et fubfcrib."

The members of the gemote were convened by the king's
writ, of which many inilances occur ; and the times of their
meeting feem to have been ufually the great feftivals of the
church, as Chriftmas, Eafter, and Whitfuntide ; but of
thefe Eafter, being moft frequently mentioned, feems to
have been the favourite period. Their meetings, however,
were not abfolutely reflriftcd to thefe feafons. The place
of their aflembly was not fixed. Perhaps this might depend
on the king's refidence at the time, and might have fuited
his convenience. Our monarchs feem to have maintained
their influence in the wittena-gemote by their munificence.
The king prefided at this council, and fometimes, perhaps
always, addrefled them. In 993 we have an account of a
royal fpeech. One of their duties was to eleft the fovereigii,
and to aflift at his coronation. Another was to co-operate
with the king in making laws. The wittena-gemote ap-
pears alfo to have made treaties jointly with the king.
Many inftances occur to this purpofe. The treaty, printed
in Wilkins's Leges Anglae-Saxonicse, p. 104, is faid to
have been made by the king and his witan. They are alfo
mentioned as afQfting the king in directing the military pre-
parations of the kingdom. Impeachments of great men were
made before the wittena-gemote. At thefe councils grants
of land were made and confirmed ; and the wittena-gemote
frequently appears in the Saxon remains, as the high court
of judicature of the kingdom, and it exercifed power over
the public guilds of the nation. The lands of the Anglo-
Saxons, the burghs, and the people, appear in all the docu-
ments of our anceftors, as fubjedied to certain definite pay-
ments to the king as to their lords ; and by a cuftom, whofe
origin is loft in its antiquity, among the Anglo-Saxons, all
their landfs, unlefs fpecially exempted, were liable to three
great burdens, the building and reparation of bridges and
fortifications, and to military expeditions. But what we now
call taxation feems to have begun in the time of Ethelred,
and to have arifen from the evils of a foreign invafion.
Thus the payment of io,oao/. to the Danes to buy off
their hoilility, mentioned by Henry of Huntingdon, and
thofe which followed, are ftated to have been ordered by
the king and the wittena-gemote. Under fovereigns of
feeble capacity, the wittena-gemote feems to have been the
fcene of thofe faftions, which always attend both arifto-
cracies and democracies, when no commanding talents exift
to predominate in the difcuflions, and to (hape the council.
Turner's Hift. of the Anglo-Saxons, vol. ii. book 10.
Littelton's Hift. Henry II. vol. iii.

WITTENBERG, in Geography, a town of Saxony, and
capital of a circle or diftrift, fituated on the fide of the
Elbe, over which is a ferry : it is the head town of the
eleftoral circle, the feat of an aulic judicature, of the affize,
as alfo aconfiftory, together with that of the general fuper-
intendancy of the eleftoral circle, a fpiritual infpeftion, the
circle amt, and a famous univerfity, founded in the year
1502, at which, in 15 1 7, the Reformation took its rife by
means of Martin Luther. This town is not large, but for-
tified. The old citadel was formerly the eledoral refi-
dence ; near it ftands an arfenal. In the large round tower
are kept the archives of the eleftoral and princely houfes.
The univerfity library is kept in what was formerly an
Auguftine cloifter. The firft founder of the town of Wit-
tenberg was Bernard, duke of Saxony. In the year 1547,
it was taken by the emperor Charles V. ; in the year 1756,
it was poffefled by the Pruflians, who alfo broke down a

8 miles
Lauen-

WIT

baftion of the fortifications; 60 miles N. of Drefden
N. lat. 51° 53'. E. long. 12'^ 46'.

Wittenberg, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen ;
N. of Heilfterg. — Alfo, a town of the duchy of
burg, on the Elbe ; 8 miles W. of Lauenburg.

WITTENBERGEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Mark of Pregnitz ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Perleberg. N. lat.
53° 2'. E. long. 1 1° 50'.— Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Holftein ; 8 miles S.W. of Lutkenborg.

WITTENBURG, a town of the duehy of Mecklen-
burg ; 1 7 miles W. of Schwerin.

WITTENHALL, a town(hip of England, in StafFord-
ftiire ; 2 miles N.E. of Wolverhampton.

WITTENH AUSEN, a town of the duchy of Holftein ;
5 miles W. of Oldeburg.

WITTENSTEIN, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Natangen ; 10 miles S.S.E. of Kbnigfberg.

WITTGENAU. See Witgenau?

WITTHOEC, a town of Africa, in the country of
Cape Lopez Gonfalvo ; 30 miles N. of Olibato.

WITTICHSTHAL, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Erzgebirg ; 7 miles S. of Schwartzenberg.

WITTINGEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the princi-
pality of Luneburg ZcUe ; 27 miles E. of Zelle.

WITTLESEE Mere, a lake of England, in the county
of Huntingdon ; 4 miles S. of Peterborough.

WITTLICH, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhine and Mofelle ; 16 miles N.E. of Treves. N. lat.
50° 4'. E. long. 6° 52'.

WITTMUND, a town of Eaft Friefeland, on the
Harle ; 7 miles S.E. of Eifens.

WITTOBA, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name of the
god Vifhnu in one of his numerous defcents, or avataras, as
they are called. Some account of thefe avataras is given
under our article Vishnu. This, now under confideration,
was one of inferior importance ; and not, it is faid, of very
ancient occurrence, and therefore not defcribed in the
Puranas, unlefs it be in the one fuppofed to be more modern
than the reft, which is entitled Maha Bhagavat. (See
PuRANA, and Sri Bhagavata. ) A fplendid temple is
dedicated to the worthip of Wittoba, or Vifhnu, at Pander-
poor, a town of great refpeftability on the river Beemah,
about 100 miles to the fouth-callward of Poona. The
manifeftation is faid to have taken place there. He is there
reprefented fculptured in ftone, of the fize of a man, ftand-
ing with his feet parallel to each other ; his hands upon his
hips, the fingers pointing forward, his thumbs backward.
Two of the wives of Vifhnu in his avatara of Krifhna ac-
companied him in this ; thefe were Rukmeni and Satyavama,
and they have fmaller temples at Panderpoor, befides their
lord's. (See Krishna, Rukmeni, and Satyavama.)
Images of Wittoba are common in the Mahratta country,
generally of clumfy manufafture. Several reprefentations
of Wittoba and his wives are given in the Hindoo Pantheon,
from cafts and piftures. That work contains alfo a hift.ory
of the avatara, and many particulars refpefting it.

WITTORF, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Verden ; 10 miles S.S.E. of Rotenburg.

WITTOW, a town on a peninfula at the northern ex-
tremity of the ifland of Ufedom, near Artona, an ancient
fortrefs deftroyed by the Swedes. N. lat. 54° 44'. E.
long. 13° 27'.

WITTSTOCK, a town of Brandenburg, in the Mark
of Pregnitz ; 47 miles N.N.W. of Berlin. N. lat. 53° 10*.

E. long. 12° 39' Alfo, a town of Brandenburg, in the

New Mark; 12 miles N. of Cuflrin. N. lat. 52° 49'.

E. long. 14° jo'.

4C

WITWALL,

W I z

W O A

WIT WALL, ill Ornithology, a common Englilh name
for the great fpotted wood-pecker, the picus varius major
of authors.

WITZELRODE, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the county of Henneberg ; 3 miles E.N.E. of Sal-
zungen.

WITZELSTORFF, a town of Auftria ; 4 miles S.E.
of Hoffmarckt.

WITZENBURG, a town of Weftphaha, in the
bifhopric of Hilde(heim ; 6 miles S.E. of Alfeld.

WITZENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
principahty of Hefle Rhinfels', 13 miles E. of Calfel. N.
lat. 51^ 10'. E. long. 9° 48'.

WIVELISCOMBE, a large market-town in the hun-
dred of Weft Kingfbury, and county of Somerfet, England,
b iituated in a valley, at the diftance of 1 1 miles W. from
Taunton, 25 miles W. from Somerton, and 156 miles W.
by S. from London. It appears to have been of fome note
under the Romans, though not diftinguifhed in their annals as
a ftation or mihtary poft. In the earlier part of their tranf-
afiions in this ifland, they had a large caftrum, or encamp-
ment, on a hill about a mile eaftward from the town, which
ftill is called the caftle. Its fummit contains about twelve
acres ; and though moftly covered with coppice-wood and
bufhes, the veftiges of fortifications, and the foundations of
buildings, are yet difcernible on its furface. Part of the
foffe, which is very deep, and extended round the hill, has
been deftroyed by the working of a quarry. Near the
centre of the area, a great number of Roman coii:s of various
emperors were difcovered in the beginning of the laft cen-
tury. The Danes, during their incurfions into this county,
availed themfelves of this caftle, and after their departure,
the Saxons, recovering their tranquillity, tranfplanted them-
felves to the adjacent vale, and gave their new habitations
the name of Wivelifcombe. From this time it progreffively
became of importance, conftituted the head of a large lord-
fliip, and was always held by the Saxon kings, till Edward
the ConfefTor granted all the lands to the church of Wells.
The biftiops of that fee had a ftately palace here for nearly
three centuries : it is now in ruins ; a workhoufe, erefted in
'735' occupies a part of the ancient fcite. The town now
confifts of feven irregular ftreets : it is governed by a bailiff
and portreeve, who are annually chofen in May. Here were
formerly two markets, one on Tuefdays, the other on
Saturdays ; the latter only is now retained, with three annual
fairs. A confiderable woollen manufaAure has been carried
on for more than two hundred years, and ftill flourifhes ;
the chief articles made are, blanketings, knap- coatings,
kerfies and other coarfe cloths, ftirouds, ermine, and baize.
Many of thefe are fent to London, Brittol, and Exeter, for
home confumption, and for exportation to Spain and
Guernfey. The church is a plain ftrufture, and confifts of
a nave and two aifles, with a tower and fpire at the weft
end. The parifh befides the town includes four fmall hamlets,
and according to the population return of the year 181 1

contains 567 houfes, and 2550 inhabitants Collinfon's

Hiftory, &c. of Somerfetfhire, vol. ii. 1791.

WIVENHOE, a village of England, in the county of
Eflex, fituated on the river Coin ; it is the harbour of Col-
chefter, and here is a cuftom-houfe. The oyfters, called
Colchefter oyfters, are barrelled in this place. In 181 1,
the population was 1046.

WIZE, a river of England, in the county of Cumber-
land, which runs into the Wever.

WIZNA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 88 miles
N.E. of Warfaw.

WIZUNY, a town of Lithuania ; 20 miles N.N.E. of
Wilkomiers.

WIZZARD, in ylgricuUure, a term applied in Norfolk
to any particular fort of cart for farm-work.

WIZZENED, a term provincially applied to fignify
withered or ftirivelled, as hay.

WLADISLAW, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in
the circle of Iglau ; 12 miles S. of Meferitfch.

Wladislaw, or Inowrojlanu, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw, and capital of a palatinate of the fame name, on
the Viftula : the fee of the biftiop of Cujavia, removed from
Krufwica in 11 73; 108 miles N.W. of Warfaw. N. lat.
52° 35'. E. long. 18° 35'.

WLODOWA, a town of Auftrian Poland ; 18 miles
N.E. of Chelm.

WLODZIMIERZ, atown of Poland, in Volhynia, on
the Bog ; the fee of a Greek biftiop, united to the church
of Rome ; 48 miles W. of Luckow.

WOAD, in Agriculture, a plant cultivated in the field for
the ufe of the dyers. It is a plant which has a ftrong
thickifh fibrous root, which penetrates deep into the foil,
and which is principally raifed for the ufe of the leaves,
which, after being properly manufaftured, are made ufe of
in the art of dyeing to produce a blue colour, as vpell as the
bafis of black, and fome others.

Soil. — It is evident from the nature of its root that it re-
quires a foil which has much depth or ftaple, and which is
perfeftly frefh, fuch as thofe of the rich, mellow, loamy,
and deep vegetable kind. Where this fort of culture is car-
ried to a confiderable degree of perfeftion, as in Lincoln-
fhire, the deep, rich, putrid, alluvial foils on the flat trafts
extending upon the borders of the different large rivers are
chiefly employed for the growth of this fort of crop ; and
it has been fhewn by repeated trials that it anfwers moft per-
feftly when they are broken up from a Itate of fward im-
mediately for it. In fome places, it is the praftice to take
lands of this defcription at high prices, for the purpofe of
breaking them up and growing it upon them for two or three
years ; on the more low rich foils, for four years, but on
thofe of lefs fertility only for three ; and in fome, which
are more elevated and expofed, two are confidered fufScient.
For this fort of culture, people are employed, who move
from place to place, and form a fort of colony. Mr. Cart-
wright, in the above county, has however found, that it is ca-
pable of being confined to one fpot with equal or greater
fuccefs, by having a fufScient extent of ground for chang- ■
ing the place of its growth as may be neceffary, and for
appropriating an adequate proportion annually to the raifing
of the plant, by which the houfes and expenfive machinery
that are neceffary for its preparation may be kept conftantly
and regularly employed in the bufinefs.

Preparation In order to prepare the land for this crop,

it is advifed by fome to plough it up with a good deep fur-
row, immediately before the winter commences, laying it in
high narrow ridges, to have the full effeft of the frofts ;
and early in the fpring to give another ploughing in the con-
trary direftion, leaving the ground in the fame kind of
ridge as before. When it has remained in this ftate fome
length of time, and weeds appear, it fhould be well har-
rowed down with a heavy harrow, repeating the operation
fo as to render it perfeftly fine and clean. About the be-
ginning of June a third ploughing (hould be given to the
full depth with a narrow furrow, and the land be afterwards
well harrowed down as before ; the fourth or final plough-
ing being given towards the beginning of July, in a hght
manner, leaving the furface as even as poffible for the feed.
But fome take much lefs trouble in the bufinefs of prepara-
tion.

WOAD.

tion. In cafes where the foils are fufBciently dry, only
breaking them up early in the month of February ; and
where the contrary is the cafe, deferring it to a later period,
taking care to plough the land in a perfeft manner to the
depth of five inches, or more : and that the furrow-flices
may be well turned, laid flat, and nicely jointed, a perfon is
employed with a fpade for the purpofe of adjufting them.
This prevents the graffy matters from rifing in the feams.
When this has been done, the furface is repeatedly harrowed
over, to raife a fufficient depth of good mould for the drill
to work in ; and before the feed is put in a roller is pafTed
over the land.

It is probable, however, that this method is inferior to
the former, as the land is not brought nearly to fo fine a ftate
of mould, or the graffy material fo effeftually covered and
deftroyed, from which injury may be done to the woad
plants in their early growth.

But a method which is equally effeftual with the firft,
more expeditious, and which has a fuperiority over it, in
more completely deftroying grubs, infers, and other ver-
min, which are apt to feed on the plants in their early
growth, is that of paring and burning. This is, however,
chiefly praftifed where the fward is rough, and abounds with
rufhes, fedge, and other plants of the coarfe kind, but might
be had recourfe to on others, with vaft benefit.

Where the latter modes are made ufe of as foon as the
feed has been put in, the land fhould be carefully drained by
forming grips in fuitable direftions, as wherever water ftag-
nates, the woad plants are liable to be injured or de-
ftroyed.

Seed. — In refpeft to the feed, it fliould be coUetted from
ground that has been left covered with the beft plants from
the preceding feafon, as they only run up to ftem and form
feeds in the fccond year ; and in order to have good feed,
the leaves fhould not be cropped at all or but once, the ftems
being fuffered to remain till the feeds in the huflcs become
perfeAly ripened ; which is fliewn by their attaining a
brownifh-yeilow colour, and the pods having a darkblackifh
appearance. It fliould then be gathered as foon as pofTible,
by reaping the Hems in the manner of grain, and then fpread-
ing them in rows thinly upon the ground if the weather be
fine, when in the courfe of a few days they will be in a ftate
to be threfhed out from the huflcs or pods. When they are
fuffered to remain too long, the pods are Hable to open, and
(hed the feed. Although the pod in which the feeds are con-
tained is of a large fize, the feeds are lefs than thofe of the
turnip. New feed, where it can be procured, fhould always
be fown in preference to fuch as has been kept for fome
time ; but when of the latter kind, it fhould be fteeped for
fome time before it is put into the ground.

In regard to the quantity of feed which is neceffary, it
muft be regulated by the foil, and the manner in which it is
fown. Where the drill is employed, lefs will be required
than in the broad-caft method. It has been found that a
rood of land, where the crop is good, will in general afford
feed fufficient for eight or ten acres ; and in fome cafes, in
the broad-caft method, five or fix bufhels are made ufe of to
the acre. In Kent they ufe ten or twelve pounds to the
i acre.

: Sowing. — The time of fowing crops of this nature muft
[ be regulated, in fome degree, by the mode of preparation
j that has been employed. Where the firft of the above me-
I thods has been followed, it will be much later than in the
I other cafes. But early fowing is in general to be preferred,
I as there will be lefs danger of the plants being injured
I by the attacks of the fly or grub. Where the weather is
' fuitable, and the land in a proper ftate of preparation, the

feed may be fown in the latter end of February or Marcll»
continuing the fowings, in different portions of land, till
about the middle of May, at fuitable intervals of time to
vary the times of cropping the leaves of the plants. The
late fowings are commonly executed about the latter end of
July, or early in the following month at the fartheft.

With refpeft to the manner in which the feed is fown, it
differs according to the nature and ftate of preparation of the
land. Where it is in a fine ftate of mould, the drill or row me-
thod is the method moftly pradlifed, which is by much the
beft, as by it the plants may be kept more eafily clean and
free from weeds, becoming more ilrong and vigorous, from
the earth being more ftirred about the plants : but where
the contrary is the cafe, the broad-cafl mode is generally
followed ; but which does not by any means admit of 4he
plants being kept fo free from weeds, or the mould fo well
ftirred about the roots of them.

Where the firft method is had recourfe to, the feed is
fown by a drilling-machine, fuch as is ufed for turnips, in
equidiftant rows, eight or nine inches apart, covering it in,
either by means of a harrow attached to the implement, or
by paffing a light common harrow over the ground after-
wards, once in a place, raking off any clods that may be
prefent to the fides, or into the furrows : but in the latter
mode, it mull be difperfed by the hand in as equal a manner
as polfible, over the whole of the land, being then harrowed
in by a light harrow, fo as to leave the land in as even and
level a ftate as poffible. The ground is frequently rolled
afterwards, that the furface may be left as even as poffible.

In favourable feafons with good feed, the plants moftly
appear in the courfe of a fortnight, when much attention
fliould be paid to fee that they are not deftroyed by the
turnip-fly, or the frofts in thofe of the more early fowings ;
as, where that is the cafe, the land fhould be immediately
refown ; as in fome cafes it is not uncommon to fow the
greateft part of the crop two or three times over. In the
very late fowings, where the crops rife thin on the ground,
it is fometimes a practice to give a better plant by forming
holes with a hoe in the vacant fpots, and direfting feeds to
be dropped into them by the hand by women or children.
This is the cafe with the late fpring-fowings till the begin-
ning of June, or a later period.

Culture ■while growing. — From much of the goodnefs of
the woad plants depending on the luxuriance of their
growth, and the thicknefs of their leaves, it is neceffary to
beftow great attention in the culture of the crop while
growing. It is advifed that the fpring-fown crops, as well as
thofe that are fown in the latter part of the fummer, fhould
have the firft hoeings given them as foon as the plants are
fully diftinguifhable above the ground, as by this means the
weeds will not only be prevented from retarding the vegeta-
tion of the plants, but thefe by being thinned out to greater
diftances be more at liberty to advance and become vi-
gorous in their firft or early growth, which is a matter of
much confequence to the fuccefs of the crop ; and fecond
hoeings fhould be given in the courfe of four or five weeks
afterwards, when the plants fhould be thinned out to the full
diftances at which they are to ftand, which may be fix or
feven inches, or more, according to the goodnefs of the
foil, conftantly leaving fufficient room to prevent the plants
from being in any way crowded. The work is fometimes
executed in much the fame manner as for turnips, by hand-
hoes ; but in others by fmall ftiort fpuds, ufed with one
hand, while the other is employed in clearing away the
weeds ; the labourers, moftly women and children, kneeling
while they perform the work. When this work has been
done, nothing further is neceffary till the firft cropping of

the

wo AD.

the leaves has been performed, when the plants Ihould be
again immediately well weeded ; and after each cropping
the fame operation be had recourfe to ; the extent of crop
cleared in the day being, in mod cafes, weeded before
right.

With the late-fown crops, after the fecond weeding in
OAober, nothing further will be requifite till the fpring,
about the middle of April, when the work (hould be again
well executed, the mould being completely ftirred about the
roots of the plants, that they may derive the fuUeft benefit
from the operation. This will be fufficient to keep them
clean till the taking of the firft crop ; after which they muft
be again weeded, and the fame operation be had recourfe to
after each cropping of the leaves, as in the above cafe.

In refpeft to the bufinefs of gathering the crops with the
fpring-fown ones, the leaves will generally be ready to be
gathered towards the latter end of June, or beginning of
July, according to the nature of the foil, feafon, and cli-
mate ; but for thofe put in at a later period in the fummer,
they are often fit to be gathered earlier. This bufinefs
fhould, however, conftantly be executed as foon as the
leaves are fully grown, while they retain their perfeft green
colour, and are highly fucculent ; as when they are let re-
main till they begin to turn pale, much of their goodnefs is
faid to be expended, and they become lefs in quantity, and
of an inferior quahty for the purpofes of the dyer. In fa-
vourable feafons, where the foils are rich, the plants will
often rife to the height of eight or ten inches ; but in other
circumftances they feldom attain more than four or five :
and where the lands are well managed in the culture of the
plants, they will often afford two or three gatherings, but
the befi; cultivators feldom take more than two, which are
fometimes mixed together in the manufafturing of them. It
is neceflary that the after-croppings, when they are taken,
are conftantly kept feparate from the others, as they would
injure the whole if blended together, and confiderably di-
minifti the value of the produce. It is faid that the beft
method, where a third cropping is either wholly or partially
made, is to keep it feparate, forming it into an inferior kind
of woad.

Upon an acre of land, when well managed, in favourable
feafons, the produce is moftly from about a ton to a ton and
a half. The price varies confiderably ; but for woad of the
prime quality, it is often from twenty-five to thirty pounds
the ton, and for that of an inferior quality fix or feven, and
fometimes much more.

Seeding-Crops. — With fuch parts of the crops as are re-
ferved for feed, it is a praftice with fome to crop the leaves
two or three times the firft year, and then leave the plants
to run up to feed in the following one ; but it is a better
praftice to only remove the fide-leaves, as in this way the
plants are lefs weakened, and the produce of the feed much
increafed. The plants are likewife fometimes fed down by
Iheep during the winter feafon ; but this, from its tendency
to weaken them, is equally improper and prejudicial.

Preparation of for the Dyer The woad, after it has been

gathered, undergoes feveral procefles to prepare it for the
dyer ; but in the improved method it is conveyed in one-
horfe carts, fo contrived as to be lifted from the axis, and,
by folding doors in the bottoms, to difcharge their con-
tents upon the floor above the mill, on being hoifted up to
their proper fituation : round this floor holes are formed for
putting the plants down through, in order that they may
drop under the grinding-wheels. The mills for this pur-
pofe have feveral wheels for grinding the plants, which have
lefs diameters on one fide than the other, and are about
three feet in width, being conftrufted with iron bars for

crufhing the woad. They are wrought by horfes, or any
other power, as may be the moft convenient. The mate-
rials are preferved under the grinding-wheels by proper con-
trivances, which, as foon as they are fufficiently reduced,
force it out of the tracks upon the ttone floors on the fides ;
thus making way for new parcels without the mill being
flopped. The bruifed woad is then thrown into rooms on
the fides of the mill, deftined for its reception, by means of
fhovels. In thefe it remain* till the juice is fo much drained
off as to leave it in a proper condition for being formed into
balls ; which is done by labourers, with apparatus for the
purpofe, and then laid upon trays to be conveyed to the dry-
ing ranges, in which they are placed upon grating-fhelves
that Aide on fledges in the drying-houfes. Thefe are placed
on the fides of galleries, for the convenience of being eafily
depofited upon them and removed again. It is kept ia
thefe till it is fufficiently dried to be laid up in other rooms,
until the whole of the crop has undergone the fame opera-
tions, and the workmen are ready to manufafture it.

It is ftated in the Correded Lincolnfliire Report on Agri-
culture, that to prepare it for ufe in the art of dyeing, it is
neceflary for it to take on a proper ftate of fermentation,
which is accompliflied in the courfe of feven or eight
weeks, and, in the technical language of the art, is termed
couching. It is effefted by regrinding the balls, in the fame
mill as before, to a fine powder, and then fpreading it
upon the floors of the rooms in which the balls were formed,
to the thicknefs of about three feet ; where it is then moif-
tened with water, fo as to keep it in a proper flow ftate of
fermentation ; and fo managed by turning that it may per-
vade the whole in an equal manner. In this bufinefs, the di-
reftion of an experienced workman is neceflary. In the
turning, it is of much importance that the parts of the ma-
terials be perfeftly divided, which can only be effefted by a
nice management of the fliovel : and it is added that much
advantage has been found in the goodnefs of the woad, from
the drying and ftoring of it being performed in a careful man-
ner, when this attention is negledled, the woad will not,
on being broken between the finger and thumb, draw out
into fine hair-hke filaments, or, in the technical language of
the manufafturer, beaver well ; as the ufe of this fubftance
in the blue vat of the dyer, is not merely to afford the co-
lour of the plant, but, by bringing on a very gentle fer-
mentation, excite the indigo in the fame vat to yield its co-
louring principle more perfedlly. This is even neceflary for
its own colouring-matter being fully imparted. The fub-'
ttance ihould, therefore, be fo prepared in the different opera-
tions as to produce this effeft in the moft certain and perfeft'
manner. When the heat in the procefs of couching has
gone too far, the fubftance will be what is termedyi.vy ; and
when it has not proceeded to a fufficient degree, it will be
what is called heavy. If the material be good, it does not
foil the fingers on being rubbed between them ; but fuch as
is heavy does. In the conclufion of the procefs, the cool-
ing is effefted in fo gradual a manner, as to render it not |
fit for taking on the fame procefs ; and of courfe proper for
being preferved in caflcs, or in any other way. It is then
ready for ufe.

The preparation of woad for dyeing, as praftifed in
France, is minutely defcribed by Aftruc, in his Memoirs
for a Natural Hiftory of Languedoc. The plant puts
forth at firft five or fix upright leaves, about a foot long,
and fix inches broad : when thefe hang downwards, and
turn yellow, they are fit for gathering : five crops are ga-
thered in one year. The leaves are carried direftjy to a
mill, much refembhng the oil or tan-mills, and ground into a
fmooth pafte. If this procefs was deferred for fome time,

they

W O A

they would putrefy, and fend forth an infupportable flench.
The pafte is laid in heaps, prefl'ed clofe and fmooth, and
the blackifh cruft, which forms on the outfide, re-
united if it happens to crack : if this was negleded, little
worms would be produced in the cracks, and the woad
would lofe a part of its ftrength. After lying for fifteen
days, the heaps are opened, the cruft rubbed and mixed
with the infide, and the matter formed into oval balls, which
are prefl'ed clofe and folid in wooden moulds. Thefe are
dried upon hurdles : in the fun, they turn black on the out-
fide ; in a clofe place, yellowifh, efpccially if the weather
be rainy : the dealers in this commodity prefer the firft,
though it is faid the workmen find no inconiiderable differ-
ence betwixt the two. The good balls are diftinguifhed
by their being weighty, of an agreeable fmell, and when
rubbed of a violet colour within. For the ufe of the
dyer, thefe balls require a farther preparation : they are
btat with wooden mallets, on a brick or ftone floor, into a
grofs powder ; which is heaped up in the middle of the
room to the height of four feet, a fpace being left for
pafling round the fides. The powder, moiftened with
water, ferments, grows hot, and throws out a thick feiid
fume. It is fhovelled backwards and forwards, and moif-
tened every day for twelve days ; after which it is flirred lefs
frequently, without watering, and at length made into a
heap for the dyer.

The powder thus prepared gives only brownifh tinftures,
of different fhadcs, to water, to reftilied fpirit of wine, to
volatile alkaline fpirits, and to fixed alkaline lixivia : rubbed
on paper, it communicates a green llain. On diluting the
powder with boiling water, and after Handing fome hours in
a clofe veffel, adding about one-twentieth part of its weight
of hme newly flacked, digefting in a gentle warmth, and
ftirring the whole together every three or four hours, a new
fermentation begins, a blue froth arifcs to the furface, and
the liquor, though it appears itfelf of a reddifh colour, dyes
woollen of a green, which, like the green from indigo,
changes in the air to a blue. This is one of the niceft pro-
ceffes in the art of dyeing, and does not well fucceed in the
way of a fmall experiment.

Aftruc propofes the manufadturing of frefh woad leaves
in Europe, after the fame manner as the indigo plant is ma-
nufaftured in America ; and thus preparing from it. a blue
fecula fimilar to indigo, which from his own experiments be
has found to be prafticable. Such a management would
doubtlefs be accompaiiicd with fome advantages, though
poffibly woad fo prepared might lofe thofe qualities which
now render it, in a large bufinefs, preferable on fome ac-
counts to indigo, as occafioning greater difpatch when once
the vat is ready, and giving out its colour lefs haftily, fo as
to be better fitted for dyeing very light ihades. Neumann's
Chem. by Lewis, p. 437, &c.

The ancient Gauls and Britons ufed to dye or ftain
their bodies with this plant, and were probably led from this
application of it to ufe it for dyeing cloth.

Some hold that it was from this plant glafs took its deno-
mination ; though others derive both glajs and glajlum from
the Britifli glafs, which to this day denotes a blue colour.
See Glass.

A woad blue is a very deep blue, almoft black ; and is
the bafe of fo many forts of colours, that the dyers have a
fcale, by which they compofe the divers cafts or degrees of
woad, from the brighteft to the deepell.

Woad, in Botany. (See Isatis.) There are four
fpecies.

The broad-leaved woad is cultivated in feveral parts of

W O B

England for the purpofes of dyeing, beinaufed as a found-
ation for many of the dark colours.

Some feed down the leaves of woad in winter with (heep ;
a pradice which Mr. Miller condemns.

Woad grows wild in fome parts of France, and on the
coafts of the Baltic fea : the wild woad, and that which is
cultivated for^the ufeof dyers, appear to be of the fame fpecies.

Befide the plant properly fignified by the name woad,
which dyes a blue colour, we have two others known in our
Englifh herbals under that name, as alfo that of luold or
•weld. Thefe are both called by the common people dyer's
•weed, and are the /uteo/a and ihe genifta tmaoria.

The ancients confounded all thefe three plants alfo under
the fame names. Paul us ^gineta feems to make them all
the fame plant ; and Neophytus, fpeaking of the ifatts, or
our woad, properly fo called, fays, that it was called by the
Latins lutum. This liilum has been by fome underftood to
mean the luteola, and by others the genlfla tinaoria ; but the
latter opinion only is right, for it is defcribed to us by the
ancients as having leaves hke the linum, or flax, and flowers
like the broom.

WoAD-Mi/l and ffou/e, that fort of mill and houfe
which is neceffary and proper for preparing and fitting this
kind of fubftance for the ufe of the dyer. The reprefent-
ation of a mill and excellent apparatus for effefting the pre-
paration of the woad plant, which is made ufe of by Mr.
Cartwright, with much fuccefs and advantage, in Lincoln-
fhire, may be feen in the fecond volume of the " General
Didlionary of Agriculture and Hufbandry."

WOAHOO, or Oahoo, in Geography, one of the Sand-
wich iflands ; as far as could be judged from the appear-
ance of the north-eafl and north-weft parts, it is much the
fineft ifland of the whole group. Nothing can exceed the
verdure of the hills, the variety of wood and lawn, and rich
cultivated valleys, which the whole face of the country dif-
played. The road is formed by the north and weft extremi-
ties. Should the ground-tackling of a (hip be weak, and
the wind blow ftrong from the north, to which quarter the
road is entirely open, this circumftance might be attended
with fome danger ; but with good cables there would be
little rifl<, as the ground from the anchoring-place, which is
oppofite to the valley through which the river runs to the
north point, is a fine fand. This ifland is fuppofed to con-
tain 60,000 inhabitants. N. lat. 21° 43'. E. long, of the
anchoring-place 202° 9'. See Sandwich IJlands.

WOALDS, in ylgrlcuhure, a term not unfrequently
applied by writers on hufbandry to crops of the woad
kind. See Woad.

WOAPO, in Geography, one of the Ingraham iflands
in the Pacific ocean. Captain Ingraham called it Ad.nms.
It was afterwards viGted by captain Roberts, who named
it JefFerfon. S. lat. 9' 27'.

WOBBEL, a town of Weftphalia, in the county of
Lippe ; 6 miles E.N.E. of Horn.

WOBURN, or WooBURN WeJ}, or BMop's Wooburn, a
village in the hundred of Defborough, Buckinghamlhire,
England, is fituated in a narrow valley, at the diftance of
3 miles W.S.W. from Beaconsfield, and 26 miles W. byN.
from London. The manor of Bifhop's Wooburn had
from time immemorial belonged to the fee of Lincoln, till
the year 1547, when bifhop Holbeach gave it to the crown
in exchange. It was granted in 1549 to John, earl of
Bedford. In the 1701 century it came by marriage
to Philip, lord Wharton, whofe fon and grandfon, the cele-
brated marquis and duke of Wharton, fiicceflively held it.
After the death of the latter, it was fold to the Berties ;
from whom it was purchafed, in 1784, by Mrs. Dupre,

mother

W O B

mother of James DuprS, efq. of Wilton-park, who is the
prefent proprietor. The old manor-houfe was a palace of
the bifhops of Lincoln, ftveral of whom died here. The
marquis and the duke of Wharton are faid to have expended
incredible fums of money on the houfe and gardens : of the
latter, which m a former age were highly celebrated, fcarcely
a veftio^e now remains. The manfion was pulled down m
171:0 ;''when one of the wings was fitted up as a dweihng-
houfe, which has fince been enlarged and improved, and is
now occupied by the countefs of Orkney. The parifti-
church is a fpacious and ancient ftruaure, with a nave, two
aides, and a tower. The latter was built about the year
1480', as appears by the epitaph of John Goodwin and
Pernell his wife, who are called its founders. In the chan-
cel are fcveral monuments of the families of Bertie and
Wharton, among which is one of grey marble to the me-
mory of Philip, lord Wharton, who died in 1695. T**^ ^°^^
is a curious piece of ancient fculpture. This parifh con-
tains 2596 acres, chieHy difpofed in arable and wood land.
In the population return of the year 181 1, the inhabitants
were eftimated at 1604; the number of houfes at 318. An
annual fair is held, for which lord Wharton obtained a
charter in l636. A' fair was alfo granted bj king
Henry VI., but is now difcontinued. — Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. I. Buckinghamfhire. By J. Britton and
E. W. Brayley, 1802. Lyfons' Magna Britannia, vol. i.
Buckinghamlhire, 1806.

WOBUUS, or Old Wobuin, a market-town in the hundred
of Manfhead, and county of Bedford, England, is fituated
near the wellera confines of the county, at the diftance of
14 miles S.W. by S. from the county-town, and 42 miles
N.W. by N. from London. Great part of the town was
confumed by fire in 1724, which, though diftreffing to indi-
viduals, proved ultimately beneficial, as the houfes were re-
built in a more convenient and regular manner, with the ad-
dition of feveral good inns, and a market-houfe. The whole
expence of the new buildings was defrayed by the duke of
Bedford. The market-houfe was finifhed in 1737, but has
been materially improved by the late duke Francis. It con-
fifts of two floors ; the lower fitted up for butchers'
fhambles, over which is a fpacious room for a corn-market.
In the population return of the year 1 8 11 , the inhabitants of
the parifh are ftated to be 1506, occupying 299 houfes. A
weekly market is held on Fridays, which was granted in
1242 to the abbot of Woburn, and four fairs annually.
The church was erefted by Robert Hobbs, the laft abbot
of Woburn. This ftruaure furnifties a peculiar inftance of
capricious tafte ; the body being completely detached from
the tower, which ftands at about fix yards diftance. The
tower is a fmall fquare building, with large buttreffes at the
comers, and four pinnacles ; the church conCfts of three
aides and a chancel ; the whole has recently undergone a
thorough repair. Adjoining to the church-yard is a free-
fchool, founded by Francis, earl of Bedford. Here are alfo
alms-houfes for twelve poor perfons, founded by the Bedford
family, and endowed with 50/. per annum, which was con-
firmed by aft of parliament in 1 761.

About a mile eaft of the town is Woburn abbey, the feat
of the duke of Bedford. This magnificent manfion is
fituated in the midft of an extenfive park, and occupies the
four fides of a quadrangle of more than 200 feet. It was
erefted about the middle of the laft century by Flitcroft, for
John, the fourth duke of Bedford, of the Ruffel family, on
the fcite of an old abbey. The original building was
founded in the year 1 145, by Hughde Bolebec, for monks
of the Ciftercian order. In 1234 the monaftery was fo
reduced, that the eftablilhment was for a time broken up,

WOE

and the monks difperfed into different convents till their
debts were paid. But by various benefaftions their re-
venues were fo much improved, that at the general diflblu-
tion they were eftimated at 391/- i8j. zd. clear yearly value.
The laft abbot was hanged for denying the king's fupre-
macy. The fcite of the abbey was granted in 1547 to John,
lord Ruflel, afterwards earl of Bedford, and has ever fince
been the principal feat of that noble family. There are no
remains of the conventual buildings. The prefent manfion,
originally fitted up in a very coftly ftyle, has received many
confiderable improvements, particularly during the time it
was in the poifeffion of the late duke. Mr. Holland, the
architeft of Drury-lane theatre, has difplayed much tafte
and ability in the additional buildings which have been exe-
cuted under his direftion. The weft front is built of the
Ionic order, with a rufticated bafement. The principal
floor, or fuite of rooms on this fide, confift of a faloon, ftate
bed-rooms, drawing and dining-rooms ; the fouth fide con-
tains the library, breakfaft, Etrufcan, and duke's rooms ; the
eaft, the veftibule, fervants' offices, &c. ; and the north, the
French bed-rooms, and various other chambers. Moft of
the apartments are embelUflied with fine paintings : the gal-
lery, in particular, exhibits a large and valuable coUedlion
of portraits by the old mafters. The late duke's favourite
purfuits are well known to have been experimental agricul-
ture and breeding of cattle. For this purpofe he kept
feveral farms in his own hands. The principal of thefe,
diftinguiftied by the name of the Park-farm, is fituated in
the park, about half a mile from the houfe. All inge-
nious contrivances to fhorten labour, and facilitate ufeful
operations, are here concentrated. The farm-yard is replete
with conveniences. It contains barns, ftables, fatting-
houfes, &c. ; a very complete mill, furniftied with a curious
machine which threflies and drefles at the fame time ; a
maltern ; two pair of ftones for grinding wheat and barley ;
and every requifite for drelfing flour, making oatmeal, &c.
In another part is a fmall water-wheel, which gives motion to
fome very ingenious machinery for bruifing malt, and cutting
chaff. This farm originated with the late duke, through
whofe patronage and exertions many improvements haw
been made in the different branches of hufbandry. The
prefent duke follows the fleps of his brother in patronifing
agricultural improvements, and keeps up all the eftablifhments
which he formed with a view to that purpofe. — Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. I. Bedfordfhire. By J. Britton
and E. W. Brayley, 1801. Lyfons' Magna Britannia,
vol. I. Bedfordfhire, 1806.

Woburn, a town of the ftate of Maffachufetts, in the
county of Middlefex, containing 1277 inhabitants ; ij miles
N.W. of Bofton.

WOCANELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
40 miles N.W. of Adoni.

WODEN, in Mythology. See Odin.

WODERCUM, in Geography. See Worcum.

WODNAN Y, or WoDNiAN, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Prachatitz ; 12 miles N.E. of Prachatitz. N. lat.
49° 10'. E. long. 14° 2'.

WODWALLA, a town of Sweden, anciently a fea-
port, but now much reduced, and its privileges removed to
Gotheburg, at eight miles diftance.

WOEL, a town of France, in the department of the
Meufe ; 12 miles N.E. of St. Mihel.

WOELFLIES, a town of Saxony, in the principality
of Gotha ; 21 miles S.E.of Gotha.

WOERAMATTA, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea. S.lat. 7°2'. E. long. 131° 36'.

WOERDEN, or WoRDEN, a town of Holland, built

by

WOK

by Godfrey de Rhenen, the twenty-eighth bifhop of Utrecht,
on the river Rhine, about the year 1160, to keep the citi-
zens of Utrecht in fubjedlion, and maintain his authority.
It had a callle, which was formerly fuppofed to be im-
pregnable; but when the French took the city in 1672,
they entirely demoliflied it, before that time falling to de-
cay. This city had its own particular lords till the year
1296, when Herman dt Woerden fortified it, having been
convifted of being a party in the murder of Florent V. comte
of Holland, who was affaffinated by a gentleman named Ge-
rard de Velfen, whofe wife he had ravifhed. It was after-
wards fold by Philip II. king of Spain, to Eric, duke of
Brunfwick ; from whom it came, in 1581, under the do-
minion of the States- General. In 1672, the French having
made themfelvcs mailers of this place, the Dutch came to
befiege it, aider the prince of Or mge and the comte de
Zuyleftein. The comte de Marck, who commanded in the
city, began to be much preffed, when the duke of Luxem-
burg arrived with 9000 men. He pafTed the morafs by a
way which was fuppofed to be inacceflible, forced the
intren'-Iiments, and put the enemy to flight. The Dutch
loft 2000 men, killed and wounded, among the former
of whom was the comte of Zuyleftein ; and the French about
1000 ; 8 miles W. of Utrecht.

WOGGORA, a fmall high province of Abyflinia, on the
E. of Gondar, which is fown with wheat. This province
and Dembea are the granaries of the country.

WOGGT, a river of Auftria, which runs into the Ager,
near Voglabruck.

WOGLYDURGAM, a town of Hindooftan, in My-
fore ; 15 miles S. of Ouflbor.

WOGOW, a town of Pruffia ; i8 miles S. of Konigf-
berg.

WOGSHAID, a town of Auftria; 7 miles S.W. of
Aigen.

WOHLAU, a town of Silefia, and capital of a principal-
ity, on all fides furrounded with marfhes, which are a kind
of natural defence. It has two fuburbs, a Roman Catholic
and a Lutheran church. In the year 1640, it was taken by
the Swedes ; in 1642, furprifed by the Imperialifts, but foon
after retaken by the Swedes; and in 1644, recovered by the
Imperialifts ; 20 miles N.W. of Breflau. N. lat. 51° 20'.
E. long. 16° 35'.

WoHLAU, or Wolau, a principaUty of Silefia, bound-
ed on the north by the principality of Glogau, on the
eaft by Poland and the principality of Oels, on the fouth by
the principalities of Breflaw and Lignitz, and on the weft
by the principahties of Lignitz and Glogau ; fituated on
both fides of the Oder. The foil is in fome parts dry, in
others marfliy, or overrun with woods and bufties, though
feveral trafts alfo yield good corn.

WOHRA, a river of Germany, which runs into the
Werra, 2 miles N.W. of Echwegen, in the principality of
Helfe.

WOHRD, a town of Bavaria, in the territory of Nu-
remberg, near Nuremberg.

WOINITSCH, a town of Auftrian Poland ; 36 miles
E. of Cracow.

WOITSBACH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflaw ; 8 miles E. of Krottau.
WOITSBERG. See Voitsberg.
WOKING, a town of England, ill the county of Surrey ;
8 miles N. of Guildford.

WOKINGHAM, or Oakingham, a market-town and

parifti in the hundred of Sonning, and county of Berks,

England, is fituated in Windfor foreft 7^ miles E.S.E.

from Reading, and 32^ W.S.W. from London. The po-

VoL. XXXVIII.

W O L

pulation in i8ii was 2085 perfons, inhabiting 435 houfes.
The market is held on Tuefday, and the fairs on the 23d of
April, I ith of June, loth of Oftober, and 2d of NoTcmber.
The town, incorporated by James I., is governed by an alder-
man, high fteward, recorder, burgeffes, and a town-clerk ;
and at this place are held all the courts for Windfor foreft.
Although within the bounds of Berkftiire, the church ftands
in an infulated part of Wiltftiire : it is a large and handfome
edifice. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture,
throwing filk, forting wool, and making (hoes : the gauze
manufadture was fome years ago introduced. At Luckely-
green, near this town, is an hofpital, founded in 1665 ^y
Henry Lucas, efq. for fixteen poor men and a mafter : the
truftees of the charity are the Drapers' company of London.
About four miles S.E. from Wokingham, is a large and irre-
gular fortification, with a double ditch, commonly called
Cxfar's camp, fituated on the fummit of a hill. Haifa mile
to the fouthward of this camp is the Devil's ditch, a raifed
road nearly ninety feet wide, running eaft and weft, with a
trench on each fide. In i66i George Staverton gave the
rent of a houfe in this place for the purpofe of buying a
bull, to be baited and killed at Chriftmas, for the benefit of
thepoor of Wokingham ; but this being thought infufficient,
the inhabitants are in the habit of purchafing another beaft
for the fame purpofe. Archbifhop Laud gave a portion of
certain fee-farm rents, which produces about 40/. per annum,
to the parifh. Every third year it is divided, purfuant to
the donor's intention, between three poor maidens of the
age of eighteen, natives of the town, and members of the
church of England, who have ferved the fame mafter or
miftrefs for three years together : the other years it is ap-
propriated to the apprenticing of poor boys. Dr. Thomas
Godwin, bi(hop of Bath and Wells, was a native of this
town, where he was born in 1517.

About four miles S. from Wokingham is Billingbear, one
of the feats of lord Braybrooke. The houfe is a large irre-
gular building, feated in a fine park. A particular hiftory
and defcription of this place is given, with a view, in Havell's
Views of Seats, foho, 1816 — Beauties of England and
Wales, Berkfhire ; by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley,
London, 8vo. 1802. Magna Britannia, by S. and the Rev.
D. Lyfons, vol. i. 410. 1806.

WOKSCHITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 2 miles W. of Gitfchin.

WOLBECK, or WaldbCT;k, a town of Germany, in
the bifhopric of Munfter ; 7 miles S.S.E. of Munfter.
N. lat. 51° 53'. E. long. 7° 52'.

WOLBORZ, a town of theduchy of Warfaw ; 41 miles
S. of Siradia.

WOLCHRADITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle
of Brunn ; 18 miles S.S.E. of Brunn.

WOLCKENSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 6
miles W.N.W. of Rottenmann.

WOLCKERSDORF, a town of Germany, in the mar-

gravate of Anfpach ; 2 miles N. of Schwabach Alfo, a

town of Auftria, on the Rufbach ; 8 miles E.N.E. of Korn
Neuburg.

WOLCKERSHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 6 miles N. of Schweinfurt. — Alfo, a town of
the county of Henneberg ; 3 miles N. of Menungen.

WOLCOTT. See Woolcott.

WoLCOTT, a town of Connefticut, in the county of
New Haven, near Fairfield, with 952 inhabitants.

WOLD, fignifies a plain, down, or open champaign
ground, liilly, and void of wood.

Hence the names Stow in the Wold, and Cotfwold, in
4 D Gloucefter-

W O L

W O L

Gloucefterdiire ; whence alfo that part of Leicefterlhire,
which lies northward beyond the Wrekin, is called the Wold
of Leicefterfhire.

Wold, or Weld, among Dyers. See Weld.

WOLDEGGE, or Woldeck, in Geography, a town of
the duchy of Mecklenburg; 13 miles S.E. of New Bran-
denburg.

WOLDENBERG, a town of the New Mark of Bran-
denburp- ; 9 miles N.E. of Friedburg. N. lat. 53°. E. long.

"5° 45^

WOLEIN. See MiRZlN.

WOLESCHITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 4 miles W.S.W. of Kaurzim.

WOLF, Christian, in Biography, an eminent mathema-
tician and philofopher, was born at Breflau in 1679, and
well educated under able mafters in different branches of
literature and fcience. At the age of 21, he was entered
at the univerfity of Jena, which was then in high reputation ;
and quitting Jena in 1702, he profecuted his ftudies at
Leipfic, where, in the following year, he took his degree
of matter of arts, pubhihing on the occafion a dilTertation,
intitled " Philofophia praftica Univerfalis Mathematico
modo confcripta." In 1704 he publifhed another dilTertation,
on the differential and infinitefimal calculus. Having ftudied
theology as well as philofophy at Leipfic, he officiated as a
preacher ; and being invited to undertake the office of pallor
in a country village, he was advifed by Leibnitz to decline
it, and to purfue the ftudy of philolx)phy. As he com-
menced his literary career with great reputation, he was
propofed to be an affociate in the periodical work, intitled
" Afta Eruditorum ;" and in this conneftion he continued
for many years, employing his leifure hours in teaching
mathematics, logic, and natural philofophy. When the
Swedes made an incurfion into Saxony in the year 1706, he
quitted Leipfic, and removed to Berlin ; where a recom-
mendatory letter of Leibnitz procured for him from
Frederic I. the office of profeffor of mathematics at Halle.
In 1709 he pubhfhed, in Latin, his treatife on " Aero-
nietry ;" and in the following year his " Elements of
Mathematics," in 4 vols, which have pafTed through feveral
editions. Having compofed a very ingenious elfay on the
intenfe cold of the enfuing winter, he was elefted a member
of the Royal Society of London, and foon after a member
of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. In 171 1 he pub-
lifhed his tables of fines and tangents, and in the next year
his treatife on logic, in German, highly commended by
Formey, and tranflated into Latin, French, and other lan-
guages. The tirft two volumes of his large work on the
mathematics appeared in 17 13, and thefe were afterwards
followed by three more. By the advice of his friend
Leibnitz, he refufed an invitation from Peler the Great to
remove from Halle to Peter/burgh. On the death of
Leibnitz in 1726, Wolf drew up his life, which fupplied
Fontenelle with materials for his eloge. In 17 18 he pub-
lifhed " Meditations on God, the World, and the Human
Soul," which were reprinted in the followKng year. About
this time the reputation of Wolf and the jealoufy of his
rivals occafioned a literary conteft, which lafted for a confi-
derable time, and which was not very honourable to either
party. Wolf having delivered a differtation on his quitting
the pro-reftorate of Halle univerfity in 1 72 1, on which he
took occafion to compare his own principles with thofe
of Confucius and the Cliinefe, and having announced the
opinion winch he entertained on tlie doftrine of neceffity,
an outcry was raifed againft him, and he was reprefented by
his enemies as a miu whofe principles tended to atheifm, and
to corrupt the morals of the people. Notwilhftanding

this malignant attack, he employed himfelf in publifhing
three volumes of experimental philofophy, and a volume of
dogmatical philofophy, "which he dedicated to the emperor
of Ruffia, and which the emperor caufed to be tranflated into
the Ruffian language, repeating to liim tlie rffers which had
before been made, in order to induce him to remove to
Petcrfburgh. The conteft that had been excited againft
him Hill continued ; and though he attempted to juftify
himfelf in a treatife on the fubjeft of fatahty, the king
was at length perfuaded that his principles were dangerous,
and ordered him, in November 1723, to quit his territories
in two days, under pain of death. Wolf immediately pro-
ceeded to Caffel, where he met with the king of Sweden,
who appointed him profeffor of mathematics at Marpurg,
an office which he had refufed fixteen years before. The
clergy of Halle purfued him with their enmity and oppofi-
lion to Marpurg ; but Wolf was fuffcred to remain in the
quiet enjoyment of his office during his refidence at that
place. Several Undents who attended him at Halle fol-
lowed him hither, and his leftures, which he commenced in
1724, were attended by pupils from all parts of Europe.
His mind being now undifturbed, he refumed his literary
labours, and publifhed his " Remarks on Metaphyfics," in
which he anfwered the principal objections againft his doc-
trine, and gained a decided viftory over his enemies. The
grounds of the cenfure that had been pafled on Wolf had
been every where canvafTed ; and almoft every German
univerfity was inflamed with difputes on the fubjeft of
liberty and neceffity, fo that the names of Wollian and
anti-Wolfian were every where heard. Wolf, having thus
vindicated his philofophy from reproach, received new invi-
tations from Peterfburgh and Leipfic ; but gratitude to his
proteftor induced him to remain in his fituation at Mar-
purg, which he found to be very agreeable, and to afford
him leifure for purfuing his fpeculations. After an interval
of nine years, the current of public opinion turned in fa-
vour of Wolf, and he now received numerous tokens of
refpeft from men of rank and learning ; and in 1733 he
was invited to fill, in the Academy of Sciences, one of the
eight places allotted to foreigners diftinguifhed in the
higheft branches of fcience. On tliis occafion, Reaumur
and he commenced an intimate friendfhip, which lafted till
the time of his death. The king of PrufTia was convinced
of Wolf's innocence, reverfed his fentence of exile, and
wifhed to repair the injury which he had fuftained. He 1
made tempting offers, both of title and money, to induce
him to return to Halle ; but he declined the acceptance of
them ; as he alfo refufed an invitation from George I. of .
England to accept a place in the new academy which he
had founded at Gottingen. The clergy of Halle made
fome other attempts to reproach and ruin him, but they
recoiled on his adverfaries. In the year 1740, he prefixed
to the firft volume of his " Droit Naturel, or Treatife on
the Law of Nature," a dedication to the hereditary prince
of Pruffia, afterwards Frederick the Great, which was ac-
knowledged by a very flattering letter.

Frederick the Great, as foon as he afcended the throne,
recalled Wolf to Halle ; and with the permiffion of the
king of Sweden, he confented to accept the office of profeffor
of the law of nature and nations, and alfo of mathematics,
with a falary of 2000 crowns, and liberty to teach whatever
he thought proper. He obtained alfo the rank of privy-
counfellor, and was made firft vice-chancellor, and after-
wards chancellor of the univerfity. In 1 745 he was created
a baron by the eledlor of Bavaria. Wolf was now at the
height of his profperity. At more than 60 years of age he
refumed his labours, and completed his work on the law of
10 nature

i

W O L

nature and nations, which was written in Latin, and ex-
tended to eight volumes 4to. He alfo wrote prefaces to
the works of others, and particularly one to SuffVnilch's
work on population. Notwithftanding his great celebrity,
perhaps on this account, he had many and powerful enemies.
Leibnitz, Maupertuis, and Voltaire, were of this number :
and with refpeft to the latter, we may obferve, that both in
I his writings and in his converfation with the king, he con-
, tributed in no fmall degree to lefTen the veneration which
Frederick II. entertained for him. In 17J2 he was made
a member of the Inftitute at Bologna ; but he did not long
furvive this honour, as he died in the month of April 1754,
j in the 76th year of his age. He left one fon, who inherited
I a confiderable eltate which he had purchafed.
j The adverfaries of Wolf attacked not only the principles

! of his philofophy, but his method and his ftyle. His
I Latin, it muft be acknowledged, was not elegant ; but his
German has been commended and imitated ; and he is faid
to have improved his native tongue both in precifion and
' energy. With regard to his general difpolition and demea-
nour, he is faid to have united a great degree of com-
plaifance and affability, with irreproachable morals and ex-
' ceflive vanity, which he was not able to conceal. He did
not hefitate to extol himfelf and his own merits publicly
and without rcferve, and even to exhibit them in emble-
matical devices on the titles of his books. Brucker fums
up the charaAer of Wolf as a writer in the following con-
cife manner : — " He poflefled a clear and methodical
underftanding, which by long exercife in mathematical in-
veftigations was particularly fitted for the employment of
digelling the feveral branches of knowledge into regular
fyilems ; and his fertile powers of invention enabled him to
enrich almoft every field of fcience in which he laboured,
with fome new addition. The lucid order which appears
in all his writings enables his reader to follow his concep-
tions with eafe and certainty through the longeft train of
reafoning. But the clofe conneftion of the feveral parts of
his works, together with the vaft variety and extent of the
fubjefts on which he treats, renders it imprafticable to give
a fummary of his doftrines." Brucker's Philofophy by
Enfield, vol. ii. Preface to M. de Vattel's Law of Nations.
See Leibnitzian Philofophy.

Wolf, Jerome, a German philofopher, was born in the
county of Oettihgen, in the year 15 16, and inftrufted in the
elementary parts of education at a college eftabhfhed by the
fenate of Nuremberg. But his ftudies were interrupted by
an appointment in the fervice of Julius, the chancellor of
count Von Oettingen. This interruption, however, con-
tributed to allay the feverity of his countenance and manner,
and to meliorate the morofenefs of his temper ; whilft thefe
unamiable qualities were amply counterbalanced by probity,
diligence, and modeily, which engaged the confidence and
efteem of his employer. His habitual difpofition again
returned, and he refumed the ftudy of poetry, and of the
ancient Greek writers, againft the remonftranccs of the
chancellor, who recommended attention to jurifprudence and
pubhc bufinefs, as the moll effeftual means of acquiring both
honour and competence. . Remonftranccs were ine(Te£lual,
and he perfifted in purfuing a courfe which cherifhcd his
morbid melancholy and difquieting irritability. Still de-
voted to his literary purfuits, he was fortunate in gaining
the patronage of John James Fugger ; and in being after-
wards advanced to the poft of the direftor of the college
of Augfburg, and that of librarian to this inilitution. In
this fituation he remained till his death, which happened in
the month of Oftober 1580. Wolf was particularly dif-
tinguifhed as a laborious tranflator, in which literary depart-

W O L

ment he gained the commendation of Huet ; though Henry-
Stephen cenfures his performances. When the edition of
the Annals of Zonaras, publiftied by Wolf at Bade in 1557,
became rare, a new one, with notes by Du Cange, w.^s
printed at the Louvre in Paris in 1687. Wolf's tranflation
of Demofthenes was firit printed at Bafle by Oporinu« ;
and being much approved, it pafled through two other
editions. After being reviled by the tranflator, Epifcopius
printed it at Bafle in 1572, with the orations of ^fchines,
the commentaries of Ulpius, and the notes of Wolfius.
His other works, which were numerous, almoft wholly re-
lated to Greek and Latin authors. Eloges par Formsy et
Teiflier.

Wolf, John Christopheh, a German Lutheran divine
and eminent fcholar, was born in 1613, at Wernigeroda,
and removing in 1695 to Hamburgh, was educated under
the proteftion of the celebrated Fabricius, by whom he
vifas employed, under the age of 20 years, in making a
catalogue of all the writers quoted in Euftathius's Commen-
tary on Homer, afterwards inferted by Fabricius in his
" Bibliotheca Grasca." Having profecuted his ftudies at
Wittenberg, and graduated mailer of arts, he became, in
1706, adjundl of the philofophical faculty. Upon his re-
turn to Hamburgh, he undertook a tour in 1708 through
Holland to England, and for fome time refided at Oxford
for the ufe of the Bodleian hbrary. His next migration
to Denmark led, in 1710, to the appointment of extra-
ordinary profefTor of philofophy at Wittenberg, where
his ledlures coUedled a great number of pupils. Although
he was here advanced to the chair of theology, he removed
in 1 7 1 2 to Hamburgh, and was appointed profefTor of the
oriental languages in the Gymnafium, and in 1715 pro-
moted to be reftor of that inflitution. He was likewafe
a preacher-extraordinary at the cathedral, and became paftor
of the church of St. Catharine ; and foon after a member
of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He commenced his
literary contributions to the " Afta Eruditorum" in 1708 ;
and he colledled from various repofitories an aftonifhing
number of rabbinical and oriental books and MSS. ;
which library he bequeathed to the library at Hamburgh,
where he died in June 1739. Of his numerous works, we
fhall here enumerate his " Bibhotheca Hebrtea," in 4 vols,
fol. ; " Hiftoria Lexicorum Hebraicorum ;" " Primitix
Flemburgenfes, five Oratio de Praecocibus eruditis, et Ora-
tiones bins de NecefTitate et Utihtate declamandi ;" " Hif-
toria Bomogilorum ;" ♦' Differtatio de Atheifmi falfo fuf-
peftis ;" " Curas philologicas et criticx in Novum Tef-
tamentum," 4 vols. 4to. He was alfo the editor of feveral
learned works. Gen. Biog.

Wolf. There are biographical articles for five German
muficians of that name in Gerber's Continuation of Wal-
ther's Mufical Lexicon.

Firfl, Michael Chri^ian Wolf, organifl and mufic direftor
in St. Mary's church at Stettin, born 1709, and vi'ho died
in 1789, after publifliing the following works : " Six Duets
for two German Flutes at Berlin ;" " Six Harpfichord So-
natas," Stettin, 1776; " Songs with a Harpfichord or Harp
Accompaniment," Ebend, 1777 ; " Exercifes for the Organ
in Choral Mufic ;" and having in MS. a Pfalm for Four
Voices, with an Accompaniment for the Organ, and many
other pieces for the church and chamber.

II. Ernjl Friederic Wolf, brother to the preceding mal-
ter, ftate organifl at Cologne, who died in 1772. He had
been two years under the chapel-mafter Stolzd, for compo-
fition ; and under the concert-mafter Hiilm, at Gotha, for
the violin. But at nine years old he had previoufly fludied
the feores of great mafters, and the Gradus ad ParnafTum
4D 2 of

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W O L

of Fouche, fo that early in life he became a great extempore
player on the organ.

Of thefe two brothers we have never heard or feen the
produftions ; but of

ErnJ} William Wolf, born at a village near Gotha, in
1735, chapel-mafter at Weimer, we have feen and admired
many of the works.

Wolf, in AJlronomy. See Lupus.

Wolf, Lupus, in Zoology, the cams lupus of Linnaeus,
a beaft of prey of the dog kind, with the tail bending in-
wards, rather long and bufliy, and the largeil and fierceft
of that race of animals. It is extremely hke the domeftic
dog in fliape, and if the head, which is long, with a pointed
no^, did not differ a little in figure, the upper part of the
face being broader, one would be apt to declare it the very
fame animal. It is diftinguifhed alfo by fuperior fize,
ftronger limbs, and more mufcular body. It has a very
fierce look about the face ; its eyes are more obliquely placed
than thofe of the dog, and are more glaring and favage ; its
jaws are much ftronger ; and its teeth, which are large and
fharp, and the opening of its mouth, which is fhorter in
proportion than that of the dog, fierce and frightful. The
ancients had an opinion, that the neck of the wolf was all
of one folid bone ; but, on the contrary, this creature is
able to turn and twiil it about better than the dog kind.

The wolf, as well as all the other beafts of prey, can en-
dure hunger a long time, though very voracious when it
meets with food. The wolf differs from the dog in his note,
for inftead of the barking of the dog this creature only
howls ; his ears, which rtand ereiEt, and his tail, make him
alfo greatly refemble the fox.

The hair of the wolf is long ; the legs are long ; the
head and neck cinereous : and the body generally pale grey,
tinged with yellow ; fometimes found white ; in Canada
fometimes black ; and taller than a large grey-hound.

The wolf inhabits the continents of Europe, Afia,
Africa, and America.

How numerous thefe animals were formerly in Britain we
may infer from the laws of king Edgar, who attempted to
extirpate them by commuting the punilhments for certain
crimes into the acceptance of a number of wolves' tongues'
from each criminal ; in Wales by converting the tax of gold
and filver into an annual tribute of three hundred wolves'
heads. In fucceeding times their deftruftion was promoted
by certain rewards ; and fome lands were held on condition
of deftroying the wolves which infefted thofe parts of the
kingdom.

In 1 28 1, thefe animals infefted feveral of the Englifti
counties ; but after that period, our records make no men-
tion of them. The laft wolf known in Scotland was killed
in 1680, and in Ireland one was killed in 17 10.

The wolves of North America are the fmalleft ; and it is
faid, that from thofe proceeded the dogs which were found
there by the Europeans on their firft arrival : when re-
claimed, they are the dogs of the natives. In the lefs in-
habited parts of the country, they gather in large droves,
and hunt the deer and other animals like hounds with hi-
deous howhngs, and it is afSrmed that they will attack even
the buffalo. In the inhabited parts, they are become rare.
In fome parts of Europe their number has fomewhat in-
creafed ; e. g. in Sweden they were rare till about the year
1720. The Swedes deftroy them by ftuffing the carcafe of
a fheep or other animal with a fpecies of lichen or tree-mofs,
(lichen vulpinus, ) which is confidered as a certain poifon to
the wolf, and alfo, as the name imports, to the fox. This
is faid to be mixed with pounded glafs, which is probably
more deftruftive than the lichen. The wolves of Senegal

are the largeft and fierceft ; and they prey in company with
the lion. Thofe of the Cape are grey ftriped black ; others
are black.

Wolves are cruel, but cowardly animals ; they fly from
man, except when impelled by hunger ; in which cafe, they
prowl by night in great droves through villages, and deftroy
any perfons they meet ; and having once got the tafte of
human blood, give it the preference. In hard weather
wolves affemble in large troops, and join in dreadful bowl-
ings. They have a fine fcent, and hunt by the nofe : be-
tween them and the dogs a mutual enmity fubfifts. This
animal has a very ftrong carnivorous appetite ; and yet
crafty, ftrong, and nimble as he is, and in every refpeft ca-
pable of fcizing his prey, he often dies of hunger. Being
driven into the foreft, he finds only a few fpecies of wild
animals, who fave themfelves by flight, fo that he perifhes
with want. Although he is naturally timid and daftardly,
he braves danger, when preffed with famine, and attacks
thofe animals that are under the proteftion of man, and
carries away lambs, fmall dogs, and kids, returning often to
the charge, until being wounded by his purfuers, he retires
to his den in the day, but iffues forth in the night to his
ferocious and deftruftive ravages. When his hunger is ex-
treme, he attacks women and children, and fometimes darts
with favage violence upon men, till at length he falls a facri-
fice to his own rage. We have occafional accounts of the
terror which this animal has excited, and of the deftruftion
which he has committed among women and children in
France. To fuch a degree did his ravages excite terror in
1764, that prayers are faid to have been offered for his de-
ftruftion.

Wolves, in the northern parts of the world, fometimes
get on the ice of the fea, in order to prey on young feals,
which they feize when afleep ; but fometimes the ice de-
tached from the fhore carries them to a great diftance from
tlie land, and large diftrifts have thus been cleared of thefe
pernicious animals, which have been heard howhng in a
dreadful manner far in the fea.

The wolf is fometimes affefted with madnefs, accom-
panied with fymptoms fimilar to that of dogs ; and this dif-
eafe happens to them in the depth of winter, and therefore,
as Mr. Pennant obferves, cannot be attrib\ited to the rage
of the dog-days. The time of geftation in the wolf is, ac-
cording to Buffon, about three months and a half; and the
young whelps are found from the end of April to the be-
ginning of July ; and this difference in the time of geftation,
being in the wolf about one hundred days, and in the dog
only fixty, he confiders as a proof of the real difference
between the two fpecies.

Although the wolf feems to be naturally favage, he is
capable, when taken young, of being tamed, and of being
wholly diverted of the ferocious charafter of his fpecies.
Ray. Pennant. Shaw.

Wolf, Golden. See Jackall and Aureus.

WoLH?. Marine. See Hy«na.

Wolf, Mexican, Canis Mcxicanus, with deflefted tail
and afh-colourcd body, variegated with dufl<y bands and
fulvous fpots, a fpecies that inhabits the hot parts of Mexi-
co, agreeing in its manners with the European wolf. Its
head, jaws, and teeth, are large; in the upper lips are ftrong
briftles bent backwards, of a grey and white colour ; the
ears are large, ereft, and cinereous, and the fpace between
them marked with broad tawny fpots ; the head afh-
coloured, croffed with duflcy ftripes ; the neck fat and
thick, and marked with a tawny ftroke ; on the breaft is
another of the fame kind ; the body is afh-coloured fpotted
with black, and the fides ftriped with the fame colour ; the

belly

W O L

belly cinereous, the tail long, of the fame colour, tinged
in the middle with tawny ; the legs and feet ftriped with
black and afh-colour. This wolf is fometimes found white.
Pennant.

Wolf, Black, Canis Lycaon, with ftraight tail, is confi-
dered by Buffbn and other? as a variety of the common
wolf, and confounded by Schreber and Gmelin with the
black fox ; but regarded as a diftinft fpecies. It is
found both in Europe and America, and in fome parts of
Afia. In America it is chiefly found in Canada, and in Eu-
rope in the more northern regions. Shaw.

Wolf, in the Hijlory nf Infeas, the name of a fmall
white worm or maggot, which infells granaries, and does
very great damage there.

It is in this ftate of the worm that it does the mifchief ;
but this is not its perfeft form, for it is afterwards tranf-
formed into a fmall moth, with white wings fpotted with
black.

This little maggot has fix legs, and as it creeps along,
there iflues from its mouth an extremely fine thread or web,
by which it fallens itfelf to every thing it touches, fo that
it cannot fall. Its mouth is furnifhed with a pair of reddilh
forceps, or biting inftruments, by means of which it gnaws
itt way not only into wheat and other grain, but perforates
even beams of wood, boxes, books, and every thing it
meets with.

Towards the end of fummer thefe pernicious infefts may
be feen crawling up the walls of corn-chambers, infefted
with them in great numbers ; they are then fearching a
proper place where they may abide in fafety during their
aurelia ftate ; for when the time of their undergoing this
change approaches, they forfake their food, and the little
cells they had formed of hollowed grains of corn clotted
together, by means of the web coming from their mouths.
They now wander about till they find fome wood, or other
fubftance into which they gnaw holes with their fangs, ca-
pable of concealing them ; and there enveloping themfelves
in a covering of their own fpinning, they foon become a
dark-coloured fort of aurelia. They remain in this ftate all
the winter ; but in April or May they come forth in their
moth-ftiape, and are then feen in vaft numbers, taking Ihort
flights, and creeping up the walls. In this ftate they eat
nothing ; "but they foon copulate and lay eggs, which are in
the ftiape of a hen's egg, but no larger than a grain of fand.
Each female lays fixty or feventy eggs, which (he depofits
in the little wrinkles of the grains of corn, where in about
fixteen days they hatch, and the minute maggots immedi-
ately perforate the grain, and eat out all its fubftance, and
with the threads wliich come from their mouths cement other
grains to it, which they, in the fame manner, fcoop out
and deftroy.

The watchful obferver has two opportunities of deftroy-
ing thefe devourers from among his corn. One is, when
they forfake their food, and afcend the walls, which they
' will fometimes almoft cover. The other, when they appear
I in the moth-ftate. At both thefe times they may be cruftied
1 to death againft the walls in great numbers, by clapping
I facks upon them ; but they may be exterminated more ef-
i feftually by clofing up all the windows and doors, and
j burning brimftoiie on a pan of charcoal, letting the room
; be full of the fumes of it for twenty-four hours. This cer-
I tainly deftroys the animals, and does no fort of injury to the
1 grain, not communicating the flighteft fcent to it. Baker's
I Microf. p. 2 22.

Wolf'j Bane, in Botany. See AcoNITUM.

Wolf'.; Bane, [Vinler'j, a fpecies of hellebore ; which
fee.

W O L

WoLV-Fi/h. See Lupus Martnus.

Wolf'j Grapes. See Lycostaphvl^e.

"WoLV-Net, a term ufed by the fportfmen for a kind of
net ufed in fifhing, which takes great numbers, and has its
name from the deftruAion it caufes.

It is ufed both in rivers and ponds, and is of the
nature of the rattle, excepting only the wanting of the
four wings. The trunk or coffer confifts of feven feet,
befides the two gullets. It is fupported by hoops, and is to
be placed in fome part where there is an abundance of
fedges, rufties, and water-grafs. There is to be a place
made for the net here, by the ufe of a paring-knife, cutting
away all the weeds and other matter, for the fpace that will
contain it ; and when the net is placed, there are to be two
alleys cut or cleared in the fame manner, one on each fide of
the net, that the fi(h may be invited into them, and by them
into the net. There muft be fome ftones or leaden weights
ufed to fink the net, and a long pole faftened to the upper
part of the mouth of it, by means of which, when it is well
filled with fifh, it may be lifted up and taken to the
fliore.

Wolf'j Peach. See Licofersicon.

Wolf, War, an ancient military machine, differently de-
fcribed by diff'erent writers. Procopius makes it a kind of
portcullis, or rather a harrow for defending a gate. Mat-
thew of Weftminfter, and Camden, defcribe it as a machine
for throwing ftones. " At the gates," fays Procopius, ( Hift.
of the Gothic Wars, book i. ) " they fet up wolves in the fol-
lowing manner : — They ere£led two beams from the ground
reaching to the battlements, and laid chequerwife pieces of
wrought timber, fome upright and fome crofs ; they jointed
them fo that the mortifing holes met one another ; and
before each joint ftuck out a pointed piece of wood, like a
thick fpar, and faftening the crofs timbers to another beam,
which from the top reached half-way down : they laid the
beams flat along upon the gates, and when an enemy ap-
proached, men above laid hold of the higher ends of the
beams, and tliruft them down, which falling fuddenly
among the affailants, with the wooden points fticking out,
killed all upon whom they defcended." Probably there was
a chain or cord to draw back the machine after it had pro-
duced its effeft.

The war-wolf, for throwing ftones, is defcribed by Mat-
thew of Weftminfter, ann. 1304; by Camden, in his Re-
mains, to which we refer ; and alfo to Grofe's Mil. Antiq.
vol. i. p. 383.

Wolf IJland, in Geography, an ifland in the North At-
lantic ocean, near the eaft coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 53*
55'. W. long. 55° 40'. — Alfo, an ifland at the north-eaft
end of lake Ontario. N. lat. 44°. W. long. 76° 50'. —
Alfo, an ifland in the gulf of St. Lawrence, near the fouth

coaft of Labr:idor. N. lat. 50° 2'. W. long. 60° 55'

Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft of
Georgia. N. lat. 3 1° 19'. W. long. 81° 30'.

Wolf River, or Chici/aiv Bluf", a river of Georgia,
which runs into the Miffiflippi, N. lat. 34° 45'. W. long.
90'' 42'.

Wolf Rod, a very low, flat, rocky iflet, in the North
Pacific ocean, furrounded by rocks and breakers, which
extend fome diftance from it ; 10 miles from the fonthern
coaft of the Prince of Wales's Archipelago. N. lat. 55° l'.

E. long. 226"^ 42' Alfo, a rock near the eaft coaft of

Labrador, and not far from the ifland called Wolf ifland —
Alfo, a rock at the entrance of the Englifli channel ; lo
miles S. of Land's-End. N. lat. 49° 58'. W. long.

5° 45'-

WOLFBOROUGH, a townftiip of New Hamp-

4 fliirc.

W O L

W O L

(hire, in the county of StrafFord, on the Winnipifcogee
lake, containing 1376 inhabitants; 35 miles N.N.W. of
Durham.

WOLFDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; 7 miles N. of Kanmitz.

WOLFENBUTTEL, a principality which lately con-
ftitutcd a part of the diicliy of Brunfwick, divided into
two parts by the principality of Halberftadt, and the
dioccfe of Hildefheim. The north part is furrounded on
the north by the principahty of Luneburg and the marqui-
fate of Brandenburg, on the eaft by the duchy of Magde-
burg, on the foulh by the principality of Halberftadt, and
on the weft by the diocefe of Hildeflieim. The fouth part
is bounded on the north by the biftiopric of Hildeftieim and
the principahty of Calenberg, on the eaft by the diocefe of
Hildeflieim and the Harz foreft, on the fouth by the prin-
cipality of Grubenhagen and Calenberg, and on the weft by
the territories of the abbey of Corvey and Calenberg. The
eaftern half contains under it a part of the Harz foreft, the
mines and falt-works which the prince held in common with
the eleftor of Brunfwick Luneburg. In the weftern half
of this fouthern part is a part of the foreft of Sollinger,
confifting of oak and beech, with a chain of mountains co-
vered with woods. Tims the fouthern part of the princi-
pahty confifts chiefly of hills and woods, with little arable
land ; but, on the other hand, has a great plenty of timber,
iron, and glafs-houfes, the manufadlurcs of which are
greatly admired, particularly thofe of looking-glafles, with
a fine porcelain manufadlure, and the very rich mines and
falt-works in the Harz foreft. The north part of the
principality is more level, and produces abundance of grain,
flax, and hemp, together with various kinds of pulfe and
fruit. Their graziery here turns to very good account,
befides which it has a falt-work. The culture of filk is
now followed, and premiums are affigned by the prince for
the encouragement of it. The Wefer, the Leinc, the Inner
See, and the Ockcr, are the principal rivers. In this prin-
cipality are 18 towns, 386 villages, and 17 fees and con-
vents. The eftabhflied religion here is Lutheranifm, The
country of Brunfwick was anciently under lords of its
own, who poflefled it as their abfolute and hereditary pro-
perty, and derived their lineage from Ludolphus, duke of
Saxony ; and, confequently, by his grandmother Hafala, or
Gifela, from duke Witikind, vvhofe daughter flie was.
From king Henry I., grandfon to Ludolphus, was defcended
his fon Henry, duke of Bavaria, among whofe iffue was
count Bruno, on whom the emperor Otho conferred a traft
of land in Saxony, near Brunfwick, namely, Melverode and
Hohenwart. Count Bruno, his fon, enlarged Brunfwick ;
and his fon, count Ludolphus, on the demife of the em-
peror Henry II., was the firft that obtained the full fove-
reignty over Brunfwick and Tanwarderode, and died in
1038. His fon Egbert I. became margrave of Thuringia
and Mifnia ; and his fon Egbert II. likewife attained to
thofe dignities. This laft prince being killed in battle, in
109 1, his fifter Gertrude fucceeded to the country of
Brunfwick, which country flie brought to her fecond huf-
band, Henry the Fat, count of Nordheim ; and by their
daughter Ricienza it came to her hulband Lothario, count
of SuppUnburg, afterwards emperor. By his daughter
Gertrude it defcended to her huftiand, Henry the Mag-
nanimous, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and thus to the
houfe of Welpho. The principality of Wolfenbuttel was
poirefied of a vote among the prnices, both in the college of
the princes of the empire, and likewife in the diet of Lower
Saxony ; in each of which, by virtue of an agreement con-
cluded in 1706, when the feniority lies in the houfe of

Brunfwick Wolfenbuttel, it precedes thofe of the eleSor of
Brunfwick and Luneburg, for Zelle, Grubenhagen, and
Calenberg, but otherwife comes after them ; farther, the
houfe of Wolfenbuttel, when fenior, obtained the joint di-
reftion of the circle of Lower Saxony. In 1807, this prin-
cipality was annexed to Weftphalia.

Wolfenbuttel, a city of Weftphalia, and capital of a
principality of the fame name, fituated in a low marfliy foil,
on the Ocker : it is well built and fortified. In it is a cha-
teau, a long time the refidence of the dukes, in which is a
noble library containing 120,000 volumes of printed books
and manufcripts. The principal church contains the fepul-
chral monument of the dukes. Wolfenbuttel very probably
owes its name to the firft builder of the palace, called Wolf,
or Wolfer, or Wolfhard ; 24 miles E. of Hildeflieim. N.
lat. 52° 10'. E. long. 10° 40'.

WOLFERSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Neuftadt ; 4 miles S.W. of Weyda. — Alfo, a town of
Saxony, in the circle of Neuftadt ; 6 miles E.N.E. of
Weyda.

WOLFE RSDYCK, a fmall ifland of Zealand, between
North and South Beveland.

WOLFERSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the
principahty of Solms Braunfets ; 12 miles S.S.E. of
Wetzlar.

WOLFERSTORFF, a town of Auftria ; 2 miles
S.E. of Laab.

WOLFERZHAUSEN, a town of Bavaria; 12 miles
N.E. of Weilhaim.

WOLFESHEAD, or Wulvershead, Saxon, ivulfer-
heafod, compounded of wulf, •wolf, and heafod, head,
caput luplnum, denoted the condition of thofe outlawed
for criminal matters in the Saxon time, and not yielding
themfelves to jufticc. For if they could have been taken
alive, they muft have been brought to the king ; and if
they, for fear of being apprehended, did defend them-
felves, they might be flain, and their heads brought to
the king ; for their head was no more to be accounted
of than a wolf's head. LL. Edw. in Lamb. fol. 127. and
Braft. lib. iii. tradl. 2. c. 11. See Caput Lupinum, and
Outlawry.

WOLFESTAAL, in Geography, a town of Auftria ; \
2 miles E. of Hainburg. '

WOLFFACH, a town of Germany, in the lordfhip '
of Furftenberg ; 4 miles S.S.E. of Hazlach. N. lat.
48° 13'. E. long. 8° 16'.

WOLFFEG, a town of Auftria ; 5 miles N.W. j
of Schwanaftadt. 1

WOLFFEGG, or Wolfeck, a chateau and village of
Germany, which gives the title of count to a noble family,
divided into feveral branches, 11/z. Wolffegg Zeil, Wolff^egg
Zeil Wurzach, Wolffegg Wolffegg, and Wolffegg Waldfee ;
10 miles W. of Leutkirch.

WOLFFEN, a town of Saxony ; 3 miles N.W. of i
Bitterfcld.

WOLFFPASSING, a town of Auftria; 9 miles S. |
of Ips.

WOLFFSHAGEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Mark of Pregnitz ; 6 miles W. of Pritzwalk.

WOLFGANG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Henneberg, on an ifland in a lake ; 7 miles S.W.
of Meinungen. 1

Wolfgang, St. a town of Auftria ; 3 miles S.S.W. of
Aigen. — Alfo, a town of Auftria ; i mile N. of Kirfch- I
fchlag. — Alfo, a town of Auftria, on a lake, called the
Abernfea, and St. Wolfgang's lake ; 54 miles S.S.W. of

Lintz.

I

W O L

Lintz. — Alfo, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Zufr ; 4 miles W. of Zvig.

WOLFGAST, or Wolgast, a town of Anterior
Pomerania, on the Pena, about three miks from the
Baltic, with about 3500 inhabitants. It was anciently a
confiderable fortrefs, and refidence of the dukes ; 30
miles S.E. of Stralfund. N. lat. 54° 2'. E. long. 13°

45'-

WOLFIA, in Botany, a genus of Schrebcr's, feems by

its orthography intended to commemorate Dr. de Wolf, of
Dantzic, of whofe whimfical attempt in the NoMENCLA-
TUUE of plants, we have given a fiifficient account at the
conclufion of that article. This writer, to whom the praife
of labour and originality cannot be denied, and whofe index,
entitled Concordantia Botanlca, is truly valuable, died in
1784, aged 60. There have been feveral German natu-
ralifts and phyficians of the name of Wolf, but none emi-
nent in botanical lludies. — Schreb. Gen. 801. — Clafs and
order, Octandria Moiiogynia. Nat. Ord. Trihllatie, Linn.
Saphidi, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, coloured :
tube very (hort, fomewhat dilated at the bafe, permanent :
limb in five deep, linear, obtufe, moderately fpreading feg-
ments. Cor. none. Nedlary of eight linear, obtufe, vil-
lous, upright fcales, one-third the length of the calyx, and
inferted into it at the bafe of the hmb. Stam. Filaments
eight, awl-fliaped, creft, the length of the calyx, into which
they are inferted alternately with the fcales of the nedtary,
in the fame row ; anthers ovate, attached by the back, ereft,
direfted inwards. P'lJ}. Germen fuperior, oblong, ending in
a cylindrical upright ftyle, the height of the ftamens ;
ftigma oblong, downy, unilateral. Peru. Berry ? ovate, of
one cell, fomewhat fix-fided, with three keels furrounding
its fummit. Seeds three, nearly ovate, oblique, externally
gibbous, contrafted below the middle, abrupt at the bafe,
enclofed in a tunic.

Obf. There appear to be feveral feeds, fome of which
prove abortive.

We have tried in vain to guefs any thing more refpefting
this genus than its natural order, of which there can be
fcarcely a doubt. No author has adopted Wolfia. There
are, in its charafters, fome indications of Jambol'ifera, Willd.
Sp. PI. v. 2. 326. Cyminofma, Gsertn. t. 58, (which ought
to have found a place in our i8th volume ; fee Calvp-
TRANTHES alfo) ; and a botanift who compares Schreber's
defcription, literally tr^ndated above, with Jambol'ifera pe-
dunculala, will find feveral coincidences, which, allowing tor
one or two eafy mifconceptions, might almoit perfuade us
he had dcfcribed that plant ; but ftill there are infuperable
difficulties. Schreber's index direfts us, at the word
Pstumba, to the fame number as his IVolfia, 1749. But no
fuch fynonym occurs there, nor, as far as we can find, elfe-
where in his book. Pee tumba, Rheede Hort. Mai. v. 9.
\. 46, is a Jujlkia, and can have no conneftion with the pre-
fent plant. See other obfcure genera, thus circumftanced,
at the articles Meyera, Whelera, Spartina, and
Xystris.

WOLF-MONETH, a name given by our S.«On ancef-
tors to the month of January, on account of the ravages com-
mitted by the wolves in that month through the fevtrity of
the cold.

WOLFRAM, in Mineralogy, an ore of tungften. (See
Tungsten.) The colour of Wolfram is generally a
brownifh or greyilh-black ; it gives a reddifh-brown ilreak
when cut with the point of a knife, to which it yields rea-
dily, a property charaderiftic of this mineral. It occurs

W O L

botli maffive and cryftallized, and in concentric lamellar con-
cretions. The form of the cryftal is a flat redangular
prifm ; the lateral planes are generally flreaked longitu-
dinally. The ftruclure is lamellar, with a very diltinft
cleavage in one direftion, and an indiilintl cleavage at right
angles to the former. The luftre of the principal cleavage
is Iplendent or fhining, and is metallic ; that of the indif-
tiiidt cleavage is glillening. The crofs frafture is coarfe-
grained and uneven. It is brittle and frangible. The fpe-
cific gravity of Wolfram is from 7.1 to 7.3. Before the
blow-pipe it decrepitates, and melts with diiBculty into a
black flag.

The conftituent parts of Wolfram, as given by Vau-
quelin, are,

Tungften acid . . . fiy

Oxyd of iron - . - 18

Oxyd of mangauefe - - 6

Silex - - . . . J.JO

Wolfram moft frequently occurs in veins with tin-ftone.
but may be diftinguiihed from it by its greater degree of
foftnefs, and the reddifh ftreak which it yields to the knife.
It is common in many of the mines of Cornwall, and in
thofe of Saxony, and of Zinnweld and Schlackenwald, in
Bohemia. This mineral has not hitherto been applied to
any ufeful purpofe in the arts. It was originally mifl:aken
for antimony, which by the alchymills was called the wolf,
becaufe it appeared to deftroy the bafer metals in the pro-
cefs of refining gold.

WOLFRAMITZ, in Geography, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Znayin ; 20 miles N.E. of Znaym.

WOLFRAMITZKIRCHEN, a town of Moravia, in
the circle of Znaym ; 7 miles N.W. of Znaym.

WOLFSBACH, a river of Silefia, which runs into
the Bober, near Loewenberg.

WOLFSBERG, a town of the duchy of Carinthia,
on the river Levant, with a citadel ; 10 miles N.N.W. of
Lavamunt.

WOLFSDORF, a town of Pruflia, in the province of
Ermeland ; 18 miles W.S.W. of Heilfberg. — Alfo, a town
of Saxony, in the circle of Neuftadt ; 5 miles S.W. of
Weyda.

WOLFSHAGEN, a town of the principality of HefTe
CaflTel, on the Erpe ; 15 miles W. of Caffel. N. lat. 51° 18'.
E. long. 9° 10'.

WOLFSON, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Finland,
N. lat. 59° 22'. E. long. 24^44'.

WOLFSPACH, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles E. of
Steyr.

WOLFSTEIN, a town of France, in the department
of Mont Tonnerre ; 43 miles W.N.W. of Manheim.

AVOLHAUSEN im Markt, a town of Switzerland,
in the canton of Lucerne ; 7 miles W.S.W. of Lucerne.

WOLIN, or WoLYNiE, a town of Bohemia, in tbe
circle of Prachatitz ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Prachatitz. N.
lat. 49° 10'. E. long. 13° 45'.

WoLiN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle Mark ;
10 miles S.S.W. of Brandenburg.

WOLKART, a mountain of Carinthia ; 8 miles N.E,
of Milftatt.

WOLKENMARCK. See Volkenmark.

WOLKENSTEIN, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Erzgcbirg, with a citadel, fituated on a rock, near the
Zfcliopa. About half a league from the touii are fome warm
medicinal baths; 13 miles S.S.E. of Chemnitz. N. lat.
50° 36'. E. long. 12° 59'. — Alfo, a town of the county
of Tyrol ; ? miles W. of Lientz,

' ^ WOL-

W O L

WOLKOMYSK, a town of Lithuania, in the palati-
nate of Novogrodek ; 40 miles W.S.W. of Novogrodek.

WOLLACOMB Bay, a bay of England, on the weft
coaft of Devonlhire, fituated to the north of Barnftaple

bay.

WOLLAPALLAM, a town of Hindooftan ; 10 miles

E. of Coimbetore.

WOLLASTON, William, in Biography, an ethical
writer, was born in 1659 at Cotton Clanford, in Stafford-
fhire, and finilhed his education as a penfioner of Sidney
college, Cambridge. In 1681 he commenced M.A. and
entered into deacon's orders. His firft fettlement was as
an affiftant in the free fchool at Birmingham, to which a
fmall lefturelhip was annexed ; and about four years after-
wards he was advanced from this laborious fituation to
the ofBce of fecond mafter in the fame fchool. In 1688
a relation died, whofe deceafe put him in poffefilon of a
confiderable landed eftate, upon which he removed to Lon-
don, and marrying a lady of confiderable fortune, he re-
fided in Charterhoufe-fquare. Difmifling all thoughts of
church preferment, he devoted himfelf to the retirement of
private life and to a courfe of ftudy, comprehending the
learned languages, together with Hebrew and Arabic. The
firft publication which iffued from the prefs was a poem
on Ecclefiaftes, which he would afterwards have fupprefied,
from a conviftion that his talents were not adapted to poetry.
In the progrefs of his life and literary purfuits, he was fo much
amufed by compofition, that he wrote many treatifes on various
fubjefts, both in Latin and Englilh, which he committed to
the flames. Of the well-known work which has perpetuated
his name, and which is intitled " The Religion of Nature
delineated," he printed a few copies to be diftnbuted among
his friends in 1722, but his declining health prevented his
completing his original defign. However, in 1723 he was
prevailed upon to revife what he had printed for publication,
and it accordingly appeared in 1724, in which year he died,
at the age of 65, leaving a large family, and having loft his
wife, to whom he was affeftionately attached, about four
years before. In his private charafter he is faid to have
exemphfied the virtues which his work inculcated. The
fyftem which he developed, and which founded morality
upon «' truth," excited much attention, and his book,
though not written in a popular manner, paffed through
feven editions to the year 1750. The laft of thefe editions
includes an appendix, confifting of a tranflation of the Latin
notes by Dr. J. Clarke, dean of Sahfbury, undertaken at
the particular requeft of queen Caroline, who was a great
admirer of the work. Dr. Warburton, in his ftriftures on
WoUafton's theory in his Divine Legation, honours the
author by ranking him as " one of our moft celebrated
writers," and compliments him with having " demonftrated
with greater clearnefs than any before him the natural efien-
tial difference of things ;" and though modern fyftems have
in a confiderable degree antiquated that of Mr. Wollatton,
the author muft always be regarded as a man of extenfive
learning and ifrong reafoning powers. Biog. Brit.

WdLLERSDORF, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the margravate of Anlpach ; 10 miles E. of
Anfpach.

WOLLERSTORFF, a town of Auftria ; 5 miles
W.N.W. of Neuftatt.

WOLLIEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker
Mark ; 10 miles E.S.E. of Prenzlow.

WOLLIN, a town of Anterior Pomerania, on the eaft
coaft of the ifland fo called, feparated from the continent
of Pomerania by the river Direnow, over which is a bridge,
jl which all travellers pay a toll. In this town are a feat and

W O L

prefetlurate. It ftands on the fcite of the ancient city of
Julin, which was formerly fo famous for its commerce,
though its origin is very obfcure. The firft mention of
this city in hiftory occurs immediately after the time of
Charlemagne ; and in the i ith century its profperity was
fuch, that Adam Von Bremen fpeaks of it a« the largeft
city at that time in Europe. So early as the records of the
1 2th century, it is called Wolin. In the year 1 127, it was
fet on fire by lightning, and being built of wood, was en-
tirely confumed. The Pomeranian bifhopric, which had
been erefted there but two years before, was tranflated
upon that to Ufedom, but on the rebuilding of the city,
was reftored to it. In the year 1 1 70, being taken by Wol-
demar I. king of Denmark, and Jaromar I. prince of Ru-
gen, it was facked and burned ; and after retrieving this cala-
mity was, in the year 1175, ''g'''" ^'^^ °f ^-^t s^'l utterly
deftroyed, infomuch that in the very fame year the duke of
Pomerania removed the bifhopric to Cammin. It was in-
deed rebuilt again, but never recovered its former greitnefs ;
25 miles N. of Old Stettin. N. lat. 53° 48'. E. long.

14° 35'-

WoLLiN, an ifland formed at the mouth of the Oder,

between the Baltic and the Frifclie HafF; th? form of an
irregular triangle, about thirty miles in circurr.ference. This
ifland is frequently in danger of being overflowed, and the
fea-winds hurt it confiderably, by throwing up drifts of
fand. It produces excellent cattle, with plenty of game
and fifh ; and one part of it, called the Fritter, is remark-
able for the great quantity of eels taken there. Befides
the town of WoUin, it contains feveral villages.

WOLLO, a town of Africa, on the Ivory Coaft.

WOLLY. See Woolli.

WOLMIRSTADT, a town of Weftpha'.ia, in the
duchy of Magdeburg. In the year 1642, this town was
fet on fire by the Imperial troops ; 10 miles N. of Magde-
burg. N. lat. 52° 18'. E. long. 1 1° 45'.

WOLMSDORF, or Wonsdorf, a town of Pruffia,
in the province of Smaland ; 24 miles S.E. of Konigfberg.

WOLNITZ, a town of Saxony, in the principality of
Eifenach ; 2 miles S. of Jena.

WOLNZACH, a town of Bavaria; 6 miles N.E. of
PfaflFenhofen.

WOLPA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 54 miles W. of Novogrodek.

WOLPAFFING, a town of Auftria ; 4 miles S.S.E.
of Weikerfdorf.

WOLSDORFF, a town of the duchy of Bremen ; 5
miles S. of Carlftadt.

WOLSEY, orWuLCEY, Thomas, cardinal, in j?«o^ra/Ay,
was the fon of a butcher at Ipfwich, Suffolk, and born there
in 147 1. He finiihed his education at Magdalen college,
Oxford, and was graduated B.A. at the age of 15. He
was afterwards fellow of his college, and having taken the
degree of M.A. became mafter of the fchool dependent upon
that college, where he had under his tuition three fons of
the marquis of Dorfet, by whom he was prefented to the
reftory of Lymington in Som^rfetfliire, into which he was
indutled in 1500. His advancement was rapid, firft as do-
meftic chaplain to the archbifhop of Canterbury,and afterwards
as chaplain to the houiehold of Henry VII. His manners were
infinuating, and he became the confidante of the king, who
communicated to him his prcjefted marriage with the daugh-
ter of the emperor Maximihan. Wolfey met the emperor
at Bruges, and executed his commiffion fo much to the king's
fatisfadlion, that he nominated him to the deanery of Lin-
coln. After the death of Henry VII. he was recommended
by Fox, bilhop of Winchefter, to Henry VIII., whofe

favour

W O L

faTOur and confidence he conciliated by his blending amufe-
ment with bulinefs, infomuch tliat he fupplanted the minif-
ter8 of the late king, and became himfelf uncontrouled minif-
ter. His preferments, civil and ecclefiaftical, very fpeedily
fucceeded one another, and even profufely accumulated.
He was introduced into the privy-council in 1510, made
reporter of the ftar-chamber, regiftrar, and afterwards chan-
cellor of the garter ; and advanced to the fees of Tournay
and Lincoln in 15 13, to that of York in 15 14, and to the
dignity of cardinal in 1 5 1 5 . Thus promoted, his pride and love
of pomp kept pace with his elevation of rank. In his train of
fervants, 800 in number, were many knights and gentlemen ;
and the fons of noblemen afted occafionally as his domeftic
menials. His equipage and furniture were of the moft coftly
kind ; but it is needlefs to multiply particulars. The moft
pardonable, not to fay laudable, difplay of his magnificence
was exhibited in his patronage of literary men and promo-
tion of literature, both by the exercife of private bounty
and the eftabhfhment of public inftitutions. The pope
nominated him legate a latere, by which oiEce he acquired
legal pre-eminence over the archbifhop of Canterbury ; and
in December 15 15, he was elevated to the office of high-
chancellor. By the equity of his decifions m the exercife
of this office he gained great credit, but his conduft as le-
gate a latere was fo arbitrary and oppreffive, as to produce
complaints againtt him to the king. Charles V. and Fre-
deric I. purchafed his intereft with Henry VIH. by pen-
fions, and he was alfo retained in the fame way by the
pope. Charles flattered him with hopes of the papal
crown, and fettled upon him the revenues of two bilhop-
rics in Spain. Still infatiable in the purfuit of ecclefiafti-
cal preferments, he obtained the adminiftration of the fee
of Bath and Wells, and the temporahties of the abbey of
St. Alban's, to which were afterwards added fucceffively the
rich biftioprics of Durham and Winchefter. His revenues,
thus amounting nearly to that of the crown, were expended
partly in the oftentation of pomp, and partly in laudable
munificence. He founded fevcral leftures at Oxford for
liberal and ufeful ftudies, and at length erefted in that uni-
verfity the celebrated college of Chriftchurch. He alfo
eftabUfiied a collegiate fchool in his native town of Ipfwich.
The palace which he built at Hampton Court he prefented,
in 1528, to the king, ana he further ingratiated himfelf with
Henry by an arbitrary loan for the fupply of his wants ;
but by thefe meafures he became more and more odious to
the nation. But his fall was approaching ; and the firft
ftep to it was the divorce of queen Catharine. This was fol-
lowed by the marriage of Henry with Ann Boleyn, whofe
influence was employed in effefting his downfall. At
length the king, not without hefitation and reluftance, em-
ployed the dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk, in 1529, to re-
quire him to furrender the great feal, and to quit York-
place, a palace which he had built in London, and which
afterwards became a royal refidenee under the name of
Whitehall. His furniture and plate were feized for the
king's ufe, and he was ordered to retire to Efher, a palace
which belonged to him as biftiop of Winchefter. Thefe
meafures overwhelmed the favourite, deftitute of any inward
refources of magnanimity ; and when he received a (light
token of the king's favour in this ftate of mental depreffion,
he was tranfported with joy, difmounted on meeting the
meflenger, and fell upon his knees in the dirt to receive the
expreffion of his mafter's kindnefs. Henry, however, was
capricious and inconftant ; a cloud overfpread this gleam,
and Wolfey was ordered to be indifted in the ftar-cham-
ber, and abandoned by his fovereign to the rigour of
parliament. An accufation, .confifting of 44 articles, was
■ Vol. XXXVHL

W O L

exhibited againtt him by the houfe of lords ; and in the
commons, he was fo ably defended by Thomas Cromwell,
who had been raifed by the cardinal from a low condition to
a high ftation, that his enemies were defeated. They thu«
changed their plan, and indifted him upon the ftatute of
provifors, which prohibited his procuring bulls from Rome,
and which he had violated by obtaining the legantine power ;
and this was made the ground of a fentence, putting him
out of the king's proteftion, forfeiting all his lands and
goods, and declaring him liable to imprifonment. When
thefe meafures had induced him to refign to the king York-
place with all its furniture, he obtained a full pardon for all
his paft off'ences, and the reftoration of the revenues of his
archbiftiopric, with part of his goods. But frefli tokens of
royal difpleafure awaited him. The earl of Northumber-
land was ordered to arreft him for high treafon, and to con-
duft him to London for trial. In his way from York to
London, he was feized with a diforder which obliged him
to ftop at Leicefter, where he was hofpitably received in the
abbey. His diforder in a few days terminated his life, in
the 60th year of his age. Shortly before he expired he
clofed a converfation with the conftable of the Tower, which
related to the king, with this exclamation, " Had but I
ferved God as diligently as I have ferved the king, he would
not have given me over in my grey hairs !" Thus he funk
to the grave as a viftim to tyranny, but to a tyranny which
he had himfelf formed ; exhibiting an inftruftive example to
all future minifters of the infecure pofleffion of power and
wealth acquired by extortion and oppreffion, and of the
folly of placing confidence in princes embracing arbitrary
and defpotic meafures, and governed by caprice and per-
fonal ambition. Biog. Brit.

The magnificence of the cardinal's chapel-eftablifhment,
as defcribed by Cavendifti, his contemporary and domeftic,
feems far to have furpafied that of the Roman pontiff
himfelf.

" Firft, he had there a deane, a great divine, and a man
of excellent learning ; a fub-dean, a repeatour of the quire,
a gofpeller and epiftoUor ; of finging priefts, ten, a mafter
of the children. The feculars of the chapell, being fing-
ing-men, twelve ; finging-children, ten, with one fervant to
waite upon them. In the veftry, a yeoman and two
grooms ; over and befides other retainers that came thither
at principal feafts. And for the furniture of his chapell, it
pafleth my weak capacity to declare the number of the
coftly ornaments and rich jewels that were occupied in the
fame. For I have feen in proceffion about the hall forty-
four rich copes, befides the rich candlefticks, and other
neceflary ornaments to the furniture of the fame."

The earl of Northumberland, whofe paffion for Ann
Boleyn is fuppofed to have occafioned his difgrace at court,
feems to have been treated with great infolence and in-
dignity by the cardinal, who, by an extraordinary extenfion
of power, demanded his choral books for the ufe of his own
chapel. Letters concerning this requifition are ttill pre-
ferved in the family, in which the earl fays, " I do per-
ceayff' my lorde cardinall's pleafour ys to have fuch boks as
was in the chapell of my lat lorde and ff'ayther (wos foil
Jhu pardon.) To the accomplychment of which, at your
defyer, I am confformable, nqtwithftandinge I truft to be
able ons to fet up a chapell off myne owne. — I ftiall with all
fped fend up the boks unto my lord's grace, as to fay iiij
Antiffonars (Antiphoners), fuch as I think wher not feen a
gret wyll — v Grails (Graduals) — an Ordeorly (Ordinal) —
a Manuall — v\\^ Proffejftoners ( Proceffionals ) ." Northum-
berland Houfehold Book.

WOLSINGHAM, in Geography, an irregular town in
4 E the

W O L

the county of Durham, England, is pleafantly litualed in
the vale of the Wear, on a point of land formed by the con-
fluence of that river and the Wefcrow. The church is
(ituated at the north fide of the town on rifing ground,
but poflefles nothing worthy of remark. Near it are fome
remains of a conliderable building, inclofed with a deep
moat, fuppofed by fome writers to have been part of a
monaftery, which was founded by Henry de Pudfey ; but
Hutchinfon, in his Hiftory of Durham, refers them to the
ancient manor-houfe of the bifhop's, which is mentioned in
Hatfield's Survey. The inhabitants of this parifli, according
to the returns of i8i I, are 1983, the lioufes 399. The views
down the Wear from the hill above Wolfingham include a very
extenfive and beautifully diverfified country. Between this
town and Stanhope, the commencement of the lead diftrift is
every where intimated by large parcels of lead lying near the
fides of the road, and from the blue unwholefome vapours
arifing from the fmelting mills in Bollihope. On BoUihope
common, in 1749, was found a Roman altar with an infcrip-
tion. This town is 6 miles S.E. by S. from Stanhope, and
259 N.N.W. from London. Here is a market held on
Tuefday, and a fair on the i8th of May. The petty fef-
fions are holden here. The parilh, which is large, confifts
of Bradley, Hilton-park, Thornley, Wolfingham town
quarter, Eaft fide quarter. Park quarter, and South fide
quarter. — Beauties of England, Durham, vol. iv. ; by
.1. Britton and E. W. Brayley.

WOLTA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-
gratz ; 2 miles N. of Trautenau.

WOLTERN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Verden ; 30 miles E. of Rotenburg.

WOLTERSDORF, a town of Saxony ; 2 miles S.W.
of Zahna.

WOLTIN, a town of Hinder Pomerania ; 12 miles
S.W. of Stargard.

WOLTZTORFF, a town of Auftria ; 2 miles N.N.W.
of Weikerftorf.

WOLVERENE. See Glutton.

WOLVERHAMPTON,formerlyHA.\iPTON,inG^o^ra-
phy, an important market-town in the hundred of N. Seifdon,
and county of Stafford, England, is particularly noted for its
extenfive manufaftures of locks, keys, and other articles of
ironmongery. It is fituated on a rifing ground 16 miles S.
from Stafford, 14 S.W. from Lichfield, 13 N.W. from
Birmingham, and 130 in the fame diredlion from London.
Wolverhampton is of ancient date, for as early as 996 a
monaftery was founded there by Wulfruna, from whom the
town received the firft member of its name. The inftitution,
confifting of a dean and fecular canons, was about the year
1200 transferred by the dean, Peterof Blois,tothearchbilhop
of Canterbury, to convert it into an abbey for Ciftcrcian
monks ; but this defign feems not to have been executed,
for the feculars appear to have been not long after in pof-
feffion of the eftabhfhment. The church, which was con-
Cdered as one of the king's free chapels, was by Ed-
ward IV. annexed to the deanery of Windfor ; but in the
feventh year of Edward VI. a grant of the college of
Wolverhampton and feven prebends was made to John, duke
of Northumberland. Coming again to the crown by his at-
tainder, queen Mary reinftated the dean and prebendaries,
and endowed tliem with all the lands, &c. which formerly
belonged to the inftitution, then valued at the yearly rent of
113/. 1 3/. On a queftion arifug concerning thofe poffef-
fions, the grants of Mary were confirmed by James I., who
appointed the celebrated Marc-Antonio de Dominis, who
had been archbilhop of Spalatro in Dalmatia, to be dean of
Windfor, and dean and firft prebendary of Wolverhampton :

W O L

thofe deaneries continue to be united, but the coUegeg are
feparate.

Wolverhampton is well built, and confidered as falubn-
ous, notwithftanding it is in the vicinity of many coal-mines'.
The parifti is of great extent, being nearly 30 miles in cir-
cuit, and comprehends, befides the town, fevcntren confider-
able townfhips, or villages, among which arc. Billion, Fea-
therftone, Hatherton, Hilton, and Kinvafton. According
to the returns to parliament in 181 1, the houfes in the
whole parilh were 2936, and the inhabitants 14,836. A
market is held on Wednefday, and a fair on the loth of
July. The lldll and ingenuity of the lock-fmiths of the
town and the environs, (for many of the farmers themfelves
are concerned in the bufinefs, ) and the trade carried on in
thefe and fimilar articles of iron manufafture, are un-
paralleled in England : the trade is particularly promoted
by the Staffordfhire and Worcellerlhire grand trunk, and
the Birmingham canals, which unite about a mile to the N.
of the town. The town is governed by two conftables, and
in it are held the petty feffions for the N. and S. divifions of
Seifdon hundred.

The collegiate church of St. Peter ftands on an elevatioa
on the E. fide of the town, and confifts of a lofty nave,
with fide-aifles and a chancel. From the centre of the
building, which is of ftone, rifes a tower. The nave is
feparated from the aides by five pointed arches, fupported
by oftagonal pillars. Againft one of the S. pillars is
erefted a very curious ftone pulpit. The font, which is
odtdgonal, and covered with fculptured figures, &c. appears
to be very ancient. In the great chancel is a full-length
ftatue, in brafs, of the celebrated admiral fir Richard
Levefon, who had a command againft the Spanifti armada,
under fir Francis Drake. In the church-yard ftands a
round column twenty feet high, profufely but rudely carved
in divifions, and the whole furmounted by a plain capital. It
is evidently ancient, and may have fupported a crofs, or the
figure of the patron-faint. The fituation of Wulfruna'a
monaftery is imknown ; but in the S.W. corner of the
burylng-ground is a large room fupported by groins, the
walls of which are three yards in thicknefs. Befides
St. Peter's, Wolverhampton poffelfes another church, dedi-
cated to St. John, which was eredled by fubfcription, and
confecrated in 1761. Diffenters of various denominations
abound in the parilh of Wolverhampton, and comprehend
more than one half of the inhabitants : chapels for their ac-
commodation are confequently numerous. A free-fchool
was founded here by fir Stephen Jennings of Wolverhamp-
ton, who was lord-mayor of London in 1668 ; befides
which, charity-fchools are maintained for children of both
fexes. Bilfton, a large and populous village two miles S.E.
fromthe town, is within the parifh of Wolverhampton ; but
as to all parochial concerns it is a feparate townftiip. In
181 1 Bilfton contained 1862 houfes, and the inhabitants
amounted to 9646. Here is a parochial chapel, which is a
neat modern ftrufture : the living is a perpetual curacy
within the exempt jurifdiftion of the dean of WoUerhamp-
ton ; but the nomination and prefentation of the incumbent
are vefted in the inhabitants at large. Bilfton contains like-
wife two diffenting meetings, and an excellent charity-fchool.
The bufinefs of Bilfton confifts chiefly of japanned and
enamelled goods. The vicinity abounds in coal, iron-ftone,
with numerous fmelting-furnaces and forges, &c. in which
the operations are performed by ftcam-engines. Bilfton
furnilhes alfo a pecuhar kind of fand of great ufe in cafting
metals. At Bradley, near Bilfton, the fubterraneous coal
has been burning for feveral years paft, and every attempt
to extinguifti it has hitherto proved fruitlels, by which feve-
ral

W O M

val acres f f land have been rendered unprodu£Uve. The
fire proceeds from a burning ftratum of coal about four feet
thick, and eight or ten yards deep, to which the air has free
accefs ; as the main bed of coal has been dug out from
under it. In colleAing the calcined fubftances for repair-
ing the roads, fulphur and alum are frequently found.
Tatenhill, a fmall village on a fteep eminence two miles N.
from Wolverhampton, was the fcene of a fevere battle
between Edward the Elder and the Danes, in the beginning
of the loth century. In this place was founded, before
the Norman Conqueft, a college with a dean and five pre-
bends, which fubfifted till the general diflTolution by
Henry VIII. The prefent church, or chapel, is appa-
rently a part of that eftablifhment. At Wrottefley, a
village in the parifh of Wolverhampton, extenfive ancient
remains have been difcovered, fuppofed, by Dr. Plott, in his
Hiftory of StafFordfhire, to be vcftiges of the old Theoten-
hall of the Danes : but later antiquaries imagine thefe re-
mains to belong to the Uriconium of Roman Britain.
The parifh of Wolverhampton, although varied with
eminences, is in general level, and ornamented with a num-
ber of agreeable hamlets and country-feats. — Hiftory and
Antiquities of StafFordfhire, by the Rev. Stebbing Shaw,
fol. Lond. 1798. Beauties of England and Wales, Staf-
fordlhire, 8vo. Lond. 18 14.

WOLVES-Teeth, of a horfe, are overgrown grinders,
the points of which, being higher than the reft, prick the
creature's tongue and gums in feeding, fo as to hinder
chewing of the meat.

They are feldom met with but in young horfes ; but if
they be not daily worn by chewing, they will grow up even
to pierce the roof of the mouth.

There are ufually two of thefe wolves-teeth, which are
fmall, and grow in the upper-jaw, next to the great grind-
ing-teeth : thefe are fo tender and painful, that the horfe
cannot chew his meat, but is forced to let a great part of it
fall out of his mouth, or fwallow it half chewed.

The remedy, in this cafe, is to tie up the horfe's head to
fome part of the rafter, and open his mouth with a cord ;
then with an inftrument like a carpenter's gauge, and a
mallet, the teeth that are tlnis troublefome are to be knocked
out, and the holes filled up with fait.

If the upper-jaw teeth hang over thofe of the under-jaw,
and by that means cut the mouth, the fam« inftrument is to
be ufed, and the teeth are to be pared ftiorter by little and
little. When they are fufficiently pared down, they muft
be filed fmooth, and the mouth waftied with vinegar and
fait, and the whole complaint will be thus removed.

Wolves, Rout of. See Rout.

Wolves IJlands, in Geography, a clufter of fmall iflands
near the E. coaft of Maine. N. lat. 45° 4'. W. long.
66* 50'.

WOLVEY, a village of England, in the county of
Warwick. It was at this place that Edward IV. was fur-
prifed and taken prifoner by Richard Nevil, earl of War-
wick ; 10 miles N.E. of Coventry.

WOLZ. See Wels.

WOMAN, FcEMiNA, Mulier, the female of man.

A woman, in England, as foon as ftie is married, with
all her moveables, is wholly In poiejlate v'lrl, or at the will
and difpofal of her hufband.

There are divers confiderable things relating to women in
the laws of England, which fee under Wife.

St. Auguftine calls women the devout fix ; at leaft, this
is the common opinion ; though others rather think, that in
the prayer ufually attributed to that father, and ftill re-
hearfed in the Romiftj church to the Holy Virgin, the words

W O M

" intercede pro devoto fosmineo fexu," are to be underftood
of women devoted or confecrated to God in religious
houfes ; which had been fufficiently exprefled by the words,
" ora pro populo, interveni pro clero."

It is a popular tradition among the Mahometans, which
obtains to this day, that women fhall not enter paradife.

An anonymous author, about the clofe of the fixteenth
century, publiftied a little Latin diflertation, to prove that
women are not men ; that is, are not reafonable creatures :
" Differtatio perjucunda, qua anonymus probare nititur mu-
lieres homines non effe." He alfo endeavours to prove,
what naturally follows from this principle, -viz. that women
(hall not be faved, that there is no future hfe or happinefs
for them. His proofs are all taken from Scripture, or
founded on Scripture. Though, after all, his aim is not
fo much to degrade women to the condition of brutes, as to
ridicule the principle or method of many Proteftants, who,
in points of controverfy, admit of no proofs or confider-
ations but what are taken from Scripture alone. This ap-
pears from the conclufion of the work. " Probavi, opinor,
inviftiflimia SS. literarum teftimoniis, mulierem non effe
hominem, nee eam falvari : quod fi non eff^eci, oftendi tamen
univerfo mundo, quomodo hujus temporis hseretici, et prx-
fertim Anabaptiftse, facram foleant explicare Scripturam,
et quo utantur methodo ad ftabilienda fua execranda dog-
mata." *

Yet Simon Gediccus, a Lutheran divine, wrote a ferious
confutation of this piece in 1595, wherein the women are
reftored to the expeftation of'^ heaven, on their good be-
haviour.

The ancient Marcionites allowed their women to baptize ;
as we are alfured by St. Epiphanius, Hxr. 42. cap. 4. the
Montanifts admitted women to the priefthood, and even the
epifcopate, Epiph. Hasr. 49. cap. 2. The modern Quakers
alfo permit their women to preach and prophefy, on an equal
footing with the men.

It is a point much controverted, how far learning'and
ftudy become the fex ? Erafmus handles the queftion at
large in one of his letters to Budseus. Lud. Vives, in his
Inftitutio Foeminsc Chriftianse, has a chapter exprefsly on the
fame fubjeft. Madam Schurman, a German lady, has gone
beyond them both, in a treatife on this problem, " Num foe-
minx Chriftianae conveniat ftudium literarum ?"

Several of the women remarkable for learning have been
alfo diftinguifhed for their want of conduft. The reafon,
no doubt, lay in this ; that their firll ftudies lying in books
of gallantry and intrigue, the imagination was early turned
that way, and the memory filled with a fort of ideas, which
a favourable difpofition, and age, adopted too eafily, and
improved too faft. It is not that ftudy in itfelf has any
natural tendency to produce fuch effefts ; rather the con-,
trary : the clofe abftraded refearches of metaphyfica, 1q.
gics, mathematics, phyfiCs, criticifm, &c. no doubt would
be the fureft means to fecure and eftablifti the virtue of qon.
tinency in a woman.

For an account of women hired to weep at funerals by
the Romans, fee Pr^^fiCjE.

Women were allowed to fing, in 1772, in the collegiate
church of St. Gudula, at Bruffels. It was in the performance
of high mafs on a Sunday, v.'hen a confiderable number of
voices and inftruments were aflembled in the choir ; and we
were glad to find among the former two or three \yomen,
who though they wer« not fine fingers, yet their being em-
ployed, proved that female voices might have admidion in
the church, without giving offence or fcandal to piety, or
even bigotry. If the practice were to become general, of
admitting vyomen to fing the foprano part in the cavhedraU,
4 E 2 ' ii

W O M

it would, in Italy, be a fervice to mankind, and in the reft
of Europe render church mufic infinitely more pleafing and
perfeft ; in general, the want of treble voices, at leaft of
fuch as have had fufficient time to be polifhed, and rendered
fteady, deftroys the effefts of the befl compofitions, in
which, if the principal melody be feeble, nothing but the
fubordinate parts, meant only as attendants, and to enrich
the harmony of the whole, can be heard.
Women, Appeals of. See Appeal.
Women, Jury of. See Jury of Matrons.
Women, Stealing, or Seduaion of, is punifhable by the
ftatute 4 & 5 Ph. & Mar. cap. 8. which enafts, that if any
perfon above the age of fourteen unlawfully (hall convey
or take away any woman child unmarried, ( which is held to
extend to baftards as well as to legitimate children,) within
the age of fixteen years, from the poffeffion and againft the
will of the father, mother, guardians, or governors, he
{hall be imprifoned two years, or fined at the difcretion of
the juftices : and if he deflowers fuch maid or woman child,
or, without the confent of parents, contracts matrimony
with her, he fhall be imprifoned five years, or fined at the
difcretion of the juftices, and fhe fhall forfeit her lands to
her next of kin, during the life of her faid huftiand. But this
latter part of the aft is now rendered almoft ufelefs, by
proTifions of a very different kind, which make the mar-
riage totally void, in the ftatute 26 Geo. II. cap. 33. See
Marriage. See alfo Forcible yibduaion. Rape, and
Ravishment.

WOMB, Matrix, or Uterus, in Anatomy, that part of
the female of any kind, wherein the foetus is conceived and
nourifhed till the time of its delivery.

The ancient Greeks called the matrix, /Ltnrfii, from ^ir>if,
mother : whence diforders of the womb are ftill frequently
cailed fts of the mother. They alfo call it uoTw^a, as being
the laft of the entrails, by its fituation. Sometimes they
alfo call it (pvmi, or natura; and vulva, from volvv, to fold,
or envelope, or from valva, doors. See Uterus.

Womb, Dropfy of the. See Dropsy.

Womb, Falling down of the. See Procidentia Uteri.

Womb, Inflammation of the. See Inflammation.

Womb, Suffocation of the. See Suffocation.

Womb, Ulcers of the. See Ulcers.

Womb, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Skonen ; 12 miles E. of Lund.

WOMBACH, a town of Germany, in the county of
Rieneck ; 3 miles S. of Lohr.

WOMBAT, in Zoology, an animal of which Mr. E.
Home has given an anatomical defcription in the 2d part of
the 98th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions. It was
brought from the iflands in BafTa's ftraits, and lived with him
in a domefticated ftate for two years. Whenever it had an
opportunity, it burrowed in the ground, and covered itfelf
in the earth with furprifing quicknefs. It was quiet in the
day, but in conftant motion during the night ; very fenfible
of cold ; ate all kinds of vegetables ; was particularly fond
of new hay, which it ate ftalk by flalk. It appeared at-
tached to thofe to whom it was accuftomed, and who were
kind to it. It allowed children to pull and carry it about,
and when it bit them it was not in anger or with violence.
It appeared to have arrived at its full growth, weighed
about, twenty poundi, and was about two feet two inches
long. Another animal called the ' Koala,' is a fpecies of
the wombat, partaking of its peculiarities. It inhabits the
forefts of New HoUand, about fifty or ilxty miles S.W. of
Port Jackfon, whither it was brought in Augult 1803, and
is called by the natives the ' koala wombat.' It is com-
monly about two feet long and one high ; in the girth about

WON

a foot and a half: it is covered with fine foft fur, lead-
coloured on the back and white on the belly : the ears are
fhort, ereft, and pointed ; the eyes generally ruminating,
fometimes fiery and menacing : it bears no fmall refemblance
to the bear in the fore-part of its body : it has no tail ; and
its cuftoniary pofture is fitting. The New Hollanders eat
the flefh of this animal ; and are very dextrous in the purfuit
of it, climbing with wonderful rapidity the loftieft gum-trees
in fearch of it. The koala feeds upon the tender fhoots of
thefe trees ; and during the day refts on the tops of them,
either feeding at eafe, or fleeping. In the night it defcends,
prowls about in fearch of fome particular roots, creeping
rather than walking ; and when incenfed or hungry, it utters
a long fhrill yell, and afTumes a fierce and menacing look.
Thefe animals are found in pairs, and the young is carried
by the mother on its fhoulders. It foon forms an attach-
ment to the perfon who feeds it.

The external form of the wombat has been defcribed by
M. GeofFroy, in the 2d volume of the " Annates du Mufeum
National de France ;" and feveral parts of its internal ftruc-
ture have been taken notice of by M. Cuvier, in his " Lemons
d'Anatomie Compare." The mechanifm of the bones and
mufcles of the hind legs differs in many refpefts from that
of all other animals, except the koala. This has been mi-
nutely examined and defcribed by Mr. Brodie, at the defire
of Mr. Home ; and it appears that there is nothing fimilar
to it in the hind legs of the mole, or other burrowing ani.
mals. The internal ilruAure of the wombat refembles that
of the beaver ; but it is fo different from that of the kan-
garoo, and all the other animals of the opofFum tribe, that
it forms a very extraordinary peculiarity. The male and
female organs of generation have been defcribed ; the former
by M. Cuvier, and the latter by Mr. Bell in New South
Wales. The male and female organs of the wombat and
koala are fimilar to thofe of the opoffum ; and hence it is
concluded, that thefe animals form the intermediate link be-
tween the opoffum and kangaroo. See Didelphis.

WOMBINELLORE, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Baramaul. It was taken by the Britifh, under
general Meadows ; 100 miles S.E. of Seringapatam. N.
lat. ii°43'. E. long. 78° 15'.

WOMBORN, a townfhip of England, in Staffordfhire j
3 miles S.W. of Wolverhampton.

WOMELSDPRF, a town of Pennfylvania ; 15 miles
W. of Reading.

WONDA, a town of Africa, in Manding ; 30 miles
N.E. of Kamalia. See Manding.

WoNDA, a river of Manding, which, at Fonilla, a fmall
walled village on its banks, is called Ba Woolima ( red river ) ;
and towards its fource it has the name of Ba Qui (white
river) ; the middle part of its courfe being called Wonda.
WONDER. See Miracle.

The feven wonders of the world, as they are popularly
called, were, the Egyptian pyramids ; the maufoleum ereAed
by Artemifia ; the temple of Diana at Ephefus ; the walls
and hanging gardens of the city of Babylon ; the cololfus,
or brazen image of the fun, at Rhodes ; the ftatue of Ju-
piter Olympius ; and the pharos, or watch-tower, of Pto-
lemy Philadelphus ; inftead of the latter, fome reckon the
royal palace of Cyrus, built by Menon, the ftones of which
were cemented with gold. See Pyramid.
WONDERFUL Water. See Water.
WONDRA, or WoNDREB, in Geography, a river which
rifes in Bavaria, and runs into the Egra, near Kbnigfberg,
in Bohemia.

WONDRZEGOW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 10 miles W.S.W. of Kaurzim.

WONSDORF,

woo

woo

WONSDORF, a town of Prufiia, in Natangen ; 25 miles
S.E. of Konigfterg.

WONSIEDEL. See Wunsiedel.
. WONTAMITTA, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
^J miles E. of Chinna Balabarum.

WOO-CHIN, a town of China, in the province of Kiang-
fi, near the lake Poyang, which is a place of confiderable
importance, as the great mart for exchanging commodities
between the north and fouth of China. The warelioufes are
fpacious and well fiHed, dwelling-houfes large and fubftan-
tial, temples richly decorated, and the (hops filled with arti-
cles of all kinds, including no inconfiderable proportion of
European goods. Here are feveral fmall bronze veffels of
ancient and modern workmanfhip, not unlike the Grecian
and Etrufcan. Near it is a temple dedicated to Wang-(hin-
choo, the god of longevity, furpafling moil others in riches
of carved-work and gilding.

WOOD, William, F.L.S., in Biography, a Proteftant
diflenting minifter of diftinguiihed reputation for general
literature and fcience, character, and ufefulnefs, was born at
CoUingtree, a village near Northampton, on May 29, O.S.
1745. His father, though occupying a humble ilation, was
a perfon of approved integrity and piety, in conneftion with
the Chriltian fociety at Northampton, under the perfonal
care of the juftly-celebrated Dr. Doddridge, and paid par-
ticular attention to the rehgious inftruftion and moral con-
duft of his children. Mr. Wood, at an early age, manifefted
promifing talents, and having finiihed his fchool-education
under the late Dr. Addington of Market-Harborough, was
introduced, at the age of 16, with a view to the miniftry,
among Proteftant diflenters, which was the objeft of his
choice, to a dUFenting academy in London, condudlcd at
the time of his admiffion by Dr. David Jennings and Mr.
(afterwards Dr.) Morton Savage, and before the clofe of
his ftudies by Mr. Savage, Mr. A. Kippis, and Mr. A. Rees.
The writer of this ilietch can bear perfonal teltimony to his
exemplary conduft during the period of his continuance at
the academy, and to the diligence and fuccefs with which
he profecuted the various branches of literature and fcience
to which his attention was direAed. Few perfons ever left
a public feminary with fuperior qualifications for the exercife
of the profeflion to which he was devoted, and performed the
duties of it, in the progrefs of a long and honourable life, more
acceptably and more ufefully. It was then the cuflom, ad-
mitting of few exceptions^ to ordain miniilers when they
were elefted by particular congregations, and introduced
into the full difcharge of the paftoral office ; and fome, we
underftand, of the wifeft and beft of the Non-conformift
minifters have lamented the too general difcontinuance of
this decorous praftice, againft which it is thought by many
that no fufficient objeftion has been alleged. Ordination
among Proteftant diffenters is a public fervice, ufually con-
duced at the place where the minifter, who is ordained or
fet apart, is about to be fettled ; and confifts of a fermon
addrefled to the people, a charge delivered to the perfon
ordained, and prayers for a divine blefling on his future la-
bours, and for the edification and profperity of the Chriftian
fociety with which he is connefted. It has been fomctimes
accompanied with a confeffion of faith on the part of the
perfon who is thus fet apart ; but this part of the fervice,
having been mifunderftood, is frequently omitted, though in
cafes which allow of unrcftrifted hberty, and in which the
confeflion neither defcends into a variety of minute particu-
lare, nor contains any pledges that cmbaiTafs or reftrain future
free inquiry, it is thought to be unexceptionable. Ordina-
tion, however, among the perfons to whom we now refer, is
not conceived to impart any new qualifications or powers

which the perfon ordained did not poflefs previoufly to this
fervice, or to conftitute him either a minifter in general, or
the paftor of any particular church. But to return from
this digreffion : Mr. Wood was publicly ordained, and the
occafion afforded an opportunity for many minifters of
acknowledged reputation among diflenters to bear their
united teftimony to his talents and charafter. He com-
menced his public fervices at Debenham in Suffolk, on the
6th of July 1766, with a fermon peculiarly appropriate to
the occafion, from Luke, ix, 26., and he fpent the remaining
part of this year, and a great part of the year 1767, in the
vicinity of London, where he occafionally officiated to the
fatisfadtion of thofe who attended, and gained the friendfhip
of fome of the moft eminent of the diffenting minifters of
that period. In September 1767, he fettled at Stamford,
in Lincolnfhire ; and removed from thence to Ipfwich in
November 1770, where he remained till the clofe of the year
1772. In 1773, having nearly completed his 27th year,
he was unanimoufly cholen to fucceed Dr. Prieftley at Mill-
hill chapel, Leeds, and in that conneftion he continued till
his death. About two years after his fettlement with this
congregation, he publifhed a fmall volume confifting of
twelve fermons on focial life, which entitled the author, in
the judgment of a contemporary critic, to the charafter of
a ufeful and elegant preacher. In 1780 he formed a ma-
trimonial conneftion with a daughter of Mr. George Oates,
of Low-hall, near Leeds, which lafted twenty-fix years, and
contributed in a high degree to his domeftic felicity. By
tills lady he had four children, of whom three furvived their
parents.

Ardently devoted to the ftudies that were more immedi-
ately or more remotely connefted with his profeffion, and
attached by affeftionate gratitude as well as intereft to
the congregation in the fervice of which he was engaged,
and which claimed his moft affiduous and refpeftful atten-
tion, he commenced for the benefit of the young a courfe of
leftures, in the year 1785. Thefe were comprehenfive and
improving ; and though they were delivered once a fort-
night, they lafted feveral years. Our limits will not allow
us to avail ourfelves of the detail, furnifhed by his excellent
biographer, of the fubjefts which were difcuffed in this ex-
tenfive courfe of ufeful inftruAion. It vsrill be fufficient to
obferve, that they contributed no lefs to the information of
thofe who attended them than to the reputation of the lec-
turer, as well as to the mutual refpeft and efteeih which
were thus cemented between Mr. Wood and his congrega-
tion. The public would probably have derived inftruftion
from the perufal of them, if fome circumftances had not oc-
curred which rendered it neceffary for Mr. Wood to devote
a confiderable part of his time and attention to fubjefts of
a very different nature. Without abandoning the ftudies
connefted with his profeffion, he was led by the ftate of his
health, and by fome other confiderations, to the purfuit of
natural hiftory, and particularly of Enghfh botany ; but
whilft he was thus occupied, he rendered his inveftigations
fubfervient to the great objeA of his fife and miniftry, the
promotion of religion and virtue, as well as the perfonal
fatisfaftion and future happinefs of thofe with whom he was
connefted. His new purfuits were the means of intro-
ducing him to acquaintance and friendfhip with many emi-
nent perfons ; and more efpecially with Dr. (now fir James)
Smith, the juftly celebrated prefident of the Linnsan So-
ciety. To Mr. Wood the good opinion and friendly regard
of one, who commands the refped and efteem of all who
know him, by mental accompliftiments and moral qualities
of the moft excellent and engaging kind, muft haveaff"orded
a fatisfadion which, as we can tellify from perfonal know-
II ledge,

WOOD.

le<3ge, he very highly appreciated. The good opinion of
fuch a judge of merit, in the department of natural hiftory,
which now engaged his attention, muft have encouraged his
afBduity and perfeverance. He was thus qualified for con-
tributing feveral valuable articles to this Cyclopaedia, in the
reputation and fuccefs of which the editor is happy to fay
he felt and expreffed a peculiar interett. His contributions
comprehended the botanical articles that occur, with fome
few exceptions, from the beginning of the letter B to the
end of C ; and the editor, who moll fincerely lamented his
death as a pupil and a friend, as well as a coadjutor in this
work, would have found it difficult to fupply the lofs, if the
kindnefs and condefcenfion of the Linnsus of our time, for
fo, it is tioped, wc may be allowed to denominate him with-
out offending his delicacy, had not relieved his anxiety, and
amply compenfated the injury which the botanical depart-
ment of the Cyclopedia muft have fuftained.

Mr. Wood had attained, by his talents and cultivation of
them, to fo high a rank among his brethren in that part of
the country where his lot was caft, that few public fervices
occurred in which he was not expefted to be aftive and con-
fpicuous. Attached to liberty, civil and rehgious, from his
youth, he had in his maturer years thoroughly acquainted
himfelf with the genuine principles of the Britilh conftitu-
tion ; and accordingly he took occafion on the centenary of
the Revolution, in 1788, to exprefs his conviftion and feel-
ings in two fermons, which were afterwards pubhfhed. In
the three following years he took an aftive part in the ap-
plication of the difTcnters to parUament for the repeal of
the teft and corporation afts. In 1794 he preached a fune-
ral fermon, on occafion of the death of the Rev. W. Turner,
of Wakefield ; and in the following year he performed the
fame fervice in confequence of the deceafe of the Rev. Mr.
Ralph, of Halifax : the fermons which he delivered in both
cafes were publifhed. The Ihort account of Leeds which was
this year communicated to Dr. Aikin for his Hiftory of Man-
cheft:er deferves to be noticed, as he took great pains in exaAly
afcertaining the number of its inhabitants. About this time
he commenced a courfe of education, addrefTed to young
females, with a view partly to his own emolument, but prin-
cipally for the benefit of thofe who were difpofed to avail
themfelves of his inftruftion ; and indeed few perfons could
be found capable of condufting fuch a courfe with greater
fatisfaftion and advantage to thofe who attended it. His
leftures occupied three years, and comprehended hiftory,
geography, natural philofophy, grammar, the belles lettres,
natural hiftory, mental and moral philofophy, and the evi-
dences of natural and revealed religion. His next publica-
tion was his fermon occafioned by the death of the Rev.
Newcome Cappe, which contained a very appropriate and
juftly-merited eulogy of his late revered friend. It was
dedicated to Mrs. Cappe, who claimed from her talents and
charafter, as well as relation to' the deceafed, a tribute of
refpeft ; and annexed to it fome briefmemoirsof Mr. Cappe's
life. In the year 1 80 1 , Mr. Wood pubhftied a liturgy, con-
fifling of five forms, for the ufe of his congregation at MilU
hiH chapel, and compofed, for the moft part, from the
fervice pf the eftabhftied church, the Liverpool, Shrewfbury,
and other liturgies before pubhftied by the diflenters, as
well as from a fimilar fervice compofed by the Rev. T. Simp-
fon. Of this perfoimance it will be fufScient to ftate, that
it was executed with judgment and tafte. On the reftora-
lion of peace in the year 1802, he pubhftied an animated
difcourfe, which he delivered, in the courfe of his public
fervices, on that occafion. About this time he exerted him-
felf in eftabliftiing at York the academical inftitution, which
Jhad for fome years fubfifted at Manchefter, and which was

likely to be difcontinued in confequence of the refignation
of the late Rev. G. Walker, the theological tutor.

Intending, as he advanced in life, and when he had finiftied
the education of his daughter, to relinquifti the anxiety and
labour of tuition, he propofed to engage in fome literary
undertakings. Accordingly he was a contributor, in the
department of natural hiftory, to the Annual Review; but
the work which occupied his chief attention, and which
aff'orded him the greateft pleafure, was the Cyclopaedia
already mentioned.

As a preacher, the laft of his pubhcations was a fermon
dehvered at Birmingham, June 9, 1805, for the benefit ot
the Proteilant diffenting charity -fchool, fupported by the
joint contributions of the two locieties of the old and nevir
meeting-houfes. After his return from an excurfion in the
months of July and Auguft 1806, he was attacked by a
fevere paroxyfm of the gout, to which he had been long
fubjeft ; and in a few days his diforder was fo alarming, that
his recovery was not expefted. As an aggravation of his
diftrefs, the affeftionate partner of his life was feized with a
diforder, which terminated in her death. For fome time his
ftate was fuch, that it was prudent to conceal from him both
the progrefs and termination of her diforder. The mourn-
ful event which he had apprehended was gradually difclofed
to him ; and he received the affliftive intelligence with a
degree of compofure and refignation, which evinced the
efficacy of his religious principles, and the confolation de-
rived in fuch circumftances from Chriftian hope. During a
long illnefs, which interrupted his pubhc labours, and which
was attended with a confiderable expence, the fociety with
which he was connefted had an opportunity of teftifying, by
fubftantial afts of kindnefs, the high fenfe they entertained
of his meritorious fervices. Providence at length reftored
liis health to fuch a degree, that he was able to refume his pub-
lic labours ; but they were of no long continuance. On Sun-
day the 27th of March 1808, he performed the ufual fervices
with an uncommon degree of animation. On the following
day, however, having previoufly experienced fymptoms of a
flying gout, he was fuddenly feized at dinner with a violent
ficknefs, which continued for many hours. This was fucceeded
by an inflammation of the bowels, which foon terminated in
a mortification. , The confequence was a delirium ; and on
Friday, the I ft of April, he expired fo quietly, that the
friends who attended his bed were not apprized of the mo-
ment of his departure. Thofe who wifli for further inform-
ation concerning the natural talents and acquired endow-
ments, the private charafter and public fervjcesof Mr. Wood,
will be amply gratified by the perufal of the " Memoirs of
his Life and Writings," and of the " Addrefs and Sermon"
dehvered on occafion of his death, by his friend and neigh-
bour the Rev. Charles Wellbeloved of York.

Wood, Anthony, the Oxford Antiquary, was born at
Oxford in 1632, and entered of Merton college in 1647.
Having commenced M.A. and acquired a tafte for ftudies
pertaining to antiquity, he purfued with indefatigable dili-
gence both at Oxford and in London refearclies, which fur-
iiifhed him with materials for his " Hiftory and Antiquities
of the Univerfity of Oxford," a copy of which he fold to
the univerfity in 1669 for 100/. It was written in Enghft),
but afterwards tranflated into Latin, under the infpeftion of
Dr. Fell ; and the verfion was publifhed from the Oxford
prefs in 1674, under the title of " Hiftoria et Antiquitates
Univerfitatis Oxonienfis, duobus Voluminibus compre-
henfa," fol. The firft part of this work includes the annals
of the univerfity, from its earlieft period to the year 1 648 }
and the fecond contains an account of all its particular
foundations, endowments, officers, &c. The traniJation

is

WOOD.

i* badly executed, and Wood, tlie original author, was
ddUlute of thofe qualifications that would have rendered
him a fit hiftorian of a learned univerfity. Another of
Wood's works was his " Athena: Oxonienfes; or, an
Account, in Englifh, of almoft all the Writers educated at
Oxford, and many of thofe at the Sifter Univerfity, from
the year 1500." It was firft publilhed in 1691, 2 vols, fol.,
and foon after fubjcAed him to a profecution in the vice-
chancellor's court for his account of lord Clarendon, and
to various other attacks, occafioned by his partialities, and
more efpecially by his itrong bias in favour of popery. His
ftyle is vulgar, and his fentiments illiberal and unphilofo-
phical ; but his veracity entitles him to confidence. He
died in 1695, and bequeathed his books and papers to the
univerfity of Oxford. A fecond edition of this work,
corrected and enlarged from the author's MS., was pub-
lilhed in 1721. Biog. Brit.

This curious and diligent antiquary, whofe whole life was
fpent in the fervice of the dead, and whofe labours, fincc his
deceafe, have fo much facilitated the inquiries, and gratified
the curiofity of the living, tells us, in the Memoirs of his Life,
written by himfelf, with monailic fimplicity, that in 1651,
" he began to exercife his natural and infatiable genie to
mufick. He exercifed his hand on the violin, and having a
good eare to take any tune at firft hearing, he could quickly
draw it out from the violin, but not with the fame tuning of
ftrings that others ufed. He wanted underftanding, friends,
and money, to pick him out a good mailer, otherwife he
might have equalled in that inftrument, and in finging, any
perfon then in the univerfity. He had fome companions
that were mufical, but they wanted inftrudlion as well
as he."

The next year, being obliged to go into the country to
try to get rid of an obltinate ague, by exercife and change
of air, he tells, that " while he continued there he followed
the plow on well-dayes, andfometimes plowed. He learned
there to ring on the fix bells, then newly put up : and hav-
ing had from his moft tender yeares an extraordinary ravifti-
ing delight in mufick, he praftifed there, without the help
of an inllrudlor, to play on the violin. It was then that he
tuned his ftrings in 4ths, and not in jths, according to the
manner ; and having a good eare, and being ready to fing
any tune upon hearing it once or twice, he could play it alfo
in a fliort time with the faid way of tuning, which was
never knowne before."

" After he had fpent the fummer in a lonifh and retired
condition, he returned to Oxon. And being advifed by
fome perfons, he entertained a matter of mufick to teach
him the ufual way of playing on the violin ; that is, by
having every ftring tuned five notes lower than the other
going before. The mafter was Charles Griffith, one of the
mufitians belonging to the city of Oxon., whom he then
thought to be a moft excellent artift. But when Anthony
Wood improved himfelf in that inftrument, he found he was
not fo. He gave him 2s. 6d. entrance, and fo quarterly.
This perfon, after he had extreamly wondered how he could
play fo many tunes as he did by 4th3, without a direftor or
guide, tuned his violin by ^ths, and gave him inftruftioiis
how to proceed, leaving then a leftbn with him to practice
againft his next coming."

In 1653, he found that " heraldry, mufick, and painting,
did fo much crowd upon him, that he could not avoid them ;
and could never give a reafon why he fhould delight in thofe
ftudies, more than in others, fo prevalent was nature, mixed
with a generofity of mind, and a hatred of all that was fer-
vile, fneaking, or advantageous for lucre fake."

" Having by 1654 obtained a proficiency in mufick, he

and his companions were not without filly frolicki, not novr
to be maintained." — What fhould thefe frolics be, but to
difguife themfelves in poor habits, and like country-fiddler*
fcrape for their livings. After ftroUing about to Farring-
don fair, and other places, and gaining money, viftuals, and
drink for their trouble, in returning home they were over-
taken by certain foldiers, who forced them to play in the
open field, and then left them without giving them a penny.
" Moft of his companions would afterwards glory in this,
but he was afhamed, and could never endure to hear of it."

By 1656, his record informs us, that " he had a genuine
/kill in mufick, and frequented the weekly meetings of mufi-
tians in the houfe of William Ellis, organift of St. John's
college, fituated on that place whereon the theatre was built."
Here he gives a lift of the ufual company that met and
performed their parts on lutes and viols ; among thefe eight
were gentlemen. " The mufick-mafters were, William Ellis,
bachelor of mufick, and owner of the houfe, who always
played his part either on the organ or virginal. Dr. John
Wilfon, the public profefTor, the beft at the lute in all
England : he fometimes played on the lute, but moftly pre-

fided (direfted) the confort. Curteys, a lutenift,

lately ejefted from fome choire or cathedral church.
Thomas Jackfon, a bafe-violift. Edward Low, then
organift of Chrift church : he played only on the organ, fo
when he played on that inftrument, Mr. Ellis would take
up the counter-tenor viol, if any perfon were wanting to
performe that part. Gervace Littleton alias Weftcot, or
Weftcot alias Littleton, a violift. He was afterwards a
finging-man of St. John's college. William Glexney, who
had belonged to a choire before the war : he played well
upon the bafe-viol, and fometimes fung his part. '

Proftor, a young man, and anew comer. John Packer, one
of the univerfitie mufitians ; but Mr. Low, a proud man,
could not endure any common mufitian to come to the
meeting, much Icfs to play among them. Of this kind I
muft rank John Hafelwood, an apothecary, a ftarched formal
chfterpipe, who ufually played on the bafe-viol, and fome-
times on the counter-tenor. He was very conceited of his
fkill (though he had but little of it), and therefore would be
ever and anon ready to take up a viol before his betters ;
which being obferved by all, they ufually called him Handle-
wood. The reft were but beginners. Proitor died foon
after this time. He had been bred up by Mr. John Jenkins,
the mirrour and wonder of his age for mufick, was excellent
for the lyra-viol and divifion-viol, good at the treble-viol
and violin, and all comprehended in a man of three or four-
and-twenty yeares of age. He was much admired at the
meetings, and exceedingly pitied by all the faculty for his
lofs."

At this time Anthony Wood tells us, that " what by
mufick, and rare books that he found in the public library,
his hfe was a perfeft Elyfiim."

" Anthony Wood was now advifed to entertain one
William James, a dancing-maftcr, to inflruft him on the
violin, who by fome was accounted excellent on that inftru-
ment, and the rather becaufe, it was faid, that he had ob-
tained his knowledge in dancing and mufick in France. He
fpent in all half a yeare with him, and gained fome improve-
ment ; yet at length he found him not a compleat mafter of
his facultie, as Griffith and Parker were not : and, to fay
the truth, there was no compleat mafter in Oxon. for that
inftrument, becaufe it had not been hitherto ufed in confort
among gentlemen, only by common mufitians, who played
but two parts. The gentlemen in private meetings, which
Anthony Wood frequented, played three, four, and five
parts with viols, as treble-viol, tenor, counter-tenor, and

bafij

WOOD.

bafs, with an organ, virginal, or h^rpficon, joyned with
them ; and they adeemed a violin to be an inftrument
only belonging to a common fidler, and could not endure
that it (hould come among them, for feare of making their
meetings to be vaine and fidUng. But before the reftora-
tion of king Charles II., and efpecially after, \nols began to
be out of fafhion, and only violins ufed, as treble vioUn,
tenor, and bafe viohn ; and the king, accordmg to the
French mode, would have twenty-four violins playing before
him, while he was at meales, as being more airie and brillc

than viols." -rx • ■»«■ n i_

" In the latter end of the yeare 1657, Davis Mell, the
mod eminent violinift of London, and clock-maker, being in
Oxon., Peter Pitt, William Bull, Kenelm Digby, and others
of AUSoules, as alfo Anthony Wood, did give a very hand-
fome entertainment in the taverne called the ' Salutation.'
The company did look on Mr. Mell to have a prodigious
hand on the viohn, and they thought that no perfon, as all
in London did, could goe beyond him."

By connefting the fcattered fragments of this zealous
Diletante's life, which concern mufic, we (hall be able to
form an idea of the ftate of the art, not only at Oxford,
but in every other part of the kingdom where it was more
fecretly praftifed during the latter part of the Ufurpation.

Under the year 1658, Anthony Wood tells us, that " he
entertained two eminent mufitians of London, named John
Gamble and Thomas Pratt, after they had entertained him
with mod excellent mufick at the meeting-houfe of William
Ellis. Gamble had obtained a great name among the
people of Oxon. for his book of ' Ayres and Dialoges to
be fung to the Theorbo, or Bafe-viol.' The other for
feveral compofitions, which they played in their conforts."

He then gives an account of the arrival of Baltzar, a won-
derful performer on the violin, from Lubec, arriving at
Oxford, and deftroying, by his great fuperiority of hand,
all the little vanities, not only of the bed fiddle-players of
the univerfity, but of others from London, who had long
enjoyed the reputation of great performers. See Baltzar.

Anthony Wood purfues his mufical records, and tells us,
that " all the time he could fpare from his beloved dudies
of EngUth hidory, antiquities, heraldry, and genealogies, he
fpent in the mod delightful facultie of mufick, indrumental
or vocal ; and if he had miffed the weekly meetings in the
houfe of William Ellis, he could not well enjoy himfelf all
the week after. Of all or mod of the company, when he
frequented that meeting, the names are fet downe under the
year 1656. As forthofe that came in after, and were now
performers, and with whom Anthony Wood frequently
played, were thefe : Charles Perot, M. A. fellow of Oriel
College, a well-bred gentleman, and a perfon of a fweet
nature; Chridopher Harrifon, M.A. fellow of Queen's
college, a maggot-headed perfon, and humourous ; Kenelm
Digby, fellow of All Soule's college, he was afterwards
Dr. of L., he was a violinid, and the two former viohds ;
William Bull, M.A. for the viol and viohn ; John Vincent,
M.A. a viohd ; Sylvanus Taylor, fellow of All Soule's
college, vio'.id and fongder, his elder brother, captain Silas
Taylor, was a compofer of mufick, played and fung liis
parts; Henry Langley, M.A. a vioUd and fongiler ;
Samuel Woodford, M.A. a viohd ; Francis Parry, M.A.
a viohd and fongder ; Chridopher Coward, and Henry
Bridgman, both maders of arts ; Nathan Crew, M.A.
a violinid and violid, but alwaies played out of tune, as
having no good eare, he was afterwards bidiop of Durham ;
Matthew Hutton, M.A. an excellent viohd ; Thomas Ken
of New college, afterwards bifliop of Bath and Wells, he
would be fometimes among them and fing his part ; Chrif-

topher Jefferyes, a junior ftudent of Clirift church, excellent
at the organ and virginals, or harpficon, having been trained
up to thofe indruments by his father George Jefferyes,
organid to king Charles I. at Oxon. ; Richard Rhodes,
another junior itudent of Chrid church, a confident Wed-
monaderian, a violinid to hold between his knees."

" Thefe did frequent the weekly meetings, and by the
help of pubhck maders of mufick, who were mixed with
them, they were much improved. Narciffus Marfh would
come fometimes among them, but feldom played, becaufe he
had a weekly meeting in his chamber, where maders of
mufick would come, and fome of the company before-men-
tioned. When he became principal of St. Alban's hall, he
tranflated the meeting thither, and there it continued, when
that meeting at Mr. Ellis's houfe was given over, and fo it
continued till he went over to Ireland, where he became
afterwards archbifhop of Tuam.

" After his majedy's redoration, when the maders of
mufick were redored to their feveral places that they before
had lod, or gotten other preferment, the weekly meetings at
Mr. Elhs's houfe becan to decay, becaufe they were only
held up by fcholars who wanted direftors and indruftors.
So that thefe meetings were not continued above two or
three yeares, and I think they did not go beyond 1662."

Our Oxford annalid terminates his account of the mufical
tranfaftions of that univerfity, during the interregnum, by
the following anecdote.

" In OAober 1659, James Quin, M.A. and one of the
fenior dudents of Chrid church, a Middlefex man borne,
but fon of Walter Quin; of Dubhn, died in a crazed condi-
tion. Anthony Wood had fome acquaintance with him,
and hath feveral times heard him fing with great admiration.
His voice was a bafs, and he had a great command of it.
'Twas very drong and exceeding trouling, but he wanted
flcill, and could fcarce fing in confort. He had been turned
out of his dudenf 3 place by the vifitors ; but being well
acquainted with fome great men of thofe times, that loved
mufick, they introduced him into the company of Ohver
Cromwell, the proteftor, who loved a good voice and in-
drumental mufick well. He heard him fing with very
great delight, hquored him with fack, and in conclufion
faid, ' Mr. Quin, you have done very well, what (hall I
do for you ?' To which Quin made anfwer with great
compliments, of which he had command with a great grace,
that ' your highnefs would be pleafed to redore him to
his dudent's place ;' which he did accordingly, and fo kept
it to his dying day."

If this minute and indifcriminate antiquary and biographer
is fometimes thought to want tade and feleftion fufhcient to
give his records due weight, it mud be afcribed to the con-
(tant habit he was in of journahzing, coUeAing anecdotes,
and making memorandums of every perfon, tranfa<ftion, and
circumdance, that arrived at his knowledge, in the uncouth
and antiquated language of his early youth. For this dialeft
being inelegant and vulgar, even when he learned it, renders
his writings frequently ridiculous, though they contain fuch
information as can be nowhere elfe obtained. But the few
opportunities he had of knowing the gradual changes in our
colloquial dialeft, by converfing with men of the world, or
even the language of elegant books by his favourite courfe
of reading, degrade him to a level with writers infinitely his
inferiors both in ufe and entertainment. An excellent
apology has been made for his imperfeftions by the editor
of his hfe, written by himfelf, and pubhlhed in 1772 ; which
is fo intereding, that he mud be an incurious inquirer,
indeed, who, having dipped into it, is not fufBciently faf-
cinated by the original fimplicity of the dyle and importance

of

WOOD.

of many of the anecdotes, to give it an entire perufal before
he lays it down. Anthony Wood was credulous, and per-
haps too much an enthufiaft in mufic to fpeak of its effefts
with critical and philofophical precifion ; however, without
his afliftance, the ftate of the art at Oxford, and the acade-
mical honours bellowed on its profeflbrs, as well as memo-
rials of their lives and works, would have been difficult to
find. Upon his decifions in matters of tafte, we are not
always perhaps implicitly to rely. The high charafter he
has given Dr. Wilfon's produftions and abilities may have
proceeded from want of experience, knowledge, and pene-
tration into the finer parts of the art ; and as to Dr. Rogers,
his judgment of him feems to have been manifeftly warped
by friendfhip. Yet, upon the whole, it mud be allowed
that it is only from fuch minute records as thofe of Anthony
Wood that any true and fatisfaftory knowledge can be ac-
quired of the charafters, manners, and domeftic occurrences
of our anceftors. The great features of hiftory, and the
events which occafion the ruin or profperity of a ilate, muft
be nearly the fame in every age and country ; but comforts,
conveniences, and the diftreffes of private life, furnilh the
mind with refleftions far more varied and interefting to the
generality of mankind, than the rife of ftates or downfall of
kings and heroes.

Wood, , a performer on the violin, who led the band

many years at the theatre in Covent Garden, and father of

Wood, his fucceflbr in that orcheftra, organift of

St. Giles's, and of Chelfea college. They were both aftive
profeffors ; but though performers only of the fecond clafc,
they conftantly ranked themfelves of the firft. Burney.

Wood, in Vegetable Anatomy, is that more or lefs hard
and compaft fubftance, which makes up the bulk of the
trunk and branches of a tree or fhrub, and is concealed
from view by the bark. When cut tranfverfely, the wood
1 is found to confift of numerous concentric layers, very diftindl
1 in the fir, and the trees of cold or temperate countries in
• general ; lefs fo in thofe appropriated to a tropical climate.
The external part of each circular layer being much the
moft hard and compaft, often with fomewhat of a horny ap-
pearance, dillinguifhes the limits of each. Scarcely any two
1 layers of the fame tree are precifely alike, in the proportion
j which this compaft part bears to the reft ; nor does any
lOne layer exhibit a precife uniformity of diameter in its
[whole circle. On the contrary, each layer is broader on
i that fide of a tree where the expofure has been moft favour-
able to its growth, where, confequently, there have been
, more branches and leaves, fo as to yield a greater depofit
I of woody matter. Hence the layers being all, for the moft
part, broadeft on one fide of a tree, their aggregate difpro-
, portion throws the common centre, or pith, very much out
of the aftual centre of the trunk. It having been remarked
:in felling trees, that the greateft breadth of the concentric
icircles is very often on their fouth fide, a rule has been pro-
ipofed for travellers to afcertain thereby the direftion of the
Icompafs. But travellers muft be ftrangely at a lofs, if they
icould find no eafier method of judging. Nor is the mode
in queftion infallible. It would indeed (hew on which fide
'the growth of each particular tree had been moft favourable,
'whether from its expofure, or the nature of the foil which
iits roots had met with ; but this may not always be towards
jthe fouth. We muft ftay to fell great part of a foreft, to
iForm a precife opinion ; and the procefs would be, as it
I were,

1 •' to tell what hour o' the dny,

i The clock did ftrike — by algebra."

I The number of thefe concentric layers, in any tree,

I Vol, XXXVIII.

if it be found to the heart, VC17 correftly demonftrates the
number of years the trunk has been growing. This is a ge-
neral opinion, and undoubtedly con eft, provided the layers
are well marked. The obferver nmft be aware that each
annual layer is compofed of a great number of thinner .and
fcarcely diftinguiftiable ones, which occafionally afTurae a
more confpicuous appearance than ufual, in confequence of
fluftuating feafons, or any accidental checks in the growth
of a tree, as hard winters render the outfide, or horny part,
of each circle, more decided ; while favourable fummers
make the circle itfelf altogether broader. But there is
always a fufRcient diftinftion between fummer and winter,
beyond the tropics, to eftablifti the above rule. Ever-greens,
for the moft part, and trees of hot countries, exhibit {lighter
traces of thefe concentric layers ; but they may be dif-
cerned in every mahogany table. Monocotyledonous plants
have been faid to be entirely without any fuch annular ftruc-
ture. But there is no reafon why they (hould neceflarily be
fo. Mr. Saliftjury once demonftrated this ftrufture to us in
a Dractena ; and its abfence in palms and ferns is to be at-
tributed to a pecuhar mode of 'depofiting wood in thefe
plants, rather than to their being monocotyledonous.
What has been faid already under the articles Circula-
tion of Sap, and CoRTEX, will fufficiently explain this.
As the inner furface of the bark depofits the matter of
the wood, it muft lie in concentric circles ; and in pro-
portion as this operation goes on more conftantly and
uniformly, thefe layers muft be the more homoge-
neous and uninterrupted. Perennial roots of herbaceous
plants often exhibit concentric circles, of annular form-
ation, even in hot climates, as may be feen in Jalap.
Each circle, no doubt, marks the increafe which has
taken place in each fuccefTive feafon ; and while the herb
is not growing, nothing is added to the root.

The theory of vegetation, as explained in the articles
juft cited, ftiews the reafon of the fpiral-coated velTels
being found in the young wood only, and not in the
bark. Thofe veffels, formerly fuppofed to contain air
alone, are the real arteries of the plant, and convey its
fap, or blood, through the wood, to be returned through
the bark, where it depofits particular fecretions. This
theory alfo explains why the alburnum, as being the layer
of unhardened wood for the prefent year, is tender, and
even a mere jelly, at one period. But the bark is
in the fpring of the year, before the depofit of wood
begins, moft readily ftripped from the tree ; though it
alfo readily, and without harm to the tree, comes off in
winter, while vegetation is at a ftand.

We fcarcely need here detail the experiments of Du
Hamel, to determine whether the wood forms the bark,
or the reverfe. Thin metallic plates introduced between
thefe two parts, and carefully bound up, ftiewed, after a
few feafons, when the branch thus treated was cut acrofs,
that the bark had depofited layers of wood on the out-
fide of thefe foreign fubftances, with little or no preju-
dice to the growth of the plant. But Dr. Hope's ex-
periment (fee Cortex) is ftill more ftrikingly decifive.
The Linnaean hypothefis, that the pith added a layer
every year to the wood internally, is thus entirely fet
afide. Indeed nothing but a preconceived theory, of the
great importance of the pith, and its analogy to the me-
dullary or nervous fyftem of animals, (for the fupport of
which opinion arguments are not wanting,) could have
led to fo erroneous a conclufion. It is fufficient to remark,
what indeed could not efcape the intelligent author of this
hypothefis, that trees grow vigoroufly, though their heart
4F is

WOOD.

is become rotten by age, when tlie pith, with numerous
adjoining layers of wood, have long fince been oblite-
rated.

A tranfverfe feftion of the wood of a tree difplays
various veflels, and other parts, which microfcopic authors
take delight in exhibiting ; but, without a fcientific ex-
planation, little is to be learned from their plates, how-
ever beautiful to the eye. Siliceous petrifadlions, of oak-
wood efpecially, fine fpecimens of which are brought
from Hungary, (hew its vafcular ftrufture in the greatell
perfeftion. In the feftions to which we have juft al-
luded, the pith, with its highly cellular texture, makes a
confpicuous appearance in the centre. In the body of
the wood, the fap-veffels are generally the largeft and
mod numerous. Thefe, when young and tender, eafdy
difplay their fpiral coats, if pulled afunder longitudinally;
but are not found at all in the bark. Among them, in
the refinous trees like the fir, or any that abound with
fecreted fluids, as the fig. much larger vefTels are inter-
fpcrfed through the wood and bark, in which the pecu-
liar fecretions are lodged. But befides the determinate
and continued concentric layers of wood above-defcribed,
numerous thin plates are interfperfed, known to workmen,
efpecially in oak-wood, by the name of the Silver Grain.
(See that article.) Mr. Knight, who is there quoted,
further remarks, that if a board of Englifh oak be cut for
a floor, in fuch a direftion, that the lamina of the filver
grain lie parallel with the furface of the board, it is rarely
or never feen, when properly laid, to deviate from its true
horizontal pofition. But a board fawed, on the contrary,
acrofs the filver grain, " will, during many years, be inca-
pable of bearing changes of temperature, and of moillure,
without being warped ; nor will the itrength of numerous
nails be fufficient entirely to prevent the inconvenience
thence arlfing. That furface of a board of this kind which
grew neareft the centre of the tree, will always fhew a ten-
dency to become convex, and the oppofite one concave, if
placed in a fituation wherj both fides are equally expofed to
heat and moiilure." Knight, Phil. Tranf. for 1801, 34J.
This writer adds, that the fmall clefts in the furface of an
oak-tree, ft;ripped of its bark, and expofed to the fun and
air, are caufed by the plates of the filver grain having
parted from each other. They will long continue to open
and clofe again with the changes of the weather. In the
middle of a dry day they are open, but much lefs fo during
the night. After long expofure to the air and light, wood
lofes this property. Knight as above.

A different degree of hardnefs, and in fome trees a re-
markable difference of colour, exills between a number of
the external concentric layers of the wood, and about as
many or more of thofe next the centre. Thefe latter are
called the heart of the timber ; the former the fap or
alburnum ; but thefe are vulgar appellations, and the latter
efpecially are improper. The trae aliurnum is the layer of new
unhardened wood of the prefent year, which alfo workmen
often term the fap. The Sap, properly fo called, is the
fluid from which all their fecretions, and even the wood
itfelf, are formed. (See that article.) Thofe who ufe
wood for mechanical purpofes are well aware of the above
difference between its different parts, however incorreft the
names by which they are diftinguillied. The fofter ex-
ternal layers have liale durability in coraparifin with the
heart. They retain more of the vital principle, and more
of the peculiar juices of the plant in a fluclaatmg condition,
liable to be afted upon by external or internal caufes, and
not yet united, in a fixed ftate, to the folid body of the old

wood. This change, however, is not limited in any particu-
lar kind of tree to a determinate period in the age of each
layer of its wood, nor even to any determinate feries of the
concentric circles of any individual tree. It often extends
to a greater number of rings on one fide than on another.
The more vigour there is in a tree, or in any fide or portion
of its trunk, the fooner is the alburnum, to ufe its popular
denomination, made perfeft wood, or heart.

The term wood, philofophically fpeaking, is not confined
to the fubflance of a tree. The central part of a root, dif-
tinguifhed from its bark, is the wood, and in many perennial
roots confifts, as we have already mentioned, of feveral dif-
tinft layers. In a carrot, the yellow part is the wood, en-
compafted by a thick reddifh bark. In a turnip, the woody
part is of ample dimenfions, while the bark is thin.

A moft remarkable diflerence exifts between the folidity
of the viood in fome trees and in others. Some wood is fo
heavy as to fink in water ; fome is as light as cork, or even
lighter. In general, wood of different trees, of the fame
natural order, poffeffes fimilar properties and the fame de-
gree of value. But there is often, in the fame genus, a moft
remarkable difference between the fitnefs of the wood of
different fpecies, for particular purpofes. The oaks (fee
QuERCUs) abundantly exemplify this faft. The very hard
and ponderous timber of Q. Ilex, the live oak, however
lafl;ing in a dry fituation, is fo prone to deftruftion when
expofed to wet, as to be among the moft worthlefs in the
world ; its hardinefs and heavinefs only rendering it the lefs
fit for ufe, where it would be likely to endure. On the
other hand, many of this genus afford timber more or lefs
ufcfnl in every circumftance and fituation, among which our
Englifh Q. Robur Hands pre-eminent. See Timber.

All kinds of wood are to be preferved from the worm,
and from many other occafions of decay, by oily fubftances,
particularly the effential oils of vegetables. Oil of fpike is
excellent, and oil of juniper, turpentine, or any other of
this kind, will ferve the purpofe ; thefe will preferve tables,
inftruments, &c. from being eaten to pieces by thefe ver-
min, and linfeed-oil will ferve in many cafes to the fame pur-
pofe ; probably nut-oil will do alfo, and this is a fweeter
oil, and a better varnifh for wood.

The ingenious Dr. Hales, whofe attention was uniformly
direfted to fchemes of domeftic or national benefit, was in-
duced by the great damage done to fhipping by worms to
propofe various methods for preventing it. Oily, unftuous
materials, he apprehends, are not likely to penetrate deep
into oak, which has a watery fap ; but oil is known to pe-
netrate far into fir, ^nd to give it a very confiderable degree
of toughnefs. He therefore propofes to mix with oil ap-
plied to the fir-boards with which fhips are fheathcd fome
ingredient that is difagreeable to the worms ; and he appre-
hends that a fmall proportion of verdigrife ufed in the
operation of paying would be of great fervice : or if copper-
filings were. mixed with the paying, fea-water would turn
them into verdigrife. It might be ufeful to foak planks in
water ftrongly impregnated with verdigrife.

Mr. Reid recommends the trial of the acid juice of tar,
prepared either vrith copperas or ochre, for preferving fhips
either from rotting or worms.

In the Eaft Indies, it is faid, they have an effeftual way of
preventing worms from deftroying their fhips, by paying
them firft with a mixture of muftard, oil, and lime of fhells,
and hog's blood : they then fheath the fhip, and renew it
after fome years.

The following receipt has been recommended by a perfon
who never knew it fail of fuccefs. Take loolbs. of the

£iieil

WOOD.

fineft pitch ; melt it over a flow fire of coal, and add to it,
when melted, 30 lbs. of rolled brimftone grofsly bruifed, and
boil the whole till 30 lbs. are \vafted. The matter thus
prepared mud be kept in caflis in a cry place ; and when it
is to be ufed, melt icolbs. of it, and add gradually 35 lbs.
of brick-duft or marble-duft, fifted and well heated. The
compofition, when ufed, muft be very hot, and the boards
dry.

An ingenious fliip-builder obferv;?, that turpentine and
brimftone form the beft compofition he has mot with, and
comes home from a voyage with leaft damage.

Eaft India {hips are firft flieathed, and that fheathing is
filled with fmall broad-headed nails, which is a fafe and
effeflual defence from the worms, and foon becomes a con-
tinued cake of ruft, and not liable to be damaged by cables,
or common accidents. See Pay and Ships.

The following, fays Dr. Hales, is an approved method
of preferving the boards and timber of out-door work :
viz. melt 6 lbs. of pitch, and add, by fifting, i lb. of dried
brown Spanifh, or whiting, and a quart of linfeed oil.
Hales's Ventilators, part i. p. 164. partii. p. 2S9, &c.

Dr. Lewis obferves, that though tar has been ufed for
preferving wood, and alfo for coating common tile?, in imi-
tation of the black glazed tiles, which are fold at a much
higher price, both tar and pitch are of themfelves too foft
for thcfe intentions, being liable to be melted off by the
fummer heat : and, tlierefore, different powdery fubftances,
as afties, ochres, and other mineral pigments, have been
mixed with them.

In the Swedifh Tranfaftions for 1740 and 1742, two
compofitions are recommended, which are faid to be firm,
durable, and glofly. One is prepared by melting the tar
over a gentle fire, fo as to make it fluid, but not to boil,
and ftirring in as much coal-duft or powdered charcoal as
will render it thick : the other is prepared by mixing the
melted tar with a fufBcient quantity of lamp-black. Coat-
ings formed of thefe mixtures are, however, liable to be
confiderably foftened by the heat of the fun. The mixture
of powdered pit-coal and melted tar, made of fuch a con-
fidence as to be freely fpread while warm with a brulh, is
lefs liable to foften than either of the other two. The tar
obtained from coal, in the method lately difcovered by the
earl of Dundonald, appears from various teftimonies of thofe
who have tried it to be much better calculated to preferve
.wood and iron, as well on land as in water, than vegetable
tar. It has alfo this peculiar advantage, that it will not ad-
mit or harbour thofe worms that are fo injurious to the bot-
toms of (hips at fea. See an Account of the Quahties and
Ufes of Coal and Coal-varnifli, &c. by the Earl of Dun-
donald, 8vo. 1785.

Mr. Parkes recommends, for the prefervation of wood,
the tar which is obtained from the pyroligneous acid. See
Tar.

Dr. Lewis obferves, that the coating or painting of wood
does not in all cafes contribute to its prefervation : unlefs
the wood be very thoroughly dry, efpecially thofe kinds of
wood whofe juices are not oily or refinous, the painting, by
confining the watery fap, haftens the corruption. Com.
Phil. Techn. p. 363, &c. On this fubjeift, fee Timber.

Some of the Weft India trees afford a fort of timber
which, if it would anfwer in point of fize, would have
great advantages over any of the European wood, in Ihip-
building for the merchant-fervice, no worm ever touching
this timber. The acajou, or tree which produces the cafhew-
nut, is of this kind ; and there is a tree of Jamaica, known
by the name of the •white-iuood, which has exaftly the fame

property, and fo have many other of their trees. Phil.
Tranf. N° 36.

To feafon wood expediUoufly for fea-fervice, it has been
ufual to bake it in ovens.

The art of moulding wood is mentioned by Mr. Boyle as
a defideratum in the art of carving. He fays he had been
credibly informed of its having been praftifed at the
Hague ; and fufpeds that it might have been performed by
fome menftruum that foftens the wood, and afterwards
allows it to harden again, in the manner that tortoift-ftiellis
moulded. Or, perhaps, by reducing the wood into a pow-
der, and then uniting it into a mafs with ftrong but thin
glue. And he adds, that having mixed faw-dull with a
fine glue made of ifinglafs, flightly ftraining out what was
faperfluous through a piece of linen, the remainder, formed
into a ball and dried, became fo hard as to rebound when
thrown againft the floor. Works abr. vol. i. p. 130. See
Glue.

The people who work much in wood, and that about
fmall works, find a very furprifing difference in it, accord-
ing to the different feafons at which the tree was cut down,
and that not regularly the fame in regard to all fpecies, but
diff^erent in regard to each. The button-mould makers find
that the wood of the pear-tree, cut in fummer, works
tougheft ; holly, on the contrary, works tougheft when cut
in winter ; box is mcllowelt when it has been cut in fummer,
but hardell when cut about Eafter ; hawthorn works mel-
low when cut about Oftober, and the fervice is always
tough if cut in fummer. Merret's Notes on Neri, p. 263.

It is a very well-known quahty of metals to be longer
and larger when hot, and fhorter and fmaller when cold ; a
thoufand experiments prove this, and the books of experi-
mental philofopliy have fufficiently expatiated upon it ; on
the contrary, it is found to be the property of wood, that
it is longeft in cold weather and (horteft in hot ; this change
is owing to the remains of the fap yet in the wood, which
being condenfed by cold, is enlarged in its furface, as all
liquors are, when frozen into ice ; and (brinks into a lefs
fpace or bulk again, when liquated by heat.

It follows from this that all wood mult change its
furface more or lefs, according as it contains more or lefs
fap, and this may be made a teft of great ufe for the determin-
ing what kinds of wood have moft, and what leaft fap.
This would be a very valuable piece of knowledge, fince
there are many ufes for which that fort of wood mull always
ferve beft, which has the fmalleft quantity of fap remaining
in it. See Hygroscope.

Thus, in the great article of preferving flour, no barrels
are at prefent ufed but thofe of feafoned dry oak ; the
whole advantage of this wood is, that it contains lefs fap
than others ; for the fap in the wood makes the flour damp,
and it then becomes rancid, and breeds worms. ( See Meal. )
So that if any other wood can by this means be found out
to contain lefs fap, when dried in the common way, than
oak does, it will be fo much the better for this purpoie ; or,
if a cheaper wood (hould be found only to contam as little
fap as the oak, it would do as well, and the price of oak
would be faved in thefe veffels.

A proper way of trying when the fap was fufficiently ex-
haled out of trees, might alfo be found by this experiment,
and much benefit would accrue from it ; for our (hips, when
made of timber not fufficiently dried, prove injurious to the
health of people on board ; and it has been remarked, both
by the French and ourfelves, that many more men in general
die in the firft voyage of a new (hip than in the fame tim« in
an old one ; and indeed the firft fix months are ufually ob-
4 F 3 fcrved

WOOD.

ferved in this cafe to be moft fatal. The exhalation of
the fap from the wood of the veflel is certainly the occafion
of this, and if it could be contrived to have this fap pro-
perly exhaled before the timber was ufed, it would not only
prevent this mortality among the men, but the veffel itfelf
would be the founder and the better for it. Deflandes,
Trait, de Phyf.

Woods are diftinguifhed into divers kinds, with regard to
their natures, properties, virtues, and ufes. Of wood, con-
fidered according to its quahties, whether ufeful, curious,
medicinal, &c. the principal is that called timber, ufed in
building houfes, laying floors, roofs, machines, &c. See
Timber.

Woods valued on account of their curiofity are, cedar,
ebony, mahogany, walnut-tree, box, calambo, &c. which, by
reafon of their extraordinary hardnefs, agreeable fmell, or
beautiful polifh or grain, are made into cabinets, tables,
combs, beads, &c.

The medicinal moods are, guaiac, which the Spaniards call
iigno/anSo; aloes, or agallochum ; fqffafras, nephriticum, fan-
ial, logwood, afpalathum, eagle-wood, or pan d'aquilo, &c.

Woods ufed in dyeing are, the Indian wood, Brajil, Cam-
peche, &c.

In extracting the colouring-matter of dye-woods, and in
making fome other colours for the ufe of calico-printers, Mr.
Parkes obferves (Chem. Eff. vol. ii.), that it is of great
confequence to heat the veffels by fleam ; forby this method
of preparing decoctions, the workmen are prevented from
ever giving the materials a greater heat than that of 212°;
and the injury which was formerly done by the burning of
the grofler matters at the bottom and fides of the copper is
avoided. Several manufafturers, fays this ingenious chemift,
have now adopted this method. This leads us to take notice
of a beneficial application of charcoal, as a flow conduftor
of caloric, for preferving an equable temperature. Ground
charcoal, it is faid, will conduft heat more flowly than even
dry fand, in the proportion, according to Guyton, of three
to two. Accordingly, all thofe veflels which are heated by
fteam, if they were made double, and the fpace between the
inner and outer veffel filled with ground charcoal, the heat
would be fo prevented from efcaping, that any given tempe-
rature might be maintained for a long time, and thus there
would be a material faving in the article of fuel. Moreover,
when churches or other large buildings are to be warmed
by fteam, thofe parts of the condufting-pipes which are not
within the buildings fliould be always furrounded in this
manner, and then no heat could efcape until it had been con-
veyed to the fpace which it was intended to warm by it.
Thus alfo in the manufaftories of ftarch, paper, gun-
powder, blue, and a variety of other articles, every part
of the apparatus for drying thefe by (team, and which is
not aftually within the drying-rooms, ought to be fecured
m the fame way. The common fteam-working apparatus,
and other culinary utenfils, would be much improved by
being fitted with double covers, and by filling up the inter-
mediate fpaces with carbonaceous matter. Moreover, by
fecuring the condufting-pipes in this manner, buildings
might be effeflually warmed, and procefles condufted at any
diftance from the boiler, as fteam is the moft faithful carrier
of heat that can poflibly be ; for it cannot depofit it on any
bodies that have already acquired the temperature of 212°.
It is alfo this non-conduAingr property of charcoal that ren-
ders it fo common, fays Fourcroy, cited by Parkes, in
France as a material for coating furnaces, and for confin-
ing the heat, to which ufe its incombuftible nature adapts
it in a peculiar manner, as it is the moft refradcry body that
8

is known, provided it be excluded from oxygen. Charcoal
is applicable to other purpofes in domeftic economy ; fuch
as the preferving of animal food from taint, by covering it
with a few pieces of frefh -burnt charcoal, and the recovery
of it by boiling it for fome minutes in water with a few
ounces of fuch charcoal. By the fame m-ans, molafles or
treacle may be deprived of its difagreeable tafte, fo that it
might be ufed inftead of fugar. A patent has likewife been
taken out for refining fugar by means of charcoal by M.
Cronftat, who required for it, of the joint body of fugar-
bakers in London, a remuneration of 50,000/.; and Mr.
Parkes apprehends, that in a fmall concern of ihis kind efta-
bliftied in the metropohs, which manufaftures double loaves
of a finer quality than thofe of any other houfe, the purpofe
is efFefted by the fame means. The empyreumatic flavour
acquired by fome brandies in diftillation may be removed,
fays the ingenious writer now cited, by digefting them in
charcoal ; and common malt-vinegar, boiled on charcoal, be-
comes colourlefs, without lofing its ftrength. Water, which
in long voyages acquires a difagreeable tafte and fmell from
long ftanding in the wooden caflts, may be purified by filtra-
tion through ground charcoal ; or it may be kept fweet in
cafl<s that have been charred withinfide.

For the above-mentioned purpofes, the charcoal fhould be
frefh made, or heated red-hot under a cover of fand, imme-
diately before it is ufed ; and the requifite quantity (hould
be previoufly afcertained by experiment. In fome cafes, i:
fhould be ufed in the form of powder, having been pounded
immediately from the fire, before it has been expofed to the
air, and the refidue fhould be prcferved for future ufe in
bottles clofely flopped. For other ufe3 to which charcoal is
applied, fee Charcoal and Carbon.

Wood ufed for fuel is required of various kinds, in re-
gard to the various works to be performed by it.

Neri every where commends oak for tlie wood to be
burnt in the glafs-houfes, as the propereft wood for making
a ftrong and durable fire with a good flame.

Imperato, on the contrary, commends afh on the fame
occafion ; becaufe, as he fays, it gives a fubftantial rather
than a great flame : and Camerarius defervedly commends
juniper wood, as affording a lafting, ftrong, and fweet fire,
could plenty of it be had. Among the ancients, Pliny
commends light dry wood ; and Plutarch, the tamarifk in
particular, for making the glafs-houfe fires ; but glafs-
making requires fo great a fire, as cannot be eafily made
from fuch wood. Nor can afh be proper, becaufe, though
it gives a good fire, it foon decays. Merret's Notes on
Neri, p. 275.

If wood be burnt in the open air, the greateft part of it
will be diffipated in gas. Common oak, properly charred,
will lofe only from fds to -r'uths of its weight ; whereas,
if the fame kind of wood be burnt in an open fire-
place, the refiduum of the combuftion will not be more
than about ^g^th, or ^^-th of the original weight of the
wood employed. Dr. Watfon fays, that he obtained 22
grains of charcoal from 96 of dry oak : others have given
different refults. From Neumann (Chem. vol. ii.) we learn,
that for the reduftionof themetalhc oxyds, the charcoal of the
heavier woods, e. g. that of the oak and beech, is preferable ;
and that, for common fuel, fuch charcoal gives the greateft
heat, and requires the moft plentiful fupply of air to keep
it burning, while thofe of the lighter woods preferve a
glowing heat vrith a much lefs draught of air ; and that
for purpofes which require a Heady and ftill fire, charcoal
made from wood previoufly divefted of its bark fhould be
employed, as it is the cortical part which crackles and flies

off

WOOD.

off in fparks during combuftion, wliich the coal of the wood
itfelf feldom does. The charcoal of wood is faid to be eflential
to the perfeftion of bar-iron ; but when wood became fcarce,
and government re(lri£led its ufe, cinders and coke were
fubftituted for it ; and thus the quality of Englifli iron was
fo much debafed, that Ruffian and Swedifli iron, which is
prepared by means of the coal of wood, are employed by
thofe who work in this metal. The fuperioiity of the iron
made with charcoal is attributed by M. Haflenfratz to its
combination with potafiiiim. It was by i Eliz. c. 15. that
it was enafted, that no oak, beech, or afh-timber, one foot
fquare at the ftub, (hould be converted into charcoal for
making iron in any part of England or Wales, except in
the county of Suffex, the weald of Kent, and certain parifhes
in the county of Surrey. This reftriftion led to the prac-
tice of making bar-iron with the coke of pit-coal, the
method of preparing which was kept a fecret from the
generality of the trade. When Mr. Henry Home pub-
fiihed his " Eflays on Iron and Steel," in the year 1773,
he gave direftions for a better method than they had before
known of charring pit-coal, fo as to make it a proper fuc-
cedaneum for wood-charcoal in the maiiufafture of iron.
Since that time the coke of pit-coal has come into very general
ufe, fo that the confumption of this fubftaiice is now very
conilderable. (See Coke.) Crayons of charcoal are bell
made of the willow ; whereas the coals of the hard woods,
fuch as box and guaiacum, are much harder than otliers,
whilfl the charcoal of the kernels of fruits is quite foft and
friable. As a pigment, the coal of ivory, or that which is
procured by burning real ivory in clofed veflels, is the moft.
intenfely black, and the moft beautiful. Tlie bell charcoal
for ufe as a powder for cleaning the teeth is made from the
fhell of the cocoa-nut. The difference between the char-
coals of animal and vegetable fubftances may be determined
by the following tett. A vegetable coal will burn on a
red-hot iron into white afhes, which will be readily diflblved
by fulphuric acid into a bitterifh liquor ; whilll the afhes
of animal fubftances are Httle affefted by that acid, and
form with it a compound with a very diff^erent tafte. ( See
Ashes, Carbon, Charcoal, and CvfiPoivder.) For
the method of charring wood, fee Timber and Char-
ring of Pojis. This appears to have been a very ancient
praftice. The piles that formed the foundations of the
Temple of Diana at Ephefus, not long fince taken up, ap-
peared to have been charred ; and about fifty years ago
iome oak-ftakes were found in the bed of the Thames in the
very fpot where Tacitus fays that the Britons fixed a num-
ber of fuch ftakcs, to prevent the paflage of Cxfar's army ;
and thefe ftakes, which were charred to a coiifiderable depth,
had completely retained their form, and were firm at the
heart. About fixty years ago one of the timbers that fup-
ported Trajan's bridge over the Danube, near Belgrade,
was taken up, and the outer part, to the depth of half an
inch, was found to be converted into an agate, the inner
parts being (lightly petrified, and the central being ftill
perfeft wood, though this tin:ber had been in the water
1700 years. (See Kirwan's Geological Eflays, cited by
Parkes in hisEffa^s, vol. ii.) Many other inftances occur
of wood petrified and converted, more or lefs, into agates of
various colours. Writers on this fubjeft have recommended
the pradlice of charring every piece of wood before it is
placed in the ground. Dr. Watfon, (hte biftiop of Lan-
daff', ) in his " Chemical EfTays," vol. iii. fnggefts the
propriety of charring all the wood that is ufed in mines and
iubterraneous drains, and particularly that which covers
troughs, through which a current of water pafles, and
which rot in a few years by the alternate change of wet and

7'r>i, conneaion we may add, on the authority

of Chaptal, in his " Chcmiftry applied to the Arts," that
when old chefnut and other trees are rotted within the trunk,
and threatened with fpeedy deftrudion by the progrefs of
the carious trunk, it may be flopped by applying fire to
the decayed part, fo as to char the whole of the neighbour-
ing furfaces.

Wood, in Gardening, is a term ufed to fignify the (hoots
or branches left in fruit-trees. See Pruning, &c.

Wood, an epithet applied to various forts of weeds.
See Weed.

Wood and Bart of Trees, Canker or Erofion of, in Agri-
culture and Garde/ling, a difeafed ftate in thefe parts of them.
It has been ftated by a late philofophical writer, that the
caufe feems to be an excefs of alkaline and earthy matter in
the defcending fap, as he often found carbonate of lime on
the edges of the canker in apple-trees ; and that ulmin,
which contains fixed alkali, is abundant in the canker of the
elm. The old age of a tree, in this refpeft, is, it is thought,
faintly analogous to the old age of animals, in which the
fecretions of folid bony matter are always in excefs, and
the tendency to offification great.

It is fuggefted, that perhaps the apphcation of a weak
acid to the difeafed part might be of ufe ; or that where
the tree is of great value, it might be watered occafionally.
See Canker.

Wood, Lignln? in Chemiflry, the fub ft ance which con-
ftitutes the bafis of wood ufually fo called.

To obtain this fubftance in a ftate of purity, it is necef-
fary to digeft wood in a fufficient quantity of water and
afterwards of alcohol, by which means all foreign fubftances
fjluble in thefe fluids will be removed ; the fimple -woody
fibre will thus remain, which poflefles the following pro-
perties.

It is compofed, in general, of longitudinal fibres eafily
feparable from one another. Thefe fibres, when very much
fubdivided, become fomewhat tranfparent. They have no
fmell nor tafte, and are not altered by expofure to the
atmofphere.

The woody fibre is infoluble in water and alcohol. It is
foluble in a weak alkaline folution without being decom-
pofed, and may be again feparated by an acid. Concen-
trated alkaline folutions render it brown, and decompofe it,
efpecially when affifted by heat.

When heated it becomes black without melting, exhales
ftrong acrid fumes, and leaves a charcoal, retaining exaftly
the form of the original mafs. When diftilled in clofe
veflels it yields an acid liquor, of a peculiar tafte and fmell,
called the pyroligneous acid, a[id which was properly confi-
dered as a diftinCt acid. Fourcroy and Vauquelin, however,
long ago demonftrated, that it confifts of nothing but the
acetic acid combined with an empyreumatic oil. (See Ace-
Tou.s and Pyroligneous Acid. ) Pure acetic acid is now
prepared from wood both in this country and France.

The fibre of different woods has been analyfed by Gay
Liiflac and Thenard by means of the oxymuriate of potafh.
The followinnf are the refults :

OA.

Beech.

Mean.

Oxygen

Carbon

Hydrogen

41.78

52-53
5.69

42-73

51-45

5.82

42.25
53.00

5-75

100.00

lOO.OO

Wood wlitii burnt with a fraothered flame leaves, as is

well

WOOD,

well known, a quantity of charcoal behind. The following
is the proportion yielded by one hundred parts of different
woods, according to the experiments of Prouft :

Black a(h
Guaiacum
Pine

Green oak
Heart of oak
Wild afh
White afh

25

24
20
20
19
17
17

Poplar

Lime

Fir -

Maple

Elm

Oak

43-57

43-59
44.18
42.23

43-27
43.00

Count Rumford, by continuing a very moderate fire for
ninety-fix hours, procured much larger proportions of char-
coal from different woods than were obtained in the above
experiments of Prouft. According to this chemift, one hun-
dred parts of different wood yielded,

The woody fibre, when completely burnt, always leaves a
certain proportion of earthy and faline matters, which con-
flitute the ajlies of wood. Different woods yield very dif-
ferent proportions of afhes. See Ashes and Charcoal, where
other experiments by Mr. Mufhet on this fubjeft are related.

The following Table exhibits the quantity of afhes left
by different woods, according to Sauffiire junior. SauiFure
has extended the invefligation to herbaceous and other
plants ; but we have omitted thefe, from their not being im-
mediately connefted with the prefent fubjeft. See Carbon.

Table uf Incinerations.

Conftituenls uf 100 Pans of Alhes.

Aflies
1000

from
■'arts of

Water
from

tlie Plant.

1000

Soluble

Earthy

Earthy

Silica.

Metallic

Na-Ties of Plants.

Parts
of the
Plant.
Grefn.

Salts.

Phofphaies

Carbonates

Oxyds.

Lofs.

Green.

Dry.

Wood of a young oak. May 10

4

26.

28.5

12.25

0.12

1.0

32.58

Bark of ditto . . . -

—

60

—

7-

4-5

63.35

0.25

1-75

22.75

Perfeft wood of oak . . -

—

2

—

38.6

4-5

32.0

2.0

2.25

20.65

Alburnum of ditto . . - -

—

4

—

32.0

24.0

II. 0

7-5

2.0

23-5

Wood of black poplar, Sept. 12

—

8

26

16.75

27.0

3-3

1-5

24.5

Bark of ditto

—

72

—

6.0

5-3

60.0

4.0

1-5

23-2

Wood of hazel, May i - • -

—

S

—

24.5

35-0

8.0

0.25

0.12

32.2

Bark of ditto

—

62

—

12.5

S-5

54.0

0.25

1-75

26.0

Perfeft wood of mulberry, November

—

7

—

21.0

2.25

56.0

0.12

0.25

20.38

Alburnum of ditto - - . .

—

13

—

26.0

27.25

24.0

I.O

0.25

21.5

Bark of ditto

—

89

—

7.0

8-5

45.0

15.25

1. 12

2^13

Perfeft wood of hornbeam, November

4

6

346

22.0

23.0

26.0

0.12

2.25

26.63

Alburnum of ditto - - - .

4

7

390

18.0

36.0

15.0

1.0

1.0

29.0

Bark of ditto

88

134

346

4-5

4-5

59.0

1-5

0.12

30-38

Wood of horfe-chefnut. May 10

^—

35

— —

9-5

See Dr. Thomfon's Syftem of Chemiflry, vol. iv. 5th edit.

Wood, On making Bread from. Profeflbr Autenrieth,
of Tubingen, has lately attempted to make bread from
wood, and his experiments feem to have been attended with
confiderable fuccefs. He had been led to form the opinion
that the woody fibre was only rendered unfit for food from
the foreign fubftances ufually attached to it, and from its
compaft aggregation. The firfl of thefe difficulties he
attempted to obviate, by fele£ting thofe woods which have
little tafle and fmell, and which confequently contain lefs
foreign matters ; fuch, for example, are the birch and beech,
efpecially the birch, which was the wood he chiefly employed
in his experiments.

To render wood alimentary, it is necefTary to reduce it to
a ftate of extremely minute divifion, or abfolute powder.
It alfo requires the repeated aftion of the heat of an oven,
by which means it is not only better fitted for being ground,
but probably alfo undergoes fome internal change which
renders it more digeftible, as is evidently the cafe in regard
to coffee. Wood prepared in this way acquires the fmell
and tafte of corn-flour. It is, however, never white, but
always yellowifh. It alfo agrees with corn-flour in requir-
ing the addition of fome leaven, to enable it to undergo the

fermentative procefs, and the four leaven of corn-flour is
found to anfvver the beft. With this it makes a perfeftly
uniform and fpongy bread, like common brown bread ; and
when it is thoroughly baked, and has much cruft, it has a
much better tafle of bread than what in times of fcarcity is
prepared of bran and huflcs of corn.

To make wood-flour in perfeAion, the wood, after being
thoroughly flripped of its bark, is to be fawed tranfverfeiy
into diiks of about an inch in diameter. The faw-dufl is to
be preferved, and the difl<s to be beaten to fibres in a pound-
ing-mill. The fibres and faw-dufl mixed together are next
to be deprived of every thing harih and bitter, and which is
foluble in water, by boiling them in a large quantity of water
when fuel is abundant, or by fubjedling them for a longer
time to the aftion of cold water, as by placinij thtrni in a
rivulet, for example, enclofed in a fack. The whole is
then to be completely dried, either by the fun or fire, and
repeatedly ground in a flour-mill till it pafs through the
boulting-cloth.

The ground wood is next to be baked into imall fiat
cakes, with water rendered flightly m'xilaginous by the ad-
dition of fome decodlion of linfeed, or any other fimilar fub-
ftance. Profeffor Autenrieth prefers marfh-maUow roots,

of

WOOD.

of which one ounce renders eighteen quarts of water fuf-

ficiently mucilaginous, and thefe ferve to form four pounds

' and a half of wood-flour into cakes. Thefe cakes are to

be baked in an oven until they are quite dry, and become of

a brownirti-yellow colour on the f\irface. After this they are

to be broken to pieces, and again ground repeatedly, until

' the flour pafs through a fine boulting-cloth, and upon the

finenefs of the flour does its fitneff to make bread depend.

The flour of a foft wood, fuch as birch, will be fufRciently

prepared by the procefs as defcribed j but the flour of a

hard wood will require the fteps of baking and grinding to

' be repeated.

! Thai, the wood thus prepared is altered in it", nature and
' rendered foluble, is proved by the quantity of real itarch
' that is obtaii! J from it by the fane procefs, by which it is
: feparated from wlieat-flour. If wood-flour tied up in fine
linen be long kneaded in a veflel of water, the water is ren-
; dered nnlky, and depofits flowly a quantity of itarch, which
with boiling water forms a thick, tough, trembling, tenp.oious
; jelly, like that of wheat-llarch, and it is only neceflTary to
■ fee this ftarch to be convinced that the wood-fiour is foluble
I and nutritious. This ftarch c.ainot be afcribed to the mu-
' cilaginous matter added to the ground wood before it is
baked, as the added mucilage does not amount to more
' than the one-hundred and forty-fifth part of the wood,
! whereas the wood-flour lofes about half its weight by the
; reparation of the ilarch. The refiduum left in the linen
i feems to be the woody fibres unchanged, which have not
: been ground fufiiciently fine.

! Wood-flour docs not ferment fo readily as wheaten-flour ;
I but profL-ilor Autenrieth found fifteen pounds of birch-wood
; flour, with three pounds of four wheat leaven, and two
I pounds of wheat-flour, mixed up with eight meafures of
; new-milk, yielded thirty-fix pounds of very good bread.
[ The beft mode of preparing it was to mix up the five
I pounds of wheat leaven and flour with a portion of the
; wood-flour and milk to a preparatory dough ; let it ftand
; for fome hours in a moderately warm place to rife, and then
I to knead in thoroughly the rell of the wood-flour and milk.
This dough is rolled out into thin cakes, allowed to ftand
1 in a warm place to rife for a longer time than wheat-flour
I requires, and laftly to be put into the oven and baked
I thoroughly.

I ProfelTor Autenrieth made many experiments upon ani-
I mals, as well as upon himfelf and family, in order to afcer-
! tain the nutritious properties of wood-flour, in the various
i forms of foup, dumplings, cakes, &c. ; and he found that
I it was not only very palatable in all thefe forms (efpecialiy
\ when combined with milk or fome fatty fubftances), but
alfo fufiiciently nutritious, and that it did not diforder the
digeftive organs, or apparently produce any other ill eflTefts.
From thefe experiments, it is obvious, fays the writer
from whom we have made thefe extrafts, that in cafes of
neceflity wood may be made to furnilh a confiderable quan-
tity of nourifliment ; but it is no lefs obvious, that th.e pro-
cefs is fo troublefome and cxpenfive, that it never can be-
come an article of food, except where there is an abfohite
fcarcity of provifions. On fuch occafions the labour is of
very fecondary importance, and at any rate cannot be fo
profitably applied as in procuring the means of fubfiilencc.

In fome diftrifts of Norway and Lapland, the bark of
the fir is manufadtured into a fpecies of bread, apparently
much inferior in quality to the bread of wood. flour, and
this with dried fifli and a little rein-deer tallow ro'..flitute
the chief articles of food among the lower clafft-s, d.ifing
the protracted and rigorous winter of thefe inhof,.ltable
climates. See Von Buch's Travels in Norway and Lapland.

Wood, Difttllation of. Sec Charcoal, Colour, Guk-
Ponvder, Pyroligneous ylcid, and Woov/upra.

Wood, T.-nacity and Strength of. See Cohesion and
Strength of Materials.

Wood and Wood, a term in ftiip-buildnig, implying
that when a tree-nail, &c. is driven through, its point is
diredly even with the infide furface, whether plank or
timber.

AVooD, Cord, denotes wood for the fire, generally the
branches or loppings of trees, piled up in order. See
Cord.

Wood, FoJJil, Subterraneous. There are divers places where
wood is found under ground : fiippofed to have been over-
turned, and 1, ,n-ied there from the time of the Delug?, or
at fome other period.

Whole trees, or parts of them, are very frequently found
buried in the earth, and that in different flrata ; fometimes
in ftone, but more ufually in earth ; and fometunes in fmall
pieces loofe among gravel. Thefe, according Lo the time
they have lain in the earth, or the matter they have lain
among and in the way of, are found differently altered from
their original ftate ; fome of them having fuffered very little
change, and others being fo highly impregnated with cryf.
talline, fparry, pyritical, or other extraneous n.atter, as to
appear mere m.alTes of ftone or lumps of the common mat-
ter of the pyrites, &c. of the dimenfions, and more or lefs
of the internal figure of the vegetable bodies, into the pores
of which they have made their way.

The foffil wood, which we find at this day, may, accord-
ing to thefe differences, be ranged into three kinds : I. The
lefs altered. 2. The pyritical. And, 3. The petrified.

Of the trees or parts of them lefs altered from their ori-
ginal ftate, the greateft ftore is found in digging to fmall
depths in bogs, and among what is called peat or turf-earth,
a fubftance ufcd in many parts of the kingdom for fuel. In
fome places there are whole trees fcarc.ly altered except in
colour ; the oaks in particular being ufuallv turned to a
jetty black : the pines and firs remain as inflammable aa
ever, and often contain between the bark and wood a plain
refin. Parts of trees have been alio found unaltered in the
ftrata of clay and loam, among gravel, and ibmetimes even
in fohd ftone. See Fojil Plants, and Bog Wood.

It is idle to imagine, that thefe have been thus buried
either at the Creation, or, as many are fond of believing,
at the univerfal Deluge : at the firft of thefe times the ftrata
muft have been formed before trees were yet in beuig, and
the peat wood is fo far from being of antediluvian date,
that much of it is well known to l-.ave been growing within
thefe three hundred years, in the very places where it is
now found buried. See Morass.

The fubftances that are more altered are the larger and
longer branches of trees found bedded in the ftrata of ftone,
and partly affumirig its nature ; and the ihorttr and I'nialler
branches found in pits of blue clay, v.liich externally bear
the refemblance of what they once were, hut, having their
pores filled with ihe matter of the common vitriolic pyrites,
internally appear to be maffes of that matter.

The irregular maffes or fragments of wood are principally
of oak, and moft ufually found anionii gravel, but vjrionfly
altered by the infinuation of cryftalluie and ftrong particles.
Tlieie make a bi,-autiful figun>^hen cut and ptililhed, as
they commonly keep the regular grain of the wiod, and
flievv tlie feveral circles which mark tlie different years
growth. Thele, according to the diffcreni matter which
has filled their pores, affume various colours, and the ap-
pearance of the various foflils that have impregnated them.
Of thefe fome pieces have been found with every pore filled
6 with

WOOD.

with pure pellucid cryftal, and others in large maffes, part
of which is wholly petrified, and fome mere ftone, while the
reft is crumbly and unaltered wood.

All thefe pieces of petrified wood are ufually capable of
a hifrh and elegant polifh. Hill.

Wood has been found in falt-mines, inclofed in a mafs of
hard fait, and its pores filled with the matter of the fait in
which it lay. Wood has likewife been found converted as
it were into iron, or thoroughly impregnated with the par-
ticles of this metal. Aft. JErud. ann. 1710.

Wood, Petrified. The opinions of the judicious part of
the world have been very different in regard to the bodies
prcferved in the cabinets of the curious, under the name of
petrified wood ; fome affirming thefe bodies to have been
only pebbles, or flints accidentally formed in this (hape,
and with veins refembling thofe of the wood ; and others
affirming with equal warmth, that they have been really
wood, into which ftony matter has been brought by
water.

Many fubftances, it is certain, have been preferved m the
cabinets of coUeftors, under the title of petrified wood,
which have very little right to that name. But where the
whole outer figure of the wood, the exaft lineaments of the
bark, or the fibrofe and fiftular texture of the flris, and the
vefliges of the utriculi and tracheae or air-veffels are yet re-
maining, and the feveral circles yet vifible, which denoted
the feveral years growth of the tree, none can deny fuch
fubflances to be real foffil wood.

Many good arguments have been produced on both fides
the queftion, but M. De la Hire has attempted to bring the
difpute to a certain conclufion, by means of fome peculiarly
happy fpecimens, which were of the palm-tree petrified,
found in the defarts of Africa : thefe on comparing them
with pieces of the palm-tree cut out of the recent wood,
appeared to have every where the beautiful and regular
▼eins of that wood, and left no room to doubt but that
they certainly had been once the vegetating wood of that
tree, though now converted into hard Hone ; the petrified
pieces were perfeft ilone, in all its qualities ; they had its
hardnefs, its found when ftruck upon, and were, as many
other ftones are, opake in fome places, and tranfparent in
others ; they were found on weighing them to be often of
the fpecific gravity of recent pieces of the palm wood of
the fame dimenfions.

Father Duchat alfo, an author of unqueftioned credit,
affirms, from his own perfonal knowledge, that in the king-
dom of Ava there is a river whofe waters petrify recent
wood into flint ; and that he has often feen trees Handing in
it, whofe bottom part, fo far as covered with the water, has
been true flint, while all above was mere dry wood, and fit
for firing. Mem. Acad. Par. 1692.

Wood, Shining. There are a great many things in which
a piece of rotten wood that (hines in the dark agrees with
a burning coal ; and there are alfo many things in which
they differ. They agree in thefe particulars : i . They have
light refiding in them, and are not like bodies which are
only luminous according to the quantity of light which
falls upon them from other bodies, and which they refleft.
2. Both (hining wood and burning coals require the prefence
of the air to keep them (hining, and both require alfo an
air of a confiderable denfity ; and both having been de-
prived of their fhining quality by the pumping out of the
air, will recover it again on the admitting of frefh air to
them. 3. Both of them will eafily be quenched by put-
ting them into water, and many other liquors. And, 4. As
a live coal will not be extinguilhed by any coldnefs of the

air, neither will the (hining wood be deprived of its light on

any additional coldnefs in that elemenf.

However, they differ in the following particulars : i . A
burning coal is eafily put out by comprefTion, the treading
on it and fqueezing it together readily divefting it of its
light ; on the other hand, compreffion or cruftiing of any
kind feems not to have any effeft upon the (hining wood ;
its bruifed parts (hining as brightly as its entire ones. If
a piece of this (hining wood be fqueezed between two
glaffes, this experiment will be moft fairly tried ; and in this
cafe, though the contexture of the whole be evidently
broken, and the parts feparated, the light is as ftrong in
them as while the piece was entire, z. A burning coal ex-
tinguifhed by the drawing out of the air will, after a few
minutes, be irrecoverable, on the admiffion of air in any
manner ; but, on the contrary, the (hining wood, when thus
extinguilhed and kept extinft for half an hour, will be im-
mediately re-kindled on admitting the air to it. 3. A live
coal, included in a fmall glafs, will continue (hining but a
few minutes ; but a piece of (hining wood, in the fame cir-
cumftances, will continue bright for feveral days. 4. The
coal, while it burns, fends forth fmoke and other exhala-
tions ; the rotten wood fends out none, and confequently a
coal all the while that it is (hining waftes itfelf at a great
rate ; but the rotten wood does not wafte itfelf at all.
And finally, the burning coal is aftually and vehemently hot;
the rotten wood, though it (hines, is not fo much as warm.
Phil. Tranf. N° 32.

The light of (hining flefh and fi(h, when putrefied, i»
wholly of the fame nature with that of rotten wood, as to
its dependence on the air for its fplendour ; and in the fame
manner lofes its light in the exhauited receiver, and regains
it on the admiffion of the air into it again, in the fame
fudden manner. Phil. Tranf. N°3l. See Light, and
Putrefaction.

Wood, Bog, or Subterraneous, a name given by the inha-
bitants of many parts of this kingdom to fuch wood as is
found buried in the earth in boggy places, and which is
found hard and ftrong at this time. See Foffil WooD/upra,

We have in the Philofophical Tranfattions ( N" 275.
p. 983, &c.) an account of vaft quantities of this fort of
wood found under ground in Hatfield Chace. Many of
the roots and bodies of trees are found there ; which are
of all growths, and are moftly fuch trees as are the growth
of our own foil, fuch as oaks, firs, birch, beech, yew, holly,
willow, afti, and the like. The roots of all thefe trees
ftand in their natural pofitions as when growing, and
(land as thick together as they could grow in a foreft.
The bodies are ufually broken off, and laid all along jufl
by them.

The large trees are ufually found fallen in a north-eafl
direftion, and the fmaller ones lying all ways ; the fir-tree
or pitch-tree is more common than any other kind, and is
found fometimes of twenty, thirty, and thirty-five yards
long, and fo found and firm that many of them have been
fold to make mafts for (hips. Oaks have been found of the
fame length, though wanting fome yards of their natural
tops ; thefe have been fold at ten or fifteen pounds a piece,
and are as black as ebony, and very found and lafting in
whatever fervice they are put to. The afh-trees do not
preferve their firmnefs in this manner, many of them are fo
foft that the workman's fpade cuts through them ; and
when expofed to the air, they ufually fall to pieces ; but
the willows, though a much fofter wood than the aih, pre-
ferve their texture, and are found very ilrong and firm. In
fome of the fir-trees it is very obfervable, that they have (hot

out-

WOOD.

outfide branches after tliey were fallen, which have grown
into large trees. Many of thefe foflil-trees appear plainly to
have been burnt ; the fir-trees are particularly very common
in this ftate : and of thefe fome are burnt quite through,
others only on one fide. Some of thefe alfo have been found
with the plain marks of human work upon them ; many
with their branches chopt off, and their trunks cut into two
or three pieces. Some fquared and others in part cleft, and
the wooden wedges ufed in cleaving them are ftill found re-
maining in the cracks. Stones are found in fome of them
in the place of wooden wedges, but in none iron ones. The
heads of axes are alfo fometimes found ; they are of a ftrange
form, and fomewhat reprefent the facrificing axes of the an-
cients. Thefe are found at fuch depths, that it is impoflible
they fliould have ever been lodged there fince the time of
this place's being a foreft ; nor ever could have been found,
but by means of the ground's being drained by a late inven-
tion. The general opinion as to thefe trees is, that they
were buried in this manner at the time of the univerfal De-
luge ; but they are plainly of later origin as foffils, the
coins of fome of the Roman emperors having been found
buried under them.

The earth of bogs is not the only foil that preferves thefe
trees ; for in the low parts of Lincolnfhire, between the
towns of Bumingham and Brumley, there are feveral large
hills compofed only of loofe fand, and as this blows away
there are continually difcorered whole trees, or parts of
trees, and particularly the roots and flumps of firs, and
fome other kinds, all with the marks of the axe upon them,
and looking as frefh as if done but yefterday. Under thefe
hills, and in the bogs before-mentioned, not only the wood
of the fir-tree, but its cones are found in immenfe number ;
many bufhels being often laid in a heap together. In cut-
ting a drain for a river of a confiderable depth, there were
found at the very bottom feveral parcels of cut wood, in
poles, beams, and the like ; the head of an axe was alfo found
fomewhat refembhng the ancient battle-axe, and a coin
of the Roman emperor Vefpafian ; but what was yet more
remarkable was, that what they were now funk to feemed
to be the original furface, the ground not being loofe, like
all above it, but found and firm, and lying in ridges and
furrows, with the evident marks of having formerly been
ploughed. So that all the bog-earth above feems plainly
to have been added fince ; and that the foflil wood, fuppofed
of antediluvian origin, is but of the time of the ancient
Romans, or lefs than that.

All the bogs in this kingdom afford in like manner foffil-
trecs ; and not only thofe, but other places, have at all
times accidentally difcovered them. Giraldus Cambrenfis
tells us, that fo long fince as in king Henry the Second's
time, the fands on the fliores of Pembrokefhire were driven
off by pecuhar florms and tempefts, and that deep under
thofe fands there were then difcovered great numbers of the
roots and bodies of trees in their natural poftures ; and many
of thefe had the flrokes of the axe upon them, the marks
at that time remaining as plain as when firfl made. Some
of thefe refembled ebony ; and many other fuch trees were
difcovered at Neugall in the fame county, in the year 1590.
Camden tells us of fuch wood found in the bogs in Somerfet-
(hire, Chefhire, Lancafhire, Weftmoreland, Yorkfhire, Staf-
fordfhire, and Lincolnfhire ; and fince his time many other
counties have been found to be as fruitful in it. Dr. Plot
mentions them in many parts of his Hiflory of Stafford-
fhire, and by their Handing in their natural poftures, as to
the roots at leaft, properly concludes, that they certainly
once grew there, and were not brought from elfewhere.

Vot. XXXVIII.

Dr. Leigh, in his Hiftory of Lancafhire, gives an ac-
count of the fame fort of trees found in the draining of the
boggy lands at Martin-Meer ; and determines them not to
have been of the ancient date many pretend, in referring
them to the Deluge.

He obferves, that they are plainly of no older date than
the time of the favage inhabitants of England, about the
time of the Roman conquefts ; for in this place, befide the
roots and bodies of trees and their fruit, there were found
eight canoes, or fmall boats, fuch as the wild inhabitants
ufed at that time. And in another moor in the fame county,
a brafs kettle, with a fmall mill-ftone, and fome beads of
wrought amber. In the fame place were alfo found feveral
human bodies whole and entire, at leaft to outward appear-
ance, and the whole head of an hippopotamus, or river-horfe.
This is perhaps the hardeft thing to be accounted for of the
whole fet, as to its coming there. The boggy places in
Anglefea, and the Ifle of Man, are all full of buried trees
of the fame kind ; and the bogs of Ireland abound no lefs
with them. England, and its adjacent iflands, are not the
only places where this buried wood is found ; for Verftegan
tells us, that the moors in the Netherlands abound with
them ; they all lie north-eaft, as our's do. Helmont alfo
mentions the Peel there, a morafs of eight or nine miles
broad, which is full of them. The French naturaUfls tell
us of foflil-trees alfo in their country ; and in Switzerland
and Savoy ; but all in the low grounds.

Ramazzini tells us, that in the territories of Modena,
which are now a dry and fruitful country, yet in the time
of the Caefars were only a great lake, there are found at
the depth of thirty, forty, and even fifty feet, the foil of a
low marfhy country, with fedges, water-grafs, and other
marfh-weeds ; and under this there lie the trunks of trees, and
their roots ftand near them in as natural a pofture as when
growing. Many old coins of the Roman emperors are alfo
found there ; as alfo feveral bufts, wrought marble, and
fquared ftones, evidently fhewing the work of fuch tools as
the Romans have been known to ufe. Some of the trees
in thefe places ftand upright. See more on this fubjeft
under the article Morass.

Wood, Cutting of. See Cutting.

Wood, Meafure of. See Measure.

Wood, Stack of. See Stack.

Wood, Staining of. See Dyeing of Wood, &c.

Wood may be ftained yellow, by brufhing it over fe»eral
times with the tlnfture of turmeric root, made by putting
an ounce of the powdered root to a pint of fpirit, and after
it has ftood fome days, ftraining off the tinfture. A redder
caft maybe given to the colour by adding a little dragon's
blood. A cheaper, and lefs bright and ftrong yellow
may be given to wood by rubbing it over feveral times
with the tinfture of French berries, made boiling hot ;
and when the wood is dry, brufhing it over with a weak
alum-water ufed cold.

In order to render thefe ftains more beautiful and du-
rable, the wood fhould be bruftied after it is coloured, and
then varnifhed with the feed-lac varnifh, or with three or
four coats of fhell-Iac varnifh.

For a bright red ftain for wood, make a ftrong infufion
of Brafil in ftale urine, or water impregnated vrith pearl-
afhes in the proportion of an ounce to a gallon ; to a
gallon of either of which add a pound of the Brafii
wood. With this infufion, after it has ftood, with fre-
quent ftirring, two or three days, ftrained and made
boiling hot, brufh the wood over till it appears ftrongly
coloured ; and while it is wet, brufh it over with alum-
^ G water

woo

water made in the proportion of two ounces of alum to
a quart of water. .

For a lefs bright red, bru(h over the wood witha Unfture
made by diffolving an ounce of dragon's blood in a pint of
fpirit of wine.

For a pink or rofe red, add to a gallon of the above in-
fufion of Brafil wood two ounces of pearl-afhes, and ufe
it as before : obferving to brufh the wood over often with
the alum-water. Thefe reds may be varniftied as the

yellows.

Wood may be ftained blue by means either of copper or
indigo. The brighter blue may be obtained by brufhmg
a folution of copper (fee Verditer), while hot, feveral
times over the wood : and then brulhing a folution of
pearl-afhes in the proportion of two ounces to a pint of
water hot over the wood. It is ftained blue with indigo,
by brufliing it vnth the indigo prepared with foap-lees
as when ufed by the dyers, boiling hot ; and then with
a folution of white tartar or cream of tartar, made by
boiling three ounces of either in a quart of water, brufli-
iig over the wood plentifully before the tinfture of in-
digo be quite dry. Thefe blues may be brulhed and var-
niihed as the reds, if neceflary.

Wood may be ftained green by diffolving verdigrife in
»inegar, or the cryftals of verdigrife in water, and with
the hot folution bruftiing over the wood till it be duly
ftairied.

A light red-brown mahogany colour may be given to
wood by means of a decoftion of madder and fuftic wood,
ground in water, in the proportion of half a pound of
madder and a quarter of a pound of fuftic to a gallon,
or, inftead of the fuftic, an ounce of the yellow berries
may be ufed. Brufh over the wood with this folution,
while boihng hot, till the due colour be obtained. The
fame effeft may to a confiderable degree be produced by
the tinfture of dragon's blood and turmeric root, in fpirit
of wine.

For the dark mahogany, take the infufion of madder as
above, and fubftitute for the fuftic two ounces of log-
wood : and when the wood has been brufhed over feveral
umes, and is dry, brufh it over flightly with water in which
pearl-afhes have been difTolved, in the proportion of about
a quarter of an ounce to a quart. The wood, in the better
kind of work, ftiould be afterwards varnifhed with three or
four coats of feed-lac varnifh ; but for coarfe work, with
the varnifh of refin and feed-lac, or they may be well
rubbed over with drying oil.

Wood may be ftained purple by brulhing it over feveral
times with a ftrong decoftion of logwood and Brafil,
made in the proportion of one pound of the logwood
and a quarter of a pound of the Brafil, to a gallon of
water, and boiled for one hour or more. Let the wood,
well coloured, dry, and be then flightly paffed over by
a folution of one drachm of pearl-aflies in a quart of water.
A folution of gold in fpirit of fait or aqua regia will give
a durable purple ftain to wood.

For a deep black the wood is brufhed over four or five
times with a warm decoftion of logwood, made as above
without the Brafil, and afterwards as often with a decoc-
tion of galls, made by putting a quarter of a pound of
powdered galls to two quarts of water, allowing it to dry
thoroughly between the feveral applications of the liquors :
thus prepared, it receives a fine deep black colour, from
being wafhed over with a folution of vitriol in the pro-
portion of two ounces to a quart : in the room of which
fome ufe a folution of iron in vinegar, keeping the vine-

7

WOO

gar for this purpofe upon a quantity of the filings of the
metal, and pouring off a little as it is wanted. A pretty
good black is alfo obtained, more expeditioufly, by brufh-
ing over the wood, firft with the logwood liquor, and
afterwards with common ink.

A very fine black may be produced by brufhing the
wood feveral times over with a folution of copper in aqua
fortis, and afterwards with the decoftion of logwood, re-
peated till the colour be of fufEcient force, and the green-
nefs produced by the copper overcome. The blacks may
be varnifhed as the other colours.

Where the ftains are defired to be very ftrong, as in the
cafe of wood ufed for fineeriiig, it is generally neceffary it
fhould be foaked, and not brufhed ; for which purpofe the
wood may be cut into pieces of a proper thicknefs for in-
laying. Lewis's Phil. Com. Techn. p. 97. 434. Hand-
maid to the Arts, vol.i. p. 508, &c.
Wood, Stealing of. See Larceny.
Wood, Engraving on. See Wood-Enghaving, iH/ra,
Wood, Painting on. See Painting.
Wood, Sculpture in. See Sculpture.
Wood, Sylva, in Geography, a multitude of trees, ex-
tended over a large continued traft of land, and propa-
gated by nature, or without culture.

Many great woods only confift of trees of one kind.
At Cape Verd, in Africa, are woods of orange and lemon
trees ; in Ceylon, are woods of cinnamon-trees ; in the
Molucca iflands, woods of clove-trees ; in the iflands of
Nero, Lontour, Lofgain, &c. woods of nutmeg-trees ;
in Brafil, woods of Brafil-trees, &c. ; in Numidia, woods
of date-trees ; in Madagafcar, woods of tamarind-trees,
&c.

WooD-jlJhes, in jigrkulture, the afhes which are formed
by burning wood.

The afhes of fome forts of wood, too, are found to be
more powerful as a manure than thofe of others, as thofe
from the afh and fome other fuch trees.

It is faid by fome that they are an excellent drefling for
improving cold wet pafture land ; and that poor hungry
paftures have been very profitably benefited by them, to near
double their former value ; that nothing equals them on low
fpongy pafture land. Others, however, have tried them
on grafs-lands with little or no effeft.

The difference in the burning and forming of them may
probably caufe this difference in the effefts which they have
on land.

y^ooD- Bound, a term ufed to fignify fuch land as is
encumbered with tall woody hedge-rows, fo as to prevent
the free circulation of air and admiflion of the fun, by
which the natural fertihty and ftrength of it cannot be fully
exerted or brought into aftion. See VJoon-Land.

WooD-Coppices. In the firft raifing of coppices, two
things are to be confidered ; firft, the nature of the foil, that
fuch trees may be planted in it as will thrive well there ;
and fecondly, the ufes that the wood is intended to be fold
for, that fuch kinds may be planted as will be moft proper
for thofe ufes.

If the principal vent for wood be for the fire, the beft
trees for fire-wood muft be planted, fuch as the oak,
beech, hornbeam, or other hard wood. Thefe are the
moft profitable for felling as fire-wood, and one or more of
thefe grow in any foil.

If there be a demand in the country where the coppice
is to be planted for hoops and hop-poles, then the afh, the
chefnut, the oak, alder, and hazel, are to be planted.

According

woo

According to the profits of the underwood, the thicknef*
of the ftandard-trees is to be regulated ; for as they ftand
more or lefs thick, they more or lefs injure the underwood.
It is alfo to be confidered at what growth the underwood
is to be fold. The taller and larger the underwood of a
coppice in general is, the more profitable will it be for
firing, and all other ufes, and the ftandards will be the
better for its being left to grow to a proper height, for
their bodies will be always, unlefs very great accidents
occur, carried up ftraight as far as they are ihaded by the
coppice-wood.

A deep foil makes the ftirubs as well as trees grow more
vigoroufly than any other, and they will be fooner fit for
cutting in fuch places. The perfon who owns thefe
woods muft contrive to cut down only a certain quantity
of them every year, and regulate this fo that he may have a
conftant fucceffion of a like quantity ; that part of the
wood which was at firft felled, may be grown up to its
fize for feUing again by the time the laft is cut. This is,
in different places, to be calculated to all the various num-
bers between eight years and twenty or thirty.

The cutting of wood feldom yields the more and the
better timber ; but the cutting of it oftener has greater
advantages, in that it makes it grow thicker, and gives the
feedlings time to come up. If many timber-trees grow
in the coppice, and are to be cut down, they and the un-
derwood fiiould be felled together, cutting off the ftumps as
clofe to the ground as may be, in the trees, and in the
fhrubs and underwood the ffumps (hould be left about half
a foot high, and cut flanting and very fmooth.

Sawing is the beft method of felling timber-trees ; but it
fometimes kills the root ; and if this is obferved to be the
cafe iu the coppice, no new (hoots arifing from the root,
then it is proper to ftub up the root, that it may not un-
neceffarily encumber the ground, and that the other young
plants may have the benefit of it.

In the firft raifing of coppices from feed, the ground
mull be prepared by good tillage, as much as if it were
intended for corn. The feeds of the feveral trees are to
be fown in February, and if the foil be ftiallow, the
ground fhould be ploughed into great ridges ; this wiU
make the foil lie the thicker upon the top of each ridge,
by which means the roots will have more depth to run
to for nourifhment, and in a few years the furrow will
be filled up to the level of the reft with the dead leaves ;
and thefe, as they rot at the bottom, will make a kind
of foil, through which the young (hoots will fpread, and
be condufted from one ridge to another, and fo the
whole ground will be occupied by them. If the coppice
be to be raifed on the fide of a hill, plough the ridges
crofs-way of the defcent of the hill, that the water may
be detained among them, and not fuffered to run off, as
It otherwife would by the furrows ; but if it happen
that the ground be over-wet, which is more rarely the
cafe, then the contrary method is to be obferved, and
the furrows ploughed deep and ftraight downwards, that
sll water may be carried off by them, as by fo many
trenches or drains.

Some fow a crop of corn along with the feeds of the
underwood, for the advantage of the firft year ; but as the
feafon of fowing the feeds of the trees is too late for the
lowing of the corn, it feldom turns to much advantage.
It it better to fow the trees alone, and keep them well
weeded the two firft years ; after which they are ftrong
enough to take care of themfelves againft fuch enemies.

In very barren ground, where the young trees can
hardly ftand the heat in fummer, it it proper, after fowing

^v o o

them, to fcattcr a quantity of furze-feed over the hnd ; the
furze will grow quick, and over-top the trees at firft, but
It will ferve as a guard to them at this time, defending
them from injuries, and keeping the ground moift about
their roots. In a few years the trees will grow up beyond
thefe bulhes, and they will then foon deftroy them by their
dropping.

In the raifing of coppices, the neareft diftance for the
plantations ought to be five feet for the underwood, but
as to what number, and fcantlings of timber are to be left
on each acre, the ftatutes in this cafe diredl ; but it
is an ordinary coppice, which will not afford three or
four firfts, fourteen feconds, twelve thirds, and eight
wavers, according to which proportion the fizes of young
trees in coppices are to fucceed one another. In coppice
or underwood felled at twenty-four years growth, there
are to be left twelve ftore-oaks upon every acre, or, in
defeft of them, the fame number of elms, beech, or a(h :
thefe are to be ftraight-bodied trees, and are to be
left till they are ten inches in diameter, at a yard from
the ground ; but it is better for the owner to have a
much greater number of timber-trees, efpecially in placei
where underwood is cheap ; and as to the felling, it ii
always neceffary to begin regularly with one fide, that
the carriages, neceffary to the taking off the wood, may
come on without injury to the reft : and in large woods,
a cart-way (hould always be left in the middle, quite
through the wood. The timber of the underwood may
be cut from the month of Oftober to February ; but the
laft month is much the beft, in places where there is
but a fmall quantity to be felled, and it can all be got
down before the fpring is too much advanced. All the
wood (hould be carried out by Midfummer, and made up
by April at the lateft ; for when the rows and brufh lie
longer than this unmade up, and unbound, many of the
fhoots and feedlings are fpoiled by them. It is always
worth the owner's while to inclofe the coppice well the
winter before felling, to keep out the cattle, which
would elfe greatly damage the fupply from the feedlings
and young (hoots.

New-weaned calves are the leaft prejudicial to newly
cut woods of any creatures, and may be put in where there
is much grafs ; the next in harmleffnefs to thefe are
young colts, which, at about a year old, may be put in
to feed in the fame manner ; but about May they mutt all
be put out.

If the woods happen to be cropped by cattle, it is beft
to cut them up, and they will make new (hoots ; for that
which has been bitten by the cattle will not grow for
feveral years in any degree.

If the coppice-woods are too thin, this is to be remedied
by laying down the longeft and fmaUeft (hoots of thofe
(hrubs or trees which are the moil advantageous, in the
place, or of fuch as are neareft the bare place ; thefe
will each fend forth a great number of fuckers, and
the whole wood will be thickened as much as defired
in a very little time. Mortimer's Huibandry, vol. ii.
p. 64. See Coppice.

Wood, Almlggim. See Almiggim.

Wood Anemone. See Akemone.

V/ooD-Bine, or Wood-bind, in Botany, a fpecies of lonictra ;
which fee.

WooD-Bind, Spani/b, a fpecies of ipomcea ; which
fee.

WoOB-Chat, in Ornithology, lanius minor primus of AI-

drovaiidus, a fpecies of butcher-bird, wth a horn-coloufcd

bill ; the feithers at the bafe are whiti(h ; above is a

4 G 2 black

woo

black line drawn acrofs the eyes, and then downwards
00 each fide the neck ; the head and hind part of the
neck are of a bright bay ; the upper part of the back
dufky; the coverts of the tail grey ; the fcapulars w nte ;
the coverts of tlje wings duHcy ; the quiU-feathers black,
having a white fpot at the bottom ; the throat, brealt, and
belly of a yeUowilh-white ; the legs black. In the fe-
male, tlie upper part of the head, neck, and body, are
reddifh, ftriatcd tranfverfely with brown ; the lower parts
of the body are of a dirty white, rayed with brown ;
the tail of a reddilh-brown, marked near the end with
dulky, and tipt with red. Pennant.

VfooD-Coci, Scolopax rujlicola of Linnxus, called by
other vrriters h becaje, a weU-known bird diftinguifhed
by its fize, which is fomewhat fmaller than that of the
partridge, and by its colour, which is on the back a va-
riegation of black, grey, and a reddifh-brown ; on the
forehead the black predominates; the quill-feathers are
duflcy, indented with red marks ; and on the belly a
pale grey, variegated with tranfverfe ftreaks of brown.
Its beak is three inches long, dulky toward the end, and
reddifh at the bafe, and the upper chap a little longer
than the under: the tongue flender, long, Iharp, and
hard at the point ; the eyes large, and placed near
the top of the head, that they may not be injured when
the bird thrufts its bill into the ground : from the bill to
the eyes is a black line ; the forehead is a reddilh afh-
colour ; the chin is of a pale yellow ; the tail confifts
of twelve feathers, duflcy or black on the one web, and
marked with red on the other ; the tips above are a(h-
coloured, below white: the legs and toes are livid, the
latter divided almoft to their origin, having only a very
fmall web between the middle and interior toes.

Thefe birds, during fummer, are inhabitants of the
Alps, Norway, Sweden, Pohlh Pruffia, the Mark of Bran-
denburg, and the northern parts of Europe ; whence they
emigrate at the approach of winter into milder climates,
where the ground is open and adapted to their manner
of feeding. The time of their appearance and difap-
pearance in Sweden coincides exaftly with that of their
retreat from and arrival in Great Britain. They live on
worms and infefts, which they fearch for with their long
bills in foft ground and moifl woods. They generally
arrive here in flocks, taking advantage of the night or a
mift ; they foon feparate : but before they return to
their native haunts, pair. They feed and fly by night ;
beginning their flight in the evening, and returning the
fame way to their day -retreat.

They leave England the latter end of February, or
beginning of March ; though they have been known to
continue here accidentally. In Cafewood, near Tun-
bridge, a few breed almoft annually. During incubation
they are very tame. They come over to the coaft of Suf^
folk fparingly in the firft week of Oftober, the greater
number not arriving till the months of November and
December, and always after fun-fet. They are determined
in their flight by the wind, and arrive feparate and
difperfed. When the red-wing appears on the coaft in
autumn, tlie wood-cocks are at hand ; and when the
Royfton crow is arrived, they are come. Between the
12th and 25th of March they flock towards the coaft
to be ready for their departure, having the red-wings for
their harbingers in fpring, as in autumn. If the wind be
favourable, they immediately depart ; but otherwife, they
are detained in the neighbouring woods, or among the
ling and furze on the coaft : as foon as a fair wind fprings
up, they arc fuddenly gone.

WOO

In the fame maxmit they are known to quit France,
Germany, and Italy ; making the northern and cold fitu-
ations their general fummer rendezvous. In the winter
they are found as far fouth as Smyrna and Aleppo, and
alfo in Barbary ; and fome have appeared as far fouth
as Egypt, which feems to be the limit of their migration in
that way. In Japan they are found very common. Thofe
that refort into the countries of the Levant probably come
from the defarts of Siberia or Tartary, or the cold moun-
tains of Armenia.

Our fpecies of wood-cock is unknown in North America ;
but they have a fort of wood-cock refembling ours in its
general appearance ; about half its fize, and Wanting the
bars on the breaft and belly. Pennant.

They hate flying high, and they are afraid to fly among
trees, becaufe, like the hare, they fee but very badly ftraight
before them ; and it is owing to this imperfeftion in their
fight, that they are fo eafily taken in nets fpread in their
places of refort.

The draw-net, in countries which are very woody, is ex-
tremely profitable in this fport, it being no uncommon thing
to take ten or a dozen wood-cocks at a time in it.

There is another method of taking thefe birds in high
woods, with thofe nets called hays, of the nature of the
ralibit-hays, only with fmaller meflies. The wood-cocks
are to be driven into thefe, and there (hould always be at
leaft two or three of them planted together. When the
fportfman has provided himfelf with nets, he is to take five
or fix perfons into the wood with him. The proper woods
for this purpofe are thofe of feven or eight years' growth ;
and the people are to go into fome part of them near the
middle. The nets or hays are to be placed in the fame
manner as they are for taking of rabbits, but two or three
joining together at the end, and hanging over flopewife
that way which the wood-cocks are intended to be
driven.

The nets being thus fixed, let the company go to the end
of the wood, placing themfelves at about ten rods diftance
from one another ; they rauft all have fticks in their hands,
and they are to move forward ilowly towards the nets, mak-
ing a noife by ftriking the fticks againft the trees and
branches, and by hallooing with their voices : in this man-
ner they are to move up to the net ; and the wood-cocks in
that part of the wood will all be terrified before them, but
will not take wing, but run along upon the ground, and
thus be driven along like a drove of beafts, fo that when the
company come up, they will find almoft all of them in the
net. When that part of the wood is thus driven, the nets
are to be turned the other way, and placed flopewife in the
contrary direftion, and the company retiring to the other
end of the wood, are to drive the wood-cocks that are in
that part with the fame noife, till they have fent them into
the nets in the fame manner.

Thus all the wood-cocks in the wood may be taken with
very little trouble, and this may be done equally at any time
of the day.

Another way of taking this bird is by means of noozes or
fpringes.

The wood-cock and the fnipe are both eafily taken with
bird-lime, when their places of refort are known, but they
are not fo eafily found as many other birds.

The cuftom of the wood-cock is ufually to be upon the
banks under hedges, and by the fides of ditches toward the
fun ; and they will fuffer the fportfmen to come nearer them
in the day-time after a moon-fhiny night, than after a dark
one. The reafon of which is, that having fed well by
moon-light, they are only fit for reft the day following ;

but

woo

woo

but when the night has been dark, they are feeking food all

day long.

The fnipes naturally lie by the fides of rivers, when the
I plafhes and ponds are frozen, and they always lie with their

heads up or down the ftream, never tranfverfely.

In order to take either of thefe birds by bird-lime, the
fportfrnan mull be provided with a large number of fmall
and fmooth twigs, neatly and evenly covered with good
bird-lime. Thefe muft be placed Hoping, fome one way,
fome another, and the whole place about where they refort
muft be covered with them. The fportfrnan then muft con-
ceal himfelf very carefully, that the fight of him may not
frighten away the game. See CocK-RoaJ.

WooD-Coci Apple, in Rural Economy, a fine cyder fruit.
See ATPLE-Tree.

WooD-Coci Shell, a name given by the EngUfh naturahfts
I to a peculiar kind of the purpura. It is called in French,
becaje, from the length of its beak. There are two fpecies
of this, a prickly and a fmooth one.

The prickly kind is an extremely beautiful and elegant
/hell. It is of a yellowifti colour ; and its tail or beak (for
the hinder extremity of the ftiell, which runs out into an
immoderate length, is fometimes called by the one, fome-
times by the other of thefe names) is furnilhed with four
rows of large and very long fpines : between the rows of
thefe, there are alfo rows of fmall and ftiort fpines. The
body of the ftiell is furrowed very deep, with a number of
tranfverfe circular lines ; and both this and the clavicle^are
befet with feveral rows of long fpines.

The fmooth becafte, or wood-cock ftiell, is a very elegant
fpecies, but much lefs fo than the other. It is of a yel-
lowifti colour, radiated with black and grey lines. It is all
over deeply furrowed, and the ridges are befet with tuber-
cles, the clavicle is elevated, and the tail extremely long,
and hollowed into a fort of tube. The mouth of this, as
well as of the other, is fmall and roundifti, and in this
fpecies is of a liglit flefli-colour.

WooD-C oci Soil, in ytgrtculture, a term applied to fuch
land as has the mould of a dapple-brownilh colour, and
which is faid not to be of a good quality for many purpofes.
See Soil.

WooD-Corn is a certain quantity of oats, or other grain,
anciently given by cuftomary tenants to their lord, for the
liberty to pick up dead or broken wood.

WooD-Evil, or Cramp in the Legs, a difeafe among ftieep,
which is fo named in confequence of its being fuppofed in
general to arife from the drippings of trees in cold and wet
weather. It ftiews itfelf by feizing the legs of the ftieep,
and making them totally incapable of walking ; and will
fometimes all at once fpread through the whole flock.

In regard to the means of cure, a tea-fpoonful of the
flour of muftard has been advifed to be given every night
and morning. The affedled parts ftiould alfo be well rubbed
with warm flannel, and the ftieep be kept dry, which are
very effeflual aids. The ufe of a little oil of turpentine
externally may often alfo be advantageous, where the other
mode of rubbing does not fucceed : and in bad cafes the
ufe of mild mercurials with opium may be had recourfe to
with much benefit.

'WooD-Fuel, Sa-w for cutting of, in Rural Economy, a
tool ufed for this purpofe. On the continent they employ
an improved inftrument of this kind, the iron part of which
confifts of a faw, three inches in breadth, and fixteen inches
in length, double toothed, in the manner of the gardener's
pocket faw, and fixed in a frame of tough afti-wood, as
below. The edge part of the faw is made broader than the

10

back, in order that it may work more freely and with
greater eafe.

The frame of the faw at the top part has a ftrong cord
tied round each fide of it, fo as to tighten the faw and keep
it from bending, being capable of being twifted tighter by
a fmall thin piece of wood put between the double cord,
and which may be kept from untwifting by being refted
againft the crofs-bar in the upper part, which is mortifed
and firmly fattened into the two fide pieces, being the only
means that keeps the frame together in a fafe manner. The
fide pieces are each twelve inches in length ; and the addi-
tional length of the handle part of one of them five inches.
It is evident that this faw will, on the principle of leflening
friftion, and of keeping the cutting part from bending,
work with much greater facility and expedition than the
common carpenter's faw.

With this wood-faw twice as much work may be done in
a day as with the common hand-faw that is in general ufe in
this countr)^

"WoOD-Geld, WoodgeUum, in our ancient cuftoms, the
gathering or cutting of wood within the foreft. Or it may
denote the money paid for the fame to the forefters. Some-
times it alfo feems to fignify an immunity from this payment,
by the king's grant. Crompton fays exprefsly, it fignifies
to be free from the payment of money for taking of wood
in a foreft. See Geld.

WooD-Hay, an ancient cuftom at Exeter ; by which a log
out of every feam of wood brought over Ex-bridge is taken
towards the reparation of that bridge. Antiq. of Exeter.
WooD-Land, in Agriculture, a term ufed by the farmers
of many counties of England for a fort of foil, from its
conftant humidity and dark colour, refembling the foil in
woods, which, of whatever nature it originally is, will al-
ways be made to appear thus from the continual dropping
of trees, and the want of a free air and fun, together with
the fall of leaves, deftroyed and waftied to pieces by the
wet.

This foil in the open countries has a confiderable quan-
tity of clay in it, and holds the water a long time that once
falls upon it : in wet weather it fticks firmly to the plough-
ftiare, and in dry is very apt to crack. In uncultivated
places it ufually produces rufties and rufti-grafs. A moift
and dripping year is extremely detrimental to this fort of
land.

As to the clearing of wood-land in order to bring it into
a ftate of cultivation and improvement, the firft ftep is that
of properly digging out the roots of whatever forts they
may be, after the wood has been cut off", to prepare the
ground for the operation of the plough, without mixing
the under ftratum of the land with the fertile furface mouldy
layer of earth. The hollows and pits are then to be filled
and levelled.

In fome inftances it may be beneficial to encourage and
promote the fward and herbage by fowing over the furface
fuitable grafs-feeds, after it has been broken and fpread
over with the coUefted and decayed or burnt woody and
leafy matters, flocking the land hard with ftieep, and mow-
ing off" occaiionally the wood-ftioots that may arife ; thus
keeping the whole in a ftate of clofe pafturage, until the
fmaller root parts that may have been left in the land be-
come fufficiently decayed, to render them obedient to the
plough, when the land may be broken up for corn. The
ufe of lime and calcareous fubftances in mixture with thefe
matters, or fpread alone over the land, would alfo ferve to
encourage the finer forts of herbage, the delight of ftieep ;
and, of courfc, induce them to eat the grafs more clofe,

and

woo

and bring the land fooner into the ftate of » thick fet
fward, the produftive matrix of corn-crops.
WooD-Lari, in Ornithology. See f/ood-LARK.
WooD-Layir, in jlgricuUure, a term ufed to fignify the
young oak or other timber plants which are laid down into
hedges, among the white thorn or other plants ufed m fences.
See Hedge.

Wood of Life, in Botany. See Guaiacum.
WooD-Lofi, in Ship-Bullding, a piece of elm, clolely
filled and (heathed with copper, in the throating or fcore ot
the pintle, near the load-water-line ; fo that when the rud-
der is hung, and the wood-lock nailed in its place, it cannot
rife, becaufe the latter butts againll the underfide of the
brace and butt of the fcore.

WooD-Loufe. See Millepedes.

WooD-Meil, a coarfe, hairy kind of ftufF, made of Ice-
land wool, with which the (hip-carpenters, in fome of his
raajefty's yards, line the ports of (hips of war.

WooD-Mite, in Natural Hljlory, the name of a little ani-
mal frequently made the fubjeft of microfcopical obferva-
tions, and by fome called the tuood-loufe ; though that lefs
properly, as there is another larger animal generally known
by that name.

The wood-mite is in (hape and colour very like a loufe,
and is frequently found running very nimbly, but always by
ftarts and jumps, on old books and rotten wood. The eyes
of this creature are of a fine gold colour, and can be thruft.
out or drawn in at pleafure ; and when examined by the
microfcope the periftaltic motion of the guts is feen very
diftinftly, and beautifully ; and what is more wonderful,
there is obferved a very diftinft and regular motion in the
brain.

This probably is the fame animal with the pediculus pul-
fatorius, defcribed by Dr. Derham, as one of the death
watches. Baker's Microfcope, p. 185.

Wood-Mot, certain foreft -officers appointed to take care
of the king's woods.

V^oon-Mote, the ancient name of that foreft-court, now
called the court of attachment.

WooD-Pecier, in Ornithology, the EngUfh name of fome
fpecies of picus.

The green wood-pecker, picus viriJtj of Linnaeus, called
alfo the rain-fowl and pluviahs avis, weighs about fix ounces
and a half, is thirteen inches long, and twenty and a half
broad ; the bill is dulky, triangular, and near two inches
long ; the crown of the head is crimfon, fpotted with
black ; the eyes are furrounded with black, beneath which
the males have a crimfon mark ; the back, neck, and lefler
coverts of the wings, are green ; the rump of a pale yellow ;
the greater quill-feathers are duflcy, fpotted on each fide
with white ; the tail confifts of ten itiff feathers with black
tips, and barred alternately with dudcy and deep green ;
the whole hinder part of the body is of a very pale greeu ;
the thigh and vent are marked with dufky lines ; the legs
and feet all of a cinereous green.

The greater-fpotted wood-pecker, pi::us major of Linnaeus,
called alfo vjittuall, weighs two ounces three-fourths, is nine
inches long, and fixteen broad ; the bill is one inch and a
quarter long, of a black horn colour ; the irides are red ;
the forehead is of a pale buff colour ; the crown of the
head of a glofly black ; the hind part marked with a rich
deep crimfon fpot ; the cheeks white, bounded beneath by
a black bar palling from the corner of the mouth, and fur-
rounding the hind part of the head ; the neck is encircled
V'lth a black colour ; the throat and breaft are of a yellowifh-
vhite J the vent-feathers of a light crimfon ; the back, rum^,

WOO

and coverts of the tail, and leffer coverts of the wings, are
black ; the fcapular feathers and coverts, adjoining to them,
are white ; the quill-feathers black, elegantly marked on
each web with round white fpots : tlie four middle feathers
of the tail are black ; the next tipt with yellow ; the bot-
tom of the two outmoft black, the upper parts a dirty
white ; the exterior feather marked on each fide with two
black fpots ; the next with two on the inner web, and one
on the other ; the legs are of a lead colour. The female
wants the crimfon fpot on the head. This fpecies is much
more uncommon than the preceding ; and keeps altogether
in the woods.

The middle wood-pecker, or picus mediut of LinnKus,
agrees with the preceding in fize and colours, except that
the crown of the head in this is of a rich crimfon ; the
crown of the head in the male of the fornr.rr being black,
and the crimfon in form of a bar on the hind part.

The lefler-fpotted wood-pecker, picus minor of Linnaeus,
is alfo called hickiuall, and has all the characters and aftions
of the greater kind, but is more rare. Pennant.
WooV'Pigeon. See Ririg-Dovv:.

WooB-Pka Court, is a court held twice a year in the
foreft of Clun, in Shropfhire, for determining all matters
relating to wood, and the feeding of cattle there. Perhaps
it was originally the fame with wood-mote court.

WoOD-Pucerons, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by M.
Reaumur to a fmall fpc ^ of infeA of the puceron kind,
of a greyifh colour, and diftinguifhed by its two hollow
horns on the hinder part of its body.

Thefe animals very much refemble, both in fhape and
fize, the pucerons of the alder ; but as thofe live always on
the furface of the ftalk, thefe make their way deep into the
wood of a tree.

M. Reaumur found large quantities of thefe lodged at
a confiderable depth in the wood of fome elms, after they
were cut down ; the pafTages, by which they had made their
way in, were not to be found ; but they were lodged in
large and long holes, of the diameter of a goofe-quill, >
and running many inches along the tree in a longitudinal' I
direftion.

All the pucerons found in thofe places appear to be
females, and none have wings ; they all have vail numbers i
of young ones of different degrees of maturity within them, I
and thefe may be forced out with preffing their bodies.
Reaum. Hift. Infeft. vol. vi.

WooD-Roof, or Wood-ruffe, in Botany. See Asi'ERULA.

The leaves and roots dried have been efteemed aperient

and diuretic ; and recommended in obftruftions of the liver, |

and thence fuppofed efficacious in the jaundice : but they t

are now difufed.

'Woon-Sage. See Sage.

"WooB-Soot, in Agriculture, a fubftance of the foot kind, |
which has been found highly beneficial as a manure in cafes
of cold clayey or ftiff loamy foils or lands, when in either
the ftate of pafture or in that of tillage for grain, or other
arable crops.

It is ftated to be ufed in thefe proportions on different
forts of land. On light loams, when for pafture, from
twenty-two to twenty-four bufhels on the acre ; when for
barley, from thirty-three to thirty-four ; for turnips, from
thirty -three to tliirty-fix.

On chalky loams, when for pafture, from twenty -three to
twenty-fix buffiels on the acre ; when for turnips, from
thirty -three to thirty-eight ; for barley, from thirty-five to
forty.

On ftrong loams, when for pafture, from twenty-two to

twenty-

woo

twenty-fix bulhcls on the acre ; when for artificial grafl'es,
or green crops, from twenty-eight to thirty-four. See
Soot and fVood-SoOT.

'WoOB-Sorril, in Botany. See [VooJ-SonHEL.

Wood- Spite, in Ornithology, an Enghfli name gircn by
many to the common green wood-pecker.

Wood- IVaJi, in ylgricultare, a name fometimes applied to
dyer's-broom by farmers.

Wood, Waxen, in Gardening. See Genista.

Wood, in Geography, a county of Virginia, with 3036
inhabitants.

Wood Creek. See Preston'j Creek.

Wood Creek, a river of New York, which runs into the
Hudfon, near Fort Edward. — Alfo, a river of New York,
connefted with the Mohawk by the canal at Rome, through
which the navigation is extended into Oneida lake. — Alio,
a river of New York, which rifes in Kingfbury, and runs
N. by Port Anne village, into lake Champlain, at White-
hall landing, formerly Skenefborough.

Wood IJland, a fmall ifland near the coaft of Maine ; 15
miles N.E. of Cape Porpoife. N. lat. 43° 26'. W. long.

7°° H'- ■ .

Wood River, a river of North America, which runs into
the Miffiffippi, N. lat. 44°. W. long. 92° 25' — Alfo, a
river of North America, which runs into the MiiliiSppi, N.
. lat. 38° 25'. W. long. 90° 58'.

WOODBERRY, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
I county of Huntingdon, with n 07 inhabitants.
1 WOODBRIDGE, a large and populous market-town
;; in the hundred of Loes, and county of Suffolk, England,
' is fituated on the banks of the river Deben, at the diftance
; of 8 miles E.N.E. from Ipfwich, and 77 miles N.E. by E.
from London. It is faid to have taken its name from
a wooden bridge built over a hollow way to make a commu-
, nication between two parks, feparated by the road which
leads towards Ipfwich ; and near the fpot where this bridge
: is fuppofed to have flood is a houfe, which to this day re-
1 tains the name of the Dry Bridge. But when it is confi-
I dered that in ancient times this town was written Oddebruge,
I or, as in Domefday-book, Udebruge, it may with greater
probability be fuppofed thence to have derived its prefent
appellation. The principal ftreets in Woodbridge, one of
which is nearly a mile in length, contain many good
I houfes, and are well paved. The market-place is well-
I built, and in the centre of it is an ancient fhire-hall, where
the quarter feflions for the liberty of St. Ethelred are held ;
I under which is the place for the corn-market. A weekly
! market, granted in the reign of Henry III., is held on
' Wednefdays, and here are two annual fairs. The only ma-
, nufaclures are thofe of fack-cloth and fait : but the com-
merce is of great importance. The Deben, which towards
its mouth is called Woodbridge-haven, is navigable up to
^ the town, which thereby carries on a very confiderable traffic
I in corn, flour, malt, and various other articles, with Lon-
' don, Hull, Newcaftle, and the continent : here are feveral
I docks for building veffels, with commodious wharfs and
I quays. In the population return of the year 181 1, Wood-
] bridge is dated to contain 702 houfes, occupied by 4332
, perfons. The church, a fpacious ftrufture, is confidered
' to have been built in the reign of Edward III. by John,
] lord Seagrave. It confifts of a nave, chancel, and two
! fide aifles, the roofs of which are fupported by fourteen
; beautiful flender pillars. The exterior walls are of black
j flints, as is alfo a large quadrangular tower, 108 feet in
: height ; near the top, the flint and ftone are curioufly inter-
j mixed in various devices. On the fouth fide of the church
; formerly flood a priory for black canons of the Augufline

WOO

order. At the difTolution the fcite was granted by
Henry VIII. to John Wingfield. After paffing through
feveral famihes, the eflate was divided and fold, when
the capital manfion, called the abbey or priory, was pur-
chafed by Francis Brooke, efq. of Ufford. The town con-
tains meeting-houfes for Independents, Quakers, and Me-
thodifls ; alfo a free grammar-fchool for ten boys, fons of
the poorer inhabitants of the town, who are to be inflrufted
in Latin and Greek, and fitted for the univerfity. Here is
hkewife an alms-houfe, worthy of particular notice, which
was founded and endowed in 1587, under a patent of queen
Ehzabeth, by Thomas Seckford, efq. for thirteen men and
three women. The endowment was an eflate in Clerken-
well, London, then let for 112/. 13/. 4//.; but leafed in
1767 for fixty years at 563/. per annum, clear of all charges.
And as vail fums have been recently expended upon the
eflate, it may reafonably be fuppofed that a confiderable
advance will take place at the expiration of the leafe. The
governors are the mafler of the rolls and the chief juftice of
the common pleas, who are empowered to make fuch regu-
lations as from time to time fhall be neceffary. By the laft
ordinances, the annual allowance to the refidents in the
alms-houfe was increafed to 27/. for the principal or nominal
governor, and 20/. to each of the other twelve poor men,
befides wearing apparel, and a chaldron and half of coals.
The three women are appointed as nurfes and attendants
on the men, and receive 12/. per annum, and clothing. The
men wear a filver badge, with the Seckford arms, and are
required to attend divine fervice at the parifh-church on

Sundays, Wednefdays, and Fridays, and all holidays

Kirby's Suffolk Traveller, 8vo. 1764. Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, vol. xiv. Suffolk, by F. Shoberl.

Woodbridge, a town of .New Jerfey ; 4 miles N. of
Araboy.

Woodbridge, a townfhip of Connefticut, in the county
of New Haven, with 2030 inhabitants ; 7 miles N.W. of
New Haven.

WOODBURY, a town of the ft ate of Conneaicut, in
the county of Lichfield, with 1963 inhabitants; 30 miles
S.W. of Hartford. — Alfo, a town of the ftate of New
Jerfey, on the E. fide of the Delaware ; 9 miles S. of Phi-
ladelphia. N. lat. 39" 51'. W. long. 75° 15'.— Alfo, a
town of Vermont, in the county of Caledonia, with 254
inhabitants ; 20 miles N. of New Haven. — Alfo, a town-
fhip of Pennfylvania, in the county of Bedford, with i6j8
inhabitants.

WOODCHESTER, a parochial village in the hundred
of Longtree, and county of Gloucefter, England, is
fituated 2'5 miles S.W. from Stroud, 125 S. from Gloucef-
ter, and 104 W. by N. from London. In 181 1 the num-
ber of houfes in the parifh was 162, and the inhabitants 845.
By its name Woodchefter indicates its having been originally
a Roman ftation, and many Roman antiquities have been
frequently difcovered there, of which the mofl remarkable
is a mofaic pavement, partially laid open by digging graves
in the church-yard under which it lies. It appeared to have
formed a fquare of 48 feet 10 inches; and for fize and
richnefs of ornament is certainly fuperior to any fimilar
teffellated pavement hitherto difcovered in Britain. The
tefera were imbedded in a cement about 8 inches thick : and
under all were flues crofling each other at right angles. Befide*
this curious work, others have been occafionally difcovered
at Woodchefter : particularly in 1795 and 1796, the ground-
plot of a very extenfive Roman building was laid open, of
which the remains in the church-yard formed the N. extre-
mity, and the other parts extended under an adjoining or-
chard and field. The plan of this building coroprifed two

conrtS)

woo

court*, which, with the great room, containing the princi-
;^ pavement, ran through the middle, havmg numerous
apartments of different dimenfions branching out from them.
In three large rooms on the N. fide of the great or firit
court were found fragments of columns, ftatues, and mar-
bles. The fecond or inner court had galleries on three lidcs.
The great mofaic pavement feemed to have belonged to the
cavJliun,, an interior court or hall, which communicated
with feveral fuites of rooms. Various parts of the building
appear to have belonged to the apartments allotted for ba hs,
eiercife &c. That thefe remains were portions ot a Iplen-
did Roman villa is fcarcely to be doubted ; and from their
charaaer the villa may have been the refidence of the pro-
prffitor, while Britain was fubjed to Rome. Fragments ot
ftatues, pottery, ftags'-horns, glafs, and coins, have been
found among the ruins. Of the coins, the oldeft was one ot
Hadrian, and the lateft of Valens. A dagger of iron,
much corroded, two fpurs of the fame metal, a fmall brals
hatchet, a fibula, a key apparently of hardened clay, &c.
were alfo difcovered. The manor of Woodchefter belongs
to lord Ducie, who has a feat at Spring-park, in the parilh,
now deferted. It is romantically fituated amidft fine woods.
A full account of the Roman villa, with plates, has been
pubUrtiedby S. Lyfons, in imperial folio.

WOODCOCK, ,in Biography, one of the Hereford

waits, with a ftrong hand on the violin, fo famous in our
youth for playing Vivaldi's Cuckoo concerto, that he was
fent for far and near to perform it at country concerts. See
Vivaldi.

WOODCUTTER'S Creek, in Geography, a river of
Eaft Florida, which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 29° 57'.
W. long. 8 1° 40'.

WOODEN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lublin ; J2 miles N. of Lublin.

Wooden Ball, a fmall American ifland, near the coaft
of Maine. N. lat. 43" 50'. W. long. 68° 40'.

Wooden Frames, for prefervlng and retarding the Blojfoms
♦/■ Fruit-trees, in Gardening, fuch as are contrived for the
purpofe of protefting the bloffoma of them from the de-
ftruftive effefts of fpring-frofts, Sec. In this intention nets
of different kinds, and fcreens of canvas rolled up in the
day-time and let down at night, or in the time of heavy
rains, have been moftly employed while the trees are in
flower ; but thefe frames are found to be fuperior, efpe-
cially in expofed northern fituations. By means of thus re-
tarding and defending the bloffomingof thefe forts of tender
trees, until the frofts be chiefly over, much advantage is
faid to be gained in the fetting of the fruit.

Thefe frames are conftruded in a fimple cheap manner ;
the revolving parts of which are covered with the branches
of the filver fir, or thofe of fome other fuch tree, which are
found to anfwer the purpofe very effe<ftually ; and when
they are properly formed, they will open and ftiut with the
greateft eafe and expedition. They are in ufe from about
the middle of February until towards the end of April, or
later in fome cafes ; being only opened as there may be a
necefljty in the ftate of the bloffoms.

They have been employed with great fuccefs for peaches
and apricots, and may be ufed for many other forts of tender
fruit-trees.

In forming them, the upright pods are made of wood,
two inchej fquare, and fourteen feet fix inches long, into
which crofs-bara are mortifed ; the poles itanding fix feet
afunder. The upper leaves, which open outward on their
are made of inch-deal, by an incl

WOO

the frames from falling inward on the wall. The lower
leaves of the frames, which open out above, in order to
admit the rays of the fun to the lower parts of the wall, re-
volve on pivots. The bottom or low end of the frames iland
out two feet from tl'.e wall, and every other pole in them it
fixed at the top, with an iron holdfaft immediately under
the coping of it. The leaves of the frames are covered with
branches of the filver fir, fo as to wholly occupy the vacant
fpaces at the end, mid ilc, and fides of them. The crofs-
bars are made of inch and quarter wood, and of a breadth
to correfpond with the upright poles into which they are
mortifed. There are fmall wooden pins in the ends of the
crofs-bars, to hold the frames tight when they are up. The
ipace between the wall and the frames fhould have a fort of
partition at every twelve feet, formed by the filver fir-
branches, tied to the trees and every fecond pole, which will
prevent a too free circulation of air along the wall, and pre-
ferve a degree of ferenity very effential to the fetting of the
fruit.

Thefe frames may be found very beneficial in many open
and expofed afpefts of garden-grounds. See a paper on
the fubjeft in the firft volume of the " Memoirs of the
Caledonian Horticultural Society."

WooDE.v Hoop for Cheefe, in Rural Economy. See Dai-
rying.

Wooden Horfe, in Military Language. See Horse,
Wooden.

Wooden Horfc-Collar. See Collar.
Wooden Saddle. See V ACK-Saddle.
Wooden'^ IJland, in Geography, a rocky iflet in the
North Pacific ocean, on the S. coall of King George III.'s
Archipelago : fo called by captain Vancouver, from Ifaac
Wooden, one of his crew, who fell overboard near it, and
was drowned, a little to the eafl; of Cape Ommaney.

WOOD-ENGRAVING, or Xylography, is the art of
making fuch incifions and hollows, imitative of natural or
ideal objefts, at the will of the defigner, on a block or
tablet of wood, as may afterward yield impreffions on paper,
its furface being fupplied with printers'-ink in the manner of
letter-types.

The wood of the apple or pear-tree, either of them oc-
cafionally, but more frequently the pear-tree, was ufed by
thofe engravers of the European continent, who flourifhed
during the 14th, 15th, and i6th centuries, and is believed to
have been ufed for the fame purpofe, from a much earlier
period, in China. The reafon of this preference is the
fuperior compaftnefs of the texture of thofe woods : but
the wood of the bos-tree has latterly — for the fame reafon,
namely, becaufe it is yet more compa£t than the pear-tree in
its grain, and harder in its fubftance — fuperfeded it ; at leaft
for the fmaller purpofes of fuch book-blocks as are intended
to be combined in the letter-prefs, and printed at the fame
operation with alphabetic types.

The inftruments ufed in this art are few and fimple ;
and are probably the fame now, with a few improvements
of no great importance, that have been in ufe from the very
commencement of the art : namely, gravers, more or lefs
fquare or lozenge in their proportions, according to the
breadth and depth of the lines required to be cut ; fcrapers,
of various fizes, both flat and round, but chiefly the latter;
knife-tools and fpitflickers, for the finer hnes, pecks, or
ftipplings ; and gouges, for the broader and deeper hollows,
which ari- intended to be left untouched by the ink and
paper in the procefs of printing.

The defigns which formed the fubjefts of the more an-
cient engravers in wood, confifted either of pure outlines.

pivots, are made of inch-deal, by an inch and a quarter in
breadth. There are fmall pieces of wood nailed on the in- _ „

fides of the upper and middle bars, to prevent the leaves of or very little more than outlines ; the engraved blocks or

tablets

WOOD-ENGRAVING.

tablets furnifhing merely the lineaments of the figures, &c. "
reprefented, and the colourift, or illuminift, (as he has fome-
times been termed,) fupplying the reft. By degrees a few-
light hatchings were introduced, thinly fcattered upon the
folds of the draperies, (hadows of the flefti, and other parts
of the defign ; and occafionally, when the opening of a door
or a window, or the mouth of a cavern, was to be exprefied,
the block was left untouched, that it might print black in
fuch places, and thereby diminifh the tadc of the colourift.
It was foon difcovered, that with little additional labour of
the wood-engraver, much more might be accomphflied. It
was eafy to reprefent the bugbear figure of Lucifer with
its appropriate blacknefs, and at the fame time to exprefs
the internal markings of his body and limbs, by means of
thin lines cut in the block, and which would be rendered
white in the imprefTion.

The ornamental borders which, in feme inftances, fur-
rounded the devotional cuts of thofe times, were rendered
more attraftive to the eye, by the oppofition of broadifti
■white and black lines ; and fometimes intermediate fpaces of
greater extent were enlivened by large white dots cut out,
or perhaps punched at equal diftances, on the block ; or
decorated with fprigs of foliage, or fmall flowers, re-
lieved by a fimilar procefs, upon a black ground. Grada-
tions of fliadow next began to be attempted in the figures
and other parts of wood-engravings, by means of white
dots, differing from each other in their magnitude and proxi-
mity according to the degree of ftiade or darknefs required.
This mode of finiftiing engravings in wood appears to
have been praftifed at Mentz, among other places, at an
early period of the invention of typography, and was after-
wards occafionally reforted to by the wood-engravers of
other countries; efpecially thofe of Paris, where, at the
clofe of the 15th and commencement of the i6th centuries,
numerous fmall books of devotion were printed by Antoine
Verrard, Simon Voftre, and others, in which the borders
furrounding the pages were decorated by figures very deli-
cately engraved, and relieved upon a black ground, fpecked
over, with extreme nicety of workmanfhip, with minute
white dots, fuch as have been defcribed.

Thefe innovations or improvements in the art of wood-
engraving, were fuch as involved but little additional labour
or difficulty in the execution ; at the fame time, they
were calculated to give to the decorations of books a
(hewy effeft : but the artifts of Germany, finding or fancy-
ing them to be incompatible with the purpofe of imitating
by wood-cuts the appearance of their original defigns, the
former and more fimple method was again reforted to.

It appears to have been at the earher period of the art
the pradice of thofe mafters, who furniftied defigns for the
wood-engravers to work from, carefully to avoid all crofs-
hatchings, which it is probable were by many perfons con-
fidered as beyond the power of the xylographift to repre-
fent. Wolgerauth perceived that though it was difficult to
effeft crofs-hatchings, it was not impoffible ; and in the
cuts of the Nuremberg Chronicle, — the execution of which
he doubtlefs faperintended, befide furniftiing the defigns, —
a fuccefsful attempt was firft made to imitate the bold
hatchings of a pen-drawing, croffing each other, as occafion
prompted the defigner, in various direftions. To Wolge-
muth belongs the praife of having been the firft who duly
appreciated the powers of this art ; and it is more than pro-
bable that he proved with his own hand, to the artifts who
were employed under him, the pradticability of the ftyle of
workmanfhip that he required.
1 Engraving on wood now offered inducements to its prac-
I tice, which had not before been contemplated. Albert
Vol. XXXVIII.

Durer early applied himfelf to the ftudy and further advance,
ment of an art which at once promifed to reward his labourg
with fame and fortune ; and fo well had Nature qualified
him for the talk, that before the termination of the 15th
century, he produced his feries of wood-cuts of the Apoca-
lypfe ; a work which it cannot be doubted was received
throughout Europe with wonder and univerfal applaufe.

Mr. Bartfch ftrongly infifts that neither Durer, Schau-
flein, Burgmair, nor the other great defigners of the Ger-
man fchool, who were contemporaneous, or nearly fo, ever
engraved in wood themfelves ; but that all they did was to
furnifti the defigns, leaving the taflc of cutting them upon
the tablets to the ordinary engravers in wood. Mr. Ottley
is, however, perfuaded that this opinion is in a great meafure
erroneous, notwithftanding the infcriptions which Bartfch
refers to, written anciently upon the backs of fo many of
the engraved tablets of the celebrated triumph of Maximilian,
and other works defigned by Hans Burgmair, and recording
the names of the individual wood-engravers who were em-
ployed to execute particular pieces of thofe extenfive under-
takings.

One hundred and thirty-five of the folio tablets of Maxi-
milian's triumph are ftill preferved in the imperial library
at Vienna, where an edition of them was ftruck off in the
year 1796. According to Bartfch, they were engraved
from the defign (for the whole forms but one long pro-
ceffion) not of Albert Durer, as had formerly been fup-
pofed, but of Hans Burgmair, in 1516 and the three fol-
lowing years. The names of the different wood-engravers
employed are written, fays Mr. Bartfch, upon the backs
of feveral of the blocks, in the following manner. Upon
N° 18. of the edition juft mentioned, " Der kert an die
Ellend. hat Wilhalm gefchitten ;" /'. e. this block joins to
that which reprefents the elks. It was engraved by Wil-
liam : and fo of the reft.

The names or initials of engravers found upon the backs
of thefe extraordinary tablets are feventeen in number,
and are as follow: i. Jerome Andre, furnamed Refch,
or Rofch (one of the moft eminent engravers of Nurem-
berg.) 2. Jan de Bonn. 3. Cornelius, (perhaps Corne-
lius de Bonn.) 4. Hans Frank. 5. Saint German. 6. Wil-
helm. 7. Corneille Liefrink. 8. Wilhelm Liefrink. Q.Alexis
Lindt. 10. Joffe de Negker. 11. Vincent Pfarkecher.
12. Jaques Rupp. 13. Hans Schaufehen. 14. Jan Ta-
berith. 15. F. P. 16. A monogram, compofed of H. F.
17. W. R.

The imperial library likewife poffeffes an hundred and
twenty-two blocks, engraved from the defigns of Burgmair,
reprefenting the faints, male and female, of the family of
Maximihan. One hundred and nineteen of thefe were re-
pubhftied in the year 1799 ; and upon the backs of the
blocks were found the names of the eight following en-
gravers on wood ; -uiz. I. Hans Frank. 2. Corneille
Liefrink. 3. Alexis Lindt. 4. Joffe de Negker. 5. Wolf-
gang Refch. 6. Hans Taberith. 7. Wilhelm Taberith.
And, 8. Nicholas Seeman. Probably no writer who has
entered upon a critical examination of thefe early works
has been fo well qualified to judge of them as Mr. Ottley :
and that gentleman, while he admits that thefe infcriptions
of names fufficiently prove that the great bulk of the
numerous wood-cuts bearing the initials of Burgmair, were
not cut upon the wooden blocks by his own hand ; and
that by parity of reafoning it might be fair to conclude the
fame of a large proportion of thofe bearing the monograms
or initials of Durer, and other eminent defigners ; yet he
can by no means perfuade himfelf that the abilities of the
ordinary wood-engravers, who abounded in Germany at the
4 H clofe

WOOD-ENGRAVING.

clofe of the ijth century, could have beenfuch as to render
them ill any material degree inftruniental in bringing about
that liidden and confiderable improvement which took place
ill tiitir art at that period. They had been accuftomed to
mannfafture the barbarous wood-cuts ufed by the illuminifts
and venders of playing-cards, and were probably incapable
ol comprehending or appreciating thofe delicate, but free
and mafterly touches, which charafterize the defigns of a
great and finifhed artift like Durer ; and if fo, wholly un-
qualified to reprefent them with any tolerable degree of
fidelity. We may, therefore, readily believe that the nume-
rous and flouri/hing fchool of wood-engravers, which vve
find fpreading over Germany, and from thence to Italy, in
the early part of the i6th century, owes its excellence to
the great deCgners of that thne ; and efpecially to Albert
Durer, who during his youth afliduoufly applied himfelf
to the praftice and improvement of the art, and afterward
taught it to numerous pupils, who, already grounded in the
principles of defign, and working continually under the eye
of their mafter, by degrees became qualified to affift him
greatly in his numerous works of this kind. The intel-
ligence, the delicacy, and the feeling, which we obferve in
the execution of moft of the wood-cuts of Albert Durer,
can only, Mr. Ottley thinks, be accounted for in this way ;
and the reader will probably admit that his opinion on the
fubjedl is not a little llrengthened by the circumftance of
Durer having been himfelf the publifher of all his chief
works of this kind, more efpecially when added to the fadl,
that of the years 1509, 1510, and 1511, during which fo
large a proportion of his wood-engravings were executed,
we have fcarcely any thing by his hand engraved in
copper.

The fudden and confiderable improvement of which we
have fpoken, confilled of a fuperior ftyle of execution, as
well as of defign. The meagre and miferable forms derived
from the legends of fuperftition, and the Greek painters of
the dark ages, began to give way to a clearer view of nature ;
and the few and fcanty fingle-lined hatchings, which rather
indicated than expreffed fhadow, were fuperfeded by thofe
bold courfes of lines, as if hatched with a pen, and crofTed
with fecond and in fome inftances with third courfes of
lines, which Wolgemuth introduced, and Durer im-
proved.

This mode of execution appeared to many perfons fo
very difEcult, and requiring fo much more of pains and
patient labour than they were warranted by other parts of
thefe engravings in believing to have been bellowed on them,
as to have excited confiderable doubts whether the prints
which contain thefe dark croffings were really imprefled
from wooden blocks. They were by fome perfons rather
fuppofed to have been printed from calls, for which the en-
graved blocks ferved perhaps as matrixes ; and a controverfy
hinging on this doubt has been for fome time carried on by
antiquarian inquirers, with fufficient boldnefs on both fides.
The truth, however, could only remain with one party, and
the fublequent produAion by Mr. Ottley, of fome of the
engraved blocks of wood themfelves, either from the hands
of Albert Durer, or thofe of his difciples, has proved that
the dark crofllngs were aftually delivered from wood, and
fettled the controverfy, as far as refpefts that artift and his
contemporaries, if not his fucceflbrs.

The readers of our account of the German fchool of en-
graving, may have obferved that ourfelves were among the
number of fceptics. As the truth was our objeft, we wil-
lingly confefs our earlier miftake now that the faft is afcer-
tained ; and have too much refpedl for truth and the public
to feel the lead backwardnefs in recording it. Whether we

12

flatter ourfelves that we can afford this record out of tFiff
ftock of our reputation, is for our private feelings. If from
our expreflion of doubt, refearch in the right direftion,
and fatisfaftory afcertainment, have refulted, our fcepticifm
has not been in vain ; nor have we been in vain anxious to
tell what we believed, as well as what we knew. Refpeft-
ing the dark crofs-hatchings which fo frequently occur in
the works of Albert Durer, Mr. Ottley's argument is con-
clufive : yet there are two things in his book on engraving,
for which we cannot award to him the fame approbation j
and thefe are, his difcontinuing his hiftory precifely at the
fame epoch where Mr. Landfeer had been obliged to break
off a courfe of (publifhed) lefiures that are confeffedly im-
perfeft ; and his mif-ftating both the words and meaning of
that writer, in the only place where he profefTes to have
quoted him.

We Ihall next proceed to defcribe the modes of workman-
(hip, or execution, which have prevailed among the marc
modern praftitioners of the art ; beginning with that which
is in ufe for the more common or ordinary purpofes, and
following with thofe refinements of the art which are prac-
tifed only by its fuperior profelTors. Our account will be
followed by fome anecdotes and remarks relative to the
earlier hiftory of the art, which we hope will prove in no
fmall degree worthy of the notice of the connoifTeur and
print-coUeftor.

Before the artift begins his engraving, the furface of the
block or tablet which is to receive it, muft, by means of an
inftrument termed a fcraper, fucceeding to a fine vvatch-
fpring faw, be made level, and fufBciently fmooth for the re-
ception of the defign which is intended to be reprefented.
Should this defign be very fimple in its nature, fuch as a
fmall geometrical diagram, for example, being previoufly
drawn on paper either with a black-lead pencil, or Indian
ink, it is fometimes laid on an engraver's fand-bag, or other
fuch hard cufhion, and the block being carefully placed over
it, a fmart blow ftruck on the back of the block with a
broad-faced hammer, will transfer the lines from the paper
to the wood, in a manner fufficiently plain and accurate for
fuch purpofes, when by means of the gravers, gouges, fcra-
pers, &c. which have been before mentioned, the engraver
begins his work of incifions and hollows, fcooping away the
whole furface of the block, except the diagram, or other
fimple defign required.

In other cafes, the defign to be engraven is either traced
by pafliiig a blunted fteel-point over the outlines, the back
of the drawing being rubbed with powdered red-chalk, or is
flcetched out with a black-lead pencil, and the different
fhades wafhed in with Indian ink, in the fame manner as a
chiaro-fcuro drawing on paper. This method is ufed in
making drawings for cuts to be introduced in common and
cheap publications, in which a bold fhewy effeft is chiefly
required. In engraving fuch drawings made on the wood,
the artift renders the feveral forms and tints by incifions cut
in the block ; and the principle on which he proceeds may
be readily conceived by recolleiSing (what we have alluded
to in an earlier part of this article), that were the block to
be printed before the engraver commenced his operations,
it would yield merely a black fpot : every incifion therefore
made in the block will produce the impreffion of a white
line or hatching, and thus afford the means of introducing
any portion of light that may be required. By the multi-
plication of thefe white lines or hatchings, the engraver
lightens the tint at his pleafure ; and by the various widths,
thicknefTes, croffings, and intertextures of the incifions thus
made in the wood, not only the forms and various gradations
of fhadow from light to darknefs, but alfo the textures or

external

WOOD-ENGRAVING.

external chafafters of the various objefts which may enter
into the compofition, may be very well reprefented.

Another mode of proceeding is occaiionally reforted to
in cafes where engravings of a fuperior and more elaborate
charafter are required, and which we have reafon to believe
was firft praftifed in England by our countryman, Mr.
John Thurdon. In thefe cafes, all the light and curious
part of the defign are hatched in, line by line, by the draftf-
man or defigner himfelf, on the block, and which is per-
formed either with a pen and Indian ink, after the manner of
thofe ancient artifts of the German fchool of whom we have
treated, or elfe with the more modern and elegant indrument, a
black-lead pencil. In fome inftances we have known the
whole compofition in all its details, both of light and obfcu-
rity, thus finilhed upon the wood in the moft elaborate
manner, before the engraver began his work of incifion and
fcooping ; but in moft inftances, the (hadows and parts re-
quiring lefs definition, and where the engraver may with
more lafety be left to the guidance of his own judgment,
are merely waftied in with a camel's-hair pencil and Indian
ink, as in the foregoing method. Or elfe the defigner ufes
a black-lead pencil, with which he rubs or fcumbles in the
lefs important tints. And the drawing on the wood being
thus prepared, the engraver proceeds with the manual and
linear portion of it, by cutting away the interftices between
the pencilled or penned lines, as in the ancient manner, and
the wafhed portion is treated in the modern method which
we have defcribed above.

Confiderable flcill on the part of the engraver is fometimes
requifite in finiftiing the work, in order to unite and harmo-
nize the whole, in which the defigner's aid is not unfrequent-
ly required, who on a proof impreflion taken for the pur-
pofe hatches and works, with a fine camel's-hair pencil and
white paint, over the diffonant parts, regulating at the fame
time the general effeft, the drawing of the parts, and the
ftyle of execution. This touched-proof, viewed in the re-
vcrfing glafs, is carefully copied by the engraver on his
block, which concludes the procefs.

There is, however, in the nature of things, no reafon
whatever why thefe two charafters of engraver and defigner
may not exift united in the fame individual ; nor are the in-
ftances of fiich union unfrequent in faft. Mr. Bewick, of
Newcaftle, — whofe highly-enriched volumes of engravings of
birds and quadrupeds, adorned with delightful vignettes,
are mafter-pieces of the art, and have merited and found a
place in almoft every library, — poflefles, with his xylographic
powers, a fund of exquifite humour, an originality of
thought, and an accuracy of obfervation of the details of
nature ; together with an adequate talent of exprefling thofe
obfervations, which are really as furprifing as they are di-
irerting and inftruftive.

We believe that this artift, or his deceafed brother, was
the firft who adopted an expedient which the prefent writer
has been informed was originally fuggefted by Mr. Bulmer,
proprietor of the Shakfpeare printing-office, — that of low-
ering a little the furface of his engraving, by means of a very
broad flat fcraper, in thofe parts where tendernefs and deli-
cacy of impreflion were more peculiarly defirable ; a thing
trivial in ilfelf, yet of fufficient importance in works that
have pretenfions to be regarded as highly finifhed, to have
been fubfequently imitated by moft of the other engravers
in wood. Among thofe who in modern times have united
in themfelves the charafters of defigners and wood-en-
gravers, fliould alfo be mentioned Mr. Clennell, who has exe-
cuted fome of his own energetic compofitions in a vigorous
and mafterly ftyle, which few have been able to furpafs.

Mr. Thurfton,— more verfed in all the technic varieties of
linear prafticability, and more accompliflied in his academic
powers of delineating the human form through all its grada-
tions of aftion, charafter, and expreflion, than any of his
predeceflbrs in the xylographic art,— in his habits of thought
and ftyle of defign, is poetical, didaftic, profound, alle-
goric, recondite, ideal. Of the profeflbrs of imitative art,
who have wifely employed their talent to a moral purpofe,
few have improved and delighted us fo mutfh, or caufed us
to refleft fo varioufly or fo deeply. But though Mr.
Thurfton has engraved very fuccefsfuUy on copper, we be-
lieve that he has always entrufted his defigns on wood to
be executed by others, (fome of them latterly by a fon of
promifing talents,) and from the black-lead drawings orthis
artift, performed on the blocks thqmfelves, have been pro-
duced the beft engravings of the London and Liverpool
fchools. We fubjoin the names and monograms of the
principal of thofe artifts who have been engaged in their
execution :— T. Clennell, C. Nefljit <f\fC , R. Branfton^,
J. Thompfon -J-, H. F. P. Hole, W. Hughes.

By the two latter of thefe we have feen landfcape fub-
jefts of recent execution, which have excited in us no fmall
degree of admiration of their profeflional powers. In a
park-fcene after Cuitt, engraved by Mr. Hughes, (who pro-
fefles to have ftudied under Mr. Hole,) the trees more efpe-
dally, — which have been generally and juftly regarded as ob-
jefts more difficult to exprefs in this mode of art, than
almoft any other fpeciesof objefts whatever, — are treated with
a degree of loofenefs, freedom, and local knowledge of the
charafters of their various foliage, and modes of branching
and ramification, that we beheve is quite unprecedented, and
much more refembling an etching on copper from the needle
of Waterloo or Middiman, than any former produftion of
the wood-engravers' art. And there has alfo very lately
appeared a book, entitled " The Club," after the defigns of
Thurfton, which is not lefs excellent in its way. It confifts
of twenty-four charafteriftic head-pieces of the feveral mem-
bers of the club, a title-page reprefenting the club col-
leftively, befide various tail-piece vignettes, and imprefles
us with a depth of philofophical penetration into the human
charafter in all its varieties both natural and afl'umed ; for
here the nicer phyfiognomical traits which mark the leffer
difcrlminations between wit, humour, and ridicule, in their
various modifications, are faithfully rendered : indeed with a
degree of dehcacy and fidelity which until now we had not
conceived to lie within this province of art.

In wood-engravings, like the beft of thefe modern pro-
duftions which we have mentioned, there is more orio-inal
feeling, more of the truth of nature, and the blandifti-
ments of art, than in all the dry, monkirti, legendary
rubbifh put together, toward which the dealers in and
writers on fuch rarities (who are frequently the fame per-
fons) are fo very anxious to attraft and retain the public
attention, and which are fo ardently fought after by the
wooden and would-be connoifteurs of the day.

Some few connoiifeurs there are, neverthelefs, that with
great fenfibihty to the beauties of meritorious works of this
kind, colleft alfo the early rarities of the art as >uriofities,
and as interefting fteps in tracing the march ■ t European
xylography, from its rude outfet towards its prefent attain-
ments : but the idle occupation which fo many expenfive
books have ridiculoudy promoted, the affeded exquifitenels
of regard for what is merely fcarce, and which, if it were
plentiful, would be juftly efteemed as mere rubbifh, can
fcarcely be too feverely reprehended, when we obferve that
4 H 3 by

WOOD-ENGRAVING.

by giving an en-oneous direftion to the public tafte, it
operates as the very bane of modern merit, and of all prin-
cipled encouragement of the art.

A man who coUefts thefe early rarities, and thefe only,
may be pretty certainly pronounced to be a perfon of no
intrinfic relifh for the produdions of art, and by no re-
mote analogy may be cafily perceived to be in the predica-
ment of Rochcfoucault'3 man of gravity, who affumes a
myfterious carriage of the body to cover the defeds of

the mind. , _ , .

Between the territories of Error and Truth, there is no
neutral ground ; neither can be made to recede without the
other's advancing. Among the caufes that, concurrently
with the above, have retarded the progrefs of the art of
wood-engraving, indifferent and bad printing ought firft and
chiefly to be mentioned ; for this evil is feverely felt by
all modern defigners and engravers on wood, ( and, hke moil
other evils, by far the moft heavily by the beft, ) the delicate
parts of whofe moft elaborate performances are fo fre-
quently marred by this operation.

The bad printing of wood-cuts generally proceeds from
one or more of the following mitlakes, to ufe the mildeft
term that occurs to us : Printers being unable of them-
felves to judge of the effeft required in an impreflion ;
their being generally too much relirifted in price by the
publilhing-bookfellers to afford the neccffary attention, even
were they better informed ; the falfe refped exafted by
opulence, which renders them too ignorantly proud to fub-
mit to the direftion of artifts, who are generally poorer men
than themfelves ; with which caufe, prejudice in favour of
old methods of praftice is always ready to unite itfelf ;
the praftice of over-damping Englith, French, and even
India paper. To which may be added the ufe of blanketing,
and the neglefting to have the engravings properly made
ready under the direftion of the artift : all of which
lead to the general coroUary, or inference, that the en-
graver fhould always fuperintend the printing of his own
works.

Wood-Engraving, Origin and Ancient Hi/lory of.
Father Du Halde adduces very fatisfaftory reafons for
our believing that the art of engraving on wood ex-
ifted and was praftifed in China for feveral centuries be-
fore its appearance in Europe. Whether it is of Chinefe
tranfplantation, or fpontaneous European growth ; whether
it was introduced by the Venetian traders and travellers
to India, or was re-invented, as the baron Heinnekin fup-
pofes, in Germany, by the Briefmalers and Formfchnieders,
who fabricated playing-cards, and the miferable legends
of monkifh fuperllition ; or whether it was not difcovered,
as Papillon has afferted, at Ravenna, as early as the year
1285; have been examined with great critical attention,
and at leaft as much perfeverance as the public will fym-
pathize with, by the abbe Zani, Mr. Ottley, and others.
To the works refpeftively of the Italian abbe, and the Eng.
li(h hiftorian and connoiffeur, we refer thofe who may be
defirous of obtaining more local and detailed information
concerning the early curiofities of the art than belongs to
the plan of our Cyclopcedia. The ftory of the two Cunio,
which they have repeated at great length from Papillon, and
lUuftrated by their own more profound knowledge of the
fubjea, is romantic in the extreme : fo much fo, that the
antiquarian intereft which the reader may feel with us on
the fcore of the curious wooden blocks from " the life of
the great and magnanimous Macedonian king," merges in
the chivah7 and fine art, the poetic and pidoral fervour,
and the tragic fate, of the twin brother and lifter, the ancient
pride of Ravenna, and of the illuftrious houfe of Cunio.

Papillon relates, that when he was a young man, he " dif-
covered an epoch of engraving prints and charafters on
wood, certainly much more ancient than any hitherto
known in Europe;" and the ftory of his difcovery is, that
being employed about a century ago in papering a clofet
for a Swifs captain of the name of De Greder, in the
village of Bagneux, near Mont-Rouge, the captain, find-
ing he poffelted a tafte for fuch matters, (hewed him two
or three very ancient volumes, and they converfed toge-
ther concerning the prints contained in them, and the
antiquity of engraving on wood. Papillon proceeds to
give the defcription of the principal, i. e. the moft ancient,
of thefe volumes, as follows : — Upon a cartouch, or fron-
tifpiece, decorated with fanciful ornaments, and meafuring
about nine inches in width by fix in height, with, at the
top of it, the armorial bearings no doubt of the family of
Cunio, are rudely engraven the following words, in bad
Latin, or ancient Gothic Italian, with many abbreviations,
which were rendered and explained to him by M. de Greder.

" The heroic aBions reprefented in Jlgures, of the great artd
magnanimous Macedonian king, the hold and valiant Alexander ;
dedicated, prefented, and humbly offered to the mojl holy father
pope Honorius IV., the glory and fupport of the Church, and
to our illujlrious and generous father and mother, by us, Alef-
fandro Alberico Cunio, cavaliere, and Ifabella Cunio, tiuin
brother andjijler : Jirjl reduced, imagined, and attempted to be
executed in relief, with a fmall knife, on blocks of -wood, made
even and poliflied by this learned and dearjifier, continued and
finijhed by us together, at Ravenna, from the eight pidures of our
invention, painted fix times larger than here reprefented ; en-
graved, explained by verfes, and thus marked upon the paper to
perpetuate the number of them, and to enable us to prefent them to
our relations and friends, in teflimony cf gratitude, friendfhip, and
affeSion. All this ivas done and Jini/hed by us tohen onlyjixteen
years of age."

The cartouch mentioned above is enclofed in a fquare
formed by a fimple black line, one-twelfth of an inch in
thicknefs ; a few light hatchings, irregularly placed, and
executed without precifion, indicate the fhadows of the or-
naments. " Immediately following this frontifpiece ( fays Pa.
pillon ) are the eight piftures, engraved in wood, of the fame
dimenfions, and furrounded by a fimilar fillet : they have
alfo a few faint hatchings, to indicate the fhadows. At the
bottom of each of thefe prints, between the broad hne or
fillet which bounds the fubjeft, and another parallel line dif-
tant from it about the breadth of a finger, are four Latin
verfes engraved upon the block, which poetically explain the
fubjeft ; and above each is its title. The impreflions of all
of them are of a grey tint, and fpotty ; as if the paper had
not been damped or wetted before it was laid upon the en-
graved blocks. The figures, which are paifable in refpeft
to their outlines, although of a femi-gothic tafte, are fuffi-
ciently well charafterized and draped ; one may perceive by
them that in Italy the arts of defign were then beginning by
degrees to experience melioration. The names of the prin-
cipal perfonages reprefented are engraved under their figures,
as Alexander, Philip, Darius, Carapafpe, and others."

Papillon next defcribes the eight engravings feverally,
which bear the names refpedlively of the twins Alexander
and Ifabel Cunio, and it would appear from his defcriptions
that Ifabel was the fuperior artift of the two.

Upon the blank leaf which follows the laft print, badly
written in old Swifs charafters, and with ink fo pale as to
be fcarcely legible, is the following memorandum.

" This precious book was given to my grandfather,

Jan. Jacq. Turine, a native of Berne, by the illuftrious

count di Cunio, magiftrate (podefta) of Imola, who ho-

5 noured

WOOD-ENGRAVING.

noured liim with his liberal friendfhip. Of all the books
I poffefs, I efteem it the moft, on account of the quarter
from whence it came into our family ; and on account of
the fcience, the valour, the beauty of the amiable twins
Ciinio, and their noble and generous intention of thus
gratifying their relatives and friends. Behold their Angular
and curious hiftory in the manner in which it was feveral
times related to me by my venerable father, and according
to which I have caufed it to be written more legibly than
I myfelf could have done it." What follows is written in a
better hand, and with blacker ink.

" The young and amiable Cunio, twin brother and filler,
were the firft children of the fon of the count di Cunio,
which he had by a noble and beautiful Veronefe lady, allied
to the family of pope Honorius IV., when he was only a
cardinal. This young nobleman had efpoufed this young
lady clandeftinely, without the knowledge of the relations
of either of them ; who, when they difcovered the affair by
her preg[iancy, caufed the marriage to be annulled, and the
plied who had married the two lovers to be banifhed. The
noble lady, fearing equally the anger of her father and
that of the count di Cunio, took refuge in the houfe of one
of her aunts, where fhe was delivered of thefe twins.
Neverthelefs the count di Cunio, out of regard to his fon,
whom he obliged to efpoufe another noble lady, permitted
him to bring up thefe children in his houfe, which was
done with every inftruftion and tendernefs poflible, as well
on the part of the count as on that of his fon's wife, who
conceived fuch an affeftion for Ifabella Cunio, that fhe
loved and cherifhed her as if fhe had been her own daughter ;
loving equally AlelTandro Alberico Cunio her brother,
who, like his filler, was full of talent, and of a moft amiable
difpofition. Botli of them made rapid advances in various
fcieiices, profiting by the inllruftion of their mailers ; but
efpecially Ifabella, who, at thirteen years of age, was
already confidered as a prodigy ; for fhe perfe£lly under-
ftood and wrote Latin, compofed verfes, had acquired a
knowledge of geometry, was fliilful in mufic, and played
upon feveral inflruments ; moreover, fhe was pradlifed in
drawing, and painted vnth tafte and delicacy. Her brother,
urged on by emulation, endeavoured to equal her; often, how-
ever, acknowledging that he felt he could never attain to fo
high a degree of perfection . He himfelf was, neverthelefs,
one of the finell young men of Italy ; he equalled his filler
in beauty of perfon, and poffeffed great courage, elevation
of foul, and an uncommon degree of facility in acquiring
and perfefting himfelf in whatever he applied to. Both of
them conftituted the delight of their parents, and they loved
each other fo perfeftly, that the pleafure or chagrin of the
one or the other was divided between them. At fourteen
years of age, this young gentleman could manage a horfe,
was praftifed in the ufe of arms, and in all exercifes proper
for a young man of quality ; he alfo underflood Latin, and
had confiderable lliill in painting.

" His father having,in confequenceof thetroublesof Italy,
taken up arms, was induced, by his repeated folicitations,
to take him with him the fame year, [viz. at the age of 14,)
that under the eyes of his father he might make his firfl
campaign. He was entrufled with the command of a
fquadron of twenty-five horfe ; with which, for his firft
effay, he attacked, routed, and put to flight, after a vigor-
ous refiilance, almofl two hundred of the enemy ; but
his courage having carried him too far, he unexpeftedly
found himfelf furrounded by many of the fugitives ; from
whom, neverthelefs, with a valour not to be equalled, he
fucceeded in difengaging himfelf, without fuftaining any
other injury than that of a wound in his left arm. His
father, who had flown to his fuccour, found him returning with

one of the ftandards of the enemy, with which he had
bound up his wound : he embraced him, full of delight at
his glorious achievement, and at the fame time, as his fon's
wound was not confiderable, and as lie was defirous to re-
vvard fuch great bravery upon the fpot, he folemnly made
him a knight, (i. e. a knight-banneret,) although he was al-
ready one by his birth ; dubbing him in the fame place whe^e
he had given fuch proofs of his extraordinary valour. The
young man was fo tranfported with joy at this honour conferred
on him in the prefence of the troops commanded by hit
father, (who, in confequence of the death of ^w father, which
had recently happened, was now become the count di
Cunio,) that, wounded as he was, he inftantly demanded
permiffion to go and fee his mother, that he might inform
her of the glory and of the honour which he had juft ac-
quired ; which was granted by the count the more readily,
as he was glad to have this opportunity of teftifying to that
noble and afflifted lady (who had always remained with
her aunt a few miles from Ravenna ) the love and efteem
which he ever continued to entertain for her ; of which he
certainly would have given more folid proofs, by re-efta-
blifhing their marriage, and publicly efpoufing her, had
he not felt it his duty to cherifh the wife his father had
obhged him to marry, by whom he had feveral children.

" The young knight, therefore, immediately fet out,
efcorted by the remains of his troop, out of which he had
eight or ten men killed or wounded. With this equipage,
and thefe attendants, who bore teftimony to his valour
wherever he paffed, he arrived at the refidence of his mother,
with whom he ftaid two days ; after which he repaired to
Ravenna, to fliew a fimilar mark of refpeft to the wife of
his father, who was fo charmed by his noble aftions, as well
as by his attentions towards her, that fhe herfelf led him
by the hand to the apartment of the amiable IfabeUa, who,
feeing him with his arm bound up, was at firft alarmed.
He remained a few days in that city ; but impatient to re-
turn to his father, that he might have an opportunity of
diftinguifhing himfelf by new exploits, he fet off before his
wound was yet healed. The count reprimanded him for not
having fent back his troop, and for not remaining at Ravenna
till he was cured, and would not permit him to ferve again
during the reft of the campaign : fhortly after, when his
arm was perfeftly healed, he fent him home, faying to him
pleafantly, that he did not choofe to be outdone by him all
the remaining time the troops would continue in aftion that
year. It was foon after this that Ifabella and he began to
compofe and execute the piAures of the aftions of Alexander.
He made a fecond campaign with his father, after which he
again worked upon thefe piftures, conjointly with Ifabella,
who applied herfelf to reduce them, and to engrave them
on blocks of wood. After they had finifhed and printed
thefe pieces, and prefented them to pope Honorius, and to
their other relations and friends, the cavaher joined the army
for the fourth time, accompanied by a young nobleman,
one of his friends, called Pandulfio ; who, enamoured of
the lovely Ifabella, was defirous to fignalize himfelf, that
he might become more worthy of her hand before he ef-
poufed her. But this laft campaign was fatal to the cava-
lier Cunio ; he fell, covered with wounds, by the fide of
his friend, who, whilft attempting to defend him, was
alfo dangeroufly wounded. Ifabella was fo much affefted
by the death of her brother, which happened when he was
not yet nineteen, that fhe determined never to marry : fhe
languilhed and died, when flie had fcarcely completed her
twentieth year. The death of this beautiful and learned
young lady was followed by that of her lover, who had
always hoped that his attentions and affeftions towards her
would be^rewarded by her confent at length to become his,

and

WOOD-ENGRAVING.

and alfo by that of her mother, who could not furyive the
lofs of her beloved children. The count di Cunio, who
had been deeply afflifted by the death of his fon, could
fcarcely fupport that of his daughter. Even the countefs
di Cunio, who loved Ifabella with great tendernefs, fell ill
of grief for her lofs ; and would have funk under it, had
flie not been fupported by the manly fortitude of the count.
Happily the health of the countefs was, by degrees, re-
eftabhfhed. Some years afterwards, the generous count di
Cunio gave this copy of the aftions of Alexander, bound, as
it now IS, to my grandfather ; and I have caufed the leaves of
paper to be inferted, upon which, by my orders, this hif-
tory was written."

From the name of pope Honorius IV. being engraved
on the frontifpiece of thefe ancient prints, it is certain that
this precious monument of the art of engraving on wood
was executed between the years 1284 and 1286; becaufe
that pope governed the church only for the fpace of two
years, ending in April 1287. The epoch, therefore, of
this ancient fpecimen of engraving, is anterior to all the
books printed in Europe that have been hitherto known.
PapiUon adds, that it is very probable that the copy of the
work, which is recorded to have been prefented to pope
Honorius, may very poffibly be preferved in the Lbrary of
the Vatican.

The baron Heinnekin and our countryman Strutt dif-
truft the truth of this ftory of the twins and their ancient
work ; but the latter has let efcape that he read the ori-
ginal French with hally inattention, and the former, after
offering his objedions, is compelled to add, " ftill there
muft be fomething true in Papillon's account ; for, from
my knowledge of his charafter, and his manner when I
converfed with him, I am firmly perfuaded that he did not
invent that which he told me."

On the other hand, Zani confefles his entire belief of the
account of PapiUon, finding in it, as he dates, " every mark
of truth :" and Mr. Ottley concluCvely adds, that " Pa-
piUon from his infancy had begun to colleft materials for
illuflrating the hillory of his favourite art, of which, as is
well known, he became a profeffor of fome eminence, having
been inttrufted in it by his father, who was alfo an engraver
on wood. This praftical experience combined with re-
fearch could not but give him great advantages, and render
him the lefs liable to be deceived in his decifions.

" His remarks, indeed, are thofe of a man well accuftomed
to examine ancient prints. The blocks, he fays, appear
to have been printed by means of the prefTure or friftion
of the hand, with a light tint of Indigo in diftemper ; he
defcribes the impreflions to be granulous in fome places, as
if the paper had been applied to the engraved block without
being firft damped. Now, it is well known that many of
the very early wood-prints were printed without any mix-
ture of oil in the colours ufed for the purpofe ; and there is
good reafon alfo to believe that the paper was often applied
m its dry ftate. The obfervations of PapiUon are, there-
fore, not only evidence that he examined thefe prints with
great attention, but that his eye was habituated to very
nice difcriminalion, touching all thofe particulars which,
perhaps, more than any others that could be named, are
guides to enable us to judge of the antiquity of wood-
engravings. And the probity of Papillon's charafter
feems to preclude the idea that he had any intention to
deceive."

The general corollaries refulting from thefe elaborate
inquiries, which have been purfued to much greater length
than we have chofen to follow, are, that the origin of Euro-
pean inood-engTzv'mg is unknown, (that is to fay, that no
perfon is acquainted with the precife fads of vjho firH en-

graved on wood in this part of the world, or whtn it wa»
done) ; and the reluftant ackno^vledgment that it cannot be
(hewn to be an European difcovery at all.

Notwithftanding the detailed prohxity with which the
chevalier Cunio's own account of his graphic enterprize is
written, and though he Hates that himfelf and his fifter in-
vented the eight defigns or piftures from which their tablets
were engraven, he fays nothing of the far more important
faft, had it been fo, of their having invented an art of mul-
tiplying thofe defigns, fo much more likely to have been
announced by an ardent youth of fixteen, had there been the
leaft foundation for fuch an announcement. No. He was
too fincere : and he probably knew alfo that pope Honorius,
and his noble relatives, were too well acquainted with fimilar
procefTes employed by the Itahan carvers, fealers, book-
binders, and other artifans of Venice and Ravenna, (for the
bindings of books were even then ornamented by means of
heated iron ftamps, ) to have believed him, had he been lefs
attentive to truth. He evidently regarded, and expefted that
his readers would regard, what he terms in one place engrav-
ing, and in another execution in reUef with a fmall knife, as
an expedient which might have been adopted by any other
perfon in the exifting ftate of that kind of knowledge, and
which himfelf and fifter praftifed — in aU probabihty from
the imperfeft report of fome inexperienced reporter, who
might be thei^ inftruftor in drawing.

At the period of which we are treating, Venice, as is well
known, was the fplendid emporium of exotic luxuries ; and
the reader will not hefitate to believe, that, with the facili-
ties of Italian intercourfe which then fubfifted, much of the
imported knowledge would travel at leaft to Ravenna, along
with thofe foreign commodities and that commercial enterprize
which were then fpreading through Europe. The father
and the uncle of Marco Polo, who had penetrated to Tar-
tary and to China, returned from their nineteen years of
travel in the Eaft, in the fame year in which the Cunio were
born. Nothing, therefore, is more likely, under all the
attendant circumftances, than that thefe traveUers brought
home the information neceflary to the rude praftice of the
wood-engravers' art from China, which we are inclined to
deem the parent country of wood-engraving, paper, and
printing ; and that it thus became known, though through
what particular medium cannot now be traced, to the illuf-
trious and romantic twins of Ravenna.

Should it be objefted here, that Marco Polo has not no-
ticed this art, in the account which he has left us of the
marvels which he had witneffed in China ; the anfwer is ob-
vious. Marco did not himfelf travel thither until after the firft
return of his father and uncle, nor did his book appear until
ten years after that of " the heroic aftions of the great
and magnanimous Macedonian king," when wood-engraving
would feem to have been no marvel. Marco very wifely
preferred inftrufting the public in matters with which they
were not hitherto acquainted.

In corroboration of this account may be mentioned, that
the manner in which the work of the Cunio is defcribed to
have been performed, is precifely that in wjiich the Chinefe
have from time immemorial engraven on wood, and in
which they iliU continue to pradlife that art, as may be
feen by any perfon who may pleafe to indulge himfelf in
the curiofity of infpedling thofe engraved or carved tablets
of wood which are preferved in the mufeum of the Honour-
able Eaft India Company, in Leadenhail-llre^^-t.

We have purfued this mixture of fact and probability thus
far, becaufe it appeared to us to contain the beft evidence
on the fubjeft that is now obtainable ; and becaufe even
this feems to render the ufelefsly-protradled and never-encfing
difputes, which have been fo long kept up by certain inte-

refted

WOOD-ENGRAVING.

reilcd print-dealers and their prey, and their h'terary jackalls,
about the fuperior pretenfions of Italy or Germany to the
difcovery of this art ; a mere recreation of idle credulity ; a
waft ng of controverfial ink and ftrength in ftrenuous idle-
nefs ; an affair of fpurious importance between " tweedle
dum and tweedle dee."

If ridicule might find any other place in our Cyclopxdia
than under the letter R, we (hould here have recommended
thefe rakers together of early German and Italian rubbilh ;
thefe difciples of their rival pretenfions ; thefe admirers of
the miferable virgins, and meagre faints and faviours of thofe
dark ages of art, which preceded the refurreftion of the
antique fculpture ; thefe complimenting and catalogue-
making worfhippers of the pagods of tafteleffhefs, who
affeft fuch an exquifite feeling for their wooden prodigies,
to be confiftent, and ufe their utmoft diligence in feeking
after the chips of the twins of Ravenna, or the ftill earlier
chips of the wood-engravers of China, and to tell the tafte-
lefs and doting world of bibhographical cognofcenti, that
thefe antique excifions are " graceful," or even more " ele-
gant," than thofe which Cupid in fhaving from his bow, in
the celebrated picture by Corregio, in the colleftion of the
moft noble the marquis of Stafford.

In order to confer as much of faftitious importance as
might be found prafticable on thofe relics of early Euro-
pean engraving and printing, for which thefe writers affeft
fo great veneration ; and to keep up the delufive idea that
xylography and block-printing were invented here rather
I tlMin/een elfe where, the difference between change of form
; and change of colour in rendering impreflions has been dwelt
I on with fome emphafis : but nothing in the procefs of im-
i preffing ftamps is of more frequent and ordinary occurrence,
I than for fufiicient dirt to accumulate in an intaglio ftamp
' that has lain by for any length of time, to produce a change of
colour in the tirft impreflion yielded after fuch lapfe of time.
It muft even have been a common, becaufe obvious and effi-
cient, mode of cleaning out the engraver's work. How
I frequently muft this have occurred in fealing, for example.
How frequently does it occur now : and here, without genius
or meditation, is the link fupplied at once in the chain of
petty caufes and effefts, that has been fo much magnified
by the ftupidity and taftelefliiefs of modern dealers and
colleftors.

Of the impreflion of eight copies, mentioned by Papillon,
of the life of Alexander, from the hands of the Cunio, it is
not known that any remain ; nor will this excite furprife,
when we rcfleft that entire editions of fome works that have
been fubfequently printed, have been fwept from the face
of day. The wood-engravings which fucceeded thefe by
the interefting twins of Ravenna, or were produced about
the fame period, appear to have been honeftly thought of at
the time ; that is to fay, thought of very little, becaufe
unworthy of being thought of much. From their non-
importance, they have either all difappeared, or, from the
fame caufe, not having been dated, the age of fuch of them
as do remain, if any remain, is not known. The former of
thefe is probably the chief reafon of their difappearance ;
for who would think of feeking for the tops of ballads, or
the dy ing fpeeches of crimin als, or dirty playing-cards, which
were printed even fifty years ago, or of preferving fuch
things if accidentally found ? and the early European wood-
engravings of which we are treating, until Michael Wolge-
muth arofe, and introduced his better works of this kind
into the Nuremberg Chronicle, were fcarcely of more con-
fequence than thele loweft objefts of the notice of the
Tulgar.
• But though the prints have difappeared, a decree of the

fenate of Venice remains toatteft their former exiftence, and
that " the art and myftery of making cards and printed
figures had," in tie year 1441, "/j//cn to total decay, and this
in confequence of the great quantity of playing-cards and
coloured figures printed, which are made out of Venice."
The decree proceeds : " to which evil it is neceffary to
apply fome remedy, in order that the faid artifts, who
are a great many in family, may find encouragement
rather than foreigners ; let it be ordered and eftabhflied,"
&c. &c.

This edift, as Mr. Ottley has well obferved, fpeaks of
" the art of making cards and printed figures in terms which
would have been every way appropriate, had the edi& had
for its objedl the eftablifhment of the oldeft manufadlure of
Venice ; and when coupled with other circumftances, efpe-
cially the account of the two Cunio, furnifhes a ftrong
ground for the conjefture that engraving in wood had from
a very early period been praftifed by the Venetians, who
may eafily be fuppofed to have learnt it in the courfe of
their commerce with the Chinefe."

The " printed figures," which are fpoken of along with
the playing-cards in the Venetian edift, were of the fuper-
ftitious or devotional charafter to which we have already
alluded, and which are defcribed by Heinnekin as being foon
afterward common in Germany and the Low Countries, when
they were, — both the legendary wonders and the playing-
cards, — defignated by the fame general term, and manufac-
tured by the fame hands ; that is to fay, cut in wood by
the Formfchnieders, and coloured afterward by the Brief-
malers. And to this teftimony of the German writer, the
profeffor Fufeli adds, that " in the vulgar tongue of Zurich,
and ftill more in that of the Roman Catholic cantons of
Switzerland, Helgen, which is a corruption oi Heiligen, mean-
ing holy faints, is ufedto denote any hiftorical print." The
reafon he gives for which is, " the firft prints reprefented
the figures of faints, or other devotional fubjefts, and
were, on that account, termed Helgen ; the term, in pro-
cefs of time, became generic, as others do, and is now
ufed to denote prints of any kind, even thofe of profane
fubjeas."

Of thefe fuperftitious excitements of the vulgar, the baron
ftates, that he faw feveral which he believes to be of an-
cient date in the hbrary of Wolfenbuttel. " Thefe pieces,"
fays he, " are of the fame dimenfions as our playing-cards r
they meafure three inches and a quarter in height, by two
inches and a half in width." There are alfo in the fame
library, at the end of the book entitled " ^rs Moriendi,"
five prints, in which are engraved divers figures of angels,
devils, dying perfons, faints, &c. fimilar to playing-cardsj
and of the fame fize, each figure being marked with a letter
of the alphabet.

An engraved outlineof a figure of this kind, of St. Bridget
writing, with the Virgin and Child above, lurrounded by
a fort of cloud of Gothic fcroll-work,. and behind her a
pilgrim's hat, wallet, and ftafF, Mr. Ottley has brought for-
ward from the colleftion of earl Spencer. Perfpeftive is
grofsly violated here, and it is of more tlian twice the dimei.-
fions of an ordinary playing-card ; but this print, with an-
other mentioned by M. Thierry as being in the library of
the public Academy at Lyons, and which is faid to be dated
1384, Mr. Ottley thinks may help to fill up the cliafm be-
tween the work of the Cunio ; and the larger print of St.
Chriftopher croffing the water with the facred Infant, which
is dated 1423, is alfo in the colleftion of the fame noble
earl, and will be found mentioned in a more particular
manner in the commencement of our account of the German

School of Engraving.

J ^ ^ WOODFORDt

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WOODFORD, in Geography, a county of Kentucky,
bordering on the Ohio, with 917 1 inhabitants, of whom
3 1 79 are flaves. Verfailles is the chief town, containing 488
inhabitants, of whom 235 are flaves. — Alfo, a town of
Vermont, eaft of Bennington, in the county of Bennington,
with 254 inhabitants.

WOODGURRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bednore;
35 miles N.E. of Simogu.

WOODIOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Coimbetore ;
10 miles N. of Daraporum.

WOODRIFF, a town of Tunis; 7 miles N.W. of
Gabs.

WOODRUFF, Sweet, in Agriculture, a perennial
plant, which is eat by different forts of live-ftock ; and the
aromatic flowers of which, when infufed in water, excel in
flavour, it is faid, the fineft teas.

WOODS, Lake of the, in Geography, a lake of North
America, fo called from the multiplicity of wood growing
on its banks, fuch as oaks, pines, firs, &c. Its greatefl
length is about 70 miles, and greateft breadth forty. It
contains but few iflands, and thofe fmall. N. lat. 49°. W.
long. 90°.

Woods, a town of South Carolina ; 32 miles W.N. W.
of Georgetown.

WooDs'j Bay, a bay on the ftraits of Magellan ; 15 miles
W. of Cape Froward. S. lat. 53° 58'. W. long. 72=55'.

WoODs'j IJland, a fmall ifland near the north coafl of
Jamaica. N. lat. 1 8° 1 2'. W. long. 76* 8'.

WOODSAMADRUM, a town of Hindooftan, in
Golconda ; 12 miles S. of Damapetta.

WOODSBOROUGH, a poft-town of Maryland ; 75
miles N. of Wafhington.

WOODSIA, in Botany, owes its name to Mr. R.
Browii, who dedicates this genus to the commemoration of
Mr. Jofeph Woods, F.L.S., an excellent Britifh botanift.
A valuable paper on the Rofes of this country, about to
appear in the Tranfaftions of the Linnaean Society, will
abundantly prove Mr. Woods' claims to fucti a diftinftion,
even were it far lefs indifcriminately beftowed than ufual. —
Brown Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 11. 170. Sm. Compend.

Fl. Brit. ed. 2. 152. Purfh 660 Clafs and order, Cryp-

togamia Filices. Nat. Ord. Filices dor/ales.

Gen. Ch. FruBtfication in roundifh groups, on the back
of the leaf. Involucrum cup-like, open, fmall, nearly flat,
jagged, fringed with awl-fhaped, incurved, jointed hairs.
Capfules feveral, obovate, on fhort ftalks, crowded, in the
centre of the involucrum, each bound by a vertical, jointed,
elaftic ring, and burfting irregularly at one fide. Seeds nu-
merous, kidney -fhaped, granulated, extremely minute.

Eff. Ch. Groups of capfules fcattered, roundifh, each
feated on a capillary -fringed involucrum.

Obf. We gladly here adopt the ierm group, as technically
fynonymous with Souus, { fee that article, ) inftead of dot,
fpot, or line, which are liable to much exception.

1. W. ilvenfts. Long-leaved Woodfia. Br. n. i. Purfh
n. 2. (Acroftichum ilvenfe ; Linn. Sp. 1528. Fl. Dan.
t. 391. Polypodium ilvenfe ; Swartz Syn. Fil. 39. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 5. 198. " Schkuhr Crypt. 16. t. 19." Nc-
phrodium lanofum ; Michaux Boreal. -Amer. v. 2. 270.
Lonchitis afpera ilvenfis ; Dalech. Hift. 1221. f. 3.) —
Frond pinnate ; leaflets lanceolate, deeply pinnatifid, with
numerous, nearly uniform, oblong lobes. This appears to
have been firft difcovered in the Mediterranean ide of Ilva,
whence the fpecific name, which is very exceptionable, the
fame fpecies being found on rocks in the north of Europe,
as well as in Nortli America, from Canada to Virginia.
We have American fpecimens from Mr. Francis Boott,

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agreeing exaftly with Siberian ones in the Linnaean herba-
rium. We know not of this fpecies having been detected
in Britain. The fronds, five or fix inches high, growereft,
in denfe tufts. Their flalks, not quite half th»t height, are
brown, bearing, like the mid-rib of each principal leaflet,
many flrap-fhaped, taper-pointed, membranous fcales. The
frond itfelf is oblong, or lanceolate, compofed of twelve or
more pairs of oblong lanceolate leaflets, or pinna, oppofite
or alternate, each about an inch long, numeroufly pinnatifid ;
their lower fegments wavy, nearly equal and uniform ;
upper confluent : their upper furface is even, nearly fmooth,
of a fine green ; lower covered with pale brown fcales, and
crowded hairy groups of capfules.

2. W. hyperlorea. Round-leaved Woodfia. Brown
n. 2. t. II. Purfh n. i. Sm. Compend. 158. (Acrof-
tichum hyperboreum ; Liljebladin Stockh. Tranf. for 1793.
201. t. 8. A. alpinum ; Bolt. Fil. Brit. 76. t. 42. Poly-
podium hyperboreum ; Swartz Syn. Fil. 39. Willd. Sp.
PI. v. 5. 195. Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 2023. P. arvonicum ;
Fl. Brit. II 15. P. ilvenfe ; With. 774. Filicula pumila,
Lonchitidis Marautae fpecies Cambrobritannica ; Pluk.
Phyt. t. 89. f. 5. ) — Frond pinnate ; leaflets heart-fhaped,
rounded, pinnatifid, lobes rounded, waved, unequal. — Na-
tive of alpine rocks, chiefly in the northern parts of Eu-
rope. It occurs, though rarely, on the higheft fummits of
the Welfh and Scottifh mountains. A fmaller plant than
the preceding, often not above an inch high, though gene-
rally about three inches. The leaflets are fhorter, and more
rounded, as well as their lobes ; of a thinner texture ; much
lefs deeply pinnatifid, except at their bafe, where the bot-
tom pair of lobes are often fo deeply feparated, as to form
two little leaflets, wavy, or obfcurely lobed, and fometimes
of unequal fize. The main flalk is fcaly ; leaflets hairy on
both fides.

We readily agree with Mr. Brown, that fome intermediate
varieties of each fpecies render the fpecific charafters of both
confiderably difficult. Yet there feems no reafon to doubt
their being diftinft plants. Mr. Bauer's delineation of this
fern, in the Linnaean Tranfaftions, excellently engraved by
Warner, is one of the fineft illuftrations of a natural pro-
duftion that can any where be feen.

WOODSTOCK, (New,) in Geography, a borough and
market-town in the hundred of Wootton, and county of
Oxford, England, is fituated 8 miles N.N.W. from Oxford,
and 625 W.N.W. from London. It has a market on
Tuefday, and fairs on the 5th of April, Tuefday in Whit-
fun-week, 2d of Auguft, 2d of Oftober, Tuefday after the
I ft of November, and 17th of December. The town fends
two reprefentatives to parhament, the mayor being the
returning officer. The corporation confifts of a mayor, a
high-fteward, a recorder, town-clerk, four aldermen, and
fixteen common-council men. In 181 1, the houfes in
Woodftock were 235, and the inhabitants 1540. The
fouth part of the prefent church is a fragment of an ancient
chapel ; but the northern face and the tower were erefted
in 1785. Adjoining to the church is a grammar-fchool,
founded in 1585 by Mr. Cornwell, a native of the place ;
and near the fouthern entrance of the town is a range of
alms-houfes, erefted in 1 793 by the duchefs of Marlborough,
for fix poor widows. The town-hall, a ftone building, has
under it the market-place, and was erefted in 1766, from a
defign of fir WiUiam Chambers, at the expence of the late
duke of Marlborough. The principal manufaftures of the
town are thofe of gloves and of polifhed fteel. Various
articles of this fteel have been executed with great delicacy,
and fold at high prices. This manufafture was introduced
into Woodftock at the beginning of the laft century ; but

it

w o o

1 h has much declined, on account of the cheapnefs of the
( cutlery goods furnifhed by Birmingham and Sheffield.
I The glove-maiuifafture is of later date ; but has increafed
1 in the prefent day fo much, that from 300 to 400 pairs of
I gloves are made weekly in the town and the neighbouring
i villages, and thus afford employment for about 1400 women
i and girls, and 70 men. Old Woodftock, of which only
1 one manfion and a few irregular houfes remain, ftood in a
I ftieltered fituation on the little river Glyme, which fupplies
the magnificent piece of water in Blenheim-park. The
manor-houfe, or royal palace, on the N. bank of the deep
! valley of the Glyme, within the bounds of the park, was the
refidence of Fair Rofamond, whofe romantic adventures are
deeply interwoven with the hiftory of Henry II. ; but the
building has long difappeared. In this palace, that king, in
1 164, received the homage of Malcolm, king of Scotland,
and Rice, prince of Wales. In 1275 Edward I. held a par-
liament at Woodftock, and there was born his fecond fon,
Edmund, as was alfo the renowned Black Prince. Wood,
ftock was inhabited occafionally by Richard II., and there
Henry III. narrowly efcaped atfaffination by a fanatic
prielt : an attempt was there alfo made by Morifco on the
life of Henry VIII. The old palace was afterwards em-
ployed as a prifon for Elizabeth, his daughter. In the time
of the civil wars it fuffered feverely from the parliament's
party ; and about a century ago the gate-houfe, the lad
fragment of t.ie edifice, was pulled down. But Woodftock
io moft worthy of note for having produced Chaucer, who
was born there about 1328. Thehoufe in which he after-
wards refided, while the court was in the palace, ftood at
the W. end of the town, near the ufual entrance into
Blenheim-park. Some relics of this building are ftill
pointed out.

The great objcft of attraftion at Woodftock is the mag-
nificent palace of Blenheim, with the furrounding grounds,
water, and park. The honour and eftates of Woodftock,
long belonging to the crown, were in 1705 conveyed by
queen Anne, on the addrefs of the houfe of commons, to
the illuftrious John, duke of Marlborough, to preferve the
memory of his eminent fervices as a warrior and a ftates-
man ; particularly for the fignal viftory obtained by him,
and prince Eugene of Savoy, at Blenheim, in Germany,
over the French and Bavarians, on the 2d of Auguft 1 704.
The houfe was erefted by fir John Vanbrugh, at a con-
venient diftance from the S. brink of a deep dell, in which
ran the Glyme. The general diftribution of this fuperb
ftrufture confifts of a central mafs of building, inclofing
two fmall courts, and conneftcd by colonnaded wings to two
fpacious quadrangles, forming the grand court of entrance.
The centre is ornamented with a Corinthian portico, fur-
mounted by a pediment and military emblems. The wings
are crowned with towers ferving at once to contain the
chimneys, and to contribute to the pidturefque grandeur of
the edifice. The garden-front, extending from E. to W.
348 feet, is grand and magnificent. The interior of the
manfion contains many noble apartments, adorned with
paintings of eminent mafters ; particularly with a feries of
mythological pidures from the admirable pencil of Titian,
prefented to the firft duke of Marlborough by the king of
Sardinia, and with portraits of many eminent charafters by
the bell artifts. The library, occupying the whole of the
W. front, 183 feet long and nearly 32 wide, is a magnifi-
cent room, originally deftined to be a pifture-gallery, but
afterwards furniftied with the grand Sunderland coUeftion of
books, containing upwards of 17,000 volumes. At one end
is a marble ftatue of queen Anne by Ryft)rack. In the W.
wing is the chapel appropriately fitted up, and containing a
monument, by the fame fculptor, of the firft duke, his
Vol. XXXVIII.

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duchefs, and their two fons, who died young. In the E-
quadrangle of offices is the theatre, originally a green-houfe,
calculated to accommodate 200 fpeftators. Near the E.
angle of the manfion an obfervatory was ereded by the late
duke of Marlborough, and provided with a complete
apparatus for aftronomical obfervations by Ramfden ; a
grand telefcope by Herfchel was prefented to the duke' by
his majefty, after his vifit to Blenheim in 1786. The ftate-
approach to the palace is by a ftraight avenue from the N.
extremity of the park, over the river, by a bridge of one
fpacious and two fmaller arches. Flowing in a deep dell,
the fmall ftream is made to afl'ume the appearance of a
naturally-winding river, expanding below the bridge into a
broad irregular lake ; thus, with the bridge, according with
the grandeur of the palace and the noble extent of the park.
A lofty column is erefted in the midft of the great avenue,
furmounted by a ftatue of the great duke, and charged on
the pedeftal with infcriptions ftating his fervices and re-
wards. In the N.W. part of the park of Blenheim,
veftiges may be traced of the ancient road, Akeman-ftreet.
Nearly two miles W. from the park is the village of Stones-
field, at which place was difcovered, in 171 1, a teflellated
pavement 35 feet by 20, reprefenting, among other figures,
a Bacchus, with his thyrfus and cup, mounted on a tyger.
In addition to this curious antique, in 1779 were difcovered,
near the fame fpot, the areas of a number of other apart-
ments paved in the fame manner ; and adjoining were the
remains of a bath with its hypocauft : Roman coins from
Vefpafian downwards were found on the fame fpot. A
plan and fome account of thefe remains have been publiftied
by Henry Hakewill, efq. architeft — Beauties of England
and Wales, Oxfordfliire, by J. N. Brewer, 8vo. 181 1.
The Blenheim Guide, by Dr. Mafon, i2mo. 181 7.
Havell's Views of Seats include two fine Engravings of
Blenheim Palace, and a critical Account of the Houfe,
Scenery, &c. folio, 18 18.

Woodstock, a town of the ftate of Connefticut, in the
county of Windham, with 2654 inhabitants; 57 miles
S.W. of Bofton — Alfo, a town of North Carolina, on the
left bank of Pamlico river ; 22 miles N.N.E. of Newbern.
— Alfo, a poft-town of Virginia; 112 miles W. ofWaftiing-
ton. — Alfo, a poft-town of Vermont, in the county of
Windfor, with 2672 inhabitants ; 5 miles N.W. of Windfor.
— Alfo, a townftiip of New York ; 46 miles S. of Albany.
— Alfo, a poft-town of New Jerfey ; 26 miles S.S.W. of
Philadelphia.

WOODVILLE, William, M.D. in Biography, was
born at Cockermouth, in the year 1752. Having received
a good claffical education in his native town, he was placed
with a refpectable apothecary, to whom he ferved a (hort
apprenticeftiip. He afterwards proceeded to Edinburgh,
where, after the ufual refidence, he obtained, in 1775', the
degree of M.D., having written and defended a very
ingenious thefis " De irritibilitate fibrarum motricium."
After pafling fome time on the continent, he returned and
fettled near his native place, where he praftifed his profeflion
five or fix years. Dr. Woodville then came to London,
and was foon appointed one of the phyficians to the Mid-
dlefex Difpenfary, the duties of which office he difcharged
in an exemplary manner. In 1790 he publiflied the firft
part, which was afterwards completed in four quarto
volumes, of a highly valuable work, intitled " Medical
Botany." In 1791 he was eledted phyfician to the Small-
pox Hofpital, in the room of the late Dr. Archer ; and it
may truly be faid, that no man ever devoted, more con-
fcientioufly or zealoufly, time and great talents, to the pro-
motion of an objeft, than did Dr. Woodville to improve-
ment in the medical treatment of the patients, as weU as in
4.1 the

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tiie general government of the eftabliftmient. To tfie
officers of the hofpital, and thofe governors who took moft
intereft in its welfare, liis merits were well known ; and
fome of the fruits of his genius and indiiftry are before
the public in ^ volume which was publifhed in 1796, inti-
tlcd " The Hiftory of the Small-pox in Great Britain, &c."
This work, which it was the author's defip;n to occupy
two volumes in 8vo., was well conceived, including a brief
hiltory of the difeafe, and a review of all the publications on
the fubjeft of inoculation, with an experimental inquiry
into the relative advantages of the various meafures that had
been recommended. Only the firll volume of this work,
which is well written, and contains much valuable inform-
ation, was publifhed, the happy difcovery of the efficacy of
vaccination having, in the author's opinion, fuperfeded the
neceffity of the fecond appearing. Dr. Jenner's grand dif-
covery made a due impreffion on the mind of Woodville ;
and as no other man had equal opportunities of witnefiing and
lamenting the ravages of the fmall-pox, fo no perfon could
be more iincerely anxious and aftive in the adoption of thofe
means that were found adequate to guard mankind againft
that peftilence. It is very true, that on the fubjed of
vaccination he was, like every body elfe, at firft fceptical ;
but he fuffered no opportunity to be loft of afcertaining its
efficacy, and then of proclaiming his belief in it. Un-
happily, in fome of his early experiments an error was com-
mitted ; he was not aware of the influence of the variolous
atmofphere of the hofpital. The refult was, that in certain
inftances, either pure fmall-pox matter, or a deteriorated
vaccine lymph, had been inferted into the arms of fome
patients. The effedls were faithfully detailed ; but being
fo different from thofe that had been defcribed by Dr. .Tenner,
that excellent man and benefaftor to the human race vifited
Dr. Woodville, with whom he argued and remonftrated on
the fubjeft. It is to be regretted that fome afperities of
remark took place between them, although both were
equally and honourably engaged in the developenient of
truth. The difcuffion, however, as is always the cafe,
pi-oved very ufeful in the diffemination of the new praftice ;
and if Dr. Jenner had reafon to find fault with the refult of
Dr. Woodville's early proceedings, he mult have been
abundantly gratified by his fubfequent experiments and
publications. The ample field in which Woodville v/as placed
enabled him to vaccinate great multitudes, fome thoufands
of whom he afterwards telled by variolous inoculation, and
thus gave that publicity to vaccination, and that confidence
in it, which it could not otherwife have attained in the courfe
of many years. He was alfo ardently engaged in the inquiry
into the nature and origin of the vaccine lymph ; and, at his re-
queft, the writer of this fhort article three times inoculated him
with frefh grcafe from the heel of a difcafed horfe. If in
the heat and bitternefs of contention men feek an apology
for unguarded expreffions and affertions, this cannot be
granted to thofe who calumniate the dead ; and therefore
the (latement in a late hiftory of vaccination of Dr. Wood-
ville having fallen a viftim to the dnnking of ardent
fpirits, is deferving of reprobation. Dr. Woodville cul-
tivated the fociety of his profeffional brethren, by whom, on
account of his talents and companionable qualities, he was
held in high eftimation ; and one of thofe who enjoyed the
intimacy of his friendftiip, from the period of his lettling in
London until the day of his death, contradifts the above
-.mfounded calumny. His difeafe, which terminated in
•dropfy, had made fuch gradual advances during the laft year
■of his life, that he frequently talked of liis death, which no
man ever contemplated with greater equanimity, as likely to
take place about a certain affigned period.

He died at the hofpit?! on the 26th of March 180J ; and
5

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on the 3dof April, a warm and juft eulogium was pronounced
over the body in the faloon by his friend Mr. Highmore.
His parents having been Quakers, he by his own deiire was
interred in the Friends' burial-ground in Bunhill-fields, after
a very appropriate addrefs at the grave by Mrs. Pryor.

The editor is indebted for the preceding article to his
much-efteemed friend J. Norris, etq., no lefs diftinguilhed
by his mental and moral qualities than by judgment and
extent of reputation in his profeffion.

Woodville, in Geography, a poft-town of Virginia;
94 miles W. of Walhington.

WOODWARD, John, in Biography, was born in
Derby ftiire in 1664, and, being intended for trade, was
apprenticed in London ; but in a little while abandoned the
Ihop for the fake of fcientific purfuits. In 1687 Dr. Bar-
wick took him into his family, and for the fpace of four
years gave him inftruftion in medicine and anatomy. He
then recommended him to the medical profeflbrftiip ia
Grefham college, to which he was elefted in 1692. Having
direfted his particular attention to foffils, with a view to
which he had travelled through many diftritts of England,
he publifhed in 1695 " An EfTay towards a Natural Hiftory
of the Earth and terreftrial Bodies, efpecially Minerals ; as
alfo of the Sea, Rivers, and Springs ; with an Account of
the Univerfal Deluge, and of the EfFefts that it had upon
the Earth," 8vo. His preparatory knowledge for a work
of this kind was very flight, and therefore the execution of
it was attacked by Dr. Martin Lifter, and others. How-
ever, in the imperfeft ilate of geology at tliat time, his per-
formance engaged notice, and he was chofen in 1693 a
fellow of the Royal Society. At this time he was in pof-
fefTion of an ancient iron (hield, in the concavity of which
was a fculpture reprefenting the ftory of Camillus and the
Gauls at Rome ; and as it was a great curiofity among the
learned, Dodwell gave an account of it in a Latin treatife,
entitled " De Parma equeftri Woodwardiana Differtatio."
By this circumflance Woodward was led to increafe his
acquaintance with a certain clafs of literati, though he did
not efcape the ridicule of the wits. In 1695 he was created
M.D. by archbifhop Tenifon, and in 1696 he obtained the
fame degree from Cambridge ; and thus honoured, he was
prepared for an admiffion into the College of Phyficians as
a fellow in 1702. But purfuing his inquiries into natural
hiftory and antiquities, he publifhed fome pieces in thefe
departments : w'z. " Some Thoughts and Experiments
concerning Vegetation," communicated to the R.oyal So-
ciety, and printed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for
1669 ; " Naturalis Hiftoria Telluris illuftrata et aufta : ac-
cedit Methodica Fofiilium in Claffes Diftributio," 1714,
intended as a grand reply to thofe who objefted to his
Natural Hiftory of the Earth, which had been tranflated
into Latin by Scheuchzer at Zurich ; and " An Account
of fome Roman Urns, and other Antiquities, lately digged
up near Bifliopfgate ; with brief Reflcftions upon the an-
cient and prefent State of London : in a Letter to Sir
Chriftopher Wren." In his medical capacity, he publifhed
in 1718 " The State of Phyfic and of Difeafes, &c." 8vo.,
in which he advanced the notion, that the bile and its falts,
re-abforbed into the blood, were the true caufe of life and
animal motions, and that the fame fermenting in the fto-
mach were the caufe of difeafes ; whence he was led to
conclude that emetics to evacuate the morbid bile, and oily
and unguinous medicines to correft it, were univerfal re-
medies. This publication produced a controverfy with Dr.
Freind, in which Woodward was anfwered both ludicroully
and ferioufly, fo that he gained little credit by his medical
theory or praAice. His chagrin, however, was diverted by
the ftudy of foffils, arid the augmentation of his cabinet of

fpecimens.

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(pccimeiis. He foon after fell into a decline, which ter-
minated his life in his apartments at Grefham college in
, 1727, at the age of 63. He bequeathed his perfonal pro-
! perty to the univerfit)' of Cambridge, for the endowment
of an annual lefturefhip, on a fubjeft taken from his own
v\-iitings in natural hiftory or phytic. Soon after his death
■were publilhed an Englifh edition of his " Method of
' Foffils," with various additions ; and " A Catalogue of
roffils m the Colicdion of J. Woodward, M.D.," in
2 tomes, 8vo., a work of permanent eflimation among geo-
logifts. In 1737 Dr. Templenian publiflied Woodward's
" Seleft Cafes and Confultations in Phyfic," in which fome
valuable obfervations are interfporfed. One of his hypo-
tliefes was, that the life refides in the blood, and in the
i feparate parts of the body, not in the nerves ; in confirmation
I of which he made many experiments, eftablifhing the vis in-
i fita of mufclcs. Biog. Brit. Haller. Gen. Biog.

Woodward, an officer of the foreft, whofe funftion is

] to look after the moods, and obferve any offences either in

vert, or venifon, committed within his charge ; and to pre-

fent the fame ; and in cafe any deer are found killed, or

' hurt, to inform the verderor thereof, and prefcnt the dclin-

quents at the next court of the foreft.
I Woodwards may not walk with bows and fhafts, but
! with forctt-bills. ylrcum et calamos gejlare inforefla non licet,
;fed (ut refcripti ular ■verba) hachetum tantummodo. Term.
Mil. an. 13 Ed. HI.

WOODWARDIA, in Botany, a very fine and well-
\ marked genus of ferns, dedicated by the writer of this
j article to the honour of his long and highly-valued friend,
[ and botanical companion, Thomas Jenkinfon Woodward,
jefq., LL.B., F.L.S., one of the beft Englidi botanills,
I wliofe fliill and accuracy are only equalled by his liberality
, and zeal in the fervice of fcience. Mr. Woodward's name
'. is well known as the important affiftant of Dr. Withering in
I his national Flora (fee Witheringia), as well as by his
i communications to the Linnsau Society ; amongll which,
I an eifay on the Britjjh Fuci, written in conjunction with the
i prefent learned bifhop of Carlifle, and printed in the third

' volume of that Society's Tranfadlions, Hands confpicuous

I Sm. Mem. de I'Acad. de Turin, v. 5. 411. t. 9. f. 3.
Trads 238. t. I. f. 3. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 5. 416. Swartz
I Syn. Fil. 1 16. Sprengel Crypt. Engl. ed. 131. t. 4. f. 29.
I Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 523. Purfh 669. — Clafs and order,
\ Cryptngamlu Filices ; feft. annulatje. Nat. Ord. Filkes
! dorjtjerx,

' Eff. Ch. Groups of capfules oblong, diftinft, ftraight,
ranged in a fimple row, in bordered cavities, parallel to
each fide of the rib. Involucrum fuperficial, vaulted, fepa-
rating towards the rib.

Obf. Mr. Brown has feparated from this genus, by the
name oi Doodia, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 151, fuch fpecies
as have a flat involucrum, unconnefted at its inner margin,
and originating from an interbranching, or conneAing, vein,
at its oppofite fide. In thefe the capfules are not funk into
any bordered cavity, nor are the groups, with their involii-
ciums, fo turgid, oi' prominent. Woodwardia caudata,
Cavan. Leccion. 264. Swartz Syn. Fil. n. 2. Willd. n. 2,
belongs to this genus of Doodia; and Mr. Brown defines
two others, ajpera and media, as likewife natives of New
Holland, in which country, it feems, no true Woodwardia
has been found.

1. W. angujlifolia. Narrow -leaved Woodwardia. Sm.
n. 1. Swartz n. i. (" W. floridana ; Schkuhr Crypt.
103. t. III." W. onocleoides ; Willd. n. i. Purfh n. i.
Onoclea nodulofa ; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 272.
Swartz Syn. Fil. iii. Acroftichum areolatum ; Linn.

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Sp. 1526. A. n. 12 ; Linn. Am. Acad. 274. Ofmund^
caroliniana ; Walt. Carol. 257. Lonchitis major virginiana,
tolio vario, alis Polypodii in modum conjundis ; Morif.
fed. 14. t. 2. f. 24. Filix floridana, praelongis et angultis
pinnuhs, S:c. ; Pluk. Amalth. t. 399. f. i. )— Fronds pin-
nate ; leaflets linear, acute, entire ; the barren ones finely
ferrated. — In cedar and cyprefs fwamps, from New Jerfey
to Florida, fruftifying in Auguft. Perennial, about a
foot lijgh. PurJ}}. The root is creeping, fcaly and fhaggy,
bearing feveral llalked, upright, fmooth /ron</j-, of a lanceo-
late figure, with a long taper point : the barren ones con-
fifting entirely of lanceolate, acute, finely ferrated leajlets,
decurrent at their bafe, and fomewhat confluent : the fertile
of rather fewer, more difl:ant, longer and narrower ones,
likewife flightly decurrent and confluent at their bafe, each.
leafet being nearly covered at the back, on each fide of the
rib, with a clofe feries of turgid, nearly cylindrical, groups,
a quarter of an inch long, of nuvxerous capfules, every group
clofely covered by its own convex involucrum. Each group
is cncompafled with a confiderably elevated uninterrupted
line, bordering the hollow in which it lies. Willdenow has
mod unadvifedly changed the eltabhflicd fpecific name,
without any right or pretence, furely for the worfe rather
than the better.

2. W. japonica. Blunt-lobed Japan Woodwardia. Sm.
n. 2. Swartz n. 3. Willd. n. 3. Sprengel as above,
f. 29. (Blechnum japonicum ; Thunb. Jap. 333. t. 35.
Linn. Suppl. 445. ) — Frond pinnate ; leaflets feffilc, half
pinnatifid, with clofe, obtufe, ferrated lobes. Rows of
fruftification extremely clofe and crowded. — Gathered by
Thunberg near Nagafaki, and in other parts of Japan,
fruftifying in June. Frond two feet, or more, in height.
Stali roughifli, and fo.mewhat fcaly, not fmooth. Leaflets
five or fix inches long, pointed, quite feffile, fcaly at the
bafe, each divided about half way to its rib into twelve pair,
or more, of broad, bluntifh, rounded, ferrated lobes, above
an inch long, and half an inch broad, quite clofe and parallel
at the fides ; paler beneath. Groups oblong, three or four
in a continued line, clofe to the rib on each fide. Tlie in-
volucrum reflexed to one fide, after the capfules are fallen,
leaves the cavity expofed, and like a box with its hd. The
capfules appear all to be infertcd into that margin of the
cavity to which the involucrum, or lid, is attached.

3. W. orientalis. Sharp-lobed Japan Woodwardia.
Swartz n. 4. alfo p. 315. Willd. n. 4. (" Blechnum
radicans ; Hoult. N. Hill:, v. 2. t. 97. f. i.") — Frond
pinnate ; leaflets flialked, deeply pinnatitid, with fpreading,
acute, ferrated lobes. Rows of fruftification clofe. In-
volucrum fomewhat crefcent-fliaped. — Gathered by Thun-
berg in Japan. Very diilinft from the laft, as well as from
JV. radicans. The frond is more coriaceous than either, and
feems to be rather glaucous. Stali fmooth and naked, at
leall in its upper part. Leajlets the fize of the laft, but
tapering at their bafe into a fhort llalk ; their fegments con-
fiderably diftant from each other, except at the very bafe,
and fomewhat revolute ; fliarply ferrated, particularly at
the point. Groups flightly lunate outwards, efpecially the
upper and ftiorter ones, about feven in each row, crowded,
and clofe to the rib. Perhaps it was from a fpecimen of
this, confounded with the preceding, that Profeffor Thun- •
berg defcribed the main Jlali as altogether fmooth, and

zigzag-

4. W. virginica. Virginian Woodwardia. Sm. n. 3.

Swartz n. 7. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 2. Purfh n. 2.

(W. Banifteriana; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 263.

Swartz 11. 8. Blechnum virginicum ; Linn. Mant. 307.-
Filix mas, vulgari fimilis, pinnulis amplioribus planis, nee

4 I 2 crenatis, '

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crenatis, virginiana ; Pluk. Almag. 151. Phyt- t. 179.
f. 2.)— Frond pinnate; leaflets feffile, deeply pmnatifid,
with fpreading, obtufe, (lightly crenate lobes. Rows of
fruiftification accompanying their mid-rib as well as the ribs
of the lobes.— In the/wamps and (hady woods of Virginia
and Carolina. Purjh. We received it from Kew garden
in 1785. The fruaification is perfefted m July and Au-
guft. The frond is eighteen inches, or more, in height,
with a pale fmooth/a/i. Ltajiets alternate, above a finger's
length, and about an inch, or more, in width, bright green,
fmooth; their numerous fegments fpreading moderately
from each other, forming an acute angle at the bafe ; their
margin is fomewhat revolute, and very obfcurely crenate.
Fruaification moll abundant on the leaflets of the upper half
of the frond, forming lines all along their principal rib, at
each fide, as well as along the rib of each fegment ; the
groups finally confluent. The depreffions in which the
groups are feated are very flight, though not imperceptible,
and the Involucrum of each is narrower, lefs vaulted, and
fooner turned afide, than in any other fpecies with which
we are acquainted, fo that the prefent plant is in fome mea-
fure intermediate between Woodiuardia and Doodia. Per-
haps it may prove thefe two genera not to be diftindl, but
while they remain fo, we concur with Mr. Brown in keeping
this fpecies where it is. Plukenet's figure was drawn by
Mr. Baniiler, the original difcoverer of this fern.

^. W. thelypterioides. Small Woodwardia. Purfli n. 3.

" Frond pinnate ; leaflets feffile, hnear-lanceolatc, pin-

natifid ; villous at the bafe : fegments of the barren ones
oblong and bluntifh ; of the fertile ones (hortened, triangular,
and acute ; all entire. Stalk downy, angular." — In fandy
fwamps of South Carolina, near Charleilown, fruftifying
in July. Refembles the preceding, but is not half the fize.
Purjb.

6. W. Jimbriata. Fringed Woodwardia. — Frond pin-
nate; leaflets feffile, deeply pinnatifid, with fpreading,
rather acute, lobes, fringed with fharp teeth — Gathered
by Mr. Menzies, on the well coaft of North America.
This is larger in every part than /K. virgimca, and diftin-
guiftied from that fpecies by its more acute fegments, whofe
margin is very confpicuoufly and copioufly fringed with
prickly teeth, direfted towards the point. Groups of cap-
fules large and turgid, ranged, a little obliquely, along the
ribs of the fegments, from three to five pair on each feg-
ment, none at the mid-rib of the leaflet itfelf. Involucrum
ftrongly and permanently vaulted. The bottom lobe of
each leaflet, at the lower fide, is fliortened, dilated, and
half heart -(haped, as is more rarely the cafe in W. virginica.
Several of the upper leaflets are decurrent and confluent ; the
top ones undivided, and barren.

7. W. radlcans. Rooting-ftalked Woodwardia. Sm.
n. 4. Swartz n. 5. WiUd. n. 5. Ait. n. i. " Schkuhr
Crypt. 104. t. 112." (Blechnum radicans ; Linn. Mant.
307, excluding the reference to Plukenet, fee W. virginica.
Filix italica non ramofa maxima glabra, polypodii folio,
gallas ferens, D. Micheli ; Till. Pif. 62. t. 24.)

/S. W.Jlans. Swartz n. 6. "Schkuhr Crypt. 104.
t. 113." liquid. — Frond pinnate; leaflets nearly feffile,
deeply pinnatifid, with parallel, taper-pointed, (harply fer-
rated lobes. — Native of deep clayey filTures of rocks in
Madeira, according to Koenig. Found alfo in Italy and
Portugal. A hardy greenhoufe plant in England, and one
of the moft handfome of its tribe. The fronds are two or
three feet high, and a foot and a half or near two feet in
breadth, of a fine green, fmooth, beautifully reticulated
with veins, each main ftalk producing at the back, near the
top, a round fcaly bud, or bulb, the origin of a young

WOO

plant. Leaflets generally alternate, often a fpan long, fome-
v/hat peftinate, with a long very flender point ; their
numerous fegments more or lefs crowded, flightly curved,
lanceolate, minutely and (harply ferrated, each tapering to
a (harp elongated point. Groups of capfules about feven
pair on each fegment, ( none at the mid-rib of the leaflet, )
clofe, dire£l, fcarcely ever at all divaricated, turgid, pale
brown, the cavities in which they lie very neatly and con-
fpicuoufly bordered : uppermoR leaflets fimple and con-
fluent, as in the foregoing fpecies. We know not how the
W.Jlans, which Cavanilles feems, by Swartz's work, to
have firll noticed, is fuppofed to differ from the radicans ;
but WiUdenow afferts, on a comparifon of numerous fpeci-
mens, from different countries, that there is no fpecific dif-
tinftion between them.

8. W,, difpar. Various-leaved Woodwardia. Willd.
n. 7. ( Filix latifolia, pinnulis fere acuminatis, dentata ;
Plum. Fil. 13. t. 16.) — Fronds pinnate; leaflets feffile,
lanceolate, pointed, pinnatifid, with elliptic -lanceolate, en-
tire lobes. Fruftihcation crowded on the much fmaller
lobes, of a feparate narrower frond. — Found by Plumier ia
Martinico. WiUdenow appears to have adopted this fpeciea
entirely from Plumier, a hazardous meafure, as its genus
can only be gueffed from analogy. The barren fronds ap-
proach the lall fpecies in lize, but their fegments are fliorter,
entire, rather obtufe, and by no means taper-pointed.
Thofe fronds which bear fruit have leaflets fimilar in fhape
and lobes to the others, but about one-third as large, at
moft, bearing a fimple crowded row ol fruaification clofe to
the rib of each fegment. The groups of capfules are fome-
what elliptical, and there is nothing adverfe to the generic
charafter of a Woodiuardia ; but, on the other hand, there
is no particular indication of that charafter.

The root is defcribed above an inch thick, and fix inches
in length ; externally black, with feveral vermicular branch-
ing fibres, clothed with tawny or golden pubefcence.
Stalk of each frond near eighteen inches high, pale brown
and fmooth, leafy from its middle part to the fummit,
where it terminates in a large ereft leaflet, conftrufted ex-
aftly like the reft, being equal in fize to the larger lateral
ones, and confiderably exceeding thofe immediately belowr
it. Such is the habit of IV. angujlifolia, but not of the
other fpecies in general.

WOODY Fibrous Matter, in Agriculture, that which is
produced from fmall particles of different forts of woody
lubftances.

When merely formed of thefe parts, it is fuppofed to ba
the only vegetable matter that requires the aid of ferment-
ation to render it nutritive to plants. The ufed bark of
the tanner is a fubllance of this fort, which is very ab-
forbent and retentive of moifture, but not penetrable by the
roots of plants. See Taxmers' Barh.

Woody fibrous matter may likewife be prepared fo as to
become a manure, by the adlion of lime upon it.

It is obferved in the " Elements of Agricultural Che-
miilry," that as woody fibre confifts principally of the ele-
ments of water and carbon, the latter being in larger
quantities than in the other vegetable compounds, any pro-
cefs that tends to abllraft carbonaceous matter from it,
muft bring it nearer in compofition to the foluble principles ;
and that this is done in fermentation, by the ablorption of
oxygen and produftion of carbonic acid ; and that a fimilar
effeft is produced by lime. See Lime.

Woody Nightjhade. See Nightshade.

Woody Head, in Geography, a high cape on the coaft
of New Zealand, in the South Pacific ocean. S, lat.

37° 42'-

Woody

w o o

Woody IJland, an idand in the Eaft Indian fea. N. lat.
1*46'. E. long. 106° 5'. See ViCTOiRE.

Woody Point, a cape on the well coaft of North Ame-
rica. N. lit. 50°. W. long. 128=' 5'.

WOODYCUTTY, a town of HinJoollan, in Canara ;
8 miles E. of Onore.

WOOF, among Manufaaurers, th- threads which the
weavers (hoot acrofs, with an inftrument called the _/2a«/f,
between the threads of the warp, to form the web.

The woof is of different matter, according to the piece
to be wrought. In tafFety, both woof and warp are fdk.
In mohairs, the woof is ufually flax, and the warp iilk. In
fattins, the warp is frequently wool, and the woof filk.

WOOFE, a name given in fome parts of England to the
lea-wolf, or lupus marinus ; which fee.

WOOGINIOOS, in Botany. See Brucea ^ntUy-
fenterica.

WOO-HOO-SHIEN, in Geography, a town of China,
in the province of Kiang-nan, near the river Yang-tfe-kiang,
a narrow cut leading from the river to the city, and flowing
through the fubnrbs. This is a place of confiderable trade ;
in the fuburb there are feveral good dwelling-houfcs, appa-
rently belonging to perfons of dillinttion ; and in the city
itfelf there are many (hops, which, it is faid, would not
difgrace the Strand or Oxford-ftreet in London. Thefe
(hops are fpacious, confiding of an inner and outward com-
partment, and well fupplied with articles of all kinds, both
of raw and mauufaitured produce. The porcelain (hops
are particularly large, and contain great varieties of the
manufaAure. The main ilreet leading diredlly through the
city is not lefs than a mile in lengtii. Several llreets
branch off from this, which are all paved, and contain good
houfes. The number of (hops that are filled with lanterns
of all defcriptions, both horn and paper, indicate manu-
faftories of thofe articles. The principal wall of the city
extends on the north face ; and the other is fo overtopped
with houfes, that it almoft efcapes notice in pafling down
the main ftreet, which it crolTes. On the declivity ot a hill
to th^ northward are the temple and ancient tower. The
temple, to which there is an afcent by a very lleep (tone
ftair-cafe, refembles that at Nankin, the god Fo being re-
prefented by the fame attributes, and the principal hall
being furrounded by fimilar figures of fages, in the fame
ftyle. In another temple in the fuburb there was a greater
refemblance to that of Nankin. Woo-hoo-fhien does not
feem to be populous in proportion to the number of (hops,
and the quantity of accumulated produce expofed for fale.
The fuburb near the city contains feveral good iTiops, which
were crowded with people. Ellis's Journal of the late
Embaffy to China, vol. ii. Lond. 18 18.

WOOJEDA, a town of Algiers, in the province of
Tremecen, anciently called Guagida ; 20 miles W.S.W.
of Tremecen.

WOOL, in Natural Hijlory and ManufaHures, Latin
lana, lanic'mm, Fr. la'ine, fignifies foft hair or down, more
particularly that of iheep, but is applied to the foft hair of
other animals, as of the vicunna, commonly called Vigonia
wool, that of the yak of Tartary, &c. ; and alfo to fine
vegetable fibres, as cotton. The Romans applied the
term extenfively to the foft hair or down of all quadrupeds,
and even to that of birds, as lana anferina, the wool or
down of the goofe ; lana caprina, goat's-wool.

They alfo applied the term to vegetable fubftances :

" Nemora ^thiopium molli canentia lana."

Virg. Georg. ii. 120.

" The trees of Ethiopia, white with foft wool, or cotton."

w o 0

The dillmaion between wool and hair is rather arbitrary
than natural, confifting in the greater or leffer degrees of
finenefs, foftnefs, and pliability of the fibres. When they
poliels thefe properties fo far as to admit of their being
Ipun and woven into a texture fufficiently pliable to be ufed
as an article of drefs, they are called wool. The gradations
between wool and hair on the (Icins of fome animals are often
too minute to admit of accurate dillinftion. The fleeces of
many (heep contain fibres fo hard and coarfe, that they may
moll properly be called hair ; and fome hairy animals produce
on part of their fliins fibres polfelfing all the properties of
wool ; even in fleeces from the (heep, we may fometimes
obferve the very fame fibre to be a coarfe hair at one end,
and at the other end a comparatively foft wool. The power
of words, when inaccurately applied ia retarding the pro-
grefs of improvement, may frequently be traced in the moft
common occurrences of life, and we are perfuaded it has
had no inconfiderable effeft in this inftance, in preventing
the cultivation of wool, in Europe, on the fliins of other
animals befides ftieep. No one will deny that it is impolTible
to produce wool on the backs of the ox or the afs, if we
reltrid the term wool to the fleece of the flieep ; but if by
wool we mean a foft fine hair, poflijfling all the properties
which render it fuitable to be fpun, woven, and fulled,
to make cloth, the oxen of Thibet and the afles of Chili do
produce and have for centuries produced fuch wool. Many
of the aflfes and oxen even in this kingdom have foft woolly
tufts of hair on fome parts of their fliins, and if fuch cattle
were felefted, and the breed cultivated, it is probable we
might obtain from them a valuable addition to the materials
on which national induftry might be profitably employed.

Sheep's-wool appears to be the produft of cultivation ;
we know of no wild animal which refembles the wool-
bearing (heep. The argali, from which all the varieties of
flieep are fuppofed to be derived, is covered with fliort
hair, at the bottom of which, clofe to the flcin, there is a
fofter hair, or down. (See Argali and Sheep.) This is
not peculiar to the argali ; almoll all quadrupeds inhabiting
cold chmates are covered in the fame manner with a foft
hair or down, which is proteded by a coat of longer
and coarfer hair. By removal to a temperate climate,
or when placed under the foftering care of man, and pro-
tected from the inclemencies of the weather, and fupplied
regularly with food, the coarfe long hair falls off, and the
animal retains only the fofter and (horter hair, or wool.
It is alfo oblerved that European flieep, removed to tropi-
cal climates and much expoled, foon become languid and
fickly, and lofe their fleece, which is fucceeded by a co-
vering of (hort coarfe hair. Sheep in expoled fituations in
Europe often produce fliort coarfe white hairs called kemps,
intermixed with the finer wool ; on removal to a warmer
fituation, and to a richer pallure, the coarfe hairs fall off,
and do not grow again. Thefe fads are fufficient to prove
the efi'eft of cultivation on the fleece ; and it muft be ob-
ferved that fheep's- wool of a good quahty is never found but
in thofe countries which have been the feats of the arts, and
where a confiderable degree of luxury or refinement exifts,
or has once prevailed. This is a ftfong prefumptive proof
that fuch wool has been originally obtained by a careful and
long-continued attention to the feleftion of thofe (heep
which produced the finell and moft valued fleeces.

Angora, the ancient Ancyra, the former feat of arts and
manufaftures, ftill retains its breed of fine-wooUed animals,
among which the goat at the prelent time produces a fleece
nearly equal to filk in lullre and finenefs ; and the cat and
the rabbit of that dift.rift yet produce fine long wool. Da-
mafcus, and the other aucient cities of Afia Minor, prelierve

WOOL.

in their vicinity the traces of the former cultivation of fine-
wooUed animals. The Tarentinc fine-woolled fheep, fo much
valued by the Greeks and Romans, were obtained from
Afia Minor, and were on that account fometimes called
Afians:. It is highly probable that thefe (heep came ori-
ginally from the more caftern feats of luxury, where the foft
fleeces are now grown, of which the fliawls and cloths of
India are fabricated.

Ill countries where manufafturcs have once flouriftied,
their cffefts continue for a long time vifible in the race of
fhcep which ftill remain there. Even in the prefent condi-
tion of the fleeces from Barbary and the adjoining ftates, the
experienced eye may perceive the veftiges of a fine-woolled
race of (heep, degenerated by utter negleft, in a climate
naturally unfavourable to the produftion of fine wool. In
Sicily and the fouthern parts of Italy, the remains of the
ancient Tarentine breed preferve to the prefent day a race
of fine-woolled (heep, but greatly degenerated by negleft.
In Portugal the fine-woolled (heep retain more of their ori-
ginal purity, but are ftill much neglefted. In Spain atten-
tion to the growth of fine wool appears never to have been
entirely loft fight of, and it is here that the race of fine-
woolled flieep exift in the higheft degree of perfeftion,
though, as we (hall afterwards ftate, probably inferior in
fome important qualities to the original Tarentine race.
Some writers have aflerted that fine wool is the refult of cli-
mate and food ; but this is not the faft, though we admit
that both have fome influence on the quality of wool. It is
the breed alone that primarily determines the finencfs of
the fleece ; this has been ably demonftrated by the experi-
ments of lord Sommerville, Dr. Parry of Bath, and others
in this country, and by experiments on a larger fcale in
Sweden, Denmark, Saxony, and France.

It has been afcertained by Mr. Bakewell of Diftiley, in
Leicefterftiire, that the form of animals might be changed
by felefting fuch as had any remarkable peculiarities, and
continuing to breed from them for a few generations, when a
new race is eftabliftied, in which thefe peculiarities continue
permanent. It has been afcertained by careful obfervations,
both of cattle-breeders and phyfiologifts, that in producing
a new breed from two varieties of the fame fpecies, the fe-
male has more influence over the form of the progeny than
the male ; but with refpeft to wool the cafe is reverfed, the
quality of the fleece depending more on the fire than the
dam. Beginning to breed from a coarfe-wooUed ewe and a
pure fine-woolled ram, the produce of the firft crofs will
have a fleece approaching one-half to the finenefs of that of
the ram ; and continuing to crofs this progeny with a fine-
woolled ram, equal to the firft in quality, the fleece of the
fcore and crofs will approach three-fourths to the finenefs of
the firft, and in a few crofies more will be brought to an
equal quality. If we ftate it numerically, and fuppofe the
wool of the ewe to be twice as coarfe as that of the ram, or
as 320 to 160, the firft crofs will have the fibre reduced to
240, the fecond to 2CO, the third to 180, the fourth to 170,
the fifth to 165, the fixth to i62i, which to all praftical
purpofes may be regarded as equal to the firft number. This
ratio of approximation may be ftated as correft on a large
fcale of experiment. If we breed with a fine-woolled ewe
and a coarfe-woolled ram, the feries would be reverfed, and
in a few generations all veftiges of the fine-woolled race
would be nearly, if not entirely, extinft. The ancient Ro-
mans, in the time of Columella, feem to have been fully
aware of the effefts of breed on the fmenefs of the wool,
and as much as 200/. fterling was piiid for a fine-woolled ram.

When a flock of fine-woolled fheep are once formed,
they can only be kept pure by felefting and preferving the

fineft-woolled rams, and nioft carefully avoiding all inter-
mixture with ftieep from coarfer-wooUed flocks that may
exift in the countiy. Where this is neglefted, the quality
of the wool will foon be debafed.

But fuppofing all the flocks in a country were of the fine-
woolled race, accidental varieties of coarfe-woolled fheep
will occur among them, or of ftieep having fleeces intermixed
with coarfe hair. If thefe be not carefully examined and
removed, the wool will deteriorate, and more fo where the
climate is variable, and the ftieep are expofed to great and
fudden viciffitudes of temperature.

What has been ftated may fuffice to explain the circura-
ftance of fine-woolled breeds of Hieep being only found in the
vicinity of prefent or ancient manufaftures, or where they
have been tranfported from fuch diftrifts. Wherever fine-
wooUed flieep are neglefted by man, the wool becomes
either coarfe, or intermixed with coarfe hairs ; the latter is
the cafe in the Shetland ifles, and in all countries where the
arts and manufaftures have been entirely deftroyed, and
ignorant barbarians have fucceeded as the pofleflbrs of the
foil.

Moft ancient writers on wool, and even many moderns,
feem not to be aware of any difference in wools, except the-
finenefs or coarfenefs of the fibre ; but the length of the
fibre conftitutes a far more important diftinftive charafter.
Long wool, or what is called combing-wool, differs more
from ftiort or clothing wool, in the ufes to which it is ap-
phed, and the mode of manufafture, than flax from cotton.

Sheep's-wool may, therefore, be divided into two kinds.
Short wool, or clothing-wool, and long or combing wool :
each of thefe kinds may be fubdivided into a variety of forts,
according to their degrees of finenefs. This procefs is the
proper labour of the wool-forter.

Short wool, or clothing-wool, may vary in length from
one to three or four inches ; if it be longer it requires to be
cut or broken, to prepare it for the further proceftcs of the
cloth manufafture. Short or clothing wool is always
carded or broken upon an inftrument with fine Ihort teeth,
by which the fibres are opened and fpread in every direc-
tion, and the fabrics made from it are fubjefted to the pro-
cefs of felting, which we ftiall afterwards dcicribe. By this
procefs, the fibres become matted together, and the texture
rendered more compaft.

Long or combing wool may vary in length from three
to eight or ten inches : it is prepared on a comb or inftru-
ment, with rows of long fteel teeth, which open the fibres,
and arrange them longitudinally : in the thread fpun from
combed wool, the fibres or filaments of the wool are arranged
in the fame manner, or fimilar to thofe of flax, and the
pieces when woven are not fubjefted to the procefs of
felting.

The ftiorter combing-wools are principally ufed for hofe,
and are fpun fofter than the longer combing-wools, the
former being made into what is called hard worfted yarn, and
the latter into foft worfted yarn.

Short Clothing-Wool. — The principal qualities deferving
attention in clothing-wools are the regular finenefs of the
hair or pile, its foftnefs and tendency to felt, the length
and foundnefs of the ftaple, and the colour. The wool- ~
buyer alfo regards as important the clean ftate of the fleece,
and to the grower its weight is particularly deferving atten-
tion ; for in fleeces equally fine, from ftieep of the fame fize,
fome may be much heavier than others, the fibres of wool
being grown clofer to each other on the ftiin.

The finenefs of the hair or fibre can only be eftimated to
any ufeful purpofe, in the woollen manufafture, by the
wool-forter or wool,dealer, accuftomed by long habit to

difcern

WOOL.

dilccni a iiiimiLc Jill'trcuce, wliicli ia quile imperceptible to
toniniuii obicrvers, and fcarccly appreciable by the mod
powerful microfcopes. Of the various attempts tliat have
been made to reduce the finenefs of wool to a certain
ttaiidard, by admeafuremer/t with a micrometer, we (hall
afterwards fpeak. From fome experiments we have made,
as well as from thofe made by Mr. Luccock, Dr. Parry,
and others, we may eftimate the thicknefs of the hair of the
lineft Spaiiilh and Saxony wool to be not more than the
fifteen-hundredth part of an inch, and that of the tincft
native Englifh to be from twelve to thirteen-hundredth
parts, whilll the inferior forts gradually increafe to the
fix-hundreth part of an inch and more. A difference in the
fize of thefe fibres, too minute to be noticed by the common
obferver, may occafion a difference of 40 per cent, or more in
the value of the wool. The finenefs of the hair has been
ever confidered as an important quahty fince the clothing
manufaftnre emerged from its rudeft ftate. Fine wool was
formerly valued becaufe a finer thread could be fpun from
it, and a thinner fabric made, than from the coarfer wools ;
but fince recent mechanical improvements have been intro-
duced into the woollen nianufafture, it has been found
prafticable to fpin coarfe wools to the fame length as the
finer wools were formerly fpun to. It is well known, how-
ever, to cloth-manufafturers, that whatever be the finenefs
of the yarn, unlefs the wool be fine, it is impoffible to make
a fine, compaft, and even cloth, in which the thread fliall be
covered with a thick foft pile ; nor would a thin cloth
made from coarfe wool have the fame durability or appear-
ance as one from fine wool of equal weight per yard. Fine
wool will, therefore, always preferve a fuperior value to
the coarfe ; indeed it was long confidered as the principal
and almoft the only quality deferving the attention of the
wool-grower, the wool-ltapler, and the clothier.

The regular finenefs of the fibre is alfo an objeft of con-
fiderable importance ; the lower end of tlie llaple, or tliat
part of the fleece neareft the fl<in, will fometimes be very
fine, and the upper part coarfe. In fome fine fleeces there
will frequently be an intermixture of long, filvery, coarfe
hairs, and in other fine fleeces an intermixture of fhort,
thick, opaque hairs, called kemps. When the wool is thus
irregularly fine or intermixed, it is technically called not
homg true grotvn. The fine fleeces of Spain and Portugal,
particularly of the latter country, are many of them injured
by the intermixture of the long filvery hairs before-men-
tioned : whether this be owing to the original Tarentine
breed having been crofTed with the coarfe-woolled native
fheep of Spain, (fee the article Sheep,) and ilill preferving
a tendency to revert to their firfl condition, or whether it
be the effeft of heat on the ficin, is uncertain. The Saxony
fleeces, from the fame breed, removed to colder climates,
are generally free from this defedl. The coarfe fhort hairs,
or kemps, are not uncommon in fome of the fine-woolled
flocks of England and Wales, particularly thofe which are
more expofed to the inclemencies of the weather, and have
a fcanty or irregular fupply of food. It has been ob-
ferved, in the firfl part of the article Sheep, that in fome
flocks the proportion of fine wool in each fleece is much
greater than in others, for in few or none is the wool grown
uniformly fine over the whole body.

On the Merino flieep the fleece is more regular, whatever
be the degree of finenefs, than on any of our native Eng-
lifh fine-woolled breeds. The Merino fleece admits of a
divifion into four forts, the rejina, the jina, and the tercera,
vfith a very minute portion of coarfe from the flianks and
head, which is not fent to market. The three forts are
dilUnguiflied in commerce by the marks R, F, and T.

On the average, there will be m each fleece nearly threes
fourths of the befl or R wool. The fecond and third forts,
or the F and T, will alfo contain a confiderable portion as
fine as the befl ; but being fliorter and difcoloured, or m-
termixed with coarfe hairs, which require their locks to be
feparated from the befl fort, or the refina.

In the native Englifh fleeces, however fine fome part may
be, the proportion of the befl: fort rarely exceeds one-third
part, and is frequently not more than one-fixth part of the
whole fleece.

The value of the befl; part of a Spanifli fleece, or the
R wool, varies greatly in different flocks. When this fort,
from the mofl: efteemed flocks, may be worth fix (hillings
and fixpence per pound in the Englifli market, the R wool
from another flock may not be worth more than three fliil-
lings and fixpence. The F and T wools are from 25 to
^O per cent, lower than the firfl fort : thus, the inferior forts
from the finefl piles may be of greater value than the befl
fort or R wool of other piles ; but they are never inter-
mixed by the dealers, as they are applicable to different
fabrics. In the Englifli mode of wool-forting, there will
frequently be eight or ten forts in a fingle fleece ; and if the
beft^ wool of one fleece be not equal to the finefl; fort, it is
thrown to a fecond, third, or fourth, or a fl;ill lower fort,
which is of an equal degree of finenefs with it. The befl
Enghfli ftiort native fleeces, fuch as the fine Norfolk and
South Down, are generally divided by the wool-forter into
the following forts, varying in degree of finenefs from each
otlier, which are called.

Prime,

Choice,

Super,

Head,

Downrights,

Seconds,

Fine abb,

Coarfe abb.

Livery,

Short coarfe or breech wool.

Befides thefe forts of white clothing wool, two and
generally three forts of grey wool are made, confift;ing of
locks which may be black, or intermixed with grey hairs.
Some wool-forters alfo throw out any remarkably fine locks
in the prime, and make a fmall quantity of a fuperior fort,
which they call picklock. The origin of fome of the above
names is obfcure, but the names of the finer forts appear to
indicate either a progreflTive improvement in the quality
of the wool, or in the art of wool-forting. The relative
value of each fort varies confiderably, according to the
greater demand for coarfe, fine, or middle cloths ; and the
variation during and fince the late war in the Spanifli penia-
fula has been much increafed by temporary caufes. Before
that period, wlien the R wool of good Spanifh piles fold at
from five fliillings and fixpence to fix fhiUings per pound,
the prime from Herefordfhire fleeces was fold at about
three fliillings and fixpence, and that from the Norfolk and
South Down from three fliillings to three (hillings and two-
pence per pound. The higher price of the Herefordfhire
was in part owing to its being in a cleaner flate. The
Spanifh wool is alfo cleaner than any of the Englifli wools,
being fcoured after it is fhorn ; but the latter is only im-
perfetlly wafhed on the (heep, previoufly to its being fhorn.
A pack of Englifh clothing wool of 240 pounds weight,
in its marketable ftate, will walle about 70 pounds in the
procefa of the manufafture : the fame quantity of Spanifh
v/ool, as fent to market, will not walle more than 48 pounds

WOOL.

on the average. This contributes to enhance the difference
between the prices of each, as wrell as the fuperior finenefs
of the latter.

Different wool-forters make a confiderable variation in
their modes of forting the fame kind of fleeces : fome divide
them into more forts than others ; but the following table
\vill (hew what may be taken as the average relative value of
each fort, when the prime is worth about three (hiUings and
two-pence per pound, and may ferve to fhew the fldll re-
quired to eftimate the value of fine Englifli wool in the
fleece.

s.

d.

/.

d.

Prime

3

o

to

3

4

Choice

2

4

to

2

8

Super

2

o

to

2

2

Head

1

8

to

I

10

Downrights

I

5

to

I

6

Seconds

f

3

to

I

4

Fine abb

I

o

to

I

I

Coarfe ditto

O

9

to

o

lO

Livery

0

8

to

o

lO

Short coarfe

o

7

to

o

8

The demand for coarfe woollen goods having greatly
increafed of late, the prices of the lower forts are confider-
ably advanced from the above-ftated prices, and are at pre-
fent as under :

«?•

d.

Short coarfe

I

4

Livery
Fine abb

1

5
6

Seconds

I

7

Downrights
Head

I

8

lO

Super
Choice

2
2

o

2

Prime

2

6

Picklock

3

o

• per pound in London.

The Soflnefs of Jine clothing Wool is next in importance to
the finenefs of the fibre, though it has been too little at-
tended to in the culture of Englifti wool. This quality is
not dependent on the finenefs of the fibre ; it confifts in the
peculiar feel which approaches to that of filk or down, but
in which the wool of all European ftieep is inferior to that
of Eaftern Afia, or to the wool of the vicunna, Or lama of
Peru and Chih. In foreign European wools there are differ-
ent degrees of this property, where the fibre is equally fine.
In our native Englifh wools, the like difference exius be-
tween the foftnefs of wool poffeffing the fame degree of fine-
nefs, but grown in different diftrifts. In the harder wool,
the fibre is elaftic and hard to the touch, and cloth made
from it has the fame harfli feel ; it is alfo more loofe in its
texture, and the furface of the thread is generally more bare.
The difference in the value of cloth from two kinds of wool,
equally fine, but one diftinguifhed for its foftnefs, and the
other for the contrary quality, is fuch, that writh the fame
procefs and expence of manufafture, the one will make a
cloth more valuable than the other from twenty to twenty-
five per cent.

Though the Englifti woollen manufaftures had been car-
ried on for fo long a period, the caufe of this difference in
cloths made from wool equally fine was but very imperfeftly
known till the prefent century. Mr. Robert Bakewell, then
of Wakefield in Yorkftiire, firft direfted the attention of
wool-growers and manufafturers to this fubjeft, in a work,
entitled " Obliervations on the Influence of Soil and Climate

on Wool." The reafon why the manufafturers remained
fo long ignorant refpefting it arofe, he obferved, from
the manner in which the woollen-trade had been carried
on in Yorkftiire, the great feat of the manufafture of
Englifti clothing-wool, the divifion of employment there
not permitting the wool-dealer, or even the clothier, to
witnefs the final refult of the procefs. The wool-buver
in the dift.ant counties, and the wool-forter, who divided the
fleece, were equally unacquainted with the cloth manufac-
ture. The Yorkftiire clothier fold his goods in an undreffed,
and often in an undyed ftate ; they were bought and finiftied
by the cloth merchant, who was formerly unacquainted with
the previous proceffes of the manufafture, or the qualities of
wool. In a promifcuous lot of undreffed cloth bought at
the fame price, and apparently of the fame quality in the
rough fl;ate, if fome pieces were finiftied much better and
fofter than others, it was attributed to lucky chance, the
patron divinity of the ignorant. Mr. Bakewell proved that
the hardnefs of Enghfti wools does not depend on the nature
of the food, or even entirely on the breed ; it is the effeft
of the foil afting on the furface of the fleece. The wools
from chalk dittrifts, or light dry calcareous foils, have the
natural yolk or moifture abforbed by the particles of cal-
careous earth that penetrate the fleece, and the wool is
thereby rendered hard. The fame effeft is produced on a
flcin where hme is ufed ; it may alfo be produced by keeping
wool for a longer or ftiorter time in a dry hot temperature ;
and when wool has been fo dried, no procefs will reftore to
it its prilline foftnefs. On the contrary, wools grown on
rich loamy argillaceous foils are always difliinguiftied for
their foftnefs. The quantity of greafe or yolk in the fleece
has a confiderable degree of influence on the foftnefs of
Merino wool, the pile being fo clofe as in a confiderable de-
gree to prevent the earthy particles from penetrating the
fleece ; but in all Englifti fleeces the wool is grown thinner
on the fl<in, and admits the more eafy accefs of the abforbent
particles. Expofure to the diretl rays of a fummer fun has
alfo a tendency to injure the foft quality of the wool. We
ftiall have occafion to refer to the methods recommended
by Mr. Bakewell to improve the foftnefs of wool on foils
naturally unfavourable to its growth.

Of fine European wools, the Saxony generally poffeffes a
greater degree of foftnefs than the Spanifti, which we believe
to be owing to the ftieep being lefs expofed to the aftion of
light and heat. The native fine Italian wool, before the in-
troduftion of the Merino race, poffeffed a confiderable
degree of foftnef?, judging from wools which we have feen
from thence, but they were deficient in foundnefs, and not
true gro-jtin. The wools on the chalk foils in the fouthern
and eaftern fide of England are generally hard, except, as in
Kent, where the chalk is covered by thick argillaceous
beds. Nottingham foreft, Chamwood foreft in Leicefter-
ftiire, and fome parts of Shropftiire, produced not the fined,
but fome of the foftelt wools in England before the late in-
clofures. The Cheviot hills in Cumberland are not
paftured by the fineft-wooUed Englifti ftieep, but their
fleeces poffefs a degree of foftnefs exceeding any from the
other diftrifts of England, and they are rendered foft by
artificial means, which we ftiall defcribe. It is ilill fome-
what uncertain, whether there are two diftiiift breeds of
ftieep, from which the fine ftiawl wool of India are grown ;
or whether one fpecies of the animal which yields it is not
to be claffed with the goat. The fleeces from India, which
we have feen, are grown on a very fmall ftieep ; clofe to the
fliin, there is a wool as foft as the fofteft fur; this is covered
by long coarfe hairs growing through it. When the wool
is once ftiorn, the feparation of thefe hairs from the foft

wool

WOOL.

wool is a work of extreme difficulty ; but on the back of
the fheep we believe the feparation can be made with great
eafe. The foftnefs of the Indian wool is not even diftantly
approached in the very foftett Merino fleeces from Saxony
and Spain ; this may be proved by comparing the fineft
caffimere cloth from Saxony wool, with the (hawls or (hawl-
cloth of India. The ancient Tarentine fheep, called by
way of excellence ' molles oves,' were treated with pecu-
liar care by the Romans, and clothed in fliins, which we
believe was intended to preferve the foftnefs of the wool, as it
is ftill praftifed in fome parts of Afia for that purpofe. In
Europe no experiments have been made direftly to improve
the foftnefs of wool, though wool approaching in foftnefs
to that of India would be a moil valuable acquifition to
our manufaftures. To be convinced of this, it need only
be ftated, that the yarn from Indian wool has been fold
here at three guineas per pound, not on account of the
fuperior finenefs of the fpinning, but for the foftnefs of the
wool. For coarfe goods, indeed, fuch as blankets, car-
pets, and cloths called duffields, raifed with a hairy pile, a
confiderable degree of hardnefs or elafticity of the fibre is
an advantage ; but in all the finer articles of the woollen or
worlled manufafture, the oppofite quality is of great
value.

The felting property of wool is intimately conneAed
with its foftnefs, the fofteft wools having the greateft ten-
dency to felt, and the hard wools are all defective in this
refpeft. The felting property appears to depend on a
peculiar ftrufture of the furface of the fibres, by which they
are difpofed to move in one direftion more eafily than
another. This is perceptible in drawing a hair through the
fingers, firfl from the end to the point, and again from the
point to the end ; in one direftion the hair feels perfeftly
fmooth, in the other direftion a peculiar roughnefs is felt.
The caufe of this is fuppofed to be owing to the furface of
the fibres having laminae, like the fcales of fifhes, with the
edges laid over each other. Indeed in the furs of fome
animals we have obferved with a powerful microfcope, that
the furface is compofed of laminae laid over each other,
refembling the arrangement of the leaves of the artichoke.
On this property the procefs of hat-making depends ; the
fhort fibres of the fur being repeatedly compreffed, move
and interlock with each other, fo as to form a compaft fub-
flance ; this motion is further aided by heat and moifture.
A fimilar procefs takes place to a certain degree in cloth
fubjefted to the ftrokes of a fulling-mill ; the fibres cohere,
and the piece contrafts in length and breadth, and its tex-
ture is rendered more compaft and uniform. This procefs
is effential to the beauty and ftrength of woollen cloth ; and
it is obferved, that the fofter wools felt in much lefs time
than the harder, and form a clofer pile on the furface of the
cloth, on which account it is a common praftice to mix a
certain quantity of foft wool with the hard, to enable the
former to felt with more facility.

The length and foundnefs of the ftaple of clothing wool is
the quality next to be confidered. By the ftaple of wool is
meant the feparate locks into which the fleece naturally
divides in the fliin, each lock confifting of a certain number
of fibres, which coUeftively are called the ftaple.

The beft length of ftaple for fine clothing-wool, if found,
is from two to three inches. If it be longer it requires
breaking down to prepare it for the procefs of carding.
Saxony wool, being generally more tender than the Spanifh,
and more eafily broken down, is fometimes four or five
inches long ; but as it works down eafily, it is preferred, on
account or the length of its ftaple, for fuch goods which

Vol. XXXVIII.

require fine fpinning, as cafTimeres, pelifTe cloth, and fhawls.
Much of the Englilh clothing-wool of a middle quality
is grown longer than is defirable for the purpofe of the
clothier, and when found is thrown out for the hofiery
trade, if the demand for the latter be great. As the grower
could not fhorten the length of the ftaple without diminifhing
the weight of the fleece, he has no motive to induce him to
grow fhorter wool ; but the objeft might be obtained with
much benefit to himfelf by fhearing twice in the year, once
the latter end of April, and again the latter end of Auguft ;
the wool would then be grown of a fuitable length for the
card, and from experiments that have been made we beUeve
the weight would exceed what can be obtained from one clip :
the increafe would not be lefs than fifteen per cent., and
the condition of the fheep thereby improved.

The foundnefs of the ftaple in clothing-wools is not fo
important as in combing-wools ; but for fome kinds of co-
lours which injure the wool, it is particularly defirable that
the fibre fhould be found and ftrong ; this is judged of by
drawing out the ftaple and pulling it by both ends. The
foundnefs and ftrength of the ftaple depend primarily on
the healthy ftate of the animal, and on a fufficient fupply of
food. The ftaple on fome parts of the fleece will always be
more tender than on other parts, but by mixture they tend
to form a denfe pile on the furface of the cloth.

The colour of the fleece fhould always approach as much
as poflible to the pureft white, becaufe fuch wool is not only
neceffary for cloths dreffed white, but for all cloths to be
dyed bright colours, for which a clear white ground is re-
quired, to give a due degree of richnefs and luftre. It is
probable that all fheep's-wool was firft of a black or
reddifh colour : the latter is often referred to by the ancients.
Before the invention of dyeing, coloured wool muft have
had a preference to white ; but after the aft of communi-
eating beautiful colours to the fleece, white wool would be
in the greateft demand, and thofe flieep which had white
fleeces would be felefted to breed from. The moft ancient
flocks of fheep which we have any record of are thofe of La-
ban and Jacob, defcribed in the book of Genefis. The fleeces
appear to have been principally brown, or fpotted and ftriped,
which was in all probabiUty the general colour of the flocks
throughout that part of Afia. We learn that in the courfe
of twenty years a great change was effefted in the colour of
a large portion of the fheep of Laban : though Jacob ap.
pears to have concealed from his father-in-law the method
by which this change was effefted, we are exprefsly told in
the fequel that it was by crofling with rams which had fleeces
of the colours required.

Dark-brown or black wooUed fheep are not uncommon in
many parts of the European flocks, but fuch wool being
of lefs value than the white, thefe fheep ought always to be
expelled. Some of the Englifh fine-woolled fheep, as the
Norfolk and South-Down, have black or grey faces and
legs. In all fuch fheep there is a tendency to grow grey
wool on fome part of the body, or to produce fome grey
fibres intermixed with the fleece, which renders the wool
unfit for many kinds of white goods ; for though the black
hairs may be too few or minute to be detefted by the wool-
forter, yet when the cloth is ftoved they will become vifible,
forming reddifh fpots, by which its appearance is much in-
jured. The Herefordfliire fheep, which have white faces,
are entirely free from this defeft, and yield a fleece without
any admixture of grey hairs. We have no doubt that by
carefully rejefting thofe fheep firora the South-Down flocks,
in which the grey is moft apparent, this defeft might be
gradually removed. It is particularly defirable with refpeft

4 K to

WOOL.

to thefe (heep, as the wool grown on chalk foils, though
lefs foft than on other foils, is generally whiter, and better
fuited to fuch goods which require the procefs of bleaching
or ftoving, and do not require to be fo much fulled as many-
other cloths.

The ancients were fo well aware of the neceflity of ex-
pelling dark-coloured wool from their flocks, that in feleft-
ing the (heep to breed from, they did not truft to the colour
of the fleece alone, but carefully examined the mouth and
tongue of the ram, and if the lead blacknefs or fwarthinefs
appeared he was immediately rejefted; and though fome
moderns have doubted the ufe of this precaution, we believe
it was well founded.

" Ilium autem, quamvis aries fit candidus ipfe,
Nigra fubeft udo tantum cui lingua palato,
Rejice, ne maculis infufcet vellera pullis
Nafcentem." Vir. Georg. iii.

PKny alfo ftates, that particular attention was on this
account had to the colour of the mouth. " Arietum maxi-
nie fpeftantur ora." We are informed that this kind of
infpeftion takes place in the Spanifh flocks at prefent, a
praftice in all probability derived from the Roman fliep-
herds, as we beheve the flock to have been from thofe of
Italy, or the Tarentine breed. The colour of the foil on
which flieep graze, if very dark or red, communicates to
the wool a tint more or lefs ftrong, which is indelible, and
renders fuch wool lefs proper for cloths or hofiery goods
that are to be finiflied white ; for though the colour may be
improved by ft;oving, yet on wafliing the cloths, they foon
return to a brownifli or yellowifli tint. The tint from
the foil is, however, rarely of fufficient ftrength to be re-
garded for dyed goods, excepting for exceedingly light
colours.

The cleannefs of wool is principally regarded by the pur-
chafer, as it afFefts the weight. To the grower thofe fleeces
are generally the moft profitable that are well filled with
the greafe, or yolk as it is called, becaufe it keeps the wool
in a found ftate, and improves its foftnefs. It ought, how-
ever, to be waftied out as much as poffible before it is ex-
pofed to fale. The fleeces of the Merino flieep are more
plentifully fupplied with yolk than thofe of any of our
native fine-woolled breeds ; indeed it is fo abundant, that
the Englifti mode of wafhing on the back of the flieep will
fcarcely produce any effeft upon the fleece. The yolk or
greafe in the fleece appears, from the experiments made
upon it by M. Vauquelin, to be a native foap, confifting
principally of animal oil combined with potafh. It is moft
copioufly produced in thofe breeds which grow the fineft
and fofteft wool, and is always moft abundant on thofe parts
of the animal which yield the fineft parts of the fleece. To
this fubjeft we fliall again refer in treating of the improve-
ment of wool. This yolk, though fo beneficial to the wool
in a growing ftate, becomes mjurions to it when fliorn ; for
jf the fleeces remain piled in an unwaihed ftate, a ferment-
ation takes place, the yolk becomes hard, and the fibre is
rendered hard and brittle. This effeft takes place more
rapidly in hot weather. The Spaniards remove this yolk in
a great meafure by wafliing the wool after it is fliorn and
forted. In Saxony fine-wooUed flieep of the fame race are
waftied in tubs with warm water, foap-lees, and urine, and
afterwards in clean water.

In England the wool is waftied on the back of the flieep
by immergiug the animal in water, and fqueezing the fleece
with the hand. From thefe different modes of wafliing, the
wool is left more or lefs pure. Mr. Bakewell, in his Ob-

fervations on the Influence of Soil and Climate on Wool, has
given the following table, containing a ftatement of the quan-
tity of neat wool in every hundred pounds, taken on an
average of each fort, and fuppofing each to be free from
lumps of pitch employed in marking the wool, and cleared
from what are called the dog-locls. The firft column repre-
fents the average weight after the wool has been fcoured
perfeftly clean with foap and water, and dried ; the fecond
the amount of wafte.

Pure Wool. Wafte.
loo lbs. of Englifli wool waftied on the 1

flieep'sback - . . . j 75 25

Ditto Saxony fleece-wool - - 8o 20

Ditto Spanifti R, or refine - - 88 I2

Ditto Spanifli and Portugal unwaftied - 75 5J

Ditto Englifli fleeces unwaftied - - 60 40
Ditto lightly greafed wools of Northum-7 >

berland waftied on the flieep's back j ■' 55

Hence it is obvious, that the ftate of the fleece with
refpeft to cleannefs is an objeft of great importance to the
wool-buyer. The Englifti Merino flieep, from the diffi-
culty of wafliing the wool on the ftieep's back, have ge-
nerally been ftiorn in an unwaftied ftate, and the wool
offered for fale in this ftate. The purchafers were fre-
quently unacquainted with the great amount of the lofs it
would fuffer by waftiing, and were much difappointed at
the refult. This circumftance, we conceive, more than any
other, tended to prejudice the manufafturer ag^ainft the
Anglo-Merino wool. The wool is alfo injured by remain-
ing in the greafe, as we have before ftated, and though this
has been contradifted, we have no hefitation in afferting the
faft from our own experience. Indeed the French manu-
fafturers of fine cloth aflert, that the beft wools from Spain,
though cleared in a great meafure from the yolk, yet ftill retain
fufficient to injure the wool if it be fuffered to grow old when
it is packed, the yolk becoming rancid and hard, and commu-
nicating the latter property to the wool. We have frequently
obferved this effeft in the wools from Portugal, that retain
a greater portion of the yolk than thofe from Spain.

After wool has been waflied in the ufual manner prac-
tifed in England, and piled or packed, a certain procefs
takes place in eight or nine weeks, cdXitd.fiueattng. This
is well known to wool-dealers and manufafturers, but has not
been before noticed by any writer that we are acquainted with.
It is evidently an incipient fermentation of the remaining
yolk ; and the inner part of the pack or pile becomes fen-
fibly warm. This procefs produces a certain change in the
wool, whereby it becomes in a better condition for manu-
fafturing, being what is called in the north of England lefs
fuzzy. This effeft refults from a diminution of the natural \
elafticity of the fibre. '

When this fermentation takes place in unwaftied wool, it
proceeds farther, and injures the colour and foundnefs of the
ftaple or fibre. A fimilar effeft is produced in wool or
cloth which has been oiled, and remains fome time in an un-
fcoured ftate. Inftances of fpontaneous combuftion from
heaps of refufe wool remaining in a greafy ftate have been
known to occur, and occafion the moft ferious accidents in
woollen faftories.

The weight of the fleece is an objeft of great import-
ance to the grower. It is generally fuppofed by the Eng-
hfli wool-dealers, that an increafe of weight implied an in-
creafe of coarfenefs ; indeed the words coarfe and heavy are
confidered by them as fynonymous, but this is not abfolutely
10 ' the

WOOL.

the cafe ; a fleece grown upon the fame animal may be in-
creafed in weight either by the fibres becoming coarfer, or
by their being grown longer, or by a greater number of
fibres being grown in the fame flcin. To the wool-grower
it can never anfwer to increafe the weight of the fleece on
fmall fine-woolled flieep, by growing the wool coarfer ; if
this be his objeft, the long-wooUed breeds of ftieep are to
be preferred. He may produce wool fomewhat longer by
increafing the quantity of food ; but it generally lofes fome-
thing of its finenefs, and is lefs fuitable for the cloth trade.
He may, however, increafe the weight confiderably by fe-
lefting fuch breeds as grow the wool clofe upon the fkin,
and are thickly covered with wool over every part of the
body. In this refpeft, the Merino flieep have greatly the
advantage over any of the native breeds of Englifli flieep ;
many of them yielding from three to four pounds of pure wool,
whilft the fineft Englifli fleeces rarely exceed two pounds, and
would lofe one-fourth of this weight when brought to a pure
fl;ate by fcouring. It has been doubted whether all flieep's-
wool, when clean, poflefles the fame fpecific gravity ; but ad-
mitting there may be fome variation in the wool from different
piles, we conceive that it is too minute to deferve the atten-
tion of the wool-grower or manufafturer.

The filaments of fine wool being fo minute, it requires
an eye habituated by long experience to appreciate the re-
lative finenefs of two piles, which may diff^er in value as
much as twenty-five per cent. Even thofe who have been
long praftifed in fuch examinations find it difficult to form
immediately a correft opinion of the finenefs, if they are
removed for a few weeks from all opportunity of viewing
wool. It is not furprifing then that the wool-grower, who
only direfts his attention to the fubjeft during one part of
the year, fliould often be unable to judge whether his wool
has improved or not fince the preceding fummer. On this
account it would be highly defirable that fome eafy and
correft method of admeafurement by the micrometer could
be invented, which might enable the obferver to decide this
with certainty. Mr. Daubenton employed a graduated
fcale, adapting it to the eye-piece of a compound micro-
fcope ; but his method does not admit of accuracy. Mr.
Luccock made ufe of a more fimple inftrument, which
we have feen ; it confifl;ed of a lens about half an inch
in focal length, adjufl;ed to a graduated fcale. On this
fcale a number of fibres were flretched and comprefled
by a Aider and fcrew into a given fpace ; the filaments
covering this fpace were then counted by the aid of the
lens, and a number of admeafurements being taken of
the fame fort, the mean of the whole was fuppofed to
give the correft diameter of the filament. In this me-
thod, however, fome of the filaments mufl: unavoidably
overlap part of the others, on which account a greater num-
ber will be feen in a given fpace than there would be were
the whole diameter of each fibre vifible. The error refult-
jng from this may be ftated at one-fifth. Thus Mr. Luccock
makes the belt Englifli wool to meafure the fourteen-
hundredth part of an inch, which is finer than the bed
Spanifti, as meafured by Dr. Parry, by a more accurate
but more laborioas method. According to Mr. Luccock, a
fample of moderately fine Spanifli wool reached to the
fixteen-hundredth part of an inch ; according to Dr. Parry,
the very beft Spanifti is not fmaller than the fourteen-
hundredth part of an inch.

With the above deduftion of one-fifth, which we believe
to be a near approximation to correftnefs, the diameter of
the fibres of the beft; Englifli wool, as forted in the ufual
jnethod, will be nearly as follows :

Farts

s of an inch.

Prime

_i

Choice

-

-

TTTTT

tttW

Super
Head

_

_

I

I

Downrights

-

.

J

Seconds

_

I

Abb -

.

.

11 -rg-
I

5 U (1

Fine livery (variable)

-

T¥^

The method of meafurement adopted by Mr. Luccock
might be fufiiciently correft with the deduftion of one-fifth,
were the inft;rument always ufed by the fame perfon, and a
fimilar degree of preflure given in each experiment ; but as
this is required, it becomes uncertain in its refults, and
inadequate to praftical purpofes.

Dr. Parry's method of meafurement is eft'efted with an
inftrument fimilar in principle to the lamp micrometer of Dr.
Herfchel, of which an account is publiflied in the Philofophi-
calTranfaftions for 1782. (See Micrometer. ) An objeft
of a known diameter being placed in the focus of a compound
microfcope, and ftrongly illuminated, a piece of white paper
is placed horizontally at fome diftance beneath it ; then
looking through the microfcope with one eye, and keeping
the other fteadily open, you will fee the objeft apparently
projefted on the paper, which is to be meafured, whilil
viewing it, with a pair of compafles. Divide the length of
the image fo meafured with the known diameter of the ob-
je<S, which will give the magnifying power of the micro-
fcope. This being found, place the objeft you wifli to
meafure in the focus, and projefting its image on the paper
as before, meafure it with the compafles, and divide the re-
fult by the magnifying power, which will be the real mag-
nitude of the objeft required.

The light of a lamp is to be preferred to day-light, and
the fibres to be meafured are to hejlretched on a glafs, and
waxed down at both ends. The under fide of the glafs
ftiould be blackened with Indian ink, except in three parts,
the middle, and near the two ends. The unblackened fpaces
being placed in the focus of the microfcope, ten or more
filaments may be examined and meafured fucceffively, both
in the middle part of the glafs, and near the ends, which
will give the diameter of the filament at the upper and lower
end of the ftaple, and in the middle. Each lock of ten
filaments being thus examined in three diff'erent parts, the
mean of the three meafurements muft be taken for the mean
diameter of each filament, and the mean diameter of the
ten filaments may be taken for the finenefs of the whole
lock.

In place of the blackened glafs, we would recommend a
thin Aide of ivory or brafs, about five inches in length,
and half an inch in breadth, with three tranfverfe flits or
openings, one in the middle, and the two otliers about
three-fourths of an inch from each end. On this Aide the
filaments may be ftretched, it will not be liable to break, and
the edges of the filaments will be more correftly defined
than when a plate of glafs is placed under them.

The farther the paper is removed from the eye, the larger
will be the apparent fpace covered by the image of the
objeft, but it muft not be too far for the hand to meafure it
with compafles. But if in place of the compaffes we have
a flieet of pafteboard graduated into minute divifiong from a
black line upwards, and a Aiding index be adjufted, the
pafteboard may be placed at a much greater diftance, the
obferver adjutting the flide, until the edge of it and the
black line coincide with both edges of the filament. An
4 K 2 horizontal

WOOL.

horizontal pofition for the microfcope will be the moft con-
venient, illuminating the objeft with a lamp and lens. In
this way, the apparent diameter may be greatly increafed,
»nd we think the obfervations might be made with greater
cafe and accuracy.

By the above method the diameter of very minute hla-
ments may be afcertained, and minute differences deteded,
which the unaffilted eye is unable to deteft. We are aware,
however, that it requires fome addrefs and time to enable
the obferver to manage the inftrument, on which account it
cannot, we fear, be made generally ufeful.

The following admeafurements of different fine wools
were taken with Dr. Parry's inftrument ; the firft column
reprefents the outward end of the filament, the fecond
the middle, and the third the bottom, in fraftional parts of
an inch ; the latter column the mean of ten filaments of
the fame wool.

Table of comparative Diameters of the Filaments of
various Clothing Wools, by Dr. Parry.

Outward

Middle.

Inner

Mean.

End.

End.

Spani(h Ewe

1

TT3T

1

-TT^-s-

I
1 s ? 0

Lafleria Pile

TITT

I

TTTW

1

TTTT

mnrr

Ewe

10 4 3

-nrs-r

1

TVTT

Coronet Pile

f

TTXX

I
TTirw

TTTT

1

Native Merino Ram -

t-i'tt

I

TTTT

-r^W

I

Saxon . . -

Trrv

TT-Vx

"TT-rr

T-i'S I

Pidet's Merino Ram

T-TTT

TTi-r

tt'tt

I
TTTT

Beft Negrette Pile -

T 17-r

11/3

1

I
XTJT

Alva Pile

-n'-TT

I

-TTTT

I
TITT

Rambouillet Ewe

ToVr

1
Till

TT-j-r

I
TTIT

Imperial Pile

tt'tt

W-rr

ttVt

ttW

Morie . - -

I

T-srr

TTBT

TT7T

Ryeland ...

'i 0 i 1

I
TT-rs-

W-r.

I
1 1 ST

South Down

TTTT

tVtt

I

TT-T''

■ITT3

Anglo Negrette Ram

I

T-3-rj-

T^-r^

I
TTTT

I
TZTT

Negrette Ram, Marquis')

I

,

I

I

of Bath - - J

•B-rr

vry

law

TXTT

Charenton Ram

ttVt

TTT

-tbVc

I

Ryeland Ram -

■m

I
irra-

I

TUTT

1
TTT

Cape, 4th Crofs

1
■B-s-r

TTT

I

I
T-JT

Wilts Ewe

I
■9-7-T

T-3T

I

I

Long Wool, or Combing Wool, being prepared for fpinning
by a procefs entirely different from that of (hort or clothing
wool, and the pieces made from it being finifhed in a very
different manner, the qualities mofl required in this kind of
wool are length and foundnefs of the flaple, without which
the fleece is unfuited for the comb. The finenefs of the
hair is a fecondary quality, required only in certain kinds of
goods. The wool-comb is an inftrument of fimple con-
ftruftion, confifting of a wooden handle, with a tranfverfe
piece or head, in which are inferted three rows of long fteel
teeth. The wool, which is to be combed after being clean
fcoured, dried, and oiled, is firft drawn upon thefe teeth
with the hand, until the comb is fufiiciently loaded. It is
then placed on the knee of the comber, and another comb of
a fimilar kind is drawn through it, and the operation is re-
peated till all the bars or fibres are combed fmooth in one
diredion. This operation requires confiderable ftrength,
but the comb being previoufly heated, and the wool tho-
roughly oiled, facilitates the procefs. When completed the

combed wool is drawn off with the fingers, forming what is
called aJJiver; the (horter part of the wool fticks in the
teeth of the comb, and is called the noyi: this is fold to the
clothiers.

From the above defcription, it is evident that if the ftaple
of the wool be not found, the greater part of it will be
broken by the procefs of combing, and form noyls. The
ftaple muft alfo have a fufficient degree of length for the
combs to operate upon it. Length and foundnefs of the
ftaple are therefore the moft effential and charafteriftic qua-
hties of combing-wools.

Long wools may be claffed into two kinds : firft, thofe
fuited for the manufadlure of hard yarn for worfted pieces ;
and fecond, thofe fuited for the manufafture of foft yam
ufed for hofiery. The former require a greater length of
ftaple than the latter. The firft may therefore be called
long combing-wool, and the latter (hort combing-wool ;
between thefe there are gradations of wool, which may be
apphed to either purpofe.

Long combing-wool fhould have the ftaple from fix
inches to eight, ten, or even twelve, in length. Before the
recent improvements in fpinning by machinery, a very great
length of ftaple was confidered as an excellence in long
combing-wools ; and on this account the hog-wool, or the
firft fleeces from (heep which had not been fhom when
lambs, was more valuable than the wether wool from the
fame flock, and bore a higher price than the former, by at
leaft fifteen per cent. Since that time the wether wool has
rifen in relative value on account of the evennefs of the
ftaple, each lock being nearly equally thick at both ends ;
but the ftaple of hog-wool is pointed, or what is technically
called ^iriyi. Eight inches, if the wool be found, may be
regarded as a very proper length for heavy combing-wools.
The longer ftapled wool was formerly worked by itfelf,
and ufed for the finer fpun yarn, or mixed in fmall
quantities with the wether wool, to improve the fpinning.
It is found that an equal length of ftaple contributes to the
evennefs of the thread when fpun by machinery, and a very
great length of ftaple is rather injurious than otherwife in
the procefs of machine fpinning. To the wool-grower,
however, it muft always be defirable to iucreafe the length
of his heavy combing fleeces, as he thereby materially in-
creafes the weight ; and we have not yet learned that the
price has ever been reduced on this account, for if the wool
be too long for fome branches of the worfted manufafture,
there are others in which it may be worked with advantage.

The length of the ftaple may be increaled by a plentiful
fupply of nutritious food. The fame effeft may alfo be
produced by letting the wool remain a longer lime on the
fheep before it is fliorn. We have feen a ftaple of Lincoln-
fhire wool which was twenty inches in length : it had grown
tv.'o years without (hearing. This, however, would be un-
attended with any advantage to the grower. The more
frequently fheep are (horn, provided the wool is fufEciently
long, the greater will be the weight grown in a given time
on the fame inimal ; for, from obfervations which we have
made, we are fatisfied that wool is grown more rapidly im-
mediately after the fheep are fhorn than at any other time.
Length of ftaple in wool depends primarily on the breed,
but may be more affefted by culture than many other quzili-
ties of the fleece. The foundnefs of the ftaple may be eafily
judged of by pulling both ends of it with the fingers with,
confiderable force. In weak or unfound wool the ftaple
eafily breaks in one or more parts, and on obferving it, it
will be feen that the fibres are much thinner in the part "
which breaks. This is occafioned either by a deficient fup-
ply

WOOL.

)ly of food, by difeafe, or by inclement feafons, which
aufe a ftoppage in the growth of the fleece. This goes on
o a greater or lefs degree. In fome inftances, the ftoppage
^las been fo entire that the upper part of the ft a pie is nearly
eparated from the lower, and is only conneded with it by
few filaments : in fuch cafes, the ftoppage has continued
or a confiderable time, and the bottom part of the ftaple
lay be confidered, as a new fleece, protruding the old one
rom the ikin. Conneaed with the foundnefs of wool,
here is another property required ; this is, that the ftaple be
ree and open, or that the fibres fhall not be matted or
elted together; an efFe<ft which takes place frequently when
he wool is unfound. It is in fad a natural felting of the
»ool on the back of the animal, when by any caute it has
i:eafed to grow. Sometimes the lower part of the fleece
;iext the Ikin will be fo completely matted as to form a fub-
tance nearly as hard as a hat, and will hold to the lltin by a
ew hairs only. Thefe are called cotted fleeces ; all ap-
)roach to this ftate is peculiarly injurious to combing-wools.
The wool-buyers generally throw out the cotted and un-
ound fleeces when they pack the wool from the grower, and
juy them at a very reduced price. The foftnefs of combing-
Vool, though of lefs importance than in clothing-wool, yet
inhances its value, as it is found that fuch wool makes a
;lofer and fofter thread, and in every procefs of the manu-
"afture fiiiiflies more kindly. Combing-wools grown on light
!:alcareous foils are deficient in this refpedl ; fuch are the
combing-wools of Oxfordftiire and the Cotfwold hills,
!which are formed of that fpecies of lime-ftone called oolite,
jr roe-ftone. A copious fupply of the yolk is necelfary to
iihe healthy condition of the fleece, and as this in many
locks is nearly equal in weight to the wool, the fleeces
contain from fix to eight pounds or more of it before
they are waflied, for in the unwa(hed ftate they often weigh
jighteen pounds in many of the long-wooUed flocks in
|England.

i The whitenefs of the fleece is lefs important in the long
icombing than in clothing wool, provided it be free from
igrey hairs. The latter circumftance does not frequently
bccur in combing-wools. There is, however, a peculiar
irolour communicated by the foil, which is fometimes fo
deep as to injure the wool for particular ufes, and what is of
more importance, there is a dingy -brown colour given to the
'fleece by impoveriftied keeping or difeafe, which is called a
'winter Jla'in ; it is a fure indication that the wool is not in a
'thoroughly found Hate, and fuch fleeces are carefully thrown
lout by the wool-forter, being only fuited for thofe goods
'which are to be dyed dark colours.

The finenefs of heavy combing-wool is of lefs importance
'than the other qualities. In every fleece of this kind there
iwill be a certain fmall portion of ftiort clothing-wool on the
ihanks, the belly, the throat, and the buttocks. The
Iclothing-wool from fuch fleeces is not often divided into
imore than two or three low forts, and the combing-wool is
Ifeldom thrown into more than four forts, that is, two forts
'of the hog-wool, and two forts of the wether-wool, of
'which three-fourths, if the fleece be good, will form the
Ibeft fort in each.

There is, however, a fine long combing-wool which is re-
[ quired for bombazines and the finer kinds of worfted goods;
Ithis is moft frequently felefted from the longer parts of
i clothing fleeces, and admits a divifion into four or five
forts, the fineft being equal in hair to that of the head or
' fuper in clothing -wool ; whereas the beft fort of the com-
1 mon heavy combing-wools feldom ranges higher in point of
1 finenefs than the coarfeft fort of clothing-wool above the
'• breech locks ; w'z. the low abb and the livery.

Short combing or hofiery wool requires a different length
of ftaple, according to its finenefs: for the better forts,
the ftaple fliould not be ftiorter than four or five inches ; the
lower forts may range as high as eight inches. A greater
length than this is not defirable for any kind of foft worfted.
What has been faid of the foundnefs and finenefs of ftaple
required for long combing-wool, applies equally to the
hofiery wool, but in this the finenefs of the hair and foftnefs
are of more importance. Moft of the fleeces which yield
fine combing-wool produce nearly an equal quantity of fliort
wool, which is thrown in the fame manner as the regular
clothing forts. The combing forts for the hofiery are gene-
rally called.

Super matching.
Fine matching,
Fine drawing.
Altered drawing.
Brown drawing,
Saycaft.

The names of thefe forts derive their origin from ancient
proceffes of the manufafture, with which we are unac-
quainted at prefent. The lower fort, or faycaft, was pro-
bably at firft the long coarfe combing-wool, thrown out for
the manufafture of fays, of which we have frequent men-
tion in the earlieft hiftory of the woollen trade in England.
The relative value of thefe forts, compared with each other,
varies according to the demand for the finer or coarfer kinds
of hofiery, and is alfo affefted by the clothing trade. When
any clothing fort which ranges in finenefs with one of the
combing forts is in great demand, the wool-forter will break
down the (horter combing-wool of this fort, and throw it to
the clothing-wool, which enhances the price of the former
by making it fcarce. The finenefs of thefe forts out of the
beft combing-wools, ftated numerically, as compared with
clothing forts, will be nearly as under, in the fraftional
parts of an inch.

Super matching

Fine matching

Fine drawing

Altered drawing

Brown drawing - - ^„

Saycaft - ,f^

Moft of the beft forters throw out the hog combing-wool
from the beft forts, making a fuperfine hog for the bomba-
zine trade, hog-wool being lefs fuitable for the hofiery,
which does not require yarn fo finely fpun as for hard yam.

As all the different forts of ftiort combing-wool, together
with feveral forts of clothing-wool, will frequently occur in
one Enghfh fleece, it is obvioufly the intereft of the grower
that his fleece fliould produce as great a proportion of the
beft forts as can be done without materially diminifliing the
weight.

Skin Wool, or Pelt Wool, is the wool feparated from the
llcins of flaughtered fheep by the fellmonger. The quantity
of this wool, in a country hke England, where fo much ani-
mal food is confumed, is very confiderable, and has been
eftimated at near 50,000 packs of 240lb8. per annum, for
England and Wales. Soon after fliearing, the fkin-wool is
too fhort to be worked by itfelf, and is generally kept and
mixed in with the longer wools. The procefs by which
wool is feparated from the (Icins has a tendency to make it
hard, and deftroy or injure its felting or milling property,
on which account fhort-fliin wools are feldom ufed for the
manufafture of cloth, but more generally for flannels, ferges,
and thofe kinds of goods which require little or no milling ;

4 the

1

1
TUTT

WOOL.

the fineft kinds are much ufed for (lockings made of
yarn from carded wool. In the fpring, when the wool on
the (kins has acquired a confiderable length, it is thrown
into combing forts; the finer kinds are ufed for knitting
hofiery yarn, and the coarfer for hard yarn for the warps
of ferges and other goods, having a warp of combed and a
weft of carded wool. The value of (Icin-wool is feldom
equal to that of fleece-wool of tlie fame degree of length
and finenefs, owing to the felting property being injured,
which renders it more unfit for the mamifafture of woollen
cloth.

Lamb's Wool. — The wool of the lamb is, with certam
exceptions, fofter than that of (heep's-wool, from the fame
flocks. It poflfeffes the property of felting in a remarkable
degree, and on this account is principally manufaftured into
hats, except (liin lamb's-wool, which lofing its felting pro-
perty in a great degree, is employed in the manufafture of
flannels and woollen yarn for lamb's-wool hofiery. In the
northern parts of Europe, the lambs of fome of the breeds
of (heep poffefs a fleece fo dehcately foft, that it con-
ftitutes a mod valuable fur, being dre{red on the flcin, and
ufed as a codly article of attire. According to Pallas, the
inhabitants of the Ukrain and Podoli, as foon as the lamb is
dropped, (which comes into the world with a pretty wavy
flcin, even without the alTiftance of art,) to augment its
beauty, and make it bring a higher price, few it up in a
fort of coarfe linen fliirt, fo as to keep up a conftant gentle
prelTure on the wool, pouring warm water over it every day
to make it foft and fleek ; only letting out the bandage a
little from time to time as the animal increafes in fize, but
ilill keeping it tight enough to effeft their purpofe, which
is to lay the nvool in beautiful glody ringlets, and thereby
produce a delicate fpecies of fur in great requeft for lining
clothes and morning-gowns. By this treatment, the (laple of
the fine foft wool which rifes in the infancy of the lamb takes a
handfome arrangement ; and the animal is killed younger or
older according to the fpecies of fur intended to be pro-
duced ; from a (hort glofly nap, like fatin, only fit from its
thinnefs for the purpofe mentioned above, to a warm thick
fur for a winter great-coat. The fird of thefe furs in efti-
mation and price is a fine black, that looks like filk dama(Ic ;
an inferior black fur comes next, much thicker, ufed for
pdiffes, or Jhubes, as the upper winter garb worn out of doors
is called ; and the lead in edimation is the whiteft, except it
lie of a very pure colour and filky appearance, where it is a
rival to the fird ; efpecially for night-gowns, a very common
drefs both morning and evening amongd the Ruffians ; par-
ticularly in the interior parts of the empire.

The Boucharian (heep, as defcribed by Pallas, grows a com-
paft, foft, and eladic wool, which is elegantly formed into
frizzled ringlets. In the lamb, the wool is formed into
delicate little circular waves, as if preiTed clofe to the (liin
by art ; but when taken from the mother, or killed imme-
diately after birth, they are dill more beautiful, and often
elegantly marbled with feathered waves, like filk damadc.
Thefe three furs are the fined and mod precious of the kind
known to Europe and the Ead ; they are brought to us by
the Boucharian Tartars and Perfians, who fell them dear.
The mod prized are, the blue, the black, and the filver grey ;
but of the unborn lamb-Jilns, as the fine gloffy thin furs are
called, which fo much refemble filk damafk, the fine black
is deared and mod eiteemed. To obtain thefe valuable furs,
the Boucharian Tartars purchafe whole flocks of male lambs
jud dropped from their mothers : as to kill a female till pad
the age of breeding is held as a kind of crime by all Tartar
hordes ; fuch is their reverence for an animal which condi-
tutes their greateft; riches, and the propagation and care of

which are the great bufinefa of their lives ; fo that all the fiir
we fee of this fpecies fold by the Tartars are from young
rams. The Boucharians are of opinion, that art is nece(rary
to preferve thefe furs in their greated beauty ; and under
that idea, keep the lambs under fhades, &c. during the me-
ridian ardour of the fun ; but Dr. Pallas has reafon to think,
that thefe precautions are ufelefs, as he obferved that the
fame variety of (heep produced the fame fine hues equal in
every refpeft, without any fort of care, in the hands of the
Kirguite Tartars.

It is very remarkable that the lamb's-wool, in many of the
Merino flocks, is coarfer than the (heep's-wool. In fome
of the flocks, the lambs are at fird covered with coarfe
hair, which falls off afterwards, and they produce the fineft
wool.

Wool from other animals befides the fheep is employed
in manufaftures, and fpun and woven into fabrics of diflferent
kinds, either unmixed or mixed with (heep's-wool. The
goats of Thibet, which grow the fine (hawl wool, produce
it as a fine down at the bottom of the long coarfe hair, with
which the animals are covered. Many of the common goats
in Europe grow a fimilar down, which, by cultivation,
might become a valuable article of commerce. It is not,
however, yet clearly afcertained, whether the fliawls and
(hawl cloth of India are all manufaftured from goat's-wool ;
part of it appears to be made from (heep's-wool peculiarly
foft and fine. The Angora goat grows a hair extremely
fine and filky, which is much ufed in fome of the French
worded goods mixed with filk. This goat is properly a
long-woolled animal. Dr. Anderfon fays, that the Angora
goat will profper and preferve its peculiarities in France
and Sweden. The wool of the vicunna, called Vigonia wool,
is generally of a reddifli-fawn colour; it is pecuharly foft and
filky, but intermixed with long coarfe hairs, which are very
difficult to feparate. ( See Vicunna. ) From the lama and
pacos of Peru a dronger and longer dapled wool is obtained,
which is fometimes white. Under a liberal government
which protefted and encouraged commerce, we have no
doubt the fleeces of thefe animals might be greatly improved,
and would become an article of great value. The wool
from the yak of Tartary, and the muflc ox of Hudfon's bay,
has yet received little attention. We have feen dockings
made of the latter, and which are worn in that country ;
the wool was foft but not fine, and much intermixed with
long coarfe hairs.

The quantity of (heep's-wool annually grown in England
and Wales was edimated, by perfons in the wool trade
examined before the houfe of commons in the year 1 800, at
fix hundred thoufand packs. Mr. Luccock, in his Treatife
on Wool, feems to confider this edimate as greatly exceed-
ing the real amount, and has given an edimate founded on
the fuppofed extent of furface padured by (heep, and the
quantity of fheep per acre in each county. This table we
fubjoin, as the only attempt that we know of to determine
the queftion on certain data ; though we confider it only
as an approximation to truth, and are inclined to believe
that the quantity is under the real amount. Such is alfo
the opinion of the mod intelligent perfons in the wool
trade, whom we have had an opportunity of confulting.

From this table, it will appear that the total amount, in-
cluding /liin-wool and lamb's-wool, is fomewhat fliort of
four hundred thoufand packs, which is probably one-fourth
below the true quantity, could it be afcertained. Mr.
Luccock is inclined to beheve that the flocks of (heep in
England and Wales are not fo numerous as formerly, but
he fays thofe of Ireland and Scotland are rapidly in-
creafing. Evpn in England and Wales, he fays, we have

more

WOOL.

nore than three millions of acres capable of being improved,
ind carrying a more numerous ilock. We have two mil-
ions of (heep whofe fleeces are fcarcely wool, and which
■night be brought to contribute their fhare to fupport the
ivoollen manufafture, and to increafe the wealth of the
:ountry.

It may be proper to remark, that the quantity of wool
Trown annually in England is more variable than is ge-
lerally fuppofed, owing to the variable temperature of our
:limate. In long-continued and fevere winters, the (heep
lot obtaining the fame quantity of food, and being alfo ren-
lered lefs vigorous by the cold, do not grow fo much wool
is in milder feafons. The difference between the weight
)f the fleeces grown in fevere and in very mild feafons,
nav be ftated at one-fifth of the whole annual clip : indeed
ire believe it exceeds that proportion. About the year
1700, the annual value of Englidi wool was eftimated at
two millions fterling. If we fuppofe the average price at
that time to have been eight-pence per pound, or eight
poimds per pack, this will make the total weight of
wool two hundred and fifty thoufand packs. Indeed when

we confider the improved tlate of our agriculture, the
great increafe of our population, and of our woollen exports,
we may fairly ftate the prefent weight of wool grown to be
double the amount of what it was at the period referred to.
In a fubfequent part of this article, it will be feen that the
cloth manufaftures of Yorkfliirc, principally from Englifll
wools, have increafed eight-fold in the lall eighty years ; and
though the woollen manufaftures have removed from fome
other fituations, yet the great increafe on the whole in Eng-
land cannot be doubted. Since the date of Mr. Luccock's
table in 1805, in confequence of the high price of long
combing-wool, the growers have paid more attention to the
weight of their fleeces ; and many who had rendered their
fleeces lighter by exchanging the Lincolnfhire for the
Leiceiter breeds of fheep, have fince been reverting to the
former breed, or rather to a mixed breed, endeavouring to
combine the improved form of the Leicefler flieep with the
heavy fleece of the Lincoln. The quantity of long corab-
ing-wool grown annually is greater than it was even ten
years fince ; the high and increafing price and demand
operating naturally as a premium, for its cultivation.

Table I Shewing the Produce of Englifli Long Wool.

Dittria.

County.

No. of Acres.

No. of Sheep.

Weiglit of
Fleece.

No. of Packs.

Teefwater

■

"Durham

Yorkihire

100800
61250

67200
14310

9
8

2520

477

'Holdernefs ....

127680

84000

8

2800

Lincoln rich land ...

413875

1241625

9

46561

.

marflies . - - .

175000

87500

8

2916

Lincoln

.

mifcellaneous land -

758485

505657

8

16855

Norfolk

55428

38500

7

1223

Cambridge . - - - .

187600

41688

8

1390

^^ Huntingdon ....

87500

87500

7

1552

r Leicefter . . . - -
Northampton ....

398650

380528

7

1 1 100

560000

64OOCO

6

16000

Leicefter

^ Rutland

I I 7000

II 4000

5

2370

Warwick .....

182875

160000

5

3333

Stafford

14000

3720

7

'•3

Kent -

' Romney Marfh - - - -

46920

185000

7

5400

Other Marfhes ....

65000

108330

7

3160

Devon/hire

South Hams ....

387500

193750

8

6458

Cotfwold - 1 Gloucefter

Slaughtered 1

200000

200000

8

6666

3939563

4153308

'3'794

76770 Sheep

■ .

96128 Produc

ing long-fldn wool 5720 Pack
Carrion wool 286

8.

5434

Neat'

rotal

137228

Table

Diftria.

Norfolk

Wiltfhire

Weftern

Hereford

Heath

Weini

WOOL.

Table II.— Englifti Short Wool.

County.

i

1

Norfolk -

Suffolk

Cambridge

Huntingdon

Bedford

Eflex

Suflex Downs

Low Land

Kent

Hampfhire

IHe of Wight
_ Surrey

"Wiltfhire Downs
Pafture

Berkfhire

Oxford

Bucks

Herts

Middlefex

Dorfet

Devon

Cornwall

Somerfet

Gloucefter -

Hereford

Monmouth

Worcefter

Shropfhire

Stafford

Warwick

Leicefter

Lincoln

Nottingham

Derby
'Chefter

Lancafter -

York Weft Riding
Eaft Riding
North Riding

Weftmoreland

Cumberland

Durham

Northumberland
'North Wales
■ South Wales

Ifle of Man

Slaughtered

i

No. cf Acres.

Carrion . . - -

Slaughter of long-wool flieep
Carrion of ditto brought forward

Wool from lambs flaughtered
Ditto fhom

1260572
817000
8 1 7600
144000
268800
77B400
211 200
623840
728000
774900

87500
327600
437000
235000
408800
380730
408800
369600

76000
700000
873700
8 1 2000
851200
528000
672000
322625
369600
739200
549360

3^5925

50000

309120

435680

553280

588000

952000

1429250

454720

I 200000

431200

856800

414400

I 108800

2035200

2284800

No. of Sheep.

28412202

683704
497000
67744
108000
204000

5 I 9000
316800
547000

5 1 6600
61000
283000
583500
117500
306600
304584
222968
277000
45000
632240
436850
203C00
500700
355000
500000
177619

330504
422034
183120
182962
20000
123648

255147
362400
65000
310000
383122
306240
365326
378400
378400

i593«5
538162
683040
571200

14854299

4221748 (heep

211087
9S0642

Weight of
Fleece.

4l

5

3

2

3
3i

u
k

u

Various.
3

4^
4

ji
3*

4

4

4^
Various.

2

Various.

3l

Various.

3
Various.

34
Various.

Various.
3^
3i
5

Sh
2

3-25

Packs Skin Wool.

28580

1429

12258

286

Total of fliort wool
Ditto long ditto

2918

7800

Grand total

42553
245290
137228

10718
393236

WOOL.

N.B — The average fleece of England, '
nearly

Do. fhort wool

Do. Ion? wool

Do. " • ^

England

ftock per acre in

':}

il
il

-■}

lbs.

4

3

7

4
lo

Do. . • do. long wool

Do. ■ — do. fhort wool

Do. produce per acre

long fleece wool -

Do. do. fliort do.

Do. do. long fl<in wool

Do. do. fliort do.

Do. . do. flfin wool of)

the kingdom, nearly - -J

?°fli.

5
5

4

The wool of Scotland may, perhaps, be efl;imated at
70,000 packs, of which the greater part, particularly that
grown in the Highlands, is of the very coarfeft: kind. Of
the quantity of wool grown in Ireland, we can form no cor-
rect eftimate, but it cannot be great. From the returns at
the Cuft;om-houfe, it appears that the quantity of wool im-
ported from Ireland and the IfleofManin 1816 amounted to
about 2600 packs ; whilfl.the value of woollens imported from
England was upwards of 500,000/. fterhng. The woollen
and worfted manufaftures in Ireland are no where on an exten-
five fcale ; perhaps 60,000 packs are the full amount of the
wool annually fliorn in Ireland : this was the amount fl;ated
about a century fince.

The quantity of wool imported into England may be
feen from the following return at the Cuftom-houfe for the
year 181 7, amounting to 'about thirty thoufand packs.
The qualities we have annexed in the lall column.

An Account of the Quantity of Sheep and Lamb's Wool im-
ported into Great Britain, in the Year ending 5th January
1817; dillinguifliing the Countries from whence imported.

Countries from whence
imported.

Year ending
5th Jan. I8I7.

Quality.

Ruflia

Ihs.
228,673

Coarfe.

Denmark
Iceland and Feroe

80,646
33.395

Principally coarfe.
Coarfe.

Pruffia -

16,712

Fine clothing-wool.

Germany

Holland -

Flanders - . .

2,816,655

H3.390

77.625

Principally ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

France - . .

.221,595

Ditto.

Portugal, &c. -
Spain - - .
Gibraltar -

493.277

2,958,607

25,692

Ditto.
Ditto.
Coarfe.

Italy

Turkey . . -

Ireland and Ifle of 1

Man (produce) j

108,234
26,821

600,377

Principally fine.

Fine,
f Various, none
\ very fine.

(foreign)

New Holland -

1,171
13,611

Fine Merino.

Cape of Good Hope
United StatesofAme-1
rica - - -j

9,623
43.465

Ditto.
Various.

Spanifti colonies in 1
South America -J

206,454

Ditto.

Brafils -

'^,1-^-2

Ditto.

Britifli Weft Indies -
Total

6,329

Ditto.

8,117,864

Vol. XXXVIII.

The whole of the imported wool, with fcarcely an ex-
ception, is worked on the card, none of it ^I'ng fuited for
the comb. The coarfer kinds are principally employed
for carpets, &c. ; and the fine from Spain, Germany, Por-
tugal, and France, fupply our manufaftures of fup'erfine
broad cloths, cafiimcrcs, &c. So large a portion being of
the finer kinds, the total value cannot be lefs than one
million and a half pounds fterling.

Wool of Neiv Holland. — The annual value and amount of
the fine wool imported into England for our own manufac-
tures being fo great, we muft furely applaud the meritorious
exertions of thofe who attempt to fupply the demand with
the produce of our own country, or of our dependent colo-
nies, and more particularly if they can raife this fupply from
parts where no wool was before grown. In this view, it can-
not fail to be highly intercfting to learn, that the exertions
of one enlightened agriculturift have been eminently fuccefs-
ful in fpreading over an iinnienfe region dependent on Eng-
land the very fineft-woolled flieep, where the foil had never
before yielded any produce ferviceable to civilized man.

John Macarthur, efq. defcended from an ancient family
in Argylefliire, captain in a regiment then commanded by
general Grofe, went to New Holland in 1789, Fortunately
for the future profperity of the colony, his aftive fpirit of
inquiry and enterprifc led him to direft his attention to the
natural advantages which the foil and climate prefented to
the agriculturift, and having by purchafe and grants ob-
tained a confiderable traft of country, he quitted the fervice
in 1793, ^"'^ commenced his farming operations. His ftock
at firft confifted only of a few oxen and thirty Bengal ewes
growing a coarfe kind of wool or hair. About the year
1795, he obtained from captain Kent, of the Royal Navy,
one Merino ram and two ewes, purchafed from the Dutch
governor of the Cape of Good Hope. With thefe he
began to crofs his coarfe-haired flieep, and to feleft the
fineft-woolled progeny to breed from. Having occafion to
return to England in 1802, he brought over fpecimens of
his wool, which were fliewn to a body of the clothiers from
the weft of England, then in London on public bufinefs,
who were fo fenfible of the advantages which might refult
from encouraging the growth of fine wool in the colony
that they prefented a petition to the privy council, by whom
Mr. Macarthur was examined. His plans being approved^
the privy council recommended the fecretary of ftate for the
colonies to give him an additional grant of land, in a traft of
country, from itsfertility, called the cow-paftures,forming part
of Camden county. On his return he took with him three
Merino rams and two ewes, purchafed from his majefty's
flocks ; and thus encouraged, he proceeded with rapid fteps
in the increafe and improvement of his flocks, the climate
being every way fuited to fecure the healthy condition of the
flieep, and preferve the finenefs of the wool.

The numbers increafe four-fold every five years, fo that
his flocks already amounted to about four thoufand flieep and
lambs, including the fine and mixed breeds, when the unfortu-
nate difputes with governor Blight, and the fubfequent arreft
of the latter, obhged Mr. Macarthur once more to return to
England, and in fome degree interrupted the progrefs of im-
provement. In 1 8 17 his flocks had increafed to about feven
thoufand, and the wool which has been fent to this country
at different times, is become an important fource of profit,
the better fort being equal to the beft Merino piles from
Spain or Saxony. What we have feen more nearly re-
fembles the latter, and were they both in the fame ftate of
cleannefs, the moft experienced eye could not difcern any
difference between them in finenefs of the hair, length of
ftaple, foundnefs, colour, or other properties.

4L The

WOOL.

The wool has been hitherto wafhed on the flieep's back
in the Englifh method, by which it is not rendered fo clean
as by the Spanifh or German mode ; but making allowance
for the additional wafte, its value is equal to that of the
rery beft. Merino wool imported from any part of Europe.

The quantity imported this year is about eighteen thou-
fand pounds weight, and a farther arrival is expefted.
The laudable example of Mr. Macarthur has been followed
by other perfons in the colony, and the total amount of
wool fent from thence this year is about fifty thoufand
pounds weight ; and fuch is the fpirit of agricultural im-
provement, that at the annual fales of (heep eftablifhed by
Mr. Macarthur, rams and ewes have been fold at from ten
to thirty guineas each. Though the abfence of Mr. Mac-
arthur impeded the progrefs of improvement, yet this will
be more than compenfated by the valuable information he
has obtained with refpeft to the management and improve-
ment of his flocks, from obftrvations made on the continent ;
and he has further benefited the colony by taking back
with him a feleftion of olive-trees, vines, and oranges. The
drynefs and mildnefs of the climate of New Holland, and
the almoft total abfence of briars and underwood, are ex-
tremely favourable to iheep. His ftock is divided into
flocks of about four hundred, with (hepherds and Spanilh
dogs to each. Under thefe propitious circumftances, and
as the flocks double in number every thirty months, we may
anticipate, that in the courfe of twenty or twenty-five years,
the importation of fine wool from this colony will be fully
equal to the total amount at prefent imported into England
from all the different countries of Europe. It might repay
the exertions of this enlightened agriculturift, and of the Bri-
tifli government, could they procure from India the animals,
yhether fheep or goats, which yield the peculiarly foft
wool for ftiawls. This would be a moil valuable article,
and is much wanted by our manufafturers.

There can fcarcely be a doubt, that under the favourable
climate of the Britifli fettlements in New Holland, all the
Afiatic wool-bearing animals, particularly thofe of Cafhmere
and Thibet, might be introduced with every profpeft of
fuccefs. The coarfe wool grown in the colony is chiefly
manufaftured in the country for domeftic ufe. It is efti-
mated that there are at prefent fixty thoufand (heep in the
eolony, and a little perfeverance and attention would fuiEce
to change the coarfe-wooUed breeds into finer ones ; a
change which is at prefent rapidly taking place, and deferves
the greateft encouragement, as wool is the only article of
produce which the colonifts have at prefent to export in
exchange for Britifli manufaftured goods.

Tie Improvement of Wool depends primarily on attention
to the breed of flieep, but there are various circumftances of
foil, climate, and food, which are important to be regarded.
The experiments that have been made in various parts of
Europe within the laft half century, have fufSciently re-
moved the prejudice that long prevailed, refpefting the im-
poflibihty of growing the fineft clothing-wool in almoft
every part of the globe where fheep will fubfiil and thrive.
It is diflerent with the long combing-wools, to grow which
in perfeftion, luxuriant paftures feem abfolutely requifite,
and thefe cannot be obtained under a parching fun, nor
could the animal fubfift in tropical cHmates, covered with
fuch a load of wool as is grown on our fheep in Lincoln-
fliire. Under fuch circumftances, an entire change feems to
take place in the animal fyftem ; the long-woolled fheep
become difeafed and feverifh, and only recover by cafting
the fleece, which is replaced by a coat of fhort hair. The
rich pafture in England, and the oppofite coafts of Flanders,
feem more favourable to the growth of heavy combing

II

fleeces, than any other country in the known world j and the
Leicefterfhire and Lincolnfhire fheep feem every way well
fuited to thefe paftures, and the prices of the wool ob-
tained at prefent are fufficient to fecure attention to
its cultivation. At one period, indeed, during the Ameri-
can revolution, the price of long combing-wool not being
more than about three-pence /ifr pound, the growers turned
their attention principally to the improvement of the car-
cafe, and neglefted the weight of the fleece. At prefent
the price is about eighteen-pence, and the average weight
being about eight pounds, the wool forms an important ob-
jeft, and the growers are endeavouring to increafe the weight
of their fleeces. For the common purpofes of the worfted ma-
nufaftures, this wool is fo well fuited as to leave nothing fur-
ther to be defired ; and it is this kind which foreign manufac-
turers are fo defirous to obtain from us. In many fituations,
however, where heavy long-woolled fheep are introduced,
and where the foil is not fufficiently rich to grow it in per-
feftion, it would be poflible to grow a fleece weighing five or
fix pounds of very fine combing-wool, by crofTing the long-
woolled ewes with the Anglo-Merino rams. The increafing
demand for finer goods, and the great improvement made in
the fpinning of combing-wool by machinery, make fuch a
change defirable where the paftures are not fufficiently rich
to bear the heavy long-woolled breeds of Leicefter and
Lincoln.

In many cold and expofed fituations it would be defirable
to provide better fhelter for the flocks ; and the praftice of
greaftng, hereafter defcribed, might be introdueed with great
advantage, and would tend to preferve the fheep and im-
prove the quahty of the wool.

The experiments made on the fine-woolled fheep on a
large fcale in different parts of Europe, prove that the pe-
culiarities of food and climate have comparatively fmall in-
fluence on the quality of clothing-wool, and that it may be
grown equally fine in fituations where the fheep are confined
and kept on dry meat a great part of the year, as in Saxony,
Sweden, and Denmark. It may alfo be grown in the i
richeft paftures, provided the paftures be over-ftocked, to
keep the herbage bare. There cannot, however, be a doubt, \
that a dry light foil, particularly in the moift climate of '
England, is moft favourable to the health of the fheep, and
to the quality of the wool.

The experiments that have been made in England on
the Merino flieep have not been fo fuccefsful as in other
countries, principally arifing from two caufes.

In the firft place, the demand for meat in England will
always make the wool but a fecondary objeft with the gra-
zier, and no crofs of the Merino fheep with the Enghfh has
yet produced a race that equal in fymmetry of form the
South Down fheep, or that will produce the fame quantity of
meat to the butcher in the fame fpace of time, and with the
fame food. In the fecond place, the mode of wafhing the
Merino and Anglo-Merino wool in England will, fo long
as it is praftifed, prevent the wool from obtaining its proper
value in the market. From the great quantity of natural
yolk or greafe in the Merino fleece, it is impoflible to wafh
the wool on the fheep's back by mere immerfion in water.
In Spain no attempts are made to wafli the wool upon
the fheep's back, but all the fleeces of a pile are regu-
larly forted, and the different forts fcoured and dried be-
fore the wool is packed. But where the quantity of
wool which any one grower pofTeffes is fmall, as in Eng-
land, it would not anfwer to fend for wool-forters from a
diftance ; and to wafh the wool before it is forted, would fo
intermingle the fine with the coarfe locks, as to render
the regular forting extremely difficult and expenfive. In

Saxony

I

WOOL.

I Saxony and Sweden the wool is wadied on the fheep's backs.

The following account of the procefs is thus defcribed by

baron Schulz. The fheep are firft waflied with one part

' clear ley, and two parts lukewarm water, and then in an-

I other tub with lefs ley in the water ; after which the fheep

are waihed, laying them always on their backs, with their

heads up, in a tub with clean water ; and laftly, there is

poured on the flitcp, when Handing on the ground, a fuf-

iicient quantity of water, which is as much as poflible

fqueezed out of the wool. The (heep are afterwards driven

' into an unpaftured meadow adjoining, and remain there, to

prevent their foihng themfelves in the flieep-houfe. They

I remain there a day and a night, or longer, till the wool be

I dry, which in fine weather will be in three days. Some

I perfons wafli their (heep twice, but the wool becomes harder

I in confequence of it, and has a greyer appearance.

The great quantity of greafe which the fineft Spanifh

wool contains at the firft wa(hing mixes with the ley-water,

and makes it quite foapy ; but this greafe is wanting in the

I fecond wafliing, fo that the water is not in the leaft foftened.

\l Some mode of wafliing like the above mud be introduced

; in England, before the manufafturer will encourage the

I Anglo-Merino wool ; for after his purchafe, when he thinks

he has obtained fufficient allowance in the price to cover the

wafte, he is generally much difappointed in finding the lofs

ill the manufafture fo greatly to exceed his expeftation, and

he is deterred from making a fecond trial.

In the northern counties of England, and in Scotland,
a pi-aftice has long prevailed of greafing the fheep with a
mixture of tar and butter, to preferve the animal from the
effefts of moifture, and the inclemency of the weather in
hflly and expofed fituations. This praftice feems at prefent
peculiar to Britain, but the ancients evidently made ufe of
mixtures of the dregs of olive wax, tar, wine, and other in-
gredients, to proteft the fldn of fheep after fhearing, and
to foften and improve the wool. Such was the praftice of
the Italian fhepherds, as defcribed by Virgil :

" Aut tonfum trifti contingunt corpus amurca,
Et fpumas mifcent argenti vivaque fulfura,
Idasafque pices et pingues unguine ceras
Scyllamque helleborofque graves nigrumque bitumen."

Georg. lib. iii.

That this praftice was extremely beneficial in warm cli-
mates, by protefting the flcin of the fheep from infefts after
fhearing, and by keeping the wool in a foft ftate, cannot
be doubted.

The praftice of greafing the fheep in Scotland, and the
northern counties of England, with a mixture of tar and
butter, feems to have been introduced merely to preferve the
fheep, and was generally fuppofed to be injurious to the
wool. Indeed the great proportion of tar, too frequently
employed, gave fome ground for entertaining this opinion ;
and the breed of fheep, on which this mixture was moft ge-
nerally applied, is naturally the worft which exifts in Britain
for the produftion of wool, the fleeces more nearly refem-
bling coarfe hair than vi'ool ; but Mr. Bakewell, in hisTreatife
on Wool, obferves, that " in Northumberland, where the fine-
woolled fheep have received the benefit of greafing with a
mixture in which the proportion of tar was merely fufficient
to give it due tenacity, the wool is greatly improved by the
procefs, but the ignorance or felfifhnefs of the wool-buyers
for a long time prevented the acknowledgment of the fad."
Many were afraid to purchafe the wool on account of its
dirty appearance, but its value is now better underftood in
the Yorkfliire markets, and it is purchafed by the manufac-
turers of coloured cloth in preference to the ungreafed wool

of the fame degree of finenefs. The fame preference is alfo
given to the cloths in the halls, where they are fold in an
imdrefTed ftate. When thefe cloths are finiftied, their fupe-
riority is more apparent, poffefTrng a degree of foftnefs far
beyond the ungreafed wool. Thefe wools appear to im-
prove in every procefs of the manufafture, and yield a cloth
of greater value by twenty or thirty per cent, than the
ungreafed hard wools, though the latter may be equally
fine.

But even in Northumberland, where the wool is fo
greatly improved by the praftice, its good effefts in this
refpeft are not fufBciently known, and the operation is delayed
till the approach of winter. By this delay, the upper part
of the ftaple which is firft grown, is deprived of the advan-
tage of being kept in a moift foft ftate during the fummer
heat. When the operation has taken place, a perceptible
improvement may be obferved in the wool which is after-
wards grown. The line of diftinftion is clearly marked by
the ftain which the unguent leaves in the ftaple, the bottom
part of which, where it is applied, is finer and fofter than
the upper part which was grown before its application.
This difference is fo great, that a careful examination of the
fine-greafed wools of Northumberland might alone be fuf-
ficient to demonftrate the advantage of the praftice, and
the inconvenience of delaying the operation to the end of
the year. To derive the moft advantage from the oint-
ment both to the wool and the fheep, it fhould be ap-
plied immediately after fhearing, and again at the approach
of winter. By the firft greafing, the wool will be kept foft
and moift during the fultry heats of July and Auguft, and
the top of the ftaple would not become harfli and dif-
coloured, which is frequently the cafe with Englifh wool.
One acknowledged advantage of greafing immediately after
fhearing fhould not be overlooked ; it deftroys the fheep-
tick, and has a tendency to prevent cutaneous diftempers,
and to proteft the flcin from the bite of the fly. The man-
ner of preparing the ointment in Northumberland is as fol-
lows : — From fixteen to twenty poundsof butter are placed
over a gentle fire, and melted ; a gallon of tar is then added,
and the mixture ftirred with a ftick until the tar and butter
are well combined, and form a foft tenacious ointment.
Some flcill is required in its application, the want of which has
prevented the praftice from prevailing more generally. If the
ointment be rubbed on the wool, it coUefts on the top of the
ftaple, where it detains the loofe foil, and becomes hard, and
is injurious to the wool. The proper method is to divide the
ftaples or locks with one hand, and apply the ointment with
the finger immediately upon the flcin ; it is thus kept con-
ftantly foft by the warmth of the animal, and is equally
diffufed through the fleece. Attention to this circum-
ftance is of the greateft importance to the fuccefs of the'
praftice. The quantity laid on each animal varies in dif-
ferent diftrifts. In the lighter mode of greafing, one gallon
of tar and twenty pounds of butter will be fufficient for
fifty fheep. In Scotland, where greafing is applied merely
to preferve the animal againft the inclemency of the cli-
mate, a much larger portion of tar is ufed : this would be
very injurious to the wool, were it of any other than the
very coarfeft kind.

Could a cheap fubftitute for tar be found, which would
poflefs equal tenacity, the ointment might be applied with
great advantage to all our native breeds of Englifli flieep,
both for the prefervation of the animal and the improve-
ment of the wool. Mr. Bakewell ftates, that long combing-
wools, which have been greafed in this manner, produce a
fofter and fuperior yarn to any ever made from wool of the
native Englifh breeds which have not undergone the pro-
4 L 2 cefs.

WOOL.

cefs. On all chalk and light calcareous foils, the wool is
always much harfher than wools of the fame degree of
finenefs grown on argillaceous or filiceous foils ; and this
arifes from the calcareous earth penetrating the fleece, and
abforbing the natural greafe, and thus rendering the fibres
hard and elaftic. Thefe foils cover a large portion of the
fouth-eaftern counties of England, and of fome of the mid-
land counties ; and it is well known to cloth manufafturers
that the wool from thefe diftrifts do not work fo well, nor
make fo foft a cloth, as wool on filiceous or argillaceous
foils. Nor will this wool felt in the fulling-mill like the
fofter w-ools. The praftice of greafing would be of un-
doubted advantage in calcareous diftrifts, applying the
ointment more fparingly than in the northern counties.
Perhaps twenty-five pounds of butter, and one of tar, or two
of bees'-wax, might be fufiicient for one hundred South-
Down (heep ; and if the mixture were applied once after
fhearing, and again in Oftober, the expence would be
abundantly compenfated by the improved condition both
of the fheep and wool. The foftnels of wool appears to
be eflentially connefted with the property of felting, and
depends partly on the fti-ufture of the furface of the fibre,
and partly on its pofieffing but a moderate degree of elafticity.
The procefs of felting is beft illuftrated in the hat manu-
fafture, where the fibres of wool or fur are brought into
contaft by prefTure and warmth, and form a compaA fub-
ftance without the aid of fpinning and weaving. In fome
parts of Tartary, coarfe cloth for tents is manufadlured by
fpreading the wool on the ground, and prefling it in warm
water with the feet ; this was probably the firft mode of
making cloth. All good woollen cloth is dill woven com-
paratively loofe, and is made firm and clofe in the fulling-
mill. The fibres of wool or fur have a tendency
to move more eafily in one direftion when preffed, than
in the oppofite direftion. This motion has been compared
to that of an ear of barley placed under the coat-fleeve,
with the points of the beards downwards ; by the aftion of
the arm the ear is moved in a retrograde direftion, until it
has advanced from the wriil to the (houlder. When
we draw a hair of wool or fur through the fingers
in a direftion from the points to the root, we can
feel a fenfible degree of roughnefs, which is not felt if
the hair be drawn from the root to the point. Hence
we may fuppofe, that the furface is covered with a number
of points or rings, which are too minute to be obferved by
the microfcope, except in fome kinds of fur, as in that from
the South-fea feal, in which, with a powerful microfcope,
we have feen the furface covered with diftinft leaves or
points, (haped like thofe of the artichoke. We have a
ftriking illuftration of this tendency of the fibre to move in
one direftion in that particular procefs of hat-making,
where it is intended to cover the felt or fubftance of the
hat with fur of a fuperior kind. The felt on which this
fur is to be laid being finifhed, the hair of the beaver is
uniformly fpread upon the furface, and being covered with
a cloth, it is prefled and agitated by the hand for a certain
time. The fibres of beaver-hair introduce themfelves by
their roots into the felt, and proceed to a certain depth,
and become firmly fixed in it. If the prefTure were con-
tinued for a longer time, the hairs would pafs entirely
through the felt, going out at the under furface, as each
hair follows the direftion it acquired at the beginning of
the procefs.

As the felting property, therefore, feems to depend on
the minute ftrufture of the furface of the fibre, it is eafy
to conceive how this may be injured by a dry calcareous
foil, and how this property is beft preferved in thofe furs

y

which are grown under a covering of coarfe hair, and pro-
tefted from external injury. The procefs of greafing is in
fome refpefts a fubllitute for fuch a covering, and not only
defends the furface, but prevents the fibre from becoming
dry, harfh, and elaftic. The ancient Greeks and Romans
were in the praftice of covering their foft-wooUed (heep,
called mollei oivs, with flvins : this has been fuppofed to
have been intended merely as a proteftion from briars and
underwood ; but we have no doubt that wool fo covered
would be much fofter than wool expofed to the aftion of
light, and of the foil. That the rays of the fummer fun
have a tendency to make wool both coarfer and harfiier,
may be feen in the effeft produced on fiieep that are ex-
pofed to it without fhelter immediately after fhearing.
The top point of the ftaple which was grown at that time
is almoft always coarfer and harder than the bottom of the
ftaple which has been grown under the cover of the upper
part of the fleece, and confequently more protefted from
light. An analogous effeft is produced on the f]<ins of
horfes kept in coal-mines, which become fleek and foft.
Thefe fafts may fuggeft to wool-growers defirous of im-
proving their wool, the advantage of providing (hade for their
flocks during the fultry heats of fummer. The natural in-
ftinfts of fheep might teach them the impropriety, not to fpeak
of the cruelty, of keeping their fheep in fummer inclofed in
pens, and unfheltered, upon a dry foil, where the animals are
almoft roafted alive ; a praftice not lefs injurious to the health
of fheep than to all the bell qualities of the wool. Next to a
regular fupply of food, proteftion from the effefts of heat
and wet are objefts of the firft importance in the manage-
ment of fheep ; and it may be ftated as an undoubted truth,
that whatever contributes to the comfort of the animal,
will enable it to fatten with a fmallcr quantity of food, will
tend to preferve it in a healthy ftate, and will alfo increafe
the quantity and improve the quality of the wool.

Wool, Chemical Examination of. The chemical proper-
ties of wool are very fimilar to thofe of hair, and as we
omitted to fpeak of thefe in their proper place, we fhall
introduce them here.

From the experiments of Achard and Hatchett, it ap-
pears that hair contains gelatine, to which it owes its fup-
plenefs and toughnefs. When hair is boiled in water, this
principle is feparated, and the hair becomes much more
brittle than before. Indeed, if the procefs be continued
long enough, the hair crumbles to pieces between the
fingers. The portion infoluble in water pofTeffes, according
to Mr. Hatchett, the properties of coagulated albumen.

Mr. Hatchett has concluded, from his experiments, that
the hair which loies its curl in moift weather, and which is
fofteft and moft flexible, is that which yields its gelatine
moft readily ; whereas ftrong and elaftic hair yields it with
the greateft difficulty, and in the fmalleft proportion.
This conclufion has been confirmed by a very confiderable
hair merchant in London, who allured him that the firft
kind of hair was much more injured by boiling than the
fecond.

Vauquelin has publifhed a curious fet of experiments on
human hair of different colours. He found it completely
foluble in a Papin's digefter. During this procefs, ful-
phuretted hydrogen was evolved. The folution thus ob-
tained contains a kind of bituminous oil, which is depofited
very flowly. This oil was black when the hair was black,
but yellowifh-red when red hair was the fubjeft of experi-
ment. When this oil was removed, nut-galls and chlorine
produced copious precipitates. Silver was blackened, and
acetate of lead precipitated brown. When concentrated
by evaporation, it did not concrete into a jelly.

Water

WOOL.

Water containing only {our per cent, of potafli difTolves hair,
while hydro-fulphurct of ammonia is evolved. If the hair
be black, a thick dark-coloured oil, with fome fulphur and
iron, remain undifTolved. If the hair be red, this oil is yel-
lowifh. Acids throw down from this folution a preci-
pitate, folvible in excefs of acid.

Sulphuric and muriatic acids become red when firff
poured on hair, and gradually diffolve it. Nitric acid
turns hair yellow, and dilFolves it, while an oil feparales,
varying in colour, as before-mentioned, according to the
colour of the hair employed. The folution contains a
great deal of oxalic acid, befides bitter principle, iron, and
fulphuric acid. Chlorine reduces it to a fubftance of the
confiftence of turpentine, partly foluble in alcohol.

Alcohol, digelied on black hair, extrafts from it two
kinds of oil. The firft, which is white, fubfides in white
fliining fcales as the liquor cools ; the fecond is obtained
by evaporating the alcohol. It has a greyifh-green colour,
and at laft becomes folid. From red hair alcohol alfo ex-
trafts two oils, one white, as above, the other red as blood.
After this latter has been extraded, the hair becomes
chefnut. Hence its red colour appears to depend upon
this oil.

Hair on incineration yields iron and manganefe, fulphate
and carbonate of lime, muriate of foda, and a confiderable
proportion of filica. The afhes of red hair contain lefs
iron and manganefe. Thofe of white hair ftill lefs ; but in
thofe we find magnefia, which is wanting in the afhes of other
hair. The afhes of hair do not exceed .015 of the hair.
Hence, according to this analyfis, hair confifts of

1. Animal matters conftituting the greateft part.

2. A white folid oil, fmall in quantity.

3. A greyifh-green oil, more abundant.

4. Iron, llate unknown.

5. Oxyd of manganefe,

6. Phofphate of lime.

7. Carbonate of lime, very fcanty.

8. Silica.

9. Sulphur.

Vauquelin infers from thefe experiments, that hair
depends for its colour upon a kind of oil, which varies ac-
cording to the colour of the hair in which it is found. He
alfo fuppofes, that fulphuret of iron contributes to the
colour of black hair. The fudden change of colour in hair
from grief, he thinks, is owing to the evolution of an acid.
Bichat, however, attributes this change, perhaps with
greater probability, to the abforption of the colouring prin-
ciple. To whatever caufe it be owing, the faft appears
undoubted ; and it fhews a clofer conneflion between the
living powers and the hair, than many phyfiologifls are in-
clined to admit.

Wool appears, according to the experiments of BerthoUet,
to coincide almoft exaftly in its chemical properties with thofe
of hair above-mentioned. When growing on the back of the
animal, it is enveloped in a greafy matter, called the yolk,
and which appears to be a kind of foap ; or, more properly
fpeaking, according to the experiments of Vauquelin, who
has examined it, of

1. A foap of potafh.

2. Carbonate of potafh.

3. A httle acetate of potafh.

4. Lime.

5. A little muriate of potafh.

6. An animal matter.

This fubftance appears to have the property of protefting
the animal from infefts to a certain degree, and of preferving

the foftnefs of the wool, which are perhaps its chief ufes. It k
removed from the wool before it is manufadured, by the pro-
cefs termed fcounng. The afiinity of the animal matter of
wool for all colourmg pnnciples is very great, and in general
far exceeds that of the different vegetable fibres, as cotton,
flax, &c. for fuch principles. There is one kind of coarfe
wool, however, which, according to Dr. Bancroft, does not
poffefs this property, and receives colours with great diffi-
culty. See Dyeing, and the preceding article.

M'ooL, Laws relating to. The jealoufy entertained on
the fubjeft of our wools, may be learnt from the legal re-
flriftion which has been made in relation thereto ; as alfo
with the view that as much employment as is poflible may
be found for the labouring claffes. This is effeaed by the
prohibition of the exportation of wool in an unmanufac-
tured flate, as will be feen below. It mull be obvious,
however, that it would be to little purpofe to be thus ftrift
refpecling the .^rticle itfclf, if that which produced it was
not equally guarded; therefore as early as 13 & 14 Ch. II.
c. 18. it was made felony to export Iheep from England or
Ireland, or even to Scotland : now however the penalty is
forfeiture of every ram, (heep, or lamb, and the velTel in
which fuch is Ihipped with intent to expoi-tation from Great
Britain and the iflands belonging thereto; and offenders are
to forfeit 3/. for every (heep, &c. fo (hipped, and to fuffer
three months folitary imprifonment, and till the forfeiture
be paid, but not to exceed twelve months; and for any
fecond offence 5/. for each ram, &c. and fix months impri-
fonment, and till the fine is paid, but not to exceed two
years. 28 Geo. III. c. 38. § 2.

By the 9th and 37th fedions, no wool, woolfells, mort-
lings, yarn, or worlled made of wool, woolflocks, cover-
ings, cruels, waddings, or other manufaftures, or pretended
manufafturcs (lightly wrought up fo that it may be reduced
to wool again, or mattreffes, or beds fluffed with wool
combed or fit for combing or carding, may be fhipped or
exported, or carried or moved for that purpofe, from Great
Britain, or Guernfey, Jerfey, Alderney, Sark, or Man, to
any foreign place, on forfeiture of the wool, with the car-
riage, fhip, or cattle on which it is laden or removed ; but
300 fheep may be fent annually from Liverpool or White-
haven to the Ifie of Man (51 Geo. III. c. 50.); and the
perfon offending to forfeit 3^. for every pound weight, or
50/. in the whole, and to be imprifoned three months, and
till the penalty is paid, but not to exceed fix months ; but
for a fecond offence he is to forfeit the like fum.s, and to be
imprifoned for fix months, and till fuch fine be paid, not
exceeding two years ; but this is not to extend to lambflcins
drefTed for furs and linings.

And perfons qualified by the governors of the following
iflands may export the refpeftive qualities fet againft them
from Southampton to thofe places in every year :

To Jerfey
To Guernfey
To Alderney
To Sark

Tods.

4000

2000

400

200

28 Geo. III. c. 38. § 16, 17. And 20,000 pounds weight of
worded and woollen yarn may be exported annually from
London to Lower Canada, by permiffion of his majefty in
council. 47 Geo III. c. 9. 52 Geo. III. c. 55.

By the 48 Geo. III. c. 44. wool may be (liipped in Eng-
land for exportation to Ireland, on being duly entered and
bond given for its true exportation there ; and upon obtain-
ing a licence under the hands of the commiflioners of the
cuftoms to allow it.

No

woo

No wool fhipped to be fent coaftwife from one part of
Great Britain to another, until due notice be given and bond
entered into, and a licence obtained under the hand of three
commiffioners of the cuftoms. Penalty, forfeiture. 28
Geo. III. c. 38. § 34. And wool muft alfo be (hipped
coaltwife in Britilh (hip, Britifh owned and manned, the
ownei of which does not refide out of Great Britain. § 19.
and 12 Car. II. c. 18. Formerly there were penalties and
forfeitures for keeping or removing wool in Kent and Suf-
fex within certain diftancesof the fea (ten and fifteen miles),
without entry and bond, and procuring certificates or per-
mits, and alfo for removing wool within five miles of the
fea-coaft of Great Britain before fun-rifing and after fun-
fet; but by the 54 Geo. III. c. 78. all the regulations
formerly required antecedent to the removal of wool on land
throughout England are repealed.

Wool to be packed in packs, or trufl'es of leather, or can-
vas, called ' Pack-cloths,' or in linen or woollen, and to be
marked ' Wool,' in letters three inches long, on forfeiture
of the wool, and ix. per pound. 28 Geo. III. c. 38. § 28.

Perfons packing wool, &c. into boxes, barrels, cafes,
or chelts, and other than as above, or prelSng or (leaning
the fame, to forfeit the goods, and 3J. per pound. Ibid.
J 30, 31.

Infurances for the conveyance of wool contrary to this
aft void, and the parties may be punilhed. § 45, 46, 47, 48.

King's (hips empowered and required to fearch (hips for
wctf>l (hipped without licence. $ 49, 50, 51.

No perfon can feize wool unlawfully removing but
officers of cuftoms, excife, and falt-duties, or perfons ac-
companied by a conftable ($52-)' ^""^ perfons neglefting
their duty to forfeit 20/., and making coUufive feizures or
agreements to be fubjeft to hke penalties as exporters.
(? 53- SS-) Hindering, obftrufting, or beating officers,
fubjefts offenders to tranfportation ; and bribery of them,
whether accepted or not, to the penalty of 300/. § 56, 57.

If any queftion arifes upon the growth of the wool, the
onus probandi is to lie upon the owners. § 60.

Informations may be laid in any court of record, and
penalties, &c. under 200/. may be determined before two
juftices of the peace ; and ju(lices at quarter-felTions may
direft (hips, goods, wool, &c. to be fold. § 62, 63.

Profecutions to be commenced within three years.

§ 11-

Wool the growth of Ireland may be exported to Eng-
land, and no where elfe. I W. & M. c. 32. 7&8W. III.
c. 28. 10 & II W. III. c. 10. 26 Geo. III. c. II.

And the Admiralty is to appoint three (hips of the fixth
rate, and eight or more armed (loops, to prevent the ex-
portation of wool from Ireland to foreign ports. 5 Geo. II.
c. 21.

Wool the produce of any of the colonies, &c. in America,
or countries on the continent of America, fubjeft to any
foreign European dates, imported into certain Briti(h Weft
India iflands, may be imported into Great Britain under the
regulations of the 12 Car. II. c. 18.

Thofe places are, Jamaica, Granada, Dominica, Antigua,
Trinidad, Tobago, New Providence, Crooked ifland, St.
Vincent, Bermuda, Caicos, Tortola, Curacoa, and the
Bahamas. 27 Geo. III. c. 27. 45 Geo. III. c. 57.
47 Geo. III. fed. 2. c. 34.

Briti{h hare or coney wool may not be exported, (except
to Ireland, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67.) on penalty of
forfeiture. The owner or (hipper to pay 100/., and the
mafter of the (hip 40/. 24 Geo. III. c. 21.

Wool, Cheefe made under, in Rural Economy, a term

WOO

applied to that fort of high-tafted ewe cheefe which it
made before the (heep are (horn. See Cheese.

Wool, Pack of, a quantity of wool packed up clofely
together in a large bag of the fack-cloth kind, which in
London is conftituted of two hundred and forty pounds.
See Wool.

Wool, Pocket of. See Pocket.

Wool, Sarplar of. See Sarplar.

WooL-Slapler, a perfon who ftaples and deals in wool.
See Wool.

WooL-Stapling. See Stapling of Wool.

WooL-Balls, in Natural Hi/lory, maffes of wool com-
pared into firm and hard balls, and found in the fto-
machs of flieep, as the hair-balls are in oxen and other
animals.

Thefe are doubtlefs formed in the fame manner as
thofe hair-balls of the outer covering of the animal ; but
they are much more uncommon ; they are found in num-
bers, three, four, or five, in the ftomach of the fame
animal. Their outfide has commonly much the fame
appearance of a puff-ball, and is ufually either in part or
wholly covered with a very thin and foft blacki(h fmooth
(Icin ; the inner fubftance is entirely wool, but that wrought
together as clofely as the hatter does his furs in the making
of them into hats.

They are ufually fofr, fmooth, and fomewhat elaftic, of
a pale buff-colour, very light, and of irregular figures
rather cubic than globular, and feldom of any great fize,
an inch in diameter being their common ftandard. More-
ton's Northampt. p. 451. See Balls.

WOOI.ASSEY, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 42
miles N.E. of Calcutta.

WOOLDALE, a town(hip of England, in the Weft
Riding of Yorklhire, near Wakefield.

WOOLDAW, a town of Bengal; 40 miles W. of
Nagore.

WOOLDERS, Single and Double-Handed, in Ship-
Building, are fticks about three feet long, and four inches
in circumference, with ftraps of rope-yarn made faft, to
fix on the rope in making, and alTift the men at the
hooks in clofing the rope.

WOOLDING, is winding feveral clofe turns of
rope in a tight manner round the malls and yards, that
are made of feveral united pieces, to llrengthen and
confine the fame together. In making new mafts and
yards, this method is difcontinued, and iron hoops ufed in
lieu.

Woolding is alfo the rope employed in this fervice.

WOOL-DRIVERS, are thofe who buy wool of the
(heep-owners in the country, and carry it on horfeback to
the clothiers, or market-towns, to fell it again.

WOOLER, anciently Willove, in Geography, a mar-
ket-town, and pari(h in the ward of Coquet-dale, and county
of Northumberland, England. The former is fituated
near the Cheviot-hills, 17 miles S. from Berwick-upon-
Tweed, 46 N. by W. from Newcaftle, and 320 in the fame
direftion from London. In 181 1 the houfes in the parilh
were 284, inhabited by 1704 perfons. A market is held on
Thurfday, and fairs on the 4th of May and 17th of Oftober.
Wooler was a barony, and confifted of feveral manors in the
time of Henry I., who conferred it on Robert de Mufcamp,
whofe fucceffor Robert, in the reign of Henry III., was
the moft powerful baron in the north of England : it now
belongs to the earl of Tankerville. The church was re- ;
built in 1 765, and the town contains fome meeting-houfes i
for diflenters. Situated near the confines between the king- '

doma I

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

r doms of England and Scotland, the environs of Wooler

I prefent many intrenchments, cairns, and other memorials of

i the fanguinary conflifts which in former times occurred be-

I tween the rival nations on the borders. About ten miles N.

I from the town, on the road to Scotland, is the celebrated

Flodden-tield, where the Scotch, in 1513, received a fignal

defeat, and James IV. was flain. — Beauties of England,

Northumberland, by the Rev. J. Hodgfon, 8vo. 18 12.

WOOLHASA, a town of Algiers; 6 miles N.W. of
Tackumbreet.

WOOLLEN Manufacture, Progrefs of the. The
origin of the woollen manufafture, like that of many other
ufeful arts, is not precifely known. At a very early period,
domeftic Iheep were extenfively fpread over Weftern Afia.
The introduftion of fheep into Europe is not recorded by
ancient writers, uiilefs we fuppofe the expedition of the Argo-
nauts to Colchis refers to this event. Sheep were probably
firft domefticatel for their milk, and afterwards for their
Ikins, which mutt have been the firft drefs of paltoral nations.
Sheep and goats, in the early ages of fociety, were nearly of
equal value. The Greeks, who oftentatioully refer all ufeful
difcoveries to their own country, and rank their inventors
among the gods, have afcribed to Minerva the invention of
fpinning and weaving. Thefe arts appear, however, to have
been firft praftifed, at a very early period, in Egypt, and
applied to the fpinning and weaving of flax. At what time
they were firft applied to wool is unknown. Though Pliny
informs us, that Nicias of Megara difcovered the art of full-
ing cloth, the property which wool pofleiTed of felting was
known in the Eaft at a much earlier period, and probably
gave rife to the firft manufafture of woollen goods which
were not woven, but felted like the fubftance of hats.

On this fubjeft, Mr. Luccock, in hisTreatife on Wool, ju-
dicioufly remarks, " whilft the flfins of flieep dreffed with their
wool on ferved as clothing, it is obvious that only one ufeful
fleece could be obtained from one animal, and as the fleece
is generally call, or falls off once a year, this produce muft
have been wafted. Li a very early period, however, the
property which wool polfeflTes of felting was difcovered, or,
in other words, it was found that by preflure and moifture
the fibres of wool miglit be made to adhere together, and
produce a compaft pliable fubftance, quite as durable and
more convenient than the (]<ins formerly ufed. This ap-
pears to have been the firft effort to produce a woollen ma-
nufafture." It is probable the felting property was dif-
covered by accident, as fome fleeces will felt upon the (beep's
backs ; among farmers, thefe are called cotted fleeces.
When the application of this difcovery was firft made, the
knowledge of the art was foon widely fpread. The tents
of the Arabb and Tartars are, at the prefent day, all made
of felt from the wool of (heep, mingled with the hair of
goats, camels, and other quadrupeds, and may be confidered
as remains of the original art of cloth-making.

The art of fpinning and weaving threads made from wool
was, in all probability, derived from the Eaft ; they are alluded
to by Mofes as exiiUng nearly fifteen hundred years before
the Chriftian era, and it appears that the early patriarchs had
numerous flocks of fheep.

The greater part of thefe fheep, we are informed, were,
at firft, either dark-coloured or fpotted ; hence we may infer
that the art of dyeing wool was then unknown. When the
feleftion and cultivation of white wool gave to woollen cloth
the property of receiving the tints of the dyer, the value and
ufe of wool muft have greatly increafed, owing to the great
eftimation in which richly-coloured garments are held by
people advancing to a ftate of civilization.

Thus, m addition to the fuperior pliabihty and comlorl
of woollen cloth, compared with flcins or felts, the tafte for
It muft have been widely fpread by the art of dyeing. It
had alfo the great recommendation to its general adoption,
that it could be fabricated with eafe in every family. The
machinery required for the purpofe was extremely fimple.
The diftaff and the loom, fays Mr. Luccock, were little more
in the hands of the firft manufaftnrers, than the fpade in
thofe of the hufbandman. Spinning and weaving, as we
have already obferved, were in ufe at leaft fifteen hundred
years before the Chriftian era ; but the manner in which they
were performed is not related until about three centuries
afterwards. Then the loom confifted of a frame of wood,
in fome refpeft diff'erent from the modern one, but well
adapted to the fame purpofes.

The alterations which have been made in it confift, per-
haps, more in the pofition of the beam, and the mode of
opening the web for the paffage of the fliuttle, than in any
other circumftance. Nor was the earlieft mode of fpinning
lefs perfeft, than that which was praftifed in the moll cele-
brated manufafturing countries for many ages afterwards.
It was performed by means of a rod or ftaft', about which
the wool to be fpun was carefully wrapt, and held in the
left-hand, while a rough kind of fpindle, quickly twirled be-
twixt the right-hand and the thigh, was fuffered to continue
its motion when fufpended by the thread which the artift gra-
dually lengthened with his fingers. This leaft complex of
fpinning-machiiies is not entirely laid afide even now. A
few years fince it was not uncommon in the county of Nor-
folk, and its continuance in ufe through fo many ages is the
beft proof of its excellence.

The preparing of wool for fpinning was probably firft
effefted by the fingers, and afterwards by the fuller's teazle
or thiftle, the dipfacus fuUorum, which with its rough and
hooked points was well adapted to the purpofe, and has
continued in ufe to the prefent day. The card afterwards
ufed was probably a lubftitute for the carduus, or teazle.
The application of the wheel to a fpindle, or the fpinning-
wheel, is, we believe, unnoticed in hiftory. Whenever thefe
inventions took place, it is probable their firft introdudlion
contributed more to increafe the quantity, than improve the
quality of the yarn and cloth. For a confiderable period
after the commencement of the woollen manufacture, the
improvements made in fpinning or weaving of wool were
effefted by the improved addrefs and Ikill of the manufac-
turer, rather than by any alteration in his machinery, as we
now fee the manufaduring nations of the Eaft execute very-
elaborate works with inftruments of the moft fimple con-
ftruftion. In proportion as luxury and refinement increafed,
the demand for fuperior fabrics would induce the growers
of wool to jjay great attention to the fleece, and to feleft
and preferve for breeding thofe flieep which produced the
fofteft and fineft wool ; with the ancients thele terms were
fynonymous. The produce of fine white wool from fheep
is entirely the rtfult of cultivation ; it has never been grown
except in countries were the woollen manufadlures have
flouriftied. The race of fine-wooUed ftieep has, however,
been partly preferved in thofe countries after the deftrudlion
of their trade. The grower would alfo foon learn to pay par-
ticular attention to the whitenefs of his fleeces, as a clear
white ground is neceflfary for receiving the moft brilliant dyes.
Blue, purple, and fcarlet, were the tints moft admired ; and
though the ingredients, by means of which they were pro-
duced, are in fome meafure unknown, yet we have the moft
indubitable teftimonies to their excellency, and the eftimation
in which they were held. To produce them in their richeft

luftre,

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

luftre, a feleftion of the wool moft adapted to receive them
muft be made, and this would operate with great precifion
upon the wool-forter's attention.

While the manufaAure of wool was confined to the
houfes of the grower, and the butinels of it tranfafled by
his domeftics in a fecluded ft ate, there was lefs room for the
ftimulation and exercife of invention than in after-ages, when
it became the appropriate calling of one particular part of
the community, and their fuccefs depended upon the opinion
which others formed of the fabric. Yet in the limplelt days
of Greece, it was not deemed an employment unfuitable to
palaces, nor did a princefs degrade her dignity by fuperin-
tending the labours of the loom, the diftaff, and the dyeing
vat.

We have little information refpeAing the woollen manu-
faftures of the Greeks and Romans, as diftinft from their
domeftic manufactures; but large eftablifhments were necef-
fary for the clothing of diftant armies, and for foreign com-
merce. That the Romans had carried the manufafture of
fine woollen cloth to a high degree of perfeftion, is proved
by a variety of circumftances, and particularly by the great
attention paid to the cultivation of fine-wooUed (heep, and
by the high prices at which the wool and (heep were fold,
as appears from the writings of Pliny, Varro, and Columella.
Pliny defcribes two kinds of fheep : the one which grew
coarfe long wool, and was on thisaccount called hirtum or
hirfutum, and from its hardinefs and ruder treatment colo-
mcum or ruftic ; the other breed was called molle, from
the foftnefs of the wool, and generofum or noble, from its ex-
cellence ; alfo pellitum, from its being clothed with flcins to
proteft the wool. The race is fometimes alfo called Taren-
tinum, Apulum, Calabrum Atticum, and Grxcum, from the
neighbourhood or dillridl in which it chiefly lived ; but what
is of more importance, as (hewing the origin of the fine-
woolled (heep of Italy, the race is called Afianum ; and,
according to Pliny, a fimilar race exifted in his time at
Laodicea in Syria. The defcription given of thefe fheep
by Pliny agrees with the prefent race of Merino (heep.
There is not, fays Dr. Parry, throughout Europe, any breed
of (hort-wooUed (heep now exifting befides the Merino, of
which the males are horned and the females not.

That the Romans imported their Tarentine (heep into
their weftern colonies, with the art of manufafturing fine
cloth, we learn from Strabo and Pliny. The former writer,
who flouriihed in the reign of Auguftus, fays, that in Tur-
detania in Portugal, then a part of Spain, " they formerly
imported many garments, but now their wool was better
than that of the Coraxi, and fo beautiful, that a ram for the
purpofe of breeding was fold for a talent, and that fabrics
of extraordinary thinnefs were made of this wool by the
Saltratas." Probably this was fimilar to the fhawl cloth of
India, and woven in the fame manner, as Phny calls it
fcutulatus, a term which he applies alfo to the fpider's-web.
The httle attic talent of filv£r is eftimated to equal in
value 2 1 61. of Englifh money, which (hews the high eftima-
tion in which the bed wool was held even in the colonies of
Rome.

AH ranks of people of both fexes among the Romans
chiefly wore woollen garments. In the reign of Aurehan,
270 years after Chrift, a pound of filk, according to Vopif-
cus, was equal to a pound of gold. A people fo pre-
eminent in wealth, and in all the refinements of art, would
naturally be folicitous to attain the higheft degree of ex-
cellence in the manufafture of thofe fabrics, which were
calculated to gratify their paflion for adorning their perfons,
?nd it was equally as nec.elTary to confult their eafe aa

their vanity. The fummer-heat of Italy was fo great, that
the affluent could fcarcely have fupported a woollen drefs,
had it not been made of the lighteft and thinnell cloth. We
find alfo, that during the Augullan age, and for a confider-
able time afterwards, it was the faihion to wear cloths which,
as at prefent, were fiirnifhed with a raifed nap or pile. Such
cloths were called pext, in contradiftinction to tritae or
thread-bare. Thus Horace :

" Si forte fubucula pexae

Trita fub eft tunics rides."

" You laugh if you efpy a thread-bare vefl
Under a well-dreffed tunic."

And alfo Martial :

" Pexatus pulchre, rides mea, Zoile trita."

Tlie term pexatus, applied to cloth, leads us to fuppofe
that the nap or pile was raifed with a comb, having very
fine teeth. Phny informs us, that in his time the price of
wool had never exceeded 100 feftertii the libra, or pound;
now the Roman feftertius being about 8(/. of our money,
and the Ubra about 5245 grains, it follows that an avoirdu-
pois pound, or 7008 grains, would have coft about i/. 2s. of
our money. From the intercourfe with Perfiaandthe Eaft,
the Romans would become acquainted with the fhawl-cloths
of India, and would naturally wi(h to imitate fo beautiful
and delicate a fabric. Thefe are made from very foft fine
fhort wool, and not from combed wool, as has been gene-
rally fuppofed in this country. The exiftence of that ma-
nufafture in Hindooltan for many ages, is a proof of the
high degree of perfeftion to which the fabrication of woollen
cloth had been carried in former times. For fhawl-cloth is
only woollen cloth, woven with a twill, and unmilled, but
it is fpun to a great degree of finenefs, and from wool
fo peculiarly foft, that it has never been rivalled by any Eu-
ropean nations. The perfeftion of the colours, and the
(kill difplayed in the weaving, we have no reafon to believe
are greater now than in the time of Alexander the Great ;
and if thefe manufaftures were fucccfsfully imitated by the
Greeks or Romans, or even dillantly approached in the ma-
nufafture of their fine cloths, we may form fome idea of
the perfeftion to which they had arrived. When in the
decline of the Roman empire, their colonies were overrun
by favage barbarians, all their public eilablifhments and ma-
nufaftures were dcftroyed, but the art of producing from
the fleece a warm and fubftantial clothing was never entirely
loft, even during the darkeft days of ignorance. It began
to revive, and became the fepnrate occupation of one clafs
of the community about the middle of the tenth century in
the Low Countries, where it remained the glory of the
people, and the fource of their opulence, through more
than four hundred years. The wool which it confumed for
the firft few years was the produce of their own paftures,
which had but lately been reclaimed from the foreft ; but as
the manufafture extended itfelf, the demands became larger,
and were fupplied from a greater diftance. The wealth
which it dillributed was foon vifible, and people crowded
into the country, engaged in its commerce, and pufhed
their fpeculations with increafing vigour through a hundred
and fifty years, when an inundation of the fea threatened to
involve the art, the artift, and the country, in one general
deftruftion. The difperfion of the people who fled from
the calamity which appeared to overwhelm their hopes, in-
lleadof deliroying the infant manufafture, gave it additional
vigour, and was the means of eftsblifhing a conneftion be-
tween

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

tween the Netherlands and foreign countries, which proved
of the higheft importance to commerce. It contributed to
a much more fpeedy recovery of the arts connefted with the
woollen manufafture, from the ruin which feemed to
threaten them, and gave a ftriking inftance of their partia-
lity for the feats where they have once flourifhed, under the
patronage of a government liberal enough to encourage, and
fufficiently powerful to proteft them, even in fituations at-
tended with natural difadvantages. The influence of thefe
manufaftures upon the fleeces of the Low Countries muft
have been very confiderable ; for before the year g6o we have
no reafon to fuppofe that their quality was fuperior to that
which we find in the neighbouring dillrifts ; yet it was not
very long ere Flanders and Brabant became famous for the
manufafture of fine cloths, even at a period when they im-
ported but little foreign wool. Perhaps the fabrics might
not be equal to thofe which we now produce from the
fleeces of Spain, or even from the improved ones of our own
iheep, but they were preferable to thofe of England and the
] nations of the continent, Italy and Spain excepted. It was
about the year 1 200 that the merchants began to import the
wools of other countries, to extend their conneftions much
more widely, and to grow by this means ftiU more rich and
powerful. The manufaftures required a larger quantity of
the raw material than ufual, and the population of the country
had reached that extent which does not admit of a great
number of (heep being kept, even though the employment
,o{ the people depend upon the fleeces, and their fubfiftence
lUpon tlie food which they furnifti. We fhall obferve in-
;fcances of a fimilar kind when we treat more particularly of
England. The operation of thefe two caufes was evidently
jfufficient to induce the manufadlurer to go farther from
home, and to feek the mofl convenient methods of fupplying
:his looms. It might have been expeftcd that he would have
turned his attention to France and to Germany ; but inde-
pendent of the hoftile difpofitions of fomeof the neighbour-
|ing fovereigns, the raw material was too bulky to be con-
iveyed at an eafy expence through the bad roads of a half
icultivated country ; and the rtiips of Spain and of Britain,
iwfho found an intereft in fupplying the wants of the Nether-
lands, unladed their cargoes almoft at his very door, and fo-
ilicited in payment but little elfc than the goods which he
bad manufaftured.

1 Spain was the firft country on the weftern fide of Eu-
Irope, where the Tarentine breed of fine-woolled fiieep
were cultivated with fuccefs by the Romans. See Sheep.
; This breed, intermixed with the native flocks, gave rife
j;o the prefent fine-woolled fheep of Spain ; and it does not
ippear that this valuable race was ever greatly neglefted in
hat country. That it abounded in flieep in what is called
!.he middle age cannot be doubted. At the period when
'he Saracens extended themfelves in Spain, about the eighth
;entiiry, to ufe the quaint words of Roderic, archbiftiop of
(Foledo, " it was fruitful in corn, pleafant in fruits, de-
jicious In fiflies, favoury in milk, clamorous in hunting,
lind gluttonous in herds and flocks,"— .^a/o/i armentu et
'•rcgibus. He wrote in A.D. 1243. In England at that
ime flseep were fo fcarce, that a fleece was eilimated at
'' wo-thirds the value of the ewe which produced it, together
iwith the lamb.

] Into Spain the invaders either carried the arts of luxury,
hr, what is more probable, improved them by their fuperior
nduftry. The revenue of one of their fovereigns in the
;enth century amounted to fix millions fterling ; a fum, fays
' jibbon, which at that time probably furpaffed the united
|evenues of the Chriftian monarchs. When, feveral centuries
ifterwards, the Saracens were gradually expelled by their
■ Vol. XXXVIII.

Chriftian neighbours, Spain faw nothing but the change ol
religion to compenfate the lofs of population, of agricultural
and mechanical fcience, of induftry, and wealth. On the re-
covery of the Seville from the Moors in 1248, not lefs than
16,000 looms are faid to have been found in that city. Of
thefe, the greater number was probably employed in the
fabric of woollen cloths. According to Uftarix, " Theory
and Praftice of Commerce," the manufaftures of Segovia
flouriflied mofl;, both in point of number and quality, and
were in high efteem, being the beft and fineft that were
known in ancient times. The temperature of the climate,
and the luxurious propenfities of the inhabitants, would natu-
rally determine thefe fabrics to be of the lighteft and foftcft
kinds. Hence in the midft of the boafted ancient manu-
fadlures of England, we read only of two or three inftances
of the importation of Englilh cloth into Spain. The
Spaniards had certainly at that time their own native fleeces
beft adapted to their own tafte and climate.

We are told by Dillon, in his " Hiftory of Peter the
Cruel," that the woollen cloths of Barcelona were in high
efteem in Seville in the reign of that prince, and in the
preceding century. So far back as 1243, the woollen cloth
of Lerida is fpoken of in terms of great ettimation. A few
years after, Baurlas, Valis, Gerena, Perpignan, and Tor-
tofa, were remarkable as manufafturing towns, and for the
finenefs of their cloths, fuftians, and ferges. So great was
their exportation, that in 1353 there were 935 bales of
cloth taken on board a (hip from Barcelona to Alexandria
by a Genoefe privateer; and 1000 bales of cloth were
taken on board three Catalonian fliips in 141 2, by Antonio
Dorco, in the port of Callus. We are told by the fame
author, that, according to records ftill extant in Barcelona,
confiderable orders for wool were fent to England in 1446,
in order to be manufaftured there and returned to England
in the form of cloth, the Spaniards themfelves difdaining to
wear it.

According to Lucius Marineus Siculus, who wrote in
the time of the emperor Charles V., Spain was then full of
herds and flocks, more efpecially it contained innumerable
fliecp ; fo that many fliepherds, whom he knew, had flocks
of 30,000 each ; on which account Spain not only fupplied
its own people moft abundantly, but alfo foreign nations,
with the very fofteft wool.

This account is confirmed by what is related by Sandoval,
wlio ftates, that in an infurreftion in Spain in 1519, the
army of infurgents, among whom were many cloth-workers,
ftipulated, among other points, that the cloths imported
into Spain fiiould be of the fame fize and goodnefs as thofe
wrought there ; and that the merchants and clothiers might
have leave to feize, in order to work up, half the wools fold
for exportation, paying the owners the price at which they
had been bought. Hence we learn the fuperiority of Spanifh
cloth, and the great fale of Spanifti wool to foreign countries
at that time.

Damianus a Goes, who was page to Emanuel, king of
Portugal, in 15 1 6, has written a ftiort account of the me-
morable things of Spain, which he dates at Louvain in the
year 1541. In this work he fays, that there are annually
exported from Spain to Bruges 40,000 facks of wool, each
felling at the loweft for twenty gold ducats.

Now from an authentic acquittance, preferved in the
Fcedera, from queen Ehzabeth to Cofmo de Medici, for a
fum borrowed by him of Henry VIII., we find that the
gold ducat or florin was in 1545 equal to five ibillings of
our money. In this year, the 36th of Henry VIII., the
bafe coinages began ; but as queen Elizabeth Teems to have
continued receiving the inftalments of the Florentine debt
4M for

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

for feveral years at the fame rate, when the fliilling was of
fomething more than the prefent value, we think it pro-
bable that the rate was fixed at the beginning of the year
1 J45, wlien the fliilling was at ij-. j^J. of our prefent coin.
This wool was, therefore, wortli at lead 5/. i4r. iJ. the
fack of iSiilbs., and 11/. 91. 2J. the fack of 364lbs.

In 1560, in the time of Guicciardini, Spaniih wool in
the Netherlands was at a fomewhat lower price. He tells
us, " that they ufed formerly to fend annually from Spain to
Bruges more than 40,000 facks, but that in this year the
Spaniards, having made more cloth at home, had fent only
2 j,ODO facks, at zy crowns each." The crown being 45. and
the ftiUing is.o^d. of our money, this would be 10/. is. id.
the fack of 364 pounds. The depreciation fcems in truth
to liave arifen from a diminifhed demand for this wool in the
Netherlands. The wools imported into the Netherlands
from Spain were the lower or coarfer kinds.

The fuperfine wools of Spain feem to have been firfl; in-
troduced among the Italian ftates. Thus Damianus a Goes
in 1541, after having fpecified the 40,000 facks to Bruges,
a> before-mentioned, adds, " and alfo to Italy, and other
cities of the Netherlands, are annually fent about zo,ooo
facks, of which thofe ufed in Italy, being of the choiceft
wool, are fold at from forty to fifty gold ducats each."

From this account, we have a fair opportunity of drawing
two important inferences : the firft is, that the Spanifh wool
which went to the Netherlands was, as we have before ob-
ferved, of the coarfeft kind, being of only half the price
of that which was exported to Italy ; fecondly, we can
compare the value of the latter with that of our Englilh
wool, the belt of which, according to the aft of parliament
in 1534, already quoted, did not in England exceed jj. the
ftone of 14 pounds, of 61. 10s. the fack of 364 pounds.
The (hilling, however, being then equal to is. ^\d. of our
coin, increafes the price of the fack 8/. i8j. ^d. ; to which
add cuftom and fubfidy, 3/. T3J. 4//. or 5/. os. lod., and the
refult will be 13/. igj. ■]d. The additional charges of freight
and merchant's profit would fcarcely bring the whole amount
to 16/. 16^. On the other hand, according to the teftimony
of Damianus a Goes, the Spanifli fack of i8ii pounds was
in 1541 worth 14/. 6s. ^\d., and the fack of 364 pounds
28/. i/^._6d. of our prefent money. If the author fpeaks
only of the value of this wool in Spain itfelf, then a farther
addition mull be made of freight, merchant's profit, and
probable duty to the crown. On the whole, this calcula-
tion is fuflicient to (hew in the llrongeft light the fuperior
price of fuperfine Spanilh wool, to that of the very beft at
that time produced in Britain.

Next in order of time to the Italians, the manufafture of
fuperfine wool feems to have been adopted by the French,
who, according to Guicciardini, in 1560 fent by land to
Antwerp fome very fine cloths of Paris and Rouen, which
were highly prized.

It is probable, however, that thefe cloths were made only
of mixed wool.

A ftrong confirmation of the early ufe of the beft Spanilh
wool, unmixed with coarfer by the Italian ftates, is furnilhed
by Richelieu's Political Teftament, printed in 1 635, in which,
fpeaking of the fine woollen manufaftures of France, the
author fays, " the Turks prefer the draps de fceau de Rouen
to all others, next to thofe of Venice, which are made of
Spanilh wool."

And the author of " England's Safety in Trade's In-
creafe," written in 1641, tells us, that «' the greateil part
of their (the Venetians) wools from Spain, and the reft
from Conftantinople, is commonly brought in Englilh
ftiipping."

In 1646, Nicholas Cadeau and other Frenchmen had let.
ters patent for twenty years, for making at Sedan black and
coloured cloths, like thofe of Holland, of the fineft Spaiiilh
wool.

The inhabitants of the north of Europe, as before-men-
tioned, were not at firft able to manufafture fine Spanilh
wool, without the alCftance of that which was longer and
coarfer. But what in the beginning was a matter of necef-
fity, became afterwards an objeA of choice ; and the more
llcilful clothiers, whether in Holland or elfewhere, either
carding the finer and dearer Spani(h with the coarfer and
cheaper Englifh, or forming a warp of the latter, which they
covered with a woof of the former, contrived to make a
cheap and ferviceable cloth, which pleafed the eye equally
well vsrith the more coftly fabrics of entire Spanilh wool.
This though generally concealed with great care at the time,
yet is afterwards candidly acknowledged by writers aftually
engaged in the commerce of wool, and fufSciently refutes
the prejudices which had here prevailed from the middle of
the 16th to the middle of the 17th centur)-. Hence it ap-
pears that our wool, when placed in conneftion with Spanilh,
was chiefly valuable from being well calculated not to im-
prove but to adulterate it.

A treaty between France and Spain in 1659, enabled
the former freely to obtain the wool of the latter, and thus
to gain great advantage over us in the Levant trade. From
the proximity of France to the woollen manufaftures in the
north of Spain, it might have been expefted that the French
would have earlier engaged in this manufafture ; but owing
to their frequent northern wars, and their attention being
direfted to the manufafture of filk, the French do not'
appear to have commenced the fabrication of woollens for
exportation extenfively before the i6th century. About
this time, France made great progrefs in her manufaftures of
wool, and in fecuring the export trade, particularly that to
Tartary, for which (he was better fituated than Holland or
England.

The nature of her trade to warm climates direfted her
attention to the fabrication of finer and lighter cloths,
than thofe made by her norihern neighbours ; in confe-
quence of which (he preferved the greater part of the
Turkey trade to the period of the French revolution, and
in general fine French cloths had attained a celebrity for
their fuperiority, both in texture and dye, over thofe of any
other country in Europe. The native breeds of iheep in
France were greatly improved by intermixture with (heep
imported from Spain. With thefe advantages, France
might have nearly fecured a monopoly of the finer branches
of the woollen manufafture, had not the abfurd policy of
her rulers, in the revocation of the edift of Nantz, driven
the manufafturing Proteftants to other countries, where they
contributed, by their exertion, their (liill, conneftions, and
capital, to form eftablidiments which rivalled thofe of the
country from which they were expelled.

Notwithftanding this, as France fupphed the greater part
of her own population of twenty millions with cloth, beCdes
her foreign exports, we conceive that the woollens manu-
faftured in that country, before the late revolution, equalled
in quantity the cloth made in England at the time, and
greatly exceeded it in value. Under the emperor Napoleon,
the beft Merino flocks were imported in multitudes from
Spain, which have fpread over the country, and are equal
to fupply extenfively her manufaftures of woollens, when
they (hall be again fully eftabhlhed. Confiderable quan-
tities of fine wool have been imported from France into
England finee the peace of 1 8 1 5.

The

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE,

The confufion attendant on a great revolution, continued
for twenty years, gave fo fevere a blow to the manufaftur-
ing eitabhfhments of France, that a confiderable time muft
elapfe before they are completely eftabhfhed. Prior to this
revolution, the fuperfine cloths of France were fuperior
to thofe of England, in texture, colours, and foftnefs. In
the finer articles of worfted goods, and in the mixed
worfted goods made partly with long combing-wool, and
partly with filk or goat's-wool from the Levant, they fur-
paffed the manufactures of this country ; but the manufac-
turers of the commoner kinds of worfted goods, as tam-
mies and (balloons, could not rival us in foreign markets
for want of a proper fupply of wool fuited to the purpofe.
The following were the principal feats of the fuperfine
and fine woollen manufaftures in France, arranged ac-
cording to the different qualities of the goods made at
each, beginning with the fineft :

1. The manufaftures of Gobelins.

2. Of Sedan.

3. Of Abbeville.

4. Of Louviers.

5. OfElbcEuf.

6. Of Rouen and Darnetal.

Befides feveral detached manufafturing eftablilhments of
iuperfine cloth in Languedoc, Champagne, and other parts
of France.

At the Gobelins, fuperfine cloths of the very firft quality
■were manufaftured ; but the manufaftures there were con-
fined folely to the broadeft white cloth intended to be dyed
fcarlet or purple, and the brighteft colours from cochineal.

Sedan followed next to Gobelins for the beauty of its
fuperfine cloths, where they were alfo made of various
breadths and colours.

Abbeville may be placed next after Sedan : fome have
even fuppofed that it equalled Sedan in the finenefs of its
cloths ; but this arofe from the cloths of the latter place
being of various forts : the lower kinds were certainly infe-
rior to thofe of Abbeville ; but the quality of the greater
part of the cloths of Sedan were of a better kind than the
average quality of the cloths of Abbeville. In the manu-
faftures of Sedan, each manufafturer confined himfelf to a
particular kind of cloth, for which he became diftinguiflied,
fome being celebrated for fine, and otliers for fuperfine
cloths exclufively ; whereas in Abbeville, Louviers, and the
other diftrifts enumerated, there were manufafturers who
made various forts, and the proportion of the fine to the
fuperfine was greater than at Sedan.

Elbceuf was one of the moft ancient feats of the woollen
manufafture in France, but the quality of the cloths made
there had greatly degenerated from the years 1 760 to 1 770 ;
but afterwards the manufafturers returned to the former
quality of their cloths, which were partly made of the fine
wools from Befry, and partly from fine Spanifti wool, or
from a mixture of Spanifh with the beft wools of Berry.

Rouen and Darnetal may be placed in the fixth clafs of
manufafturing diftrifts of fine cloth, in which the fineft
wools of France were principally ufed, mixed with thofe
of Spain.

The eftabliftiments for the manufafture of common
cloth and coarfe woollens were much more widely fpread
over France. TJhe goods appear to have been principally
confumed in that country to fupply the demand of a popu-
lation of twenty millions, and the numerous military ella-
blifhments, befides what might be fent to the French
colonies.

As the French never exported any confiderable quantity
ot common or coarfe woollen cloths, the manufaftures
ot thefe articles never equalled in extent thofe of England.
1 he circumftance of the coarfe cloth manufafture being fo
widely fpread over the country, tended alfo to prevent that
degree of rivalry which promotes the fpirit of impr6vement
where manufaftures are more concentrated ; add to this,
the French had not that abundant fupply of the coarfer
clothing-wools which could enable them to rival us in the
export of heavy woollen goods.

The worfted manufaftures of France, including ferges
and thofe goods made with a warp of worfted, were princi-
pally carried on in four of the provinces of France, but more
extenfively in Picardy than elfewhere. The long combing-
wools which fupplied this manufafture, were partly the
produce of France, and partly imported from Holland,
England, Flanders, and Germany. M. RoUand, in the
French Encyclopaedia, defcribing the French manufaftures
in the year 1783, foon after the American war, fays, that
during that war the Englifti adminiftration tacitly en-
couraged the exportation of wool to promote the interefts
of agriculture. He defcribes the French combing-wool as
being coarfer and more harlh than the wool of Holland, as
wafting much more in the manufafture, and making goods of
a very inferior quality. The combing-wools of England,
though generally lefs found and fine, and of a lefs pure
white, than thofe of Holland, were particularly well fuited
to fome parts of the worfted manufafture.

The combing-wools from Germany were coarfe and
harfh, and only ufed in default of other fupplies. Very
fine worfted yarn was alfo obtained from Saxony and the
environs of Gottingen ; but this yarn was tender, and re-
quired to be mixed with worfted yarn from Englifh or
Dutch wool. The yarn of Turcoign was fuppofed to be
Dutch, but was principally from Flanders and Artois.
The goat's-wool came from the Levant, by way of Mar-
feilles, in bales of from 200 to 300 lbs. It fold from four
livres to twelve livres per French pound ; the price of that
moft generally ufed was about 4 livres 10 fous per pound.
The filks ufed in filk camelots, &c. were obtained from
Paris and Lyons.

The following table gives the quantity and value of
wool yarns and worfted pieces in Picardy ; but he fuppofes
the quantity to be under the real amount, the manufafturers
concealing the extent of their trade to avoid arbitrary
taxation.

Wool confumed in the IVorJled Manufa8ures of Picardy.

fous. livres.

French wool 3200000 at 22 3520000

Dutch ditto 180000 at 40 360000

Englifti ditto 200000 at 32 320000

German ditto 1 00000 at 22 11 0000

3680000

Tarn imported.

liv.

Yarn of Turcoign 60000 at 8
German yarn - 1 00000 at 7
Levant yarn, orl

mohair _- { "0000 at 5

Silk ufed in fine?

worfted goods ' ^oooo at 35

t.

10
0

10
0

4310000

510000
700000

I 210000

700000

Total value of wool and yarn
4M 2

7430000
Brought

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

Brought forward - - 7430000

Combing and fpinning 3680COO lbs. of wool 43 1 0000

Winding, warping, and weaving - - 4770000

Dyeing of yarn and pieces ... 190000

Profit of the wool-dealers, manufafturers 1300000

Total value of 1500CO pieces coming from! .Oqqqqqq
the manufafturer - ■ " J

Value of dyeing-wares ... 500000

To whicli carriage and profit of the mer-1 ,000000
chant and draper ■ " " J .^_^^__

Total value of worfted goods in Picardy 20500000

One million and fifty thoufand pounds weight of wool
were alfo confumed in hofiery in the fame province, of
which the greatell part was native ; and the remainder about
two hundred and fifty thoufand pounds weight from Hol-
land. The number of working manufafturers in Picardy
is thus Hated :

50000 men who gain 1^0 Wires per annum 7000000

50000 women 70 - - 35COOOO

150000 children 40 - - 6000000

The greater part of the manufaifburers refided in the
country, and were employed part of the time in agriculture ;
this was alfo the cafe with the manufafturers in the towns,
fo that not more than eight months in the year were de-
voted to manufaftures. This change of employment, fo
conducive to the health and comfort of the labouring
claffes, may be regarded as prefenting the happieft form under
which manufactures can be carried on. This was alfo in a
confiderable degree the fituation of the woollen and worded
manufafturers in Yorkfliire, before the late introduftion of
machinery had driven the population into large faftories ;
a change which may be regarded as one of the greateft
evils that ever afBifted civilized fociety, tending direftly to
degrade and enfeeble the human race, and to render man a
wretched machine, a prifoner from the cradle to the work-
houfe or the grave, devoid of moral feeling and phyfical
energy.

What was the extent of the worfted manufacture in the
other provinces of France where it was carried on, we have
no correft means of afcertaining. In the middle of the
laft. century, the export of cloths and worfted goods from
Languedoc alone amounted annually to about 60,000
pieces, fent to the Levant and to Barbary. At that time
alfo, Spain, and all the countries bordering the Mediterra-
nean, received worfted goods from France. In the variety
of worfted articles, in the ingenuity of the patterns, and the
fuperiority of the workmanftiip, as well as of the dyes,
France may be regarded as having furpaifed any other na-
tion in Europe, prior to the year 1780, or about the clofe
of the American revolution. Since that period, the manu-
faftures of England have aftoniftiingly increafed, and have
obtained a decided preference in foreign markets.

The woollen manufactures of Saxony and Germany have
been long eftabliftied ; the fugitives from the edift of Nantz
contributed much to improve and extend them. During
the late war, all the manufaftures in Germany and every
part of the European continent fuffered greatly, but are at
prefent rapidly reviving, and will abridge the amount of our
exports in Europe.

In Ruflia, Sweden, and Denmark, the woollen manufac-
ture, as a diftinift occupation, is comp:;ratively new ; yet
it has exifted long enough to produce great alteration

in their flocks. And as this change was attempted in a
more enlightened period, and condufted by fcientific men,
the beft. means were adapted to promote the improvement,
and new breeds of ftieep have been introduced into both
countries. The fame remark applies to Saxony and other
circles of the German ftates, and even Hungarian flock$
are not without evident mdication of a change for the
better.

Of the worfted manufafture as diftinft from the wooUen,
we have little information refpefting its origin. It com-
prifes all thofe goods made of combed wool in dillinftion
from carded wool. We are unacquainted with the period
when the wool- comb was invented, or when worfted goods
were firit manufaftured. It is probable, that' worfted
goods were originally woven in the Eaft, and that the
knowledge of them was brought into Europe either by the
Armenian merchants, or tliofe who returned from the ex-
travagant expeditions which were undertaken for the reco-
very of the Holy Land from the dominion of the infidels.
The garments which are now worn by the Turks, fome of
which feem to have been produced by means of the comb,
the incidental mention of that inftrument in an account
which we have of Angora, and the demand for worfted
goods through the Levant, confirm the conjecture, and lead
us to fuppofe, that there exift very confiderable manufac-
tures of this kind in the Turkifh empire, although we know
little more of its domeftic and rural condition, than can be
obtained from the molt vague accounts and uncertain de-
ductions. After the art of fpinning worfted yarn was
known in the weft of Europe, the looms of the Nether-
lands became aftive in converting it into thofe peculiar kinds
of goods to which it was adapted, and it feems as though
the diftinftion between thefe and woollen articles was not
generally noticed until fome years afterwards. It might have
been expeftcd from the nature of the article, that the manu-
facture of worfted goods fliould in many fouthern countries
have preceded that of cloth. Long-ftapled wool fuited to
the comb feems more fpontaneoufly the produce of unculti-
vated fheep, than ftiort wool, which is to be manufactured
by carding, and its mode of manufacture more nearly re-
fembles that of flax ; hence it is not improbable, that worfted
goods were made in Egypt and the Eaft before the manu-
facture of woollen cloth. This is, however, uncertain.

In the manufacture of long wool, the fibres are arranged
parallel to each other, like thofe of flax ; but before they
are fpun, they require to be laid even by fome kind of in-
ftrument, which {hall feparate the fibres, that they may draw
out eafily in fpinning. A comb of a very fimple conftruc-
tion, with a few wires for the teeth, was probably firft made
ufe of. It was afterwards found, that the application of
heat to the comb contributed more effectually to the regu-
lar arrangement of the fibres ; and thus the invention of the
common wool-comb arofe, but at what period is unknown.
Vulgar tradition afcribes the invention to biftiop Blaize, who
firft ufed it in Alderney ; but there does not appear any au-
thority in fupport of this opinion. The bilhop Lved in
Armenia, and was raifed to the epifcopal dignity about the
time of Dioclefian, and fuffered martyrdom under that
tyrant. Before he was beheaded, he was tortured with
iron combs, with which his flefti was torn ; and hence when
an inftrument of that kind was brought into common ufe,
the workmen chofe him for their patron faint. The tradi-
tions of the origin aiid progrefs of the worfted manufafture
are thus extremely imperfeft ; we ftiall have occafion to fpeak
of its introduftion and progrefs in this country in the fol-
lowing feftion.

Rl/c

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

■ Rlfi and Progrefs of the Woolltn Manuf azures in England.
^-The Romans, as we have ftated on the authority of
Camden, had a cloth manufafture at Winchefter. The firft
account of any diftinft body of manufafturers afterwards
occurs in the reign of Henry I., but either the people of this
country were wholly clothed in (kins or leather in the inter-
vening fpace, or, what is more probable, coarfe cloths were
manufaftured in a rude manner in mod of the towns and
villages in England. A great part, however, of the drefs

own commodities, without any interruption from the citi'
zens. Previous to this date they hired lodgings, and their
landlords were the brokers, who fold all their goods, and
received a commiflion upon them. It was foon after pre-
tended that the foreign merchants ufed falfe weights, and a
clamour being raifed againit them, twenty of them were
arretted and fent to the Tower. Amid (I the numerous
abfurd reltriiftions to which commerce and manufaftures
were fubjefted, we need not be furprifed at the little pro-

of the labouring claffes in the country was made of Icatiier, grefs which they made

particularly the breeches and waiitcoats, even till the prefent The materials which hiftory affords rofpefting the woollen

reign. George Fox, the founder of the Quakers, in tiie manufafture before the reign of Edward III. are but

reign of Charles I., travelled on his miiTions through the fcanty ; it appears that the office of aulnager, or clotli

country, buttoned up in a leathern doublet, or waiftcoat with infpeftor, was very ancient. In the reign of Edward I.

fleeves,' which fupplied the place of a coat. This was not,
as his adverfaries afterwards affirmed, from any fupcrllitious
'prejudice refpefting that coftume ; it was the common dreis
of the labouring mechanics at that time, to which clafs he
belonged.

The firft account of any foreign weavers fettled in
England is recorded by William of Malmfbury and Glraldus
Cambreniis, who relate that a number of Flemings were
'driven out of their own country, by an extraordinary en-
croachment of the fea in the time of William the Conqueror.
They were well received, and firft placed in the neighbourhood
of Carlide, and on the northern frontier ; but not agreeing
with the inhabitants, they were tranfplanted by Henry I.
into Pembrokefliire. They are faid to have been ildlful in
ithe woollen manufafture, and are fuppofed to have firft intro-
iduced it into England as a feparate trade. Cloth-weavers
lare mentioned in the exchequer accounts as exifting in various
Iparts of England in the reign of Henry I., particularly at
London and Oxford. The weavers of Lincoln and Hun-
tingdon are i-eprefented as paying fines for their guild in the
;5thof Stephen ; and in the reign of Henry II. ( 1 189), there
were weavers in Oxford, York, Nottingham, Huntingdon,
[Lincoln, and Winchefter, who all paid fines to the king
ifor the privilege of carrying on their trade. (Chronicon
'Prctiofum, p. 64. ) There were alfo cloth dealers in various
of Yorkfhire, Norwich, Huntingdon, Gloucefter,

we are informed by Madox, that Peroult le Tayleur, who
held the office of aulnager of cloth in the feveral fairs of
the realm, having forfeited it, the king, by writ of privy
feal, commanded the treafurerto let Pieres Je Edmonton have
it, if he were fit for it, and a writ was made out accordingly,
and he took the oaths of that office before the treafurer and
barons. The fafts above-ftated prove the exiftence of
the cloth manufafture in England before the time of Ed-
ward III., who is generally fuppoled to have firft intro-
duced the art into the kingdom. There is no doubt, that
a new impulfe was given to it during this reign by the
liberal proteftion granted to foreign manufaftures here :
in all probability, they firft introduced the manufafture of
ftuffs from combed wool or worfteds ; an art requiring more
(liill, and more complicated procefles, than are employed in
the making of cloth.

In the year 1331, John Kemp, a mafter manufafturer
from Flanders, received a proteftion to eftdbhih himfelf here
with 'a number of dyers and fullers to carry on his trade,
and in the following year feveral manufafturers came over
from Brabant and Zealand. It is faid, that the king's
marriage with the daughter of the earl of Hainault enabled
him to fend over emiifaries without fufpicion, to invite the
manufafturers to this kingdom. Thefe manufafturers were
diftributed over the country, at the following places : — The
manufafturers of fuftians (woollens) were eftablifiied at

Northampton, Nottingham, andNewcaftle-upon-Tyne ; alfo Norwich, of baize at Sudbury in Suffolk, of fayes and
feveral towns in Lincolnffiire, and at St. Alban's, Baldock, ferges at Colchefter in Effex, of broad-cloths m Kent, of

had attained httle (kill

of
kerfies in Devonftiire, of cloth in Worcefterfhire and
Gloucefterffiire, of Wellh friezes in Wales, of cloth at
Kendal in Weftmoreland, of coarfe cloths, afterwards called
Halifax cloths, in Yorkfhire, of cloth in Hampihire, Berk-
fliire, and Suffex, and of ferges at Taunton in Devonfhire.
(Rymer's Fosdera, vol. i. p. 195.) Frefh fupplies of fo-
Madox's Hiftory of the reigners contributed to advance the woollen trade of thefe
diftrifts.
, In the 3 1 ft of Henry II. the weavers of London received Kendal, in Weftmoreland, claims the honour of firft receiv-
:a confirmation of their guild, with all the privileges they ing John Kemp, where his defcendants ftill remain, and the
icnjoyed in the reign of Henry I.; and in the patent he woollen trade is at prefent carried on. In the tollowmg reign,
Idirefted, that if any weaver mixed Spaniih wool with Enghfh we find the manufafturers of Kendal petitioning to be re-
jin making cloth, the chief magiftrate (hould feize and burn lieved from the regulations impofed on broad-cloths. Ken-
- -' ■ . r„. ■ ./• . '-^ dal green is mentioned by Shakfpeare as an article of drefs

in the time of Henry IV., and there is reafon to believe,
that in the reign of Elizabeth, the woollen manufaftures

,Berkhamftead, and Chefterfield, who paid fines to the king
ithat they might freely buy and fell dyed cloths. Thefe are
ifuppofed to have been cloths imported from the Flemings.
,The red, fcarlet, and green cloths, enumerated among
|the articles in the wardrobe of Henry II., were inotl
'probably foreign, as the Englilh
at that time in the art of dyeing.
;Exchequer.

lit. (Stowe's Survey of London.) This abfurd edift was
liiTued under the pretext of the inferiority of the Spanifh
:wool, but was doubtlefs intended to encourage the growth
of Englilh wool, an article from which our kings derived a
iconfiderable revenue. The circumftance rather proves the
Ifuperior excellence of Spanifti wool at that time, and the
; jealoufy which its importation had excited among the Englifh

of that town were as extenfive as at prefent.

In the year 1336, two woollen manufafturers from Bra-
bant fettled at York, under the king's proteftion : they are
ftiled in the letters of proteftion, " Willielmus de Brabant
& Hanckcinus de Brabant, Textores." Thefe perfons

.wool-growers. - - . -. , ,, j ,a 1

I In the reign of Henry III. an aft was paffed limiting the probably laid the foundation of the woollen and wor ted

(breadth of broad-cloths, ruffets, &c. to two yards within manufaftures, which have fince fo extenlively fiounlhed m

Ithe hfts. In the year 1284, foreign merchants were firft the weftern part of that county. It is not very impro-

ipermitted to rent houfes in London, and buy and fell their bable, that the manufafturer Hancks, called Hanckcinus,

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

gave the name to the flcein of worded, which is to this day
called a hank.

The references which we have foon afterwards to the
woollen manufafture, as exifting in the diftrifts before-
named, tend to confirm the belief, that the diftribution of
the foreign manufafturers we have given is corredl. About
this time, we learn that Thomas Blanket, and other inhabit-
ants of Briftol, fet up looms in their own houfes, but were
fo harafled by the impofitions of the mayor and baihffs of
the place, that they were obliged to obtain letters from the
king to permit the free ufe of their trade, without impedi-
ment, calumny, or exaftion. The letter to the mayor and
bailiffs accufes them in the following terms : " vos diverfas
pecunii fummas ab eifdem Thomas et aliis exigitis et ea
occaCone multipliciter inquietatis et gravatis, ut afferunt."
Dr. Parry has conjeftured, that blanket, which at firft meant
a coarfe white undreffed cloth, derived its name from the
fame Thomas Blanket of Briftol. The encouragement
given to the woollen manufafturers during this reign, and
the confequent confumption of wool at home, diminifhed
the export of it fo much, that a duty was laid on cloth ex-
ported to fupply the place. Blackwell-hall was appointed
by the mayor and common council of London for the
market, where cloth manufafturers might fend their goods
for fale, in the year 1357.

In the courfe of the reign we find feveral other afts re-
lating to the meafurement and fulling of cloth, and the fees
to be paid to the aulnager.

In order to form a more diftinft idea of the relative value
of wool, cloth, and other articles, after and before the reign,
it may be proper to refer to the ftate of the filver coinage.

Grains.

The 28 Edward I. one fhilling contained 264 '

l8 Edward III 236

27 Edward III 213

9 Henry V. .... 176

I Henry VI 142

4 Henry VI 176

49 Henry VI 142

1 Henry VIII 118

34 Henry VIII. . . - - 100

36 Henry VIII. - ... 60

37 Henry VIII 40

3 Edward VI. .... 40

5 Edward VI 20

6 Edward VI 88

2 Elizabeth .... 89
43 EUzabeth .... 86

at which it continued to the prefent reign.

The following account of the exports and imports in the
28th of Edward III., faid to be found in a record of the
exchequer, was publifhed by Edward Miffeldon, merchant,
in the year 1623.

Exports. £ s. d.

Thirty-one thoufand fix hundred andfifty-1

one facks and a half of wool, at fix > 189,909 o o

pounds value each fack, amount to -J
Three thoufand thirty -fix hundred and!

fixty-five felts at 40^. value, each hun- J- 6,073 ' ^

dred at fix fcore, amount to • -J
Whereof the cuftom amounts to - - 81,624 i i
Fourteen laft, feventeen dicker, and five"!

hides of leather, after fix pounds value K 89 5 o

the laft, amount to . . - . j
Whereof the cuftom amounts to . . 6176

Brought forward
Four thoufand feven hundred and feventy

foui- cloths and a half, after 40J. v "

the cloth, is
Eight thoufand and fixty-one pieces and a

halfof - - -----

piece.
Whereof the cuftom amounts to

£ X. d.

^11^102 5 3

,549 o o

nty.T

alue \ 9,<

ht thoufand and fixty-one pieces and aT

alf of worfted, after 16/. 8^. value the > 6,717 18 4

iece, is .... .J

Imports.

One thoufand eight hundred and thirty-T

two cloths, after fix pounds value the > 10,922 o

cloth J

Whereof the cuftom amounts to - - 91 12

Three hundred and ninety-feven quintals'!

and three quarters of wax, after the > 795 10
value of 40X. the hundred or quintal . j
Whereof the cuftom is - - - 19 '7

One thoufand eight hundred and twenty- T

nine tons and a half of wine, after 40X. > 31659 o
per ton - - . . . - j

Whereof the cuftom is . . - 182 o

Linen cloth, mercury, and grocery-wares, "l ^

and all other manner of merchandize -J *' ^
Whereof the cuftom is ... 285 18

215 13 7

Summary of the out.carried commodities') „ I

in value and cuftom - - .| 294.i»4 i? 2{

Carried forward

277»702 J 3

Summary of the m-brought commodities,! „

1 J A • T 38,070 13 3

in value and cultom, is . - .jJ'" jj

Summary of the impulfage of the out-T

carried above the in-brought commo- > 255,214 3 11

dities, amounteth to - - . .J

Admitting the correftnefs of this ftatement, which we
have no reafon to doubt, we muft obferve, that the cloth
imported was of a higher value /fr yard than the cloth ex-
ported. Hence it may be inferred, that for feveral years '.
after the arrival of the Flemifh weavers, we were partly
dependent on foreigners for our fine cloths ; the coarfer
kinds then, as at the prefent day, forming the larger quan-
tity of our exports. It is obvious alfo, that worfted goods
had become an article of manufafture, nearly equal in im-
portance with the woollen ; and hence it is not impro-
bable, that the greater part of the Flemiih manufafturers
were makers of ftufFs and worfted goods, which was pro-
bably an entirely new trade in England.

The ftatutes in the following reigns, relating to the
woollen manufafture, prove the narrow and felfilh policy .
by which the manufafturers were influenced : thefe ftatutes j
refer either to reftriftions which they wanted to impofe,
in order to confine the trade to themfelves, or are made
to prevent them from fraudulently packing or weaving
their goods. In confequence of thefe fraudulent praftices,
the 13th ftatute of Richard II. makes the following regu-
lations, which are curious, as marking the fpirit of the
manufafturers, and alfo as proving the early eftablifhment
of the woollen trade in the weftern counties, where it now
flourilhes. It runs thus : " Forafmuch as divers plain
cloths, wrought in the counties of Somerfet, Dorfet, Briftol,
and Gloucefter, be tacked and folded together for fale ; of
which cloths a greater part be broken, bruifed, and not
agreeing in the colour, neither according to the breadth, nor
in no manner to the pai-t of the fame cloths fhewed outwards,
but falfely wrought with divers wools, to the great lofs and

damage

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

• jdaniage of the people, infomuch that the merchants that

buy the fame, and carry them out of the realm to fell to

ftrangers, be many times in danger to be flain, and fome-

:times imprifoaed and put to fine and ranfom. Therefore it

is ordained, that no plain cloth tacked and folded (hall be

fet to fale within the fame counties." The fame aft permits

certain cloths of coarfe wool to be made of the breadth

of three quarters, and appoints one weight and meafure

through the kingdom, except in the county of Lancafter.

Another ftatute, in the fame reign, allows every perfon to

make cloth of what length and breadth he will, provided the

aulnage and other duties are paid, and it be meafured and

;fealed by the king's aulnager, and contain no deceit. The

:kinds of worfted goods which might or might not be

exported, were alfo fpecified in this ftatute. During this

reign it appears, notwithftanding the increafe of our trade,

ithat we annually exported about one hundred and thirty

thoufand packs of wool, paying a duty of one hundred

and fixty thoufand pounds.

In the 4th of Henry IV. the cloths made in London
and the fuburbs were ordered to have a feal of lead attached,
and in a fubfequent ftatute no cloths were to be folded be-
,fore the aulnager had fet his feal to them. In the following
reign, the narrow cloths, called the dozens of Devonftiire
and Cornwall, are ordered to pay cocket cuftoms, after the
rate of broad-cloths.

In the reign of Henry VI. the exportation of woollen
iyarn is prohibited, and this prohibition feems to have been
jjn full force when wool was allowed to be freely exported.
' The only reafon affigned for this is, that the yarn paid no
duty. During this reign two cloth-fearchers were appointed
jfor every hundred throughout the realm, who were to in-
fpeA and feal all cloth, taking one penny for each. This
proves that the manufafture of woollens had fpread over a
great part of the kingdom. It is probable that this infpec-
tion extended to all cloths made in private families, which
: were fent to the fulling-mills.

I The worfted trade was alfo increafing rapidly at this time :
' four wardens of vvorfted-weavers were appointed for the city
of Norwich and two for the county of Norfolk, who were
to make due fearch of worfteds, and of what length and
breadth they were made. In the fame reign it was ordained,
that " if our woollens were not received in Brabant, Holland,
and Zealand, then the merchandize growing or wrought
within the dominions of the duke of Burgoine ftiall be
prohibited in England, under pain of forfeiture." Hence
we learn, that we very foon began to fupply thefe fame
countries with woollens and worfteds, from which we had
received workmen a century before.

In the third year of Edward IV. the woollen trade had
increafed fo much, that the importation of woollen cloth,
caps, &c. was prohibited. Woollen caps or bonnets were
then univerfally worn ; they were either knitted or made of
cloth, and a large quantity of wool muft have been con-
fumed in their fabrication. About the year 1482, hats
made from felts were introduced ; but the manufafturers of
caps, called the cappers, continued a powerful body a cen-
tury afterwards. In the fame reign, tlie wardens of worfteds
at Norwich were doubled, or increafed to eight.

The manufafture of fine broad-cloth muft have been con-
fiderably improved about tliis time ; for in the fourth of
Henry VII. it was thought prudent to d-A a maximum on
the price of fine cloth, by which every retailer of cloth
who ftiould fell a yard of the fineft fcarlet grained cloth
above fixteen ftiillings, or a yard of any other coloured
cloth above eleven ftiillings, was to forfeit forty ftiillings per
yard for the fame.

In the year 1493, in confequence of a quarrel between
Henry VJI. and the archduke Philip, all intercourfe be-
tween the Englifli and Flemifh ceafed, and the mart for
Englifti goods was transferred from Antwerp to Calais.
This interruption to the regular courfe of trade wasTeverely
felt by the woollen manufafturers. Lord Bacon, mention-
ing the renewal of the trade with Flanders, which took
place again in 1496, fays, " By this time the interruption of
trade between the Englifti and Flemifti began to pinch the
merchants of both nations very fore. The king, who loved
wealth, though very fenfible of this, kept his dignity fo far
as firft to be fought unto. Wherein the merchant adven-
turers likewife did hold out bravely ; taking off the com-
modities of the kingdom, though they lay dead upon their
hands for want of vent." The merchant adventurers he
defcribes as " being a ftrong company, and underfet with
rich men." It is not, however, very probable, that this
company would continue to purchafe goods without a pro-
fpeft of gain. Thefe merchant adventurers were divided
into two bodies ; thofe of London, which were the moft
powerful ; and the merchant adventurers of England, who
paid a fine to the former on all goods fold at the foreign
marts.

In the reign of Henry VIII. the wooUen trade, and par-
ticularly all kinds of worfted manufaftures, appear to have
been in a very flouriftiing ftate, though trade fnffered feveral
fevere checks from the wars in which we were engaged.
In the year 1527, Henry having entered into a league with
France againft the emperor Charles V., all trade with Spain
and the Low Countries ceafed. The goods fent to Black-
well-liall found no purchafers, the merchants having their
warehoufes filled with cloths ; the poor manufafturers being
thus deprived of employment, an infurreftion took place in
the county of Sufl'olk, where four thoufand of them affem-
bled, but were appeafed by the duke of NorfoUt. The
merchants were fummoned to appear before cardinal
Wolfey, who in the name of the king reprimanded them in
an angry tone for not purchafing the goods brought to
market, and threatened them that his majefty would open a
new mart at Whitehall, and buy of the clothiers to fell
again to foreign merchants ; to which menace one of them
pertinently rephed, " My lord, the king may buy them as
well at Blackwell-hall, if it pleafes him, and the ftrangers
will gladlier receive them there than at Weftminfter." —
" You fiiall not order that matter," faid the cardinal ; " and
I ftiall fend into London to know what cloths you have on
your hands, and by that done, the king and his council ftiall
appoint who fliall buy the cloths, I warrant you." With
this anfwer the Londoners departed. Grafton's Chro-
nicle, vol. ii. p. 1 167-8.

Tiie interference of the cardinal raifed the fpirits of the
manufafturers for a time, but originating in ignorance of
the nature of trade, it could only liave a temporary effeft,
and goods fell again till a truce between England and
F'landers was made for the benefit of trade. This faft
ftiews the dependance of England, even at that time, on the
export of manufaftured woollens. In this reign we find
Lancaftiire and Cheftiire firft named as feats of the nianu-
fafture of coarfe woollens ; tliey are mentioned, together
with Cornwall and Wales, a; diftrifts where friezes were
made. It appears from various references, that Norfolk
and Suffolk were then flourilhing feats of tlie worfted ma-
nufafture, and of all goods made with a worfted warp.
Wardens were allowed to the towns of Yarmouth and
Lynn, but with a felfifti reftriftion, that tlie pieces v/ere to
be dyed, fpun, or callendered in the city of Norwich. In
the laft year of this reign, an i^. was pafTed to prevent any
1 2 perfons

WOOLLEN MAJNUFACTUKE.

perfons befides woollen manufaaurers, who bought wool for
their own ufe, and merchants of the ftaple, who bought for
exportation, to purchafe wool with the intent to fell again.
This aft extended to twenty-eight counties, and fecured
a monopoly of the wool to the merchants of the ftaple,
and to the rich clothiers. In the firft year of the fol-
lowing reign, Edward VI., it was repealed, fo far as
to allow every perfon dweUing in Norwich and Norfolk, to
buy wool the growth of that county, by themfelves or
agents, and retail it out in open market. The reafon al-
figned is this : That almoft the whole number of poor in-
habitants of the county of Norfolk and city of Norwich
had been ufed to get their living by fpinning of Norfolk
wool, which they ufed to purchafe by eight pennyworth or
twelve pennyworth at a time, felling the fame again in y arn ;
and becaufe the grower chofe not to parcel it in fuch fmall
quantities, therefore for the benefit of the poor, the wool of
Norfolk was allowed to be purchafed by wool-dealers.
By this ad, the 33d of Henry VIII., for prohibiting the
exportation of yarn is made perpetual. The manufadure
of woollens in the counties adjoining London appear to
have been extenfive, particularly in the county of Berkfhire ;
for in the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII., John
Winchcombe, of that county, commonly called Jack of
Newbury, was celebrated as the greateft clothier in Eng-
land. He kept one hundred looms in his own houfe, and
in the expedition againft the Scotch, he fent to Flodden-
field one hundred men, fully equipped, at his own expence.
Even fo early as the 13th century, one Thomas Cole was
diftinguilhed by the name of the rich clothier of Reading,
in Berkfhire.

York, then the fecond city in the kingdom, and from its
conneaion with the port of Hull well fituated for the
export trade, was probably an early feat of the woollen
manufaaure. We have already mentioned the fettlement
of two clothiers from Brabant in the time of Edward III.
We do not learn precifely in our early hiftorians, when the
manufaaures emanated from that city into the weftern parts
of the county ; but from an aa in the 34th of Henry VIII.
we are informed, that the chief manufadure of that city
was the making of coverlets ; the aa recites, " that the poor
of that city were daily employed in fpinning, carding,
dyeing, weaving, &c. for the making of coverlets, and that
the fame have not been made elfewhere in the faid county
till of late ; that this manufaaure had fpread itfelf into other
parts of the county, and was thereby debafed and difcre-
dited, and therefore it is enaaed, that none (hall make
coverlets in Yorkfhire but the people of York." Thus we
fee, under the flimfy pretext of pubhc benefit, the manufac-
turers were wiUing to difguife that felfilh fpirit of monopoly,
which difgraces almoft every page of our commercial hif-
tory. The municipal regulations of the city of York,
which were, and ftill continue to be, hoftile to a free trade,
probably obliged many manufaaurers, who were not
ftiarers in the monopolies of the guild, to cftablifli them-
felves in the weftern villages of the county, wliere provifions
■were cheaper, and where they could carry on their trade
without reftriaion. In the reign of Philip and Mary, foon
after this period, we have the following interefting account
of Halifax, in confequence of an aa parted in the 37th of
Henry VIII. to prevent any other perfons than merchants
of the ftaple and woollen manufaaurers from buying wool
in the county of Kent and twenty -feven (hires. The poorer
manufaaurers, who were unable to lay in their ftock of
wool at one time, being hereby deprived of their trade,
made application for redrefi, which was granted. The aa
recites as follows : " Whereas the town of HaUfax being

planted in the great wafte and moors, where the fertility of
the ground is not apt to bring forth any corn nor good
grafs, but in rare places, and by exceeding and great in-
duftry of the inhabitants ; and the fame inhabitants alto-
gether do live by cloth-making, and the greater part of
them neither getteth corn, nor is able to keep a horfe to
carry wools, nor yet to buy much wool at once, but hath
ever ufed to repair to the town of Halifax, and there to buy
fome two or three ftone, according to their ability, and to
carry the fame to their houfes, three, four, or five miles off,
upon their heads and backs, and fo to make and convert the
fame either into yarn or cloth, and to fell the fame, and fo
to buy more wool of the wool-driver ; by means of which
indultry, the barren grounds in thofe parts be now much
inhabited, and above five hundred houfeholds there newly
increafed within thefe forty years paft, which now are like
to be undone and driven to beggary by reafon of the late
llatute (37th of Henry VIII.) that taketh away the wool-
driver, fo that they cannot now have their wool by fuch
fmall portions as they were wont to have, and that alfo they
are not able to keep any horfes whereupon to ride or fetch
their wools further from them in other places, unlefs fome
remedy may be provided. It was therefore enaaed, that it
fhould be lawful, to any perfon or perfons inhabiting within
the pari(h of Halifax, to buy any wool or wools at fuch
time, as the clothiers may buy the fame, otherwife than by
engrolling and foreftalling, fo that the perfons buying the
fame do carry the faid wools to the town of Hahfax, and
there to fell the fame to fuch poor folks of that and other
parilhes adjoining, as (hall work the fame in cloth of yam,
to their knowledge, and not to the rich and wealthy clothier,
or any other to fell again. Offending againft this aa to
forfeit double the value of the vi^ool fo fold."

From this we learn that many woollen manufaaurers had
been either driven from York at an early period, by the op-
preflion of the municipal regulations, or had retired where
provifions were cheaper, and where they had better ftreams
for the ereaion of fulling-mills, and for other proccffes of
the manufaaure, fuch as dyeing and fcouring.

The woollen mannfaaures alfo gradually retired from
the vicinity of the metropolis, owing to the increafed price
of provifions and labour, and probably alfo to the difficulty
of obtaining commodious ftreams for the fcouring and full-
ing of cloth, when the country round London became more
populous. In the latter part of the reign of Henry VIII.
we are informed, that the king demifed to William Webbe the
fubfidy and aulnage of all cloth made in the county of Mon-
mouth, and in the twelve (hires of Wales. A former aa
of this reign, fpeaking of the manufaaurers of North Wales,
fays, they had been ufed to fell their cloths fo craftly and
hard rolled together, that the buyer could not perceive the
untrue making thereof. Thefe aas prove the extenfion of
the woollen manufaaures weftward.

In the fame reign, an aa mentions the woollen manufac-
tures as being eftablilhed in Worcefterfhire, but prohibits
any one from making cloth in the county, except within
the city of Worcefter, and in the towns of Evefham, Droit-
wich, Kidderminfter, and Bromfgrove ; and forbids the
owners of houfes in thofe places from letting them at ad-
vanced prices to the cloth-manufaaurers. The woollen
manufaaure has continued to the prefent day at the two
laft of thefe towns. In the reign of Edward Vl. Coventry
and Manchefter are mentioned as manufaauring places.
The manufaaurers in the old eftabhfhed feats of the woollen
trade appear to have been greatly alarmed at the extenfion
of the cloth manufaaure, and to have exerted all their in-
fluence to reftrain it. Near the conclufion of the reign of

Philip

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

Philip and Mary, an aft in 53 fedions was paffed, relating wool, or combing-wool, was more the peculiar produce of

to the making of woollen cloths. It enafts, that no perfon England than clothing-wools. The latter were era

ftiall make woollen cloth but only in a market-town, where abundance, and of a fuperior quahty in Soain P rt 1

cloth hath commonly been ufed to be made for the fpace of and France ; but the combing-wooU of England 'on acc"cf t

; ten years lad paft, or in a city, borough, or town cor- of the fuperior foundnefs of the ftaple or fibre and the

porate. From this reftrifting aft, however, the following quantity fupplied, gave a decided advantage to our manu-

exceptions are made : to all perfons who dwell in North fafturers of ftuffs or worfted pieces.

Wales or South Wales, Chefhire, Lancafhire, Weftmoreland, The perfecution of the Proteftants by the duke of Alva

Cumberland, Northumberland, the bilhopric "of Durham, in the Netherlands drove multitudes of the manufafturer

iCornwall, Suffolk, Kent, the town of Godalmin in Surrey, into England, where they were gracioufly received by Eli-

or in Yorkrtiire, being not within twelve miles of the city zabeth, who gave them liberty to fettle at Norwich Col-

of York, or any towns or villages near the river Stroud in chefter. Sandwich, Maiditone, and Southampton. Thefe

Gloucefterfhire. This aft, fo abfurd and opprefTive, was refugees contributed to extend our manufaftures of worfted

obliged to be modified in the firft year of th^ following goods and light woollens, called bays and fays ; theyalfoin-

ireign, by an aft entitled " An Aft for the continuing and troduced the manufafture of linens and filks, and it is fupl

making of Woollen Cloths in divers Towns in the County pofed that they firft taught the art of weaving on the ftock-

of Eflex." Bocking, Watherfold, Cockfliill, and Dodham, ing-frame.

<o:

'are the towns fpecified. In the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth an aft was paffed

I In confequence of the increafe of our manufaftures, the to relieve the counties of Somerfet, Gloucefter, and Wiltfhire
export of wool had nearly ceafed before the reign of Ehza- from thofe abfurd and oppreffive ftatutes which confined the
beth ; and a confiderable advance appears to have taken making of cloth to corporate towns. This aft, which jrave
place in the price of food, clothing, and rents. The ex- to all perfons refiding in thefe counties the privileges ofTree
:port trade of England was carried on very extenfively by trade, could not fail to extend and eftablifh the woollen ma-
chree companies of merchants, the merchants of the Still- nufaftures in thefe parts, and they have remained to the pre-
yard, who were foreigners, the merchants of the Staple, fent time the principal feats of the fuperfine cloth trade
ind the merchant adventurers, who were Englifh. See whilft many manufafturing corporate towns, which were
Stillyard, Staple, and Adventurers. then flourifhing, have funk to decay. Various afts, regu-

The merchants of the Stillyard were of ancient ftanding, lating the length, breadth, and tentering of woollen' goods
lind were originally from the Hanfe towns: they had great of different kmds, were alfo paffed in this reign, referring to
jarivileges granted them, and particularly they were allowed the counties of Oxfordfhire, Devon, and the co'unties north
i'.o export and import all wares and merchandize, on pay- of Trent, particularly Yorkfhire and Lancafhire. The im-
Inent of the fmall duty of one and a quarter per cent. This portation of foreign wool-cards was alfo prohibited. The
i;ave them a decided advantage over the other companies ; aft recites, that many thoufands of woollen card-makers and
md it is alleged that they lent their name to cover the im- card-wire drawers, living in London, Briflol, Gloucefter
port and export of goods belonging to private merchants, Norwich, Coventry, and elfewhere, had heretofore fubfifted
ind thereby evaded the regular duties on fuch goods. This themfelves and families upon that bufinefs, which was now
pompany had engroffed a confiderable part of the cloth greatly impaired by the importation of wool-cards. No
irade. In the year 1551 they exported 44,000 cloths; laws prohibiting the export of wool were thought neccfl'ary
;bon after which this company was diifolved. The mer- in this period of our hiflory, and it continued to be exported
;:hant adventurers fucceeded to that branch of their trade : during the whole of this reign, as appears by the account
Jccording to the account of John Wheeler, fecretary to of the merchant adventurers, who exported it together with
jhe company, there were annually ftiipped by them cloth ; but though wool was freely exported, an aft was
)0,ooo white cloths, worth 600,000/., and 40,000 cloths paffed to prevent the carrying of live fheep, lambs, or rams
i)f all forts, baizes and kerfies, worth 400,000/., befides out of England ; but the reafons for this aft are not recited
yool and woolfels. We are told by Camden, that, in though it ftates it was for divers good caufes and confidera-
Ihis reign, the commerce between England and the Nether- tions. The internal tranquillity that the country enjoyed
,ands rofe to above twelve millions yearly, and the woollen during this long reign, the influx of foreign makers of new
irade alone amounted to five millions. The Latin terms kinds of worfteJs, and other articles not known before
Vhich Camden employs, mllliones aureorum, leaves the the opening of a new trade to Turkey and the Barbary
imount intended uncertain : if we fuppofe it to be ducats, ftates, by treaty in the year 1579 ^""^ '" ' J^5> ^ll greatly
ihe quantity is much greater than England exported at that contributed to the extenfion of the woollen trade and manu-
lime ; probably florins were intended, which makes the faftures. There were indeed other circumftances which muft
imount about 750,000/. have operated againft our manufafturers in part of this

; Befides the exports to Antwerp, Englifh cloth was at reign. The interruption of commerce between England and
his time fent to Amllerdam, Hamburgh, Sweden, Ruflia, the Netherlands in 1564, which lafted fome time, the wars
imd other countries. The woollen trade of England had with Spain, the lacking of Antwerp, in which the Englifh
iiow advanced to a higher ftate of profperity than at any merchants fuffered leverely, gave a confiderable check to the
Ibrmer period ; and from this time it appears to have de- foreign trade ; yet we have feen that the merchant adventurers
'.lined until after the revolution of i668. In this reign, alone exported woollens to the amount of one million fterling
he price of wool, which we believe to mean long or comb- towards the latter end of this reign. The demand at home
ing wool, had advanced from 13^. 4^. to 22s. per tod ; and for woollens muft alfo have greatly increafed during the long
;he fhilling containing the fame weight of filver as our late period of domeftic tranquillity which the nation at that time
::oinage, wz. 86 grains, the relative value of a tod of long enjoyed, and particularly from the prevailing tafte for coftly
Ivool was confiderably more than it has ever been during ,the drefTes which has fpread from the court througli the country,
iirefent reign. A great part of our woollen exports hitherto confifted of

i The declenfion of our manufaftures in the fucceeding white undrefTed cloth ; but in the following reign of James I.
[eigns of the Stuarts, as we have reafon to believe, extended it was reprefented as bad policy to permit the exportation
:iuch more to woollen cloths than to worfted pieces. Long of cloth in this ftate, and thereby lofe the profit on the
; Vol. XXXVIII. 4 N dyeing

WOOLLEN IVIANUFACTUIIE.

dyeing and finifliing. A letter esifts addreffed to king
James on this fubjeA, afcribed to fir Walter Raleigh, but
without fufBcient evidence, as '« the moft ancient manufcripts
of this letter in the libraries of the nobility afcribe it to
John Keymer." ( Oldy's Life of Sir W. Raleigh. ) In this
letter it is ftated, " that there have been eighty thoufand un-
dreffed and undyed cloths exported yearly, by which the
kingdom has been deprived of four hundred thoufand
pounds for the laft fifty-five years, which is nearly twenty
millions that would have been gained by the labour of the
workmen in that time, with the merchants' gains for bring-
ing in dyeing-wares, and return of cloths drefled and dyed,
with other benefits to the realm." The writer proceeds, in
another part, to ftate, that there had alfo been exported in
that time annually, of baizes and northern and Devonfhire
kerfies, in the white, fifty thoufand cloths, counting three
kerfies to a cloth, whereby had been loft about five millions
to the nation in labour, profit, &c. The author informs
us, that the baizes fo exported were drefled and dyed at
Amfterdam, and (hipped to Spain, Portugal, and other
kingdoms, under the name of Flemifh baize, fetting their
own feal upon them ; " fo that we lofe the very name of our
home-bred commodities, and other countries get the reputa-
tion and profit thereof." The author concludes with aflert-
ing, that the nation lofes a million a year by the export of
white cloths, which might be drefled and dyed as well at
home. This letter has been often quoted as containing un-
anfwerable reafons for confining the whole procefs of the
cloth manufacture to our own country ; but, like other mo-
nopolifts, the writer feems to forget that there are two
parties in all mercantile tranfaftions, and that manufaftured
goods muft be fent in that ftate in which the purchafer is
willing to receive them, unlefs it be proved that he cannot
procure them elfewhere. Let us mark the refult. Alder-
man Cockayne, and other London merchants, had fufficient
influence with the government to obtain the prohibition of
the export of white cloths, and to fecure a patent for dref-
fing and dyeing of cloths. In confequence of which, the
Dutch and Germans immediately prohibited the importation
of dyed cloths from England, which gave fo great a check
to our export trade, that in the year 1616, the whole
amount of cloths exported of every kind aniounted only to
ftxty thoufand, fo that the export trade in woollens had
fallen to lefs than one-third of its former amount ; and in
the year 1622,

1. s. d.

All our exports of every kind 7

amounted only to
Whilft our imports were

2,320,436 12 10

2,619,315 o o

Lea.ving a balance againft us of 298,878 7 2

It being from experience proved, that the pohcy of dref-
fmg and dyeing all our goods at home had produced the
greateft injury to the woollen trade, the reftriftions were
taken off, and the export for white cloth left free. In the
former reign, cloths about four pounds value were, by ftatute,
to be fent out dyed, by all perfons except the company of
merchant adventurers, who obtained a licence to export all
forts of white cloths ; and though this was itfelf a monopoly,
yet, as it gave foreigners an opportunity of receiving our
finer cloths in the ftate which they moft wanted, it was the
means of increafing our trade : indeed it is faid by Miflel-
den, that " within a few years after granting this licence, the
vent for cloth in foreign parts increafed to twice as much
as it had been during the ftrift obfervance of the ftatute."
With this faft before their eyes, it is fcarcely pofGble that
our ftatefmen at that time could have proceeded to the pro-

hibition of white cloth exports, unlefs they had been (as
was afferted) influenced by prefents from alderman Cock-
ayne and the rich merchants, who expefted to receive the
benefit arifing from the prohibition, and the exclufive right
of dyeing and drefling. The wool-growers equally felt the
ill effefts of this prohibition. Wool is faid to have fallea
from thirty-three ftiillings per tod to twenty fltillings ; if
by this is meant the long combing-wools, the former price, ;
confidering the value of money at that time, is much higher
than it has been in the laft or the prefent century. ,

During the reigns of the Stuarts, the infamous policy they
adopted ftruck not only at the liberty, but at the commer-
cial profperity of the country. Archbiftiop Laud, imbued i
with the malignant zeal of a bigot, commenced his attacks i
on the defcendants of the French Proteftants, eftabliflied as
manufacturers of woollens in Norfolk and Suffolk, from I
which counties his perfecuting fury drove fome thoufand
families. Many of them fettled in New England ; but others '
went into Holland, where they were encouraged by the !
Dutch, who allowed them an exemption from taxes and ;
rents for feven years. In return for this, the ftates were amply
repaid by the introduftion of manufafturers, with which they '
were before unacquainted. In the year 1622, king James
iffued a proclamation to prohibit the exportation of wool,
fuller's- earth, &c. In 1640 wool was again admitted to be '
exported on the payment of certain duties ; and we are told, .
that in the fame year fir John Brownlowe, of Belton in Lin-
colnfhire, fold three years' wool at twenty-four fliillings )
per tod to a baize-maker of Colchefter. As it is reafonable to
fuppofe that this was the long combing-wool of that county,
it ihews the high relative price of the article at that time.
In 1 647, owing to the high price of wool, its exportation
was again prohibited.

During the civil wars, the manufafturcs and export trade
of England declined, and the Dutch availed themfelves of
this to extend their own manufafture and export of woollens,
particularly to Spain, from whence they brought fine Spa-
nifli wool. At this time it appears, that the woollen manu-!
failures in Poland and Silefia were rapidly increafing ; and
the Englifti government received information that two hun-
dred and twenty thoufand cloths were made there annually,
befides confiderable quantities made at Dantzic, and in the
vicinity.

The duke of Brandenburg, it was alfo ftated to our
government, had ordered one hundred thoufand ells of Silefia
cloth at Koningftjerg for his troops, which had been hereto-
fore fupplied with Englifti cloth. The eftimation in which
our cloth had been held is faid to have been loft by negh-
gence in the manufafture, particularly in the fpinning and
weaving. The Dutch and Poles had a little before this
time received a great number of Proteftant manufafturers,
who fled from the perfecution of the duke of Alva in
Brabant and Flanders.

Here it may be proper to remark, that the Englifli as
a nation had little intercourfe with other parts of the
world, except through a few large trading companies ;
hence they were extremely ignorant refpefting the ftatf
of foreign countries, and fuppofed that the cloth tradt
had been confined to their own country for three hun-
dred years ; and they confidered the eftabhfhment of othei
manufaAurers as a novelty and infringement of theii
juft rights. With thefe views, it was propofed .t(
obtain a complete monopoly of all the clothing-wool:
in Spain, in order to prevent the Dutch and other nation:
from rivalling our manufaftures. This is the more extra
ordinary, as the Englifli had not then learned, like thi
Dutch, to manufatlure Spanifti wool, without mixing i ■
with that of their own country. It is ncedlefs to fay, thai
1 th

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

the negociation of fir William Godolphin for this felfifli mo-
nopoly of wool was not fuccefsful. During the whole reign
of Elizabeth, when our woollen manufaftures were in the
higheft ftate of profperity, wool and woolfels were per-
mitted to be exported. In the reign of James I. and
Charles I., when the trade was declining, proclamations were
iffued to prevent the exportation of wool, and alfo that of
fuller's-earth. During the commonwealth, an ordinance of
parliament was iflued to prohibit the exportation of wool and
fuller's-earth, on pain of forfeiture of the wool, and a penalty
of jj. per pound on every pound of fuller's-earth. The firfl
aft of parliament which abfolutely prohibited the export-
ation of wool by making it felony, and which could not be
fet afide by a royal licence, is the 1 2th of Charles II., which
was paffed foon after the Reftoration.

The grounds of this meafure are ftated in the preamble of
the ad : " For the better preventing the lofles and incon-
veniences which have happened by and through the fecret
and fubtile exportation of wool out of the kingdom ; and
for the better fetting to work the poor people and in-
habitants of the kingdom, to the intent that the full and
bell ufe and benefit of the principal native commodities of
the kingdom may redound to and be unto and amongft the
fubjedls and inhabitants of the kingdom, and not unto any
foreign ftates." Previous to this time, the proclamations
and ordinances iflued to prevent the exportation of wool,
for the moft part, fignified nothing more than the impofition
of a duty or a compofition for exporting by licence from the
government, what on other terms was forbidden, under
penalties of confifcation, fine, or imprifonment. We have
feen that, from the death of Elizabeth to the Revolution in
1688, the woollen trade was generally in a languiihing
ftate. In the year 1665, Thomas Telham of Warwick-
(hire, with two thoufand manufadlurers, left the kingdom,
and eftabliftied themfelves in the Palatinate, and commenced
a woollen manufafture there, and were greatly encouraged
by the eleftor. The ellablifhment was foon afterwards
joined by a number of manufafturers from Hertfordlhire.

During the period from Elizabeth to the year 1668, the
Englifh appear to have made no improvement whatever in
their modes of manufafture of woollen cloth, whilft the
neighbouring nations had been making a gradual progreflion,
both in the ftyle of their manufafture, and the amount an-
nually produced. It was efpecially in the manufafture of
fine cloths that their fuperiority was manifeft. The Dutch,
in particular, were far more expert than the Englifh in the
dreffing and dyeing of cloth. This will appear from the
following remarkable faft ftated by Coke, vol. ii. p. 169.
In the year 1668, one Brewer, with about fifty Walloons,
who wrought and dyed fine woollen cloths, came into Eng-
land, and received the royal proteftion and encouragement.
By him the Englifh were firft inftrufted how to manufafture
cloth of the beft Spanifh wool, without any admixture with
inferior wool ; and alfo to manufafture and dye fine cloths
cheaper by 40 per cent, than they had done before. Ten
years before this time, it had been publifhed and admitted
in England, that " Spanifh wool alone could not be wrought
into cloth." It may feem truly extraordinary that the
Englifh, who had fo long carried on the manufafture of
woollen cloth, had not availed themfelves of tlie revolution
in Flanders, which drove away the beft mailer manufac-
turers, to encourage their fettlement in this country. M.
Hnet explains the faft in a way which is not very creditable
to the liberality of the Englifh manufafturers, or to the
wifdom of our inftitutions. " It was owing to the muni-
cipal laws of England, and its ufages towards ftrangers ;
who, befides being doubly rated at the cuftom-houfe, were
excluded from all companies or fraternities of trade ; and were

not allowed to carry on manufaftures as matters or paitners.
unlefs fuch as the natives were unacquainted with ; fo that
none of the Flemifli raafter manufafturers of fine cloth went
thither (to England), their's being a myftcry not accounted
new, though very much fuperior to the cloth working then
known in England. It was only thofe who wrought ia
new kinds of worfteds, ferges, damaflcs, or ftockings, who
went thither. The fame policy was alfo adopted by the
Hanfe towns : hence the greater part of the vaft and pro-
fitable trade, which was loll to Antwerp, centered necef-
farily in Holland, where the manufafturers from Brabant
were cordially received." This appears a fatisfaftory ex-
planation why the Enghfh, in 1 668, were fo much inferior
to the Dutch in the manufafture of fine cloth.

In the year 1 660, however, our manufafturers began to
be aware of the fuperiority of Spanifli wool, and to mix it
with the beil Englifh, probably in what were called med-
leys or mixture-cloths, or elfe employing the Englifh wool
for warp, and covering it with weft of Spanifh wool. The
beft Spanifh wool was then 4J. and the fecond fort ^s. per
pound, and the beft Enghfh is. 6d. per pound.

It is deferving of notice, that, in the latter period of the
Commonwealth, our trade is faid to have greatly revived,
but to have fufFered a miferable depreffion almofl immedi-
ately after the reftoration of Charles II. In a letter of
M. Downing of the Hague to the prefident of the council
in London, 1660, printed in Thurloe's State Papers,
vol. vii. p. 848. it is ftated, that great quantities of wool
were brought fecretly from England to Holland ; and he
adds, that the Dutch had at that time got in a great mea-
fure the manufafture of fine cloth, and would probably,
with Silefia, engrofs alfo the manufafture of coarfe cloth,
and leave England nothing but its native wool to export.

In the year 1662, great complaints w-ere made againft the
merchant adventurers for their negleft of the cloth trade ;
in reply to which they faid, that the demand for Englifh
cloths failed in the foreign markets, the white clothing
trade having abated from 100,000 cloths annually to
11,000. In the year 1663 our whole exports were only
about two millions, and our imports four, leaving a balance
of two millions againft this country. It is, however, de-
ferving notice, that the number of wardens for the infpec-
tion of ftufFs at Norwich being too few, they were at this
time increafed from five to eight. A letter on the ftate of
trads, publifhed in 1667, fays, clothing-wools were fo
much fallen at that time, that the beft Spanifh was fold at
2s. zd. per pound, and Englifh at id. per pound. The
writer afcribes the fall in the price of Englifh wool to our
wearing fo much Spanifli cloth, a great part not manufac-
tured by ourfelves, as Dutch blacks ; but it is obvious,
from the price of Spanifh wool, that the low price of
clothing-wools at that time depended on a more general
caufe, affefting all manufafturing countries. To relieve
the cloth trade from the great depreffion under which it
laboured between the years 1660 and 1678, various fchemes
were devifed. Among others, the mayor and common
council of London pafled an aft " for the regulation of
Blackwell-hall, Leaden-hall, and Welfh-hall, (the three
public markets for cloth in London, ) and for preventing
foreigners buying and felling!" By foreigners are under-
ftood all perfons not free of the city of London. This aft,
a moft fingular monument of the ignorance or felfifhnefs of
its authors, prohibits the fale of all woollen cloths fent to
London, except at the above halls, where certain duties
were to be paid upon them, and from whence they could
not be removed for three weeks, unlefs they were fold in
the meantime to fome draper, or other freeman of the city.
The hall-keepers were to attend ttriftly at the halls, and
4 N 2 turn

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

turn out all foreigners and aliens coming to purchafe cloth ;
and every freeman of the city who ftiould introduce a pur-
chafer into the halls not free of the city ftiould forfeit, for
the firtt offence, five pounds, — for the fecond, ten, — and
for the third, fifteen pounds ! Thus, in thofe days, turn-
ing purchafers out of the pubhc markets, and fecuring the
fale to a certain clafs of buyers, was confidered an aft for
the benefit of the public.

The Irifh had, a little before this time, commenced the
manufafture of woollens and worfteds, which appears
greatly to have alarmed the Englifti manufafturers. The
wools of Ireland had increafed in quantity, in confe-
quence of a tyrannical aft pafied a little before this period,
to prevent the Irifh from fending cattle to England, which
obhged them to convert their grounds into fheep-paftures.
They were, however, prohibited from exporting their wool
to foreigners, it being made felony ; and the exportation to
England, in any other than a raw ftate, expofed it to con-
fifcation. About the year 1640 fome clothiers from the
weft of England eflablifhed a woollen manufafture at
Dublin, where it flourifhed a confiderable time. About
the fame period, fixty families of manufafturers from Hol-
land fettled at Limerick : thefe were ruined by the wars
which enfued. Other Englifh clothiers fettled at Cork and
Kinfale ; a few French manufafturers of druggets fettled at
Waterford ; and a more confiderable eftablifhment of the
cloth manufafture was formed at Clonmel, fupported by
the capital of fome London merchants, who had agents
there. Thefe eflablifhments, though obvioufly inadequate
to the fupply of one-fourth part of^ the population of Ire-
land, excited great jealoufy in the Englifli manufafturers ;
and during the great depreflion of the woollen trade be-
tween the years 1660 and 1668, a part of this diftrefs was
afcribed to the rivalry of the Irifh clothiers. The Englifh
farmers, at the fame time, afcribed the low price of wools
to the great importations of wools from Ireland ; and the
merchants afcribed the failure of the foreign demand for
cloth to the clandeftine exportation of Englifli and Irifli
wools.

Sir William Petty, in the year 1672, eftimates the flieep
in Ireland at four millions, and the weight of each fleece at
two pounds. The latter, however, is obvioufly not more
than half the true average weight of the fleece, and the
number is fuppofed by fome to be below what it was
a few years afterwards. If the number of fheep be
correft, and taking the fleece of each at four pounds,
this would make the total amount of Irifh wools only
66,000 packs, of which three-fourths were confumed in
Ireland.

The alarm and jealoufly excited in England by the Irifli
woollen manufaftures produced meafures that almoft com-
pelled the Irifli to export their wools clandeftinely to the
continent. An aft was pafled in the year 1699 prohibiting
the exportation of woollen manufaftures from Ireland,
except to a few parts in England and Wales, where the
duties impofed amounted to a total prohibition. Various
addreffes have been prefented to the king and both houfes
of parliament, "befeeching his majefty to take efFeftual
iiieafures to prevent the growth of the woollen manufaftures
in Ireland." The Irifli parliament was influenced to im-
pofe a duty in the fame year of four fliillings in the pound
on their own manufaftures when exported. Thefe unjufl
proceedings were intended to annihilate the export trade
for Irifli woollens ; and, in confequence, their wool and
worded yarn that was not confumed at home were fent to
England, or to the continent clandeflinely. The firft four
years after the deftruftion of their manufaftures, thefe
exports to England were as follow :

Stone of Wool, Stone of Yarn, Tuial of Woot
ISlbs. per Stone. islbi. and Yarn.

1700 336.292 26,617 362,909

1701 300,812 23,390 326,202

1702 315.473 43.648 359.121

1703 360,862 36,873 397,735
The average annual amount of wool and yarn, as above.

may be ftated at thirty thoufand packs. But after this
period the exports to England declined, owing no doubt
to the clandeftine exportation of wool to the continent, foe
which the numerous creeks and harbours offered fuch facihty.
In 1711, and the three following years, the quantity es^i
ported to England was as under :

Wool. Yarn. Total.

171 1 3'0'i36 52.273 365.409

1712 263,946 6o,io8 324,054

17 13 171.871 68,548 240,409

1714 147.153 58.147 205,800

A few years after this, the decline was ftill more confi-
derable in the amount of wool exported, but that of yarii
continued to increafe a little :

1726 51.371 87,261 138,632

1727 58,182 72,047 130,229

1728 49,784 80,428 130,212

1729 38,667 91.854 130,521

A further encouragement to clandeftine importation was
given by an impolitic duty of 2s. ^d. per ftone on wool fent
to England, which, as the average price did not exceed
6s. 6d., was full \Mrty per cent, on the firft coft. It will be
feen fubfequently, that the woollen manufaftures of Eng.
land were all this time progreflively increafing, fo that the
decline in the imports of wool from Ireland were not occa-
fioned by a declenfion of trade ; the Irifh had found other
markets for their wool.

From a work entitled " A New Difcourfe of Trade,"
by fir Jofliua Child, fuppofed to have been pubUfhed about
the year 1667, we learn feveral important particulars
refpefting the woollen trade. " Though our vent for fine
cloths and ftuffs to Turkey, Italy, Spain, and Portugal,
were, he fays, dechned, yet we retained a confiderable part,
principally becaufe the wool of which our middling coarfe
cloths are made is our own, and confequently cheaper to
us than the Dutch can fteal it from us." In another part
he judicioufly obferves, that the afts for regulating manu-
faftures, refolve themfelves at laft into a tax on the com-
modity, without refpeft to the goodnefs of it, as moft
notorioufly appears in the bufinefs of aulnager, which
doubtlefs our predecefTors intended for a fcrutiny into the
goodnefs of the cloth ; and to that purpofe a feal was in-
vented as a fignal, that the commodity was made according
to the ftatute ; which feal, it is faid, may now be bought
by thoufands, and put upon what the buyers pleafe. Sir
Jofhua Child admits that wool was eminently the found-
ation of Englifh riches, and that all poflible means fliould
be ufed to keep it within the realm ; but the only efficacious
meafures to effeft it are not penal ftatutes, but encourage-
ment to trade. The impediments at that time he flates
to be, I ft, The high rate of intereft ; 2d, Want of hands,
which an aft of naturalization would cure; 3d, Compulfion
(perfecution) m matters of religion. For he adds, " while
our neighbours the Dutch have money at lower intereft
and more hands, by reafon of general liberty of confcience,
with other free privileges, both to natives and foreigners,
there is no queftion but they will be able to give a better
price for our wool than we can afford ourfelves, and they
that can give the befl price for a commodity fliall never fail
to have it by one means or another, notwithftanding the
1 1 oppofition

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

oppofition of any laws by fea or land ; of fuch, force, fub-
tilty, and violence, is the general courfe of trade."

The fame enlightened writer appears to have been tlie
firft Englifhman who faw the injuftice, abfurdity, and im-
policy of the numerous reftriftions by which the manu-
fafturers were obhged to make cloths of certain weights
and lengths, to keep only a certain quantity of looms,
or to prohibit dyers, fullers, &c. from carrying on other
branches of the trade. " It would be (hejuftly obferved)
for the advantage of the trade of England, to leave all men
at liberty to make what cloth and fluffs they pleafe, how
they will, when and where they will, and of any lengths or
fizes."

One of the principal caufes of the decay of our woollen
manufaftures fir Jofhua Child might not think it prudent
to flate. This was the encouragement given to the con-
fumption of French cloths and woollens in England,
together with the total prohibition of Englifh goods im-
ported into France, or the impofition of duties which
amounted to a prohibition. The French, under the admi-
niftration of Colbert, had been extending and improving
every branch of the woollen manufafture, and were become
our great rivals in foreign markets, as well as at home.
In the year 1678, afts were paflTed, the 29th and 30th of
Charles II., prohibiting the importation of French com-
modities for three years. From this time trade began gra-
dually to revive, and would have greatly increafed, had not
political caufes operated as a check to our profperity.

The improvements introduced in the manufafture of fine
cloths by Brewer in 1668, and the more extenfive con-
fumption of Spanifli wool, enabled us to oppofe, with
fome fuccefs, the rivalry of the French.

After the acceffion of William, our manufafturers, who
were warmly attached to the caufe of rehgious liberty,
being the greater part Proteftant diffenters, were animated
to uncommon exertions in the refloration of tiieir trade. This
is evident from the ftate of our exports in the following
year after the revolution in 1689, when they amounted
to near feven millions, of which the woollens were nearly
three millions. This is the largeft amount till the year
1 7 15. A fhort time after the revolution, about the clofe
of the century, our writers on Political Arithmetic, Mr.
King and Dr. Davenant, give the following eftimate of
our national wealth, including wool, &c. ;

The annual income of England, of which the 1

people fubfid - - - - . I 43.000,000

' Yearly rent of land ----- 10,000,000

Value of wool yearly fhorn ... 2,000,000

I Woollen manufadure of England - - 8,000,000

! Woollen manufaftures exported - - 2,000,000

From this period, the woollen trade of England kept
' progefTively increafing, though fubjeft to fome iluftuations.
In the following years the amount exported were as under:

£

1718 value of woollens exported 2,673,696

1719 ' 2,730,297

1720 3,059,049

1721 2,903,310

1722 3'384j^42

About the year 1722, the plague at Marfeilles, by prevent-
ing the exportation of French woollens, increafed the de-
mand for Englifh manufaftures confiderably. In the year
1737, the woollen exports amounted to 4,158,643/. ; and
it is remarkable, that at that period the price of wool was
uncommonly low.

->• 3.327.057

The yearly medium value of woollen exports,'
from 1739 to 1748, or to the peace of Aix-
la-Chapelle, was
Yearly medium of woollen exports, from 17497 o

to 1753, was |4.i*'9.i9S

From this time to the period of the American war in
1775, the woollen manufaftures, and particularly the worfted,
ftill continued to increafe, with occafional checks. The
quantity of long combing-wools grown in England had
given to the manufafturers of worfled goods a decided ad-
vantage over thofe of France, though the ingenuity of the
latter in the manufafture of les petites draperies, as the
worfled goods are called, was greatly fuperior to what our
own workmen had ever fhewn. The demand for worfled
goods at home, for tammies and fluffs, which were the gene-
ral drefs of females before the year 1775, was very great ;
befides which, we fupplied with worfled goods many of the
fouthern parts of Europe, and particularly Spain and Por-
tugal, for the ufe of their South American colonies, and
for the dreffes of the clergy, monks, and nuns, which form
no inconfiderable part of the population in thofe countries.
About the year 1775, the introduftion of Arkwright's
inventions for fpinning, carding, &c. into the cotton trade,
produced a great change in the article of female drefs in
England, fluffs and tammiesbeing fupplanted by cotton goods,
which were become extremely cheap. The failure of the
foreign trade alfo greatly affefted our manufafturers, both
woollens and worfleds. The price of Englifh wool at the
latter end of the American war was lower than it had been
in any period of our hiflory, when money was of much
higher relative value. A tod of 281bs. of the beft Lincoln-
Ihire wool for combing was not worth more than nine
fhillings, and the inferior kinds fix fhillings, or about three-
pence and four-pence per pound. Fi'om the time of
EHzabeth to the middle of the lafl century, fcarcely any
alteration or improvements had taken place in the procefTes
of manufafture, either in woollen or worfled, beyond the
variation of colours or patterns, to fuit the fafhion of the
day. The ingenious mechanical inventions of Arkwright,
applied to the fpinning and carding of cotton, were foon
after modified, and applied to the woollen and worfled trade,
and produced an entire revolution in fome of the feats of
their manufafture. Before that period, the manufafture of
heavy woollens and coarfe worfled goods had been gra-
dually concentrating into Yorkfhire and Lancafhire, where
the cheapnefs of living, the aftive induflry of the inhabit-
ants, and, above all, the cheapnefs and abundance of coal,
gave the manufafturers a decided advantage over thofe in
the midland and weflern counties. The following table,
fliewing the amount of broad and narrow cloths made in
the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, will prove the faft moft
decifiv^ly. It may be proper to remark, that eighty years
fince, about 1738, when our woollen exports exceeded four
millions fterling, the total number of pieces of broad and
narrow cloth made in Yorkfhire was only fifty-fix thoufand
nine hundred. At prefent our woollen exports are only
about double what they then were ; but the number of
cloths manufaftured in Yorkfhire is not lefs than four
hundred and ninety thoufand pieces, or eight times more
than the quantity made at the period above referred to.
It mufl be remarked alfo, that this account does not in-
clude the cloth manufaftured in Lancafhire, and the borders
of Chefhire adjoining Yorkfhire, nor the blankets, ferges,
baizes, flannels, caffimeres, toihnets, carpets, rugs, worfled
goods, or any other defcription of woollens or worfleds,
except plain and narrow broad-cloths. The total amount
of thefe different woollen articles exceed, we believe, in
weight, if not in value, that of the woollen cloths.

^ An

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

An Account of the Number of Broad Cloths, milled at the feveral FuUing Mills in the Weft Riding of the County of
York, from the Z4th of June, 1725, (the Commencement of the Aft,) to the 12th of March, 1726, and thence
annually, diftingui(hing each Year; and of the Narrow Cloths, from the ift of Auguit, 1737, (the Commence-
ment of the Aft) to the 20th of January, 1738, and thence annually, diftinguiftiing each Year; likewife the
Number of Yards in Length, made each Year, from Eafter Seffions, 1768.

Broads.

Narrows.

Years.

Broads.

Narrows. j

Years.

Pieces.

Yards.

Pieces.

' Yanls.

Pieces.

Yards.

Pieces.

Yards.

1726

26671

1772

II2370

32239'3f

95539

23775'74

1727

28990

»773

120245

3635612^

898744

2306235

1728

252234

1774

87201

2587364!

88323

2133583

1729

29643

1775

95878

2841213

96794

2441007

1730

315795

1776

99733

2975389

99586

2488i40i

J731

35563

1777

107750

3153891

95786

2601583

1732

355484

^

1778

132506

3795990

101629

2746712

1733

34620

1779

1 10942

3427150

93143

2659659

1734

3II23

1780

94625

2802671

87309

2571324

1735

317444

1781

102018

3099127

98721

2671397

1736

38899

1782

1 1 2470

4458405

96743

2598751

1737

42256

1783

131092

4563376

10864 1

3292002

1738

42404

14495

1784

138023

4094335

1 15500

3356648

1739

43o86i

58848

1785

157275

4844855

116036

3409278

1740

41441

58620

1786

158792

4934975

123025

3536889

174I

46364

61 196

1787

155748

4850832

128740

4058157

1742

44954

62804

1788

139406

4244322

132143

4208303

1743

451785
546274

63545

1789

154134

4716460

145495

4409573

1744

63065

1790

172588

5151677,

140407

4582122

1745

50453

63423

1791

187569

5815079

154373

4797594

1746

56637

68775

1792

214851

6760728

190468

5531698

1747

62480

68374

1793

190332

6054946

150666

4783722

1748

60765

68080

1794

190988

6067208

130403

4634258

1749

60705^

68889

1795

250993

7759907

155087

5172511

1750

604471

78115

1796

246770

7830536

15 '594

5245704 .

1751

60964

74022

1797

229292

7235038

156709

550364S

1752

60724

72442

1798

224159

7134114

148566

5180313

1753

55358

71618

1799

272755

8806688

180168

6377277

1754

560704

72394

1800

285851

9263966

169262

6014420

1755

57125

76295

180I

264082

8699242

137231

4833534

1756

335904
557774

79318

1802

265660

8686046

137016

5023754

'757

>

77097

1803

266785

S942798

'39575

5023996

1758

60396

66396

1804

298178

9987255

150010

5440179

1759

518774
493624

65513

1805

300237

10079256

165847

6193317

1760

69573

1806

290269

9561178

175334

6430101

1761

48944

75468

1807

262024

8422143

161816

5931253

1762

48621

72946

1808

279859

9050970

144624

5309007

,763

48038^

72096

1809

3»i239

9826048

151911

5951762

1764

549 '6

79458

1810

273664

8671042

15825a

6180811

1765

54660

77419

181I

269892

8535559

141809

5715534

1766

725754

78893

1812

31643'

9949419

136863

5117209

1767

102428

78819

1813

369890

11702837

142863

5615755

1768

90036

74480

1814

338869

10656491

147474

6045472

1769

92522

2771667^

87762

2144019

1815

330310

10394466

162355

6649859

1770

93075

2717105

85376

2255625

1816

325449

IC135285

120901

5650669

1771

92782

29662245

89920

2235625

1817

351122

1C974473

132607

5233616

In

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

I In the table that will be afterwards given, it will be feen

f that the quantity of yards of different woollen articles ex-

] ported, which are not included with cloths, greatly exceeds

! that of broad and narrow cloths. Taking this as a ftandard,

I it would appear that the cloth returned at the fulling-mills in

the Weft Riding of Yorkftiire is not more than one-third of

the total quantity of woollens and worfteds of every defcrip-

tion made in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, and the borders

of Cheftiire and Lancafhire. Now to make the quantity of

broad and narrow cloth given in the returns of the Weft

Riding, would require about one hundred and ten thoufand

packs : we may therefore ftate the annual confumption of

wool in thefe diftrifts to be from two hundred and fifty to

three hundred thoufand packs of 240 pounds each ; and we

may further ftate the amount confumed in thefe diftrifts to

exceed that of all the other parts of England and Wales

' colleAively by one-third, including hofiery and all other

articles made of wool. This will make the total amount of

wool manufaftured in England to be nearly what we have

before eftimated, or five hundred thoufand packs.

The number of perfons immediately employed in the
various branches of the woollen manufafture in England
was ftated, in the year 1800, to be 1,500,000, and that the
trade direftly and collaterally employed double the above
number. This was aflerted in the fpeech of Mr. Law, now
lord Ellenborough, in the houfe of lords, as council for the
petitioners againft the export of wool to Ireland. But we
apprehend that the ftatement greatly exceeds the aftual
number employed in this trade, including their families.

The amount of the population of the Weit Riding of York-
fliire is nearly afcertained, and perhaps two-thirds of the
wliole may be engaged in the woollen manufafture, including
the famiUcs of the perfons employed. If we ftate thefe to be
340,000, exclufive of the woollen manufafturers in Chefhire
and Lanca(hire, we (hall certainly not underrate them.
A large part of the Weft Riding being agricultural folely,
snd in the manufafturing diftrifts cutlery, as at Shef&eld,
and cottons in the more weftern parts, employ no incon-
fiderable portion of the people. If then we take 340,000
as the amount of perfons, with their families, engaged in the
woollen trade in the Weft Riding, exclufive of Lancaftiire
and Cheftiire, and if we fuppofe that they are one-third
, of the total number of perfons employed in the fame manu-
i {afture in England, it will make the whole rather exceed
1 ,000,000 of manufafturers, including their families, which
'Afe apprehend is not far from the true eftimate. We (hall,
however, give the precife words of Mr. Law's fpeech in the
houfe of lords on the above occafion, the objeft of which, it
muft be recollefted, was to enhance the importance of the
woollen manufacture. " In order to give your lordfhips
fome idea of its magnitude, I may venture to ftate, that
there are no lefs than 1,500,000 perfons who are imme-
diately concerned in the operative branches of this vaft
manufafture; and if what Dr. Campbell ftates in his ' Poli-
tical Survey of the Kingdom' be true, that from the
wool-grower to the confumer a piece of broad-cloth pafles
through 100 different hands, and that there are nearly the'
fame number of hands dependent on the woollen manu-
fafture, though not aftually concerned in it, I may affume
that the trade direftly and collaterally employs double the
above number of hands, or 3,000,000. If we eftimate the
magnitude of this queftion (the export of wool) according

to the number of perfons interefted in it, it goes t« nearly
one-third of the entire population of this kingdonif etti-
mating that population at what i« generally reckoned,
namely between 9 and 10,000,000." Though the woollen
manufadtures of England have confiderably increafed within
the laft fifty years, we do not apprehend the number of
hands employed is greater than before the introduftion of
mechanical inventions for carding, fpinning, and combing.
The working up of one pack of wool, particularly of
combing- wool, formerly employed a great number of hands,
and was divided into fmaU portions, to be fpun in the
houfes of cottagers in remote diftrifts. This afforded
employment to the wives and families of labourers who were
engaged in agriculture ; but fo much time was occupied in
taking out and collefting in the work, that at the period
we refer to, few, if any, of the mafter manufafturers in
Yorklhire confumed more than one pack of wool per week
in their trade. At prefent there are numerous manufac-
turers in Yorkfhire and Lancafhire, who confume from
twenty to fifty packs of wool per week.

The cotton manufafture, which may be regarded as of
recent date, has employed the population that would other-
wife have been thrown out of work in the woollen trade
fince the introduftion of machinery, and has prevented any
inconvenience of this kind from being felt at prefent in
Yorkfhire. We may, however, obferve, that many branches
of the woollen and worlted trade have been gradually retiring
from the fouth of England, and concentrating in the Weft
Riding of Yorklhire and in Lancafhire. Thefe diftrifts
were the firft to introduce mechanical improvements into
the woollen manufafture, and thas gained a decided advan-
tage over the more ancient feats of the woollen trade. For
feveral years afterwards the effefts were felt in the manu-
fafturing diftrifts in the weft of England, and great diftrefs
from want of due employment for the labouring claiTes
was the confequence.

At prefent all kinds of machinery that have hitherto been
applied to wool are extenfi velyemploy ed in the weft of England,
and the manufafture of fuperfine cloth is in a flourifhing
ftate in the counties of Gloucefterfhire, Sonierfetfhire, and
Wiltfhire, all ancient feats of the clothing trade. The
manufafture of broad-cloth in other parts of the fouth and
weft of England is not carried on to any great extent.
The manufafture of flannels, ferges, baizes, &c. though
branches of the woollen manufafture, are diftinft from the
cloth trade, and feldom carried on in the fame diftrift.

The export of woollen goods of all kinds from England,
in the year 1 8 15, amounted in declared value to ten millions
one hundred and ninety-eight thoufand pounds. This was
rather an extraordinary quantity ; and in the following
year the exports fell under nine millions, which may be
taken as the regular annual amount of woollen exports at
prefent.

The following table gives the amount of different kinds
of woollens exported, with their value, and the places to
which they were fent in the year 1816; a year in which our
foreign trade was confidered as in a declining ftate. It may
be worthy of remark, that though our woollen exports
fcarcely reached eight millions and a half, the amount taken
by the United States of America in that year exceeded
three millions ; a faft which proves the vaft importance of
the American market to our manufafturers.

Ab

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

An Account of the Quantity of Woollen Goods exported from Great Britain, in the year ending the 5th

poflible, the various Articles,

CountrUs to which expoited.

Ruffia - - - -

Sweden . - - - -
Norway - - - -' -
Denmark - - - -

Poland

Pruffia

Germany ....

Holland

Flanders ....

France .....
Portugal, &c. - . - .
Spain, &c. ....
Gibraltar ....

Italy

Malta

Turkey and Levant

Ireland and Ifle of Man

Ifles, Guernfey, Jerfey,& Alderney

Afia

Africa

America ; viz. United States
^—— Britifti Northern Colonies

' Weft Indies
— — ^ Foreign Continental Colon.
Honduras ...

Total .

Quantity and declared Value of Woollen

Cloths of fuperfine,

fecoiid, and inferior

Quality.

S

6

Pieces.
79671

56i

588

717

2

83

9274
9892
3164
73
39854
33955
4344
7729

«453
185

21734
991

19433

195 1 24

32412

16649^

33319

30

488658^

I.

' 777074

979

4921

7447

45

1 100

54042

53294

23086

721

292141

30286

32520

45360

45964

2850

327049

13975

407614

17396

1463028

246504

1 14544

238796

337

4201073905224

Napped Coatings,
Duflaes, &c.

Cf

Pieces.

27

217
34

67

27740

13374
6586

7466
1228
1270
2772
1305
51
61

93

170

498

19798

1827

5295
5409

L.
153

949
130

324

1 10457

63462

29540

38755

^071

6805

1 1 765

5466

258

399

5'5

936

253«

73>43

5544

1926

30863

Caffimeres.

Pieces.

2180

I

60

354

214

27882

2374

1575
67

3931
930
950
658
811

4008

20i

231
II22

39899
2248i

2708

29II

50

388999 95184^

L.
19857

4

378

2308

1544

103534

9367

7364

910

30037

5975
5415
3395
4274

6085
194

2777

6586

263284

15442

1 699 1

1888S

312

Baizes of all
Sons.

Flannel.

O

Pieces.
128

~1\

3

200

1 741

13

I
?

13114

5584

883

48

53

91
i4oi

330

241

4446

1051

8109

13926

57968750129^278538

165

18

580

1 1 950

94

3
80377

38139
48S6

285
198

556
540

1374

1460

12787 2

4227

40098

80236

<3

Yards.
62436^
832

4335
8i42i

100

'324

144972

37928

1944
14859

42554
79720
20623

4730
1450

200707

25054
225487

i4386i
288758
484129

69729

12999
700

a

37924545

L.
5633

54

389

646

10

«37

9494

3373

4602

'54
•355
4411

89'3

1535

537

160

18898

2213

28130

1209

1 87940

3597'

6451

895

53

323163

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

of January, 1817, diftinguilhing the Countries to which exported, and alfo diftinguiftiing,
and their refpeftive Value.

as far

Goods and Yarn exported from G

reat Britain.

Sundry

Articles

1

confilling
of

Blanket

s anrl

Carpets and

Stuffs, Woollen

Stockiii's,

Hofiery
not de-

Woollens,

Woollen and

Blanketing. |

Carpeting.

or Worfled.

Worfled.

fcibed.

mixed with Cotton.

Worfted Yarn.

Total

Rugs,

declared

Cover-
lids,

Value
of the

Tapes,
&c.

preceding.

•3

-3

si

a

-73

Is

a
oa

=3

a?

Ij

73

cx

1^

1^

1

Of

-T3

Yards.

L.

Yards.

L.

Pieces.

L.

Doz. Prs.

L.

L.

Yards.

L.

Lbs.

L.

L.

6742

885

30863

6335

2261

4723

208

0

276

1234

12433

2188

—

—

818923

58

7

1240

421

15

25

4

9

9

21

—

—

—

—

1520

268

37

645

155

479

1096

41

4

62

319

1715^

426

__ »

—

8897

382

51

1047

297

891

1850

10

0

13

152

786

270

—

—

13164

180

20

1 130

265

52

120

—

—

—

—

—

—

460

—

—

1832

485

188

382

3

0

3

1028

2260

652

—

—

5673

12660

1285

73579

17742

37748

80244

3936

9

5201

15052

135862

26041

—

—

423672

7690

600

28737^

5462

31447

62391

8636

10

10384

3-986

19730I

3968

—

—

228237

6663

685

6162

754

5635

13326

5145

6

6499

3645

31785

9072

—

—

98667

15

4

352

88

345

1112

196

0

240

■ 443

2338

686

—

—

43'^i

44745

5026

18043

3394

27472

72091

3417

0

4«53

35206

25190

59«9

—

—

568454

10152

1189

6064

1086

1 1 644

29281

2840

0

3666

25931

5846

1505

—

—

146540

2150

219

2600

474

10659

24874

892

10

1029

13846

19593

4563

—

—

103544

570

68

2765

627

14852

37930

62

0

84

1060

2894

720

—

—

102829

100

15

317

83

3682

9603

87

0

113

693

3382

389

—

—

67335

650

70

13595

3366

1816

4222

20

0

42

104

—

—

—

—

11072

30500

4727

46894

12042

8150

20883

12453

0

14156

11582

•21483

25444

523638

65613

562200

4280

638

7211

^555

837-i

2319

650

6

916

280

548i

150

—

—

23293

23824

3956

9879

2312

187820

572325

629

0

1039

8863

4044

895

—

—

1030221

14190

1237

3718

645

1638!

3353

1520

0

1477

1139

2940

813

—

—

37853

1265746

165729

526964

109529

202061

60962b

69059

6

75513

47S02

198268

, 21284

—

—

3029667

2S»359

32455

69563

14293

2 1 362

555^^

18709

4

22190

8995

24103

4410

8757

2086

447628

233597

22153

3080

' 768

13094

27649

837

6

1133

4916

215912

14973

—

—

251602

3932c

375c

9946

2008

9810

21S45

2483

0

2851

7746

54805

9928

—

—

417806

1 86c

I 20

—

14

28

7

0

II

—

—

—

—

—

861

I 96470 I

244926

866226!

184186

593972I

1 6568 1 1

131849

10

151060

194043

885918!

134296

532395

67699

840448 1

Vol. XXXVIII.

4O

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

If we ftate the amount of woollen goods exported to bo port of wool was ftriftly prohibited. All the former
about one-third of our own confumption, or from one-third prohibitions were evadable by licences, which were readily
to one-fourth, which is probably more correft, this would granted for r.oney. It is from this reign, therefore, we
make the total value of manufaftured woollens to exceed muft date ; fie prohibition to export wool, as forming an
thirty millions annually. Of the woollen goods exported, the eftabliihed law of the land ; and it is not unworthy of re-
quantity confumed on the European continent fcarcely ex- mark, that immediately after this period, and to the time of
ceeds three millions fterhng in value, and a great part of that the revolution in 1688, our woollen manufattures were in a
amount given in the preceding account was for army cloth, very declining ftate, which proves that they had not derived
Hence it appears, that a very fmall proportion of the gene- much benefit from the nieafure. The policy of admitting
ral population of Europe is indebted to this country for its the export of wool has been again recently agitated in par-
woollens including under the term both woollen and worfted liament, and has renewed the alarm of the manufafturers. It
coods. The increafed demand for woollens of every de- is not b) precedents drawn from former ages, but folely by
fcription in England arifes partly from the increafe of popu- the wifdoni and juftice of the meafure, as applicable to one
lation but more from the increafing demand for articles of prefent condition, that a queftion of this kind (hould be deter-
luxury or convenience. In the middle of the laft century, mined. With refpeft to fhort or clothing wool, we believe
carpets were fcarcely to be feen in the country, except in that a permiffion to export it would not produce the leait
the houfes of the nobility ; at prefent almoft every houfe in effeft, as we ab-eady import thefe wools from almoft every
England, except thofe of cottagers and the labouring claffes, nation in Europe ; it is not, therefore, probable, that
has carpets fpread in fome of the rooms. The confumption foreigners would give a better price for them than our
of worfted yarn in articles of furniture, and in the hnings of own manufafturers can afford. With long combing-
carriages, and what is called horfe millinery, is very great ; wools, the cafe is fomewhat different, as by the acknow-
add to which the people of England are better dreffed than ledgment of the French themfelves, thefe wools are wanted
they were formerly. We may from all thefe caufes ftate, to mix with and improve their own. We apprehend, how-
that the home confumption of woollens, in proportion to ever, that as ..'uch is exported at prefent clandeftinely in the
our population, is double that of any other nation in Europe, form of woril -d yarn, as the market may require, the free
To prove tliat we do not over-rate the proportion of woollens export of cotton yarn giving great facihty for evading the
confumed at home, it may be fufficient to ftate, that the Weft penalty, by packing them together. The permiffion to ex-
Riding of Yorkftiire alone manufaftured, in the year 1817, port wool to Ireland, which was granted in 1800, has not
nearly twice as many pieces of cloth as were exported in that been attended with anyone of the fatal effeftswhichourmanu-
year ; but few woollen broad-cloths are made for exportation fafturers anticipated ; nor do we apprehend, that permitting
in the weft of England, the manufaftures there being prin- the free export of wool under certain duties would be found
cipally fine and fuperfine cloth for home confumption, the to injure our own woollen trade.

value of which per yard on the average is much greater than In taking this view of the fubjeft, which we truft is an

that of the Yorkfhire cloth. In the prefent ftate of Europe, impartial one, we readily admit that the permiffion to ex-

wethinkit an encouraging circumftancetoour woollen manu- port wool, were it granted, would not be attended with any

fafturers, that fo large a proportion of their goods are con- permanent benefit to the landed intereft. A fmall pamphlet

fumed at home, where the demand will remain certain ; and on the fubjeft, recently publifficd by John Maitland, efq.,

again, that the United States of America take fo confider- contains the following judicious obfervations : — " The manu-

able a part of our exports, as from the increafing population fafturer of our native wool claims from government the

of thefe ftates, we may expeft that the demand will be in- prefer\'ation of it for his ufe ; for by thejlatute laiu'of the land,

creafing for many centuries, and will foon exceed what it he is confined to Its foil for the exprefs purpofe of •working up the

will be in the power of this country to fupply. wool which grows upon it. This wool cannot, therefore,

In the year iBoo, the woollen manufafturers of England upon any juft or moral principle, be permitted to go out of

were greatly alarmed at the liberty which was intended to the country in an unmanufaftured ftate, without allowing

be granted, of exporting wool to Ireland, and petitioned the manufafturer to follow it, or without obliging the

parliament againft the meafure. The grounds on which grower and exporter of it to maintain him and his children."

their alarms refted, were partly the preference given to the This is fo obvioully juft, that whenever the export of wool

Irifh, and partly the fuppoied facihty that would be is admitted, we cannot any longer, as at prefent, prohibit the

afforded to fmuggling wool to the continent. Several woollen manufafturers from emigrating and carrying their

manufafturers and wool-dealers from different parts of the induftry to the beft market. " The wool," as Mr. Mait-

kingdom were examined before the two houfes of parlia- land elfewhere obferves, " does not on an average compofe

ment ; but neither in their evidence, nor in the fpeeches of more than one-fix th part of the value of the animal on

the learned council, who were heard in fupport of the peti- which it grows ; and the manufafturer, by obtaining this

tioners, can we trace any comprehenCve or enlightened views fixth part, at fuch a moderate rate as may enable him to fell

of the fubjeft. The objeftions urged againft the export of his goods, when manufaftured at a reafonab',' profit, infures

wool were grounded principally on the praftice of former to the owner of land a mora! certainty of obtaining the full

reigns, particularly thofe of Edward III. and queen Eliza- value for the remaining five-fixths, and receiving an ample

beth : but the fafts we conceive were in oppofition to the price alfo for all the other produftions of his ground." The

ftatements ; for during the whole of the latter reign, in which truth of this obfervation we know to be fully proved in the

our woollen manufaftures were in a highly flouriffiing con- Yorkftiire markets. Whenever there is any confiderable

dition, the export of wool was freely admitted, on the depreflion of the woollen trade, it is always attended with a

payment of certain duties ; and during the reign of Ed- decreafed confumption of animal food, fupphed pi-incipally

ward III., the prohibition to export wool under heavy from Lincolnftiire, and the counties which produce the

penalties was confined to denizens and foreigners, in largeft quantity of wool. Should the permiiTion to export

order to fecure a larger amount of duties to the king, wool be attended with any effeft in diminiftiing our own

the former paying lefs duty on exports than natives ; manufaftures, the refult would be higlily injurious to the

nor was it till the reign of Charles II. that the ex- land-owner, who would then have to find new cuftomers for

his

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

his general produce, and new aflbciates to fliare with him
the burden of taxation.

The prices of heavy combing-wool in Lincolnfhire,
Nottinghamfhire, or Leicefterfhire, may be taken as the
average price of this kind of wool over the whole kingdom,
there being little variation in the value of this wool from
different diftncls. The following table will Ihew what have
been the price? for a great part of the lail century :

Price per Tod of Lincolnftiire Fleeces, the Tod weigh-
ing 28 lbs.

1706
1707
1711

1713
1714
1715
1716
1717
1718
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
1724
1725
1726
1727
1728
1729
1730
1731
1732
1733
1734
1735
1736

1737
1738

1739

1740
1 741
1742
1743
1744

£

s.

d.

0

17

6

0

16

6

0

13

0

0

17

0

0

18

0

0

18

0

0

19

0

3

0

2

3

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

17

6

0

16

0

0

16

0

0

15

9

0

16

0

0

18

0

0

18

0

0

18

0

0

19

0

0

19

0

0

18

6

0

16

0

0

14

0

0

14

0

0

H

0

0

13

6

0

13

0

0

14

0

0

14

0

0

15

0

0

19

6

I

I

0

From the year 1744 to the year 1777, the prices, though
occafionally fluftuating, continued much the fame as in the
preceding years, but we have not the means of afcertaining
precifely what they were in each year. The following-
table will fhew the prices of Nottinghamfhire and Leicefter-
fhire heavy combing-wool, taken from the moll authentic
fource. We confider the value of this wool to have been
fully equal to that of Lincolnfhire on each year.

Price /^r Tod of 28 lbs. of Nottinghamfhire and Leicefter-
fhire heavy Combing-Wools.

£

1777 ... o

1778 ... .0

1779 ... - o

1780 ... .0

1781 ... .0

1782 ... .0

1783 - - - . o

s.

d.

18

0

15

0

II

0

1 1

6

10

6

9

0

\i

0

£ s. d.

1784

-

.

.

.

0 16 0

1785

.

.

.

.

0 12 0

1786

-

-

-

.

0 13 0

1787

-

-

.

.

0 17 6

1788

.

.

-

-

0 17 0

1789

-

-

-

.

0 18 0

1790

-

-

-

-

0 18 0

1791

-

-

••

.

0 19 6

1792

-

-

.

-

I 2 6

1793

.

-

-

.

0 18 0

1794

-

-

-

.

0 17 6

1795

.

-

.

-

0 19 0

1796

-

-

-

.

I I 0

1797

>

b

-

.

106

1798

-

■

.

.

0 18 0

1799

-

.

.

.

I I 6

1800

.

.

.

.

146

1801

.

.

.

_

I 10 0

1802

.

.

.

.

I 10 0

1803

.

.

.

.

I 9 0

1804

-

.

.

.

I 12 0

1805

-

.

.

.

I 13 6

1806

.

.

_

.

I 12 0

1807

.

.

.

.

146

1808

.

.

.

.

I 4 6

1809

.

-

-

.

I 8 0

1810

.

.

.

.

I 10 0

1811

.

-

.

.

I 5 0

1812

.

-

-

.

I 10 0

1813

.

.

.

.

I 14 0

By the end of the

year

-

2 5 0

1814

-

- 2

2 0

to

2 12 0

Spring of

1815

.

.

2 16 0

1815

.

.

.

.

2 10 0

1816

-

-

.

-

I 10 0

1817

.

- I

14 0

to

200

The above were the average prices of the beft lots ; the
inferior ones might range from one to two fhiUings per tod
under the prices here given. It may be obferved, that the
price of this kind of wool was lower towards the clofe of
the American war, or about the year 1781 and 1782, than
in any former or fubfequent period of our hiftory, if we
take into confideration the relative value of money. At
that time, the quantity of wool unfold in the hands of the
farmer was nearly equal to three years annual growth ; a
quantity too large to have been confumed by our manu-
fafturers, had not the introduftion of machinery enabled
them to work it up with much greater facility than formerly.
The average weight of thefe fleeces may be flated at four or
feven pounds each fleece to the tod of 28 pounds. Since the
commencement of the prefent century, the price of this kind
of wool, it will be feen from the above table, has been amply
fufficient to remunerate the wool-growers ; and we confefs we
are utterly at a lofs to difcover on wliat grounds of found
pohcy or intereft they would wifh to make any change in the
laws refpefting the export of wool. Withrefpeft to fhort or
clothing wools, any change in the exifting laws would make
no alteration whatever in the price ; for it is the extreme of
prejudice to affert, that our native clothing fleeces are
necefTary to the foreign manufafturer, either to f'upply his
demand or improve the quality of his own wool. We
might with equal juftnefs revive the abfurd opinion, fo con-
fidently maintained a few years fince, that the beft Spanifh
wool would not make cloth without an admixture with that
of England.

4O 2

WOOLLEN-MANUFACTURE.

Woollen ManufaSure, Procefs of. In an early part of
this work, under the article Cloth, we have given a general
view of the procefs of cloth-making, furnilhed by a prin-
cipal manufafturer in the weft of England. In the pre-
fent article, we (hall confine our account chiefly to thofe
improvements in the procefles which have fince been intro-
duced, and ftiall add a defcription of the machines which
were only (lightly noticed in the article Cloth, and give
references to the plates. The procefles of the woollen
manufafture may be clafled under two heads ; thofe by
which wool is prepared for the weaver, and thofe by which
the cloth is finifhed after it is taken out of the loom. The
forting of wool has already been referred to under the
article Wool. Englilh wool is fuppofed to be fufB-
ciently cleaned from pitch marks or other extraneous fub-
ftances by the wool-forter, and left by him in a proper
ftate to commence the procefs of cloth-making. Spanifh
wool in the bale has generally fome part of the pitch em-
ployed to mark the fheep ftill adhering to it, which mull be
carefully cut off. It was till recently the praftice to beat
the wool with rods, in order to (hake out the duft and open
the ftaples ; but this is now principally done by an opening
machine with long coarfe teeth, called a devrl, or wool-mill.
Spanifli wool is frequently fo hardly prefled together in the
bag, that it requires to be opened out by beating, to pre-
pare it for the further procefles.

In the weft of England, wool is generally fcoured before
it is dyed or carded ; but in Yorklhire this is feldom prac-
tifed on wool intended for white cloths, and among the
fmaller manufafturers who dye their own wool, it is fre-
quently put into the dyeing-vat unfcoured ; a praftice
which injures the brightnefs of the colours, but whicli
enables the manufafturer to make a greater weight of
cloth with the fame quantity of wool. There is alfo
fome faving of labour and expence ; but this is more
than counter-balanced by the increafed quantity of oil
per pack required for unfcoured wool, which is at leaft
one-third more than would be neceffary if the wool
were fcoured. In the weft of England, where the wool
is fcoured previoufly to its manufafture, the procefs is
carried on with a degree of neatnefs and cleanlinefs, which
form a perfeft contraft with the horrid ftench and difguft-
ing filthinefs of the woollen faftories in Yorklhire. For
fine cloths, olive-oil, called Gallipoli, from the part where
it was fuppofed to be fent, is principally ufed ; and for the
coarfer cloths rape-oil. Where attention to colour is not
required in very coarfe goods, fi{h-oil is fometimes em-
ployed ; but if the latter remain in the wool or cloth, it
turns it brown, undergoing a degree of fermentation inju-
rious to the cloth, and which fometimes occafions fponta-
neous combuftion. To leflen the expence of oil for coarfe
cloths, fome manufafturers in Yorklhire make ufe of a mix-
ture of foap and water with oil, which anfwers very well in
moift weather, if the wool be immediately carded and fpun ;
but if it remain fome time unwafhed, or the weather be very
hot, the mixture evaporates. It has been attempted to
work wool without any oil whatever, but without fuccefs.
The ufe of oil is to cover the furface of the fibres, and
enable them to Aide eafily over each other in carding or
fpinning. What we have before faid of the ftrufture of
the furface of wool or hair, under the article Wool, will
fuffice to (hew the advantage that muft refult from oiling.
The wool is fprinkled with oil as evenly as poflible. In
Yorklhire the proportion on fine wool is about fix gallons
per pack, and this is more equally diftributed over it by
the wool-mill, through which it pafies.previous to the pro-
cefs called fcribbling. This procefs is a kind of coarfe

carding, and is performed on a machine fimilar to that ufed
for fcribbling cotton, but larger, and with coarfer cards,
the principle being fimilar to that of the carding-machine,
hereafter to be defcribed. By this engine tlie longer fibres
are broken down, and they are all laid ftraight and nearly
parallel to each other. The wool leaves the roller of the
fcribbling-mill in one thin undivided (heet, and the more
clear, even, and tranfparent it appears when held between
the eye and the light, the more perfeftly has the operation
been performed. On the carding-engine, the operation is
repeated on finer cards ; but inftead of leaving the machine
in one continued Iheet, it is finally divided into feparate
portions, which by a fluted roller are formed into feparate
round pieces about one inch in diameter, and two feet three
inches in length. The fibres are now arranged fo as more
eafily to Aide over and twift round each other in the next
procefs, which is a kind of coarfe fpinning called flubbing,
performed with the flubbing-machine, which will be de-
fcribed. On this machine each of the rolls from the card- dl
ing-machine are joined together, and drawn out into a '%
loofely-twifted thread, and wound round a fpindle, forming
what is technically called zjlubbtng. Thefe flubbings being
taken to the fpinning jenny, which will alfo be defcribed,
are twifted in an oppofite direftion, and drawn out into
threads of yarn of the'requifite length. For very fine yam
ufed in fhawls, a machine called the mule is fometimes em-
ployed, nearly fimilar to the cotton mule (fee ManufaSure
o/" Cotton), the flubbing pafling through rollers which
affift in drawing out the thread fmaller and more regular.
The yarn is now prepared for winding, fizing, warping,
and weaving. ( See Cloth. ) Since the article Cloth
was written, broad-cloth is almoft univerfally woven by one
perfon only in a loom, making ufe of the fly-{huttle. ( See
Weaving.) The next procefs is fcouring and burling,
already defcribed under the ai-ticles Cloth and Fulling.
The cloth is then fent to the fulling-mill ; the finer kinds
are prepared for fulling by a mixture of foap and water ; in
coarfe kinds, fuller's-earth fupplies the place of foap. ( See
YvLi.iviG-Mlll, and a farther defcription at the end of the
article.) The principle on which the felting depends has
been defcribed under the article Wool. By the procefs of
fulling, the cloth becomes (hortened in length and breadth,
and the fibres are incorporated and intimately united with
each other. In the beft manufaftured cloths, this incor-
poration is fo complete, that the feparate threads can
fcarcely be diftinguilhed, the bottom of the cloth appear-
ing to form one even continuous fubftance. An improve- jj
ment in this refpeft has recently been made at Leeds, by
fpinning J.he wool much fofter and thicker than has ufually'
been the praftice, and uniting the threads in the fulling-
mill, and then working the fubftance of the cloth down to a
requifite degree of thinnefs by the gig-mill, hereafter to be
defcribed. At the end of the procefs, the face or furface
of the cloth is much fofter, and greatly fuperior in appear-
ance to cloth manufaftured in the common procefs. A
pack of wool of 240 lbs. will make when milled about one
hundred and twenty yards of mixed or coloured cloth from
fifty to fixty inches in breadth, according to the quality
and finenefs of the wool. The procefs of raifing, (hearing,
and prefling, have been mentioned under the article Cloth,
and will be more fuUy defcribed when an account is given
of the gig-miU and (hearing-machine. The objeft of thefe
procefles is to cover the thread with a foft pile, confifting
of the fibres of the wool, cut down to an even furface over
the whole piece.

There are various kinds of woollen goods worked on the
fame principle as cloth, and made with both the warp and the

weft

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

•weft of carded wool, but which being unmilled, or finiftied in
a different manner, receive different names. Blankets are ma-
; nufaftiired on the card, but from wool that poffeffes a greater
- length of ftaple, and which therefore admits of a deeper pile,
being raifed on the furface. The yarn is fpun thicker, and left
as foTt as pofTible, in order that it may form a full cover or pile.
Fine blankets are made much ftouter and heavier than coarfe
ones ; they are both fcoured in the mill, but are fcarcely
fuffered to undergo the fulling procefs. Thick cloths with
a long pile, called dufHelds, fearnoughts, and bear-flcins, are
manufaftured on the fame principle as blankets, but they
are milled much thicker and dyed, and alfo raifed to a deeper
pile. Flannels and very light cloths, fuch as Bath coatings,
are ufually fpun fmall, in proportion to the quality of the
wool. In weaving plain cloths, the chain or warp is equally
divided by the gears, one half of the threads being above
and the other half below, and they crofs each other every
time the thread of the weft is thrown through by the fhuttle.
In weaving kerfeymeres or caffimeres, on the contrary, the
warp is unequally divided, to produce what is called the
twill, or tweel, (fee Weaving,) one-third being always
above and two-thirds below the fhuttle as it palfes. It is
owing to this arrangement of the warp, that it forms a llant-
JBg or diagonal rib acrofs the body of the cloth, which is
the diftinguifhing charaftcr of this kind of woollens. See
Draught of Looms.

Caffimeres are ufually fet in the loom from thirty-four to
|thirty-fix inches wide, and milled to twenty-feven inches.
! Forty pounds of wool from the bag will make rather more
than fixty yards of conimon milled fine caffimeres; the
'double milled ones make lefs in proportion to the degree of
i milling they receive.

Swandowns and toilinets are made with a cotton warp ;
the weft is woollen or worfted yarn of various colours, ac-
. cording to the patterns required. Woollen cords have alfo
the warp of ootton and the weft of woollen ; they are woven
and cut precifely in the fame manner as cotton cords. See
Fustian.

Serges are made with the warp of worfted and the weft

of coarfe woollen yam, and are twilled. Thefe goods have

^been for a very long time manufaftured extenlively in De-

vonlhire, and are principally purchafed by the Eaft India

.company for the China trade.

I Carpets have worfted warps and woollen wefts. See
I Carpet and We^^ving.

I From the moft remote period of the wooUen manufafture
I until the latter end of the laft century, or about the year 1 780,
\ very few, if any, mechanical improvements had been intro-
duced into it. During the whole time the various proceffes
; were carried on nearly in the fame manner, but with greater
I or lefs (kill, and were employed upon materials more or lefs
i valuable. The carding and fpinning of wool, and the
1 weaving and finifhing of cloth, in the early part of the reign
! of George III., were effefted by the fame machines as in
I the time of Edward III., which probably were fimilar to
I thofe of the ancient Romans, but more rude in their con-
! ttruftion. In an art which had feen fo many centuries roll
I on without any change, it did not appear poflible to the
i manufafturer that any improvement could be effeAed ; and
had not the genius of Hargreaves and Arkwright changed
entirely the modes of carding and fpinning cotton, the woollen
manufacture would probably have remained at this day
what it was in the earlieft ages of civihzed fociety. That
it would have been better for general fociety if it had fo
remained we readily admit ; but after the improved modes
of working cotton were difcovered, this was impoflible.
The fpinning jenny, which was the fame as that employed in

the cotton manufafture, but fomewhat larger, was introduced
into Yorkftiire from Lancafliire about the year 1780, but
did not become general till about three years afterwards.
In the firft jennies, not more, than eighteen or twenty threads
could be fpun, and the mode of winding the thread upon
the fpindle was very imperfeft. The carding was ftill
effefted by the hand, and the flubbing or roving was pre-
pared on the common fpinning-wheel. For fome time con-
fiderable difficulty was experienced in carding by machinery,
particularly in clearing the wool from the card ; and a flight
change in the conftruftion of the machine was found necef-
fary to prepare the wool for the flubbing-billy, of which
an account will be given in the defcription of the carding-
machine. Soon after this, the carding and fpinning of
wool and yarn by machinery became general through the
manufafturing diftrifts of the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire,
and large mills were erefted, in which the carding and fcrib-
bling machines were turned by a water-wheel, and the roving
or flubbing performed on the billy. The wool carded at
thefe mills was fent to the fmaller manufafturers in the ftate
of flubbing, and the farther procefs of fpinning was effedled
on jennies in their own premifes. Before the year 1787, the
old proceffes of carding by the hand, and fpinning on tiie
wheel, were entirely difcontinued in Yorkfhire ; but it was
fome years after before the new proceffes were generally
introduced in the weft of England, and thus, as we have
before ftated, the woollen trade became more concentrated
in Yorkftiire, where cloths could be manufaftured at lefs
expence. About this time, machinery began to be applied
to the combing and fpinning of long combing-wool, to make
virorfted yarn. See Worsted Spinning.

In confequence of the great increafe of trade in York-
fhire, it was found difficult to obtain fituations for mills
to be turned by water, and the application of the fteam-
engine to woollen machinery became very general. The
abundance of fuel was highly advantageous to the York-
fhire manufaftui-er ; and it was found to be equally cheap to
work the machines by fteam as by water, where any con-
fiderable rent was paid for the water. The motion of the
improved fleam-engine was alfo rendered as regular as a
water-wheel, and the great inconvenience and lofs from the
interruption of the works by frofts or continued droughts
were thereby avoided.

The fmaller manufafturers in Yorkftiire were at firft
benefited by the introduftion of machinery, but in a little
time large capitaliils began to engage in the woollen trade,
and performing all the proceffes with their own machinery,
they were enabled to work cheaper and underfell the fmaller
makers. The facility alfo with which wool could now be
worked up kept the markets always well ftocked with goods,
and prevented the manufnfturers from taking the advantage
of a temporary fcarcity or a briljc demand, which they had
formerly done, an overftocked market always reducing the
profits.

Soon after the year 1800, the number of fmall manufac-
turers began rapidly to decrcafe many of them, being ruined
by the change which had taken place, and compelled to
become workmen in the faftories of the large capitalifts.

The gig-mill and the fhearing-machine were not intro-
duced into Yorkftiire until they had been feveral years em-
ployed in the weft of England, owing to the refiftance
made to them by the working cloth-dreffers or croppers in
the north.

The nianufafture of worfted is properly a branch of the
woollen manufadlure, and noticed as fuch in our hiftory of
its progrefs in England ; yet the mode of manufafture, both
in preparing the worfled yarn and finiftiing the goods, being

entirely

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

entirely different from woollens made of carded wool, and
part of it being applied to hofiery, we refer, for a fur-
ther account of it, to the articles Worsted ManufaHure,
and Worsted Spinning,

Defcription of the Machines employed in the Woollen Manii-
faBure. — The ivool-mill, or 'willy, is the firft machine which is
employed on the raw wool to open and difentangle the clofe
matting, in which tlie wool comes from the wool-ftapler. It
is alfo ufed for clearing the dyed wool from the dye (luff,
and again for mixing different parcels of wool together ;
alfo for incorporating the oil with the wool.

The wool-mill ufed in Yorkfhire confifts of a cyhndrical
drum, about three feet long and two feet and a half diameter,
which is made to revolve near three hundred times ^cr minute.
It» circumference is furnifhed with teeth or fpikes, and im-
mediately above it five fmall rollers are placed, which are alfo
furnilhed with fimilar teeth. The teeth of the rollers and
thofe of the drum interfeft each other when they all turn
round ; and the teeth of the five fmall rollers alfo interfeft
each other. The cylinder and rollers are inclofed in a box
or cafe, which is clofed on all fides, except a door in front,
which turns down, the hinges being at the lower fide. When
this door is fliut up it ftands in a perpendicular plane,
very near to the teeth of the drum ; when the door is
opened, or turned down into the horizontal pofition, the
wool is laid upon it, about one pound weight at once, and
the door being clofed the wool is brought within reach of
the teeth of the cybnder, which take the wool and carry it
upwards, fo as to work it between the teeth of the cybnder
and thofe of the five rollers placed over it. This effefts
the opening of the wool, and breaks the fibres if the itaple
is too long : it alfo feparates the matted fibres. In about
three feconds, the pound of wool is generally fufficiently
worked, during which time the cylinder has made about
fifteen turns. The lower part of the cafe in which the
cylinder revolves is a grating of wooden rods, through
which the dirt and duft efcape. The cylinder is fitted
very clofe to this grating, fo that the wool cannot efcape
from the cylinder, but is carried round in it, and is thus re-
peatedly fubmilted to the aftion between the teeth of the
cylinder and thofe of the rollers. When it is judged that
the wool h fufficiently worked, the door is opened again,
and the centrifugal force throws out the wool in an inftant ;
a frefh charge is then laid upon tlie door, and fhut up in the
machine. A preferable mode is to have tv;o doors on
oppofite fides of the cafe ; one to put in the raw wool, and
the other for the finifhed wool to come out at.

The wool for coarfe goods is paffed feveral times through
the wool-mill ; firft, to breuk the mats of the raw wool and
render it light ; then a fecond time after it is dyed ; a third
time to mix the different forts together ; and laftly, after
the wool is oiled, it is paffed a fourth time through the
wool-mill, with a view to incorporate the oil well with the
fibres of the wool.

Scr'tbhling-Machine. — This is the firft flage of carding.
The operation tends to difentangle the fibres which were
before clofely entangled, and draw them out feparately, fo as
to render the wool light and flaky. The fcribbling-machine
is very Cmilar to the carding-machine, having a large cylin-
der or drum, which is covered on the furface with fheets of
leather ftuck full of projeAing wire-teeth, called card-wires.
The teeth are-fo clofe together as to cover the whole fur-
face of the cylinder, like the briftles of a brufh. This
cylinder is turned rapidly round by the machinery, and the
wool is regularly and flowly fupplied by feeding machinery
to its teeth, which take it up, and the cyhnder, as it were,
clothes itfelf with wool. This wool is carded or worked by

9

the teeth of feveral other fmaller cylinders, called workers
and clearers, which are fixed around the great cylinder in
pairs. The teeth of the workers take the wool from the
great cylinder, and give it to the clearers, which return k|
again to the great cylinder. It is then transferred to another!
worker, and by its clearer is given back to the great cylin-
der, and fo on. It is by the repeated transferring of the
wool from one cylinder to another, that the chief aftion
of fcribbling or carding is performed. The teeth of the
different cylinders do not aftually touch each other, but they
work fo near together, that the fibres of the wool which
the teeth of one card contains are caught by the teeth of
the other card, and drawn out a very few at a time. This
aftion tends to feparate the fibres, and renders the wool hght
and open, and alio dillributes the wool with great evennefs
over the furfaces of the cyhnders. After the wool has
paffed between three or four pairs of workers and clearers,|
it is taken up by a cylinder, called the doffer, which isi
fmaller than the great cylinder, and turns round ver)' flowly.
The wool is ftripped off from this doffer by a fleel comb,
which is fituated parallel to the axis of the doffer, and is
moved rapidly up and down by a crank through a fmall fpace.
In afcending, the comb does not touch the doffer; but when
the comb makes its down flroke, it comes in contatl with
the teeth of the cards, and combs out almoft all the wooli
they contain. As the doffer turns round very flowly, and.
the comb afts at fmall intervals, the fucceffive portions of
wool which it combs or ftrips off, hang together in a con-
tinued fleece or web of a very thin texture, which hangs
down from the doffer, and is received in a bafliet.

The wool in this Hate is faid to be fcribbled, but the
fibres are not yet fufficiently combed out or feparated ; for
on examination of the fcribbled wool, many fmall knots and
films of wool are found, which are ftill clofeiy entangled.
The fcribbling is therefore repeated twice or three times, and
then the wool undergoes another operation, which is called
carding, but which is very nearly the fame as the fcribbhng,
only the wool is formed into fmall cylindrical rolls, which
are the firft rudiments of a thread.

We have thought it needlefs to give a drawing of a
fcribbling-machine, as it may be readily conceived from the
following defcription of the carding machine.

Carding-Machine. ( See Plate IV. IVoollenManufadure. }—
A is the wood frame of the machine, but the bell machines
have call -iron frames ; C C is the outfide of the large
cylinder, which is about thirty inches diameter, and twenty-
fix inches wide: its axis is fupportedon bearings at each fide
of the frame, and it is put in motion by an endlefs ftrap
appHed upon a pulley at one end of its axis, which pulley
cannot be feen in the figure. The cylinder revolves about
1 00 times per minute. B is an arch of wood to receive
fcrews, which fupport the fix fmall cylinders marked 2 a
and 2 ; thefe are the workers and clearers. The workers
3 a are larger, and turn flower than the clearers 2 ; each
worker is afted upon by its clearer, and both worker and
clearer aft againfl the cards of the great cylinder.

The raw wool is fpread evenly upon the feeding-cloth 5,
at one end of the machine : it is an endlefs fheet ftretched
over two rollers, one of which has a cog-wheel G upon the
end of its axis, and receives motion from a pinion fituated
behind the pulley F. This pulley is turned by an endlefs
cord palling round a pulley n, fixed upon the cog-wheel E,
which is turned by a pinion 8 on the end of the axis of the
great cylinder. The wool which is fpread on the cloth 5
is taken off, between a pair of feeding-rollers, which are
clothed with cards laid on in fpiral fillets. Thefe rollers
cannot be feen, being within the frame ; they are about 25

inches

I

.WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

inches diameter, and are turned round by toothed pinions
on the axis of the cloth-roller, fo as to move rather quicker
than the feeding-cloth. The feeding-rollers give the wool
to a cylinder 4 a, called the carrier, which is about nine
inches diameter. The carrier works againft the cylinder C ;
but as its furface moves more flowly than the furface of the
cyhnder, the wool contained in the teeth of the carrier is
taken up by the cylinder. The carding-machine repre-
fented in our plate is fhewn with a cyhnder 3, beneath the
carrier ; this is not ufed in the prefent machines, but the
feeding-rollers give the wool at once to the carrier 4 a.

Tliat part of the cylinder which is adjacent to the carrier
moves upwards, fo as to carry up the wool it has taken from
the carrier, and give it to the workers 2 a and clearers 2.
The furfaccs of the workers 2 a move in the fame direftiou
as the furface of the great cyhnder, but they turn flowly,
being put in motion by the chain 9, which partes over
wheels at the ends of all the three workers. 'Thefe wheels
have cogs or teeth to enter into the links of the chain, and
prevent it from flipping ; the chain pafles beneath a wheel
fixed on the axis of the cog-wheel E, but withinfide the
frame. The wheel E is turned by a pinion 8, fixed on the
extremity of the axis of the great cylinder ; and the propor-
tions are fuch, that the workers 2 a revolve once to about
four turns of the great cyhnder, and the workers being
about 65 inches diameter, whilft the cyhnder is 30 inches
diameter, the furface of the cylinder moves about 185 times
as faft as the furfaces of the workers.

The fmall rollers 2, called clearers, are placed fo as to
card the wool on the workers, and on the great cyhnder
|alfo. The clearers are turned round very quickly, and take
the wool from the workers, but their furfaces do not move
fo faft as the furface of the cylinder. Thus the ftrap 13
paffes over a wheel of about 8^ inches diameter, fixed on
■the extremity of the axis of each clearer; this ftrap is put in
motion by a wheel of about 22 inches diameter, fixed on the
axis of the great cyhnder ; therefore, the clearers turn about
i2| times to one of the great cylinder ; but as they are only
3I inches diameter, and the great cylinder is 30 inches
diameter, the furface of the cylinder moves near 3^ times
as faft as that of the clearer. The carrier 4 a is turned by the
fame ftrap 1 3 ; but being larger than the clearers, its furface
imoves much quicker, fo that the cylinder's furface moves
!only about once and a half as faft as the carrier's furface.
1 The ftrap 13 alfo turns a cylinder 2, at the right-hand
lend of the machine, called the fly : its furface moves the
ifame way as the furface of the cylinder, but moves nearly
!once and a half as faft ; the pulley at the end of the fly
being only 45- inches diameter, and the fly itfelf nine
iinches. The fly is not placed fo clofe to the cylinder as
ito take the wool away therefrom, but is intended to raife
and loofen it in the cards of the cyhnder, fo that the
'cyhnder 4 beneath it, called the doffer, can take off the
wool more readily. This doffer is 14 inches diameter, and
lis covered with feparate (heets of card-wire, each about
'4 inches wide, leaving vacant fpaces between them parallel
Ito the axis of the cylinder. The doffer moves round very
•flowly, its furface moving only vW of the velocity of the fur-
;face of the cylinder: it is turned by a band from a pulley on
ithe axis of the roller D, which we fliall next defcribe.
; The comb which works againft the furface of the doflTer,
land ftrips off the wool from it, cannot be feen in the draw-
ling. The comb is fupporled by two upright rods, fcrewed
'to it one at each end ; the upper ends of thefe rods are
iguided by two horizontal levers, and the lower ends are
ijointed to two fmall cranks formed on an horizontal axis,
'which is fituated at the lower part of the frame near the

ground, and put in rapid motion by a ftrap, from a pulley
at the bottom of the frame beneath the great cyhnder. This
pulley has a fmaller one fixed on the extreme end of its
axis, and receives its motion from the fame ftrap 13, which
turns the clearers. Every revolution of the cranks caufes
the comb to rife and fall about two inches ; and when the
comb defcends, the teeth on its edge aft againft the cards,
on the furface of the dolfer 4, fo as to take out the wool
from them. This wool is feparated in a continued flieet or
film, becaufe the ftrokes of the comb fucceed each other
very quickly, and the doff'er turns round flowly ; but owing
to the vacant fpaces between the cards on the doffer, this
film only continues for a width of about four inches, and is
then discontinued until the vacant fpace on the doffer has
paffed by the comb, which then adls again to ftrip off the
wool, and fo on : hence the wool is drawn off from the
machine in a carded ftate, in fmall and very delicate films or
webs of about 4 inches wide, and 27 or 28 inches long,
which is the length of the doffer.

Thefe detached portions of wool are next rolled up fo as
to form fmall cyhndrical rolls, which is done by what is
called the roller-bowl D : it is a cylinder of wood, with
fhallow flutes upon its furface, parallel to its axis ; it is
turned round flowly by a pulley H on the end of its axis,
and an endlefs band, 14, which paffes round a pulley I,
fixed on the wheel E. The lower part of the roller-bowl,
D, is inclofed within a hollow cyhnder of wood, called
the fhell ; it encompaffes the lower half, being fixed beneath
the revolving cyhnder ; the ftiell is fluted within fide, but
does not touch the bowl, leaving a fmall interval between the
two. The portions of wool, as they are ftripped or combed
off from the doffer, fall down over the edge of the fhcll,
which for that purpofe is fituated clofe to the doffer, at that
part of its circumference where the comb works : by this
means, the wool which is ftripped off falls down into the
fpace between the fhell and the roller-bowl ; and when the
portion of wool is completely detached and drops off, the
motion of the bowl within its fhell rolls the wool between
them with a roUing motion, which forms the wool into a
very round and ftraight cylindrical roll, called a carding, when
thefe cardings drop out from between the roller-bowl and
its fhell ; they fall upon a flat table, a a, as flievvn at 7 7 7.
This table is covered with an endlefs cloth, which is
ftretched over two horizontal rollers ; one of thefe rollers has
a crofs, marked 16, l6, fixed on the end of its axis ; the
arms of the crofs are feizedby a cranked lever, 15, which is
fixed to the axis of the roller-bowl, and at every revolution
the crofs 16 is turned round one-fourth : this moves the
endlefs cloth forwards, and carries the cardings away in the
manner (hewn at 7 7 7, as faft as they drop out from the
fhell, and from this table they are carried away to the flubbing-
machine, or billy.

In moft modern machines the latter movement is altered,
the endlefs cloth being kept in a continual and flow motion
by an endlefs band paffing round a fmall pulley fixed to the
pulley H, and a larger pulley fixed in place of the crofs 16.

In fome old carding-engines many of the motions were
performed by toothed wheels and pinions ; but of late years
all the parts are moved by bands or ftraps, which produce
a much more equable and fleady movement. The large cy-
linders are generally made by placing two or more wheels of
caft iron on one axle, the circumference of the wheels being
cafed with wood, which is attached to them by fcrews or
rivets. The fmaller rollers are formed in a fimilar manner
on wooden diflcs, but all are made hollow, to avoid warping,
which would render the aftion of the cards irregular and
uncertain.

We

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

We mud now return to the fcribbling-macbine : it is the
fame as the carding-machine, except that the breadth of the
cylinder is greater, and the teeth are coarfer ; there is no
roller-bowl D, and the doffer 4 is completely covered with
cards, without "any breaks or intervals ; hence the film of
wool which is taken off is continuous, and is fuffered to fall
down into a ballcet.

Double Scribblers. — In Yorkfliire it is common to employ
double fcribblers ; that is, two of the machines combined to-
gether, and placed in one frame ; there are two large cyhnders,
each furrounded with its workers and clearers, and doffer, as
■we have defcribed, making in all feventeen fmall cylinders.
The firft great cylinder has a feeding-cloth and carrier, to
fupply the wool to the cylinder ; but the fecond large cylin-
der is fupplied with wool from the doffer of the firft cy-
linder, which doffer ferves in place of a carrier to the fecond ;
it therefore has no comb. The doffer of the fecond cylin-
der has a comb to take off the wool, which then falls into a
baflcet.

This machine is faid to fave trouble of attendance, and
does more work than two fingle machines. The ufual prac-
tice is to pafs the wool once through the double machine,
end then once through a fingle machine. A double machine
will fcribble about a hundred weight of wool per day.

After the wool is fcribbled it is weighed, and when it is
taken to the carding-machine, a certam weight is fpread
over a certain length of the feeding-cloth, fo as to fupply
the wool to the machine with perfeft regularity. The proper
weight wliich (hould be allowed is afccTtained experimentally,
according to the finenefs of the thread which is required to be
fpun. The cardings are weighed from time to time, to
afcertain if each one contains the proper quantity of wool.

The cardings produced by the united operations of fcrib-
bling and carding are compofed of fibres of wool laid very
lightly together with the lead poffible entanglement ; they are
very regular and even in fize, and upon this circumllance the
perfeftion of the fpinning chiefly depends.

Slubblng-Macbine, or Billy. — This performs the firft procefs
of fpinning. It reduces the cardings, and draws them out in
length ; joins them together, and gives them a flight twift, in
order to form a coarfe and loofe thread, called a flubbing or
roving, which muft be fpun over again in the jenny, to
make a thread fine enough tor the loom.

This operation was formerly performed by hand on the
common hand fpinning-wheel, which is fimilar to that ufed
for fpinning wool, but of a fmaller fize. Machines were
then contrived by which a number of flubbings could be
drawn out together ; but the aid of the hands was required
for joining the rolls or cardingt of wool together in fuccef-
fion, and for other purpofes, which were found to take fo
much time, that very little, if any, faving of labour was
effefted by the ufe of fuch machines.

A perfpeftive view of the flubbing-machine, now univer-
My employed, is given in Plate I. Woollen Manufaaure.
A A is the wood frame of the machine ; witliin this frame is
a moveable carriage, D D, which runs upon the lower fide-
pils at a a, with wheels I, 2, to make it move eafily ; and
it is capable of running backwards and forwards in the
frame from one end to the other. The carriage contains a
number of perpendicular fpindlcs, marked 3, 3, which are
put in rapid motion by a long cylinder F, and a feparate
band from each fpindle, which paffes round a fmall pulley on
the fpindle. The cylinder F extends horizontally acrofs the
whole breadth of the carriage ; it is made of tin plate,
hollow like a tube, and covered with paper on the outfide.

The fpindles are placed in a frame, fo as to ftand nearly
perpendicular, at about four inches from each other ; their
6

lower extremities are fharp-poiated, anfl turn in fockets, and '
they are retained in their perpendicular pofition by a fmall
collar of brafs for each, which furrounds the fpindle at
about the middle of its length. The upper half of each
fpindle projefts above the frame, and on the lower part the
fmall pulley or whirl is fixed, to receive the band from the
horizontal cylinder, which is about fix inches in diameter,
and a little longer than the row of fpindles ; it is placed be-
fore them with its centre at a lower pofition than the row of
whirls. The cyhnder receives motion by a puUey at one
end, with an endlefs band from a wheel E, made like the
large wheel ufed in fpinning wool by hand, and of the fame
dimenfions. The wheel is fituated at the outfide of the
great frame of the machine, and its axis is fupported by up-
right ftandards erefted from the carriage D ; the wheel is
turned by the left-hand of the fpinner, appUed to a winch,
which is plainly feen in the drawing, and gives motion to the
cylinder F, which again turns all the fpindles at once with a|
great velocity. ,

Each fpindle receives a thread, or flubbing, which
threads iffue from beneath a roller, C C, at one end of the
frame, and proceed to the row of fpindles placed in the
carriage, fo that the flubbings are extended nearly in an ho-
rizontal direftion. Th,' fpindles, by the motion of the car-
riage, are capable of advancing or retreating from the roller
C, fo as to extend any required length of flubbing.

The cardings of wool, which are to be fpun into flub-
bings, are extended fide by fide upon an endlefs cloth,
which is ftrained in an inclined pofition between two hori-
zontal rollers, one marked B B, and the other cannot be
feen. There is one carding for each fpindle, and the number
is ufually from ^o to 80. C is a hght wooden roller to
bear upon the cardings which lie upon the cloth, and prefs
flightly upon there by its weight. Immediately before this
roller is a wooden rail G, and another beneath it, which is
fixed horizontally aerofs the frame : the cardings are con-'
dufted between thefe two rails, the upper of which is
capable of rifing ; but when it falls by its weight, it holds
the cardings fall between the two, and hence thefe rails are'
called the clafp ; the upper moveable rail G of the clafp is
guided between Aiders, and a wire 7 defcends from it to a
lever 6. When the carriage D is wheeled clofe home to the
end of the machine, a wheel j lifts up the end 6 of the
lever ; and this, by the wire 7, raifes the upper rail G fo
as to open the clafp, and releafe all the cardings : in this
ftate, if the carriage is wheeled or withdrawn back from the
clafp, it will draw the cardings forward. There is a fmall
catch which receives the upper rail G of the clafp, and
bears it up from falling until the carriage has retreated a!'
certain diftance, and drawn out about eight inches length of '
the cardings ; a ftop on the carriage then comes againft the'
catch and withdraws it ; the upper rail of the clafp G then t
falls and holds the cardings fail, whilft the carriage con- ■
tinsues to recede, and draw out or ftretch that portion of '
each carding which is between the clafp and the fpindle. ' '
All this time the wheel is turned to keep the fpindles in mo- '
tion, and give twift to the cardings in proportion as they are 1
drawn out, by which means it is prevented from breaking ; ' !
becaufe as the carding diminiflies in fize, and increafes in '
length, the increafing twift combines the fibres of the wool,
fo as to give ftrength to the coarfe thread or flubbing which '■>
is thus produced. i

The flubbing is lapped round the fpindle, but the clafp • «
being higher than the upper ends of the fpindies, the direc-! f
tion of the flubbing is not quite at right angles to the ' I
fpindle; hence the fpindle, when it is turned round, will' i
give twift to the flubbing, without winding or gathering it t

up

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE

up upon the fptndle, beCaufe the flubbing always flips over
the top-end of the fpindle ; but when a portion of each
flubbing is finiflied, and it is required to wind it up round the
fpindle in a ball, the flubbing muft be prefled down by a
wire 8, fo as to bear it from the point of the fpindle, and
place it oppofite to the middle part of the cop or ball upon
the fpindle, and then the motion of the fpindle will caufe it
to wind up upon the fpindle, and form a ball.

The w're 8 is made to operate upon the whole row of
flubbing^ at once, and for this purpofe a horizontal rail 4
is placed in the front of the row of fpindles, being provided
with pivots at its extreme ends, on which it is fupported in
ftan.iards nfing from the carriage D. It has a fmall arm or
lever projecting from it at each end, and the wire 8 is
flretched between tliefe arms. By turning the rail 4 round
upon its pivots, the wire is capable of being raifed up, as
in the figure, or lowered down at pleafure : when the wire
is lower-.d, it di-icends below the level of the top of the
fpindles, fo as to bear down the threads which, when the wire
is raifed up, as ftiewn in the figure, proceed from the points
of the fpindles.

The fpinner holds the rail 4 in his right-hand, and it is

by this that he draws the carriage either in or out, according

as it may require ; and by turning the rail 4 round, he can

elevate or deprefs the wire 8, fo as to make it bear

' down the flubbings to any degree at pleafure ; by this

: means, he diftributes the flubbings upon the fpindles in

I a proper manner, to form a regular ball or cop, as fliewn in

ji the figure.

I As the cardings are very flight and tender, they would be

J liable to break if they were dragged forwards on the inclined

i cloth, or even if the cloth were to be moved round its roller

/ by the force applied to the cardings. To avoid this, a cord

is applied round a groove in the middle part of the upper

, roller, and after pafling over proper pulleys, as fliewn in the

drawing, it has a weight fufpended to one end, and a fmaller

' weight to the other ; the fnjall weight is only to keep the

I rope tight, but the large weight tends to turn the rollers

; and endlefs cloth round in a direction to deliver out the

; cardings, fo that there will be no llrain on them.

I Every time that the carriage is wheeled home, the large

weight is wound up by means of a piece of wood projecting

I from the carriage, which feizes a knot in the cord at the part

I which lies horizontally ; this puihes the cord back a certain

1 ^ilance, fo as to draw up the great weight ; but the endlefs

I cloth cannot turn backwards, becaufe there is a ratchet and

i click at one end of the roller which prevents it ; the rope,

', therefore, flips round upon the roller. When the carriage

, retires, the great weight turns the roller and endlefs cloth

i round, fo as to deliver out the cardings at the fame rate as

I the carriage retreats and takes them up ; but when the pro-

' per quantity is given out, the knot in the rope arrives at a

r fixed ftop, which does not permit it to move any farther ;

; and at the fame inftant the roller 5 quits the lever 6, and

i allows the upper rail G of the clafp to fall, and hold the

I carding fad from being drawn out any farther ; the wheel E

! is then put in motion to turn the fpindles round, and the

'Carriage is drawn back, which extends the flubbings, and

;iwifts them at the fame time, as before mentioned.

1 When the carriage is drawn out to its full extent, and

[the neceflary twift is given, the wire 8 ie put down to bear

;down the flubbing from the point of the fpindle, and the

Imotion of the wheel being continued, the flubbings arewound

iup upon the middle part of the cop or ball which is formed

jupon the fpindle ; but as fad as the flubbings are wound up,

[the fpinner muft pufli back the carriage towards the clafp ;

iind he muft turn the whee! round at fuch a rate that the

: Vol. XXXVIlf.

fpindles will not wind up any fafter than the carriage returns^
otherwife the flubbings would be broken or unequally
ftretched ; he muft alfo raife and lower the wire 8 con-
tinually, by turning the rail 4 round in his hand, in order
to diftribute the flubbing on the cop in a regular manner, fo
as to make a firm ball or cop.

A child attends the machine to bring the cardings from
the carding-machine, and place them upon the inclined
cloth ; and when they are exhaufted, frefli ones are joined
on, fo as to keep the machine conftantly fupplied.

The degree of twift which is given to the flubbing is
regulated by the difcretion of the fpinner in turning the
wheel at a proper rate, correfponding to the quicknefs
with which he draws out the carriage. Slubbings which
are intended to be fpun into yarn for the warp of the cloth
require to be more twifted than the flubbings intended for
the weft ; but the proper quantity of twift depends on the
finenefs of the wool, and the length of its fibres. In general
it inay be ftated, that no more twift is given to the flubbings
than is neceftary to make them draw out to the required
extent without breaking. This twift is of no ufe to the
yarn, becaufe the flubbing will be twifted in the contrary
direftion, when it is fpun the fecond time in the jenny.

An improved flubbing-machine has been introduced,
which is put in motion by the mill, and the carriage is made
to draw out by the power of the machine. The fpinner
has only to pufti the carriage in, and turn the handle, in order
to wind up the flubbings ; by this means, a greater degree of
regularity is attained in tlie quantity of twift which is
given to the flubbings when they are drawn out. The
movements to effeft this are taken from the mule ufed in
cotton-fpinning. See ManufaSure of CoTTON.

Spinning Jenny — In this machine, the flubbings are fpun
over again, and reduced to the requifite finenefs for weaving.
The jenny has nearly the fame parts as the billy, but differ-
ently arranged. The fpindles are placed at one end of the
frame, and the clafp which holds the flubbings is placed on
the carriage, fo that it can be moved backwards and for-
wards, to and from the fpindles by the fpinner, in order to
draw out and extend the yarn at the fame time it is twifted.

A perfpeftive view of the jenny is given in Plate II.
Woollen ManufaSure.

The fpindles 3, 3, 3, are placed perpendicularly at about
four inches afunder at one end of the frame A A of the
machine. The lower extremities of the fpindles are pointed,
and turn in fmall cups or fockets in a crofs-rail of the
frame ; they are fupported near the middle of their length
by pafling through brafs-coUars in a horizontal rail. Near
the lower end of each fpindle a fmall pulley is fixed, to re-
ceive an endlefs band, which pafles round the horizontal
cylinder or roller 2, about fix inches diameter. The cy-
linder is fupported on pivots at its ends in the fides of the
frame, and lying in a diredlion parallel to the row of fpin-
dles, it turns them all round by a fmall band for each.
This cylinder is ufually made of tin-plate, that it may not
alter its figure by the weather, as wood would do ; and its
furface is covered with coarfe brown paper, to prevent the
bands from flipping upon it. The cylinder ? is put in
motion by a ftrap or band i, i, which pafles round a pulley
at the end of it, and alfo rouud the great wheel B B, which
is fupported in a framing fufpended over the machine
from the ceiling, but which is not fliewn in the drawing.
The wheel B is turned by applying the right-hand to the
winch B. In front of the row of fpindles, and about a
foot higher than their points, a long crofs-rail 16 is
fituated horizontally : it is fupported at each extremity by
being mortifed into blocks of wood c c, which are fumilhed
4 P with

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE,

with fmall wheels or caftors, forming a fort of carriage, to
run horizontally upon the fide-beams of the main-frame in
grooves, which guide them, fo that the rail i6 can be moved
backwards and forwards through a fpace of about fix or
feven feet, in a horizontal pofition, without varying from its
parallelifm with the row of fpindles. The underfide of the
rail 1 6 is formed into a number of narrow notches for the
flubbings to pafs through ; and thefe notches are partly filled
up by projefting pieces, rifing up from a fecond crofs-rail
5, 5, fo as to form the clafp which confines or pinches the
flubbings in the notches when the lower rail is raifed up ;
but the flubbings can draw freely through the notches when
the lower rail is let down. This lower rail is guided and
limited -to move up and down only a fmall fpace by ftaples,
which projeft downwards from the rail 16, and receive the
ends of the lower rail 5 of the clafp. The rifing and fall-
ing of the lower rail is effefled by fmall cords faftened to it
at about every yard of its length ; thefe cords are condufted
over fmall pulleys (concealed in the fubftance of the upper
rail 16), and are all attached to a handle, fituated over the
middle of the upper rail at 16, and beneath an arched bar,
which is fixed on the top of the clafp. The fpinner holds
this handle in the left-hand, whilft the right is employed in
turning the wheel ; and by the fingers of the left-hand fhe
can raife up the lower rail 5 of the clafp, and draw it clofe
to the upper one. It will then be retained in that pofi-
tion by a fmall fpring-catch, and wiU clafp the flnbbings
fall in the notches, through which they pafs ; but when the
fpring-catch is puflied back, fo as to relieve the handle, the
lower rail will fall down by its own weight, and releafe the
flubbings, to allow them to Aide through the notches.

The cops of flubbings which are to be fpun are fup-
ported in an inclined frame 4, 4, faftened within the main
frame of the machine. The cops are mounted upon iron
wires ; they are placed in two rows, one above the other,
as ftiewn in the drawing ; but each row (hould only contain
half as many cops as there are fpindles.

Each flubbing is condufted through a notcli in the clafp,
and thence it proceeds nearly in an horizontal pofition to
the fpindles 3, 3.

When the yarns have been drawn out and twifted they are
wound up on the fpindles in balls, in a fimilar manner to the
billy. The wire which is ufed for bearing down the thread
from the points of the fpindles is marked 12; it is attached
to a horizontal rail, which is fupportedon pivots at its ends,
clofe to the row of fpindles. There is a fmall pulley 1 1 ,
fixed at one end of the rail, and a fliort lever at the other,
which lever is hidden in the drawing by a part of the framing.
Between the pulley 11 and the lever, the wire 12 is ex-
tended, and by turning the rail round upon its pivots, the
wire will have a motion up or down.

The fpinner can communicate motion to the pulley 1 1 by
means of a cord 7, 7, which paifes round it, and extends the
whole length of the frame, the end being made faft to a
pin at A ; this cord lies over the furface of one of the blocks
c, which contains the wheels of the carriage, and pafles be-
tween three fmall pulleys 9, 6, and 8. The centre pins of the
ptilleys 9 and 8 are fixed to the block ; but the centre pin
of tlie pulley 6 is fixed to a fmall Aider, and can be drawn
in the direftion of the rail 16, by applying the finger to
a fmall trigger near the handle 16. This aftion removes the
pulley 6 out of the Une of the other two pulleys, fo as to
fliorten the cord 7, and turn round the pulley 1 1 ; this
brings down the wire 12, and bears down the threads upon
the fpindles. A fmall counterweight is fufpended from
the wheel 11, to return the wire to its former pofition when
the prcffure of the finger on the trigger is removed. By

I

this movement, the fpinner has fuU command of the wire
12, to raife or lower it in any degree flie thinks proper ; and
this is done independently of the motion of the carriage,
becaufe the pulleys 9, 6, and 8, run freely along the cord 7,
and their motion has no tendency to move the wheel 1 1
either way.

The jenny is worked by one perfon, who ftands within
the frame, and turns the wheel B with the right-hand, whilft
he holds the clafp in the left, fo as to run it backwards
and forwards along the frame at pleafure. The flubbings are
drawn between the moveable rails 16 and 5, in the notches
of the clafp, and each flubbing is faftened on to its corre-
fponding fpindle. The clafp being left open is drawn
backwards from the fpindles, and the flubbings run freely
through the notches of the clafp ; the flubbings are drawn
off the balls at 4, when the clafp retires from the fpindles,
until a certain length of each flubbing is drawn out and ex-
tended nearly in an horizontal pofition between the fpindles
and the clafp : this length is regulated by a mark made on
the frame of the machine, to indicate when the clafp has
arrived at its proper pofition. The bars of the clafp are
then brought together by raifing up the handle under the
catch, as before defcribed, and it faftens all the flubbings in
the notches. This being done, the fpindles are put in rapid
motion by turning round the large wheel B B ; they twift
thofe parts of the flubbings which are extended, and the mo-
tion being in a contrary direftion to the twiil of the flubbing,
the firft tendency is to untwift the flubbing, at the fame
time that the carriage and clafp are gently drawn back,
or from the fpindles. By this means, the flubbings are
ftretched or drawn out in length at the fame time that they
get a new twift in the oppofite direftion ; this keeps them
from breaking, and when they are drawn to their intended
extent by the carriage being moved back to the ftops at the
extremity of the main frame, the great wheel is turned
round as many turns as is neceffary to give them all the twift
which thofe portions of thread are intended to have.

The threads extended between the clafp and the fpindles
are now finiflied, and it only remains to wind them up upon
the fpindles, previoufly to drawing out a freih portion of each
flubbing, in order to fpin it in the fame manner. To wind
up the threads, they are pufiied down upon their refpec-
tive fpindles, by prefling the trigger which moves the wire
1 2 ; and the motion of the great wheel B is continued, in
order to wind up the flubbings in balls upon the fpindles, at
the fame time that the carriage and clafp are puflied back to-
wards the fpindles. When the carriage is got home, the
thread is finiftied and wound up, and a frefh portion of
flubbing is extended. To do this, the lower rail of the clafp
is dropped down, and it releafes the flubbings ; the carriage
is then drawn back to the mark upon the frame, as before
defcribed, which fliews that a proper length of each flubbing
is drawn off from the balls, and extended between the fpin-
dles and the clafp. The clafp is then clofed, and the wheel B
put in motion to twift the threads whilft the carriage is
drawn out ; thus the fpinning operation is repeated as
before, and prepares another length of each of the threads.
When finifhed, they are pufhed down from the points
of the fpindles, in order to make them wind up thereon in
the balls, as before.

There is fome difcretion required in fpinning with the
jenny, to draw out the carriage with a movement corre-
fpondent to the rapidity with which the fpindles give the
twift, or rather untwift, to the flubbing ; for the principal ex-
tenfion of the thread is effefted whilft the flubbing is un-
twifting, and whilft the firft portion of twift is given to the
threads. Thefe motions muft be properly proportioned by

the

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

the fpinner, who muft alfo be careful to give an equal de-
gree of twill to each fucceflive portion of thread which is
fpun, otherwife the thread will confift of hard and foft places.

When the yarn is intended for the warp of the cloth, the
fpindles are turned for a given time after the thread is ex-
tended to its full length, as we have before mentioned ; but
for the yarn which is to be ufed as weft, it is different : the
whole of the twift is given during the extenfion of tiie
thread, and none afterwards ; this difference is to render
the weft fofter than the warp, becaufe in the cloth the weft
appears more on the furfaces than the warp, and it is prin-
cipally the felting and interlacing of the fibres of the weft
that will form the furface of the cloth when iinifhed.

The yarns are ufually extended in the jenny two and
a half or three times the length of the flubbings from
which they are fpun ; and that degree of twift given to
them which is fuitable to the purpofe for which the yarn is
to be employed.

The Mule for /pinning of Tarn is very nearly the fame ma-
chine as the mule for fpinning cotton ; this is ufed for fpin -
ning fome kinds of woollen yarn inftead of the jenny.
When the mule is employed for fpinning yarn for weft, it
is ufed in the fame manner as defcribed in our article Cot-
ton Manufacture ; but for fpinning warp, the fpindles are
made to revolve, and twill the thread fome time after the
carriage is run completely out, and the ftretching of the
yarn is finifhed. There is a movement in the machine that
fhifts the endlefs ilrap which turns the mule upon a larger
pulley, as foon as the carriage is run fully out, fo as to give a
more rapid motion to the fpindles after the ftretching, or
drawing out, is finifhed, than they had during the drawing
back of the carriage. By this means fome time is faved,
becaufe the fpindles may be allowed to run very quick when
it is only required to twift the threads ; but whilil the ex-
tenfion is going on, the twifting motion muft be moderate,
or the threads would be broken. A very fimilar movement
is ufed in the mule for fpinning cotton, and is called the
double, fpeed ; but the defcription of this mechanifm is
omitted in the article Makufacture.

The mule has not, till lately, been in much repute for
fpinning woollen yarn, and the jenny is ftill thought to fpin
better yarn : but we have no doubt that when certain modi-
fications are made, it will become a much more perfeft
method than the jenny, being much lefs dependent on the
difcretion and dexterity of the fpinner ; for if the machine
is once conftrufted fo as to fpin properly, it will always
continue to do fo.

To keep the yarn to the fize which is intended, a few of
the coppins are reeled off, in order to meafure out a certain
length of the yarn, which is weighed ; and if it does not
prove of the weight expefted, the quantity of wool which
is fpread over a given furface of the feeding-cloth of the
carding-machine muft be increafed or diminifhed accordingly ;
and when the right quantity is formed, the lead weights
which are ufed for weighing the given quantity of wool are
altered to fuit it. The draft of the jenny may alfo be
altered to effeft the fame thing.

The fpinning procefles are now finifhed, and it remains
to weave the yarns into cloth. From the defcription we
have given, it will appear that woollen yarn is fpun in a
very different manner from cotton. The opening proceffes
and the fcribbling and carding are very fimilar, except that the
carded wool, inftead of being drawn into a continued lliver
like cotton, with the fibres ftretched the lengthways of the
flivcr, is formed into feparate rolls, with the fibres difpofed
croffwife or fpirally round the roll.

By the flubbing-niachine thefe are joined together, drawn

out in length, and (lightly twifted, by operations fimilar
to that of roving in cotton-fpinning ; but the operation
of drawing, which is fo frequently repeated for cotton,
would be ufelefs, and to a certain extent even prejudicial for
wool. The objeft of tliat procefs is to elongate and ftretch
the fibres of the cotton ftraight, and lay them parallel to
each other ; but it does not reduce the fliver to a fmaller
fize, becaufe as many times as the fliver is extended in
length, fo many flivers are put together into the drawing-
frame at once, leaving the lliver which has been drawn the
lame fize as it was before, but elongated to three or four
times the length, and all its fibres fully extended.

As woollen cloth is intended for felting, it is not defirable
to ftraighten the fibres, but only to difentangle all knots,
and unfold any fibres which may be doubled, alfo to lay
the fibres in the direftion of the length of the thread.
There is a natural curl in the fibres of wool which fhould
be preferved, and will contribute to the firmnefs with which
the fibres will entangle in the felting.

The operation of fpinning by the jenny and billy are very
fimilar, but both differ from the manner in which the ex-
tenfion is made in the cotton fpinning-machines by rollers.
In the jenny, the extenfion is made upon a confider-
able length of the carding or flubbing at once ; but in the
rollers, the length of cotton which is fubmitted to the aftion
of drawing out is very (hort, indeed very little longer than
the length of the fibres of the cotton. In mule fpinning
both modes of extenfion are praftifed ; firft, drawing the
roving by rollers, and then a certain length is ftretched out
to a greater extent.

Warping. — The coppins of yarn are mounted on wires in
a frame, and the yarns are drawn off from them, in order
to combine a fufRcient number of them together, to form
the warp for the web of cloth which it is intended to weave.
For inftance, for making the cloth called double drab,
which we fhall take as an example, 2960 threads, each
65 yards long, are laid parallel to each other ; but a fepara-
tion is preferved at every 40 threads, dividing the whole
into 74 parcels, for the convenience of the weaver.

The warping is performed by the warping-mill, which is
a large reel, with its axis horizontal ; the ends of the threads
are made faft to the reel, which is turned round, and it draws
the threads off the coppins, fo as to wind them upon its cir-
cumference ; and to prevent the different turns of the threads
from lying one over another, the threads are guided
through an eye or ring affixed to a Aider, which is moved
along a wooden rail, in a direftion parallel to the axis of the
reel, by a cord that winds round one end of the axis of the reel.

A warping-mill for filks is defcribed in our article Silk,
and will give a clear idea of the prefent, which only differs
in the horizontal pofition of the axis, and in the greatnefs
of its dimenfions. The threads for the warp being thus
affembled together, are taken off the reel, and rolled up
into a bundle.

The warp is then fcoured in urine, to remove the
greafinefs of the wool, and is next fized ; to do this, it
IS dipped into the cauldron of fize, about ten yards
in length at a time, and well worked in by the hands.
After fizing, the yarns are ftretched out at length in a
field, till they are dry, and the warp is then ready for the
loom.

The yarn for the weft is wound off from the cops of the
jenny to the quills or fmall bobbins, which are to be put into
the fhuttle.

The loom for weaving broad-cloth has the fame parts as

the fimple loom defcribed in our article Weaving ; but it is

made very ftrong, to enable it to refift the ftrain of weaving

4 P 2 fuch

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

fuch broad and heavy cloth. The fly-fhuttle, invented by
John Kay in 1737, h now in general ufe ; it enables one
weaver to do the work, which formerly employed two men at
oppofite fides of the piece, to throw the (buttle from one to
the other, the width being greater than a man can reach.
The warp is wound on the yarn-beam, which is placed
in the loom, and the threads being drawn through the
heddles and the reed, and faftened to the cloth-beam, the
loom is ready for working, in the ufual manner of weaving
plain cloth. At each edge of the warp a few threads
of ftrong and coarfe yarn are placed ; thefe form what
are called the lifts when the cloth is woven, and ferve to
give ftrength to the cloth, and receive the hooks by which
the piece is ftretched in the tenters after milling.

The width of the cloth is meafured between the lifts and
the number of yarns, which we have fpecified will make 1 00
inches in width for the double drab-cloth, or for common
cloth 3000 threads will make a piece 103A inches wide.
The quantity of weft ufed for thefe cloths is upon an average
one pound weight to a yard in length. The length of the
warp contraas a little in the weaving, fo that the fixty-five
yards of yarns will make only fixty-two yards of cloth.

Scouring. The piece of cloth muft be cleanfed from the

greafinefs of the oil before it can be felted ; for this pur-
pofe, it is firft foaked three hours in a mixture of urine and
pig's dung, it is then fcoured in the mill for two hours, and
Mly, for half an hour with fair water. The fcouring is
performed at the fulling-mill by a pair of ftocks. (See
TvLLiVG-Mill. ) The pair of ftocks are two large wooden
hammers, fufpended with the helves or handles in an inclined
pofition, and the heads are lifted in fucceffion by cogs or
tappets, fixed on the axis of a water-wheel. When the cogs
quit the hammers, they fall by their own weight, and ftrike
the piece of cloth, which is contained in a wooden ciftern or
trough, in which the hammers work. The aftion of the
hammers is to beat and comprefs the folds of cloth, and to
turn the piece continually round in the trough or ciftern in
which it is placed. The form of the trough is fuch, that
the weight of the piece of cloth caufes it to occupy the
lower part of the trough, and each hammer when it de-
fcends drives the cloth ont from this loweft part, and forces
it up a curved fweep. When the hammer is lifted up, the
cloth falls again into the fpace wliich it before occupied,
and at the fubfequent defcent of the hammer it is again
driven out ; the heap of cloth is of a confiderable bulk,
and this aftion of the hammers is chiefly on the lower part of
the heap ; the beaks of the hammers ftrike nearly hori-
zontally under it, as it were to undermine the heap, fo
that the top part falls over when the hammers retreat.
This aftion caufes a continual circulation or turning round
of the piece of cloth within the trough, and effefts the
fcouring, by continually bending and folding the cloth in a
frefti direftion ; and as the ftrokes aft upon a great number
of folds 'o.t once, the different furfaces of the cloth are caufed
to rub a^ainft each other, with a very ilmilar aftion to
waftiing cloth by hand.

When the fcouring is finiftied, the piece of cloth is taken
out, and extended in a vertical plane, in a frame called the
tenter, where it remains till dry.

The tenter confifts of a number of vertical pofts fixed in
the ground with a continued horizontal rail, which is fixed on
the top of them, and is as long as the piece of cloth ; there
is alfo another line of horizontal rails, which are fitted be-
tween tlie upright pofts, fo as to Aide freely up and down ;
and tliey ean be fixed at any diftance beneath the upper
rails by means of pins in the pofts, according to the width
of the piece of cloth. Both the upper and lower horizon-

3

tal rails are driven full of tenter-hooks, which are fmall iron
rails ftiarpened at both ends, and bent at right angles, like an
L ; on thefe hooks the lifts of the cloth are faftened, and
the lower or moveable rails are fixed at the proper diftance
beneath the upper rails, in order to extend the cloth to its
full width.

Burling. — The cloth being dried is burled, that is,
examined minutely in every part, and all knots and uneven
threads or ftraws, or extraneous matters, removed ; any rents
or defefts which can be found are repaired, by introducing
frefti threads. This being done before the milling or felt-
ing, the fibres of the new threads will become fo entangled
as to render fuch defefts nearly imperceptible in the finilhed
cloth.

Fulling- Mill for felting the Cloth. — There is another kind of
ftocks in a fulling-mill ; but the ftiape of the trough in which
the ftocks or hammers work on the cloth is different from that
defcribed in the article FvhLliiG-Mill, which is only proper
for fcouring. In order to fubjeft the cloth to the blows
of the hammers, the trough for milhng is formed in fuch a
manner that the cloth cannot efcape from them, becaufe
that part of the trough which is oppofed to the bgaks of
the hammers is nearly a flat furface, and perpendicular to
the direftion in which the hammers ftrike, fo that the cloth
is aftually beaten between the beaks of the hammers and
the flat bottom or rather fide of the trough.

The hammers are made to ftrike very heavy blows ; but
they do not bruife or injure the cloth, becaufe there is
always a great number of folds of cloth on which they
ftrike. The helves or handles of the hammers are placed
in a different pofition from the fcouring-ftocks, in order to
make the hammer-heads fall in a more perpendicular direftion
when they make their ftroke, and hence they ftrike with
more force. On this account they are called falling-ftoeks,
whilft thofe ufed for fcouring are called hanging-ftocks,
in which the helves of the hammers being nearer to the per-
pendicular, the heads move in a more horizontal direftion,
in the manner of a pendulum, and exert lefs force on the cloth ;
the other difference is, that the hammers of the fcouring-
ftocks only drive the heap of cloth round in the trough,
there being no part direftly oppofed to the beaks of the
hammers but a fair curve, which is fo much inclined to the
direftion in which the hammers move, that the cloth mounts
up the inclined curve when the hammer ftrikes, and evades
the direft force of the blow.

There is another kind of fuUing-ftocks, in which the
trough and hammer are conftrufted with a view to mill or
felt the cloth ; but the hammers are put in motion in a
different manner : thus the helves are fufpended in a vertical
pofition, like pendulums, and the force of the cogs on the
horizontal Ihaft, which is turned by the water-wheel, is
applied to drive the hammers forwards againft the cloth, and
produce the felting. To return or draw back the hammers,
a chain is attached to each, and thefe chains are hnked to
the oppofite ends of an horizontal lever, hke a fcale-beam,
which is fixed in front of the ftocks. This lever and chains
draw back one hammer when the other is pufhed forwards ;
and as the hammers are aftuated alternately by the cogs,
a conftant aftion is kept up.

The moft fimple fulling-mill by a water-wheel has no other
wheels, but the tappets or cogs which lift the hammers are
fixed immediately into the axis of the water-wheel, and it
ufually gives motion to two pair, one at each fide of the
wheel. It rarely happens that this conftruftion of a mill
allows the water to be uled to the greateft advantage, be-
caufe the circumference of a water-wheel fhould not move
with a greater velocity than between 180 and 240 feet per

minute ;

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

minute ; and the hammers of a fulling-mill fhould be fo timed,
that each one will make from about 30 to 36 blows per
minute. This requires that the coga for the hammers fhould
be numerous, and fixed in the circumference of a large wheel
fixed on the axis of the water-wheel, otherwife the water-wheel
mull be made to turn fo quickly as to lofe a great part of
its force. A better way is to apply a cog-wheel on the axis
of the water-wheel to turn a pinion on the horizontal (haft,
which carries the cogs for the hammers, and this horizontal
fliaft may have a fly-wheel upon it, to regulate the motion
and render it uniform.

Mr. Smeaton's proportions for a fulling-mill for two pair of
ftocks were as follows : — The water-wheel, 14 feet diameter,
7 feet broad ; it was a breaft-wheel, and the fall of the water
was five feet from the furface of the mill-pond to the tail-
water below. The fpur-wheel on the axis of the water-
wheel 72 cogs, and 9^ feet diameter ; the lantern turned by
It Z3 rounds. Upon the fame ftiaft as this lantern was a fly-
wheel of eight feet diameter, with a rim of caft-iron feven
inches fquare, and alfo the two cogs or tappets for each of
the four hammers forming two pair of ilocks. The fame
mill was adapted to be turned by the power of horfes in dry
feafons ; for this purpofe, another lantern of 13 teeth was
applied on the other end of the fame horizontal axis, which
could be occafionally turned by a horizontal cog-wheel of
90 teeth and 1 2 feet diameter, fixed on the vertical fhaft,
which the horfes turned. The levers by which the horfes
drew were 15 feet loiu^, fo that the horfes' track was 30
feet diameter.

It required four horfes to work one pair of ftocks in this
mill, and when Mr. Smeaton tried the expenditure of water
at this mill, and alfo at another mill with an overfhot-wheel,
he found it required from 1200 to 1400 cubic feet of water
pir minute, falling one foot, to work a pair of ftocks. Taking
the force of a horfe at 352 cubic feet per minute raifed
one foot, this is very nearly equal to four horfes. Thefe
ilocks were ufed for fulling of bays, and we apprehend the
power for working the fulling-mills for broad-cloth is
greater. •

Procefs of Milling. — A piece of cloth of fixty-two yards
long has fix pounds of foap allowed for it, which is diflblved
in water, and a handful fpread upon every yard in length ;
ihe piece is then put into the trough of the mill, and worked
for three hours ; during this time the cloth is frequently
moved in the trough, to expofe frefti furfaces to the aftion
of the hammers. The blows upon the cloth caufe a motion
of the fibres of the wool amongft one another, and the foap
facihtates this motion ; the fibres of the wool have the An-
gular property of moving always forwards in the direftion
of the roots of the hairs, when a number of hairs are rubbed
or worked together, but they will not retreat in the oppofite
direftion ; this produces the matting or entangling of all the
fibres together. After three hours milling, the piece of cloth
is taken out of the trough, and foaped again, then returned
and milled again for three hours. This is repeated four
times, making twelve hours milling in the whole, and then
a ftream of fair water is admitted into the trough, to wafti
away the foap. The piece of cloth, when taken out of the
mill the laft time, is generally found reduced to about 60
inches broad, and 40 yards in length ; before the operation, it
was 100 inches broad, and 62 yards in length.

The operation of felting is fo well explained by
M. Monge, in the Annales de Chimie, that v^e think proper
to give an extraft from his memoir, in addition to what is
ftated in our articles Felting, Fulling, and Wool.

If we examine a human hair, a fibre of wool, or the hair
of a rabbit, hare, beaver, &c. in a microfcope of the grcateft

magnifying power, the furface of each hair appears fmooth
and even ; or at leaft if any inequalities are perceptible,
they feem rather to arife from fome difference in the colour
ai'.d tranfparency of particular parts of the fibres than from
the irregularity of their furfaces ; for their images, when
viewed by a folar microfcope, are terminated by even lines,
without any roughnefs. Neverthelefs it ia probable the fur-
faces of thefe objefts are formed either of lamina, which
cover each other from the root to the point, much in the
fame manner as the fcales of a fifh cover the animal from
the head to the tail ; or ftill more probably of zones placed
one over the other, like what is obferved in the ftrufture of
horns ; to this conformation it is, that fuch fubftances owe
their difpofition to what is called felting.

If with one hand we take hold of a hair by the roots, and
draw it between two fingers of the other from the root
towards the point, we are hardly fenfible of any friftion or
refiftance, nor can we diftinguifti any found ; but if, on the
contrary, we draw it between the fingers from the point
towards the root, we are fenfible of a refiftance which did
not exift in the former cafe. A fort of tremulous motion is
alfo produced, which is not only perceptible to the touch,
but may alfo be diftinguilhed by the ear.

It is evident, therefore, that the texture of the furface of
a hair is not the fame from the root towards the point, as
from the point towards the root. As this texture is the
principal objeft of the prefent memoir, it is necefl^ary to
demonftrate it by fome other obfervations.

If a hair is held between the fore-finger and thumb, and
rubbed by them backwards and forwards alternately in the
direftion of its length, a progreflive motion of the hair will
take place ; but this motion is always with the root for-
wards, although the rubbing of the finger and thumb is
alternately in both direftions. This efFeft does not at all
depend on the nature of the Ikln of the fingers, or its tex-
ture ; for if the hair be turned, fo that the point is placed
where the root was, the movement then becomes con-
trary, viz. its motion is always direfted towards the root.

What is obferved in the above inftance is entirely analo-
gous to what happens when country children, by way of
fport, introduce an ear of rye between the wrift and the
ihirt-fleeve ; the points of the beards of the ear are direfted
outwards, and by the various motions of the arm, this ear,
fometimes catching againftt he (hirt,fometimesagainft the flcin,
takes a progreflive motion backwards, but the beards always
refift its return, fo that it foon gets up to the arm-pit. It
is very clear, that this effeft is produced by the afperities
upon thefe beards, which being all direfted towards the
point, do not permit the ear to move in any other direftion
than towards that part which was united to the ftalk.
There can be no doubt that it is the fame with refpeft to
hair, and that its furface is befet with afperities, which being
laid one upon the other and turned towards the point refill
all motion, except towards the root.

Thefe obfervations, which it would be ufelefs to multi-
ply, relate to long hair, which have been taken as examples ;
but they apply with equal propriety to wool, furs, and in
general to every kind of animal hair. The furface of all
thefe is, therefore, to be confidered as compofed of hard
lamelU placed one upon another, like tiles, from the root to
the point ; which lamelU allow the progreflive motion of
the hair towards the root, but prevent a fimilar motion
towards the point.

From what has been faid, it will be eafy to explain why
the contaft of woollen ftuffs is rough to the ikin, while that
of cotton or hnen cloths is fmooth ; the reafon is, that not-
withftanding the flcxibifity of each particular fibre, the af-
perities

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

perities upon the furface of the fibres of the wool, by fixing
themfelves in the fltin, produce a difagreeable fenfation, at
lead till we are accuftomed to it ; whereas the furface of
the fibres of hemp or flax, of which linen is made, being
perfeAly fmooth, do not caufe any fuch fenfation. It is
alfo probable, that the injury arifing to wounds or fores
from the application of wool does not proceed fo much
from any chemical properties, but is occafioned folely by
the form of the furface of the fibres, the afperities
of which attach themfelves to the raw and expofed flefh,
which they ftimulate and irritate to fuch a degree as to pro-
duce inflammation.

The afperities with which the furface of wool is every
where furrounded, and the difpofition which it has to affume
a progrellive motion towards the root, renders the fpinning
of wool and making it into cloth difficult operations. In
order to fpin wool and afterwards to weave it, we are
obliged to cover its fibres with a coating of oil, which,
filling up the cavities, renders the afperities lefs fenfible ; in
the fame way as oil, when rubbed upon the furface of a very
fine file, renders it ftill lefs rough.

When a piece of cloth is finifhed it muft. be cleanfed
from this oil, which, befides giving it a difagreeable fmell,
would caufe it to foil whatever it came in contaft with, and
would prevent its taking the colour which is intended to be
given to it by the dyer. To deprive it of the oil it is
fcoured at the fulling-mill, by working it with hammers in
a trough full of water or urine, in which fuUer's-earth is
fometimes mixed. This earth combines with the oil which
it feparates from the cloth, and both together are waflied
away by the frefh water, which is afterwards brought to it
in the machine. Thus after a certain time the oil is entirely
waftied out of the cloth.

The fulling, which fucceeds the fcouring of the cloth,
is aided by the application of the foap. The alternate
preffure given by the hammers to the piece of cloth, efpe-
cially when the milling is pretty far advanced, occafions an
effeft analogous to that which is produced upon hats by the
hands of the hatter ; the fibres of wool which compofe one
of the threads, whether of the warp or the weft, aflume a
progreflive movement with their roots forwards, and intro-
duce themfelves among the fibres of the threads neareft to
them, then into thofe which follow ; and thus by degrees all
the threads, both of the warp and the woof, become felted
together. The cloth, having by the above means become
(hortened in all its dimenfions, and thickened in its fub-
ftance, partakes both of the nature of cloth and of that of
felt ; for at the fame time that the threads give it confider-
able ftrength, it may be cut without being fubjeft to ravel,
and on that account we are not obliged to hem the edges of
the pieces of which wearing apparel is made. Laftly, as
the threads of the warp and thofe of the weft are no longer
fo diftinft and feparated from each other as to leave inter-
ftices between them, the cloth forms a warmer clothing, in-
dependently of its having acquired a greater degree of thick-
nefs. Knit worfted is alfo rendered lefs apt to run, in cafe
a ftitch fliould drop, by the operation of fulling.

Tenler'tng. — When the milling is fini(hed, the cloth is
ftretched again on the tenter. It is ufual to extend the
piece to forty-two yards in length, but not at all in breadth ;
indeed only one inch of extenfion in each yai-d is allowed by
law. The cloth remains in the open air until it is perfeAly
dry and ready for the fucceeding operations of finifhing,
which are only intended to give it a beautiful furface, for it
already poflefles all the ufeful qualities of cloth.

Drejfmg the Cloth -with Teafeh. — This operation is to raife
up the nap or loofe fibres on the furface of the cloth, by

fcratching it over with a fpecies of thiftles called teafels,
in order to form a wool on the furface, which can be
removed by {hearing. The teafels are the balls or ears which
contain the feed of the plant called dipfacus fuUonum ; the
fcales which form the ball projeft on all fides, and are
terminated with (harp points, which turn downwards, like
hooks, and are very elaftic. See Teasel.

A number of teafels are put into a fmall frame, which is
compofed of a handle eight or ten inches long, having a
fmall ftick pafled through it at one end about eight inches
long, which is fplit into two at each end nearly all its length, j
There is alfo another fimilar ftick, which is pafled through
the handle near the middle of its length ; the two fplit fticks
are perpendicular to the ftem or handle, and parallel to each
other. The fpace between them is filled with teafels, which
are jambed in very fail between them, and alfo in the clefts
of the fplit fticks, where they are fecured by ftrings extended
between the ends of the fpUt fticks, and twifted, until they
draw the fticks forcibly together, and bind the teafels very
faft. This frame filled with teafels forms a tool, which very
much refembles the curry-comb ufed to clean horfes, and is
ufed in a fimilar manner, to fcratch over the whole furface
of the cloth, and draw out all loofe ends of the fibres of the
wool, which are not firmly confined by the entanglement of
the felting.

The drefling is performed by two men, who hold the
teafel-frame by its handle, and work the cloth, when it is
hung up in a vertical pofition over two rails fixed to the
ceihng ; when they have worked over as much furface as
they can reach, they draw down afrefli portion, which they
work in turn, and thus proceed until they have finiflied the
whole piece. The firft time the cloth is drefled it is wetted
with water ; it is worked three times over in the wet ftate,
by ftrokes in the direftion of the length of the piece, and
then it is worked again three times in the other direftion ; by
this means all the fibres are raifed, and the cloth is prepared
for ftiearing.

In the moft improved manufaftories, the drefling is per-
formed by the gig or gig-mill. This is a cyhnder covered
on its furface with teafels, and turned rapidly round whilft
the cloth is drawn over it.

The Gig-mill is reprefented in perfpeftive in Plate V.
Woollen ManufaBure. M is the wood frame of the machine ;
F F is the cylinder or drum, which is compofed of 1 2 rails
or troughs, filled with teafels F F, 3,4, &c. Thefe are
fattened on the circumference of two or three wheels fixed
upon a wooden axis 7 ; the drum is put in motion by a
pulley E D at one end of its axis, which receives an end-
lefs ftrap, 2, from the drum C, fituated above the machine.
There are two pulleys, E and D, one fixed faft on the axis,
and the other fitted on loofely, with liberty to turn round
freely upon it ; the ftrap can be fhifted to either pulley, and
accordingly the machine will be put in motion, or will ftand
ftill.

The drum C is fixed on one end of an iron (haft i, which
is put in motion by a bevelled wheel B, from the larger
wheel A, fixed on the great horizontal fliaft, which proceeds
the whole length of the mill. The drum, F F, covered
with teafels, is mounted on bearings fupported by the frame,
and the piece of cloth G iscondufted over it, to receive the
aftion of the teafels ; one end of the piece of cloth is wound
round a roller J, and the other end of the piece is wound on
the roller L ; both thefe rollers are put in motion from a
bevelled wheel 6, fixed on the extremity of the axis of the
drum ; this turns a wheel H upon an inclined axis, which
has a pinion at each end ; one of thefe pinions, 9, turns a
bevelled wheel, K, on the end of the axle of the upper

roller

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

roller L ; and the other, 8, turns' the wheel I belonging to the
Tower roller J. By means of this wheel-work both rollers
are turned round in the proper direftion, to make the upper
roller L wind up or draw the cloth, whilft the lower roller
unwinds and gives out the cloth. N is a pipe? which con-
veys water to the machine ; it is pierced with a number of
holes to throw jets of water on the cloth, and wet it.

As fad as the cloth is taken up by the roller L, it is
given out by the other roller J, and is then drawn over the
furface of the cylinder, as at G, the teafels of which, as it
revolves, aft very effeftually on the cloth to raifc the nap.
When the whole piece has pafied, and is gathered up on the
roller L, the machine is ftopped, by (hifting the ftrap 2 to
the loofe pulley D, then the two rollers L, and J are ex-
changed, and the operation is repeated as before, and fo on
till the nap is fufficiently raifed.

The mode of repeating the aftion on the cloth by ex-
changing the rollers is troublefome, and a better mode is to
provide the means of difengaging either of the wheels K or
I from its refpeftive pinion, makuig the machine fo that only
one wheel and pinion can be engaged at once ; alfo to make
the motions in fuch direftion that the roller which is engaged
Ihall always wind up the cloth upon itfelf. Each roller
muft have a fmall wheel upon one end of it, as (hewn at lo,
I with a lever and weight 1 1, to prefs upon the circumference of
the wheel with fuch force as to occafion a friftion, and make
! the cloth draw tight when it is drawn off the roller. In this
'i way, the cloth can be made to work either backwards or for-
li wards ; becaufe that roller which is engaged with the wheel-
;i work will wind up the cloth, and draw it off from the other
' roller acrofs the drum ; but when all the cloth is wound off,
; that roller which has taken the cloth muft be difengaged,
and the other put in aftion, which will make the cloth work
back again.
', The moft improved gig-mills ufed in Yorkftiire have a
, ftill better method of moving the cloth. This is by means
' of a pair of rollers in the place of the upper roller L : they
are turned round by a large fpur-wheel on the end of the
roller, which works in a fmaller wheel on the end of the
; drum ; one roller is mounted over the other, like the two
rollers of a flatting-mill, and prefled together by fcrews
with fufficient force to draw the cloth between them. The
I piece of cloth, when brought to the machine, is laid down
I on a board on the ground before the machine, and one end
I is paffed under the roller J, which is merely to guide it ;
; then it is carried over the drum, as at G, and introduced
i between the pair of rollers at L, which draw it llowly for-
' wards ; from thefe the cloth turns upwards, and is extended
horizontally over two rollers which are fufpended from the
^ ceiling. After quitting thefe rollers, it defcends perpendi-
. cularly, and is gathered on the ground in folds on a board
I or bench, clofe to the place where the piece of cloth was
1 laid before the drefGng was begun. In order to make the
! piece of cloth pafs a fecond time through the machine, or
I a8 many times as is required, the two ends of it are fewed
) together, fo that it circulates continually over the drum
I without any interruption or trouble : it is ufually done three
I or four times.

It is an advantage of this method, that the cloth, in
\ defcending from the ceiling, hangs perpendicularly, and
j with that fide which has been dreffed oppofite to the light,
J fo that the workman who gathers it in folds can examine
1 the progrefs of the work ; and when he judges that the
I cloth is fufficiently dreffed, he cuts the fewing which unites
j the two ends together, and then the end of the piece comes
I out of the machine, and the cloth is carried away to give
I place to another piece.

i

The drum or cylinder of the gig-mill is compofed of a
number of Ihallow troughs, fixed on the circumference of
the wheels of the drum, and parallel to its axis : into thefe
troughs, frames filled with teafels, like thofe we have before
defcribed, are faftened in a very fimple manner; and the
frames are placed fo clofe together, that the trough is wholly
filled, and forms a continuous furface of teafels to aft upon
the cloth when the cyhnder revolves. When the hooks of
the teafels become filled with flocks or fibres of wool, which
they have drawn out from the cloth, they are removed from
the cylinder, in order to be cleaned by cliildren, who pick
out the flocks with a fmall fteel comb.

The teafels are cultivated very largely in the clothing
countries ; but it fometimes happens, in particular feafons,
that the crops fail, and they are then very dear. This has
produced many trials of metallic teeth as fubftitutes for
teafels. Mr. Price of Stroud, in Gloucefterlhire, has two
patents, dated 1807 and 1817, for this objeft ; Mr. Laffalle
of Briftol took a patent in 18 16, Mr. Williams of Furfley in
1817, and Meffrs. Lewis of Brinfcomb in 1817. We are
not informed if any of thefe inventions are yet brought into
real ufe in the manufafturing diftrift.

Shearing or Cropping the Cloth By the operation of the

teafels, the wool is become raifed all over the furface of the
cloth in a loofe fur, which muft be removed by {hearing
before the cloth will be fit for wearing, becaufe the fur
would gather dirt and duft, and would wear very un-
equally.

The fliears ufed for cropping by hand are the fame aa thofe

ufed in the common ftiearing-machine, and are reprefented at

E, E, in Plate III. Woollen Manufadure. The clothier's

ftiears confift of two very large flat blades of fteel, united

together by a ftem of fteel, which is bent into a circular

bow, and is fufficiently flexible to allow one of the blades

to be moved upon the other, in order to make them cut.

Both blades are ground to fliarp and ftraight edges, which

apply one to the other, but the blades are not in parallel

planes like fciffars, for one of the blades is laid quite flat

upon the cloth, and the plane of the other blade will then be

inclined to the cloth at about an angle of 45 degrees, as is

ftiewn in Plate III. The cutting-edge of this inchned

blade bears upon the furface of the flat blade, and the

fpring of the bow is fo fet, as to prefs the two edges always

in contaft. The lines of the edges of the two blades are

not parallel to each other, but inclined, fo that the edge of

the upper blade croffes the edge of the lower blade, and

bears upon the flat furface of that blade, at the end neareft

to the bow, whilft the other end of the edge of the upper

blade is removed over the edge of the lower blade, thus

leaving an interval between the two edges, when the fliears

are open, as is plainly fhewn in the figure. In this Hate,

the ftiears being open, if the lower blade is laid flat upon the

furface of the cloth, the nap or wool, which is to be removed

by the cropping, will ftand up above the edge of the lower

blade, in the interval between the two edges ; then if the

blades be forced together, the edge of the upper blade will

pafs or crofs over that of the lower, and cut away all the

wool which projefts above the edge of the lower blade.

The contaft of the cutting-edges begins at the end neareft

to the bow, and proceeds regularly to the other, becaufe, as

before mentioned, the edges are not parallel to each other.

The blades open or return to their former pofition by the

elafticity of the bow, but in order to make the cut they are

clofed by means of a handle or lever 10, which is fitted or

lodged on a round part of the ftem of the bow, fo as to

play thereupon as upon a centre of motion. A double cord

is made faft to the lever or handle near to this centre, and

the

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

the other end of the cord is faftened to a block of wood,
whioh is fcrewed to the flat of the lower blade, and rifes up
to a proper height. By deprefling this handle, the (hears
are clofed, and make their cut with the greateft facility,
the elafticity of the bow returning the handle.

The manner of cropping with thefe (hears is as follows : —
The piece of cloth is laid down in folds upon a plank or low
bench placed on the ground, and the end is drawn acrofs a
table or bench, which is covered with cloth, and ftufFed with
horfe-hair, like a cu(hion. The cloth is ftretched out flat
upon the furface of the table, and is retained by hooks and
weights. Two workmen are employed to (hear a piece of
cloth ; they place the lower blades of their (hears fiat on the
furface of the cloth, with the line of the edge in the direc-
tion of the length of the piece ; one of the (hears is laid on
the edge or lift of the cloth, and the other exaftly in the
middle of the breadth of the cloth. The bows and ftems
of the (hears projeft over the edge of the table, and the
workmen place themfelves at that edge. Each man guides
the fliears with his left-hand, and makes the cut with his
right. To hold the (hears by, a ftiort (lafF is la{hed to the
bow of the (hears, and fecured by a ftay to the lower blade ;
its direftion is nearly parallel to the back edge of the upper
blade. The workman puts his arm through the bow as far
as the elbow-joint, then lays the fore-arm flat againil the
ftaff, which he grafps with the hand ; and in this way he has
• great command of the (hears, leaving the right-hand at
liberty to work the handle which clofes the (hears. This
handle is moved backwards and forwards with great rapidity,
to make cuts or chps on the cloth, and between every cut
the lower blade is moved a fmall fpace on the cloth, to cut
in a fre(h part.

The art of fliearing confifts in moving the (hears with
great regularity and parallelifm, fo that every part of the
furface (hall be equally cropped. The clofenefs with which
the (hears cut is regulated by weights laid upon the flat of
the lower blade ; thefe prefs the blade down into the foft
cufltion on which the cloth is fpread, fo that the fur will
ftand up more above the edge of the blade.

As the two (hearers advance in their work, their (hears
proceed acrofs the breadth of the piece of cloth, and when
the man who began in the middle has worked to the lift of
the cloth, the other who began at the lift will have worked
to the middle, where the firft began ; the whole breadth is
now (horn, and they remove the (hears, and draw the piece
of cloth forwards acrofs the table, to obtain a frefh furface
to work upon.

For (hearing common cloth, it is cut wet the firft time,
then it is dre(ied again with teafels, dried on the tenter, and
cut again in a dry ftate three times over.

Shearing-Frame. — The moft common machine ufed in
York(hire is only applied to give motion to the fame kind
of (heairs as are ufed for cropping by hand, and is ufually
called the (hearing-frame. At the fide of the table or cu(hion
on which the cloth is fpread, a long ftool is placed, having
grooves at the edges to guide the wheels of a carriage, to
which the (hears are affixed by their bows. There is a
carriage for each pair of (hears, and they are flowly and
gradually moved along the ftool, by a cord which winds
upon a roller turned by wheel-work ; and at the fame time,
the handles of the (hears are continually pulled by a cord
conneAed with a fmall crank, which turns round very ra-
pidly. The diredion of the cuts is the lengthways of the
piece of cloth, and the two pair of (hears advance acrofs
the breadth of the piece until a whole breadth is cut ; the
machine is then (lopped, the (hears removed, and the piece
of cloth (hifted upon the table. Thefe (hearing-frames

operate very well, but require great care and attention to
make the different cuttings join, in order to cut equally over
the whole furface.

The machine invented by Mr. Harmar of Sheffield was
of this defcription ; his firft patent was in 1787, and another
in 1 794. At one period his machines were in general ufe,
but the prefent (hearing-frames, although of the fame kind,
are very much fimplified, and work equally well.

y1 perpetual Shearing- Machine is reprefented in Plate III.
Woollen ManuJaSure ; it is ufed in the weft of England, and is
beft adapted for narrow cloths. The (hears lay croffwife over
the piece, which is drawn regularly beneath the (hears in the
direftion of its length without any interruptions ; hence it is
called a perpetual (hearing-machine.

The (hears, E E, are the fame as what we have already
defcribed. Each pair is fattened acrofs the frame by means
of a piece of vifood, to which the lower blade of the (hears
are fcrewed ; immediately beneath this blade is the cu(hion
to bear the cloth, which paffes between the blade and the
cufhion. The piece of cloth is wound round the roller C,
upon the end of which is a wheel N, and a lever M, which
bears up againft the lower part of this whetl with fo much
friftion as to make the cloth ftrain tight in drawing off from
the roller. The cloth firft pafTes uvur a rail B, from which
it proceeds in an horizontal direftion benfath the two pair
of (hears E E, then turns over another rail at the other end
of the frame, and defcends to a roller D, which is turned
flowly round by the machinery, in order to wind up the
cloth.

The machine is put in motion by the endlefs ftrap round
the drum F upon a (haft, which proceeds all the length of
the mill. The ftrap turns the pulley G upon the end of
the fmall horizontal fpindle H : in this fpindle two cranks
are formed at a and b, which are conneAed, by wires 7
and 8, with the handles 9 and 10 of the (hears E, fo as to
give them a continual motion, and make a cut of each pair
of (hears every time the fpindle H makes a turn. The mo-
tion of the machine can be ftopped by releafing the lever P,
on which the bearing of the fpindle is fcrewed : when the
lever P is depre(red, and kept down by the catch, as repre-
fented in the drawing, the endlefs ftrap is drawn tight, fo
as to turn the fpindle ; but if the catch is removed, and the
lever raifed up, the ftrap becomes loofe, and flips round
upon the pulley without turning it. A fmall pulley is
fixed upon the fpindle at I, to receive an endlefs ftr^p
which palTes round a larger wheel J. Upon the fame axis
with this are three other pulleys of difierent diameters,
which receive a ftrap 2, and give motion to three fimilar
pulleys fixed upon a fpindle 3 : the latter fpindle has a
pinion on the end of it, which works a bevelled wheel fixed
on the end of the roller D, and thus it is turned (lowly
round. The three pulleys on the fpindles 3 and J are
placed reverfed to each other, that is, the fmalleft pulley
on one is oppofite to the largeft on the other ; by this
means, the fame ftrap 2 may be (hifted, and will work on
any of the three pair of pulleys, but each one will com.
municate a different degree of movement to the roller D,
and confequently to the cloth, fo as to draw it quicker or
flower, and make the fucceffive cuts of the fliears at a greater
or lefs diftance afunder at pleafure.

The cuftiions which bear up the cloth againft the (hears
are moveable on centres of motion, and are capable of being
raifed or lowered. When they are lowered down, the cloth
can be readily introduced beneath the lower blades of the
(hears ; and when raifed up, they prefs the cloth up to the
(hears, and the force of this prelTure can be regulated by
turning a fmall handle. In many machines this motion is

applied

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

applied to the (hears themfelves, inllead of to the culhion or
l>ed, and is much more convenient.

The perpetual machines anfwer very well for lliearing
narrow cloth, when the (hears can cut at once acrofs the
whole breadth ; and then as the two (hears E work in fuc-
celfion over the fame furface, they crop the cloth twice over
in pafTmg once through the machine. It has been attempted
to (hear wide cloths in this machine, by making one pair of
(hears take one half the breadth, and the othei- pair the
other half ; but it is very difficult to draw a wide piece of
cloth fo evenly over the culhions, as to keep it ftretched to
the full breadth without any wrinkles in the lengthways of
the piece ; and if there are any fuch wrinkles, the cloth will
be cut very irregularly. In this particular, the firft
machines have the advantage, becaufe the cloth is ftretched
over the culhion by the workman with difcretion, and he
makes it tight before the cropping is begun.

There have been many patents for the improvements of
ihearing-machines. Mr. Buffington's, in 1804, '^ f*"" ^
method of ftretching or extending the cloth breadthways
whilft it is in the fliearing-frame. His plan is to attach
z narrow web of ftrong cloth to the lifts of the cloth, by
fewing or lacing ; the outer edge of this web is alfo fewed
to a cord or fmall rope, fo that the cloth becomes edged or
ibordered with ropes. Thefe ropes are condufted through
wholes or openings in the frame, which will fuffer the cloth
^nd ropes to be moved in the direftion of their length ; but
as the ropes cannot draw fideways out of thefe openmgs, the
cloth may be continually ftretched in its breadth. The
openings (hould have rollers to facilitate the motion of the
xopes.

Mr. Jofeph Fryer's patent (hearing-machine, dated 1802,
afts with three (hearing-blades, one long one, which extends
acrofs the breadth of the piece to form the lower or fixed
J}lade, and two other moveable blades of half the length,
which are jointed to the long blade at the two ends, and
are moveable thereon, fo as to cut in the manner of fciffar-
blades. The moveable blades are prelTed into contaS with
the edge of the fixed blade by fprings, and are put in motion
fcy means of two cranks upon an horizontal fpindle, fo that
the blades make their ftrokes or cuts alternately. The edge
of the lower blade is a ftraight line, but the edges of the
moveable blades are convex on the cutting fide, fo as to
eaufe them to interfeft the edge of the lower blade always
at the fame angle when they are wide open, as when they are
nearly clofed.

The piece of cloth is condufted over proper rollers, and
I wound up by one, which is turned round by the machine, fo
as to draw the piece of cloth from one end to the other
' with a (low and progrelTive motion. The cloth, when it is
' immediately beneath the edge of the long blade, is bent
' luddenly over a narrow ridge of metal, which is parallel
with the edge of the lower blade, but fo far diftant as to
i permit the cloth to pafs between them. This ridge of
; metal is capable of adjuftment by means of fcrews, and can
I be placed fo that the nap of the cloth will be (horn longer
' or (horter, as it is required.

In fome. cafes, efpecially in fini(hing broad-cloths, inftead
I of drawing the piece from end to end, it may be more con-
venient to caufe it, or part of it, to move under the (hearing-
j blades from lift to lift, or from one fide to the other. This
I will require a machine confiderably larger, though the fame
! blades will fufBce ; or it is found equally convenient to
;£aufe the blades, at the time they are cutting, to move over
'the cloth in any diredlion, but more efpecially from lift to
iM.

1 Mr. Fryer alfo contemplated the finifhing of the cloth
Vol. XXXVIII.

by the fame machine which performed the (hearing. Thus
after the cloth has undergone the operation of (hearing or
croppmg, m its pa(rage down to the cylinder on which it is
wound up. It is expofed to a current of fteam thrown out
froni a horizontal tube at a number of fmall apertures, fo as
tp give foftnefs and pliability to the cloth ; a brulhin'g cy-
linder is next made to move againft it, by which the re-
maining wool or fur is laid in one direftion. It then pafles
between two polilhed metal cylinders, which are made
hollow, and kept hot by the admilTion of fteam or other-
wife. Thefe occafion a great prelTure on the cloth, and
diflipate all the water imbibed from the fteam.

Rotatory Shearing-Machine — A very complete machine
for cropping cloth of any breadth was invented by Mr. Price,
of Stroud, in Gloucefterftiire, and for which he obtained a
patent in 18 15. This machine (hears or crops the cloth
acrofs the breadth, beginning at one end of the piece,
and continuing regularly to the other. For this pur-
pofe, the cloth is condufted through the machine by the
motion of rollers, and is drawn over a bed or fupport which
lies beneath the ftationary or fixed blade of the (hears or
croppers, (which anfwers to what is called the ledger-blade
in the common ftiears, ) fo that the cloth paffes between the
bed and the ftationary blade.

The moving blades of the (hears are fixed on the circum-
ference of a cylinder fituated above the fixed blade, with its
axis exaftly parallel thereto, and capable of revolving by the
power of machinery, fo that the edges of the moving blades
will be carried againft and pafTed over the edge of the fixed
blade, in order to cut away all the wool of the cloth which
rifes above the edge of the fixed blade. Several fuch moving
blades are fixed upon the fame cylinder, to aft in fucceffion
againft the fixed blade ; and thefe moving blades are placed
obliquely to the axis of the cylinder, or in fuch a manner
as to form portions of fpirals ; but as all parts of the
cutting edges are equidiftant from the axis of the cylinder,
it is manifeft, that in the revolution of the cylinder, every
part of each fpiral edge is brought in fuccelHon into
contaft with the fixed blade, fo that in its revolution it
crops off all the wool, which by the progrelfive motion of
the cloth over its bed is raifed up againft the fixed edge.
The edges of the moving blades are placed at fuch a degree
of obliquity to the axis of the cylinder, that at the wme
inftant the end of one ceafes to cut againft the edge of the
fixed blade, the following revolving blade will begin its
aftion at the other end of the cylinder ; therefore, by the
time that any one of the revolving edges has paffed over and
made its cut againft the whole length of the fixed blade, and
is ready to quit it, the fucceeding revolving edge is brought
into aftion, and when this has paffed, the next in fuccelEon
begins, fo as to keep up a continued aftioni

The cloth is ftretched in width by a contrivance which he
calls ftretching-bands, to prevent it getting into folds or
wrinkles, which would be injured by the (hears, or make
irregularities in the (hearing. Thefe ftretching-bands are
endlefs ftraps or bands, each of which is extended over
two wheels. The bands have (harp pins projefling from
them to prick into the lifts at the edges of the clpth, and
the bands being fo fituated that one of them lies exaftly
beneath each lift, they will be caufed to circulate round their
refpeftive wheels by the motion of the cloth. The llretth-
ing of the cloth is effefted by the pofition of the wheels on
which the bands circulate, the direftion of the band} being
flightly oblique to the lengthways of the cloth. The
endlefs ftraps are fo fitted into grooves or troughs, that they
are firmly retained to move ftraight forwards in their oblique
direftion ; and the direftion of the obliquity is fuch, that the
4 Q bands

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE,

bands are neareft together at that end where their pins take
hold of the lifts of the cloth ; but as the bands move for-
wards with the cloth, they recede from each other, and
extend the cloth in breadth in confequence of their obliquity,
which may be increafed or diminifhed as is found neceffary.
The aftual width between the two bands can alfo be re-
gulated according to the width of the piece of cloth.

It is not ufual to crop the lifts of the cloth, and indeed
as the lifts are ufually of thicker fubftance than the other
parts of the cloth, they would bear up the fixed blade too
high from the cloth to cut the nap quite clofe.

For this reafon, the bed or fupport on which the cloth is
cut is fo conftrufted, that it can be adapted in length to the
breadth of the piece of cloth between the lifts, in order that
the cloth only may be fupported or borne up to the edge
of the fixed blade ; whilft the lifts, being deprefled or borne
down below the level of the bed, (by thin flips of metal
called guards,) will efcape the aftion of cropping, and
thereby remain with the long wool upon their furfaces.
The bed by which the cloth is borne whilft it is cut is only
a narrow ridge of metal, over which it paftes, fo as to be
bent with a fudden curvature, and in this way, the nap
can be cut more clofe and even than upon a flat bed or foft
cufhion. The operation of cutting is facilitated by a row
of pieces of metal fcrewed to a ftrong bar, to form a ftraight
edge, very fimilar to the cutting edge of the fixed blade, but
thin and elaftic ; this edge is placed clofe to the elevated
ridge of the bed, and prefles the cloth gently down upon the
bed immediately before it comes to the edge of the fixed
blade, againft which the nap is to be cut off' ; this elaftic
edge being placed on one fide of the ridge, and the cutting
edge of the lower blade on the other fide, the cloth is only
expofed for a very narrow fpace juft where it comes to the
cutting edge. By this means, the cloth can with fafety be
brought nearer to a level with the upper furface of the
fixed blade, fo as to ftiear it clofer than could otherwife be
done without endangering the cloth.

The ends of the ridge part of the bed are compofed of a
number of narrow plates of metal, accurately fitted toge-
ther, and placed fide by fide in a mortife made in the end of
the foUd bed ; their upper ends projeft out of the mortife fo
as to line with the elevated ridge, and form a continuation
thereof; but there is a Hiding piece in the bottom of the
mortife on which they all bear, and the point of it is of a
wedge form. By removing this wedge, any number of
the moveable pieces may be let down, fo as to diminifli the
length of the elevated part of the bed at pleafure, according
to the breadth of the cloth. The whole of this machine is
very well contrived to effeft the defu-ed objeft j it will be
found fully defcribed with drawings in the Repertory of
Arts, vol. xxix. p. 65.

Prizing is an operation fometimes ufed in the finifliing of
woollen cloth : it confifts in rolling up and entangling the
fibres, which form the nap on the furface of the cloth into
fmall knots or burs, which cover near the whole furface, fo
that the cloth appears covered with fmall grains, which
almoft touch each other.

This operation is of no utility to the cloth, and it is diffi-
cult to fay for what reafon it was ever praftifed at all.
The French firft introduced it, and it was fo much the
faftiion many years ago, that no other cloth was thought
comparable in beauty. At prefent it is but little ufed, ex-
cept for foreign markets, where our cloth meets the French
cloth, which is ftill prepared in this manner, but generally
on the back-fide of the cloth only.

The friring is done by a fimple machine, in which the
cloth is drawn acrofs a narrow table by means of rollers,
II

to give it a very flow progreffive motion. The table is
covered with a coarfe ftrong cloth, and over the table is
placed a heavy plank of wood, of the fame fize as the table.
The lower fide of this plank, which bears upon the cloth,
is covered with an artificial ftone, compofed of coarfe fand,
which is ftuck together into a fohd mafs by glue or other
cement, and a fmall but rapid reciprocating motion is given
to the plank by means of two cranks of very fmall radius.
Thefe cranks are formed at the tops of two vertical
fpindles, the upper ends of which are fitted in fockets at the
ends of the fixed table, and the ends which projeft up a few
inches above the furface of the table are received into
fockets formed in each end of the moveable plank. The
projefting parts of the fpindles are not in ftraight lines
with thofe parts which are fitted in the fixed collars at the
ends of the table, but are flightly cranked ; hence, if the
fpindles are turned round, they muft communicate motion
to the plank, and Aide it over the cloth backwards and for-
wards ; or rather they move it with a circular motion, caufing
every point and grain of fand cemented to the plank to
defcribe a fmall circle upon the cloth. It is this aftion
which gathers together the fibres of the nap, and entangles
them into knots or grains, as before mentioned.

To put the two fpindles in motion, each one has a trundle
or lantern fixed on the middle part of it, and the lower end
is received in a ftationary focket. Thefe lanterns are turned
round by the teeth of two face-wheels, fixed upon an
horizontal axis, which lies beneath the machine. By this
means, both the fpindles and cranks are turned round at
the fame time, and with a very rapid motion. The rollers
which draw the cloth forwards are turned round flowly by
a communication of wheel-work, and draw the piece of
cloth through the machine, that is, acrofs the frizing-table,
fo that every part is in turn fubjefted to the aftion of the
fand cemented to the plank. The nap muft be left long
for that cloth which is intended to be frized, and the
operation is repeated twice or three times. See fome fur-
ther particulars in our article Frizing, vol. xv.

Brujhing After being (horn for the laft time, the cloth

is bruihed all over, to remove the loofe cuttings. This
operation is now commonly performed by a machine which
has two horizontal drums, or cylinders, covered with hair-
brufties on the circumference. The piece of cloth is con-
dufted over a fyftem of rollers to extend it and draw it
flowly forwards : it is condufted over one of the brufliing-
cylinders, and under the other ; and as they are kept in
rapid motion by the machine, they brufli over both fides
of the cloth at the fame time, and lay all the fibres one way.

PreJJing. — This is the laft finifli to the cloth, and gives
it a fmooth and even furface. The piece of cloth is folded
backwards and forwards at every yard, fo as to form a pack
on the board of a fcrew-prefs ; and between every fold
ftieets of glazed paper are placed, fo that no part of the
furfaces of the cloth can come in contaA ; alio at every
twenty yards three hot iron plates are put in between the
folds, the plates being laid fide by fide, lo that they occupy
the whole furface of the folds ; and thin iron plates, which
are not heated, are alfo put above and below the hot plates
to moderate the heat. When the pack of cloth is pro-
perly folded, and the prefs contains a proper quantity, the
fcrew is forced down to give a very fevere prelTure to the
pack. The cloth remains in the prefs until the plates are
quite cold ; it is then taken out and folded again, fo that
the creafes of the former folds will come oppofite to the
furfaces of the paper, in order to be prefled with other hot
plates.

The heat tends to foften the fibres of the wool, and the

preflure

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.

prf (Ture againft the glazed paper, whilft they are io foftened,
lays all the fibres flat and fmooth, fo that the cloth has a
very glofTy appearance, and feels fmooth, like fatin ; but
this high finiAi to the cloth is very objeftionable, becaufe
the flighteft ftiower of rain will take it away, and when the
drops of rain only wet it in parts, the cloth will become
fpotted and disfigured. For this reafon, in prefling fuper-
fine cloth, the plates are very flightly warmed, and the
cloth has but little glofs given to it. The glazed paper is
a thick kind of cartridge, which is prepared by glazing or
rubbing it very forcibly with a flint, as it lies upon a hard
metal table. This operation is done by a water-mill.

For coarfer cloths, fome manufafturers glofs them with
a large hot iron : it is a hollow box, into which a red-hot
heater is introduced. The cloth is fpread out upon a large
flat table, and extended by hooks. The iron box is fuf-
pended by a tackle from the-ceiling, fo that it can be hoifted
over to the middle of the table, and then two men work it
backwards and forwards over the whole furface of the
cloth, by means of two long poles or handles, which are
jointed to it at one end.

The cloth is now finifhed, and is packed up in bales of
twenty or twenty-five pieces, in order to be tranfported.
The bale is firft inclofed in paper, and then in canvas, and
clofely compreffed by the fcrew-prefs. Some manufafturers
ufe the hydroftatic preffes for this purpofe.

In confidering the proceffes of the woollen manufafture,
as they were praftifed forty or fifty years ago, and com-
paring them with the prefent praftices, we find great changes
and improvements, but they are by no means carried to fo
great an extent as in the cotton manufafture. This is owing
in a great degree to the circumftance that the manufafture of
woollen cloth was rendered very perfeS, as far as the good-
nefs and beauty of the cloth was concerned, long before the
improved fyftem was begun ; and there were great numbers
of experienced and able workmen trained up for each pro-
cefs, who by habit and dexterity performed their work as
well as it could be done by machinery. The reduftion of
labour, or the fubftitution of ordinary hands for experienced
workmen, was in this cafe all that machinery of the mod
perfeft kind could effeft ; both thefe were advantages to the
public and the manufafturer, but were fo direftly oppofite
to the inclination and intereft of the able workmen, that we
find they have made greater and more efFeftual oppofition to
the introduftion of improvements in the woollen than in any
other of our great manufaftures.

At various periods attempts have been made by the work-
men to fupprefs machinery, and many mills have been de-
ftroyed. In July i8oz, confiderable riots took place in
Wiltfhire and Somerfetfliire, in confequence of an attempt
to fet up the machines called gig-mills. It was contended
that this was the fame machine which was prohibited by an
ancient ftatute of Edward VI. The difputes ran fo high,
that the attention of parliament was called to the fubjeft of
the laws then exifting for the regulation of the woollen ma-
nufafture, and a committee was appointed to inveftigate the
|)olicy of encouraging or regulating machinery. In confe-
quence, all the prohibitions of machinery were fufpended.
The report of this committee contains the following re-
marks, fome of which are applicable to other manufaftures
as well as the woollen.

The introduftion of the gig-mill and other machines was
oppofed from an idea that it would throw a confiderable
number of hands out of work ; and it was contended, that it
was highly injurious to the quality and texture of the cloth.
With refpeft to the aftual effefts of the gig-mill and
Ihearing-frame on the cloth, the committee report that deci-

five evidence has been adduced before them by merchants and
manufafturers of the greateft credit and experience, to prove
that thefe machines, efpecially the gig-mill, when carefully
employed, finifh the cloth in the moit perfeft manner, and
that manufafturers refiding in parts of the country where
the gig-mill is not ufed, frequently fend their cloths to a
diftance to be dreffed by it.

It alfo appeared in evidence, that alarms fimilar to the
prefent had exifted among workmen at the introduftion of
feveral of the machines which are now in general ufe. Such
alarms have gradually fubfided as prejudice died away ; and
the machines are now fully eftabhihed, without, as it appears,
impairing the comforts or leffening the numbers of work-
men. The committee remark with much fatisfaftion, that
in many inilances in which it was apprehended that the intro-
duftion of particular machines would throw fuch a number
of people out of employment as to occafion great diftrefs, the
refult has been very different ; for befides the occupations
which the attendance on fuch machines has given rife to, a
frefh demand for labour to an immenfe extent has arifen out of
the increafed fale of the article, in confequence of the cheap-
nefs and fuperior quality of the manufafture.

They approve the fyftem of patents, by which the in-
ventor of any new machine fecures to himfelf the exclufive
benefits of his difcovery for fourteen years ; and only, at the
end of that term, they are thrown open to the public ; this
provides in moft cafes againft the too fudden and general
eftabliftiment of any invention, by which a number of
workmen might at once be thrown out of employment.

They next obferve, that if the principles on which the
ufe of thefe particular machines is objefted to were once ad-
mitted, it would be impoflible to define the limits or to fore-
fee the extent of their applications. If the parliament had
afted on fuch principles fifty years ago, the woollen manu-
fafture could never have attained to near its prefent ex-
tent. The rapid and prodigious increafe of late years in all
the manufaftures and commerce of this country is univerfally
known, as well as the effefts of that increafe on our revenue
and national ftrength. In confidering the immediate caufes
of that augmentation, it appears to the committee, that it
is principally to be afcribed, under the favour of Providence,
to the general fpirit of enterprize and induftry among a free
and enlightened people, left to the unreftrained exercife of
their talents in the employment of a vaft capital, pufhing to
the utmoft the principle of the divifion of labour, calling in
all the refources of fcientific refearch and mechanical inge-
nuity, and, finally, availing themfelves of all the benefits to
be derived from vifiting foreign countries, not only for
forming new and confirming old commercial conneftions,
but for obtaining a perfonal knowledge of the wants, the
tafte, the habits, the difcoveries and improvements, the pro-
duftions and fabrics, of other civilized nations. Thus
bringing home fafts and fuggelUons, perfefting our exifting
manufaftures, and adding new ones to our domeftic ftock ;
opening, at the fame time, new markets for the produft of
our manufafturing and commercial induftry, and quahfying
ourfelves for Xupplying them.

The committee declare it to be their opinion, that by
thefe means alone, and above all by the effeft of machinery in
improving the quality and cheapening the fabrication of our
various articles of export, notwithttanding a continually accu-
mulating weight of taxes, and with all the neceffaries and com-
forts of life gradually increafing in price, (the effefts of
which on the wages of labour could not but be very con-
fiderable, ) our commerce and manufaftures havf: alfo been
increafing in fuch a degree as to furpafs the moft fanguine
calculations of the ablefl political writers who have fpecu-
4 Q 2 lated

woo

lated on the improvement* of a future age. The exports of
woollen goods at the time of this report, (1807,) amounted
to fix millions of pounds oiEcial, or nine millions of real
value.

It appeared alfo to be an important conlideration, of which
w« fhould never lofe fight, that we are at this day furrounded
by powerful and civilized nations, who are intent on culti-
vating their manufaAures and puftting their commerce ; and
who are more eager to become our competitors in trade,
from having witnefled the aftonifhing effeft of our commer-
cial profperity. The attempts which have been made to
carry our machines and implements over to foreign coun-
tries, and to tempt our artifans to fettle in thofe countries,
evince the importance of machinery, under the direftions
of men of approved fkill, in conftrufting and ufing them.
It is needlefs to remark how much thefe attempts would be
favoured by our throwing any obftruftions in the way of
enterprize and ingenuity, and the free application of capital
in this couiitry ; for any machines which fliould be prohibited
here would infallibly find their way into foreign nations in
a very fhort time.

Among the attempts to improve the woollen mannfafture,
we mult not omit to notice the invention of Mr. Jofeph
Booth, for fabricating woollen cloth without fpinning or
weaving. This was effitfted by felting wool into a web by
the aid of machinery, which operated mechanically upon a
tiiTue of carded wool, to entangle and interlace the fabrics
together. The inventor took a patent for this in 1793 or
1794, but before the time for the enrolment of the fpecifi-
cation of his procefs, he obtained an aft of parliament, the
preamble of which ftates, that on account of the great im-
portance of the art, and the danger of its being carried
abroad to the injury of the ftaple manufafture of the king-
dom, parliament had determined to keep the fpecification
fealed ; hence we are not able to give the details of this
machinery.

We find thefe expeftations have not been realized ; for,
although the proceiJs has been repeatedly tried on a large
fcale and in the moll complete manner, it has been aban-
doned. Three large mills were eftablifhed at Taunton and
near Salifbury, by experienced woollen manufafturers of the
weft of England ; another mill was converted to the pur-
pofe at Lewifham, in Kent ; and the laft mill was erefted
at Merton, in Surrey, the property of James Perry, efq*
We learn from this gentleman, that he was able to manu-
fafture cloth of a fine furface, and of a very even and regular
fubftance, but it was rather deficient in ftrength, for want of
the threads which form the fubftance of common cloth ; and
in refpeft to wear it was lefs durable than common cloth, as it
did not long withftand bruftiing ; otherwife the expence of
the procefs, which was not one-fourth of the common pro-
cefs, would have brought it into general wear.

There has been a great number of other projefts and
patents for the improvement of different branches of the
woollen manufafture ; but as we have already noticed moft
of thofe which have come into ufe, we (hall not enumerate
any more of the unfuccefsful attempts.

The machinery for manufafturing long combing-wool is
defcribed in the article Worsted.

Woollen Nets, in Gardening, a kind of nets employed
as a proteftion in the fetting of the fruit of different forts
of tender trees. See Wooden Fratrnt, Sec.

Woollen Rags, in Jgriculiure. See WobIUh Rags.

Woollens, Bleaching of. See Bleaching.

WOOLLEY-WOOLLEY, in Geography, a town of
.Africa, in the kingdom of Yani.

WOOLLI, a kingdom of Africa, bounded by Walli

12

WOO

on the W., by the Gambia on the S., by the fmall river
Walli on the N.W., by Bondou on the N.E., and on the
E. by the Simbani wildemefs. The country every where
rifes into gentle acclivities, which are generally covered with'
extenfive woods, and the towns are fituated in the interme-
diate valleys. Each town is furrounded by a traft of culti-
vated land, the produce of which is thought to be fuificient
for fupplying the wants of the inhabitants ; the foil appeared
to Mr. Park to be every where fertile, except near the tops
of the ridges, where the red iron-ftone and ftunted ffirubs
fufficiently marked the boundaries between fertility and bar-
rennefs. The chief produftions are, cotton, tobacco, and
efculent vegetables j all which are raifed in the valleys, the
rifing grounds being appropriated to different forts of corn.
The capital is Madina, or Medina, fignifying in the Arabic
city. (See Medina.) The inhabitants are Mandingoes,
(fee Manding,) who, like moil of the Mandingo nations,
are divided into two great fefts, the Mahometans, who are
called Bufhreens, and the Pagans, who are denominated indif-
criminately Kafirs, t. e. unbelievers, and Sonakies, i. :. men
who drink ftrong liquors. Thelatterare the moft numerous,
and the government of the country is vefted in them ; for
though the Bufhreens are confulted in all matters of import-
ance, they are not allowed to take any (liare in the executive
government, which refts folely in the Manfa, or fovereign,
and great officers of the ftate. Of thefe, the firft in point of
rank is the prefumptive heir of the crown, called the Ear-
bonna ; and next to him are the Alkaids, or provincial go-
vernors, who are more frequently ftyled Keamos. Then
follow the two grand divifions of freemen and flaves, the
Slatees being confidered as the principal of the former ; but
in all claflfis great refpeft is paid to the authority of aged
men. Park's Travels, vol. i.

WOOLLIMA, Ba, a river of Africa, called alfo Wondat
which fee.

WOOLLY-PASTINUM, in Natural Eijlory, a name-
given by the Eaft Indians to a fpecies of native red arfenic^
or orpiment, found in that part of the world.

It is of a paler colour than the red orpiment of Ger-
many.

WOOLMAN, John, in Biography, a minifter of the
fociety of Friends in North America, chiefly remarkable
as an early and faithful advocate of the rights oftheenflaved
Africans, was born at Northampton, in Burlington county.
Weft New-Jerfey, in the year 1720. From feme memoirs
of his life left by himfelf, it appears that he had ftrong im-
preflions of religion in childhood, which being feconded by
the care and admonition of pious parents, he arrived at man-
hood, after a ftruggle of fome years with youthful levities,
with a decidedly rehgious charafter. An incident which
befel himi when a child, and which he records as a proof of
the early influence of divine grace on the mind, may be men-
tioned here, as connefted alfo with his future charafter, and
with the firft developement of thofe tender fympathies of the
heart which, under the guidance of Chriftian principle, fitted
him fo eminently to efpoufe the caufe of the oppreffed ne-
groes. Going on an errand to a neighbour's, he obferved
that a robin quitted her neft at his approach, and flew about
in alarm for her young ones. He ftood and threw ftones at
her, till being ftruck, (he fell down dead. " At firft," he
fays, " I was pleafed with the exploit, but after a few
minutes was feized with horror. I belield her lying dead,
and thought thofe young ones, for which (he had been fo
careful, muft now periflv for want of their dam to nourifh
them : and after fome painful confideratioiis on the fubjeft,
I climbed up the tree, took all the young birds, and killed
them, fuppofing that better than to leave them to pine

away,

WOOLMAN.

away, and perifh miferably. I then went on my errand, but
for fome hours could think of little elfe but the cruelties I
had committed, and was much troubled. Thus He, whofe
tender mercies are over all his works, hath placed a principle
in the human mind, which incites to exercife goodnefs towards
every living creature : and this being fingly attended to,
people become tender-hearted and fympathifing, but being
frequently and totally rejedled, the mind becomes (hut up in
.a contrary difpofition." Of his opinions at one-andtwenty
he writes thus : " I was early convinced in mind that true
religion confifted in an inward life, wherein the heart doth
love and reverence God the Creator, and learns to exercife
true juftice and goodnefs, not only toward all men, but alfo
toward the brute creatures. I found no narrownefs re-
fpefting fefts and opinions, but believed that fincere, upright-
hearted people in every fociety, who truly loved God, were
accepted of him."

The right of every individual, of whatever colour, who
has not offended againft fociety, to liberty and the common
gifts of providence, was confequently at this time an article
of John Woolman's religious creed: and we (hall fee that he
foon brought himfelf to aft in confiftency with his faith.
The firft occalion of trial occurred while he was yet in fervi-
tude ; for he had engaged himfelf as clerk and afllllant to a
(hop-keeper at a place called Mount-Holly. His employer
parted with a negrefs, and dcfired Woolman to write out a
bill of fale for her. " The thing," fays he, " was fudden,
and although the thought of writing an inftrument of flavery
for one of my fellow-creatures felt uneafy, yet I remem-
bered that I was hired by the year, that it was my mafter
>ho direfted me to do it, and that it was an elderly man, a
Inember of our fociety, who bought her. So through
weaknefs I gave way and wrote ; but at the execution of it
I was fo afflifted in my mind, that I faid before my mafter
and the friend, that I believed flave-keeping to be a praftice
' inconfiftent with the Chriftian religion.' This in fome degree
abated my uneafinefs j yet as often as I reflefted feriourty
upon it, I thought I (hould have been clearer if I had de-
fired to be excufed from it, • as a thing againft my con-
fcience :' for fuch it was." Accordingly, on the next occa-
fion he took this fecond ftep. " A young man of our fo-
ciety," he proceeds, " fpoke to me to write a conveyance of a
idave to him, he having lately taken a negro into his houfe.
il told him I was not eafy to write it : for though many of
pur meeting and in other places kept (laves, I ftiU believed
the praftice was not right." Other cafes followed, in
which being employed {as it appears for an adequate fee)
to write the will of a neighbour or a friend, he uniformly
refufed to be acceffary to their bequeathing as property the
iperfons of his fellow-men. " Deep-rooted cuftoms," he
lObferves, " though wrong, are not eafily altered ; but it is
the duty of all to be ' firm in that' which they certainly
know is ' right for them.' A charitable benevolent man,
well acquainted with a negro, may, I believe, under fome
jcircumftances, keep him in his family as a fervant for no
lOther motive than the negro's good. But man, as man, knows
jnot what fhall be after him, nor hath alFuranee that his
;children will attain to that perfeAion in wifdom and good-
nefs neceifary rightly to exercife fuch power," wz. as that
,3f the owner over his (lave. As the iirft -fruits of this firm-
Inefs, and which no doubt were highly grateful, he relates
inftances in which his refufal, and the reafons he gave for it,
'.procured the freedom in lieu of the tranfmiflion of the (laves
|ln queftion.

Having been acknowledged by his friends in the capacity
if a minifter of the gofpel, he made fome journies in the ex-
jircife of his gift, which ferved to give him a further infight

into the condition of the negroes on that continent, and
lurther excited his attention to the then pradice of the fo-
ciety of friends, in common with others, of holding them
m bondage, and even of buying them. In the year 1746
he palTtd through Virginia, Maryland, and Carohna, of
which he writes as follows : " Two things were remarkable
to me in this journey : firft, in regard to my entertainment,
when I ate, drank, and lodged at free-coft with people who
lived in eafe on the hard labour of their Haves, I felt uneafy ;
and as my mind was inward to the Lord, I found, from
place to place, this uneafinefs return upon me at times
through the whole vifit. Where the matters bore a good
(hare of the burthen, and lived frugally, fo that their fer-
vants were well provided for, and their labour moderate, I
felt more eafy ; but where they lived in a coftly way, and
laid heavy burthens on their (laves, my exercife (trouble of
mind ) was often great, and I frequently had converfation
with them in private concerning it. Secondly, this trade of
importing flaves from their native country being much en-
couraged among them, and the white people and their chil-
dren lo generally living without much labour, was frequently
the fubjeft of my ferious thoughts. And I faw in thefe
fouthern provinces fo many vices and corruptions, increafed
by this trade and this way of life, that it appeared to me « ae
a gloom over the land ;' and though now many willingly run
into it, yet in future the confequence will be grievous to
pofterity. I exprefs it as it hath appeared to me, not once
nor twice, but as a matter fixed on my mind."

It is probable that the inhabitants of the fouthern pro-
vinces of North America now fee pretty clearly that their
negro population, without confummate prudence, as well as
great kindnefs in the management of them, are hkely one
day to jullify thefe anticipations.

On his return from the above-mentioned journey, he com-
mitted to paper his fentiments on flave-keeping, and after the
MS. had lain long by him, it was publilhed, vnth the appro-
bation and at the expence of his friends, who began (in
Pennfylvania and the Jerfeys at leaft) to be more generally
influenced by the humane and Chriftian views of Woolman,
Benezet, and others on this fubjeft. It was entitled
" Some Confiderations en the keeping of Negroes ;" and in
1762 was followed by 3 " Second Part," the expence of
which he preferred to take upon himfelf, for a reafon which
evinces his ftrift regard to juftice. He confidered that
many, who did not yet fee the evil of the praftice, nor
approve of his writings againft it, were contributors to the
general fund of the fociety, out of which the caufe was pro-
pofed to be defrayed.

Some other refleftions, written in 1757, while h'e was on
a journey among flave -holders, and recorded in his " Me-
moir," are forcibly defcriptive of his views and feelings.

The neceffary brevity of this article will permit only 3
general account of John Woolman's labours in the caufe
of humanity. From private conferences with the holders of
(laves, he proceeded to public addreffes to the fociety in
their meetings for difcipline : and when at length the prin-
ciple of the unlawfulnefs to Chriftians of this degrading-
pra6lice had been generally recognized among them, he
united other members with himfelf in paying vjflts to fuch
of the fociety, within his fphere of action, as required the
ftimulus of remonftrances to induce them to comply with the
fenfe of their brethren on this fubjeft. Thefe proceedings
were profecuted through feveral journies ; in which at one
time the religious welfare in a more general fenfe, at another
the right conduft in this particular of his fellow -members^
engaged his attention. He did not live to fee the comple-
tion of his wilh as it related to the fociety ; for it was not

till

woo

till the year 1787 that the laft flave difappeared from among
them. But the near approach of this confummation was
witnefled by his coadjutor, Anthony Benezet, who died in
1784, whofe fame has fpread wider than Woolman's, be-
caufe his opportunities were more extenfive, who lived for
the caufe throughout Europe, and carried its fuccefsful
plea from the narrow limits of the fociety of Friends into
the world at large. Of this excellent man, whofe biography
efcaped the early part of this work, it may not be too late
here to record in brief, — that he was born at St. Quintin, in
Picardy, of a refpeftable family, in 1 7 13; that he was
carried by his father, who fled from the perfecutions which
fell upon the Huguenots, to London, and there formed for
mercantile purfuits ; that upon removing to Philadelphia with
his family in 173 1, having now entered into the fociety of
Friends, he devoted his hfe, upon principle, firft to the
education of youth in ufeful knowledge and the Chriftian
faith, and iJtimately to the nobleft toils of humanity. But
to return to our prefent fubjeft : in the year 1772, John
Woolman, believing it his duty to pay a religious vifit to
the friends in England, embarked for that purpofe at
Chefter, on the Delaware, and arrived at London in time to
attend their yearly meeting. After it he travelled, exer-
cifing his miniftry among his friends, through feveral ooun-
tiee, as far as York. Here, at a large quarterly meeting,
he once more pleaded for the negroes, endeavouring, and
probably with efFeft, to engage the fupport of thofe prefent
to the caufe of humanity : foon after which he was feized
with the fmall-pox. During a fevere ftruggle with this dif-
eafe, he manifefled great patience and humility, with a firm
faith in the Redeemer ; and nature finking in the conflift, he
expired in peace in his fifty-fecond year.

As a preacher, we hear not of his eloquence nor of his
learning, except, fays one of the refpeftable friends who has
favoured us with the documents of this article, " in heart-
knowledge, and in the fchool of Chrift ;" but in life, he was
a bright example of the integrity, meeknefs, charity, and
beneficence which in that fchool alone are to be acquired ;
and his memory for his works' fake is blefled. Memoir of
John Woolman, chiefly extrafted from a Journal of his Life
and Writings, London, 1815.

WOOLPER's Creek, in Geography, a river of Ken-
tucky, which runs into the Ohio, N. lat. ^S" ^x'. W.
long. 85° 7'.

WOOLPIT, a village of England, in the county of
Suffolk ; 8 miles E. of Bury St. Edmunds.

WOOLSTANTON, a village of England, in Stafford-
fliire ; 2 miles N. of Newcaftle-under-Line.

WOOL-STAPLE, denotes a city or town where
wool ufed to be fold. See Staple.

WOOLSTED. See Worsted.

WOOLSTON, Thomas, in Biography, an EngUfti
divine, was born in 1669 at Northampton, and admitted in
1685 of Sidney college, Cambridge, where he was diftin-
euifhed by his diligence and regularity. He was elefted
fellow of his college, took orders, preached with approba-
tion, and was efteemed for his learning and piety. In his
exercifes for the degree of B.D. he maintained " the exaft
fitnefs of the time in which Chrift was manifefted in the
flefh," in a difcourfe which was well received. But his
temper being naturally enthufiaftic, and perufing the
works of Origen, he indulged a great fondnefs for allego-
rical interpretations of fcripture, which afterwards led
him into a variety of Angular and extravagant opinions.
He began in 1 705 with " The old Apology for the Truth
of the Chriftian Religion againft the Jews and Gentiles
revived," maintaining that all the anions of Mofes were

WOO

typical of Chrift, and of his church ; and the book waB^
iffued from the univerfity prefs. Woolfton remained in
college till the )'ear 1720, when he went to London, and,
publilhed a Latin differtation concerning the fuppofedi
epiftle of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius, relative to Jefus Chrift.
In the fame year he alfo pubhihed two Latin epiftJes, ad-
drefled to Whitby, Waterland, Whifton, and others ;
" Circa Fidem vere Orthodoxam et Scripturarum Interpre-
tationem," defending Ongen's allegorical interpretation of
fcripture. His deviation from the eftablifhed faith wasi
more apparent in his inquiry, " Whether the people called'
Quakers do not the neareft of any other feft in religion;
refemble the primitive Chriftians in principles and praftice ?"|
Blending farcafm with argument, he now feemed to indulge:
a fpirit of animofity againft the clergy. Declining at the
fame time to refide at college, he was deprived of his fellow-
fhip in 1 72 1. In his " Four Free Gifts to the Clergy,"
he denominated them " hireling priefts," and " minifters of
the letter." Although he might be fufpefted, he was not
yet chargeable with hiftorical incredidity ; for in 1726 he
publiftied " A Defence of the Miracle of the Thundering
Legion againft Mr. Moyle." At length he engaged in
the controverfy between Anthony Collins and his oppo-
nents, and publiftied " The Moderator between an Infidel
and an Apoftate," and " Two Supplements," in which
he not only contended for myftical interpretations of the
miracles of Chrift, but maintained that they were never
aftually wrought. Confidered as an avowed enemy to the
Chriftian religion, a profecution was inftituted againft him
by the attorney-general, but ftayed by the interpofition ot
Whifton, and fome other advocates of toleration. Not-
withftanding this lenity, he proceeded in pubhftiing " Six
Difcourfes on the Miracles," and two " Defences of the
Difcourfes," in which, blending ridicule and buffoonery
with argument, he maintained his ofFenfive opinions. This
pertinacity and rudenefs prejudiced believers in the divine
mifGon of Chrift againft him ; replies iffued from the prefs j
but as he again became amenable to the law, he was tried
at Guildhall before lord chief juftice Raymond, when, after
many arguments for and againft him, he was found guilty,
and fentenced to a year's imprifonment, and a fine of 100/.
Unable to pay his fine, he refided within the rules of the
King's Bench, and fubfifted by an annual allowance granted
to him by his brother, and the contributions of fome learned
and liberal friends, who vindicated his intentions, whilft they
difapproved his enthufiafm and fanaticifm. Among thefe
were fome, and particularly Dr. S. Clarke, who condemned
every fpecies or femblance of religious perfecution, and
who endeavoured to procure his releafe ; but they could
not prevail upon him to ftipulate that he would not per- 1
fevere in publifhing his peculiar opinions. But death gav6[ ■
him that releafe, which his friends could not obtain for him ;• .
as he was carried off by an epidemic difeafe, within four
days after his feizure, in January 1732-3. Not long before
he expired, he faid, " This is a ftruggle which all men
muft go through, and which I bear, not only patiently, but ,
willingly." His moral charafter is faid to have been un-, .
impeachable, and his head was thought to have been more
difordered than his heart. Biog. Brit.

WOOLWICH, in Geography, a market-town and parifh
in the hundred of Blackheath, lathe of Sutton-at-Hone, .
and county of Kent, England, is fituated on the S. bank
of the Thames, 8 miles E. from London. The etymology
of Woolwich, a name very varioufly written at different,
periods, is uncertain : according to Hafted, in his " Hif-
tory of Kent," one of the ancient names, Hulviz, fignified
the " dwelling on the creek." The parifh comprehends

about

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about 700 acres, of which above one-half, liowever, lie on
the oppofite bank of the Thames, in the county of Eflex,
and confifts of mar(h-land, on which flood formerly a
few houfes, and a chapel of eafe. The manor of Woolwich
is fubordinate to the royal manor of Eltham. The town
conlilts chiefly of one narrow irregular ftreet, confined be-
tween therifing land and the river; birt feveral other llreets,
rows, and lanes, are connefted with it. The church, a f pacious
brick building, confifts of a nave, chancel, and aides. It
is fituated on an eminence overlooking the town and the
dock-yard, and was completed in 1740. Befides this building,
Woolwich contains feveral different diflentingmeeting-houfes.
The principal charitable eflabhfhments are an alms-houfe
and two fchools. Woolwich was originally but a fmall
place, inhabited by fifhermen, and is indebted for its im-
portance to the eflablifhment of a royal dock there in the
Ireign of Henry VIII. Since that time, it has gradually
arrived at its prefent augmented ftate ; but particularly
fince the eftablifhment there of the head-quarters of the
■artillery and the royal arfenal ; by which means the popu-
lation within the laft hundred years has increafed fix-fold.
The precife period of the eftablifhment of the dock-yard
■is uncertain : it appears, however, that the Harry Grace
de Dieu, of 1000 tons, was built there in 1512. This
celebrated fhip is ftated to have been in length 128 feet,
and in breadth 48 feet : fhe had three flufh decks, a fore-
;:aftle, half-deck, quarter-deck, and round-houfe, and car-
ried 176 pieces of ordnance: fhe had eleven anchors, the
jlargeft of which weighed 440olbs. In its prefent enlarged
illate, the yard extends about five furlongs along the river
ioy one furlong in breadth. It comprehends two dry
(docks, feveral flips, three maft-ponds, a fmith's-fhop and
\orges for making anchors, a model-loft, ftore-houfes, fheds,
dwellings for various officers, and all other requifite build-
ings. The whole is under the immediate infpedion of the
navy board, but condufted by feveral refident officers.
The number of artificers and labourers employed during
'peace is about 1 500 ; but in war-time it rifes towards 4000.
'Between the dock-yard and the royal arfenal, formerly
icalled the Warren, is the rope-walk, 400 yards in length.
The military and civil branches of the office of ordnance
ihave been eftablifhed at Woolwich fince the accefTion of
George I. In the time of peace, this arfenal is the great
'repofitory of naval ordnance, where the guns of moft of the
[(hips of war are laid up there in order. The repofitory con-
'tains alfo an extenfive coUeftion of military machines and
'models. The arfenal, comprehending about fixty acres of
iground, contains, with other buildings, the foundery, and
'the late military academy, which was erefted by fir John
'Vanbrugh. The foundery is provided with feveral furnaces,
'the largeft of which will melt about feventeen tons of metal
|at once. It contains alfo machinery for boring brafs
cannon, as they are improperly called, for they are com-
ipofed of copper and tin inftead of zinc. In the adjoining
ilaboratory, bombs, carcafes, cartridges, &c. for the navy
'and army, are prepared. The number of perfons employed
|in the arfenal during war is about 300, exclufive of the
convifts belonging to the hulks or prifon-fhips lying in
the river. The military academy, although founded in
1719, was not finally arranged till 1741, and has been for-
[tunate in poflelfing, in the mathematical chairs, the eminent
IprofefTors Derham, Simpfon, and Hutton. Befides the ma-
[thematical profeffors, here are matters in chemiftry, fortifica-
jtion, arithmetic, French, drawing, fencing, &c. The number
of pupils or cadets, deftined for the two corps of artillery and
iroyal engineers, has been lately about 300. To provide necef-
|fary accommodation, with offices, &c. a new edifice was con-

i

WOO

ftruded and opened in 1806, about a mile S. fro.-n the town,
on the upper part of the common. It is built in the caitel-
bted form, from defigns by Mr. James Wyatt. The prin.
cipal front facmg the N. extends above 200 yards. The
expence of the ftrufture is eftimated at not lefs than
150,000/. The eftablifhment is appropriated to the fenior
clafs of the cadets, the junior being for the prefent fixed at
Black-Water in Hampfhire. Between this new academy
and the town are extenfive ranges of barracks, &c. for the
royal artillery, horfe and foot, which has increafed during
the late war beyond all former example.

The population of Woolwich, in the return of 1800, was
ftated at 9826, exclufive of the military, inhabiting 1362
houfes ; but the number was probably under-rated ; for in
the return of 181 1, the inhabitants are ftated to be 17,054,
and the houfes 2487. Woolwich-common unites with the
extenfive plain of Blackheath on the S., which gives name
to the hundred. At its eaftern extremity rifes Shooter's-
hill, which commands extenfive and interefting profpefts in
all direftions. The view from it of London, the Thames,
and the fhipping, is pecuharly impreffive. Over this hill
paffed the great Roman road from the E. coaft of Kent,
through Durovernum, now Canterbury, and Durobrtva, Ro-
chefter, to London. Its courfe is nearly purfued by the
prefent road from Shooter's-hill, for eight miles, to a place
beyond Dartford — Beauties of England, Kent, by E. W.
Brayley, 8vo. 1806.

Woolwich, a townftiip of New Jerfey, in the county
of Gloucefter, with 3063 inhabitants; 10 miles S.E. of
Philadelphia — Alfo, a townftiip of the province of Maine,
containing 1050 inhabitants, on the E. fide of the Kenne-
beck ; 16 miles N.E. of Brunfwick.

WOOL-WINDERS are perfons employed in winding
up fleeces or wool into bundles to be packed, and fold by
weight. Perfons winding and felhng deceitful wool, (hall
forfeit for every fleece 6d. Thefe are fworn to do it truly
between the owner and the merchant. 8 Hen. VI. cap. 22.
23 Hen. VIII. cap. 17.

WOORLA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Vifiapour ; 16 miles N. of Merritch.

WOOTAMALLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura ;
15 miles S.W. of Coilpetta.

WOOTTON, JoHK, in Biography, an eminent, though
not very able, painter of landfcape and animals, who
flouriflied in England about 1720. He was a pupil of
John Wyck, and was much employed in the portraits of
horfes and dogs, and in painting the fports of the field,
particularly fox-hunting ; upon which fubjeft there are
feven piftures of his engraved by Canot. Once at leaft he
attempted (but he did not frequently repeat the attempt)
to pourtray a battle, and his fubjeft was that of Culloden at
the time of the rout of the rebel army. It has been en-
graved by Baron, though it is but an indifferent performance.
He died in 1765. He had been fuccefsful in the purfuit
of his art, for he was enabled by its proceeds to build a
houfe in Cavendifh-fquare, where he lived, and had painted
it witii tafte, according to Walpole, who praifes his works
ridiculoufly. His pieces, he fays, were high, forty guineas
for a fingle horfe the fize of life, and twenty if fmaller.

WOOTTON-BASSET, in Geography, a borough and
market-town of Wiltftiire, England, is fituated near the
northern extremity of the county, at the diftance of 36
miles N. by W. from Sahlbury, and 89 miles W. from
London. It confifts chiefly of one principal ftreet, about
half a mile in length. The houfes are moflly conttrufted
of brick with thatched roofs. Two reprefentatives have
been regularly deputed from this town to ferve id parlia-
ment

woo

ment fince the 25th of the reign of Henry VI. They are
elefted by the inhabitant houfeholders legally fettled
there, and paying feet and lot. The corporation is com-
pofed of a mayor, two aldermen, and twelve burgefl'es.
The market-day is Tuefday, weekly ; and there are alfo
fix fairs annually. In the centre of the town are a market-
houfe and fliambles ; and near this is the town-hall, in
which a machine, called a " cue king or ducking-ftool,"
formerly ufed for the punifhment of female fcolds, was
lately preferved. The church is an old building dedicated
to St. Bartholomew, but it is not remarkable for beauty of
architecture, nor does it contain any monument or infcrip-
tion worthy of notice.

Accordmg to the population returns of 181 1, the
borough and parifh contained 321 houfes, and 1390 inha-
bitants, who formerly carried on a confiderable trade in
broad-cloths ; but there is now no ftaple manufaftory of
any fort, though fome attempts have been lately made to
introduce the bufinefs of rcpe-making and fack-making.
In this parifli are two free-fchools and a Sunday fchool.
The former were founded and endowed by the earl of
Clarendon, one of them for twelve boys, and the other for
twelve girls.

At the time of the Conquefl, this place was called fimply
'Wodeton.' It was then the property of Milo Crifpin ;
but in lefs than a century afterwards it was poflefied by the
Baflets of Wycomb, a branch of the noble family of the
Baffets of Drayton. The prefent proprietor is the earl of
Clarendon. The ancient manor-houfe, which ftands on the
fummit of a confiderable eminence, is now converted into a
farm-houfe, whence the eye furveys a very extenfive pro-
fpeft into Somerfetfliire, Gloucefterfhire, &c. A variety
of curious conical ftones, refembling fmall fir-apples, have
been dug up in different fpots around the town, imbedded
in a fort of blue marly ftone.

Liddiard-Tregooze, or Lydiard-Tregofe, is a village and
parifh, fituated at the diftance of three miles north-eaft from
Wootton-Baffet. According to the population returns of
181 1, the parifh contains 95 houfes, and 613 inhabitants.

The church, an ancient llrufture, is divided into a nave,
two fide aides, and a chancel, with a fquare tower at the
weft end, furmounted by an open baluftrade and angular
pinnacles. The church contains feveral interefting monu-
inents of the St. John family ; alfo a very curious genea-
logical table with arms, &c.

Adjoining to the church is Liddiard-park, the feat of
lord Bolingbroke. The attached grounds are extenfive,
and contain many large clumps of trees, among which are
a great number of old oaks — Beauties of England and
Wales, Wilt(hire, by J. Britton, 1815.

WOOTZ, in Metallurgy, a metal extrafted from an
ore of iron in the Eaft Indies, the nature of which is not
known at prefent in Europe. Wootz is highly efteemed
by the natives of India, and applied to various purpofes in
■the arts.

Dr. Scott gave the following account of its properties,
in a letter to the prefident of Bombay : — " Wootz admits of
a harder temper than any thing known in that part of
India. It is employed for covering that part of gun-locks
againft which the flint ftrikes. It is ufed for cutting iron
on a lathe, for cutting ftones, and for chifels ; alio for
making files and faws, and for every purpofe where excef-
five hardnefs is neceflary : it cannot, however, bear any
thing beyond a flight red heat, wjiich makes it work very
tedioufly in the hands of the fmith. It has a ftill greater
inconvenience or defeft, that of not being welded with iron
jOt fteel, to which, therefore, it it only joined by fcrewt and

WOP

other contrivances." Dr. Scott obferves farther, that
when wootz is heated above a light red heat, part of the
mafs feems to run, and the whole is loft, as if it confifted of
metals of different degrees of fufibility. The working with
wootz is fo difficult, that it is a feparate art from that of
forging iron. The magnetical power can only be imper-
feftly communicated to it. Specimens of wootz fent from
India were examined by Dr. George Pearfon, who ftates
in the Phil. Tranf. vol. xcv., that they were in the form of
round cakes, about five inches in diameter and one thick,
each of which weighed more than two pounds. The eakc
had almoft been cut through, fo as to divide it into two
nearly equal parts. It was externally of a dull black
colour, the furface was fmooth, the cut part was alfo
fmooth, and, excepting a few fmall holes, the texture ap-
peared to be uniform. No indentation could be made in it
by blows with a heavy hammer, nor was it broken by blows
that might have broken a like piece of fteel. Fire wa» I
elicited on coUifion with flint. It pofteffed the hardnefg j
of fome kinds of crude iron, but did not efFeftually refift 1
the file, like highly tempered fteel, and many kinds of crude ;
iron. It admitted a polifti equal to the beft fteel. The |
wootz-filings were attrafted by the magnet like common I
iron-filings. When broken, it exhibited the frafture and
colour of a rather open-grained fteel. It was taftelefs and
inodorous. Its fpecific gravity in different ftates, as given
by Dr. Pearfon, ranges from 7.2 to about 7.7, which is
nearly the fame as fteel. From the properties of this fub-
ftance, Dr. Pearfon concludes, that wootz approaches j
nearer to the ftate of fteel than raw iron, although it pof- (
fefles fome of the properties of this laft fubftance. It is
not to be referred to that kind of fteel in which there it
either an excels or deficiency of carbon, but it contaiot
foraething befides carbon and iron, otherwife it would be '
common fteel. The folution in nitrous and dilute ful-
phuric acid contained only oxyd of iron, and the refidue
of carbonaceous matter, as in common fteel. Hence, fays 1
Dr. Pearfon, it is obvious to fufpeft, that wootz contains 1
oxygen, either equally united with every part of the mafs^ |
or united with a portion of iron to compofe oxyd, which is '
difFufed through the mafs. To this circumftance. Dr. Pear-
fon feems inclined to attribute the fmaller quantity of
hydrogen gas given out during folution, than is afforded bj
common fteel, and to account for its partial fufibility and diffi-
cult malleability, and may be the reafon of its taki ng a fine edge
or polifti. The oxyd is not perhaps equally difFufed ; hence
the wootz is not quite uniform in its texture and hardnefs
until it has been remelted. The proportion of oxygen in
wootz, fays Dr. Pearfon, muft, however, be very fmall,
otherwife it would not poffefs fo much ftrength, and break
with fo much difficulty. The oozing out of matter when
fufed is analogous to what appears on refining raw iron.
Although no account is given by Dr. Scott of the procef*
for making wootz, we may without much rifk conclude,
that it is made direftly from the ore, and confequently that
it has never been in the ftate of wrought iron, for the cake
is evidently a mafs which has been fufed, and appears to
have been cut almoft quite through while white hot at the
place where wootz is manufafturgd. The particular ufes to
which wootz may be applied are to be inferred from the
preceding account of its properties and compofition ; and
may be proved by an extenfive trial of it in all the arts which
require iron. See Phil. Tranf. vol. xcv.

WOPANKEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the province of Bartenland ; 2 miles E. of Bartenftein.

WOPELBACH, a river of Ofnabruck, which nms into
the Dalckc, a miles N. of Weidenbruck.

WORADA,

W O R

wo RAD A, a oouiitry of Africa, of an oval form, about
90 miles in circumference, S. pf Konkadoo.

WORANY, a town of Lithuania; 28 miles S. of
Troki.

WORBIS, or Stadt WoRBis, a town of Weftphalia,
in the territory of Eichsfeld, on the Wipper ; 8 miles S.S.E.
of Duderltadt.

WoRBis, Brctten, a town of Weftphalia, in the territory
of Eichsfeld ; 9 miles S.E. of Duderftadt.

WoRBis, Kirch, a town of Weftphalia, in the territory
of Eichsfeld ; 8 miles S.S.E. of Duderftadt.

WORBITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czaflau j
10 miles S. of Czaflau.

WoRBiTZ See, a lake of the Ucker Mark of Branden-
burg, near Joachimfthal ; 28 miles N.N.E. of Berlin.

WORBSTADT, a town of France, in the department
of Mont Tonnerre ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Mentz.

WORCESTER, the capital city of a county of its own
name, in the W. of England, fituated in N. lat. 52° 10',
and W. long. 2° 00' ; diftant 26 miles N. from Gloucefter,
27 S.W. from Birmingham, 30 E. by N. from Hereford,
and 1 1 1 W.N.W. from London. The inhabitants in 181 1
were, according to the returns made to parliament, 5953
males, and 7861 females, in all 13,814, and the houfes

Hijloncal Events — Worcefter is a place of high antiquity,
as implied by the latter part of the name, indicating that the
original town occupied the pofition of a Roman ftation : its
proper name under thofe people, however, has not yet been
afcertained. Camden indeed conceives it to be the Brano-
n'tum of Antoninus' Itinerary, the fame with the Branoge-
nium of Ptolemy ; but that town is placed by Horfley at
Ludlow, more to the N.W., on the S. border of Shropfhire.
Nennius, who wrote in the beginning of the 7th century,
points out Worcefter by the Britifti names Caer-Guorangon
and Caer-GuorcoH. By the Saxons it was called Weogare-
ceajler, or Wegeorna-ceajler, from which came Wigornia, the
Latin name ftill in ufe. In the Domefday-book it is called
Wirecejlre. The diocefe of Worcefter was founded by
Ethelred, king of Mercia, about 680, the firft bifhop nomi-
nated being Tatfrith ; but dying before confecration, the
firft who filled the epifcopal chair was Bofel, a learned man
from the celebrated monaftery of St. Hilda, at Whitby in
Yorkftiire. St. Egwin, the third biftiop, who was appointed
in 693, was the founder of the abbey at Eveft\am. Milred
was nominated in 744. The 17th prelate was the famous
St. Dunftan, who was appointed in 957. St. Wulftan II.,
appointed in 1062, was the founder of the prefent cathedral.
Adam de Orleton, bifhop in 1327, is fuppofed to have
prompted the murder of Edward II. by the equivocal
anfwer he gave when confulted on the projeft : " Edwardum
occidere nolite t'lmere bonum efl." The 69th bifhop, nominated
to Worcefter in 1521, was the celebrated Julius de Medicis,
a cardinal, and afterwards pope Clement VII. His fuc-
cefTor, Jerome de Ghinucci, alfo an Italian, was deprived at
the Reformation, and, in 1535, was fucceeded by Hugh
Latimer, who fuffered for his Proteftant profeflion, under
queen Mary, in 1555. John Prideaux, the 84th prelate,
appointed in 1641, was difmiffed during the interregnum,
his bifhopric fequeftered, and himfelf allowed four fhillings
and fixpence per week for his maintenance. The eminent
fcholar Stillingfleet filled the fee from 1689 to 1699.
In 1717, the fee was filled by John Hough. (See
his biographical article.) The learned bifhop Hurd,
appointed in 1781, was fucceeded in 1799 by the pre-
fent prelate, bifhop Cornwall. The revenues of the fee

Vol. XXXVIII.

VV O R

were, in 1699, f^xed at 1302A \^s. /^\d.; but now fup-
pofed to exceed 30CX)/. The fee has poftefTed one pope,
four faints, feven high-treafurers of England, eleven arch-
bifhops, befides chancellors of the kingdom, and other
great officers of the ftate. Few places, perhaps, have
fuffered more than Worcefter by the inteftine broils of the
country, and by cafual difafters. Ruined by the Danea
about the year 894, it was rebuilt by Ethelred and Ethel-
fleda ; but the inhabitants refufing to pay the tax called
danegelt, the city was again laid wafte by Hardicanute.
Agam reftored, it fuffered feverely during the conteft be-
tween king Stephen and the emprefs Maud, as well as by a
fire, from which the walls of the cathedral alone were prei-
ferved. Taking the part of Lewis, the dauphin of France,
againft king John, the king's troops exercifed every tyranni-
cal feverity on the inhabitants ; the church was plundered,
and a heavy fum exafted from the clergy. John was
neverthelefs interred in the cathedral in 1 2 1 6. It was in
Worcefter that, previoully to the battle of Evefham, young
Edward raifed the ftandard of loyalty for his father,
Henry III. After the acceflion of Henry VII. feveral
citizens were beheaded, and a fine of 500 marks was levied
on the city. In 1642 Worcefter witneffed the fanguinary
conteft which terminated fo fatally for the affairs of
Charles I. (See Charles.) In 1646, the city furren-
dered by capitulation to the parhament's army, having
been the firft city in England to declare for the crown, and
the laft which held out in its defence. In 1651 happened
the fecond battle of Worcefter under Charles II. ; a battle
which decided the deftruftive and vindiftive controverfy
between the royalifts and the parliamentary party, by
which the latter obtained a complete afcendancy ; and
the king himfelf efcapcd with difficulty out of the country.
To preferve the memory of this fuccefs, " the lord-general
Cromwell, on the 1 8th of September 1651," fays Leach,
in his Diurnal, " with many officers of the army, was at
WooUidge, at the launching of a gallant new frigot of the
ftates, carrying three-lcorc peeces of ordnance, and called
her name Worcefter."

Prefent State. — Worcefter is diftinguifhed among the
provincial towns of England for its refemblance, in various
refpefts, to the metropolis. It is defcribed to be well built,
well paved, and well lighted. It confifts principally of one
great ftreet running from N. to S., and terminating at the
cathedral ; alfo thirteen other collateral ftreets, befides lanes of
inferior dimenfions. The circuit of the city exceeds three
miles and a half. The Severn, bathing the weftern fide, and
carrying veffels of confiderable burthen, is of great utility in
facilitating the commerce to and from, as well as the requifite
fupplies of the city. On it, paffage-boats fail up as far as
Shrewfbury, and down to Gloucefter and Briflol. The
buildings now extend beyond the ancient limits, which may,
however, ftill be traced ; the old wall, according to a plan
made before the civil wars, was in extent 1 1,650 paces ; but
this vroll, after the laft battle of Worcefter, was almoft
wholly deftroyed. The caftle was eredled by Urfo of
Abitoth about 1088. The area, now called the College-
green, was, in the Norman times, the outer ward of that
caftle, behind which to the S. was the inner ward, or for-
trefs itfelf. A gaol for the retention of the prifoners of the
county is all that now remains of the caftle, on the fpot where
the kings of England formerly kept their court. A fteep
artificial mount, on which probably ftood the keep of the
fortrefs, is a prominent objeft ; the furrounding ditch and
rampart may alfo be eafily traced.

Cathedral. — The original cathedral of Worcefter was

founded in 680 ; but in 969 its revenues were transferred

4 R to

WORCESTER.

to the nionaftery of St. Mary, an edablifliment of the be-
ginning of the eighth century. The church of this monaf-
tcry being unfuitable to its novel application, another
cathec'ral was erefted and confecrated by St. Ofwald, th.e
bilhop, in 983. Being ruined by Hardicanute in 1041, the
foundation of a new cathedral was laid in 1084, by bi(hop
Wulftan II.; and in 1089 he finifhed it, together with the
monaftery, and called the fame Mona/lerium St. Maria in
Cryptis. The original plan of this church feems to have
been a fimple crofs, the entrance being at the weft end of
the prefent choir, which occupies the place of the ancient
nave. This ancient Ilrufture had probably a central or
principal tower ; as it is recorded that the new tower fell
down in 11 75, and two fmaller ones were deftroyed by a
ftorm in 1222. The antiquity of this part of the edifice is
particularly apparent from the crypt or undercroft, which
extends under the choir and its aifles. This is a curious
and interefting part of the fabric. Twice feverely injured by
fire, in 1 113 and in 1202, the cathedral was re-confecrated
in 1218, by bilhop Silvefter, in the prefence of Henry III.
and his court. Six years afterwards the foundation of an
additional work, the prefent nave, was laid by bifhop Wil-
liam de Sloys, in which is difplayed the fkill of the archi-
teft, in adapting the new parts to the former ftrufture.
The ftone-vaulting of the edifice was begun by biftiop
Cobham in 1327, and the whole was finifhed in 1357. The
beautiful central tower was conftrufted in 1374. Worcefter
cathedral is in the exterior extremely plain, and its attrac-
tions confift principally in the height, fpace, and the light-
nefs of its architefture, to which the lofty pinnacles, rifing
from every termination of the building, as well as from the
tower, not a little contribute. The external length, in-
cluding buttrefles, is 426 feet ; the internal, 394 : that of
the nave, from the front to the weft tranfept, 180 ; of the
choir, including the organ-loft, 120; of the Lady -chapel,
60; of the weft crofs or tranfept, 128; and of the eaft
tranfept, 120 feet. The nave is feparated from the aifles
by ten clullered columns on each fide, fupporting three
ranges of pointed arches ; an arrangement alfo carried on
through the choir. A ftone pulpit, originally placed near
the weft end of the nave, is now fixed at the north fide of
the choir. It is of an octagonal form, ornamented with
emblematic fculpture, and furmounted by a canopy.

Worcefter cathedral has, like many otlier edifices of the
fame nature, been a great fufferer by the lapfe of time, and
by the various modes of repair adopted at different periods.
It now fcarcely contains one arris or moulding, as originally
conftrufted. Roman cornices now occupy the place of
battlements ; buttrefles are pannelled in various hetero-
geneous ways ; pinnacles have been reftored after the Gre-
cian fchool ; windows formed without ramifications or
cufps, and filled with modern ftained glafs, deftitute of
fiibjetl or defign ; Roman arches refting on entablatures, to
fupport or ftrengthen the tranfepts ; Roman fquares with
leaves, inftead of proper bafes to regular cluttered pillars.
Indeed this edifice affords a curious, but not a very pleafing,
difplay of heterogeneous parts and ftylee.

Of the numerous monuments contained in the cathedral,
a few only can be noticed in this work. Between the
pulpit and the communion-table, in the midft of the choir,
is placed the altar-tomb of king John, who died in 1216.
On it is extended hi« effigy. The infcription, " Johannes
Rex Angliffi," is now almoft illegible. The figure, as
large as life, has in the right-hand a fceptre, and in the left
a fword, with its point in the mouth of a lion couchant at
the feet. On each fide, on a level with the pavement, are
fmall figures cf biftops Ofwald ^nd Wul!bn. It had long

been imagined that this monument was merely an honorary
cenotaph, while the body of John really lay in the Lady-
chapel ; but by an inveftigatfon in 1797, the contrary was
afcertained. Removing the effigy and ftone on which it
refted, the interior of the monument was laid open. Be-
tween two brick walls, and under fome elm boards, lay a
ilone coffin containing the royal corpfe. The body had
evidently been deranged at fome former period ; but many
of the parts were very perfeft. Inftead of the crown, how-
ever, as ftiewn in the effigy, the head had been invefted
with the hood of a monk's cowl. The body had been en-
veloped in an embroidered robe, feemingly of crimfon
damafk. The coffin refted on the pavement of the choir,
and the original cover was the ftone on which the effigy is
fculptured. On the right-hand of the communion-table,
occupying one of the arcades between the choir and the
fouth aifle, ftands the celebrated monumental chapel or
chantry of Arthur, eldeft fon of Henry VII., and elder
brother of Henry VIII. This chapel, of an oblong form
is richly ornamented on the north, weft, and fouth fides, b
open fcreen-work ; the pillars adorned with a number o;
fmall ftatues, with (hields, rofes, and other figures em-
blematic of the houfes of York and Lancafter, whofe con-
tending claims to the Englifti throne were united in that
young prince, who died in 1502, in the 17th year of hi-
age. Againft the eaft end was placed an altar, behind
which was a wall ornamented with five figures ; in the centre
the Saviour, on the right-hand two kings in their robes,
and on the left another fimilar king, and a warrior in armour.
Over the ftatues are richly-wrought canopies. To preferve
thofe figures from deftruftion, they had been covered over
with plafter, probably in the reign of Elizabeth, and re-
mained thus unknown until November 1788, when the
plafter being removed, they were once more laid open to
view. The tomb of prince Arthur is of marble, with the
arms of England and France quartered, painted on the
fides ; round the edge of the cover is an infcription in
Englifli.

Worcefter cathedral contains alfo the monument of the
celebrated judge Littleton, the father of Englifh law, a
juftice of the common pleas under Edward IV., who died
in 1 48 1. Of more modern fepulchral monuments it will be
fufiicient to mention thofe of bifhops Hough, Maddox, and
Johnfon, not only for the eminent names they commemorate,
but as diftinguiftied examples of modern fculpture. Attached
to the fouth fide of the nave of the church is the ancient
cloifter, a fquare of about 120 feet, on the eaft fide of
which is the chapter-houfe, a decagon of 58 feet in dia-
meter, and 45 in height, the roof of which is fupported by
a central column ; it now ferves as a library, as well as a
council-room, and contains a valuable coUedfion of books,
and of manufcripts, chiefly relating to the canon law.
Adjoining to the fouth fide of the cloifter is the ancient re-
fedtory of the monaftery attached to the cathedral, called
the college-hall, a lofty and fpacious room, 120 feet long
by 38 broad, now kept as the king's fcliool. Here are
alfo held the triennial mufical meetings of the three choirs
of Worcefter, Hereford, and Gloucefter, for the benefit of
the widows and orphans of the clergy of their refpeftive
counties. This fchool was founded by Henry VIII. for
forty fcholars, who are prepared for the univerfity, and in-
ftrufted in various branches of modern education. A little
to the eaftward of the chapter-houfe ftands the audit-hall,
anciently called the Gueilen-hall, built in 1320, for the
entertainment of ftrangers reforting to the monaftery and
cathedral. It is ftill the fcene of hofpitality during the
annual audits of the chapter of the cathedral. At the back

6 of L

WORCESTER.

of the feventh prebendal lioufe, which formerly belonged
to the kitchener or cook of the monaftery, are the remains
of the great kitchen, a fpacious oftagonal apartment,
34 feet in diameter.

Other places of worfliip belonging to the eftabliftiment
in Worccfter are, the churches of St. Peter the Great, St.
Michael, St. Alban, St. Helen, St. Andrew, St. Clement,
St. John Baptift, All Saints, St. Swithun, St. Martin, St.
Nicholas, and Claines. Of thefe buildings, fome preferve
their ancient appearance. St. Andrew's church is diftin-
guifhed by a fquare tower, 90 feet high, fupporting an
oftagonal fpire, in height 155 feet 6 inches; the whole
height being 245 feet 6 inches. The church and tower are
fuppofed to have been erefted in the eleventh century, but
the fpire was not added till 1 75 1. Among the various
monadic inftitutions of Worcefter was that remarkable one,
now called the Commandery, eitablifhed for the maintenance
of two chaplains, five poor men, and two poor women,
founded by St. Wulftan, who died in 1097 : it became,
after the diflolution, a part of the endowment of Chrift-
church in Oxford. Coramanderies were, among the knights-
hofpitallers of Jerufalem, the fame with the preceptories
among the knights-templars ; being focieties placed on the
country eftates of the order, under the controul of a com-
mander, but accountable to the grand prior or mailer in
London. Part of the ancient buildings ftill exift ; but the
whole, now in the poffeflion of a private individual, has of
late years undergone great alteration.

Though containing fo many parifh -churches in propor-
tion to the population, Worcefter is not deficient in the
number of chapels for various claffes of diflenters. Among
thefe, are reckoned Anabaptifts, Independents, Methodifts,
Prelbyterians, Quakers, and Roman Catholics.

On the fouth fide of the cathedral and cloiiler is an open
fpace, called the College-green, on the eaft fide of which is
a gate, known by the name of Edgar's tower, having on
the outer front the ftatues of that king and his two queens,
Elfleda and Elfrida. Antiquarian curiofity has been much
excited by charafters once exifting on this tower, fuppofed
to indicate a date nmch older than the received introduftion
of our prefent numerical figures into this part of the world.
But the charafters were probably .mifunderftood ; nor is the
lower itfelf believed to be of the age of Edgar, who died
in 975.

Northward from the cathedral, on the rifing bank of the
Severn, is the bifhop's palace, originally furrounded with
embattled walls in 1270, but brought into its prefent ftate
by bifhop StiUingfleet and fucceeding prelates. The weil
fide ftill retains much of the antique architefture.

Public Buildings. — The chief of thefe is the guildhall,
fituated on the weft fide of the High-ftreet, near the market-
place. It is a handfome edifice of two fpacious ftories,
iinilhed in 1723 : the lower part is in one room, no feet
6 inches long, by 25 feet 6 inches broad, and 21 feet high,
in which are held the feveral courts of juftice for the city
and the county. The council-chamber is 109 feet long, by
26 broad, and 15 feet 8 inches higli. The bridge over the
Severn, in length between the abutments 270 feet, and iu
breadth 25, is an elegant ftone ilrufture of 5 feniicircular
arches, opened in 1781. The centre arch is in fpan
41 feet, but the other arches gradually diminifh in width.
Connefted with the bridge a new ftreet has been opened,
leading into the middle of the city, and the new roads from
the weftward, the embankments, and quays along both fides
of the river, are at once ornamental and ufeful.

Charitable Injlitutions. — The chief of thefe is the houfe of
iaduilry, completed in 1 794, a handfome building on the ealt

fide of the city, advantageoufiy fituated on an enuucnce, and
calculated to accommodate 150 perfons belonging to the
diff'erent pariflies of the city. The infirmary, fituated in an
airy pofition, overlooking the race-ground, the river, and the
north-weft parts of the county, was commenced in 1767 :
it receives about 58 patients on an average annually. A
number of hofpitals and alms-houfes, fome of ancient found-
ation, provide fupport for age, and education for youth. A
free-fchool on the Lancafterian plan was eftabUljhed fome
years ago. The old county-gaol is fituated in the caftle-
yard ; but a new one has been lately erefted in the neigh-
bourhood of the infirmary, on the Howardian plan. The
city-gaol is an ancient building in a crowded fituation,
having been originally a Francifcan convent, founded in the
13th century, but granted to the city at the diffolution.

Public Amufements — Worcefter has long maintained its
claim to be one of the moft fafhionable cities in the weftera
parts of the kingdom : it is confequently the winter-refidence
of a number of confiderable families from the furrounding
counties of England and Wales. The theatre, aflemblies,
concerts, races, the various public walks, clubs, the public
library, &c. render Worcefter a bufy, gay, and much-fre-
quented city.

Municipal Government. — The city was incorporated by
Henry I., but the firft charter was granted in the 45th year
of Henry III. In 1 62 1, the 19th year of James I., a mayor
was eftablifhed. The corporation now confifts of a mayor,
fix aldermen, 24 common- council-men, and 48 alliftants,
by which laft two bodies tha magiftrates are chofen. But
the right of elefting the members for parliament extends
to upwards of 2000 citizens, the ftierifF being the return-
ing officer. Worcefter fent two reprefentatives to
parHament in the 23d year of Edward I. Florence of
Worcefter, the author of the Chronicon, a general hiftory
of the world down to i [18, when he died, was a monk of
the cathedral of this city. William of Worcefter was edu-
cated in Oxford in 1434, and drew up his " Polyandria
Oxonienfis," a hiftory of the learned men bred in that uni-
verfity. His Annals, at the end of the " Black Book" of
the exchequer, contain notes on the affairs of his own times.
The famous empyric and myftic philofopher, Edward Kelly,
was born in Worcefter towards the middle of the 16th
century. The relation of the impoftures of this perfon and
his affociate Dr. Dee, furnifhed by Lilly, prefent a humili-
ating pifture of the human mind and underftanding in thofe
days, on the continent as well as in England. Worcefter
produced, in 1650, the eminent lawyer lord Somers,who, by
his k'.iowledge and eloquence, defended the caufe of liberty
and juftice in the latter part of the reign of Charles II.,
when but few warm and able advocates were found on their
fide in Weftminfter-hall. See Somers, Lord.

Worcefter has long been rendered very interefting, from
the circumftance of the Royal Porcelain IVorks being efta-
bhftied within its walls. It is, on our part, a moft pleafing
duty, not only to trace its rife and progrefs, but to hold up its
elegant and highly-finifhed produftions to the attention of
the liberal and fcientific. A very material difference exifts
between this eftabliftiment, and others of a fimilar kind on the
continent ; as the improvements made by expenfive experi-
ments are here effefted at the fole charge of the proprietors,
while the moft famed manufaftories on the continent are fup-
ported and carried on at the coft of the government of the
countries to which they belong. The Worcefter porcelain
works were founded in the year 175 1, by Dr. Wall and a
company of proprietors, compofed of many gentlemen of
fortune and confideration in the city and county ; who con-
tinued to carry on the concern under thofe adverfe circum-
4 R 2 ftauccs

WORCESTER.

(lances generally attending the introduftion of a new /pedes
of manufafture : for at that time little was known of porce-
lain in England, except by the imports from foreign nations.
The Worcefter porcelain company had the merit of dif-
covering the method of transferring impreffions from engraved
copper-plates to the furface of the porcelain. The invention,
after a lapfe of feveral years, was conveyed into Stafford-
ihire, and now forms a grand branch of the extenfive foreign
and home trade carried on in the potteries, giving employ-
ment to many thoufands. The founders of this manufaSory,
befides the printing, produced neat enamelled defigns, but
not very fuperior either in defign or execution. Thefe ex-
tenfive premifes, fituate on the banks of the Severn, were
fubfequently purchafed by Meffrs. Jofeph Flight and Martin
Barr, and by a liberal pohcy, and great exertion and expence
in a long feries of experiments,the produftions of thefe works
have rilen rapidly in the public eftimation. His prefent
majefty, the queen, and princeffes, in the year 1788, ho-
noured the manufaftory by minutely infpefting its various
procefles ; and at this time the king gracioufly granted his
patent, when thefe works were ftyled ' Royal,' being the
firft that enjoyed this diftiniStion. His majefty condefcended
to fuggeft the eftabliihment of a warehoufe in London, and
one was immediately opened in Coventry-ftreet. The pro-
prietors have fince had the honour of receiving a patent and
every encouragement froin his royal highnefs the prince
regent, the enlightened patron of the arts ; and from the late
princefs Charlotte, as well as from other members of the royal
family, and even from foreign courts } but our limits forbid
our entering into detail. On the demife of Martin Barr,
efq. in the year 1813, he was fucceeded by his fons ; and
the works are now carried on under the firm of Fhght, Barr,
and Barr. It is not a little remarkable, that a confiderable
part of the export trade of the Worcefter porcelain works
is to our fettlements in the Eaft Indies, and even to Canton.
We cannot but obferve the Angular change in our commer-
cial relations In this manufaBure ; for the Chinefe, who
feventy years fince furniftied this country and nearly all
Europe with porcelain, are now excluded from our markets,
and thrown into the back-ground, and their extenfive manu-
faftories nearly ruined. What Wedgwood did in his coarfer
clays, in his beautiful imitations of the Etrufcan vafes, and
in antique defigns on jafper, will long live in the recolleftion
of his country. The fame fpirit feems to aftuate the pro-
prietors of the Royal Worcefter Porcelain Works, as they
have fpared no expence in their Jiner materials, and highly-
finiftied models and paintings, to excel the manufaftories on
the continent. In thefe works, the utmoft attention is
paid to the ftudy of hiftorical compofitions, landfcapes,
flowers, &c.; and the fuccefs which has attended the new me-
thod is moft evident, as the produftions now fairly rival the
beft foreign fpecimens. It is with pecuhar pleafure we can
at length announce, that we have feen ?i fabric, recently made
by the prefent proprietors of thefe works, which in its colour,
frafture, and tranfparency, is equal to the porcelain made at
Sevre or Drefden. This fabric is compofed entirely of Britijb
materials, and the faft muft be the ground of triumph, after
all that has been faid of the impoffibility of finding in this
country proper materials/or a true porcelain. The procefs is
moft curious and elaborate, of which we can but give a
flight defcription, as its details are fo^ numerous. It may
be viewed by tickets, granted by order of the proprietors
to any refpeftable individuals leaving their namts. The
materials, feveral of which are procured from the county of
Cornwall, are firft felefted with great care, and fome undergo
a fevere calcination previous to their being compofed in
proper proportions ; they are then weighed and mixed,

and burnt in a kiln to a very iutenfe degree of heat, and
form what is termed a • frit.' This is ground under a
maffive iron roller previous to an admixture of a certain pro-
portion of the pureft argil, or working clay, which is ground
with the frit in a mill, the bottom of which is laid with
ftone, over which large ftones of about fifteen hundred or
a ton weight are driven by upright ' drivers,' fixed in
wooden arms attached to the centre ftiafts ; thefe, with
water, reduce the fubftance to a tliick white liquid, which
is afterwards paffed through an extremely fine lawn fieve,
and is run from cifterns into large brick pans, warmed by
flues underneath ; the heat being fufScient to drive off, by
evaporation, the water that cannot be coUefted on the fur-
face, fo that the refiduum is a moift clay, which is after-
wards tempered in ftone vaults, and rendered fit for the ufe
of the potter. The man who firft brings the rude mafs of
clay into form, on a circular block, moved horizontally by
a boy, who drives a vertical wheel, is called a ' thrower.' '
The dexterity and rapidity with which the clay appears to
fpring into the ftiape required feems like magic, as it is
performed filently, and almoft unperceived, by the preflure
of the fingers and thumb. This mode of ' throwing' differs
from the Chinefe method, and that praftifed on the con-
tinent, where the thrower moves his block by the aftion of
his feet : in the one he has the advantage of an undivided
attention, and the clay is literally obedient to his touch ;
while in the foreign method, the thrower is diftrafted with
two diftinft operations, and at the beft it can be but a
clumfy exhibition. By this mode all round velfels derive
their firft formation ; any article of an oval, fquare, or other
fhape, muft be made off a mould formed of alabafter, pre-
pared in a powder, and with water brought into a hquid
form, when it is run on the model, and fets quite hard, pre-
fenting a cafe the precife reverfe of the model, on which
layers of clay, cut to a proper thicknefs, are preffed with a
fponge and the hand, and the artift from this is termed ' a
preffer.' Great care is requifite in drying the different
articles in a ftove after they come from the thrower, to render
them fufBciently firm to hang on a lathe, where they are
reduced to a proper thicknefs, and a more accurate form,
by a turner, who works his wheel on the fame principle as
one for wood or ivory. It is again committed to the ftove,
where it is rendered quite dry and crifp ; and the furface is
afterwards fponged, and then rubbed with paper perfeftly
fmooth. In pieces which have any particular marks or
decorations in the clay, they are preffed from moulds, and
the handles are attached to the vefTel fimply by the clay
reduced to a liquid form. When burnt, the union is fo
complete, that it appears to have been made altogether, and
is perfectly as firm. We cannot trace the operations in this
ftage any farther, but are furprifed to fee how many hands
the moft fimple article paffes through, while the rifle and
labour in thefe and more elaborate fpecimens are very great
in this tender ftate of the clay. From the potter's-ftove
the ware is carried to what is termed the bifcuit-kiln, and
placed in cafes of fire-clay, called feggars, in which each
piece requires particular fupports to prevent its yielding to
the fire, and loCng its proper fhape. Here the porcelain is
burnt to an intenfe degree of heat, and is rendered quite
white and tranfparent, but has a flight roughnefs on its
furface. From hence it is carried to the warehoufe, exa-
mined, freed from duft and other imperfeftions, and then
dipped in a Hquid termed the glaze, dried in a ftove, and
afterwards every piece is carefully examined and ' trimmed ;'
which confifts in rendering the furface quite even, and
fcraping the glaze from the feet, which, if not removed,
would melt and adhere to the cafes in which they are burnt.

4 From

WORCESTERSHIRE.

From the glazing-room the articles are carried to the fecond
kiln, and here they undergo another fevere fire, which fluxes
■.he glaze, and gives to the porcelain a beautiful glofly fur-
ace. In this kiln the lofles are great, as the porcelain can
lave no fupport. It is again warehoufed, examined, and
lehvered to the painters, who decorate it with gold, reduced
jy a chemical procefs, fo that it may be worked in a hquid
"orm. In paintings of various defigns, the outline is made
,vith a black-lead pencil, on the glazed furface, corrected
srith Indian ink ; and the colours, all of which are prepared
Tom mineral fubftances, worked in oil and fpirits of turpen-
ine, are laid on with fine camel's-hair pencils. The colours
n this ilate are difficult for ftrangers to underftand, as their
:ints are fo furprifingly changed by the aftion of the fire ;
»^hile their opaque and obfcure appearance is increafed at
;very ftage of drying at a common fire, previous to their
jeing burnt in the kiln. The finer kinds of paintings in
igures, landfcapes, flowers, &c. require repeated burnings,
n order to give them fufficient depth and richnefs by work-
ng one tint over another. The enameUing kiln, in which
they are fired, is rendered fufficiently hot to fufe the glaze,
without occafioning it to run ; while the colours, by the
jid of their fluxes, are melted into the glaze, fo as to render
:heir union perfeft, and give them their rich tranfparent
?ffed.

The durability of thefe colours, which cannot be afted on
jy any atmofphere, renders good painting in this ftyle very
lefirable. It has long been a defideratum with the greateit
Tiafters to procure colours for painting on canvas, on which
ime can have no injurious effeft ; but in this they have hitherto
infortunately not fucceeded, and it was the regret of an
eminent artift, that his paintings had ngt the permanency of
torcelain colours. A method of printing, entirely different
rom the original mode invented by the founders of the works,
s now carried on here. (For a defcription, fee Printing
m Porcelain, m the Addenda. ) The laft operation is the bur-
lilhing of the gold, which is executed with a ftone, black in
Sts external appearance, and remarkable for its hardnefs and
':hehigh polifli it takes. This work is performed by women,
i.vho render the gold extremely brilliant by rubbing its fur-
ace with great care and flcill. The embofled gold, for
which this manufaftory is celebrated, is burniflied with a fine
igate, which is alfo ufed in chafing and in finifhing the
jjandles of vafes, &c. We have now iketched the procefs,
ijut we fhould not omit to mention that in every Jlage the
oorcelaiu is very liable to accident and imperfeftions ; and if
lot totally fpoiled, it may require a repetition of firings, which
iTiuch increafes the rifk and expence. The molt coflly arti-
:les are expofed in the fire from 150 to 200 hours, in their
Iliiferent itages colleftively. An important colour ufed in
jorcelain nianufaftories is the rich dark blue, generally called
■ royal.' It is prepared from cobalt, and the oxyd of
:his ore is fo powerful as to require the heat of the glaze-
jtiln to bring out its beautiful tint. It is not, like other
polours, worked on a glazed furface, but laid on the porce-
i^ain after the firll burning, when in the rough or ' bifcuit'
iltate, then fired, and afterwards dipped in the glaze, and
jpaffed through the glaze-kiln, frequently requiring two or
!;hree fuch ordeals of heat to perfeft its colour. We were
formerly fupplied with this mineral from the mines of
iSaxony, but have now the pleafure to learn that the proprie-
Itors of thefe works made fome fuccefsful experiments for a
;:ompany of gentlemen, who difcovered cobalt -ore in Corn-
jwall ; which by a particular preoaration produces as Jine a
blue as the Saxon cobalt, and it is now ufed in preference to the
loreign, which can only be imported in the adulterated
;:"orm of a zaffer. The refle(5Uon, that by fcience and labour

the rude materials of the earth are raifcd and converted
into elegant and ufeful forms, and embellifhed with claffi-
cal and tafteful defigns, is highly pleafing ; while it affords
the means of maintenance to fo many induftrious work-
men and ingenious artifts. All the psrfons employed in
thefe interefting works are Britifh, and this manufafture
ftands as one proof of the increafed civilization of England.
— The Hiftory and Antiquities of Worceiler, by Valentine
Green, 2 vols. 410. 1796. Beauties of England and Wales,
Worceilerftiire -, by F. C. Laird, 8vo. 1813. Graphic and
Hifl:orical Defcription of the Cathedrals of Great Britain,
Worceft;er, 8vo. 1 8 15. Hiftory, &c. of Worceiler, by
J.Chambers, 8vo. 18 18.

Worcester, the fouth-eafterly county of the ftate of
Maryland, with 16,971 inhabitants, including 4427 flaves.

Snowhill is the chief town Alfo, a county of Maffa-

chufetts, large and populous, with 50 townfhips, 53 cgn-
gregational churches, and 64,910 inhabitants ; 50 miles
long from N. to S. and 40 broad. — Alfo, a town of the
ftate of MalTachufetts, containing 2577 inhabitants. This
is the chief town of a county of the fame name, and one of
the largeft inland towns in the ftate. It contains tvro
churches, a town-houfe, and a gaol ; 34 miles W. of Boilon.
N. lat. 42° 10'. W. long. 71° 46' — Alfo, a townfhip of
Vermont, in the county of Chittenden, with 41 inhabitants ;
30 miles N, of New Haven. — Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfyl-
vania, in the county of Montgomery, with 868 inhabitants ;

18 miles N.W. of Philadelphia Alfo, a town of Ohio, in

the county of Waftiington, with 385 inhabitants.

WORCESTERSHIRE, an inland county in the weft-
em part of England, bounded by Herefordfhire, which
feparates it from Wales, on the S.W.,by Shropfhire on the
N.W., by Staffordfhire on the N., by Warwickfliire on
the E., and by Gloucefterlhire on the S. The form of the
county is very irregular, having on every fide detached
parts furrounded by other counties, and comprehending
within its bounds parts belonging to the neighbouring
fhires. The mean length may be eftimated at about 30
miles, and the mean breadth at 25 miles, giving a furface of
750 fquare miles, or 480,000 acres ; but according to the
official report laid before parliament, the contents are re-
duced to 431,360 acres: about two-thirds of the county
lie on the E. and one-third on the W. fide of the river
Severn. Worcefterfhire comprehends one city, eleven
market-towns, three of them parliamentary boroughs, and
in all 152 parifhes ; the whole is diftributed into five hun-
dreds. The inhabitants amounted, in 18 11, to 160,546, of
whom 78,033 were males, and 82,513 females, and the in-
habited houfes were 30,206.

Hijlorical Events. — Worcefterfhire is fuppofed to have
formed a part of the territory of the Cornavii, who alfo
inhabited the contiguous diftrifts of Warwickfliire, Stafford-
fhire, Shropfhire, and Chefliire. That numerous tribe ap-
pear from the Notitia Imperii to have furniflied bodies of
troops to the Roman armies ; but no trace of their name is
now to be difcovered in the trafts they are believed to have
occupied. The county was called by the Saxons Wire-
ceajler-fcire, and in Domefday-book Wirecejlre-fcire, and the
inhabitants in Bede's time were named IVicci ; a term
which, in the opinion of Camden, m-ay have been derived
from Wich, fignifying, in the old Englifli language, a fait-
pit, in allufion to the mines of that fubftance found in the
county. Of the Roman hiftory of Worcefterfliire but
little is known. Ptolemy feems to take no notice of it ;
nor does it appear to be traverfed by any of the roads traced
out in the Itineraries of Antoninus. It is highly probable,
however, that Worcefterfhire muft have been the theatre of

parts

WORCESTERSHIRE.

part* of the exploits of Oftorius, when proprxtor in Bri-
tain ; becaufe he was certainly pofted on the Sabrina, now
the Severn. The other river mentioned by the hiftorians
of his operations, the jintona, has been by feme writers con-
jeftured to be the Avon, which falls into the Severn in the
S. part of the county, while others fuppofe it to fignify
the Nen of Northamptonlhire. The Roman roads, of
which veiliges are difcovered in different parts of Worcef-
terfhire, although not known to be laid down in the Itine-
raries, fufBciently prove the county to have profited by the
arts and the policy of the conquerors, in the opening of
communications ; one of the earlieft and moft effeftual
means of promoting civilization, as well as of eftabhftiing
dominion, among a rude and vanquiflied people. One of
thefe ancient or Roman roads is the Runcd-way, or Ridge-
way, on the E. fide of the county, running between Wor-
cefler and Alcefter, in Warwickfhire : another is a paved
way from Kenchefter, in Herefordfliire, pointing N.E.
towards Worcefter. The great Ikening-ftreet enters the
county from StafFordftiire, and pafTes near Bromfgrove :
another great road, fuppofed by Nafli to be the ancient
Portway, but now called the King's head-land, pafles over
Hagley common. According to Dr. Stukeley, a Roman
road extended from Worcefter down the bank of the Severn
to Upton, and thence to Tewkefbury on the N. border of
Gloucefterfhire, where it joined Ricning-ftreetway. Wor-
cefterfhire formed a part of the Saxon kingdom of Myrcna-
ric, or Mearc-lond, in Latin changed into Merkia. This,
by much the largeft kingdom of that people in England,
was founded by Crida about the year 586, and enlarged
by Penda, under whom the Chriftian rehgion was introduced
among the Merkians. During the ftruggles between the
native Britons and their invaders, this part of the country
muft have fufFered feverely ; but at laft the Britons, driven
from the plains, retired behind the Severn into the moun-
tainous tracls of Wales. The ravages of the Danes in the
9th and loth centuries were not unknown in Worcefter-
ftiire ; and to that people tradition afcribes various fepul-
chral and military antiquities difcovered in it.

During the heptarchy, the greater part of Worcefterfhirc,
Gloucefterfhire on the E. of the Severn, and a portion of
Warwickfhire, were inhabited by the IVicdi, and under the
jurifdiftion of the bifhop of Worcefter : but on the accef-
Con of Wilham of Normandy, the epifcopal government
was fuperfeded, and the civil power entrufted to the fheriffs
of Worcefter. The firft of thefe was Urfo of Abitoth, as he
is ftyled in Domefday-book, fon of the lord of that place, in
Normandy, and brother of Robert Le Defpenfer, anceilor
of the prefent families of that name in England. Urfo is
alfo ftyled Vice-comes, having received from the king the
hereditary fhrievalty, with the conftableftiip of the caftle of
Worcefter. He fat in the great councils held in London
in the 15th, and in Weftminfler in the i8th years of Wil-
liam L During the confpiracy of Roger, earl of Here-
ford, and Ralph, earl of Norfolk, he prevented the former
from paffing over the Severn to form a junftion with the in-
furgents. His daughter and heirefs, Emmeline, married
Walter, the progenitor of Beauchamp, whofe family after-
wards became earls of Warwick. The firft earl of Wor-
cefter was Walleran de Mellent, a relation of the royal
family. He held alfo the paternal honours in Normandy ;
but fiding with the barons againft Henry I., his eftates
were laid wafte, himfelf long held a prifoner, and even
when enlarged not entrufted with the keeping of any of
his own caftles. Taking part with Stephen againft the
emprefs Maud, his city of Worcefter was carried by affault,
and reduced to afties. Dying s prifoner in Normandy, his

fon inherited the Norman but not the Englifh honours.
All this happened in the 1 2th century ; and the title of
earl of Worcefter feems to have lain dormant until 1 397,
when it was conferred on Thomas Percy, fon of Henry, lord
Percy, by his firft wife Mary, daughter of Henry Plan-
tagenet, earl of Larcafter, and brother of Henry L earl of
Northumberland. This gallant earl of Worcefter, accom-
panying the Black Prince to France, &c. diftinguiflied him-
felf under the command of John of Gaunt, duke of Lan-
cafter. The title in 1420 was beftowed on Richard Beau,
champ, of the houfe of Warwick, defcended from the firft
Norman fheriff or earl. He ferved with great reputation
in France ; but dying in 1449 without male iflue, the title
was granted to John Tibetot or Tiptoft, baron of Powis.
Under Henry VI. he was charged with the guard of the
narrow feas, and appointed lord-deputy of Ireland ; and by
Edward IV. juftice of North Wales, conftable of the
Tower of London, and treafurer of the exchequer. Soon
after he became chancellor of the kingdom, ilill, however,
retaining his command at fea. It was not in military and
ftate affairs alone that this nobleman diftinguiftied himfelf.
Educated at Oxford in all the learning of thofe days, he
afterwards vifited Jerufalem for devotion ; alfo Padua, Ve-
nice, and Rome, to confult the libraries and the learned fo-
cieties of thofe places ; and was the author of feveral works.
On the temporary reftoration of Henry VI. by Neville,
earl of Warwick, the earl of Worcefter was apprehended
and beheaded at London in 147 1. His fon was afterwards
replaced in the family honours and eftates by Edward IV. ;
but dying without ifTue in 1485, the title was, by
Henry VIII., conferred on Charles, natural fon of Henry,
duke of Somerfet. His grandfon, Henry, was created mar-
quis of Worcefter by Charles I. ; and his grandfon, Henry,
was, in 1682, by Charles II. created duke of Beaufort, the
title of marquis of Worcefter being by courtefy attached to
the eldeft fon of that family to the prefent time.

State of Property. — Prior to the Norman Conqueft, great
part of the lands of Worcefterfhire belonged to the church ;
but on that event much was beftowed on the favourites and
followers of the Conqueror. Very little is nowpoffefTed by
the defcendants of the ancient proprietors ; for in the
various revolutions of the kingdom, the adherents of the
lofing fovereign were in general deprived of their property.
Wilham Beauchamp, baron of Elmfley, pofTeffed great
eftates by defcent from the firft earl of Worcefter ; but loft
them by adhering to the emprefs Maud againft Stephen.
They were reftored however by Henry II. In the con-
lefts between king John and the barons, the grandfon of
William Beauchamp was a material fufferer ; for having
taken the fide of the nobles, the church of Worcefter, on
the re-eftabhfhment of John's power, laid hold of the op-
portunity to enlarge their precinfts, abridging the accom-
modations of the caftle, fo that it was no longer fit for the
habitation of the fheriff and his retinue ; and from that time
it began to fall into decay. The whole county was then
the property of, or poffefFed by ecclefiaftics, and by a few
barons ; nor was it until a much later period that a more
general divifion of lands, from various caufes, took place.
In the reign of Richard II., the Beauchamps, earls of
Warwick, were again deprived of their lands : under
Henry VII. other large pofTefTors of land, who had borne
arms in Bofworth-field, were ftripped of their property.
But the greateft forfeiture of lands in Worcefterfhire took
place in confequence of the attainder and execution of
Edward, earl of Warwick, who had taken the part of
Perkin Warbeck againft Henry VII. Confiderable changes
were alfo occafioned by the transfer under Henry VIII. of

the

WOKCESTEIISHIRE.

the lands of the diffolved religious eftablifhments, to his
favourites and the nobles who co-operated in his fchemes.
In the unhappy reign and life of Charles I ., Worcefterniire
was often the theatre of warfare ; many ellates were dila-
pidated or ruined, and but few really acquired ; for the
prices fet on the church-lands by the parliamentary fur-
veyors were fo enormous, that though fold at nominally a
few years value, the purchafers generally loft by the acqui-
Gtion. In later times, the changes of property in this
county have been numerous and frequent ; but the caufes of
thofe changes depending on private motives and not on
public interefts, as in former days, they do not come within
the fcope of this article. It is, however, worthy of remark,
that out of the great number of families who recorded their
armorial bearings, on the firft vifitation of the county by
the Clartncieux, king at arms, in 1533, only fix or feven
now remain, and of thefe only two refide on the ancient family
sftates. Of thofe named in the laft vifitation (1683) but few
defcendants now exift. By thefe changes, however, it has
happened in Worcelterfhire, as in other diftriiSls where manu-
faftures and commercial enterprize prevail, that the landed
property is now diftributed amongft a much greater number
of proprietors, and that the country is incomparably better
peopled and cultivated than in former times.

General AJfcS, Soil, and Climate. — When viewed from any
of the numerous furrounding eminences, Worcefterlhire
iffumes the afpeft of a plain, the gentle flopes and rifings
an the eaft and weft of the capital being then fcarcely
Hefcernible. From thofe eminences alfo the cultivation of
'.he plains is viewed to great advantage, as there are no trafts
i>f confiderable extent fo barren or fo negletted as not to
jjrefent an agreeable as well as profitable verdure. On a
learer view, from a hill in the centre of the county, to the
^aftward of the capital, a moft beautiful landfcape prefents
itfelf ; the whole back-ground, diftant from eight to twelve
miles, appears to be the continuation of one range of hills,
;nclofmg rich and beautiful plains, in which the flouriftiing
Ihop-grounds and plentiful orchards conftitute very inte-
'•efting and gratifying objefts.

' The foil of the county is various ; but it chiefly confifts
)f rich loamy fand, mixed with a fmall proportion of gravel,
'n the central parts on the north of Worcefter. Towards
:he eaft the foil is a very light fand, containing a few fpots
|)f clay, and fome peat-earth ; but the eaftern diftrift of the
r:ounty is, in general, a ftrong clay, the wafte lands being
lorincipally a deep black peat-earth. Between Worcefter
ind the vale of Eveftiam, in the fouth-eaft part of the
i;ounty, the foil is partly red marie, and partly ftrong clay,
Vhilft the fubfoil in fome places is compofed of lime-ftone.
in the celebrated vale of Eveftiam, watered by the river
\von, the foil is particularly deep, of a darkifti earth, reft-
Ing on clay, and in parts on gravel. Farther fouth lime-
tone prevails, in the upper lands, on the ftiirts of the Cotf-
'vold hills, and a rich loam in the lower lands. In the
•buth-weft divifion of the county, between the Severn and
he Malvern hills, the foil is in general clay, mixed with
land or gravel ; but farther to the northward the gravel in-
preafes, until it terminates in the hght fands of the northern
lorder of the county. In all of thefe diftrifts, however,
'ome rocky and ftony foil is found ; but according to Mr.
I^omeroy, in his Agricultural Survey, no traces of chalk or
Hint any where occur ; nor have any been found, it is faid.
In the lime-quarries. The vale of Severn is defcnbed by
jVlr. Pitt, in his fubfequent furvey of the county, to contain
)robably ten thoufand acres of a deep rich fediment, depo-
Pited in the courfe of ages by the river and its tributary
llreams. In fonae parts, this fediment confifts of a pure

water-clay, fit for brick-making, but generally of a rich
mud, fertile and favourable to vegetation. The county has
been lately diftributed in the following manner :

Common fields of arable land eftimated at
Inclofed ditto .....
Permanent grafs-land ....
Kitchen-gardens, &c. . - -

Woods, waftes, rivers, roads, &c.

Whole county about

Acres.

20,000

340,000

100,000

5,000

35>ooo
500,000

Refpefting the corn-produce of the county, it is thus efti-
mated in Pitt's furvey : In 360,000 acres of arable land,
43,500 are fuppofed to be laid down in wheat, yielding
from 20 to 32 h\i(he\sper acre, or 1,200,000 buftiels on an
average. From this quantity deducing 108,750 buftiels,
at 2i per acre, the remaining neat produce is 1,091,250
buftiels.

The climate of Worcefterftiire, particularly in the middle,
fouthern, and weftern parts, is ftated to be remarkably mild,
foft, and healthy. The vale of the Severn rifes but little
above the fea, and the valleys of the Avon and Teme are
nearly on the fame level ; and the adjoining uplands, feldom
rifing at the moft 150 feet higher, poffefs a warmth and foft-
nefs which ripen the grain and bring to perfeftion the
fruits of the earth, from a fortnight to a month earlier than
in more elevated counties, even enjoying a fimilar foil and
furface. The principal bleak and inclement parts are the
Bredon and Broadway hills on the fouth border of the
county, and the Lickey range on the north : for the Mal-
vern hills on the weft, although only ftieep-pafture, poftefs
a moft falubrious climate.

Hills. — The higheft hills are certain points of the Lickey
range, which, rifing to the north-eaft of Bromfgrove, runs
north towards Hagley, and diverges to the eaftward. Some
of thofe points are eftimated to be elevated 800 or 900 feet
above the general level of the country. On this range is a
fmall fpring producing two ftreams, one of which flows
northward to the Rea, which falls into the Trent, and with
it is difcharged into the German ocean on the eaft fide of
the ifland ; the other, falling into the Stour, is carried by
the Severn into the Briftol Channel on the weft. Bredon.
hill, in the fouth-eaft corner of the county, is of about
equal elevation. The higheft point of the Malvern range
of hills, called the Herefordftiire beacon, rifes, according
to the great ordnance furvey of England, 1444 feet above
the level of the fea : the Worcefterftiire beacon, barometri-
cally meafured, rifes 1298 feet; and North-hill 121 1 feet
above the Severn.

Rivers. — Thefe are, the Severn, the Avon, the Teme,
and the Stour ; the fmaller ftreams are, the Salwarp, Arrowe,
Ledden, Rea, &c. The Severn, called by the Romans
Sabrwa, is fuppofed to be fo named from the Britifti terms
fabr, fand, or fabrtn, fandy, becaufe ,it is often turbid,
efpecially when heavy rains fall on the Welfti mountains. See
Severn.

The river Avon is faid to have been originally fo named
by the Britons, on account of the gentlenefs of its courfe.
It is commonly diitinguifhed from a number of other rivers
in Britain of the fame name, as the Warwickftiire-Avon,
and will be ever memorable while the name of Shakfpeare
remains. Entering Warwickftiire towards the fouth-eaft
corner, the Avon, by a winding courfe, waters the vale of
Eveftiam, pafles by Perfliore, and unites with the Severn in
the neighbourhood of Tewkeftjury. It is navigable for

barges

WORCESTERSHIRE.

barges through the whole extent of the county, by means
of locks in different places. See Avon.

The Teme, rifing in RadnorOiire, enters Worcefterfliire
a little above Tenbury, arid thence purfuing a winding but
rapid courfe, through a fucceffion of beautiful and romantic
fcenery, along the woods and dales of Stanford, the feat of
fir Edward Winnington, bart., it is loft in the Severn below
Worcefter. From the decUvity of its bed, and confequent
rapidity, it is navigable for barges only up to Powick bridge,
a mile and a half from the Severn. But although on this
account the Teme be of little commercial ufe, it is peculiarly
ornamental to the county, no part of which furpafles the banks
of this ftrcam in variety of ground, wood, and open lawn.
A ramble along its various windings, extending upwards of
twenty miles, through a fucceffion of orchards, hop-grounds,
corn and pafture land, is, in autumn, pecuharly agreeable.
The Stour, an inconfiderable ftream, has rifen into notice
fince the opening along its courfe of the important canal by
Kidderminfter, uniting the Severn and the Merfey. The
Salwarp purfues its (hort courfe to the Severn by Bromf-
grove and Droitwich, where it formerly received the over-
flowings of the falt-fprings, but thefe are now turned into
the new canal from that town to the Severn. The other little
ilreams of Worcefterfhire merit no particular notice.

Canals. — Connefted with the natural rivers are the arti-
ficial canals opened throughout the county. Thefe are, the
Trent-and-Severn, or the Staffordihire and Worcefterfhire
canal, more commonly called the Stourport canal, from
the place where it falls into the Severn, eleven miles north
from Worcefter ; the Droitwich canal, for the conveyance
of the produce of the falt-fprings to the Severn ; the Wor-
cefter and Birmingham canal ; the Dudley extenfion canal ;
and the Leominfter canal, near Tenbury. See Canals.

Woods and Forefls About the time of the Norman

Conqueft, Worcefterfhire was confidered to poffefs five
forefts ; namely, thofe of Feckenham, Omberfley, Hore-
w«U, Malvern, and Wyre ; but of the laft only a fmall por-
tion lies within the county. Feckenham foreft, once very
extenfive, has now almoft difappeared, owing to the con-
tinual demand for fuel to the falt-works at Droitwich, until
of late years a fufBcient fupply of pit-coal has been ob-
tained. Omberfley foreft, on the north of Worcefter, and
liorewell foreft on the fouth, have long been difafforefted.
Malvern foreft or chafe extended between the Severn and
the fummit of the hiUs of the fame name, where may ftill be
traced the trench which divided the foreft and the county
from Herefordftiire on the weft. Wyre foreft, on the north
border of the county, now more properly belongs to Shrop-
fhire and Staffordftiire. Befides the veiliges of thefe forefts,
the county contains feveral trafts of woodland, of oak, elm,
and beech : but from the demand for young trees to make
hop-poles, and for trees to be converted into charcoal for
the iron-works in the neighbouring counties, much timber of
fuperior fize cannot now well be expefted in Worcefterfhire.

Mineralogy. — The minerals of this county are neither nu-
merous nor pecuharly valuable. Clay and lime-ftone are
abundant ; but coal, to render the latter ufeful in agri-
culture as well as building, is not eafily procured where
the ftone is found. Some coal is indeed raifed in the north-
weft diftrift, about Mamble, where is a rail- way leading
to the Leominfter canal. Coal is alfo found at Penfax,
and the Whitley-hills, in the fame quarter, and is much
ufed for coke for the hop-kilns and hme-pits ; but the vein
is too thin to promife much advantage to the county at
large, which is principally fupplied from the StafFordfhire
mines, by means of the Severn. In the vale of Evefham,
and many other parts of the county, fuel is particularly

fcarce and dear. The lime-ftone quarries about Dudley are
very extenfive, and extremely curious excavations : but al-
though the town ftands in a detached part of the county,:
inclofed by Stafford fhire, thofe quarries aftually belong to;
the latter county. Building-ftone of different forts is alfc
found in feveral parts. But the principal mineral riches of
Worcefterfhire -arife from the falt-mines of Droitwich, a
parliamentary borough, iituated fix miles north-eaft from
Worcefter, on the road to Birmingham. Thefe falt-works
are of great antiquity, having been granted by Kenulph,
king of Mercia, to the church of Worcefter, in 8i6 ; and
it appears from Domefday-book, that fhares in them were
annexed to many eftates at even a confiderable diflance, onj
account probably of the wood they yielded for the manu-l
fafture of the fait. The principal brine-pits, however,'
belonged to the crown, but were granted by king John to
the burgelfes of Droitwich. The general fubftratum of
the environs of the town is fuppofed to be a falt-rock,
lying ufually from 150 to 200 feet below the furface. On.
boring in any part, the falt-fprings are met with about no
feet below the furface : the boring-machine then paffes
through about 130 feet of gypfum to the brine-river, in
depth about 22 inches, beyond which is a bed of falt-rock
hitherto unexplored. In fearching for this brine-river fomc
years ago, the miners paffed through four feet of mould,,
32 of marie, 40 of gypfum, a brine -river of 22 inches, and
75 feet of another ftratum of gypfum, below which they
came to the falt-rock. (See Droitwich and Salt.) For
an account of the mineral waters of Malvern, fee that
article ; and more particularly the paper of Mr. Horner, in
the firft volume of the Geological Society of London.
Befides thefe, Worcefterfhire has fome chalybeate fprings at
Sandbourne and. the Round-hili, in the parifh of Kidder-i
minfter. •

Manufadures and Commerce. — The commerce of Worcef-
terfhire is confiderable, from its own produAions, and fromi
the depofit and tranfit of thofe of the neighbouring mining)
and manufafturing diftrifts. Of its own produfts may bei
noticed the hops, fruit, cyder, and perry, which render the:
capital the principal mart for thofe articles in the weftern
part of the kingdom. The county alfo exports a confider-
able furplus of its own manufa&ures, confifting of Kidder-i
minfter ftuffs and carpets ; of Worcefter gloves, china andi
glafs-ware, and of nails, bar and fheet iron. Great quan-
tities of fait are annually fent from Droitwich ; Evefham fur-
nifhes oil and oil-cake; timber, grafs-fceds, corn, flour,
malt, falmon, cattle and fheep, and other agricultural pro-
duftions are furnifhed by the county in general.

Ciii'tl and EccleJiajTical Dimjions. — Worcefterfhire is diridedi
into five hundreds ; -viz. Ofwaldeflow, Halfshire, Dodding-
ton, Perfhore, and Blackenhurft : the firft containing thei
capital and the centre of the county, with feveral detached '
portions in other quarters ; the fecond occupying the north-
weft parts ; the third, the north-eaft ; the fourth, the fouth ;
and the fifth, the fouth-eaft quarter, around Evefham. In
ecclefiaftical matters, the county is under the government of
the bifhop of Worcefter, and contains 152 parifhes. The
diocefe was formerly of great extent ; but in 1541 the fee of
Gloucefter, and in 1542 that of Briftol, being eredled, a
confiderable part of the epifcopal jurifdiftion of Worcefter
was withdrawn. At prefent the bifhopric comprehends all
the county, with the exception of 15 parifhes and 8 chapel-
ries belonging to Hereford ; about one-third part of War-
wickfhire, together with the parifhes of Brome and Clent 1
in Staffordftiire, and Hales-Owen in Shropfhire. The dio- ;
cefe thus contains 116 reftories, 79 vicarages, 26 curacies, ,
and 41 chapelries, all diftributed into 9 deaneries.

Parliamentary

' W O R

Parliamentary Hijlory. — Worcefterlhire has been repre-
fented in parliament ever llnce the third year of Edward III.,
, and at and ever fince the revolution has maintained a refpeft-
I able charafler for independence in the choice of its repre-
fentatives. In the early part of the laft century, fir John
, Pakynton accufed the bifhop of interfering in the e'eftion,
of forbidding the clergy to vote for fir John, of threatening
the tenantry of the fee not to renew their leafes if they
voted for him, and even of defiring the baronet to withdraw
his pretenfions. The charges were eftabhfhed ; and after a
long conteft between the two houfes of parliament, on an
, addrefs to queen Anne, the bifhop was difmiffed from his
office of almoner. Worcefterrtiire, which is included in
: the Oxford circuit, fends nine members to parliament ; viz,.
1 two for the county, two for the city of Worcefter, two for
ieach of the boroughs of Droit wich and Evelham, and one
I for the borough of Bewdley.

; Manjions and Country-feats. — Of thefe, Worcefterfhire con-
; tains a very confiderable number, fome of which are highly
deferving of notice. Hagley-park, the " Britilh Tempe" of
Thomfon, the favourite feat of the ingenious and amiable
lord Lyttelton, the hiftorian of Henry II., is fituated to-
:ward the northern frontier of the county. The grounds
'have long been celebrated for variety and beauty of fcenery.
Croome-court, the handfome feat of the earl of Coventry,
feight miles to the fouth of Worcefter, is more indebted to
.modern art and (IciU for its beauties than to the natural
;f9atures of the ground. The agricultural improvements,
ichiefly carried on by the late earl, are both extenfive and
'important. Six miles north from Worcefter is Omberfley,

W O R

fertile country, but fubjeft to inundations of the fea, efpe-
c.ally when the wind blows from the eaft. The harbour is
blocked up with fand, but it carries on a confiderable trade
by means of Us canals ; i8 miles S.W. of Lewarden. N.
iat. 53 . E. long. 5° 35'.

WORD, in Language, is an articulate found, defisned
to reprefent fome idea. *

Word, in Writing, is an affemblage of feveral letter";
forming one or more fyllables, and fignifying fome thing

The Port-royalifts define words to be diftina articulate
founds, agreed on by mankind for conveying their thousrhts
and fentiments.

The proper charafter of a word, according to the in-
genious Mr. Harris, is that of its being a found fignificant,
of which no part is of itfelf fignificant ; and hence he infers,
that words are the fmalleft parts of fpeech.

The firfl and moft obvious diftinftion of words is into
fuch as are fignificant abfolutely or by themfelves, and fuch
as are fignificant by relation : the former may be called prin-
cipals, and the latter acceffories. Moreover, all words
whatever, fignificant as principals, are either fubjlantives
or attributives ; and thofe, which are fignificant as accef-
fories, acquire a fignification either from being afTociated to
one word, in which cafe they only define and determine, and
may juftly be called definitives, or to many -words at once, in
which cafe they ferve to no other purpofe than to conneft,
whence they are called conneBives. Accordingly, Mr.
Harris refers all words to thefe four fpecies. Hermes,
p. 20, &c. See Speech.

Grammarians divide words into eight claffes, called farts

the refidence of the marchionefs of Downftiire, in the midft of fpeech ; which are, the noun, pronoun, verb, participle, ad-

vero, conjunttwn, prepojition, and mterjeamn ; to one or other
of which, all the words and terms in all languages, which
have been, or may be invented to exprefs our ideas, are re-
ducible. See each.

Words, again, are divided mto primitives and derivatives,
negative and pofitive, fimple and complex, common and proper,
alJlraR and concrete, fynonymous and equivocal.

With regard to their fyllables, words are farther divided
into monofyllables and poly fyllables.

The grammatical figures of words, which occafion
changes in the form, &c. thereof, are, fyncope, apocope,
apajlrophe, di^refis, apharefts, projlhefis, epenthefts, paragogt,
metathefis. See. See Syncope, Apocope, &c. See alfo
Figure.

The ufe of words, we have obferved, is to ferve as fen-
fible figns of our ideas ; and the ideas they fland for in

Df fpacious grounds. The houfe has been lately modernized,
Grafton-hall, about a mile weft from Bromfgrove, the pro-
perty of the earl of Shrewfbury, was in ancient times a
^capital manfion ; but being burned down in 1710, the porch
land a part of the hall alone remain as fpecimens of its ori-
Iginal magnificence. The latter has been converted into a
ichapel for a modern building annexed. Madresfield, fix
■miles fouth-weft from Worcefter, the refidence of vifcount
'Beauchamp, is an ancient baronial caftle, greatly altered in
'the modern ftyle. Whitley-court, the feat of lord Foley,
sight miles north-weft from Worcefter, is a highly improved
'and fpacious manfion, in the midft of an extenfive park.
The parifh-church, clofely adjoining to the houfe, is one of
'the moft elegant in the kingdom. Annexed to the fee of
'Worcefter is the ancient caftle of Hartlebury, the refidence
pf the bifhops from the time of Henry III., fituated be-

tween nine and ten miles north from Worcefter. The prin- the mind of the perfon that fpeaks, are their proper figni
:ipal part of the buildings, as they now ftand, is the work fications. '

■jf bifhop Hough. Much of the improvements, however,
'ire due to the late biftiop Hurd, who furnifhed the palace
With a valuable library, for the ufe of his fucceffors in the
(fee, in which are the principal books from the libraries of
,Mr. Pope and bifhop Warburton. — CoUeftions for the Hif-
tory of Worcefterfhire, by the Rev. Tredway Nafh, D.D.
J! vols. fol. Lond. 1781-2. Supplement to ditto, ditto,
1799. General View of the Agriculture of the County of
Worcefter, by William Thomas Pomcroy, 410. Lond. 1794.
General View of the Agriculture of the County of Wor-
|:efter, by W. Pitt, 8vo. Lond. 1813. Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, Worcefterfhire, by F. C. Laird, 8vo. Lond.
|i8i6.

j WORCUM, or Woudrichem, or Wodercum, a town
')f Holland, fituated on the fouth fide of the Wahal, firft
lurrounded with walls in 1460, and defended with four
oaftioBS ; 13 miles E.N.E. of Dort.
; WoRcuM, a fea-port town of Friefeland, fituated in a
j Vol. XXXVIII.

I

Simple and primitive words have no natural conneftion
with tlie words they fignify ; whence there is no rationale to
be given of them : it is by a mere arbitrary inftitution and
agreement of men, that they come to fignify any thing.
Certain words have no natural propriety or aptitude to ex-
prefs certain thoughts, more than others : were that the
cafe, there could have been but one language.

But in derivative and compound words the cafe is fome-
what different. In the forming of thefe, we fee a regard
is to be had to agreement, relation, and analogy : thus moll
words that have the fame ending, have one common and
general way of denoting or fignifying things; and thofe
compounded with the fame prepofitions, have a fimilar
manner of exprefling and fignifying fimilar ideas in all the
learned languages where they occur.

For the perfeftion of language, it is not enough, Mr,

Locke obferves, that founds can be made figns of ideas ;

unlefs thefe can be made ufe of, fo as to comprehend feveral

4 S particular

W O R

particular things; for the multiplication of words would
have perplexed their ufe, had every particular thing needed
a diftinft name to be fignified by.

To remedy this inconvenience, language had a farther
improvement in the ufe of general terms, by which one
word was made to mark a multitude of particular exiftences ;
which advantageous ufe of founds was obtained only by the
difference of the ideas they were made figns of : thofe names
becoming general, which are made to ftand for general
ideas ; and thofe remaining particular, where the ideas they
are ufed for are particular.

Some of our philofophers have complained much of the
great ufe, or rather abufe, of vague and general terms,
■which have no precife definite fignification. To diftinguifh
thefe, F. Malebranche obferves, that every thing that is, and
confequently every thing that is intelligible, is either a
being, or a mode and manner of being. Hence it is evi-
dent, that every term which does not fignify either of
thefe, fignifies nothing, and is an obfcure and confufed
term. In metaphylics, the ufe of fuch terms, he fays, is
fometimes neceffary and allowable, as in fpeaking of the
divine perfeftions, Sic. But in phyfics it is always mif-
chievous, however common.

It is obfervable, that the words which ftand for aftions,
and notions quite removed from fenfe, are borrowed from
fenfible ideas ; as, to imagine, apprehend, comprehend,
underftand, adhere, conceive, inftil, difguft, difturbance,
tranquillity, &.c. which are all taken from the operations of
tilings fenfible, and applied to modes of thinking. Spirit,
in its primary fignification, is no more than breath ; angel,
a meflenger. By which we may guefs what kind of notions
thofe were, and whence derived, which filled the minds of
the firft beginners of languages ; and how nature, even in
the naming of things, unawares, fuggefted to men the ori-
ginals of all their knowledge : whilft, to give names that
might make known to others any operations they felt in
themfelves, or any other ideas that came not under their
fenfes, they were forced to borrow words from the ordinary
and known ideas of fenfation.

The ends of language, in our difcourfe with others, are
chiefly three : firft, to make our thoughts or ideas known
one to another. This we fail in, i. When we ufe names
without clear and diftinft ideas in our minds. 2. When we
apply received names to ideas, to which the common ufe of
that language doth not apply them. 3. When we apply
them unfteadily, making them ftand now for one, and anon
for another idea.

Secondly, to make known our thoughts with as much
eafe and quicknefs as is poffible. This men fail in, when they
have complex ideas, without having diftinft names for them ;
which may happen either through the defeft of a language,
which has none ; or the fault of the man, who has not yet
learned them.

Thirdly, to convey the knowledge of things. This can-
not be done, but when our ideas agree to the reality of
things. He that has names without ideas wants meaning in
his words, and fpeaks only empty founds. He that has
complex ideas without names for them, wants difpatch in
his exprefCon. He that ufes his words loofely and un-
fteadily, will either not be mmdtd, or not underftood. He
that applies names to hie ideas, different from the common
ufe, wants propriety in his language, and fpeaks gibberifh ;
and he that has ideas of fubftances, difagreeing with the
real exiftence of things, fo far wants the materials of true
knowledge.
Words, Divifion of. See Division.
Words, General. See Ge.seral.

W O R

Words of Command. See Exercise. •
Word, Watch-Word, in an Army or Garrtfon, is fome
peculiar word or fentence, by which the foldiers are to.,
know and diftinguifh one another in the night, &c. and by:
which fpies and defigning perfons are difcovered. ,

It is ufed alfo to prevent furprizes. The word is given
out in an army every night by the general, to the lieutenant,
or major-general of the day, who gives it to the major of '
the brigades, and they to the adjutants ; who give it firft to
the field-officers, and afterwards to a ferjeant of each com-
pany, who carry it to the fubalterns.

In garrifons it is given, after the gate is fiiut, to the
town-major, who gives it to the adjutants, and they to the
ferjeants.

Word, in Heraldry, Sec. See Motto.

Words, Defamatory, Treafonable, &c., in Law. See-
Defamation, Scandal, and Treason.

WORDEN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Holftein, on the right fide of the Elbe; 10 miles N.W. of
Gluckftadt.

WoRDEN, Grojfen, a town of the duchy of Bremen ; 10
miles N.N.W. ot Stade.

WORDERNBERG, a mountain of the duchy of
Stiria ; 6 miles S.S.E. of Eifenhartz.

WORDINGBERG, a fea-port of Denmark, fituated
on the fouth coaft of the ifland of Zealand, oppofite the
ifland of Falfter. In the year 1066, Waldemar I. built a
ftrong caftle here, which is now gone to decay. Walde-
mar III., who was exceedingly fond of this place, refided
here for the moft part ; and in derifion of the Hanfe towns,
built the well-known tower, which, from a golden goofe
credled on the top of it, he called Gans, that is. The Goofe,
In this tower, he purpofed to confine the prifoners of the
Hanfe towns that fliould fall into his hands in the war he in-
tended to carry on againft them. As the old caftle gradually
fell to decay, prince George, who was brother to Chrif-
tian v., and married to Anne, queen of England, built
here an entire new caftle, which Frederick IV. afterwards
enlarged ; but that edifice has been pulled down. The
ufual pafTage to the iflands Falfter and Laaland is from this
place. In 1240, at a famous diet held here, the Old Juf-
tifche Low-buck, or Codex Legum Juricarum, was com>
piled and promulged : this body of laws is ftill in force in
South Jutland. In 1256 another diet was held here ; and in
1658, preliminaries for a peace between Denmark and
Sweden were treated of in this town; 43 miles S.W. of
Copenhagen. N. lat. 55° 3'. E. long. 11° 58'.

WORE. See Wyre.

WORENZUTTE, a town of Pruffia, in Ermeland ;.
8 miles S. of Heilftjerg.

WORGAN, Dr. John, in Biography, a mufical gra-
duate of Oxford, organift of St. Mary-Axe, Bedford !
chapel, and many years a diitinguiftied performer on the
organ at Vauxhall, and Dr. Arne's fucceifor there in the
compofition of cantatas, fongs, and ballads.

He learned the rudiments of mufic of his elder brother,
who had likewife an organift's place in the city, and played
the violoncello in the Vauxhall band. Their fcholars on the
harpfichord were very numerous, particularly within Temple-
bar ; and John, as an organift and opener of new organs,
rivalled Stanley. He was a very ftudious man, and dipt
very early into the old ecclefiaftical compofers of Italy. He
fucceeded Gladwin in playing the orgpu at Vauxhall. His
firft ftudy in compofition and organ-playing was diretled by
Rofeingrave, who pointed his attention to the pure harmony
and modulation of Palcftrina, and organ-fugues of Handel.
His couitant ufe of the organ at Vauxhall, during the

fummer, 1

W O R

fummer, ranked him with Stanley and Keeble ; and his en-
thufiafm for Scarlatti's leflbns, with which he was imprefled
by Rofeingrave, rendered him equal to Kelway in their
execution.

With an extempore prelude, alia Palejlrina, and one of
Handel's organ-fugues, he ufed to preface his concerto every
night.

At length he got acquainted with Geminiani, fwore by
no other divinity, and on confulting him on the fubjeft of
compofition, he was told that he would never be acquainted
with all the arcana of the fcience, without reading " El
Porque della Mufica," a book written in Spanilh per Andres
Lorente, en Alcala, 1672. But where was this book to
be had ? Geminiani told him, and told him truly, that the
traft was very fcarce. He had, indeed, a copy of it him-
felf ; but he would not part with it under twenty guineas.
Worgan, on fire to be in pofleffion of this oracular au-
thor, immediately purchafed the book at the price men-
tioned ; not underftanding a word of Spanifli, he went to
work in learning it as eagerly as Rowe the poet, when lord
Oxford had exprefled a wi(h that he underftood that lan-
guage, which Rowe thought would qualify him for a good
place under government. But after hard drudgery, when
he haftened to acquaint the niinifter of ftate that he thought
himfelf a tolerable mafter of the Spanifh tongue, " I give
you joy (fays lord Oxford) ; you are now able to read Don
Quixote in the original."

The knowledge of Spani(h and ftudyof Lorente feem to
have had no other effeft on Worgan's compofitions, than to
fpoil his Vauxhall fongs ; which though fung into popularity
by dint of repetition, had no attradlive grace, or pleafiog
call of melody.

He compofed feveral oratorios, in which the chorufTes are
learned, and the accompaniments to his fongs ingenious.
The cantilena was original, it is true, but it was original
awkwardnefs, and attempts at novelty without nature for his
guide.

His organ-playing, though more in the ftyle of Handel
than of any other fchool, is indeed learned and mafterly, in
a way quite his own. In his youth, he was impreffed with
a reverence for Domenico Scarlatti by old Rofeingrave's ac-
count of his wonderful performance on the harpfichord, as
well as by his leflbns ; and afterwards he became a great
colleftor of his pieces, fome of which he had been honoured
with from Madrid by the author himfelf. He was the edi-
tor of twelve at one time, and fix at another, that are ad-
mirable, though few have now perfeverance fufficient to
vanquifh their peculiar difBculties of execution. He is ftill
in pofleflion of many more, which he has always locked up
as Sybil's leaves.

He had the misfortune to labour under two dreadful cala-
mities ; a bad wife, and the ftone. He got rid of the
former, after great mortifications and expence, by divorce ;
but in too early wifhing to abridge his fufferings from the
latter, he loft his life in the torture of an operation, Au-
guft 20, 1790.

WORGAUM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the country of the Mahrattas ; 20 miles W. of Poonah.

WORK, in the Manege. To work a horfe, is to exer-
cife him at pace, trot, or gallop, and ride him at the
manege.

To work a horfe upon volts, or head and haunches in or
between two heels, is to paflage him, or make him go fide-
ways upon parallel lines.

To Work, in Sea Language, is to direft the movements
of a fliip, by adapting the fails to the force and direftion of
the wind. A Ihip is alfo faid to work when (he drains and

won

labours heavily in a tempeltuous fea,'fo as to loofen her joint!
or timbers. See Rolling.

Work, Carpenter's, Clock, Crown, Field, Fire, Fret,
Grotefque, Horn, Mo/aic, Out, Regimen of the, Rufiic,
Scratch, Stream, Vermicular, and Wax. See the feveral
articles.

Work, Difcharge, in Calico-Printimg, &c. a peculiar
kind of procefs, in which the cloth is firft dyed of fome
uniform colour, by means of a mixture of iron-liquor and
fome one or more of the common vegetable dyeing fub-
ftances ; and calicoes thus prepared are faid to be dyed
of felf-colours. They are then walhed and dried, and
when properly prefled or calendered, they are fit for receiv-
ing any pattern, according to the views of the artift. This
operation is generally effefted by means of the mineral acids,
previoufly fitted for the purpofe by diffblving in them a por-
tion of one or more of the metals, according to the nature
of the dye which is intended to be dif charged, or of the
colour to be produced. In doing this, the difcharging liquor
ftiould be fo made as to be capable of diflblving the iron
which is contained in the dye, and which is always ufed in
quantity fufEcient for covering, or at leaft difguifing in a
great meafure, the other colour or colours which had beea
employed with it, and at the fame time for afting as a mor-
dant in beautifying and fixing thofe colours. Thus a piece
treated with a decoftion of Brafil-wood, and dyed black by
being padded with iron-liquor, if when dried it be printed
with a peculiar folution of tin, the ferruginous portion
of the dye will be difiblved, and the printed part will be in-
ftantly converted from a deep black to a brilliant crimfon.
The term padding denotes the operation of pafling the pieces
from a roller through a trough containing a folution of
iron, or any other mordant, and is fynonymous with blotch-
ing. In the fame way, an olive-coloured calico, dyed in a
folution of iron and a decoftion of weld, will be as fpeedily
changed to a bright pale yellow ; and the various drabs and
flates of every (hade which have been in their compofition,
will undergo as fudden a change by the fame treatment ;
though the colour of the figures produced upon them will
depend on the materials with which the cloths were originally
dyed. Even the deepeft gold colours, or ftrongeft buffs, if
produced by iron only, may, by a peculiar preparation of
tin, be difcharged ; and thofe parts of the cloth which have
been treated with this metallic folution, will be reftored to
their former whitenefs. Calicoes alfo, dyed of a hght blue
in the indigo-vat, then paffed through fumach and copperas,
and finiflied in a bath of quercitron bark and alum, may
have figures of a bright green imparted to them. In this
cafe, the green is originally formed by means of the
indigo-vat and the bark, though it is enveloped by the iron
of the copperas, wliich overcomes the other colours, till the
folution of the tin is applied, which removes the iron from
thofe particular parts, and gives a brilliancy to the remain-
ing colour, which they would not otherwife have poflefled ;
the tin being a powerful mordant for the bark, by which
the yellow of the green is procured. A good felf-colour
may likewife be given to calicoes, merely by dyeing them in
fumach and copperas, and then running them through an
alkaline folution of annotto ; and here the figures produced
by the application of a colourlefs folution of tin will be of a
bright orange.

In the inftances above cited from Mr. Parkes's Effays,
vol. ii., he refers only to that branch of difcharge-work in
which all the purpofes are attained by diflblving the iron that
makes a part of the colour intended to be difcharged ;
whereas the finer and more expenfive work is done by a dif-
ferent procefs. The particular kind of chemical difcharge-
4 S 2 vrprk

W O R

work above-defcribed is fubjeft to the imperfeaion of
not being perfedly faft ; that is, the goods thus pro-
duced will not bear frequent waOiing hke thofe which are
done by the bath of madder or bark. In this connedion
with permanent colours, Mr. Parkes is led to mention a very
valuable green, not long ago invented by a Mr. Iflet of
London, fecured to him by patent, which was produced by
printino- ground indigo, mixed with a peculiar kind of folu-
tion of^tin, and then faftening the indigo within the fibres of
the cahco, by means of that procefs denominated chtna-blue
dipping. ( See Dipping. ) After this, the goods are to be
dyed in a copper of bark or weld, which converts the blue
into a green, and the whites are to be cleanfed by croft-
bleaching, &c. .

In another kind of difcharge-work, the agent that is em-
ployed is the citric acid, in various degrees of concentration,
according to the purpofe to which it is to be appUed, or tlie
flrength of the ground intended to be difcharged. This is
employed chiefly for the produftion of white figures upon
felf -coloured grounds produced by madder and fundry other
dyes. The acid for this purpofe is mixed with either gum
or pafte to a proper confiftency for the black, the plate, or
the cyHnder, and from thence it is transferred to the piece ;
and wherever it attacks, the mordant, whether iron or alu-
mine, is difcharged, and a delicate white appears in its ftead.
In ufing citric acid for this purpofe, a portion of one of the
mineral acids is fometimes mixed with it. There is another
fpecies of difcharge, on which the agent employed by the
printers is the nitrous, and fometimes the nitro-muriatic
acid. See Discharging of Colour and Colour.

WORKALLEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
Oberland ; 4 miles S.W. of Liebftadt.

WORK-HOUSE, a place where indigent, vagrant, and
idle people are fet to work, and maintained with clothing,
diet, &c. See House of Corredion.

Such are the Bridewells, and feveral other places about
the city of London, or fuburbs ; fuch alfo was the found-
ation of that in Bifliopfgate-ftreet, for employing the poor
children of the city and hberties, who have no fettlement ;
and that for the parifh of St. Margaret's, Weftminfter,
called the Grey-coat hofpital.

By 43 Ehz. cap. 2. the church-wardens and overfeers,
with the confent of two juftices, are empowered to fet to
work the children of the poor and other deftitute perfons,
and to provide for the relief of the lame, old, blind, and
fuch as are poor, but not able to work ; and they may
ereft, with the leave of the lord of the manor, on any
wafte or common, of which the parifli is parcel, convenient
houfes of dwelling for the poor. { See Poor. ) By
3 Car. IV. they may fet up and ufe any trade, merely for
the employment and rehef of the poor. By 9 Geo. cap. 7.
they may contraA for the maintenance and employment of
the poor in houfes purchafed or hired ; and poor perfons
refufing to be lodged and maintained in fuch houfes, fhall
be put out of the parifti-books, and not entitled to receive
relief from the church-wardens and overfeers ; and two or
more parifties are allowed to unite in lodging their refpec-
tive poor in one houfe ; and the officers of one parifh are
allowed to contraft with thofe of another for the main-
tenance, &c. of their poor. Moreover, by 8 & 9 Will,
cap. 30. parifh poor that are relieved are required to wear
on the Ihoulder of the right fleeve of the uppermoft gar-
ment, in red or blue cloth, a large Roman P, together with
the firft letter of the name of the parifh or place to which
they belong. By 24 Geo. II. cap. 43. no fpirituous
liquor fhall be fold or ufed in any work-houfe, or houfe of
entertainment for parilh poor. The ftatute 22 Geo. III.

W O R

cap. 83. eflablifhes many new regulations with regard to
the maintenance of the poor ; but leaves it optional in any
parifh or place whether they will adopt thefe, or retain the
prefent mode. At Amfterdam they have a famous work-
houfe, or houfe of correftion, called the Rafphuyfe, (which
fee,) which, by a privilege granted in 1602, has alone the
right of (having and cutting the dyer's woods, as brafil,
fantal, campechy, fafTafras, &c. Each perfon, tolerably
flrong, kept in the houfe, is obhged to furnifh two hun-
dred and fifty pounds of rafped wood per day ; and the
weaker, a certain proportionable quantity of chips.

WORKING to Windward, in Sea Language, denotes
the operation by which a ftiip endeavours to make a pro-
grefs againftthe wind. See Beating, Plying, Tacking,
and Turning.

Working Furnace. See Furnace.

Working of Glafs. See Glass.

WORKINGTON, in Geography, a confiderable market
and fea-port town in the ward of AUerdale-above-Derwent,
county of Cumberland, England, is fituated on the borders
of the river Derwent, at the diftance of 34 miles S.W. by
W. from Carhfle, and 310 miles N.W. by N. from Lon-
don. The manor was anciently pofTefTed by the Culwens,
now Curwens, a family of great confequence in the county,
of whom eight out of ten, in fucceflive defcent, were knights
of the fhire. The prefent importance of the town has
originated from the working of the collieries fince the reign
of queen Elizabeth, at which period the entire maritime
ftrength of the county confifled of only twelve veffels,
though the number now belonging to this port alone is
more than 160, and many of them are from one to three
hundred tons burthen. Thefe are principally engaged in
the exportation of coals to Ireland, and fome few to the
Baltic. The river is navigable to the town for fhips of'
four hundred tons ; and on each bank, near the mouth, are
piers. The harbour is one of the fafefl on the coaft ; and
many improvements have been recently made in the fituation
and conftruftion of the quays. The appearance of the town
is diverfified : feveral of the ancient flreets are narrow and
irregular ; thofe of modern ereftion are better formed ; the
public buildings are all of late date. The houfes are prin-
cipally difpofed in two clutters : in that called the Upper
Town a new fquare has been erefted, in the area of which
is the corn-market ; at a httle diftance are the butchers'
fhambles. The church, a neat edifice, contains the monu-
ment of fir Patrick Curwen, baronet, who died in 166 1.
In the town are meeting-houfes for Prefbyterians and
Methodifts, and a Catholic chapel ; alfo a theatre and an
affembly-room. Two large weekly markets are held on
Wednefdays and Saturdays for meat and other provifions.
Corn is fold only on the Wednefdays, which is the prin-
cipal market-day. Here are alfo two annual fairs for cattle^
but of no great note. The principal manufactures are thofe
of fail-cloth and cordage, and every thing connefted with
fhipping. VefTels of from four to five hundred tons, copper-
bottomed, are built here, and fold to the merchants of
Liverpool, Cork, &c. In the population return of the
year 181 1, the town of Workington is ftated to contain
1059 houfes, and 5807 inhabitants. The parifh includes the
townfhips of Great Chfton, Little Clifton, Stainburn, and
Winfcales, making an addition of 726 to the population,
and of l6l to the number of houfes.

On an eminence, near the eaft end of the town, over-
looking the river Derwent, is Workington-hall, the feat
of John Chriftian Curwen, efq., who has nearly rebuilt it,
from the defigns of Mr. Carr of York, and greatly extended
and improved the park and pleafure-grounds. The old

manfion,

won

manfion, of which there are fcarcely any remains, was caf-
tellated, purfuant to a licence granted by Richard II. to
fir Gilbert de Culwen in 1379. Mr. Gough obferves, that
the walls were fo remarkably thick, that in making feme
recent improvements, a paffage was excavated through one
of them lengthways, leaving fuffioient thicknefs on each
fide to anfwer every purpofe of ftrength. In this manfion,
Mary, queen of Scots, when flie landed in England in
1568, was hofpitably entertained by fir Henry Curwen,
till he was required by queen Ehzabeth to refign his royal
gueft, who was removed to Cockermouth caftle, and after-
wards to that of Carlifle Beauties of England and Wales,

vol. ii. Cumberland, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley,
1802. Lyfons's Magna Britannia, vol. iv. 410. Cumberland,
1816.

WORKS, Opera, in Fortification, the feveral lines,
trenches, ditches, &c. made round a place, an army, or the
like, to fortify and defend it. See Line, Parallel, and
Trench.

The principal works in a fortrefs, or fortified place, fee
under Fortified Place, Fortipication, &c.

Works, Covenant of, in Theology. See Covenant.
WORKSBORN, in Geography, a river of Northumber-
land, which runs into the North Tine.

WORKSOP, a market-town in the hundred of BafTet-
law, and county of Nottingham, England, is fituated 22
miles N. from Nottingham, the fame diltance N.W. from
Newark, and 146 N. by W. from London. The town is
fmall, but neat and pleafantly feated in a valley, near the
fource of the river Ryton. According to the population
returns of 18 ii, the houfes were then 759, and the inha-
bitants 3702. A market, noted for malt, is held on Wed-
nefday, and fairs on the 20th of March, 20th of May, 2 xft of
June, and 3d of Odlober. Workfop, anciently Wirkenfop,
was, before the Norman Conqueft, the property of a Saxon
nobleman. Long afterwards it belonged fucceflively to
the families of Funiival, Nevill, and Talbot, earls of
Shrewfbury. The Talbot eilates defcending to co-heireffes,
a part was conveyed to the Howards, earls of Arundel,
afterwards dukes of Norfolk, by whom the lands of Work-
fop are ftill pofleffed, and who, on this account, enjoy the
privileges of furnifliing a glove for the king's right-hand at
his coronation, and of fupporting that hand while he holds
the fceptre. Workfop was in former times defended by a
cattle, long ago deftroyed : but its fcite is ftill pointed out
on a circular hill, encompaifed with a trench, at the W. fide
of the town.

Workfop was formerly noted for its monaftery, founded
by William de Lovetot, in the reign of Henry I., for canons
regular of the order of St. Augufiine. The inltitution was
fubfequently enriched by the gifts of various proprietors of
the town ; but at the general difTolution its polTeflions
were feized by Henry VIII. Few veftiges of the monaf-
tery now remain ; but the church ftill partly fubfifts, and
is a noble fpecimen of ancient architefture. What now re-
mains is but the W. end of the original church, with two
lofty towers. The W. entrance confifts of an arch with
zigzag ornaments, whilft the towers have the windows in
a gradation of different ftyles of archite£lure. The interior
of the church, in length about 135 feet, confifts of a nave
and two aides ; the roof is fupported by eight pillars, alter-
nately odlangular and cyhndrical : the ancient pulpit is ftill
preferved. On the N. fide of the church are fragments of
walls ; and foundations are difcovered in the adjoining
meadov/s : but the moft curious veftige of the ancient
buildings is a ruinous chapel, at the S.E. corner of the
church, now ufed as a place of burial, of which the windows.

W O R

ftill well preferved, furnifti examples of the lancet form.

Ihe gate of the monaftery is nearly entire, and retains a
ftw of the ftatues with which it was formerly furniftied.

Ihe church and church-yard contain fome monuments for
eminent perfons of former times : one is the tomb of John,
brother of Ralph Nevill, the firft earl of Weftmoreland
and treafurer of England. The trade of Workfop, and'
its appendage Radford, has been much promoted by the
Chefterfield canal, which paffes clofe by the N. end of the
town. The fale of liquorice, formerly confiderable, has
been for fome years at an end, none being now railed in the
neighbourhood. On the S.W. of the town ftands the
noble manfion of the duke of Norfolk, ftyled Workfip-
manor, in the midft of a park, eight miles in circuit, con-
taining a great variety of ground, and much ancient timber
of a fine growth, having once been a part of the great
foreft of Sherwood. The original manfion was erefted by
the renowned Talbot, the firft earl of Shrewfbury, on a
fcale of extent and magnificence fuited to his charadler and
fortune: but in 1761 the whole was unfortunately burnt
down ; by which accident, the lofs fuftained was very
great, not only in the furniture, but in the library, the
paintings, and the antique ftatues, part of tlie celebrated
Arundelian coUeftion. Soon after this misfortune, the
duke of Norfolk commenced a new manfion, on a plan
of great magnificence, comprifing a quadrangle inclofing
two courts ; but the execution of the fcheme was inter-
rupted by the unexpeded death of the heir of the family.
One fide, however, \vhich is the front, has been finiftied,
and is 318 feet in length, of great elegance and grandeur.
In the centre is a portico of fix Corinthian columns, on a
ruftic bafement. In the tympanum of the pediment is an
emblematic reprefentation of the high alliances of the houfe
of Norfolk ; and on the points are placed three ftatues.
The body of the building is crowned with an open baluf-
trade. The interior contains many valuable paintings and
portraits of anceftors and conneftions of the family. The
chapel is adapted to the Roman Catholic fervice, to which
the dukes of Norfolk have always, with the exception of
the late duke, been fteadily attached : it ferves as a place of
worftiip for a number of perfons of the fame pcrfuafion
refiding in the neighbourhood.

At no great diftance to the S. of Workfop-manor is
Welbeck abbey, the feat of the duke of Portland. This
place belonged to Sweyn the Dane before the Conqueft.
A monaftery is fuppofed to have been founded in the reign
of Stephen, by Thomas de Cukeney, for Prcmonftratenfian
canons, who were removed from Newhoufe in Leicefterfhire.
In the reign of Edward III., the manor of Cukeney was
purchafed by the bifhop of Ely, and beftowed on the
monaftery. At the difTolution it was purchafed by a perfon
named Whalley, from whom it came to fir Charles Caven-
difti, youngeft fon of fir William, who married the cele-
brated countefs of Shrewfbury. The fon of fir Charles,
afterwards duke of Newcaftle, was the author of a well-
known treatife on horfemanfhip. His grand-daughter,
marrying John Holhs, duke of Newcaftle, left an only
daughter and child, who by marriage conveyed the
eftates to the earl of Oxford ; and their only child and
daughter by marriage transferred Welbeck to the an-
ceftor of the prefent proprietor. The manfion is a large
irregular ftrudlure, erefted ^t different periods, contaifl.
ing, particularly within, portions of the arlcient nionaftic
buildings. The greater part of what is now feen was con-
ftruded about 1604. The interior contains many fpacious
and elegant apartments, which are decorated with a num-
ber of portraits of perfons important in Enghfh hiftory.

The

W O R

W O R

The grand riding-houfe and ftables were erefted by the
noted duke in 1623 and 1625 : having been long neglefted
they have been of late years rettored, and are now among
the moft remarkable in the kingdom. Welbcck-park is
about eight miles in circuit, and contains noble woods of
venerable oaks, fome of very great age and extraordinary
fize. One in particular, noticed in Evelyn's Silva, was
in his time thirty-three feet round at the bottom, and is
conceived to be 700 years old : it is now much de-
cayed. But the moft remarkable tree is " the duke's
walking-ftick," in height about 112 feet ; the folid contents
are eftimated at 440 feet. Near the gate leading to Work-
fop is a group of trees, called the " feven fifters," there
having been formerly feven ftems fpringing from one root,
but one has lately been broken off. The late duke formed an
extenfive piece of water in the park, and raifed a bridge of
three fpacious arches over it, but which fell down juft as
it was completed.

About two miles to the eaftward of the parks of Work-
fop and Welbeck is that of Clumber, a feat of the duke
of Newcaftle. The manfion is a magnificent ftone ftruc-
ture of three fronts, one of which is ornamented with a light
Ionic colonnade. The apartments are fpacious, particularly
the ftate dining-room, fixty feet in length, thirty-four in
breadth, and thirty in height, which is fitted up with great
magnificence. In the various rooms are feveral very valuable
paintings. The arrangements for the domeftic accommo-
dation of the family are well worthy of notice. The park,
now eleven miles in compafs, was not long ago a wide
tradl of foreft-land. It is in a manner wholly the creation
of the late duke of Newcaftle. It now contains about
4000 acres ; but half a century ago the ground was httle
better than a black heath, interfperfed with bogs and
marfties, through which ran a fmall ftream. The park com-
prehends, however, two woods of ancient oaks, from one
of which the manfion takes its name.

Adjoining to Clumber-park, on the fouth, is that of
Thoreft)y, the feat of earl Manvers. The old houfe was de-
ftroyed by fire in 1745, ^fter which it was rebuilt by the pro-
prietor, the laft duke of Kingfton, grandfather of the prefent
poflefFor. The manfion, which is rather a comfortable refi-
dence than a magnificent feat, confifts of brick, on a ruftic
ftone bafement, with an lonrc portico of four columns in the
principal front. The great ftair-cafe, fingle at the bottom,
but divided into two at the firft landing, opens into a dome
fupported by columns, on which refts a gallery, which
communicates with the upper chambers. The apartments
contain fome valuable portraits and paintings. The park
is about thirteen miles in circumference, and contains
feveral pieces of water, of which one, near the houfe,

aflumes the appearance of an extenfive river Thoroton's

Hiftory of Nottinghamlhire, by Throfby, 3 vols. 4to.
London, 1790. Beauties of England and Wales, Notting-
hamfhire, by F. C. Laird, 8vo. London, 18 12.

WORLD, MuNDUS, the aflemblage of parts which com-
pofe the univerfe.

The Juration of the world is a fubjeft which has been
greatly difputed. Plato, after Ocellus Lucanus, held it to
be eternal, and to have flowed from God, as rays flow from
the fun. Ariftotle was much of the fame mind : he af-
ferts, that the world was not generated, fo as to begin to
be a world, which before was none ; and, in effeft, his
whole eighth book of Phyf. and firft book de Coelo, are
fpent in proving the eternity of the world.

He lays down a pre-exifting and eternal matter, as a
principle ; and thence argues the world eternal. His ar-
gument amounts to this ; that it is impofiible an eternal

agent, having an eternal pafllve fubjeft, fliould continue
long without aftion.

His opinion was long generally followed ; as feeming to
be the fitteft to end the difpute among fo many fe£ls about
the firft caufe.

Epicurus, however, though he makes matter eternal, yet
ftiews the world to be but a new thing, and fays it was
formed out of a fortuitous concourfe of atoms. See Lu-
cretius, lib. V.

Some of the modern philofophers refute the imaginary
eternity of the world, by this argument ; that, if it be ai
aterno, there muft have been a generation of individuals,
in a continual fucceflion from all eternity ; fince no caufe
can be afligned why they fhould not be generated, to'z. one
from another. Therefore, to confider the origin of things,
and the feries of caufes, we muft go back in infinitum, /. e.
there muft have been an infinite number of men, and other
individuals, already generated ; which fubverts the very
notion of number. And if the caufe which now ge-
nerates have been produced by an infinite feries of caufes,
how fhall an infinite feries be finite, to give room for new
generations ? See God.

Dr. Halley fuggefts a new method of finding tht
age of the world, from the degree of faltnefs of tht.
octan ; which fee.

It is another popular topic of controverfy, whether tin
world be finite, or infinite \ See the arguments on both
fides, under Universe.

It is likewife difputed, whether the plurality of worlds
be poffible ? See Plurality.

Some, hold the affirmative, from an opinion of the infinite
power of the Deity ; it being a fetting bounds to omnipo-
tence to fay, that he created fo many bodies at firft, and
that he could not create more.

The Cartefians maintain the negative, upon thefe princi-
ples : that it is a contradiftion to fay, there are feveral
worlds exifting at the fame time, fince this implies feve-
ral univerfes of created beings, the world being the it,
Ts-xj. That if there were feveral worlds, they muft either
be at a diftance from one another, or contiguous ; but
neither can be faid : for were they contiguous, they
would only conftitute one ; and were they diftant, there
muft be fomething between. But what can be between ?
If it be extended, it is corporeal ; and, inftead of fepa-
rating the feveral worlds, it will conneft them all into
one.

The exljlence of an external world has been much con-
troverted. The arguments on either fide, fee under Ab-
straction, Body, and Existence.

The world is fometimes divided into upper and lotuer :
the lower, or fubhmary, is the globe of our earth ( which
fee) ; and the upper includes the heavens, and heavenly
bodies.

World, Axis of the. See Axis.

World, Map of the. See Map.

World, Soul of the. See AniMA Mundi,

World, Sv/lem of the. See System.

WORLITZ, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the
principality of Anhalt ; 5 miles E. of Deflau.

WORM, a river of Norway, which flows from the
lake Miofs into the Glom, or Glomen.

WORMDIT. See Warmstadt.

WORMHOUT, a town of France, in the department
of the North ; 5 miles S. of Bergues.

WORMIA, in Botany, a genus of plants firft eftabhflied
by Rottboll, was named by him in memory of the famons
Daniih phyfician and naturalift, Olaus Wormius, fucceflbr

of

WORM I A.

of Cafpar Bartliolin in the profefforfhip of medicine at
Copenhagen. He died reftor of that univerfity in 1654.
His Latin writings, on the hiftory and antiquities of Den-
mark and Norway, are valued for their accuracy. His fon
William publilhed, in 1 655, the Mufxum Wormtanum, a
handfome work in folio, the fecond book of which, ac-
cording to Haller, confilts entirely of botanical fubjeCls.
Olaus Wormius herein defcribes and figures feveral rare plants,
1 or monftrous varieties, with a detail of their anatomy. His
1 letters, not publifhed till 175 1, are faid to contain many
I things relating to Botany. — " Rottb. Nov. Adt. Hafn. for
1783. v. 2. 522. t. 3." Salifb. Parad. at p. 73. De
Cand. Syft. v. i. 433. — Clafs and order, Polyandria
■ Pentagynla. Nat. Ord. MagnoUit, Jufl". DUleniaccit, De
Candolle.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five roundifh, con-
cave, very obtufe, coriaceous, permanent leaves. Cor.
Petals five, roundilh, concave, larger than the calyx, taper-
ing at the bafe, deciduous. Stam. Filaments very nume-
rous, crowded, Ihort, equal ; anthers terminal, linear, longer
than the filaments, fhorter than the petals, recurved, burft-
ing by a double orifice at the fummit. Pijl. Germens five,
or more, fuperior, diftinft, ovate, comprefied, crowded ;
ftyles terminal, tapering, recurved, longer than the ger-
mens ; ftigmas notched. Peric. Capfules as many as the
germens, and of the fame form, each of one cell and one
valve, burfting at the inner edge, crowned with one of the
; permanent ftyles. ^Wj feveral, from 8 to 12, roundifh,
' " each with a pulpy tunic at the bafe." Salijh.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, of five coriaceous, permanent
leaves. Petals five. Anthers with two terminal pores.
Capfules five, comprefled, diftinft, many-feeded. Styles
thread-fhaped. Stigmas notched. A genus of trees or
(hrubs, with rather twining Jlems, and round fmooth
branches. Leaves alternate, ftalked, fimple, oval, coriace-
ous, with a fingle mid-rib, and many tranfverfe parallel par-
tial ribs. SlipuLis large, oblong, pointed, deciduous ; the
^ young ones convoluted, forming a terminal point, as in the
filagnolta tribe. Flower-Jlalks about the ends of the
branches, oppofite to the leaves, angular, either racemofe or
}j:iicled; often unilateral. Flowers white or yellow.
C.dyx remaining coriaceous and dry, not becoming pulpy,
1 which, as well as the feparate ^/jm(«, and elongated
'jlyles, this genus differs abundantly from DUlenia. (See that
', article.) M. De Candolle notices the two terminal pores
, of the anthers in //. alata, which he thought might afford
a charafter for dividing the genus, if the fame were not
found in all the fpecies. We find this charafter in W. den-
tnla, as well as in our new W. fericea, and therefore venture
to make it a part of the generic diftinftion.

1. W. madagafcarienjis. Madagafcar Wormia. De
Cand. n. I. — "Leaves oval, bluntly finuated. Clufters
panicled," — Gathered by Commerfon in Madagafcar. An
elegant tree, with thick round branches. Stlpiilas folitary,
large, long, leafy, externally villous, deciduous, each leaving
an annular fear on the branch. Leaves oval or orbicular,
fmooth, with broad, obtufe, ihallow, marginal notches.

• Footjlalhs long, channelled above, and marked with tranf-
verfe wrinkles. Floiuer-Jlalks nearly oppofite to the leaves,
creft. /'an'(r2/;/7«/ij fingle-flowered, without ^r(3(?Mj. Pe-

: ials undulated, thrice as long as the calyx. Seeds roundifli.

': D: Candolle.

2. W. dentata. Toothed Wormia. De Cand. n. 2.
{ DiUenia dentata; Thunb. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. i. 201.
t. 20. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 1253, excluding Rottbiill's

' fynonym. Poiret in Lam. Dift. v. 7. 151.) — Leaves
: ovate, abrupt, coarfely and rather fharply toothed. Foot-

ftalks fimple, triangular, fmooth. Flower-ftalks triangular,
from three to fix-flowered.— Gathered by Thunberg in
Ceylon. We received a fpecimen, precifely anfwering to
the above plate, in 1786, from profelTor David Van Royen,
marked DUlenia indica ; Reaunmria of Koenig, by whom it
was gathered ; and Ghodaparra of the Cinghalefe. This is
a tree, with round branches. Leaves four inches long, of a
broad, elliptic-ovate figure, very abrupt, coriaceous ; paler
beneath ; entire at the bafe ; wavy at the fides ; moft
toothed at the end ; tranfverfe ribs very ftraight. Convo-
luted ^//a/a, at the end of the branch, acute, two-edged,
fmootli. Footjlalks linear, narrow, near two inches long,
acutely triangular, not bordered, fmooth. Clufler fimple,
on a long, fmooth, angular ftalk, not quite oppofite to the
uppermoft leaf, in our fpecimen confifling of fix fionutrs,
whofe partial ftalks are about an inch long. Thunberg
reprefentsthree^oit/frjonly, whofe/ifWj are obovate, about
an inch in length.

3. W. trtquetra. Triangular Wormia. " Rottb. Nov.
Aft. Hafn. V. 2. 532. t. 3." De Cand. n. 3.— Leaves
ovate, bluntifh, bluntly and (lightly finuated. Footftalks

fimple, triangular. Flower-ftalks triangular, racemofe

Native of Ceylon. Van Royen. Defcribed by De Can-
dolle from a dried fpecimen. " Branches round, brown,
fmooth, with an elevated ring round the origin of each leaf.
Footjlalks ftraight, two inches long. Leaves oval, or
oblong ; rather tapering at the bafe ; obtufe, or fomewhat
pointed, at the end ; either entire, or very bluntly and
(lightly waved; the ribs pinnate, (as in the reft,) having
about eight or ten lateral ribs at each fide. Flotver-jlalks
fimple, nearly oppofite to the leaves. Two outer calyx-
leaves rather the largeft. Petals concave. Stamens very
(hort. Germens triangular, crowded. Styles reflexed."
Such is De Candolle's defcription, but he doubts whether
this be a diftinft fpecies from the laft. Wo have feen
neither fpecimen nor figure, but the plant having been re-
ceived from profelTor Van Royen, like our fpecimen of the
preceding, rather confirms the doubt than removes it.

4. W. alata. Wing-ftalked Wormia. De Cand. n. 4.
(Dillenia alata; Banks Ic. unpubliihed, communicated
with fpecimens, in flower and fruit, to Linnxus.) — Leaves
oval, entire. Footftalks fmooth, winged. — Gathered by fir
Jofeph Banks, in New Holland, near Endeavour river.
The branches are round, fmooth, except the annular fears
left by xlht Jlipulas . Leaves three or four inches long, and
above half as broad, fmooth, obtufe, with diftant tranfverfe
ribs, and copious reticulated veins ; their under furface
rufty-coloured, but poliihed. Ftotjlalh an inch or an inch
and a half long, winged at each fide with an entire leafy
border, contrafted at the apex, and quite fmooth. Flotver-

Jlalk oppofite to the upper leaf of the branch, folitary,
racemofe, triangular, fmooth, ftiorter than the leaves, bear-
ing two or three yellow Jloiuers, larger than thofe of IV.
dentata. Petals undulated. Anthers long, linear, with two
pores at the end, like W. dentata. Styles fometimes nine or
ten, recurved. Capfules coriaceous, gaping, apparently
red\follicliS, with a number of round feeds, inierted into the
margins, deftitutc, as far as we can fee, of any pulpy
tunic.

5. W. fer'icea. Silky-ftalked Wormia. — Leaves oval,
bluntly ferrated. Footftalks deprelTed, filky, as well as the
flower-ftalks and calyx. — Native of the Eaft Indies. A
fpecimen in the herbarium of the younger Linnnsus, which
he fnppofed to be Dillenia indica, is marked " Mallei Man-
gatfokeri, a tree with fnow- white Jlowers." We cannot
refer this to any thing in profelTor De Candolle's work.
It undoubtedly belongs to the genus before us. The

branchts

W O R

branches are round, ftrongly fcarred ; when young, finety
downy. Leaves crowded about the extremity of each
branch, apparently deciduous, being found on young (hoots
only, (haped like the laft, and nearly as large, but fome-
what ferrated, and, in a young ftate at leaft, finely downy ;
their tranfverfe ribs much more copious, ftraight, and
parallel, than in that. Footftalks half an inch long, llout,
broad, and deprelTed, blunt-edged, not bordered, denfely
clothed with tine, white, filky, permanent down. Stalks
fimple, fingle-flowered, filky, about the length of the
footftalks, each oppofite to a leaf. Calyx-leaves obovate,
concave, an inch long ; fmooth within ; filky at the
back. The petals we have not feen. Filaments fhort.
Anthers long, comprefled, two-edged, each opening by two
terminal orifices. Germens crowded together. Styles five,
recurved at the extremity. Stigmas fmall, abrupt.

We have at the end of the article Dillenia, hazarded
an opinion, that the D. elliptica, integra, and retufa of Thun-
berg, as well as his dentata, above-defcribed, belong to this
genus of IVormia, to which profeflor De Candolle feems,
by a remark under D. integra, in his Syft. v. i. 437, dif-
pofed to agree. Probably he thought it belt, having ex-
amined no fpecimens, to leave thefe plants where he found
them, but we cannot omit the following, on the authority
of Thunberg's figure.

6. W. retufa. Abrupt Wormia. (Dillenia retufa;
Thunb. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. i. 200. t. 19. De Cand.
Syft. V. I. 437. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1253.)— Leaves
obovate, abrupt, diftantly toothed, fmooth. Footftalks
hairy at the bafe. Stalks fingle-flowered, fmooth. — Native
of woods in Ceylon. Thunberg. A tree, apparently nearly
related to W. dentata, but the flowers are folitary, and
rather fmaller, each on a fimple ftalk, oppofite to the upper-
moft leaf. Styles five, evidently thofe of a Wormia, not a
Dillenia.

WORMING, in Ship-Building, windhng a rope clofe
along the cunthnes of larger- ropes to ftrengthen them, and
make a fair furface for the fervice. See Plate I. Jig. 46.

Worming, in Animals, an operation which is fometimes
performed on the young of the dog and feme other kinds.
Young puppies are thus cut, in fome cafes, under an igno-
rant fuppofition that it prevents their going mad ; but in
reality to cure them, as it generally does, of the difpofition
to gnaw every thing in their way. It confifts in the re-
moval of a fmall worm-like ligament, fituated beneath the
tongue ; and the part being afterwards fore for fome days,
the animal is thus weaned of his mifchievous habits. See
Difeafes of DoGS.

WORMIUS, Olaus, in Biography, a Danifti phyfician,
defcended from a family which fled from Arnheim, in
Guelderland, to Denmark, from the perfecution of the
duke of Alva, was born at Aarhuus, in Jutland, in 1588,
and finiftied his education at the univerfity of Marpurg ;
afterwards availing himfelf of the leftures which he at-
tended in the principal German academies, and in his tour
through France, Italy, Switzerland, and Holland. He
then returned to Denmark in 1610, and having in the fol-
lowing year taken the degree of dottor in medicine at
Bafle, he pafled through the Netherlands to England, and
in 161 3 returned to his native country, where by fucceffive
preferments he became profeflor of medicine in 1624, in
confequence of the refignation of Cafpar Bartholin. Al-
though he obtained in 1636 a canonicate in the chapter of
Lund, he continued his profeflional praftice, and was often
confulted by Chriftian IV. and Chriftian V. His know-
ledge of antiquities, medicine, and anatomy, was profound ;

W O R

and in 1628 he difcovered banes in the human fkull, callad
after his name " fex oflicula Wormiana in futura cranii
lamdoidea." His coUeftion of curiofities was, after his
death, lodged in the royal miifeum. He was thrice mar-
ried, and had 18 children. He died in 1654. His writings
were very numerous ; and the principal of them are enume-
rated in the General Biography, to which we refer.

WORMS, in the Linnaan Syjlem of Nature. Se:
Vermes.

Worms, in Hujlandry, are very prejudicial to corn-fields,
eating up the roots of the young corn, and deftroying great
quantities of the crop.

Sea-falt is the beft of all things for deftroying them.
Sea-water is proper to fprinkle on the land where it can be
had ; where the falt-fprings are, their water does as well ;
and where neither are at hand, a little common or bay fait
melted in water does as well.

Soot will deftroy them in fome lands, but it is not to be
depended upon, for it does not always fucceed. Some
farmers ftrew on their land a mixture of chalk and lime ;
and others truft wholly to their winter-fallowing to do it ;
if this is done in a wet feafon, when they come up to tUe
furface of the ground, and fome nails with (harp heads be
driven into the bottom of the plough.

If they are troublefome in gardens, the refufe brine of
faked meat will ferve the purpofe, or fome walnut leaves,
fteeped in a oiftern of water for a fortnight or three weeks,
will give it fuch a bitternefs that it will be certain poifon to
them.

A decoftion of wood-aflies, fprinkled on the ground,
will anfwer the fame purpofe ; and any particular plant
may be fecnred both from worms and fnails by ftrewing a
mixture of lime and aflies about its roots. It is a general
caution among the farmers to fow their corn as fliallow as
they can, where the field is very fubjeft to worms. Mor*
timer's Hufhandry, p. 328.

In the roots of fome forts of garden crops, fuch as the
carrot, onion, fhallot, cauhflower, broccoli, and fome others,
worms and maggots are not unfrequently very injurious and
hurtful, unlefs they be deftroyed in fufficient time to prevent
fuch eff'efts. In the firft, much advantage is fuppofed to
have been gained by the full ufe of pigeon dung in pre-
venting the worm.

And in this and the other forts of garden crops it is
found, that much benefit in removing fuch evils may be
produced by a proper fucceflion of cropping, as that of
following ftrawberries which have been four or five years
planted with onions, and artichokes that have flood the
fame length of time with carrots ; as thefe forts of vermin
do not attack either the ftrawberry or the artichoke. In
fome cafes, it is fuppofed that it may be fafe to crop two
or three times with onions or carrots on the fame fpot, but
not oftener, as fome appearances of the worm and maggot
are generally difplayed in the fecond or third year ; but
that from the ground being four or five years under ftraw-
berries or artichokes, plants on which thofe vermin cannot
fubfift, they foon periih, and the land where the rows ftood
has all the advantage of a new foil.

Soot when applii?d as a manure is faid to be a good pre-
ventive of the maggot in onion crops ; and that fliallots, as
requiring only a fmall fpot, may be much improved in
growth, and entirely preferved from the maggot, by the
application of old hot-bed dung as manure, in the bottoms
of the drills, well-mixed with foot ; planting the fliallots on
this mixed manure, and covering them in to a proper depth.
The foot in this cafe prevents the appearance of the
maggot, and at the fame time greatly improves the ftrength

of

WORMS,

of the (li allot plants : it is a method wliich has never been
found to fail in preventing worms and maggots in fuch
crops.

Cauliflowers, broccoli, and the roots of other fuch plants,
may be preferved from the effefts of worms, by watering
the drills of them well with foap-fuds before planting them
out, and afterwards occafionally : this not only, it is faid,
prevents the worm, but encourages the growth of the plants,
and in fome meafure prepares the ground for other vegetables
that are liable to the fame fort of attacks.

The maggot is confidered by fome as peculiar to the

onion and Ihallot, and that whenever the former becomes

difeafed, it is moll liable to its attacks ; and that as it

could never be detedted in the foil, it is highly probable

that the ova or eggs of it are depofited in the root, and may

be hatched in the greateft: numbers when the plants are in a

iickly ftate. It is not fuppofed, that the maggot ever paffes

from one onion to another ; but that any remedy which is

fufficiently powerful to deftroy the infeft muft inevitably

deftroy the onion itfelf; that all that can be done is,

therefore, to feleft proper foils and fituations for the onion

crops.

I It is remarked, however, that the maggot which attacks

[i -the carrot is unqueftionably to be found in the foil, and

;i that it vifibly enters from without.

I It is concluded on the whole, that worms and infefts of
,: thefe kinds in general are driven from their retreats under
I ground, by pouring bitter or acrid water upon it, as fuch in
ii which green walnuts have been fteeped, or of which a ley
; has been made by diflblving potafti. See feveral papers in
1 the firft volume of the " Memoirs of the Caledonian Hor-
' ticultural Society."

Worms, in Medicine. Three fpecies of worms infeil the
human body ; namely, the Ascaris, Lumbricus, and the
'Tania or TAPZ-lVtrm; which fee refpeftively.
I Worms were formerly fuppofed to be a common caufe of
lia feries of morbid fymptoms, efpecially in children ; but it
IB now well underftood, that the difeafe afcribed to their in-
jfluence is a marafmus depending upon other morbid con-
ditions of the alimentary canal. The fymptoms of thia
I difeafe have been already detailed, under the head of DiJ-
ea/es q/" Infants, to which we refer.

' Tin is often recommended as a good remedy againft
I worms, particularly of the flat kind. Dr. Alfton, in the
'Med. Efl^ Edinb. vol. v. art. 7. direfts an ounce and a
ihalf of the powder of pewter-metal to be mixed in half a
'Scotch mulchkin, or about half a pint Englifli meafure of
treacle, for children ; but to grown perfons, he gives two
|Ounces of the powder of pure tin, pafled through the fineft
ihair-fieve, and mixed with eight ounces of treacle. As to
|the adminiftration of this medicine, the original receipt
direfts half of it to be taken the Friday before the change
lof the moon ; the day after, half the remainder, and the reft
ion Sunday. On the Monday, a purge is to be taken. The
'do^or thinks there is probably nothing in the particularities
|of the day ; but fays, the medicine fucceeds well in feveral
jfpecies of worms.

! The efficacy of fern-root againft worms was known in the
(time of Diofcorides ; and towards the beginning of this
Icentury, Melfieurs Andry and Marchant publiflied accounts
!of fuccefsful modes of exhibiting it in thefe cafes. But it
[has been principally celebrated of late as a fpecific in the
jcure of the txnia, or tape-worm.

, Dr. Prieftley, confidering how fatal nitrous air is to
bifefts, and likewife its great antifeptic power, conceived
!:hat confiderable ufe might be made of it in medicine, in the
!:orm of clyfters ; and he apprehends, that if nitrous air was
I Vol. XXXVIIl.

diluted with common air, or fixed air, the bowels might bear
it better, and that it might ftill be deftruaive to worms of
all kinds, and be of ufe to check or corred putrefaftion in
the inteftinal canal, or other parts of the fyftem. Prieftley's
Obf. on Air, vol. i. p. 227.

Worms, in Animals, a troublefome fort of vermin often
found in the inteftines of the horfe, and fome other animals,
caufing difeafe. See Botts, Earth- IVorm, Ascarides,
TiENiA, and Teretes.

With refpeft to the caufe of worms in horfes, it is
imagined, that, as in the human fubjeft, fome conttitutions
are more inclinable to breed worms than others. Gibfon
fays, the moft ufual caufe of worms is foul or high feeding,
which occafion crudities and flimy indigefted matter in the
ftomach and bowels, (efpecially in horfes that have been
pampered for fale,) forming a proper nidus for worms.
This indeed may be the cafe, but the primary caufe of
worms is that which occafions thefe crudities, to wit, a
want of energy in the funftions of the ftomach and bowels,
as worms are never found in animals perfedlly healthy in
thefe refpefts.

According to Gibfon, the figns of worms in horfes are
various, according to their different kinds. The botts that
many horfes are troubled with in the beginning of fummer
are always foimd tticking to the reftum, and are often
thruft out with the dung, along with a yellowifh-coloured
matter, like melted fulphur. They are no way dangerous
there, but they are apt to make a horfe reftlefs and uneafy,
and rub his breech againft the pofts. The feafon of their
coming is ufually in the months of May and June, after
which they are feldom to be feen, and rarely continue in any
one horfe above a fortnight or three weeks. Thofe that
take pofleffion of the membranous portion of the ftomach
are extremely dangerous in caufing convulfions, and are
feldom difcovered by any previous figns before they bring a
horfe into violent agonies. See Botts.

But the teretes or earth-worms give little difturbance to
a horfe, and would hardly be difcovered, unlefs they were
feen now and then to come away with the dung. Fre-
quently horfes void one or two, and no more ; and fome-
times they will void pretty large quantities of the young
brood, not much larger than the afcarides, only of a red
colour, and not white, as the latter generally are. They
are moft ufual in autumn, or the beginning of winter,
though a horfe may now and then void one or two of thefe
at other times of the year.

However, the afcarides, or fmall needle-like worms, are
very troublefome to horfes, breed at all times of the year,
and often when one brood is deftroyed another fucceeds.
Thefe are not at all dangerous, yet when a horfe is peftered
in this fort of way, though he will go through his bufinefs
tolerably well, dnd fometimes feed heartily, yet he always
looks lean and jaded ; his hair ftares as if he was fickly, and
nothing that he eats makes him thrive. That he feels pain,
too, is plain, for he often ftrikes his hind foot againft his
belly, which fhews where his grievance lies, and is fometimes
griped, but yet without the very violent fymptoms that
attend a colic or ftrangury. He never rolls or tumbles,
but only ftiews uneafinefs, and generally lays himfelf down
quietly on his belly for a little while, and then gets up, and
begins to feed ; but the fureft fign is, when a horfe voids
thefe worms with his dung.

In regard to the cure, if a horfe be troubled with botts,
Gibfon fays, he may be reheved vpithout much expence or
trouble, only by giving him a fpoonful of favin, cut very
fmall, once or twice every day, in oats or bran moiftened ;
and if three or four cloves of chopped garlic be mixed
4 T with

WORMS.

with the favin, it will do better, for garlic is of great fer-
vice in thefe complaints. Horfes that are troubled with
botts ought to be purged with calomel and aloetic purges
before the weather grows too hot ; and if they be kept to a
clean diet after this, it will be a great chance if ever they
are troubled with them any more. As the botts generally
happen about the grafs feafon, thofe horfes that are turned
out to grafs often get rid of them there, by the firft
fortnight's purging; and, therefore, thofe that have the
convenience of a good pafture for their horfes need not be
very folicitous about giving them medicines.

And the earth-worms, which fome writers call teretes,
rotundi, or lumbrici, are alfo beft conquered by calomel and
occafional aloetic purges, for worms often come away in
purging, when, till then, it has not been known that the
Ijcrie was trouljled with them ; and it has been obferved,
after thefe have been voided, that the animal has thriven
better, grown more lively, and Ihewn more alertnefs at his
bufinefs. There can fcarcely be a better plan of treatment
than is fupplied in the following formulas, recommended by
Mr. Denny in his ufeful work : — Take of calomel, one
drachm ; anifeeds, in powder, half an ounce ; treacle, enough
to make a ball. This is direfted to be given in the even-
ing ; and the next morning the following : — Take of fuc-
cotrine aloes, in powder, one ounce ; ginger, in powder,
two drachms ; treacle, enough to make a ball : and the
above bolus and piu-gative ball mull be repeated, with an in-
terval of nine days, until the horfe has taken three dofes.
Then it is advifed to give the following alterative powder,
daily for about a month ; this procefs does not require
any change of diet, or involve any hazard from the effedls
of cold : — Take of Ethiops mineral, crude antimony, pre-
pared, and anifeeds in powder, each half an ounce ; mix
them. The management of the horfe during this courfe
of worm medicines is that in common cafes of phyfic ; but
fome prefer giving Barbadoes aloes for the removal of
worms, thinking it the more efRcacious, becaufe its operation
is very rough : and Gibfon thinks it may be given to
hackneys, and other horfes of fmall value ; but he never
found it more efficacious than the fuccotrine, at the fame
time that it expofes a horfe more to gripes and other dan-
gerous diforders, unlefs it be properly managed. The
following he gives as a cheap well-correfted purge of this
kind : — Take of Barbadoes aloes, one ounce ; fait of tartar,
two drachms ; ginger, grated, a drachm and a half ; oil of
amber, a middling fpoonful ; fyrup of buckthorn, fnfficient
to make a ball. The only objettion to this is the quantity
of aloes, which would be too confiderable even if of a milder
fort for fome horfes.

It may be obferved, that the fort of worms called afca-
rides fometimes come away from a horfe in great numbers,
with the help of a purge, and fome get quite clear of them
with purges only ; but this does not very often happen,
for the horfes that breed afcarides, above all others, are
fubjeft to flime and foulncfs in their inteftines. In the
human body, afcarides are thought to be bred in the reftum,
near to the fundament; but in horfes no other kind than
botts ufually adhere to that gut. On the contrary, thefe
worms in them feem to be lodged abour the beginning of
the fmall inteftines near the ftomach, where they feed on
the alimentary parts of the chyle. The botts in a horfe
are often feen fticking near the fphinfter ani, and are con-
tinually dropping away with the dung ; but the afcarides
are feldom feen there, except when the animal has had a
purge given him, or when he falls into a natural purging,
which often happens from the irritation of the bowels, and
then they come away in very great numbers, accompanied

with much (lime and mucus. Botts feldom alter a horfe's
looks, but thefe not only make a horfe grow lean, and look
emaciated, but on opening his mouth one may perceive a
more than ordinary languid whitenefs, and a fickly fmell,
inftead of that livehnefs of colour that is always perceivable
in the mouth of a found and vigorous horfe ; fo that, what-
ever be the primary caufe, thefe worms feem in a great mea-
fure to proceed from a vitiated appetite and a weak
digeftion, which renders them the more difficult to be re-
moved ; for which purpofe recourfe muft be firit had to
the foregoing remedies, and after them, fuch medicines as
are proper to ftrengthen the ilomach, promote digeftion,
and give tone to the folids.

The treatment advifed by Gibfon for thefe wormj
is chiefly the following: — Take of calomel, prepared,
two drachms ; diapente, half an ounce ; make thefe into
a ball, with a fufficieut quantity of conferve of rofes,
and give it in the morning, keeping the horfe from
meat an hour or two before and after the dofe ; and
the next morning adminifter a moderate aloetic purge,
taking great care to keep the horfe from wet, or from any
thing that may expofe him to take cold. The above
calomel ball and the purge may be repeated in fix or eight
days, and again in fix or eight days more. Or the follow-
ing mercurial purge may be given, which will be lefs
troublefome, though not lefs efficacious : — Take of crude
quickfilver, two drachms ; Venice turpentine, half an
ounce. Rub the quickfilver with the turpentine in a
mortar till no particle of the former appear ; then add, oil
of favin, thirty or forty drops ; fuccotrine aloes, in powder,
half an ounce ; ginger, grated, one drachm ; fyrup of buck-
thorn, enough to make it up into a ball.

One of thefe mercurial purges may be given in the fore-
going manner, Wz. one in fix or eight days, with all the
fame precautions : it will work mildly, and with little or
no griping or ficknefs. And another mercurial purge,
which is proper to deftroy worms and to cleanfe the firll
pafTages, is this: — Take of diagridium, calx of antimony,
and calomel, of each two drachms ; fuccotrine aloes, fix
drachms ; ginger, grated, one drachm ; oil of favin, cloves,
or anifeeds, thirty or forty drops ; fyrup of buckthorn,
enough to form the ball. To be given as the preceding.

When a horfe has gone through a courfe of thefe mer-
curial purges, fome advife the following drink to be given
two or three times a-week, or till the horfe begins to thrive
and look healthy : — Take of rue, camomile flowers, here-
hound, of each a handful ; galangals, bruifed in a mortar, ;
three drachms ; liquorice-root, fliced, an ounce. Bo3
thefe in a quart or three pints of forge-water fifteen or
fixteen minutes in a covered veffel, and keep it covered till
cold ; then ftrain it through a piece of coarfe canvas, and I
give it in the morning upon an empty ftomach.

Powdered tin has likewife been advifed with the intention
of deftroying worms ; and alfo molt of the preparations of
antimony : fulphur is alfo good in all fucli cafes ; and even
crude antimony in fine powder, given with equal parts of
fulphur, often fucceeds in the proportion of an ounce in the i
morning and another at night.

The worms which infeft the bodies of other animals of
different domeftic kinds may be deftroyed, expelled, or got
rid of, by the fame remedies and modes of treatment, only
proportioning their quantities to the nature and ftrength of
the animals to whicli they may be given, and regulating
the manner of exhibiting and continuing them, to that of
the ftates in which they may be at the time, from theeffefts
of the worms and other caufes.

There is alfo a kind of worms which are frequently fatal

I

WORMS.

10 the gallinaceous birds, of which a curious account has
•Tieen given by Mr. Weinfenthal, in the Medical and Phyfical
Journal. The inconvenience produced by thefe creatures
is at firft but flight : however, it gradually becomes more
and more oppreffive, until it ultimately deftroys the birds.
Very few indeed recover; they languifh, grow difpirited,
droop, and die. It is found, on difleftion, that thefe fymp-
toms are occafioned by worms in the trachea. The writer
has feen the whole of it completely filled with thefe worms,
and has been aftonifhed at the animal's being capable of
refpiration at all under fuch circumftances.

They are of a reddiiTi colour, and at firft view refemble
the human lumbricus; but when examined are materially
different. When expofed to the microfcope, they are found
to have an orifice or mouth at one end, formed for fuftion ;
the other end, as far as it can be afcertained, is imperforated.
The inteftinal tube is much convoluted, like that of the
lumbricus.

It does not appear that any effeftual remedy has been
yet difcovered for removing thefe moft deftruftive animals.
They have been drawn out of the trachea by means of a
feather, ftripped from near its end, which is paffed into the
larynx and twilled round, till it engages one or two of the
worms, which are extrafted, but without any relief to the
animal, after the operation has been performed.

Worm, in Timber, a difeafe in growing fir, and perhaps
other timber-trees, produced by a worm. For which it is
fuppofcd by Mr, Nicol, in his " Praftical Planter," that
there can be no remedy except in the draining and improve-
ment of the foil. Indeed, this difeafe is not known on foils
congenial to the nature of the plant ; nor does it ever appear
until the tree becomes fickly, by its roots having touched a
cankering bottom.

It has been fuppofed this worm is the fame with that
which is found in deal, and fome other forts of wood.

Worms, Aquatic. See Water-'SMoRUS infra-

Worm, Afcaris, in the Linnxan Syjlem, a genus of the
order of inlcjlina, and clafs of vermes ; the charafters of
which arc, that the body is round and filiform, and at-
tenuated towards both ends. There are two fpecies. See

ASCARIDES.

Worm, Bee. See Generation of Bees.

Worm, Butterfly. See Aurelia, and Caterpillar.

Worm, Canker. See Scarab^US.

Worm, Chur. See Gryllus.

Worm, Cochineal. See Cocbus.

Worm, Connough, or Connaught, in Natural Hiftoiy, a
name given by the common people of Ireland to a kind of
caterpillar found in many parts of that kingdom ; and, from
its ugly afpeft, reputed to be poifonous.

It is faid to be the only poifonous creature of that king-
dom, and many mifchievous effefts are attributed to its
iling, and to its poifonous quality, when eaten by cattle.
As to the firft of thefe opinions, it is evidently erroneous ;
the creature having no power to fting af all. The other is
not fo eafily proved falfe, but is much to be fufpefted.
The reafons on which it is founded are thefe : the cattle in
Ireland are fubjeft to a very terrible difeafe, which is moft
frequent in autumn ; about the time when thefe animals are
in the greateil plenty.

It is moft frequent alfo among thofe cattle which feed in
low and marlhy grounds, where this creature lives and feeds ;
cows and hogs, which feed in thefe places, are the only
creatures fubjeft to the diftemper, and this is imputed to
the cow's eating by large mouthfuls, becaufe (he chews the
cud a fccond time; and the hogs feeding fo foul and greedily,
as to cat things which other creatures refufe. Finally, the

great caufe of affigning this difeafe to this creature is, that
the worm only appears in great numbers about once in
feven years ; and in thefe, and thefe years only it is, that the
diftemper among the cattle is common.

The fymptoms by which this difeafe is diftinguifhed from
all others are, great fwelling of the head, and a falling
down of the anus ; the gut often hanging out to the length
of fix or feven inches. The common cure among the more
intelligent people is' a ftrong decoftion of the plant called
bear's-foot, or great black hellebore, with fome rue and
garlic given with butter and beer ; this is found to have
great fuccefs with the cows. The hogs are cured only by
mixing reddle, or the common red ochre powdered, with
butter-milk, and making them eat a large quantity of it.

The Irifh peafants have recourfe to many idle remedies ;
but thefe are found often of real fervice. The caterpillar,
fuppofed to occafion this difeafe, feeds on the common
ragwort, and is larger than moft other creatures of this
kind, being of the length and thicknefs of a man's finger ;
it is marked with two large fpots behind the head, which
are fuppofed by the vulgar to be the eyes, but are only
round variegations, of the nature of thofe common on other
caterpillars ; and what they take to be a fting in the tail,
is no other than a horn in that part, which is not peculiar
to this caterpillar, but found on many others. That the
common people are deceived in regard to the external parts
of this creature is evident ; but experiments are required
yet to prove whether or not they are fo, in regard to its
poifonous quality.

One trial is remarked by Mr. Molyneux to have been
made on a dog, who eating the (kin of only one of the
creatures was found dead about three days after ; another
dog, which drank the juices expreffed from that fl<in,
received no hurt. The infeft is defcribed in Lifter's edi-
tion, under the name of the elephant caterpillar. Phil.
Tranf. N" l68. p. 880.

Worm, Earth, lumbricus, a genus of the order oiintejlina,
including two fpecies. See Y^A.^in-Worm and Lumbricus.

Worm, Flower-root. See Flower.

Worm, Fly, in Natural Hiftory, the worm or maggot
produced of the egg of a fly, and afterwards to be tranf-
formed into one.

Thefe worms are to the fly, what the caterpillar is to the
butterfly it produces. The cuftom of the world has appro-
priated the term caterpillar to that one fpecies of the flying
infefts' firft ftate ; but we have unfortunately no term of
diftinftion yet eftabliflied for any of the firft ftate of any of
the other flying infefts, the creature produced by the egg
of the fly fcarce being indeterminately called worm. Till
more expreflive names (hall be invented for thefe, it may not
be improper to diftinguifh thofe of the different clafTes by
the additional name of the infed: they are to be changed
into, and to call that which is to become a beetle, the fcarab-
worm; that which is to be hereafter a fly, the Jly-worm ;
and fo of the reft.

Thofe which are to be hereafter winged creatures of the
fly-clafs are extremely different one from another in form
and figure, and may very properly be arranged into feveral
clafles.

The moft remarkable and ftriking differences between the
clafFes of thofe creatures, are thofe of the form and fliape
of their heads. Many of tliem have heads which it is not
eafy to diftinguifh to be fuch, as they carry no one mark of
the head of an animal vifibly about them. There are many
whofe heads are variable at the pleafure of the creature, and
which at times are feen to be more or lefs long, more or lefs
thick, more or lefs flat, more or lefs fliortened at pleafure
4 T 2 by

WORMS.

hj the aaimal, aud eafily bent and turned about in any
diredioii. The beads of theie creatures are compofed of a
Tcry foft and flexible fleffi.

There are others whofe heads are hard, and which always
retain the fame regular figure. The firft general arrange-
ment of thefe worms may be into thofe which have a varia-
ble, and thofe which have an invariable head. The fubor-
dinate diftinftions may be deduced from the number, dif-
pofition, ftrufture, and form of the other parts. Some
worms of this kind have no legs ; thofe of others are mem-
branous or fcaly ; and others have them both membranous
and fcaly. Some worms have the power of altering the
figures of their bodies at pleafure, both as to length and
bulk : the bodies of others are rigid, and incapable of thefe
changes. Some, again, have a thin membranous coat ;
whereas that of others is firm and fcaly, or cruftaceous.
Moreover, confiderable differences are obfervable with regard
to the pofuion, number, and figure, of their organs of
refpiration.

Among the fly -worms of variable heads, the difpofition
of the iligmata, or air-holes, at which the tracheae of thefe
animals terminate, vn\l afford feveral diilinftions of genera :
e. gr. the worms of the common flefli-fly has in its ftigmata
fix apertures, three in each, refembling button-holes ; but
the worms of many other flies have only one fmall eminence
m each : others have them cylindric and hollow, and pro-
je^ing like horns, of which fome have two, and others three,
differently fituated and difpofed. The number and figure
of the hooks, which ferve thefe creatures for teeth, may
alfo ferve for matter of diftinftion. The common worm of
the flelh-fly has two hooks, with a dart between them ;
others have hooks without a dart ; fome have one hook, and
others none. The figure of the body, and the differences of
fize and colour, may furnilh farther diftinftions with regard
to the genera of the firft clafs.

Thofe of the fecond clafs, which have variable heads, and
difl'er from the former in having legs like thofe of the
caterpillar clafs, have often a fort of hooks fattened to
them : they have alfo a long flefhy tail, capable of being
lengthened or contrafted at pleafure, and refembling the
tail of a rat ; whence thefe are called rat-tailed •worms. In
thefe worms, the tail is the principal organ of refpiration ;
its end being always open, and fupplying the office of the
ftigmata of the other genera.

The fly-worms of the third clafs, which have invariable
heads, and have nothing analogous to the organization of
moveable jaws, have pointed heads, or fuch as feem trun-
cated, and no fcaly legs : thefe form a very numerous
family both in the terreftrial and aquatic kingdom, and all
of them furnifh two-winged flies. Under this clafs Reaumur
enumerates and defcribes eight genera. This ingenious
writer mentions worms of another clafs, which ufually pro-
duce four-winged flies, having heads of an invariable tigure,
and two teeth or moveable jaws near the aperture of the
mouth, without ftaly legs, and with the ftigmata placed on
the fides of their bodies. The flies produced from thefe
are, the bees, wafps, ichneumons, gall-flies, &c. There is
another clafs of the hexapode, or fix-legged worms, which
are transformed into fome fpecies of the hbellse ; which have
no mouth, but two openings at the top of their antennas,
through which their aliment may pafs. The formica leo,
and the puceron eaters, belong to this clafs. There is
another clafs, which have bodies like thofe of the caterpillar
clafs, and fix legs, befides two other Ihorter legs or hooks
uear their hinder part, which ferve for motion and for fixing
themfelves. The water-worms, which make for themfelves
cafes of different materials, and are transformed into papi-

lionaceous flies, are of this clafs. There is alfo a clafs of
worms, called falfe or baftard caterpillars. See Fausse
Chenille. See the more particular defcription of thefe
clafTes, and their fubordinate genera, in Reaumur's Hift.
Inf. torn. iv. p. l6i, &c.

WoH^f, Gourd, the name of a fpecies of Unia, or tape-
worm ; the body of which is of an oblong form, flat on the
belly, and rounded on the back ; its fkin is foft, and its
mouth large, honzontal, and emarginated, or dented in the
middle. It refembles the common gourd in figure, and
from thence has got this name of vermis cucurbitinus, or the
gourd-worm. It is frequently found in the inteftincs of
animals.

Worm, Golden. See Aphrodita.
Worm, Guinea, or Hair-WoRM. See Ch^tia, Am-
PHiSB^NA, and Dracunculi.

Worm, Golly, Gloiv, Gnat, Goofeberry, Hay, Horfe, Ly-
Jlmachia, Mujhroom, Oyjler, Pile, Sheep-nofe, Silk, Solitary,
and Truffle. See the refpeftive articles.

Worms, Meal. There are two very different infe£l8
found in our meal or flour ; the one is fo fmall, that it is
only to be feen by the microfcope ; all that the naked eye
can difcover of it is, that fomething is alive in the place,
from the whole fubftance of the flour being in motion. See
Flour.

The other meal-worm is larger, and more frequently
ofi"ers itfelf to our obfervation : it conCfts of eleven rings,
and has three pair of legs. The mouth of this worm is
made into a kind of forceps, and from this arife, on each
fide, a great number of fmall fpinulse ; thefe ferve inftead
of teeth, and the animal feeds by means of them. They
are found fometimes very foft and tender, fometimes hard
and firm ; at fome feafons they are very brilk and lively, at
others they have fcarce any hfe in them.

The moft remarkable thing in regard to thefe worms is,
that they are always exaftly of the colour of the flour which
they hve among. Ray has obferved, that the white flour
breeds white ones ; the coarfer flour breeds larger and greyer
ones ; and that flour which has the bran among it, breeds
brown ones of the fame colour with that of itfelf. This is
a provifion of nature for the fafety of the animal, fince were
it of a colour different from that of the flour, it muft be
eafily difcovered among it, and would be picked out and
thrown away. The caterpillar tribe are thus preferved, by
being of the colour of the leaves they feed on ; their green
ufually fuiting itfelf exaftly to that of the tree or plant.
Deflandes, Trait. Phyf.

Worms of the Sea. The fea-worms are of the number
of thofe animals which, with the oyfter and feveral other
fhell-fifh, furnifh us an inftance of animals which remain all
their lives fixed in the manner of plants to one fpot, whence
there is no probability of their moving themfelves.

Thefe worms are included in a fort of cafes or pipes, and
may be divided into two clafTes, according to the nature of
thofe cafes. In the one fpecies thefe only are made of
grains of fand, fragments of ftiells, and the hke, fattened
together by a vifcous humour ; and in the other they are
compofed of a true fhelly matter.

Thofe worms which have fhelly cafes are fixed fometimes
to the fand at the bottom of the fea, fometimes to ftones,
or fea fubftances, and fometimes to the fhells of other fifties ;
their fhells are rounded, and, in fome degree, conic, as they
always gradually grow wider from their point or apex to
the mouth ; as to the reft, their fhape is diflFerent in almoft
every individual, forming divers irregular curves, and often
refembling the fliapes into which a common earth-worm
curls and twills itfelf in its various motions.

10 When

W O R

When we confider the effefts of the glutinous juice iifu-
ing from the body of this animal, in faftening together any
loofe fubftances it meets with, fo as to form a cafe for it, it
', may be eafily fiippofed that the adhefion of the balani-
marini, and other tlie like (hells, which remain all their
lives fixed to fome one fpot, is performed in the fame man-
ner. Mem. Acad. Par. 171 1. See Vermiculus.

Worms, Water. Of thefe there are fome which tranf-
form themfelves by a fingular procefs, without any vifible
change in its exterior form, into flies, and belong to the
third clafs of fly-worms. They are particularly defcribed
by M. Reaumur, Hiil. Inf. tom. iv. p. 310, &c.

There is a fingular fpecies of thefe creatures, which is
found to be capable of reproduftion or multiplication from
cuttings, in the manner of the polype.

The difcovery Mr. Trembley made of this ftrange pro-
perty in the polype, gave occafion to the trying of the ex-
periment in regard to fome other infefts. Worms were the
moft natural objefts of thefe experiments ; and though they
failed in many fpecies, they yet fucceeded in fome, and
proved, that nature has not given that amazing property of
reproduftion of its moft elTential parts, to only one fpecies
of animals.

Mr. Bonet tried the experiment on a very nimble kind of

water-worm, by cutting it into two in the middle, and the

fuccefs perfeftly anfwered the expeftation ; for the two

pieces continued ahve and vigorous, and in a little time be-

\ came two complete worms. The ftrufture of thefe worms,

I though it appear fimple to the naked eye, is very worthy

■the examination of the microfcope, and when viewed with

I this affiftance, there are difcovered in it parts extremely de-

iferving our attention. Phil. Tranf. N°469. p. 470.

Dr. Hales, in his Vegetable Statics, relates a curious ex-
periment, by which it is proved that the bones of animals,
when they are ofilfied to a certain degree, do not grow any
longer, except at their extremities ; and the cafe is the fame
'm regard to thefe worms; for the old piece, which is the
middle of the animal, never lengthens itfelf, but the addi-
;tion of new rings to each end makes the increafe of length
;in the worm.

I In all thefe pieces the liquor, which ferves as blood to
the animal, is found circulating from the tail-part towards
,the head, in the ufual way ; and by this motion of the
Iblood it is always eafy to know, even in the fmalleft pieces,
1 which is the head and which the tail-end, and the new head
;and tail are always feen to come regularly from the proper
ends. Phil. Tranf. N°469. p. 470, &c. See Reprodctc-

|TION.

; Worm, in Chemiflry, denotes a long, vinnding pewter-
ipipe, which diftillers and apothecaries place in a tub of
I water, to cool and condenfe the vapour in the diftillation of
fpirits.

I This the chemifts alfo call a ferpentine. Formerly, this
worm, cr fomething like it, was placed above the head of
ithe fl:ill, with a refrigeratory at the upper end of it, which
lis ufeful enough in the diftiUing of fpirit of wine.
I WouM, in Gunnery, is a fingle or double-wired iron
ficrew, mounted on a wooden handle by means of a focket,
or fixed on the end of a rammer, to pull out the wad of a
cannon, firelock, carabine, or piftol ; it is the fame with the
•wad-hook, only the one is more proper for fmall fire-arms,
and the other for cannon.

This inftrument ferves to draw out the wadding, or
pieces of cartridges, which remain in the gun after frequent
firing, and which would otherwife accumulate fo much,
that other cartridges could not be rammed home enough to
reach the priming, whereby the gun would mifs fire.

W O R

To Worm u Cable or Ha-wfer, in Sea Language, figni-
hes to ttrengthen it, by winding a fmall line, or rope, all
along between the ftrands.

Wanu-Pcwders. See Powder.

WoKM-Seed, Semen Contra, Semen Sanaum, or Semen Satt-
tonicum, IS a hot, bitter, drying kind of feed, proper to de-
ftroy worms generated in a human body, and particularly in
children.

This feed is light, fmall, oval, compofed of a number of
thin membranous coats, of a yellowifli-green or brownifti
colour, eafily friable on being rubbed between the fingers
into a fine chaffy kind of fubftance, a bitter tafte, and a
flrong fmell. It muft be chofen new, greenilh, of a fharp,
bitter, aromatic tafte, not a little difagreeable.

The place where it is produced is Perfia, about the
frontiers of Mufcovy. It is brought to us from Aleppo,
&c. Naturahfts have not been agreed about the plant that
produces it.

J. Bauhine has a large diflertation on the fubjeft. Some
will have it the fpecies of abfinthium, or wormwood, called
fantonkum, or marinum abfinthium ; others will have it the
tanacetum ; others the abrotanum ; but it is now fuppofed to
be the produce of a fpecies of artemijta, refembling in its
general appearance our fine-leaved mugwort, called by
Linnjeus artemifia fantonica, and the artemtfia aujlrlaca of
Jacquin.

M. Tournefort gives us the following account of this
notable drug, in the fecond volume of his Travels. The
fementine, or worm-powder, is not gathered like our feeds.
The plant grows in the meadows, and muft be let ripen ;
and the mifchief is, that as it grows near to maturity, the
wind fcatters a good part of it among the grafs, where it is
loft ; and this makes it fo dear.

As they dare not touch it with the hand, for fear of
making it fpoil the fooner, when they would gather what is
left in the ear, they have recourfe to this expedient. They
take two hand-bafkets, and, walking along the meadows,
fweep the baflcets, the one from right to left, the other
from left to right, as if they were mowing ; by this means
the feed is fhaken out into the balkets.

Thefe feeds have been chiefly recommended as anthel-
mintics, and commonly taken, in this intention, either aloQg
with molaffes, or candied with fugar. For other purpofes
they appear to be a ftrong bitter. They give out their
virtue both to water and fpirit. The extraA made by rec-
tified fpirits, appears to be the moft ehgible preparation of
the fantonicum for the purpofes of an anthelmintic ; and
the watery extract, or a tindlure drawn from it, for the
more general intentions of bitter medicines.

Some have afcribed their quality of deftroying worms
folely to their bitternefs ; but it appears from Baglini, that
worms (lumbricj) immerfed in a ftrong infufion of the£e.
feeds were killed in five, and according to Redi fevea or
eight hours ; while in the infufion of wormwood, and in
that of agaric, the worms continued to live more than thirty
hours ; and hence it has been inferred, that their vermifuge
effefts would not wholly depend upon the bitternefs of this
feed. To adults, the dofe in fubftance is from one to two
drachms in a day. ( Woodville's Med. Bot.) The worm-
feeds of former pharmacopoeias are now properly rejected,
as their place is fupplied by anthelmintics of more <xrtaiB
efficacy.

Wo-RM-Tinaure, in Chemijlry, a name given by many to a
medicine prepared by Hoffmann from carth-vroriDS ; and in
many parts of Germany efteemed one of the moft noted medi-
cines in the world, though lefs known in other places.

The

W O R

The preparation is this : the worms are to be colleAed in
the fpring or fummer months, and the larger fort are the
bed. They are to be carefully dried, and reduced to a fine
powder ; this powder is to be mixed up into tlie confiftence
of a poultice, with oil of tartar per deViqmum, and this is to
ftand twenty.four hours ; then fpirit of wine is to be poured
on it, fo as to reach three fingers-breadth above it, and a
drachm of faffron, and half a drachm of caller, are to be
added, and the whole is to Itand three days m infufion, and
after this be filtered off for ufe. Some add a fmall quantity
of opium to the tinfture, but as it is often wanted m cafes
where opium is not proper, it is better to keep it feparate
thus made ; and when there is occafion to have it opiated,
to add as many drops of laudanum as is judged neceffary.

The oil of tartar in this cafe penetrates the very innermoll
lUufture of the worms, and is a means of extrafting fuch
a tinfture from them, as no art could otherwife contrive to
make; and the medicine becomes, according to Hoffmann,
much more than an anodyne, from the admixture of the fait
of tartar in the tinfture.

When it is intended to be made with opium, it is always
proper to add alfo fome of the hound's-tongue root, which
is found as an anodyne to emulate the virtues of opium.

This tinfture, whichever way prepared, is excellent in
abating the pains of difeafes that do not admit a cure.
The fits of the gout are rendered cafier by every dofe of
it ; and even in cancers, the pain is quieted in a wonderful
manner by it, and life rendered inucii more fupportable.
Hoffmann's Aft. Laborator. Chym.

Worms, in Geography, late a bifhopric of Germany, in the
circle of the Upper Rhine, furrounded by the Lower Palati-
nate, the county of Katzenelnbogen, and the eleftorate of
Mentz ; about ten miles in length along the borders of the
Rhine. In ancient times, the Vangiones inhabited this dif-
trift. In the middle ages it was called " Wormbfveld,"
"Wormatzfeld," or "Wormfergau;" andoneof thebifhops,
named Viftor, is faid to have affiiled at a council at Cologn,
iu the year 347. Of the ancient bilhops here, however, we
have little certainty. The feries of the prelates of Worms,
which may be molt depended on, begins with Erembert,
who was appointed bilhop thereof about the year 770.
The bifliop of Worms was fubjeft to the archbifhopric of
Mentz. In the circle of the Upper Rhine, he was the
fummoning prince and direftor. In the council of the
princes of the empire, he exchanged place on the fpiritual
bench with the eleftor of Wurzburg. The whole of the
bifhopric fituated on the left fide of the Rhine is annexed
to France, and included in the department of Mont Ton-
nerre.

Worms, a town of France, in the department of Mont
Tonnerre, late an imperial city of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and capital of a bifliopric of the fame
name, anciently the capital of the Vangiones. It was fitu-
ated nearly in the centre of the diocefe to which it gave
name, not far from the Rhine, and near the place where the
Eilbach and Gieffenbach fall into it. This city was ac-
counted one of the free Lutheran imperijj cities, with
toleration and freedom of worfhip to the Catholics. The
Calvinifts had alfo a church here. To the Catholics be-
longed not only the cathedral, but likewife four collegiate
and the like number of parifh churches in or near the city,
a college, a gymnafium, three convents, and three nun-
neries. The biihop's palace here was built quite new, in
1719, at the expence of bifhop Francis Louis. The kings
of the Francs appointed counts and dukes over it. From
time immemorial it has been termed a free imperial city, and
is fo ftyled in fome records of the emperor Charles IV.,

W O R

bearing date in 1355 and 1356, and in the regifter of the
cities of 1386, and was alfo acknowledged fuch in 1479, in
the diet at Nuremberg ; an'd by the rmperor Maximilian I.,
in formal inllruments of 1507 and 1508. In 1495, '5^'>
1545, and 1578, diets were held here, and this was the
place in which the reformation began in 1535. In 1743,
a treaty was concluded here betwixt his Britannic raajefty,
the queen of Hungary, and the king of Sardinia. In the
beginning of the revolution, Worms furrendered to a de-
tachment of the French republican army, and was laid under
a heavy contribution by Cuftine, but evacuated after the
lofs of Mentz. It was again taken in 1794 ; 25 miles S. of
Mentz. N. lat. 49° 36'. E. long. 8° 22'.
Worms. See Bormio.

Worms'/ Head, or Penrhyn Giuyr, a rock on the fouth
coail of Wales, in the county of Glamorgan. N. lat. 51°
36'. W. long. 4° 17'.

WORMSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Leipfic ; 20 miles E. of Leipfic. N. lat. 51° 16'. E. long.
12° 53'.

WORMSER JocH, a mountain of the Tyrolefe, be-
tween the fources of the Adige and the Adda ; 8 miles S.
of Glurentz.

WORMVILLE, a town of United America, in the
Miffiflippi territory.

WORMWOOD, Absinthium, in Botany. See Ar-
TEMISIA Abfinthium.

The common wormwood, artemijta abjinthlum of Linnjeus,
grows wild about dunghills, and on dry wafte grounds,
flowers in June or July, and may be propagated by flips in
March or Oftober, or raifed from feeds fown foon after they
are ripe. The leaves have a ilrong offenfive fmell, and a
very bitter naufeous tafte ; the flowers are equally bitter,
but lefs naufeous ; the roots are warm and aromatic, with-
out the bitternefs and offenfivenefs of the other parts : the
leaves lofe part of their ill fmell by being dried and kept for
fome time. The aftive parts of this plant feem to be ex-
traftive, effential oil, and a fmall portion of refin.

Wormwood leaves give out nearly the whole of their
fmell and tafte both to aqueous and fpirituous menfl;rua ; the
former, prepared without heat, being the leaft ungrateful.
Reftified fpirit elevates little from this plant in diftillation ;
water brings over nearly the whole of its fmell and flavour
Along with the aqueous fluid there arifes an effential oil,
which fmells ftrongly, and taftes naufeoufly of the worm-
wood, though not bitter. The oil drawn from the frelh
herb is commonly of a dark green ; from the dry, of a deep
yellowrifli-brown colour. The quantity of oil varies ac-
cording to the feafon and foil in which the wormwood is
produced : in fome years, ten pounds have afforded up-
wards of two ounces ; in others, twenty pounds have
yielded little more than one ounce. Geoffroy obferves
(Mem. Acad. Par. 1721), that in rainy feafons and moifl;
foils, it yields the moft oil ; that in dry years the oil is ac-
companied with a refinous matter, and proves of a fine green
colour ; and that in wet feafons it is lefs refinous, and not
green. A decoftion of wormwood in water, long boiled,
and infpiffated to the confiftence of an extraft, lofes the
fmell and flavour of the plant, but retains its bitternefs.
An extraft, made with reftified fpirit, contains, along with
the bitter, nearly the whole of the naufeous part ; the wa-
tery extraft gives out its fimple bitternefs, not only to water
again, but to reftified fpirit.

Wormwood is a moderately warm ftomachic and corro-
borant : for thefe intentions it was formerly in common ufe,
but it has now given place to bitters of a lefs ungrateful
kind. An infufion of the leaves, with the addition of fixed

4 alkaline

WORMWOOD.

:ukalliie fait, is a powerful diuretic in dropfical cafes. The
tifential oil is fometimes given, in dofes of a drop or two,
properly diluted by folution in fpirit of wine, as a mild
antifpafmodic. Its more frequent ufe is a vermifuge ; for
which purpofe it is both applied to the belly, and taken in
pills made with crumb of bread. Dr. Lewis, however,
fays, that the fpirituous extraft promifes to be, in this inten-
tion, preferable to the pure oil ; as it contains, along with
the oil, all the bitter matter of the wormwood. This plant
very powerfully refills putrefaftion, and is made a principal
ingredient in antifeptic fomentations. Boerhaave commends,
in tertian agues, a medicated liquor, prepared by grinding
about feven grains of the oil with a drachm of fugar, and
two drachms of the alkaline fait extracted from the afhes of
wormwood, and afterwards diffolving . the compound infix
ounces of the diftilled water of the plant. Two hours be-
fore the fit is expefted, the patient is to bathe his feet and
legs in viarm water, and then drink half an ounce of the
liquor every quarter of an hour, till the two hours are ex-
pired : by this means, he fays, cafes of this kind are gene-
rally cured with eafe and fafety, provided there is no
fcirrhofity or fuppuration.

Dr. Lewis obfcrves, that this medicine is a very fervice-
able aperient, where obllrudlions of the vifcera prohibit the
:mmediate ufe of the bark, and in fuch obflruttions as the
imprudent ufe of the bark may have occafioned. Its vir-
tues, he fays, might be improved by an addition of the
bitter watery extraft ; though the compound, thus labori-
oufly prepared, would not be at all fuperior to a fimple
infufion of the plant in pure water, impregnated with a due
proportion of fixed alkaline fait.

The roots of wormwood, fays Dr. Lewis, promife to be
applicable to feme ufcful purpofes : their virtue refides
chiefly in the cortical part ; and reftified fpirit extrafts
their flavour more pcrfeftly than watery liquors. The
Edinburgh college dire£ls a tinfture of the dried flowering
tops of wormwood, in the proportion of fix ounces to a
quart of rectified fpirit, under the title of linBiira abfinthli.
This, in the opinion of Dr. CuUen, is a light and agreeable
bitter, and at the fame time a ftrong impregnation of the
wormwood. Dr. CuUen concurs with Bergius and Gladitfch
in afcribing to the odour of wormwood a quality of occa-
fioning fome confufion of the head ; and formerly, he fays,
when it was the fafhion with fome people in the country to
drink purl, that is, ale in which wormwood is infufed, it
was commonly alleged to be more intoxicating than other
ales. This effeft he inclines to attribute to its narcotic
power ; and he is of opinion, that there is in every bitter,
when largely employed, a power of deftroying the fenfibility
id irritability of the nervous power. The dofe in fub-
' :;nce rnay be 3} to 3ij, and of the infufion, made by
nacerating 5vj of the plant in fjxij of water, fjj to f5xij
•iliree or four times a day. Lewis's Mat. Med. Woodville's
Med. Bot.

The afhes of wormwood afford a more pure alkaline fait
Jnan moft other vegetables, excepting bean-ftalks, broom,
, nd the larger trees. In tlie Amcen. Acad. vol. ii. p. i6o.
i^i.inaeus mentions two cafes, in which an effence, prepared
' om this plant, and taken for a confiderable time, prevented
iC formation of (tones in the kidneys or bladder ; the pa-
v.ents forbearing the ufe of wine and acids.

Many naufeous infi-'cls are deftroyed or driven away by
the fmell of this plant ; and it is no uncommon praftice
;. r.ong the good women in the country, to preferve their
..loihes from moths, by laying bundles of dried wormwood
acnong them.

Soine of our brewers have a metiwd of ufii.g wormwood
inftead of the hops, to give the bitter tafle to their malt-
iquors, and to preferve them. It is found to anfwer the
latter purpofe very well ; but the tafte is fo difagreeable,
that It IS much complained of. The reafon of this is, that
the people who ufe it do not underfland the time of eather-
ing it. " °

All plants are fulleft of juice while in the fhoot, but fulleft
of virtue when they have their feeds on them. This is the
cafe with wormwood, as well as a thoufand others; and
though, in the feeding-time, it produces much more flavour
than when younger, yet it is without that naufeous bitter of
the crude juice, which gives us the diftafte to the plant.

Some people have found the proper way of managing
wormwood, and have given a flavour with it to their malt-
liquors, even preferable, in the opinion of all palates, to
that given in the common way by hops.

The method is this : the plant is to be gathered when
fully ripe, and the feeds upon it, and in this ftate hung up
in fmall bunches to dry. When thoroughly dried, a cer-
tain quantity of good ftrong malt-liquor is to be impreg-
nated with it, to the utmoft ftrength that it can poflibly
give it. This is to be fet by for ufe, to add to all the reft.
When the hops fhould in the common way be added to
the beer, this liquor is to be added in a proper quantity,
making the tafte the judge when there is enough of it.

By this means juft what degree of bitter is required may
be given to the liquor, and the bitter of this common plant,
thus managed, is as perfeftly agreeable as that of any vege-
table in the world.

The wormwood, for this purpofe, fhould have its feeds
carefully preferved in the drying, and it is beft if not ufed
till the year after it was gathered. Phil. Tranf. N° 124.

The effential fait of wormwood is afforded in great quan-
tity, and poffeffes in many refpefts the virtues of the plant.
It does not differ from other vegetable fixed alkalies, provided
they be equally pure.

Wormwood ftiares with all other bitters the virtues of an
abfterfive deobftruent, and is in fome degree purgative, as
all bitters are. Wormwood is one of thofe plants which
the chemifts have generally chofen for their proceffes of the
refufcitation of plants from their afhes ; and though the pre-
tended principles of this art are falfe, yet there have been
fome of the artifts fo cunning as to form reprefentations of
this plant, that have deceived and puzzled the greateft un-
believers, though they have not convinced them. Phil.
Tranf. N° 74.

Wormwood, Sea, nrtemifta marltima of Linnseus, falftly
called in our markets Roman ivormiuood, and fubftituted for
it : it is a native of Britain, and grows plentifully about
our falt-marfhes, and in feveral parts on the fea-coall,
flowering in Auguft and September. In tafte and fmell it
is lefs unpleafant than the common wormwood ; and hence
is preferred by the college as an ingredient in fome of the
diftilled waters ; the effential oil is lefs ungrateful, and the
watery extrad lefs bitter than thofe of the common fort.
The virtues are the fame, differing only in degree. It is
lefs effeftual as an antifeptic and anthelmintic, but more
e'.igible as a ftomachic. A conferve of the tops, made by
beating them with thrice their weight of fine fugar, is kept
in the fhops ; but it is now fcarcely ever ufed.

Wormwood, Roivan, artcmtfia pontka of Linnaeus, has
more numerous, n.ore finely divided, and darker coloured
leaves than the former, and is hoary only u.iderneath
whereas that is hoary all over. This is a foreign fpccies,
but as hardy and as eafily railed as the others. It is con-

fiderably

W O R

fiderablr lefs ungrateful than either of the former fpecies ;
its fmell is weaker, and its bitternefs is mixed with a kind
of aromatic flavour. This appears to be the moft eligible
of the three, as a ftomachic and corroborant ; in which
intention a conferve of the tops has been greatly recom-
mended.

Wormwood, Mountain, artemijla glacialts of Linnxus, is
fine-leaved, and covered with a glofTy filk-like down. The
mountain wormwood of Valais, or abfmth'ium feriphium mon-
tanum candidum C. B. is covei-ed with a cotton-like down,
and the leaves are curled about the edges. Haller informs
us, that the firft of thefe plants is frequent in ftony grounds
on the Alps ; and the fecond by the fides of fandy roads in
the territory of Valais, in Switzerland ; that the former is
bitterifti and aromatic, of great eftimation among the m-
habitants of the Alps, and the common remedy againft the
intermittent fevers which often rage there, and for exciting
the menftrual difcharges, checked by the cold ; and that
the latter has an acrid aromatic fmell and tafte, without bit-
ternefs, and promifes, from its fenfible qualities, to be a
plant of great virtues. They have not yet been introduced
into praftice in this country. Lewis. See Artemisia.

WoRMWOOD-Trf?, in Gardening. See Abtemisia.

WoRMWOOD-/7j(, in Natural Hijlory, a very fmall black
fly, found on the llalks of the common wormwood in June
and July.

WoRMwooD-fr»»f, Vinum Abfmthites. S^e Vindm, and
Absinthites.

WOROFIDOW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
the palatinate of Braclaw ; 26 miles N.E. of Braclaw.

WORONETZ, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Orlof, fituated upon a river of the fame name, near the
fpot where it falls into the Don, and thus poflefling an eafy
intercourfe with the Black fea. It is quahfied for becoming
a great capital, being placed fo as , to enjoy the advantages
of both warm and cold climates, and holding an intercourfe
with all parts of the empire. The ftreets are wide, but not
paved. Tallow is a great article of trade here, and alfo
iron. Here is alfo the moft confiderable cloth manufaftory
in Ruffia, firft eftabhfhed by Peter the Great : the gypfy
tribe is very prevalent here.

WORPE, a river of Germany, which runs into the
Wumme, 7 miles N.E. of Bremen.

WORRAL, in Zoology, an animal of the lizard kind,
of about four feet long, and eight inches broad, with a
forked tongue, which it puts out like a ferpent, but without
teeth.

It is a harmlefs animal, and feeds only on large flies, and
the fmaller fpecies of hzards. It is found in Egypt only
during the hotteft months, and principally frequents the
grottos and caverns in the mountains on the weft of the
Nile, where it fleeps during the winter feafon.

It is faid to be greatly affefted by mufic ; but experiment
(hews this to be an erroneous opinion. Pococke's Egypt,
■vol. i. p. 208.

WORSBOROUGH, in Geography, a village of Eng-
la!id, in the county of York, with a medicinal fpring ; 3
miles S. of Barnefley.

WORSE, a river of England, which runs into the
Severn, near Bridgenorth.

WORSHIP of God, Cultus Dei, amounts to the fame
with what we otherwife call religion.

This worlhip confifts in paying a due refpeft, veneration,
and homage to the Deity, under a certain expeftation of re-
ward. And this internal refpe£l, &c. is to be fhewn and

W O R

teftified by external afts ; as prayers, facrifices, thankf-
givings, &c.

The Ouietifts, and fome other myftic divines, fet afide
not only all ufe of external worfhip, but even the confider-
ation of rewards and puniihments. Yet, even the heathens
had a not'on, that God did not require us to ferve him for
nought : " Dii quamobrem colendi fint," fays Cicero,
" non intelligo, nuUo nee accepto ab iUis nee fperato
bono."

The fchool divines divide worfhip into divers kinds, "viz.
latria, that rendered to God ; and idolatria, that rendered
to idols, or images. To which the Romanifts add, dulia,
that rendered to iaints ; and hyperdulia, that to the Virgin.

Some theological writers have obfcrved, that the Greek
word ■aftTxvitiu), to •worjijip, is not descriptive only of the
honour which is appropriated to God, but is indifferently
ufed to fignify the honour and refpeft which are paid to
fuperiors of all kinds, in heaven or on earth. Accord-
ingly, they have diftinguilhed between ciml and religious
worfhip.

The general principles upon which the worfhip of God is
confidered as an exercife or aft of rehgion, to which its
meaning is commonly appropriated, have been already ftated
under the articles Prayer and Sunday ; and it has been
illuftrated in three different views of it, as private, domeftic,
and public. To this article we have referred the more par-
ticular confideration of public worfhip, as a duty of indif-
penfable obligation, and of indifputable importance and
utihty. If the worfhip of God, fays archdeacon Paley,
be a duty of religion, public worfhip is a neceffary infti-
tution ; becaufe without it, the greater part of mankind
would exercife no religious worfhip at all. Befides, affem.
blies appointed for this purpofe afford regularly recurring
opportunities for moral and religious inftruftion to thofe
who would otherwife receive no fuch inftruftion. If we
advert to faft, it will be found that the general diffufion
of reUgious knowledge among all orders of Chriftians, in all
Protcftant, and in moft Chriftian countries, compared with
the intelleftual condition of barbarous nations, can be
afcribed to no other caufe than tlie regular eftablifhment of
affemblies for divine worfhip ; in which portions of Scrip,
ture are recited and explained, or the principles of Chriftian
erudition are fo conitantly taught in fermons, incorporated
with liturgies, or expreffed in extempore prayer, as to im-
print, by the very repetition, fome knowledge and memory of
thefe fubjedls upon the moft unqualified and carelefs hearer.
If this pradice were not obferved even by thofe members of
the community who do not fo much need the ailiftance that is
indifpenfable with regard to others, and fanftioned by their
prefence and example, we may eafily forefee how foon reli-
gious affembhes would fink into contempt and difufe. This
argument meets the only ferious apology that can be made
for abfence from public worfhip. But even this is a very
infufficient apology in another point of view, becaufe public
worfhip is a duty, independently of the effeft of example,
of univerfal obligation. Man is a focial being ; and as
fuch enjoys many blefGngs which demand public acknowledg-
ment, and is chargeable with many errors and tranfgreffions
which he ought pubhcly to unite with others in confefling, and
is expofed to many evils which he fhould deprecate in com-
mon with others who are in the fame fallible or mutable ftate
with himfelf.

" Surely, fome will fay," as Paley ftates another objeftion
againft public worfhip, " I may be excufed from going to
church fo long as I pray at home, and have no reafon to
doubt but that my prayers are as acceptable and c£Scacious

in

WORSHIP.

in my clofet as in a cathedral ; ftill lefs can I tliink myfelf
obliged to fit out a tedious fermon, in order to hear what is
known already, what is better learnt from books, or fiig-
gefted by meditation." They, whofe quahfications and
habits beil fupply to themfelves all the efFeii of public ordi-
nances, will be the laft to prefer this excufe, when they ad-
vert to the general confequence of fetting up fuch an exemp-
tion, as well as when they confider the turn which is fureto
be given in the neighbourhood to their abfence from public
worfhip. You ftay from church, to employ the fabbath at
home in exercifes and ftudies fuited to its proper bufinefs :
your next neighbour ftays from church, to fpend the feventh
day lefs religioufly than he paiTed any of the fix, in a fleepy,
ftupid reft, or at fome rendezvous of drunkennefs and de-
bauchery, and yet thinks that he is only imitating you, be-
caufe you both agree in not going to church. The fame
confideration ftiould over-rule many fmall fcruples concerning
the rigorous propriety of fome things, which may be con-
tained in the forms, or admitted into the adminiftration of
the public worfhip of our communion ; for it feems impof-
fible, that even " two or three fhould be gathered together"
in any aft of focial worfliip, if each one require from the
refl an implicit fubmiflion to his objeftions ; and if no man
will attend upon a religious fervice, which in any point con-
tradifts his opinion of truth, or falls (hort of his ideas of
perfeftion.

We may add, that there are other valuable advantages refult-
ing from rehgious affemblies, that are not immediately defigned
in the inftitution, or contemplated by the individuals who com-
pofe them ; e.g. i . Joining in prayer and praifes to their com-
mon Creator and governor has a fenfible tendency to unite
mankind together, and to cherith and enlarge the generous
affeftions. 2. Affemblies for the purpofe of divine worfhip,
placing men under impreffions, by which they are taught to
confider their relation to the Deity, and to contemplate thofe
around them with a view to that relation, force upon their
thoughts the natural equality of the human fpecies, and
thereby promote humility and condefcenfion in the highell
jorders of the community, and infpire the loweft with a fenfe
of their rights. Thus, things are made to appear little, by
being placed befide what is great. In which manner, fupe-
riorities, that occupy the whole field of the imagination, will
vanifh, or fhrink to their proper diminutivenefs, when com-
pared with the diflance by which even the higheft of men
are removed from the Supreme Being : and this comparifon
is naturally introduced by all afts of joint worfhip. If ever
the poor man holds up his head, it is at church : if ever the
rich man views him with refpeft, it is there ; and both will be
the better, and the pablic profited, the oftener they meet in
a fituation in which the confcioufnefs of dignity in the one is
tempered and mitigated, and the fpirit of the other erefted
and confirmed. Moreover, the pubhc worfhip of Chriftians
is a duty of divine appointment. (Matt, xviii. 20. Heb. x.
25.) Independently of thefe pafTages of Scripture, a
difciple of Chriflianity will hardly think himfelf at liberty
to difpute a praftice fet on foot by the infpired preachers of
his rehgion, coeval with its inftitution, and retained by every
feft into which it has been fince divided. Paley's Philof.
vol. ii.

As to the manner in which public worfhip fhould be con-
du6led,if we advert to the hiftory of the primitive church, we
fhall find, that when the congregation was alfembled, the firft
aft of divine fervice which they performed was the reading
of the Holy Scriptures. ( See Tertullian de Anima, c. 3.
Juftin Martyr, Apolog. ii. ) When the reading of the
Scriptures was ended, then followed the finging of pfalms.
(See Tertulhan, aijya^ra. Pliny Epift. ad Trajan. Cle-
mens Alex. Stromal. 1. 6. Origen, De Orat. § 6.) The

Vol. XXXVIII.

pfalms or hymns which were fung by the primitive Chriftians
were either taken out of the Holy Scriptures, and particu-
larly out of the book of Pfalms, or fuch as were of their
own private compofition. (Tertulhan, Apolog. c. 39.)
As to their manner of finging, it was, fays Origen, (De
Orat. J 6. ) in good tune and concert, all the people bearing
a part in it. With refpeft to church-mufic, organs, and the
like, they were not known in the primitive ages to which we
now refer ; for it cannot be rationally conceived that in thofe
days of continual perfecution or violence they could either
ufe or preferve them. The finging of pfalms was followed
by the preaching of the word. (See Tertulhan de Anima,
c. 3. ) The fubjeft of the fermon was ufually a commentary
or exphcation of the lefTons that had been juft before read.
(See Juft. Martyr, Apolog. ii. Origen contra Celfum,
lib. ill. ) As for the length of the fermon, it ufually lafted
an hour. It began with an exordium, and then explained
verfe after verfe, and fentence after fentence, fhewing the
natural and literal fignification of the words, and then the
fpirituaUzed or myftical meaning of them, and concluded
with a fuitable application of all, either by way of exhorta-
tion to piety and virtue, or by way of dehortation from vice
and impiety ; always accommodating the difcourfe to the
capacitiesof the hearers. (Origen contra Celfum, lib. iii.)
The preacher was ufually the bilhop of the parifh. (Juft.
Martyr, Apolog. ii. ) Or, the bifhop decreed a prefbyter, or
fome other fit perfon, to preach in his room. When the fer-
mon was finifhed, the congregation rofe up to prefent their
common and public prayers unto Almighty God (Juft.
Martyr, Apolog. ii. ) ; Handing being the ufual pofture of
praying, at leaft the conftant one on Sundays, on which
days they efteemed it a fin to kneel ; and the preacher fre-
quently concluded his fermon with an exhortation to his
auditors to ftand up and pray to God, which is found to be
the cafe in Origen's fermons. When the congregation ftood
up, all turned their faces towards the eaft, which was their
ufual cuftom (Tertulhan, Apolog. c. 16.) ; for which
praftice they alleged the following reafons : i. Refpeft
and reverence to their lord and mafter Jefus Chrift ; this being
the title given to him in the Old Teftament, according to
an erroneous tranflation of the word Branch in the Septua-
gint. So that the eaft was called by Tertulhan a type of
Chrift. 2. The fimilitude (Zach. vi. 12. ) of thearifing of
the fun to our fpiritual ariling out of the darknefs of fin
and corruption, as Clem. Alex, exprefles it. (Stromat.
lib. vii.) 3. The advice of Origen to pray towards the
eaftern chmate, as denoting our dihgence in the fervice of
God, in bemg more forward to arife and fet about it than
the fun is to run its daily courfe, for which he produces the
authority of an Apocryphal text, Wifdom, xvi. 28. ( Orig.
de Orat. § 20. ) 4. The opinion they entertained of the
excellence of this quarter above others. (Orig. De Orat.
J 21.) The congregation being thus turned towards the
eaft, they put themfelves into a pofture of prayer, ftretch-
ing out their hands, and hfting up their eyes towards heaven.
(Clem. Alex. Stromat. lib. vii. Tertull. Apolog. c. 30.)
The minifter then began to pray, his ufual garb being a
pallium, or, as we call it, a cloak ; which was deemed a
more fimple and plain garment than the toga, v/hich was ufed
through the whole Roman empire. But it does not appear
from any authority of ancient writers, that they put a fur-
plice or any other kind of linen garment over their cloaks.
The prayer was pronounced, as Cyprian fays (De Orat.
Domin. § 2.), with a modeft and bafhful voice, that being
moft proper for thofe who came to acknowledge the multi-
tude and heinoufnefs of their fins, and to beg God's pardon
and grace, which is the end and defign of prayer. The
people did not vocally join with the minifter in the prayers,
4U bu-

W O R

but fatisfied themfelves vsrith teftifying their affent to what he
expreffed, by faying Amen, or fo be it. Indeed it was im-
polTible for the people to refpond, fince they had no fixed
public form of prayer, except the Lord's prayer, which
they frequently, though not always, repeated ; and as to
ti-eir other prayers, every bilhop or minifter of a parifh was
left to his own liberty or ability therein. The conftant repe-
tition of the Lord's prayer with other prayers was not
thought to be necelTary, but it was frequently omitted.
Accordingly they regarded the Lord's prayer as given by
Chrift for a pattern of all other prayers, fo that Cyprian
( De Unit. Ecclef. J 1 1 • ) calls it the law or rule of praying.
But though the repetition of the Lord's prayer was not
neceflary, yet it was ufual. Although they ufed that, they
had alfo other prayers. Their ufual method, according to
TertuUian (De Orat.), feems to have been, fir ft to begin
with the Lord's prayer, as the ground and foundation of all
others, and then, according to their circumftances and con-
ditions, as he expreffes it, to offer up their own prayers and
rcquefts. Thcfe other prayers, however, were not rellrifted
or impofed forms ; but the words and expreflions of them
were left to the prudence, choice, and judgment of every
particular bifhop or minifter. In other words, the primitive
Chriftians had no ftinted liturgies, or impofed forms of
prayer. As to prefcribed forms, there is not the leail men-
tion of them in any of the primitive writings, nor the leaft ,
word or fyllable tending to it, according to lord King,
which, as he fays, is an unaccountable filence if there ever
were fuch, but rather fome expreflions intimating the con-
trary ; fuch as the minifter's praying dVr ovnui:, according
to his ability. (Juft. Mart. Apolog. ii. Origen, Comment,
in Mattli. et in Johanii. ) The noble author now cited has
fhev.-n from parallel paffages, that the minifter's praying ocr»
iuvz//i?, or according to the utmoft of his ability, imports
the exTcife of his gifts and parts in fuitable matter and apt
expreffiuas ; and that the primitive prayers were fuch appears
farther from a paflage in Origen, which explains the verfe in
Matth. vi. " When ye pray, ufe not mere repetitions, &c."
It is very unlikely, continues his lordfhip, that they were
obliged to prefcribed forms, becaufe they never read a fyl-
lable of their prayers out of any book whatever ; which is
evident from their pofture of prayer, that was two-fold,
either with their hands and eyes lifted up to heaven, or with
their eyes (hut. (Tertull. de Orat. Origen in Matth. vi. 5.
De Orat. j 9. Contra Celfum, lib. vii.) If tliey had ufed
prefcribed and impofed forms, they muft neceflarily have re-
membered them, which would have been an intolerable load
to the ftrongeft memory ; efpecially to have repeated, word
after word, the prayers of their faft-days, which muft have
been fev^ral hours long, fince fome of their fafts were pro-
longed from the morning of one day to the beginning of an-
other. Whether their prayers were divided into feveral col-
lefls, our author has not been able pofitively to determine ;
but he thinks it probable, that on their faft-days they made
feveral diftinft prayers, and that at their ordinary meetings,
their prayer after fermon was but one entire piece. Accord-
ing to Juft. Martyr (Apolog. ii. ', the prayer that preceded
the confirmation of the euchariftical elements " was one
long prayer, Jo which the people faid. Amen." Lord
King's Enquiry into the Conftitution, Difcipline, Unity,
and Worihip of the Primitive Church, part ii. See
Liturgy.

WORSLEY, in Geography, a populous townftiip in the
pai-ifti of Ecclej, and county of Lancafter, England, 6
miles W.N.W. from the town of Manchefter. In the -year
18 1 1, this place contained 615 1 inhabitants, who occupied
1 01 2 houfes; and nearly the whole of whom were engaged
in manufa(5ture8 and the coal-mines. At this place is the

won

famous tunnel for the Bridgewater canal, (fee Canal,)
and a large brick manfion, called Worfley-hall, which be-
longed to, and was inhabited by, the late duke of Bridge-
water. See Lancafhire Gazetteer, 1808.

WORSTED, or WoRSTEDE, a market-town in the hun-
dred of Tunftead, and county of Norfolk, England, is fituated
4 miles S.S.E. from North Walftiam, aiul 120 miles N.E.
by N. from London. It was formerly a place of much cele-
brity, and of confiderable trade ; but is now greatly on the
decline, and is chiefly remarkable for the invention, or firit
twilling, of that fort of woollen yarn or thread, which hence
obtained the name of worfted. This manufafture is mentioned
in the fecond year of Edward III. when the weavers
and workers of worfted ftuffs were required by parliament
to work them in a better manner than they had previoufly
done. Thefe ftuffs, and knit and wove hofe, conftitute
the chief manufafture of the town. A weekly market is
held on Saturdays, and here is an annual fair. The church
confifts of a nave, two aifles, a chancel, and a fquare
tower. The population of the parifh, according to the
return of the year 181 1, amounted to 619, occupying 112
houfes.

Contiguous to the town is Worfted-hall, the feat of fir
George Berney Brograve, bart., a commodious manfion,
fituated in a pleafant park. — Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. xi. Norfolk; by J. Britton, F.S.A. 1809.
Blomefield's Hiftory of Norfolk, vol. xi. 1810.

Worsted, and Worsted Manufadure. The term wor-
fted is applied to yarn, and manufaftured goods made of
combed wool. Worfted is properly a branch of the IVooUen
Manufacture, to which article we refer our readers ; but the
latter term, ftriftly fpeaking, is applied only to yarn, or
pieces made entirely or in part of carded wool. The cha-
rafteriftic diftinftion between combing-wool and ftiort or
clothing-wool has been already ftated under the article
Wool. (See Wool and Woollen* Manufacture.)
Worfted goods were made in England as early as the time
of Edward II. In the account of exports in the following
reign, already given in the article Woollen Mmrufaclure,
the number of pieces of worfted goods exported is rearly
double that of woollen cloths. According to Camden,
the name is derived from Worfted, a town in Norfolk,
where worfted ftuff"s were firft made. According to Dr.
Pan-y, in his " Eflay on the Merino Breed of Sheep,"
vvorfteds were called by the Flemings ' Oflades,' and as the
manufacture was in their hands long before it was introduced
into England, it is probable that our appellation is a cor-
ruption of their's. Oftade was long ago a common furname
in Flanders, and was perhaps that of fome perfon famous
for this particular branch of the woollen trade, which
afterwards was appropriated to an eftabliftiment of fimilar
manufafturers in Norfolk.

Worfted yarn is made of long or combing-wool, in which
the fibres are all laid even parallel with each other by the
wool-comb. It may be clafFcd into two great divifions,
the foft and the hard woriled yarn. The foft yarn is
made of the ftiorter kinds of combing-wool, the forting of
which has been already defcribcd under the article Wool.
The fhort and long combing-wools are both prepared for
fpinning by the comb in the fame manner, except that for
fome kinds of fine hard yarn made from the latter, the wool
is combed, and afterwards fpun nearly without oil. This
is the cafe with the yarn for bombazines. The foft yarn
for hofiery receives but little twift in the fpinnii?g, and two,
three, or more threads are afterwards twined together on
what is called a doubling-mill, to make a thread of rcquifiie
ftrength and thicknefs to be woven on the ftocking-frame.
See ^JO^KISG- Frame.

Knitting-

WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

Knitting-yarn is twined much liarder than yarn for the
frame. For mixed coloured ftockings, part of the wool is
dyed and mixed with the white in the procefs of combing.
The principal feats of the worded hofiery manufafture in
England were Nottingham and Leicelter ; but of late years
the worded hofiery has declined at the former place, the trade
there being principally confined to filk and cotton articles.
Formerly hofiery comprifed a variety of worded articles,
particularly caps, which were generally worn in England
before the introduftion of hats.

At Aberdeen, in Scotland, there is a confiderable manu-
fafture of hofiery, the wool being principally fupplied from
i London. Worded doclungs, and lamb's-wool hofiery, to
I the amount of from fifty to feventy thoufand pounds, are
[ faid to have been annually exported from Aberdeen to
1 Holland. Of the number of hands employed in worded
hofiery in England, or the annual value of the goods made,
[ we have no correft account. Perhaps fome edimate may be
formed from the amount of exports of woollen hofiery given
under the head Woollen Manufanure,m the table of exports,
in which it will be feen, that in the year 1816 the worded
hofiery exported amounted to one hundred and fifty-one
thoufand and fixty pounds. This, we believe, includes
the hofiery made of woollen yarn, or what is generally
called lamb's-wool yarn, an article which, fince the begin-
ning of the prefent century, has been greatly increafing
in demand. Soft worded yarn for hofiery, during the
lad twenty years, has been principally fpun and doubled
by machines in large worded-mills. Previoufiy to that time,
worded-making by hand-fpinning was a didinft trade from
hofiery. The worded-maker bought his different forts
of combing-wool from the wool-dapler, combed and fpun
it, and fold the yarn to the hofier. Since then, the hofiers
have been principally fupplied withworded yarn from large
mills edablidied in Leicederdiire, Nottinghamdiire, andWar-
vvickdiire. Of late, however, many of the hofiers are manu-
faftui-ing their own yarn on machines or mules turned by the
hand, or in fmall mills turned by horfes or water.

The combing-wools of Kent are better fuited for hofiery
worded yarn than any other in England, particularly for
machine-fpinning. Tiiis excellence is derived partly from
the foftnefs as well as foundnefs of the wool ; but particu-
larly from the daple being nearly of one uniform thicknefs
from the bottom to the top. See Wool.

Picardy and Normandy were the principal feats of the
worded hofiery in France. Under the article Woollen
Mamifadure, it will be feen that 1,250,000 pounds weight
of wool were con fumed annually in the manufafture of
hofiery in Picardy before the French revolution.

The docking-frame was invented by William Lee, M.A.
of Cambridge, in 1589, and was afterwards introduced into
France. This invention took place in England only
s8 years after the knitting of hofiery yarn on needles had
been introduced from Spain. See STOCKING-Frawf.

Hard worded yarn for worded duffs or pieces is fpun
much fmaller, and twided much harder, than the foft
worded yarn for hofiery. In all the douter kinds of worded
goods, tlie long or heavy combing-wool is ufed. (See
Wool.) Under the article Woollen ManufaSure we
have noticed the introduftion of the worded trade into Eng-
land, and various places where it was fird edablidied.
Norwich and fome of the towns in Norfolk and Suffolk ap-
pear to have been tlie fird where any confiderable quantity
of worded pieces or duffs were made. The names which
the different kinds of worded pieces have received are very
numerous, being often derived from the manufafturer who
introduced a flight change either in the mode of weaving or

finidiing the goods. Thefe names foon became obfolete,
being fupplanted by other kinds of worded goods, fo that
we do not know at prefent to what particular kind of
pieces fome of them were formerly applied ; the effential
difference confiding in their being woven plain, twilled, or
figured, or made with a w.-irp of fingle or doubled yarn, and
woven douter or more flightly, or of greater or lefs width,
and whether they were glazed or not in the finidiing.

The mod important didinftion between worded pieces
and woollen cloth confids in the former not being milled
or raifed, fo as to cover the furface with a pile, but the
thread is left bare. To take off the loofe hairs which rife
from the furface, the worded pieces are paffed over a red-
hot cylinder, in the fame manner as many kinds of cot-
ton (fee Cotton ManufaSure'): this procefs is called
Jtnging. For fome particular purpofes, a flight degree of
milling has recently been attempted to be given to worded
pieces in the fulling-mill. The glazing communicated to
fome kinds of worded goods is given by preffing them be-
tween dieets of diff glazed prefs-paper and heated iron
plates, which are compreffed in a drong preffmg-frame.
For the weaving of figured pieces, fee Weaving, and
Draught of Looms.

Some kinds of very fine worded goods are made with a
warp of mohair or filk, as filk camlets and bombazines.
The latter goods, with a filk warp and wefted with hard
worded yarn of the fined kind, are manufaftured at Nor-
wich. The term bombazine appears to be derived from
bombycina, a kind of filk drefs ufed by the Romans, and
faid to come from Affyria. It is generally underdood to
have been made from the threads of an infeft called the
bombyx. Bombycina is fometimes confounded by com-
mentators with byffinum and fericum. Byffmum appears
to have been a very fine kind of linen or lace ; fericum
unquedionably means filken duff, fo called from the Seres,
the nation whence it was procured. Probably bombycina
was a coarfer kind of filk. In the middle ages, the word
bombycina was applied to cotton. Macpherfon's Annals
of Commerce. See Byssus.

Bombazines are woven with a twill, and have, as before
dated, a warp of filk and a wett of fine worded yarn.
The Dutch refugees, who fled from the perfecution of the
duke of Alva, introduced the manufafture of this article
into Norwich in the year 1675, when the Dutch elders,
according to Blomefield, prefented bombazines in court at
Norwich. (Blomefield's Hid. of Norfolk, vol. ii. p. 205.)
Worded goods were made in Norwich as early as the reign
of Edward II. This appears from a patent granted to
John Peacock, for the ineafuring every piece of worded
made in the city of Norwich or county of Norfolk. Nor-
wich has continued from that time one of the principal feats
of the worded and ftuff trade. The fale of duffs made in
Norwich only, in the reign of Henry VIII., amounted to
100,000/. annually, befides worded dockings, which were
computed at 60,000/.

Norwich is at this day the only part of England where
any confiderable number of the very fined duffs and bom-
bazines are made. The manufafture of the coarfer kinds
of wordeds, except camlets, has been transferred in a great
meafure into Yorkfliire. The period preceding the Ame-
rican revolution, from the year 1743 '^f '7'^3' ""^y perhaps
be regarded as the mod flourifliing era of the worded
manufaftures of Norwich. According to the account of
Arthur Young in 1 771, the manufaftures of this place had
increafed four-fold in the preceding 70 years. The number
of looms was then edimatcd at 12,000, and eacli loom was
fuppofed to employ fix perfons in preparing and finiflung
4U 2 the

WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

the material ; and the total annual value of the goods was
eftimated at above 1,200,000/. Of thefe goods the eftimate
then was,

480,000

The export to Rotterdam

to London

to various places

Total value

550,000
200,000

1,230,000

The number of perfons employed being from feventy to
eighty thoufand.

Since the time to which Arthur Young refers, the manu-
fafturers of Norwich have engaged extenfively in the trade
of filk (hawls and other articles, in which no worfted what-
ever is ufcd. Still, however, the worfted manufaftures of
Norwnch may be conlidered as in a flourifhing ftate. The
number of looms employed in worlled at the prefent time
(1818) may be eftimated at 10,000 ; half of which weave
camlets, calimancoes, and other ftuffs ; and the other half
bombazines, narrow and broad. The former are chiefly for
home confumption, the latter for the Spanifh market. The
Eaft India company take a confiderable quantity of the fine
camlets manufaftured at Norwich.

By far the greateft. part of the worfted yarn employed at
Norwich is fupplied by machine-fpinning, from the worfted-
mills in Yorkfliire, Lancafhire, and Durham. But fome
yarn ftill continues to be fpun in the old manner, by the
running-wheel, in Suffolk, Eflex, Hertfordfhire, and Cam-
bridgeftiire. In Norfolk alone, the ufe of the diftaff ftill
remains. This inftrument is the moft ancient of which we
have any notice, either in facred hiftory, or the fabulous
traditions of Grecian mythology handed down to us by
Homer and Hefiod. It is at prefent vulgarly called the
rock. In ufing it, the thread is drawn out from the end
of the (liver of combed wool. The motion is communicated
to a rough kind of fpindle, by twirling it between the
right-hand and the thigh, which is fuffered to continue re-
volving when fufpended by the thread, which the fpinftrefs
gradually lengthens with her fingers.

In wheel-fpiniiing, a fmall portion of the combed wool or
fliver is laid acrofs the finger, from the centre of which,
called the twitch, the thread is drawn out. About thirty
years fince, the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Hertford-
fhire, and Effex, not only fupplied all the yarn that was
wanting for the manufaftures of thofe diftrifts, but fent
large quantities of worfted yarn to Halifax and Manchefter.
At prefent the trade is completely turned, and, as we have
before ftated, the greater part of the yarn ufed at Norwich
is fent there from the northern counties of England. This
change has occafioned great diftrefs in the villages where
the yarn was formerly fpun, by depriving the wives and
children of the cottagers of their common employment.

Until the middle of the laft century, worfted goods were
manufaftured in confiderable quantities in Warwickftiire,
Oxfordftiire, and Northampton{hire ; but about that time the
extenfion of the worfted trade in the Weft Riding of York-
fliire, particularly at Halifax, Bradford, and Wakefield,
gradually drew this trade in a great meafure away
from thofe counties. The manufafturers in Yorkftiire, or
rather the merchants who bought the worited pieces from
the manufafturers, were, however, long unacquainted with
the beft modes of dyeing and drefling them ; they were
tlierefore fent to London or Coventry to be finiftied, but
afterwards they were finiftied in Yorkfnire. The demand
to Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the Levant, took off^ the
greater part of the worfted goods manufaftured "at Halifax ;

thofe manufaftured round Wakefield and Bradford, con-
fifting chiefly of tammies and ftialloons, were confumed
principally by England and her colonies. The Piece-hall
at Halifax was firft opened about the year 1780; and the
intervening time, from thence to the year 1792, or the
breaking out of the French war, may be regarded as the
moft flourifliing era of the worfted trade in Yorkftiire.
Though the cheapnefs of cahcoes, as an article of female
drefs, fince the improvements in the cotton manufafture,
materially abridged the fale for fome kinds of worfted
goods in England, this was more than compenfated by
the increafed demand for carpets v/ith worfted warps,
and other articles of luxury, in which worfted yarn was
employed.

The demand in foreign markets, from the year 1782 to
! 792, for Englilh woriled goods, greatly exceeded that of
any former period ; but after the breaking out of the
French war, the worfted trade at Halifax began to decline.
The greater part of the foreign markets being clofedagainft
us, moft of the mercantile houfes engaged in the export
of worfted pieces were in confequence ruined or declined ;
the trade altogether, and many of the fmall manufafturers,
engaging in the cotton trade. The introduftion of Englifti
calicoes into Turkey and other parts tended alfo to leffen
the regular demand for ftialloons and other worfted goods,
as articles of female drefs, in thofe countries. Soon after
the breaking out of the French war in 1792, the fpinning
of worfted by machinery was eftabliftied at Bradford and
the vicinity ; and continuing to increafe, drew round that
place the manufafturers of worfted goods on the decline of
the Hahfax trade. Bradford is now become the principal
feat of the worfted manufafture in Yorkftiire ; and fome of
the proprietors of the worfted mills, befides fupplying the
fmaller manufafturers with yarn, employ a very great num-
ber of looms themfelves, and carry on this branch of trade
on a fcale of extent never before known in the worifed
manufafture. Within the laft two years, the worfted trade
has alfo greatly revived at Halifax.

The following are the kinds of worfted pieces at prefent
principally made in Yorkftiire.

Bombazets are woven both plain and twilled, with the
warp of fingle thread ; they were prefted, and finiftied without
glazing : the width 22 inches, length 29 yards.

Tammies, or durants, with fingle warps twilled, and gene-
rally coarfer than twilled bombazets ; width from 32 to 36
inches, length 29 yards.

Shalloons are woven with a twfill, and have a warp of fingle
thread. We believe the name was derived from Chalons in
France. The pieces are from 32 to 36 inches wide, and
29 yards long.

Cubicas are very fine ftialloons fo called.

Sayes, or anafcottes, are twilled and made with fingle warps ;
they are of two kinds, one running 27 inches wide and 30
yards in length, the other 42 inches in width and 44 yards in
length.

Moreens are woven plain and watered or emboffed, and are
made very ftout, being principally ufed for furniture : their
width is 28 inciies, length 24 yards.

Calimancoes are woven plain and ftriped : width 1 7 inches,
length 29 yards.

Camlets are both plain and twilled: width 18 inches,
length 29 yards. They are ftiorter than bombazets, but
not many are made in Yorkftiire with doubled warps.

Lajl'mgs have doubled warps, fometimes of two and fome-
times of three threads, and are made vi'ith great variety of
patterns, either plain, twilled, or flowered, and are diftin-
guiflied by diff^erent names, according to their figures and

quality ;

R

WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

quality; as prunelle, amens, (probably from Amiens in comb. Alfo at the other end of the ftem f, clofe to the
France, where they were manufaftured, ) and drawboys : poft. there is a fmall hook /» rivetted, which terminates with
itbe width 1 8 inches, length 30 yards. " --::-^-j ■ ^ . , • . .

Worfted (hag, or velvet woven like corduroi and cut, is
made principally at Banbury, in Oxfordfhire, and at Co-
ventry ; but has been manufaftured alfo in Yorkfhire.
I In the worlled manufaftures of France, there were greater
varieties of pieces than in England. One kind of camlet,
made with a fine warp from the wool of the Angora goat and
a weft of fine worfted, was remarkably beautiful ; but we
believe it has not been manufaftured in Yorkfhire or at
Norwich.

For fome account of the worfted manufaftures of France,
fee Woollen ManufaSure ; under which article we have
given the hiftory of the worfted manufafture as conneAed
with the woollen, and where may be feen the number and
value of the worfted pieces exported from England in the
year ending January 18 17. See alfo long combing-ivool,
under the article Wool.

I Worsted Spinning, In the article Wool we have given
an account of the different kinds of long wool which are
proper for fpinning into worfted, alfo the manner of forting

a pointed pin, fituated in an horieontal direftion. This
point IS inferted into a hole made in the end of the handle
of the comb, in the direAion of its length. The end of the
comb-handle being firft .placed on the point of the hook h
It is let down upon the other point g, which, by paffin?
through the handle, fixes the comb quite faft to the poft
as fhewn ^tjig. 2. r j

In the operation of combing wool, it is necefiary to heat
the teeth of the combs, in order to fofteii and relax the
fibres of the wool, and render them more eafy to work.
The heat alfo tends to diftribute the oil with which the
wool is lubricated. The combs are heated in a comb-pot
or ftove, fg. 3, which is a fmall furnace built in brick, to
inclofe a fire-place, of which A is the door, B the afh-pit,
and C the flue. Above the fire a circular caft-iron plate a a
is placed. This is made flat, except in the central part,
where there is a concavity, to obtain a better aftion of the
fire. Immediately over the plate a, another plate, b b, is
placed parallel to the former, but with a fufiicient fpace
between them to admit the teeth of the combs: feveral
and fcouring them. This wool muft be prepared for fpinning pieces of iron are placed between the two plates, to keep
by repeated combings, with a comb or heckle that is pro- them at a proper diftance afunder, and to divide the fpace
vided with a great number of long fteel pins which are into fmall cells proper for the combs.

Iharp-pointed. Thefe points being few in number com- In ufing this ftove, the workman muft be careful not to
pared with the teeth of cards, they can be fafely introduced heat it too much, and a damper in the flue is very ufeful
between and drawn through the long fibres of the wool, in to regulate the draught ; if the heat is too great, it fpoils the
'order to feparate and ftraighten them, without materially temper of the comb-teeth, and injures the wool alfo. The
;i)reaking them. Another objeft of the combing is, to moft improved ftove is heated by fteam, which will give a
leparate the fliort fibres which are intermixed with the long fufficient warmth, but cannot overheat the combs,
ones ; for in fpinning any kind of thread, it is defirable that
the fibres fliould be all as nearly as poffible of a length.

Wool-combing. — In the ordinary procefs of wool-combingby
hand, the implements ufed are, i . Two combs for each work-
man. 2. A poft, to which either of the combs can be fixed,
'to fupport them during the operation. 3. A comb-pot,
which is a fmall ftove to heat tlie teeth of the combs,
which is found to facilitate the combing. The combs
are ftiewn at _;f5'. i. Plate I. Woollen Manufa8ure : each
comb is compofed of two rows of pointed fteel teeth,
\a and b, difpofed in two parallel planes. One of the rows
tcontains longer teeth than the other. They are fixed into
a wooden ftock or head c, which is covered with horn, and

In order to comb the wool, it is feparated into handfuls,
each containing near four ounces of wool, which is about a
proper quantity to be combed at once. Thefe handfuls
are fprinkled with oil, and the wool is rolled in the hand*
to diftribute it equally. The quantity of oil varies from
Toth to T-'yth of the quantity of wool by weight. The comb
i» firft heated by introducing the teeth into the ftove, in one
of the cells between the two iron plates ; when it has ac-
quired fufiicient heat it is withdrawn, and another comb is
put in its place. The heated comb is then fattened to the
poft, with its teeth pointing upwards, in order to be filled
with wool ; the comber takes one-half of the handful of
wool in his hand, and catches it upon the teeth of the comb
has a handle d fixed into it, perpendicular to the planes of by throwing the wool over the points, fo that they pene-
'^' r . .1 1 . r trate it ; then by drawing the wool towards him, and at the

fame time downwards to the bottom of the teeth, a portion
of the wool will remain in the teeth. The lock of wool is
again caft upon the teeth, and drawn through them, and
every time fome wool remains ; this is repeated as often as
is neceffary, until all the wool is gathered upon the
teeth. The comb thus filled is placed with its points in
the ftove, and the wool which is upon it remains outfide of
the ftove, but will become llightly warmed. The other
comb, which was heating whilil the firft was filling, is now
filled in turn, in the fame manner as the firft, and is then
put to heat with the wool upon it, and whilft this is going
on, the workman occupies himfelf in making a handful
ready for the next combing.

When both combs are properly warmed, the comber
holds one of them with his left-hand over his knee, as he is
feated on a low ftool, and with the other comb held in his
right-hand he combs tiie wool up«n the firft, by introducing
the points of the teeth of one comb into the wool contained
in the other, and drawing them through it ; this is repeated
for 14 or 15 ftrokes, until the fibres of the wool are fepa-
rated, difentangled, and laid parallel. Iji combing, he di-

rea»

the rows of teeth. The rows of teeth are about feven
inches long, and each row contains about twenty-four teeth.
'The length of the longeft teeth is near twelve inches, and
ithe (horter ones about eight inches. The teeth are made
:of fteel, of a round figure, and regularly tapering from the
,bafe, where they are fixed into the ftock, to the point,
! which is quite tharp. The teeth are about one-fixth of an
[inch in diameter at the bale ; and the interval between
ithe two adjacent teeth at the bafe is rather lefs than their
idiamcter, or one-eighth of an inch. The fpace between
Ithe two planes in which the teeth are difpofed is about one-
ithird of an inch at the bafes of the teeth. The teeth ftiould
be ftraight and well-tempered, and pohftied. If they become
[crooked in working, the workman muft ftraighten them,
and fit them all in a true line. The combs ufed for the laft
combmg of the wool have three rows of teeth.

In the wool-comber's ftiop a poft is fixed, as fliewn
by fig. 2, in order to fupport the combs occafionally
durnig the working. An iron ftem g is fixed faft into
the poft, and projctts liorizontally from it ; the ex-
treme end of it turns upwards with a point, wliich is in-
ferted into a liole throngli the middle of the handle of llie
6

WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

refts the combs fometimes with the teeth of one parallel to
the teeth of the other, and fometimes with the teeth of the
two combs at right angles, or in a crofs direftion ; but in
all cafes he muft take care to begin gradually, by intro-
ducing the points of the teeth, firft into the extremity of
the wool which is contained in the teeth of the comb, and
then penetrating deeper into the wool at every fucceeding
ftroke, till at lall he works the combs as near as he pofTibly
can without aftually bringing their teeth in contadl : with-
out this precaution, he could not draw the comb through
the wool without breaking the fibres, and tearing the wool
out of the teeth of the comb ; but if he proceeds cautioufly,
the wool will be difentangled, feparated, and ftraightened.

During the working, he frequently changes the combs,
fo as to work the wool upon both combs ; but as the
wool will gradually accumulate upon that comb which is
mod worked, he manages them fo that at the end of about
35 or 40 ftrokes nearly all the wool will be gathered upon
one of the combs, and will hang from its teeth in a fair
lock of ftraight and regular wool- This comb he puts to
heat for a moment, then fixes it to the poft, and proceeds to
draw otF the wool from the comb in a (liver. To do this, he
takes hold of the wool which projefts from the teeth with
the fingers and thumbs of both hands, and draws it away
from the teeth of the comb in a direftion perpendicular to
their length, without Aiding it off their points : as the wool
comes away, he takes frefh hold, always feizing the wool at a
given diftance from the teeth. A portion of the wool which
confilts of fhort fibres will not come off, becaufe it does
not reach to the place where the comber grafps the wool ;
it therefore remains in the teeth of the comb, and is drawn
off afterwards. This (hort wool, which is called noil, is
unfit for worfttd fpinning ; it is compofed in part of the
(hort fibres which are naturally intermixed in the long ones,
and alfo of the fragments of long fibres which are broken
in the procefs of combing. The quantity of the noil de-
pends upon the kind of wool, and alfo on the care with which
the comber has condufted his procefs ; but it will feldom
exceed 4th or ^th of the quantity of the raw wool by weight.

The wool which is drawn off from the comb forms
a continued fliver or band, the fibres of which are
ftraight and parallel, but not fufficiently fo for fpinning ; it
IS therefore combed over again, and frequently it is repeated
a third time. The firft combing is called hacking, and the
flivers produced by it are extended five together upon a table ;
then holding them down with one hand, they are broken
again into handfuls by drawing them with the other.
Thefe are combed again in the manner before defcribed, but
the heat given to the combs is much lefs. The ultimate
fliver, -which is drawn off from the comb the laft time,
(hould be very even, and compofed of long and parallel
fibres. On examining it againft the light, every part fhould
appear equally denfe, without any entanglements of the
fibres, for on thefe particulars the perfeftion of the fpinning
will in a great meafure depend.

The combed wool produced from fixteen pounds of wool
ufually weighs eleven or eleven and a half pounds, for about
two pounds are loft in waftiing, and the reft in noil and
wafte in the combing. When the combing is finiftied, the
flivers are formed into fix parcels, each containing ten or
eleven flivers, which are rolled up together into a balJ, and
ticketed with their weight and quality, the wool-comber's
mark, and wool-ftapler's mark. In this ftate, combed
wool is called tops or Jerfey, and is fold to the fpinners in
the country, and in cottages, who fpin it into worfted-
thread by the fimple hand fpinning-vifheel ; but the
raanufafturers who fpin by machinery have wool-combers

at their mills, and they ufually employ combing-machincs
in addition. I

Combing- Machines. — The firft combing-machine was in-l
vented by the Rev. Edmund Cartwright. His firft two!
patents were in 1790, and he had another in 1792 ; but the|
machine was not rendered perfeft, or brought into extonfivei
ufe, till a later period : and in 1 802 he obtained an act of
parliament to renew or extend the term of his patent.|
The fpecification which he enrolled in confequence containsi
drawings and defcriptions of machines nearly of the famej
kind as thofe which are now in ufe at many of the great|
worfted-mills, and which we fhall defcribe. Mr. Cart-|
Wright propofed to form the raw wool into continued flivers,!
by joining the pieces of wool together, and flightly tvvifting
them, and in this ftate they could be prefented to the'
combing-machine ; but as this plan was not found to fuc-:
ceed, it was found neceflary to comb the wool firft by liand,,
in order to reduce it to flivers. This is ftill the common!
praftice, and takes away great part of the advantage of the
machine ; but we have feen a preparing-machine for thisj
purpofe, which operated very well upon the raw wool.;
The inventor's name we have not learned ; but the rudi-j
ments of it are to be found in Mr. Cartwright's fpecification
of 1790.

Preparing- Machine. — The raw wool is fpread upon :
horizontal feeding-cloth, which is extended over two rollers,,
and circulates upon them : by its motion, the wool is carried,
forwards, and prefented to a pair of fluted rollers, which,
draw it in. This feeding-cloth is fituated at the top o(
the machine, at the height of about five feet from the floor,
fo as to allow room for the reft of the machinery beneath it.
A principal part of the machinery is carried by a hbri-:
zontal wheel of five feet diameter, which is mounted uponi
a vertical axis, and is turned rapidly round by the mill.,
This wheel carries four porcupines, which are fmall cyhn^
drical rollers, armed with fpikes or teeth rather hooked. '.
The rollers are fituated horizontally in the plane of the
wheel, with their length nearly in the direftion of radii;
They are about feven inches in diameter, and fourteerl .
inches long, and are fixed upon horizontal fpindlee, which;
proceed from the circumference of the great wheel nearly,
to its centre, one extremity of each fpindle being fuftaineo .
by the rim of the wheel, and the other in a fupport fixed 1
to the perpendicular axis. The porcupines are fixed on thi .
ends of the fpindles, near the circumference of the wheel ;) .
and on the oppofite end of each fpindle is a fmall cog-wheel. .
to work in a worm orendlefs fcrew, which is fixed concentrici
with the axis, being cut on the outfide of a hollow tube.
through which the vertical axis pafles.

By this means, the four porcupines which the wheel con
tains have a two-fold motion, -yiz. they are all carried rouiic
in a circle by the motion of the wheel, and at the fame timt
each one has a flow rotative motion on its own axis, in con-
fequence of the cog-wheels, which work in the threads 0.
the fixed worm.

The feeding-cloth is fo fituated, that the four porcupinei
in the great wheel will pafs in fucceflion exaftly beneath the
fluted rollers, which take the wool from the feeding-cloth
and the teeth of the four porcupines being fliarp-pointed
and rather bent forwards at the points, they penetrate aiu
catch the wool as it comes through thefe fluted rollers, am
hangs down from them. A portion of wool is thus car
ried away by each porcupine every time it pafl^ss beneatl
the fluted rollers ; but by the flow revolving motion o
the porcupines on their own axes, each one prefents a dif
ferent row of teeth every time, and thut by degrees the^
become clothed with the wool which they take up.

4 Thi

I

WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

This wool they deHver to a larger porcupine, which is
placed beneath the revolving-wheel, or on the oppofite fide
to the feeding-cloth. This porcupine is a cylinder nineteen
linches diameter, and fourteen inches long : its axis is placed
horizontally, and direfted nearly to the centre of the vertical
axis ; fo that the fmall porcupines will be parallel to the large
one when they pafs over it. The great porcupine is furnifhed
with rows of teeth exaftly fimilar to thofe of the fmall ones,
which teeth are not very numerous, but large and ftiarp-
pointed, and rather hooked, with the points forwards. When
the fmall porcupines pafs over the large one, there is fo Tittle
;lear fpace between their teeth, that the wool which is con-
:ained in the teeth of the fmall ones will be taken off by
■he large one, and remain in its teeth. The reafon of this
s, that the teeth of the large porcupine prefent themfelves
;o the teeth of the fmall ones with the points forwards, and
the fmall porcupines at the fame time move with the
points of their teeth backwards. It was before ftated, that
the porcupines move with the points forwards when they
take the wool from the feeding-rollers, but this wool is ap-
plied on the upper fide of the porcupines, and the great
porcupine is at the lower fide ; hence the direiElion of the teeth
is reverfe in the two cafes, and occafions the wool to be given
to the great porcupine, a fmall quantity at a time, from each of
the fmall porcupines, as they pafs over it. The great por-
cupine being turned flowly round upon its axis clothes itfelf
^ivith the wool in a continued fleece, and this is drawn off
from its teeth by a pair of fluted rollers, between which it
paffes in a continued fliver or band ; this band is alfo con-
dufted through a (hort tube, which revolves round its axis,
land rolls up the fliver, to make it adhere better together in
'1 round and compaft form.

; The aflion of this machine is not to comb the wool,
but to divide the mafs of raw wool, which is fpread on the
feeding-cloth, into a great number of fmall and equal por-
itions by the fucceffive itrokes of the fmall porcupines ; thefe
.portions are again mixed together in one film of wool upon
ithe great porcupine, from which the wool is drawn off in
la continued fliver, and as much twift is given to it as is
Tequifite to make the fliver fufficiently compaft to fubmit it
to the combing-machine.

Carl'Zf right's Combing-Machine, or Combing-Table ; called

lalfo amongil the workmen Big Ban In Plate II. ^g. i.

^Worjled Spinning, is a horizontal plan of the machine, which
exhibits nearly all its parts ; we have alfo given a perfpec-
itive view in Jig. 2. of the operative parts, as they would
'appear if detached from the framing which fuitains them.
A A is a circular ring of wood, which is fixed down on the
framing ; B B is a fimilar ring, which is fitted into the fixed
iring, with liberty to turn round within it. The interior of
'this ring is furniflied with a row of comb-teeth, with the
'points direfted to the centre, and there are two otlier rows
jof (horter teeth beneath, fo as to make three circular rows of
leeth. This forms a large circular comb, called the combing-
itable, about five feet diameter ; it is moved flowly round in
'the diredlion of the arrow by means of a pinion, which
iworks into a ring of cogs, fixed in fegments withinfide of
'the circular comb beneath the row of teeth, as is fliewn in
'the feftion,_^. 3.

I The wool is filled upon the teeth of the circular comb by
imeans of two maclunes F and G, called crank-lafliers. Thefe
ifupply the wool by lafliing or throwing the lock of
tWool upon the teeth of the comb, and then drawing up the
|wool from the comb, with a motion very fimilar to that
lOf the hand of the workman in filling the combs, as we have
; before defcribed. The crank-lafliers repeat their ftrokes
'with great rapidity j but as the comb-table is kept in con-

tinual motion, the wool which is lalhed upon the teeth by
the firfl; crank-laflier F is carried away, and in its courfe
comes beneath the other crank-laflier G, by which more
wool is filled upon the teeth, and they receive the intended
portion. This wool, by the rotation of the comb-table, is
then carried beneath a fmall comb K, which works by a
crank movement, but with its teeth always horizontal ; they
penetrate through the wool, and then rife up fo as to comb
it. After this operation, the wool is taken off from the
teeth of the comb-table between a double pair of fluted
rollers N, fituated immediately over the comb-teeth ; thefe
draw off the combed wool in a continued fliver, which is
condufted through another pair of plain rollers R, and falh
into a tin can placed there to receive it.

This machine was not found capable of combing the raw
wool, chiefly becaufe the comb-teeth are not heated, and
alfo becaufe the aftions of lafliing on the wool, and after-
wards combing it, begin to aft upon wool, at firfl with their
full force, and break the fibres if they are entangled
together ; hence it is found beft to comb the wool by
hand once over, or for fine goods twice. The wool is thus
formed into flivers, which are joined together, by laying
them on a table, with the ends lapped over each other ; and
rolling them together, they will join into one long fliver. Three
of thefe flivers are put into tin cans i i, which are placed
upon a circular table I, and carried upwards to the crank-
laflier F or G, which are both of fimilar conftruftion. The
table I is mounted on an axis, fo as to be capable of turning
flowly round horizontally, in order to twift; the three flivers
together into one ; but in the machines which we have feen
in ufe, this movement is commonly neglefted, for if the flivers
are prepared by hand-combing, as we have before defcribed,
they will hang together without twilling.

The flivers, which are carried up from the cans to the crank-
laflier { (eejg. 3. ), firft pafs over a roller at e ; the axle of this
roller is alfo the fixed centre of motion of a trough H, which
forms one part of the crank-laflier. The fliver of wool is con-
dufted along the trough H, and then turns over a fecond
roller aty"; the centre-pin of this roller is the joint, which
unites the end of the trough H with a moveable frame J J,
which has a tube g fixed in front for the fliver of wool to pafs
through. A little below the middle of this frame Jd are holes
through its fides, to receive the pin of a crank b b, of which
the central axis isfupported in bearings fcrewed to the frame
of the machine, and it is turned round by the power of the
mill. By means of a pair of bevelled wheels D and E,^. I.
the cranks of the two crank-lafliers are connefted together,
and have a common motion, but in a direftion at right angles
to each other. At the lower end of each of the moving
frames dd, a pair of fluted rollers i are fixed, which draw
the fliver between them. The rollers are put in motion by
means of a cog-wheel i, fixed on the extremity of the axis
of the lower roller ; this is turned by a fmall pinion, fixed
at the end of an axis, which paffes through the frame d d,
and which at the oppofite end has a wheel i, that receives
motion from a pinion fixed faft to the pin of the crank.
The upper of the two fluted rollers is preffed down againfl
the lower one by fprings, which bear on its pivots with lufii-
cient force to hold the wool firmly between them, and draw
the fliver forwards when they turn round.

The motions of the crank-Ialher are not eafy to be under-
ftood from a verbal defcnption. It mufl; be recollected,
that the upper end of the frame dd which carries the rollers,
being jointed to the end of the trough H, it muft always
move in the arch of a circle, as fliewn by the dotted lines,
fg. 3 ; the centre of this arch is f : alfo that the middle
part of the frame d, where the crank-pin paffes through

It.

WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

it, muft defcribe a circle when the crank revolves: in
confequence, the rollers /, which are at the lower end of the
frame, will move in a curve, as ftiewn by the dotted lines.
It is an oval or diftorted ellipfis, with the longeft diameter
horizontal.

At the fame time the fluted rollers circulate in this orbit,
they are in continual motion on their own axis, by the
communication of wheel-work before defcribed, and they
draw the (liver of wool down the tube g ; the end of the
{liver, which projeAs from below the rollers, hangs down
from them in a lock, and by the motion of the crank-lather
this is thrown againft the points of the teeth in the comb-
table. At the period when the wool is thus thrown on the
teeth, the rollers are moving nearly in an horizontal direc-
tion, fo as to draw the wool in the direftion of the length
of the teeth, and they penetrate the wool ; but as the rollers
proceed in their elliptic orbit, they begin to rife and draw
the wool upwards away from the teeth in an inchned direc-
tion, as is evident by tracing the dotted courfe marked out
for the rollers. By thus drawing up the wool between the
teeth, a portion of the wool will be left in them ; the rollers
then rife up rapidly in their oval courfe, and the wool is
raifed quite above the teeth ; the rpllers then move forwards
to make another ftroke, and during fuch advance, the
rollers, being in continual motion, draw forwards the (liver
of wool, and the end hangs down ready to be la(hed on the
teeth of the comb next time.

The motions of the fmall comb K muft be next defcribed.
The whole machine receives its motion by means of a wheel
or pulley c. Jig. I, upon the axis of the crank for the
laflier G ; D and E are the bevelled wheels by which the
other crank is turned ; at the extreme end of the axis C is
a pinion, which turns a bevelled wheel L, and on the axis of
this is a wheel turning two others M M of equal fize ; on
the extremities of the axes of the wheels M M are two
cranks //of equal radii, which are both jointed to an iron
bar m m, and both turning round together in the fame direc-
tion, they caufe the bar to move in a direftion parallel to itfelf,
and every part of the bar defcribes a circle equal to the radius
of the cranks. The fmall comb K is fixed to this bar, and
partakes of its motion, whereby the points of its teeth are
carried horizontally into the wool contained in the teeth of
the great comb, then rife upwards and draw through the
fibres, in order to comb them.

In order to remove the little comb when it becomes
filled with wool, it is attached to the bar m by means
of a comb-holder or focket L, which has a groove at
each end to receive the little comb, and it can be
mounted or withdrawn at pleafure. This focket L is
moveable upon a horizontal pin fixed at the end of the
bar m, fo that it can be turned with either end upwards ;
and as the little comb can be fixed at either end of the focket,
a fpare comb is placed in the upper groove of the focket,
whilll the lower groove holds the comb which is in ufe ; but
when this becomes filled with wool, which it has gathered
from the comb-table, the focket L is inverted by turning it
half round upon its centre-pin, and by this means the fre(h
comb is brought down into ufe, and the other can be taken
away to clear off the wool from it. There is a fmall bolt
fixed to the pin on which the focket L turns, which can be
fhot into a notch when the focket is in a perpendicular pofi-
tion, and will then hold the focket faft from turning, and
keep the comb in a proper pofition for its work. In this
way, the little comb can be taken away and replaced by a
frefh one as often as is neceffary, without flopping the ma-
chine, for the fmall comb does not move very quick. The
fame boy who attends to change the combs, when aecedary,

alfo lets up the wool iu the great comb-teet!i with a fn:vail
fcraper, fo that the fmall comb will penetrate through it
with more certainty and effeft. The plane of the rows of I
teeth in the fmall comb is not horizontal, or parallel to the
teeth of the combing-table, but inclined thereto, fo that
thofe teeth of the fmall comb wliich firll come into action
upon the wool do not penetrate deeply into it ; but as the i
comb-table turns round, the wool advances beneath the;
fmall comb, and is operated upon thofe teeth which go .
deeper, and the laft teeth of the comb go as deep as thev
can, not to touch the teeth of the comb-table.

The wool is now combed, and only remains to be drawn
off in a continued (liver; this is done by the drawing-off:
rollers N, which are fluted iron rollers, placed horizontally,
over the comb-teeth, and nearly in the direftion of a radius
of the comb-table : they are fupported in an iron frame, and
are turned round by a pair of bevelled wheels from a vertical
axis P. This axis extends the whole height of the machine,
and is put in motion by means of a pair of bevelled wheels,
and an obhque axis Q, which is turned by a bevelled wheel •
and pinion on the extreme end of the axis of the firft crank-
la(her.

The great comb receives its motion from the perpen-,
dicular axis P, which turns a large wheel T by a pinion on ,
the lower end of it : on the upper end of the axis of this
wheel is the pinion which works in the ring of teeth;
withinfide of the comb-table : in this way, a very flow motion
is given to the comb-table. There are two pair of drawing-,
o(F rollers N, fituated clofe together, and parallel to each
other ; the firll pair are put in motion as we have defcribed,
and the back pair are turned by means of equal cog-wheels,
fo that they move with the fame velocity.

The wool upon the comb-table is gathered in the hand,
to form a fliver, and the end is introduced between the
rollers, which continually draw off the wool as the comb-
table turns round. After palling through both pairs of,
rollers, the fliver is condufted through a forked iron, then
through a round wooden tube, and is at laft delivered by:
two plain wooden rollers R into a tin can placed beneath,
to receive it. Thefe rollers are alfo turned by bevelled,
wheels on the perpendicular axis P. The drawing-olF
rollers only take away the long wool, the fibres of which
are long enough to reach to the rollers. The two rollers
compofing the front pair of drawing-off rollers are not
placed immediately over each other, but the upper roller
overhangs the lower one, fo that the plane in which the'
axes of the upper and lower rollers are both fituated is in-
clined at about an angle of 45 degrees to the plane of the.
comb-table : by this means, the wool is drawn off from the
comb, at an angle of 45 degrees, to pafs between the rollers.

The noUs, i. e. the (hort wool and broken fibres, which
will not reach the drawing-off rollers, remain in the teeth of-,
the comb-table, and alfo as much of the long wool as is on
the lower fide of the comb, and thefe are called backings :
both are taken off by a, boy, who is fcated for that purpofe
within the circle of the comb-table ; he firft draws off the
backings from beneath the comb, and then, with one hand
above the teeth, and the other below, he draws off the noils,

Thefe two forts of wool are handed to a boy on the
outfide of the machine, who puts them into feparate boxes.
The backings are filled on the fmall combs before they are
put into the machine, and become fomewhat combed by the
aftion of the fmall comb : when the fmall combs are re-
moved from the machine, the wool upon them is further
combed by hand, and then drawn off from them in a con-
tinued fliver, by means of an additional piece of machinery,
which is at the fide of the machine.

This

WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

' This combing-machine is found to break the fibre of the
•wool, and it increafes the quantity of noil very much, uulels
the wool is previoufly combed once or twice by hand ;
rand as it then beconif* only a fubllitute for the fecond or
third combing, it faves little or no expcnce. The advantage
of the machine is found, in the great regularity and equality
of the fliver whi^h is produced by it, a circumilance of
particular importance for fine fpinning. In combing by
hand when the fliver is drawn off, thofe fibres which the
comber firll takffs hold of are longer than the others ; then
as the fliver continues to be drawn, fiiorter fibres are found
in it, and the (horteft are laft of all. Thefe are called the
long and (hort ends of the fliver; the ftiort end is always
imarked by twilling or rolling it up, in ordi. r that when the
flivers are joined together into one for fpinning, the long and
Tiort ends may be equally intermixed and difperfed through-
out the whole length. In drawing off the wool from the
::ombing-machine, the long and fliort fibres are intermixed
ind taken up together, fo that the fliver is of very equal
'rexture.

There have been feveral other attempts to make combing-
Tiachines which deferve notice, though they have not come
'nto ufe.

Meflrs. Wright and Hawkfley had a patent in 1793 for
•i combing-machine ; and Mr. Toplis of Cuckney had alfo a
jatent of the fame date, which contains fome good ideas.
Mr. Hawkfley, in 1797, had a patent for improvements on
,2artwright's : the principal one was, to make the combing-
■able by the combination of a number of fmall combs, which
■•ould readily be applied to the table, or detached at plea-
fure. If this would allow the combs to be heated, as the
(iventor propofed, they would work much better.
i Mr. Amatt had a patent in 1795, and Mr. Pearce in
^798 : after this time, Mr. Cartwright's machines had re-
i:eived fome improvements from Mr. Hawkfley, and came
nto ufe ; and we find lefs fpeculation on the fubjeft.
j Gilpin's Comhin^-Machinc. — In 181 1, Mr. George Gilpin
[>f Sheffield perfefted a very ingenious machine, which
;!ombed the raw wool in a moft complete manner. We do
tot hear that this machine is yet come into ufe, although
ive have no doubt of its anfwering the purpofe, having fre-
[uently examined it while at work : its only fault was a
omplication of parts, which might be eafily removed.

The outhne of this machine is taken from that of Mr.
foplis in 1793, but is very much improved and perfefted.
Fi^. 4. of Plate I. IVorJled, is a fketch of the principal
!)arts. The machine works with eight combs at once,
Vhich are of rather larger fize than the ordinary hand-
tombs, the rows of teeth being twenty inches long.
iPhefe combs are fixed upon two reels or frames A, B,
ivhich revolve upon their axles by the power of the mill ;
bur combs, D and E, are fixed upon each reel, and in
uch pofition that both ends of the comb-teeth, •viz.. the
i)0)nt3 and roots, are equally dillant from the centre of the
(•eel to which they are fixed ; and the reels, with the combs
lixed upon them, form two revolving wheels or frames.
The combs D and E are fo made, that they can be detached
•rom the reels, or replaced and fixed fafl in a moment, by
'he attendants ; and they can, therefore, be heated in a
,love, in the fame manner as the hand-combs. The wool is
jjfo filled upon the combs by hand, and the combs and wool
;ire heated in the ufual manner before they are put into the
Inachine, in order to comb the wool.

I One of thefe reels A is fimply turned upon its axis, but
■he other reel B has a curious compound motion given to it
j)y the machinery : thus it revolves on its own axis ; but the
:ixis alfo advances to, and recedes from, the other reel with
: Vol. XXXVIII.

a motion parallel to itfelf, which is repeated four times in
every revolution. Whilll B advances towards A, it moves
with only one-third of the velocity with which it returns
from A. The advancing movement is of a limited and
conilant extent ; but at the fame time, there is a third
movement which regulates this extent, fo that at every fuc-
ceeding ftroke which the machine makes, the two reels will
approach nearer together.

Suppofe all the combs filled with wool, rnd mounted in
their places upon the reels, the machine is then put in mo-
tion, and the two reels A and B turning round in oppofite
direfticns, their combs D and E meet each other ; and by
the compound movement of B, {viz. advancing flowly to-
wards A, and turning round at the fame time,) the combs
D and E approach in fuch a manner, that the points of
each comb penetrate the wool v/hich is in the other comb,
and this is reciprocal of both combs. When the te«h are,
thus entered into the wool, the moveable reel B retreats
quickly from the other, and the teeth, by drawing through
the wool, comb and feparate its fibres.

The circular motion of both reels is not regular and
equable, but is communicated by means of elliptical cog-
wheels, which occafion the reels to move round very flowly,
at the moment when the comb of the reel B is draw-
ing out or combing the wool ; but this motion being
finifhed, the reels begin to turn round more rapidly, and at
the fame time the reel B approaches towards A with a flow
movement, in order to prefent another pair of combs to
each other, which meet ; and each one penetrates the wool
which is upon the other, and then the reel B draws out to
comb it, in the manner before defcribed.

In this way they continue to make fucceffive ftrokes, until
the wool is fufficiently combed : the machine is then flopped,
and the combs taken off one by one, to be replaced by others,
which are filled with frefh wool, and properly heated.

There is likewife another movement of the reel A, which
we have not yet mentioned : the axifi of that reel has a flow
motion backwards and forwards, endways in the direftion
of its length, for a fliort diftance.. The intention of this is,
that the fame parts of the combs ftiall never come oppofite
to each other at two fucceflive. flrokes.

It fhould be obferved, th-at when the machine is firfl fet
to work, the combs at the'.r point of meeting do not come
within three or four inches of each other, and the points
only penetrate amongil t'he lougefl fibres of the wool upon
the combs ; but at ever y ftroke which is made, the combs
advance nearer toget'uer, and take deeper into the wool,
until, after a certain number of flrokes are made, the combs
approach as near as they can without touching. They
continue to work, in this manner for fome time, and when
the intended number of flrokes is made, a bell rings as an
indication that, the machine fliould be flopped. This is
done by drav;ing a lever, and in confequence the machine
wilbilop itfe If in the exaft pofition for changing one of the
combs on ■each reel. Thefe are removed, and others ready
filled with wool and heated are put on in their places, which
being d-one on both reels at the fame time by two perfons,
is only the work of a moment. The machine is then put in
motiaa again, but by the machinery it will flop itfelf again
at the required pofition for changing the next pair of combs ;
it IS then put forwards, and fo on, until all the eight gombs
are changed.

The combs which are removed from the machine are
put into the ftove to heat for a few momenti, and then
the wool is drawn off from them by a feparate machine.
The head of the comb is here placed in a perp dicular
groove, fo that its teeth fland horirontal ; and a piece
4 X of

WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

of metal, which is fixed to the head of the comb, and pro-
jefts therefrom like a tooth, enters into the fpiral groove of
a fcrew, which Hands in a perpendicular pofition, and is
continually turned round by the machinery. By this means,
the comb is regularly and flowly let down in the groove,
from top to bottom. A pair of fluted rollers is placed
horizontally, and parallel to the teeth of the comb, in fuch
a pofition that the comb, in defcending, will pafs with its
teeth at a proper diftance from them, to draw off the wool
in a (liver. After paffing through thefe fluted rollers, the
fliver is condufted through a perpendicular revolving tube,
which gives a roundnefs to it, the fame as it would acquire
by being rolled between the hands, and then it is con-
dufted between a pair of plain rollers, which deliver it into
a tin can placed before the machine.

A wooden roUer is placed above the fluted rollers, with
eight pieces of board projefting from it in the direftion of
radii. When the roller turns round, thefe boards aft to
itroke the wool upon the comb, and raife it into a proper
fituation to be drawn off by the fluted rollers.

The combs are prepared for drawing off the wool, by
heating them as before mentioned, and by Aiding the wool
from the roots of the teeth half way towards their points.
In this ftate, the combs are carried one byiOne to the draw-
ing-ofF machine, and the head of one comb is put into the
top of the perpendicular groove : it will be prevented from
falling down in the groove by the projefting tooth, which
enters the fpiral groove of the perpendicular fcrew. The
wool is gathered up and introduced between the fluted
rollers ; the machine is then put in motion, and by means
of the fcrew the comb is gradually lowered down, and the
wool is drawn off from it in a (liver, which is rolled up into
a compaft form by the revolving tube, through which it
pafTes, and is delivered into the can by the plain rollers.

The attendant holds another comb ready to follow the
firft, and when the fird has defcended to a certain point, he
(lips the next comb into the perpendicular groove, fo that
it refts upon the former, and the wool upon the two combs
joins as it were in one. The ftroker, when they pafs
before it, lays the (ibres all one way, and the wool is
drawn off by the rollers in a continued (liver, which does
not prefent the flighted appearance of joinings. Another
comb is then put in, and the wool joins to the former, and
fo on. The backings, or wool at the back of the comb, are
drawn off by the boy ftationed behind the machine ; and the
combs, as they come through below, are received by boys,
who afterwards take away the noil or fhort wool which
remains in the teeth, and then put the combs back into the
ftove to heat them, ready to be filled again, in order to
proceed with another combing. When the wool of all the
eight combs is drawn off, the motion of the drawing-off
machine is flopped at the moment when the eighth or laft
comb has defcended half way through its courfe. In this
ftate, the machine waits till another combing is finifhed, and
then the fucc»eding comb being placed on the top of that
one which continues in the machine, the continuity of the
fliver will be preferved.

The inventor of thi^ machine ftate* in hi» fpecification,
that for common work the wool only requires to be operated
upon once by the combing-machine ; and in that cafe, the
machine mull be adapted to make twenty-four ftrokes of
each pair of combs before the bell rings. For medium
work, fuch as would require to be combed twice over, in
the ufual maimer of hand-combing, it muft be combed twice
over by the machine : thus, after having been combed once
in the manner before defcribed, the fliver of wool is broken
up into hacdfuls, and filled on the combs again by hand as
I

before, and combed over again in a fimilar manner ; but
the combs are lefs heated for the fecond time of combing.
By changing a wheel, the machine fhould be adapted to
make only fourteen or fixteen ftrokes before it (tops, when
it is intended to comb twice over. The wool intended for
the fineft fpinning (hould be combed three times over, and
the machine (hould be fet to make fourteen or iixteen
ftrokes of each pair of combs.

The machine has alfo two different movements for the
drawing out of the moveable comb -reel : in one, the motion
is over a fpace of ten inches, and is adapted to comb fuch
wool as is fix or eight inches length of ftaple, and is called
wether wool ; but by a flight alteration, the excurfion of
the moveable reel can be increafed to thirteen inches, and
is then adapted to comb hey wool, or wool which is from
eight to eleven inches length of ftaple.

Mr. Gilpin's machine has the advantages of heating the
combs and of filling them by hand, both of which are eflen-
tial to any machine which is propofed to comb the raw
wool. The filling is an operation which requires difcretion,
if it is expefted that the long fibres (hall be preferved witli-
out breaking. The perfon who fills the wool on the teeth
takes a greater or lefs lock of wool in his hand, according to
the condition of it, and the degree of entanglement : atfo
in drawing it between the comb-teeth, the force is propor-
tioned to what the wool will bear. Mr. Gilpin's fpe-
cification ftates, that under certain circumftances, when the
wool will not wafh well, but remains taggy, it is advifeable
to fill it upon the combs, and flip it off; then fill it again,
preparatory for the machine. As the objed of this firft
filling is chiefly to warm the wool, the end may be in part
attained by laying the wool upon the top of the ftove for a
few minutes before it is filled.

Planking. — Let us fuppofe that the wool is combed either
by the hand, or by the machine, and we will proceed to
explain the means of preparing it into a thread. The
combing-machines reduce the wool into a continued fliver,
which is ready for the drawing- frame ; but the (hort flivers
produced by the hand-combing muft be firft joined to-
gether by what is called planking. Thefe flivers are rolled
up by the combers, ten or twelve together, in balls called
tops, each of which weighs half a pound : at the fpinning-
mill thefe are unrolled, and the flivers are laid on a long
plank or trough, with the ends lapping over, in order to
fpHce the long end of one fliver into the (hort end of an-
other. The diftinftion of the two ends of the fliver has
been before explained ; the long end being that which was
firft drawn off from the comb, and contains the longeft fibres
of the wool ; the fhort end i» that which came laft from the
comb, and contains the (hort fibres. The wool-comber lays
all the flivers of each ball the fame way, and marks the long
end of each by twilling up the end of the fliver. It is a i
curious circumftance, that when a top or ball of flivers is
unrolled and ftretched out ftraight, they will not feparate
from each other without tearing and breaking, if the fepa-
ration is begun at the fhort ends, but if they are firft parted
at the long ends they wiU readily feparate.

Breaking-Frame. — Here the flivers are planked or fpliced
together, the long end of one to the fhort end of another ;
they are immediately drawn out and extended by the rollers
of the breaking-frame. A (ketch of this machine is given
in Plate II. jig. 5 ; it confiils of four pairs of rollers,
A, B, C, D. The firft pair A receives the wool from the
inclined trough E, which is the planking-table. The flivers
are unrolled, parted, and hung loofely ov^r a pin, in reach of
the attendant, who takes a fliver and lays it flat in the trough,
and the end is prefentcd to the rollers A, vrhich being in

motion

WORSTED MANUFACTURE.

motion will draw the wool in ; the fliver is then condufted

i I through the other rollers, as (hewn in the figure : when the

: fliver has pafled half through, the end of another fliver is

: placed upon the middle of the firft, and they pafs through

'i i together ; when this fecond is paffed half through, the end

• , ofa third is applied upon the middle of it, and in this way

" the ftiort flivers produced by the combing are joined into

one regular and even fliver. '

The lower roller C receives its motion from the mill, by

means of a pulley upon the end of its axis, and an endlefs

ftrap. The roller which is immediately over it is borne

down by a heavy weight i, fufpended from hooks, which

pafs over the pivots of the upper roller. The fourth pair

of rollers D moves with the fame velocity as C, being turned

by means of a fmall wheel upon the end of the axis of the

IroUer C, which turns a wheel of the fame fize upon the

iaxis of the roller D, by means of an intermediate wheel il,

■ iwhjch makes both rollers turn the fame way round. The

' j firft and fecond pairs of rollers, A and B, move only one-third

' ;as quick as C and D, in order to draw out the (liver between

B and C to three times the length it was when put on

I the planking-table. The flow motion of the rollers A is

(given by a large wheel a, fixed upon the axis of the

! roller A, and turned by the intermediate cog-wheels

i,c,znAd; the latter communicates between the rollers C

;andD. The pinions on the rollers C and D being only

I one-third the fize of the wheel a, C and D turn three times

las fall as A, for b, c, and d, are only intermediate wheels.

; The rollers B turn at the fame rate as A. The upper roller

i^ is loaded with a heavy weight, fimilar to the rollers A ; but

!the other rollers, B and D, are no farther loaded than the

weight of the rollers.

The two pairs of rollers A B and C D are mounted in
'Teparate frames, and that frame which contains the third and
' fourth pairs, C D, Aides upon the caft-iron frame F, which
i fiipports the machine, in order to increafe or diminilh the
' diilance between the rollers B and C. There is a fcrewy,
I by which the frame of the rollers is moved, fo as to adjuit
I the machine according to the length of the fibre of the
' wool. The fpace between B and C (hould be rather more
! than the length of the fibres of the wool. The intermediate
wheels b and c arc fupported upon pieces of iron, which are
' moveable on centres : the centre for the piece which fup-
' ports the wheel b is concentric with the axis of the roller A ;
and the fupporting piece for the wheel c is fitted on the
' centre of the wheel d. By moving thefe pieces, the inter-
I mediate wheels b and c can be always kept in cotitaft, al-
■ though the diilance between the rollers is varied at times.
I By means of this breaking-frame, the perpetual fliver which
! is made up by planking the flivers together is equalized,
! and drawn out three times in length, and delivered into
the can G.

Drawing-Frame. — Three of thefe cans are removed to
the drawing-frame, which is fimilar to the breaking-frame,
' except that there is no planking-table E. There are five
j fets of rollers, all fixed upon one common frame F, the
i breaking-frame which we have defcribed being the firft.
' As faft as the fliver comes through one fet of rollers, it is
' received into a can, and then three of thefe cans are put
1 together, and palTed again through another fet of rollers.
' In the whole, the wool rauft pafs through the breaker
j and four drawing-frames before the roving is begun. The
[ draught being ufually four times at each operation of draw-
i ing, and three times in the breaking, the whole will be
j 3x4x4x4x4 = 768 ; but to fuit dilferent forts
' of wool, the three laft drawing-frames are capable of
' making a greater draught, even to five times, by changing

the pinions ; accordingly the draught will be 3x4x5
X J X 5 = 1500 times.

The fize of the fliver is diminiflied by thefe repeated
drawmgs, becaufe only three (livers are put together, and
they are drawn out four times ; fo that in the whole,
the fliver is reduced to a fourth or a ninth of its orio-inal
bulk. ^

The breaking-frame and drawing-frame, which are nfed
when the flivers are prepared by the combing-machines, are
differently conftrufted ; they have no planking -table, but re-
ceive three of the perpetual flivers of the combing-machine
from as many tin cans, and draws them out from ten to
twelve times. In this cafe, all the four rollers contribute to
the operation of drawing : thus the fecond rollers B move
2^ times as faft as the rollers A ; the third rollers C move
8 times as faft as A ; and the fourth rollers E move 10^
times as faft as A. In this cafe, the motion is given to the
different rollers by means of bevelled wheels, and a horizon-
tal axis, which extends acrofs the ends of all the four rollers,
to communicate motion from one pair of rollers to another.

There are three of thefe fyftems of rollers, which are all
mounted on the fame frame ; and the firft one, through
which the wool paffes, is called the breaking-frame, but it
does not differ from the others, which are called drawing-
frames. The flivers which have paffed through one fyftem
of rollers are coUefted four or five together, and put
through the drawing-rollers. In all, the flivers pafs through
three drawings, and the whole extenfion is feldom lefs than
1 000 times, and for fome kinds of wool much greater.

After the drawing of the flivers is fini(hed, a pound,
weight is taken, and is meafured by means of a cylinder, in
order to afcertain if the drawing has been properly con-
dutted ; if the fliver does not prove of the length propofed,
according to the fize of wor(led which is intended to be
fpun, the pinions of fome of the drawing-frames are changed,
to make the draught more or lefs, until it is found by
experiment that one pound of the fliver meafures the re-
quired length.

Roving-Frame. — This is provided with rollers the fame as
the drawing-frames : it takes in one or two flivers together,
and draws them out four times. By this extenfion, the fliver
becomes fo fmall, that it would break with the flighteft
force, and it is therefore neceffary to give fome twift ; this is
done by a fpindle and flyer. ( See_/?g-. 6. ) A B are the two
pairs of rollers, between which the fliver is paffed ; the firft
rollers A turn round flowly, but the others B revolve four
times as quick, to draw the fliver to four times its original
length ; and as faft as it iffues from the roller, it is twifted
by the motion of the fpindle C, and wound up upon the
bobbin a. The fpindle C is put in motion by a whip-cord
band, which paffes round the pulley c, and alfo round the
wheel D. This wheel is fixed on a vertical axis e, which has a
pinion on the upper end, to give motion to the lower roller
B, by means of a bevelled wheel upon the end of its axis.
The oppofite end of the axis has alfo a bevelled pinion upon
it, to give motion to a bevelled wheel fixed upon an horizon-
tal axis, which carries another bevelled pinion, to give
motion to a bevelled wheel fixed upon the end of the axis
of the back rollers A. The fizes of thefe wheels and
pinions are fo proportioned, that the back rollers A turn
only once to every four turns of the front rollers B, as
before mentioned.

The back rollers are capable of being fet at a greater or
lefs diftance from the front rollers, according to the length
of the fibres of the wool, and in all cafes the diftance fhould
be rather more than the length of the fibres, but not a great
deal.

4X2 The

W O R

W O R

The fpiiidle is fupported on ita point, and fullained by a
collar at the middle of its length. Upon the top of the
fpindle, the flyer e is fcrewed ; it has two branches, which
tiifn downward, and one of them has an eye at the lower
end, through which the rovin;; is condudled, in order to
lay it upon the bobbin a. This bobbin is fitted loofely
upon the upper part of the fpindle, and rails with its weight
upon a piece of wood projefting from the bobbin-rail /.
The rail is made to rife and fall continually with a (low
motion, fo as to prefent every part of the bobbin in fuc-
ceffion to the eye of the flyer, and thereby wind the
roving upon every part of the length of the bobbin.
The bobbin is not fixed upon the fpindle, but is fitted
loofely thereupon ; and by relting upon the piece of wood
ivhich is fixed to the bobbin-rail, there is fo much friftion
and refiftance to the motion of the bobbin, that it gathers
up the roving by winding it round itfelf as faft as the rollers
give it out. The twift given to the roving is juft enough to
malie it hang together, and one turn in each inch is ulually
enough. Some roving-frames are made with four pairs of
rollers, and draw ten or twelve times ; and in this way, it is
not nacefTary for the fliver to pafs fo frequently through the
drawing-frame.

Spinning-Frame. — This is fo much like the roving-frame,
that a Ihort defcription will be fufficient. The fpindles are
more dehcate, and there are three pairs of rollers inftead of
two ; the bobbins which are taken off from the fpindles of
the roving-frame, when they are quite full, are ftuck upon
wires at L [Jig. 7.), and the roving which proceeds from
thera is condufted between the rollers. The back pair A
turns round ilowly ; the middle pair turns about twice for
once of the back rollers ; and the front pair B makes from
twelve to feventeen turns for one turn of the back rollers B,
according to the pinions which are employed, and thefe can
be changed according to the degree of extenfion which is
required.

The fpindles muit revolve very quickly in the fpinning-
frame, in order to give the requiiite degree of twiil to the
worited. The hardefl: twifted worfted is called tammy-
warp, and when the fize of this worfted is fuch as to be
twenty or twenty -four hanks to the pound weight, the twiil
is about ten turns in each inch of length. The leaft twift
is given to the worited for fine hofiery, which is from
eighteen to twenty-four hanks to the pound. The twift is
from five to fix turns per inch. The degree of twift is regu-
lated by the fize of the whirls or pulleys upon the fpindle, and
by the wheel- work, which communicates the motion to the
front rollers from the band- wheel, which turns the fpindles.
It is needlefs to enter more minutely into the defcription
of the fpinning machinery for worfted, becaufe the con-
ftruftion is very fimilar to the water-frame for fpinning
cotton, invented by fir Richard Arkwright, and which is
fully defcribed in our article ManufaRure of Cotton.
The differences between the two are chiefly in the diftance
between the rollers, which in the worfted-frame is capable
of being increafed or diminiflied at pleafure, according to
the length of the fibres of the wool, and the dra\ight or ex-
tenfion of the roving is far greater than in the cotton.

Reeling — The bobbins of the fpinning- frame are placed in
a row upon wires before a long horizontal reel, and the
threads from 20 bobbins are wound off together. The
reel is exaftly a yard in circumference, and when it has
wound off 80 turns, it rings a bell ; the motion of the reel
is then ftopped, and a thread is pafl"ed round the 80 turns or
folds which each thread has made : the reeling is, then con-
tinued till another 80 yards is wound off, whith is alfo
feparated by interweaving the fame thread ; each of thefe

feparate parcels is called a ley, and when feveu fuch leys
are reeled, it is called a hank, which contains 560 yards.
When this quantity is reeled off, the ends of the binding
thread are tied together, to bind each hank faft, and one of
the rails of the reel is ftruck to loofen the hanks, and they
are drawn off at the end of the reel. Thefe hanks are next
hung upon a hook, and twifted up hard by a ftick, then
doubled, and the two parts twifted together, to make a firm
bundle. In this ftate, the hanks are weighed by a fmall
index-machine, which denotes what number of the hanks
will weigh a pound, and they are forted accordingly into
different parcels. It is by this means that the number of
the worfted is afcertained as the denomination for its fine-
nefs : thus No. 24. means that 24 hanks, each containing
560 yards, will weigh a pound, and fo on.

This denomination is different from that ufed for cotton,
becaufe the hank of cotton Gontains 840 yards inftead of
560 ; but in fome places, the worfted hank is made of the
fame length as the cotton.

To pack up the worfted for market, the proper number
of hanks are coUefted to make a pound, according to the
number which has been afcertained ; thefe are weighed as a
proof of the correftnefs of the forting, then tied up in
bundles of one pound each, and four of thefe bundles are
agaiii tied together. Then 60 fuch bundles are packed up
in a fneet, msking a bale of 240 pounds, ready for
market.

From this account of the proceffes of worfted fpinning,
it will be feen that they are very fimilar to thofe of cotton-
fpinning, after the firil preparation of the wool by combing
inftead of carding.

WoRSTED-CorJ, in Sheep- Farming, is a fort of cord
which, is fometimes ufed for tying round the necks
of flieep afFetfted with the fcab, after it has been well
fmeared over with the common mercurial ointment of the
fhops, in order to cure them of that difeafe. See
Scab.

WORT, in the Materia Medica, is the fweet infufion of
malt ; firft propofed by Dr. Macbride as a dietetic article
to fcorbutic perfons, from an apprehenfion that it would
ferment in their bowels, and give out its fixed air, by the
antifeptic powers of which the ftrong tendency to putre-
faftion in this difeafe might be correfted. It was feme
time before a fair trial of this propofed remedy could be
obtained, and different reports were made concerning it.
In 1762, the lords of the admiralty gave orders to have
the wort tried in the naval hofpitals at Portfmouth and
Plymouth ; but the murmurs of the patients, on account
of reftri£lions that were neceflary for determining its ef-
ficacy, put a ftop to the farther exhibition of it ; and in-
deed Dr. Huxham, in 1764, informed tlie ingenious and
benevolent propofer of this remedy, that it had been tried
with very bad effefts. But Dr. Macbride afTures us,
on theteftimony of a gentleman who made ufe of the
wort, that it may be taken for a length of time, to the
quantity of a quart in the day, without producing any
ill effeft whatever ; and he refers to Van Swieten's Com-
mentary, vol. iv. p. 673. where we learn, that the ba-
ron's lady, when a nurle, ufed regularly to drink a pint
of it every night going to bed, in order to increafe her
milk.

After the failure of fuccefs in the naval hofpitals, orders
were iffued to have the wort adminiftered on fhip-board,
where no temptations of freih vegetables would offer to.
make the men uneafy. But a confiderable time elapfed,
before any reports were made either of its good or bad
effedls. Dr. Macbride, however, perfifted in recommend-
ing

,'

WORT.

iiij; it, and iivttl lo publifh fcvcr2l cafes, in a poftfcript to
the fecond edition of his work, in 1767, from which it
appears, that fcorbutic complaints of the mod dangerous
kind have adlually been cured at fea by the ufe of wort.
Its general efFefts were, to keep the patients open, and to
prove highly nutritious and llrengthcning ; it fomelimes
purged too much ; but this efledt was cafily obviated by
the tinftura thcbaica. Other unqucftionable cafes of its
fuccefs in this difeafe are to be feen in the London Med.
Obf. and Inq. vol. v. p. 61. See alfo Scurvy.

The ufe of wort has hence been adopted in other cafes,
where a itrong putrid difpofition in the fluids appeared to
prevail, as in cancerous and phagxdenic ulcers ; and in-
itances are publiihed of its remarkable good cfFefts in
thefe cafes. See London Med. Obf. and Inq. vol. iv.
p. 367, Sec. Prieftley on Air, vol. 3. Appendix.

As the efficacy of the malt infufion depends upon its pro-
ducing changes in the A'hole mafs of fluids, it is obvious
that it muil be taken in large quantities for a confiderable
length of time, and rather as an article of diet than medi-
cine. The quantity of one to four pints has generally been
direfted. See Scurvy.

Wort, Improved Machine for Jlirring Malt in mai'ing of,
in Rural Economy, a contrivance for this purpofe in brew-
ing and diftilling, fuited to vats of this fort, which are em-
ployed in forming the wort or wafh. There are many
modes of llirring malt in tliL vats or tubs for malhing in,
employed in different places and inftances ; but they are in
moft cafes either expenfive, or inadequate to the purpofes
as well .IS the powers which are made ufe of in the work.
Among the former may be ranked the admirably well-con-
trived machine that is in ufe by Jellet and Co. at Dollhill,
in Somerfetfliire, which is on a planatory fyftem, and an-
fwers the intention very effeftually ; but its great coft, ren-
ders it liable to objeftion in many cafes. The well-known
contrivance of a male fcrew ftanding upright in the centre
of the vat, on which a bar works by means of a female
fcrew operating on the male ftandard one, and thus caufing
the fpikes with which the different wings of the bar are
armed to ftir the malt as the fpiral motion proceeds, is cer-
tainly fimple, neat, and cheap ; but as it requires two men,
one at each end, and makes but little change of locality
among the malt-grain, much cannot be urged in favour of
its efficiency for this ufe. The inftrument known by the
name of the hedge-hog, which is in ufe in fome breweries,
is a dreadful-looking machine, that would feem intended to
divide fome very tough or vifcous fubftance rather than to
flir malt in this intention. It confifls of a roller about two
feet in diameter, and fix or feven in length, made of iron
flvcleton work ; the longitudinal bars are bound with rings
or hoops, furniihed with fpiky rims, to keep in due bounds
a fort of chain-work, ar.-ned alfo with fpikes, which chains
revolve upon the rings as the frame rolls round, urged by
the power of hoifes, and thus not only tears a palfage
through the contents of the mafliing-vat, but keeps raking
them up, carrying a confiderable portion with the fpiky
chain quite over the wheel, and expofing the malt per-
petually to the influence and aftion of the air ; a praftice
invariably difapproved of by all good brewers. In this
cafe, there are expence, labour, frifiion, &c. all crowded into
one form, without any material advantage.

A plan has, however, been lately fuggefted for flirring
malt while in the mafhing-vat by a machine or contrivance
wrought by the power of horfes, or in other ways, which is
nearly without friflion, and diverted of the intervention of
any fecondary aftion that may be troublefome or expenffve.
It is very fimple ; and one vat of this fort may be llirred

by a very trifling power ; but as in large breweries and
diftilleries from malt a number of mafliing-vats are moitly
requifite, which generally require to be ftirred in fucceflion,
an arrangement is given for facilitating and bringing the
operations of live vats, one in the middle and four around it,
into a narrow or fmall compafs, and under the aftion of one
power ; which not only affords much convenience, but oc-
cafions the expence and the labour to be greatly leflened ;
confequently it may be ufeful in large as well as fmall
eftablifhments of this nature.

In this plan, the centrical circular vat for this purpofe is
raifed fufficiently to admit the neceffary gear and other mat-
ters for a horfe-walk underneath it. The upright axle
paffes through the floor, and through the centre of the vat,
proceeding up to a beam in wiiich it moves in a metal bufh,
as it does alfo below, where it refts on a flep. It does not,
hovifever, touch either the floor or the vat ; but at the dif-
tance of a few inches it is furrounded by a cylinder, forming
part of the vat, which prevents its contents from pafling
through the aperture in the floor. This cyhnder corre-
fponds in height with the exterior edge of the vat, and is
firmly clofed at the bottom, where, as well as at the outer
part, it is rounded off, fo as to be the more eafily drained
and cleaned.

As it is requifite at times to move the malt in the other
vats, while the central one is at reft, there arifes a necefTity
for conftrufting the wings of the fl:irring. frame in the lat-
ter in fuch a manner as may liberate them, leaving them
inaftive, while the axle proceeds in its ordinary revo-
lutions.

The flirring.frame is made of iron ; it has four wings
ftanding at right angles, and they all join to an iron collar
which furrounds the axle at fome diftance, that is, leaving
about an inch intermediately all around. When the ftir-
ring-frame is to move with the axle, it is faftened to it by
two iron pins, with long handles, fo as to enable the work-
men to affix them in their proper fockets, without going
into the vat. Thefe pins pafs through the collar into the
axle, thereby caufing the fl;irring-frame to move round in
the vat, as the axle is moved round by the horfe, or other
power.

As the ftirring-frame in the centre vat cannot be con-
nefted all the way down its depth with the axle, on account
of the cylinder, and as it would be liable to fwag, if de-
pending entirely on its junftion with the collar, oblique
flays are indifpenfable ; they are carried out about two-
thirds of the length of the frame, where they are rivetted :
their upper ends are fecured to another collar, furrounding
the axle above.

Each wing of the frame confifts of two iron bars, one at
the top, and one at the bottom ; between the bars are three
fixed upright valves made of thin fheet-iron, and ftanding at
angles of forty-five degrees ; and they are faftened above
and below into the horizontal iron bars, fo as to be per-
feftly ftrong and fteady in their pofitions. The valves do
not, however, all ftand the fame way : the internal ones all
point inwards, the outward ones all point outwards, and the
middle ones alternately inwards and outwards.

Thus far wlioUy relates to the centrical vat, which may
be furrounded by four others of lefs capacity, in which
there will be found the differences noticed below : i. That
the bottoms not being perforated no cylinders are re-
quired. 2. That the axles for their refpeftive frames reft
on.ftep3 at their bottoms, in which iron gudgeons move in
iron buflies. 3. That the frames all conneft with the axles
for the whole of their depth. And 4. That no flays or
collars are wanted in them.

On

W O R

On the main axle are four drums of about one-fourth the
diameter of the centre vat ; they are each about one foot in
thicknefs, and deeply grooved all around, like the (heave of
a pulley, for the purpofe of receiving a band. An interval
of about fix inches is left between them, m the intention
of receiving the band refpeaively, fo that the correfpond-
inff drums on the axles in the other vats may be left at relt
vf henever thofe vats are not at work. Thus the four drums
which are firmly fixed to the main axle, and revolve with it,
turn the four drums fixed to the axles m the four vats
refpeftively. But as the four drums on the mam axle are
all of different heights from the furface of the vat, the fe-
veral drums on the axles in the other vats mail be refpec-
tively of correfponding heights with thofe that aft upon
them on the main axle. An idea of the manner in which
the bands extend to the four vats may be formed by ob-
ferving that in order to produce greater conttriaion, and
confequently greater power, they all form a figure of 8 in
their progrefs ; thereby occafioning the four furroundmg
vats to be ftirred by a counter motion : that is, the frames
will revolve the oppofite way to that in the centrical vat.
The drum on each of the leffer vats fiiould, however, be of
the fame fize as that on the central axis from which it re-
ceives its motion, whereby the whole will move at the fame
rate, and the malt be equally ftirred.

The intervals between the different vats will allow ample
accefs to the works, and admit befides of ftandards, &c.
for the fupport of the flooring above, there being no part
of the machinery that in the leaft interferes with thofe fpaces ;
and the bands being completely out of the paffage of all
work, they can be eafily fliifted off and on to the central
drum by means of a pole with an iron at its end, formed fo
as to embrace and dired them into the grooves.

On the whole it is fuppofed, that the plan here laid
down may be fafely afferted to be cheap, fimple, and effec-
tual ; and that it would not probably be eafy to find any
machinery for thisufe lefs complex, and in which the power
is fo immediately applicable to the objeft. For though it
might be objeilionable in work requiring perfeft regu-
larity, and an unvaried equable motion, without which the
operations would be ill performed, and the machinery itfelf
be liable to great injury, and to be perpetually out of order,
yet in the bufinefs of merely ftirring the malt in a maftiing-
vat in the making of wort or wa(h, inequality of motion can
never produce any bad effeft.

The driving power in thefe cafes fhould move rather
flowly, and when of the animal kind, it may be increafed
without the addition of more ftrength, merely by extending
the length of the lever, and caufing the animal by fuch
means to defcribe a larger circle ; but which may not,
however, be always convenient for want of perpendicular
fupport for the flooring above. On mofl: occafions, the
malhing-vats in making wort or wafli may, however, be
computed not to exceed twelve feet in diameter, in which
cafes the horfe-walks need not be more than twenty feet
over, equal to about twenty yards in circumference ; and
in this cafe, fuppofing the horfe to move at the rate of two
miles in the hour, he would go round eighty-eight times in
the courfe of that time, and caufe the malt to be llirred
nearly three times in the fpace of every two minutes ; but
if the lever were longer, the motion within the vats would
be flower in proportion.

WORTH, in Geography, a town of Bavaria ; 12 miles
E. of Ratifton. — Alfo, a town of the principality of Heffe
Darmftadt ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Darmftadt.

WomxH Barrow Bay, a bay of the Englilh Channel, on

w o s

the fouth coaft of the county of Dorfet ; 11 miles E. of
Weymouth.

WORTHIEST of Blood, in Law, an expreffion de-
noting the preference given in defcents to fons before
daughters.

WORTHING, in Geography, a fafliionable and much-
frequented watering-place in the parifli of Broadwater, and
county of Suffex, England, is fituated on the fea-coaft, 1 1
miles W. from Brighthelmftone, gi E.S.E. from Arundel,
and 58 S. by W. from London. Formerly an obfcure
fiftiing-village. Worthing is much indebted for its prefent
improvement to its fituation on a very extenfive ftretch of
fine level fandy beach, peculiarly convenient for bathing,
and to the range of chalk-hills behind it called the South
Downs, affording at once (helter to the town and fands,
and fpace for exercife to the invalid. The town extends
northward from the ftiore, but fome new buildings are
fituated near the beacli, and are adapted to the recep-
tion of families of the firft rank. The Steyne, a range of
handfome houfes, and the parallel row called Warwick-
buildings, form the E. and W. fides of a fquare, open to the
fea on the S. and to the Downs on the N. A quarter of a
mile from the beach is a neat chapel, erefted by fubfcription
in 1 81 2. Worthing has a theatre, libraries, bathing-
machines, and warm batlis, and is thus amply provided for
the ufe and amufement of vifitors. Warwick-houfe is not
only the moft diftinguiflied manfion in Worthing, but for
its extent and appearance entitled to a high rank among the
noble manfions of the kingdom. It was erefted by the
earl of Warwick, while proprietor of the manor of Broad-
water ; but no longer belonging to that family, it is ufually
occupied by fome perfons of diftinftion in the bathing-
feafon. Broadwater village is half a mile from Worthing ;
it was the chief place of the barony of Camois, in the time
of Edward I. The parifh alfo comprehends Offington, the
ancient but now much-altered feat of the lords de la Warr.
The church of Broadwater is conftrufted on the cathedral
plan, with a mixture of the circular aid early-pointed ftyles
of architefture. The population of Worthing fluftuatcs
according to the feafon of the year ; but that of the whole
parifti of Broadwater, in 1 811, was 2692 perfons, and the
houfes were 629. — Beauties of England and Wales, Suffex ;
By F. Shoberl, 8vo. London, 18 13.

WORTHINGTON, a poft-town of Maffachufetts, in
the county of Hampfliire, containing 1391 inhabitants ; 19
miles N.W. of Northampton.

WO RTLE Y, a townfliip in the parifli of Tankerfley, and
county of York, England. According to the population
report of 181 1, it contained 1 73 houfes, and 925 inhabitants,
moft of whom were employed in agriculture.

WORTON Creek, a river of Maryland, which runs
into the Chefapeak, N. lat. 39° 20'. W. long. 76° 16'.

WORTOWA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Chrudim ; 14 miles S. of Chrudim.

WORUMBANG, a town of Africa, in Mandingo.
N. lat. 12° 40'. W. long. 6° 55'.

WOSCHNICK, or WozNiCKi, a town of Silefia, in
the principality of Oppeln ; 14 miles N.N.E. of Beuthen.

WOSITZ, a town of Pomerelia ; 10 miles S.E. of
Dantzic.

WOSSBERK. See Weisenberg.
WOSTERZEDECK, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Kaurzim ; 12 miles S.W. of Kaurzim.

WOSTOCK, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle
Mark ; 11 miles S.S.E. of Berlin.

WOSTROW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Czaflau ; 12 miles S.W. of Czaflau.

WOTCHAT,

W O T

WOTCHAT, in Agriculture and Rural Economy, a
term provincially applied in fome diftrids to an
orchard.

WOTRALLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 8 miles N. of AUumbaddy.

WOTROW. SeeOsTRiTZ.

WOTTON, Sir Henry, in Biography, was born at
Boughton-liall, in Kent, in 1568, and in 1584 entered of
New college, Oxford, from which he removed to Queen's
college. During his refidence in the univerfity, he applied
with diligence to the ftudy of logic and philofophy, of
polite literature and civil law, and at this time compofed a
tragedy, which gainod the applaufe of his fellow-coUegians.
Upon the death of his father in 1589, he availed bimfelf of
the fmall palriniony that was left to him in travelling through
France, Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries, in order
to improve his acquaintance with men and manners in thefe
feveral countries. On his return in 1596, he was appointed
fecretary to the earl of EfTex ; and when this nobleman was
apprehended on a charge of high treafon, he confulted his
own fafety by quitting the kingdom. As he fixed his refi-
dence chiefly at Florence, he employed himfelf in compofing
a treatife, which was publifheu after his death in 1657, under
the title of " The State of Chriltendom : or, a moft exaiSt
and curious Difcovery of many fecret PafFages and hidden
Myfteries of the Times." When a plot was detefted by
the grand-duke of Tufcany for taking away the hfe of
James, king of Scotland, Wotton was engaged to com-
municate intelligence of it to the king. Having fulfilled
this miflion, he returned to Florence ; and when James came
to the crown, he recompenfed his fervice by conferring upon
him the honour of knighthood. In 1604 he was appointed
ambaffador in ordinary to Venice, where he acquired fuch
reputation that feveral young gentlemen of rank attended
him for improvement. In his way through Augfburg, he
drew up the following humorous definition of an ambaffa-
dor:— " Legatus eft vir bonus peregre miffus ad mentiendum
reipublicae caufa ;" i. e. an ambaffador is a good man, fent
abroad to lie for the fervice of his country. This fentence
was afterwards alleged as a maxim avowed by the religion
profeffed by the king of England ; and it fo far excited the
difpleafure of James, that Wotton, after his return, re-
'nained for five years unemployed. An apology, however,
regained the royal favour, and he was fent on an embaffy
-jrll to the United Provinces, and afterwards in 1615 to
Venice. After three years' refidence he returned with the
iope of fucceeding to the office of fecretary Win wood, but
\e was otherwife employed in various foreign embaffies,
rem the laft of wliich to Venice he did not return till after
:he death of James, when he was appointed, as a recom-
pence for his fervices, to the provoftftiip of Eton college in
1624. Soon after his fettlement in this fituation, he pub-
liftied his " Elements of Architedure." But as the ftatutes
of the college required his affuming the clerical charafter,
'le took deacon's orders, without undertaking what he con-
^■"idered as too ferious a charge, the cure of fouls. In his
domeftic entertainments he maintained the reputation of
hofpitality, and in his conneftion with the feminary over
n'hich he prefided, he was a liberal encourager of genius
and apphcation. For the amufen\ent of advanced life he
had contemplated a life of Luther, with the hiftory of the
Reformation ; but Charles I. perfuaded him to under-
take a hiftory of England, in which, however, he made
little progrefs. Having large deinar.ils on government for
money advanced in foreign fervices, his circumftances W';ie
embarraffed, and he frequently folicited his majefty to gr:M
him new preferraeni. But death was the only termination

VV O T

of his xvants and wiflies ; and this happened in Decembtr
1639, in the 72d year of his age. His remains were in-
terred in the chapel of Eton college, and the following epi-
taph was infcribed on the ftone that covered them by hi»
own order : " Hie jacet hujus fententiae primus author, Dif-
putatidi Pruritus Ecclefiarum Scabies. Nomen alias qusere."
His accomplifhment* and literary acquifitions were very dif-
tinguilhed ; and they are hyperbolically ftated in Cowley's
elegy, when he f'^er.V.s of him as one

" Who had fo many languages in ftore,

That only fame (hall fpeak of him in more."

Bufinefs occupied fo much of his time, that he had little
leifure for writing. After his death were publifhed his
" Reliquix Wottonianae ;" and they have often been re-
printed. Of his poems, there is one entitled " A Hymn to
my God in a Night of my late Sicknefs," which has been
higlily extolled. Biog. Brit.

Wotton, William, a learned clergyman, was bom in
1666, and under the tuition of his father, who was alfo a
clergyman, he became a perfeft phenomenon as to the
knowledge of languages ; for at the age of five years he
could read the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages almoft
as well as Englifh. Accordingly he was entered of Catha-
rine-hall, Cambridge, fome months before he was ten years
of age : at twelve years and five months he took the degree
of B. A., fome time before which he had been celebrated in
a copy of verfes by Dr. Duport, not only for his acquaint-
ance with the learned languages, including Arabic, Syriac,
and Chaldee, but his knowledge of geography, logic, phi-
lofophy, mathematics, and chronology. He commenced
B.D. in 1 69 1, and being chaplain to the earl of Notting-
ham, this nobleman prefented him in 1693 to the reftory
of Middleton-Keynes, in Buckinghamftiire. His firft work
appeared in 1694, and was entitled " Refleftioni upon An-
cient and Modern Learning." A fecond edition was p»b-
hfhed in 1697, and to this was annexed Dr. Bentley's Differ-
tation upon Phalaris, which involved Wotton in controverfy,
and fubjefted him to the farcafm of Swift's Battle of Books.
Wotton defended his own book againft the objeftions of fir
W. Temple and others, and fome obfervations in the Tale
of a Tub, in the third edition in 1705. In 1701 he pub-
lilhed " The Hiftory of Rome, from the Death of Anto-
ninus Pius to the Death of Severus Alexander," 8vo.
undertaken at the requeft of biftiop Burnet, for the ufe of
his pupil the duke of Gloucefter ; and recommended by
Leibnitz to George II. when eleftoral prince. In 1706 he
attacked " Tindal's Rights of the Chriftian Church," and
in 1707 archbifhop Tenifon conferred upon him the degree
of D.D. Notwithftanding his talents and learning, his life
was irregular, and of courfe his circumftances embarraffed,
fo that in 1714 he was obliged to retire into South Wales,
where he employed himfelf in writing. He alio acquired,
the Wellh language, and was able to preach in it. Dr.
Wotton, fays one of his biographers, was one of thofe
fcholars, whofe early proficiency, being chiefly the refult of
an extraordinary memory, was not followed by mature pro-
ducts correfponding to the expeftations they excited. He
died at the age of 60, in the year 1726. Nichols's Lit.
Anecd. Gen. Biog.

'WoTTOV-under-Edge, in Geography, a large and populous
market-town in the upper divifion of the hundred of Berke-
ley, Gloucefterftiire, England, is fituated at the bafe of
a ridge of woody hills (whence its name is evidently derived],
at the diftance of 19 miles S.S.W. from Gloucefter, and
108 miles W. by S. from London. It is a borough by
prcfcription, though it fends no members to parliament. In

the

w o u

w o u

the reign of king John it was nearly deftroyed by fire, and
a place called the Brands is fuppofed to mark its ancient
fcite. The prefent town confifts of feveral ftreets, and
ilands on nearly fixty acres of ground ; the buildings in
general are good, and fome, belonging to families of pro-
perty, are modern and elegant. The government of the
town is veiled in a mayor and twelve aldermen. In the year
1252, Maurice, lord Berkeley, an anceftor of the prefent
earl of Berkeley, who now holds the manor, obtained a grant
of a weekly market on Fridays, and an annual fair, both of
which are ftill held. The church is a fpacious, handfome
fabric, and contains numerous monuments and fepulchral
memorials. Here is a free-fchool, eredted in 1 385, by Ca.
therine, --ehct of Thomas, lord Berkeley : alfo an alms-houfe
for fix poor men and fix women, built and endowed in 1632,
by Hugh Perry, alderman of London, at the charge of
1000/. : a hke fum was given by fir Jonathan Dawes, (heriff
of London, for the relief of the poor. In the population
return of the year 181 1, the houfes in this town were enu-
merated as 217, the inhabitants as 1527; the latter are
chiefly employed in the clothing manufacture, which is
carried on to a confiderable extent in the town and its
vicinity : one faftory only, called New Mill, employs under
its roof about 200 men, women, and children. Spanifh
wool alone is manufaftured at this place, and is employed
for the weaving of broad-cloth and kerfeymere. — Rudge's
Hiftory of Gloucefterfhire, 2 vols. 8vo. 1803. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. v. Gloucefterfhire, by J. Britton
and E. W. Brayley, 1804.

WOTYECHOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Lubhn; 12 miles W.S.W. of Lublin.

WOTZLERSDORF, a town of Auftria; 10 miles
W. of Zifterfdorf.
WOUDRICHEM. See Worcum.
WOVEN Stockings. See Stocking.
WOUGHS, in Mines, are the walls or fides fometimes
of hard ftones, and fometimes foft ; when foft, the miners
fay they are rotten : thefe are the bounds of an entry. Be-
twixt them all forts of earth, ftones, and ore lie ; or, as
philofophers fay, grow.

WOULD, or Weld, among Dyers. See Weld, and
Dyer's IVeed.

Would, in /igriculture, a term applied in fome cafes to
fignify an open uninclofed traft of country.

Would Land, that which remains in the ftate and con-
dition of would. There is much of this fort of land in
many counties and diftrifts of this country which might be
ftill greatly improved and converted to far better purpofes
than at prefent, by fimply inclofing them and turning them
into a ftate of proper and fuitable cultivation. This has
been ah-eady done with large trafts in Yorkftiire and Glou-
cefterfhire to very great benefit, and the fame may be the
cafe with many others in different places. See Waste
Land. '

WouLDS, a term applied by fome writers on hufhaiidry
to crops of the woad kind. See Woad.

WOULDING. See Woolding.

WOULMARA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 28
miles S. of Midnapour.

WOUNDS, in Surgery, conftitute the moft ancient and
important branch of it, accidental injuries of this kind having
m all probability preceded the exiftence of many of the dif-
eafes to which mankind are now liable. The turbulent and
enterprifing fpirit of the earlieft generations foon produced
wars, and the eff'ufion of human blood ; and even the natural
habits of every people, in a ftate of inferior civilization,
would conduce to the receipt of wounds, fince the chace,

9

by which food was fo commonly procured, would itfelf
caufe many accidental hurts. Surgeons ufually define a
wound to be a folution of continuity, or a divifion of the
foft parts, more or lefs recently produced, commonly at-
tended with a greater or lefler degree of hemorrhage, and
almoft always occafioned by an external mechanical caufe.

There are fome chirurgical writers who make objeftions
to defining a wound to be a recent and bleeding divifion of
the foft parts, and M. Richerand is one of this number.
He difapproves of thefe terms, becaufe a wound, when long
in healing, and accompanied with fuppuration, cannot admit
of fuch a definition. And he obferves, that writers who
have defined a wound in this way, have been obliged to call
every fuppurating wound, if only of three days' ftanding,
an ulcer, which he conceives to be altogether abfurd. The
epithet Heeding, he contends, is not applicable in a general
definition of wounds, fince gun-ftiot wounds are not ordi-
narily followed by an eff"uCon of blood from the divided
parts. Nofographie Chir. tom. i. p. 2. edit. 4.

It muft be acknowledged, that there is confiderable
difficulty in fixing the precife period when a wound (hould
ceafe to be fo denominated, and take the appellation of an
ulcer. The wound, after feveral important furgical opera-
tions, is fometimes a month or two before it is entirely
healed ; yet, generally fpeaking, as long as there is a pro-
fpeft of a cure within a reafonable length of time, and the
cicatrization does proceed, though flow ly, furgeons moftly
ftill call the fuppurating breach of continuity a wound, and
not an ulcer. When, however, a wound is very long kept
from healing by injudicious applications, conftitutional
caufes, attacks of hofpital gangrene, debility, &c. the cafe,
we think, is moft commonly regarded rather as a fore, or
ulcer, than as a wound. An ulcer, ftrifily fo called, does
indeed feem to imply a breach of continuity arifing from the
procefs termed uherafi-^n, or ulcerative abforption, in which a
chafm, or lofs of fubftance, is aftually produced in the part
by the aftion of the abforbent veflels. (See Ulceration,
and Ulcer.) This procefs is alfo concerned in the pro-
duftion of every fore which is the confequence of a burn ;
for though parts may be at once killed, and converted into
efchars by the fire itfelf, yet the feparation of fuch deadened
parts, or floughs, fo as to leave an ulcer behind, is the re-
fult of a procefs, in which the abforbents of the adjoining
living furface remove the particles of matter, which form
the conneftion between thofe parts which are killed and
thofe which are alive.

In the perufal of Richerand's fentiments, who has be-
trayed fo much deHcacy and fo many fcruples about the
admiflion of definitions, and who is at the fame time the'
author of a modern fyftem of phyfiology, we confefs that
we were rather furprifed to find him infifting upon burns,
and the apertures by which abfcefles fpontaneoufly burft,
being wounds, and not ulcers. In faft, he fcems to regard
the formation of a breach of continuity, in thefe cafes, as
entirely the refult of phyfical and mechanical caufes, and
not as the confequence of a vital procefs, in which the aftion
of the abforbent veflels has a very confiderable ftiare.

V\'\\.\\ refpeft to the propriety of the epithet bleeding, in
the definition of a wound, there cannot be any real objeftion
to it in a general fenfe ; for although a wound does not
bleed when in a fuppurating ftate, yet it has almoft always
done fo on the firil occurrence of the injury. Even the
generality of gun-(hot wounds, though it may not be their'
ufual nature to bleed much, commonly pour out fome >
blood.

We have ftated, that wounds are produced by external'
mechanical caufes. There are, however, exceptio.is tc this

remark ;

WOUNDS.

remark ; for it fometimes happens that breaches of con-
tinuity, botli in the foft and hard parts, are caufed by the
violent aftion of the mufcles. Thus, the patella and os
brachii are occafionally fraftured by the powerful contrac-
tion of the mufcles ; and the mufcles either tear themfelves
afunder, or rupture the tendons with which they are con-
nefted. Sometimes, alfo, the (harp point of a broken bone
wounds the fuperincumbent integuments, and changes the
cafe into a compound fradlure. Here we fee the caufe is
mechanical, but yet not of an external kind, as in ordinary
1 examples.

' Wounds are divided by the writers on furgery into
feveral kinds, the diftinftions being founded either upon the
fort of weapon with which the injury was inflifted ; or
upon the circumftance of a venomous matter having been
inferted into the part ; or, lallly, upon the particular fitu-
lation of the wound, and the nature of the wounded parts
themfelves. Hence we have cuts, incifwm, or inc'ifed mounds,
which are fuch as are produced by (harp-edged inltrnmcnts,
and are generally free from all contufion and laceration.
The (ibres and texture of the wounded part have fuffered
no other injury but their mere divifion ; and there is confe-
iquently lels tendency to inflammation, fuppuration, gas-
grene, and other bad confequences, than in the generality
of other fpecies of wounds. Incifed wounds alfo may
ufually be healed with greater quicknefs and facility than
iother wounds, which are accompanied with more or lefs con-
itufion and laceration : the furgeon has only to prevent the
]folution of continuity from gaping, or, in other words, he
;has fimply to brnig the oppofite fides of the wound into
icontaft with each other, and keep them in this (late a few
jhours, and they will unite and grow together.

Another clafs of wounds Tive Jiabs, or punflured wounds,
made by the thruft of pointed weapons, like bayonets,
lances, fwords, daggers, &c. and alfo by the accidental
and forcible introduftion of confiderable thorns, large nails,
l&c. into the fle(h. Thefe wounds frequently penetrate to
a great depth, fo as to injure large blood- vefTels, vifcera,
land other organs of importance ; and as they are generally
linflifted with much force and violence, the parts fuffer more
'injury than what would refult from their fimple divillon. It
'alio deferves notice, that a great number of the weapons,
or inftruments, by which punftured wounds are occafioned,
increafe materially in diameter from the point towards their
jother extremity ; and hence, when they penetrate far, they
!muft force the (ibres afunder like a wedge, and caufe a
ferious degree of ftretching and contufion. It is on this
laccount that bayonet wounds of the ordinary foft parts are
.'very often followed by violent inflammation, an alarming
[degree of tumefaftion, large abfcefles, fever, delirium, and
'other very unfavourable fymptoms. The opening which
jthe point of fuch a weapon makes is quite inadequate for
,the paffage of the thicker part of it, which can only enter
|by forcibly dilating, llretching, and otherwife injuring the
Ifibres of the wounded fle(h.

A third defcription of wounds are the conlufed and
^lacerated, which ftriftly comprehend, together with a va-
jriety of cafes produced by the violent application of hard,
Iblunt, obtufe bodies to the foft parts, all thofe interefting
'and common injuries denominated gun-Jhot tuuunds. Many
ibites rank alfo as contufed and lacerated wounds. In (Iiort,
[every folntion of continuity, which is fuddenly produced in
Ithe foft parts by a blunt inllrument, or weapon which has
jneithcr a (harp point nor edge, muft. be a contufed, lacerated
.wound.

I Poifoned wounds are thofe which are complicated with the
lintroduftion of a venomous matter, or fluid, into the part.
I VojL. XXXVIII.

Thus the flings and bites of a variety of infeds a(Tord us
examples of poifoned wounds ; but a more ferious and dan-
gerous inftance, which we meet with in this chmate, is feen
in the cuts accidentally received in the dilfeftion of putrid
bodies, or in handling inftruments infefted with any irritating
venomous matter ; as fometimes happens to the furgeon in
the performance of operations on gangrenous limbs, and in
the application of drefTmgs to venereal and other infeftious
ulcers. The mod dangerous, however, of all the poifoned
wounds, which ever occur in this kingdom, are thofe re-
fulting from the bite of the viper, and from the bites of
rabid animals, particularly the dog and cat. See Hydro-
phobia.

Wounds are farther divided by furgical writers into
wounds of the head, wounds of the face, wounds of the throat,
wounis of the chefl or thorax, wounds of the belly or abdomen,
wounds of the limbs or extremities, wounds of the arteriesy
•wounds of the veins, &c. &c.

Wounds may hkewife be univerfally referred to two other
general claffes, vix. fimple and complicated. A wound is
cMed Jimple, when it occurs in a healthy fubjeft ; has been
produced by a clean, (harp-edged inftrument ; is unattended
with any ferious fymptoms ; and the only indication is to
re-unite the frcfli-cut furfaces. A wound, on the contrary,
is faid to be complicated, whenever the (late of the whole
fyftem, or of the wounded part, or wound itfelf, is fuch as
to make it neceffary for the furgeon to deviate from the
plan of treatment requilite for a common fimple wound.
The differences of complicated wounds muft, therefore, be
very numerous, as they depend upon many incidental cir-
cumftances, the principal of which, however, are, hemor-
rhage, nervous fymptoms, contufion, the unfavourable (hape
of the injury, the difcharge or extravafation of certain fluids
indicating the injury of particular bowels or veifels, the pre-
fence of foreign bodies or of a virus in the part, lofs of
fubftance, the attack of hofpital gangrene, &c. See
Ulcer.

All large or deep wounds are attended vifitli more or lefs
fymptomatic fever. It ufually comes on, as Dr. Thomfon
obferves, at a period varying from fixteen to thirty-fix
hours after the infliftion of the injury. Its occurrence is
indicated by an increafed warmth of the (kin ; by increafe
in the frequency, and generally alfo in the ftrength of the
aftion of the heart and arteries ; by anxiety, thirft, and by
the fuppreffion of the powers of digeftion. The fymp-
tomatic fever from wounds is generally of the inflammatory
charafter ; and it even fometimes happens that a very high
degree of fymptomatic fever occurs in debilitated conftitu-
tions, and in perfons who have loft a confiderable quantity
of blood. In thefe cafes, the frequency of the pulfe, how-
ever, is more remarkable than its ftrength, and the fever
which occurs feems to refemble more an afthenic fever than
it does one that is truly inflammatory. It is of great con-
fequence to attend to the type of this fever in the treatment ;
for the lofs of blood, which may be required and fuftained
with impunity in the one fpecies of fever, may prove molt
injurious, if not fatal, in the other. Thomfon's Letlures,
&c. p. 292.

We fliall now proceed to offer a general defcription of the
feveral kinds of wounds, and the manner of treating them;
and then notice the wounds of particular parts, and the fur-
gical meafures which feem beft calculated to promote their
cure. As, however, wounds of the head, comprehending
its external coverings, and the cranium and brain, form the
fubjefts of articles already publiihed, thefe cafes will not
fall under confideration in the fubfequent columns, the
reader being referred for information concerning them to

4 Y COWPRESSIOX,

WOUNDS.

Compression, Concussion, Extravasation, Head, In-
juries of, and Trepanning.

" Of Cuts or incifed W'ez/nij.— Sharp-edged inftruments may-
produce a divifion of the parts upon which they ad, alto-
gether on the principle of direft preffure ; in which cafe,
they may be regarded as operating in the manner of a wedge.
In other inflances, they both prefs and faw at the fame
time, and then the folution of continuity is made with more
facility, and carried to a greater depth, becaufe the fibres
are elongated in the direftion in which the inftrument faws,
as well as in that in which it preffes.

In whatever way a cutting inftrument operates, feveral
confequences refult from the divifion of the parts, itt, An
effufion of blood from the divided veffels. adly. Pain,
arifing from the divifion of nerves. 3dly, A gaping of the
wound, or feparalion of its edges from each other.

Anatomy teaches us, that almoft every part of the body
is furniflied with a confiderable number of blood- veffels,
which indeed exift in fuch myriads, that it is impoffible to
prick the flcin witix the point of the moft minute needle,
without opening one or more ramifications of veffels con-
taining blood. But this effeft always happens in a ilill greater
and more remarkable degree, when the divifion, caufed by
a fharp-edged inilrument, is at all extenfive.

If the wounded veffels are of fmall fize, the blood iffues
from them only in moderate quantity ; but when they are
large, the hemorrhage is more copious, and it may be fo
rapid as to prove almoil inftantly fatal. Many of the phe-
nomena of hemorrhage have been already confidered in an-
other place (fee Hemorrhage) ; and, on this account, we
fhall not have occafion now to tra%'el over the whole of that
interefting topic agrjn. There are, however, certain parts
of the fiibjeft which muft fall under conlideration in the
courfe of this article ; and in mentioning them, we (hall take
the opportunity of noticing a few ingenious fuggellions,
which have been made fince the period when the above-
mentioned article was written, and which, when further in-
velUgated, may lead to very important improvements in
tlie treatment of wounds.

It has been ftated, that hemorrhage is one of the circum-
ftances which render wounds complicated ; yet it is to be
underftood, that when the bleeding is not lo confiderable as
to hinder the union of the parts, and a further effufion of
blood can be prevented by the very fame prefiure vi'hich is
neceffary to promote this union, the cafe is always regarded
as a fimple wound. Such is that which is produced by the
operation for the harelip, &c.

The fame experiment which demonftrates the prefence of
blood-veffels in every fituation, namely, pricking any part
of the body with a needle, proves alfo that filaments of the
nerres are found every where, and at every point ; for the
nightefl prick of the /kin occafions pain, and pain cannot
happen except where there are nerves. But wounds are
oblerved to be attended with a pain, which is more or lefs
zcute, according to the kind of cutting inftrument with
which they are infllfted, the extent of the divifion, and
efpecially according as the wounded perfon happens or not
to be in expeftation of the receipt of the injury. A patient,
on whom an operation is to be performed, tJrns his whole
attention to the effeft which the ufe of the knife will pro-
duce upon his feehngs, and he fuffers a great deal ; but if
an incifion be made when not expefted, or a foldier be
wounded in the heat of battle, the injury is fometimes not
perceived till the bleeding attrafts notice.

Immediately a part is divided with a cutting inftrument,
the edges of the wound feparate more or lefs diftantly from
each other, and the injury prefents a gaping appearance.

This is an occurrence which is owing to feveral caufes, ne-
ceffary to be underftood by every furgeon who is defirous of
knowing the beft mode of obviating it.

The firft caufe of the feparation of the lips of a wound
from each other is, no doubt, the thicknefs of the inftru-
ment with which the folution of continuity is made. A
cutting inftrument, afting like a wedge, muft unavoidably
feparate the parts between which it enters ; but if this
were the only caufe, the gaping of a wound would be very
inconfiderable, fince the blades of moft cutting weapons arc
extremely thin. We find, however, that the oppofite fur-
faces of many wounds are drawn away from each other
feveral inches, and the caufes to which the phenomenon is
to be afcribed are the elafticity and contraftile nature of
the divided parts ; fometimes one of thefe properties ope-
rating fingly, fometimes both of them together in the fame
wound.

Elafticity is a quality which belongs to all animal fub-
ftances, and it is inherent in them even after they have bees
deprived of life ; but it does not prevail in an equal degree
in every texture. Thus, the gaping of a wound depending
upon this caufe varies very confiderably, according to the-
nature of the divided parts. The edges of an incifion made
in the flcin become widely drawn afunder, becaufe the inte-
guments are endued with great elafticity. The cellular mem-
brane, wlien cut, gapes very little, becaufe it is lefs elaftic.
The mufcles alfo are not remarkably elaftic ; yet wound;
of them, efpecially tranfverfe wounds, always have thei
oppofite fides feparated a vaft diftance from each other : bu
this is a circumftance which is owing not altogether to the
elafticity of the parts, but partly to their contraftile
powers.

The feparation of the edges of a wound is not always in i
proportion to the elafticity of the wounded part ; it is like-
wife proportioned to the tenfion of this part at the very mo-
ment of the injury. An exceedingly fimple experiment
proves the truth of this obfervation : if the flcin which co-
vers the knee be divided tranfverfely in the dead fubjeft,,
while the leg is bent upon the thigh, and another fimilar in-
cifion be made in the other knee, while the leg is extended,
the feparation which happens between the edges of the divi-
fion will be found to be much greater in the firft than in the
fecond example.

The contraftile power, or irritability, which is a peculiar
property of mufcular fibres, and by virtue of which they
tend continually to ftiorten themfelves, is the moft powerful
caufe of the feparation which occurs between the oppofite
fides of a tranfverfe wound of any mufcle. The fepa-
ration thus produced is the greater in proportion as the cu;
mufcular fibres are longer, inafmuch as the contraftion of
which the mufcles are capable, by reafon of their contraftile
power, is itself in a ratio to the length of the mufcular
fibres. Thus, as Boyer obferves, if two mufcles be divided
tranfverfely, the fibres of one of which are three times ai>
long as thofe of the other, the feparation which takes place
between the edges of the wound of the former will be three
times as great as what follows, between the fides of the
divifion made in the latter.

The force with which the feparation is produced by the
contraftile power of the mufcles, is not in proportion to the
length of the mufcular fibres, but to their quantity. Each
mufcular fibre being regarded as a feparate diftinft power,
it is obvious, that the more thefe powers are multiplied, the
greater muft be the effeft refulting from their aftion.

It appears alfo, that in addition to the firft contraftion of
a divided mufcle, a fecondary and increafed contraftion of
ilie part may be excited, when it is expofed and irritated.

From

WOUNDS.

From what has been ftated, it feems then that in wounds
of parts deftitute of contractile properties, as the flcin, cel-
lular membrane, ligaments, fafcise, &c. their elafticity is
|the only caufe of fuch wounds gaping, or of the feparation
which happens between the oppofite furfaces of the injury ;
but that in mufcular wounds the feparation is theeffeft both
of the contraclile and elaftic powers of the part. Hence,
ias we have already obferved, the feparation is greater the
[more tenfe the mufcle is at the inftant when the wound is
infliaed.

I " The edges of every incifed wound ( fays profeflbr Thom-
■fon) are more or lefs retradled, or drawn from each other,
iand this generally in proportion to the fize of the wound,
land the nature of the parts upon which it is inflifted. The
(different foft textures of which the human body is com-
pofed are more or lefs elaftic, and are in the healthy condi-
' tion of the body kept in a certain degree of tenfion. When
the fibres, therefore, of any of thefe textures are divided,
• they recede from each other; thofe of flcin farther than
■ thofe of cellular membrane, and thofc of mufcle farther
than thofe of flcin. The fibres of mufcle contraft mod of
I all. The extremities of a divided artery recede confiderably
! from each other ; the veins lefs than the arteries, and the
i nerves probably lefs than the veins. To oppofe this con-
! traftion of divided parts by fuitable means, is one of the
' main objefts which the furgeon propofes to himfelf in the
1 cure of wounds ; for the retradlion of the edges of wounds
', from each other always prevents re-union by the firfl inten-
1 tion, and very often retards it for a long time by the fecond."
; See Thomfon's Ledlures on Inflammation, p. 280 ;] alfo
I Union by the Firjl Intention.

; The prognofisof wounds made with a cutting inftrument
varies according to the extent and depth of the divifion, the
nature of the injured parts, and the circumftances which at-
, tend the accident. Deep large wounds are more dangerous
and more difficult to cure than thofe which only intereft. the
! flcin. Wounds, accompanied with injury of confiderable
I veflTels or nerves, are more or lefs dangerous, according to
the magnitude or number of thofe veffels or nerves. Simple
v.-ounds, in which the only indication is to bring the divided
jiarts together, fo that they may re-unite, are the mod favour-
jihle cafes of all. On the other hapd, complicated wounds
?ae more or lefs hazardous, according to the particular
nature of the complication. In the prognofis of wounds
alfo, we mud not forget to take into confideration the pa-
tient's age, his kind of conftitution, and the difeafes under
v.liich he may labour. Generally fpeaking, the mod dan-
-\'rous examples of incifed wounds are thofe which are made
about the throat by perfons who attempt to deftroy themfelves.
Here there are fo many large blood-veffels, nerves, and
other parts of great importance, that deep incifed wounds
too often prove fatal, either immediately, or in the courfe
of a few days. Sometimes the patient opens the carotid
artery, and perifhes of hemorrhage on the fpot, before any
afTidance can be rendered. In other inilances, he divides fome
' )f the principal branches of the external carotid, and after
loling a great deal of blood he faints, and the hemorrhage
fpontaneoudy ceafes for a time. The fainting indeed is often
ihe very thing which faves his life, by checking the effufion
of blood until a furgeon arrives, who ties the veffeis as foon
as they begin to bleed again. Cut wounds of the extremi-
ties, when fuch arteries as the femoral and brachial are in-
jured, may alfo fuddenly deftroy the patient, by the great
quantity of blood which is fometimes loft before the arrival
of furgical afliftance.

A furgeon, called to a recent cut or incifed wound, has

three objefts which he fhould endeavour to accomplifh with.
out the lead delay.

The firft, and that which requires his immediate inter-
ference, is the bleeding, which mud be checked, or the
patient may lofe his life in a few minutes.

The fecond is the removal of all extraneous matter,
foreign bodies, &c. from the cavity of the wound.

The third is to bring the oppofite fuifaces of the wound
into even contaft, and to adopt proper meafuresfor keeping
them in this pofition, Uintil they have grovi'n together
again.

I. Hemorrhage — For an explanation of the means which
nature employs in the fuppreffion of bleeding from divided
arteries, as well as for an account of the beft chirurgical mea-
fures for promoting this objeft, and a detail of numerous
obfervations on the principles by which the conduft of the
furgeon fhould be regulated in the ufe of the ligature, we
beg to refer to the articles Hemorrhage and Ligature.

In the prefent place we (hall briefly notice how the fur-
geon ought to aft in cafes of incifed wounds, accompanied
with hemorrhage, without pafliiig over, however, a few
things which have been fuggefted fince the above-mentioned
articles were written.

It has been dated, that in every wound the bleeding is the
thing which demands the earlieft attention ; becaufeif lofsof
blood be not prevented without delay, the patient will fre-
quently die in the courfe of a few feconds, or minutes.
Every other confideration may be deferred ; but when large
velfels are injured, they mud be immediately fecured, or elfe
the fudden death of the patient will leave the furgeon no
opportunity of exhibiting his flcill and ufefulnefs in other
matters connefted wi'h the treatment.

It is not, however, every bleeding which is thus ferious
and alarming ; for the flighteft and mod fuperficial cuts are
always attended with fome effufion of blood. When the
divided veffels are of inferior fize, the bleeding foon fponta-
neoufly ceafes, and no furgical meafures need be taken on
this particular account. When the wounded vedels are eveu
fomewhat larger, and their fituation is favourable for com-
preflion with a bandage, it is often advifeable to clofe the
wound, and apply a comprefs and roller, indead of having
recourfe to hgatures, which always produce irritation, fup-
puration, and an obdacle to the union of that part of the
wound in which they lie. Yet, let the furgeon, before he
determines to trud to preffure, be well affured, that the
bleeding can be thus perfeftly and fafely commanded without
the employment of ligatures ; for by the failure of cora-
prefiion, hemorrhage has often been renewed from time to
time, and many a life been loft. We therefore wiili it to be
diftinftly underttood, that in almoft all cafes of confiderable
bleeding, the patient will not be fafe unlefs the velfels be
tied, and that the only exceptions are a few inftances
in which the bleeding arteries can be effeftually com-
preffed againil a fubjacent bone, and are not of very large
fize. In all other examples, tying the bleeding veffels is
the only fafe mode of proceeding. When the artery is of
large diameter, and its mouth can be readily feen, the moft
proper inftrument for taking hold of it is a pair of arterial
forceps. With this inftrument, the end of the veffel is to be
drawn out a little way from the furrounding flefli, in order
that a ligature may be put round it without the inclufion of
any other parts, which would be unneceffary, painful, and
on feveral accounts difadvantageous. In applying the liga-
ture, the furgeon muft take care to pull its two ends in fuch
a manner that the noofe will not rife above the mouth of the
veffel ; and, for the purpofe of altering the direftion of the
4 Y 2 force

WOUNDS.

force employed in drawing the ligature, the ends of the
thumbs are found moft convenient. When the bleeding
arteries are not very large and diftinft, they are generally
taken up with a tenaculum ; and of late years a double
tenaculum, the points of which fliut together, like the
blades of a pair of forceps, has been occafionally ufed, and
we have heard fome well-informed furgeons fpeak highly of
the invention, which we believe was originally made by pro-
feflbr Afalini, an ingenious furgeou at Milan, in Italy.

Thehgatures having been applied, one end of each is to
be cut off clofe to the knot, in order to diminilh the quan-
tity of extraneous matter in the wound.

When a large artery, like the brachial or femoral, is
opened, but not cut through, it often happens that the fur-
geon cannot get at it without making a dilatation of the
wound, and Ijringing the wounded part of the veffel more
fairly into view. In cafes of this defcription, the firft duty
of the praAitioner is to comprefs the artery above the
wound, and apply a tourniquet. Thus he will put an im-
mediate flop to the bleeding ; but if he omit this effential
ftep, the veffel will continue to bleed fo profufely and ra-
pidly, that in the inevitable obfcurity and confufion thence
refulting, the patient may aftually lofe his life before the
veffel is fecured. When, however, a tourniquet has been
applied, the furgeon can examine the wound, and fearch for
the artery with much greater fuccefs, as now the ftate of
things is no longer concealed under a continual ftream of
blood.

As foon as the wounded portion of the artery is difco-
Tcred, it ought not to be extenfively diffefted and feparated
from its furrounding conneftions in order to let the furgeon
pafs his finger under it. This mode of proceeding is now
acknowledged by fome of the bell furgeons to be unneceffary
and injurious ; and it will be quite fufficient to feparate the
artery fufficiently to pafs an eye-probe or aneurifmal needle
under it, with which a double ligature is to be drawn beneath it.
The probe or needle having been cutofr,one ligature is then to
be tied above the aperture in the artery, and the other below it.
Were only afingle ligature apphed above the wound in the ar-
tery, the bleeding would ilill be kept up, becaufe the blood
pafies into the lower continuation of the veffel through
numerous large anaflomofes, in a quantity that is truly
furprifing.

The principles which fiionld guide the furgeon in the
life of the ligature, were not known until the late Dr.
Jones publifhed his valuable treatife on hemorrhage. As an
able furgeon has obferved, " he has banillicd the ufe of thjck
and broad threads, of tapes, of referve ligatures, of cy-
linders of cork and wood, linen compreffes, and all the con-
trivances, which, employed as a fecurity agaiufl bleeding,
only ferved to multiply the chances of its occurrence."
Lawrence in MedicoChir. Tranf. vol. vi. p. 162.

In the article Surgery, we have noticed the method of
cutting off both ends of the hgature clofe to the knot on
the face of the flump, with a view of leffening the quantity
of extraneous matter in the wound, and promoting a com-
plete union of the divided parts, without any fuppuration.
The period of the firfl invention of this method appears
uncertain. Mr. Hennen, who feems to have been the firfl
who adopted the method in the army, had it fiiggefled to
him in 1813 by a Mr. Hume, as the pradice of fome
American naval furgeon ; and he has fmce found that it
had been done in Scotland 16 years before the above year.
Dr. Ferguffon alfo faw the pradlice adopted in Sweden as
f arly as the peace of Amiens. Mr. Hennen mentions 34
impu'ations, in which this treatrr.ent was followed by fuc-

cefs. His accounts are highly in favour of the method.
See Hennen's Military Surgery, p. 189, &c.

This plan has been tried by Mr. Lawrence : " The
method I have adopted (fays this gentleman) confifls in
tying the veffels lu'ith Jine ftlk ligatures, and cutting oft the
ends as clofe to the knot as is confiflent with its fecurity.
Thus the foreign matter is reduced to the infignificant
quantity, which forms the noofe aftually furrounding the
veffel, and the knot by which that noofe is faflened. Of
the filk which I commonly employ, a portion fufficient to
tie a large artery, when the ends are cut off, weighs between
-^xh and -j-'iith of a grain : a fiinilar portion of the thickefl
kind I have tried weighs ^Vth of a grain, and of the Qen-
derefl -r^l^th."

Mr. Lawrence ftates, that the kind of filk twid which
is commonly known in the {hops by the name of dentifl's
filk, and which is ufed in making fifhing-lines, is the flroug-
ell material, in proportion to its fize, and therefore the befl
calculated for our purpofe, which requires confiderable
force in drawing the thread tight enough to divide the
fibrous and internal coats of the arteries. This twifl is
rendered very hard and fliff by means of gum, which may
be removed by boiling it in foap and water ; but the twift
then lofes a part of its flrength. The floutefl twifl which
Mr. Lawrence has ufed, is a very fmall thread compared
with ligatures made of inkle. The quantity of fuch a
thread neceffary for the noofe and knot on the ihac artery
weighs -rVth of a grain ; or, if the gum has been removed,
about T^th. But the finefl twill kept in the filk fhops is
flrotig enough in its hard flate for any furgical purpofe ;
and the noofe and knot, according to Mr. Lawrence's flate-
ment, would not weigh ^'^th of a grain.

It farther appears from the report of this gentleman on
the fubjecl, that there is no danger of thefe ligatures cut-
ting completely through the veffel, as fome furgeons have
apprehended ; and that although he has not yet afcer-
tained what becomes of the pieces of ligature after the
wound is united, he has never feen abfcefs nor any other
bad fymptora occafioned by them. At the time when Mr.
Lawrence wrote, he had employed this method of fecuring
the arteries in ten or eleven amputations, in fix operations
on the breafl, and in the removal of two teflicles. The
cafes all did well, excepting a tpan who loft his thigh, and
who died of an affeftion of the lungs. See Lawrence on a
Nev¥ Method of tying the Arteries in Aneurifm, Amputa-
tion, 5cc. in Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. vi. p. 156, &c.

It merits notice, however, that the propofal of cutting
off the ends of the ligatures clofe to the arter)' has not
received the univerfal approbation of furgeons ; and, in
particular, Mr. Guthrie, of London, and Mr. Crofs, of
Norwich, have urged objeftions againll the praftice. The
former gentleman, at the fame time, does not entirely con-
demn the method, but merely argues that it is liable to in-
conveniences, when adopted in wounds which are to be
healed by the firfl intention. See Obf. on Cun-fhot
Wounds of the Extremities, p. 93.

Profeffor Scarpa alfo, whofe experiments lead him to
prefer large hgatures and intervening fubilances between
them and the veffel, muft be numbered amongll thofe who
difapprove of the new plan. Like all his writings, the
memoir which he has recently publifhed refpefting the
ligature of arteries is highly interelling, and drawn up with
the greateft candour.

Mr. Crofs, of Norwich, is more decidedly advcrfe to this
new pradice ; End he fouodi his objeftions chiefly upon

fome

WOUNDS.

lome experiments which were made upon animals, and
which, he conceives, juftify the following; conclufions :

Firft, If the wounds do not unite by the firft intention,
the ligatnr'S may efcape with the difcharge, without any
inconveni -nee.

Second' V, If common ligatures of twine are cut (hort,
the wound may unite over th'>m, and they may be found
in abfcefles alter an interval of many weeks.

Thirdly, If the finell d ntill's filk be employed in the
fame way, the wound uniting over it, the ligature may be
detached from the vefFel, and remain buried in an abfccfs,
where it will be found at different periods, from one to
feven months ; and this may happen whettier ihe vcfT;! be
firmly comprefled with a fingle ligature, or div:ded between
two ligatures, fo as to imitate the circumftances under
which vetTels are tied after operations.

Fourthlv, If Indian filk, fine as hair, be put round a
Teflel, fi) as to diminifh its diameter, or to effeft its obliter-
ation, bv juft compreffing its fides together, it may remain
in this fituation without exciting abfcefs, or producing any
inconvenience. The ligature may be thus applied to com-
prefs an artery for the cure of aneurifm ; but not to fecure
veflcls divided in operations. If a thin ligature be drawn
fufficientlv tifrht upon a veflel on the face of a ftump to be
fecure, Mr Crofs is perfuaded, that the extremity of the
veffel, which becomes infulated as it were, mud die. (See
London Med. Repofitory, vol. vii. p. 363.) In one cafe of
amputation alfo, in which the praftice was tried, the ftump
was long in healing, and feveral fmall abfcefles repeatedly
formed.

On the other hand, we muft take into confideration, that
M. Delpech, of Montpellier, has pradlifed it to a con-
iiderable exfent for feveral years pall, without any incon-
venience M. Roux has alfo tried the plan in three oper-
ations on th- breaft ; the cafes did well, and no ill confe-
<}Uences arofe from the prcfence of the bits of thread under
the cicatrix. See Relation d'un Voyage fait a Loiidrcs en
1S14, ou Pdrallele de la Chirurgie Angloife avec la Chi-
rurgie Fran^oife ; Paris, 1815, p. 134 — 136.

Mr. Hennen, in anfwer to Mr. Guthrie, alfo obferves,
that in the cales where it wa? tried at Bilboa, " neither pain,
heat, nor tumour, ftbrile exacerbation, nor formation of pus,
"ould be fairly traced to the fhort cut ligatures, which
•vvould not ill all human probability as readily have fuc-
ceeded to the ligaturec ufually employed ; while, on the
contrary, the progrefs of healing has been fenfibly more
rapid where they have been ufed." Obf. on Military
Surgery, p. 193.

Since Mr. Lawrence communicated to the Medical and
Chirurgical Society of London the defcription of a " New
Method of tying the Arteries in Aneurifm, Amputation,
and other Surgical Operations," he has conllantly employed
the method therein propofed, both in St. Bartholomew's
hofpital and in private praflice ; and, as he informs us, he has
now tried it in many operations of almoll every defcrip-
tion. " The general refult of my experience is (fays he),
that tliis plan, by diminifhing irritation and inflammation,
and fimplifying the procefs of dreffing, very materially pro-
motes the comfort of the patient, and the convenience of
the furgeon, <iuhile it has not produced ill confequencts or any
iinphafent effed in the cafes luhich have come under my own
obfervalion.

" I have found in my own praftice, what has been con-
firmed by others, who have communicated to me the refult
of their experience, that the fmall knots of filk generally
Separate early, and come away with the difcharge ; that
where the integuments have united by the firft intentioDj the

ligatures often come out rather later, with very trifling fup.
puration, and no painful inflammation ; and that, in fome
inrtances, they remain quietly in the part.

" In two or three inftances, I have been told that th?
ligatures feemed to have caufed irritation and pain. Thele
were amputations ; and we are accullomed to fee effefts,
quite as confi ierable as were alluded to here, produced by
the ftate of the bone and other caufes, where the ordinary
method of f;curing ihe arteries is praCtifed ; fo that I could
not, on clofe inquiry, find any reafon to alcribe what was
complained of to the ufe of the filk ligatures, and the praftice
of cutting off their ends clofe to the knots." Medico-Chir.
Tranf. vol. viii. p. 490.

Mr. Lawrence contends, that under fome circumftance*
the method will be attended with peculiar advantages, as in
crowded military hofpitals, where the deftruftive hofpital
gangrene either exiils, or may make its appearance. Every
mealuro tending to accelerate the union of wounds, whether
after operations or under other circumlf ances, is of great
importance in averting the probability of this calamitous
occurrence.

This mode of cutting off both ends of the ligature clofe
to the knot has now been fuccefsfuUy applied to operations
for aneurifm. Mr. Lawrence has himfelf found it anfwer
his expeftations ; and we learn, that Mr. Carwardine, of
Thaxted, tied the femoral artery with a fmall filk ligature,
in a cafe of pophteal aneurifm, and cut off the ends clofe to
the knot. The wound united entirely by the firft intention,
not a particle of pus having been for.ned at any time ; and
it continued perfectly found at the diftance of fome months
from the operation. Op. cit. p. 492.

If this praftice prove generally beneficial in operations
for aneurifm, there can be no doubt it will alio be advan-
tageous in other cafes, in which the furgeon is called upon to
cut down to and take up punftuied or partially divided
arteries in accidental wounds.

Although doubts are yet entertained by fome praftitioners,
whether this new method of applying ligatures is entitled to
praife and imitation, all furgeons are unanimous about the
propriety of lefTening as much as poffible the quantity of
extraneous bodies in wounds : hence, even they who dif-
approve of cutting off both ends of the ligature clofe to the
knot, fanftion and adopt the praftice of cutting off one-half
of each ligature dole to the veffel, as the other portion will
fufRce for the removal of the knot and noofe as foon as they
are detached from the tied artery. When the wound is
brought together, the ligatures are to lie in the neareft in-
terfpaces left between the plafters.

2. Of thi- Removal of Clots of Blood, extraneous Suhjlances,
foreign Bodies, life, from the IVound. — This forms the fecond
indication to which the attention of the furgeon is particu-
larly required, when he is firft called to an incifed wound.
It is, indeed, an objeft of very material importance, becaufe
if it be not attended to, the wound may be brought together
as nicely, as accurately, and as flcilfully as poffible, and every
thing look well in the beginning ; yet that defirable event,
union by the firft intention, will not follow, but inftead of
it a fevere degree of pain, confiderable f welling of the
circumference of the injury, extenfive rednefs, and fuppu-
ration and abfceffes. AH thefe fevere and untoward confe-
qnences arife from the irritation produced by the prefence
of foreign bodies in wounds ; and as an incifei wound can
generally be examined with the utmoft facility, and made
properly clean, without putting the patient to much pain,
the negled on the part of the furgeon becomes the more
blameable. In other deep, narrow, lacerated wounds, and
io many gun-/hot injuries, it is often difficult zl firft to afcer-

tain

WOUNDS.

tain whether there are extraneous fubftiiices in the flefti or
not ; but in open incifed wounds no fucli diJSculty and ob-
fcurity prevail, and the praftitioner who clofes them, with-
out having affured himfelf that they are perfeftly free from
all extraneous matter, betrays either the moft fupine negli-
gence, or an utter ignorance of his profeffional duty. It is
true an incifed wound made with a clean, fharp inftrument,
which has not broken, can obvioufly have no foreign bodies
in it. But very confiderable and dangerous cuts are often
produced by glafs, china, Sec. v/hich are apt to break at
the moment, and leave fome of their fragments in the
part. Sometimes alfo the weapon with which the wound
is made is unclean, and occafionally dirt, gravel, &c. get
into the wound, in confequence of the patient falling upon
the ground at the time when he receives the injury. We
(hall merely repeat, that as extraneous bodies operate as an
irritation to all kinds of wounds, the furgeon ought to take
cai-e to remove them immediately the bleeding veffels have
been fecured.

Mr. John Hunter believed, that blood retaining the living
principle was rather an ufeful fubftance in the union of
wounds than otherwife ; and he only confidered blood, which
had been deprived of this principle by long expofure, the
effeft of ftyptics, &c. as hurtful, when left on the furface
of the wound. Yet this is a doftrine which is by no means
fandtioned by the approbation of the beft modern prafti-
tioners, all of whom are decidedly of opinion, that leaving
any blood upon the furface of a recent wound, when the
oppolite furfaces of fuch wound are to be brought into con-
taft, is difadvantageous, retarding the cure, and rendering
union by the firft intention lefs certain. The prefence of
blood in the cavity of the wound, indeed, muft have the
effeft of producing a greater or lefTer feparation of thofe
f irfaces, which ought ftriftly to touch each other ; and we
decidedly believe, that the praftice of freeing wounds as much
as poffible from clots of blood may be fuccefsfuUy defended
both upon theoretical and praftical principles.

3. Union of the Wound, DreJJtngs, Isfc. — We have faid, that
when the furgeon has ftopped the bleeding, removed extra-
neous fubftances, and properly cleaned the wound, the next
indication is to bring the oppofite fides of the injury into con-
taft with each other, and keep them quietly and fteadily in
this pofition until they have grown together again. Wounds
are healed by two procefles ; wz. by one, in which pus is
produced, and granulations and new fkin are formed ; and by
another, in which, if it perfeftly and univerfally fucceed, no
fuppuration whatfoever takes place. The latter, vchen it can
be praftifed, is always the moft defirable, becaufe it is not
only the quickeft means of cure, but alfo the moll perfeft ;
the part being covered by the old original Ikin, which is
always ftronger and lefs difpofed to ulceration than what is
new formed. Surgeons have termed this way of healing
wounds Union by the Firjl Intention, ( fee thefe laft words, )
or Adhefion ; and Mr. Hunter named the procefs by which
It, together with many other analogous effefts, was accom-
plifhed in the animal body, the Adhefme Inflammation. See
Inflammatiok.

The great recommendations of union by the firft intention
are, celerity of cure, the diminution of the pain and inflam-
mation arifing from the expofure of raw furfaces, freedom
from the inconveniences of fuppuration, the prevention of
the deformity, which would otherwife refult from a large
cicatrix, and the greater permanency and foundnefs of the
cure, for the reafons above ftated.

The ftrong tendency which divided parts of the animal
body have to grow together, when kept a certain time in
contaft with each other, is an important faft, of which the

moderns have taken much more advantage than tlie ancients.
There are even cafes and experiments on record in fupport
of the opinion, that it is not entirely impoffible for parts
entirely detached from the reft of the body to become
united again, if quickly replaced. In the article Union'
hy the Firjl Intention, we have noticed the interefting experi-
ments made by Duhamel and Mr. Hunter. The refearches
of the latter celebrated philofopher brought to light feverat
very curious and inftruftive facts. He proved that the
tefticles of a cock, when removed and introduced into the
abdomen of a hen, contraded a vafcular conneftion with the
furface of the vifcera, and lived. He afcertained, that a
found tooth might be tranfplanted from its focket, and acquire
an union to the alveolary procefs of another perfon. He
alfo cut off the fpurs of a young cock, and found that they
might be made to unite to its comb, or that of another
cock, and grow in fuch fituation. The poffibility of this
fpecies of union fhews how ftrong the difpofition of the
frefh furfaces of an incifed wound muft be to grow together ;
particularly when it is confidered, that in the foregoing and
in fome of the following inftances, there can be on one fide
no affiftance given to the union, as the part entirely feparated
from the reft of the body is hardly able to do more than
preferve its own living principle, and (as Mr. Hunter ex-
prefies himfelf) accept of union.

The following obfervations on this fubjeft are taken froKi
profeffor J. Thomfon's excellent book on inflammation ;
" Befides thofe examples that are feen in the tranfplantation
of the teeth, it muft be confeffed, that inftances of re-union
among parts which had been entirely feparated are very rare
in the human body ; fo rare, indeed, that moft praftitioners
ftill treat with dift)elief and ridicule the few inftances which,
have been put upon record. But the different fafts which
have been learned refpefting the tranfplantation of the teeth,
together with the experiments of Duhamel and Mr. Hunter,
prove indifputably the poflibility of parts being re-united
which have been completely feparated from the animal fyf-
tem to which they belonged, and in which the circulation
of the blood muft neceffarily have ceafed for a time. There
is nothing therefore in the nature of the faft recorded, that
can juftify us, I conceive, (fays Dr. Thomfon, ) in doubting
the veracity of thofe, by whom fimilar inftances of re-uniou
between other parts of the body have been related.

" That praftitioners have generally failed in effefting this
re-union, is frankly acknowledged by thofe who have related
cafes fo very extraordinary. I (hall mention to you (con-
tinues this author) a few of thofe rare cafes, and leave it to
your own judgment to deduce from them the conclufions,
which the charafters of the authors by whom they are related,
and the nature of the fafts themfelves which they relate, may
feem to you to warrant.

" The firft example of this kind which I find diftinftly
recorded is by Phiorovant, in the 54th page of his fccond
book of the Secrets of Surgery : ' In that time, when I was
in Africa, there happened a ftrange affair : a certain gentle-
man, a Spaniard, that was called II Signior Andreas Gutierp,
of the age of twenty-nine years, upon a time walked in the
field, and fell at words with a foldier, and began to draw.
The foldier feeing that, ftruck him with the left-hand, and
cut off his nofe, and there it fell down in the fand. I then
happened to itand by, and took it up, and piffed thereon to
wafh away the fand, and dreffed it with our balfamo artifici-
ato, and bound it up, and fo left it to remain eight or ten
days, thinking that it would have come to matter ; never-
thelefs when I did unbind it, I found it faft conglutinated,
and then I dreffed it only once more, and he was perfeftly
whole, fo that all Naples did wonder thereat, as is well
7 known ;

WOUNDS.

known ; for the faid Signior Andrea* dotli live, and can
itltiiy the fame.'

" Bkgny, in his Zodiacus Medico-Gallicus, for the month
oi March, 1 680, mentions a cafe, in which a nofe that had
been cut off with a fabre was replaced by a mihtary furgeon
of the name of Winfauk, and in which a perfect re-union
was obtained, he affirms, by the ufe of llitches, and of
agglutinating plafters.

" A third cafe of the fame kind is related by Garengeot,
at the 55th page of the third volume of his Operations of
Surgery. ' In the month of September, 1 724, a foldier of
the regiment of Conti, coming out of L'Epee Royale from
an inn, at the corner of the ftreet Deux-Ecus, was attacked
by one of his comrades, and in the ftniggle had his nofe
bitten off, io as to remove almoft all the cartilaginous part.
His adverfary perceiving that he had a bit of llefh in his
mouth, fpat it into the gutter, and endeavoured to crufh it
by trampling upon it. The foldier, who on his part was
i\ot lefs fpirited, took up the end of his nofe, and threw it
i.ilo the (hop of M. Galm, a brother-praftitioner of mine,
till he fhould run after his adverfary. During this time,
M. Galm examined the nofe that had been tlirown into his
1 '.op, and as it was covered with dirt, he wafhed it at the well.
'i'he foldier returning to be dreffed, M. Galin walhed his
wound and face, which was covered with blood, with a little
V, .trm wine, and then put the extremity of the nofe into this
h^uor to heat it a little. Having in this manner cleanfed
''\i wound, M. Galin now put the nofe into its natural
; .lation, and retained it there by means of an agglutinating
'after and bandage. Next day the re -union appeared to be

king place ; and on the fourth day, I myfelf dreffed him
Mih M. Galiu, and faw that the extremity of the nofe was
iierfeftly re-united and cicatrized.'

" Thefe (fays profeflor Thomfon) are the only cafes
which I have been able to find diftinftly ftated of the re-union
of a nofe which had been completely cut off. This event,
from analogy, we have reafon to believe is poffible, and
nothing fhort of a contrary teftimony in the inftances I have
related could juftify us, I conceive, in denying the truth of
the faa."

Dr. Thoml^on then details a cafe, extrafted from
vol. xxxiii. of the Journal de Medecine, where the point of
a finger which had been cut off was re-united by M. Boffu,
furgeon at Arras. Dr. Thomfon alfo mentions, that he
has been informed by different perfons entitled to credit of
a confiderable number of cafes fimilar to the preceding, in
which the points of fingers and toes completely feparated
■were after\i'ards re-united.

Although it mull be acknowledged that the foregoing
cafes of the union of parts completely fevered from the
body are uncommon, the fame obfervation does not apply
to inftances in which the detached part ilill retains a partial
and flight conneftion with the reft of tlie body, by means
perhaps of only a few fibres or little bit of llcin. " Many
cafes," fays Dr. Thomfon, " are upon record, and many
more have been obferved, in which parts have re-united,
which were divided all to a very fmall portion of cutis, — a
portion fo fmall that it is not eafy to conceive that any
effeftual circulation could be carried on through it ; and in
thefe cafes it deferves to be remarked, that it was generally
the nofe, or the extremities of the fingers and toej, which
re-united, after having been feparated and replaced. I have
feen two examples of the re-union of the nofe, where it was
almoft entirely feparated. In one of them it adhered only
by the fl<in of one of the aise, and in the other chiefly by
the feptum. Arczus mentions a cafe in which the nofe,
with moft of the upper jaw, was fo feparated as to hang

down upon the chin, -and yet a re-union was efTeaed. A
cafe is mentioned by Lombard, in which the nofe, neaHv
cut off and unreplaced for fome hours in winter, was made
to re-adhere by ftitching and proper dreffings. Another
cafe of the fame kind occurred to Loubet." {Leftureson
Inflammation, p. 243.) In the Diftionary of Pradical
Surgery, an inftance is mentioned, in which an ear that
had been completely feparated from the head, with the ex-
ception of a fmall hit of ikin, was united again with the
aid of a future ; and Dr. Thomfon has himfelf feen portions
of the little toe and little finger, after being nearly cut off,
fuccefsfully re-united.

The knowledge of all thefe fadls cannot but prove ufcful
in the practice of furgery, inafmuch as it teaches the prac-
titioner to attempt the union of parts, under circuraftances
wl>ich would otherwife appear entirely hopelefs and dif-
coiiraging.

In promoting union by the firft intention, furgery is
merely to officiate as the handmaid of nature. There are
only two indications to be fulfilled : the firft is to bring the
edges of the wound into reciprocal contaft, and keep them
fo ; the other is to avert the accefs of immoderate inflam-
mation, by which the agglutination of the wound would
certainly be prevented. The firft objeft is accomplifhed by
a proper pofition of the wounded part, by bandages, by
adhefive plafter, and by futures. The fecond is fulfilled by
a ftria obfervance of the antiphlogiftic regimen, and par-
ticularly by avoiding every kind of motion and difturbance
of the wound. The reft is the work of nature.

The po/ititn of the part is to be regulated on the principle
of relaxing the wounded integuments and mufcles. If the
extenfor mufcles are injured, the joints which they move
ought to be placed in an extended poflure ; if the flexor
mufcles are wounded, the limb is to be bent. When the in-
teguments alone are cut, the fame pofture which relaxes the
mufcles fituated immediately beneath the wound alfo ferves
in general to relax the flcin. In tranfverfe wounds of mufcular
fibres, it is aftonifliing what immenfe effeft the obferva.ice
of a proper pofture produces. This is never to be neglefted,
whatever may be the other means adopted.

Bandages may frequently be made to contribute very
effentially to keeping the fides of wounds duly in contaft
with each other. This is ftrikingly illuftrated in cafes of
harelip, where we fee that the oppofite edges of the fiffure
may be brought forward fo as to touch, and be maintained
in this pofition by the fimple ufe of compreffes and a
bandage. Such was the mode of treatment preferred by
M. Louis after the operation for the harelip, and were it
not for the greater convenience and certainty of the twifted
future, it is the plan to which furgeons would yet have
recourfe. (See Harelip.) The uniting, or, as it was
formerly named, the incarnative bandage, is one which ope-
rates in keeping the oppofite furfaces of wounds accurately
applied to each other, fo that the opportunity may be
afforded for them to unite and grow together again. The
common uniting bandage can only be ufed in wounds
which take a direftion correfponding to the length of the
body or limbs, and which are fituated where a bandage can
be employed with convenience and effeft. It confifts of a
double-headed roller, having a flit betwreen the two heads.
The flit muft be fufficiently large to allow one head of the
roller to pafs through it with facility. The wound having
had the requifite dreffings put on it, the furgeon is to take
one head of the roller in each hand, and apply the bandage
to that part of the limb which is oppofite the wound.
One head of the roller is then to be brought round, fo as
to bring the flit over the br?;ich of continuity. The other

head

WOUNDS.

head is then to be brought round in the oppofite direaion, prove ineffeftual. In fuch inftances, the plafter ftiould be
and paffed through tlie (lit. The bandage is now to be very frefli, and its quality may be made rather more adhefive
drawn moderately tight, and its two heads being carried than in ordinary cafes. ■ ,. ^ . „ .

- '.". - -r- -.^u- .„j Adhefive platter is generally applied in drips, between

every two of which an interfpace is recommended, to be left,
for the purpofe of allowing any difcharge to efcape. To
bring the edges of the wound effeftuilly together, and at
the fame time to leave a little room for the exit of the dif-
charge, are the objefts to which we ought particularly

round the Hmb againT the fame artifice is to be repeated.
A fufficient number of turns of the roller muft be made to
cover the whole length of the limb.

When the wound is deep, it is recommended to place
fmall longitudinal comprefTes beneath the roller, at a httle
diftance from the edges of the wound. r r r

As the uniting bandage can only be made ufe ot tor
longitudinal wounds, which never have a confiderable ten-
dency to gape, nothing can be more abfurd than the appli-
cation of it with immoderate tightnefs. By fuch cruel and
injudicious pradice, many a limb and life have been loft ;
for, if the bandage be very tight on its firft application,
what a dangerous conftridion of the limb or part mult
follow, when the fwelling, necelTarily arifing from the
wound, has had time to come on. It is thus that infuf-
ferable pain, gangrene, and fphacelus, have frequently been
brought on, when, if the part had been fimply dreffed and
left unconfined, every thing would have gone on moft
favourably. It is right to ftate, however, that modern
furgeons are not partial to the uniting bandage, and we
freely declare our conviftion, that it is a means which may
▼ery well be difpenfcd with in praftice.

If it has any advantages, they confift in its having more
power than the adhefive plafter alone to maintain the
oppofite fides of deep wounds in contaft, and in its aifting
without the irritation frequently arifing from the application
of refinous fubftances to the lltin. It is not, however,
exempt from ferious inconveniences. Its total concealment
of the wound, its lying in irregular folds, fo as to create
an uneven cicatrix, and the preffure and conftriftion attend-
ing its ufe, &c. might be mentioned. { See Firft Lines of

to attend in the employment of adhefive plafter : hence, M
when the ftrips arc broad, it is not unfrequcnt to cut out an tI
oval piece of each ftrip juft where it crofFes the line of the
wound. Equal parts of the emplaftrum plumbi, and of the
emplaftrum refinx, form the compofition generally ufed in
this country for adhefive plafter. They are melted over a
flow fire and well mixed together, after which they are
fpread upon linen with a warm fpatula.

Sutures, or Stitches, are of feveral kinds, but the only
one which is now ufually employed in the cure of wounds is
the interrupted future. The quilled future is rarely ufed at
prefent, though it vi^as formerly much in favour, and is not
yet pafTed over by fyftematic writers. As a defeription of
thefe futures has been given in a feparate article (fee
Suture), we fhall not repeat the particulars of the manner
of making them. The twijled future is not infrequently
preferred for holding together the edges of cuts in the face,
where the parts are liable to be in almoft conftant motion,
and where the avoidance of the disfigurement of a large
fear is peculiarly defirable. This is the future which is
always employed in the cure of the Harelip, in which article
a defeription of it will be found. Thefe, and a future
called gaflroraphe, which will be noticed in fpeaking of
tvoundi of the abdomen, are all the kinds of futures which
are ever employed by modern praftitioners. The glover's

5.) So little is the uniting bandage future, or contiauedjlitcb, is now nearly rcjefted from prac-

have feen fome thoufands

Surgery, p. 68. edit

now employed, that although we

of wounds, we have not noticed its ufe in a fingle inftance

during the laft twelve or fifteen years. When prelfure can

be made to afiift the other drelTings, furgeons almoft always

refort to comprefl"es and a fimple roller. In a few particular

cafes, in which the limb would be too much difturbed

by the application and removal of a common roller, the

eighteen-tailed bandage is to be preferred. See Bandage,

and pRACTunE of the Thigh.

Adhefive plajler may be faid to be the moft common means

employed in the praftice of furgery for bringing the edges

of Vfounds together. When ufed for this purpofe, it was

fometimes technically called by the old furgeons the dry

future, in oppofition to futures ftriftly fo named, which are

ufually made with a needle, and are invariably attended with

a degree of bleeding. It was at one time fuppofed, that

adhefive plafter could be of no material ufe, except in

fuperficial wounds of the flcin. It is true, that adhefive

plafter has no direft efFeft in bringing together the fides

of a deep inufcular wound ; yet we ought to recolleft,

that by drawing the integuments over the deeper part of

the injury, it at once prevents the continuance of the ex-

pofed ftate of the cut furfaces, under which fuppuration

■would unavoidably follow. Nor does the ufe of adhefive

plafter hinder recourfe to other meafures more calculated to

bring the oppofite furfaces of the deeper part of the wound

into contaft, fuch as the obfervance of a proper pofition,

and the ufe of comprefies and a bandage. It is alfo an

error to fuppofe that adhefive plafter cannot be ufed in

fituations where hair grows, or where it will foon become

wet. If the part be well fhaved, and perfeftly dried at

firft, the application will not become loofe fo foon as to

tice, and confined to the fewing up of dead bodies ; a pur
pofe for which it is better adapted than for the union of any
wound in a living fubjeft.

On the fubjeft of the propriety and advantage of ufing
futures, as a means of keeping the fides of wounds in con-
taft, much diverfity of fentiment has prevailed. Some
furgeons, efpecially M. Pibrac and M. Louis, have urgently
recommended their entire diicontinuance ; and their obferv-
ations are accompanied by fafts which muft have confi-
derable weight. Their opinions and arguments, we acknow-
ledge, have conftantly influenced us in praftice; and if we
do not join in the fentiment, that futures ought to be en-
tirely abandoned, we at leaft believe that they are ftill a great
deal too much ufed. M. Pibrac and M. Louis, however,
are entitled to great praife for having leffened the employ-
ment of needles in furgery ; and though there are few
inftances in which the utihty of futures appears to be con-
firmed by experience, there are many others in which the
praftice is altogether unneceflary and injudicious. " The
praftice of ftitching," fays Dr. Thomfon, " is undoubtedly
much lefs followed at prefent than in any former period of
the furgical art ; and unlefs in fuperficial wounds, where we
wifii to heal by the firft intention, or in wounds where (as
in thofe of the abdomen) it is neceffary that the edges
ftiould not be allowed to feparate from each other, the ufe
of ftitches may be, in moft inftances, advantageoufly fuper-
feded by adhefive plafters and proper bandaging. It is by
limiting the ufe of futures, not by profcribing them alto-
gether, that the furgeon is likely to derive advantage from
the employment of means fo powerful." (See Leftures on
Inflammation, p. 287.) There are certainly hardly any two
furgeons who think exaftly ahke about the cafes' in which

futures

WOUNDS.

fntures are truly beneficial or not. Thus we do not admit
that they ought to be ufed as frequently as the remarks of
the above dilUnguidied profeflbr would warrant ; and the
majority of fuperficial wounds, in which union by the firft in-
tention is indicated, certainly, fo far from being benefited
by futures, would be injured. Further obfervations, how-
ever, on this fubjeft will be found in the article Suture.

When futures are judged necelTary, their operation is
always aflifted by the application of fuitable comprefles and
a bandage, the good effefls to be derived from pofition of
the part being alfo not neglefted. The flitches ought in
general to be removed between the third and feventh day ;
for if they are allowed to remain longer, or even in fome
cafes fo long, they excite inflammation, and fometimes
ulceration.

Such then are the means which furgeons adopt for keep-
ing the oppofite furfaces of wounds in contaft, until an
union has taken place. When the parts grow together
again without any fuppuration, the mode of cure, as we
have already explained, is well known to furgeons by the
term union by tbejirjl intention. Of the nature of this pro-
cefs, and of the way in which a conneftion is eftablifhed
again between the parts which have been divided, we have
endeavoured to give fome account in a preceding volume ;
we (hall not, therefore, expatiate on the fubjeft. See Union
by the Firjl Intention.

The firft plailers and dreflings applied with a view of
bringing about this defirable method of cure, (hould be
allowed to continue at leaft three or four days, unlefs any
untoward fymptoms, fuch as exceffive pain, the renewal of
hemorrhage, &c. indicate the contrary. The feverity of
the pain is fometimes owing to the future, fometimes to
:he immoderate tightnefs of the roller, and occafionally to
there being extraneous fubftances yet lodged in the wound.

When too much inflammation is apprehended, the band-
age fliould never be tight ; and wetting it with cold water
may be of ufe by keeping the parts cool. Perfeft quietude,
ind the ufual antiphlogiftic remedies, are alfo not to be
smitted. The old plan of covering the dreffings with thick
ivoollen rollers, caps, and large mafles of tow, has now
gone very much out of fafliion, as being inconfiftent with
;hofe principles which are recognized by every fcientific
urgeon as beft. calculated to avert and leffen inflammation.

When the firft dreflings are removed, the furgeon often
iinds union by the firft intention only accomphflied at certain
parts of the injury ; and the conneftion, even there, ftill
requires further fupport. However, when the wound is
irefled again, it is generally unnecefTary to apply as many
ilrips of adhefive plalter as were employed in the firft in-
tance. Their number may be gradually leflened at each
uture drefling. The futures, if there be any, fliould alfo
ae now withdrawn, as they will do no more good, and their
:ontinued prefence may excite irritation and do harm.
Suffice it to add, that throughout the fubfequent treatment
:he reft of the dreflings fliould be light, fimple, and un-
rritating.

Of the Cure of Wounds ly Granulations, isfc — We re-
marked, that wounds are healed by two proceffes, one of
ivhich was not attended with the formation of pus, was
:he quickeft and moft perfedl in its effefts, and was called
union by the firjl intention, or adhefion. The other procefs
Gow requires defcription. " When, in the treatment of
1 wound," fays profelfor Thomfon, " the re-union by adhe-
lon, or by the firft intention, has either not been attempted
at all, or, if attempted, has failed, nature brings about a
;ure by that flower and more complicated operation, which
we now denominate the procefs of granulation ; a procefs

Vol. XXXVIII.

termed (as we have already remarked) by Galen re-union by
the fecond intention. By many of the older furgeons, this
mode of healing wounds is defcribed by the appellation of
fyfarcofis, or concarnation, terms perhaps lefs liable to ob-
jeftion than that of granulation, which, in ftrift propriety,
is a term expreffive of only one of the ftages of this mode
of re-union, and which, of courfc, in order to avoid all
ambiguity in the language we employ, ought not to have
been ufed as a general term for the whole. In re-union by
the fecond intention, the edges of the wound fwell and
inflame more than in the procefs by adhefion ; but, as in
that procefs, fo in this, a layer of coagulable or organizable
lymph is thrown out upon the divided furfaces. This
layer is foon penetrated by blood- veflels, and, like the inter-
medium in adhefions, (fee Union by the Firjl Intention,)
becomes an organized and living fubftance. So far thefe
modes of re-union are fimilar ; but in a ftiort time after this
layer of coagulable lymph has been thrown out upon the
open and expofed furfaces of a wound, there is thrown out
alfo upon the fame furfaces a quantity of pus, or the matter
of fores. This fluid, like the coagulable lymph, is the
immediate produft of a change induced in the aftion of the
capillary veflels exifting in the divided fubftances of the
wound, a change by which they feem to become fecreting
inftead of circulating tubes. The aftion by which pus is
formed is now Aenomm3.ieA fuppuration : the old furgeons
gave to it the name of digejlion. See Suppuration.

" When the furfaces of the wound have been feverely
injured, or when the patient is of a bad habit of body, a
greater or lefs portion of thefe furfaces lofing its vitality,
feparates from the remaining found part, and comes away
in the form of a flough. The older furgeons, who are molt
minutely accurate in the defcriptions which they have
left us of difeafed appearances, call this the deterjion or
mundijication of the wound : the furgeons of the prefent
day, Jloughing, or the feparation of the Jlough. See the
article Gangrene.

" In the healthy conditions of the body, and when the
edges of the wound are uninjured, the fmooth furface of
the layer of coagulable lymph which covers the bottom of
the wound is, in the courfe of a few days after the fuppu-
ration has taken place, raifed into a number of fmall emi-
nences, like grains or papills. Thefe little eminences are
termed granulations, and their formation in the healing of
wounds, the procefs of granulation. By the older furgeons,
this ftep, in the procefs of re-union by the fecond intention,
was commonly termed incarnation, or concarnation, terms
expreffive of the formation of a portion of new flefti." See
Granulation.

" On the furfaces of thefe granulations, but moft fre-
quently on the edges of the wound next to the fl^in, fmail
white fpecks appear ; the quantity of pus which is fecreted
gradually diminiflies, and the blueifti-white fpecks, by con-
tinuing to increafe in number and fize, come at laft to cover
the furface of the wound. On examination, the furface of
the wound will now be found to be covered by a kind of
new flcin and cuticle. The formation of this new lliin has
long been denominated the procefs of cicatrization, and the
procefs of re-union by the fecond intention being now fully
accompliflied, the wound is faid to be completely cicatrized."
Thomfon's Leftures, p. 288.

The re-union of a wound by the firft intention is the
work of one, two, or three days ; while re-union by the
fecond intention always requires a period of feveral days, and
fometimes in difeafed conftitutions, or parts which have been
much injured, of months, or of years. Thomfon, p. 290.

As the fame well-informed writer remarks in another
4 Z place,

WOUNDS.

place, moa wounds admit of being healed partly by adhe-
fion, and partly by the procefs ofgranulation. We have
rery good examples of this in the wounds made in ampu-
tation of the extremities, and in the extirpation of the
mamma, or of other large tumours. We know, or at leaft
we have reafon in thefe inftances from the tirll to fuipeft,
that the whole of the wound will not heal by adheiion ; but
we are ignorant whether a large or a fmall portion will be
healed by that procefs ; and accordingly, we at firft pro-
ceed in the drefling of fuch wounds, as if we expected or
intended that the whole ihould heal by adhefion. We
bring the edges of the wound together by adhefive ftraps,
or Hitches, and fupport thefe by proper bandaging. The
adhefive llraps are of great ufe even in thofe wounds in
which it is impoffible to bring the edges at lirfl into contaft.
They bring and retain the edges near each other ; they
diminilh the fize of the wound ; they keep furfaces in con-
tad which have a difpofition to adhere ; and ultimately, by
the gradual elongation of the old fliin, even where the
diftances between the fizes is at firll confiderable, they
bring the feparated edges to unite together. Op. cit.
p. 293.

With refpeft, however, to the particular mode of drefs-
ing wounds which are to heal by granulations, it feems
unneceffary to enter into any long detail in the prefent
place ; becaufe the treatment is to be condufted on the
very fame principles which apply to fores, and which we
have fo fully explained in another article. See Ulcer.

We (hall conclude this feftion of the fubjeft of wounds
with a few ufeful rules, which profelTor Thomfon recom-
mends to be obferved in the drefling and examination of
thefe cafes.

In examining or drefling a wound, we ought never to
give the patient more pain from our modes of procedure,
or methods of drefling, than is abfolutely neceifary for his
prefent good and future fecurity. For inllance, we ought
never to probe a wound where probing can be of no ule ;
and we fhould be contented to remain ignorant of thofe
things, the knowledge of which could only gratify an idle
curiofity.

Another good rule is, to have all the frefli dreflings per-
feftly ready before the removal of thofe which have been
previoufly apphed. A fponge and warm water, adhefive
Itraps, pledgets of various ointments, lint, comprefles, and
bandages, are to be at hand, and not to be fought for at
the very moment when they are required for ufe.

As in many inftances the removal of the drefling?, and
the application of others, take up a coniiderable time, we
ought carefully to refleft what the pofition is which will
be raoft eafy to the patient, and at the fame time moft con-
venient to the furgeon.

When the bandage, adhefive plafter, and other dreflTings,
have become hard and dry< and glued together, and to the
furrounding (Icin by blood, or other difcharge from the
wound, the furgeon fhould foften and loofen the applications
by wetting them a fufBcient length of time with wai'm
water, which is to be prefled out of a fponge upon them,
a bafiu being held below the part for the reception of the
water as it falls off the drefiings. This duty is of much
importance in faving the patient from a great deal of
agony, which the abrupt removal of the adherent dreflings
•would produce.

In removing the dreflings which are under the bandage,
we muil be careful that the ligatures are not entangled, and
that we do not pull them forcibly away. Pulling at the
ligatures during the firft dreflings, as profelTor Thomfon
remarks, always occafions pain ; aod if, in removing the

9

dreflings, the threads be incautioufly torn ofl', a greater or
lefs degree of hemorrhage may be produced, and much
diftrefs, if not danger, occafioned. To avoid this accident,
therefore, we ought always to fearch for the ligatures pre-
vious to the removal of the dreflings, and to feparate them
from thefe dreflings when they adhere, as they moil fre- j|
quently do. ^

Having formed and feparated the ligatures, we muft next
proceed to remove the adhefive ftraps by which the edges
of the wound are more immediately kept in contaft. It
moftly happens, that a greater or lefs portion of thefe ftraps
is loolened from the furface of the wound by the fluid
which exudes from it. This is the part, therefore, from
which ( fays Dr. Thomfon ) we Ihould firll proceed to fepa-
rate thefe llraps, becaufe it is here that the edges of the
wound may be fuppofed to recede fartheil from each other,
an^ the pus to have found the freeft exit. But the manner
in which the remaining adhering portion of ftrap is to be
feparated, is not, as may firft appear, a matter of indifference.
There is but one way in which it can be properly taken off,
though it is one which is often neglected in praAice. In
removing thefe ftraps, we are always to lay hold of them
by the ends, firft by the one, and then by the other end,
and to pull them off in the direfticn of the wound, taking
care never to raife the end of the ftrap much above the
level of the Ikin, nor to continue to pull by the end we
hold, after we have feparated it as far as the wound. Were
the ftraps pulled off in a diredlion from and not towards
the wound, the edges of the injury to which they adhere
would be drawn away from each other ; the flight adhe-
fions which have formed between one fide of the wound and
the other would be torn, and the procefs of re-union dif-
turbed and retarded. If we raife the end of the ftrap, we
alfo tear the edge of the wound from the fubjacent parts
to which it adheres.

Another good piece of advice given by profeffor Thomfon
is, that only one adhefive ftrap, or at moft two, fhould be
removed at once ; and the part from which it has been re-
moved being carefully wiped with the fponge, and dried
with a foft Unen cloth, a frefli ftrap is always to be applied
before another is removed. It is from inattention to this
rule that we fee the furfaces of wounds and fores daily torn
open at each drefling, merely by the weight of the parts
which havejuft been united.

The edges of the wound, particularly if it be a large one,
fhould always be held together by an afliftant during the
time of dreffing.

When there are feveral wounds, only one is to be opened
and drefTed at a time, fo that all unneceffary expofure of
the parts may be avoided.

At each drefling care muft be taken to prevent lodgments
of matter, by placing the comprefl^es and ftraps of plafter
in the manner beft adapted to prefs upon and obhterate any
cavity in which the pus has a tendency to accumulate.

A pledget of fome raild cerate or ointment is ufually
applied ove» the adhefive plafter, and its fize fhould exceed
that of the wound. It is preferable to dry lint, which be-
comes adherent, troublefome to remove, and often conceals
and fticks to the ligatures. If lint be necelTary, it may be
employed over the pledget. Modern furgeons, however,
are far more fparing of thick mafFes of lint, low, flannel-
rollers, &c. than their predecefFors, as we have previoufly
explained.

On the fubjeA of bandages we fhall here add nothing to
what has been already ftated in the foregoing feftion of this
article.

In the drefSng of wounds, fays Dr. Thomfon, particu-
larly

WOUNDS.

larly in hofpital praftice, where frequent change of linen is
not at all times obtainable, it is of great confcquencc to the
comfort of the patient, and to the general health and welfare
of the other patients, that every attention (hould be paid to
cleanlinefs, and that every thing filthy and offenfive ihould
be removed from the room or ward as quickly as poflible.
Above all things, care muft be taken not to let the matter
touch the bed-clothes.

The frequency of drcfling muft be regulated by the
■quantity and quality of the difcharge from the wound, by
the fituation of the injury, by the climate and feafon of the
year, by the effedts which the renewal of the drefiings
feems to produce, and by the feelings, and fometimes the
wi/hes of the patient.

During the long-continued difcharge of pus from many
wounds, the ftrength of the patient muft be fupported,
and granulation and cicatrization promoted by nourifliing
diet and proper cordials. The moll difagreeable, and un-
fortunately not an unfrequent termination of large wounds,
is the formation of unhealthy granulations, attended with
a general wafting of the body and heftic fever. See
Thomfon's Leftures on Inflammation, p. 294, &c.

Of punHured Wounds, or Stabs. — Punftured wounds are
rot only dangerous on account of their frequently extending
to a confiderable depth, and injuring important blood-veflels,
nerves, and vifcera, but they are alfo dangerous, inafmuch
as they often give rife to violent and extenfive degrees of
inflammation. It is not uncommon to fee formidable col-
leAions of matter follow wounds of this defcription, efpe-
cially when the inftrument with which they have been
made has penetrated any aponeurofis, or fafcia. Stabs and
all other punftures are not fimple divifions of the fibres of
the body ; they are attended with more or lefs contufion and
laceration, according to the particular form of the weapon,
and the degree of violence with which tlie thruft has been
made. Hence there is not the fame propenfity to union by
the firft intention, which we obferve in wounds made with
fliarp-edged inftruments ; and when ligamentous expanfions
are amongft the parts injured, it is not uncommon to fee
a train of fevere local and conftitutional fymptoms follow.
Immcnfe agitation of the nervous fyftem fometimes enfues
upon the inflidlion of a punftured wound ; and it has been
generally attributed to the injury of tendons or nerves.
This doftrine, however, is now almoft quite exploded, as
furgeons fo frequently fee nerves and tendons wounded,
without the occurrence of great conftitutional diforder.
The truth is, that alarming nervous fymptoms do not follow
punftured wounds in perhaps more than five cafes out of
a hundred, in which tendons and nerves of fome fize are
aftually injured. It cannot, therefore, be fo much the in-
jury of thefe parts, as other circumftances attending ttabs,
which are the caufe of the fevere indifpofition fometimes fud-
denly induced by fuch wounds. When they extend deeply,
the confequences of the injury of large blood-vefTels and
vifcera will often account for the great conftitutional dif-
order, without having any recourfe to doftrines like the
foregoing.

Punftured wounds are frequently followed by the form-
ation of deeply-feated abfcefles and finufes, and hence the
cure is often difficult, and fometimes it cannot be effefted
till after a confiderable time.

With refpeft to the treatment of punftured wounds, we
may obferve, that in this part of praftice erroneous fup-
pofitions have commonly led to many ferious abufes. The
unqualified idea, that the fevere confequences of moft punc-
tured wounds are, in a great meafure, owing to the narrow-
nefs of their orifices, has induced numerous furgeons to

praftife indifcnminately deep and extenfive incifions, for
the purpofe of rendering their external communication con-
fiderably wider. To have conftantly in view the converfion
of fucli injuries into fimple incited wounds has always been
a maxim ftrongly infifted upon, and fct forth as the reafon
of the above method of treatment. The doftrine even
occafioned the frequent dilatation of punftured wounds by
the ftill more abfurd and cruel means, the employment of
tents.

Certainly, if the notion were true, that an important punc-
tured wound, fuch as the ftab of a bayonet, is aftually
changed into a wound partaking of the mild nature of an
incifion, by the mere enlargement of its orifice, the cor-
refponding praftice would be highly commendable, however
painful it might be. But the faft is other^vife : the rough
violence done to the fibres of the body by the generality of
ftabs is little hkely to be fuddcnly removed by an addi-
tional violence — the enlargement of the wound. Nor can
the diftance to which a punftured wound frequently
penetrates, and the number and nature of the parts injured
by it, be at all altered by fuch a proceeding. Thefe,
which are the grand caufes of the coUeftions of matter
which often take place in the cafes under confideration,
muft exift, whether the mouth and canal of the wound be
enlarged or not. The time when incifions are proper is,
when there are foreign bodies to be removed, abfcefles to
be opened, or finufes to be divided. To make painful
incifions fooner than they can anfwer any end is both
injudicious and hurtful. They are fometimes rendered
quite unneceffary by the union of the wound throughout
its whole extent, without the leaft fuppuration.

It is true, as is obferved in a modern publication, that
miking a free incifion in the early ftage of thefe cafes
feems a reafonable method of preventing the formation of
finufes, by preventing the confinement of matter ; and
were finufes an inevitable confequence of all punftured
wounds, for which no incifions are praftifed at the moment
of their occurrence, it would undoubtedly be unpardonable
to omit them. Fair, however, as this reafon for the ufe
of the knife may appear to fome praftitioners, it is only
fuperficially plaufible, and a very little refleftion foon
detefts its want of real folidity. Under what circum-
ftances do finufes form ? Do they not form only when
there is fome caufe exifting to prevent the healinof of an
abicefs i This caufe may either be the indireft way in
which the abfcefs communicates externally, fo that the pus
does not readily efcape ; or it may be the prefence of fome
foreign body, or dead portion of bone ; or, laftly, it may
be an indifpofition of the inner furface of the abfcefs to
form granulations arifing from its long duration, but re-
moveable by laying open the cavity. Thus it becomes
manifeft, that the occurrence of fuppuration in punftured
wounds is only followed by finufes, when the furgeon ne-
glefts to procure a free ifl"ue for the matter after its accumula-
tion, or when he neglefts to remove any extraneous bodies.
But as dilating the wound at firft can only tend to augment
the inflammation, and render the fuppuration more extenfive ;
and as likewife the new incifion may heal up by the firft
intention before it has anfwered any purpofe at all ; the
praftice fliould never be adopted in thefe cafes, except for
the direft objefts of giving a free exit to matter already
collefted, and of being able to remove extraneous bodies
palpably lodged in the part. We ftiall once more repeat,
that it is an erroneous idea to fuppofethe narrownefs of punc-
tured wounds fo principal a caufe of the bad fymptoms
with which they are often attended, that the treatment
ought invariably to aim at its removal.

4 Z 2 Recent

WOUNDS.

Recent puuftured wounds have abfurdly had the fame
plan of treatment applied to them as old and callous fiftuls.
Setons and ftimulating injeftions, which in the latter cafe
fometimes aft beneficially, by exciting fuch inflammation as
isproduftive of the effufion of coagulating lymph, and of
the granulating procefs, can never prove ferviceable when the
indication is to moderate an inflammation which is difpofed
to rife too high. The counter-opening, which mufl: be formed
in adopting the ufe of the feton, is alfo an objedion ; and
though French authors have given us accounts of their
having drawn their fetons acrofs patients' chefts, in cafes ot
ftabs, they will find fome difficulty in making the praftice
feem unattended with harm, much lefs produftive of good.
The candid and judicious furgical reader ftiould not always
think a plan of treatment right becaufe the patient gets well ;
for there is an eflential difference between a cure promoted
by really ufeful means and an efcape, notwithftanding the
employment of hurtful ones.

For our own part, we cannot fee what good can ever pof-
fibly arife from the ufe of fetons in cafes of punctured
wounds. Will a feton promote the difcharge of foreign
bodies, if any happen to be prcfent ? By occupying the
external openings of the wound, will it not be more likely
to prevent it ? In fad, will it not itfelf aft with all the in-
conveniences and irritation of an extraneous fubftaiice in the
wound ? Befides, let it be recollefted, that punftured
wounds are rarely accompanied with the lodgment of foreign
bodies. Is a feton a likely means of diminifliing the immo-
derate pain, fwelling, and extenfive fuppuration fo often
attending punftured wounds ? It will undoubtedly prevent
the external openings from healing too foon ; but cannot
this objeft be effefted in a better way ? In mod inftances
where much matter is collected, and where the fuppuration
is likely to laft a long while, in confequence of exfoliations,
there will be no chance of the finus heahng up prematurely ;
and if fuch riflf fliould appear probable, it is always eafy to
maintain an external opening by the daily introduftion of a
probe into the finus, and a fmall doflil of lint into its orifice.
See Firfl; Lines of Surgery, edit. 3. chap. xvi.

When a furgeon is called to a punftured wound or ftab,
he may often form fome opinion refpefting the depth and na-
ture of the injury by examining the weapon with which it
was done, and obferving how far the blood reaches along the
blade from the point, and by attending to the quantity and
quality of the fluids which may ilfue from the external open-
ing. Thus, the efcape of chyle or feces will denote that the
bowels are injured ; the effufion of urine will indicate that
the bladder or fome part of the urinary organs is wounded ;
and the flow of much arterial blood will prove that a confi-
derable artery is opened. Wounds of the lungs will alfo
be attended with particular fymptoms, as we fhall notice in
fpeaking of wounds of the chefl:. In many inftances, how-
ever, important vifcera and large deep-feated arteries are in-
jured by ftabs, and yet no information can at firft be de-
duced refpefting what has happened from attention to local
fymptoms alone. The faintnefs and great fudden proftra-
tion of ftrength, the faultering. low, and intermitting
pulfe, the vomiting or coughing up of blood, and the
eoldnefs of the extremities, however, are ftill fufficient evi-
dence that the cafe is complicated with injury of important
organs, and that the patient is in a ftate of urgent danger.
Thefe are matters which will be beft underftood when we
come to the confideration of wounds of the cheft and belly,
and therefore we (hall not dwell upon them at prefent.

From what has been already ftated, the reader muft be
aware that we do not follow the bulk of furgical writers in
recommending the indifcriminate dilatation of the orifices of

punftured wounds ; nor do we admit the propriety of ufing
the knife for the purpofe of preventing mifchief only ex-
pefted and apprehended, but not aftually exifting. When-
ever we have had an opportunity of attending bayonet or other
punftured wounds, unattended with any particular compli-
cation, we have always obferved nearly the fame principles
as are now fo generally approved of in cafes of gun-fliot
wounds. We have abftained from dilating the orifice of the
injury, except when it was neceflary either to get at a bleed-
ing artery in the firft inftance, or to give a freer egrefs to the
difcharge in a later ftage of the cafe. We have given the pre-
ference to mild, fimple, unirritating, and fuperficial dreffings.
We have not placed much faith in the utihty of enveloping
the parts in a tight bandage ; but, after applying the firft
fuperficial dreffings, have ufually covered the limb with linen,
wet with the lotio plumbi acetatis, or cold water. When-
ever a roller was ufed, it was not with a view of making
preflure, but of retaining the dreffings. The wound having
been drefled, we have then ufually put in praftice all fuch
means as are generally deemed moft efficient in preventing
and diminifhing inflammation ; fuch as venefeftion, the exhi-
bition of aperient and fahne medicines, low diet, &c. When
the pain was very fevere in the beginning, we have prefcribed
opiates, and on the accefs of much fwelling, have always
been careful to let the bandage be flack. We believe that,
on the whole, the apphcation of fuperficial dreffings and
cold waflies is moftly the beft praftice for the firft twenty-
four hours after the receipt of a punftured wound. But if
after this period the pain fliouId appear to incr>-afe, and the
fwelling to become more and more confiderable, the furgeon
may then remove the bandages, and apply from fix to a
dozen leeches to the neighbourhood of the wound. He
muft alfo fubftitute for the cold lotion the ufe of foment-
ations, and emollient poultices, under which is to be laid
over the orifice of the wound a fmall pledget of fpermaceti
cerate, or other fimple ointment. The poultices and fo-
mentations are to be renewed morning and evening, and tlie
leeches may be repeated, if neceflary, three or four times.

By purfuing this antiphlogiftic fort of treatment, fuppu-
ration may be fometimes entirely prevented, and the form-
ation of large deep abfceffes frequently averted. Should ex-
tenfive colleftions of matter, however, take place, proper
openings are to be then made without delay, either by di-
lating the original wound, or by making one or more inci-
fions in other places, as may feem moft advantageous. The
cafe, in faft, is then to be treated upon the very fame prin-
ciples which are obferved in the management of abfcefles in
general.

Of contufed and lacerated Wounds. — The inftruir.ents which
have the eff^eft of producing what is termed a eontufion, are
either of an ordinary defcription, fuch as a cudgel, a ftone,
&c. or they confift of balls, bullets, and other metallic bodies,
which are impelled into the flefli with immenfe velocity by
theexplofion of gunpowder. The latter occafion particular
kinds of injury, well known by the name oi gun-Jhot ivounds,
which are a clafs of cafes fo highly interefting, that although
they are ftriftly only examples of feverely contufed wounds,
furgeons have always found it expedient to treat of them as
dittinft and pecuhar cafes. Indeed, when it is recoUefted
how many difficult, intricate, and momentous queftions the
fubjeft of gun-(hot wounds embraces, the neceffity of con-
fidering it by itfelf is immediately manifeft.

The blunt weapons, or obtufe hard fubftances, which,
being applied with violence to any part of the living body,
bruife, rupture, and other ivife hurt the fibres and veflTels,
may produce two different fpecies of injury. Firft, they
may more or lefs forcibly comprefs and crufti the parts

upon

WOUNDS.

ipon which they aft, fo as to diforder llic texture of thofe
Tgans which are iituated under the inleguments, without,
lowever, caufing any breacli of continuity in the flcin itfelf.
This is the cafe which is ufually called a hruife, or contujion.
iecondly, afting with a certain degree of violence upon the
ame parts, they may produce a folution of continuity which
5 named a contufed wound. The latter effeft more commonly
oUows when the furface of the contufing weapon or body
s not very broad. The cafes which rank as fimple bruifes
lave been defcribed in another volume of this publication,
feeCoNTUsioN, ) and therefore we ihall not detain the reader
vith any obfervations upon them in the prefent place.

The majority of wounds are attended with fome degree of
■ontufion. Thofe which are inflifted by the blunt edge of
. fabre, or by the obtufe point of a bayonet or foil, arc as
inuch contufed wounds as they are punftured ones ; and
lence, like other contufed wounds, they do not often admit
)f. being united by the firft intention.
I'l It muft be confeffed, indeed, that moft of the endeavours
• ;o re-unite the fides of a contufed wound, however llvilfully
lirefted, generally fail. An agglutination of the parts at
jnoft only takes place at the bottom of the wound, in which
ituation the fleih has fuffered lefs contufion, the violence
laving fpent itfelf, as it were, upon thofe parts upon which
t firft operated : hence fuppuration of the external por-
;ion of the wound is moftly unavoidable. Still the attempt
(It re-miion ought to be made ; for if only the bottom of the
Ivound (liQuld heal by the firft intention, it will be a great ad-
vantage gained, more efpecially when the furface of a bone
,ias been expofed and uncovered by the injury. However,
:.n bringing the fides of contufed wounds nearer together, the
turgeon is not to attempt to do it with the fame clofenefs and
accuracy as in the inftance of an incifed wound. The injured
parts would not bear the prefl'ure, and the means requifite for
this purpofe ; and it may be laid down as an eftabliflied rule
Ithat nothing is more hurtful in cafes of contufed wounds than
jmuch preflure, either from ftrips of adhefive plafter, or a
tight roller. Sutures in thefe cafes are alfo totally unjufti-
ifiable ; and we think we have feen feveral examples, in which
a ralh determination of the furgeon to clofe large contufed
'wounds by ftitches, tight ftrips of plafter, and bandages,
has had no iuconfiderable fhare in bringing on the rapid and
fatal gangrene which carried oft" the patients. Wiien we
ifay, therefore, that a contufed wound ought to be clofed,
'and that its oppofite fnrfaces (hould be brought nearer to
'each other, in order that the chance of fome part of the injury
.uniting by the firft intention may be taken, we do not mean
to recommend dragging the parts together by main force, or
;placing them in a ftate of conftriftion. On the contrary,
'we think that they ought to be left quite unconfined, the
ladhelive plafter being ufed very fparingly, with confiderable
fpaces between the ftrips, and fo put on as rather to hold
I the loofe parts together than to prefs and draw them into
icontaft with each other. The wound then is not to be en-
tirely covered with fticking-plafter, a praftice which is hurt-
|ful even in incifed wounds, but merely a ftrip applied at par-
!ticular points, where the application promifes to have great
;effeft in hindering the wound from gaping, without pro-
ducing any dangerous conftriftion of the parts. That a
I ftrip of adhefive plafter may frequently be ufed with ftriking
(advantage in contufed and lacerated wounds experience daily
! proves ; and the benefit muft not furprife us, when we re-
I member that by preventing the wound from gaping in the
. manner it would otherwife do, we not only afford an oppor-
j tunity for parts of it to re-unite, but at once diminifti an in-
; evitable caufe of inflammation and fuppuration, viz. the
; expofurc of a large raw furface to the air.

Contufed and laccr.itcd wounds not only differ from in-
cifed wounds in the circumftance of their being more dif-
pofed to fuppurate, and more difficult to heal by the firft;
intention, they differ alfo in the particularity of not bleed-
ing much, fometimes even when the largeft arteries are
lacerated, as muft be the cafe when whole hmbs are tora
away, in confequence of becoming entangled in diff^erent
kinds of machinery.

This indifpofition to hemorrhage is not altogether a favom--
able omen, becaufe though the patient runs lefs chance of
bleeding to death in thefe cafes than in cut wounds, yet the
very circumftance of the Large veflels not pouring out blood
evinces that the violence, contufion, and other injury done to
the parts, in addition to the mere divifion of them, muft
have been exceflively fevere, and that the dangers of the
fubfequent inflammation, fuppuration, and tloughing of the
parts, more than counterbalance the prefent fecurity from
bleeding.

We thallnot find, in all the records of furgery, any fafts
more extraordinary than thofe which have been publifhed at
diffex-ent periods on the fubjeft of whole hmbs being torn
away, not only without hemorrhage, but without any other
fatal effefts. The cafes of limbs torn oft" related by Che-
felden, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, by La Motte, in^
his Traite des Accouchemens, by Mr. Carmichael, in the
fifth volume of the Ediub. Med. Commentaries, and others in
the fecond volume of the Mem. del' Acad, de Chirurgie, are
fome of the moil remarkable.

As far as our obfervations extend, all lacerated and con-
tufed wounds fhould be treated according to common anti-
phlogiftic principles. When the injury is extenfive, and
attended with a great deal of contufion, venefeftiion is to be
praftifed, and the oozing of blood from the furface of the
wound may be encouraged by the ufe of fomentations. With
refpcft to dreffings, they ftiould always be of a mild un-
irritating quality. After lelfening, by a ftrip or two of
adhefive plafter, the expofed cavity of the wound, when this is
large and the furrounding ilcin loofe, the part may be covered
with pledgets of the unguentum cerx, over which fhould be
laid an emollient poultice. As the firft dreffings ftiould not be
removed for at leaft 24 or 36 hours, care ought to be taken
to put into the poultice a fufficient quantity of fweet oil, to
prevent it from becoming foon hard. Afterwards, how-
ever, the dreffmgs may be changed once, twice, and even
thrice a day, in bad cafes, with advantage ; for as foon as
the Houghs begin to feparate, and fuppuration to take
place, the neceffity for changing the dreffings and poultices
more frequently is felf-evident. In fevere cafes, foment-
ations may be ufed at the periods of dreffing ; and it will
be found that nothing is fo effeftual in relieving the pain
arifing from the inflammation which has been induced.
The employment of leeches alfo fliould not be forgotten,
as a valuable means of palliating the inflammatory fymp-
toms. Profeffor Afalini, of Milan, has lately written
ftrongly in praife of the good effefts which are produced
by the apphcation of cold waflies to parts which have re-
ceived contufed wounds (fee his Manuale di Chirurgia) ;
and we believe the plan is particularly ufeful in the firft in-
ftance, when it is a great objeft to check the increafe of
extravafated fluids in the furrounding parts. But after-
wards we think emollient applications are the beft ; anil,
indeed, it may be queftioned, whether the employment of
cold lotions at firft would not fometimes be objeftionable, in-
afmuch as they muft tend to flop the oozing of blood from the
furface of the wound ; a thing whicii is confidered by many
furgeons extremely beneficial, and an objeft which they
think ought to be promoted even by the ufe of foment-
ations.

WOUNDS.

ations. This is a point, however, which comparative and
unprejudiced experience is alone capable, of deciding. If, in
cafes of lacerated and contufed wounds, the furgeon is lefs
frequently, than in incifed wounds, called upon to take
meafurcs for flopping bleeding immediately after the acci-
dent, he finds greater occafioii for attending to another im-
portant duty, impofed upon him in his profefTional attend-
ance upon wounded perfons in general : we allude to the
early removal of all foreign bodies and extraneous fub-
ftances from the wound. Cuts are ufually made with
clean fharp inftruments ; but contufed and lacerated
wounds often occur in a manner which renders them par-
ticularly likely to contain dirt, gravel, bits of glafs, porce-
lain &c. We have feen one cafe in which the patient
could not ufe his arm for a twelvemonth, in confequence of
fome fragments of a broken bottle not having been taken
out of a wound of the hand in the firfl; inftance. The
wound did indeed heal up ; but the pieces of glafs oc-
cafioned fo much pain and inconvenience, that the part
could not be ufed. New incifions were unfuccefsfully
made for their removal, and the fingers were becoming per-
manently bent and contrafted when we laft faw the patient.
Whether the foreign bodies have been fubfequently ex-
trafted we know not ; but the cafe deeply imprefled us
with the importance of always removing extraneous fub-
fiances while a wound is frefh, and bell admits of the requi-
fite examination.

With regard to lacerated wounds, the fame praAical
remarks apply to them which have been offered on the fub-
jeft of contufed wounds ; but the prognofis is generally
confidered as more unfavourable, and in warm cUmates
tetanus is alleged to be a very frequent confequence of
thefe injuries. See Tetanus.

The bites of rabid animals afford examples of a mofl
dangerous defcription of lacerated and contufed wounds, the
peril, however, originating not from the mechanical injury
itfelf, but from the cafe being complicated with the infer-
tion intp the wounded part of a poifon or virus, the effefts
of which, when they do occur, almofl bid defiance to the
power of the medical art. See Hydrophobia.

As foon as the furface of a contufed or lacerated wound
has thrown off its floughs, fuppurated, became clean, and
evinced a tendency to form granulations, the poultices are
to be difcontinued, and fimple dreffings employed. Thefe
are afterwards to have their quality altered, according to
the appearances which the fore may afTume ; but any fur-
ther direftions refpefting the management of the cafe, after
it has arrived at this flage, mufl be quite fu peril uous
here, as ample inflruftions will be found in the article
Ulcer.

Some contufed and lacerated wounds would inevitably
be followed by the rapid mortification of the limb, and the
patient run the greatefl rifle of lofing his life, were amputa-
tion not to be performed immediately after the receipt of
the injury. Thefe are generally examples in which the
foft parts are extenfively and deeply wounded, and large
blood-veffels and nerves alfo injured. The fize, however,
of the wound feems of itfelf fometimes to be a caufe of
gangrene ; for we remember a brewer's fervant, who, when
fitting on the fore-part of a dray-cart, met with an injury,
by which the fliin covering the front of the tibia was torn
from the knee to the ankle, and though no other mifchief
appeared to have been received, the whole limb and even the
fcrotum rapidly mortified, and the man loH his life. It
fhould be known, that thefe are cafes of what M. Larrey
calls traumatic gangrene, in which he and fome other
modern furgeons conceive that amputation may often be

done with fuccefs, though the mortification has not ceafed to |
fpread at the time of the operation. (See Surgery.)
This praftice had alfo its advocates in former days ; but '
fince the time of Mr. S. Sharp and Mr. Pott, the rule of !
never attempting amputation before a line of feparation has !
formed between the dead and living parts, has been acknow- '
ledged, taught, and refpefted, in every fchool of furgery. I
For an account of the treatment of contufed and lacerated '
wounds which have ended in mortification, the reader mufl
turn to the article Gangrene.

Of Gun-Jhot IVounds Striftly thefe cafes ought, per-
haps, to be clafTed with other wounds, attended with much .
contufion and laceration of the parts ; but the injuries i
which are received in modern warfare from the employment ■
of fire-arms are fo numerous, complicated, and various, ;
that the fubjeft undoubtedly merits feparate confideration. '
A general defcription of thefe accidents, and of the method j
of treatment, will be found under the head of Gun-shot
Wounds. Since that article was written, however, fo much ',
valuable information has been laid before the public by '
feveral diftinguifhed army and navy furgeons, that it be- j
comes neceffary for us to avail ourfelves of the prefent op- |
portunity to notice fome praftical points of the firfl-rate ';
importance in military furgery. I

Amongft the obfervations on the fubjeft of Gun-Jhot '
IVounds in a former volume, the reader will find a flatement
of fome of the fentiments which were entertained by the
late Mr. Hunter concerning the treatment of thefe injuries. '
It will there be found, that this celebrated furgeon, as well
as a few other eminent praftitioners, was far from being an
advocate for immediate amputation, even in cafes in which
he acknowledged that there was no poffibility of ultimately
faving the injured limb. It was his opinion, that more pa-
tients died when the operation was done early, than when •
it was performed in a later flage, after inflammation had
fubfided, and fuppuration had been fairly eftabhfhed.
Such precepts, however, do not coincide with the refults of |
modern experience ; and, as in numerous inftances, the deci- '
fion for amputation or for delay involves the queflion of
life or death, we think that every opportunity ought to be
taken of refuting this part of Mr. Hunter's writings.

According to the united obfervations of all well-informed
experienced army furgeons, it may now be fet down as an
eflablifhed rule in military furgery, that in every cafe in
which a limb is fo Jhattered and injured, that no probability of
its being finally faved prefents itfelf, amputation ought to be done
at once, 'without any delay. For nearly the lall two hundred
years, there have always been fome men of talents and expe-
rience, who not only recommended, but aftually adopted
this judicious praftice. Du Chefne, who wrote in 1625,
advifes the performance of amputation in cafes of fevere
injuries of the limbs ; and it is worthy of remark, that he
direSs the operation to be performed before inflammation and
other conjlitutional fymptoms ha-vefupervened, ( See Traite de
la Cure generale et particuhere des Arcbufades, Paris, 1 625,
p. 143.) Wifeman, the father of Englifh furgery, not
only recommended and praftifed immediate amputation,
but the fame thing was not unfrequently done by the mih-
tary furgeons of his time. (Chirurgical Treatifes by R.
Wifeman, 3d edit. London, 1696, p. 410. ) The cele-
brated Le Dran, in his excellent little manual of military
furgery, declared himfelf an advocate for immediate amputa-
tion in all cafes in which that operation from the firft ap-
pears to be indifpenfable. ( See Traite ou Reflexions tirees
de la Pratique fur les Plaies d'Armes "a feu, Paris, 1737.)
Ranby, who was ferjcant-furgeon to king George II., en-
tertained opinions fimilar to thofe of Le Dran, with regard

to

WOUNDS.

to the advantages and rieceflity of immediate amputation,
•wrhenever the injury is fuch as to remove all reafonable hope
of ultimately faving the limb. See Ranby's Method of
treating Gun-lhot Wounds, edit. 3. p. 29. London,
'1781.

The following account of this interefting fubjeft is prin-
cipally abftradted from the third edition of Cooper's Dic-
tionary of Praftical Surgery, publifhed in the year 18 18 : —
After the battle of Fontenoy, in the year 1756, the Royal
Academy of Surgery in France offered a prize for the bed
diflertation on the gun-fhot injuries requiring immediate am-
putation, and on other cafes of the fame nature, where the
operation, thougli deemed inevitable, might be delayed. The
prize was adjudged to the differtation of M. Faure, the main
Dbjeft of vvhofe paper was to recommend delaying the oper-
ition. The fide of the queilion efpoufed by M. Faure has
'found fome modern advocates of dillinguiihed talents and
celebrity. Suffice it to mention the names of Hunter,
baron Percy, and Lombard. It is, however, only juftice
to M. Faure to Itate in this place, that though he re-
a;arded immediate amputation as full of danger, he admitted
that there were feveral kinds of injuries of the extremities
:in which it was indifpenfably and immediately required.
" The enumeration," fays Dr. Thomfon, "which this author
lias given of thefe injuries is more full and dillintt than any
which had been publiflied before his time ; and, what may
ippear fingular, it does not differ in any effential refpeB from
the enumerations given by later writers, who in combating his
lopinions have reprefented him as an enemy to amputation
;in almoll all injuries of the extremities." See Report of
jObfervations made in the Military Hofpitals in Belgium,
p. 169.

Although in France the academy of furgery thought
proper to decree the prize to M. Faure, whofe doftrine
thus received the higheft approbation, yet in that country
very oppofite tenets were fet up by fome men of diftin-
iguifhed talents and extenfive military praftice. Thus Le
Dran, confulting furgeon to the French army, in his work
on gun-fhot wounds, publifhed in 1737, exprelsly ftates,
;" that when the amputation of a limb is indifpenfably ne-
cefFary in the cafe of a gun-lhot wound, it ought to be done
without delay." {Aphorifm9.) M. La Martini^re, in
iparticnlar, wrote fome excellent arguments in reply to M.
jBilguer ; arguments which would do honour to the moll
laccompliflied furgeon of the age in which we live. (See
;Memoire fur le traitement des plaies d'armes a feu, in Mem.
de I'Acad. de Chirurgie, torn. xi. p. i. edit, in i2mo.)
M. Boucher, of Lille, was an advocate for the fame fide of
the queilion. ( See Obf. fur des plaies d'armes a feu, &c.
a Mem. de I'Acadr de Chirurgie, torn. v. p. 279, &c. edit.
;n i2mo. ) Sciimncker, who was many years furgeon-
general to the Prufiian armies, publiflied in 1776 an elfay
on amputation, in which he particularly mentions, that
during his ftay at Paris in 1738, the furgeons of the Hotel-
Dieu had been in the habit of performing immediate ampu-
tation in fevere injuries of the extremities. He alfo declares
him/elf an advocate for operating immediately, in all cafes in
•which amputation from the frjl appears to be neceffary, and
inlitts, in a particular manner, on the increafed danger which
he had feen arife from the operation during the fecond
period. He gives, as Dr. J. Tliomfon has obferved, a
minute and circumilantial enumeration of thofe injuries,
both of the upper and lower extremities, in which he con-
ceived amputation to be neceffary, and in many of which he
had aftually performed it with great fuccefs. Schmucker
appears to Dr. Thomfon to have given a better account
than any preceding military furgeon 0/ the injuries of the

thigh ; and from the rcfults of his experience, he was led
to beheve, ih^it though compound fraflures of the lower part of
the thigh-bone might, in favourable circumjlances, be cured with-
out amputation, yet that this operation is peculiarly neceffary in all
cafes in which the fradure isfitualed in or above the middle of
that bone. ( See Unterfuchung fiber die Abnehmung der
Glieder von J. L. Schmucker. Vermifchte Chirurgifche
Schriften, band i. Berlin, 1785. ) With the foregoing high
authority we have to join one of not lefs celebrity, namely,
that of M. Larrey, who has proved moll convincingly, that
when amputation is to be done in cafes of gun-fhot wounds,
nothing is fo pernicious as delay. See Memoires de Chi-
rurgie Militaire, tom. ii. p. 451, &c.

The principles inculcated by M. Larrey are, in point of
faft, the fame as thofe which were fo ftrenuoufly infilled
upon by Mr. Pott, in his remarks on amputation. Mr. Pott,
indeed, was not an army furgeon, and what he fays was not
particularly deligned to apply to military praftice, but he
has reprefented, as well as any body can do, the propriety
of immediate amputation for injuries, which leave no doubt
that fuch operation cannot be difpenfed with.

Mr. John Bell, amongll the moderns, alfo defended the
propriety of early amputation, long before the fentiments
of later writers were ever heard of; He dillindlly ftates,
that " amputation Ihould, in thofe cafes where the limb is
plainly and irrecoverably difordered, be performed upon the
fpot." (See Difcourfes on the Nature, &c. of Wounds,
p. 488. edit. 3.) Indeed, notwithftanding all the modern
pretenlions to novelty upon this interefting topic, we mull
acknowledge, with Dr. Thomfon, that the evidence in
favour of the advantages of immediate amputation has
always preponderated over that for delay. See Report of
Obf. made in the Military Hofpitals in Belgium, p. 225.

The Itrongell body of evidence upon this matter, how-
ever, is .adduced by M. Larrey, whofe fituation at the head
of the medical department of the French armies has
afforded him moft numerous opportunities of judging from
aflual experience.

" If we are to be told," fays he, " that the amputation
of a limb is a cruel operation, dangerous in its confequences,
and always grievous for the patient, who is thereby muti-
lated ; that, confequently, there is more honour in faving a
limb, than in cutting it off with dexterity and fuccefs ;
thefe arguments may be refuted by anfwering, that ampu-
tation is an operation of neceflity, which offers a chance of
prefervation to the unfortunate, whofe death appears certain
under any other treatment ; and that if any doubt fhould
exifl of amputation being abfolutely indifpenfable to the
patient's fafety, the operation is to be deferred, till nature
has declared herfelf and given a pofitive indication for it.
We are alfo juftified in adding, that this chance of pre-
fervation is at the prefcnt day much greater than at the
epoch of the academy of furgery. We learn from M. Faure,
that of about tliree hundred amputations performed after
the battle of Fontenoy, only thirty were followed by fuc-
cefs, whilft, on the contrary, fays M. Larrey, we have
faved more than three-fourths of the patients on whom
amputation has been done, and fome of whom alfo had two
limbs removed. This improvement is afcribed by M. Larrey,
ift, to our now knowing better how to take advantage of
the indication and favourable time for amputating ; 2dly, to
the dreffings being more methodical ; 3dly, to the mode
of operating being more fimple, lefs painful, and more
expeditious, than that formerly in vogue."

To the preceding authorities againfl delaying amputation,
in cafes of gun-fhot wounds requiring fuch operation, we
have to add that of Mr. Guthrie, deputy infpeftor of mili-
tary

WOUNDS.

tary liofpitals, whofe opportunities of obfervation, during
the late war in Spain, were particularly extenfive. Mr.
Guthrie, however, does not recommend amputation to be
done immediately, if the patient be particularly depreffed by
the fhock of the injury direftly after its receipt. " If a
foldier, at the end of two, four, or fiK hours after the injury,
has recovered from the general conftitutional alarm occa-
fioned by the blow, his pulfe becomes regular and good, his
ftomach eafy, he is Icfs agitated, his countenance revives,
and he begins to feel pam, ftiffnefs, and uneafmefs in the
part : he will now undergo the operation with the greateft.
advantage, and if he bears it well, of which there will be
little doubt, he will recover in the proportion of nine cafes
out of ten, in any operation on the upper extremity, or
below the middle of the thigh, &c. If, on the contrary,
the operation be performed Ijefore the confticution has re-
covered itfelf, to a certain degree, from the alarm it has fuf-
tained, the additional injury will moll probably be more
than he can bear, and he will gradually fink under it and die."
(On Gun-fhot Wounds, p. 24. London, 1815.) As far
as our experience goes, however, all delay is improper when
the neceffity of amputation is undoubted, at leaft all delay
beyond the fhort period, during which the faintnefs imme-
diately arifing from the injury ufaally lafts. In the cam-
paign in Holland, in 18 14, the moll fuccefsful amputations
were thofe done in the field hofpitals direftly after the
arrival of the patients. On this point, however, hardly any
difference of fentiment prevails, becaufe all naval and mih-
tary furgeons agree, and mean, that amputation is not to be
performed till the faintnefs and deprefiion of the powers of
life, direftly following the v/ound, have been fufficiently
obviated for the patient to bear the operation well. The
feeming difference, therefore, on this matter, between
Mr. Guthrie and Mr. Hutchifon, is not very material.
(See Hutchifon's Praftical Obf. on Surgery, 1817.) It
appears from fome returns, collefted by Mr. Guthrie, that
in the peninfula, the comparative lofs, in fecondary or de-
layed operations, and in primary or immediate amputations,
was as follow :

Upper extremities
Lower extremities

Secondary. Primary.

- 12 to I

? to J

The great fuccefs attending amputation on the field of
battle was alfo convincingly proved after the battle of
Touloufe. Here of 47 immediate amputations, 38 were
cured, while of the 5 1 delayed operations, on that occafion,
21 had fatal terminations. P. 42 — 44.

Laflly, we have to notice, amongll the advocates for im-
mediate amputation, Mr. Hennen, a furgeon employed with
our army in Spain and the Netherlands. " The queftion,"
fays he, " of immediate amputation has of late attracted an
attention, which its great importance naturally calls forth ;
but it appears to nie, that an idea has been impreffed upon
the minds of praftitioners in civil life, that doubts as to the
propriety of the praftice had exifted among the Britifh
army furgeons. For niy own part, I have never known
any differences of opinion on the point. In books, it is
true, it has been moft amply difcuiled before the prefent
generation were in exillence ; but in Britifh praftice all
doubts have long been at an end. It is but jullice to
Britifli furgeons, both naval and military, to declare, that
immediate amputation is neither a new doftrine nor a recent
praaice among them. Sec." See Hennen's Obf. on iome
important Points in the Pratlice of Military Surgery,
p. 45. Edinb. 1818.

If, however, militaiy furgeons have definitively fettled

the great queftion, that in all cafes in wliich a limb cannot
be faved, the fooner amputation is- done the better, the\
neither have, nor probably will ever be able pofitively t
fettle and define the exatt degrees of injury which, in everv
inllance, ought to be followed by putting the former rule
in praftice. In fad, no part of furgery is more difficult, than
that in which the queftion of the poftibility or impoffibility I
of faving wounded limbs is iubmitted to the judgment and i
determination of the praftitioner. Some injuries, indeed, 1
are fo bad, that no difficulty in making a decifion is ex- |
perienced ; but there are other cafes, in which the damage '
done to the parts is lefs violent and extenfive, and in which ■
the exaft degree of mifchief is not at firft apparent. There '.
are, in fhort, numerous doubtful examples, in which the 1
formation of a right judgment is equally difficult and 1
important. ]•

The annexed remarks will convey the fentiments of fome ji
of the lateft writers on the fecond great queftion in military i
furgery. What are the exaft cafes in which amputation \
fhould be done immediately, and what are thofe in which '.
the operation may be deferred ?

Of Cafes in ivhich Amputationjljould be done immediately. — . j
Firft cafe. A limb carried away by a cannon-ball, or the '
explofion of a howitzer, or bomb, requires amputation ■
without any lofs of time: the leaft; delay puts the patient's ■
life in danger.

In this cafe, the neceffity of the praftice is inculcated by
M. Faure himfelf, as well as by Schmucker, Richter,
Larrey, Dr. Thomfon, and every modern writer upon gun-
fnot wounds.

If the operation be not fpeedily done, pain commences,
fever occurs, and the funclions become difordered ; the
irritation then increafes, and convulfive motions take place.
If the patient ftiould not be a viftim to thefe firft fymptoms
(continues Larrey), gangrene of the ftump is occafioned,
the fatal confequences of which it is extremely difficult to
prevent.

Second cafe. When a body propelled by gunpowder
ftrikes a limb, in fuch a manner as to fmafh the bones,
violently contufe, lacerate, and deeply tear away the foft
parts, amputation ought to be immediately performed. If
this meafure be neglefted, all the injured parts will foon be
feized with gangrene : and befides, as M. Larrey has ex-
plained, the accidents which the gravity of the firft cafe
produces will alfo here be excited. It is only doing juftice
to the memory of M. Faure to ftate, that this fecond cafe'
was one which he alio particularly inftanced as demanding
the immediate prrformance of amputation. See Prix de
I'Acad. Royale de Chirurgie, torn. viii. p. 23. edit. l2mo.

Third cafe. If a fimilar body were to carry away a great
mafs of the foft parts, and the principal vefTels of a limb
(of the thigh for inftance), without frafturing the bone,
the patient would be in a ilate demanding immediate am-
putation ; for, independently of the accidents which would
originate from a confiderable lofs of fubftance, the limb
muft inevitably mortify. Mr. Guthrie alfo fays, " a cannon-
(hot deftroying the artery and vein on the infide (of the
thigh), without injuring the bone, requires amputation."
(P. 185.) When, however, the femoral artery or vein is
injured by a mu(l<et-ball, or fmall cannifter-ftiot, this gentle-
man recommends tying the veflel above and below the
wound in it, if the nature of the cafe be evinced by hemor-
rhage. But lie believes, that when both vein and artery are
injured, amputation is neceflary. (P. 186.) An injury of
the femoral artery, obferves Mr. Guthrie, requiring an
operation, and accompanied with fracture of the bone of the
raoll fimple kind, is a proper cafe for immediate amputa-
8 tion I

WOUNDS.

tion ; for altlioiigli many patients would recorer from
either accider.t alone, none would furmount the two united,
and the higher the accident is in the thigh, the more im-
perious is the neceffity for amputation.

Fourth cafe. A large bifcayen ftrikes the thick part of
a member, breaks the bone, divides and tears the mufclcs,
and deftroys the large nerves, without, however, touching
the main artery. According to M. Larrey, this is a fourth
cafe requiring immediate amputation.

Mr. Guthrie alfo fays, that " if a cannon-fhot ftrike the
back part of the thigh, and carry away the mufcuiar part
behind, and with it the great fciatic nerve, amputation is
neceflary, even if the bone be untouched, &c. In this
cafe, I would not perform the operation by the circular
incifion, but would preferve a flap from the fore part or
fides, as I could get it, to cover the bone which fhould be
fhort." Guthrie on Gun-(hot Wounds of the Extremities,
p. 184.

Fifth cafe. If a fpent cannon-lhot, or one that has been
reflefted, (hould ftrike a member obliquely, without pro-
ducing a folution of continuity in the Ikin, as often happens,
the parts which refift its aftion, fuch as the bones, mufcles,
tendons, aponeurofes, and vefTels, may be ruptured and
lacerated. The extent of the internal diforder is to be
examined ; and if the bones Ihould feel through the foft
parts as if they were fmalhed, and if there (hould be reafon
to fiifpeft from the fwelhng, and -a fort of fluftuation, that
the veffels are lacerated, amputation ought to be imme-
diately praftifed. We learn from M. Larrey, that this is
alfo the advice of M. Percy, an eminent French army fur-
geon. Sometimes, however, the veflels and bones have
efcaped injury, and the mufcles are almoil the only parts
difordered. In this circumftance, we are enjoined to follow
the council of M. La Martini^re, who recommended making
an incifion through the fldn. By this means, a quantity of
thick blackifh blood will be difcharged, and the prac-
titioner mull await events. According to M. Larrey, fuch
incifion is equally neceflary in the preceding cafe before
amputation, in order to afcertain the extent of the mifchief
which the parts have fuftained.

It is to fuch injury done to internal organs, that we muft
afcribe the death of many individuals, which was for a long
while attributed to the commotion produced by the air put
in motion by the ball, when this, in grazing upon different
parts of the body, alters them, or cuts off the column of
air which is to ferve for refpiration, juft at the moment
when it is about to enter the cheft. See Ravaton's Traitc
des Plaies d'Armes a Feu.

But to return to the objeft of our prefent confideration.
M. Larrey expreffes his belief, that what have been erro-
neoufly termed ivind contujions, if they are attended with
the mifchief above fpecified, require immediate amputation.
The leaft delay makes the patient's prefervation extremely
doubtful. The internal injury of the member may be
afcertained by the touch, by the lofs of motion, by the
little fenfibility retained by the parts which have been
ilruck, and, laftly, by praftifing an incifion, as already re-
commended.

Sixth cafe. When the articular heads are much broken,
efpecially thofe which form the joints of the foot or knee,
and the ligaments, which ftrengthen thefe articulations, are
broken and lacerated by the fire of a howitzer or by a
bifcayen, or other kind of ball, immediate amputation, fays
M. Larrey, is indifpenfable. According to this expe-
rienced writer, the fame indication would occur, were the
ball lodged in the thicknefs of the articular head of a bone,
or were it fo engaged in the joint as not to admit of being
Vol. XXXVlfl.

extrafted by fimple and ordinary means. ( See alfo Guthrie
on Gun-fhot Wounds, p. 197.) Putting out of confider-
ation cafes in which the injury has been done by a clean
cutting inftrumcnt, or in which a fmall ball has pafTed near
or partially injured a joint, another experienced army fur-
geon alio lays it down as a law in military furo-ery, that
no lacerated joint, particularly the knee, anile, or elbo'ws,Jhould
ever leave thefeld unamputated, 'where the patient is not obviotijly
finking, and confequently ivhere certain death 'would follotv the
operation. (Hennen's Military Surgery, p. 42.) And ih
another place he tells us : " In my own praftice, I have
met with only two cafes, where the limb was faved after a
ferious injury of tlie knee-joint ; and in one of them only
was the perfedl ufe of it reftored. I never met with an
inftance where the ankle or elbow-joint was perfeftly re-
ftored after fevere injury, though fome where the limb has
been faved. Of the fhoulder-joint the recoveries are more
frequent." P. 159.

Fraftures extending into the joints, and accompanied
with great laceration of the ligaments, were cafes of gun-
fhot injuries pointed out by M. Faure as indifpenfably
requiring immediate amputation. (See Prix de I'Acad. de
Chir. torn. viii. ) Thus we fee, that this author was not fo
averfe to early aniputation as feveral modern writers have
reprefented.

It is only in this manner, that the patients can be refcued
from the dreadful pain, the fpafmodic afFeftions, the violent
convulfions, the acute fever, the confiderable tenfion, and
the general inflammation of the limb, which, M. Larrey ob-
ferves, are the invariable confequences of bad fraftures of
the large joints. But, adds this author, if the voice of ex-
perience be not liftened to, and amputation be deferred, the
parts become diforganjzed, and the patient's life is put into
imminent peril.

It is evident, fays he, that, in this cafe, if we wifh to pre-
vent the patient from dying of the confequent accidents,
aniputation fhould be performed before twelve or at moll
twenty-four hours have elapfed : even M. Faure himfelf
ppofefled this opinion, in regard to certain defcriptions of
injury. Mem. de Chir. Militaire, tom. ii.

With refpeft to wounds of the knee, the fentiments of
Mr. Guthrie nearly coincide with thofe of M. Larrey.
" I moft folemnly protcft (fays Mr. G.) I do not remem-
ber a cafe do well, in which I knew the articulating end of
the femur, or tibia, to be fraftured by a ball that paffed
through the joint, although I have tried great numbers,
even to the laft battle of Touloufe. I know that perfons
wounded in this way have lived ; for a recovery it cannot
be called, where the limb is ufelefs, bent backward, and a
conftant fource of irritation and diftrefs, after feveral months
of acute fuffering, to obtain even this partial fecurity from
impending death ; but if one cafe of recovery fhauld take
place in fifty, is it any fort of equivalent for the facrifice of
the other forty-nine ? Or is the preferving of a limb of this
kind an equivalent for the lofs of one man ?" On Gun-fhot
Wounds, p. 196.

Mr. Guthrie admits, that fraftures of the patella, with-
out injury of the other bones, admit of delay, provided the
bone is not much fplintered.

Seventh cafe. According to M. Larrey, if a large
bifcayen, a fmall cannon-fhot, or a piece of a bomb-fhell, in
paffing through the fubftance of a member, fhould have ex-
tenfively denuded the bone, without breaking it, amputation
is equally indicated, although the foft parts may not appear
to have particularly fuffered. Indeed, the violent concuf-
fion produced by the accident has fhaken and diforganized
all the parts ; the medullary fubftance is injured, the veffels
5 A are

WOUNDS.

are lacerated, the nerves immoderately ftretched, and thrown
into a ilate of ftupor ; the mufcles are deprived of their
tone ; and the circulation and fenCbility in the limb are
obftrufted. Before deciding, however, M. Larrey cautions
us to obferve attentively the fymptoms which charafterize
this kind of diforder. This cafe can be fuppofed to happen
only in the leg, where the bone is very fuperficial, and
merely covered at its anterior part with the flcin.

The following are defcribed as the fymptoms : the limb
is infenfible, the foot cold as ice, the bone partly expofed,
and on careful examination, it will be found that the integu-
ments, and even the periofteum, are extenfively detached
from it. The commotion extends to a confiderable dif-
tance ; the funftions of the body are difordered ; and all
the fecretions experience a more or lefs palpable dilturb-
ance. The intelleftual faculties are fufpended, and the cir-
culation is retarded. The pulfe is fmall and concentrated,
the countenance pale, and the eyes have a dull moift ap-
pearance. The patient feels fuch anxiety, that he cannot
long remain in one pofture, and requefts that his leg may
be quickly taken off, as it incommodes him feverely, and he
experiences very acute pain in the knee. When all thefe
charafteriflic fymptoms are conjoined, fays M. Larrey, we
fhould not hefitate to amputate immediately ; for the leg
would be attacked with fphacelus the fame day, and the
patient would certainly perifh.

M. Larrey next adduces feveral interefting cafes in fup-
port of the preceding obfervations.

Eighth cafe. When a large gynglimoid articulation, fuch
as the elbow, or efpecially the knee, has been extenfively
opened with a cutting iriftrument, and blood is extravafated
in the joint, M. Larrey deems immediate amputation ne-
ceflary. In thefe cafes, the fynovial membranes, the liga-
ments, and aponeurofes, inflame, the part fwells, and
erethifmus rapidly takes place ; and acute pains, abfcefles,
deep finufes, caries, febrile fymptoms, and death, are the
fpeedy confequences. M. Larrey has feen numerous fub-
jefts die of fuch injuries, on account of the operation having
been poftponed with a hope of faving the limb. In his
Memoires de Chirurgie Militaire, torn. ii. fome of thefe are
detailed.

Although a wound may penetrate a joint, yet if it be
fmall and unattended with extravafation of blood, M. Larrey
informs us, it will generally heal, provided too much com-
preflion be not employed. This gentleman believes in the
common doftrine of the pernicious effeft of the air on the
cavities of the body ; yet, in this place, a doubt feems to
affeft him : fpeaking of the lefs danger of fmall wounds of
joints, he fays, " a quoi tient cette difference, puifque Pair
pen^tre dans I'articulation dans I'un comme dans I'autre
cas ?"

When two limbs have been at the fame time fo injured
as to require amputation, we fhould not be afraid of am-
putating them both immediately, without any interval. We
have, fays M. Larrey, feveral times performed this double
amputation with almoft as much fuccefs as the amputation
of a Angle member. He has recorded an excellent cafe in
confirmation of this ftatement. Mem. de Chirurgie Mili-
taire, torn. ii. p. 478.

When a limb is differently injured at the fame time in two
places, and one of the wounds requires amputation, (fup-
pofe a wound of the leg with a fplintered frafture of the
bone, and a fecond of the thigh, done with a ball, but with-
out any frafture of the os femoris, or otlier bad accident, )
M. Larrey recommends us, firft to drefs the fimple wound
uf the thigh, and amputate the leg immediately afterwards,
if the knee be free from injury. When it is neceffary to

amputate above this joint, the lefs important wound need
not be dreffed till after the operation, provided it can be
comprehended in the fedlion of the member, or be fo near
the place of the incifion as to alter the indication. When
the wound demanding amputation is the upper one, the
operation of courfe is to be done above it, without paying
any regard to the injury fituated lower down.

M. Larrey, however, approves of deferring the operation,
when delirium, convulfions, and inflammation, prevail on the
firft receipt of the injury. In this circumftance, we are
advifed to take meafures for appeafing thefe accidents ; the
progrefs of nature is to be carefully obferved ; and the
firft moment of quiet is to be taken advantage of for the
performance of the operation. See Larrey'i Mem. de
Chirurgie MiUtaire, torn. ii. p. 45 1, &c.

Ninth cafe. To the foregoing fpecics of gun-fhot
wounds, pointed out by M. Larrey as urgently requiring
immediate amputation, are to be added compound fraftures
of the thigh from gun-fhot violence.

" Gun-fhot fraflures of the thigh," fays Dr. J. Thomfon,
" have been univerfally allowed to be attended with a high
degjree of danger ; indeed, till of late years, very few in-
ftances have been recorded of recovery from thefe injuries.
Ravaton acknowledges, that in his long and extenfive ex-
perience, he had never feen an example of recovery from a
gun-fhot frafture of the thigh ; and Bilguer, in his calcu-
lations with regard to thofe who recover from gun-fhot
fraftures, fets afide thofe of the thigh-bone, as being of a
nature altogether hopelefs. In the prefent improved ftate
of military furgery, inftances not unfrequently occur of
recovery from this frafture ; but of thefe, the number will
be found, I believe, to be exceedingly fmall, in comparifon
with thofe who die, particularly when the frafture has had
its feat above the middle of the bone, &c."

According to the obfervation of Percy, fcarcely two of
ten recover of thofe who have fuffered gun-fhot fraftures of
the thigh-bone. Mr. Guthrie fays, that " upon a review of
the many cafes which I have feen, I do not believe that more
than onc-fixth recovered fo as to have ufeful limbs ; two-
thirds of the whole died either with or without amputation ;
and the limbs of the remaJning fixth were not only nearly.'
ufelefs, but a caufe of much uneafinefs to them for the re-<^
mainder of their lives." See Guthrie on Gun-fhot Wounds,!
p. 191.

" In fraftures by mufliet-bullets of the lower part of the
thigh-bone (fays Dr. Thomfon), recovery not unfrequently
takes place ; and both Schmucker and Mr. Guthrie con-j
ceive, that they are injuries in which amputation may be
delayed with fafety. It would be very agreeable, that this
opinion fhould be confirmed by future experience ; but ie
appears to me, that before it can be received as a maxim in
military furgery, much more extenfive and accurate obferva^
tion than we yet poffefs wUl be required, with regard to 1
the proportion of thofe who recover without amputation,
or after fecondary operations, and of thofe who recover
after primary amputation. Of thofe who iiad fuffered
this injury, we favv, comparatively, but a fmall number
recovering in Belgium, and they had been attended with
fevere local and conllitutional fymptoms." See Report of
Obfervations made in the Military Hofpitals in Belgium,
p. 247, etfiq.

Balls often produce fiffures of fgveral inches in length in
the thigh-bone. This is a ftate, obferves Dr. Thomfon,
which muit be very unfavourable to recovery ; and his con-
clufion is, that in general, even in fraftures o,f the lower
part of the thigh-bone, a greater number of lives will be
preferved in military praftice by immediate amputation,

6 than

WOUNDS.

than by attempting the cure without that operation.
" When the bone appears, on a careful examination, to be
broken without being much fplintered, and when the patient
can be removed eafily to a place of reft and fafety, it may
be right to attempt to preferve the limb ; but if the bone be
much fplintered, or if the conveyance is to be long or un-
certain, it will, in mod inltances, I am convinced, be a
much fafcr praftice, even in fraftures of this part of the
thigh-bone, to amputate without delay.

" Mullvet-bullets, in paffing through the femur, near to
the knee-joint, produce fifTures of the condyles, which
generally communicate with the joint. Thcfe cafes, like
thofe in which the bullets have paffed direftly through the
joint, require immediate amputation.

" The writings of military furgeons contain but few
hillories of cafes in which the thigh-bone had been fraftured
above its middle by the paflage of mu.Ovet-buUets. Thefe
are cafes, I believe, which have generally had a fatal ter-
mination ; and the danger attendant upon the amputation
which they require, feems long to have deterred furgeons
from attempting to afcertain what advantages might be
derived from the employment of that operation. Schmucker
recommends and ftates, that he had praftifed with fuccefs
immediate amputation in thofe cafes, in which a fufEcient
fpace was left below the groin for the application of the
tourniquet. It is curious to remark, in the hillory of am-
putation, how long furgeons were in difcovering the eafe
and fafety with which the femoral artery may be com-
preffed by the fingers, or pads, in its paflage over the brim
of the pelvis. Boy, from the immediate danger, protrafted
fuffering, and ultimate want of fuccefs, which he had ob-
ferved to follow this kind of injury, urges ftrenuoufly the
propriety of immediate amputation : Mr. Guthrie's opinion,
with regard to the dangerous nature of thefe injuries, and
the advantages to be derived in them from immediate am-
putation, coincides in every refpeft with thofe of Schmucker
and Boy. He obferves, that thofe whofe thigh-bone has
been fraftured in its upper part by a mufliet-bullet, gene-
rally die with great fuffering before the end of the fixth or
eighth week ; and that few even of thofe efcape, in whom
that bone has been fraftured in its middle part. Of the
few whom we faw, who had furvived gun-fliot fraftures in
the upper part of the thighbone in Belgium, fcarcely any
one could be faid to be in a favourable condition. In all,
the limbs were much contrafted, dillorted, and fwollen,
and abfcefles had formed round and in the neighbourhood of
the fraftured extremities of the bones. In feme inftances,
thefe abfcefles had extended down the thigh ; but more
frequently they pafled upwards, and occupied the region of
the hip-joint and buttocks. In feveral inftances in which
incifions had been made for the evacuation of matter, the
fraftured and exfoliating extremities of the bones fometimea
comminuted, and fometimes forming the whole cylinder,
could be felt bare, rough, and extenfively feparated from
the foft parts vsrhich furrounded them. In otlier iiillances,
thefe extremities were partially inclofed in depofitions of
new bone, which, from the quantity thrown out, feemed to
be prefent in a morbid degree. It was obvious, that in all
of thefe cafes, feveral months would be required for the
re-union of the fraftured extremities ; that in fome much
pain and mifery were fl;ill to be endured from the procefles
of fuppuration, ulceration, exfoliation, and ejcftion of
dead bone ; that in fome cafes, the patients were incurring
great danger from heftic fever, and from diarrhoea ; that
the ultimate recovery in moft of them was doubtful ; and
that of thofe in whom this might take place, there was but
little probability that any would be able to ufe their limbs !

The fight of thefe cafes (fays Dr. Thomfon) made a deep
impreffion upon my mind, and has tended to increafe my
convidtion, that this is, of all others, the clafs of injuries ui
which immediate amputation ia moft indifpenfably re-
quired." See Report of Obfervations made in the Military
Hofpitals in Belgium, p. 254—258.

Dr. Thomfon adds, that what has been faid of the danger
of fraftures produced by muficet-bullets in the upper part
of the femur is true, in a ftill greater degree of thofe which
have their fL;at in the neck or head of that bone. In fuch
inftances. Dr. Thomfon joins the generality of modern army
furgeons, in ftroagly recommending amput-ation at the hip-
joint.

Of Gun-Jl}ot Wounds in 'which Amputation may be deferred.
— If, fays M. Larrey, it be poffible to fpecify the cafes in
which amputation ought to be immediately performed, it is
impoffible to determine h priori thofe which will require
the operation fubfequently. One gun-(hot wound, for ex-
ample, will be cured by ordinary treatment, while another,
that is at firft kfs fevere, will afterwards render amputation
indifpenfable, whether this be owing to the patient's bad
conftitution, or the febrile complaints which are induced.
However this may be, the fafe rule for fulfilling the indica-
tion that prefents itfelf, is to amputate confecutively only iu
circumftances in which every endeavour to fave the limb is
manifeftly in vain. Upon this point, M. Larrey's doftrine
differs from that of M. Faure.

The latter praftitioner admits cafes, which he terms cafes
of the fecond kind, in which he delays amputation, not with
any hope of faving the limb, but in order to let the firft
fymptoms fubfide. The operation done between the
fifteenth and twentieth day, appears to him lefs dangerous
than when performed immediately after the receipt of the
injury. At the above period, according to M. Faure, the
commotion occafioned by the gun-(hot injury is difpelled ;
the patient can reconcile himfelf to amputation, the mere
mention of which fills the pufiUanimous with terror in a
greater or leffer degree ; the debility of the individual is no
objedlion ; and it is laid down as an axiom, " that the con-
fequences of every amputation, done in the firft inilancc,
are in general extremely dangerous." In fupport of this
theory, M. Faure adduces ten cafes of gun-fliot injuries, in
which, after the battle of Fontenoy, the operation was
delayed, in order that it might afterwards be performed
with more fuccefs ; a plan which, according to the author,
proved completely fuccefsful. See Prix de I'Acad. de
Chirurgie, tom. viii. edit, in i2mo.

This divifion of the cafes for amputation into two clafTes,
not confiftent with nature, obferves M. Larrey, has been
the caufe of a great deal of harm. Very often the partifans
of M. Faure have not dared to refort in the firft inilance to
amputation, the dangers of which they exaggerate ; while,
on other occafions, they amputate confecutively, without
any fuccefs.

The effefls of commotion, inftead of increafing, gradually
diminifti and difappear after the operation. It is proved,
fays he, that the commotion, fo far from being a counter-
indication to immediate amputation, is a reafon that Jhoald
incUne the furgeon to operate. Such was the fentiment of
La Martini^re and Boucher.

Neither ought the patient's alarm to be a reafon for
poftponing the operation ; for according to M- Larrey, the
patient juft after the accident will be much lefs afraid of
the rifl{ which he has to encounter, than after the expiration
of the firft four-and-twenty hours, when he has had time to
rcfleft upon the confequences of the injury, or of amputa-
tion. This remark lias been made by the illuftrious Pare.
5 A 2 " Espe-

WOUNDS.

" Experience," fays M. Larrey, " has proved, both to the
army and navy furgeons, that the bad fymptoms which foon
follow fuch gun-fhot injuries as muft occafion the lofs of a
limb, are much more to be dreaded than thofe of immediate
amputation. Out of a vaft number of the wounded, who
fuffered amputation in the courfc of the firft four-and-twenty
Iiours after the memorable naval battle of the firft of June,
1794, a very few loft their lives."

M. Larrey next acquaints us, that when he was fent to
the army of Italy in 1 796, he had alfo the pain of feeing in
the hofpitals great numbers of the wounded fall viftims to
the confidence which many of the furgeons of that army
placed in the principles of M. Faure. General Bonaparte
faw, that the ambulanci volante was the only thing that, in
the event of frefli hoftilitics, could prevent fuch accidents ;
and in confequence of his orders, M. Larrey formed the
three divifions d'arabulance, which are defcribed in his
Memoires de Chirurgie Militaire.

Since this period, it has always been cuftomary in the
French armies, on the day of battle, to make every pre-
paration for performing amputation as fpeedily as poffible.
The mere fight of thefe ambulances, ( always attached to the
advanced guard,) fays M. Larrey, encourages the foldiers,
and infpires them with the greateft courage.

M. Larrey defifes us to interrogate the invalids who have
loft one or two of their limbs, and nearly all will tell us,
that they fuffered amputation a few minutes after the acci-
dent, or in the firft four-and-twenty hours.

" If M. Faure now retains any partifans," fays M. Larrey,
" I recommend them to repair to the field of battle the
day after an aftion ; they would then foon be convinced,
that without the prompt performance of amputation, great
numbers of foldiers muit inevitably lofe their hves. In
Egypt, this truth was particularly manifefted."

Admitting, fays M. Larrey, that by a concurrence of
fortunate circumftances, which are not always to be calcu-
lated upon, fome patients efcape the danger of the firft
fymptoms, this proves nothing in favour of doing the
operation afterwards : it muft be feen what nature will do
towards the event of the cafe.

If at the end of twenty or thirty days the prognoftic is
as bad as it was previoufly, amputation cannot be avoided.
Thus all the fufferings which the patient has endured have
been undergone for nothing, and the operation will now be
attended with confiderable rifti, inafmuch as the patient may
lie in a dangeroudy weakened ftate.

If nature revives at all, no doubt the fuccefs of the
operation becomes more probable ; but in this cafe, the
furgeon, inftead of having recourfe to amputation, ftiould
redouble his efforts to preferve the limb.

Cafes demanding Amputation tonfecutively — M. Larrey
gives us the annexed information upon this fubjeft.

Firft safe. A fpreading Mortification — If the diforder
be owing to an internal and general caufe, it would then be
raftinefs in the furgeon to amputate before nature had put
limits to the difeafe. This kind of gangrene, according to
M. Larrey, is diftinguilhed from that which is named
traumatic, by the fymptoms which precede and accompany
it. Thefe fymptoms are fimilar to thofe which are obferved
in nervous ataxia, or adynamia. Here the operation
ought to be deferred, and endeavours made to combat the
general caufes with regimen and internal medicines.

But when the gangrene is traumatic, the limb, fays
M. Larrey, fliould be immediately cut off above the dif-
organized part. Several fafts in fiipport of this advice are
related by this experienced furgeon in his Memoire fur la
Gangrene Traumatique. See Surgery.

How contrary this advice to that inculcated by Sharp,
Pott, and nearly all eminent furgeons of the prefent time !

A particular cafe of gangrene has been pointed out by
Mr. Guthrie as demanding the early performance of am-
putation, and a deviation from the old rule of waiting till
the mortification has ceafed to fpread. It is when gan-
grene occurs after wounds of the large blood-veffels of a
hmb. See Guthrie on Gun-fliot Wounds of the Ex-
tremities, p. 63, &c.

Second cafe. Convulfions of the wounded Limb. — Am- 1
putation of the member, performed immediately the firft ]
fymptoms of tetanus manifeft themfelves, more efpecially j
tliofe of chronic tetanus, was propofed and even praftifed '
by Larrey with partial fuccefs. He iuppofed, that all
communication between the original injury, and the reft of
the body being thus cut off, the general diforder might
ceafe.

Third cafe. Bad State of the Difcharge It often hap-
pens, that in gun-diot wounds, complicated with fraftures,
notwithftanding the moil fkilful treatment, the difcharge
becomes of a bad quahty ; the fragments of bone lie fur-
rounded with the matter, and have not the leaft tendency to
unite ; the patient is attacked with hetlic fever, and a
colliquative diarrhoea. Under thefe circumftances, life may
fometimes be prefervad by amputation.

Fourth cafe. Bad State of the Stump. — ^^In hofpitals, fays
M. Larrey, the cure of amputations is fometimes prevented
by a fever of a bad charafter. The ftump fvvells, the in-
teguments become at firft retrafted, and then reverted and
difeafed a good way upward. The wound changes into a
fungous ulcer, the cicatrization of which is hindered by the
deep diforder of the bone, and the ulceration of the foft
parts. The extremity of the bone projefts. In order to
remedy this laft evil, it has been propofed to faw off the
projefting part of the bone, and with this even to ampu-
tate all the flefti beyond the level of the iltin. M. Larrey
condemns fuch praftice, as unneceffary and dangerous, and
he recommends giving nature time to effcft the exfoliation
of the difeafed projefting part of the bone, and heal the
wound.

Of poifoned Wounds. — Thefe injuries are effentially dif-
ferent from every other defcription of wound, their great
particularity depending upon the introduftion of a venomous
matter into the wounded parts, or its depofition upon the
furface of the injury ; and, in general, the poifon is inferted
by the weapon with which the folution of continuity is pro-
duced. Sometimes, however, the contrary happens, when
previous cuts, or fcratches of the fingers, which are not
healed, become infefted with a virus, in the diffeftion of
bodies, or in the drefling of venereal ulcers. Nay, there
has lately been recorded in the public papers a remarkable
inftance, in which a nobleman's fervant died, as is alleged,
from the effefts of the poifon of a torpid viper, the fangs
and poifoned apparatus of which he had been handling and
exhibiting to fome vifitors, at a time when he happened to '
have a flight cut upon one of his fingers. The cafe is ex-
traordinary, not only on account of the way in which the
infedlion was contrafted, but alfo on account of the fatal'
event, which is very uncommon in animals of the magnitude
of the human fubjeft, as we (hall hereafter notice.

Pricks with the point of a diffcHing-lnife, when the inftru-
ment is covered with putrid, infectious, irritating matter,
may be confidered as a clafs of poifoned wounds. Some-
times, however, fuch accidents are followed by no injurious
effefts ; and when the lubjeft is ftrong and robuft, a little
inflamed tumour occurs in the Ctuation of the punclure, the
part fefters, burfts, and then heals up. But, as Richerand

obfcrvcs,

I

WOUNDS,

obferves, when the accident befals a young man, who has
been much weakened by hard ftudy, any kind of excefs, or
fome previous difeafe, it frequently happens that no local
fymptoms are feen. At the end of 24 or 36 hours, fome-
times rather fooner, fometimes later, the axillary glands
become afFefted with fwelling, and a painful phlegmonous
inflammation takes place in them. The wound afterwards
fellers ; the parts around it exhibit appearances of a flow
fort of inflammation, and the confequent fwelling of the
hand is rather oedematous than inflammatory. Next often
fucceed naufea and propenfity to vomit, proftradon of
ftrength, a fmall accelerated pulfe, and all the ufual fymp-
toms of typhus fever. Under thefe circumftances, if, in-
llead of a tonic plan of treatment, which is ftrongly indicated,
the evacuating method be adopted, the patient very foon
falls a viftim.

Experience fully proves, that in ftrong vigorous habits,
nature refills with energy the introduftion of poifons into
the fyftem.

In the cafes under our confideration, tonic and cordial
remedies are to be given in moderation. At the fame time,
care is to be taken to clear out the primse viae, when they
appear to be difordered. Abroad, it is the common prac-
tice alfo to apply a grain of cauftic potafla, or a drop of
the hquid muriate of ammonia, to the little wound itfelf.

The Jlings of venomous infeBs, fuch as the bee, wafp,
hornet, &c. are commonly treated of with poifoned wounds.
The pain of the injury is alleged to depend lefs upon the
introduftion of the fting, which fometimes breaks and is
left behind, than upon the infertion of a venomous fluid into
the part. It is faid indeed, that the experiments made by
profeflbr Dumeril prove, that when the little cyft, fituated
at the bafe of the fling, is removed, the introduftion of the
fting itfelf into the fleflr caufes no particular pain. At the
bafe of the fting there is a kind of vcficle, or refervoir, for
containing the poifonons fecretion, which is expelled and
flows out along the fting, at the inftant when the latter
penetrates the parts which are itung. The venom of the
bee is ftated to be neither of an acid nor of an alkahne nature.
When applied to mucous furfaces, and even to the tunica
conjunftiva of the eye, it produces no difagreeable fenfation ;
but if the point of a needle, after being dipped in it, be
introduced into the flefli, a very acute pain is immediately
excited. Various kinds of oil, honey, ammonia, fpirit of
vviiie, and feveral other reputed fpecifics, appear to deferve
no fuch charafter, fmce they are found, after unprejudiced
trials, to have no power of neutralizing the venom, nor of
appeafing the aftual pain arifing from the fting.

When, therefore, a perfon has been ttung by one or
feveral bees, we are recommended to begin with extrafting
the ftings, taking care, however, previoufly to cut off' with
a pair of fciflars the little veficle at their bafe containing
the venomous fecretion. This is to be done, left in the en-
deavours to remove the fting more of the venom ftiould be
comprefled out of the little refervoir into the wound. The
part is afterwards to be covered with fnow, or bathed with
ice-cold water, or fome cooling fedative lotion. In (hort,
the cafe is to be treated on common antiphlogiftic principles,
experience having fully proved that no fpecitic has yet been
difcovered for the fting of the bee, and other venomous
infefls. For other opinions and obfervations on this fubjeft,
fee the article Bee.

Bite of the Viper. — Of all the venomous reptiles which
are met with in Europe, there are none which inflift fo
dangerous a bite as the viper or adder. Its upper jaw is
furniflied with two moveable fangs, wjiich are very ftiarp-

pointed, grooved longitudinally, and at their root are con-
nefted with a veficle which contains the venomous fluid.
When the animal is irritated, the fangs become raifed, and
the poifon flows along the grooves in them into the bitten
part. The danger of the injury is in fome meafure propor-
tioned to the fury of the animal ; for when it is very much
exafperated, it clofes its jaws with greater force, and more
of the venom is comprefled into the wound. The degree
of danger is alfo influenced confiderably by the greater or
lefs fpace of time that has elapfed fince the reptile emptied
the receptacles of its venom, by biting another perfon or
animal. The injury likewife is generally found to produce
lefs ferious confequences, in proportion to the greater fize
of the animal which has been bitten. The experiments of
Fontana prove, that the bite of a fingle viper will kill a
moufe, a pigeon, or any other fmall animal ; but that it
muft be the bites of feveral to kill a man, and of a ilill
larger number to deftroy an ox. It is alfo fuppofed by
many writers on this fubjedl, that in all animals, whatever
may be their fize, the degree of danger is confiderably
greater, if they fliould be much frightened on the occafion,
the proftration of ftrength produced by fear being con-
jeftured to facilitate in a peculiar manner the pernicious
operation of the venom. When a dog is bitten fuddenly
and unexpeftedly, he is, ceteris paribus, much lefs hurt than
when he has received the injury in aconteft with the reptile,
whofe very afpedl has more or lefs alarmed him. The bite
of the viper is thought to prove generally more or lefs fevere,
in proportion to the heat of the weather.

The danger of the injury depends lefs upon the laceration
of the parts, which, however, is confiderable, than upon the
kind of venomous inoculation with which it is attended.
The fymptoms which are excited come on almoft immedi-
ately. The perfon who has received the bite fuffers acute
pain, and an inflammatory fweUing fpreads up the limb with
remarkable rapidity, accompanied with a tendency to gan-
grene, as is indicated by the appearance of livid fpots. Affec-
tions of the heart, attended with great weaknefs and vertigo,
denote that the aftion of the poifon extends to the whole
fyftem. But thefe general effefts do not arife, as Fontana
wrongly imagined, from the venom having a power of coa-
gulating the blood in the veffels, but in all probability from
its operation upon the nervous fyftem.

The beft plan of counterafting the baneful effefts of the
bite of the viper confifts in introducing a few drops of the
fluid muriate of antimony into the wound, and a fmall hair
pencil may be ufed for the infertion of the cauftic, if the
punftures fhould happen to be deep. Indeed, when the
bottom of the wound cannot be cauterized without dilating
it, the latter ftep is deemed proper by the generaUty of
furgical writers. The furrounding parts may be rubbed
with a liniment compofed of hartlhorn and olive-oil ; and
cordial medicines are to be exhibited, efpecially ammonia.

The amputation of the bitten part is rather too fevere a
mode of preventing the ufual ill confequences of the bite
of a viper to deferve recommendation. The ancients, with
a view of counterafting the introdutkion of the poifon into
the body, were accuftomed to apply a ligature round the
limb above the injury ; but it is a painful expedient, be-
caufe it cannot hinder the abforption of the venom, and the
general conftitutional affeftion, unlefs the band be put on
with fufficient tightnefs to impede the circulation. This,
however, is the method which was adopted by Ambroifc
Pare, after he had been accidentally bitten by an adder.

The moft important objed in the treatment is the prompt
application of remedies ; for the introduftion of the virus

into

WOUNPS.

into the conftitution ought to be prevented, if poflible.
This is more likely to be accompliflied than any aim at
neutrahzing the venomous fluid, after its effefts have ex-
tended to the whole animal economy.

Even wfhen the bite of a viper is entirely neglefted, it
very rarely proves fatal to the human fubjeft. In many
cafes, the patients have recovered favourably under the mere
ufe of olive-oil and of ammonia. Thefe two medicines have
been recommended as fpecifics both in the Tranfaftions of
the Royal Society, and by the celebrated Bernard de
Juflieu ; and amongfl the cafes in proof of their efficacy,
authors ilill continue to quote the example of a dealer in
vipers, who was quite indifferent about being bitten by thefe
animals. He ufed to bathe the part in olive-oil, and at the
fame time drink feveral ounces of this fluid. And in an-
other inftance, which is frequently cited, a ftudent of
botany, while herborizing, was bitten by a viper in a place
where no medicine was at hand, except the eau de luce.
Juflieu, who was prefent, introduced a few drops of this
remedy into the wound, and adminiftered a tea-fpoonful of
it internally in a glafs of water. The eau de luce is nothing
•more than the liquor ammoniae, containing a fmall quantity
of the oleum fuccini.

In France, and in other parts of the continent, the eau de
luce is ftill looked upon as the internal medicine, on which
moft reliance can be placed.

In this country, arfenic, in ftrong dofes, has been par-
ticularly recommended for its beneficial effe£ls in counter-
afting the operation of the poifon of fnakes. The Tanjore
pill, which has long been famous'in India for its virtues in
preventing the fatal fymptoms arifing from the bites of fer-
pents in hot countries, was known to have arfenic as one of
its ingredients. Mr. Ireland, an army furgeon, happened
to be at St. Lucia, in the Weft Indies, when feveral men
of the 62d regiment were bitten by the coluber carinatus of
Linnseus, the bite of which had already proved quickly
fatal to feveral men of the fame corps. Mr. Ireland im-
mediately adminiftered Fowler's folution of arfenic in ftrong
dofes, and the refults of the cafes, in which he had an op-
portunity of trying it, were highly favourable to the
praftice, as the men's lives were preferved by it. (See
Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. ii. p. 393, &c.) Perhaps the
prompt excifion of the bitten part, or the free ufe of the
aftual cautery, ftiould alfo be invariably put in praftice, for
the bites of the more deadly kinds of ferpents, in conjunc-
tion with the exhibition of arfenic. But the ordinary con-
fequences of the bite of a common adder are not ferious
enough to require fo fevere a proceeding as the excifion or
amputation of the parts would often be. Some obfervations
on the ftrufture of the viper will be found in the article
Coluber, and other remarks on the bite of this animal will
be feen in the articles Poison and Viper.

The worft poifoned wounds ever met with in this climate
are thofe produced by the bite of a mad dog, and other
rabid animals ; but for a particular account of this highly
interefting fubjeft, we muft refer to Hydrophobia.

Wounds of different Parts of the Face, Eye, Eye-lids,
Ears, i^c — The countenance being the part in which any
deformity is pecuharly confpicuous, it is always a great
defideratum, in cafes of wounds of the forehead, cheeks,
nofe, lips, &c. to prevent as much as poffible the formation
of ugly fcara. Hence it is an invariable maxim to endeavour
to heal wounds of the face by the firft intention.

As cuts of the face can hardly be very deep, adhefive
plafter is generally fufScient for holding their oppofite edges
together ; but when the wound is fituated in the lips, thefe

parts are fo inceflantly in motion, that furgeons find it heft
to maintain the fides of the divifion in contaft by means
of the twifted future, a defcription of which is given in the
article Harelip.

When the edges of a wound of the lips are much con-
tufed and lacerated, fome authors recommend them to be
pared off, in order to increafe the chance of union, and-
leflen the disfigurement of an uneven cicatrix.

Punftures of the tranfparent cornea of the eye are in
themfelves much lefs ferious accidents than fimilar injuries
of the fclerotic coat, which are almoft unavoidably com-
bined with a wound of the choroides and retina. Hence,
the latter cafes are frequently followed by a confidevable
degree of inflammation. Sometimes the cryftalline lens
itfelf is injured, and afterwards grows opaque.

Incifions made in the tranfparent cornea with very fliarp
inftruments may not give rife to any ferious confequences ;
and notwithftanding the efcape of the aqueous humour, the
cryftalline lens and vitreous humour may remain in their
natural fituation. The form, thicknefs, and denfity of the
cornea are circumftances which produce a fpontaneous ap-
proximation of the edges of the wound to each other, and
which, in faft, are extenfively in contaft. But the co-
aptation is rendered very exaft, and a quick re-union much
promoted, by drajving down the upper eye-lid, fo as to (hut
the eye ; in which ftate, the cartilaginous tarfus of the
upper eye-Ud makes an uniform compreflion on the cornea,
in a manner which is extremely ufeful. Cuts of the fclerotica
are not in general fo Cmple. The choroides and retina may
be at the fame time either divided or expofed. In the firft:
cafe, the expulfion of the whole of the vitreous humour,
and a total diforganization of the eye, are to be apprehended
from the immediate fpafmodic contraftion of the raufcles of
this organ ; and, in the fecond, a violent and dangerous
ophthahny is to be expefted. When, in the inftance of a
large wound of the fclerotica, choroides, and retnia, the
contents of the eye-ball are difcharged, the organ inflames,
and gradually (brinks into a much f mailer mafs, which is
moveable, and capable of fupporting an artificial eye.

Contufed wounds of the eye-ball are moftly followed by
a dettruftion of the funftions of the organ, either in confe-
quence of the concuflion of the retina, or of the inflammation
to which thefe injuries ufually give rife. However, in a few
cafes, even contufed wounds of the eye have united very
favourably, and without the lofs of vifion. Sometimes the
folution of continuity extends through the fclerotica, while
the conjun6tiva itfelf is not ruptured. Delpech affirms, that
he has feen feveral fuch cafes, in which the latter membrane
prefented the appearance of an ecchymofis oppofite the divi-
fion of the fclerotica, and confined the humours of the eye,
which othcrwife would have been loft. Precis des Maladies
Chir. torn. i. p. 349.

Nothing is more hkely than gun-lhot wounds to produce
a violent concufiiion of the retina, and an incurable paralyfis
of this nervous expanfion. The fmalleft particle of lead,
which either ftrikes or penetrates the eye-ball, may occafion
thofe effefts. Every other fevere contufion of the eye may
aft in the fame way. When the extravafation of blood ori-
ginating from an accident of this kind is not attended with a
ferious concuifion of the retina, the eS"ufed blood will be
abforbed, and the funftions of the eye reftored.

In all cafes of wounds of the eye, fays M. Delpech,
there are three fundamental indications ; firft, to prevent
the expulfion of the vitreous humour and cryftaUine lens ;
fecondly, to promote the quick re -union of the wound by
placing its edges very accurately together ; and tlurdly, to

do

WOUNDS.

<Jo every itiiiig in our power to avert inflammation. The two
firft objefts cannot be fulfilled without keeping the eye-lids
continually clofed. The prompt re-union of the wound is
one of the molt effectual means of preventing inflammation ;
but when this aifeclion cannot be entirely hindered, it is to
be refilled by the kind of treatment which is explained in
the article Ophthalmy.

Wounds made with pointed inftruments may pafs through
the eye-lids into the orbit, and thence through the thin
bones which compofe this cavity into the brain ; or the
weapon may penetrate direftly between the eye-ball and fide
sf the orbit into the brain. Injuries of this defcription ge-
nerally prove fatal on the fpot, though fometimes the patient
lingers for a few hours.

In many inftances, an injury by a ball, inflifted in the
neighbourhood of one eye, produces paralyfis of the other.
" Pierre RoufTUlier, of the 25th regiment of the line, in the
fervice of Napoleon, (fays Mr. Hennen,) was wounded on
the 1 8th of June, at Waterloo. The ball entered the right
;ye ; the left, though not in the flighteft degree injured to
ippearance, was completely blind. Rare, however, are the
:afes where death does not follow all wounds, particularly
fmall punftured ones, going direftly forward into the orbit,
as this did. I felt under the zygoma, and all along the
neighbourhood of this poor fellow's wound ; but in the
puffy (tate of the parts could not deleft the courfe of the
ball. He himfelf was confident it had gone into his brain.
He returned to France convalefcent. Garengeot (Traite
des Operations, vol. iii. obf. 20.) gives us an interefting
cafe from the lefturesof Petit, in which a foldier received a
wound towards the great angle of the eye. It was deemed
but of little confequence, and healed under the common
hofpital treatment. The man expreffed a wifh to leave the
liofpital, although cautioned by the furgcon, and had fcarcely
reached the door when he was feized with rigors, obliged to
return, and died in two days. On diffeftion, the ball was
found lodged under the fphenoid cells and the hole of the
optic nerve. The effeft on this man's fight is not men-
tioned." Hennen's Obf. on Military Surgery, p. 360.

Wounds of the lower part of the forehead, or eye-brow,
arc fometimes followed by the diforder named piofis, in which
the upper eye-lid hangs down more or lefs over the eye ; but
more commonly they give rife to an oppofite complaint,
called lagophthalmus, in which, from a contraftion of the
cicatrix, the Ikin is drawn up, and the upper eye-lid cannot
be made to cover the eye. See ihofe terms.

Wounds of the eye-brows fometimes caufe a fpecies of
blindnefs named the gutta ferena. This confequence is
commonly thought to be owing to an injury of the nervous
filament, which comes out of the orbit at the notch in the
fuperciliary ridge. It is very probable, however, that the
affeftion of the eye is not altogether dependent on the
injury of the nerve ; for the blindnefs very often occurs when
the cut is not fituated near the track of the nerve, and fre-
quently does not occur when the nerve is known to be
wounded. According to Richter, it is when the wound is
nearly or quite healed that the event is moft likely to
happen.

Scarpa has fet dow-n the gutta ferena, arifing from an in-
jury of the fupra-orbitary nerve, as abfolutely incurable ;
but we know that this Itatement is not altogether corrtft ;
for Mr. Hey has recorded in the Med. Obf. and Inquiries,
vol. v. an example of amaurofis which got well, though it
originated from a wound of the eye-brow. See Gutta
Serena.

Mr.Hennen fays, he has met with one or two cafes of amau-
rofis from wounds of the fupra-orbitary nerve. The per-

feft divifion of the nerve did no good ; but after fome lime
the eye partially recovered. On Military Surgery, p. 366.

Wounds of the eye-lids fcarcely admit of an effeftual ap-
plication of adhefive plaller, and their edges are generally
brought together with a future. There are fome prafti-
tioners, however, and amongil them is M. Delpech, who
confider the ufe of futures, even in thefe cafes, quite unne-
ceffary. Precis des Maladies Chir. torn. i. p. 346.

Sabre-ftrokes, direfted obliquely downward againft the
face, very often produce a wound with a flap, which thould
be immediately laid down in its proper fituation again.
When the flap i? large and mufcular, Richter thinks it beft
to ufe a future at one or two points, as the ftrips of adhe-
five plafter are apt to become difplaced, efpecially if the pa-
tient is reft:lefs, and then the flap of flcin, not being fufB-
ciently retained, flips downwards, and the part is not healed
without deformity. However, it certainly has always ap-
peared to us that a future in this inftance may be difpenfed
with, if care be taken to aflift: the effeft of the adhefive
plafter with a comprefs and bandage. Firft Lines of the
Praftice of Surgery, p. 291. edit. 3.

Sabre-wounds fometimes break and fplinter the bones of
the face. The frafture, however, feldom extends far, be-
caufe moft of thefe bones are foft and fpongy. Notwith-
ftanding fuch injury of the bones, the wound of the foft
parts frequently admits of being united, if care be taken to
extraft all the fplinters, and put the furfaces of the divifion
of the bones as evenly together as poffible. Unlefs the
fragments are quite detached they fliould never be taken
away, but be replaced as well as circumftances vnll permit.
Their removal is not an eafy matter, it oceafions an unplea-
fant disfigurement, and experience proves that all divifion*
of the bones of the face heal with particular readinefs.
(Anfanfgr. der Wundarzneykunft, b.ii. p. 244. edit. 3.)
A very terrible fabre-wound of the face is recorded by Mr.
Hennen. The weapon ftruck an officer nearly acrois the
eyes, one of which it deftroyed ; it then divided the parts
downwards and inwards to fuch an extent, that the pharynx
could be feen. Yet the injury healed in a very favourable
manner, as indeed do all wounds of the face, owing to its
great vafcularity. See Obf. on Mihtary Surgery, p. 370. •

In fome horrid cafes, where the lower jaw is fwept away
by a cannon-fliot, life is preferved ; but, in general, the pa-
tient finks under the accumulated tortures of his fituation.
" It isftill, however, ourduty,"as Mr. Hennenobferves, " to
try every expedient ; and after the ragged parts and fplinters
of bone are removed, the veffels within reach fecured, and
the fuppurating procefs fairly eftabUlhed, we may endeavour
to aflift nature, faithfully following any effort (he may make
to fill up the chafm, but without allowing ourfelves to count
upon a fhowy or complete cure." (Op. cit. p. 373.) This
gentleman faw a horrid-looking cafe, in which nearly one half
of the face was carried away by a round fiiot at Waterloo, in
a very fair progrefs of contraftion. Larrey has likewife re-
corded a fimilar cure ; and the writer of this article once
witnefled in Holland a moft extraordinary recovery of the
fame nature. It was the cafe of a foldier, wounded at the
affault of Bergen-op-Zoom, in 18 14, who was afterwards
brought into one of the military hofpitals of Oudenbofch.
All the lower jaw, and a large part of the upper, were in this
inftance completely torn away. There was very httle he-
morrhage, and no vcfTels required the ligature.

For fome obfervations on wounds of the tongue, we beg
to refer to the article Tongue.

When a part of the nofe is divided, but not entirely de-
tached, it is the duty of the furgcon to replace it as expedi-
tioufly as poffible. When adhefive plafter does not appear to

be

WOUNDS.

be capable of fecuring'the part in its proper fituation, a future
may be employed. Writers ufually advife keeping the nof-
trils pervious with foft flexible tubes, chiefly with a view of
giving vent to the mucus which is fecreted by the inflamed
Schneiderian membrane, and which, if it could not readily
efcape, might prove exceedingly annoying to the patient.
Putting out of the queftion Garengeot's extraordinary cafe,
and a few others to which we have already adverted in a pre-
vious part of this article, we have many fafts on record,
proving not only that moft incifed wounds of the nofe ad-
mit of union, but alfo that contufed ones, attended with an
abnotl complete detachment of the part, may often be
united. In one inftance, the cartilaginous portion of a
young man's nofe was nearly bit off by a horfe, the fepa-
rated piece only hanging by a thin portion of llcin ; yet
after being replaced, and three ilitches made, the part was
united without any material deformity. Richter's Chir.
Bibhothek, 6 band, fcite 538, and Cooper's Firft Lines of
Surgery, p. 282. edit. 3.

As the parotid duft pafles beneath the integuments of the
cheek over the mafleter mufcle, it is much expofed to
wounds, which, if not properly treated, end in what are
termed falivary fiftulae. Having confidered this fubjeft in a
feparate article, (fee Salivary Fistula,) we (hall not dwell
upon it at prefent. A late writer informs us, that in injuries
01 the parotid duft he has fometimes derived advantage from
making the divifion complete by a clean incifion acrofs the
duft into the mouth, and clofely bringing together the edges
of the wound on the outfide of the cheek. The natural
flow of faliva into the mouth kept the wound from healing
up on the infide of the cheek. Hyinen's Military Surgery,

P- 374-

With refpeft to wounds of the external ear, experience
has fully proved that they are cafes which ufually terminate
favourably. Incifed wounds and fabre-cuts of the ear moftly
heal extremely well. Ravaton has recorded a cafe in which
the ear united again, although it had been nearly feparated
from the head ; and another inftance of fuch fuccefs is men-
tioned in Cooper's Dift. of Surgery, art. Wounds. Thefe
and many other fafts which might be quoted leave no doubt
of the propriety of always making an attempt to unite
parts, whenever the leaft conneftion between them remains.

Surgical authors differ in their ftatements about theeffefts
of the total lofs of the external ear upon the power of hear-
ing. Thus it is afierted by M. Richerand, that the exter-
nal ear, which is a fort of inftrument calculated for concen-
trating the rays of found, may be totally cut off without
deafnefs being the confequence. For a few days after the
lofs, he fays, the hearing is rather hard ; but the infirmity
gradually diminiflies, the increafed fenfibility of the audi-
tory nerve compenfates for the imperfeftion of the organic
apparatus, and the acutenefs of the fenfeis entirely reftored.
(Richerand, Nofographie Chirurgicale, torn. ii. p. 122.
edit. 2.) However, if we are to credit the ftatement of
other writers, the recovery is far lefs complete than M. Ri-
cherand reprefents it to be. Thus Lefchevin notices, that
fhey who have loft the external ear, or have it naturally too
flat, or ill-ftiaped, have the hearing lefs fubtile. The defeft
can only be remedied by an artificial ear, or an ear-trumpet,
which receiving a large quantity of the fonorous rays,
and direfting them towards the m.eatus auditorius, thus
does the office of the external part of the ear. Prix de
I* Acad. Royale de Chirurgie, torn. ix. p. 120. edit. i2mo.

Wounds of the external ear, whatever may be their fize and
fliape, do not require a different treatment from that of the
generality of other wounds. The re-union of the divided part
it the only indication, and it may be in moft inftances eafily

fulfilled by means of methodical dreflings. Such writers at
have recommended futures for wounds of the ear, ( fays Le-
fchevin, ) have founded this advice upon the difficulty of ap-
plying to the part a bandage that will keep the edges of the
wound exaftly together. The cranium, however, affords a
firm and equal furface, againft which the external ear may
be conveniently fixed. Certainly, it is not more eafy to fe-
cure dreflings on the nofe than the ear ; and yet cafes are re-
corded in which the cartilaginous part of the nofe was
wounded, and almoft entirely feparated, and the union was
etfefted without the aid of futures. See Mem. de M. Pibrac
fur I'Abus des Sutures, in Mem. de I'Acad. de Chir.
torn. iii.

In wounds of the ear, then, we may conclude that futures
are generally ufelefs and unneceflary. As examples may
oecur, however, in which the wound may be fo irregular and
confiderable as not to admit of being accurately united,
except by this means, it fliould not be abfolutely rejefted.
An enlightened furgeon will not abandon altogether any
curative plans ; he only points out their proper utility, and
keeps them within the right limits. When fticking-plafter,
fimple dreflings, and a bandage, that makes moderate pref-
fure, appear infufficient for keeping the edges of a wound
of the ear in due contaft, the judicious praftitioner will not
hefitate to employ futures.

When a bandage is applied to the external ear, it fhould
only be put on with moderate tightnefs, fince much preflure
gives confiderable uneafinefs, and may induce (loughing of
the partv In order to prevent thefe difagreeable effefts,
M. Lefchevin advifes us to fill the fpace behind the ear with
foft wool or cotton, againil which the part may be com-
prefled without rifk. Op. cit. p. 119.

In the application of futures, the ancients have cautioned
us to avoid carefully the cartilage, and to few feparately,
one after the other, the fliin of both fides of the ear. They
were fearful, that pricking the cartilage would make it mor-
tify, " ce qui eft fouvente-fois arriv6," fays Pare. But
not^vithftanding fo refpeftable an authority, the moderns
make no fcruple about fewing cartilages. In wounds of the
nofe, Verduc exprefsly direfts the fliin and cartilage to be
pierced at once in applying futures, and the fuccefs of the
plan is put out of all doubt by a multitude of fafts. The
fame treatment may alfo be fafely extended to the ear. See
Lefchevin's Obf. in Op. cit., and Cooper's Dift. of Praft.
Surgery, art. Ear.

Wounds of the Throat. — As Mr. John Bell has obferred,
there are feveral anatomical points which fliould be well
remembered by the furgeon in all cafes of wounds about the
throat. Firft, it is to be recoUefted, that the arch of the
aorta lies in the upper part of the cheft in front of the tra-
chea ; and that where the carotid arteries come out of the
cheft to go up along the neck, they are fcarcely at the fides
of the trachea ; they rather run before it. But, that as the
arteries mount up the neck, they incline more to the fide of
the trachea ; and that at the upper part of the neck, they
are entirely behind that tube ; for they inchne towards
the angle of the lower jaw, and having reached it, they
begin there to give off^ their branches both to the head and
neck. Hence we fee the reafon why a wound at the lower
part of the neck is very often fatal, while a wound higher
up is generally lefs dangerous. The fuicide feldom ftrikes
at the lower part of the neck ; and it is from the accidental
circumftance of his cutting very high up, near the chin,
that the carotids efcape.

Secondly, as the fame author has explained, it ftiould be

remembered, that the carotid artery, the great jugular vein,

and the par vagum, or eighth pair of nerves, lie very clofely

12 connefted

WOUNDS.

conne<Sled with each other, being all inclofed in one mafs of
cellular fubftance, which forms fomething like a fheath for
them. Now, fays Mr. John Bell, fince this eighth pair is
one of the greatelt nerves of the vifcera, and fince, by ex-
periments upon animals, we know well that a wound of it is
more fatal than a wound of the brain itfelf, this puts an end
at once to all queftions about the way of managing wounds
of the carotid artery, or of the great vein. No doubt thefe
may fometimes be partially wounded and the nerve efcape ;
but, in general, the nerve will be cut along with them ; and,
at all events, the fatal confequences which would arife from
including this nerve in a ligature, make it abfolutely necef-
faiy that whenever the carotid is tied, it be firft carefully
feparated from every other part. See John Bell's Difcourfes
on Wounds, p. 415. edit. 3.

That the internal jugular vein, or the carotid artery itfelf,
may fometimes be partially injured, without a wound of the
par vagum, or the patient inttantly perifhing, has now been
fully proved. The writer of this article knew of a cafe, which
happened in the campaign in Holland in 1 814, where the in-
ternal jugular vein was ruptured by the paffage of a muflcet-
ball down the neck ; and yet the patient lived more than an
hour after the accident, and when he died it was from fuf-
focation, in confequence of the prefFure of a large mafs of
extravafated blood upon the trachea. M. Larrey has related
a very fingular cafe : an officer received a gun-lhot wound,
which cut the external carotid at iis feparation from the in-
ternal, and in its paffage through the parotid gland. Pref-
furc made by an intelligent foldier at the moment, and
fubfequent bandages, faved the patient. (See Memoires de
Chir. Militaire. ) This cafe is fingular, becaufe it is very
uncommon for hemorrhage from fo large a vefiel as the ex-
ternal carotid to be permanently flopped by fimple prelTure,
nor Ihould we recommend the method to be imitated ; for
there is not in all furgery a better rule than that of trufting
only to the ligature in every wound of a great artery. Mr.
Hennen, however, informs us, that he knew of an Enghfh
officer, who was alfo faved in India from the effefts of an
arrow wound in the carotid by the fame means. (Obf. on
Military Surgery, p. i8o. ) Such a mode of treatment we
believe would fail a thoufand times in fucceffion ; and the
alleged cures would be more valuable, if it were always
' quite impoffible to miftake hemorrhage from a branch for a
' bleeding from the trunk itfelf.

' The writer of this article is acquainted with an army
I furgeon, in whofe veracity he pcrfcdlly confides, who ftates,
] that he was once called to a foldier who had wounded the
•trunk of the carotid with a bayonet. The vefl'el was in-
' ftantly taken up, and the man's life faved. In a modern
' publication may alfo be found anotlier example, in which
I the carotid burlt, and was taken up on the Ipot by Mr.
' Fleming, a naval furgeon. See Medico-Chir. Journal, vol. iii.
Ip. 2.

! Without pofitively maintaining, as Mr. J. Bell does, that
'it is impoffible to cut through the trachea fo as to open the
jCefophagus, without wounding the carotid artery, the jugu-
jlar vein, and the eighth pair of nerves, we join him in be-
ilieving that fuch an accident muft be exceedingly rare.
I How then are we to explain the many alleged cures which
lare faid to have been effefted, notwithftanding the windpipe
land oefophagus are ftated to have been both cut through ?
I We are to account for thefe extraordinary narratives in the
j manner fo well pointed out by Mr. John Bell. " The faft
.is (fays he), that neither the refophagus nor the trachea is
I touched in the lead degree, but the wound is much above
I them ; for a fuicide always ftrikes immediately under the
jchrn. This wound, as far as I have obferved, commonly
I Vol. XXXVIII.

falls in the line which divides the neck from the chin ; that
is, the place where the os hyoides lies, and he commonly
cuts the OS hyoides away from its connexion with the thy-
roid cartilage, or pomum Adami. In that cafe, the thyroid
cartilage, forming the uppermoll part of the larynx, is not
touched ; the rima glottidis lies below the wound quite fafe.
The wound indeed feparates the epiglottis from the glottis ;
but it leaves the glottis and the larynx quite fafe. It only
feparates the larynx from the root of the tongue ; it is
properly a wound in the root of the tongue ; it is rather a
wound of the mouth than of the throat ; and when the food
comes out, along with fpittle and froth, it is by rolling over
the root of the tongue." On Wounds, p. 417.

That, however, the trachea and oefophagus may be both
cut in a few cafes, without immediate death from hemor-
rhage, we decidedly believe, becaufe there are too many
fads on record to admit of any doubt on the fubjeft. See
Default's Journal and Saviard, obf. 58. Hennen's Mili-
tary Surgery, p. 386.

In thefe high wounds of the throat, it is the fuperior
thyroid artery which is moft frequently cut. This veflel,
after quitting the external carotid at the angle of the jaw,
paffes along the fide of the upper part of the trachea, in-
clining forward towards the thyroid gland in its defcent,
and being therefore much expofed to the edge of the razor.
The bleeding from this artery is profufe, and if not
fpeedily ftopped is as fatal as hemorrhage from the carotid
itfelf. In fome of thefe cafes, the bleeding alfo proceeds
from branches of the lingual artery.

Wounds of the carotid artery, or jugular vein, cona-
monly prove immediately fatal from lofs of blood, before
any affiftance can be obtained. If a furgeon, however,
were to arrive in time to render aid, it would be his duty
immediately to apply a ligature both^below and above the
wound of the vefTel. This is the only plan which affords
any chance of faving the patient's life, and, as we have al-
ready noticed, it has actually been done with fuccefs in a few
uncommon inllances, in which the furgeon was not too late.
In pafTing the ligatures beneath either of thofe veffels
great caution is requifite ; for the eighth pair of nerves lies
clofe to it, included in the fame fheath of cellular fubftance,
and the inclufion of fo important a nerve in the ligature
would have fatal confequences. Its fituation on the out-
fide of the artery, between it and the jugular vein, fhould
therefore be always carefully remembered. According to
Richter, the internal jugular vein has aftually been tied with
fuccefs. Small wounds of the fame vefTel, if we are to
credit the accounts of this author, may fometimes be healed
by means of a graduated comprefs, which muft be retained
on the part with a bandage, or, if that prove irkfome, with
the finger. One thing, however, is effential ; namely, the
prcfTure muft on no account be remitted, until the wound in
the veflel is clofed. Richter's Anfangfgr. der Wundarzn.
b. iv. p. 173., and Cooper's Firfb Lines of Surgery, p. 386.
edit. 3.

M. Pelletan once faw a wound of the throat, which
proved fatal in confequence of hemorrhage from the exter-
nal jugular veins ; and the fame eminent furgeon met with
another curious inftance, in which a boy, who was conva-
lefcent after a cut of his throat, fuddenly fell down in a
ftate of fuffocation and died : on examining the parts after
death, it was dil'covered, that the left fide of the epiglottis
had been detached from the glottis and root of the tongue,
and that in this loofe unconnefted ftate it had fallen upon
the rima glottidis, and clofed it fo completely as to caufe
inftantaneous fuffocation. See Leveille's Nouvelle Doftrine

Chir, torn. i. p. 342, 343.

5 B Wounds

WOUNDS.

Wounds of the trachea are either fimple or complicated.
In both defcriptions of cafes, the ufual fymptoms are, an
emiffion of air between the Ups of the wound, lofs of the
voice, and fometimes emphyfema. Such injuries of the
windpipe as are not comphcated either with hemorrhage,
emphyfema, or lofs of fubftance, may for the moll part be
eafily cured by means analogous to thofe which are em-
ployed for the cure of wounds in general. The re-union is
ftill more eafily accoraplifhed, when the trachea is divided
longitudinally, than when it is cut tranfverfely. If the
wound be of a certain fize, and attended with hemorrhage,
the firft indication is to tie the bleeding veffels, and, in par-
ticular, to obviate the inconvenience and danger which
would refult from the infinuation of the effufed blood into
the windpipe ; an occurrence which has fometimes proved
fatal. (Wilmer's Cafes and Remarks in Surgery, p. 92. )
In order to prevent fuch an unfavourable event, fome fur-
gical writers recommend the external wound not to be
clofed while any oozing of blood continues, fo that this
fluid may readily find an external outlet, inftead of falling
into the trachea. (LafTus, Pathologie Chir. tom. ii. p. 291. )
To us it appears, that the beft mode of preventing the
occurrence is to bring the edges of the wound of the tra-
chea into contaft by a fuitable pofition of the patient's head,
and, if requifite, even by a future.

The greater fenfibility of the larynx, its complicated
ftrufture, and the number and fize of its blood-veflels, ceteris
paribus, render wounds of it much more dangerous than
thofe of the trachea. In the firft volume of the Memoires
de I'Acad. de Chirurgie in 410. many cafes may be con-
fulted which furnifli proofs of this obfervation. In general,
however, wounds of the thyroid cartilage heal very favour-
ably, when not accompanied with injury of other important
parts.

Tranfverfe wounds, dividing oiJy the anterior half of the
upper part of the trachea, ufually have a favourable termi-
nation, and when the cafes are of this defcription, the
carotids and jugular veins for the moll part efcape injury.
Gun-fiiot wounds of the trachea are more dangerous, but
experience proves that they alfo frequently end well.

The greater number of tranfverfe wounds of the trachea,
which have not divided this tube completely through, readily
admit of cure by the ftrift obfervance of a proper pofition.
When tlie patient's chin is brought downward and forward
towards the ilornum, and the head is maintained in tliis pof-
ture with pillows, the edges of the wound in the trachea
become fpontaneoufly approximated to each other, and in
time will grow together.

The manner in which the employment of futures aggra-
vates the cougli, and iriflames the wound, often neceflitates
the furgeon to withdraw theni when they have been applied.
It may alfo be truly afferted, that befides the irritation
which they create in the trachea as extraneous fubftances,
they are (to fay the beft of them) very unnecefiary. No-
thing has a greater tendency to impede the union of a wound
of the trachea than the dillurbance of a frequent convulfive
cough ; and the irritation of futures always increafes this
hurtful fymptom in a much greater degree than they can do
good by maintaining the edges of the wound in contadl. In
faft, unlefs the greater portion of the diameter of the tra-
chea be divided, there never can be fuch a fpace between
the edges of the wound, that they cannot be brought to-
gether with the affiftsnce of a judicious pnftiire of the
head.

When the patient is much afflifted with incelTant cough-
ing, and the inflamed Itate of the wounded parts appears to
operate as the caufe of this difagreeable fymptom, relief is

to be obtained from bleeding, and the exhibition of foothing
and aperient medicines. In cafes in which no particular
local irritation can be fufpedled of giving rife to the cough,
the furgeon may prefcribe the almond emulfion, fpermaceti
mixture, and opium, which will frequently be found reme-
dies of the moil decided efficacy.

In order to prevent the entrance of the difcharge and
blood into the trachea in particular inftances, the plan has
been tried of making the patient lie on his fide, with liis
face turned downwards. (See Mem. de I'Acad. de Chir.
tom. i. p. 581.) But, although the cafe here referred to
ended well, we believe, as already explained, that nothing
prevents the entrance of blood or matter into the trachea fo
effeftually as keeping the edges of the wound of this tube
accurately in contaft, which is to be principally effefted by
bringing the chin down towards the breaft. This is an
objeft which is far more difficult of accompliftiment, where
the patient lies on his fide, than when he remains, as is moft
ufual, upon his back.

When a wound has detached the upper portion of the
trachea from the lower one, and it is not immediately fatal
from the injury of other important parts, the bleeding velFels
are firft to be tied, and the two ends of the trachea are then
to be brought into contadl. In this fort of cafe, we believe
that the employment of a future is warrantable, on account
of the immenfe feparation of the divided parts, and the in-
efEcacy of pofition alone to prevent it. But, even in fuch a
cafe, one ftitch will be quite enough when the chin is pro-
perly approximated to the fternum, and the needle ftiould
never be introduced through the membranous lining of the
windpipe, as it is very fenfible, and much difpofed to inflam-
mation.

The hoarfenefs and weaknefs of the voice, fometimes
remaining after the wound is healed, often gradually dif-
appear.

Many furgical writers recommend the patient to refrain
from making forcible expirations, and from drawing the
head fuddenly backwards, for a certain time after the wound
is healed. By fuch caules, it is alferted, the recent coa- ™
lefcence of the wound may be eafily deftroyed. H

Wounds made with bullets, which ftrike the fide of the
neck and lacerate the trachea, have frequently been ob-
ferved to terminate well. (Mem. de I'Acad. de Chir. tom. iii,
p. 151, &c. edit. i2mo. ) Ravaton mentions feveral in-
ftances, which not only got well, but were alfo followed by
a recovery of the voice.

Sutures are not applicable to thefe cafes. A ftrift adop- :
tion of the pofition recommended above, and the application
of an emollient poultice contained in a fine linen bag, are
the chief local chirurgical meafures. The ufe of leeches, :
venefeftion, faline medicines, and antiphlogiftic remedies
of every defcription, will alfo be generally proper. (See
Firft Lines of Surgery, p. 387. edit. 3.) Opium is like-
wife not to be forgotten as an extremely ufeful medicine in
cafes of wounds about the throat : it not only appeafes the
cough with which fuch injuries are often accompanied, but
tends to quiet the great mental and nervous anxiety which
in examples of attempted fuicide cxifted previous to the in-
fliftion of the wound, and generally continues for fome time
afterwards in a very aggravated degree. Indeed, many of
the unhappy perfons who attempt to deftroy themfelves by
cutting their throats, ftill retain for a good while after the J
failure of the firft attempt, a determination to take another i
opportunity of accomplilhing their fatal purpofe ; hence . 1
fuch patients cannot be too clofely watched, and nothing j
like a razor or a knife (hould ever be put within their
reach. The neceffity of a conftant vigilant attendant is

alfo

WOUNDS.

ftlfo necefiary, in order to hinder the dreflings from being
pulled off, and the wound torn open again, by the reftlefs
movements or aftual violence of the patient.

In cafes in which the whole diameter of the trachea is cut
through, the French furgeons have propofed the introduc-
tion of a flexible catheter from one of the noitrils into the
larynx and trachea, in order to infure a paflage for refpira-
tion, which, they fay, without this means is liable to be
completely intercepted when the outer wound is clofed, in
confequence of the two portions of the windpipe being
drawn away from each and not correfponding. ( Richerand,
Nofogr. Chir. t. iv. p. 170. edit. 4.) This, however, would
not be the pra£lice to which we (hould give a preference ;
firtt, becaufe the introduftion of a flexible catheter is a
thing which cannot always be accompliftied with facility ;
fecondly, becaufe its ufe in this way is conftantly produftive
of confiderable irritation ; and, thirdly, becaufe we deem
the employment of a future the bed means of hindering one
part of the trachea from becoming feparated far from the
other, and thus of infuring a paflage for refpiration.

With refpeft, however, to the introduftion of a flexible
catheter from one of the noftrils into the oefophagus, for the
purpofe of giving food and medicines to the patient, with-
out any motion or difl:urbance of the wounded parts, we
confider the method entitled to the highefl; praife in all cafes
of ferious wounds, either of the larynx, the trachea, or the
cefophagus. When a perfon fwallows, the mufcles con-
cerned in the elevation and depreflion of the larynx aft in a
fudden convulfive kind of manner, and caufe a mofl; inju-
rious difturbance of the wound. But when nourifliment
and medicines are injefted into the ftomach through a
flexible tube, introduced from one of the noftrils down the
oefophagus, this hurtful aftion of the mufcles is entirely
prevented ; the inftrument may be kept there without any
annoyance or irritation, and the requifite quantity of ali-
ment, and whatever internal remedies may be indicated, can
be given with the utmoft convenience. We confider this
ufe of flexible catheters as conftituting a very material im-
provement in the treatment of fevere wounds of the throat.
The military furgeon, in particular, fiiould never be without
thefe inftruments ; and whoever has read the relations of M.
Larrey, in hia Menioires de Chirurgie Militaire, will fee,
that fometimes in bad wounds of the throat, the patient's
chance of recovery depends almoft entirely upon the aid to
be derived from the ficilful employment of an elaftic gum
tube.

Wounds of the cefophagus may either amount to a total
or partial divifion of that tube ; they may be either with
or without a total divifion of the trachea ; and with or
without injury of other important parts in the vicinity.
Hence fuch wounds are fometimes abfolutely fatal ; and, in
general, when they admit of cure, nature has a greater
(hare than art in bringing it about. Some benefit, how-
ever, is to be derived from good furgery, and infinite harm
may refult from bad.

A total divifion of the oefophagus mufl; prove imme-
diately fatal. The inevitable fimultaneous injury of other
important parts would render fuch a cafe at once mortal.
The celebrated Pruflian furgeon, Schmucker, has treated
fmall wounds of the pharynx and upper part of the oefo-
phagus with fuccefs. Wounds dividing half or even two-
thirds of the tube are alfo ftated to have been cured.
(Mem. de I'Acad. de Chir. torn. iii. p. 151. edit. izmo. )
The poflibility or impoflibility of a cure muft obvioufly de-
pend upon what other parts of confequence are injured.

Jncifed wounds, which divide the front of the oefophap;us,
iT.ull derive iidditi0n.1l danger from the fimultaneous divifion

of the whole circle of the trachea ; and, iiuleed, fo much
would the internal jugular vein, par vagum, and carotid
artery, be expofed to the edge of the knife in a cut of this
kind, that it is difficult to conceive how they can ever
efcape. Mr. John Bell, as we have feen, believed that they
never could ; and were it not for the many examples pub -
lirtied, fome of them by fuch a man as Default, and for an
inftance which was lately in St. Bartholomew's hofpital, we
(hould have joined Mr. J. Bell in thinking, that all re-
ports of this kind were miftakes, arifing from the wound
extending through the root of the tongue into the mouth,
and not aftually injuries of the cefophagus itfelf.

A punftured wound, penetrating the fide of the oefopha-
gus, may not be comphcated with injury of the trachea,
and therefore may not be attended with fo much peril as an
incifion. But although ftabs injuring the oefophagus are
not regularly and certainly mortal, they are always to be
regarded as dangerous cafes.

Should the cafe be one of thofe fortunate incifed wounds
which leave the great veflels uncut, though the injury of
the oefophagus be complicated with a complete divifion of
the trachea, the furgeon can leffen the fpace between the
edges of the wound in the oefophagus by bringing the
divided portions of the trachea together. This effeft muft
refult from the manner in which the pofterior part of
the windpipe ia connefted with the cefophagus. But for
this purpofe, a future is only to be ufed in fuch a ftate of
the wounded trachea as amounts to a total divifion of the
tube ; for in all other cafes, a proper pofition of the head,
and the ufe of adhefive plafter to the external wound, ftiould
be the means with which the furgeon ought to be content,
with a view of bringing the margins of the wound of the
trachea near to each other.

In cafes of wounds of the oefophagus, it was recom-
mended, as long fince as the time of Ravaton, to injeft
nourifliment and medicines into the ftomach, through a
fmooth tube of a fuitable fize, introduced down the
pharynx. In one cafe of paralyfis of the oefophagus,
which occurred in this country, a fmaU frefli eel-(kin
was pafFed down this canal, by means of a whale-bone pro-
bang, in order that medicines and food might be injefted
into the ftomach. ( Hunter, in Tranf. for the Improve-
ment of Med. and Chirurgical Knowledge.) The many
cafes, however, in which Default advantageoufly employed
an elaftic gum catheter for the fame objefts had a principal
influence in eftabhftiing the praftice. The inftrument was
introduced through one of the noftrils, and was often left
in the cefophagus for feveral days together. ( See CEuvres
Chir. de Default par Bichat, torn. ii. ) The introduftion
of elaftic gum catheters down the pharynx and oefophagus
is not only highly neceflary in examples of paralyfis, and
wounds of thofe paffages, but it is an exceedingly ufeful prac-
tice in wounds of the trachea, where the convulfive aftion
of the mufcles in deglutition would otherwife create a very
hurtful difturbance of the injured parts. (Firft Lines of
Surgery, p. 38, 39. edit. 3.) The praftice is alfo fometimes
abfolutely neceflary in many complicated wounds about the
face, fuch as thofe produced by the difcharge of a piftol
into the mouth, and attended with extenfive laceration of
the tongue, cheeks, and fauces, and a comminuted frac-
ture of the lower and upper jaw-bones. We believe, in-
deed, that in all fraftures of the lower jaw, the introduftion
of a flexible catheter from one of the noftrils into the oefo-
phagus is an extremely judicious meafure, becaufe the
aftion of deglutition has a greater effieft in difplacing the
broken bone and difturbing the procefs of union than aiiy
other circumftance.

5 B 2 Gun-

WOUNDS.

Gun-(hot wounds of the neck fometimes occafion an im-
mediate lofs of the ufe of the arm on the affefted fide ; a
circumftance which may in general be accounted for by the
injury of fome of the cervical nerves, in their defcent to and
from the axillary plexus. See Hennen's Military Sur-
gery, p- 378, and Thomfon's Report of Obfervations made
in the Mihtary Hofpitals in Belgium, p. 75, 76.

IVounds of the Thorax, or Chejl — Some of thefe injuries
penetrate the cavity of the thorax ; others arc more fuper-
ficial, only affefting the fl<in and mufcles, and not extending
through the pleura coftalis. When the latter cafes are
produced by (harp-cutting inftruments, and the only indi-
cation is to accomphlh an union of the divided parts, as
happens in incifed wounds of the ikin, latifTimus dorfi, peAo-
ralis major, &c. fuch injuries are not materially different
from any fimple wounds of other parts of the body, and
require a fimUar mode of treatment.

But where much violence has been applied to the pa-
rietes of the cheil, and the concuffion has operated fo for-
cibly as to affeft the heart, lungs, and other important
organs, the wound, although fimple in appearance and not
penetrating the cheft, may neverthelefs be followed by
alarming fymptoms, either at firft or confecutively ; fuch as
inflammation of the lungs, fpitting of blood, and difficulty
of breathing, as is frequently obferved in contufed and gun-
fliot wounds of the parietes of the cheft. A violent blow
on the dorfal vertebrae is alfo faid to have given rife to a
dilatation of the heart, and an aneurifm of the aorta.
Laffus, Pathologic Chir. tom. ii. p. 305.

Thus profeffor Thomfon, in his account of the wounded
whom he obferved after the battle of Waterloo, remarks,
" We faw more inftances than one in which a ball, in palling
acrofs a portion of the parietes of the thorax, without pene-
trating that cavity, had excited an alarming and dangerous
degree of inflammation of the pleura. In one of thefe, the
ball had taken an oblique direftion along the lower part of
one of the fides of the cheft. In another it had ftruck
againll a ftrong leathern belt that was fufpended over the
right ftioulder, made a deep indentation in this belt without
penetrating it, and produced a feverely contufed wound at
the inner extremities of the firft and fecond ribs of the right
fide. This patient fuffered much from inflammation. The
injured portions of the ribs had exfohated and come out,
and the motion of the lungs in infpiration and expiration
was perceptible from the finking and rifing of that part of
the parietes which had been deprived of its bony fupport.
In another remarkable cafe, the ball entered above the
middle of the clavicle, and paffed out at a point direftly
behind. Neither at the firft, nor at the time we faw this
cafe, was there any reafon to believe that the ball had
wounded the pleura. Inflammation, however, of this mem-
brane came on, which terminated in fuppuration. The
operation for empyema was performed, and about four
pints of pus evacuated." Reports of Obf. in the Mil.
Hofpitals in Belgium, p. 82.

In wounds of the cheft, it is often difficult to pronounce
with certainty wliether they peaetrate into the fac of the
pleura ; but all doubts with regard to this point are re-
moved the moment we obferve air coming out of the wound
upon coughing. That the lungs have been wounded may
be inferred with nearly equal correftnefs in every cafe, in
which a perfon fpits blood immediately or foon after re-
ceiving a wound of the cheft.

It rarely happens that a wound penetrates the cavity of
the thorax without producing more or lefs injury of the
lungs, and the danger of the latter accident is in proportion
to its depth, its fituation, and the fize of the weapon with

10

which it was inflifted. A wound of the lungs with a fmall
fword feldom gives rife to much effufion of blood in the
cheft, unlefs fome of the large veffels of thofe organs
happen to be hurt. Putting this circumftance out of pre-
fent confideration, the ufual fymptoms which the puient
fuffers are, a fpitting of blood, cough, and difficulty of
breathing, fucceeded by a good deal of fymptomatic
fever.

" To difcover whether the wound has injured the lungs
or not, ( fays a late writer, } is a point which has given to the
older furgeons great room for employment of their inge-
nuity in devifing poffible cafes, and has occafioned no fmall
wafte of time and wax-tapers in afcertaining the exit of air
through the paffage. A praftical furgeon will require but
little inveftigation ; bloody expeftoration immediately on re-
ceiving the wound, and the terrible fymptoms of dyfpnoea,
fenfe of ftrifture and fuffocation, infupportable anxiety and
faintnefs which fucceed, foon enough difcover the faft ; and
if by good fortune no intimation is given in this way, happy
is the furgeon, and thrice fortunate the patient.

" The immediate danger in wounds of the lungs is either
from debility from hemorrhage, or fuffocation from the
blood flowing into the air-cells and cavity of the thorax.
The effufion of air forming emphyfema is alfo a trouble-
fome, but (as Mr. Hennen believes), taking it abftraftedly,
is not a dangerous fymptom of thofe injuries ; neither (fays
he) is it by any means fo frequent as has been fuppofed.
The fymptoms that I have now enumerated, whether fingle
or in combination, may be deemed the primary effefts of
wounds of the thorax. Violent inflammatory affeftions of
the lungs and the membranes ever fubjeA to relapfe ; long
and tedious fuppurations and exfoUations of the bones are
the fecondary, and though not fo rapidly fatal are often as
certainly fo as the others. Difeafes which, although we
cannot ftriftly call them pulmonary confumption, agree
with it in many points, particularly in cough, emaciation,
debihty, and heftic, are often the confequences." Obf. on
Mihtary Surgery, p. 395.

When the weapon is broad, and it has entered the fubftance
of the lung, the hemorrhage is confiderable ; blood is im-
mediately extravafated in the cavity of the thorax, and alfo
flows out of the external wound ; the patient has a violent
paroxyfm of coughing, in which fome of the blood is ejefted
from the mouth ; the air comes out of the cheft with a
hiffing noife ; and if the outer wound be not parallel to that
of the lungs, emphyfema takes place. As we have already
ftated, the danger of fuch an injury depends upon the depth
of the wound, and the fize of the veffels which are opened.
Some patients recover, while others die inftantly, or in a
very (hort fpace of time.

As an interefting author remarks, it is a thing really
wonderful, " that the thorax, containing the heart, lungs,
and great veffels, ftiould be fo often wounded with fo little
danger. Many no doubt die, but numbers efcape ; for a
wound of the fubftance of the lungs is far from being
mortal. The blood may fuffocate the patient ; the fever
and pain may wafte him ; he may die of the inflammation,
or of the oppreffion of the lungs ; or there may be time for
a large fuppuration, or a fingering heftic to cut him off;
but ftill, if his wound be only in the edges of the lungs, he
is in fome degree fafe. He is only in danger when the
thick fubftance of the lungs is perforated, and falls into
abfcefs, or when the root of the lungs is wounded ; for
there the large veffels of the lungs being opened, the great
effufion of blood, hke that from a wound of the heart itfelf,
muft kill, even by the quantity of blood loft to the general
fyftem. But befides, this blood, being thrown into the

trachea ,

WOUNDS.

trachea, deluges the hings ; the patient fpits up a frothy

i blood ; blood, inftead of air, occupies the bronchiae ; fo

: that he ftruggles for breath but a few moments, and then

expires." John Bell's Difcourfe on the Nature and Cure

of Wounds, p. 257. edit. 3.

We Ihall next confider the treatment of penetrating
wounds of the cheft. In thefe cafes, the patient may die
inftantaneoufly of internal hemorrhage and-futfocation ; or
he may be cut off by the effefts of inflammation within
the cavity of the thorax. If ( fays Mr. John Bell ) the pa-
tient be fpitting blood and breathing high, but not much
oppreffed, or his oppreffion increaling very flowly, there are
hopes that he may be faved. If there be no great veflel
wounded in the lungs fo as to fuffocate him at once, it is
probable that the fmaller vefTels which are opened by the
wound will gradually ceafe to bleed ; and after four or five
days of alarming cough, with bloody expeftoration, that
fymptom will ceafe ; and in order that he may the fooner be
relieved from his danger, he miijl be bled very freely. Let it
be the intention to reduce him very low by quick bleedings ;
and let thefe bleedings (fays Mr. John Bell) have the
\ effeft of continued internal hemorrhage, without the dangers
of it. Let them deprefs him to the fame low condition to
which the inward bleeding would moft likely have brought
him ; and the fyftem being emptied in this direftion, there
will be lefs danger of immediate fuffocation in the lungs,
and but little fear of the fucceeding inflammation rifing too
j high. It is only by thefe repeated bleedings that the pa-
! tient can be faved : the vafcular fyftem muft be kept low
i in aftion, and fo drained as to prevent the lungs from being
1 opprrfTed with blood.

One thing (continues the fame author) is very clear, that
; if the furgeon bleed only when the cough and bleeding
[ from the lungs return, he never can do wrong. The
patient, lying ftruggling before him, is to lofe a given quan-
tity of blood ; if it be allowed to flow out into the lungs
he may be fuffocated ; if it be drawn from the arm, this
fuffocation is prevented. If he be kept low enough by
bleeding, there will be no blood to fpare for this extrava-
fation into the lungs, &c. (Op. cit. p. 259, 260.) We
repeat, in all cafes of penetrating wounds of the cheft, and
efpecially in injuries of the lungs, the free ufe of the lancet
is the only thing which can be depended upon in the early
part of the treatment. By it, internal hemorrhage is re-
ftrained ; and by it, the dangers of the fubfequent inflam-
mation of the thoracic vifcera are to be averted. The re-
cords of furgery furnifh abundant proof of the neceffity of
fuch praftice, and the extent to v/hich the bleeding muft be
carried is fometimes furprifing. Thus, in a cafe in which
a mufl<et-ball had entered the left (houlder, pafTed through
the lungs, and come out below the left nipple, a profufe
hemorrhage of arterial blood took place from the mouth,
and threatened immediate fuffocation. This hemorrhage
was checked by repeated bleedings, which were reforted to
on every frelh attack of the hemorrhage, and pufhed till
relief was obtained. Leeches were applied to the fide in
great numbers, and the antiphlogiftic plan of treatment was
ftriftly purfued. Two hundred and fifty ounces of blood
were in this cafe drawn off hy the lancet in eighteen days.
(See Thomfon's Reports of Obf made in the Military
Hofpitals in Belgmm, p. 86. ) In every inftance of a pene-
trating wound of the cheft, and more particularly when the
lungs are injured, the fu-!t bleeding fhould be copious. As
Mr. Henneu recommends, from thirty to forty ounces of
blood fhould be taken from the arm by a large orifice. If the
patient fhould faint, we ought not to adminifter cordials to
him, but allow him to revive gradually. We fhould avail

ourfelves of this opportunity of cxtrafling without pain all
foreign bodies within reach, whether cloth, ball, iron, wood,
fplinters of bone, &c. Should there be reafon to think
that iuch extraneous fubftances are lodged, and that by an
enlargement of the orifice of the wound they might be ex-
tracted, the praftice ought to be immediately adopted.

The next objeft is to drefs the wound itfelf. " If it is
a gun-fhot (fays Mr. Henncn ), a light mild dreffing will be
fufRcient ; but if incifed, the lips of it fhould be clofed at
once, and this treatment will be found to afford the moft
certain preventive to emphyfema (fee Emphysema), future
hemorrhage, and colleftions of matter. ( See Empyema. )
I fcarcely recollect an inftance where it was neceffary to
remove the adhefive ftraps, or (where it was a gun-fhot) the
ufual dreffings. We now lay the man down, and let him
remain as quiet as pofiible, and in as cool and airy a fpot of
the barn, church, or hofpital, as we can find. He will often
require no farther aid ; but if the cafe is very fevere, he
will probably lie for fome hours in a ftate of comparative
eafe, till the veffels again pour forth their contents, and
induce frefh fpitting of bloody froth, and a repetition of all
the fymptoms of approaching fuffocation. The lancet muft
again be had recourfe to ; and if by this management, re-
peated as often as circumftances demand, the patient fur-
vives the firft twelve hours, hopes may begin to be en-
tertained of his recovering from the immediate effefts of
hemorrhage. In the after-treatment of a wound of the
nature here defcribed, we (hall be confiderably affifted by
the aid of medicine ; but until the danger of immediate
death from hemorrhage is over, we muft not think of em-
ploying any thing except depletion by the lancet : it, and it
only, can fave the life of the wounded man." Hennen's
Obf. on Military Surgery, p. 398.

When the paroxyfms of pain, the fenfe of fuffocation,
and return of hemorrhage, fays Mr. Hennen, have become
more moderate, and recur at longer intervals, we may have
recourfe to means of lefs immediate influence, and fpare the
lancet. In this view, the moft powerful medicine that we
can adminifter is the different preparations of digitalis, in
fuch form as may beft agree with the patient ; and if the
pain and efforts to cough are fevere and fpafmodic, we muft
have recourfe to the aid of opiates. To this courfe of
medicine (hould be added a rigour of diet, amounting to the
total prohibition of every thing fohd, and admitting of
fluids only of the mildeft nature and leaft irritating quality ;
and even thofe in fmall quantities, and duly acidulated.
Should we be fortunate enough to preferve our patient
during the firft fix or feven days, a relaxation in this rigour
may be cautioufly admitted ; but a departure from the
general plan, or an omiffion of bleeding on the rifing of the
fymptoms, can only tend to accelerate the event that our
efforts are defigned to counteraft. Mild faline purges, and
an emollient enema, fhould be occafionally adminiilered if
required, and the patient kept in a ftate of the utmoft quiet
and feclufion from all external impreffions, and in a cool
atmofphere. (Op. cit. p.400. ) The plan of exciting a
counter-irritation on the furface of the cheft, by means of
bhfters, fhould alfo never be omitted, when much cough
and pain in the breaft continue after bleeding has been fully
praftifed. In fome examples, the inflammation occafioned
by penetrating wounds of the cheft terminates in fuppura-
tion within the lungs, or the fac of the pleura. The fymp-
toms, however, which indicate fuch an occurrence, and the
mode of treatment, are fo amply explained in another part of
this work (fee Empyema), that we (hall not enter into the
fubjeft again.

There is one circumftance which lometimes deceives the

furgeon,

WOUNDS.

furgeon, and leads Wm to fuppofe that the cafe is a pene-
trating wound of the thorax when it is not fo. We allude
to the occafional examples in which a muflcet-ball pierces
the llcin and mufcles on the outfide of the cheft, runs round
the ribs, and makes its exit nearly oppofite the point of
entrance. Here the abfence of bloody expeftoration and
other fymptoms of injured lungs, together with the direftion
of the commencement of the track of the ball, will fome-
times convey ufeful information to the difcerning prac-
titioner.

There is alfo another fource of deception as to the aftual
penetration of balls into the cavities of the body : this is
when they ftrike againft a handkerchief, linen, cloth, &c.
and are drawn out of the wound unperceived in a fold
or pouch of thofe materials. M. Larrey, Mr. Hennen, &c.
have publilhed examples of the occurrence.

Wounds of the cheft are fometimes compUcated with the
lodgment of extraneous fubftances in that cavity, and this
fometimes without occafioning fatal confequences, either
immediately or fubfequently. Thus Mr. Hennen informs
us, that in examining the bodies of foldiers who have died
from thofe injuries, he has frequently found pieces of wad-
ding, of clothes, fpiculje of bone, and balls, and, in one cafe,
feme charpie ufed as a dreffing, either loofe in various parts
of the lungs, or lying in facs, formed by a depofition of
coagulating lymph. In fome more fortunate patients who
recovered, fuch matters were difcharged or extracted from
the wounds ; and in certain other lucky examples they were
ejefted by the convulfive efforts to cough, which their irri-
tation had excited. {Obf. on Military Surgery, p. 390.)
The fame author relates the following interefting cafe, to
prove that a much larger mafs than a bullet may pafs
even through the lungs, without doing away all chance of
recovery.

A foldier of the guards was wounded through the thorax
at Waterloo, between the third and fourth ribs of the right
fide. On his arrival at Bruflels, he was placed in an hofpital
and dreffed. Nothing remarkable occurred for the firft five
days ; and the only fingularity in the appearance of the
wound was its large fize, capable of admitting three fingers
conically placed. Blood and air were freely difcharged from
it. On turning the man to examine him, and renew the
drefllngs, a tumour was difcovered on the fcapula, from which
was extrafted his breaft-plate, about two-thirds of which
were rolled up by the force of the blow into a figure fome-
what refembUnga candle-extingui{her,with the mulket-buUet
contained within it. The other third was broken off ; but
it had alfo paffed through the wound, and was extrafted.
The man furvived the injury three weeks, and afforded great
hopes of his perfeft recovery ; but in a guft of paffion, he
one night tore the dreflings off his wound, and was found
dead the next morning. The body was not examined. Op.
cit. p. 392.

Balls have been found in the fubftance of the lungs twenty
years after their entrance, the patient being all that time in
perfeft health, without any fymptom charafterizing the pe-
cuhar fituation of fuch foreign bodies. There are alfo on
record inftances in which a ball has rolled about in the
cavity of the thorax on every motion of the body. ( See
Baron Percy's Manuel du Chirurgien d'Armee, p. 25 ;
Magatus's Bibhotheca Chirurgica ; and Hennen's Military
Surgery.) In general, however, balls lodged in the thorax
become as it were encyfted and fixed by the depofition of
coagulable lymph around them, and the formation of a fort
of fac.

Several authors have noticed, that when a penetrating
M/ound of the chelt is of a certain fize, a portion of the lungs

fometimes forms a protrufion between the ribs. In the
majority of fuch cafes, there can be no doubt of the pro-
priety of immediately reducing this fort of hernia, and keeping
it fo replaced by means of a fuitable apparatus. We learn,
however, from the obfervations which have been collefted on
this fubjeft, that the protruded part of the lung has fome-
times been tied, or cut away, without any ill confequences.
Fabricius Hildanus records the cafe of a man who was
wounded with a fword between the fifth and fixth ribs, near
the fternum, and in whom a piece of lung protruded. On
examination it prefented a livid appearance, and the difco-
loured part was therefore cut away with a heated knife.
The reft was reduced, after feparating the two ribs, from
each other, as far as poffible, by a wooden wedge. Not-
withftanding this extraordinary method of treatment, the
patient foon recovered, and lived without experiencing
any oppreffion in refpiration. See Centur. 2. Obf. 32.
p. 108.

The livid appearance of the lung, as M. Laffus obferves,
arifes from its expofure to the air, and the manner in which
it is ftrangulated between the two ribs. It affords no proof
either that the protruded part is gangrenous, or that it ought
to be cut away. (Pathol. Chir. torn. ii. p. 309.) A writer
(fays he) who is very little known, and whofe cafe we fhall
relate, confeffes his having miftaken this livid difcolouration
for a fign of mortification. A man received a ftab between
the third and fourth ribs, on the right fide of the cheft, and
by the way in which the fword had been withdrawn, the
wound was rendered very large. A portion of the lungs pro-
truded, fwelled confiderably, and remained in this ftate three
or four days without any attempt being made to reduce it.
The part then became ftirunk and quite dry, when the whole
of what was exterior to the ribs was cut off. On dipping the
piece of lung in water, however, it immediately refumed its
natural colour, which, no doubt, it would alfo have done
had it been reduced inftead of being amputated. The patient
neverthelefs got quite well, and fuffered afterwards no diffi-
culty, notwithftanding the hard laborious life which he was
obliged to lead. Obf. Medicinales et Chirurgicales par
Loyfeau, p. 25.

A Cmilar miftake was made on a patient who had received
a wound which penetrated the anterior and inferior part of
the cheft. A fmall bit of the lungs protruded, which was
fuppofed to be a piece of omentum, and was immediately
included in a ligature. Ruyfch being confulted, perceived
the miftake, and he recommended drefling the wound, and
leaving things as they were, until the tied portion of lung
had become detached. No bad fymptoms followed, and
the patient perfeftly recovered. (Obf. Anat. Chir.
obf. 53. ) We met with a protrufion of a long piece of the
lungs in a foldier, who had been wounded with a lance at
the battle of Waterloo. The part was at leaft four inches
in length, and (haped like a tongue. As it was confiderably
contufed and torn, we doubted the prudence of returning
it in that ftate into the cheft. We thought, therefore, of
cutting it off, but fearful that it might bleed freely, we
firft made a fmall incifion into it, in order to afcertain the
faft ; and as a good deal of blood began to flow from this
little incifion, we firft tied the protruded part clofe to the
ribs, and then removed all that was exterior to the ligature.
The patient was fo well on the day of the operation, and
alfo the next morning, that he would not remain in bed ;
but we were informed that he did not ultimately recover.

A wound of one of the intercoftal arteries immediately
produces a degree of hemorrhage, which is manifeft ex-
ternally, and often confiderable. The blood flows out of
the wound, and alfo ioto the cavity of the cheft. It iffues

per

WOUNDS.

per/ahum, like that of all wounded arteries, and it gufties
out both in infpiration and expiration, but without any
hiffing noife, and not blended with mucus and air, like
the blood which is difcharged from a deep wound of the
ungs.

We fhould not have expefted much hemorrhage from the
intercoftal artery when wounded by a ball, much lefs Ihouid
■we have expefted that it was ever poffible to take up that
veffel with a tenaculum. Yet a late writer obferves, " when-
ever the tenaculum can be ufed to an intercoftal artery
injured by a ball, it (hould at once be applied, and the veffel
fecured by ligature." (See Hennen's Obf. on Military
Surgery, p. 401.) Profeffor Thomfon heard only of one
hemorrhage from the intercoftal artery after a gun-fliot
wound received at Waterloo, and this was a fecondary bleed-
ing on the fifteenth day. It was flopped by a comprefs.
See Obf. on the Military Hofpitals, &c. p. 83.

This fort of bleeding can only be ftoppedby compreflion,
and in order that the plan may be effeftually praftifed, it
is fometimes neceffary to enlarge the wound by an incifion.
When the finger is put under the wounded artery the bleed-
ing ceafes, which obvioufly proves that there is no occafion
■for needles, nor for any particular inventions for flopping
the hemorrhage. According to M. Laffus, it will be quite
enough to introduce between the ribs a tent, or doflil of
charpie, which is to be kept in the wound four or five days.
The bleeding having flopped, the wound will difcharge for
fome days a reddilli purulent fluid, and if the lung be not
perceptibly injured, the cure will be fpeedily effefted by
ordinary treatment.

The method which has been tried for flopping hemor-
rhage from a wound of the internal mammary artery is
analogous to the foregoing. A man was flabbed with a
fword, which entered obliquely between the cartilages of the
ribs. The wound was not extenfive ; but the clfufion of
blood in the cellular membrane of the lateral and anterior
part of the thorax was confiderable. An incifion was made
in the integuments covering the mafs of blood, and feveral
coagula were removed. The hemorrhage was then flopped
by introducing fome agaric, which was faflened to a fpatula,
and by means of this inftrument, preffed from within out-
ward, under the cartilage of the rib, near the fide of the
flernum. The wounded artery was thus very exaftly com-
preffed, and the plan was continued feveral days and nights
fucceffively under the diredlion of a furgeon. Laffus, Pathol.
Chir. torn. ii. p. 312.

■ An extravafation of a confiderable quantity of blood in
■one of the cavities of the pleura is followed by fuch a train
of alarming and urgent fymptoms, tliat the patient dies
:of fuffocation unlefs the fluid be difcharged. This may
be accomplifhed either by making the patient lie on his
wounded fide, if the wound can thus be made depending,
and it be fufSciently ample, or enlarging it with a bifloury,
when it is too narrow, or by making another opening in the
thorax when the wound is fituated too high up. ( See Em-
PYEiMA.) If the hemorrhage ftill continue, and be con-
fiderable, after the firfl extravafated blood has been dif-
charged, the patient generally perifl.ej ; but when the bleed-
ing ceafes, and the lungs are not extenfively injured, he may
recover. Nothing but the urgency of the fymptoms of fuf-
focation, arifing from a dangerous degree of preffure upon
the lungs and diaphragm, can jullify a hafty determination
to make an opening for the evacuation of the extravafated
blood, or the equally pernicious plan of leaving the original
v/ound open for the fame purpofe. If the furgeon require
arguments in fupport of this remark, they are to be derived
from the equivocal, uuceruiii; and irregular character of the

fymptoms of an extravafation of blood in the thorax, and
from the effed which even the difcharge of fuch blood may
have in renewing the hemorrhage, and making room for
another efFufion, in cafes where the injured veflels are large.
The blood, however, mufl be difcharged when the fymp-
toms of fuffocation are urgent, and evidently owing to the
preffure of the extravafation on the organs of refpiration.
The praftice of making an opening will always be unfuc-
cefsful, when the wound of the lungs, befides being deep
enough to give rife to an extravafation,is alfo complicated with
emphyfema of thofe organs, and the effufion of a confider-
able quantity of blood into their cellular and parenchymatous
texture. In ftiort, in a wound of this ferious defcription, it
does not conftantly happen, that the only curative indication
is to difcharge the extravafated blood. The degree of danger
depends upon the nature of the wound of the lungs, which
is invifible, and of which it is fometimes difficult to form a
correift judgment. Frequently an extravafation of blood in
the pericardium, without injury of the heart, but a cafe
which is always fatal, has been miflaken for an extravafation
in the cavity of the left pleura. Sometimes, alfo, we may
be deceived, and believe in the exiftence of an extravafation,
while the fymptoms of fuffocation under which the patient
labours may be owing to the fubflance of the lungs being
changed as it were into a folid mafs, by the effufion of blood
and coagulating lymph in their texture, and the confequent
compreffion of the air-cells.

Although it mufl be acknowledged, that the diagnofis of
an extravafation of blood in the cheft is not free from diffi-
culties, the following are ufually regarded as the fymptoms
which charafterize the cafe, either in the primary or fecond-
ary form. In the firfl place it is obvious, that there mufl
generally be a wound of the lungs, which is indicated by the
iffue of frothy blood from the wound, by the paffage of
air through the wound into and out of the cheil, and by
the patient fpitting blood, or coughing it up in large quan-
tities. If, however, the blood come from the intercoftal
artery, no blood will be coughed up. At the moment of
receiving the wound, the palient falls into a flateof fyncope,
and though the bleeding may not be very confiderable, he is
affefted with cold fweats, and his pulfe is feeble and fmall.
In the courfe of a few days, notwithflanding a low diet,
repeated bleedings, and perfeft quietude, refpiration be-
comes fhort, difficult, and laborious, and infpiration is ob-
ferved to be performed more eafily than expiration. The
patient ufually lies upon the fide in which the extravafation
IS ; and this fide feems rather larger and broader at its lower
part than the oppofite fide, on which the patient cannot lie
without an aggravation of all his fufferings. When he tries
to fit up in bed, he cannot remain in this pofition, unlefs he
bends his body very much forwards, in order to facilitate
refpiration. About the xiphoid cartilage and the lateral
parts of the cheft, he feels a weight, attended with a frequent
cough, and a fenfation of fuffocation. According to Va-
lentin, a large ecchymofis, or violet-coloured fpot, makes its
appearance in fome individuals in a later flage of the cafe
about the angles of the falfe ribs ; but this fymptom is far
from being conftant, and it did not occur in an inftance
of extravafation of blood in the thorax recorded by Dr.
Thomfon. ( Reports of Obfervations made in the Military
Hofpitals in Belgium, p. 85. ) In general, blood efcapes
from the wound, unlefs the opening be very fmall, or fitu-
ated in the upper part of the chefl. Laftly, it is remarked,
that the fymptoms of fuffocation proceeding from inflam-
mation of the lungs fubfide, or are evidently leffened by
venefedlion, whicli is not the cafe when they depend upon
an extravafation.

If

WOUNDS.

If it be true that forae patients have had their breath-
ing very little opprefTed, notwithftanding an extravafation
of blood in one of the cavities of the pleura, and that others
have been able to lie with equal eafe either on the found or
difeafed iide ( fee Thomfon's Report, p. 87.). which is not
common, we mull conclude from thefe unufual cafes, that
we ought not to form our opinion from any one fymptora
in particular, but from the aflemblage of a great many.
LafTus, Pathol. Chir. tom. ii. p. 319.

On the fubjedl of extravafations of blood in the thorax,
the following are the fentiments of a dillinguifhed writer :
" Whatever may be the caufe of this inward bleeding, the
furgeon (hould attend to the following diredlions. He (hould
firft put his finger into the wound ; perhaps it may difcover
the caufe, or may evacuate the blood. If the blood do
not follow the finger, then fome tube mult be introduced,
and the tube for fo fimple an operation need not be a nice
one. If he cannot get the tube into the thorax, and the
breathing continue opprefled, he muft enlarge the wound,
and enlarge it freely. To be afraid of expofmg the lungs
to air when they are already torn with a bullet and loaded
with blood is childifh and ufelefs theory, vei7 unlike the
proper management of fuch wounds. If the wound in the
thorax be not too high above the third or fourth rib, and
if no pofture of the patient, however willing or able to turn
himfelf, will bring the blood eafily in that way, or if the
wound be contufed, obhque, and difficult to dilate, an
operation mult be performed, which, as it is commonly prac-
tifed for pus in the breaft, is called the operation of Em-
pyema (fee this word) ; that is, a very free incifion muft be
made in the line betwixt two of the ribs ; then the pleura
muft be punftured with a lancet, and a tube introduced.
Or, in plain language, whenever it is found that the natural
wound will not empty the thorax, a new wound Ihould be
made in what is called the chofen point, or the point of
cleclion, ;'. e. low, betwixt the feventh and eighth ribs, that
there may be an eafy flow. But whenever the wound is
about the middle of the thorax, it ftiould rather be dilated,
which both changes the nature of the wound and gets out
the blood. When this blood proceeds from a wound of the
intercoftal artery, fuch free inciiions are the more neceffary ;
they allow us to fee the artery, to feel the jet of its warm
blood by putting in the finger, and this allows us to prefs
it with a comprels, or tie it with the needle and thread."
(See John Bell's Difcourfes on Wounds, p. 263, 264. edit. 3. )
However, notwithftanding this author, and a few other fur-
geons thus talk of taking up the intercoftal artery, we
much doubt the polTibility of the thing, nor do we know of
any well-authenticated cafe on record where it has aftually
been done.

The propriety of fome^other parts of this advice is alfo
queftionable, efpecially that relating to thrufting tubes into
the cavity of the thorax. The neceffity of cutting into the
chelt at aU in order to let out extravafated blood, in an early
ftage of a wound of the thorax, is pofitively denied by
Scarpa, as we (hall find from an extraft we ihall have to
make from his work in fpeaking of wounds of the belly.
On the contrary, Scarpa, Larrey, Affalini, Hennen, &c.
all agree, that wounds of the cheft ftiould be clofed, and
fuperficially and lightly drefied. At all events, we may
fafely affert, that in thefe cafes nothing but the urgency of
the danger, unequivocally arifing from the prefl"ure of the
mafs of extravafated blood on the organs of refpiration, can
ever juftify the practice of either making another opening
into the cheft, or of enlarging the original one. Of the
method of keeping the wound open with tubes or tents, we
have a very unfavourable opinion.

In every cafe of extravafation of blood in the cheft, the
difcharge of it when refpiration is dangeroufly oppreiTed is
not the only indication. There is another one of at leaft
equal importance : we allude to the adoption of a rigorous
antiphlogiftic treatment, in order to avert and diminifh
the dangers arifing from inflammation of the pleura and
lungs.

Befides extravafation of blood in the cavity of the pleura,
there is another complication which fometimes attends
wounds of the cheft, and is particularly deferving of the
attention of tl)e praftitioner. We mean the cafe of emphy-
fema, or what Mr. John Bell calls " the tumour formed by
air blown out from the lungs into the common cellular fub-
ftance, or confined within the thorax, and oppreffing the
lungs." It is not, however, our wifti to detain the reader
long on this interefting diforder, becaufe by turning to the
article Emphysema, he will find a ftatement of all the prin-
cipal knowledge which exiils upon the fubjeft.

Emphyfema arifes from the air efcaping, firft from the
lungs into the thorax ; then from the thorax through the
wound in the pleura coftalis into the cellular fubftance on
the outfide of the cheft ; and afterwards, the air inflates the
cellular membrane over the whole body. As Mr. John Bell
has related, emphyfema is frequent after a fraclured rib,
becaufe there is a wide laceration of the lungs, and no exit
for the air ; while it is lefs frequent in large wounds with a
knife or broad-fword, becaufe in fuch cafes the air has an
open and unimpeded iflue. It is very common after deep
itabs with the bayonet or fmall-fword ; and it fometimes
arifes in gun-fliot wounds, though, as far as our experience
extends, it is not fo frequent in thefe particular inftances, as
Mr. John Bell defcribes. Mr. Hennen thinks it does not
occur in more than one cafe out of fifty (p. 402.), which
is, perhaps, a calculation confiderably below the real ftate
of things.

When the lungs are wounded, the air efcapes from them
at every infpiration into the cavity of the pleura, whence
the next expiration it is comprefled, and forced through the
breach of continuity in the pleura into the cellular fubftance
on the outfide of the cheft ; for it ' .uinot return into the
wounded lung, becaufe this is already full. Every new in-
fpiration draws more air from the wounded lung, and every
new expiration drives more air but into the cellular fub-
ftance. There is no other outlet for the air, which fpreads
under the fliin with wonderful rapidity. Theemphyfematous
crackling tumour makes its firft appearance over the broken
rib, or over the wounded point of the thorax ; it then ex-
tends over the whole cheft, and next over the neck and
face, filling particularly the eye-lids, fo that the eyes are
abfolutely clofed. It afterwards extends icfelf over the
belly, down the thighs, and to the private pans, and no part
efcapes this tumour, except the paims of the hands and the
foles of the feet. More air is every moment drawn out
from the wound of the lungs, and driven under the Ikin ;
and the patient is every moment more and more opprefTed, till
at laft the breathing is quite interrupted, the pulfe flags, the
extremities grow cold, and the patient, if he be not reheved
by fome operation, muft die. John Bell, p. 267, 26R.

The moment that the lungs are wounded, (fays this
author, ) they fall down, and continue in this collapfed ftate
until the wound heals, which it does in the courfe of a very
few days ; but from the moment in which lungs are wounded,
the ufe of the wounded lobe is loft, fo that if the wound be
in the right fide of the lungs, the breathing is performed
entirely by the left ; only half the quantity of air is infpired,
and the breathing is difficult.

If the lungs, when wounded, were to continue in perpe-
tual

WOUNDS.

tual moaor:, ( fays Mr. J. Bell, ) I do not know how we fliould
expedl a cure ; for the air would be continually flreaming
through the wound, and the wound itfelf alternately dilating
and contrafting, like tliat in an artery, could not heal. But
as the wounded lung lies in a coUapfed ftate, the edges of the
wound are in contact with each other. P. 269.

That, the lung of one fide, which remains unhurt, is fuf-
ficient to fupport the fyftem, we learn from various acci-
dents ; from thofe cafes in which, either owing to the inci-
fions made by the furgeon, or to the nature of the wound, the
cheft has been freely opened, the lungs of one fide have
collapfed, and yet the patient has lived with tolerable eafc,
and ultimately recovered. We learn it alfo from cafes of
emphyfema, where the lungs are oppreffed with air, and
from cafes of empyema, or pus, within the cavity of the
cheft, obftru£ling the expanfion of the lungs. (See Em-
pyema.) And efpecially, (fays Mr. J. Bell,) we are fure
of it from the very gradual decay of thofe who die with large
fuppurations vfithin the cheft, in whom we find after death,
that on one fide there remains nothing but one fmall knob
or tubercle of the lungs. Koelpen de Empyemate Obf.

P- 135-

That the breathing fliould be eafier in a free and open
wound of the cheft than in a punftured wound, or that in
the cafe of a punAured wound the patient ftiould be relieved
by a free incifion, no one need wonder ; for in a punftured
wound there is no way for the blood or air to efcape from the
thorax, while yet at every ftroke of refpiration, more and
more blood and air is drawn out from the lungs, till at laft
the blood, and efpecially the air, are fo condenfed, that
they not onlyopprefs that fide of the lungs, but by hinder-
ing the free play of the diaphragm, and loading the mediaf-
tinnm, they opprefs alfo the other lung, the difficulty
of breathing increafes, the extremities grow cold, and the
patient dies.

Whatever danger then depends altogether upon emphyfema
itfelf depends upon the manner in which the confinement of
air in the cheft oppreffes not only the wounded, but alfo the
oppofite lung, the diaphragm, &c. The extenfive infla-
tion of the cellular membrane in other parts of the body
is a circumftance which creates a terrible disfigurement,
but perhaps very little peril in itfelf. Sometimes, however,
it proceeds to fuch a pitch, that eve<i the interftitial cellular
fubftance of the lungs themfelves becomes inflated, and then
fuffocation is inevitable.

On the treatment of emphyfema we Ihall merely remark
at prefent, that the chief means, both of relieving the or-
gans of refpiration from compreffion, and of hindering the
further increafe of the dift^ufion of air in the cellular mem-
brane, confifts in praftifing an incifion in the thorax at the
part where the air firft efcapes from that cavity. For other
praftical obfervations we refer to the article Emphysema.

The exiftence of adhefions between the pleura coftalis and
pleura pulmonalis, previoufly to the receipt of a wound of
the cheft, muft make an important difference with regard to
the fubfequent ftate of the lungs, and particularly with re-
gard to their condition in the cafe of emphyfema. Such ad-
hefions muft of cpurfe render a collapfe of thefe organs im-
poflible, and alfo prevent the air from infinuating itfelf be-
tween the furface of the lungs and the infide of the cheft.
Whether thefe occurrences can be perfectly prevented will
of courfe depend upon the extent of the adhefions. They
would, however, be certainly averted altogether, were the
wound to happen juft at a part of the cheft wliere the pleura
coftalis and pleura pulmonalis happened to be adherent.

From fome remarks which have been delivered, the reader
willfee, that wounds opening both cavities of the cheft, unlefs

Vol. XXXVIII.

fuch adhefions exift, muft produce immediate fuffocation, in
confequence of both lungs becoming collapfed. That this
would really happen is the belief of the majority of the beft
modern writers, and there arc feveral faft, reported which tend
to confirm the accuracy of the opinion. A late author, how-
ever, conceives, that the finking of the lung is not an uni-
form confequence of a penetrating wound of the thorax.
He obferves, that we have fomctimes ocular proof of this,
not only by the clofe contaft in which the lungs lie to the'
wound difcoverable at firft fight, but by protrufions which
occafionally happen. From experiments on brutes, favs he,
we derive no fatisfadory elucidat''in ; for in fome, where in-
cifions on each fide have been made through the intercoftel
niufcles, much greater than the natural paifage of the air,
the lungs, fo far from coUapfing, have expanctd ?.g,.;r,, the
animal has lived, and in ten days run about as weil as ever.
And in our own fpecies, the recoveries from wounds of the
thorax on both fides, larger :han the orifice of the glottie,
dangerous as they are, are not few. Hennen's Obf. on Mi-
litary Surgery, p. 404, 405.

Wounds of the heart generally prove immediately fatal,
though It is true there are to be found in the records of fur-
gery many curious exceptions to this obfervation. A foldier
received the thruft of a fword, which entered one of the ca-
vities of that organ, as was afcertained after death ; yet he
lived nine days after the accident. ( Rhodius, Obf. Medic,
centur. ii. obf. 39.) A young man, twenty-fix years of
age, was ftabbed with a fword in the right fide, between the
third and fourth true ribs. He became exceedingly weak,
had great difficulty of breathing, and died in four or five
days. On opening the body, it was difcovered that the
heart had been completely transfixed, the weapon having
pafTed from the right into the left ventricle, through the
feptum. The cavity of the cheft was full of blood, and it
was thought that the prolongation of life had been owing to
the clofure of the wound with coagula. (Saviard, obf.
113.) Haller, as Mr. Hennen obferves, has recorded in
his Bibliotheca Chirurgica, vol. ii. p. 378. an example in
which a needle was found in the heart of an ox ; and through
the kindnefs of Mr. Hammick, furgeon of the royal naval
hofpital at Plymouth, Mr. Hennen was lately fliewn a pre-
paration, in which a pin was lodged in the human heart,
but without any trace of the mode in which it got there.
The patient had complained of a pain in his cheft, about three
months previoully to his death, and died of carditis. (Obf.
on Mil. Surgery, p. 429. ) Ploucquet gives inftances in
which a ball was lodged in the heart of a flag, in the heart
of a healthy dog, and in the anterior ventricle of the human
heart, where it is ftated to have remained for years. An-
other inftance has alfo been recently publiflied, in which a
ball was found lodged in the right ventricle of the heart,
near its apex, included in a great meafure in the pericardium,
and refting upon the feptum. See the article Cat Rarts,
Di(ft. des Sciences Medicales.

Guattani mentions a cafe in which a patient lived eight
years after a wound of the aorta (De Aneurifmatibus) ;
and in the Medical Records and Refearches, 1798, is the
extraordinary cafe of a penetrating wound, in which a
bayonet pafled through the colon, ftomach, diaphragm, part
of the lungs, and the right ventricle of the heart, and yet
the patient furvived the accident for upwards of nine hours.
Mr. Hennen alfo refers to another inftance, related by
M. Chaftenet, of a wound of the right ventricle, which did
not prove fatal till the 15th day after the injury. (See
Journ. de Med. Militaire, Paris, 1782, torn. ii. p. 359.)
For additional obfervations on this fubjedl, however, we muft
be content with referring to Mr. Hcmien's publication.

5 C A»

WOUNDS.

A« wounds of the diaphragm can hardly happen without
the fin!)ultaneous injury of feveral other impo'rtant parts,
thefe cafes muft neceflarily be attended with confiderablc
danger ; and indeed, when the tendinous centre of the dia-
phragm is injured, the accident is deemed by feveral writers
of modern date as inevitably fatal. ( Laffus, Pathol. Chir.
torn. ii. p. 321. Callifen, Syft. Chir. Hodiernae, Pars ii.
p. 696. ) The following are faid to be ufual fymptoms of a
wound of the diaphragm : — The patient is immediately feized
with exceflive anxiety and agitation. He feels acute pain in
the hypochondria, and is obhged to keep himfelf bent for-
wards ; and he is further afflifted with a cough, hiccough,
convulfive fpafms, and great difficulty of breathing. De-
lirium enfues, the mufcles of the face are convulfed, the
lingultus grows worfe and worfe, and the cafe terminates
fatally in the courfe of a few days.

Dangerous, however, as wounds of the diaphragm muft
generally be, on account of their being for the raoft part
complicated with injury of fome of the abdominal or thoracic
vilcera, there is no doubt that the danger has been exag-
gerated. " Wounds of the thorax (fays Dr. Thomfon)
are not unfrequently complicated with wounds of the abdo-
men. In various inftances of this kind (which this gentle-
man faw in the Netherlands after the battle of Waterloo),
there exifted undoubted proofs of the faft that wounds of
the diaphragm are not neceffarily fatal ; for it muft have been
perforated once, if not twice, in feveral of the cafes we faw,
in which balls had pafted acrgfs the lower part of the cheft,
and the fame thing muft have happened alfo, I conceive, in
moft of the cafes in which the liver had been wounded. In
one cafe, the ball had entered the right hypochondriac region,
under the edge of the falfe ribs, and come out on the right
fide of the fpine, on a level with the fuperior edge of the
OS ilium. This patient fpit blood for fome days, and voided
it alfo by ftool. On the examination after death of a pa-
tient who died thirty days after receiving the wound, and in
whom a ball had entered the cheft on the lower and outer
part of the riglit papilla, and had come out of the abdomen
on the left fide of the umbilicus, the right lobe of the lung
was found wounded, and the diaphragm and the upper part
of the right lobe of the liver perforated. But neither in
thefe cafes, nor in feveral others of wounds of the dia-
phragm which we faw, did any peculiar fymptoms, fuch as
the rifus fardonicus, or convulfive motions of the cueft, pre-
fent themfelves to our notice." See Report of Obf. made
in the Mil. Hofpitals in Belgium, p. 93.

In the treatment of wounds of the diaphragm, abftraft-
edly confidered, very little can be done ; bleeding and anti-
phlogiftic remedies appear the only means which promife any
efFeftual good. With thefe, however, we may fometimes
iifefuUy conjoin opiates.

Extenfive wounds and lacerations of the diaphragm occa-
sionally give rife to a particular and incurable fpecies of rup-
ture, in which fome of the abdominal vifcera form a protru-
fion in the cavity of the cheft. This accident is termed a
phrenic hernia, and fome account of it will be found in the
article Hernia.

Wounds of the Belly, or Aldomen Wounds of the abdo-
men are divided into two principal claffes: in one the folu-
tion of continuity is confined to the integuments, mufcles.
Sec. exterior to the peritoneum ; in the other this laft mem-
brane is penetrated, and frequently fome of the vifcera alfo
which are included in it. Wounds affecting the parietes of
the abdomen, but not extending through the peritoneum,
whether of the punftured, incifed, or contufed kinds, have
no effential difference from wounds of other parts, and the
obfervations which have been offered on the fubjeft of wounds

in general are in every refpeft applicable to all fupcrficial
wounds of the belly. It is worthy of remark, however
that the parietes of the abdomen are always weakened in
confequence of wounds, and difpofed to allow the vifcera
to form protrufions. Strong as the cicatrix may bt, the
point where it is fituated continues fubjeft to a hernia, vvhich
feldom fails to occur, unlefs the weakened part be properly
fupported with a belt or bandage. This accident may
follow a fimple punftured wound ; but it invariably takes
place in every inftance where, in confequence of a fevere con-
tufion, the parietes of the abdomen have loft their tone, and
yield to the impulfe made agninft them by the parts which
they contain. It was thus that a cooper's wife, whofe hif-
tory is given by Sennertus, after being violently ftruck on
the abdomen by a piece of green elaftic wood, which flipped
out of her hufband's hands, fuffered fuch a relaxation of the
contufed part, that the anterior parietes of the abdomen
yielded fo as to form an enormous pouch, containing, during
pregnancy, the gravid uterus itfelf.

After accompliihing the re-union of a fuperficial wound of
the belly by means of an eligible pofition, adhefive plafters,
and a bandage, we ftiould therefore recommend the patient to
wear a belt, or any other means of making preffure on the
part which muft be fupported. Should the wound have
been confined to the flcin, however, and the mufcles not have
been at all divided, there would be no rifle of a hernial pro-
trufion afterwards, and of courfe the ufe of a belt, or any
fort of bandage, would then be unneceffary.

If fuperficial wounds of the abdomen are unattended
with any particular danger or peculiarity, the fame ob-
fervation cannot be made with refpeft to penetrating wounds,
or thofe which pafs through the peritoneum. We have feen
that penetrating v.ounds of the cheft give rife to a variety of
dangers, fometimes depending upon the effufion of blood
into the bronchia; and air-cells of the lungs, or into the
cavity of the pleura ; fometimes upon the confcquences of
that extraordinary complication emphyfema ; but more
efpecially upon the great tendency of the pleura and lungs
to inflammation. The principal dangers of penetrating
wounds of the belly arife alfo partly from internal hemor-
rhage within the cavity of the peritoneum ; partly from the
irritation which is produced by the occafional extravafation
of the contents of the vifcera ; but in a ftill greater degree,
from the ftrong difpofltion of the peritoneum to become
affefted with violent and extenfive inflammation, in confe-
quence of any injury or irritation. There are, fays Mr.
John Bell, a thoufand occafions on which this delicacy of
the peritoneum may be obferved. The wound of the fmall
fword, and the ftab of the ftiletto, explain to us how
quickly the peritoneum, and all its contained bowels, inflame
from the moft minute wound, although it be almoft too
fmall to be vifible on the outfide, and fcarcely within ; for,
upon diffeftion, no inteftines are feen wounded, and no feces
have efcaped into the abdomen. In thofe who die after
hthotomy, we find the cavity of the peritoneum univerfally
inflamed. The operation of Caefarean feAion is fatal,
not from any lofs of blood, for there is little bleeding, nor
from expofure to the air, for they alfo die in whom the
womb burfts, and where the air is not allowed to enter ; but
merely from that inflammation which fucceeds to wounds of
the peritoneum, fmall as well as great, of which we have
fometimes a melancholy proof in the operation of hernia, in
which the ftitching the wourd, according to the whimfi-
cal improvement of fome modern furgeons, or where the
mere tying of the fac, as in the praftice of the old rupture-
doftors and caftrators, often raifed fuch inflammation as
fpread very quickly over the abdomen, and ended in gan-
grene.

WOUNDS.

jTi-cne. This inflammation may, no doubt, come on from be thus thrown into the cavity of the peritoneum without

the fliirhteil fcratch in the peritoneum itfelf ; yet, in general, the utmoft rifk of exciting that fatal kind of inflammation

it arifes rather from the wound of fome of the vifcera. If which we have already mentioned, as the danger moft to be

ar inteftine be wounded, it may pour out its feces into the dreaded in all wounds of the abdomen.

abdomen ; if the liver, fpleen, or kidneys be wounded, thefe
pour out blood ; if the bladder, then the urine filters into
the cavity of the belly. The extravafated food, feces, urine,
! blood, &c. aft there as irritating extraneous fubltances,
, which no aftivity of the abforbents can remove, and which
foon caufe a fatal inflammation of every peritoneal furface
within the abdomen. See John Bell's Dii^courfes on the
Nature and Cure of Wounds, p. 310. edit. 3,

Apprized by melancholy experience of the vaft difference

1 which the penetration of the peritoneum makes in the nature

I of a wound of the abdomen, furgeons have betrayed confi-

; derable anxiety to be able to afcertain at firft, in every in-

I ftance, whether the injury partakes of this ferious defcrip-

tion or not. But although the nature of the cafe is felf-

evident, when the wound in the parietes of the abdomen is

large, and attended with protrufion of the vifcera, it is often

extremely diflicult to judge whether the weapon has gone

through the peritoneum or not, when the wound is a fimple

flab, unaccompanied with protrufion of the vifcera, or with

any effufion of their contents.

The generality of furgical authors have laid down a va-
riety of criteria for determining the queftion, whether the
cafe is a penetrating wound ? Some of thefe writers lay
much ftrcfs on comparing the direftion of the wound with
the natural thickncfs of the parietes of the abdomen at the
injured part, and the breadth of the injury with that of the
weapon. When the inftrument has afted perpendicularly
upon a point, where the parietes arc thin, and the wound,
though made with a narrowifh weapon, like a fword, is yet
of a certain breadth, there can indeed be little doubt of the
cafe being a penetratuig wound. But the impoffibility of
knowing in what direftion the thruil has been made, and of
procuring the v.rcapon, in order to compare its diameter with
that of the wound, generally renders this mode of difcrimi-
nation ufelefs in aftual praftice.

If a probe (fay other writers) will readily enter perpendi-
cularly to a certain depth, in a place where the parietes of
the abdomen are thin, the circumftance is a proof that the
cafe is a penetrating wound. But if the probe cannot be
thus introduced, we are by no means juilified in concluding
that the wound does not penetrate. As the layers of mufcles
do not bear the fame relative pofitiou to each other which
they did at the time of the accident, they foon ftop the paf-
fage of the probe ; and in whatever pofture we put the
patient, it is next to impoffible to put the parts exaftly in
the fame pofitioq in which they were at the time of the re-
ceipt of the injury. Befides, when the wound is obhque, a
probe which is not very flexible cannot eafily be made to
follow its track. The employment of this inftrument is alfo
not free from objeftions, founded on its creating pain and
irritation, or even a renewal of hemorrhage and effufion of
blood in the cellular membrane.

An abfurd propofal has been made to injeft a mucilagin-
ous fluid into the wound, the paffage of which into the belly
would be a fure indication of the cavity of the abdomen
being penetrated. It is obvious, however, that the injefted
liquid may not enter, though the cafe be a penetrating
wound, owing to the change in the relative pofition of the
layers of the abdominal mufcles. The fluid may alfo conti-
jiue in the wound in confequence of its paffing into the cel-
Jular fubftance ; and tluis it may make the furgeon fuppofe
that it enters the abdomen, when in reality it does not pafs
dowa even to the peritoneum. Nor can the raildeil inieftion

The figns then of a penetrating wound of the abdomen are
fallacious, and the employment of fuch means as the probe
and injeftions, with a view of afcertaining the real nature of
the cafe, is not exempt from danger. Many fpafmodic
affeftions, which occafionally follow the receipt of a wound
of the belly, are only equivocal, as they are fometimes owing
entirely to the great fenfibility of the patient. The pro-
trufion of the abdominal vifcera, and the difcharge of fluids
which they are known to contain, are the only fure figns of
a penetrating wound. It is eafily conceivable at the fame
time, that a wound may penetrate the cavity of the belly,
and yet thefe fymptoms may not occur, either becaufe the
external wound is too fmall to allow of the efcape of any of
the vifcera or their contents, or becaufe the weapon or
ball, after piercing the peritoneum, has aftually touched
none of the bowels, or has merely glided over their furface.
But penetrating wounds, which are unattended with pro-
trufion of the vifcera, or extravafation of any fluid in the
cavity of the abdomen, are lefs alarming than feveral compli-
cated wounds which do not penetrate. If in fuch cafe,
fays Richcrand, the patient or by-ftanders were to inquire
about the nature of the injury, we fhould avoid giving a
pofitive opinion, informing them of the infufiiciency of the
means formerly praftifed, in order to afcertain the precife
depth of the wound, and explaining the objeftions to the
probe and injeftions. It fhould alfo be mentioned to them
that the antiphlogiftic treatment, which is the bell in fimple
wounds which do not penetrate, is the only plan which could
be adopted, were it certain that the injury had extended into
the cavity of the abdomen. Nofographie Chir. torn. iii.
P- 327—335- edit. 4.

In the following defcription of the treatment requifite for
the different cafes of penetrating wounds of the belly, we
fhall follow the order chofen by M. Richcrand, and con-
fider,

Firfl, the cafes in which the vifcera, though uninjured,
protrude at the wound.

Secondly, the cafes which are complicated both with in-
jury and protrufion of the vifcera.

Thirdly, penetrating wounds unaccompanied with pro-
trufion, but yet attended with injury of one or more of
the vifcera, as is indicated by particular fymptoms, and efpe-
cially by the iffue of certain kinds of matter from the exter-
nal wound.

Andlaftly, we fhall conclude with noticing the fubjeft of
extravafations, and fome wounds of particular organs and
vifcera.

I. 0/ Wounds of the Belly, attended tvlth Protrufion of the
Vifcera. — When, in confequence of a divifion of the parietes
of the abdomen by a cutting inftrument, or their laceration
by a buU's-horn, the inteftines protrude between the hps of
the wound, the firft indication is to reduce the parts, and then
to take meafures for preventing a recurrence of the protru-
fion. The reduftion is generally eafy, if care be taken to
relax the abdominal mufcles by a judicious pofture. In
fome cafes, however, the wound is fo narrow that the
thing is more difficult, and here, inftead of punfturing the
bowel, in order to diminifli its fize by difcharging the air
which it contains, (as advifed by many writers,) we de-
cidedly recommend a moderate enlargement of the wound.
This ftiould be cautioufly executed with a probe-pointed
curved biftoury, introduced along the groove of a direftor ;
or, if there be room, under the guidance of the left fore-
5 C 2 finger.

WOUNDS.

finger. In this manner, and with due care, the wound may
always be fufficiently dilated without the protruded parts
being cut. Authors alfo recommend the iiicifion for this
purpofe to be direfted upwards ; for (fay they) the further
the cut is from the lower part of the belly, the lefs liable
will the patient afterwards be to hernia. The inteftines
(hould invariably be returned without delay, in every in-
ftance in which they are free from wound or gangrene.
Should they even be (lightly wounded or inflamed, no time
Jhould be loft in abfurdly applying fomentations, &c, to
them in their protruded ftate. The natural warmth and
moifture of the cavity, into which they are to be replaced,
will be far more congenial than any topical remedies.
Should the parts, however, have any dirt or fand upon them,
the moft which ought to be done before their reduction is to
•warti them vnth warm milk and water.

The reduftion having been effefted, the patient is to lie
upon his back, with the thighs bent upon the peUis, and he
muft ttriftly avoid making any exertion, left it bring on an-
other protrufion. The wound is to be clofed with adhelive
plafter, and the uniting bandage ; but if the wound fhould
be large, and thefe means ineffeftual, it would alfo be pro-
per to employ futures. The ftitches, however, fhould always
be as few as poiEble. This method of fewing up wounds
of the belly made a long fubjeft in all the old works on fur-
gery, under the appellation of Gajlroraphe (fee that article) ;
but at the prefent day, futures are comparatively fpeaking
almoft rejefted from praftice, or are only employed when
the oppofite furfaces of wounds cannot be kept in contaft
without them. Nor are they then ever ufed, except the
chance of union by the firft intention ftill forms a temptation
for the trial of the plan ; for when a wound muft heal by
the granulating procefs, ftitches can never be of the leaft
utility.

When the omentum protrudes through a penetrating
wound, and is ftrangulated by the narrownefs of the open-
ing, it foon contrafts adhefions. Richerand recommends us
to cut off all this membrane which exceeds the level of the
integuments, and to leave in the wound the reft, which, he
aflerts, will aft hke a ftopper, and hinder future herniae.
Were the wound, however, quite recent, fo that adhefions
could not yet have formed, the propriety of dilating the
opening, and reducing the piece of omentum, would be un-
queftionable. Whenever, alfo, the omentum is found, and
free from conftriftion, it (hould be reduced. In cafes where
a portion of this membrane is not only protruded, but gan-
grenous, writers authorize the excifion of the dead part, and
reducing the reft after the cut vcffels have been tied (ingly
with fmall filk ligatures. We apprehend, however, that in
general, whenever the omentum has been out fo long as
to (lough, adhefions within the wound have had time to
form ; an event which would embarrafs the operator, and
even render the fafety and propriety of the attempt to reduce
the living portion of the piotruded membrane very quef-
tionable. Should the omentum, or inteftine, however, be
not adherent to the neck of the hernial fac, though gangre-
nous, (as occurred in an inftance cited by Scarpa, Traite
des Hernies, p. 268.) the propriety of trying to reduce it
would be undeniable.

2. Wounds of the Belly, 'with Injury and Protrufion of the
Vifcera. — Penetrating wounds of the abdomen, attended
with protrufion of the inteftines, are always to be regarded
as dangerous cafes ; but the danger is much more ferious, if,
befides being protruded, the bowels are alfo wounded.
Under fuch circumftances, we have the authority of nu-
merous writers on furgery, as a fanftion of the praftice of
fewing togethtr the edges of the divifion in the protruded

inteftine ; a praftice, however, which, as we (hall hereafter
explain, does not meet with the approbation of that excel-
lent modern furgcon, profeffor Scarpa, of Pavia. Every
one, however, allows, that the attempt would be highly im-
proper and ra(h, were the bowel only wounded, without
forming a protrufion. It is this laft occurrence which creates
a material difference in eftimating the polTibihty of the plan,
the queftion of its necelTity being at prefent excluded from
confideration. When the parts are protruded, no enlarge-
ment of the external wound is neceffary to render the applica-
tion of a future prafticable ; the plan creates no difturbance
and irritation of the peritoneum and contiguous vifcera ;
there is no doubt concerning the aftual exiftence of the
injury, no difficulty in injmediately finding out its precife
fituation.

But though many authors are fo generally agreed about
the propriety of ufing a future in the cafe of a wounded and
protruded bowel, they differ exceedingly, both as to the
right objeft of the method, and the moft advantageous mode
of making the ftitches. Some, having little apprehenfion of
extravafation after the reduftion of the gut, advife only one
ftitch to be made, (frequently only through the mefentery,)
and they employ the ligature chiefly with a view of confining
the injured bowel near the external wound, fo that whatever
part of it« contents may be effufed, there will be a ready
pafTage for the matter outward. Other writers wifh to re-
move the poflSbility of extravafation, by applying numerous
ftitches, and attach little importance to the plan of ufing the
ligature, principally for the purpofe of keeping the inteftine
near the external wound.

When the wound of a bowel is fo fmall that it is clofed
by the protrufion of the villous coat, the application of a
future muft evidently be altogether needlefs ; and fince the
ligature could not fail to caufe irritation, as an extraneous
fubftance, the employment of it ought unqueftionably to be
difpenfed with.

Suppofing, however, the breach in the inteftine to be
fmall, but yet fufficient to let the feces efcape, what method
ought to be adopted ? The following praftice has been
tried. As Mr. A. Cooper was performing the operation
for a ftrangulated hernia, at Guy's hofpital, an aperture,
giving iflue to the inteftinal contents, was difcovered in a
portion of the found bowel, juft when the part was about
to be reduced. The operator, including the aperture in his
forceps, caufed a fine filk ligature to be carried beneath the
point of the inftrument, firmly tied upon the gut, and the
ends cut off clofe to the inteftine. The part was then re-
placed, and the patient did well. Mr. Travers, who has
related this faft, approves of the plan of cutting away the
extremities of the ligat;ire, inftead of leaving them hanging
. out of the external wound. It appears that when the firft
praftice is followed, the remnant always finds its way into
the inteftine, and is difcharged with the ftools, without any
inconvenience. But when the long ends are drawn through
the outer wound, and left in it, they materially retard the
procefs of healing. See Travers's Inquiry into the Procefs
of Nature in repairing Injuries of the Inteftines, &c.
p. 112, 113.

Let us now inquire what ought to be the conduft of a
furgeon, were he called to a patient, whofe bowel is divided
through its whole diameter, and protruded at the external
wound ? Various have been the fchemes and propofals for
the treatment of this fort of accident ; and fince experience
has furnifhed few praftitioners with an opportunity of feeing
fuch a cafe in the human fubjeft, a variety of experiments
have been made on animals, in order to determine what
treatment would be the moft fuceefsful. Ramdohr, indeed.

WOUNDS.

18 dated by Mcebius to have had occafion to try on the human
fubjeft a plan, on which a vaft deal has been faid and
written. He cut off a large part of a mortified inteftine,
and joined the found ends together, by inferting the upper
within the lower one, and fixing them in this pofition with
a future ; the ligature being alfo employed, to keep them
at the fame time near the external wound. The patient
recovered, and the feces afterwards paffed entirely by the
reftum in the natural way. See Halleri Difputat. Anat.
vol. vi. Obf. Med. Mifcellan. i8.

About a year after the operation, the patient died, when
the anatomical preparation of the parts was fent by Ram-
dohr to Heifter. They were preferved in fpirits of wine,
and exhibited, according to this laft author, an union of the
two ends of the bowels together, and their confolidation
with a part of the abdomen. Now it has been quedioned
by a late writer, whether the union here fpokcn of ever
really happened. When the upper end of the bowel is in-
troduced into the lower, the external furface of the former
is put in contaft with the inner one of the latter ; a ferous
membrane is placed in contaft with a mucous one. Thefe
heterogeneous ftruftures, he alleges, are not difpofed to
unite. The mucous membrane, when inflamed, more readily
fecretes a kind of mucus, which muft be an invincible ob-
ftacle to adhefion. He thinks it, therefore, more than
probable, that, in the cafe related by Heifter, the invagina-
tion was maintained by the union of the inteftine with the
correfponding part of the abdominal parietes. Several ex-
periments on living animals have convinced him that this
happens, and that the mucous membrane will not unite with
the external peritoneal coat. This impoflibihty of pro-
ducing an immediate union between mucous and ferous
membranes may, of courfe, be urged as an objeftion to
Ramdohr's praftice. ( Richerand, Nofographie Chirurg.
torn. iii. p. 344. edit. 4.) Another equally ftrong objec-
tion is, that the upper end of the bowel cannot be put into
the lower one, unlefs it be feparated from a part of the me-
fentery. Here the divifion of the mefenteric arteries may
caufe a dangerous bleeding. In vain did Boyer tie feven or
eight of thefe vefiels : his patient died with an extravafation
in the abdomen. (Op. cit. tom. iii. p. 343.) Mcebius
attempted to repeat Ramdohr's operation on a dog ; but he
could not fucceed in infinuating the upper part of the divided
bowel into the lower one, on account of the contraftion of
the two ends of the inteftinal tube, and the fmallnefs of the
canal. Motbius was, therefore, obhged to be content with
merely bringing the ends of the bowel together with a
future : the animal died, however, of an extravafation of
the feces.

Dr. Smith, of the Philadelphia Medical Society, alfo
tried to repeat Ramdohr's method ; but could not fucceed.
He divided the inteftine of a dog tranfverfe^j', and having
inferted a piece of candle into that portion of the bowel
which was fuppofed to be nppermoft, he endeavoured to
introduce the fuperior within the inferior ; but the ends
became fo inverted, that it was found utterly impoflible to
fucceed. The fcheme was, therefore, given up, and only
one ftitch made, the ligature being then attached to the ex-
ternal wound, in the manner advifed by Mr. John Bell.
The dog died, and on examination there was found a
confiderable quantity of feces and water in the abdominal
cavity.

Two more trials were made of Mr. John Bell's plan by
Dr. Smith, on the inteftines of dogs : in both inftances the
animals died, the inteftines being much inflamed, and feces
tffufed in the abdomen. See Dr. Smith's Thefis.

Mr. Travers likewife tried the fame experiment. " I
I

divided the fmall inteftine of a dag, which had been for
fome hours fafting, and carried a fine ftitch through the
everted edges, at the point oppofite to their conneftion with
the mefentery. The gut was then allowed to flip back, and
the wound was clofed. The animal furvived only a few
hours — Examination. The peritoneum appeared highly in-
flamed. Adhefions were formed among the neighbouring
folds, and lymph was depofited in maffes upon the fides of
the wounded gut. This prefented two large circular orifices.
Among the vifcera were found a quantity of bilious fluid,
and fome extraneous fubftances, and a worm was depending
from one of the apertures. By the artificial conneftion of
the edges in a fingle point of their circumference, and their
natural conneftion at the mefentery, they could recede only
in the intervals, and here they had receded to the utmoft."
In another experiment, Mr. Travers increafed the number
of points of contaft, by placing three fingle ftitches upon a
divided inteftine, cutting away the threads, and returning
the gut. The animal died on the fecond day. — Examination.
Similar marks of inflammation prefented themfelves. The
omentum was partially wrapped about the wound ; but one
of the fpaces between the futures was uncovered, and
from this the inteftinal fluids had efcaped. On cautioufly
raifing the adhering omentum, the remaining ftitches came
into view. Here again the retraftion was confiderable, and
the intervening elliptical aperture proportionally large. On
the fide next to the peritoneum, however, the edges were
in contaft, and adhered, fo as to unite the feftions at an
angle.

From fuch experiments, the conclufion drawn by Mr.
Travers is, that appofition at a point or points is, as refpefts
effufion, more difadvantageous than no appofition at all ; for
it admits of retraftion, and prevents contraftion, fo that
eacli ftitch becomes the extremity of an aperture, the area
of which is determined by the diftance of the ftitches.
(P. 1 16. 119.) This gentleman, therefore, maintains, that
the abfolute contaB of the everted furfaces of a di'uided intefiine,
in their entire circumference, is requifite to fecure the animal from
the danger of abdominal ejufion. (P. 121.) The fpecies of
future employed, fays Mr. Travers, is of fecondary im-
portance, if it fecures this contaft. (P. 134.) And, among
other obfervations, we find, " wounds amounting to a dire3
divifion of the canal are irreparable, and, therefore, invari-
ably fatal." P. 133.

In the Diftionary of Praftical Surgery will be found
feveral reafons for not entirely agreeing with thefe conclu-
fions. We cannot admit that a total divifion of the intef-
tinal tube is certainly and invariably fatal, becaufe we muft
then not only difbelieve the mode of union in Ramdohr's
cafe, which we undoubtedly do, but we muft alfo diftieheve
the refult of that cafe, and of fome others which we would
cite, were this a publication exprefsly allotted to furgery.
Nor are we at all convinced of the utility of applying nu-
merous ftitches to a divided bowel, in order to keep the
edges of the wound together. Were a cafe to prefent itfelf
to us, in which a bowel was protruded, and partly cut
through, we ftiould at moft apply only a fingle future, made
with a common fewing-needle, and fome fine filk ; and even
of the fafety and utility of a fingle future we entertain
doubts. If the bowel were completely cut acrofs, we
would alfo attach its ends together merely by one ftitch of
the fame kind ; and we ftiould do fo without feeling at all
aftured that the praftice of a future would be at all right.
We perfeftly coincide, however, with Mr. Travers refpeft-
ing the advantage of cutting off the ends of the ligature,
inftead of leaving them in the wound, as we believe he is
right in regard to the little chance there is of the injured in-
teftine

WOUNDS.

teftine receding far from the wound ; and if the ends of the
ligature are then of no ufe in keeping the bowel in this
pofition, they muft be objedionable as extraneous fubftances.
Dift. of Praft. Surgery, edit. 3. art. Wounch.

The following is the procefs by which, according to Mr.
Travers, a divided inteftine is healed, when futures are em-
ployed : " It commences with the agglutination of the
contiguous mucous furfaces, probably by the exudation of
a fluid, fimilar to that which glues together the fides of a
recent flefh wound, when fupported in contact. The ad-
hefive inflammation fupervenes, and binds down the everted
edges of the peritoneal coat, from the whole circumference
of which a layer of coagulable lymph is effufed, fo as to
envelope the wounded bowel. The aftion of the longitudinal
fibres being oppofed to the artificial conneftion, the fedions
mutually recede, as the futures loolen by the procefs of
ulcerative abforption. During this time, the lymph de-
pofited becomes organized, by which further retraftion is
prevented, and the original cylinder, with the threads at-
tached to it, is encompafled by the new tunic.

" The gut ulcerates at the points of the ligatures, and
thefe fall into its canal. The fiffures left by the ligatures
are gradually healed up ; but the oppofed villous furfaces,
fo far as my obfervation goes, neither adhere nor become
confolidated by granulation, fo that the interftice, making
the divifion internally, is probably never obliterated." Tra-
vers on Injuries of the Inteftine, &c. p. 128.

The celebrated Scarpa pubhfhed, a few years ago, fome
highly interefting remarks on the procefs employed by
nature in repairing folutions of continuity in the inteftinal
canal, efpecially in cafes of hernia with gangrene ; and the
refults of his inveftigations are alfo both curious and in-
llruftive, in relation to what happens, and what ought to be
done, in wounds of the abdomen. ( SuU'ernie Memorie
Anatomico-Chirurgiche, &c. Milano, 1809.) He obferves,
that the leaft fatal confequence of a mortification of the
bowel is the efcape of the excrement through the wound,
or artificial anus ; an afRifting and difgufting infirmity, but
one which does not preclude all hope of a radical cure,
even though a confiderable portion of the inteftinal canal
may have been deftroyed by fphacelus. The recorded
examples of fuch cures are abundant, and yet, fays Scarpa,
nothing has yet been written which will ferve to convey an
exaft idea of the fimple and admirable means which nature
employs in accompli(hing them. Surgeons generally fup-
pofe, that after the detachment of the dead parts, the two
orifices of the bowel remain gaping, and acquire adhefions
to the margins of the external wound ; that afterwards, in
proportion as this contrafts, they come gradually nearer
together, and in the end touch each other fo accurately,
that the feces are capable of palling direftly from the fupe-
rior into the inferior portion of the gut. But this theory
cannot fatisfy thofe who have attentively examined, in fome
cafes of mortified hernia, the refpeftive fituation of the two
orifices of the inteftine, and their relation to the external
wound. In faft, the two ends of the bowel are conftantly
found lying in a parallel manner by the fide of each other :
the upper with its orifice open, and direfted towards the
external wound by the feces which iffue from it ; the lower,
on the contrary, as it gives paftage to nothing, always has
a tendency to become lefs capacious, and retrafted into the
cavity of the abdomen. The contraction of the external
. v/ound cannot have the leaft efFeft in changing the direftion
of thefe two orifices, nor confequently in applying them
to each other. Even fuppofing there were fome natural
tendency to this approximation, the upper orifice, being
wider than in the natural ftate, and direfted outwards,

could never accurately coalefce with the lower one, which is
flirunk, and retrafted within the belly. The feces then
could never pafs from one into the other without the eff'u-
fion of a large part of them outwardly, and an incurable
filtula, difcharging the inteftinal contents, would in every
inftance be the confequence.

Scarpa had an opportunity of examining the body of a
young man, who, in confequence of eating a large quan-
tity of indigeftible food, died about ten months after having
been operated upon for a congenital hernia, attended with
mortification of the protruded bowels, at a period when he
had recovered, with the exception of an occafional dif-
charge of a very fmall quantity of feces from an incon-
fiderable fiftulous opening. He alfo dilTefted two other
cafes. From all thefe it appears, that the breach in the
inteftinal canal is not repaired by the orifices of the uppec
and lower portions of the bowel re-uniting, coalefcing, and
running as it were into each other ; nay, that they meet at
a very acute angle, the axis of one not correfponding with
that of the other, and they never lie laterally together. On
the contrary, Scarpa's inveftigations fatisfaftorily prove,
that a funnel-ftiaped membranous canal (what he terms thi
Imbuto inembranofo), compofed of the remains of the hernial
fac, conftitutes the medium of communication between the
upper and lower orifices of the bowel, which, in an early ftage
of the cafe, becomes adherent to the peritoneum about the
neck of the hernial fac. The bafeof the funnel-ftiapcd m.em-'
branous cavity conefponds to the bowel, and its apex tends
towards the wound or fiftula. It farther appears, that the
feces, in order to get from the upper into the lower part of
the bowel, have to pafs through the funnel-ftiaped cavity in
quite a femicircular track, and that between the orifices of
the bowel, direftly oppofite to the aperture between the
cavity of the inteftine and that of the funnel-ftiaped mem-
brane, a confiderable projeftion or jutting angle is formed,
which makes a material additional obftacle to the direft
paflage of the feces, from the upper into the lower portion
of the inteftinal tube.

Scarpa thus explains the formation of the funnel-ftiaped
membranous cavity, that conftitutes the channel of com-
munication betwixt one part of the bowel and the other :
" The hernial fac, as every furgeon knows, does not always
partake of gangrene with the vifcera contained in a hernia :
and even when it does Hough, fince the feparation of the
dead parts happens on the outfide of the abdominal ring,
there almoft always remains in this fituation a portion of the
neck of the hernial fac perfectly found. We may fay,
therefore, that in all cafes immediately after the detach-
ment of the mortified inteftine, whether it happen within or
on the outfide of the ring, the two orifices of the gut are
enveloped in the neck of the hernial fac, which foon be-
coming adherent to them by the effeft of inflammation,
ferves for a certain time to direft the feces towards the ex-
ternal wound, and to prevent their eff"ufion in the abdomen
In proportion as the outer wound diminifties, the external
portion of the neck of the hernial fac alfo contrafts ; but
that part which embraces the orifices of the inteftine gra-
dually becomes larger, and at length forms a kind of mem-
branous funnel or intermediate cavity, which makes the
communication between the two parts of the bowel. This
adhefion of the neck of the hernial fac round the two ori-
fices of the gut does not hinder the latter from gradually
quitting the ring, and becoming more and more deeply
placed in the cavity of the abdomen." Scarpa then cau-
tions furgeons not to fancy from this account, that there is
any occafion to pafs a ligature through the mefenterj' for
the purpofe of fixing it near the ring, even were the gan-
grenous

'i

WOUNDS.

grenous bowel perfe<ftly free and iiudiiertiit to the neigh-
boiirint; parts. The truth is, that the adhefive inflamma-
tion, whicli alfo commences immediately after the operation,
fixes the parts near the wound before they can be drawn
away by any retraftion of the bowel or mefentery ; and in
the courfe of the firft 24 hours the two orifices of the di-
vided inteftine are conllantly enveloped in the remains of the
hernial fac. In a cafe of this kind, where the mortified
bowel was not at all adherent to the neck of the hernial fac,
Scarpa introduced a ligature through the mefentery in the
ufual way, and on withdrawing it at the end of 24 hours,
and pading his finger to the bottom of the wound, he found
the circumference of the two orifices of the bowel every
where adherent. When a ligature through the mefentery
had not been praftifed, and no effufion, he alfo invariably
difcovered the bowel adherent to the neck of the hernial
fac, in every fubjeft who had died foon after the operation
for a ftrangulated hernia, complicated with gangrene, and
whom he examined after death. Certainly, he obferves, it
muft be allowed that the orifices of the divided inteftine do
retraft, and become farther from the ring ; but they do fo
very flowly, and always draw along with them the neck of
the hernial fac to which they contract early adhefions.

Our limits oblige us to pafs over many other interefting
obfervations relative to the caufes which facilitate or retard
the re-eftabli(hment of the continuity of the inteftinal canal,
and on the neceflity of the funnel-fhaped membrane as a fub-
ftitute for the portion of bowel dellroyed by gangrene.
.We fhall next notice the comparifon of the artificial anus,
arifing from a mortified hernia, with that which is the refult
of a penetrating wound of the abdomen, as made by the in-
telligent Scarpa. "Why," he inquires, " is it fo common
to fee the continuity of the intellinal canal re-eitabhfiied
after a mortified ini^uinal or crural hernia, while the arti-
ficial anus is always incurable, when it is formed in confe-
quence of a penetrating wound of the abdomen with pro-
trufion of the inteftine, whether a part of the canal be de-
llroyed by gangrene, as in the inftance related by Mofcati
(Mem. de I'Acad. de Chir. t. 8.), or whether it be totally
or partially divided by the wounding inilrument, as in the
examples recorded by Stalpart- Wander Wiel (Obf. Rar.
t. ii. obf. 25.), Cabrole (Oper. Med. obf. 13.), Fabricuis
Hildanus (Centur. i. obf. 74.), &c. ?" Scarpa will not
even allow as an exception to this remark the cafe recited
in the 2d vol. of the Q2uvres Chir. de Default ; becaufe
he conceives the details are not fufficiently exphcit.

In order to refolve this problem, fays he, we have only
to compare a wound of the belly complicated with protru-
fjon and mortification of the bowel, with a mortified intefti-
nal hernia, and draw a paraUel between the circumftances
which accompany the two cafes, and conftitute their chief
differences, ift. In a hernia, the two extremities of the
mortified gut are always enveloped in the remains of the
hernial fac, which form in front of the two orifices a kind
of funnel-fliaped canal. There is nothing like this at the
extremities of a bowel divided either by a cutting inilru-
ment which has penetrated the abdomen, or by mortifica-
tion, which has comphcated a wound of this defcription.
2dly, In thefelaftinftances, the wounded or burft inteftine be-
comes adherent to the edges of the external wound ; confe-
quently, it cannot retradl into the abdomen, and the feces,
which defcend out of the upper portion, being as it were on a
level with the fkin, muft necen"arily all efcape out of the exter-
nal wound. This is precifely what aAually iiappens, it being
known that artificial ani of this kind are always incurable.
After a mortified hernia, on the contrary, it is upon the
facility with which the bowel becomes fituated farther

from the wound, drawing along with it the remains of the
hernial fac, that the formation of an intermediate cavity be-
tween the two orifices of the gut depends, and which is to
make the communication between them. What happens
after penetrating wounds of the belly, with injury of the
bowels, is alfo feen in ventral hernias, which have formed
under the cicatrix of a long-cured wound of the abdomen,
wh«n fuch herniae are unfortunately attacked by mortifica-
tion. Large, old, umbihcal, and ventral hemis, though
furnifhed with a hernial fac, generally give rife to incurable
artificial ani whenever they flough. Scarpa explains the
caufe of this circumftance, by adverting to the very inti-
mate adhefion which exifts in fuch hernia between the fac
and the aponeurofes and integuments of the abdomen, and
which tends to hinder the formation of the funnel-fhaped
membranous cavity in front of the orifices of the inteftine,
and which alone can eftabhih a communication between
them.

It follows, fays Scarpa, from the foregoing and other
fafts, that the retraftion of the neck of the hernial fac, and
of the two orifices of the bowel, is effential to the re-efta-
blilhment of the continuity of the inteftinal canal, when a
breach has been made in it by mortification. Hence, he
thinks, that in future every body will confider the plan of
pafling a ligature through the mefentery, in order to keep
the two ends of the gut near the outer wound, not only as
ufelefs, but even as dangerous. The adhefions of the neck of
the hernial fac to the inteftine, before the occurrence of
gangrene, muft almoft always render the ligature ufelefs.
And even when the adhefion does not exift at the period of
cutting through the floughs, Scarpa afferts that the ligature
is equally unnecefFary. Indeed, fays he, immediately after
the operation, while nature is effefting the feparation of the
dead from the hving parts, the latter invariably contraft, in
a very fhort time, clofe adhefions to the neck of the hernial
fac, either on a level with a ring, or a little within it, and
there is no danger of the feces being extravafated in the
abdomen. If the latter accident has fometimes happened
in fubjefts who have died of hernia with gangrene in a few
days, it has been becaufe the feces could not make their
way outward quick enough, and therefore occafioned a
burfting of the bowel in the abdomen, within the ring and
beyond the extent of the hernial fac. If, in fome other
cafes, the two orifices of the bowel have been found in the
dead fubjeft not adherent to the neck of the hernial fac,
and the feces extravafated, Scarpa thinks it has happened
only after death, when the relaxation of the whole abdomen
has let the ends of the bowel quit the neck of the hernial
fac, to which it had not yet acquired any adhefions. But
he conceives that nothing hke this can ever happen in the
hving body, owing to the alternate adlion of the diaphragm
and abdominal mufcles, which comprefs all the vifcera, and
tend to propel them outward.

Hippocrates writes, " Si quod inteftinorum gracilium
difcinditur, non coalefcit." (Se£l. 4. Aphor. 24.) This
aphoriim, fays Scarpa, taken in its true fenfe, is the ex-
prcflion of an inconteftible fad. It is very true, that
wounds of the inteftinal canal follow in their cicatrization
quite a different courfe from fimple wounds of the fldn,
mufcles, or any other parts of the body. Their edges are
never obferved to become immediately apphed to each
other, and therefore, ftriftly fpeaking, they do not re-unite.
Their cure is altogether completed through the medium
of the furrounding parts ; that is to fay, by the adhefions
which the inteftines contradl with the great fac of the peri-
toneum lining the parietes of the abdomen, or with the pro-
dudioiis of this membrane which compofe the external

covering

VVUUJNUa.

covering of the greater part of the vifcera. Littre relates,
that a hinatic dabbed himfelf with a knife in eighteen places
about the abdomen, eight of which wounds penetrated into
this cavity, and evidently injured the bowels. The man,
however, recovered in two months ; but in another paro-
xyfm of mania he threw himfelf out of the window, and was
killed. On opening his body, all the cicatrices of the in-
teftinal canal were found adherent to fome point of the
furface of the adjacent vifcera or parietes of the abdomen.
There was not a iingle one which feemed to be formed by
the direft contaft of the edges of the inteftinal wound with
each other. Acad. Roy. des Sciences de Paris, 1705.

The peritoneum, when irritated by any caufe wuatfoever,
has a Angular difpofition to inflame round the point of irri-
tation, and to contract adhefions with the parts which are
contiguous to it in the fame fituation. Thus, when one
or feveral convolutions of intetlines have been divided by a
cutting inftrument, or pierced by a ball, they always be-
come united for a certain extent to the furrounding parts,
all of which are covered with the peritoneum. ( See alfo
Platner's Inftit. Chir. § 694.) Thefe adhefions, which are
the only means employed by nature for blocking up acciden-
tal openings in the intelHnal canal, are promoted by the pref-
fure which the abdominal mufcles and diaphragm alter-
nately make upon the vifcera in the aftions of infpiralion
and expiration.

In a fubfequent part of his work, Scarpa delivers his own
fentiments on the different plans which have been propoCed
for effefting the re-union of a divided inteftine. If, fays
he, we compare Ramdohr's operation with the fimple and
effeftual procefles employed by nature for re-eftabli(hing
the continuity of the inteftinal canal after hernis with mor-
tification, we are compelled to acknowledge on this point,
as well as on many others, that art continues very inferior
to nature.

In the firft place, fays Scarpa, the introduftion of one
part of the bowel into the other is imprafticable in a great
many cafes of mortified hernix, in confequence of the ad-
hefions which the found part of the inteftine has contrafted
with the neck of the hernial fac, during the inflammatory
period of the ftrangulation. Secondly, it is hardly ever
poffible, without inconvenience, to draw a confiderable
portion of the inteftinal canal out of the belly, for the pur-
pofe of introducing, with all the requifite precautions, the
upper end of the bowel into the lower. This cannot be
done without handling for too long a time, and more or lefs
roughly, the bowel, which is already irritated ; which cir-
cumftance, together with the pricks of the needle, and the
dragging of the ftitches, is more than an adequate oaufe
for the produftion of a fatal inflammation. The danger
will be ftill farther increafed, if, according to the experi-
ments of fome modem furgeons, the two ends of the bowel
are fewed together over a piece of a calPs trachea, or a fmall
hollow cylinder of tallow, or ifinglafs, a pafteboard tube,
&c. Whatever may be the foreign body put within the
bowel, it may, by obftruAing the courfe of the feces,
bring on violent inflammatory fymploms, and deftroy the
patient in the moll agonizing fufferings.

Scarpa then adverts to the experiments made on dogs by
Dr. Thomfon of Edinburgh, and Dr. Smith of Philadel-
phia, which tend to prove that the two extremities of a
divided bowel may be united by means of a future, and then
returned into the carity of the belly, without endangering
the animal's life. (See alfo Boyer's experiments on this
-lubjeft, in the Mem. de la Societc de Medecine de Paris,
torn. i. ) It is alleged (fays Scarpa), that there is no rifle
of -the ligatures falling into the cavity of the abdomen after

their detachment ; but that by one of the operations of
nature which cannot be explained, the threads are voided
with the feces after the cure. Scarpa notices that the par-
ticulars of the way in which thefe futures were made is
not given; and how (fays he) have the above gentlemen
fucceeded in applying the orifices of the divided bowel
accurately to each other, which is extremely difficult, efpe-
cially in dogs ? In whatever hght the fubjeft is viewed ( he
obferves), " I doubt whether it be poffible to re-unite,
by means of any future, the extremities of a divided
bowel after mortification in hernia, or at leaft to do it
with any probabihty of fuccefs. Such experiments, even
when they fucceed in the belt poffible manner, merely
prove that certain operations, which would mofl; frequently
be ufekfs or fatal on man, may be fuccefsfully praiSifed on
other animals."

On the contrary (fays Scarpa), in the circum^ftances
which have been fuppofed, nature is daily obferved to fuc-
ceed in re-eftabliftiing the continuity of the inteftinal canal,
by means equally fimple and mild. She prepires herfelf (as
it were) for this work before gangrene aftually takes place,
by forming adhefions between the ftrangulated bowel and
the neck of the hernial fac. After the feparation of the
mortified parts, flie draws back into the abdomen the ex-
tremities of the divided bowel, and out of the remains of
the hernial fac, ftie forms a fort of funnel-ftiaped membrane,
which ferves at firft for direfting the feces outwards, and
afterwards for tranfmitting them from the upper orl ice of
the intefti.ie into the lower, by making them follow a femi-
circular track from before backwards. For two or three
inftances of the complete fuccefs of Ramdohr's operation,
an almoft innumerable multitude of cures effected altogether
by the powers of nature could now be cited. Thi s, fays
Scarpa, in th- prcfent ftate of our knowledge, wc fliould
congratulate patients who, in thefe unfortunate circum-
ftances, fall into the hands of furgeons either incapable of
undertaking an operation, or little folicitous about healing
up the wound.

It may perhaps be imagined (continues Scarpa), that
Ramdohr's operation is better calculated for certain cafes of
penetrating wounds of the abdomen, as, for inftance, where
the inteftine has been completely divided with a cutting in-
ftrument, or by the effefts of gangrene arifing from long
expofure to the air. Scarpa here allows that it would be
very defirable to find out fome operation which could be
ufeful in thefe circumftances, which are the more unfor-
tunate, becaufe they do not furnifti nature with the means
of re-eftablifliing the continuity of the inteftinal canal, as in
cafes of mortified hernix. But he doubts whether in fuch
inftances Ramdohr's operation could be undertaken with
any probability of fuccefs ; for the complete divifion of the
inteftine is almoft always the refult of an enormous wound,
which having interefted feveral vifcera leaves little or no
hope of recovery. Suppofing the bowel fliould not hate
been divided with the cutting inftrument, but that it is pro-
truded and gangrenous from long expofure, it muft be
remembered, that in this cafe it will have contrafted adhe-
fions to the hps of the wound, even before the feparation of
the mortified part ; confequently, the bowel cannot be
drawn farther out of the belly, fo as to allow one end
of it being introduced into the other. To undertake fuch
an operation then, would be to expofe the patient to much
greater perils than that of an incurable artificial anus.

According to Scarpa, it is Httle to have proved that
Ramdohr's operation is imprafticable when the inteftine has
been completely divided ; he proceeds farther, and has no
Iiefitation in afferting, \.)m\. in all cafes of penetrating wounds

of

WOUNDS.

vf the abdomen, atteniied ivilh injury of the iniejl'ine, -whether
the canal be opened long':ludinally or tranfverfely, a future is
altvays an operation not merely ufelefs, but even dangerous and
fatal. In whatever manner it is praftifed, one cannot avoid
the evils which muft originate from the punftures, however
few, and from the pafTage of the ligatures through the coats
of the inteftine; a part endued with exquifite fenfibility, and
whofe external tunic is much difpofed to inflame, and
rapidly to communicate the inflammation to all the other
abdominal vifcera. It has been unfortunately proved, by the
experience of feveral ages, that in moil of t!;e cafes in which
the inteftine has been ftitclied in penetrating wounds of the
belly, the patients have died in the greateft agony. If a
few have efcaped the dangers of this operation, it has been
becaufe in them the ftitches foon cut their way out, and
were voided with the feces which continued to efcape from
the wound until it was entirely healed.

All furgeons of experience, and particularly thofe of
large hofpitals, have often feen wounds of the right or left
iliac region accompanied with injury of the great inteftine.
They may alfo have noticed, in thefe examples, that after
the fubfidence of the local and general inflammatory fymp-
toms, the wound ftill continues to difcharge the feces for a
certain time ; but that afterwards it contrafts, and the ex-
crement refumes its ufual courfe. Thefe wounds almoft
always heal completely : firft, becaufe the adhefion of the
large inteftine to the parietes of the abdomen prevents the
feces from being extravafated in the cavity of the peri-
toneum ; and fecondly, becaufe the ample capacity of the
fame bowel always prefents a ready paflage for the feces,
notwithftanding the progreflive and fometimes quick clofure
of the external opening.

If, in the inftance of a penetrating wound of the belly
attended with a wound of the fmall inteftines, it were in the
furgeon's power (as indeed it is) to return the bowel into
the abdomen, fo that the opening in it may exaftly corre-
fpond with the wound in the abdominal parietes, there could
not be a doubt of its quickly acquiring adhefions to the
I peritoneum, which lines the part around the internal orifice
; of the external wound : hence the feces would readily
' efcape through the outer wound, and at length it would
' happen, after a certain time, as in wounds of the large in-
teftines, that the artificial anus would gradually clofe up,
I and the feces refume their natural track. The narrow dia-
I meter of the fmall inteftines would not make an infurmount-
able obftacle to the paifage of the feces, provided they be,
' as they ufually are in this portion of the inteftinal canal,
i fufficiently fluid ; and befides (fays Scarpa) is it not proved
: by experience, that they relume their natural courfe, after
; the cure of an artificial anus, even when a confiderable
' noofe of the fmall inteftines has been deftroyed by gangrene,
\ and when the two ends form by their re-union a very acute
angle ? In all cafes, the patient's hfe would be faved, and
I the worft that could happen would be his being afflifted the
; reft of his days with a fiftula difcharging feces.

Encouraged by thefe principles, which are the natural
I deduftions of a comparifon of wounds of the large intef-
: tines with thofe of the fmall ones, Scarpa feels no hefitation
in admitting the pofllbility of curing the latter, without
.having recourfe to a future. He obferves, that it would
1 not be difficult for him to quote examples of fuch cures.
I Amongft others, he has lately feen one which deferves to be
! mentioned here. A portion of fmall inteftine, protruded
j through a penetrating wound of the abdomen, happened to
be punctured with a bodkin by a country furgeon, in his
j mdeavours to return the part into the belly. The feces,
' however, were not extravp.fated iu the cavity of the peri-
' Vol. XXXVIJI.

toneum, but were for a long while difcharged through the
wound. The opening in the bowel always correfponded
exaaiy to that in the parietes of the abdomen, although no
future was praftifed, nor any ligature put through the me-
fentcry in order to keep it in this fituation. The feces
afterwards gradually refumed their natural courfe, the wound
at the fame time became fmaller, and in the end healed up.
The young man, the fubjeft of this cafe, now enjoys very
good health, and fufFers no inconvenience which can juftify
a fufpicion of any obftruAion in the paifage of the feces.

The inceilant prefTure made by the abdominal mufcles
and diaphragm upon all the vifcera, is a caufe why the
wounded inteftine, inftead of quitting the external wound,
enters it, and contrails adhefions to its lips. If, however, a
too timorous furgeon were afraid of entirely trufting, on
this point, to the wife providence of nature, he might
(Scarpa thinks) without inconvenience pafs a ligature
through the mefentery, behind the portion of wounded
bowel, as is ufually and quite unneceflarily done in cafes of
mortified hernia. Forty-eight hours, or thereabouts, would
be time enough for the inteftine to contract adhefions,
through the medium of the peritoneum, to the inner edges
of the wound. After this period, the ligature would be
completely ufelefs, and it ought to be withdrawn, as there
would now be no chance of extravafation of the feces in
the belly. At the fame time one fhould negledl no remedies,
internal as well as external, which may be of ufe in mode-
rating the patient's fufferings, diminifliing the energy of the
circulation, and bringing the inflammation down to the de-
gree requifite for the formation of adhefions. One ought
alfo to keep open the external wound with the fame precau-
tions, and according to the fame indications which are to be
attended to in the treatment of an artificial anus. The
principal objedl of thefe precautions is, to let the treatment
be fuch that the wound may only diminifti in proportion as
the evacuation from the lower part of the inteftinal canal
increafes.

Here it may be a propos to obferve, that the conduft of
a furgeon in the treatment of penetrating wounds of the
abdomen, attended with injury of the fmall inteftines, is
exaftly the reverfe of what it ought to be in the treatment
of penetrating wounds of the cheft, accompanied with injury
of the lungs.

In the latter, fays Scarpa, phyfiology, agreeing with ex-
perience, teaches us that no means ftiould be omitted for
efFefting the immediate union of the wound, (as it is termed,
by thejirfl intention, ) care being taken to check the force of
the circulation by repeated bleedings and every antiphlo-
giftic remedy, in order to prevent or diminifti, as much as
poffible, internal hemorrhage. If, notwithftanding all thefe
means, blood fhould be extravafated between the pleura
and lungs, it prefles equally upon every point of thefe vif-
cera, refifts their motion, and thereby contributes to flop
the bleeding. If, after the wound in the lungs is healed,
the extravafated blood be not in too large quantity, it will
be gradually removed by the abforbeiitsi. In the contrary
cafe, it will form a fwelling beneath the external cicatrix,
and prefent itfelf externally (fee Difcours fur les Principales
Maladies obfervees a I'Hotel Dieu de Lyon, &c. par M.
Petit, p. 299.) ; orelfe a counter opening muft be praftifed
at the inferior part of the cheft. See Empyema.

We are to aft quite differently in the treatment of a pene-
trating wound of the belly, with protrufion and injury of
the inteftine ; for in this cafe, the chief indication, that on
which the patient's fafety mainly depends, confifts in keep-
ing the external wound open, in order that the feces may
find a ready outlet. The wounded bowel foon contraAs
J D adhtftons

WOUNDS.

adhefions to the inner lips of the wound of the belly, and
then we have nothinjT to fear from an extravafation of the
intellinal matter in the cavity of the peritoneum. After-
wards, in proportion as the feces refume their natural
coiirfe, the external wound is to be allowed to dimini(h, and
entirely heal up. See Scarpa SuU'ernie Memorie Anato-
mico-Chirurgiche, &c. mem. 4.

In every inftance in which the abdomen has received a
penetrating wound, attended with injury and protrufion of
a portion of the inteftinal canal, the difplaced part is to be
reduced, whether it be ditched or not. This (hould be
accomphflied as fpeedily as poiTible, before the bowel has
fuffered much from expofure, conftriftion, &c.^ and alfo
before any adhefions have formed at the inner orifice of the
external wound ; adhefions which would render the reduc-
tion of the protruded part imprafticable. Of courfe, if
the wound fhould be too fmall to admit of the reduction
being effefted without handling and bruiling the bowel im-
moderately, it ought to be carefully enlarged with a curved
biftoury, guided on a direftor. Indeed, according to
Scarpa's principles, one would fuppofe that in every cafe of
this kind the wound, if not free, (hould be dilated, as by
this means the ifTue externally of whatever efcapes from the
breach in the inteftine after its reduftion would be facili-
tated. The reft of the treatment confifts in the rigorous
adoption of antiphlogiftic meafures, more efpecially a low
diet, and copious and repeated venefeftions, with a view of
counteratling the danger of peritoneal inflammation. With
refpeft to the dreflings, they cannot be too fimple, and
they ought always to be hght and fuperficial. A pledget
of any common unirritating ointment is all that is requifite,
and it muft be renewed as frequently as the quantity of the
difcharge, &c. from tlie wound may render neceffary.

3. Pemtraling Wounds of the Belly, attended ■with Injury
of the Bowels, but ivith no Protrufion. — A wound of the
inteftines is indicated by the difcharge of blood with the
(lools, and fometimes by the efcape of fetid air, or of in-
tellinal matter from the external wound. Such an injury,
liowever, when the wounded bov/els lie concealed in the
belly, does not always admit of being known with certainty
immediately after occurrence. In the majority of examples,
there is at firft no efcape either of air, or of the contents of
the bowels, from the external wound ; the quantity of blood
voided per anum may be inconfiderable, and of courfe none
at all will generally be difcharged for fome time after the
accident. Wounds of the fmaU inteltines, efpecially of the
duodenum and jejunum, are indeed ufually followed by great
anxiety, palenefs of the countenance, fyncope, cold per-
fpirations, a fmall intermitting tremulous pulfe ; but then
thefe fymptoms are only equivocal, and furnifh no pofitive
information, becaufe feveral of them may happen in nervous
fubjefts, from a mere fuperficial unimportant cut or ftab.
Our inability, however, to fay alTuredly, in every cafe,
whether the bowels are injured or not, is a thing of no
praftical importance ; becaufe when the nature of the acci-
dent is not clearly manifefted by fome peculiarity or feverity
of the fymptoms, the cafe (hould invariably be treated on
common, fimple, antiphlogiftic principles ; and alfo, when
circumftances leave not the fmalleft doubt of the inteftines
being hurt, the fame treatment is the only rational one
which can be purfucd. Wounds of the fmall inteftines are
reckoned much more dangerous than thofe of the large ;
arid the nearer the injury is to the pylorus, the greater,
generally fpeaking, is the degree of danger. Such cafes are
alfo much more frequently, than injuries of the large intef-
tines, the caufe of extravafation. In the latter examples,
the fymptoms are commonly milder, and either the pafTage

7

of the inteftinal contents outward through the wound more
eafy and certain, on account of the bowel being naturally
lefs moveable than the other inteftines ; or their pafTage in
their natural courfe more ready, by reafon of the greater
capacity of that part of the inteftinal tube.

A wounded inteftine is faid to prefent fome particular
appearances, to which the generality of writers have paid
no attention. " If a gut be punftured, the elafticity of the
peritoneum, and the contraftion of the mufcular fibres, open
the wound ; and the villous or mucous coat forms a fort of
hernial protrufion, and obliterates the aperture. If an in-
cifed wound be made, tlie edges are drawn afunder and
reverted, fo that the mucous coat is elevated in the form of
a fle(hy lip. If the fe£lion be tranfverfe, the lip is broad
and bulbous, and acquires tumefaftion and rednefs from the
contraAion of the circular fibres behind it, which produces,
relatively to the everted portion, the appearance of a cervix.
If the incifion is according to the length of the cylinder,
the lip is narrow, and the contraftion of the adjacent longi-
tudinal, refifting that of the circular fibres, gives the orifice
an oval form. This everfion and contraftion are produced
by that ferles of motions, which conftitutes the periftaltic
aftion of the inteftines." Travers on Injuries of the Intel-
tines, p. 85.

According to this gentleman, fome of thefe appearances
were defcribed by Haller, in Element. Phyfiol. lib. 24.
feft. 2. and Opera Minora, tom. i. feft. ij.

Having witnefTed the facility with which confiderable in-
juries of the inteftinal tube were repaired, Mr. Travers was
defirous of afcertaining more fully the powers of nature in
the procefs of fpontaneous reparation, and of determining
under how great a degree of injury it would commence, as
well as the mode of its accomph(hment. For thefe pur-
pofes, he divided the fmall inteftine of feveral dogs as far as
the mefentery. All thefe animals died, in conlequence of
the inteftinal matter being extravafated, if they had been
lately fed, or if they had been fafting in confequence of in-
flammation, attended with a feparation of the ends of the
divided bowel, everfion of the mucous coat, and oblitera-
tion of the cavity, partly by this everfion, and partly by a
plug of coagulated chyle.

In one particular inftance in which Mr, Travers made a
divifion of the bowel half through its diameter, a fort of
poucli was formed round the injured inteftine. " A pouch,
refembling fomewhat the diverticulum in thefe animals, was
formed oppofite to the external wound, on the fide of the
parietes, by the lining peritoneum ; on the other fide, by
the mefentery of the injured inteftine, that inteftine itfelf,
and an adjacent fold, which had contrafted with it a clofe
adhefion. The pouch, thus formed and infulated, included
the oppofed feftions of the gut, and had received its con-
tents, &c. The tube at the orifices was narrowed by the
half everfion, but offered no impediment to the pafTage of
fluids." (P. 96.) Whether, under thefe circumftances,
the funftions of the alimentary canal could have been con-
tinued, Mr. Travers profeffes himfelf incapable of deciding.
Among the inferences which this gentleman has drawn from
the experiments detailed in his publication, the tendency
of the two portions of a divided bowel to recede from each 1
other, inftead of coalefcing to repair the injury, merits no-f
tice, inafmuch as it tends to (hew that the only means of !
fpontaneous reparation confift in the formation of an adven-
titious canal, by the encirchng bowels and their appendages.
The everted mucous coat, which is the part oppofed to the *
furrounding peritoneum, is alfo indifpofed to the adhefive:
inflammation.

When, however, the wound of the inteftine is fmaller,

the

WOUNDS.

the obftacles to reparation ai-e not abfolutely infurmountable.
Here retraftion is prevented, and the proceffes of everfion
and contraftion modified by the limited extent of the injury.
If, therefore, the adhefive inflammation unite the contiguous
iurfaces, effufion will be prevented, and the animal efcape
immediate deftruftion. But union can only take place
through the medium of the furrounding parts.

According to Mr. Travers, it is the retraftion immedi-
ately following the wound that is a chief obftacle to the
reparation of the injury ; for if the divifion be performed in
fuch a way as to prevent retraftion, the canal will be reftored
in fo fliort a time, as but flightly to interrupt the digeftive
funftion. In confirmation of this ilatement, a ligature was
tightly applied round the duodenum of a dog, which be-
came ill, but entirely recovered, and was killed. " A liga-
ture, fattened around the inteftine, divides the interior coats
of the gut, in this efFeft refembhng the operation of a liga-
ture upon an artery. The peritoneal tunic alone maintains
its integrity. The inflammation, which the ligature induces
on either fide of it, is terminated by the depofition of a coat
of lymph, which is exterior to the ligature, and quickly
becomes organized. When the ligature, thus enclofed, is
liberated by the ulcerative procefs, it falls of neceflity into
the canal, and palTes off with its contents." P. 103, 104.

It appears alfc from Mr. Travers's experiments and ob-
fervations, that longitudinal wounds of the bowels are more
eafily repaired than fuch as are tranfverfe. In a dog, a
longitudinal wound, of the extent of an inch and a half, was
repaired by the adhefive inflammation. Here the procefs
of everfion is very limited ; the aperture bears a fmaller
proportion to the cylinder of the bowel ; and the entire
longitudinal fibres refill the aftion of the circular, which
are divided, and can now only flightly leflen the area of the
canal. P. 108.

When the wounded bowel lies within the cavity of tiie
abdomen, no furgeon of the prefent day would have the
raflinefs to think of attempting to cxpofe the injured in-
teftine, for the purpofe of fewing up the breach of continuity
in it. In faft, the furgeon feldom knows at firft what has
happened ; and when the nature of the cafe is afterwards
manifeiled, by the difcharge of blood per anum, an extra-
vafation of intellinal matter, &c. it would be impoflible to
get at the injured part of the bowel, not only becaufe its
exaft fituation is unknown, but more particularly on account
of the adhefions, which are always formed with furprifing
rapidity. But even if the furgeon knew to a certainty, in
the firft inftance, that one of the bowels was wounded, and
the precife fituation of the injury, no future could be ap-
plied, without confiderably enlarging the external wound,
drawing the wounded inteftine out of the cavity of the ab-
domen, and handling and difturbing all the adjacent vifcera.
Nothing would be more likely than fuch proceedings to
render the accident, which might originally be curable, un-
avoidably fatal. We muft agree upon this point with Mr.
John Bell, who fays, " When there is a wounded inteftine,
which we are warned of only by the pafllng out of the feces,
we muft not pretend to fearch for it, nor put in our finger,
nor expeft to few it to the wound ; but we may truft that
the univerfal prelTure, which prevents great effufion of blood,
and coUefts the blood into one place, that very preffure, which
always caufes the wounded bowel and no other to protrude,
will make the two wounds, the outward wound and the in-
ward wound of the inteftine, oppofe each other point to
point ; and if all be kept there quiet, though but for one
day, fo lively is the tendency to inflame, that the adhefion
will be begun, which is to fave the patient's life." Difcourfes
on Wounds, p. 361. edit. 3.

When the extravafation and other fymptoms, a few days
alter the accident, evince the nature of the cafe, a future
can be of no ufe whatever, as the adhefive inflammation has
already fixed the part in its fituation, and the fpace, in which
the extravafation lies, is completely feparated from the
general cavity of the abdomen by the furrounding ad-
neiions. "

When the bowel is not protruded, and the opening in it
IS fituated clofely behind the wound in the peritoneum, a
future is not requifite ; for the contents of the gut, not
paffing onward, will be difcharged from the outer wound,
and not be diffufed among the vifcera, if care be taken to'
keep the external wound open. There is no danger of the
wounded bowel changing its fituation, and becoming diftant
from the wound in the peritoneum ; for the fituation which
it now occupies is its natural one. Nothing but violent
motion, or exertions, could caufe fo unfavourable an occur-
rence, and thefe ftiould always be avoided. The adhefions,
which take place in the courfe of a day or two, at length
render it impoflible for the bowel to (hift its fituation. Sec
Dift. of Praft. Surgery, edit. 3. art. IVounds.

In a penetrating wound of the abdomen, as a late author
remarks, whether by gun-fliot, or a cutting inftrument, if
no protrufion of inteftine takes place, (and this, it muft be
obferved, in mufl<et or piftol wounds, rarely occurs, ) the
lancet, with its powerful concomitants, abftinence and reft,
particularly in the fupine pofture, are our chief dependence.
Great pain and tenfion, which ufually accompany thefe
wounds, muft be relieved by leeches, if they can be pro-
cured, by the topical application of fomentations, and the
warm bath ; and if any internal medicine is given as a pur-
gative, it muft, for obvious reafons, be of the mildeft nature.
The removal of the ingefta, as a fource of irritation, is beft
effefted by frequently repeated oleaginous glyfters ; indeed,
on the firft infliftion of a wound of the abdomen, the con-
tents of the inteftinal canal and ftomach are generally evacu-
ated fpontaneoufly, the ftools being fometimes tinged with
blood. Their accumulation muft be guarded againft by a
rigorous diet ; for to the general ftate of fuhiefs of the
veffels induced by food, is added its local and mechanical
ftimulus in the undigefted form. By this treatment, pene-
trating wounds, in which feveral plicse of inteftines have
been neceffarily implicated, have been happily cured.
Authors abound with inftances of this kind, and Mr.
Hennen has feen feveral : among others, he was witnefs to
the recovery of a foldier, who had been ftiot through the
abdomen with a ramrod, at the fiege of Badajos in 1812,
which paffed in anteriorly, and aftually ftuck in the ver-
tebrx, from which it was not difengaged without the ap-
phcation of fome force. Garengeot and Lamotte alfo
record cures, after the paffage of fwords completely
through the body. See Hennen's Obf. on Mihtary Sur-
gery, p. 436, 437.

In all penetrating wounds of the belly, the dreflings can-
not be too fimple and light.

In fome inftances, the ball, or part of the weapon which
has inflifted the wound, remains within the abdominal
cavity, and is afterwards evacuated by the natural paffages.

Balls, fays Mr. Hennen, frequently pafs clean through
the abdomen, evidently wounding the inteftines, but with-
out occafioning any protrufion of them at either of the
orifices. Thefe cafes, like all others of thofe parts, are
extremely dangerous, but are not neceffarily mortal. They
require the moft guarded attention, and the utmoft watch-
fulnefs of the approach of inflammation, which often comes
on moft infidioufly. The mildeft pofTible apphcation fhould
be employed to the wounds, and no plugging with tents
5 D 2 or

WOUNDS.

or introdudion of medicated dreflings thought of. (P. 440. )
At firft a common Unfeed poultice, and afterwards fimple
pledgets, are as eUgible dreflings as any which can be men-
tioned.

Extravafation in the Mdomen.—VJomAs of the abdomen
may be complicated with extravafations of blood, chyle, ex-
crement, bile, or urine. None of thefe complications,
however, are half fo frequent as an unreflefting and inexpe-
rienced praftitioner might apprehend. The employment of
the phrafe cavity of the abdomen has paved the way to much
erroneous fuppofition upon this fubjeft, and has induced
many abfurd notions, which even the fenfible obfervations
long ago publiftied by Petit (le fils) have fcarcely yet
difpelled.

As a modern writer has obferved, " there is not truly any
cavity in the human body, but all the hollow bowels are filled
with their contents, all the cavities filled with their hollow
bowels, and the whole is equally and fairly preffed. Thus,
in the abdomen all the vifcera are moved by the diaphragm
and the abdominal mufcles, upwards and downwards, with
an equable continual prefTure, which has no interval ; and one
would be apt to add, the inteftines have no repofe, being
kept thus in continual motion ; but though the adion of the
diaphragm, and the re-aftion of the abdominal mufcles, are
alternate, the preflure is continual ; the motion which it
produces (they produce) is like that which the bowels have
when we move forwards in walking, having a motion with
refpeft to fpace, but none with regard to each other, or to
the part of the belly which covers them ; the whole mafs of
the bowels is alternately preffed, to ufe a coarfe illuftration,
as if betwixt two broad boards, which keep each turn or in-
teftine in its right place, while the whole mafs is regularly
moved. When the bowels are forced down by the dia-
phragm, the abdominal mufcles recede : when the bowels
are pufhed back again, it is the re-aftion of the abdominal
mufcles that forces them back and follows them ; there is
never an inftant of interruption of this preiTure, never a
moment in which the bowels do not prefs againft the peri-
toneum ; nor is there the fmalleft reafon to doubt that the
fame points in each are continually oppofed. We fee that
the inteftines do not move, or at leaft do not need to move
in performing their funftions ; for in hernia, where large
turns of inteftines are cut off by gangrene, the remaining
part of the fame inteftines is clofely fixed to the groin, and
yet the bowels are eafy, and their funftions regular. We
find the bowels regular when they lie out of the belly in
hernia, as when a certain turn of inteftine lies in the fcrotum,
or thigh, or in a hernia of the navel ; and where yet they
are fo abfolutely fixed, that the piece of inteHine is marked
by the ftraightnefs of the rings. We find a perfon, after a
wound of the inteftine, having free ftools for many days ;
and what is it that prevents the feces from efcaping, but
merely this regular and univerfal prefTure I We find a per-
fon on the fourth or fifth day with feces coming from the
wound ! a proof, furely, that the wound of the inteftine
is ftill oppofite, or nearly oppofite, to the external wound.
We find the fame patient recovering without one bad fign !
What better proof than this could we defire, that none of
the feces have exuded into the abdomen ?

" If in a wound of the ftomach the food could get
eafily out by that wound, the ftomach would unload itfelf
that way, there would be no vomiting, the patient muft
die ; but fo regular and continual is this prefTure, that the
inftant a man is wounded in the ftomach he vomits, he con-
tinues vomiting for many days, while not one particle efcapes
into the cavity of the abdomen. The outward wound is
commonly oppofite to that of the ftomach, and by that

paffage fome part of the food comes out ; but when any ar»
cident removes the inward wound of the ftomach from the
outward wound, the abdominal mufcles prefs upon the fto-
mach, and follow it fo clofely, that if there be not a mere
laceration extremely wide, this prefTure clofes the hole, keeps
the food in, enables the patient to vomit, and not a particle,
even of jelhes or foups, is ever loft, or goes out into the
cavity of the belly.

" How ( proceeds Mr. J. Bell), without this univerfal and
continual prefTure, could the vifcera be fupported ? Could
its ligaments, as we call them, fupport the weight of the
liver ? Or, what could fupport the weight of the ftomach
•when filled ? Could the mefentery or omentum fupport the
inteftines ; or could its own ligaments, as we ftill name them,
fupport the womb ? How, without this uniform prelTure,
could tbefe vifcera fail to give way and burft ? How could
the circulation of the abdomen go on ? How could tlie
liver and fpleen, fo turgid as they are with blood, fail to
burft ? Or, what pofiibiy could fupport the loofe veins and
arteries of the abdomen, fince many of them, e. g. the
fplenic vein, is (are) two feet in length, is (are) of the
diameter of the thumb, and has ( have ) no other than the
common pellucid and delicate coats of the veins .' How
could the vifcera of the abdomen bear fliocks and falls, if
not fupported by the univerfal prefTure of furrounding
parts ? In fhort, the accident of hernia being forced out by
any blow upon the belly, or by any fudden ftrain, explains to
us how perfeftly full the abdomen is, and how ill it is able
to bear any prefTure, even from its own mufcles, without
fome point yielding, and fome one of its bowels being thrown
out. And the ficknefs and faintnefs, which immediately
follow the drawing off of the waters of a dropfy, explain
to us what are the confequences of fuch prefTure being even
for a moment relaxed. But perhaps one of the ftrongefl
proofs is this, that the principle muft be acknowledged, in
order to explain what happens daily in wounds ; for though
in theory we (hould be inclined to make this diftinftion,
that the hernia, or abfcefs of the inteftines, will adhere and
be fafe, but that wounded inteftines, not having time to
adhere, will become flaccid, as we fee them do in difTe£lions,
and fo, falling away from the external wound, will pour
out their feces into the abdomen, and prove fatal ; though
we fhould fettle this as a fair and good diftinftion in theory,
we find that it will never aiifwer in praftice. Soldiers re-
cover daily from the moft defperate wounds ; and the moft
likely reafons that we can affign for it are, the fulnefs of
the abdomen, the univerfal, equable, and gentle prefTure,
and the aftive difpofition of the peritoneum ready to inflame
with the flighteft touch. The wounded inteftine is, by the
univerfal prefTure, kept clofe to the external wound, and the
peritoneum and the inteftine are equally inclined to adhere.
In a few hours that adhefion is begun which is to fave the
patient's life, and the lips of the wounded inteftine are
glued to the lips of the external wound. Thus is the fide
of the inteftine united to the inner furface of the abdomen ;
and though the gut cafts out its feces while the wound is
open, though it often cafls them out more freely while the
firft inflammation lafts, yet the feces refume their regular
courfe whenever the wound is difpofed to clofe." John
Bell's Difcourfes on Wounds, p. 323 — 327, edit. 3.

The foregoing extraft, though drawn up in the moft
carelefs ftyle, contains fuch obfervations as are well calcu-
lated to make the reader uiiderftand that the abdomen is in
reahty not a cavity, but a compaft mafs of containing and
contained parts ; that the clofe manner in which the various
furfaces are conftantly in contaft muft powerfully oppofe ex-
travafations ; and that in faft it often entirely prevents

them.

WOUNDS,

them. The paflage cited impreiTes us with the utility of
that quick propeniity to the adhefive inflammation which
prevails throughout every peritoneal furface, and which
not only often has the effeft of permanently hindering
effufion of the contents of the vifcera, by agglutinating
the parts together, but which, even when an extravafa-
tion has happened, beneficially confines the effufed fluid
in one mafs, and furrounds it with fuch adhefions of the
parts to each other as are rapid in their formation, and
effetlual for the purpofes of limiting the extent of the
effufion, and preventing the irritation of the extravafated
matter from affefting the reft of the abdomen.

It is to M. Petit that we are indebted for the intro-
duAion of more correft modes of thinking upon the fore-
going fubjeft. See Mem. de I'Acad. de Chirurgie.

But notwithftanding the influence of the reciprocal
preffure of the containing and contained parts againft
each other, and the ufeful effeft of the quickly arifing
adhefive inflammation in all penetrating wounds of the belly,
complicated with the injuries of the vifcera, we are not
to fuppofe that extravafation never happens, but only
that it is much lefs frequent than has been commonly
fuppofed. Mr. Travers, with much laudable induftrj-, has
endeavoured to trace more minutely than any preceding
writer the particular circumftances under which effufions in
the abdomen are likely or unlikely to happen. " It being
admitted (fays he) that there are cafes in which effufion does
take place, it is eafy to conceive circumftances which muft
confiderably influence this event. If, for example, the fto-
mach and bowels be in a ftate of emptinefs, the naufea
which follows the injury will maintain that ftate. If the
extent of the wound be confiderable, the matter will more
readily pafs through the wound than along the canal. A
wound of the fame dimenfions in the fmall and the large in-
teftines will more readily evacuate the former than the
latter, becaufe it bears a larger proportion to the calibre.
Incited and punftured wounds admit of the adhefion of the
cut edges, or the everfion of the internal coat of the gut,
fo as to be in many inftances adlually obliterated; whereas
lacerated or ulcerated openings do not admit of thefe falu-
tary procefles. Again, in a tranfverfe feftion of the bowel,
contraftion of the circular fibre clofes the wound, whereas
in a longitudinal feftion, the contraftion of this fibre en-
larges it. Such (fays Mr. Travers) are the circumftances
which, combined in a greater or lefs degree, increafe or di-
minifli the tendency to effufion." On Injuries of Inteftines,
&c. p. 13, 14.

After the details of fome experiments and cafes, the
preceding author makes among other conclufions the fol-
lowing :

1. That effufion is not an ordinary confequence of pene-
trating wounds.

2. That if the gut be full, and the wound extenfive, the
furrounding preffure is overcome by the natural aftion of the
bowel tending to the expulfion of its contents.

3. That if food has not recently been taken, and the
wound amounts to a divifion of the gut, or nearly fo, the
everfion and contraftion of the orifice of the tube prevent
effufion.

4. That if the canal be empty at the time of the wound,
no fubfequent ftate of the bowel will caufe effufion, becaufe
the fupervening inflammation agglutinates the furrounding
furfaces, and torms a circumfcnbed fac ; nor can effufion
take place from a bowel at the moment full, provided it re-
tains a certain portion of its cylinder entire, the wound not
amounting nearly to a femi-divifion of the tube, for then the

everfion and contraftion ate too partial to prevent an extra-
vafation.

5. That when, however, air has efcaped from the bowel,
or blood has been extravafated in quantity within the abdo-
men at the time of the injury, the refiftance oppofed to
effufion will be lefs effeftual, although the parietal preffure
is the fame, as fuch fluids will yield more readily than the
fohds naturally in contaft. P. 25, 26. 100.

6. That though extravafation is not common in pene-
trating wounds, it follows more generally in cafes where the
bowel is ruptured by blows, or falls upon the belly, while
the integuments continue unwounded. P. 36.

7. That when the bowels are perforated by ulceration,
there is more tendency to effufion than in cafes of wounds.
P. 38, &c.

Mr. Travers explains the reafon of the greater tendency
to effufion, hi cafes of inteftines burft by violence, and in
thofe of ulceration, " by the difference in the nature of the
injury which the bowel fuftains when perforated by a fword
or bullet, as in the one cafe, or burft or ulcerated in the
other. A rupture by concuffion could only take place
under a diftended ftate of the bowel, a condition moft
favourable to effufion, and from the texture of the part, a
rupture fo produced would feldom be of limite(f*extent.
The procefs of ulceration, by which an aperture is formed,
commences in the Internal coat of the bowel, which has
always incurred a more extenfive lefion than the peritoneal
covering. The punfture or cut is merely a folution of
continuity in a point or line ; the ulcerated wound is an
aftual lofs of fubftance. The confequence of this difference
is, that while the former, if fmall, is glued up by the effu-
fion from the cut veffels, or, if large, is nearly obhterated
by the full everfion of the villous coat, the latter is a perma-
nent orifice." P. 46.

Blood is more frequently extravafated in the abdomen than
any other fluid. Extravafations of this kind, however, do
not invariably happen, whenever veffels of not a very confi-
derable fize are wounded. The compaft ftate of the ab-
dominal vifcera, in regard to each other, and their aftion on
each other, oppofe this effeft. The aftion alluded to, which
depends on the abdominal mufcles and diaphragm, is ren-
dered very manifeft by what happens in confequence of ope-
rations for hernise attended with alteration of the inteftines,
or omentum. If thefe vifcera Ihould burft or fuppurate
after being reduced, the matter which efcapes from them, or
the pus which they fecrete, is not loft in the abdomen, but
is propelled towards the wound of the fliin, and there makes
its exit. The inteftinal matter effufed from a mortified
bowel has been known to remain lodged the whole interval
between one time of drefling the wound and another, in confe-
quence of the furgeon ftopping up the external wound with
a large tent. When the above-mentioned aftion or preffure
of the mufcles is not fufficient to keep the blood from
making its efcape from the veffels, ftillit may hinder it from
becoming diffufed among the convolutions of the vifcera, and
thus the extravafation is confined in one mafs. The blood,
effufed and accumulated in this way, is commonly lodged at
the inferior and anterior part of the abdomen, above the
lateral part of the pubes, and by the fide of one of the refti
mufcles. The weight of the blood may propel it into this
fituation, or perhaps there may be lefs refiftance in this di-
reftion than in another. In opening the bodies of perfons
who have died with fuch extravafations, things may put on a
different afpeft, and the blood feem to be promifcuoufly
extravafated over every part of the abdomen. But when
fuch bodies are examined with care, it will be found that

the

WOUNDS.

the blood does not infinuate itfelf among the vifcera till the
moment when the abdomen is opened, and the mafs pre-
viouflf lies in a kind of pouch. This pouch is frequently
circumfcribed, and bounded by thick membranes, efpecially
when the extravafation has been of fome ftanding. Saba-
tier, MSdecine Operatoire, torn. i. p. 28 — 30.

It is of the higheft confequence to a pradical furgeon to
remember well that all the parts contained in the abdomen are
clofely in contaft with each other, and with the inner fur-
face of the peritoneum. This is one grand reafon why ex-
travafations are feldom fo extenfively diffufed as one might
imagine, but commonly He in one mafs, as Petit, Sabatier,
and all the bed moderns, have noticed. The preffure of the
elaftic bowels, of the diaphragm, and abdominal mufcles, not
only frequently prefents an obftacle to the diffufion of ex-
travafated matter, but often fervcs to propel it towards the
mouth of the wound. The records of furgery make men-
tion of numerous inftances in which perfons have been
ftabbed through the body without any fatal confequences,
and fometimes without the fymptoms being even feverc. In
Mr. Travers's publication many cafes exemplifying this ob-
fervation are quoted from a variety of fources. Fab.
Hildan. Obf. Chirurg. cent. v. obf. 74. (Euvres de Pare,
liv. X. chap. 35. Wifeman's Surgery, p. 371. LaMotte's
Traite Complet de Chirurgie, &c. &c. In fuch cafes, the
bowels have been fuppofed to have eluded the point of the
weapon, and this may, perhaps in a few inftances, have been
aftually the faft ; but in almoft all fuch examples there can
be no doubt that the bowels have been punftured, and an
extravafation of inteftinal matter has been prevented by the
oppofite preflure of the adjacent vifcera. Such refiftance
and preflure may alfo have occafionally obliged intef-
tinal matter, or blood aftually extravafated, to pals through
the wound of the bowel into its cavity, and thus be fpeedily
removed. Certain it is, fuch copious evacuations of blood
per anum have followed ftabs of the abdomen as could hardly
proceed from the arteries of the inteftines. This way of
getting rid of an extravafation muft be rare, however, com-
pared with that by abforption.

The pouch or cyft including extravafated blood or
matter, as mentioned by Sabatier, is formed by the fame
procefs which circumfcribes the matter of abfccifes. ( See
Suppuration.) It is in (hort the adhefive infiammation.
All thefe furfaces in contaft with each other, and furround-
ing the extravafation and track of the wound, generally
foon become fo intimately connefted together by the adhe-
five inflammation, that the place in which the extravafation
is lodged is a cavity entirely deititute of all communication
with the cavity of the peritoneum. The track of the
wound leads to the feat of the efFufed fluid, but has no dif-
tmft opening into the general cavity of the abdomen. The
rapidity with wliich the above adhefions form is often very
great, almoft incredible.

Urir.e and bile are more frequently difperfed to a great
extent among the abdominal vifcera than blood. The latter
fluid, indeed, muft often coagulate ; a circumftance that
muft both tend to ftop further hemorrhage, and confine the
extravafation in one mafs.

Symptoms and Triatmcnt of Extravafations in the Abdomen.
— I. Blood. — Wounds of the fpleen, and of fuch veins and
arteries as are above a certain fize, almoft always prove
fatal from internal hemorrhage. The blood generally makes
its way downwards, and accumulates at the inferior part of
the abdomen, unlefs the exiftence of adhefions happen to
oppofe the defcent of the fluid to the moft depending fitua-
tion. The belly fwells, and the fludluation of a fluid is per-

ceptible through the anterior part of the abdominal pariete*.
The patient grows pale, lofes his ftrength, is affefted with
fyncope, and his pulfe becomes weaker and weaker. la
(hort, the fymptoms ufually attendant on hemorrhage are
obfervable. The vifcera and veflels in the abdomen being
continually compreffed on all fides by the furrounding parts,
the blood cannot be efTufed without overcoming a certain
degree of refiftance ; and unlefs a veflel of the firft magni-
tude, like the aorta, the vena cava, or one of their princi-
pal branches, has been wounded, the blood efcapes from the
veflel flowly, and feveral days elapfe before any confiderable
quantity has accumulated in the lefler cavity of the pelvis.

In thefe cafes of extravafated blood, the fymptoms,
which perhaps had difappeared under the employment oF
bleeding and anodyne medicines, now come on again. A
foft fluftuating tumour may be felt at the lower part
of the abdomen, fometimes on the right fide, fometimes
on the left, occafionally on both fides. The preflure
made by the eff"ufed blood on the urinary bladder ex-
cites dillreffing inchnations to make water ; while the
preflure which the figmoid flexure of the colon fufiers is
the caufe of obftinate conftipation. In the mean time, the
quantity of extravafated blood increafing, irritation and in-
flammation of the peritoneum are induced. The pulfe
grows weaker, debiUty enfues, the countenance is moiftened
with cold pcrfpirations ; and, unlefs inftigated by all the an-
tecedent circumftances, the furgeon pradifes anincifion for
the difcharge of the fluid, the patient falls a viftim to the
accident.

In the year 1733, Vacher, principal furgeon of the mih-
tary hofpital at Befan5on, fuccefsfully adopted this mode of
treatment. Petit (the fon) afterwards tried the fame plan,
though it did not anfwer, (as is alleged,) in confequence of
the inflammation having advanced too far before the operation
was performed. Long before the time of Vacher and Petit,
a fuccefsful inftance of fimilar practice had been recorded by
Cabrolc.

Indeed, when the fymptoms leave no doubt of there being
a large quantity of blood extravafated in the abdomen ; when
the patient's complaints are of a very ferious nature, and are
evidently owing to the irritation and preflure of the blood
on the furrounding vifcera ; and when a local fwelling de-
notes the feat- of the extravafation, there cannot be two
opinions about the propriety of making an incifion for its
evacuation.

Surgeons, however, ftiould recolleft, that a fmall extrava-
fation of blood may cxift without producing any confi-
derable irritation, provided no opening be made into the
cyft with which it becomes furrounded. On the contrary,
when fuch cyft is opened, the air then having free accefs to
the blood contained there, that part of the fluid which
cannot be difcharged is apt to putrefy, and become fo irri-
tating, as to excite inflammation of the furrounding parts. —
Even though there may be an evident extravafation of blood,
the bad fymptoms are alfo fometimes entirely owing to the
injury done to the parts within the abdomen, and neither to
the prefl'ure nor the irritation of the eff"ufed blood.

But fometimes, as we have already noticed, the accumu-
lated blood at firft neither irritates the adjacent parts by its
quantity nor quality. An infiammation, however, of the
parts furrounding the extravafation at length takes place.
The tenfion, irritation, and pain, which in the firft inftance
arofe from the wound itfelf, and fubfided, feem now to be
renewed. When the extravafation is at the lower and ante-
rior part of the abdomen, the patient experiences pain about
the hypogaftric region. He is alfo conftipated, and as he

fuffers

WOUNDS.

fufi'crs great irritation of the bladder, he feels frequent pro-
penfities to make water, but cannot relieve himfelf. Atlatt
a tumour makes its appearance, attended with a fluftuation
more or lefs diftinft.

In this inftance, it feems proper to give vent to the accu-
mulated blood. If this fluid fhould be found coagulated,
injeftions of warm water would facilitate its difcharge. Sa-
balier, Medecine Operatoire, torn. i.

2. Chyle and Feces. — Thefe are not fo eafily extravafated
in the abdomen as blood, becaufe they do not require fo
much refiftance on the outfide of the ftomach and inteftines,
to make them continue their natural route through the ali-
mentary canal, as blood requires to keep it in the vefTels.
Extravafations of this kind, however, fometimes happen
when the wound is large and the bowel diftended at the mo-
ment of the injury, or when, as Mr. Travers has likewife
explained, air is extravafated, or bloed elFufed in the abdo-
men ; thefe fluids being incapable of making effedlual re-
fiftance to the efcape of the inteftinal matter. (See an
Inquiry into the Procefs of Nature in repairing Injuries of
the Inteftines, &c. p. 26. ) Nothing is a better proof of the
difhculty with which chyle and feces are extravafated than
the operation of an emetic, when the ftomach is wounded
and full of aliment. In this inftance, if the refiftance to
the extravafation of the contents of the ftomach were not
confiderable, they would beeff^ufed in the abdomen, inftead
of being vomited up. A peculiarity in wounds of the fto-
mach and inteftines is, that the opening which allows their
contents to efcape may alfo allow them to return into the
wounded vifcus.

Extravafation of inteftinal matter in the abdomen is attend-
ed with a fevere train of febrile fymptoms ; drynefs of the
mouth, tongue, and fauces ; confiderable pain and fwelling
of the belly ; convuliive ftartings ; and hiccough and vo-
miting, with which the patients are generally attacked on
the day after that on which the wound was received. Sa-
batier de la Medecine Operatoire, torn. i. p. 34.

In thefe cafes, general means are the only ones which can
be employed ; venefeftion, fomentations, low diet, perfedl
reft, anodynes, &c. All folid food muil be moft ilriftly
prohibited. The clofe ftate of the vifcera may alfo be in-
creafed by applying a bandage round the body.

If the fymptoms are not fpeedily afluaged, the abdominal
vifcera become afFefted with general inflammation and gan-
grene, and the patients die in the courfe of a few days.

3. Bile — Bile, on account of its great fluidity, is more
eafily extravafated extenfively in the abdomen than either
blood or the contents of the ftomach and inteftines. Be-
fides, the gall-bladder has the power of contrafting itfelf
fo completely as to expel the whole of its contents. Not-
withttanding thefe circumftances, however, extravafations
of this kind are exceedingly uncommon, doubtlefs on ac-
count of the fmall fize of the gall-bladder, and its deep-
guarded fituation, between the concave furface of the liver
and upper part of the tranfverfe arch of the colon.

Sabatier informs us, that he has only been able to find one
example on record. This cafe, after having been commu-
nicated to the Royal Society of London by Dr. Steward
{N°4I4, p. 341. Abridgm. torn. vii. p. 571, 572.), was
inferted as an extraft in the third volume of the Edinburgh
Effays, and alfo in the third volume of Van Swieten's Com-
mentaries on the Aphorifms of Boerhaave. (Tranfl. p. 65.
edit. 1754.) An ofBcer received a wound, penetrating the
cavity of the abdomen, and entering the fundus of the gall-
bladder, without doing any material injury to the adjacent
parts. The abdomen was immediately diilended, as if the
patient had been afBifted with an afcites, or tympanitis ;

nor did the fwelling cither increafe or diminiih til! th«
patient's death, which happened a week after the ir-fliaio
of the wound.

There was no rumbling noife in the abdomen, though it
was exceedingly tenfe. There were no ftools, and very
Lttle urine was difcharged, notwithftanding purgatives and
glyfters, and a good deal of liquid nouriftiment, were given.
The patient never had one inftant of found deep, but was
always reftlefs, though anodynes were exhibited. There
was no appearance of fever, and the pulfe was always natu-
ral till the laft day of the patient's life, when it became iir-
termittent. The inteftines were found, after death, very
much diftended, the gall-bladder quite empty, and a large
quantity of bile extravafated in the abdomen.

Sabatier met with an opportunity of obfervingthe fymp-
toms of an extravafation of bile, in confcquence of a wound
of the gall-bladder. The patient's abdomen fwelled very
quickly ; his refpiration became difficult, and he foon after-
wards complained of tenfion, and pain in the right hypo-
chondrium. His pulfe was fmall, frequent, and contrafted ;
his extremities were cold, and his countenance very pale.
The bleedings which were praftifed the firft day gave him a
little relief ; but the tenfion of the abdomen, and the diffi-
culty of breathing, ftill continued. A third bleeding threw
the patient into the loweft ftate of v^eaknefs, and he vomited
up a greenifti matter. On the third day, the lower part of
the belly was obferved to be more prominent, and there was
no doubt of an extravafation. M. Sabatier introduced a
trocar, and gave vent to a green blackifti fluid, which had
no fmell, and was pure bile, that had efcaped from the
wound of the gall-bladder. After the operation, the patient
grew weaker and weaker, and died in a few hours. On
opening the body, a large quantity of yellow bile was found
between the peritoneum and inteftines ; but it had not in-
finuated itfelf among the convolutions of the vifcera. A
thick gluten connefted the bowels together, and they were
prodigioufly diftended. The gall-bladder was ftirivelled, and
almoft empty. Towards its fundus, there was a wound
about a line and a half long, correfponding to a fimilar
wound in the peritoneum. The wound which had occurred
at the middle and lower part of the right hypochondrium,
between the third and fourth falfe ribs, had glided from be-
hind forward, and from above downward, between the car-
tilages of the ribs, until it reached the fundus of the gall-
bladder.

Sabatier takes notice, that the fymptoms of the two
cafes which have juft now been related were very fimilar.
Both the patients were affefted with an exceedingly tenfe
fwelling of the belly, unattended with pain or borboryg-
mus, and they were both obftinately conftipated. Their
pulfe was extremely weak the latter days of their indifpo-
fition, and they were afflifted with hiccough, naufea, and
vomiting.

M. Sabatier feems to think one thing certain, viz. that
wounds of the gall-bladder, attended with effufion of bile,
are abfolutely mortal, and that no operation can be of any
avail. Medecine Operatoire, torn. i. p. 34 — 37.

We are, however, to infer the contrary from the extraor-
dinary cafe lately pubhftied by Mr. Fryer of Stamford.
A boy, about thirteen years old, received a violent blow
from one of the fliafts of a cart, on the region of ^the liver.
The injury was fucceeded by pain, frequent voniiting of
bihous matter, great finking, coldnefa of the extremities,
and a weak, fmall, fluttering pulfe. The belly was fo-
mented, and purging clyfters thrown up. On the third
day, fymptoms of inflammation began, attended with con-
fiderable pain about the liver, great tenfion and forenefs of

the

\A UUMU:^.

the abdomen, and frequent vomiting. The pulfe was
quick, fmall, and weak, the fl<in hot and dry, the tongue
much furred, the urine high coloured ; and there was fome
difficulty of breathing, and great thirll. Eight ounces of
blood were taken away, the fomentations continued, and a
few grains of calomel were direfted to be given every four
hours, until the bowels were properly opened. After-
wards the efFervefcing mixture, with ten drops of laudanum,
was exhibited every four hours.

On the following day, the patient had had fome motions,
and was much better ; but as his ficknefs continued, he was
ordered a grain of opium every four hours. About a week
afterwardf, he complained of a great increafe of pain,
which was fomewhat relieved by a blifter. He was now
completely jaundiced, and his ftools were white, but the
tenfion, pain, and ficknefs, were abated.

Two days afterwards, a fluAuation was perceived in the
abdomen, which in another week became confiderably dif-
tended with fluid. The patient now did not complain of
much pain, but appeared to be finking fail ; a puniElure
was made in the fwelling, and thirteen pints of what appeared
to be pure bile were evacuated. The bowels then foon be-
came regular, and the appetite good. In twelve days, the
operation was repeated, and fifteen pints of the fame bilious
fluid were drawn off. Nine days afterwards, another punc-
ture was made, and thirteen pints more let out ; and fix
were difcharged in another fortnight. From this period the
boy went on well, and perfectly recovered under the ufe of
light tonic medicines. See Medico-Chirurgical Tranfac-
tions, vol. iv. p. 330.

A previous accidental adhefion of the gall-bladder to the
peritoneum might alfo certainly prevent the extravafation of
bile, and its dangerous efFefts. Callifen, Syft. Chir. Ho-
diernjE, torn. i. p. 718.

Mr. Hennen has never known a patient recover after a
wound of the gall-bladder ; and indeed, fays he, it is diffi-
cult to imagine a cafe where the injury could happen with-
out an efFufion of bile into the abdominal cavity, except a
previous adhefion had taken place to the parietes. A cafe,
however, is mentioned in the " Opufcules de Chir." of M.
Paroiffe, where a leaden ball had lodged in the gall-bladder
two years.

4. Urine. — Urine being of a very fluid nature may, like
the bile, be eafily extravafated in the abdomen, when the
bladder is wounded at any part which is connefted with the
peritoneum. If the urine in this kind of cafe be not drawn
off with a catheter, fo as to prevent it from ifTuing by the
wound of the bladder, the patient foon perilhes. There are
many inllances recorded of the bladder being injured even
by gun-{hot wounds which were not mortal. ( See Larrey's
Mem. de Chir. Mil. efpecially tom. iv. ) Such wounds, how-
ever, might only have injured the fides or lower part of the
bladder. But in operating for the ftone above the pubes,
the bladder has undoubtedly been occafionally cut at the part
of the fundus which is covered with the peritoneum. How-
ever, as the accident was known in the firfl inftance, the right
treatment was adopted, and fuch patients have recovered.
Sabatier, Mcdecine Operatoire, tom. i. p. 37.

Wounds of the bladder are particularly charaAerized by
a difcharge of bloody urine and difficulty of making water.
They mull always be regarded as dangerous cafes, both on
account of the rifk of the effufion of fo irritating a fluid in
the abdomen, and of the chance of extravafation in the cel-
lular membrane. Under proper treatment, however, they
often admit of cure. The efFufed fluid ftiould, if poflible,
be difcharged by a depending pofliure, or fuitable punftures
or incifions, and its recurrence prevented by the iutrodu£lion

of a catheter, which is to be left in the urethra. The pa-
tient muft alio be allowed little drink. As for the tenfion
and pain of the belly, the perpetual attendants of a wounded
bladder, they may be greatly reheved by the ufe of the
warm bath. (Calhfen, tom. i. p. 719.) Bleeding and other
antiphlogiftic means are not to be omitted. See Di<5l. of
Praft. Surg. art. Wounds.

Extraneous bodies, particularly balls, as Mr. Hennen ob-
ferves, are frequently carried into the bladder iifelf, either
as it rifes above the pubes or through the openings in the
pelvis, or work their way into it, and either come off by
the natural paflage, or are removed by a furgical operation
refembling hthotomy. Wounds of the bladder, he remarks,
are dangerous in proportion as it is full of urine at the time
of their receipt, or as the upper and anterior, or lower and
pollerior part of the vifcus may be wounded. If the intef-
tines are implicated in the wound, it is highly dangerous.
Inflammation from wounds of thefe parts runs rapidly into
gangrene, which is chiefly brought on by the efi^ufion of
urine in the cellular membrane. " If there is a free exten-
five paflage, much of this danger will be obviated ; and
after the firfl eff^ufion from the bladder has taken place, the
judicious ufe of the elaftic gum catheter aff^ords us an ad-
mirable affiftance againll this accident. " Indeed," fays Mr.
Hennen, " without this ufeful inftrument, our praftice in
vfounds of this nature, and in thofe afFefting the urethra,
would be merely confined to looking on and moderating
fymptoms, inflead of preventing them," (P. 460.) The
reft of the treatment confills in letting out, without delay,
the effufed urine by proper incifions, and employing the an-
tiphlogiftic plan, in the full fenfe of the expreflion, together
with mild fuperficial dreflings or poultices, and the utmofl
attention to cleanlinefs.

A deep wound of the liver, Mr. Hennen confiders as
fatal as one of the heart itfelf. Shghter injuries of this
organ, he fets down as fometimes recovering. He fays,
that the ufual fymptoms which charafterize wounds of the
liver are, yellownefs of the fl<in and urine, derangement of
the ftomach and of the alimentary canal, and cutaneous
affeftions, particularly great and diftrefling itching. The
difcharge from the wound is generally yellow and glutinous ;
but he has feen it of a ferous nature, and fometimes very
nearly allied to unmixed bile.

Wounds of the liver, fays another writer, may caufe a
large efFufion of blood from the outer wound, or in the
abdomen, a cadaverous yellovc countenance, pain in the
(houlder, flow pulfe, dulnefs of the eyes, great anxiety,
cold fweats, and finally death, which happens the more
quickly and certainly, the greater the wound is, and the
nearer it is fituated to the place where the large vefFels
enter this organ. But fmall wounds of the liver, particu-
larly of its convex furface, when it is adherent to the peri-
toneum, admit of cure. Callifen, tom. i. p. 718.

The treatment is to be at firft condu£led entirely on an-
tiphlogiftic principles, venefeftion, and mild aperient me-
dicines in particular being employed. Afterwards fmall
dofes of the pil. hydrarg. and tonic medicines will tend to
re-eftabhfh the health.

A wound of the ftomach may be known by the difcharge
of aliment from the external opening ; by the vomiting of
blood ; the pain, the anxiety, and other fymptoms of violent
nervous irritation. Large wounds cf this organ, efpecially
thofe about the cardiac orifice, or great curvature, or fuch
as extend through both fides of the vifcus, are for the moft
part fatal in a few days : but when the wound is diflTerently
fituated, and properly treated, it may often be cured. In
certain inftances, however, a fiftula remains, through which
2 a part

WOUNDS.

» ptirt of the food fometimes efcapes. Two cafes of wounds
of the ilomach are recorded by Dr. Thomfon, in his Obf.
on the Mihtary Hofpitals in Belgium. One was from a
muflcet-ball ; the other from a pike. They were treated on
the mild, unimtating plan, adapted for wounds of the intef-
tines, and both ended well. " The hiftories of the Bohe-
mian, Pruflian, and Englifh ' cultrivores,' from fome of
whom the knives have been cut out, and from others dif-
charged fpontaneoufly, through the coats of the flo.Tiach
and parietes of the abdomen, as well as many other inftances
on record, are (as Mr. Hennen o^jfarves) very encouraging
in cafes of injuries of this organ." M. Hevin, in the Mem.
de I'Acad. de Chir. tom. i. p. 144. has coUedted a number
of interefting inftances of recovery, both from incifed and
gun-lhot wounds. But (fays Mr. Hennen) the induftrious
Ploucquet, in the articles " Ventriculus" and " Panto-
phagi," has exceeded all others for the vaft number of cafes
he has amaffed. In our own Philofophical Tranf., Low-
thorpe's Abridgment, vol. vi. p. 192. or in the modern one,
by Drs. Hutton, Shaw, and Pearlon, vol. iv. p. 66. an in-
llance is given, where the ftomach of a horfe was wounded
and fewed up, and a fimilar inftance in the human fpecies :
both recovered. More recently futures have been applied
to its wounds in Holland and France, as may be feen in the
*' Annales de Litterature," &c. by Kluyflcens, vol. 2. and
in the " Traumalogia" of Schlichting, &c. Notwithftand-
ing thefe narratives, however, we have no doubt of the
rafhnefs of fuch praftice, and all that can be faid about it is,
that the patients had to overcome both the injury and the
bad treatment of it. Not unfrequently a wound of the fto-
mach has become fiftulous. Richerand gives a very curious
cafe of this kind, where the opening remained for nine years ;
EtmuUer, in the 5th vol. of Haller's " Difputationes Chi-
rurgicae," gives an inftance, where it continued open for ten
years ; and Wenker, in the fame volume, relates a cafe where
a wound of the ftomach continued open twenty-feven years.
(See Hennen on Military Surgery, p. 481, &c.) Copious
bleeding, abftinence, and reft, are the beft remedies in the
early ftage of all fuch cafes.

Wounds of the fpleen moftly prove fatal by the profufe
hemorrhage arifing from them. Mr. Hennen, however,
aflures us, that he has feen fome flight wounds of this vifcus
terminate favourably. It has fometimes been cut out of
brutes, without any fatal or even any bad confequences ;
and there is a recent inftance recorded, in which it protruded
from an incifed wound, the furgeon removed it, and the
patient got well. (See Medico- Chirurg. Journal, vol. i.
1816.) It has alfo been tied and cut out in fome other
inftances with fuccefs. See cafes in Gooch's Chir. Works,
vol. i. p. 97 ; Leveille's Doftrine Chir. tom. i. p. 400 ;
alfo fome references in Thomx Barthohni Anatome, p. 158.
8vo. Lugd. Bat. 1686, &c.

Wounds of the fpleen have fcarcely any fymptom which
is peculiar to them. According to Celfus, however, there
is great pain in the fhoulder, as in wounds of the liver. The
loofe ftrufture of the fpleen, and the magnitude of its veffels,
mnft always render its injuries highly dangerous.

Wounds of the pancreas, according to CaUifcn, are not
charafterized by any peculiar fymptom, except the efFufion
of a fluid analogous to the fahva. The pancreas, like the
duodenum, can hardly be wounded, without the weapon
having at the fame time injured other vifcera. ( Syft. Chir.
Hodiernae, tom. i. p. 719.) Gooch fets down wounds of the
pancreas as mortal, if its duct or blood-veffels be injured.
Chir. Works, vol. i. p. 99.

Wounds of the kidneys and ureters are always dangerous,
on account of the hemorrhage and efFufion of urine. When
Vol. XXXVIII.

the latter fluid infmuates itfelf within the peritone urn, or
into the cellular membrane, the patient has but a very dif-
couraging chance of prefervation. Small wounds of the kid-
ney, however, may be cured, though a fiftula will fometimw
remain. The danger of wounds of the kidney is well
pointed out in M. Hevin's EfTay on Nephrotomy, in the
Mem. de I'Acad. de Chir., and a great mafs of evidence is
produced on the fubjed. The recoveries which Mr. Hen-
nen has feen, after wounds of the kidneys, he obferves, are
very few indeed. "If the patient has furvived the firft he-
morrhage, the fever and peritoneal inflammation, with in-
ccuant hiccough and vomiting from fympathy of the dia-
phragm and ftomach, have generally cut him off ; and if he
has for a time efcaped, excruciating pains, profufe fuppura-
tion from fiftulous fores, heAic, and emaciation, have ter-
minated his exiftence. Where the cure has been eft'efted,
there is reafon to think that the ureter has been but flightly
brulhed, and the body of the kidney itfelf left untouched.
The remedies confift in venefeftion, mild purgatives, as
manna, oil, Sec. frequent emollient enemas, the warm bath
generally, and local fomentations, &c. with a diet of the
iiiiideft kind, but much reftrifted in fluids, the indulgence
in which, even in fmall quantity, ftiould be avoided." The
fame author properly condemns all ftimulants, blifters, and
dmretics ; and he recommends light dreflings, fo as to allow
the urine to efcape freely. The integuments near the
wound hs alfo advifes to be greafed, fo as to prevent the
irritation of the urine from making them inflame and ulcer-
ate. See Obf. on Military Surgery, p. 454.

The fubjeft of wounds is one of infinite length, and this
muft apologize for the extent of the prcfent article, in which
a great deal is ftill omitted. Had we introduced a full
account of the wounds of every part of the body, our ob-
fervations would have formed a produftion more than twice
as long as that which we have now finifhed ; but we thought
that fo minute and elaborate a paper would hardly be de-
firable in a work not exprefsly allotted to the confideration
of furgery.

Wounds in Horfes. The moft terrible wounds thefe
creatures are fubjeft to are thofe got in the field of battle.
The farriers that attend camps have a coarfe way of curing
thefe ; but it is a very expeditious and efFeftual one. If
the bullet be within reach, they take it out with a pair of
forceps ; but if it lie too deep to be come at, they leave it
behind, and drefs up the wound in the fame manner as if it
were not there.

They firft drop in fome varnifh from the end of a feather,
and when the bottom is thus wetted with it, they dip a
pledget of tow in the fame varnifh, which they put into the
wound, and then cover the whole with the following charge :
Take a quarter of a pound of powder of bole armenic, half a
pound of hnfeed-oil, and three eggs, (hells and all ; add to
thefe four ounces of bean-flour, a quart of vinegar, and
five ounces of turpentine ; this is all to be mixed over the
fire, and the wound covered with it. This application is
to be continued four or five days, then the tent put into the
wound is to be dipped in a mixture of turpentine and hog's-
lard ; by this means a laudable matter will be difcharged,
inftead of the thin fliarp water that was at firft. Then tlie
cure is to be completed by drefling it with an ointment
made of turpentine, firft well wafhed, and then diflblved in
yolks of eggs, and a Lttle fafFron added to it.

This is the pradlice in deep wounds that do not go
through the part ; but in cafes where the bullet has gone
quite through, they take a few weavers' linen thrmnbs,
made very knotty ; thefe they make up into a kind of link,
and dipping it in varnilh, they draw it through the wound,
5 E leaving

WOUNDS.

leaving Uie enda hanging out at each lide j by means of
thefe they move the link or (keiii three or four times a day,
always wetting the new part that is to be drawn into the
wound wit!) fre(h varnifti. They put on a charge of the
bole armenic, &c. 3^= before defcribed, ou each iide of the
wounded part, and continue this as long as the wound dif-
charges thin watery matter, or the fides continue fwelled.
After this they drefs it with the ointment of the turpentine,
yolks of eggs, and faffron, till it is perfeftly cured.

The other methods are, the dreffing of the wound with
an ointment made of wax, turpentine, and lard, and covering
it with linen rags wetted with cream ; or the dreffing with
a mixture of yolks of eggs, honey, and faffron, and covering
it up with cream and baum-leaves beaten together.

When the wound is fo dangerous as to require the
affiftance of internal medicines, they give the following pills :
Take affafoetida, bay -berries, and native cinnabar, of each a
pound ; beat up the whole into a mafs with brandy, and
roll it into pills of fourteen drachms each. Thefe are to be
laid in a fhady place to dry, after which they will keep
ever fo long without any damage. The horfe is to take
two of thefe every other day, or, if necefTary, every day, till
he has taken eight or ten of them, and he is to ftand
bridled two hours before and after the taking of them.

When the wound feems at a ftand, not appearing foul,
and yet not gathering new flefti, there muft, be recourfe
had to the following powder, whofe effeft in bringing new
fleih is wonderful : Take dragon's blood, and bole armenic,
of each two ounces ; maftic olibanum, and farcocolla, ot
each three drachms ; aloes, round birth-wort, and common
iris-root, of each one drachm and a half; make the whole
into a fine powder. This is fometimes ufed dry, fprinkling
it on the wound ; but fometimes it is mixed with turpentine,
fometimes with juice of wormwood, and fometimes with
honey of rofes, and either way does very well.

When the wound grows foul, and requires a detergent
to cleanfe it, the common liquor for this purpofe is a pha-
gedenic water, which they make of Hme-water, and fub-
limate in this manner : Take two pounds and a half of newly-
made and unflaked lime, put it into a pewter veffel, and
pour on it five quarts of boiling water. When the bubbling
is over, let it ftand to reft two or three days, ttirring it
often with a ftick ; then pour it clear off after due time for
the lime to fettle, and filtre it through fome whited-brown
paper, made for the lining of funnels, on this occafion. To
a quart of the clear lime-water, thus prepared, add eight
ounces of fpirit of wine, and one ounce of fpirit of vitriol ;
when thefe are well mixed, by fhaking them together, then
add an ounce of corrofive fubiimate in fine powder : mix
all well together, and keep the whole in a bottle, to be
ufed for the cleaniing of thefe foul wounds, and on any other
occafions, where a detergent of this powerful kind may be
necefTary. It will keep good many years.

If this water will not thoroughly cleanfe the wound, but
there ftill will remain a quantity of foul matter in it, and there
is danger of a gangrene, they add to it as much arfenic in fine
powder as there was of the corrofive fublim.ate ; that is, at
the rate of an ounce to a quart and half a pint.

Thefe are all the medicines which the farrier need carry
with him on account of wounds ; and they are all fuch
as may be prepared at home, and will continue good fo
long as he has occafion to keep them, or much longer ;
and what is left of one year will ferve for others.

When the neceflary applications are thus fettled, it may
not be improper to add the general rules by which they
conduft themfelves in the cure.

I. The wound muft be probed at firft, but very gently,
9

and afterwards as gently and as feldom as may be, for tbe
horfe's flefli is the moft eafy of all others to be contufed in
wounded parts, and to fall into a gangrene from the hurt.
2. The wound muft be kept continually as clean as poffible,
and free from proud flefti. 3. The necefTary revulfion
muft always be made by bleeding, as foou as the wound is
dreffed the firft tim.e ; this prevents inflammation, and a
great many other bad accidents. 4. If the wound be in fuch J
a place that the horfe can get at it with its tongue to lick *
it, great care muft be taken to prevent his doing fo, as it
will greatly retard the cure. 5. The farrier never is to pro-
ceed to fuppuration ill any cafe in which the humours can
be either diflblved or repelled, and efpecially in parts that
are full of finews and ligaments, or that are near the bones.

6. If a wound be accompanied with a great conlufion, or if
it be of a round or circular figure, iiicifions are often neceflary
about its edges, and fometimes the application of cauftics.

7. The wound muft be always carefully covered, for the
accels of the air retards the cure. 8. The callous lips of a
wound muft always be cut to the quick, before they can
be united together. Thefe may ferve for general rules,
that hold good in all cafes : and to thefe may be added
fome that are principally applicable to peculiar circura-
ftances of the wounds.

Wounds of the breaft are to be cured with tents and
folds of foft linen laid over them, fteeped in the following
mixture : Take verdigrifc, vitriol, and alum, of each one
ounce ; vinegar, eight ounces ; honey, a pound ; let all
thefe be boiled together till they become red.

Wounds in the belly can only be cured by fewing up
the peritoneum with ftrong woollen thread, not filk, leaving
the extremities without the Ikin. The Ikin is to be fewed
together with ftrong hempen thread waxed, joining the
lips of the wound together, by this means, in form of a
buckle. This is to be covered with the common ointment
for wounds ; and if an inflammation comes on, chalk dif-
folved in vinegar is to be added.

If the wound be firch that the guts come out at it, the
horfe may ftill be recovered, if proper caution be ufed : the
guts are to be immediately returned into their place ;
but they muft not in this be touched with the hand, but
with a fponge dipped in warm water. And, in order to
the making them more readily get into their places, it 13
proper to make the creature vomit, by thruiling down his
throat a feather dipped in oil. If the wound through
which they fell is not big enough to return them eafily by,
it muft be enlarged by cutting ; but if the guts are found
to be bruifed or wounded, it is in vain to attempt any thing,
for death muft follow.

There is alfo a certainty of death when, after a wound of
any kind in the belly, the horfe voids blood at the funda- i|
ment. %

When a horfe is wounded near the groin, he eafilv falla
into convulfions ; in this cafe, he is to be kept from drink-
ing as much as poffible : he is alfo to be covered well up,
and kept quiet, and to have green things given him to eat.

Wounds on the knees are very difficult to cure, becaufe
the part is in motion almoft continually, and there is very
little flefti to work upon. When the wounds are but flight,
and in the muf«ular parts of the body, a mixture of honey
and tallow, boiled together, will often prove a cure ; when
the wound is more confiderable, turpentine melted in a little
common oil, and applied hot, is the general remedy.

If a wound happens between the flioe and the hoof, care
muft be taken that no foreign matter be left in it, and it
muft be drefled with any of the ointments that have verdi-
grifc in them ; and a charge of bruifed elder-leaves is very

proper

w o u

proper to be applied over all. If the wound be deep and
narrow, it mull be enlarged at the orifice, and turpentine
and wax, melted in lard, muR be poured into it. Tlie iame
rule of opening the orifice holds good in all deep and narrow
wounds.

If a nerve happens to be cut, it mufl be clofed, ajid a
defeufative muft be applied, to prevent a concourfe of
humours to the part ; a fomentation made of oil, wine, and
honey, mixed together, is alfo very proper, wherever a
nerve is hurt, and a poultice may be applied over all,
made of marfhmallow-roots boiled foft, with bread and
milk.

If the horfe happens to be wounded by a piece of wood,
bone, or any other hard fubftance, part of v/liich remains in
the wound, this mull be carefully taken out, whatever pain
it may cod the creature to do it, and the wound muft then
be drelTed with the common wound-ointments. In this, or
any other cafe of a frefh wound, the wafhing it with oil of
turpentine is an excellent method of preventing ill confe-
quences.

Wounds in Trees, fuch as are caufed in lopping and
pruning their branches, or otherwife. Mr. Nichol, in his
" Prailical Planter," has (hewn, tliat lopping of ftrong
branches becomes not neceflary, and that all wounding in
pruning fliould be performed on or towards the extre-
mities of boughs which have inferior laterals to partake of
and divert their luxuriance of growth from injuring the
ftem or leader. It is alfo (liewn, that from this mode
little ill is to be apprehended, and confequently that the
treatment of fuch wounds is fimple, and which is fo much
the better for the plant and the intereft of its owner. Such
wounds require no other attention than Jseing lopped clean
off with a (liarp knife or bill ; and, if the faw is ufed, being
afterwards fmoothed with the knife. And it were to be
wifhed, for the fake of much timber, which otherwife might
have been rendered more valuable, that wounds of another
defcription had been unneceffary, or had never been in-
flifted. The writer here alludes to the neceffity of lopping
by the bole all (lumps, &c. occafioned by formerly -inju-
dicious pruning, and the wanton folly of thofe jvho lop
large branches by or near to the ftem, when fimply
ftiortening them at a proper diftance would anfwer a better
purpofe. But fince it becomes neceflary to clear formerly-
injured trees of ftumps, &c. in order to prevent farther
decay, it alfo becomes a duty to follow the moft rational
and fimple mode of treatment. With this view, it is briefly
obferved, that whenever it becomes neceflary to lop a
ftump by the bole, or to (horten any branch larger than the
wrift or ankle ; in the former cafe, the wound ftiould be
to the quick, that is, to the level of the bark, on the ftem at
leaft ; and in the latter, obliquely acrofs the branch, fo as,
from its pofition, to prevent moifture from lodging : being
careful to prevent laceration, by notching the bark under-
neath, before the amputated part falls down, or to one fide.
In both cafes, the face of the wound and edges cf the bark
are to be made perfetlly fmooth with the knife ; and in a
few hours after, or fo foon as they are quite dry, let the
wound be carefully plaftered with tar, (fuch as is ufed for
fheep-fmearing, ) or laid over with white or blue lead, which
has been well mixed up with oil, and rendered rather thicker
than is commonly ufed for1)ainting. The tar is, however,
certainly preferable, being of a more healing nature ; and
if laid on in a thin ftate, it is not fo apt to fcale off by the
aftion of the weather as the paint. This operation ftiould
be performed in the fall of the year ; at which time, the
wound is not fo apt to crack, and likewife dries fooner
than at any other fcafon. If, however, in the courfe of the

^v o u

enfuing fummer, or at any fubfequent period, the tar or
paini is found to rend or fcale off, care muft be taken \rt
renew and keep the plailer found and fmooth, until the
bark grow over and cover the wound ; and this ftiould be
more particularly obferved in refpeft of wounds on the
trunk.

In the cafe oi polling a tree, lopping an upright branch,
or in training for ftiip-timber, flopping the leader, &c.
when, from the upright pofition of the wounded part in
queftion, plaftering or painting, as above, might be deemed
infufficient to prevent water from penetrating, and of con-
fequence injuring the wood at the part affecled ; yet by this
treatment, infeftion, or the farther decay of the reft of the
tree, will be prevented. But there are fome who ridicule
th? idea of ufing plafter of any kind, urging for argument
that the bark cjrows as faft together of itfelf without this
aid, and why bury in the heart of the tree a load of rubbifli ?
But they certainly have not confidered, that a decayed
part of the vegetable being buried in its heart, cannot
poflibly again be renovated, or become found timber ; but,
on the contrary, muft operate to the corruption of the reft.
And this queftion, why bury in the tree a load of rubbifti i
leads, it is laid, to a decifion in favour of ufing tar, fince,
befides that the body inclofed is quite thin, it is of a genial,
healing nature, adls as a cement to the frafture, and after-
wards becomes equally found as the wood.

And this may be demonftrated by examining fir-trees
which have been wantonly hacked deeply, had holes bored
into them for faftening gates to, which have afterwards
been removed, and above all in the operation of extrafting
rofin ; in all which cafes, the wound is clofed up by the
refinous juice of the tree, and generally becomes perfeftly
found as the reft of the wood, although a blemifli may be
the confequence. Wherefore, with refpeft to refinous trees,
nature prevents the neceflity of our interference in the cure
of wounds, other than the frafture of limbs ; which it is
certainly our duty to amputate, in order to prevent farther
decay and unfightly appearance ; but ftie will haftily cover
the wound with the plafter fuperior to any we can prepare.

Wound- ^or/, in Botany, the name given to feveral
fpecies belonging to different genera.

WovUD-lVort of Achilles. See ACHILLEA.

WovUD-fVort, Clown's, a fpecies of flachys. See
Stachys.

WovtiD-Wort, Hercules's, or All-heal, the laferpitium
ehironium of Linnaus. This is a native of the warmer
climates, and bears the colds of our own. Both the feeds
and roots of this fpecies are confiderably warmer than
thofe of the garden and wild parfnep. The roots and
ftalks have a ftrong fmell and tafte, refembling thofe of
opoponax : and Boerhaave relates, that on wounding the
plant in fummer, he obtained a yellow juice, which, being
infpiflated a little in the fun, agreed perfeftly, in both
refpefts, with that exotic gum-refin. Lewis. See Laser-

PITIUM.

Wou ND-/f orr, Saracen's, folidago. See Solidago.

Wound- ^Tort, True Saracen's, a fpecies oi fenecio. Sec
Senecio.

WOUNICS, in Geography, a town of Auftrian Poland ;
32 miles E.S.E. of Cracow.

WOUTERS, Francis, in Biography, was born atLiere,
in Brabant, in 1614. He was a ftudent in the fchool of
Rubens, but applied himfelf pnncipally to landfcape, and
became one of the moft eminent of his time. He chofe for
his models the fcenes of his native country, and particularly
the foreft of Soignes, near Brufl"els ; embelliftiing the views
he chofe with groups of figures reprefenting hiftorical or
r E 2 allegoricar

vv o u

allejrorical fubjefts. Sometimes he attempted hiftory, but
not fuccefsfuUy. He was in favour with the emperor
Ferdinand II. ; but coming to England with his ambaflador
in lfi'?7, he was appointed chief painter to the prince of
Wales, afterwards Charles II. On the breaking out of the
rebellion he returned to Antwerp, and became diredlor of the
academy there, where in 1659 he was killed by the acci-
dental difcharge of a gun.

WOUVERMANS, Philip, was a remarkable and
melancholy inilance of thofe mis-fhapen and unhappy com-
binations of talent, indullry, and ill-fortune, which have
occafionally difgraced the world of connoiileurfhip. He
was the fon of an indifferent hillorical painter, and was born
at Haerlem in 1620. Having obtained poffeffion of his
father's (lore of piftorial knowledge, he was placed with
John Wynants, the landfcape-painter, under whofe inllruc-
tion he foon acquired a confiderable degree of power in
embodying the creations of his own fancy, and to tliis
acquilition he added much by an attentive ftudy of nature.

There is but little known of his private hfe. Celebrity,
which now attends his name, formed no part of his enjoy-
ments ; indeed they appear to have been few, and confined
to his affeftion for and attention to his art and his family,
which was numerous. His piftures, beautiful as they are,
agreeable in their compolition and colour, and exquifite in
their iinifli, exhaufted his time without railing him above
indigence and obfcurity. The more free, (light, and loofe
works of Peter de Laer, called Bamboccio, abforbed the
admiration of tiie Dutch coUeftors, while the elegant and
delightful produftions of Wouvermans remained unnoticed
and unknown. Time has adjuiled the balance, and the
united voice of the tafteful now (heds a luftre over the nam.e
of the latter ; loo late, alas ! for his gratification or benefit.

The negleft which he endured, and the feverity of labour
required to complete fo many piftures as he has left, in fo
high and perfeft a degree of finifliing, exhaufted his health,
and he died at the early age of 48 ; having burnt a (hort
time before his death all his ftudies and drawings, to prevent,
as he declared, his children from being induced to follow a
profeflion which had been but a fource of poverty and mifery
to himfelf.

The fubjeiSs of his piftures are drawn from the common
fcenes of nature, but are fometimes of a more elevated call
than thofe chofen by the generality of his compatriots, par-
ticularly his hawkings and huntings, where cavahers and
high dames, with appropriate fcenery, rich trappings to their
horfes, and numerous retinues, are introduced with great
tafte and propriety. His encampments and battles are
compofed with the fame Ikill and fuavity ; indeed the latter
is a principal charafteriftic of all his works, whatever be
their fubjefts, from the humble hay-cart to the richeil com-
bination of materials which the gay palace, its garden, and
fplendid adornments, afforded him. Farriers' iTiops, fairs
of horfes, travellers on their road, or at inn-doors, &c. &c.
were equally rendered agreeable by his delightful arrange-
ments of chiaro-ofcuro and of colours, and by the exqui-
fitely firm full touch with which they are executed. His
works are numerous, and when in good prefervation fell at
very confiderable prices.

Wouvermans, Peter, the younger brother of Pliilip,
was alfo an artift of confiderable talent, though by no means
equal to him. He was alfo born at Haerlem, about the year
1625. He was trained under R. Rogman, but principally
followed his brother's ftyle, and adopted his clafs of fub-
jefts. But though his piftures are frequently fold for
Philip's, yet they are not fo delicate or fpirited, and may
be eaiily dittioguiflied from his by a cultivated eye. There
6

W R A

was alfo another brother, a few years younger than Peter,
who followed the fame line of art with rather more talent ;
fo that we cannot be furprifed at the number of piftures
which bear the name of Wouvermans. John died in 1666,
at the age of 3S.

WOXEN, in Geography, a large and noify current of
Sweden, formed by the difcharge of the lake of Saima into
the Ladoga, which forms a vaft cataraft about a mile from
its mouth.

WOXNA, a town of Sweden, in Helfmgland ; 40 miles
W. of Soderhamn.

AVOXTORP, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Snialand ; 27 miles N.W. of Wexio.

WOYE, a town of Germany, in the "principahty of
Culmbach ; 5 miles S.E. of Hof.

WOYTZ, a town of Sileiia, in the principality of
NeifTe ; 2 miles E. of Ottmuchau.

WRA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland ;
48 miles W.S.W of Wexio.

WRACK. See Wreck.

Wrack, in Natural Hijlory. See Wreck.

Wrack, in Agricullure, a name fometimes given to a
marine plant, which is of great utility as a manure. With
this plant furgeons fometimes make a cataplafm, by bruifing
a quantity of it, and applying it in cafes of fcrofula, or
wliite-fwelling, but more particularly glandular tumours.
Where this cannot be got, fea-water and oat-meal formed
into a poultice have fupplied its place. There is no reafon why
the tumours and ill-conditioned lores of brute animals fliould
not be benefited by fimilar applications. See Wreck.

It is frequently ttrmedi fea-iurack, fea-tangk, and fm-oai.
See SEA-/K?f(/.

WRAGBY, in Geography, a fmall market-town in the
wapentake of Wingrove, Lindfey divifion of the county of
Lincoln, England, is fituatedat the junftion of the turnpike-
roads leading from Lincoln to Louth and Horncaftle, and
is diftant 11 miles N.E. by E. from Lincoln, and 144 miles
N. by W. from London. George ViUiers, duke of Buck-
ingham, who pofleffed this manor in the reign of Charles II.,
obtained ^from that monarch a charter to hold a weekly
market on Thurfday and two annual fairs, which are now
well frequented. Sir Edmund Turnor, who purchafed the
manor of the duke, erefted and endowed an alms-houfe for
fix clergymen's widows, and fix other deftitute perfons, for
whofe ufe he built a chapel, with an augmentation to the
vicarage of 40/. per annum for prayers to be rtad in it twice
every day : this chapel was confecrated by bifhop Gardiner
July 18, 1697. Here is alfo a free-fchool, founded and
endowed in 1633 by William Hanfard, efq. The popula-
tion of Wragby is ftated, in the return of the ytar 181 1, to
be 709 ; the number of houfes 103. The manor is now
pofTefled by Edmund Turnor, efq. who has a feat in the
adjacent parifli of Panton, called Panton-hall, which was
built by Hawkfmoor, a pupil of fir John Vanbrugh, in the.
year 1724 : confiderable additions have been made to it from
the defigns of Mr. Carr, architeft at York ; and the adjoin-
ing country has been greatly improved by ornamental plant-
ations. Two miles north of Wragby is Halton Lodge, the
feat of colonel Caldicot, in whofe family the manor of
Halton has been veiled for feveral generations. — Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. ix. Lincolnrtiire ; by J. Britton,
F.S.A. 1S08.

WRAIN-BoLTS, in Ship-Building, ai-e iron ring-bolts,
ufed when planking fhips, occ. with two or more fore-lock
holes near the end, for taken-in the fet, as the plank, &c.
works nearer the timbers.

WKAiN-^Aivf/, a fort of ftout billets of tough wood,

tapered

I

W R A

tapered at the ends fo as to go into the ring of the wrain-
bolt, to make the fets necefTary for bringing-to the planks
or thick fluff to tlie timbers.

WRAM, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Skone ; 13 miles W.S.W. of Chrillianfladt.

WRANGLER, Senior, a technical term in the uni-
verfity of Cambridge, for the {Indent who paffes the beft
examination in the Tenate-houfe, and confers lafting reputa-
tion. They who follow next in the fame divifion are refpec-
tively termed fecond, third, fourth, &c. wranglers. In a
fimilar manner, they who compofe the fecond rank of honours
are defignated by the titles of Hrft, fecond, third, &c. op-
timi. Thofe of the lalt order are diftinguifhed by the deno-
minations of iirft, fecond, third, &c. junior optimi.

WRANGON, in Geography, a fmall illand in the gulf of
Finland. N. lat. 59° 34'. E. long. 25°.

WRANNY, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Schlan ;
7 miles N.N.W. of Schlan.

WRANOW. See Frain.

WRAPPER, in Botany. See VoLVA.

WRASSE, in Ichthyology, the name of a fifh called by
authors lurdus vulgaris, and by fome tinca-mar'ina, the fea-
llitch, and fometinies old-<wife.

The wraffe, or labrus tinea of Linnxus, rcfembles the carp
in figure, and is covered with large fcales. Its ufual fize is
about five or fix inches in length, and it grows to the weight
of four or five pounds : its colour is very variable ; red,
yellow, and brownifli, being very frequently mixed in the
fcales ; and it has five or fix longitudinal lines, alternately of
a pale yellow, an olive colour, and a duflcy red. Its nofe is
long, and bent upwards, and it has thick and flefhy lips ex-
tended over the jaws. Its mouth is fmall, and its teeth,
which are difpofed in two rows, the firft conic, the fecond
very minute, are not very (liarp ; in the throat, juil before
the gullet, are three bones, two above of an oblong form,
and one below of a triangular (hape ; with the furface of
each rifiiig into roundidi protuberances : thefe are of lin-
gular ufe to the fifh for grinding its flielly food before it
arrives at the ftomach ; the dorfal fin confifts of fixteen
rtiarp and fpiiiy rays, and nine foft ones, longer than the
others : the pectoral tins are large and round, and com-
pofed of fifteen rays, the ventral of fix ; the firii (harp
and flrong ; the anal of three fharp fpines, and nine flexible :
its tail is rounded at the end, and is formed of fourteen foft
branching rays ; the membranes of the fins and tails are
variegated with red and blue fpots, and the anterior rays of
the back-fin are prickly. It is caught in plenty on the
Englifh (hores, and is fold among the poorer fort of people
in Wales and Cornwall ; but is not elteemed a very delicate
lilh. It is found in deep water, adjacent to the rocks ; it
will take a bait, though its ufual food is fhell-fifh, and fmall
cruftacea. Willughby's Hift. Pifc. p. 320. and Pennant.
See Labrus.

Wrasse, Bimaculated, labrus bimaculata of Linnxus, has
a body pretty deep, and of a light colour, marked in the
middle on each fide v/ith a round brown fpot, and another
on the upper part of the bafe of the tail : the lateral line is
incurvated ; the branchioftegous rays are fix ; the firft fifteen
rays of the dorfal fin are fpiny, the other eleven foft, and
lengthened by a Ikinny appendage ; the peftoral fins confifl
of fifteen rays ; the ventral of fix, the firft fpiny, the fecond
and third ending in a flender brittle ; the anal fin is pointed ;
the four firft rays being fhort and fpiny, the reft: long and
foft. , This is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean.

Mr. Pennant has defcnbed fome other fpecies of wraffe,
as the trimaculatcd,Jlriped, and gibbous, taken on the coaft of
Anglefea, and another called ballatif numbers of which ap-

W R E

pear during fumnicr near Scarborough, whicii is of the
form of the common wrafte, except that between the dcJrfal
fin and the tail it has a confiderable finking ; above the nofe
a deep fulcus ; and on the fartheft cover of the gills a de-
preffion radiated from the centre. Pennant's Brit. Zool.
vol. iii. p. 246, &c. See Labrus.

WRATENI, in Geography. See Prating.

WRATH, Cape, a cape in the N.W. extremity of
Scotland, in the parifh of Durnefs, which affords excellent
pafture for fheep. In its vicinity are vaft caverns.

WRBOWALNOL, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Konigingratz ; 16 miles S.W. of Biezow.

WREAK, or Wreke, a river of Leicefterfhire, which
paffes by Melton Mowbray, and runs into the Soar, 7 miles
N.E. of Leicefter.

WREATH, m Agriculture, a fmall roll formed of any
kind of light fubftance, fuch as ftraw, hay, &c. and ufed
for different purpofes.

Wreath, in Natural Hijlory. See Turbo.

Wreath, in Heraldry, a roll of fine hnen, or filk, (like
that of a Turkifh turban,) confifting of the colours borne
in the efcutcheon ; placed in an achievement, between
the helmet and the creft, and immediately fupporting the
creft.

Wreath Stick-Band, in Agriculture, a band formed of
any kind of twifted ftick, ufed for tying up fagots, and
other fuch purpofes.

WRECK, Wrack, Sea-W r^ck, or Sco-Oak, ihe/ucus
•Deficulofus of Linnaeus, in Natural Hijlory, a foft, very flip-
pery, marine plant, common among rocks that are left dry
at the ebb tide, with leaves fomewhat refembhng thofe of
the oak-tree ; the ftalk running along the middle of the
leaves, and terminated by watery bladders containing either
air or a flippery fluid : the veficles begin in March to fill
with a thin juice ; and about the end of July they burft, and
difcharge a matter as thick as honey.

In fome places it is ufed to manure the ground. In Nor-
mandy, and other parts, they burn it ; and of the aflies make
a kind of foda, or potafh, which they nfe in the making of
common green glafs, to promote the fufion or vitrification
of the other materials. See Sea-/F«(/.

Dr. Ruffel relates, that he found this plant an ufeful afTirt-
ant to fea-water in the cure of diforders of the glands ; that
he gave it in powder to the quantity of a drachm, and that in
large dofes it naufeated the ftomach ; that by burning in the
open air, it was reduced into the black faline powder ; which
feemed, as an internal medicine, greatly to excel the ofHcinal
burnt fponge ; which was beneficially ufed as a dentifrice,
for correcting laxities of the gums ; and which indicated a
remarkable degree of detergent virtue by its effeft in clean-
ing the teeth : that the juice of the veficles, after ftanding
to putrefy, yielded, on evaporation, an acrid pungent fait,
amounting to above a fcruple from two fpoonfuls ; that the
putrefied juice, applied to the fliin, finks in immediately,
excites a flight fenfe of pungency, and deterges like a folu-
tion of foap ; that one of the beft applications for difcufTing
hardnefs, particularly in the decline of glandular fwellings,
is a mixture of two pounds of the juicy veficles, gathered in
July, with a quart of fea-water, kept in a glafs veffel for
ten or fifteen days, till the liquor comes near to the con-
fiftence of very thin honey : the parts affefted are to be
rubbed with the ftrained hquor twice or thrice a day, and
afterwards wafhed clean with fea-water. Lewis's Mat. Med.
See ^Ethiops Vegetabdis.

Wreck, in Sea Language, denotes the ruins of a fhip
which had been ftranded or dafhed to pieces on a flielf, rock,
or lee-fhore, by tempeftuous weather.

Wreck,

WRECK.

Wreck, Wreccum, called alfo SA;/i-Wreck, or Ship-
Wrack, in Laiv, Sec. is when a fhip periihes in the fea,
and no man efcapes alive out of it.

The civilians term it iiaufraghim. The goods in the fliip
which Ere brought to the land by the waves belong to the
king, or him to whom he affigns the right thereof. Thus,
in the Stat. Praerog. Reg. 17 Edw. II. cap. 11." Rex ha-
bebit tvrecium maris pertotum regnum, balaenas et fturgiones
captas in mari, vel alibi intra reguum, exceptis quibuflibet
privilegiatis locis," &c.

Thus alfo the matter ftood by the ancient common law ;
but the rigour of the law of wrecks has been gradually
foftened in fa-vour of the dillreffed proprietors. Accordingly
it was firft ordained by king Henry I. that if any perfon
efcaped alive out of the (hip, it (hould be no wreck ; and
afterwards king Henry II. by his charter, May 26, A.D.
1 174, declared, that if on the coafts of England, Poiftou,
Oleron, or Gafcony, any (liip (hould be diftrefled, and either
man or bead (hould efcape or be found therein alive, the
goods (hould remain to the owners, if they claimed them
within three months ; but otherwife (hould be deemed a
wreck, and belong to the king, or other lord of the franchife.
This was again confirmed, with improvements, by Richard I.,
who, in the fecond year of his reign, not only eftablilhed
thefe conce(rions, by ordaining that the owner, if he was
(hipwrecked and efcaped, " omnes res fuas liberas et quie-
tas habciet," but alfo, that if he peri(hed, his children, or,
ill default of them, his brethren and fillers, (hould retain the
property ; and in default of brother or filler, then the goods
(hould remain to the king. And by the law, as laid down
by Brafton in the reign of Henry III., if not only a dog
{(•g') efcaped, by which the owner might be difcovered,
but if any certain mark were fet on the goods, by which
they might be known again, it was held to be no wreck.
Afterwards, in the (tatute of Weftm. 1, 3 Edw. I. cap. 4,
the time of limitation of claims, given by the charter of
Henry II., is extended to a year and a day, according to the
ufage of Normandy ; and it enafts, that if a man, a dog, or
a cat, efcape alive, the veffel (hall not be adjudged a wreck.
And it is now held, that not only if any living thing efcape,
but if proof can be made of the property of any of the
goods or lading which come to (hore, they (hall not be for-
feited as wreck. The ftatute farther ordains, that the (heriff
of the county (hall be bound to keep the goods a year and
a day (as in France for one year, agreeable to the mari-
time laws of Oleron, and in Holland for a year and a half) ;
that if any man can prove a property in them, either in his
own right or by right of reprefentation, they (hall be reftored
to him without delay ; but if no fuch property be proved
within that time, they then (hall be the king's. If the goods
are of a perifhable nature, the (heriff may fell tliem, and the
money' (hall be liable in their (lead. This revenue of wrecks
IB frequently granted out to lords of manors, as a royal
franchife ; and if any one be thus entitled to wrecks, in his
own land, and the king's goods are wrecked thereon, the king
may claim them at any time, even after the year and the
day. In order to conftitute a legal wreck, the goods muft
come to land. If they continue at fea, the law di(lingui(hps
them by the barbarous appellations oi jet/am, jlotfam, and
ligan.

Wrecks, in their legal acceptation, are now not very
frequent ; the owner being feldom unable to alTert his pro-
perty within the year and day limited by law. And in
order to preferve his property entire, our laws have made
many humane regulations, very oppofite in their fpirit to
thofe which formerly prevailed in all the northern regions of

Europe, and a few years ago were dill faid to fubfid on the
coalls of the Baltic fea ; permitting the inhabitants to feize
on whatever they could get as lawful prize. To what the
reader will find under Salvage to this purpofe, we (hall
here add, that all perfons who fecrete any goods of a wreck
(hall forfeit their treble value ; and if they wilfully do any
a£l whereby the (hip is loft or deftroyed, by making holes
in her, dealing her pumps, or otherwife, they are guilty of
felony without benefit of clerg)'. Moreover, by the ftatute
26 Geo. II. cap. 19. the plundering of any veffel either in
diftrefs, or wrecked, whether any living creature be on
board or not, or the preventing the efcape of any perfon
that endeavours to fave his life, or the wounding of him,
with intent to deftroy him, or the putting out of falfe lights
in order to bring any velTel into danger, are all declared to
be capital felonies, in like manner as the deftroying of trees,
fteeples, or other Hated fea-marks is punilhed, by 8 Eliz.
cap. 13. with a forfeiture of 100/. or outlawry. Alfo by
the ftatute of Geo. II. the pilfering of any goods cad
a(hore is declared to be petty larceny ; and many other
falutary regulations are made for the more effeftually pre-
ferving (hips of any nation in diftrefs.

By the civil law, to dedroy perfons fhip-wrecked, or
prevent their faving of the (hip, is capital ; and to deal
even a plank from a veffel in ditlrefs, or wrecked, makes
the party liable to anfwer for the whole (hip and cargo.
The laws alfo of the Vifigoths, and the mod early Nea-
politan conditutions, puni(hed with the utmoft feverity
all thofe who neglefted to afTid any fhip in diftrefs, or
plundered any goods caft on fhore. Blackft. Com. book i.
p. 291, &c.

In divers charters and old writings, it appears that
wreck, anciently, not only comprehended goods which
came from a peri(hing (hip, but whatever elfe the fea caft
upon land : whether it were precious ftones, fi(h, fea-weed,
or the like.

This wreck, in the Grand Cuftomary of Normandy,
cap. 17. is called varech, and IsXinsdwuerifcum ; and in fome
of our ancient charters, ivreche, luerec, -juerech, and feup-
•aierp, q. A. feaupwerp, oi fea and upiuerpen, to cajl up.

Shipwreck, in marine infurance, and as it concerns the
right of abandoning, is generally a total lofs. What may
be faved of the (hip or goods is fo uncertain, and depends
fo much on acddent, that the law cannot diftingui(h this
from the abfolute deftruftion of the whole. The wreck of
the (hip may remain, but the (hip is loll. Thus alfo the
goods may remain ; but if no (hip can be procured, in a
reafonable time, to carry them to their place of deftination,
the voyage is lod, and the adventure fruftrated. But the
mere JlranJing of the (hip is not, of itfelf, deemed a total
lofs, fo as to intitle the infured immediately to abandon.
It is only where the ftranding is followed by (hipwreck, or
in any other way renders the (hip incapable of prcfecuting
her voyage, that the infured is intitled to abandon. If the
voyage be loft, this is a total lofs, not only of the fhip and
freight, but alfo of the cargo, if no other (hip can be pro-
cured to carry it to its port of deftination. Moreover, if a
cargo be damaged in the courfe of the voyage, fo that what
has been faved is lefs in value than the amount of the freight,
this is clearly a total lofs. In cafe of (hipwreck the rule in
France is, that the infured may abandon, though the goods
be recovered and carried to their place of deftination, be-
caufe goods thus faved are generally in a bad and unmarket-
able condition. But if the (hip become unnavigable, the
infured cannot abandon the goods, if by any other (hip
they may be conveyed in time to their place of deftination.

As

W R E

As it is reafonable and neceffary that the time of the under-
writer's refponfibility fhould be limited, this limit is fixed in
fome maritime ftates on the continent, within which period
after the lofs the infured may abandon. In France, Spain,
and Holland, the times are limited by law, according to
the diitance of the place where the lofs happens, within
which the abandonment mull be made. In England there
is no time, limited by law, for abandoning : but the courts
have adopted a rule better luited to the promotion of com-
merce, and more hkely to prevent frauds, which is this :
that as foon as the infured receives advice of a total lofs, he
muft make his eleftion vi'hether he will abandon or not : if
he determines to abandon, he muft give the underwriters
notice of this " within a reafonable time" after the intelli-
gence arrives ; and any unneceflary delay in giving this
notice will amount to a waver of his right to abandon ; for
unlefs the waver does fome aft (ignifying his intention to
abandon, it will be only a partial lofs, whatever may be the
nature of the cafe, or the extent of the damage. If by any
interference of the underwriters the infured be aftually pre-
vented from abandoning, the underwriters are liable for all
the lofs fullained by the infured to the extent of the fum
infured. If the infured determine to abandon, aud demand
as for a total lofs, he is not obliged, as in fome foreign
countries, to make a formal protell, but merely to give
notice of the lofs to the underwriters, and of his determin-
ation to abandon. The notice of abandonment may be
given, either to the underwriter himfelf, or to the agent
who has fubfcribed for him : and the abandonment ought to
be made for the whole of the effefts infured, and not for a
particular part. The abandonment muft be alfo fimple and
unconditional ; otherwife it will not transfer the entire pro-
perty to the infurers, which is of the effence of the aban-
donment. By the abandonment, the infured yields up to the
infurers all his riglit, title, and intereft in the fhip or goods
infured, or what maybe faved of them, which, from the
notice of abandonment, become the property of the in-
furers ; but the abandonment of the (hip does not, as in
France, transfer to the infurer the freight ihe has earned.
The abandonment not only intitles the underwriters to all
that can be faved of the effefts infured ; but if compenfa-
tion be made to the infured for the injury from which the
lofs arofe, this compenfation (liall go to the underwriters ;
for when they have paid the lofs, they, and not the infured,
are the real fuftorers. If tlie fhip, after abandonment, arrive
fafe, the infurers fliall have all the profit of the voyage.
Nor (hall they, on account of the fafe arrival of the fliip,
refufe to pay the fum infured. So if the fhip or goods in-
fured happen to be recovered undamaged, after tlie infurer
has paid a total lofs, the infurer cannot compel the infured
to refund the money, and take back the fliip or goods, but
the infurer (hall ftand in his place, and fliall have the benefit
of falvage. An abandonment once properly made, on
fufBcient ground, and accepted by the infurers, is abfolute
and binding upon both parties, and cannot be revoked
unlefs by mutual confent ; but if the ground be infufficient,
it will be void. In cafe of Ihipwreck or other misfortune,
the effefts that are faved continue, till abandonment, the
property of the infured, who is bound in juilice, honour,
and confcience, to ufe his utmoft endeavours to make the
moft of what may be refcued from deftruftion ; in order, as
much as poflible, to lighten the burden of the infurers. To
enable him to do this, without prejudice to his right of
abandonment, our policies provide, that in cafe of any lofs
or misfortune to the infured, their faftors, fervants, or afligns,
fliall be at liberty to fue, and labour about the defence, fafe-
guard, and recovery of the goods a.id merchandizes, and

AV R E

fhip, &c. without prejudice to the infurance ; " to the
charges whereof, the infurers agree to contribute, each
according to the rate and quantity of his fubfcription."
Marlhall on Infurance, vol. ii. See Perils of the Sea.

Wreck, in Mdallurgy, a vefTel in which the third waft-
ing is given to the ores of metals.

In Cornwall, when the tin-ore has been twice waflied,
they take the head tin, or that part of the tin-ore that lies
uppermoft, out of the huddle, and throwing it into this
veitel, they pour water on it, and work it about with wooden
rakes, till it is cleared from whatever other extraneous mat-
ter there may ftill have remained mixed with it, and is, after
this, fit for the blowing-houfe to be run into metal.

Wreck, in Agriculture, a term fignifying the weeds
thrown up by the floods upon the fea-fliores ; alfo the dead
indigefted roots and ftems of grafs, and other plants in
ploughed lands.

WREKIN, in Geography, a mountain of England, in
Shropfhirc ; about lo miles E. of Shrewfbury.

WREME, a town of the duchy of Bremen : c miles
N.N.W. of Carlfburg.

WREN, Sir Christopher, in Biography, an eminent
architeft and mathematician, was born in 1 63 2, at the living
of his father, who was reftor of Eaft Knoyle, in Wiltfhire,
and finilhed his education at Wadham college, Oxford, into
which he entered in 1646. Before this time, he had "iven
proofs of genius by the invention of aftronomical and pneu-
matic inftruments ; the former of which he dedicated to his
father, at the age of 13, in a copy of elegant Latin verfes,
together with an exercife " De Ortu Fluminum." He alfo
diltinguilhed himfelf by the conftruftion of other philofophi-
cal instruments ; and in 1647 he wrote a treatife on Spherical
Trigonometry upon a new plan. In 1650 he graduated
B.A., and in 1651 wrote an algebraical traft on the Julian
period. In 1653 he was elefted fellow of All-Souls' col-
lege, and graduated M.A. He was one of the firft mem-
bers of the Philolophical Society at Oxford, from which
proceeded the Royal Society, and contributed by his ex-
periments and inventions to the amufement and inftruftion it
afforded ; and in 1663 he was elefted a fellow of the Royal
Society. In 1657 he was chofen aftronomical profeffor at
Grefham college ; but upon being appointed Savilian pro-
feffor of aftronomy at Oxford, he refigned the former office,
and in 1661 returned to the univerfity, which created him
doftor of laws. Wren next prefents himfelf to our view as
a pre-eminent arehiteft ; and thus dillinguiftied, he received a
commifiion in 1663 to prepare deiigns for the repair of St.
Paul's cathedral ; and after his return from a tour to
France in 1665, with a view to his improvement in archi-
tefture, he finifhed thofe defigns ; but whilft they were
under confideration, the edifice was deftroyed by the fire of
London in j6C6. This cataflrophe afforded him an oppor-
tunity of defigning and conllrufting a building altogether
new. The contemporary deftrudtion of 50 parochial
churches and many public buildings furnifhed ample fcope
for the exercife of Wren's talents ; and he would have bad
the honour of refounding, as it were, a new city, if the
defign which he laid before the king and parhament could
have been accomplifhed without infringing on the rights of
private property. On the death of fir John Denham in
1667, he fucceeded to the office of furveyor of the works ;
and in order to obtain leifure for executing the various
works in which he was employed, and more particularly the
rebuilding of St. Paul's cathedral, lie refigned his Savilian
profefforftiip in 1673. In 1674 he received the honour of
knighthood, and in the following year the foundation of the
new cathedral was laid. For a particular account of this

magnificent

W R E

W R E

mao-nificent edifice, fee the article Lomdon'. In 1680 fir
Chnltopher's fcientific merits caufed him to be elefted pre-
fident of the Royal Society. In 1683 he was appointed
architeft and commiffiouer for Chelfea college, and in the
following year comptroller of the works in the caftle ot
Windfor. In 1685 he was introduced into parliament as a
reprefentative of Plympton. To his other public trufts
were added, in i6q8, that of furveyor-general and commif-
fiouer for the repair of Weftminfter abbey ; in 1 699 that of
architeft of Greenwich hofpital ; and in 1708 that of one
of the commiflioners for the 50 new churches propofed to be
erefted in and near the city of London. Having fulfilled
all his duties to the 86th year of his age, the adminiftration
of 1718 incurred indelible difgrace, by fufFering political
confideration to have fuch influence as to deprive him of his
place of furveyor to the royal works. The remaining five
years of his life were fpent in honourable retirement, and
devoted to fcientific purfuits, and the reading of the Scrip-
tures. It u faid that he indulged a very pardonable vanity
by being carried once every year to furvey St. Paul's cathe-
dral. His life was prolonged to his 91ft year, and termi-
nated in confequence of a cold which he caught in coming
from Hampton-Court to London, in February 1723. His
remains were interred, with fuitable funeral honours, under
the choir of St. Paul's, and upon his tomb is a con-
cife but very appropriate and expreflive Latin infcription,
ending "Leftor, fi monumentum requiris, circumfpice."
Sir Chriftopher was twice married, and left one fon, a man
of learning and piety, and a good antiquary. The edifices
conftrufted by Wren were moftly public, including a royal
hunting-feat at Winchefter, and the modern part of the
palace at Hampton-Court. Some of the moft remarkable,
befides St. Paul's, are, the Monument, the theatre at
Oxford, the library of Trinity college, Cambridge, the
hofpitals of Chelfea and Greenwich, and of Chrillchursh,
London, the church of St. Stephen, Walbrook, thofe of
St. Mary-le-Bow, St. Michael, Cornhill, and St. Bride,
dift.ingui(hed by their fteeples, and the great campanile of
Chriftchurch, Oxford. Of the rank which he occupied as
a man of fcience, we may form fome judgment from the
fucceeding concife detail of his performances, and more par-
ticularly from the teftimony of fir Ifaac Newton, who, in
his " Principia," joins the names of Wren, Willis, and
Huygens, and charafterizes them as " hujus setatis Geome-
trarum facile principes." As to his moral character, it is
faid to have been worthy of his intelleftual eminence ; as
with great equanimity, he was pious, temperate, modeft,
and communicative of his knowledge ; and few men feem
to have been more generally efteemed by their contempo-
raries. With regard to his architeftural llcill and attain-
ments, a very competent judge, being himfelf of the profef-
fion, fays, that he poffeffed an inexhauftible fertility of
invention, combined with good natural tafle and pro-
found fcientific knowledge ; and that his talent was particu-
larly adapted to ecclefiaftical architefture, which afforded
domes and towers to his pifturefque fancy ; while, in his
palaces and private houfes, he has fometimes funk into a
heavy monotony, as at Hampton-Court and Wincheiler.
Among the rich variety of Wren's towers, fteeples, and
fpires, many are truly elegant. The church of St. Stephen's,
Walbrook, exhibits a deviation from common forms equally
ingenious and beautiful. The Monument is grand and
fimple. At Greenwich, his additions to the original work
of Inigo Jones are Angularly grand and beautiful. Upon
the whole, fir C. Wren's architefture is perhaps the per-
feftion of that modern ftyle which, with forms and modes
of conftruftion effentially Gothic, adopts for the decorative

part the orders and ornaments of antiquity. Biog. Brit.
Walpole's Anecd. Gen. Biog.

Wren, or Jenny-Wren, in Ornithology, \\\e pqffer troglodytes
of Gefner, and the motactUa troglodytes of Linnaeus, has the
head and upper part of the body of a deep reddifh-brown ;
above each eye is a ftroke of white ; the back, and coverts
of the wings and tail, are marked with flender, tranfverfe,
black lines ; the quill-feathers with bars of black and red ;
the throat is of a yellowifh-white ; the belly and fide*
crofled with narrow dufky and pale reddifh-brown lines ;
and the tail is croffed with duflvy bars. Pennant.

This bird, though very fmall, is of a very cheerful difpo-
fition, and has a very agreeable voice, which he throws out
with great cheerfulnefs and fprightlinefs, ufually cocking
up his tail all the time he is finging, and continues his fong
through the winter, except during the frofts. See Song of
Birds.

The female breeds twice in the year, firft in the latter
end of April, and afterwards in the middle of June. The
neft is ufually placed among clufters of mofs and ivy,
in fuch a manner that it is very hard to difcover it. It is
made of dry mofs and leaves put together in a very arti-
ficial manner, being clofed all round except for 3 fmall
hole left to go in and out at. They lay a great number of
eggs, not lefs than eighteen ; and it has been often found
that they all hatch except one or two; and thus fixteeu
young ones have been found together in the neft. Thefe
are brought up fo well as to fhift for themfelves by the end
of May ; and then another brood is provided for by the
middle of the month following. The young ones may be
eafily raifed. They ftiould for this purpofe be taken out
of the neft at about fourteen days old, and fed with fheep's,
calf's, or ox's heart, cut fmall, with eggs minced among it.
When they are able to peck this meat for themfelves, they
may be put into cages ; but they muft llill be fed for fome
days, left they fiiould negleft themfelves, and die of hunger
after the greatcil part of the trouble is thus over. See
MoTAClLLA Troglodytes.

When they are grown up, they may be fed with pafte,
and will need no more heart. Afterward it will be a
great feaft to them to give each a fpider or two at once in
two or three days ; and after they attain full age, they may
either be left to fing their own wild notes, which are very
agreeable, or if it be defired that they ihould whiftle tunes,
they will eafily be taught it. Ray and Pennant.

Wren, CrfJled,OT Golden-Cre/led WnEii, regulus cri/latus,
or motacilla regulus of Linnaeus, the name of a very beauti-
ful little bird, the fmalleft of all the Britifli birds. Its
whole weight is not more than feventy-fix grains ; and the
crown of its head is adorned with a very beautiful fafFron-
coloured or orange-red fpot, which is called its creft, and
by fome its crown, and from this golden crown the bird
has obtained the name of the regulus, lyrannus, bafdeus, and
other appellations of royalty. This beautiful fcarlet mark
on the head is bounded on each fide by a fine yellow line.
The bill is dufliy ; the feathers of the forehead are green ;
from the bill to the eyes is a narrow white line ; the back
and hind part of the neck are of a dull green ; the coverts
of the wings duflcy, edged with green, and tipped wi^
white ; the quill-feathers and tail duflcy, edged with j)ale
green ; the throat and lower part of the body white, tinged
with green ; the legs are of a dull yellow colour ; and the
claws are very long.

This bird frequents woods, and is found principally in
oak-trees. It is common about the Peak in Derby/hire,
and is feen in autumn as far north as the Shetland iiles, but
quit* that country before winter. It lays fix or feven eggs,

not

W R E

not larger than peas. This bird has been obferved fuf-
pended in the air for a confiderable time over a bufh in
flower, whilft it fung very melodioufly. The note does
not much differ from that of the common wren, but is very-
weak. Ray and Pennant. See Motacilla Regulm.

Wren, Tcllow. See Luteqla, and Motacilla
Trochilus.

WRENCH. See Strain;

WRENTHAM, in Geography, a town of the ftate of
MaiTachufetts, in the county of Norfolk, containing 2478
inhabitants ; 23 miles S.W. of Bofton.

WRESTBALKING, in Agriculture, the operation of
turning over upon or covering a balk or rib of whole un-
moved ground, by a broad furrow-flice, in the view of
rendering the land more mellow and porous. The term is
chiefly ufed in the eaftern dillrifts of the country.

WRESTLING, a kind of combat or engagement be-
tween two perfons unarmed, body to body, to prove their
ftrength and dexterity, and try which can throw his op-
ponent to the ground.

Wreftling, paUJlra, is an exercife of very great antiquity
and fame. It was in ufe in the heroic age ; witnefs Her-
cules, who wreftled with Antaeus.

It continued a long time in the higheft repute, and had
very confiderable rewards and honours afligned it at the
Olympic games. It was the cuftom of the athleta;, or
wreftlers, to anoint their bodies with oil, to give the lefs
hold to their antagoniil. See Pal^istra.

Ablancourt obferves, that Lycurgus ordained the Spartan
maids to wreflle in pubHc, quite naked, to break them of
their too much delicacy and nicenefs ; to make them ap-
pear more robuft, and familiarize the people, &c. to fuch
nudities.

A wreiUing match, or neolering, is a very common di-
verfion in the Mandingo countries of Africa. It is exhibited
at the " Bentang," which is a large ftage found in each
town, that anfwers the purpofe of a public hall or town-
houfe : it is compofed of interwoven canes, and is generally
Jheltered from the fun by being erefted in the (hade of fome
large tree. It ferves alfo for a kind of lounging place,
where the indolent and unemployed aflemble to fmoke their
pipes, and talk over the news of the day.

At the wreftling match, the fpeftators arrange themfelves
in a circle, leaving the intermediate fpace for the wreftlers,
who are ftrong, aftive, young men, trained up from infancy
to this fort of exertion. Being ftripped of their clothing,
except a (hort pair of drawers, and having their ikin anointed
with oil, OT Jhea butter, they approach each other on all
fours, parrying with and occafionally extending a hand for
fome time, till at length one of them fprings forward and
catches his rival by the knee. Great dexterity and judgment
are now difplayed ; and the conteft is at length decided by
fuperior ftrength. The combatants are animated by the
mufic of a drum, which ferves alfo in fome meafure to re-
gulate their motions. The wreftling is fucceeded by a
dance, in which many performers aflift, all being provided
with little bells faftened to their legs and arms ; their mo-
tions being regulated by the drum, beaten by a crooked
flick, which the drummer holds in his right-hand, occa-
fionally ufing his left to deaden the found, and thus vary
the mufic. The drum is alfo ufed to keep order among the
fpeftators ; and when the wreftling match is about to begin,
the drummer ftrikes what is underftood to fignify " ali bse
fee," fit all down ; upon which the fpeftators immediately
feat themfelves ; and when the combatants begin, he ftrikes
" arauta, amuta," i.e. take hold, take hold.

Vol. XXXVIII.

W R E

WRETESTA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Sudermannland ; 36 miles N.W. of Nykioping.

WRETSTORP, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nericia ; 16 miles S.W. of Orebro.

WRETWEED, in Agriculture, a name fometimes given
to wart-weed or fun-fpurge, a troublefome weed in fields.
See Weed.

WREXHAM, in Geography, a market-town in the
hundred of Bromefield, towards the eaft corner of the county
of Denbigh, North Wales, is fituated 25 miles E.S.E. from
Denbigh, ii\ S.S.W. from Chefter, and by the road
through Whitechurch 176 N.W. from London. The
parifh of Wrexham is extenfive and populous, and com-
prifes 14 townlhips. By the returns of 181 1, the popula-
tion of the whole amounted to 19,495, ^'^^ ^^^ houfes
to 4142.

Wrexham is a place of confiderable antiquity, for it is
mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle by the name of Wrigb-
telefham. Although belonging to Cambria, yet being
feparated by the ancient trench called Off'a's Dyke, it came
to be ranked as appertaining to the great internal diftrift of
England, Mercia. In the reign of Edward I., the town
and the lordihip were granted to earl Warren ; ahd as early
as the reign of Henry VIII., the town was known for its
trade, particularly for its buckle-makers. Wrexham is
noted for its fairs, one of which continues for nine days,
for the fale of Welfti flannels, cattle, Irifh linens, Eng-
li(h woollens, ironmongery, &c. The weekly markets
are kept on Monday and Thurfday. The church of
Wrexham is the moft remarkable and moft ornamented
building of its kind in North Wales. It was erefted in
1472, but the tower was not finiftied till 1506. It confifts
c»f a nave, with fide aifles, and a chancel ; the whole length
being 178 feet, and the breadth 72 : the tower rifes to the
height of 135 feet; the aifles are feparated from the nave
by cluftered columns fupporting pointed arches ; the ceiling
is compofed of oak, in imitation of groined Hone. In the
town is a free-fchool for educating twelve boys. Two miles
weft from Wrexham is Borfliam, which is noted for the
great iron-furnaces of Mefl'rs. Wilkinfon. Notwithftanding
the difficulties in the beginning, the works are now among
the greateft in the kingdom. The machinery employed is
very ingenious ; and every article of caft-iron, from cannon
down to kitchen utenfils, is fabricated in great numbers.
Iron-ftone and coal are plentiful in the neighbourhood ; and
at a ftiort diftance is a produftive lead-mine. The EUef-
mere canal between Shrewftjury and Chefter pafles half a
mile to the weft of Wrexham. Two miles more to the
weftward is the celebrated intrenchment called Offa's
Dyke, which extended from the river Wye in Monmouth-
fliire on the fouth into Flintfhire on the north ; and is fup-
pofed to have been forfned by that Saxon chief of Mercia,
to defend his country from the native Britons, who had re-
tired among the mountains of Wales. On the eaft fide of
Wrexham is Wat's Dyke, another intrenchment of the
fame kind, probably intended for a fimilar purpofe, but un-
connefted with the work of Offa.

About feven miles S.S.W from Wrexham is Ruabon, a
village with a refpeftable church, containing the monuments
of the ancient families of Williams and Wynn ; one in par-
ticular for the firft fir Watkin, who died in 1749, is a
diftingniflied produftion of Ryfbrack. The learned Dr.
David Powell, the tranflator and editor of fundry hiftorical
works relative to Wales, was a native and vicar of Ruabon,
where he died in 1 590. On the eaft fide of the village is the
gate leading to the park and manfion of Wynnftay, the feat

5 F of

W R 1

of iir Watkin Williams Wynn, bart. The road runs
through an avenue of trees of uncommon growth, in a
ftraight line for a mile, to a fpacious lawn, on which ilands
the houfe. Erefted at different periods, and in different
ftyles of architefture, Wynnftay-hall is more diftinguiftied
for fize and irregularity than for beauty of architeclure.
The new parts erefted by the firft baronet, although only a
portion of the defign, form a plain, fubftantial, comfortable
place of refidence ; the older parts are chiefly appropriated
to menial purpofes. The interior comprehends fome fpa-
cious apartments, in which are a few valuable portraits,
particularly one by Vandyke of fir Richard Wynn, who
attended Charles I. on his romantic matrimonial adventure
to Spain. Adjoining to tlie houfe is a fmall building,
formerly ufed as a theatre. The park, from the ancient
intrenchment Wat's Dyke which traverfes it, was formerly
called Wat-ftay ; but when the heirefs married fir John
Wynn, who inclofed the grounds in 1678 with a llone-wall,
the name was changed to its prefent appellation. The
grounds are not greatly diverfified, but they are well
wooded, and favourably fituated for profpefts. On an
eminence ftands a fluted ftone column, 100 feet high, on a
plinth 16 feet fquare, acccflible to the fummit by an internal
flair-cafe. It was ereftcd in memory of the late baronet by
his mother, with this fimple but eloquent infcription ;
" Filio Optimo mater eheu ! fuperlles." Near the park
the river Dee winds through Nant-y-Bele, or the dingle of
the Marten, a place of great natural romantic beauty.
Caer-ddin in this parifh, commonly called Garthen, is a ftrong
Britifh poll on a lofty hill, at no great diftance from Offa's
Dyke. It is formed by a rampart and ditch, in fome parts
double, and the inner confiiling of u thick wall. The area,
containing about four acres, exhibits veftiges of ancient
buildings. — Beauties of England and Wales, Denbighshire,
by the Rev. J. Evsns, 8vo. I^ondon, 18 1 2.

WRIETZEN. See Brietzek.

WRIGHT, Edward, in Biography, an Englifli mathe-
matician, tlourifhed in the latter part of the 1 6th and
beginning of the 17th century. Of his private hiftory little
is known, except fome few particulars that may be coUefted
from the Latin memoirs of his life, preferved among the
annals of Gonvile and Caius college in Cambridge. This
y?ar {1615) ditd, it is faid, at London, Edward Wright,
of Garvelloii in Norfolk, formerly a fellow of this college,
ranch rcfp?£led for the integrity and fimplicity of his man-
ners, and alfo famous for his (kill in the mathematical
fciences. He was the firlt undertaker of the difficult but
ufeful work, by which a little river is brought from the
town of Ware, in a new canal, to fupply the city of London
with water ; but by the tricks of others he v.'as prevented
from completing it. Nor was he inferior to the moft in-
genious mechanic in the conftruftion of inftruments, either
of brafs or of any other matter. He, it is faid, taught
lodocus Hondius the method of conftrufting his geo-
graphical charts, though Hondius concealed his name, that
he might arrogate to himfelf the honour of the invention.
Of this adl; of injuftice, Wright complained in the Preface to
his " Treatife of the CorreAion of Errors in the Art of
Navigation," a work compofed with excellent judgment,
and after long experience, to the great advancement of naval
affairs. For his improvement of tiiis art he was appointed
mathematical le£lurcr to the Ealt India Company ; and he
read leftures, for which he was ailawcd a yearly ialary
of jo/. This office he difcharged with great reputation,
and much to the fatisfaftion of his hearers. He publifhed,
in Engli/b, a book on the doftrine of the fphere, and anotlie»

3

W R I

concerning the conftruftion of fun-dials. He alfo prefixed
an ingenious preface to the learned Gilbert's book on the
load-ftone. By thefe and other writings he tranfmitted his
fame to the lateft pofterity. It is added, whilff he was a
fellow of this college, he was called forth to the public
bufinefs of the nation by the queen, about the year 1593,
or, according to other accounts, 1589. He was ordered
to attend the earl of Cumberland in fome maritime expedi-
tions ; of one of which he gave a faithful account, under the
form of a journal or ephemeris, prefixing to it an elegant
hy drographical chart of his own invention. His pofthumous
work, which was an Englifli tranflation of the book of
logarithms, then lately difcovered by lord Napier, a friend
of Mr. Wright, was publiflied foon after his death by his
fon Samuel Wright, a fcholar of the above-named college.
Death prevented the execution of feveral other defigns
which he had formed. Of him it may be truly faid, that
he itudied more to ferve the public than himfelf; and
though he was rich in fame and in the promifcs of the great,
he died poor, to the fcandal of an ungrateful age. To the
preceding extrafts from the memoirs above cited, we may
add, that Mr. Wright firft difcovered the true method of
dividing the meridian line, according to which Mercator's
charts are conftrudled (fee Chart), and upon which his
failing is founded. An account of it was fent from Cam-
bridge to Mr. Blondeville, who publiflied it among his ex-
ercifes in 1594; and in 1597 a demonftration of it was
given by the Rev. Mr. William Barlowe, in his " Na^i-
gator's Supply." In 1599 Mr. Wright publiflied "The
Correftion of certain Errors in Navigation," written many
years before, and fliewing the reafon of his divifion of the
meridian, the manner of conllrufting his table, and its ufes
in navigation, &c. &c. In 1610 he dedicated a fecond
edition to his royal pupil, prince Henry, with farther im-
provements, and an excellent method for determining the
magnitude of the earth. To his other works, comprehending
an account of his various dilcoveries, tabhs, and improved
inftruments for obfervation, we ftiall add his tratl on navi-
gation, entitled " The Havcn-finding Art." It is faid
that he conftrufted, for the uie of prince Henry, a large
fphere with curious movements, ferving by fpring-work
to exhibit the motions of the whole cek-ftial fphere, the par-
ticular fyftems of the fun and moon, iheit circular motions,
places, and poffibilitics of eclipfing each oth-r. (See
Orrery.) This fphere was overlooked in the time of the
civil wars, and found among dull and rubbifli in 1646 by
fir Jonas Moore, who was at the cxpence of reftoring it to
its original ftate, and depofited it at his own houfe in the
Tower, among other mathematical inftruments. Preface
to Robertfon's Navigation. Hutton's Math. Did.

Wright, Richard, was a native of Liverpool, and
born about the year 1735. Ke was bred to the humble
occupation of a houfe and ihip painter, but exerted his
talents in painting fea views, and obtained for his encourage-
ment the premium offered in 1 764 by the fociety for the
encouragement of arts, &c. ; and in 1766 he gained another
premium of fifty guineas, for a pidlure which had the
greater credit of being moft beautifully engraved by Wool-
lett, and is known under the name of the " Fifhery." He
died about 1775.

Wright, Joseph, one of our earlieft painters of cele-
brity in this age of reftoration of the art. He was born at
Derby in 1734, and thence obtained the name of Wright of
Derby, to diftinguifh him from R. Wright mentioned above.
He came to London to ftudy with Hudfon, but afterwards
eftabli/hed himfelf at his native place, and had very con-

ftderable

VV R 1

W R I

fide'rable encouragement as a portrait-painter, though his
ftyle was dry and too minute. He gained much more re-
putation by painting fcenes of fire and candle-light, and
indeed flood unrivalled in that way till Loutherbourg fubfe-
quently appeared. His piftiires of a forge and of a black-
fmith's fliop, exhibited with the fociety of artifts about the
year 1765, eftablifhed his reputation. In 1773 he vifited
Rome, and Italy generally, and was abfent two years. In
1782 he was elefted an aflbciate of the Royal Academy, but
refigned his diploma foon after, on Mr. Garvey's being pre-
ferred to him in an eleftion for an academician ; though he
continued occafionally to exhibit with the academy. He
had great induftry and profeflional fliiU, living very much
apart from the world. This enabled him to produce many
pictures, and in 1785 he made an exhibition of twenty-four
pidlures of his own painting at the great room under the
Piazza Covent-garden, one of which was a large work re-
prefenting the detlruftiou of the floating batteries before
Gibraltar. His ftyle in all his works was peculiar to him-
felf, fomewhat dry, yet not void of richncfs, and his draw-
ing coldly correft. One peculiarity marks his piftures, and
renders them eafily dillinguifhable, efpecially thofe in which
the illumination proceeds from the moon or fire. He pre-
pared his cloths or grounds with rough furfaces, caufed by
fand fifted or ftrewed upon them ; and then when he had
painted his fcene, he dragged his pallet-knife, covered with
the colour of the light, acrofs the pifture, when the colour
adhering to the projeftions on the furface, gave the glitter
which charafterizes that kind of illumination, and he toned
the parts to due relief by glazings. No one ever gave the
exaft tone of moon-hght fo completely as Wright of Derby.
He died in 1797, aged 63.

Wright, Mifs, a vocal apprentice to Michael Arne, the
natural fon of Dr. Arne. She had a fweet, fpirited, and
aftive voice, but was fo young in mufic, that fhe learned
the parts which flie had to perform on the ftage, after (he
was too haltily engaged at Drury-lane, by her ear. The
firft part affigned to her in that theatre was Leonora, in
Bickerftaff's Padlock, in which the airs, as fet by Dibden,
were fo pleafing, and fo much on the Italian model, that
they eftablifli''d her in the favour of the town. But the air
" Say little foolifh fluttering thing" was never fung in fuch
a brilliant and captivating manner by any other finger.

In 1766 flie appeared in the Cunning Man, Rouffeau's
Devin de Village, tranflated totldem fyllabh, and adapted to
his original mufic by the author of this article, in which
flie pleafed extremely.

Soon after tiiif, the apprentice was exalted into the wife
of her mafter, the ferva padrona, and fung with great ap-
plaufe in Cymon, and feveral of his and other compofers'
compofitions that were performed at Drury-lane ; and, if
we remember right, in the fummer flie fung in Mary-le-bone
gardens. But the town was fo fond of hearing her, and
the produce of her talents fo alluring to her hufband, that
ihe may truly be faid to have fung lit-rfclf to death ; or, like
the fwans of old in the Po, to have died finging. The
truth is, that her ignorance of mufic made it neceflary for
her to fiiig at home, in rendering herfelf perfeft in her parts,
ten time.' more than flie did in public, which brought on a
pulmonary complaint, and prematurely put an end to her
exiftence in 1770, at the age of 22, to the grief of her
friends, and great regret of the public.

Wright, in Geography, a town of Virginia ; 44 miles
W. of Richmond.

Whight'j Tuavn, a towufliip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Bucks, with 562 inhabitants ; 24 miles N. of
Eallon.

WRIGHTIA, in Botany, is dedicated by Mr. Brown
to his much-refpefted friend William Wright, M.D. fellow
of the royal focieties of London and Edinburgh, and affo-
ciate of the Linnasan fociety, " whofe ardour in the purfuit
of botanical knowledge," fays Mr. Brown, " even while
engaged in extenfive medical praftice in the ifland of Ja-
maica, has long entitled him to this mark 0/ dillinftion."
We heartily concur in this fentiment, and cannot but regret
that Dr. Swartz did not retain for this purpofe what he has
called Meriana. (See that article.) — Brown in Tr. of the
Wernerian Soc. v. 1. 73. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 467.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 68. (Nerium; Ga=rtn. t. 117.) —
Clafs and order, Pentandrta Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Con-
torts, Linn. Apoancit, .Tufi. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
fmall, rounded, bluntifli fegments, with five or ten internal
fcales at the outfide of the bafe of the corolla, permanent.
Cor. of one petal, falver-fhaped : tube cyhndrical, various
in length : limb in five oblong, fprcading, oblique fegments,
as long as the tube, or longer : mouth crowned with ten
divided fcales, fliorter than the limb. Stam. Filaments five,
thread-fliaped, fliort, inferted into the throat of the corolla ;
anthers arrow-fliaped, pointed, prominent, cohering by their
middle part to the ftigma. P'lft. Germens two, fuperior,
roundifti, cohering ; fl;yle one, thread-ftiaped, the length of
the tube, dilated at the apex ; ftigma contrafted. Per'tc.
Follicles two, almoft cylindrical, either diftinft or cohering,
pointed, ereft. Seeds numerous, inferted into the margins
of each follicle, oblong, imbricated downwards, crowned
at the lower extremity with filky hairs, direfted towards
the bafe of the feed-vefiel.

Efl". Ch. Corolla oblique, falver-ftiaped ; mouth crowned
with ten divided fcales. Stamens prominent. Follicles two,
ereft. Seeds imbricated downward, hairy at the lower
extremity.

A genus of upright flirubs, or fmall trees, natives of the
Eaft Indies, Ceylon, the Malay archipelago, or the tropical
part of New Holland. Their leaves are oppofite. Floiuers
white, corymbofe, nearly terminal. Albu7nen none. Embryo
white, turning rofe-coloured by immerfion in warm water ;
cotyledons involute longitudinally. Brown.

i.Vf. antidyfenterka. Oval-leaved Wrightia. Br. n. I.
Ait. n. I. (Nerium antidyfentericum ; Lmn. Sp. PI. 306,
excluding Rheede's fynonym. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1236.
N. n. 107; Linn. Zeyl. 45. N. indicum, fihquis anguftis,
eredlis, longis, geminis ; Burm. Zeyl. 167. t. 77.) — Leaves
oboTate-oblong, ftiort-pointed, fmooth. Corymbs moftly
terminal. Tube of the corolla fix times as long as tlie
calyx. Follicles diftinft. — Native of Ceylon. A hand-
fome ereft flirub, with numerous branches. Leaves on
ftiort ftalks, fpreading, two inches, or two and a half,
long. Tube as well as limb of the foivcrs each an inch in
length. Follicles thrice as long, a little fwelling upwards ;
their points converging. Brown. Burmann.

2. W. zeylanica. Lanceolate-leaved Wrightia. Br. n. 2.
(Nerium zeylanicum ; Linn. Sp. PI. 306. Am. Acad.
V. 4. 309. Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1236. Apocynum arbo-
refcens, nerii flore minus ; Burm. Zeyl. 23. t. 12. f. 2.)
Leaves oblong-lanceolate, blunt-pointed, fmooth. Corymbs
terminal. Tube of the corolla four or five times as long as
the calyx. Follicles diftinft.— Native of Ceylon. Our
fpecimen was given to Linnasus by Burmann. The branches
are long and ftraight, round, purplifli. Leaves fmaller than
the laft, about an inch and a half long, with more or lefs of
a linear blunt point. Flowers like the preceding, but, ac-
cording to Mr. Brown, the tube is fliorter in proportion.

3. W. tinaoria. Dyer's Wrightia. Br. n. 3 — " Leaves

J F 2 elliptic-

W R 1

elUplic -lanceolate, or ovate, pointed, fmooth. Branches
and corymbs divaricated. Tube of the corolla twice the
length of the calyx. Follicles diftina."— Found by Koenig
and Roxburgh in the Fall Indies. We received from Dr.
Roxburgh in 1789, by the name of Ner'tum antldyfentericum,
fpecimens which anfwer to the above charafters, except that
the tube is not at all longer than the calyx ; the limb more-
over appears purplifh, and is clothed on both fides with fine
pubefcence. This plant mull be known to Mr. Brown, and
perhaps is one of the undefcribed fpecies of which he makes
mention.

4. W. pubefceiu. Downy Wrightia. Br. n. 4. Prodr.
n. 1. — " Leaves elliptic-oblong, pointed, downy as well as
the calyx. Corymbs ereft. Tube of the corolla fcarcely
longer than the calyx. FoIHcles combined." — Gathered
by Mr. Brown in the tropical part of New Holland, and in
the ifle of Timor, near Coepang.

This author fpeaks of fome other fpecies, of which he
has not yet publifhed either charafters or names, and which
are not known to us. Nehm-Pala, Rheede Hcrt. Mai.
V. 9. 5. t. 3 and 4, is prefumed to belong to the prefent
genus.

WRIGHTSBOROUGH, in Geography, a fettlement
in the ftate of Georgia, on a branch of the Savannah ; 30
miles W. of Augufta.

WRING-HousE, in Rural Economy, a name fometimes
applied to the place for making cyder in, in the fouthern
diftrias.

WRINGLE-Tail, a name given by the people of
feveral parts of England to the curvicauda, a fpecies of
bee-fly, very much refembhng the bee in fliape, but having
only two wings and no fting. It is very troublefome to
horfes, but does not fuck their blood, but only lays its
eggs in their Ikins : it is called in other countries the nuhame
and the barrel-fly.

WRINGTON, in Geography, a market-town in the
hundred of Brent-with-Wrington, in the county of Somer-
fet, England, is fituated to the S.W. of the Mendip hills,
at the diftance of 6 miles N.N.E. from Axbridge, and 129
miles W. from London. The ftreets are irregularly built,
and moll of the houfes are thatched. A weekly market,
by a very ancient grant, is held on Tuefday ; and here is an
annual fair. In the market-place are the ruins of a crofs.
The church, a fpacious edifice, 120 feet in length and 52
in width, confifts of a nave, chancel, fide aifles, and a porch.
The tower, at the well end, is 140 feet high to the top of
the battlements, which are adorned with four turrets, one
at each corner, and lixteen elegant pinnacles fifteen feet in
height. The church contains feveral ancient and modern
monuments. One is of peculiar beauty : it is built of white
and Sienna marble, and was ereaed in memory of Dr.
Henry Waterland, prebendary of Brillol, and above fifty
years miniller of this parilh, where he conllantly refided :
he died March 27, 1779. In the town is a free-fchool for
fix boys and as many girls. In the return of the year 181 1,
the population of the parilh is enumerated as 1109, the
number of houfes as 183. Wrington is diftinguilhed by
being the birth-place of the celebrated philofopher, John
Locke: he was born 1632, in an old thatched houfe, ftill
Handing on the north fide of the church-yard : he died Oc-
tober 28, 1704. See Locke, John. — Collinfon's Hiflory
., of Somerfetfhire, vol. i. 1791.

^ WRIST, Carpus, in Anatomy. See Extremities.
Wrist, Fra8ure, Ligaments, and Luxation of. See the
lefpeaive articles.

Wrist, in the Manege. The bridle wrift is that of the
cavalier's left-hand. A horfenian's wrift and his elbow

8

W 11 I

fhould be equally raifed, and the wrift ftiould be two or three
fingers above the pummel of the faddle. To ride a horfe
from hand to hand, /. e. to change hands upon one tread,
you need only to turn your wrill to that fide you would
have the horfe to turn to, without advancing your hand.
But if your horfe Hops, you muft make ufe of both your
legs. See Hand and Legs.

WRIT, formed from the Saxon writan, to write. Breve,
in Laiu, a precept of the king in writing, under feal, ifluing
out of fome court to the fheriff or other perfon, whereby
any thing is commanded to be done, touching a fuit or
aftion, or giving commiffion to have it done : as, the fum-
moning of a defendant, taking a diftrefs, redrefiing a diffeifin,
or the like. Or, according to Fitzherbert, a writ is a formal
letter of the king in parchment, fealed with a feal, and
direaed to fome judge, officer, or miniller, &c. at the fuit
or plaint of a fubjea, requiring to have a thing done, for the
caufe briefly exprelfed, which is to be difcuffed in the proper
court according to law. See Breve, Brief, and Pre-
cipe.

Writs are varioufly divided, and in various refpeas. Some,
with regard to their order, or manner of granting, are termed
original, and others judicial.

Writs, Original, are thofe fent out of the high court of
chancer)^ to fummon the defendant in a perfonal or tenant
in a real aaion ; either before the fuit begins, or to begin the
fuit by it. See Original.

Royal writs are held to be dcmandable of common right,
on paying the ufual fees ; for any delay in the granting of
them, or fetting an unufual or exorbitant price upon them,
would be a breach of Magna Charta, cap. 29. " NuUi
vendemus, nulli negabimus, aut differemus juftitiam vel
reaum."

Original writs are either optional or peremptory, or, in
the language of our law, they are either a precipe, or 4iji
te fecerit fecurum.

Writs, Judicial, are thofe fent by order of the court
where the caufe depends, upon emergent occafions, after the
fuit begins.

Judicial writs are diftinguilhed from original, in that their
tefte bears the name of the chief-juftice of that court whence
they come ; whereas the original fay, tejle meipfo, in the name
or relating to the king.

The original writ is always made returnable at the diftance
of at leaft fifteen days from the date or teJle, and upon fome
. day in one of the four terms : and all judicial writs, being
grounded on the IherilPs return, mull refpeaively bear date
the fame day on which the writ immediately preceding was
returnable. See Process.

Judicial writs, if erroneous, may be amended : whereas
original writs are not amendable, if the error be by default
of the party who gave inllruaion ; yet a new original may
be taken out, where it is not amendable.

Writs are alfo diftinguiflied, according to the nature of the
aaion, into real snd perfonal.

Real, are either touching the poffeffion, called -writs of
entry ; or the property, called writs of right. See Recto.

Perfonal writs, are thofe relating to goods, chattels, or
perfonal injuries.

To which may be added mixl writs, for the recovery both
of the thing and damages.

Some writs, again, are at the fuit of the party ; fome,
of ofiice ; fome, ordinary ; fome, of privilege. A writ of
privilege is that which a privileged perfon brings to the
court for his exemption, by reafon of fome privilege which
he enjoys.

But the moft common writs in daily ufe are, in debt, de-

tinue.

W R I

tinue, trefpats, adlion upon the cafe, account, and covenant,
Sec. which, as well as others, muft be rightly direfted, or
they will be naught.

Writs may be renewed every term, until a defendant is
arretted ; but in the court of king's bencli, if the latitat be
not renewed in five terms, a new writ is to be taken out,
and the plaintiff is not allowed to renew the old one.

The {heriff's bailiffs cannot execute a writ direfted to the
ftieriff, without his warrant ; and if feveral perfons are in-
cluded in a writ (for four defendants may be in one writ),
there muit be feveral warrants from the fherifF to execute
the fame. All writs are to be returned and filed in due
time, to avoid fq/l-terminums.

Attachment lies againft (heriffs, &c. for not executing a
writ, or for doing it oppreflively by force, extorting money
on it, or not doing it effeftually, by reafon of any corrupt
praftice.

Writ of /tppralfemerit, a writ iflued out of court for
the valuation of goods feized as forfeited to the crown ; or
goods taken as prize of war, or found vi-recked, flotfam or
jetfam.

Several feizures by feveral perfons not amounting to loo/.
may be included in one writ. (Bunbury, p. 63. ) And a new
writ was ordered where the firft appraifcment was too high.
(Ibid. 49. 185.) They are alfo required to fpecify the
goods particularly, p. 89.

WniT of AJfife. See Assise.

Writs of AJJiJlanct, are writs iffued out of the exchequer,
to enable officers to enter fhip? , houfes, warehoufes, and other
places, to fearch for fmuggled or prohibited goods. They
are direfted to be granted by 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 11. and
are ilfued on oath, that there is ftrong prefumption to be-
lieve goods of thofe kinds are harboured ; but if they are
executed in the night, the officers muft be accompanied by
a peace-officer.

Writ of Capias. See Capias.

Writ of Delivery, a writ direfting the delivery of goods
out of the king's pofleffions, either by verdidt or by con-
fent. They cannot be iflued till the information is in court
(Bunbury, p. 27. ) ; and they are difcretionary in the court.
(Ibid. p. 196.) A writ was granted out of the exchequer for
watches, becaufe the fprings and fteel-work vs'ere liable to
ruft (p. 74.) ; but it was refufed for tobacco-ftalks,
becaufe they were direfted to be burnt. (P. 196.) A writ
was alfo refufed in Ladd's and in Thomfett's cafe, in the
fame court, for coins ; the former reported, the latter not
reported.

Writ of D'tjlringas. See Distringas.

Writ of EleBion to Parliament. See Parliament.

Writ of Entry. See Entry.

Writ of Inquiry of Damages, a judicial writ that iflues out
to the fheriff upon a judgment by default, in an aftion of
the cafe, covenant, trefpafs, trover. Sec. commanding him
to fummon a jury to enquire what damages the plaintiff hath
fuftained, occafione prtm'fforum ; and when this is returned
with the inquifition, the rule for judgment is given upon it ;
and if nothing be faid to the contrary, judgment is there-
upon entered. 2 Lill. Abr. 721.

Writ of Mainf rife. See Mainprise.

Writ of Ntifty. See Neifty.

Writ of Rebellion. See Commission of Rebellion.

Writ of Right. See Recto.

Writs Vicountiel. See Vicountiel.

Writ, .liaion of a. See Action.

Writ, Appeal by. See Appeal.

Writ, Attachment by. See Attachment.

Writ, Continuance of a. See Continuance.

W R I

WRITER of the Tallies, an officer of the exchequer, being
clerk to the auditor of the receipt, who writes upon the
tallies the whole letters of the tellers' bills. See Tally
and Exchequer.

WRITING, Scriptdra, the art or aft of fignifying
and conveying our ideas to others, by letters or charafters
vifible to the eye.

Or, writing may be defined to be the art of exhibiting to
the fight the conceptions of the mind, by means of marki
or charafters fignificant of the founds of language, which
enable us to transfer ideas from the eye to the ear, and
vice verfti.

Written charafters are of two forts : they are either figns
for things, or figns for words. Of the former fort, are the
piftures, hieroglyphics, and fymbols, employed by the an-
cient nations ; of the latter fort, are the alphabetical cha-
rafters now employed by all Europeans. Piftures were,
undoubtedly, the firft effay towards writing ; accordingly^
we find in faft, that this was the only fort of writing known
in the kingdom of Mexico, when America was firft dif-
covered. By hiftorical piftures, the Mexicans are faid to
have tranfmitted the memory of the moft important tranf-
aftions of their empire. ( See Warburton's Divine Legal,
of Mofes, vol. ii. part i. p. 67, &c. vol. iii. p. 73. Robert-
fon's Hift. Am. vol. iii. p. 203, &c. and Appendix, note 26.
p. 440. edit. ?vo. ) But as pi6lures could do no more than
delineate external events, without exhibiting their connec-
tions, defcribing fuch quahties as were not vifible to the
eye, or conveying any idea of the difpofitions or words of
men, there arofe in procefs of time, for fupplying this de-
feft, the invention of hieroglyphical charafters ; which may
be confidered as the fecond fiage of the art of writing.

Hieroglyphics (which fee) confift in cei-tain fymbols,
which are made to ftand for invifible objefts, on account of
an analogy or refemblance which fuch fymbols were fup-
pofed to bear to the objefts. Among the Mexicans were
found fome traces of hieroglyphical charafters, intermixed
with their hiftorical piftures. But Egypt was the country
where this fort of writing was moft iludied, and brought
into a regular art. However, this fort of writing could be
no other than enigmatical and confufed, in the higheft de-
gree ; and muft have been a very imperfeft vehicle of know-
ledge of any kind.

As writing advanced from piftures of vifible objefts to
hieroglyphics, or fymbols of tilings invifible ; from thefe
latter it advanced, among fome nations, to firaple arbitrary
marks which ftood for objefts, though without any refem-
blance or analogy to the objefts fignified. Of this nature
was the method of writing praftifed among the Peruvians ;
who made ufe of fmall cords, of different colours, and by
knots upon thefe, of various fizes, and differently arranged,
contrived figns for giving information, and communicating
their thoughts to one another. Of this nature, alfo, are the
written charafters which are ufed to this day in China.
The Chinefe have no alphabet of letters, or fimple founds,
which compofe their words ; but every fingle charafter
which they ufe in writing is fignificant of an idea : it is a
mark which ftands for fome one thing or objeft, and con-
fequently the number of thefe charafters muft be iramenfe.
This Chinese cfnVin^, (which fee,) probably began, like
the Egyptian, with piftures and hieroglyphical figures ;
which figures being, in their progrefs, abbreviated in form,
for the fake of more eafily writing them, and greatly en-
larged in number, paffed at length into thofe marks or cha-
rafters which they now ufe, and which have fpread them,
felves through feveral nations of the Eaft. For it is faid,
that the Japanefe, the Tonquinefe, and thff Coroeans, who

fpeak

WRITING.

fpeak different languages from one another, and from the in-
habitantsof China, life the fame written charafters with them,
a:id thus inteUigibly correfpond with each other in writing,
though ignorant of the language fpoken in their feveral
countries. Our European arithmetical figures are fignificant
marks, precifely of the fame nature with the Chinefe cha-
rafters. Thus far nothing has appeared which refembles
our letters, or which can be called writing, in the fenfe now
given to that term. What we have hitherto feen were all
direft figns for things, and made no ufe of the medium of
found or words ; either figns by reprefentation, as the
Mexican pifturcs ; or figns by analogy, as the Egyptian
hieroglyphics ; or figns by inftitution, as the Peruvian knots,
the Chinefe charafters, and the Arabian cyphers. At length,
in different nations, men became fenfible of the imperfec-
tion, the ambiguity, and the tedioufnefs of each of thefe
methods of communication with one another, and began to
confider the advantage refulting from employing figns,
which fhould (land not direftly for things, but for the words
which they ufed in fpeech for naming thefe things ; and
they alfo confidered, that though the number of words in
every language be very great, yet the number of articulate
founds, ufed in compofing thefe words, is comparatively
fmall. Hence they were led to invent figns, not for each
word by itfelf, but for each of thofe fimple founds that are
employed in forming words ; and they obferved, that by
joining together a few of thofe figns, it would be prafticable
to exprefs, in writing, the whole combination of founds
which our words require.

The firft ftep in this new progrefs was the invention of
an alphabet of fyllables, which probably preceded the inven-
tion of an alphabet of letters, among fome of the ancient
nations ; and which is faid to be retained, to this day, in
Ethiopia, and fome countries of India. By fixing upon a
particular mark or charafter for every fyllable in the lan-
guage, the number of charafters, neceffary to be ufed in
writing, was reduced within a much fmaller compafs than
the number of words in the language. StiU, however, the
number of characters was great ; and mud have continued
to render both reading and writing very laborious arts. At
laft fome happy genius arofe ; and tracing the founds made
by the human voice to their mod fimple elements, reduced
them to a very few vowels and confonants ; and, by affixing
to each of thefe the figns which we now call letters, taught
men how, by their combination?, to put into writing all the
different words, or combinations of lound, which they em-
ployed in fpeech. By being reduced to this fimplicity, the
art of writing was brought to its higheft ftate of perfeftion,
and in this ftate, we now enjoy it in all the countries of
Europe.

To whom we are indebted for this admirable and ufeful
difcovery does not appear. There feems reafon to con-
clude, from the books which Mofes has written, that,
among the Jews, and probably among the Egyptians,
letters had been invented prior to his age. The univerfal
tradition among the ancients is, that they were firft im-
ported into Greece by Cadmus the Phoenician, who,
according to the common fyttem of chronology, was con-
temporary with Jofhua ; but according to fir Ifaac New-
ton's fyftem, contemporary with king David. As the
Phcenicians are not known to have been the inventors of
any art or fcience, though, by means of their extenfive
commerce, they propagated the difcoveries made by other
nations, the moft probable and natural account of the
origin of alphabetical charafters is, that they took rife in
Egypt, the firft civilized kingdom of which we have any
authentic accounts, and the great fource cf art and polity

among the ancients. In that country, the faTourite (ludy
of hieroglyphical charafters had direfted much attention to
the art of writing. Their hieroglyphics are known to
have been intermixed with abbreviated fymbols, and arbi-
trary marks ; whence, at laft, they caught the idea of
contriving marks, not for things merely, but for founds.
Accordingly, Plato (in Phsedro) exprefsly attributes the
invention of letters to Theuth or Thoth, the Egyptian,
who is fuppofed to have been the Hermes, or Mercury, of
the Greeks. Cadmus himfelf, though he paffed from
Phoenicia to Greece, as feveral of the ancients have af-
firmed, was originally of Thebes in Egypt. Moft pro-
bably Mofes carried with him the Egyptian letters into
tiie land of Canaan ; and there, being adopted by the
Phoenicians who inhabited that part of the country, they
were tranfmitted into Greece.

It is curious to obferve, that the letters which we life
at this day, can be traced back to the alphabet of Cad-
mus. The Roman alphabet, which obtains with us and
moft of the European nations, is plainly formed on the
Greek, with a few variations. And all learned men ob-
ferve, that the Greek charafters, efpecially according to
the manner in which they are formed in the oldeft in-
fcriptions, have a remarkable conformity with the He-
brew or Samaritan charafters, which, it is agreed, are
the fame with the Phoenician, or the alphabet of Cad-
mus. If the Greek charafters are inverted from left to
right, according to the Phoenician and Hebrew manner
of writing, they will appear to be nearly the fame. Befide
the conformity of figure, the names or denominations of
the letters, alpha, beta, gamma, &c. and the order in
which they are arranged, in all the feveral alphabets,
Phoenician, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman, agree fo much,
as to amount to a demonftration that they were all ori-
ginally derived from the fame fource. The letters were,
at firft, written from the right-hand to the left ; and this
manner of writing obtained among the Affyrians, Phoe-
nicians, Arabians, and Hebrews : and from fome very old
inscriptions, it appears to have obtained alfo among the
Greeks. Afterwards the Greeks adopted the method of
writing their lines alternately from the right to the left,
and from the left to the right, called boujlrophedon. At
length, however, the motion from the left-hand to the
right being found more natural and commodious, the
praftice of writing, in this direftion, prevailed throughout
all the countries of Europe. See more on this fubjeft
under Alphabet, Char.^cters, and Letters.

Writing was long a kind of engraving. Pillars, and
tables of ftone, were firft employed, and afterwards, plates
of the fofter metals, fuch as lead : but as writing became
more common, lighter and more portable fubftances were
employed. The leaves, and the bark of certain trees,
were ufed in fome countries ; and in others, tablets of
wood, covered with a thin coat of foft wax, on which the
impreffion was made with a ftylus of iron. See Book,
Bark, and Style.

In later times, the hides of animals, properly prepared
and pohfhed into parchment, were the moft common
materials : our prefent method of writing on paper is
an invention of no greater antiquity than the fourteenth
century.

The advantages of writing above Speech (which fee)
are, that writing is both a more extenfive and a more per-
manent method of communication : neverthelefs, fpoken
language has a great fuperiority over written language, in
point of energy or force. See Warburton, ub'i Jupra.
Blair's Leftures on Rhetoric, &c. vol. i. left. 7.

An

WRITING.

I

An ingeniou* and learned writer has lately difcufled the
lubjeA of this article in a very elaborate manner. He
oblerves, that there is a difference, deferving partic\ilar
attention in the inquiry, concerning the origin and pro-
refs of writing, between the imitative charafters and fym-
olic or arbitrary marks. The former derive their origin
from that imitative faculty, which is fo confpicuous in
the human fpecies ; the latter are founded in neceffity or
convenience, and become fignificant by compaft : the
one comprehends fymbols and marks for founds, fignifi-
cant of ideas ; and tlie other have an immediate reference
to fenfible objeiSs which prefent themfelves to fight, and
are applicable to hieroglyphical reprefentations. Accord-
ingly all reprefentations, marks, or charafters, which were
ever ufed by any nation or people, muft. have been either
imitative or fymbolic.

This writer controverts the opinion of M. Fourmont,
bifhop Warburton, and M. Gebelin, who have endea-
voured to fhew, that alphabets were originally formed of
hieroglyphical charadlers ; alleging that the letters of an
alphabet were effentially different from the charafteriftic
marks deduced from hieroglyphics, which are marks for
things and ideas, like the ancient and modern charac-
ters of tlie Chinefe ; whereas the former are only marks
for founds ; and that, though there be a fufficient rc-
femblance between the Mexican pifture-writing, the
Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the Chinefe charafters, yet
thefe are foreign to alphabetic letters, and, in reality, do
not bear the leaft relation to them. The hieroglyphic
characters of the Chinefe are, it is faid, in their nature
imitative, and do not combine into words, like arbitrary
marks for founds or letters, which are very few, and of a
fymbolic nature.

Letters, it is maintained, do not derive their powers
from their forms, but originally their forms entirely de-
pended on the fancy or will of thofe who made them.

Many learned men have fuppofed, that the alphabet was
of divine origin ; and feveral writers have afferted, that
letters wi-re tirft communicated to Mofes by God him-
felf ; whilll otliers have contended, that the Decalogue
was the firll alphabetic writing. But if this art had been
a new difcovery in the time ot Mofes, he would probably
have commemorated it ; nor is tliere any reafon to fup-
pofe, that God was the immediate revealer of the art,
for Mofes could never have omitted to have recorded
the hillory of fo important a circumftance, as the memory
of it would have been one of the ftrongefl barriers againlt
idolatry.

It appears, however, that the art of v.'riting is of great
antiquity, and that the ancients, who afcribed the inven-
tion of it to the gods, had very imperfeft ideas of its
true origin. When it is confidered that letters muft
have been the produce of a certain degree of civilization
among mankind, the inquirers into their original have
been naturally led to feek it in the hiftory of thofe
nations that appear to have been firft civilized. Accord-
ingly, many authors have decided in favour of the Egyp-
tians. See Letters.

Others have vindicated the claim of the Phoenicians to
the invention of letters ; urging the tellimony of Sanco-
niatho, the moft ancient and alfo the moll celebrated
Phoenician hillorian, corroborated by Pliny, Curtius,
Lucan, Euftbius, &c. as well as their very early and
high degree of civilization. The Chaldseans have alfo had
feveral learned advocates, who have attributed the in-
vention of letters to the patriarch Abraham : and fir Ifaac

Newton, in particular, admits, that letters were known in
the Abrahamic hne for fome centuries before Mofes.

It is needlefs to mention the claims of the Tufcans,
Indians, and Arabians. Mr. Artie, uii Infra, dechires in
favour of the Phoenicians ; and obferves, that as the Chal-
dseans, Syrians, Phoenicians, and Egyptians, all bordered
upon each other, and as the Phoenicians were the greatefl
as well as the moll ancient commercial nation, it is very
probable that they communicated letters to the Egyptians ;
the ports of Tyre and Sidon, and tliofe of the Egyptians,
being not far diftant from each other. This author adds,
that before the time when Mizraim Vv'ent into Egypt, in the
year before Chrift 2188, and 160 years after the flood,
Taaut, his fon, had invented letters in Phoenicia ; and if
this invention took place ten years before the migration of
his father into Egypt, as Mr. Jackfon fuppofes, we can
trace letters as far back as the year 2178 before Chrifl,
and 150 after the deluge recorded by Mofes: and beyond
this period, the written annals of mankind, which have been
hitherto tranfmitted to us, will not enable us to trace the
knowledge of them, though this want of materials is no
proof that letters were not known until a century and a
half after the Deluge.

An opinion feems to be gaining credit among the learned,
that arts and letters took their rile in the nortliern parts of
Aha, and that they were cultivated in thofe parts, long
before they were praftifed in PhcEiiicia or Egypt. Some
travelled fouthwards, others ftaid behind ; and thofe who
afterwards emigrated from the Ea!l were generally called
Scythians, and fometimes Hiias, who overfpread the
nortliern parts of Europe. Many fettlements were made
in Germany long before the Chrillian era.

It has been afferted by many writers, that all alphabets
are derived from one ; but Mr. Allle maintains, that there
are various alphabets ufed in different parts of Afia,
which differ from the Phoenician, ancient Hebrew, or
Samarita::, in name, number, figure, order, and power.
In feveral of thefe alphabets, there are marks for founds
peculiar to the language of the Eaft, which are not necef-
fj.ry to be employed in the notation of the languages of
Europe.

The following alphabets, fays this learned writer, feem
to be immediately derived from the Phoenician ; vi-i, the
ancient Hebrew, or Samaritan ; the Chaldaic ; the Baf-
tulan, or that of the colony of Phoenicians or Canaanites,
who are faid to have fled from Jortiua, and to have fettled
themfelves, in the moft early ages, in that part of Spain
now called Andalufia and Grenada ; the Punic, Cartha-
ginian, or Sicilian ; the Pelafgian Greek, and its deriva-
tives, which are written in the Eaftern manner, from right
to left ; and the Ionic Greek, written from left to right.
This laft-mentioned branch from the Pelafgic ftock is the
fource from wiience not only moft of the alphabets of
Europe are dei-ived, but alio of many others which have
been adopted in different parts of Afia and Africa.
From the Ionic Greek are derived the Arcadian, the
Latin or Roman, the ancient Gaulilb, the ancient Spaniih,
the ancient Gothic, the Coptic, the Ruffian, the Illyrian or
Sclavonian, tlie Bulgarian, and the Armenian : the Runic
is immediately derived from the Gothic.

The alphabets derived from the Roman are, the Lom-
bardic, the Vifigothic, the Saxon, the Gallican, the
Franco-Gallic or Merovingian, the German, the Caroline,
the Capetian, and the Modern Gothic. The firll relates
to the MSS. of Italy ; the fecond, to thofe of Spain ; the
tliird, to the MSS. of Great Britain ; the fourth and fifth,

to

VVKl TlNli.

to thofe of France; the fixtli, to Germany; the feventh,
ei^lith, and ninth, to all the countries of Europe where
Latin is read. The fix former alphabets are before the
age of Charlemagne ; the three latter follow it. The
charafters of thefe are more diftinguifhed by their names
than by their forms, which indicate that they are all of
Roman extraAion. The Lonibardic, introduced into Italy
by the Lombards in 569, was ufed by the popes in their
bulls, and fometimes called Roman in the eleventh century :
it ceafed in the thirteenth century. The Vifigothic, or
Spani(h Gothic, was introduced into Spain by the Goths
or Vifigoths ; it was abohfhed in a provincial fynod, held
at Leon in 1091, when the Latin letters were ellablifhed
for all public inftruments ; though thefe charafters were
occafionally ufed in private tranfaftions for upwards of
three centuries afterwards. Saxon writing admits of va-
rious diftinftions, -viz. the Anglo-Saxon, Britanno-Saxon,
and Dano-Saxon. The Gauls, on being fubdued by the
Romans, adopted their mode of writing ; and by addi-
tions of their own, gave rife to the GaOican or Roman
Gallic. The Franks, a people of Germany, having con-
quered part of Gaul, introduced their charafters called
Franco-Gallic, or Merovingian, becaufe this kind of
writing was praftifed under the kings of the Merovingian
race. It took place about the clofe of the fixth century,
and prevailed till the beginning of the ninth. The Ca-
roline was derived from the improvement of Charle-
magne ; this declined in the twelfth century, and totally
difappeared in the thirteenth, when it was fucceeded in
Germany by the Modern Gothic. The Caroline writing
was reftored by Hugh Capet about the year 987, and
called Capetian : it was much praftifed till about the
middle of the twelfth centur}' ; but in the thirteenth it
degenerated into the Modern Gothic. The Capetian
writing was ufed in England and in Germany, as well as
France, during the above-mentioned period. The Modern
Gothic, which fpread itfelf over Europe in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, is improperly fo called ; becaufe it
does not derive its origin from the \vriting anciently ufed
by the Goths and Vifigoths in Italy and Spain, but it is
the mod barbarous kind of writing : it took its rife in the
decline of the arts among the lazy fchoolmen, who had the
word tafte ; it is nothing more than the Latin writing de-
generated. It began in the twelfth century, and was
generally ufed (efpecially by monks and fchoolmen) in all
parts of Europe, till the reftoration of the arts in the
fifteenth century, and longer in Germany and the north-
ern nations. Our ftatute-books are ftill printed in Go-
thic letters.

The learned are not agreed with refpeft to the origin of
what is called national writing. Some will have it, that
the Roman manner prevailed throughout the Weft, until
the irruption of the barbarous nations of the North, in
the fifth and fixth centuries : the Goths, they fay, firft
introduced their mode of writing into Italy, inftead of
the Roman manner ; the Vifigoths did the like in Spain ;
the Franks in Gaul ; the Saxons in England ; and the
Lombards in Italy.

According to others, the Romans were in poflTeffion of
various forms of writing ; but it is fuppofed, that the
barbarous nations introduced fome of their own letters
in the writings compofed of capitals and fmall letters ;
that the running-hand, peculiar to each nation, was ufed
in grants and contrafts, and found admittance hkewife in
manufcripts after the middle of the feventh century.

Mr. A&le, howcTer, is of opinion, that the different

modes of writing in Italy, Spain, France, England, and
Germany, were derived from the Roman alone.

While Rome continued the centre of all the provinces of
the empire, her manner of writing generally prerailed
in each ; but the empire being difmembered, and all the
weftern provinces difunited, a change was produced ;
the conquerors disfigured the Roman writing, and by
their falfe tafte and ignorance, diftinguiftied their writing
from that of their neighbours : the genius and difpofition
of the different people having no fmall fliare in producing
this diverfity.

This notion greatly aflifts in difcovering the age of ma-
nufcripts ; for if a writing is Merovingian, it cannot be
fubfequent to the ninth, nor prior to the fifth century ; if
another is Lonibardic, it muft be pofterior to the middle of
the fixth, and anterior to the thirteenth ; if Saxon, it can-
not be earlier than the feventh, nor later than about the
middle of the twelfth.

With regard to the forms of letters, many authors are
of opinion that they are derived from the pofitions of the
organs of fpeech in their pronunciation. Accordingly, M.
Van Helmont hath taken great pains to prove, thati the
Chaldaic charafters are the genuine alphabet of nature,
becaufe, he fays, no letter can be rightly founded, without
difpofing the organs of fpeech into an uniform pofition with
the figure of each letter.

Mr. Nelme publifhed a work, in which he endeavours to
ftievv that all elementary charafters or letters derive theii-
form from the line and the circle. Mr. Gebelin deduces
them from hieroglyphic reprefentations, and he hath given
feveral delineations of human figures, trees, &c. in con-
firmation of his hypothefis. Mr. Aftle obferves, that as
letters are only marks for founds, their forms entirely de-
pended upon the tafte, fancy, will, or caprice, of thofe
who firft formed them. In this point of \'iew, they may be
confidered as arbitrary marks, or fecret cyphers, which, by
being made known and adopted, would become of general
ufe, wherever they were received by agreement. For the
number and forms of the letters of various alphabets, illuf-
trated by figures, we muft refer to Mr. Aftle's account,
uii Infra.

After the moft diligent inquirj', it doth not appear, fays
Mr. Aftle, that the Britons had the ufe of letters before
their intercourfe with the Romans : and though, from the
coming of Juhus Csefar till the time when the Romans left
the ifland in the year 427, the Roman letters were familiar
to the eyes of the inhabitants, he is of opinion, that writ-
ing was very little praftifed by the Britons till after the
coming of St. Auguftine, about the year 596.

The writing which prevailed in England from this time
to the middle of the eleventh century, is generally termed
Saxon, and may be divided into five kinds ; -viz. the Roman
Saxon, which is very iimilar to the Roman, and prevailed in
England from the coming of St. Auguftine till the eighth
century ; the fet Saxon, which took place toward the
middle of the eighth century, continued till about the
middle of the ninth, and was not entirely difufed till the
beginning of the tenth century ; the running-hand Saxon,
which came into ufe towards the latter end of the ninth
century, when learning was diff^ufed in England under the
aufpices of king Alfred, in whofe reign many books were
written in this ifland, in a more expeditious manner than
formerly ; the mixed Saxon, occurring in the ninth, tenth,
and in the beginning of the eleventh centuries, in many
MSS., which were written in England in charafters partly
Roman, partly Lombardic, and partly Saxon ; and the

elegant

WRITING.

elegant Saxon, which took place in England early in the
tenth century, lafted till the Norman Conqueft, but was not
entirely difufed till the middle of the twelfth, and is more
beautiful than the writing in France, Italy, and Germany,
during the fame period.

The writing introduced into England by William I. is
ufually called Norman, and is compofed of letters nearly
Lombardic, which were generally ufed in grants, charters,
public inftruments, and law proceedings, with very little
variation, from the Norman Conqueft till the reign of king
Edward III.

About the reign of king Richard II. variations took place
in writing records and law proceedings ; the charters from
the reign of king Richard II. to that of king Henry VIII.
were compofed partly of charafters called fet chancery and
common chancery, and fome of the letters called court-
hand ; which three different fpccies of writing are derived
partly from the Norman and partly from the modern
Gothic. The modern Gothic began to take place in Eng-
land in the twelfth century ; the old Englilh about the
middle of the fourteenth century ; and fet chancery and
common chancery in the decline of the fame century, and
are ftill ufed in the enrolments of letters patent, charters,
&c. and in exemplifications of recoveries : the court -hand
was contrived by the Englifh lawyers, and took its rife
about the middle of the fixteenth century, and continued
till the beginning of the late reign, when it was abohfhed
by law. The court-hand charafttra were nothing more than
the Norman charaiflers very much corrupted and deformed.

In the fixteenth century, the Enghlh lawyers engrofled
their conveyances and legal inftruments in charafters called
fecretary, which are ftill in ufe.

The French call their writing by the names of the dif-
ferent races of their kings, in whofe time they were written :
thefe were, the Merovingian, the Carlovingian, the Capetian,
the Valefian, and the Bourbonian.

The writing calk'd Merovingian began in France foon
after the time of Merovasus, fon of Pharamond ; who was
made king A.D. 460 : this race ends with Childeric, who
died in 752. The Caroline race properly began with Pepin,
who was made king of France upon the death of Childeric.
This prince was fucceeded by Charlemagne, A.D. 814,
whofe line in France ended with Lewis V. A.D. 987. The
Capetian race began with Hugh Capet, who fucceeded
Lewis v., and ended with Charles IV. A.D. 1327. The
Valefian race began with Philip IV. the fucceiTor of
Charles IV., and ended with Henry III. the laft of this
Kne, who was flain in 1589. The Bourbonian line began
with Henry IV. A.D. 1589, whofe defcendants now fill
the throne of France.

The MSS. written in the northern parts of Scotland and
in Ireland are in charafters fimilar to the Saxon. The
learned and ingenious colonel Vallancey thinks, indeed, that
the Iberians, who migrated from the borders of the Euxine
and Cafpian feas, and fettled in Spain, learned letters and
arts from the Phoenicians : that a colony of the ancient
Spaniards, by the name of Scots or Scythians, fettled in
Ireland about a thoufand, or perhaps fix hundred years
before Chrift, and that they brought elementary charafters
with them into Ireland. He obferves, that the Irifli alpha-
bet differs from that of all other nations, in name, order,
number, and power, and fuppofes, that they might have
received their alphabet from the Carthaginians, who alfo
fettled a colony in Ireland about fix hundred years before
Clirift ; and adds, that this opinion is the more to be cre-
dited, as the Irifti language appears to have a radical identity
with the Punic.

Vol. XXXVIIL

In order to difcover what real pretenfions the Irifti have
to the early ufe of letters, for which they eagerly contend,
Mr. Aftle has examined their ftone monuments, their coins,
and their MSS., and appealed to the hiftorians of that
country. The letters upon the moft ancient of their mo-
numents are apparently of Roman and Roman-Britifh ori-
ginal ; and none qf thefe infcribed monuments are fo ancient
as to prove that the Irifti were poflefled of letters before the
Romans had intercourfe with the Britons ; though they
prove that they had letters before the arrival of St. Patrick
in that kingdom, which, Mr. Whitaker, with great pro-
bability of truth, fays, were wafted over from the Cale-
donians, who ufed the Roman letters. Sir James Ware
fays, that the Irifh alphabet was borrowed from the Britift),
and that the Saxon charafters were nearly the fame as the
Irifh ; and adds, that Mr. Camden inclined to this opinion.

Moreover, there are no Irifh coins, infcribed with letters,
till long after the twelfth century : except coins ftruck by
fome of our Saxon kings, who made incurfions into that
country, and ftruck money there in the Saxon manner.

The oldeft Irifti MS. which has been difcovered is the
Pfalter of Cafhel, written in the latter end of the tenth
century.

The teftimony of approved hiftorians is likewife unfa-
vourable to the ancient literature of Ireland. Mr. Innes,
in his EfTay on the Antiquities of Scotland and Ireland,
and Mr. James Macpherfon, in the third edition of his In-
troduftion to the Hiftory of Great Britain and Ireland,
maintain, that Ireland was firft peopled from Britain ; and
that the manners of the old Irifh were inconCftent with the
knowledge of letters.

It feems probable, that the interior parts of Europe were
immediately peopled from the northern parts of Afia, and
the maritimejjparts from Phoenicia, and the fouthern and
weftern parts of that quarter of the globe. If this be the
cafe, it is not furprifing that fome Eaftern cuftoms prevailed
in Great Britain and Ireland, and that many Celtic words
are ftill preferved both in the Irifh and in the Welfh
languages.

The Norman charafters, it is obferved, were generally
ufed in England from the coming of William I., and the
Saxon charafters were entirely difufed in the very beginning
of the twelfth century ; but the Irifh and Scots preferved
the ancient forms of their characters till the end of the fix-
teenth century.

The Gaelic or Erfe language, ufed in the Highlands of
Scotland, and the Iberno-Gaelic, are nearly the fame, and
their letters are fimilar to each other, as Mr. Aftle has
fhevvn by various fpecimens. The curious will find much
information on the fubjeft of this article in Aftle's Origin
and Progrefs of Writing, 4to. 1784.

J. Ravenau has a treatife, intitled " Des Infcriptions en
Faux," in which he fhews how to revive and reftore old
writings almoft effaced, by means of galls ground in white
wine and diftilled, and thus rubbed over the writings.

To write without blacking the fingers : prepare the paper
with a fine powder, made of three parts of calcined cop-
peras, two of galls, and one of gum arabic ; thofe being
frefti mixed, rub them with a hare's foot into the pores of
the paper, and then write vWth fair water, and the black
letters will immediately appear.

To make new writing appear old, moiften it with oil of
tartar per deltquium, more or lefs diluted with water, as you
defire the ink to appear more or lefs decayed.

We may write without ink or its materials ; for this pur-

pofe, take a fine powder of calcined hartfhorn, of clean

tobacco-pipes, or rather of mutton-bones hurut to a perfeA

5 G white-

W R 1

W R O

whitenefs, and rub it upon the paper, and then write with
a filver bodkin, or the like. Boyle's Works abr. vol. i.
p. 114, 1 15. See Ink.

The difcharging of ink out of parchment, paper, &c. is
commonly done by aqua fortis diluted fufficiently with
water, that it may not deftroy the paper. The like may be
done with oil, or fpirit of vitriol diluted. The juice of
lemons, or ftrong vinegar, will take ink out of linen more
fafely, as the mmeral acids are apt to deftroy the linen,
unleis great care be ufed in diluting them.

We may write on iron with corrofive fublimate wetted
with common water : for this purpofe, the parts of metal
we would preferve untouched ftiould be covered with wax,
and that taken off in the proper places to make way for the
corroding fubftance. Boyle, ib. p. 528.

The like may be praftifed by means of aqua fortis.

Mr. Boyle mentions a method he had of copying a whole
page of writing at once. But we do not find his defcrip-
tion of it any where. Ib. p. 136.

A machine has been lately invented and conftruded by
Meffrs. Watt and Co. of Birmingham ; by means of wliich
letters and other writings may be copied. For an account
of the ilrufture and ufe of this machine, we muft refer to
the direftions for copying with it, furnifhed by the inven-
tors ; obferving, however, that the date, at which a writing
will yield a copy, is extremely uncertain, from the weather,
as it is more or lefs drying, and from the ftate of the ink.
In general the purpofe will be anfwered to the end of
twenty-four hours, and fometimes of three or four days ;
but it is moft advifeable to copy letters as foon after they are
written as may prove convenient. See Copying.

Mr. Boyle informs us of a method of imitating writing
on copper-plates. The copy to be engraved is to be wrote
with a peculiar kind of ink, and the coppff-plate being
moderately warmed is rubbed over with a white varnifli,
and fufFered to cool ; then the paper being gently moiftened,
that it may readily communicate its ink, the writing is ap-
plied to the prepared furface of the plate, and paffed through
a roUing-prefs ; by which means, the ink adhering to the
varnifh leaves the letters very confpicuous. And hence it
is eafy with a needle to trace the ftrokes through the varnifh
upon the plate, which being afterwards cleaned, the letters
are finifhed with the graver, and the work printed off in a
roUing-prefs, as common cuts.

Mr. Boyle does not mention what the varnifh or ink,
ufed by the artificer from whom he received this method,
was ; but he tells us, that he himfelf ufed the purer fort of
virgin wax for a varnifh ; and for his ink he took fine
Frankfort black, carefully ground with water, till it ob-
tained the confiflence of common ink ; but no gum was
added, left it fhould hinder the ink from coming off. He
alfo obferves, that written charafters may be taken off with-
out the help of a prefs, by laying the moiftened paper
fraooth upon the varnifhed copper, and rubbing it on hard
with a convex piece of glafs. See Sympathetic Ink.

In law, we fay, deeds, conveyances, &c. are to be in
writing. A will may either be in writing, or by word of
mouth.

We alfo fay, lurltten laiv, lex /cripla, in oppofition to
common law, which is called lex non/cripta. We have alfo
•written and unwritten traditions, &c.

Authentic writings of any contraft, fealed and delivered,
make the evidences thereof.

La Vayer has a curious differtation on the proof of fafts
by comparifon of hand-writings, in which he endeavours
to fhew this method of proof to be very fufpicious and
fallacious. 10

Writing, Gothic. See Gothic.

Writing, Secret. See Cryptography, Stbganogra-

PHY, SCYTALA, CiPHER, DECIPHERING, &C.

Writing, Short. See Brachygraphy, Stenogra-
phy, and Tachygraphy.

Writings, Stealing of. See Larceny.

WRITTEN Evidence. See Evidence.

Written Tradition. See Tradition.

WRITZEN, in Geography, a town of the Middle Mark
of Brandenburg, on a branch of the Oder ; 1 8 miles N. W.
of Cuftrin.

WRONG, in a Logical Senft. See Error, False-
hood, and Truth.

Wrong, in a Legal Senfe, injury, tort. See Injury,
and Tort.

Wrongs are divifible into two forts, vi%. private and
public. The former are an infringement or privation of the
private or civil rights belonging to individuals, confidered
as fuch ; and are frequently termed civil injuries. The latter
are a breach and violation of pubhc rights and dtities, which
affeft the whole community, confidered as fuch ; and are
diftinguifhed by the harfher appellation of crimes and mif-
demeanours.

Wrong, Executor of his own. See Executor de fort
Tort.

■ 'WRO'SG-Lands, in our Old Writers, feem to denote trees
that will never prove timber ; fuch as wrong the ground
they grow 'in.

Wrongs, in Agriculture, a term applied to the crooked
arms or large boughs of trees, when the fagot-wood is
cut off from them.

WROTHAM, in Geography, a market-town in the
upper half hundred of the fame name, in the lathe of
Aylesford, and county of Kent, England, is fituated near
the bafe of fame chalk-hills, at the diflance of 10 miles
W.N.W. from Maidftone, and 24 miles S.E. by E. from
London. The manor was granted by king Ethelflan, in
the year 964, to the priory of Chrift-church, Canterbury.
On the divifion of the pofTeffions of the monks by Lanfranc,
it was allotted to the archbifhops of Canterbury, who had a
palace and frequently refided here, till the time of archbifhop
Iflip, who pulled down the buildings for the fake of the
materials, which he applied to the completion of the palace
at Maidftone, which his predecelTor, John Ufford, had
begun. Archbifhop Cranmer refigned the manor to
Henry VIII., and it was granted by Edward VI. to fir
John Mafon, who difpofed of it to the Byngs, anceftors of
the lords Torrington, of whom it was purchafed by William
James, efq. of Ightham, whofe defcendants ftill pofTefs it.
Wrotham church, the only public edifice in the town, is
a fpacious well-built ftrufture, and confifts of a nave, aifles,
chancel, and tranfept, with an embattled tower at the weft
end ; the chancel is light and elegant. The fepulchral me-
morials are numerous ; among which are feveral curious
brafTes, recording the family of Peckham, who were reiident
in this parifh during feveral centuries. The Rayner family,
who refided at Wrotham-Place the whole of the 17th cen-
tury, have alfo monuments here. The reftory is efteemed
one of the beft livings in Kent. Of the ancient archiepif-
copal palace little now remains but a gateway, and a fub-
Ifantial ftone building which formed part of the offices.
The population return of the year 181 1 ilates the town to
contain 107 houfes, and 613 inhabitants. Here is an annual
fair, and a weekly market on Tuefday. The parifh is very
extenfive, comprehending the villages of Hale, Nepicar,
Plaxted, Winfield, and Roughway. In a park within the
limits of the parifh is a capital roanfion, once the feat of fir

Harry

WRY

WRY

Harry Vane, who on the reftoration of Charles II. fufFered
death for the part he took againft Charles I. This eftate,
on the death of lord vifcount Vane in 1789, became the
property of David Papillion, efq. : it is now occupied by
the earl of Delawar — Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. viii. Kent, by E. W. Brayley, 1807.

WROTZKO, a town of Pruflia, in the palatinate of
Culm i 1 2 miles S.W. of Strafourg.

WROUGHT, in Ship-Building, a term applied to any
piece of timber, &c. when it is trimmed and fitted for its
fituation.

WROXETER, in Geography, a village of England, in
tlie county of Salop, at the union of the Torn and the Se-
vern, by Antoninus called " Uricoiiium," by Ptolemy
" Viriconium," by the Welfh and Britons " Caer Vruach,"
and by the Saxons " Wrekenceafter." It was the chief
city of the Cornavii, and founded by the Romans, when
they fortified the bank of the Severn where fordable. It
was enconipaffed by a rampart and ditch ; the walls were
three yards thick, and were three miles in circumference.
After fuffering much in the Saxon wars, it was quite ruined
by the Danifh, and is now but a fmall place. Many Roman
coins and other antiquities have been found here ; j miles
S.E. of Shrewsbury, and 155 N.W. of London.

WRUNG-Heads, a former name given to the bilge of
a (hip, &c. or that part near the floor-heads, which, when
afliip lies aground, bears the greateft ftrain.

WRY-NECK, (Caput o^ipum, cervix ohjlipa, torti-
collis, ) denotes that deformity of the human body, in which
the neck is bent laterally, generally inclining at the fame
time fomewhat forwards, fo that the head is alfo drawn to
one fide and forwards, being indeed frequently quite ap-
proximated to the Ihoulder. For the moil part, the neck
is in this cafe altogether irregularly formed : on the fide
towards which the head inclines, it feems exceedingly
plump, the ftrong fhortened mufcles being bulky, and af-
fected with confiderable fpafm ; while, on the other hand,
the oppofite fide, where the neck is convex, exhibits no
fuch ftrong rigid mufcles, or at all events fo little of this
appearance, that, notwithftanding its convex form, it feems
obvioufly lefs fleftiy. When the difeafe has continued a
long while, and attained a ferious degree, its effefts extend
alfo to the head itfelf. On that fide where the irregular
aftion of the mufcles is ftrongeft, and where confequently
the head is moft drawn downwards, the half of the face is
ufually more or lefs contrafted, and weaker than the op-
pofite half, the zygomaticus major, the buccinator, the
maffeter, and other mufcles, being confiderably lefs pro-
minent. This disfigurement of the countenance has a very
unpleafant appearance, and plainly indicates the diftorted
pofition into which the head is drawn. The patients are
alfo incapable of turning their heads properly, or of direft-
ing their faces upwards ; and if thefe funftions can be exe-
cuted in a very imperfeft way, it is not without a good deal
of effort, which in general the patients prefer avoiding.
Hence they moftly choofe to remain in their diftorted pof-
ture, and inftead of trying to turn their heads with the
mufcles of the neck alone, they prefer accomplifhing this
objeft rather by turning the whole body. Hence an op-
portunity is given for the evil to increafe in a very rapid
and afflifting degree. According to the obfervations of
Richter and Bemftein, the face is commonly turned to-
wards the oppofite fide, and only now and then towards
that to which the head inclines. (Anfangfgr. der Wun-
darzneykunft 4ter. Band, 2te. Auflage, I. 256. Prafti-
fchen Handbuche fur Wundarzte, &c. Neue Auflage,
3ter. Theil, f. 215.) Profeffor Jbrg of Leipfic does not

exaftly coincide with thefe furgeons on this particular
point ; but we think that the difference is merely in terms,
and not in the thing itfelf, Richter meaning that the face
is turned towards the found fide, not that it is drawn
away, and made more diftant from the fhoulder to which
the whole neck and head incline. Profeffor Jorg takes a
review of the aftion and infertions of the fterno-cleido-
maftoideus mufcle, which proceeds down the neck from
the maftoid procefs, and fplits into two portions ; one of
which is inferted into the external and anterior part of
the clavicle, the other into the upper and outer furface of
the fternum. The clavicular portion of this mufcle muft
neceffarily tend to draw the head towards the clavicle, which
is the fixed point, while the fternal portion will pull it to-
wards the breaft ; but both afting together, will draw it in
a diagonal line. At the fame time that they have the effeft
of inclining the head forwards and to one fide, they impart
to the neck the fame direftion, and even flightly turn it, fo
that the nofe is no longer fituated in a ftraight line diredly
over the fternum, but is placed to one fide of fuch a line.
When, for example, fays profeffor Jorg, the right fterno-
cleido-maftoideus is too fliort, and is therefore the caufe of
the wry-neck, it will pull the head towards the right fide,
and alfo forwards, in fuch a manner that the nofe is moved
to the left of a line drawn upwards from the fternum, and
the neck itfelf is at the fame time flightly turned. But
when this is the cafe, the whole face muft obvioufly be
fomewhat turned towards the left fide, and drawn a little
way downwards and forwards. When, however, the whole
head is drawn forwards, laterally, ( in this cafe to the right, )
and at the fame time downwards, confequently the face for-
wards, laterally, (in this cafe to the left,) and downwards,
it cannot be faid that the face is moved in a different direc-
tion from that of the reft of the head. Although the face
is turned in a different direftion, ftill it is not inclined to-
wards the oppofite fide ; for, fays profeffor Jorg, if this
were fo, the neck muft be much more turned than aftually
happens. Hence, he thinks, that a cafe has really never
exifted, where the face and head have been inclined in dif-
ferent direftions.

With refpeft to the caufes of this infirmity, they are,
according to feveral writers, very numerous, and it is not
to be denied that they may be of different kinds. Yet,
fays Jorg, " I have never feen the complaint originate in the
bones : the mufcles were always the parts firft concerned.
According to my obfervations, the fterno-cleido-maftoideu9
muft be looked upon as being the chief original caufe of
this deformity, which I have never feen unattended with
the particular and manifeft influence of that mufcle. When
alfo feveral other mufcles gradually participate in the dif-
order, the fterno-cleido-maftoideus is ufually the firft af-
fefted. While it is more difpofed to an irregular aftion
than any other mufcle of the neck, its greater ftrengtb
makes it in fome meafure govern the reft." As children,
both in the ereft and horizontal poftures, frequently keep
their necks unevenly, and more to one fide than the other,
profeffor Jijrg conceives that this will account for one
fterno-cleido-maftoideus readily becoming ftiorter than iti
fellow ; the equilibrium ceafes, and a wry -neck is immedi-
ately produced. Young children often contraft a habit ^
lying in bed conftantly upon the fame fide, whereby the
mufcles of the neck become gradually habituated to an irre-
gular kind of tenfion, which by degrees breaks the antago-
nizing power between the oppofite fets of mufcles. The
fame thing happens, when children are conftantly carried
with their head upon one and the fame fide of their nurfe.
But this irregularity in the mufcles in queftion is alfo fre-
ij G 2 quently

WRY-NECK.

quently congenita), and then we need not fpecify any occa-
fional caufes. The evil, though it exifts at the time of birth
only in a trivial degree, afterwards quickly increafes, and
foon becomes ferioua. The regular equilibrium between
the fterno-cleido-maftoidei may likewife be deftroyed, when
one of them is wounded, or completely cut through ;
when it remains pretematurally weak, in confequence of
having been the feat of abfceffes, and previous ulceration ;
or when, from any caufe whatfoever, its aftion is rendered
either too feeble or too powerful.

In one patient cured by profefTor Jbrg, it is alleged that
the inner portion of the left ftemo-cleido-maftoideus was in-
ferted into the middle and right fide of the fternum, in the
fame place as the inner portion of the mufcle of this name
on the right ; and the above author conceived, that this
preternatural attachment was probably the caufe of the
inclination of the head to the right fide.

Profeffor Jorg does not give much credit to the opinion,
that the wry-neck is frequently brought on by a contraftion
of the flcin of the neck and of the platyfma myoides ; the
firft of thefe parts being very yielding, and the fecond very
thin and elaftic. But, he thinks, that when thefe parts, or
any other mufcles of the neck, are (hortened and fpafmodi-
cally contrafted, it is generally as a confequence of the
affeftion of the fterno-cleido-maftoideus, which is the part
originally difordered.

The fame writer will not deny alfo, that the malformation
of the bones may be the firft caufe of this infirmity. If,
fays he, the dorfal and lumbar vertebra are liable to curva-
ture, why fhould the cervical ones not be fo, and thereby
deftroy the equilibrium between the mufcles of the neck ?
Yet, he thinks, the caufe of the diforder muft lie much
more rarely in the bones than the mufcles, fince he has never
feen one iiftance of it. He admits alfo, that there can be
no doubt that the bones fooner or later fliare in the effefts
of the difeafe ; that they become bent to one fide, and even
cemented together by anchylofis.

As in every other diforder, the praftitioner muft en-
deavour to find out the original caufe of the complaint ;
and, therefore, the queftion arifes, how can it be known
whether the mufcles and the integuments, or the bones, are
the firft caufe of the deforniiby ? The caufe may be afcribed
to the mufcles, when there is obvioudy fomething wrong
about them ; when they are hard and contrafted on one fide,
and foft and little prominent on the other ; and when thofe
which are {hrunk and ftiortened become ftiU harder and more
painful, on putting the head in a Itraight pofition, to the
doing of which they alfo make more or lefs refiftance. We
may be more certain of the thing, when no difeafe of the
bones in any part of the body, and no caufes of fuch com-
plaint, can be detefted ; for when the bones are about to
foften, or are already foftened, the latter affeftion muft be
preceded by certain occafional caufes, and accompanied
with the ufual fymptoms. The difcovery of thefe, accord-
ing to profeffor Jbrg, is not difficult to the praftitioner, at
leaft not impofflble. The diforder, on the other hand, may
be referred to the bones, when no particular defeft about
the mufcles is apparent, when they are no where remarkably
hard and contrafted, and when the cafe is attended with
fymptoms and veftiges of a partial or general foftening of
the bones. When this is the cafe, the mufcles are ufually
much left altered than when they conftitute the original
caufe of the deformity ; and the head can be more eafily
raifed, turned, and moved about.

Another queftion is, what degree has the diforder al-
ready attained, and have the bones materially participated
in the aftedion or not ? Perhaps the cervical vertebrx are

II

anchylofed ? Although it may at firft feem eafy to anfwer
thefe queftions, yet it is not always fo eafy. The prognofis
and treatment, however, are to be regulated by the deci-
fion ; and we can never fpeak fatisfaftorily of the cafe,
unlefs we have inquired into the whole of its progrefs.

When the bones are affefted, that is to fay, when in con-
fequence of the wrong pofture of the neck a change has
taken place in their form ; when they, as is moft ufual, on
the fide towards which the head is inclined, are lower thai
on the other ; or when their procefles are diminifhed or
abforbed ; the praAitioner can frequently feel and fee that
the defeft lies in the texture of the bones. The depreffions
thus produced may fometimes be plainly feen, or, at all
events, can be felt with the finger. When the head and
neck are put into the right pofition, thefe depreffions be-
come ftin more obvious, as well as the alteration of the
fpinous proceffes. In order to derive from fuch examina-
tion any precife knowledge, we muft indeed be well ac-
quainted with the anatomy of the neck. Profeffor Jorg
then gives us fome directions how to move the head and
neck, and how to place our fingers in trying to afcertain
whether the cervical vertebrae are anchylofed. We pafs
thefe over, becaufe we place very little confidence in their
accuracy or utility.

The profeffor next notices the influence which the de-
formity has over the whole organization of the body.
An imperfeftion in the formation of the head is the firft
and principal effeft derived from the infirmity. In cafes of
wry-neck, he has never feen the face and head altogether
well conftrufted. The half of the face which was neareft
to the contrafted fterno-cleido-maftoideus was always
{mailer, and lefs prominent, than the other. Frequently
the lower jaw, the zygoma, and the eye, were more funk
on this fide than the other, and hence the countenance pre-
fented a very diftorted emaciated appearance. The fore-
going author has alfo conftantly found the raifing of the head,
and other motions of this part, materially prevented. The
patients always ftoop to one fide in a moft awkward kind
of pofture. None of them can turn their heads well.
Whenever they want to look laterally, they are obhged to
turn their whole bodies. Hence many of them become
difqualified for certain occupations, and even if they are
capable of work, they labour with more difficulty than other
perfons. The preternatural dragging downward of the
head, and the curvature of the cervical vertebrae, one would
think (fays profeffor Jorg) would have a bad effeft on the
funftions of the brain and fpinal marrow. He has, how-
ever, never feen this happen ; but on the contrary, in the
worft forms of the complaint, he has not found tlie brain at all
affeded. Still he does not venture to conclude that things
are always fo. Our limits oblige us to pafs over fome other
remarks on the preceding topic, in order to begin the
confideration of the method of treatment.

We find then that the wry-neck moftly arifes from an
affeftion of the mufcles, and efpecially from irregular action
in the fterno-cleido-maftoidei, the equilibrium between which
is deftroyed : hence the treatment is generally direfted
againft the mufcles, particularly thofe above-mentioned.
It is feldom that it is neceffary to do any thing for the
bones. For this reafon, the prognofis is generally favour-
able, and this the more fo the younger the patient is, and
the more yielding the contrafted fterno-cleido-maftoideus
happens to be found. Indeed, when the patient is farther
advanced in life, and not more than twenty-five or thirty
years of age, we fiiould not totally defpair of being able to
render nffiftance, if no anchylofis exift, and not too much
deformity of the cervical vertebrae. What kind of a prog-
nofis

WRY-NECK.

nolis can be made, when the bones are originally concerned
ill the produftion of a wry-neck, muft depend upon the
nature and degree of the morbid afFeftion of thofe parts.

In the treatment of a wry-neck, we muft endeavour to
foften and relax the contrafted mufcles, and ftrengthen
thofe which are ftretched and tenfe. Tne firft indication,
Jorg thinks, may be fulfilled by the ufe of oily emollient
liniments two or three times a day ; the fecond by the em-
ployment of fpirituous ftimulating embrocations. When
common applications of the lart kind are unavailing, we are
advifed to ufe fpirit of ammonia, tindlure of cantharides,
&c. It is alfo neceffary to perfevere for a long time in
thefe remedies, even though the fl<in may become red and
tender. Jorg is an advocate likewife for applying com-
prelfes to the parts dipped in fuch ftimulating fluids, and
kept conftantly wet with them. Thus he calculates on
maintaining the effefts of their operation without interrup-
tion.

If the complaint be confijerable in degree, and the head
and neck much diftorted, we are advifed to combine with
the foregoing means what are termed manipulations, which
confift in manual endeavours to obtain an elongation of the
contrafted mufcles, efpecially the fterno-cleido-maftoideus.
In thefe manoeuvres, we are direfted to rnb with one hand
the mufcle upwards, and at the fame time to try to move
the head in the fame direftion. With the other hand we
are to bring the head into it3 natural pofition, and keep it
there, fo that the contrafted mufcles may be extended as
much as polfible. The greater their fpafmodic contraftion
is, the more muft we rub them in the direftion above
fpecified, even as long as a quarter or half an hour at a
time ; and the plan muft be repeated once, twice, or thrice
a day, until the head will remain quite ftraight, or until
that fide of the neck, which was previoufly convex, has
become concave, and vict verfa. Befides thefe manipula-
tions, the head and face fhould be moved together into a
perfectly upright pofture, laterally, and efpecially towards
the fide to which they could not be turned, owing to
the contrafted ftate of the mufcles. By thefe means, the
patient will foon acquire the faculty of moving the neck to
one fide, which muft always be a defideratum in the treat-
ment.

Profeflbr Jorg fays, he has not deemed it necefiary to
mention eleftricity and galvanifm as remedies, which may
be joined with thofe above recommended. Whoever likes
to try them, however, (liould only apply them to thofe
niufcles which are in a ftate of tenfion ; for every ftimulus
muft be improper for fuch as are contrafted.

This author does not fay much in favour of the warm
bath as a remedy for wry-necks, in which cafes he owns
he has never made trial of it. All his patients have been
children from one to nine years of age ; and he thinks it
would have been difficult, and even dangerous in fome cir-
cumftances, to have immerfed them fufficiently in the warm
water to cover their necks. Thefe are the only reafons
which he gives for not having tried fo important a remedy
for the wry-neck as the warm bath.

One of the principal means for the cure of a wry-neck
confifts in a mechanical apparatus, by which the head is
brought into a ftraight pofition, the contrafted mufcles are
elongated, and others, which are on the ftretch, kept in a
ftate of reft and relaxation. It may be faid, indeed, that
the patient ftiould be able to put his head and neck in this
pofture himfelf, and that no mechanical apparatus is re-
quifite. But fuch pofture can only be adopted by making
a great effort, and even then imperfeftly. Hence the belt
inclined patients foon give up the attempt, and the head

becomes depreffed agaiu. For children who cannot be per.
fuaded to obferve regularly the defirable pofition, the
apparatus is more eflential than for many adults. Several
other writers had entertained this opinion previoufly to pro-
fefl^or J5rg. Kohlers, Bernftein, and other authors, re-
commend a variety of mechanical contrivances for the cure
of the wry-neck. None of thefe, however, have anfwered
the expeftations of profefTor Jorg, who has felt himfelf
called upon to make an invention of his own. In the con-
ftruftion of his machine, he went upon the following prin-
ciples : I. That its operation fhould be effefted by
means of a fpring. 2. That the aftion of the ftretched
enfeebled fterno-cleido-maftoideus fhould be ftrengthened,
and the equilibrium between it and its fellow thereby
re-eftabhfhed.

The apparatus confifts of a leather pair of ftays, and of
a band or fillet which goes round the head. On the centre
of the fore-part of the ftays is a kind of pulley, or wheel,
which admits of being turned to the right or left, and then be-
comes fixed by meansof a fpring. From this apparatus a band
proceeds up the patient's neck to the fillet, placed round the
head, and to which it is faftened direftly behind the ear, clofe
to the maftoid procefs. This band lies in the fame direftion
as the lengthened fterno-cleido-maftoideus mufcle, and when
drawu towards the breaft by the wheel, it produces
the fame effeft as would arife from an incraafe of ftrength
in the aftion of that mufcle. _ In fliort, it pulls the maftoid
procefs downwards and forwards towards the ftemum,
counterafts the influence of the oppofite mufcle of the
fame name, and thus reftifies the pofition of the head.

But this band, fays profefTor Jorg, does not merely draw
down the fide of the head which is too elevated, it alfo
tends to put the neck in a ftraight pofition. It was above
explained, that a wry-neck is always more or lefs twifted,
in confequence of the contraftion of one of the fterno-
cleido-maftoidei, and thus the mouth does not lie in a direft
line perpendicularly above the centre of the fternum, but
to one fide of this point. The aftion of the preceding
band, by drawing forwards as well as downwards towards
the middle of the breaft, the maftoid procefs evidently
tends to counteraft the effeft produced by the wrong
aftion of the faulty mufcle of the oppofite fide.

ProfefTor Jorg makes his patients wear the apparatus
day and night, and he does not even take it off when the
friftions are made. The band is to be tightened and
regulated according to the effefts produced. Particular
care, however, muft be taken not to make it too tight at
firft.

When by perfeverance in the ufe of this apparatus, and
the other means above recommended, the neck has been put
into a pjoper pofition again, it ufually happens that the
head itfelf continues inclined too much forward ; an effeft
which the contrafted fterno-cleido-maftoideus, and its anta-
gonift the band, both tend to promote. Something, there-
fore, muft be done for the alleviation of this defurmity.
With this view, Jorg removes the above band from the
breaft, carries it under the arm, and through a ring at the
fide of the leather ftays or corfets, and thence to the fillet
round the head, where it is faftened in the lani' place as
before. In this manner, the head will be confiderably
elevated, while ftill the objeft of counterafting the fhortened
fterno-cleido-maftoideus of the oppofite fide is not negkfted.
The ring hinders the band from hurting the axilla, and
keeps it from following the motions of the fhoulder. The
preceding author lets his patients, towards the latter part of
the treatment, wear the apparatus in this way a long while ;
yet fometimcs he applies it in both modea alternately, with

a defiga

WRY

a defign of habituating the mufcles of the head and neck
to different poftures.

Together with this treatment, profeflbr Jorg enjonis at-
tention to every thing which tends to improve the health,
efpecially a proper nourifhing diet, pure air, &c. One
thino- he infiRs upon as eflential, viz. that during work or
repol'e, fleeping or awake, the patient ccnftantly keep the
head and neck in the right pofition. Hence children rauft
be moft vigilantly obferved, as they foon forgtt what is
told them ; and the pofture in which they lie when adeep
muft be attended to, as it is frequently a bad one. Jorg
recommends laying their heads on firm round bolfters filled
with horfe-hair, and placing them on the fide on which
the mufcles are contrafted. The bed (hould be flat, and
not fink, in order that the flioulder may not be deprefled.
In this pofition, the head will be preifed and incUned towards
the oppofite fide. The patients muft alfo be forbidden to
do any kind of labour which will oblige them to hold their
heads in a hurtful pofition ; but Jorg rather commends
dancing and the military exercife, as accuftoniing the
patient to hold his head as he ought to do.

When the bones are concerned, the above apparatus and
treatment will not be effeftual ; and particular machinery
adapted to the cafe muft be employed.

W U L

which are, that the bill is flender, round, and pointed ; the
noftrils are concave and naked ; the tongue is very long,
very flender, cylindric, and terminated by a hard point ;
and the feet are formed for climbing.

There is only one fpecies, vi%. the jynx torqulUa. The
colours of this bird are elegantly pencilled, though its plu-
mage is marked with the plaiiieft kinds : a lift of black and
ferruginous ftrokes divides the top of the head and back ;
the fides of the head and neck are afli-coloured, beauti-
fully traverfed with fine line^ of black and reddifli-brown ;
the quill -feathers are duflcy, but each web is marked with
ruft-coloured fpots ; the chin and breaft are of a light yel-
lowifh-brown, adorned with (harp-pointed bars of black ;
the tail confifts of ten feathers, broad at their ends and
weak, of a pale afh-colour, powdered with black and red,
and marked with four equidiftant bars of black : the irides
are of a yellowilh colour.

The wry-neck, Mr. Pennant apprehends, is a bird of
paflage, appearing with us in the fpring before the cuckow.
Its note is like that of the keftril, a quick-repeated fqueak :
its eggs are white, with a very thin fliell ; this bird builds
in the hollows of trees, making its neft of dry grafs. It
has a very whimfical way of turning and twifting its
neck about, and bringing its head over its (boulders, whence

Frequently the curative means are prematurely difcon- it had its name torguilla, and its Englifh one of wry-neck :
inued, and the diforder recurs. It is commonly imagined, it has alfo the faculty of ereding the feathers of the head

tinued,

that when the head and neck can be brought ftraight, every
thing is accompliflied. But, as Jorg remarks, it is wrong
to confider this period the completion of the cure ; for,
when the head and neck can be kept every day feveral
hours in a right pofture, without any machinery, the con-
valefcents foon become fatigued, as it cannot be at firft
done without exertion. It is only when both fterno-cleido-
maftoidei feem to be formed alike ; when one is not
tenfer than the other ; and when, confequently, the equi-
librium betwixt them is re-eftabbflied ; when alfo one fide
of the neck is as prominent and well-formed as the other ;
and when the head can be brought into the right pofition
naturally, and without any effort ; that the cure ought to
be regarded as accomplifhed. The machinery may now
be gradually relinqui(hed with fafety. At firft it is to be
taken off for an hour at a time every day, and the period
of its difcontinuance is to be lengthened by degrees,
until at length it is entirely laid afide. For the fore-
going excellent obfervations we are indebted to profefTor
Jorg of Leipfic, whofe publication on the deformities of
the human body is entitled in German " Ueber die Verk-
riimmungen des Menfchhchen Korpers und eine rationelle
und fichere Heilart derfelben." Leipfic, 1816, 4to.

This author has not mentioned or given any opinion
refpefting the plan which was propofed by Mr. Sharp, of
dividing and even cutting out a portion of the ftemo<leido-
maftoideus mufcle, which appears to aft with too much
power.

Mr. Gooch cured a patient by merely dividing the flcin
and platyfma myoides mufcle ; a kind of cafe which Jorg
thinks unfrequent. Mr. Gooch alfo fometimes employed
machinery with fuccefs.

Wry-neck, a difeafe of the fpafmodic kind in (heep, in
which the head is drawn forcibly to one fide, and the animal
difabled from walking. The cure is to be efFefted by the
ufe of calomel with opium in pretty full dofes ; putting the
animal into a dry well-graffed pafture during the time, and
avoiding cold and moifture.

Wry-neck, Jynx, in Ornithology, a bird called alfo the
torquilla, which Linnaeus has made a diftinft genus of the
pice, under the denomination of yunx : the charafters of

like thofe of the jay. It feeds on ants, which it very dex-
teroufly transfixes with the bony and (harp end of its
tongue, and then draws them into its mouth. Ray and
Penn<mt.

WRYNOSE, in Geography, a mountain of England, on
which are three ftones, marking the boundaries of the three
counties of Lancafter, Cumberland, and Weftmoreland ; 12
miles S. of Ravenglafs.

WSCHESTAD. a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 10 miles N.W". of Kofteletz.

WSETIN, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Hra-
difch ; 23 miles N.E. of Hradifch.
WUIPENS. See Wippingen.

WULDA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin ;
12 miles S.W. of Crumau.

WULFEN, a town of W.eftphalia, in the bi(hopric of
Ofnabruck ; 8 miles E.N.E. of Ofnabruck.

WULFENIA, in Botany, was fo named by profeflbr
Jacquin, in honour of his highly deferving friend, and con-
ftant botanical correfpondent, the Rev. Francis Xavier von
Wulfen, profefTor of natural philofophy and mathematics
at Klagenfurt, in Camiola, to which charge he was ap-
pointed in 1762, and where he died March 17, 1806, aged
feventy-eight. Amid the duties of his profefforfhip, and
the more ferious calls of his ecclefiaftical ftation, which he
fulfilled by the moft exemplary and acElive benevolence and
charity to all within his reach, his favourite purfuit was the
ftudy of the botany and mineralogy of the furrounding
country. His numerous contributions to the publications
of Jacquin, on the rare plants of Cariiiola and Carinthia,
conftitute a treafure of the moft valuable and original in-
formation. He writes with the ardour of a real lover of
nature, and we have nothing to difapprove, except fomewhat
of the diffufe, and what Linnjeus terms " oratorical," ftyle,
in the defcriptive parts of his writings, where terienefs and
precifion are moft defirable, however agreeable the graces of
oratory, and the expreffion of tafte and feehng, may be in
any accompanying remarks. The Flora Lapponica of Lin-
njEUS is our ftandard of perfeftion in this refpeft. Wulfen
was an accomplifhed fcholar, a man of the moft amiable and
elevated charafier, who adorns every thing that he touches,

and

WULFENIA.

aiid who lived and died beloved and revered by men of all
ranks, and of every perfuafion. As he lived remote from
the fcientific circles of Europe, it is no wonder if, in tlie
abftrufe ftudy of cr)'ptogaraic botany, he fell into fome errors,
efpecially relative to the Lichen tribe, a part of which the
writer of this article prefumed to correft, in a paper printed
in the Tranfaftions of the Linn. Soc. v. 2. p. lo, certainly
without intending any difrefpeiEl for the excellent author,
tliough a German writer of a more vulgar ftamp, by mif-
Iranflation and mifreprefentation, tried to excite them to en-
mity, but in vain. He may be pardoned for the fake of the
great man whom he, though unflcilfully, meant to defend,
and for his own fervices to fcience, though of inferior pre-
tenfions. Wulfen is reported to have left behind him in
MS. a complete Flora Nerica, defcriptive of the vegetable
productions of a particular part of Carniola, an ylgrq/lo-
graphia, and feveral other works, rich in praftical and fcien-
tific obfervatioHS. Of thefe, it is to be hoped the learned
world will not be deprived. — Jacq. Mifc. Auftr. v. 2. 62.
t. 8. f. I. Schreb. Gen. 16. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. i. 78.
Vahl Enum. v. i. 86. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm.
Tranf. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 96. ( Bonarota ; Mich. Gen. 9.
t. 15. Pxderota ; Jufl". 120. Lamarck Diift. v. 4. 692.
lUuftr. t. 13, but not the original Paderota oi Linnxus.
See Tr. of Linn. Soc. as above.) — Clafs and order, Dian-
dr'ta Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Perfonatu, Linn. Scrophula-
r'la, Ju{r.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, linear-awllhaped, equal, crcft, permanent fegments.
Cor. of one petal, ringent : tube gibbous, and nearly glo-
bofe at the bafe : hmb two-hpped ; upper Up (horteft, un-
divided, or nightly notched, vaulted, acute ; lower longeft,
deflexed, three-lobed. Stam. Filaments two, thread-lhaped,
afcending, fliorter than the upper lip ; anthers roundifh.
Pijl. Germen fuperior, ovate-oblong, comprefled ; ftyle
thread-fhaped, twice as long as the calyx ; ftigma capi-
tate. Perk. Capfule ovat£, comprefled, furrowed at each
fide, of two cells and two divided valves, burfting at the
fummit. SeeJs numerous, roundilh.

Efl". Ch. Corolla tubular, ringent ; upper lip vaulted ;
lower three-cleft. Calyx in five deep fegments. Capfule
of two cells, and two cloven valves.

Obf. This genus is certainly next akin to Vbkonica,
under which article we have recorded a remark to that efFeft
made by Mr. Brown. The eflential difference, however,
between thefe two genera refides in the limb of the corolla,
which in Veronica is wheel-fhaped, its lower fegment nar-
roweft ; a character of more importance than the propor-
tion of the tube, that part being, in a few fpecies, nearly as
much elongated as in the prefent genus. If any of thofe
fpecies fhould prove to have a ringent corolla, whofe upper
lip is vaulted, and the lower three-lobed, they muft be re-
moved to Wulfenia ; but we difcover nothing of this in /''.
Jibirica or virginica, whofe limb is truly that of a Veronica.
Whether the throat be bearded in every fpecies of Wulfenia,
we are not certain ; nor is that circumftance material, any
more than the valves of the capfule being cloven or not, the
fame difference exifting between different fpecies of Veroni-
ca, as has already been mentioned in its proper place. The
five-cleft calyx, indicated by Linnaeus as the mark of Ptde-
rota, is found in the two Veronica juft named, as well as in
fome lefs ambiguous fpecies, as V. aujlriaca, muliifida, Teu-
crium, and latifolia, though in thefe laft the fifth fegment va-
ries in fize, is occafionaUy abfent, and is always unequal to
the others.

I. W. Bonarota. Blue Leafy Wulfenia. Sm. n. 1.
Vahl n. I. (Pjederota Bonarota; Linn. Sp. PI. 20.

Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 77. Jacq. Aullr. append, t. 39. P.
cserulea ; Linn. Suppl. S4. Lamarck lUullr. v. i. 48-
t. 13. f. I. Bonarota montana italica, cham<edryos folio,
flore casruleo ; Mich. Gen. 19. t. 15. f. I ; alfo f. 2, with
rounder leaves, and a more denfe fpike. Chamaedrys montis
Sumani ; Bauh. Hid. v. 3. 289.) — Stem leafy. Upper lip
of the corolla entire. Leaves roundiih- ovate. — Native of
the mountains of Italy and Carniola ; perennial : a ftranger
in our gardens, as well as the two following. The root is
fomewhat creeping. Stems fimple, ereft, five or fix inches
high, downy like the reft of the herbage, each bearing four
or five pair of roundifh-ovate leaves, about an inch long,
with broad, rather (hallow ferratures. Clujler terminal, fo-
litary, ovate -oblong, of feveral pretty hXvieJlo'wers, accom-
panied by lanceolate braSeas. Calyx hairy. The corolla is
decidedly ringent, with a concave upper lip, and the valves
of the capfule fplit at the fummit, each into two Iharp
points.

2. W. ^geria. Yellow Leafy Wulfenia. Sm. n. 2.
Vahl n. 2. ( Paederota Ageria ; Linn. Mant. 171, exclud-
ing Bauhin's fynonym. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 77. P. lutea ;
Scop. Ann. 2. 41. Lamarck n. 3. excluding the reference
to Bauhin. Linn. Suppl. 84. P. Bonarota ; Jacq. Hort.
Vind. V. 2. 55. t. 121. Bonarota montana italica, chamse-
dryos folio minds crenato, fpica lutea ; Mich. Gen. 19.) —
Stem leafy. Upper Up of the corolla cloven. Leaves
ovato-lanceolate, elongated at the point — Native of Car-
niola and Italy, in places where, according to Scopoli, the
former is not found. Great confufion refpefting thefe
two plants has long exifted. Linnjeus and Scopoli fome-
times confidered them as varieties of each other, and when
they made them diftinft, they mifapplied their fynonyms.
The prefent is faid to be diftinguilhed by the emarginate, or
cloven, upper lip of the corolla, which, neverthelefs, Jac-
quin's figure does not exprefs, and which is but flightly per-
ceptible in our dried fpecimens. The leaves differ materially
in their more elongated form, and narrower, more copious,
ferratures ; the lower ones being alternate, as noticed by
Scopoli, is but a cafual occurrence. The corolla is of a
pale fulphur-colour, not blue. Calyx fmooth. The Jlyk
in both thefe fpecies is full as long in proportion to the
calyx and corolla -as in the following, though defcribed, in the
generic charafter of Paderota by Linnxus, as only the
length of tYieJlamens.

The fpecific name of jigeria, given by Linnxus to what
had much better have been called lutea, is intended to com-
memorate Nicholas Agerius, a friend of John and Cafpar
Bauhin, who fent our W. Bonarota to the former, and is
mentioned by him in feveral places. His name occurs in
Linn. Sp. PI. 1670, as the original difcoverer of Verbafcum
Thapfi. Haller fpeaks of him as having publiihed, at Straf-
burg, in 1625, a quarto difTertation ^« Zoo/^ji'/V; and an-
other in 1629, de Animd vegetativd ; works not mentioned
in fir Jofeph Banks's rich catalogue, and therefore, doubt-
lefs, very rare.

3. W. carinthiaca. Carinthian Wulfenia. Sm. n. 3.
Willd. n. I. Vahl n. 3. Jacq. Mifc. Auftr. v. 2. 60. Ic.
Rar. t. 2. (Psderota nudicaulis ; Lamarck DiiSt. v. 4.
692. Illuitr. v. I. 48. t. 13. f. 2.)— Stem naked. Leaves
crenate. — Found by Wulfen, in a rich foil, limong lime-
ftone rocks, on the loftieft and moft craggy mountains of
Carinthia, flowering in the middle of Jnly. The root is
creeping, perennial, half as thick as the middle finger.
Leaves feveral together in a tuft, all radical, obovate, ob-
tufe, four or five inches long, doubly or unequally crenate,
fmooth and (hining, except the ftrong mid-rib, which is hairy
at the back j their bafe tapering into a winged Jooijlalk.

Flowers

W U N

Flowers large and handfotne, of a fine blue, crowded numer-
oufly into a denfe clufter, fupported by an upright, round,
firm, unbranched,leaflefs, though fomewhat fcr..jr and (lightly
hairy, folitary, radical Jlalk, twice or thrice the height of
the leaves. After flowering, the clujler becomes three or
four inches long, and the permanent calyces turn reddifli.
The capfuhs are each one-third of an inch ia length, brown,
abrupt, fcarcely exceeding the calyx, foon fplitting into
four parts at the top. The error of the fpccific name in
Lamarck's fynonym, P. Wulfema, for P. nudicaulis, in
Vahl and Willdenow, is copied by the former from the
latter.

WULFRADT, in Geography, a town of the ducliy of
Berg ; 3 miles N.E. of Medman.

WULFSDORP, a town of the duchy of Holflein ; 1 1
miles N.N.W. of Lubeck.

WULFSFELDE, a town of the duchy of Holftein ;
12 miles N.W. of Lubeck.

WULFTEN, a town of Wellphalia, in the birtiopric of
Ofnabruck ; 2 miles S.W. of Ofnabruck.

WULLED, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen ; 46 miles S.E. of Loheia.

WULLERSDORFF, a town of Auftria ; 2 miles
S.E. of Gunderftorff.

WULLI, Mountains of, mountains of Perfia, which
extend from the vicinity of Shatzan, acrofs to the lake of
Vaikind, and form one range with that on the N. of
Mekran, called Gehelabad by La Rochette.

WULPERODE, a town of Weftphalia, in the prin-
cipality of Halberftadt ; 4 miles W. of Ofterwick.

WULTZESHOFEN, a town of Auftria; I mile
S.W. of Laab.

WULVESHEVED, or Wulvkshead. See Wolfes-

HEAD.

WUMBLE, in Rural Economy, the provincial name of
an auger. It is fometimes written wummle and wimble.

WUMME, in Geography, a river of the duchy of Bremen,
w'hich runs into the Wefer, about 6 miles N.W. of Bremen.

WUNALACHTIKOS, a tribe of Delaware Indians.

WUNNENBERG, a town of Weftphalia, in the
bifhopric of Paderborn, which received its name from a
viftory which Charlemagne gained in the year 974 over the
Saxons ; 14 miles S. of Paderborn. N. lat. 51° 29'. E.
long. 8° 7'.

WUNSCHELBERG, or Hradeck, a town of Silefia,
in the county of Glatz. Here are manufaftures of thread,
cloth, and variety of ftufFs ; 10 miles N.W. of Glatz.
N. lat. 50° 19'. E. long. 16° 15'.

WUNSCHUECH, a town of Stiria; 8 miles S. of
Gratz.

WUNSEES, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Bayreuth ; 13 miles W. of Bayreuth.

WUNSIEDEL, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Bayreuth, on the Fichtelherg ; near it are mines
of copper and iron, and quarries of marble ; 34 miles E. of
Bayreuth. N. lat. 50° 3'. E. long. 12° 3'.

WUNSTORF, a town of Weftphalia, in the princi-
pality of Calenberg, the chief place of a county, which be-
came extinft in the year 1533 ; 10 miles W.N.W. of
Hanover. N. lat. 52° 27'. E. long. 9' 32'.

WUNT, in Agriculture, a term provincially applied to
the mole.

Wvnr-Iitllocl, a word fignifying a mole-hill. Sec
MoLB and MoLE-HUl.

WUNTZ, in Geography, 2L\.ov/n of the county of Henne-
berg ; 6 miles N.W. of Meinungen.

W U R

WURBEN, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Schweidnitz ; 4 miles N. of Schweidnitz.

WURBENTHAL, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Troppau ; 13 miles W. of Jajerndorf. N. lat.
49° 57'. E. long. 17° 15'.

WURFE, in Commerce, a denomination diftinguifhing a
certain quantity of inferior filver eoins in Germany ; thus,
a wurfe denotes 5 pieces of 1 7 or of 7 creutzers ; and 1 z
wurfe of 1 7 creutzer pieces make 1 7 florins, and 1 2 wurfe
of 7 creutzer pieces make 7 florins.

WURGLAU, or GuERGALA, in Geography. See
Wergela.

WURL, a river of Weftphalia, which runs into the
Ems, near Rietberg.

WURLITZHAIDT, a town of Germany, in the
principahty of Culmbach ; 7 miles S.E. of Hof.

WURMBEA, in Botany, is dedicated by Thunberg to
the honour of baron Frederick van Wurmbs, fecretary to
the Academy of Sciences at Batavia, whom he celebrates
for great (kill in Natural Hiftory, and other fcientific pur-
fuits, and who rendered him important fervices in his expe-
dition to Japan — Thunb. Nov. Gen. 18. t. i. Sehreh,
Gen. 239. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 265. Mart. Mill. Dift.
V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 325. Poiret in Lamarck
Dift. V. 8. 802. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 270. (Melanthii
fpecies ; Juff. 47. Thunb. Prodr. 67.) — Clafs and order,
Hexandria Trlgynia. Nat. Ord. Coronaria, Linn. Junci,
Juff,

Gen. Ch. Cal. none ; unleCs, like Thunberg, we take
the corolla for fuch. Cor. of one petal, tubular, perma-
nent : tube with fix angles, abrupt at the bafe : Umb in fix
deep, lanceolate, acute, equal, erefl, or fpreading fegments,
ufually about the length of the tube. Stam. Filaunents
fix, thread-lhaped, ered, inferted into the mouth of the
tube, and fhorter than the limb ; anthers roundifh, of two
lobes. Pyi. Germen fuperior, triangular, furrowed,
fmooth ; (lylcs three, awl-ihapcd, triangular, the length of
the ftamens ; ftigmas obtufe. Perk. Capfule inverted
with the withered corolla, oblong, with three angles and
three furrows, confifting of three cells, feparating from the
top half way down. Seeds numerous, round.

Ed. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla in fix deep equal feg-
ments, with an hexagonal tube. Stamens inferted into the
mouth of the tube. Capfule fuperior.

Obf. Under the genus Melanthium, (fee that article,)
we have exprefled a determination of reducing the prefent
genus to that. By a cafual overfight, however, the fpecies
which compofe IVurmbea were there omitted. Having
examined them with more attention, and particularly with
refpeift to Ornithoglossum, which the reader will find in
its proper place, our opinion has changed. The latter genus,
to which Melanthium indicum perhaps really belongs, has
moft refemblance to IVurmbea in habit, and in the general
afpeA of the Jloiuers ; though moft widely eftranged there-
from in its generic chara£ler, founded on the infertion of the
Jlamens. If OrnithogloJJum be retained, IVurmbea muft. No
difficulty attends its effential character, which is obvious
enough, in the pale fexangular tube, abrupt or gibbous at
the bafe, as if furni(hed with fix fmall fpurs. The Linnjean
herbarium (hews, that Linnseus himfelf had eitabliilied the
prefent genus, and dedicated it to his friend Sparrmann, by
whom his fpecimens were brought to Europe. There is a
fingular remark in Thunberg, of IVurmbea having, " with-
out all doubt," been produced from Mtlanthium cUlalum!

i.W.pumila. Dwarf Wurmbea. Willd. n. I. (W.
capenfis »; Thunb. Nov, Gen. 19. t. i. f. 7.) — Clufter of

three

W U R

W U R

tlirce or four flowers. Tube the length of the hmb —
Native of the Cape of Good Hope, in fandy ground, at the
foot of fmall hills, flowering in Augufl; or September.
The root is a fmall globular bulb, as in all the reft, funk
deep into the earth. Whole herb biit an inch high, with
two or three fhort, fheathing, lanceolate leases. Clujier
hardly rifing above the foliage, of three or four, rarely
more, ereft white JJoiuers, on longifli partial ftalks, not
feflile, or fpiked, if Thunberg's figure be correft, like the
other fpecies. The margins of the fegments of thejlotver
are purple, and there are fpots of the fame colour juft above
the mouth of its tube. The Jlamens are white. Thunberg.

2. W. campanulata. Bell-flowered Wurmbea. Willd.
n. 2. Ait. n. 2. (W. capenfiay ; Thunb. Nov. Gen. 19.
t. I. f. p. Lamarck f. i. Melanthium monopetalum ;
Linn. Suppl. 213. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 1 291.) — Tube
of the corolla bell-fliaped, the length of the hmb, which is
twice as long as the Itamens. Spike denfe, cyhndrical. —
Native of the fame country. Sent to Kew garden, by
Mr. MafTon, in 1788. It flowers in the green houfe in
May and June. The bulb is ovate. Stem fohtary, fimple,
leafy, from three to five inches high ; zigzag, tapering, and
pale, in the part which is below the furface of the ground.
Leaves three or four, alternate, widely fpreading, or re-
curved, much longer than the ftem, but not elevated above
it, tapering, channelled, rather glaucous, fmooth ; their
bafe dilated and fheathing. Spike terminal, ereft, two or
three inches long, of numerous, feflile, white_y?0TOcrj, whofe
limb is rather concave, its edges brown in our fpecimens,
anfwering to Thunberg's defcription, though that circum-
fl;ance is not exprefled in the Botanical Magazine. Stamens
white, fpreading, not half the length of the limb, with
yellow anthers.

}. W. purpurea. Purple Wurmbea. Banks MSS. Ait.
n. 2. (W. capenfiS|3; Thunb. Nov. Gen. 19. Andr.
Repof. t. 221. W. campanulata I? ; Willd. n. 2. Me-
lanthium fpicatum ; Curt. Mag. t. 694. ) — Tube of the
corolla much fliorter than the widely fpreading limb. —
Native of the Cape. Sent to Kew in 1788, by Mr. Mafi"on.
This has the herbage of the laft, but the fpiie is rather more
lax, and the^owers all over of a dark violet purple, except
the yellow anthers, have a much fliorter tube, and longer
limb-
ic. W. longijlora. Long-flowered Wurmbea. Willd.
n. 3. (W. capenfis i ; Thunb. Nov. Gen. 19. t. I. f. a.
Lamarck f. 2. ) — Spike taller than the leaves. Tube of
the corolla twice the length of the limb. — Found at the
Cape of Good Hope, on fandy hills in various places. A
taller larger plant than any of the preceding ; its lea-ves
much broader at the bafe. Spike three or four inches long,
rather lax, many-flowered, with a zigzag angular Jlalk.
Floivers entirely white ; their tube near an inch long ; limb
about half that length, widely fpreading. Stamens full half
the length of the limb. That all thefe fpecies ftiould have
been confidered as varieties only, appears as ftrange as any
other particular in the hiftory of the prefent genus. The
Linnsan herbarium proves the Melanthium monopetalum of
the Supplementum to be not this, but the W. campanulata.

WURMBERG, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Stiria ; 6 miles N.W. of Pettau.

WURMSEE, a lake of Bavaria; 13 miles S.W. of
Munich.

WURST, a Ruffian meafure. See Werst.

WURSUREE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Guzerat; 32 miles N.E. of Chitpour.

WURTEMBERG, late a duchy and now a kingdom
of Germany, bounded on the north by the bifhopric of

Vol. XXXVIIL

Spire, the palatinate of the Rhine, the county of Hohenlohe,
and territories of the city of Hall in Swabia ; on the eaft
by the county of Limburg, the territories of the imperial
towns Gemund and Ulm, and county of Oettingen ; on
the fouth by Auftrian Swabia, the territories of Furften-
berg, Zwifalten, Rothweil, and the Brifgau ; and on the
weft by the marquifates of Baden Baden, and Baden Dur-
lach : about 64 miles from north to fouth, and about as
much from eaft to weft, comprehending about 3200 fquare
miles. This kingdom confills ot a great number of coun-
ties and lordfliips, fome of which were purchafed, fome
devolved to it by marriage, and others were acquired by
conqueft. It is beyond difpute the moft conilderable and
fertile part of the circle of Swabia, and may indeed be faid
to be, after Saxony, one of the beil countries in all Ger-
many. From its natural difpofition, the country confills
of three trafts, which are all remarkably different. Of
thefe, the lowell and warmeft is the north, called Unter-
land, reaching from Heilbronn to Stuttgard. This duchy
abounds fo in grain, that it exports confiderable quantities ;
but this grain is chiefly fpelt, rye and wheat being much
lefs cultivated here. Of all the other forts of grain, how-
ever, here is alfo a fufficiency, even for export. Flax and
hemp are alfo cultivated, and the former of thefe thrives
beft in the cold parts. The valleys, fome of which are
feven or eight miles in length, arc covered as it were with
forefts of fruit-trees, of which there is no fcarcity in the
other parts of this country, cyder and perry being the
liquors drank in common by the country people, when wine
happens to be dear. This duchy abounds likewifc in very
rich, palatable, and vi'holefome wines, called by the general
name of Neckar wines, though each has a particular title of
its own, wliich it receives from the parts where it grows.
The grapes alfo, which yield the beil wines, bear the ap-
pellation of the countries whence the fets were firft brought,
as the Chiavenna, ValteHne, Tyrolefe, and Hungarian.
The vineyards of the duchy of Wurtemberg have been
greatly improved by flioots from France, Italy, Greece,
Hungary, Cyprus, and even Schiras in Perfia. The culti-
vation of fdk was revived under duke Charles. The forefts
of this country are confiderably lefFened. The confnmp-
tion of oak, in particular, has been very large. The moun-
tains of the Black foreft on the W. and thofe of the Alt on
the S. and E., not only diverfify the face of the country, but
fupply timber, food, and wines. Moft parts of the country
abound in game ; near Frudenftadt, and near Konigfwart, are
mines offilver and copper; of filverat Konigftein,and of cop-
per at Guttach : near Hornberg iron is alfo found. Of mi-
nerals, terra figillata, which is reckoned preferable to that of
Malta, and a fine clay for earthenware, as alfo porcelain, which
is worked at Calw ; fine variegated marbles, fome of which
are equal to thofe of Italy ; and remarkably tranfparent
alabatler, ag.-ite, cryftaUine pebbles, black amber, or rather
obfidian, fine mill-ftones, &c. : and at Sulz there are falt-
works. Among the baths in Wurtemberg, the moft cele-
brated is that of the Wildbad. The principal rivers are,
the Neckar, the Enz, and the Nagold. The number of
inhabitants in this ftate is known to precifion, an exaft
inquiry being made every year by the general fuperin-
tendants, and reported to the annual fynod ; they are now
about 600,000. The ftate contains 68 cities and towns,
with about 1200 boroughs, market-towns, villages, and
hamlets. The revenue is computed at 245,000/., and the
military force at 6000. The eftabliflied rehgion of this
country is Lutheranifm, and though duke Charles Alex-
ander embraced the Roman, yet in the years 1729, 1732,
and 1733, he gave aifurances to the ftates, in formal inftru-

5 H ments,

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ments, that no change or innovation ftiould be made in the
Lutheran rehgion in any part of the whole duchy, and that
in all the churches and fchools throughout the duchy, and
the countries thereto belonging, no other religion than that
of Lutheranifm (hould be taught : that no CathoHc
churches, chapels, altars, or images, fhould be erefted or
fet up, nor any fuch as were decayed or forfaken again
ufed. The Calvinifts only are tolerated here, and their
place of worlhip at Stuttgard is a private houfe. In this
duchy are alfo fome Waldenfes, who are either hufbandmen
or farmers, and hve in the Italian villages, as they ar^
called, fome few towns alone excepted ; where they have
eftablilhed manufaftures of hats and flockings, and are al-
lowed the public exercife of their religion. The toleration
of the Jews here was abolifhed by an ediifl of duke Chrif-
topher, that of two or three families at Stuttgard excepted,
under the particular proteftion of the court. The church
is governed by four fuperintendants, ftyled abbots, and
38 rural deans ; a fynod is annually held in the autumn.
Education, and particularly that of ecclefiaftics, is favoured
by laudable inftitutions ; the feminary of Tubingen ufed to
accommodate about 300 iludents ; and at Stuttgard there
is a public academy. Here are manufaftures of pottery,
glafs, woollen, linen, and filk, which, with the natural pro-
dufts of the country, fupply a confiderable export. The
imports are by Frankfort on the Maine. The chief city is
Stuttgard, and the fecond town is Tubingen. The other
towns are numerous, but fmall ; and the villages are thickly
placed in a populous and flourifhing country. The origin
of the princely houfe is fomewhat obfcure and uncertain.
It is certain, however, that there were counts of Wurtem-
berg at the beginning of the twelfth century. In 1802
Wurtemberg was created an eleftorate of the empire ; and in
1806 waserefted into a kingdom. The caftle of Wurtem-
berg, which gave name to the duchy, is fituated 4 miles E.
from Stuttgard. By the treaty of Prefburg in 1805, the
king of Wurtemberg acquired feveral important referves.

WURTZBURG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Erbach ; 3 miles E. of Erbach.

WURTZEN, a mountain of Carinthia ; 8 miles S. of
ViUach.

WURWAMA, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat, on
the fouth fide of the gulf of Cutch ; 40 miles N.E. of
Noanagur.

WURWAY, a river of North Wales, which runs into
the Vurney, 3 miles S. of Llanvilling, in the county of
Montgomery.

WURZACH, a town of Germany, in the county of
Waldburg, on the Aitrach ; 26 miles N.W. of Kempten.
N. lat, 48° o'. E. long. 9° 52'.

WURZBACH, a river of Germany, which runs into
the Klein Enz, 2 miles E. of Wildbad.

WURZBURG, a duchy, late a bifhopric, bounded on
the north by the county of Henneberg and principahty of
Coburg ; on the eaft by the bifhopric of Bamberg, the
margravate of Anfpach, and the county of Caftel ; on the
fouth by the county of Hohenlohe ; and on the wefl by
Mergentheim, county of Wertheim, eleftorate of Mentz,
and the bifhopric of Fulda ; about 80 miles in length, and
64 in breadth. The territory of Wurzburg is fertile in
corn, paftures, and divers forts of fruits and plants, as alfo
m wine, the very beft Franconian vines growing in it.
The prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic ; but there
are alfo Lutheran and Calvinid churches within the eccle-
fiaftical jurifdiftion and territory of Wurzburg, which
from time to time preferred to the diets of the empire
^;nevous complaints of oppreffion and injuftice. In the

W U R

fixteenth century, this bifhopric abounded with Protcilant
inhabitants. The bifhopric was not founded here till 741.
In the year 1752, pope Bcnedift XIV. granted them the
privileges of bearing the archiepifcopal pall and crofs ; but
in other refpefts they were fuffragans to the archbifhops of
Mentz. This prince and bifhop maintained five regiments
of foot and horfe, military affairs being fubjeft to the aulic
council of war. In 1806 Wurzburg was fecularized, foon
after erefted into a duchy, and given to the archduke
Ferdinand. The number of inhabitants is computed at
200,000. By the treaty of Prefburg in 1805, the new
kingdom of Bavaria, to which Wurzburg had been before
affigned, acquired feveral important additions.

Wurzburg, a city of Germany, and capital of a duchy,
late refidence of the bifhop. It is fituated on the Maine,
well fortified, and defended by a fortrefs, fituated on a rock
without the town ; in which fortrefs is an epifcopal palace,
and a church, fuppofed to be theoldefl in Franconia. The
town is divided into four quarters and four fuburbs, in
which are, a new palace, built in the beginning of the
eighteenth century, a cathedral, feveral collegiate and
parifh churches, colleges, abbeys, and convents. The uni-
verfity was founded in the year 1403 ; and, after falling to
decay, reftored again in 1582. In Auguft 1796, Wurz-
burg was taken by the French, but given up to the
Auflrians the month following ; 50 miles E.S.E. of Frank-
fort on the Maine. N. lat. 49° 50'. E. long. 9° 59'.

WURZELBAU, or Wurtzelbau, John Philip, in
Biography, a German atlronomcr, was born at Nuremberg
in 1 65 1, and being diverted from his Itudies by a change of
circumftances, devoted himfelf to mercantile purfuits.
But in the midll of thefe occupations, he referved his fpare
hours for reading, and acquainting himfelf with the French,
Italian, and Spanifh languages. His chief attention was
direfted to mathematics and aftronomy. In 16S4 and
1685 he made obfervations on an eclipfe of the moon,
vrhich were printed ; and in 1689 tranfmitted to the Royal
Society communications pertaining to aftronomy. In 1691
devoting himfelf more feduloufly to the ftudy of geometry
and aftronomy, the emperor Leopold, apprized of his
merits, raifed him and his heirs to the rank of nobility in
1692. In 1699 he was chofen one of the foreign affociates
of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and in 1706 he
became a member of the Academy of Berlin. Declining a
removal to Drefden, with the offer of an annual falary of
1000 dollars and free lodging, he occupied himfelf in
aftronomical obfervations with inftruments of his own
invention and conftruftion ; and he built, at his refi-
dence in Nuremberg, an obfervatory confifting of an ofta-
gon turret, covered with copper, and relling on iron
bars, which was placed on the top of the houfe, and which
was moveable to every part of the heavens : it was furnifhed
with an azimuth quadrant of five feet radius, a fextant of
fix feet, and other inftruments ; of which obfervatory lie
publifhed an account at Nuremberg, 1697, fol. He pub-
hfhed alfo other works, ibid. 17 13, fol. and ibid. 1 7 19, fol.
Having publifhed folar tables, &c. he died at Nuremberg
in 1725. He publifhed alfo various obfervations in the
Phil. Tranf. vol. xv. xvi. xvii. and vol. xxx. ; and alfo at
Nuremberg. Montucla. Weidler. Gen. Biog.

WURZEN, or WuRTZEN, in Geograthy, a town of
Saxony, in the territory of Leipfic ; the bailiwick of which
extends over feventy-fix villages, and twenty-two noble
eilates ; anciently the fee of a bifhop, but in 1661, the
eftatcs of the foundation were annexed to the Leipfic circle.
The town is fituated on the Mulda ; though not large in
itfelf, it is much increafed by its fauxbourgs, which contain

the

W Y A

the citadel and cathedral. The beer brewed here is the
chief article of trade, and is exported in great quantities ;
14 miles E. of Leipfic. N. lat. 51° 19'. E. long. 1 2° 42'.

WUSEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Erme-
land, on the Paflar^ ; 25 miles W. of Heilfberg.

WUSHUTEE, or Meech, a general term applied to
all that country of the province of Mekran in Perfia, lying
to the weftward, and on the parallel of Punjgoor or Panger,
and forming the northern boundary of the Sandy Defert.
It is reprefented to be a mountainous diftrift, producing in
fome of its villages grain, fufRcient for the confumption of
tlie few wandering (hepherds wlio inhabit them. Water is
plentiful, except in April, May, and June ; dates are alfo
produced, and camels, flieep, and goats, are procurable, but
not in great number. The people are rather a fmall delicate
race : their arms are, a match-lock, fword, and (liield ; and
each village has its own chief, who fettles difputes that arife
among the inhabitants.

WUSLACH, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland ; 10 miles E. of Heiifberg.

WUSTENSAXEN, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Wur/burg ; 5 miles N. of Bifchofshcim.

WUSTERHAUSEN, a town of the Middle Mark

of Brandenburg; 11 miles S.S.E. of Berlin. — Alfo, a

town of the Middle Mark of Brandenburg, on the Doflc ;

. 36 miles N.W. of Berlin. N. lat. 52° 53'. E. long. 12° 31'.

WUSTEPvSDORF, a town of Aullria ; 9 miles S.W.
of Laab.

WUSTHAL, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Lower Rhine ; 4 miles N. of Rothenbach.

WUSTRO, a town of Weftphalia, in the principality
of Luneburg Zelle, on the Jetze and the Dumme ; 40
miles S.E. of Luneburg.

WUTACH, a river of Germany, which crofles the
county of Stuhlingen, and runs into the Fvhinc, 10 miles
below Lauifenburg.

WUTTOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Dovvlatabad ;
6 miles E. of Junere.

WUTZKOW, a town of Hinder Pomerania : it is the
laft poft ftage bordering on Poland ; 30 miles E. of Stolpe.

WYACONDA, a river of Louifiana, which runs into
the Miffiffippi, N. lat. 39° 46'. W. long. 91° 48'.

WYALUSING, a townlhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Luzerne, with 576 inliabitants ; 320 miles N. of
Washington.

■Wyalusing Creek, a river of Pennfylvania, which runs
into the E. branch of the Sufquehanna, N. lat. 41° 40'.
W. long. 76° 20'.

WYANDOT, a town of North America, belonging to
the United States : a tribe of Indians called Wyandots in-
habit the neighbourhood ; 6 miles S. of Sandulky.

WYASTON, a village in the hundred of Appletree,
Derbylhire, England, fituated 3 miles from Afhborne, and
137 from London. In the year 181 1 it contained 16
houles, and 69 inhabitants.

WYAT, Si>- Thomas, in Biography, an Englifh poet,
was the fon of Henry Wyat, efq. of Allington-callle in Kent,
and born m 1503. Having finifhed his education at Cam-
bridge and Oxford, he travelled, as an envoy, into various
parts of Europe, and acquired the favour of Henry VIII.
whofe good will was of very {hort duration ; for either from
a fufpicion of his connection with Ann Boleyn, or the ill
offices of Bonner, he was for fome time imprifoned. After
his liberation he retired to his caftle of AUington, and
- being employed to condudl the ambafTador of Charles V.
from Falmouth to London he was feized with a fever, of
which he died at Shcrburn in 1541. In an elegy on his

W Y C

death, his charafter was highly drawn in an encomium by
the earl of Surrey, with whom he was intimate, as his
fellow-labourer in polilhing Enghfh poetry ; though his
strains are faid to have been inferior to thofe of the earl of
Surrey. Mr. Warton diftinguifhcs him by the appellation
of the firll polifhed Englifh fatirift. His reputation was
high, and Leland publilhed a book of Latin verfes on his
death. His poems were printed with the editions of thofe
of Surrey in 1559 and 1565, and fince by Dr. Sewel, in
17 1 7. His verfinn of David's Pfalms is much commended
by Surrey and Leland ; but it is not extant. Warton's
Hift. of Eng. Poetry. Gen Biog.

WYBERTON, in Geography, a village and parilh in the
wapentake of Kirton, Holland divii'ion of the county of
Lincoln ; 2 miles from Bofton, and I 15 from London. It
was returned in the year iSi i as containing 74houfes, occu-
pied by 353 perfons.

WYBOLDSTON, a village in the hundred of Barford,
Bedfordshire, England, fituated 8 miles from Bigglefwade,
and 2 miles from St. Neot's. The population is not fepa-
rately returned, being included in the parilh of Eaton-
Socon.

WYBORG. SeeViBORG.

WYBUNBURY, or Wibbunbury, a village in the
hundred of Namptwich, county palatine of Chefter, is fitu-
ated on the borders of Staffordfhire, about 3 miles E. from
Namptwich. The church is a handfome ftrufture, and con-
tains a great variety of monuments and other fepulchral
memorials. A fchool was built here nearly two centuries
ago by fubfcription ; the endowments are but fmall, though
increafed by occafional donations : the fchool is for boys,
fome of whom are taught reading only, others reading,
writing, and arithmetic. The population return of the
year 181 1 ftates this village to contain 76 houfes, and 353
inhabitants. The parifh of Wybunbury is very extenfive,

and comprehends eighteen townfhips Lyfons's Magna

Britannia, vol. ii. Chefhire, 1810.

WYCH-HousE, a houfe in which fait is boiled. (See
Salt. ) In the places where there are falt-fprings, and
falt-works are carried on at them, the work-houfe wliere
the fait is made is always called the wych-houfe ; and hence
we may naturally conclude that •wych was an old Britilh
word for fait, which is the more probable, as all the
towns in which fait is made end in ivych ; as Namptivych,
Droitivych, Middkiuych, &c.

WYCHERLEY, William, in Biography, was born
at Cleve, in Shropshire, about the year 1640; and in France,
whither he went for his education, he conformed to the
Roman Catholic religion. Upon his return to England a
little while before the Reftoration, he entered, without ma-
triculation, as a gentleman-commoner at Queen's college,
Oxford, and leaving it without a degree, took chambers in
the Middle Temple. However, he abandoned the law, and
addifted himfclf to the compofition of comedies, the firll
of which was entitled " Love in a Wood, or St. James's
Park," which brought him into notice in 1672 ; fo that he
became a favourite of the duchefs of Cleveland, and of
ViUiers, the duke of Buckingham. He was alfo honoured
by the attention of the king, and by promifes of future pro-
motion. His majelly, however, was difpleafed by his mar-
riage with the countefs of Drogheda, and the connedlion
was unhappy. On occafion of her death, however, flie
fettled her whole eflate upon him, and his title being dif-
puted, he was involved in law expenccs and other incum-
brances, which occafioned his being committed to priion.
Having remained in prifon for feven years, he was liberated
by king James XL, who, delighted by feeing his comedy of
5 H 2 the

W Y C

the " Plain Dealer," gave orders for the payment of his
debts, and fettled upon him a penfion of 200/. a year.

His circumftances were ftill embarraffed, and though by
his father's death he became a tenant of the eftate to which
he fucceeded, he was not emancipated from his difficulties.
Some time after he married a young woman, on whom he
fettled a jointure of 1500/., humouroudy ftipulating with her
that fhe fhould not take an old man for lier fecond hufband,
which condition, it is faid, (lie promifed faithfully to ob-
ferve. He died in 17 15, at the age of 75-

Befides the two comedies already mentioned, he compofed
" The Gentleman Dancing-Mafter," and " The Country-
Wife." The laft and the Plain Dealer are faid to be the
moft noted. • His plays, though commended by lord Ro-
chefter, are flrongly marked with his own charafter, — " fome
wit and ftrength of delineation, with much coarfenefs and
licentioufncfs." He attacks vice, it is faid, with the feverity
of a cynic, and the language of a Hbertine. A volume of
poems publifhed in 1704 was fo unfuccefsful, that he applied
to Pope, who was a mere youth, to correft the verfification.
Dr. Johnfon remarks, that " when Pope was fufficiently
bold in his eriticifms, and liberal in his alterations, the
old fcribbler was angry to fee his pages defaced, and felt
more pain from the deteftion than content from the amend-
ment of his faults." The pofthumous works of Wycherley,
in profe and verfe, were publilhed by Theobald in 1728,
870., but they are utterly forgotten. Biog. Brit. John-
fou's Life of Pope. Gen. Biog.

WYCK, John, was the fon of Thomas Wyck, a painter
of (hipping and views of towns, of no very great celebrity,
who was ill England in the time of Charles II. John was
born at Haerlcm about the year 1640, and diftinguilhed
himfelf as a painter of battles and fieges, and fometimes of
huntings and proceflions. He imitated the ftyle of Wouver-
mans and Vander Meulen, but never obtained their neatnefs
or fini(h, though his colour is oftentimes very agreeable.
His execution is better upon a fmall than a larger fcale.
He died at Mortlake in 1702.

Wyck, in Geography, a part of the city of Maeftricht,
on the E. fide of the Meufe, ilrongly fortified. See Maes-
TRICHT. — Alfo, a fmall fea-port of RufTia, on the W. coail
of the ifland of Efel.

Wyck op Zee, a town of Holland, near the fea ; 3 miles
W. of Beverwick.

Wyck te Duerflede, a town of Holland, in the depart-
ment of Utrecht, fuppofed to be mentioned by Tacitus, by
the name of " Batavodurum," and faid to have been built
by Battus, prince of the Catti. It was granted, with its
territory, to Rixfride, the feventh bifliop of Utrecht, and
his fucceflbrs, for the zeal he had (hewn in converting the
infidels. Trithemius relates, that it was anciently three
leagues in circumference, and had 55 pari(h-churches, and
that it had been dellroyed by the Normans and Danes three
feveral times ; 13 miles S.E. of Utrecht.

WYCLIFFE, a fmall village and parilh in the wapen-
take of Weft Culling, North Riding of York(hire, England,
is fituated two miles N.E. from Greta-bridge ; and in the
year 181 1 was returned as containing 26 houfes, and 140
inhabitants.

WYCOMBE, High, or Chlpping-Wycombe, a large
market and borough town in the hundred of Defborough,
Buckinghamlhire, England, is fituated 34 miles S.S.E. from
the county town, and 29 miles W. by N. from London, on
the banks of a fmall river, which rifes at Weft Wycombe,
and, in its courfe through this parifh, turns feveral corn and
paper mills. A weekly market on Fridays has been held
from tirae immemorial, and is a great mart for corn and

W Y C

other articles : here is alfo an annual fair. This borough
has fent members to parliament from the 28th year of
Edward I.: the right of eleftion is vefted in the mayor,
aldermen, baihfis, and burge(res ; and the number of voters
is about 180. Edmund Waller, the poet, was one of the
reprefentatives in 1635; fir Edmund Verney, king Charles's
ftandard-bearer, who fell at the battle of Edgehill, was
elefted to the parliaments of 1639 and 1640; and Thomas
Scott, the regicide, was a member during the proteftoratc
of Cromwell. The firft incorporation of the town appears
to have been in 1461 ; but the mayor and aldermen are
mentioned in a record of the reign of Edward III. : the
earlieft charter now extant bears date 1586. The corpora-
tion confifts of a mayor, twelve aldermen, a recorder, and
other officers ; formerly here was a high fteward, but t^e
ofBce was annulled by a charter of Charles II. ; yet fince
that time it has been held (by virtue of former charters) by
the earl of Bridgewater, lord-chancellor JefFeries, and the
marquis of Wharton. According to the population return
of the year 181 1, the town contained 494 houfes and 2490
inhabitants : the parifh is extenfive, and includes feveral ham-
lets, which make an addition of 2266 to the population,
and 449 to the number of houfes. The manor of Wycombe
having paffed through a variety of families, was fold, toge-
ther with the manors of Loakes and Windfors, or Chapel-
fee, by Thomas Archdale, efq. in 1 700 to Henry Petty, lord
Shelburne,'who bequeathed all his eftates to his nephew, John
Fitzmaurice, afterwards earl of Shelburne. His fon, who
in 1784 was created earl Wycombe and marquis of Lanf-
down, fold thefe manors by auftion, which were purchafed
by the prefent proprietor, lord Carrington. The manor-
houfe of Loakes, fituated near the town, was confiderably
enlarged and improved by lord Shelburne, and the marquis
of Lanfdown beftovved much expence in laying out the
gardens and pleafure-grounds. The houfe has been almoft
wholly rebuilt by the preient noble owner, from the defigns
of James Wyatt : it is now called Wycombe-abbey. The
parilh-church of High Wycombe is mentioned by Warton
as having been built in the reign of Henry II. : the prefent
fabric is of much later date, and the tower was built in
1522. Between the aifle and the chancel is an ancient oak
fcreen, which, by an infcription, appears to have been put
up in 1460, at the expence of the Redhead family. In the
chancel is a monument to Henry Petty, earl of Shelburne,
who died in 175 1. It was executed by Schecmakers, at
the expence of 2COo/., which was bequeathed by his lord-
(hip for that purpofe. In the fouth aifle is a very handfome
monument by Carlini, for Sophia, countefs of Shelburne,
(firft wife of the late marquis,) who died in 179 1, with a
female figure reclining on an urn. In the church are me-
morials of the famihes of Archdale, Lluiiyn, Shrimpton,
and Bradlhaw. William Bradfhaw, who died in 1614, ^^^s
103 years of age. In the church-yard is the tomb of
Robert Williams, the late fexton, who died in 1793, at the
age of 102. Two hofpitals for lepers were founded in this
town in the early part of the 13th century : one of them
was granted by queen Elizabeth to the corporation ; and
the lands are now applied to the maintenance of an hofpital
or alms-houfe for poor people, and a gramniar-fehool.

Wycombe, IVefi, is a populous village and parifh in the
hundred of Defborough, fituated about two indes N.W. by
W. from High Wycombe, on the road to Oxford. It was
anciently called Haverindon. The manor was from a
remote period till the Reformation attached to the fee of
Winchefter : the prefent proprietor is fir John Dalhwood
King, who has a feat here, named Weft Wycombe-houfe,
which was built by fir Francis Dafhwood, but was much

enlarged,

WYE

enlarged, and furnifhed with a profulion of ornaments by
his fon lord Le Defpencer. The parifh-church (lands on
the fummit of a fteep hill, at a fmall diftance from the
village, within the fcite of an ancient circular intrenchment.
It was rebuilt in 1763, (except the tower and chancel, which
are parts of a more ancient Itrudlure,) by lord Le Defpencer,
who fitted it up in the Grecian ftyle : the ceihng is painted
with Mofaic ornaments. Near the eall end of the church is
an hexagonal building, erefted by his lordfhip. One fide of
this building is infcribed to the memory of John, earl of
Weftmoreland, and another to George, baron of Melcombe
Regis, whofe legacy to lord Le Defpencer, for the purpofe
of erefting a monument to his memory, was the caufe of
his lordfhip's building this fingular maufoleum. Within it
are feveral receffes for monuments, and niches for arms and
bulls. The population of this parifh, in the return of the
year 1811, is ftated to be 1362 ; the number of houfes 273.
— Lyfons's Magna Britannia, vol. i. Buckinghamfiiire,
1806. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i. Bucking-
hamftiire, by J. Britton and E.W. Brayley, 1801.

WYDAW, a river of Denmark, which runs into the
North fea, near Tondern, in the duchy of Slefwick.

WYDRAUGHT, a water-courfe, or water-paffage, to
carry off the filth and fuillage of a houfe ; properly a fink,
or common-fewer.

WYE, in Geography, called by Leland, in his Itinerary, a
" pratie market townlet," is now only a confiderable village of
the county of Kent, England, as its market has been long
difcontinued. In the Domcfday-book it is written Wi, and
by that appellation it was granted by the Conqueror to the
abbey of Battle, in Sulfex, which he had founded in re-
membrance of his viftory over Harold, it having been pre-
vioufly a part of the demefne lands of the Saxon kings.
" The Chronicles of Battle abbey affirm," fays Lambard,
" that there were fometime two-and-twenty hundreths fub-
je6l to the jurifdiftion of this manor." The extenfive grant
of the royal manor of Wye, with all its appendages, liber-
ties, and royal culloms, was confirmed to the abbey of Battle
by different fovereigns, and it continued parcel of its pof-
feffions till the period of the diffolution. Queen Elizabeth,
in her firll year, granted it, together with various eftates in
the vicinity, to her kinfman, Henry Cary, lord Hunfdon,
to hold in capite by knight's fervice. The church of this
parifh was made collegiate by archbifhop Kemp, who was a
native of the place, and is fuppofed to have rebuilt this edi-
fice at the fame lime that he founded the adjoining college,
in the year 1447. It conilfts of a nave, aifles, and chancel,
with a large embattled tower at the fouth-eall angle ; the
nave is feparated from the aifles by four pointed arches on
each fide, rifing from clullered columns ; the chancel was
rebuilt at the commencement of the lafl century, and has a
femicircular eaft end.

The ancient college, now the grammar-fchool, founded
by archbifhop Kemp, ftands on the eafl fide of the church-
yard. He endowed it for a provoft and fix fellows, " two
of whom had an additional ilipend for the duty of the
church, and care of a grammar-fchool," in which all fcho-
lars, both rich and poor, were to be inflrudled gratis.
Another fchool was inftituted here about the year 1708,
under a bequell of lady Joanna ThornhiU, who, among
other charities to the poor of Wye, direfted that the refidue
of her eftates fhould be appHed to the inftruftion of their
children. Sir George Wheeler added to this foundation,
and gave the college as the refidence for the mailer of the
grammar-fchool, and for the mailer anj, miftrefs of lady
Thornhill's fchool. The college buildings form a quad-

WYE

rangle, and the old hall is a large vaulted room, now uicd
for the fchool. The population of this parifh in the year
181 1 confilted of 1322 perfons, who occupied 224 houfes.
In this parifh is Ollantigh, where archbifhop Kemp was
bom in 1380, and where towards the end of his hfe he
built a chapel, or oratory. Here alfo it is conjedured was
born Thomas Kemp, bifliop of London, and nephew of
the archbifhop. John Sawbridge, a patriotic alderman of
London, was likewife a native of this place, where he was
born March 17, ,1732, and where he died in 1795. ^'^
filler, Mrs. Macaulay Graham, an Englifh hiflorian, derived
her birth from this place on the 23d of March 1731. (See
Graham, Macaulay.) About one mile N.E. from
Ollantigh, a Roman burying-place was difcovered in the
year 1703, and feveral flceletons, urns, and other vefliges of
interments, have been difcovered, and are now preferved at
Heppington, in this county. — Hafted's Hiflory, &c. of
Kent, 12 vols. 8vo. Beauties of England, &c. Kent, by
E.W. Brayley, 8vo. i8o5.

Wye, a river of South Wales, is rendered particularly
noted, in confequence of the high praifes bellowed on it by
topographers, tourifls, and poets. The fhores of this famed
flream are diftinguifhed by bold, rocky, and woody fcenery,
and adorned by feveral towns, feats, callles, and abbeys.
The poet Gray fays, " its banks are a fuccefBon of namelefs
beauties." Taking its fource on the fouth fide of the moun-
tain called PlinUmmon, in Montgomeryfhire, within a quarter
of a mile from the fpring-head of the river Severn, the
river takes a courfe in general to the S.E. between the
counties of Brecknock on the W. and Radnor on the E.
Entering Herefordfhire, it winds by and partly tlirough the
capital of that county ; and then turning fouthward, it forms
the boundary between Glouceilerfhire on the E. and Mon-
mouthfhire on the W., until it unites its ftream with that of
the Severn, a few miles below Chepilow. At its fource, the
fcenery is wild, romantic, and bare ; but after defcending
to Buallt, the fcenes are extremely beautiful. In the valley
of Glafsbury, the flream is fo confiderable as to have re-
quired in 1783 a Hone bridge of feven arches, which twelve
years afterwards was fwept away by the floods. At Hay,
where it enters Hcrefordfliire and receives the waters of the
Dulas, the Wye is fo much increafed in the winter feafon as
to be navigable for barges. From thence to Hereford it
winds through a continuation of rich and beautiful fcenes,
and paffes by many pleafant villages and country-feats.
Bradwardine, a village, where in ancient times flood a caftle,
on the right or fouth bank, gave name to Thomas Bradwar-
dine, archbifhop of Canterbury, who was flyled from the
depth of his learning " the profound doftor." About
three miles lower down is Moccas-court, the modern refi-
dence of fir George Cornwall, bart. About fix miles
below Hereford the Wye receives the Lug, one of the three
principal rivers of the county, flovsang in general fouth-eaft
from the borders of Radnorfhire. " Near the conflux of
the Lux and Wye," fays Camden, " to the eafl, a hill called
Marclay-hill did, in the year 1575, roufe itfelf as it were
out of fleep, and for three days together, fhoving its pro-
digious body forward, with a horrible roaring noife, raifcl
itfelf, to the great aflonifhment of all beholders, to a higher
place." Two miles below the influx of the Lug, but on
the weft fide of the Wye, is Holme-Lacy, the ancient feat
of the Scudamores, the heircfs of whom married the late
duke of Norfolk. The manfion occupies the fcite of an
abbey, which was founded in the time of Henry III. Five
or fix miles lower down, and on the fame fide of the Wye,
is Harewood, a remnant of tlic forcll of that name, fekaed

by

WYE

by Mafon as the fcene of his drama of Elfrida ; for therq
Ethelwold, the confidante of king Edgar, had his caftle, in
which the fair Elfrida was concealed. Five miles farther
down, on the eaft bank of the river, is Rofs, confecrated in
the poetry of Pope by his fafcinating defcription of what
could be and adually was accomphflied by the " Man of
Rofs," with " five hundred pounds a year." The memory
of this worthy man, John Kyrle, is preferved by a monu-
ment in the church of Rofs. On the well fide of the nver
are the remains of Wilton caftle, a Norman ftrufture, once
the refidence of the Greys. Following the courfe of the
Wye on the weft, on the fummit of a bold promontory
clothed with wood appear the lofty towers of Goodrich
caftle, of great antiquity ; for in 1 204 it was granted by
king John to Marlhall, earl of Pembroke. The views
from the caftle are extcnfive and highly interefting. At
Coldwell rocks the fcenery of the Wye is peculiarly grand,
the prominences are overhang with oaks and flirubs, and
feparated by deep fhadowy dells. From Symond's-gate or
Yat, the fummit of a lofty hill, the fpeftator difcovers a
Angularly grand view of the windings of the river, and its ro-
mantic banks. Soon afterwards, entering a Ihort way into
Monmouthfhire, the Wye bathes the walls of the capital,
near which isTroy-houfe,the ancient feat of the duke of Beau-
fort, and aftuming a fouthern direftion, runs along the limit
between that county and Gloucefterfliire. The courfe of the
river, in the latter part of the range, is lefs irregular than that
through Herefordfhire, but it is not lefs interefting. About
a mile diftant from its eaft bank, on an eminence, ftands St.
Briavel's caftle, once of great extent and great ftrength,
erefted by Miles, earl of Hereford, m the reign of Henry I.
JLower down the ftrcam and on the weft bank is the curious
village of Llandogo, difperfed among trees on the fide of a
hill. Proceeding down the river by an eafy bending courfe,
in the midft of very pifturefque fcenery, appear the dilapi-
dated and highly pifturefque remains of Tuitern abbey, at
the opening of a valley on the weft bank. This venerable
ruin is apparently inckifed by fteep hills and hanging woods,
which are feparated by the broad ftream in the bottom.
Palling much fcenery equally beautiful, the eaft bank of the
river prefents a fcreen of rocks, called Thorn and Black
Cliffs, to which the tide reaches, and afterwards marfhy
lands appear on both fides. Next appear the rocks belong-
ing to the celebrated grounds of Piersfield. Thefe refemble
the projefting baftions of a caltle, and powerfully rever-
berate lounds that ftrike againft them. A little lower
down is the Lover's Leap, a precipitous rock ; and the
next fwecp of the river brings before the eye the noble re-
mains of the caftle of Chepftow, perched on the fummit of
a lofty perpendicular cliff, impending over the weft fide of
the river. The fituation of the caftle and the town of
Chepftow is peculiarly piclurefque. The beauties of the
fcene are, in the opinion of Mr. Wyndham, " fo excellent,
that the moft exaft critic in landfcape would fcarcely wifti
to alter a pofition in the affemblage of woods, chffs, ruins,
and water." Chepftow caftle is undoubtedly ancient, and
Roman-Britifh bricks are difcovered in the walls ; but its
foundation can be traced only to Fitzoft)orne, eai 1 of Here-
ford, who erefted it for the defence of the poflinions he
received from Wilham of Normandy. Notwithftanding the
height and rapidity of the tides at Chepftow, a bridge has
long been eftabliftied there acrofs the Wye. It was for-
merly conftrufted wholly of timber, but is now made of
caft-iron. Although the tide be fenfibly perceived only
about Tintern abbey, five miles above Chepftow, yet the
V/ater rifes in the river at this town to a very extraordinary

7

W Y F

height. Formerly not lefs than feventy feet, as it is afferted;
but fifty-fix feet is the greateft rife obferved durintr the laft
hundred years. The tide fetting up the Briftol channel
from the Atlantic is, by the gradual contraftion of its
courfe, forced to fwell up in a very uncommon manner ; and
its progrefs is ftill farther impeded by the advance of the
land on the north of the entrance of the Wye, up which
river, as well as more direftly up the Severn, it rufhes with
peculiar force. In defcending the Wve from Chepftow, the
high impending rocks have a very ftriking effeft. At the
conflux with the Severn, three miles below the town, the
eftuary of the latter river appears, bounded by the diftant hills
of Gloucefterfliire and Somerfetlhire. The general charafter
of the river Wye is thus repreiented by Mr. Coxe : " It is
diftinguiftied by its ferpentine courfe, the uniform breadth of
its channel, and the fcenery of its banks. In the navigable part
from Hereford downwards, the banks for the moft part rife
abruptly from the edge of the water, and are clothed with
forefts and broken cliffs. In fome places they approach fo
near tliat the river occupies the whole intermediate fpace,
and nothing is feen but wood, rock, and water : in others
they alternately recede, and the eye catches an occafional
ghmpfe of hamlets, ruins, and detached buildings, partly
feated on the margin of the ftream, and partly fcattered on
the rifing grounds. The general charafter of the fcenery,
however, is wildnefs and folitude : and if we except the
populous diftrift of Monmouth, no river perhaps flows
for, fo long a courfe through a well-cultivated country,
the banks of which exhibit fo few habitations." Large
hoys fitted to navigate the Severn can, with the tide, afcend
the Wye to Brcokfwear, a populous village midway between
Monmouth and Chepftow, where they receive from and tranf-
fer into fmall craft the various commodities with which they
are loaded. The Wye as well as the Severn furnifties a con-
fiderable quantity of falmon. — Beauties of England and
Wales, North Wales, by the Rev. J. Evans, 8vo. 1810.
Ditto, Monmouthftiire, by J. Britton, 1808. Hiftorical
Tour in Monmouthftiire, by the Rev. William Coxe, 2 vols.
410. 1801. Obiervations on the River Wye, by the Rev.
William Gilpin, 8vo. 1789.

Wve, a river of England, which runs into the Derwent,
near Bakewell. — Alfo, a river of Maryland, which runs into
the Cliefapeak, N. lat. 38° 54'. W. lung. 76^ 20'.
WYENOKE, a town of Virginia.
WYERSDALE, Nether, a townfhip in the hundred
of Amoundernefs, county palatine of Lancafter, England,
is fituated four miles N.N.E. from Garftang, and was itated
in the return of the year 181 1 to contain a population of
713 perfons, occupying 14; houfes.

Wyersdale, Over, a townfhip in the- hundred of Lonf-
dale South of the Sands, Lancafhire, England, is fituated
fix miles N.N.E. from Garftang, and in the year 181 1 con-
tained 154 houfes and 802 inhabitants. A colony of Cif-
tcrcian monks were for fome time fixed here, but about
A.D. 1 188 they removed into Ireland, and founded the
abbey of Wythney.

Wyersdale i^or^. See Lancashire, Forejls in.
WYFFLERS, in Military Language, fubordinate officers
in the Englilh infantry, whofe bufinels, in the time of queen
Elizabeth, appears to have been to drill the men, to in-
ttruft them how to carry their arms, and to arrange them
according to their ranks in proper order.

WypORDBY, or Wyverisy, in Geography, a fmall
parifh in the hundred of Framland, county of Leicefter,
England, is fituattd three miles E. from Melton Mowbray ;
and in the population report of 181 1 was returned as con-
taining

W Y K

taining 20 houfes, and 97 inhabitants. It includes the ham-
let of Brentingby.

WYGBYGERA, a town of Sweden, in Angermann-
land ; 30 miles N. of Hernofand.

WYGELN, a high mountain of Norway.

WYHAM, a parifh in the wapentake of Ludborough,
in Lindfey divifion of the county of Lincoln, England, is
fituated 7 miles N.N.W. from Louth ; and was Hated in the
year 181 1 to have a population of 87, occupying 10
houfes.

WYHOMICA, or Wyhoniec, a town of Lithuania ;
20 miles N.N.E. of Pinfli.

WYK, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland ;
65 miles N.N.W. of Calmar.

WYKA, a town of Sweden, in Dalecarlia; 14 miles
S.E. of Fahlun.

WYKE, anciently denoted a farm, hamlet, or little
village.

Wyke, in Geography, a tything in the parilh of Wor-
plefdon, hundred of Woking, county of Surrey, England,
is fituated 6 miles W, by N. from Guildford, and was re-
turned in the year 181 1 as containing 30 houfes, and 125
inhabitants.

WvKE Regis, a parifh in the hundred of the fame
name, in Dorcheftcr divifion of the county of Dorfet,
England, is 2 miles W.S.W. from Weymouth. The po-
pulation in the year 18 ti was returned as 570, the num-
ber of houfes as 1^4. The church, which is the mother-
church to Melcombe Regis, is a fpacious building, with a
lofty tower, ferving as a land-mark. From this village there
is a ferry to Portland ifle.

VfYKE-Hamon, a parifli in the hundred of Cleley, North-
amptonfhire, England. The church is in ruins. The po-
pulation is included with that of the adjoining parifli of
Wykens, or Wyke Dyve.

WYKEHAM, in Biography. See William of Wyke-
ham.

Wykeham, or Wycombe, in Geography, a townfhip in
the hundred of Eaft Gofcote, county of Leiceller, Eng-
land ; 5 miles N.E. by N. from Melton Mowbray. The
population, including the adjoining townfliip of Caldwell,
was in 181 1 Hated to be 95, occupying 25 houfes.

Wykeham, a townfliip in the eafl; divifion of the wapen-
take of Pickering Lythe, North Riding of the county of
York, England, is fi miles S.W. by W. from Scarborough ;
and in the year 1811 contained 87 houfes, and 511 inhabit-
ants. About the year 1153, Pain Fitz Oflaert built and
endowed a priory for Clftercian nuns at this place. At the
diffolution there were nine religious perfons in the houfe,
with an eftate of 25/. 17^-. 6c/. per annum. Henry VIIL
granted the houfe to Francis Poole.

Wykeham, Eajl, is a parifli in the Wold divifion of
Louth-Eflce hundred, in Lindfey part of Lincolnfhire, Eng-
land, fituated 7 miles N.W. by W. from Louth. The
church is in ruins. The population was Hated, in the return
of the year 1811, to be 23, the number of houfes 4.

Wykeham, WeJ, is a parifli in the eaft divifion of the
wapentake of Wraggoe, in Lindfey divifion of Lincoln-
fliire, England, adjoining to the foregoing. The church is
alfo in ruins.

WYKEN, a parifli in the county of the city of Co-
ventry, Warwick fliire, England, is 3 miles N.E. by E.
from the city ; and, according to the population return of
the year 181 1, contained 13 houfes, and 72 inhabitants.

WYKENS, or Wyke-Dyve, a parifli in the hundred
of Cleley, county of Northampton, England, fituated 7

W Y L

miles S.E. by S. from Towcefter, and 3 miles W.S.W.
from Stony-Stratford, Bucks. This parifli is united with
that of Wyke-Hamon, and in 181 1 the joint population
was returned as ^85, the number of houfes as C7.

WYL. SeeWEYL. ^

WYLAM, a townfliip in the parifli of Ovingham, Tyne-
dale-ward, county of Northumberland. In the year 1811 it
contained 159 houfes, and 795 inhabitants ; 9 miles W. from
Newcallle.

WYLDE, John, in Biography, the author, or rather the
compiler of a traft on mufic in the MS. of Waltham Holy
Crofs, now in the pofleffion of the marquis of Lanfdown,
entitled " Mufica Guidonis Monachi." It is the firft in
the volume, but not written by Guido, as the title feems to
imply, but an explanation of his principles ; it is divided
into two books, and appears to have been compiled by the
pra=centor of Waltham abbey, John Wylde, pr. " Quia
juxta Sapientiflimum Salomonem dura eft:." The author
does not confine himfelf to the doftrines of Guido, but cites
later writers. The bafis of the trad, however, is the Mi-
crologus, and his other writings, in which he treats of the
monochord, the fcale, the harmonic hand, the explanatioo
of which he calls manual mufic, ecclefiaftical tones, folmifa-
tion, clefs, with a battle between B flat and B natural, are
the fubjefts of the firfl; book, confiding of twenty-two
chapters.

The fecond book, or difl;in6lion, contains thirty-one
chapters. In the firlt he fpeaks of a Guido Minor, fur-
named Augenfis, as a writer on the ecclefiaft;ical chant. He
had mentioned this author in the feventh chapter of the firfl;
book ; but who he was, or when he lived, we are unable to
difcover. It feems, however, as if fome fuch mufical
writer had exifted, and that his name, by the ignorance or
inattention of the fcribes of ancient MSS., had been con-
founded with that of Guido d'Arezzo.

In feveral of the fucceeding chapters he treats of inter-
vals and their fpecies, offering nothing new or fingular, ex-
cept where he draws a parallel between the tone and femi-
tone, and Leah and Rachel, Jacob's wives, which, it is pre-
fumed, will excite no great curiofity in our readers.

Attention is engaged, however, in the tenth chapter, by
a " Cantilena," as tlie author calls it, of the Great Guido.
It is a kind of folfeggio, or exercife for the voice, through
all the intervals, which is only rendered valuable, perhaps,
by the fuppofition of its having been produced by the cele-
brated author of the mufical alphabet. See Serra.

WYLIA, in Botany, another new umbelliferous genu*
of profen"or Hoff'mann's, (fee Wendia,) dedicated by its
author to Dr. J. Wylie, privy counfellor to the emperor of
Ruffia, infpeftor of medicine and furgery in the Ruffian army,
&c. &c., author of a Pharmncopceia Cajlrenfts Ruthena, in
which his highly commendable aim has been to indicate the
medical properties, and to fix the names of the native plants
of Ruffia — Hoff"m. Gen. Plant. UmbeUif. v. 1. 3. t. 2. —
Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynta. Nat. Ord. Umhellats,
Linn. UmbeUifem, JulT.

Gen. Ch. General Involucrum of one ovato-lanceolate,
membranous, half-clafping leaf, fringed with hairs ; partial
of five ovate, nearly entire, concave, two or three-ribbed
leaves, bordered with a pellucid fringed membrane. Pe-
rianth of five minute teeth, permanent. Cor. univerfal
irregular ; flowers of the difli perfed, fertile, as well as the
female ones which form the radius ; fome male flowers are
either interfperfed in the diflc, or difpofed in feparate um-
bels : partial of five petals ; unequal in the flowers of the
radius, the outermoil very large, either obovate and flat-
tened,

W Y L

tencd, or inverfely heart-fhaped, with a long claw ; equal
in thofe of the difli. Stam. Filaments five, thread-fhaped,
at firft inflexed, and concealed in the hollows of the petals,
afterwards prominent; anthers roundilh. Pijl. Germen
ovate-oblong, more or lefs tapering ; ftyles ereft, thread-
fliaped, nearly equal, (landing on a cup-lhaped bale ; itig-
mas fimple. Peric. Fruit linear-oblong, beaked, fomewhat
comprelTed, crowned with the ered, permanent ftyles, and
their cup-like, flightly notched bafis. Seeds two, linear-
oblong, hifpid, ftriated, the ribs elevated, continued mto
the beak with intermediate furrows ; valves of the beak pa-
rallel to the fruit.

EfT. Ch. General and partial involucral leaves ovate.
Flowers polygamous, radiant. Calyx five-toothed. Fruit
oblong, fomewhat compreffed, beaked ; valves of the
beak parallel to the fruit.

Obf. The chief differences which have led profeffor
Hoffmann to feparate this genus from Scandix, (fee that
article,) appear to be the nearly entire leaves of the partial
involucrum, which are laciniated in Scandix ; the radiant
corolla, and, as he fays, the valves of the beak being pa-
rallel, not contrary to the fruit ; that is, as we prefume,
compreffed in a contrary direftion in one genus to what they
are in the other. For this we rely on the learned and ju-
dicious author not having materials fufficient to verify his
obfervation. We muff remark, that the involucral leaves in
IVyita, though not laciniated, have a notch or two at the
end, and precifely accord in texture with thofe of Scandix.
Many of the umbels in this genus are fimple, or occafionally
two or three together, refembling a compound umbel.

1. W. aujlralis. Southern Wylia. Hoffm. n. i. t. 2.
f. I. (Scandix auftralis ; Linn. Sp. PI. 369. Sm. Fl.
Gra:c. Sibth. t. 285, unpubl. See Scandix n. 6.)— Um-
bels fimple, or in pairs, of few flowers. Radiant petals
obovate, nearly entire. Beak of the fruit almoll ftraight.—
Native of fields in Italy and the Levant, as well as in
Tauria, about Sudak, flowering in May. Root annual.
Herb flender. ^tem round, fometimes quite fraooth, fome-
times more or lefs hairy. Leaves triply pinnate, with linear
acute fegments, and hairy, or rather fringed footjlalks.
Umbels fmall and dcnfe, on long ftalks ; the lower ones op-
pofite to the leaves, folitary and fimple ; upper in pairs,
rarely three together, and even in that cafe not conftituting
a real compound umbel, as an examination of fpecimens
will readily (hew. Flowers white, moderately radiant.
Largeft petals fometimes (lightly emarginate. Fruits from
fix to ten perfefted in each umbel, their beaks nearly or
quite fl:raight, quadrangular, rough with (hort erefl briftles.

2. W. radians. Radiating WyUa. Hoffm. n. 2. t. 2.
f. 2. (Scandix auftralis B ; Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. i.
424. S. falcata ; Londes Journ. de la Soc. des Natural, de
Mofcou, for 1806, 57. t. 5.) — Umbels aggregate, from
two to five, many-flowered. Radiant petals elongated,
wavy. Beak of the fruit incurved. — Frequent in Tauria,
flowering in May. This is confidered by the authors who
have defcribed it as about equally related to the foregoing
and to the grandijlora. We have no other guide than a beau-
tiful engraving, copied by Hoffniann from the figure above
cited, with the addition of the magnified and diffefted fruc-
tification. By Shis it appears that the partial umbels are ra-
ther more numeroufly affembled, making more apparently
compound umbel: . Tht Jloivers are more confpicuoufly ra-
diant. Fruits more numerous in each umbel, from twelve to
twenty, with ftrongly incurved rough beaks. We confefs
ourfelves unable to determine thefe two fpecies clearly by

W Y M

the fpecific differences of profeffor Hoffmann, which we
fubjoinfor the fatisfaciion of our readers.

W. aujlralis, caule petiolis umbellifque hirfutis, corollis
petalifque radiantibus obovatis integris.

W. radians, cauk petiohfque pilofis, umbellis glabris,
corollis petalis fruftibufque radiantibus.

The hairinefs is evidently variable, and the other charac-
ters, perhaps from fome typographical error, do not con-
trail with each other.

3. Vi . grandijlora. Large-flowered Wylia. Hoffm. n. 3.
t. 2. f. 3. (Scandix grandiflora ; Linn. Sp. PI. 369 ; fee
Scandix n. 10. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. i. 230.) — Ge-
neral umbels of from three to five very hairy rays. Radiant
petals (lightly emarginate. — Native of fields in Tartary and
Georgia, flowering in May and June. Having d'fcovered
a fpecimen of this in our coUedlion fince the article ScAX-
Dix was written, we are enabled to compare it with the de-
fcriptions of authors, and to feleft the following particu-
lars : — The root is annual, tapering. Stem about a foot
high, round, purpH(h, flightly branched, quite fmooth in
our fpecimen ; Hoffmann fays clothed with long hairs.
Leaves much like the laft ; ih^vc footjlalks fomewhat hairy.
Umbels terminal ; the general ones fometimes on fliort ftalks,
each compofed of from three to five long, flender, coarfely
and abundantly hairy rays, with a leafy, fimple or divided,
linear leaf, in the place of a general involucrum. Partial
umbels of numerous fliort fmooth rays ; their involucrum of
feveral, moftly double-pointed, ovate, white-edged, fringed
leaves. Flowers remarkably radiant ; their largeft petals obo-
vate, not always emarginate, each furniftied with a long
claw. Beak of the fruit rather fcaly, as Hoffmann deli-
neates it, than hairy. His figures, in this and the other
fpecies, except radians, exhibit the parts of fruftification
only.

4. W. iberica. Georgian Wylia. Hoffm. n. 4. t. 2. f. 4.
(Scandix iberica; Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. 1. 425. S.
falcata ; ibid. 230, excluding the fynonym. ) — General um-
bels of four or five very fmooth rays. Radiant petals
emarginate, with an inflexed point. Stem fomewhat hairy

at one fide Native of Georgia. Annual. Very nearly

related to the laft in habit and fize. The Jlem is, as in that,
fometimes quite fmooth. The rays of both general and
partial umbels are faid to be always very fmooth. Radiant
petals of a fmaller proportion, and, as it feems to us, effen-
tially diftinguiflied by their fliarp inflexed points. The beak
of the J'rult is defcribed as marked with two hairy lines, and
not hairy in every direftion. We have feen no fpecimen.

WYL,STER, in Geography. See Wilster.

WYMERING, a parifli in the hundred of Portfdown,
Hampftiire, England, returned in the year 181 1 as con-
taining 1 2 1 houfes, and 740 inhabitants ; 4 miles W. from
Havant.

WYMINGTON, or Wimmington, a parifli in the
hundred of WiUey, county of Bedford, England, is fituated
12 miles N.W. by N. from the county town, and about 3
miles from Higham Ferrers, Northamptonfliire. Wyming-
ton church, a fine ftrufture, was built by John Curteys, then
lord of the manor, and mayor of the ftaple at Calais, who
died in 1391, as appears from an infcription on his tomb.
The braftes of himfelf and his wife are on a flab of black
marble under canopies, and are well preferved. The popu-
lation of the parifli, in the return of 181 1, was ftated to be
235, the number of houfes 40.

WYMOA Bay, a bay on the S. coaft of Atooi, one of
the Sandwich iflands. N. lat. 21° 57'. E. long. 200° 20'.

WYMONDHAM, or Windham, a market-town in the

hundred

W Y M

W Y N

hundred of Forehoe, and county of Norfolk, England, is
fituated 9 miles W.S.W. from Norwich, on the great road
to London, from which it is diilant loO miles N.E. by E.
This place has been fuppofed to be of Roman origin ; and
fome writers have confidered it as the Sitomagus of the
Itinerary, though there are not the fmalleft traces to fupport
that opinion. The name is purely Saxon ; and the confe-
quence of the town arofe from the ereftion of a monaftery
here in the time of Henry I. A.D. 1 1 30, by William de
Albini, who amply endowed it with lands, which were con-
firmed with additions and privileges annexed by the reign-
ing monarch. From the regifter of St. Alban's, this re-
ligious houfe appears to have been originally founded as a
cell for black monks of the Auguftine order; and its annual
revenues at the diifolution amounted, accarding to Dugdale,
to 211/. 16s. 6d. By the inquifition made at that period,
the monaftery was found in a regular ilate ; and the abbot
and monks in general were declared to have led blamelefs
lives. The abbey-church was a large, handfome, cruciform
building, erefted foon after the year 1 130. It confifted of
a choir, nave, tranfept, north and fouth aifles, with a tower
ftanding in the centre, ftill called the abbey-fteeple, and
another at the weft end. When the monaftery was de-
ftroyed, the fouth aifle, over which were lodgings for fuper-
numerary monks, was demoUfhed : but the king granted the
inhabitants leave to build another. Anxious to preferve
their noble church, they alfo obtained the following parts,
which had been condemned by the aft for removing fuper-
ftitious buildings : — The abbey, fteeple, veftry, monks' lodg-
ings over the fouth aifle, St. Margaret's chapel, the chapel
of the Blefled Virgin, the chapel of St. Thomas a Becket,
and the choir. Thefe were granted on condition that the in-
habitants paid the king for the lead at the rate of 4/. per
fodder, of twenty -four fquare feet.

The prefent church coniifts of a nave with aifles, a large
weftern tower, and another at the interfeftion of the nave
with the tranfepts. The ancient parts of the building dif-
play femicircular arches with ftiort columns, large piers, &c.
which appear to be parts of the original ftrufture. At the
eaft end, and on the fouth fide of the porch, are fome frag-
ments of walls. The north aifle, porch, and towers, are of
a much later ftyle than the nave and fouth aifle. The
church is curious, and highly interefting to the architeftural
antiquary and draughtfman. In it is a large font, orna-
mented with bold fculpture, and raifed on tteps. The re-
mains of the founder were interred in the choir in 1156.
The families of Albini, earls of Arundel, of Knevet, and of
Clifton, are depofited in this church. Several guilds were
founded here, the revenues of which have been appropriated
to other purpofes. Wymondham parifti is extenfive, and
comprehends feveral harnlets, which are called the outfoken
divifion, whilft the town is divided into feveral parts called
the infoken divifion. Many of the inhabitants are em-
ployed in various branches of weaving. The diftinguiflied
family of Wyndham, or Windham, derives its name from
this place.

North of the town is Kimberly-hall, the feat of lord
Wodehoufe. The houfe is feated in an extenfive and beauti-
ful park, which contains a fine piece of water, and fome noble
mafles of foreft-trees. In the houfe is a portrait of Vandyck,
by himfelf, when a young man. — Blomefield's Hiftory, &c.
of Norfolk, 1 1 vols. 8vo. Beauties of England, Norfolk ;
by J. Britton, 8vo. 1809.

Wymondham, a parifti in the hundred of Framland,
county of Leicefter, England, fituated 6 miles E. from
Melton Mowbray, and 104 miles N.N.W. from London.
Vol. XXXVIII.

It is very ancient, and was formerly furrounded with
walls : the inhabitants ftill poffefs an exemption originally
granted to the duchy of Laucafter. In the return of the
year 181 1, the population was ftated to be 437, occupying
81 lioufes.

WYMONDLEY, or Wymondesley, Great, a parifti in
the hundred of Brinkwater, county of Hertford, England,
fituated within three miles E.S.E. from Hitchin. The
manor was given by William the Conqueror to a noble
Norman, named Fitz-beck, by the fervice of grand fer-
geantry ; that the lords of the faid manor ftiould prefent to
the kings of England the firft cup of drink at dinner on the
day of their coronation : the cup becoming the property of
the faid lords. This fervice has continued with the manor :
lieutenant-colonel Cracherood performed the ofiice of cup-
bearer at the coronation of George III. The population
of the parifli was, in the return of 18 1 1, ftated to be 212,
and the number of houfes 46. — Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. vii. Hertfordftiire, by E. W. Brayley.

W^YMONDLEY, or Wymotidejley, Little, is alio a parifti in
the fame hundred, adjoining to Great Wymondley, and
containing, in the year 1811, 34houfes, and 188 inhabitants.
A priory of Auftin canons was founded here by Richard
de Auguftine, in the time of Henry III. : the fcite was
granted to James Needham, gent., clerk of the king's
works, in whofe defcendants it continued till the death of
George Needham, efq. in 1726. It was then fold to Samuel
Vanderplank, efq., and was lately the property of Chrifto-
pher Clitherowlfy, who married Mr. Vanderplank's grand-
daughter.

Wymondley-houfe, in this vicinity, formerly the refidence
of a private gentleman, is now an academy for the educa-
tion of Proteftant Diflenting minifters. This inftitution
originated at Northampton in 1729, by the endowment of
WiUiam Coward, efq. a Weft India merchant. The cele-
brated Dr. Doddridge was the firft tutor, which office he
held twenty-two years. In 1752 the academy was removed
to Daventry, and thence back to Northampton ; and
finally in 1799 to this place, having been previoufly
united with an academy in London, under the fuccefCve
tuition of Mr. Eames, F.R.S., Dr. Jennings, Dr. Savage,
Dr. Kippis, and Dr. Rees, fupported by the fame fund,
and unfortunately for the interefts of literature and fcience
difcontinued. The library contains a valuable aflemblage
of upwards of 10,000 volumes of the beft authors in
divinity, criticifm, clafGcs, mathematics, topographical an-
tiquities, &c. with a cabinet of medals, a colleftion of
natural hiftory, and other curiofities. This valuable hbrary
confifts principally of a rich colleftion of books, bequeathed
by the late Rev. Mr. Miles, F.R.S., and appropriated to
the London Academy, and augmented by numerous pur-
chafes. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii. by
E. W. Brayley. And Private Information.

WYNANTS, John, in Biography, an able and eminent
landfcape-painter, born at Haerlem in 1600. Whether he
were his own inllruftor or not does not appear, or how he
quaUfied himfelf to attain that ftation among the artifts of
his country which he fo juftly holds. His piftures are
taken from the fimple fcenes of nature which furrounded
his birth-place, and which he has reprefented with great
vivacity and reality, though they fometimes are over-
charged in their contrafts of colouring. A fandy bank,
with broken patches of grafs and plants, with ftunted trees
befide it, and a winding road paffing over the bank, prefents
from his pencil an agreeable and interefting effeft. Some-
times we find the entrance of a wood, with a cottage or hovel
^ I befide

44.4079

W Y O

befiie it, treated by him with great attention to the varied
effeA of colour in nature, and a dexterous management of
chiaro-ofcura ; and always with the mod free and fliilful
touch, though generally upon a fmall fcale. As he painted
with facility, his works are not rare, though they bear a
good price when in perfeft prefervation. Wynants efta-
bliftied an academy, which produced many excellent
painters. Amonff others of great celebrity, were Adiian
Vandevelde and Philip Wouvermans, both of whom occa-
fionally embellifhed their mailer's piaures with figures.
He died in 1670, aged 70. He left numerous beautiful
etchings of landfcapes.

WYNNE, Mrs. Cassandra Frederica, the fineft
harpfichord player of her time. She was the daughter of
fignora Pompeati, the fecond female finger in Gluck's opera
pf " La Caduta de Giganti," performed in 1746, on the
fupprelTion of the rebellion ; but though (he nominally per-
formed the part of fecond woman, (he afted and fang in fo
mafeuline and violent a manner, that no female fymptoms
were difcoverable. But this lady was better known after-
wards by the name of Madame Cornellys, whofe concerts,
ridottas, aflfemblies, and mafquerades, in Soho-fquare, were
the gaieft and moft fafhionable amufements in London
during many years.

The little Frederica, daughter of the Pompeati, was an
eleve of Paradie's, (fome fay his daughter,) and the fir ft
early player, the neateft, and the beft which had ever ap-
peared in our country during infancy, performing at fix
years old, with the utmoft precinon and firmnefs, propped
up by cufhions, the whole book of her matter's twelve ex-
cellent lefTons, probably compofed exprefsly as progreffive
exercifes for her ufe, with many leffons by Scarlatti and
Alberti.

In 1769, when grown up, fhe went into Italy, where ftie
was the wonder and fubjeft of eloge in that mother and feat
of arts. We have often heard her perform at different
periods of her life, and continued to think her improved to
the laft.

Wynne, , efq., a Yorkihire gentleman, one of the

beft dilettanti performers on the violin that we have heard.
Hewasamanoffortune, andof an ancient family. Togratify
his paflion for mufic, he went into Italy early in life, where
he married, and remained in different great cities till he had
almoft totally forgotten his mother-tongue. He likewife
travelled through Germany, and having two daughters, he
had always a mufic-mafter on his eftabhfhment, not only to
inftruft them, but to accompany himfelf. When he wa«
laft in England, he had Pfeifer with him for thefe purpofes,
a worthy German, and an excellent mufician and performer
on feveral inftruments, who died in London of a confump-
tion.

Befides being a good performer on the violin, Mr. Wynne
had ftudied compofition fufficiently to compofe trios, which
were far above the common run of trios at that time in
point of tafte and invention, and well put together.

WYNSBACH, in Geography, a town of Auftria ; 4
miles E. of Schwannaftatt.

WYNSTER. See Winster.

WYOMING, a fettlement and fort on the river Suf-
quehanna. In the year 1778, this fort was attacked by a
party of Britifh and Indians. The garrifon were foon
overpowered, and fell a prey to Indian barbarity ; after a
bloody militsry execution of a great part, the reft were ftiut
lip in the barracks, to which they fet fire, and confumed the
whole ; 2 miles above Wilkeft)arre.

W Y T

WYONOKE Creek, a river of North Carolina, which
runs into the fea, N. lat. 36" jc/.

WYRARDSBURY, or Wraysbhry, a parifh in the
hundred of Stoke, and county of Buckingham, England, is
fituated near the banks of the Thames, 3 miles S.W. from
Colnebrooke, and 3 miles N.W. from Staines, Middlefex.
The manor belonged to the priory of Ankerwyke, in the
fame parifh, which was founded in the reign of Henry II.
for Benediftine nuns by Gilbert de Montfichet and his fon
Richard. In 1538 the priory was given to Bifham abbey,
and after the difTolution it was granted to lord Windfor.
Having afterwards reverted to the crown in exchange, it was
given by Edward VI. in 1540 to fir Thomas Smith, the
celebrated ftatefman, who refided at Ankerwyke. It was
afterwards for many years the feat of the Salter family, of
whom it was purchafed by the Lees ; and by marriage
with an heirefs came into the pofTefTion of fir Philip Har-
court, anceftor of the prefent proprietor, John Simon Har-
court, efq. There are no remains of the conventual build-
ings. Soon after the difTolution a manfion was built on the
fcite by lord Windfor, or fir Thomas Smith : the hall of
this manfion ftill remains. Near the houfe is a remarkably
large yew-tree, which at fix feet from the ground meafurei
thirty feet five inches in girth. In the parifli-church are
monuments of the Harcourt family ; and alfo of Thomas
Wright, efq. and Thomas Gill, efq. aldermen of London,
who died within a fortnight of each other in the year 1798.
The population return of the year 181 1 ftates this parifh to
contain 120 houfes, and 560 inhabitants. The parifh was
inclofed by an aft of parliament paffed in the year 1799 : a
parcel of the wafte was allotted for the purpofe of holding
a fair on the Friday in Whitfun week, purfuant to ancient
cuftom.— Lyfons's Magna Britannia, vol. i. Buckingham-
(hire.

WYRE, a river of Lancafhire, which runs into the Irifh
fea, 9 miles W. of Garftang. N. lat. 53° 53'. W. long.
2° 56'. — Alfo, a river of France, which joins the Semoy,
3 miles E. of Chiny.

WYRIL Point, a cape of England, on the coaft of
Durham. N. lat. 55° 3'.

WYSAUKING Creek, a river of Pennfylvania, which
runs into the E. branch of the Sufquehanna, N. lat. 41° 46'.
W. long. 76' 27'.

WYSOCKS, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of Luzerne, containing 619 inhabitants.

WYSOKIE, a town of Lithuania, iu the palatinate of
Brzefk ; j 6 miles N. of Brzefk.

WYSTIEZE, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefk ; 8 miles N.E. of Brzefk.

WYSZOCK, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brze/k ; 44 miles S.E. of Pinfe.

WYTA, or Wita Plena, fignified a forfeiture of a hun-
dred and twenty fhillings. " Si pundbreche fiat in curia
regis, plena wita fit ; alibi, quinque marcae."

To fwear according to the wyte, fecundum lu'ttam jurare,
was to purge one's felf by the oaths of fo many witneffes, as
the nature of the crime, and the punifhment, or wyte, did
require.

Hence, alfo, blood-wite, leger<wlte,ferdwUe, cllUtu'tte, tuard-
wite, &c. See Y^KVi-Wite, CH\l.Ti-Wite, &c.

WYTE, Wyta, or WiTE, Wita, in our ^Indent Cuf-
toms, a pecuniary penalty, or mulft.

" Jurat fecundum witam, quod nee fuerat furti confcius,
nee coadjutor in eo." Leg. Ins.

The Saxons had two kinds of punifhments, were and
ivyte ; the firft for the more grievous offences.

The

W Y T

The tityte was for the lefs heinous ones. It was not
fixed to any certain fum ; but left at liberty, to be varied
according to the cafe.

Hence alfo nvyte, or wttree, one of the terms of privi-
'"^g*^ granted our fportfmen ; fignifying a freedom or im-
munity from fines or amerciaments : or, as it is vulgarly
conceived, from being liable to be begged for fools, for lack
of wit.

WYTHE, io Law, the fame at waif.

W Z E

Wythe, in Geography, a county of Virginia, between
the river Kanhawa and North Carolina, with 8356 iuba-
bitaiits, including 1157 flaves.

WYTHERS. See Withers.

WYTOOTACKEE, in Geography, an illand in the
South Pacific ocean, about 10 miles in circumference ; dif-

S. lat. 18° C2'. E.

covered by captain Bligh in 1789.
long. 200° 19'.

WZETIN. SeeU.SETiN

END OF VOL. XXXV in.

I'r'nied liy A. Strahan,
Neiv-Sirert-Square, LoDilon.

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might,

.IS sweet lay,
rude He lay;
aster Day,
jhe.-,t.

grief and pain,
n again,
veetest strain,
ghest .

; we too,
nd voice anew,
lad and true,
ghest. Amen.

:e.

er hath left me to
that she help me.
d said unto her.
!fui and troubled

1 : and Mar\* hath
shall not be taken

r In heart •••
S needfnl.M

lere ?pokbn of as
ng needful " wa3

irit that iva'5 not
the Lord Jcsns,
nim^ to and re-
did frsu make?
'ul *" Why is it

Ou sitting- at the
> to his words ?
ag needful— the

ne above ;

/

. his boundless love

His low accents of cheer,

And wonderful words so wise.

/ .ach stanza :
"ose the " one thinp needful j'
Let us choose the ^etter part ;
Let us give unto our Saviour
Each a loving, fajthfi-j heart. ."(

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