© \sssesmieetenne 3
. Dairy prepotency.—As shown by having a great
deal of vigor, style, alertness, and resolute
appearance’ .. <5. =» .) = = 9) (see 15
. Rudimentaries and milk veins.—Rudimentaries
of good size, squarely and broadly placed in
front of and free fromscrotum. Milk veins prom-
Ment. . ss is & 1s, ee ese oot 10
: Indicating color of milk in offspring.—Skin deep
yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base
of horns and body generally ; hoofs amber-
colored.) «6 ciel aus os 6 6 re 15
. Symmetry and size (22)
Color of hair a shade of fawn, with white mark-
ings. Cream-colored nose. Horns amber-col-
ored, curving and not coarse ......-. 8
Size for the breed :—Mature bulls, four years
old or over, about 1,500 pounds. . .... 4
General appearance as indicative of the power
to beget animals of strong dairy qualities. . 10
Perfection
CATTLE
EXPLANATORY NOTES BY COMMITTEE
“We recognize that the Guernsey should be—
(1) A dairy animal with a distinctive dairy tempera-
ment and conformation, having a strong, nervy structure
with a corresponding flow of nervous energy, and every
indication of capacity and vitality.
(2) In color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white on
limbs and under part of body, are considered the prevail-
ing markings, and some degree of uniformity is desirable.
(8) One of the important distinguishing features of
the breed is the presence of a yellow color in the pigment
of the skin, which is indicative of rich golden color in the
milk. This is very pronounced in the Guernsey and held
by her to the greatest extent under all conditions of stab-
ling and feed. The intensity of this trait is more marked
in some animals and families than in others, but it should
be kept at the highest standard. It is fast being recog-
nized that this color is accompanied by a superior flavor
in the milk and thus in the butter.
Dairy temperament
“By ‘dairy temperament’ is meant a strong, overruling
pre-disposition or tendency to turn the consumption of
food towards the production of milk with a high content
of solids, especially butter-fat, as against the constitu-
tional tendency, so often seen, to turn food into flesh.
Hyen in the strongest dairy breeds there are more or less
frequent out-crops in male and female of the flesh-making
temperament. To breed from such animals, while we are
striving to establish a prepotent dairy temperament or
tendency, is not wise. All cattle bred specifically for
dairy purposes should possess a clear and decided dairy
temperament, for it is that quality of character we most
desire to establish, enlarge and perpetuate in the Guern-
sey cow.
“This is especially indicated by the shape of the head,
showing brain capacity, wide muzzle, open nostril, full,
bright eyes, feminine neck, and a construction of the back-
bone indicating a strong flow of nerve-power and support
from the brain to all of the maternal organs.
Constitution
“Tn breeding our domestic animals, especially for long
service like the dairy cow, it is very important that they
should have abundant vital power, which we call ‘consti-
tution.’ But constitution must be judged and measured
by the peculiar function the animal is bred to fulfil. With
the race-horse the function is speed; with the steer, the
laying on of flesh; with the dairy cow, the production of
milk solids. In all these various functions, the animal
that is to represent any one of them must show not only
large capacity in the line of that function, but also the
ability to endure long and well the strain of such func-
tion, and keep in good health. Constitution is best indi-
cated by a full development at the navel, and strong
abdominal walls, showing that the animal, when in a pre-
natal state, was abundantly nourished by the mother
through a well-developed umbilical cord.
Prepotency
“Tn the scale for bulls, for the first time, we believe, in
the history of dairy breeds, this point is introduced. The
reason we have included it is that ‘prepotency’ is the
chief consideration in the selection of a male breeding
animal. The pedigree and conformation is often all that
can be desired, but because the bull is lacking in prepo-
tent breeding power he is an expensive failure. This
quality is, in a sense, difficult to perceive or describe, but
we know certain animals have it in high degree and others
fail of it completely. It is fairly well indicated by vigor
CATTLE 349
of appearance, strong resolute bearing and abundant
hervous energy. We would distinguish this from an ugly
disposition. A bull is ugly by the way he is handled
rather than by his breeding. What we want is strong
impressive blood. A dull sluggish spirit and action, we
consider indicative of a lack of true dairy prepotency, but
we would prefer to breed to a rather sluggish-appearing
bull with first-class rudimentaries than to a stylish one
with badly placed rudimentaries.
Rudimentary teats
“We consider that a well-balanced and well-shaped udder
in the cow is largely due to the way the rudimentary teats
are placed. on the sire. If they are crowded close together
the result is likely to be narrow, pointed udders. If they
are placed well apart, of good size and well forward of
the scrotum, the effect, we think, will be to influence
largely the production of well-shaped udders in the result-
ing heifers, and counteract the tendency to ill-shaped
udders inheritable from dams deficient in this respect.
We believe the future excellence of the Guernsey cow
will be greatly aided by close attention on the part of her
breeders to this point.”
The temperament of both the bulls and cows of
this breed is very quiet and uniform. The bulls are
very tractable and the cows have been developed
and handled on the Island in a way that would
indicate gentleness and quietude.
History.
The Guernsey breed of cattle originated and
was developed on the island of Guernsey, which
is one of the Channel islands. The foundation of
the breed lay in the admixture of the large, red
Normandy, and the little black Brittainy breeds,
which were brought from the neighboring coast of
France to the Island. It has been generally accepted
that the large red Normandy males predominated
in crossing on the little black Brittainy cows on
Guernsey, and that the Guernsey takes many of its
characteristics from the Normandy breed. The
fact that for nearly one hundred years no live
cattle have been permitted to come on the Island,
is enough to say that the breed has remained pure,
and been bred by itself without admixture of for-
eign blood. The Royal Guernsey Agricultural and
Horticultural Society is largely responsible for the
improvement of the breed.
Little more can be said of the history of the
breed on the Island. The shrewd, careful, sturdy
islander, while zealously guarding the purity of
the breed, paid little attention to the breeding and
development of his cattle. In fact, on the Island,
the glasshouse and bu:b industry supplanted that
of the cows in the islander’s mind. The cattle were
never bred to the dictate of fashion, but developed
by themselves into a hardy, sturdy breed, commonly
spoken of as “the old-time yellow and white cow—
the farmer’s cow.”
In America.—In 1818, a pair of cattle were
secured from the island of Alderney, by Reuben
Haines, of Germantown, Pennsylvania. These may
have been Guernseys. The first definite record
of importation of Guernseys into this country
was about 1833, when a sea captain, stopping
at the island, brought to this country a pair of
350 CATTLE
young animals that were sent to his brother on
what is known as Cow island, in Lake Winnepe-
saukee, New Hampshire. Traces of this importation
are still to be found in some Guernseys in that state.
Guernseys were introduced into private dairies
around Philadelphia as early as 1840, and are still
to be found in the dairies of some of those families
who first introduced them there. About
1865, a few Guernseys were brought over
by the Fowlers, who were importing Jer-
seys, and in some herds animals can be
traced to the importations of that period.
In June, 1871, Mr. James M. Codman, now
President of the American Guernsey Cattle
Club, selected eight cows and a bull on the island
of Guernsey, and imported them. These few cows
made a high reputation for themselves, and a
number of owners of gentlemen’s estates near
Boston were attracted by their merits. This led
the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agricul-
ture to send, in 1874, one of their members to
import a herd, which was maintained by the Society
for a short time, and then sold at auction to its
members. This was followed by a number of Con-
necticut farmers joining together, and sending a
representative to the Island to bring over a ship-
ment. These importations laid the foundation of
the Guernsey in this country, and led to the estab-
lishment of the herd register.
The first real public introduction of the breed
was in connection with the dairy test conducted
by the New York and New Jersey Agricultural
Experiment Stations, when the various breeds
were tried, and the Guernsey made a most credit-
able record, the figures showing them to be the
most economical producers of cream and butter,
ranking the lowest in cost of food to produce a
pound of butter-fat, and in the cost of food for
maintenance for a year. The Guernseys and the
ges
ay AN npr
Guernsey cow. Sultana of Paxtang 8732.
Advanced Registry No. 28.
6 Scape 5
Fig. 375.
sister Channel island breed (the Jersey), stood first
in the annual production of butter, and the profit
resulting from sale of cream. Their next appear-
ance was at the World’s Columbian Exposition at
Chicago, in 1893, where amidst rules and conditions
CATTLE
which failed to credit the breed fully on some
of its special characteristics, yet the Guernseys
ranked ahead on flavor and had the advantage on
color of butter, and, as in the Experiment Station
trials, stood with the Jerseys in the front rank as
butter-producers. The last public appearance of
the breed was at the Pan-American Exposition at
Guernsey bull. Benjamin 1931. Advanced
Registry No. 2.
Fig. 374.
Buffalo, where after a careful six months’ test, the
Guernseys were awarded the first prize for the
greatest net profit in the production of butter-fat,
and also in the production of churned butter. The
Guernsey cows in this trial made butter at the
lowest cost per pound, and returned the greatest
profit in butter-production for the investment of
feed. They also ranked in the production of total
solids next to the heavier milking breeds. Group-
ing the cows in this test as a whole, the Guernsey
cow, Mary Marshall, made the greatest net profit
of any cow in production of butter, and viewed
from the same standpoint, we find three of the five
Guernseys among the best five cows in the en-
tire fifty.
Distribution.
The even temperament of Guernsey cattle
has been very conducive to the adaptability of
the breed to the various climates and conditions
of the world at large. They are found mainly on
Guernsey island, in England, Canada and the
United States. The only hindrance to their wide-
spread introduction has been the fact that for the
last few years there have not been enough animals
to supply the demand. At the present time they
are largely on private estates and where high-
class dairy products are demanded. There are few
persons, if any, at the present time breeding
Guernseys from the speculative standpoint. They
will be found largely in New England, through
New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and in
Ohio, through Wisconsin and eastern Minnesota, al-
though there are a number scattered throughout
California, Virginia and the Carolinas.
Uses.
For milk, cream and butter—The chief charac-
teristic of the Guernsey is her economical production
CATTLE
of the highest natural colored milk, cream and but-
ter. In this she has excelled and proved herself in
all impartial trials. In England, and to a growing
extent in this country, there is an impression that
with this natural high color of her products there
is a special and very desirable flavor. While the
Guernsey is preéminently a cream and butter breed,
it has been found within the last few years that
the color and flavor of her milk, combined with a
good amount which she is able to produce, has
placed her a favorite in catering to the choicest
trade in the sale of milk and cream. Today, in
nearly all our largest towns and cities, this trade
will be found supplied with the products of full-
blood and grade Guernseys.
This characteristic has appealed to two classes of
dairymen — the progressive ones who are producing
strictly high-class dairy products for a critical
trade, from which the highest returns are secured,
and those who desire the best flavored and colored
milk, cream and butter for use on their private
estate. To the former, the fact that in impartial
trials the Guernsey has shown greater returns for
a dollar invested in food when cream or butter, and
even high-grade milk, is produced, is sufficient to
win for her a good trial. Wherever her golden-
colored products are shown they are sure to win
recognition. Numerous instances can be cited in
which the products of herds of Guernseys are sup-
plying such markets. A good grade Guernsey cow
is eagerly sought in the higher-class dairies.
The American Guernsey Cattle Club was the first
to establish an advanced register on a yearly basis.
During the few years that this has been established,
the records of 579 cows and young heifers have
been followed. The average of these is a good
index of the capability of the breed. These records
show an ayerage year’s yield of 8,000 pounds of
milk, 408 pounds of butter-fat, and 5.08 per cent
of butter-fat. During this time the highest records
made have been 17,297 pounds of milk, and 857
pounds of butter-fat. The latter is equivalent to
1,000 pounds of butter. There can. be no better
indication of what a breed is capable of doing,
than what it will do year in and year out. A cow
that will average five years in succession 12,000
pounds of 5 per cent milk, and this determined by
public supervision, is most creditable. This has
been done by a Guernsey.
For cheese—The composition of Guernsey milk
adapts it for the preparation of high-grade cheese,
but because of the demand for the milk, cream and
butter, it is not used largely for cheese-making.
For beef—While a distinctively dairy breed,
the size of the Guernsey allows her easily to be con-
verted as a young animal, cr when past her useful-
ness as a milker, into beef. There are few prettier
sights than those seen in the meat division of the
great market of St. Petersport on the island of
Guernsey, and this testifies what can be done with
the breed in this respect.
For crossing.—The prepotency of the Guernsey
bull, or his ability to stamp the desirable character-
istics of tne breed on his offspring, makes him most
valuable for improving the common dairy stock of
CATTLE 351
any section. If he is employed intelligently, he
will get grade cows yielding rich milk, and pos-
sessing good constitution and productivity.
Organizations and records.
The Royal Guernsey Agricultural and Horticul-
tural Society directs the interests of the breed on
Guernsey island. It maintains a herdbook for general
registration. In 1885, the English Guernsey Cattle
Society was organized. It issues a herdbook. The
American Guernsey Cattle Club was organized in
1877. It has published sixteen volumes of the herd
register, and there were recorded in October,
1907, 12,496 males and 23,330 females. Nearly
three-fourths of the animals have been placed in
the herd register since the World’s Columbian
Exposition in 1893. Since 1895, the register has
been issued in quarterly parts, and is known as the
American Guernsey Herd Register and Breeders’
Journal. A department of the herd register is
maintained as an advanced register. It now con-
tains the names of over 600 animals. At the present
time there are about 240 active members of the
American Guernsey Cattle Club, and some 1,100
breeders of Guernseys. The headquarters of the
club are at Peterboro, New Hampshire.
Literature.
Hazard, The Jersey, Alderney and Guernsey Cow,
Philadelphia (1872); herd register of the American
Guernsey Cattle Club. [For further references, see
page 302.]
Hereford Cattle. Figs. 132, 376, 377.
By Charles Gudgell.
The Hereford is a breed of cattle raised for the
production of beef.
Description.
The most distinctive feature of the Hereford to
the ordinary observer is his color markings, or the
distribution over the body of the red and white
colors. The head, including jaws and throat, is
white, with white under the neck, down the breast,
under the belly and more or less on legs. The bush
of the tail is also white, and there is a white strip
on the top of the neck from about the middle thereof
to the top of the shoulders. The body, sides of
the neck, and usually some parts of the legs, are
red. The red in different animals varies from very
light or yellow-red, as it is termed, to very dark
red. An animal is classed in point of color as a
light red, a medium red, or a dark red. The forego-
ing is the popular distribution of the colors of the
Hereford, yet there is sometimes a considerable
variation therefrom in different animals. While as
a breed of cattle they are very uniform in confor-
mation and color markings, yet they do not have
by any means the same degree of uniformity as the
self-colored undomesticated animals.
The head of the Hereford is short, with broad
forehead ; the eyes are full and not sunken; the
horns are usually rather strong and of a whitish yel-
low color, free from black tips, in the best types,
352 CATTLE
and come forward with a more or less drooping
tendency ; the neck is short and thick, merging
smoothly into the shoulders, free from surplus skin
in the under parts; the hide is heavy, loose and
very pliable, and covered with a dense, soft coat of
hair. The body of a well-fattened Hereford should
be free from any paunchiness. The breast should
b> broad and full, but free from loose dewlap, the
shoulders smoothly laid and broad on top, but not
too open between the blades. The crops should be
wide, the ribs well sprung and extending well back-
ward, the loin broad and of good length, the hook-
bones by no means prominent, but down within the
lines of the ribs, the tail-head on a line with the
level of the back, and the rump-bones wide apart
and well up, so as not to present a drooping appear-
ance. The legs should be short, straight, strong in
bone and set well apart. The line of the back
should be practically straight and level from top
of shoulders to the tail-head. The quarters should
be full and well rounded, and the outlines of the
animal, when viewed from the side, should present
a somewhat box-like appearance, and from the end
more that of a barrel.
The Hereford has great length and thickness of
loin, and all the bones of his frame are so well cov-
ered that they can scarcely be felt through the
thick covering of flesh. Along his back from shoul-
der to rump his spine is so deeply buried in flesh
that the vertebre are not perceptible to the touch
except at the small indentations, commonly called
ties, near the middle of the back. These ties, usu-
ally one to three in number, are the attachments of
the skin to a few of the forward lumbar vertebra,
and are common to all cattle. The indentations are
caused by the up-lifting of the skin surrounding
the tie by a great deposit of flesh along the spinal
column. When of a pronounced character, these
ties are not looked on with much favor by the
breeders of fancy Herefords, as they detract some-
what from the smooth, rounded appearance of the
body, although they are a very reliable indication
of the great depth of flesh that covers the frame of
the animal. Breeders sometimes loosen these ties
in animals they are fitting for exhibition by a
slight surgical operation, that is not of very diffi-
cult execution, whereby the depression in the skin
disappears and leaves the back perfectly smooth
and even.
The coat of hair of the Hereford is regarded by
the breeders as a feature of much importance. The
preference is that it should be long, soft and curly,
as indicative of a certain degree of quality in the
animal. Such coats are regarded as furnishing
some protection against cold in winter and, in
some animals, a protection against flies in summer.
At the great fairs and other shows, much care is
taken by the Hereford exhibitors to have the coats
of their animals properly cleaned and manipulated,
so as to present a curly appearance and set off the
form of the animal to the best advantage.
The most valuable characteristic of the Hereford
is his disposition to accumulate flesh at all ages.
The Hereford is almost universally credited with
being a superior rustler under range conditions,
CATTLE
His ability to withstand rigorous conditions is due
mostly to his capacity and diligence in laying up
stores of flesh during the season of plenty on which
he may draw in a season of want. The superior
fleshing disposition of the Hereford has been demon-
strated many times in the feed-lots of the corn-
belt, where large numbers of the grades of all
breeds are collected and fed for market under like
conditions, and the Herefords are the first to be
shipped to the market.
The American Hereford Cattle Breeders’ Associa-
tion has never adopted a scale of points for judging
purposes.
History.
The Hereford breed of cattle originated in the
southwestern part of England, in a district the
center of which is the county of Hereford. It
doubtless had its foundation in the native cattle of
that district in the same way that the other Eng-
lish breeds of domestic cattle had their origin.
The name Hereford was at first used to designate
the cattle generally of that district. These cattle
were historically mentioned at a very early date
(1627), as possessed of remarkably easy-keeping
and fattening qualities. Later the term Hereford
came to be used to designate the improved and
pedigreed cattle that had been developed into a
race with well-established breed characteristics
that were reliably transmitted. Many of the early
breeders had different objects or ideals in breed-
ing, with the result that the Hereford cattle of
that day had a great diversity of color as well as
of physical features.
The colors that predominated among Hereford
cattle at the time of the preparation of the first
volume of the herdbook of Hereford cattle (about
1845) were varying shades of red on the body with
white face, and the same with mottled or spotted
face, and also varying degrees of roan or gray, as
it was called, on the sides of the animal, with all
the other parts white. In the establishment of the
improved and pedigreed Herefords, different breed-
ers manifested a preference for animals of one or
the other of these markings, and each zealously
maintained the same during his breeding opera-
tions. The result of this was that, about 1845, there
were several different strains of Hereford cattle
that were distinguished mainly by their color
markings, and were designated by the name of
some prominent breeder, who had originated or
was closely connected with the development of this
particular strain. Subsequent breeders very wisely
interbred these different strains or families, with
the result that in a few years the breed became of
a uniform color and markings, as of the present
day.
The Hereford is among the oldest, if not the old-
est established of the English breeds of domestic
cattle. Some of its early improvers were con-
temporary, and some antecedent to the operations
of Bakewell, who began his great work as a scien-
tific breeder about 1755. As an evidence of the
importance and advancement of the Hereford in
production of beef at an early date, it may be cited
CATTLE
that the prize for the champion steer over all
breeds at the first show of the Smithfield Club held
at London in 1799 was won by a Hereford steer,
and the same for several subsequent years. At a
dispersion sale by auction of the breeding herd of
one of the early improvers of the Hereford, held in
_
ee
Bee
Fig. 376. Hereford bull. Dandy Rex 71689.
1819, the average of the sale was about $750 per
head.
In America.—Importations of a few head of
Herefords were made to America in 1817, 1824,
and 1840. The first two of these importations were
unfortunate in that in one case the bull died, and
in the other the cow died. The difficulties and risks
attending the making of importations of cattle at
that time were so great that no attempt was made
to keep up the race, and the result was that they
became merged into other stocks and disappeared.
The importation of 184Q was somewhat larger and
more successful in that the cattle were maintained
in their purity and pedigree records were kept.
The descendants of this importation have continued
to the present day and are registered in the Ameri-
can Hereford Record.
It was not until the Centennial Exposition at
Philadelphia, in 1876 that the cattle-growers of
the western part of the United States were at-
tracted to the visible merits of this breed of
cattle. A very attractive herd of the descendants
of later importations was on exhibition on this
occasion. To nearly all of the cattle-men of the
West the Hereford was an unheard-of breed, and
their uniformity, color and markings, together
with their beef-carrying qualities, were revela-
tions to them. As the cattle-growing interests
were at that time assuming enormous proportions
in the country west of the Missouri river, these
visiting cattle-men were the more easily prevailed
on to give the Herefords a trial under their system
of production.
Tn the few succeeding years all the bulls obtain-
able of this breed were bought and shipped to
different parts of the range country from Wyom-
ing to Texas. It was then developed that the
Hereford bull, when bred to range-bred cows,
transmitted to his progeny his breed characteris-
tics to a great degree, and ranchmen proceeded at
once to make arrangements to introduce Hereford
hulls into their herds. The popularity of the
C 28
CATTLE 303
breed steadily grew and spread throughout the
cattle-growing sections, and it soon became evident
that they were impressing their characters on tne
improved range stock. This wave of popularity
has not been confined to the cattle-growers of the
United States, but has overflowed the borders into
Mexico and Canada and now bids fair to
leave a similar impress on the beef-produ-
cing herds of those countries.
For some years the appreciation of the
Herefords was based mainly on their ability
to withstand hardships and produce beef on
grass and under the rigorous conditions of
the range. Later, when the conditions on
the ranges had changed somewhat, the
range-raised grade Hereford steers found
their way into the feed-lots of the corn-
growing states, where they gave an even
better account of themselves in the matter
of quick-feeding, economy of production, and
quality of product when finished, than they
did on the ranges, At first only steers two
years old and over were admitted to the feed-
lots, but later high-grade steer calves of this breed
were taken directly from the range into the feed-
lots. This opened up a new field in the production
of high-class beef. The experiments in full-feeding *
high-grade calves were so satisfactory that a great
demand for this class of feeding cattle has resulted.
The calves are taken from their mothers on the
range at weaning age in the fall and are shipped
directly to the feed-lots, where they are full-fed
and grazed for about twelve months. Then, as
yearlings, they go to market weighing 1,000 to
1,200 pounds, where they are known as “baby
beef,” a product that is not produced so success-
fully and profitably from the grades of any other
breed of cattle than the Hereford.
Wt
a
Fig. 377.
Hereford cow. Lady Matchless 2d.
At the time that Hereford bulls were introduced
on the ranches, herds of pure-bred Herefords in
America were few in number and small in size, so
that they were unable more than partially to sup-
ply this demand, with the result. that Hereford
bulls were high in price. This awakened a lively
interest in the breed, such as had not been experi-
enced, and a number of new herds were established.
To supply the demand for bulls, importations of
breeding herds were made from England in such
numbers and in such rapid succession in the years
354 CATTLE
1880 to 1886, that it looked as though the regis-
tered stock in the place of their origin, which
were never very large, would become exhausted.
During this period several thousand head were
imported and many new herds were established,
mainly in the cattle-feeding states. Herefords
were exhibited at all the leading fairs. A fat-stock
show was inaugurated at Chicago in 1879, and a
few years later another at Kansas City, Mo. Steers
were secured from the supply available and exhib-
ited with remarkable success. While the Herefords
were able to secure a goodly share of the prizes in
the older classes and in the champion rings at these
fat-stock shows, yet it was soon observed that they”
were nearly always successful in the younger
classes.
Owing to the shortness of the legs, and general
roundness of body of the Herefords, they are fre-
quently misjudged as to their weight, and are gener-
ally thought to be smaller in size than some of the
other beef breeds of cattle. A comparison of the
official weights of the prize-winners in the classes
for Herefords and Shorthorns at the now American
Royal Live-Stock Show at Kansas City, Missouri,
showed practically no difference in the average
weights of the prize-winners in the classes for bulls
and cows two years old and over. But in the
classes for calves and yearlings, the average
weights were always decidedly in favor of the
Herefords.
Although in the importations of breeding Here-
fords that were made in the year 1880 to 1886, all
the animals imported were not high-class speci-
mens, there were among them many of the very
best cattle both individually and in breeding to be
had in England. From individuals of these impor-
tations have been developed families or strains
that have become very popular. On the foun-
dation of these importations the American breeder
has made a very great improvement in the confor-
mation of the Hereford.
Distribution.
The Hereford has been introduced and used
extensively in most parts of the world where
attempts have been made to improve the cattle
grown mainly for beef purposes. They were in use
in considerable numbers in Australia and New Zea-
land some years before they were brought to
America to any extent. Large herds of registered
Herefords are now established in these countries,
and a herdbook society has been organized that
publishes a registry for the breed in that section.
Some years ago an importation of Herefords was
made from Australia to California for the founda-
tion of a herd in that state. The Herefords have
been taken to several of the South American
countries, mainly to Argentina and Uruguay.
In recent years some Herefords have been taken
to Cuba and Porto Rico, to some of the Central
American states and to the Sandwich islands,
where they are reported as doing extremely well.
The breed is preéminently adapted to the range,
with its vicissitudes of cold and scant vegetation.
For this reason, in the United States they are
CATTLE
found mainly west of the Mississippi, although herds
are maintained in New England. It has already been
said that the breed has made its way into Canada
and Mexico.
Feeding. :
The strong point with the Hereford in the pro-
duction of beef is his ability to grow and develop
on grass alone. He was developed in a great graz-
ing district, and his first reputation was based on
his capacity for converting grass into beef. While
he surpasses other breeds as a grazier, he is equally
prominent in the feed-lot. All cattle feeds are
acceptable to him, and he responds as promptly as
any to a ration of grain. In the production of
high-class Herefords for breeding purposes, it is
essential that they should have the best of feed
and care, for such cattle cannot be produced
otherwise.
Uses.
For milk.—This breed makes no claim to milk-
production, and no efforts have been made in
America to develop this faculty.
For beef.—Hereford cattle are primarily beef
animals, and in this capacity they stand in the first
rank. They are especially valuable for the produc-
tion of “baby beef.” In the matter of early natur-
ity, they are unexcelled.
Organizations and records.
The first organization of the breeders of Here-
ford cattle in America was the Breeders’ Live-Stock
Association, organized in 1878, at Beecher, Ill. It
undertook the publication of a monthly periodical
called the Breeders’ Journal, which was devoted
mainly to presenting the merits of Hereford cattle.
At the same time it inaugurated a herdbook — the
American Hereford Record, Volume I of which
appeared in 1880, and Volume II in 1882. In 1883,
it disbanded, having sold its interest in this Record
to the American Hereford Cattle Breeders’ Associa-
tion, which was organized at Chicago, IIl., in June
1881, and was incorporated under the laws of Illi-
nois in 1883. At the second meeting of this Asso-
ciation, in November, 1881, the total enrollment of
breeders as members numbered thirty-four. In
1883, it purchased the copyright and unsold copies
of Volumes I and II of the American Hereford
Record. It continued the publication of the herd-
books, and thirty volumes have been published to
date. There are now over 3,200 members in the
Association.
The entry numbers in the American Hereford
Record at the time of its purchase by its present
owners were a little over 6,000. These numbers
were assigned to both male and female entries, and
were very largely of ancestors of cattle owned in
America. At the present time the number of
entries is nearly 275,000. The rules do not require
an entry to be made until the animal is nearly two
years old, although the application for entrance
must be filed with the office before the animal is
six months old. The number of entries annually
made at the present time is almost 30,000, which
CATTLE
fairly represents the annual increase that reach a
breeding age. The office of the American Hereford
Cattle Breeders’ Association is in Kansas City, Mo.
The Hereford Herdbook of England appeared in
1846, of which thirty-eight volumes have been
issued. The Hereford Herdbook Society of Eng-
land was organized in 1878, since which time it
has been responsible for the publication of the
herdbook. A herdbook society has been organized
and a registry published for the Hereford breeders
of Australia and New Zealand. Herdbooks have
also been established for the breed in Argentina
and Uruguay.
DOUBLE-STANDARD POLLED HEREFORDS
Since the introduction into the United States of
the polled breeds of cattle from Scotland, the horn-
less feature in cattle has found favor with some
of the breeders and admirers of the Hereford. The
fact that Hereford feeding steers that have been
artificially made polled or dehorned are so much
preferred in the feed-lots to those that are horned
has led a few breeders to undertake to establish a
strain of registered Herefords that are naturally
polled or hornless. This has been accomplished in
the case of the Shorthorn breed of cattle, and is in
a fair way to be realized in the Hereford. How-
ever desirable the hornless feature may or may
not be (there is a great difference of opinion among
breeders on this subject), the elimination of the
horns from the Hereford by a natural process has
been no easy undertaking. Of the more than 240,-
000 registered Herefords that have been bred in
this country in the past quarter of a century,
a very few, possibly less than twenty head from
horned sire and dam, have been naturally polled.
The great rarity of sports of this kind among the
Herefords has made the establishment of a strain
of registered polled Herefords a slow and difficult
undertaking. However, several breeders are now
devoting themselves to this work with considerable
enthusiasm and some degree of success. At the
present time there are about one hundred head
of all ages of naturally polled Herefords that
are registered in the American Hereford Record.
These polled Herefords are denominated by their
breeders Double-Standard Polled Herefords, to dis-
tinguish them from a class of polled cattle that
are registered in the herdbook for polled Herefords
exclusively, but are not eligible to record in the
American Hereford Record.
The difficulties that the breeders of polled Here-
fords have encountered are two-fold. In the first
place, the scarcity of materials to work on has
necessitated very.close breeding, in order to pre-
serve the hornless feature. In the second place,
those hornless sports were unfortunately not high-
class either individually or in breeding, so that in
strengthening the desired hornless feature by close
breeding, the breeders at the same time were fix-
ing in their cattle some undesirable features in
other respects. By careful breeding and feeding,
these difficulties will be overcome in time, but it
will take a much longer time under fhe conditions
CATTLE 355
that prevail to establish a strain of Herefords that
will be popular because of their meritorious quali-
ties other than the polled condition.
Two associations of the breeders of polled Here-
fords have been organized, one of which is called
the American Polled Hereford Cattle Club, with the
office of its secretary at Des Moines, Iowa. The
other organization is called the National Polled
Hereford Breeders’ Association, and has its office
in Chicago, Illinois. Both of these small organi-
zations have begun the preparation of herdbooks
for polled Herefords. Neither of them has as yet
progressed to the point of publication of the first
volume, and it is likely that it will be several years
before that stage of development has been reached.
Both of these herdbooks accept for registration
the double standard variety of polled Herefords,
and also other naturally polled Herefords that are
not eligible to registry in the American Hereford
Record.
Literature.
In England there is a History of Hereford Cat-
tle, by Macdonald and Sinclair (1886), that is very
valuable, as treating of this breed in its native
home. A history of Hereford Cattle is in prepara-
tion by Alvin H. Sanders, of Chicago. [For further
references, see page 302.]
Holstein-Friesian Cattle. Figs. 131, 378, 379.
By Solomon Hoxie.
The Holstein-Friesian breed of cattle is the
American representative of the great lowland
race of cattle found on the rich alluvial land in
Europe, bordering the eastern shores of the North
sea. It is a dairy breed, possessing valuable beef-
ing qualities.
Description.
In color, the Holstein-Friesian is invariably
black and white piebald. It is specially character-
ized by great constitutional vigor, flexibility, thrift
and enormous production of milk of comparatively
low percentage of butter-fat.
The ideal type of this breed, which has become
constant in North Holland and Friesland, is desig-
nated as “milk and beef form.” This form involves
great breadth and length of rump; superior width
of hips, with loin slightly rounded; well-sprung
ribs; rounded body, with the abdomen well held
up; a straight chine; shoulders slightly lower
than hips and rounded at tops, from whence the
neck starts out level, or nearly so, and is carried
symmetrically to a finely formed throat and rather
long head, bearing a broad muzzle. It also involves
comparative fineness of limbs, and quarters broad
at sides and rear without puffiness ; a capacious
udder of considerable depth, carried well forward
in front and well up in rear, and a large develop-
ment of mammary veins. An animal of this form
will appear wedge-shaped, viewed both from front
and side.
This ideal type, however, varies with respect to
locality and breeding purpose. It “is identified,”
396
CATTLE
says Professor Hengerveld, “with their use, lodg-
ing, feeding and management. ” The tendency of
breeding, in the United States, is now strongly in
the direction of milk form. A chief merit of the
breed is its adaptability to widely different envi-
ronments and purposes. The type may be changed
to meet the exigencies of the special situation with
little sacrifice of constitutional vigor, thrift and
productiveness.
The heifers mature rapidly, and, if well fed, are
ready to breed at twelve to fifteen months of age.
As a rule, they deliver their calves without diffi-
culty and may be relied on to enter the dairy herd,
productively, when two years old.
The following scale of points,
revised and
adopted by the Holstein-Friesian Association of
America, June 1, 1904, shows the importance
attached to the development of the parts of the
animal.
14.
15.
. Muzzle.—Broad, with strong lips
. Ears.—Of medium size; of fine texture ; the hair
. Eyes.—Large, full, mild, bright
. Horns.—Small, tapering "finely towards the tips ; 5
. Crops.—Moderately full
. Chine.—Straight; strong; broadly developed,
. Thurl.—High, broad
. Quarters.—Deep, straight behind; twist filled
. Flanks.—Deep, comparatively full
. Legs.—Comparatively short, clean and nearly
ScALE oF Ponts FoR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE
Perfect
For cows
score
. Head.—Decidedly feminine in appearance ; fine
in contour
. Forehead.—Broad between the eyes ; dishing .
. Face.—Of medium length ; clean and trim, espec-
ially under the eyes, showing facial veins; the
bridge of the nose straight
plentiful and soft; the secretions oily and
abundant . .
set moderately narrow at base; oval; inclin-
ing forward, well bent inward; of fine texture ;
in appearance waxy .
. Neck.—Long ; fine and clean ‘at juncture with
the head; free from dewlap; evenly and
smoothly joined to shoulders
. Shoulders.—Slightly lower than hips; fine and
even over tops; moderately broad and full at
sides
. Chest.—Of moderate depth and lowness ; smooth
and moderately full in the brisket, full in the
foreflanks (or through at the heart)
with open vertebre
. Barrel.—Long ; of wedge shape; well rounded,
with a large abdomen, trimly held up ; (in judg-
ing the last item age must be considered) . .
Loin and hips.—Broad; level or nearly level
between the hook-bones ; level and strong lat-
erally; spreading from chine broadly and
nearly level ; hook-bones fairly prominent . .
Rump.—Long, high, broad with roomy pelvis,
nearly level laterally; comparatively full above
the thurl; carried out straight to dropping of
el Geo ia Mee Oud ole As alan ao
with development of udder ; wide and moder-
ately full at the sides
straight ; wide apart; firmly and squarely set
under the body; feet of medium size, round,
solidanddeep. . .
2
2
20.
21.
22.
23.
25.
One
. Muzzle.—Broad, with strong lips .
. Ears.—Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair
. Eyes.—Large, full, mild, bright . .
. Horns.—Short, of medium size at base, gradually
. Loin and hips.—Broad ;
. Thurl.—High, broad
. Quarters.—Deep, broad, straight behind, wide
. Flanks.—Deep, full
. Legs.—Comparatively short, clean! and nearly
CATTLE
ScALE oF Ponts FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE,
continued.
For cows Perfect
score
Tail.—Large at base, the setting well back;
tapering finely to switch; the end of the bone
reaching to hocks or below; the switch full .
Hair and handling.—Hair healthful in appear-
ance, fine, soft and furry ; the skin of medium
thickness and loose; mellow under the hand ;
the secretions oily, abundant and of a rich
brown or yellow color ........ =
Mammary veins. Very large; very crooked
(age must be taken into consideration in judg-
ing of size and crookedness); entering very
large or numerous orifices ; double extension,
with special developments such as branches,
connections, ett. « . . «:* «= 9) seen
Udder.—Very capacious ; very flexible ; quarters
even ; nearly filling the space in the rear below
the twist, extending well forward in front ;
broad and well held up .. .
. Teats.—Well formed, wide apart, plumb and of
convenient size ° +) se
Escutcheon.—Largest, finest ... - ...--
Perfection . . .
For bulls
10
Perfect
score
. Head.—Showing full vigor; elegant in contour .
. Forehead.—Broad between the eyes; dishing . .
Face.—Of medium length ; clean and trim, espe-
cially under the eyes; the bridge of the nose
straight
e) iel de oles) ome so » te ol elise
plentiful and soft ;
abundant
the secretions oily and
diminishing towards tips; oval; inclining for-
ward, moderately curved inward ; of fine tex-
ture ; in appearance waxy
. Neck.—Long; finely crested (if the animal is
mature), fine and clean at juncture with the
head; nearly free from dewlap ; strongly and
smoothly joined to shoulders
. Shoulders.—Of medium height, of medium thick-
ness, and smoothly rounded at tops; broad
and full at sides; smooth over front
. Chest.—Deep and low ; well filled and smooth in
the brisket; broad between the fore-arms, full
in the foreflanks (or through at the heart) . .
. Crops.—Comparatively full, nearly level with the
shoulders
. Chine.—Strong, straight, broadly developed, with
open vertebre
. Barrel.—Long, well rounded, with large abdo-
men; strongly and trimly held up
level or nearly level
between hook-bones; level and strong later-
ally; spreading from the chine broadly and
nearly level ; the hook-bones fairly prominent .
. Rump.—Long, broad, high, nearly level later-
ally ; comparatively full above the thurl ; car-
ried out straight to dropping of tail. . ...
and full at sides; open in the twist. ... .
straight ; wide apart ; firmly and squarely set
no fA
CATTLE
ScALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE,
continued.
For bulls Perfect
score
under tae body; arms wide, strong and taper-
ing; feet of medium size, round, solid and
LGOD o SSSR ono ch oe OnE eR Cae acne taeers 5
20. Tail.—Large at base, the setting well back ;
tapering finely to switch; the end of bone
reaching to hocks or below; theswitchfull. . 2
21. Hair and handling.—Hair healthful in appear-
ance; fine, soft and furry; skin of medium
thickness and loose ; mellow under the hand ;
the secretions oily, abundant and of a rich
brownor yellow color) ©. =. =. < .. . 10
22. Mammary veins.—Large, full, entering large
orifices ; double extension, with special devel-
opment, such as forks, branches, connections,
Gi 6 ob 6600 0 be ote clo Jo) pb emoucn whl)
23. Rudimentary teats.—Large, well placed . . . 2
24. Escutcheon.—Largest, finest ........ 2
PERCH io S45 cas ono Go 8 a5 100
This Holstein-Friesian type differs markedly from
rhat of other pure-bred cattle known in the United
States. From the Jersey it is distinguished by
much greater size, much leveler top lines, fuller
muscles, a more uniform color, and much greater
production of milk of lighter color, and less per-
centage of fat; from the Guernsey, by differences
of structure, as indicated for the Jersey, but to a
less extent, of color and milk-production, but by less
difference in size ; from the Ayrshire, by differences
of color and size, but by less difference in quality
and quantity of milk, and by a greater difference
in style and length of horns; from the Brown
Swiss, by difference in color, weight of limbs, and
by a nearer approach to the ideal milk form;
from the Dutch Belted, by scattered markings and
smaller horns. Compared with. beef breeds, the
Holstein-Friesian type shows less depth of chest,
height and weight of shoulders, and less depth of
brisket. In general outlines also, there is a marked
difference, the beef type forming a parallelogram
from the side view rather than a wedge form, as in
the dairy type.
History.
The Holstein-Friesian cattle originated with the
ancient Friesland people, a tribe which, at the time
of our earliest historical knowledge of it, occupied
the shores of the North sea, between the river Ems
and the Rhine. The Friesians were the oldest
inhabitants of Holland, and were known as herds-
men, hunters and fishermen. Their history dates
as far back as three hundred years before Christ.
The Batavians came two hundred years later. They
were likewise herdsmen, but occupied themselves
more particularly with hunting and fishing. Taci-
tus says of the Friesians and Batavians: “They
owned cattle, not excelling in beauty, but in num-
ber.” The present farmers of North Holland and
Friesland, are lineal descendants of these ancient
people, and the multitude of black and white cattle
which they own are lineal descendants of the cattle
owned by their ancestors. In North Holland at the
CATTLE 307
present time there are some 80,000 head of pure-
bred cattle of this breed, and in Friesland at least
125,000. They are found in other provinces of
Netherlands to a limited extent.
The lowland race of which this breed is the lead-
ing representative has been the prolific mother of
other breeds in Europe. From it have sprung the
Hast Friesian and Oldenberg breeds of Germany,
the Jutland breed of Denmark, the Kolmogorian
breed of Russia, and the Flamande or Flemish
breed of Belgium and northern France. These
approach each other in color, but differ in other
important characteristics. They have been pro-
duced largely by the effect of different environ-
ments, and are maintained in their purity, in the
different localities, by well-established herdbooks.
According to the naturalist, Low, also, before the
development of English dairy breeds Friesian cat-
tle were imported into that country, and established
especially in the district of Holderness on the north
side of the Humber, whence they extended north-
ward through the plains of Yorkshire. It is asserted
that from the mixture of this Friesian breed with
the native cattle finally sprang the improved Short-
horn. Friesian cattle were also made the basis
of the composite Rosentein breed, which was so
greatly admired by Klippart, and described by him
in his report to the Board of Agriculture of Ohio
in 1865.
In America.—It is probable that cattle of this
breed were brought to America by the early Dutch
settlers and that a few were imported late in the
eighteenth and early in the nineteenth centuries.
The Holland Land Company is reported as having
sent afew animals to Cazenovia, New York, in 1795.
William Jarvis imported a bull and two cows in 1810,
for his farm at Weathersfield, Vermont. Another
importation into New York State was made in
1825. The first importer, however, to establish and
maintain a pure-bred herd, was Winthrop W. Chen-
ery, of Belmont, Massachusetts. He made impor-
tations in the years 1852-7-9, and 1861. Until
1871, these cattle were almost universally known
in this country as Dutch, although as early as 1864
the United States Department of Agriculture had
recognized them as Holstein cattle. In that year
(1871), the Association of Breeders of Thorough-
bred Holstein Cattle was organized with Mr. Chenery
at its head. This gross error in the renaming of a
well-known breed was regarded by the Dutch breed-
ers as a great injustice to them. They protested vig-
orously, and finally, unable to secure justice directly,
in 1873, assisted Thomas HE. Whiting, of Massachu-
setts, to select and purchase a herd of their cattle,
pledging him to establish in America a herdbook
which should maintain the correct name of the
breed. This herd finally came into the hands of the
Unadilla Valley Breeders’ Association, who, with
other owners, organized in 1879, the Dutch-Friesian
Cattle Breeders’ Association of America. A sharp
controversy ensued, which was finally brought to
a close in 1885, through the union of the contend-
ing bodies in the present Holstein-Friesian Associ-
ation of America.
The significant history of this breed in America
358 CATTLE
centers almost entirely about the establishment
and maintenance of a system of advanced registra-
tion. The advanced registry system was originated
by Solomon Hoxie, while secretary of the Dutch-
Friesian Association. The necessity for it was sug-
gested to him by the fact that many cattle of
doubtful merit and unknown breeding were being
entered in the Holstein herdbook. There was need
of recognized intrinsic standards of merit to serve
as guides in breeding and selection. Accordingly,
he induced the Dutch-Friesian Association to main-
tain an advanced register, in which cattle should
be entered only in case of special merit, determined
for bulls by means of an official scale of points, and
in the case of cows by an additional scale of pro-
ductiveness. While there was much early opposition
to the advanced register, it has abundantly demon-
CATTLE
Introduced into the United States less than fifty
years ago, it has spread to every important dairy
section of this country and to Canada, and more
recently to Mexico. It is specially adapted to rich,
level grass-lands and to densely populated, highly
civilized countries in which milk and its every
product, and veal and beef of superior quality are
in demand.
Feeding and care.
The extraordinary vigor of cattle of this breed
permits very wide latitude in caring for and feed-
ing them. In some sections of Holland “they are
found on lands covered with water plants and
grass of small nutritive value.” In northern Rus-
sia they are successfully kept in the frigid climate
near the Arctic circle. The only hard-and-fast rule
Fig. 378.
strated its value. Since about 1894, it has been
recognized as the chief means for the advancement
of the interests of the Association and of its mem-
bers, and its essential principles have been adopted
by other breeders’ organizations both in America
and Europe. It is to be regretted that descrip-
tions and measurements in the practical operation
of the system have been abandoned. It is also
unfortunate that the Association, while admitting
cows to the advanced registry only on the basis of
the yield of butter-fat, tacitly sanctions the use of
too low a factor for the conversion of butter-fat
into butter records. The factor 80 per cent, gen-
erally used, cannot be too severely condemned, since
repeated demonstrations show that good market-
able butter requires the presence in the milk of at
least 85.7 per cent of its weight of butter-fat.
Young Holstein-Friesian bull.
Distribution.
This race of cattle is widely distributed on the
continent of Europe, prevailing especially in north-
ern France and along the shores of the English
channel and the North sea, as far as Denmark. It
is the leading dairy breed in Russia, occupying the
shores of the River Dwina and the White sea
nearly to the Arctic circle. It is firmly established
in nearly every province of Germany, in Italy,
Sweden and Denmark. It is also bred in South
Africa, and is rapidly being introduced into Japan.
Fig. 379.
Holstein-Friesian cow. Belle Sarcastic No. 1108 Ady. Reg
for feeding is: “Feed abundantly well-balanced
rations.” The breeders in Holland and Friesland
confine their cattle in their stables constantly
from the middle of November through the winter
till the middle of May, apparently without injury
to them, at much less expense of food and with
greater production of milk than results from the
practice of daily exposure to the outside atmos-
phere, as in America. Their method requires, how-
ever, much greater air space per animal, and hence
that they be confined in much larger buildings.
Uses.
For milk.—At two to three years old, the young
cows produce about half the quantity of milk of
mature animals of the breed, if well supplied with
suitable food, or 5,000 to 8,000 pounds of milk in
ten months,—the usual annual period of milking
dairy cows. They will also continue their growth
and increase in productiveness until four and a half
or five years old, at which age they will reach, if
in good milking condition, an average weight of
1,200 pounds. From this time forward, average
cows of the breed will produce, when in full flow,
40 to 70 pounds of milk daily, or 8,000 to 12,000
pounds annually, until twelve to fourteen years of
age, the milk ranging in quality from 11 per cent
to 13.5 per cent total solids, of which 2.5 per cent
to 4.5 per cent will be butter-fat. The average
CATTLE
yield will probably contain 12 per cent total solids
and 3.5 per cent butter-fat.
Great numbers of the cows of this breed have
far exceeded this range of productiveness. For
example, of 350 cows that were entered in the first
volume of the Holstein-Friesian Advanced Register,
published in 1886, 67 produced over 12,000 pounds
of milk each in a single lactation period of ten
months, and 16 exceeded 15,000 pounds each. Inthe
first four volumes of this register, 40 records are
reported which averaged 18,0267’; pounds in a lac-
tation period of one year. Some individual records
have enormously exceeded this average : Clothilde,
No. 155, produced in one year, within a single lac-
tation period, 26,921% pounds ; Princess of Wayne,
No. 2, calving in her eleventh year, produced 29,-
00814 pounds in a similar period ; Pietertje 2d., No.
497, produced, under like circumstances, 30,3184
pounds, and Belle Sarcastic, No. 1108 (Fig. 379),
designated as the model cow of the breed by a com-
mittee appointed by the Holstein-Friesian Associa-
tion to draft a scale of points, produced, in the
hands of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment
Station, 21,975;% pounds in one year, and in her
full lactation period of fifteen months and one
week, 27,2893; pounds. The highest milk produc-
tion of Pietertje 2d. for a single day was 112,75
pounds, and the highest of Princess of Wayne
while making her great record was 1134 pounds.
DeKol Creamelle recently produced in official test
119 pounds in one day, 26,280.2 pounds in one
year. Colantha 4th’s Johanna (Fig. 332) produced
651.7 pounds of milk, 28.176 pounds of butter-fat
in seven days; 2,872.6 pounds of milk, 110.833
pounds of butter-fat in thirty days ; 5,326.7 pounds
of milk, 208.398 pounds of butter-fat in sixty
days; 27,432.5 pounds of milk, 998.256 pounds of
butter-fat in one year. Thus, Colantha 4th’s
Johanna holds the world’s official record for the
production of butter-fat for seven days, thirty
days, sixty days and 365 days. These records illus-
trate the highest attainments of the breed thus far
in the matter of milk- and butter-fat-production.
For such production, the cow, of course, must
receive special care and food, and must be milked
three or four times a day.
The milk of this breed has several peculiar and
notable characteristics. It is not highly colored.
“The absence of granules, as a predominant fea-
ture, makes the skimmed milk especially appear
blue.” The fat globules are comparatively small
and uniform in size. The cream, therefore, rises
slowly, but it is dense in consequence of the com-
pactness of the globules. The milk is richer than
the color or thickness of the cream would indicate.
After the cream rises to the surface it is easily
re-incorporated in the milk by stirring or shaking.
This renders the milk more than ordinarily valuable
for direct consumption purposes, especially for city
supply, since it insures to all consumers a compara-
tively uniform quality. Moreover, both the milk
and the cream approach the structure of the corre-
sponding human products more closely than those
of any other breed which has been tested in this
respect. This leads to the inference that the milk
CATTLE 359
of this breed is superior to that of any other for
the feeding of young children. Recent experiments
made at the Storrs’ Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion in Connecticut tend to substantiate this infer-
ence. Furthermore, the milk of these cattle is said
to possess a quality which has recently been called
“vitality,” a quality very stronely associated with
the vitality of the animal producing it. Thus, the
high constitutional vigor of Holstein-Friesian cat-
tle is another strong point in their favor as milk-
producers.
For butter.—Butter-fat records of the breed have
been no less remarkable. (See above.) In 1894,
state agricultural experiment stations began the
official supervision of the testing of Holstein-
Friesian cows at the homes of the owners. Thou-
sands of such tests for a period of seven con-
secutive days have now been made. These tests
are annually classified according to the age of the
cows at date of calving. A summary of such records
for a single year will serve to show the butter-
making possibilities of the élite of the breed. In
the official year 1901-2, 191 records, of cows five
years old and over, averaged 431,75 pounds of milk,
containing an average of 3.42 per cent of butter-
fat, making a total of 14.684 pounds of butter-fat
per cow; 48 records, of cows four and one-half
years old and under five, averaged 4017; pounds
milk, 3.52 per cent butter-fat, total fat 14.121
pounds ; 47 records, of cows four years and under
four and one-half, averaged 392;*; pounds milk,
3.28 per cent butter-fat, total fat 12.858 pounds;
57 records, of cows three and one-half years and
under four, averaged 373,85 pounds milk, 3.44 per
cent butter-fat, total fat 12.833 pounds; 60 records,
of cows three years old and under three and one-
half, averaged 36075 pounds milk, 3.42 per cent
butter-fat, total fat 12.305 pounds; 65 records,
of cows two and one-half years old and under three,
averaged 33375 pounds milk, 3.32 per cent butter-
fat, total butter-fat 11.001 pounds; 165 records,
of cows under two and one-half years old at date
of calving, averaged 2797; pounds milk, 3.55 per
cent butter-fat, total butter-fat 9.369 pounds.
One hundred and thirty cows of the breed have
official records greater than 20 pounds of butter-
fat in seven days, and sixty cows of the breed have
official records greater than 80 pounds of butter-fat
in thirty days. Such records are usually made at
ten to fifty days after parturition. A lapse of at
least five days is required. There can be no doubt
as to the correctness of these records. In many
cases, especially when the yield was exceptionally
large, the cows were re-tested for periods ranging
from twenty-four to forty-eight hours by repre-
sentatives of the experiment stations, who kept
constant watch in order that no milk or cream
should be introduced into the udders surreptitiously.
It is not maintained, of course, that the average
pure-bred Holstein-Friesian cow or heifer could
produce equal records. Probably the best one-third
of all those owned in this country could do so if
sufficiently well fed, skilfully cared for and milked
three times a day. It is probable that in butter- as
well as in milk-production, the average cow of this
360 CATTLE
breed, would excel the average cow of any other
known breed.
Butter made from the milk of these cows is com-
paratively mild in flavor and, if not artificially
colored, is of a pale straw-color in summer, when
the cows are fed on grass, and of a creamy white
in winter when they are fed on hay. In keeping
quality it ranks very high. In 1875, Mr. E. Lewis
Sturtevant published an account of a compara-
tive test of butters of different breeds, which
indicated the superiority of the Holstein-Friesian
product in this connection. He took seven samples
of Jersey butters, four of Ayrshire, one of Guern-
sey and one of Dutch or Holstein-Friesian, and
placed them in a cupboard adjoining a steam heater.
The Guernsey sample was probably not so well made
as the others. “It moulded in spots in about a
month. . . . In seven weeks the Jersey butters
were all rancid. . . . The Ayrshire butters were
not rancid, but had lost flavor and were poor. . . .
The Dutch butter was well preserved, being neither
rancid or flavorless.” The butter of Friesland has
long been recognized as a standard product in the
markets of Europe, and the butter of cows of this
breed is steadily gaining favor in our own markets.
For cheese.—The milk of Holstein-Friesian cattle
makes a very high grade of cheese, and it has been
much used for this purpose both in Holland and in
America. The milk is rich in solids other than fat.
For beef.—This breed combines with its great
milk- and butter-producing capacity, good beefing
qualities. For this reason it has been called a dual-
purpose breed. Its calves are very large and vig-
orous at birth, grow rapidly and are exceptionally
free from disease,—especially from that which is
known as white scours. When vealed at the end of
four or five weeks they dress 90 to 120 pounds.
The veal is of superior color, sweetness and tender-
ness. The cows quickly take on flesh when dried
off and add 125 to 200 pounds to their milking
weight. They dress 52 per cent to 55 per cent of
their live weight. While fattening, the cattle of
this breed, like those of beef breeds, deposit fat
largely in the interstices of the muscles, and spar-
ingly on the intestines and around the kidneys.
The meat is light-colored and marbled in appear-
ance. It is preferred by some to the fattened prod-
uct of the beef breeds.
For breeding.—In breeding, bulls should be
selected that are of superior constitutional vigor
and size. When fully developed they should have
the outlines of a beef animal with the exception of
the brisket. In all cases, the male in breeding should
be the offspring of larger-sized stock than the
female if possible, although the difference should
not be extreme. For crossing on grade cows to
increase milk-production the pure-bred bulls of this
breed give very satisfactory results.
Organizations and records.
Organizations for the promotion of the interests
of this breed were closely associated with the his-
tory of the breed in America (which see, page 357).
It is a singular fact that while the thoughts and
energies of so many generations were devoted to
CATTLE
breeding and improving these cattle, the first pub-
lic herdbook of the breed was published in 1872 by
an American, Winthrop W. Chenery, of Belmont,
Massachusetts, by authority of the Association of
Breeders of Thoroughbred Holstein Cattle. It was
known as the Holstein Herdbook. Three years later
a herdbook was issued in the Netherlands, by the
Netherland Herdbook Association. It was a protest —
against naming Holland cattle from a German
province that had no valid claim to the origin of
the breed. In 1879, the Dutch-Friesian Cattle
Breeders’ Association was formed in America. In
the same year the Friesian Herdbook Association
was organized in the province of Friesland. A few
years later the North Holland Herdbook Associa-
tion was organized and a branch was established
in America. The present Holstein-Friesian Asso-
ciation of America was formed in 1885 by the union
of the Holstein and the Dutch-Friesian Associa-
tions. It limited importations to a great extent,
and in consequence of this the Netherland and
North Holland Associations became nearly mori-
bund. Recently, the former has adopted a system
similar to the American system of advanced regis-
tration, and probably may become an institution
of great value to breeders in all the provinces of
Holland, with the exception of Friesland, where the
early association was of a similar character. The
Western Holstein-Friesian Association was organ-
ized in 1892, and published its first and only herd-
book in 1895, containing pedigrees of 2,100 cattle.
It was united with the Holstein-Friesian Associa-
tion of America in 1898, and its pedigree records
became a part of the herdbook of the older
association. The Holstein-Friesian Association of
Canada was founded in 1891.
The Holstein-Friesian Association of America
was incorporated for the purpose of importing,
breeding, improving and otherwise handling pure-
bred Holstein-Friesian cattle, and for gathering
and publishing information in regard to them. It
maintains a herdbook and advanced register of
cattle. The entries to its herdbook had reached, at
the late annual meeting (1907), 46,626 males, and
94,829 females. The policy of this association has —
been to maintain the purity of the breed in America,
to improve the type by selection of the most supe-
rior animals for separate or advanced registration,
and to demonstrate the merits of the breed through
the making of great milk and butter records. It
has maintained a consistent advocacy of tests at
the homes of owners under the strictest supervision
of agricultural experiment stations. In this respect
it took the initiative, and has compelled other
breeders’ associations to follow.
Literature.
Holstein Herdbook, 9 volumes, 1872-1885;
Dutch-Friesian Herdbook, 4 volumes, 1880-1885 ;
Holstein-Friesian Herdbook, 24 volumes 1885-1906;
Holstein-Friesian Advanced Register, 9 volumes,
1887-1891 and 1902-1906 ; Breeds of Dairy Cattle,
15th Report, Bureau of Animal Industry, United
States Department of Agriculture ; Friesian Cattle,
Twentieth Report, Ohio State Board of Agriculture;
iy
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rites
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Plate XI.
CATTLE
Reports of New York State Dairymen’s Association
for 1878-1880 ; Holstein-Friesian Cattle, 8. Hoxie,
Holstein-Friesian Association, third edition, 1904;
Advanced Registration, 8. Hoxie, in Proceedings of
the American Association of Live-stock Herdbook
Secretaries, 1904, C. F. Mills, Editor ; The North
Holland or Friesian Breed, Utica, Curtis and Childs
(1884), 8. Hoxie, Editor; Records of Dairy Cows
in the United States, C. B. Lane, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C. (1905) ; History
of the Holstein-Friesian Breed, Brattleboro, Ver-
mont (1897), F. L. Houghton; Cattle and Dairy
Farming, United States Consular Reports, 1887 ;
Holstein Cattle, Dudley Miller; Die ltindviehzucht
im In und Auslande, J. Hansen and A. Hermes,
Leipzig, Carl Schmidt & Co., 2 volumes (1905) ;
Friesch Rundvee Stamboek, 32 volumes, 1880-
1906 ; The Holstein-Friesian Yearbook, 1901-1907,
7 volumes, F. L. Houghton; Western Holstein-
Friesian Herdbook, 1 volume, 1895, Western Hol-
stein-Friesian Association; The Holstein-Friesian
Register, Brattleboro, Vermont, F. L. Houghton ;
The Holstein-Friesian World, C. G. Brown, Ithaca,
New York. [See also page 302.]
Jersey Cattle. Figs. 36, 37, 334, 380, 381.
By M. A. Scovell.
The Jersey is one of the leading dairy breeds of
cattle. The island of Jersey, eleven miles long and
less than six miles wide, lying in the English Chan-
nel some thirty miles from the southern extremity
of England and about thirteen miles from the coast
of France, is its native home.
Tn American and English writings there has been
some confusion in the use of the term Alderney, as
applied to cattle from the Channel islands. In 1844,
Colonel Le Couteur wrote an article on the “Jersey
misnamed Alderney cow.” This article was pub-
lished in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, Vol. 5, page 43, and was after-
wards copied into the Transactions of the New
York State Agricultural Society in 1850, and into
Volume I of the Herd Register of the American
Jersey Cattle Club. It forms the basis of our knowl-
edge of the early history of Channel island cattle.
When Channel island cattle were first exported to
Great Britain, they were collectively called Alder-
neys, because vessels plying between the Channel
islands and Great Britain cleared from the port of
Alderney. The cattle were actually very largely
from the island of Jersey, since that is the largest
island and contains the most cattle. The local goy-
ernment of the Channel islands is administered
through two municipalities, the one, the states of
Jersey, comprising the island of Jersey alone; the
other, the states of Guernsey, comprising Guernsey
and the other inhabited islands, of which Alderney
is one. For more than a century there has been no
intercommunication of cattle from outside the
islands or between the two municipalities them-
selves. This has been*one of the agencies in the
establishment. of the two breeds, Jersey and Guern-
sey, which are now and have been for many years
sufficiently distinct so as to be readily recognized.
CATTLE 361
Alderney is in no sense an agricultural island, and
the few cattle on the island are kept merely as
family cows by the inhabitants. They come, of
course, from Guernsey, and are of that breed.
There has never been a distinct breed known as
Alderneys, and the name “Alderney” has been more
commonly applied to Jersey than to Guernsey cattle.
Description.
The ideal Jersey of today has a small head, short,
broad, lean and dish-faced. The muzzle, including
the under lip, is black or dark in color, surrounded
by a light or mealy strip of light skin and hair.
The eyes are prominent, large, bright and wide
apart. The horns are crumpled or incurving, small,
waxy and often black-tipped. The ears are small,
delicate and yellow-colored within. The neck is fine,
clean and small. The legs are short, fine boned and
small. The body is well hooped or rounded, large
and deep. The tail is fine boned, long, with a full
brush. The skin is mellow, loose, yellow, with short,
fine, silky hair. The udder is large in size, extend-
ing well up behind and well forward, not pendant.
The teats are medium sized, placed far apart on the
udder, without haying the udder cut up between
them. The milk veins are generally highly devel-
oped, tortuous, knotty, and often spreading in sev-
eral branches. The back should be straight from
shoulder to the setting-on of the tail. So far as
beauty is concerned, the sloping rump is very
objectionable. The general appearance should be
attractive and sprightly. The head should be erect
when walking and the movements should be light,
quick and graceful. When in full flow of milk, the
Jersey should carry little flesh, but have muscular
development enough for healthy activity and full
digestive forces. The following scale of points,
adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club, shows
the relative values attributed to the various parts.
ScaLe or Points FoR JERSEY CATTLE —
Perfect
For cows score
1. Head (7)
Medium size, lean; face dished; broad between
eyes and narrow between horns. ..... 4
Eyes full and placid; horns small to medium,
incurving: muzzle broad, with muscular lips;
SbLONPAUNG er=]awy oy rcnyeerie-l iii ntel eas 3
2. Neck.—Thin, rather long, with clean throat ; thin
Bis WINN) 5 ob) go Oo 0 0.0.6-4.00 6 5
8. Body (83)
Lung capacity, as indicated by depth and breadth
through body, just back of fore-legs.. .. 5
Wedge shape, with deep, large paunch, legs pro-
portionate to size and of fine quality. . . . 10
Back straight to hip-bones . . 2
Rump long to tail-setting and level ‘from hip-
bonestorump-bones. .......... 8
Hip-bones high and wide apart; loins broad,
GONE “5 65 oo oO 00 ob eo oo oO BNO 5
Thighs flat and wellcutout........-. 3
4, Tail.—Thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at
> SOWMEON¢ 6 5 oo Doo ooo OG 2
5. Udder (28)
Large size andnot fleshy. ........-. 6
Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between
EO abS iret wep Momecibtcree rer lat a Be) faMneh tots a\ conse. a 4
362 CATTLE
ScALE oF PoINTS FOR JERSEY CATTLE, continued
AD OF
For cows Perfect
score
Fore-udder full and well rounded, running well
forwardvofanonu tears. inl) el eonh sense w= 10
Rear-udder well rounded, and well out and up
Lahitily Geols Wuomele o-oo dO o a HG 8
6. Teats.—Of good and uniform length and size, reg-
ularly and squarely placed .. ......- 8
7. Milk veins.—Large, tortuous and elastic. . .. 4
8. Size.—Mature cows, 800 to 1,000 pounds. . . . 3
9, General appearance.—A symmetrical balancing
of all the parts, and a proportion of parts to
each other, depending on size of animal, with
the general appearance of a high-class animal,
with capacity for food and productiveness at
eR MOMGwGs Gemec co ord G.0, to o 10
Perfection) 9: cen eeisieomeel actin neo 100
For bulls
1. Head (10) eee
Broad, medium length; face dished; narrow
between horns; horns medium in size and
Winns oo 5 eo 6 oo Coe ee 5
Muzzle broad, nostrils open, eyes full and bold;
entire expression one of vigor, resolution and
rmecbiing 6 dg ae eb a oO eo 5
2. Neck.—Medium length, with full crest at ma-
turity; clean at throat. ........ 10
3. Body (54)
Lung capacity, as indicated by depth and breadth
through body, just back of fore shoulders ;
shoulders full and strong. ........ 15
Barrel long, of good depth and breadth, with
strong, well-sprung ribs ......... 15
Back straight to hip-bones . . . 2
Rump of good length and proportion to size of
body, and level from hip-bone to rump-bone. 7
Loins broad and strong ; hips rounded, and of
medium width compared with female. . . ff
Thighs rather flat, well cut up behind, high
archediflank: siccnu-) csoeeMcieo emi ey tomoiaetae 3
Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality,
mel apart, and not to weave or cross in walk-
Yaw sruetpeos Sia Go oa kd Neon Os 5
. Rudimentary teats.—Well placed ...... 2
. Tail.—Thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at
Sethine-ones < ozy shat ee eee acme ome 4
. Size.—Mature bulls, 1,200 to 1,500 pounds... 5
. General appearance.—Thoroughly masculine in
character, with a harmonious blending of the
parts to each other; thoroughly robust, and
such an animal as in a herd of wild cattle
would likely become master of the herd by
the law of natural selection and survival of
WIEN & Glo Ob Gen nd bo 6 6 6 15
Ia GG oA Oo Golo G50 100
History.
The origin of the Jersey breed is conjectural,
but it is probably the same as the original breed
of Normandy. The earliest writers on the cattle of
this Island assert that they were superior to those
of Normandy and Brittany. Rev. Philip Falle wrote,
in 1734, “The cattle on this Island are superior to
the French.” Thomas Quayle, in 1812, asserted an
advantage over any other breed in the quantity and
quality of cream produced from the consumption of
a given quantity of fodder, Garrard, in the first
CATTLE
part of the last century, gave the milk yield as
three to four gallons per day, and the butter yield
as 220 to 230 pounds per cow per year. According
to Inglis, the general average produced at that time
was ten quarts of milk per day and seven pounds of
butter per week.
No distinct characteristics as to form and color
were given by the earliest writers, except that Colo-
nel Le Couteur mentions the fact that the Jersey
farmer was content to possess an ugly, ill-formed
animal with flat sides, cat-hammed, narrow and
high hips, with a hollow back, yet ever possessing a
lively eye, round barrel, deep chest, short, tine, deer-
like limbs and a fine tail. (Fig. 36.) Nor do any of
the writers give the reason why the Jersey was
superior to other breeds, until the article by
Colonel Le Couteur appeared in the “Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England,” in 1845.
In this article Colonel Le Couteur says: “The Jer-
sey cow was excellent as she has ever been, which
has been attributed to the circumstance of a few
farmers having constantly attended to raising stock
from cows of the best milking qualities, which at-
tention, prosecuted for a long number of years ina
small country like ours, where such superior quali-
ties would soon be known, led to the excellence of
milk- and butter-yielding qualities in the race.
This never could have been secured so generally in
Normandy, from whence our breed probably origi-
nated, or in any other extended country.” We may
assume, then, that the breed owes its peculiar qual-
ities to an evolution of persistent breeding to per-
petuate and accentuate distinctive qualities, and to
the exclusion of all other cattle from the Island.
The method of tethering, which has always pre-
vailed on the Island, may have had its influence.
An organized attempt was made to give a fixed
beauty of form to the Jersey about 1835, when,
says Colonel Le Couteur, “A few gentlemen selected
two beautiful cows with the best qualities as models.
One was held to be perfect in her barrel and fore-
quarters, the other equally so in her hind-quarters.
From these two, a scale of points was laid down to
be the rule for governing the judges at the cattle
shows of the Jersey Agricultural Society.”
At an early period, steps were taken to keep the
breed pure by preventing outside cattle coming
into the Island, and in 1763 an act was passed
which has since been rigidly enforced, and supple-
mented by the further acts of 1789, 1826, 1864 and
1878, prohibiting the landing of cattle on the Island
except for the purpose of slaughter. Even before
the enactment of laws, the purity of the cattle was
maintained by the persistence with which the Jer-
seyman clung to his own breed. Every effort to
introduce other cattle, even from England, has been
invariably rendered futile by the inhabitants.
The Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural
Society, organized in 1833, has been one of the
chief means of improving the general character of
the breed on the Island, and of developing its
valuable dairy qualities. "In 1836, the Society
recommended that one superior bull be kept in each
parish, and that encouragement be given to keep
first-rate heifers in the Island, as the high prices
CATTLE
offered were strong temptations to export them.
In 1838, it enacted at least two new rules. One
was to the effect that any person withholding the
services of a prize bull from the public should for-
feit the premium; the other was that all heifers
haying premiums adjudged to them should be kept
Fig. 380. Imported Jersey bull. Guenon’s Lad 54422.
on thé Island until they shall have dropped their
first calf. If previously sold for exportation, they
shall forfeit the premium.
In 1853, the Society began to recognize the
fact that it was unwise to ship out of the Island
the best cattle, and urged the breeders against
selling their best stock to be taken from the Island,
In 1862, the Society reports, “To a very consider-
able extent, the business of the society is limited
to the improvement of our insular race of cattle,
which in itself is of the highest importance. We,
therefore, wish to impress an observation on those
who study the improvement of their stock—beauty
of symmetry alone can not ever be the acme of
perfection. The latter can be obtained only when
goodness and beauty are equally combined.” “Tt is
an established fact that the renown which the Jer-
sey cow enjoys is attributable to the peculiar rich-
ness of its milk, as well as to its docility of temper
and neatness of form. Now, as
this richness is not so marked
in some specimens as it is in
others, it becomes advisable to
make such selections in breeding
as will ensure further ameliora-
tion in this most essential and
highly important point.”
Up to 1865, there appears to
have been little attention paid
to the quantity of milk which
the Jersey gave. The quality of
milk and the quantity of butter
and beauty of form seem to
have been the only points which
the breeders had considered,
up to that time. But, in that
year, a committee of the Agri-
cultural Society of Jersey urged
that the Jersey breeder should
pay greater attention to the
milk-producing qualities of the
Fig. 381.
CATTLE 363
cow, and that every cow with the least tendency
to deficiency in quantity of milk should be weeded
out, and suggested that the judges especially con-
sider this in awarding prizes. It will be seen, there-
fore, that the Jersey has been bred for quantity of
milk for only about forty years. It was in the
seventies that it became the fashion, both
in England and America, to select solid-
colored Jerseys with black points, and for
some time this color craze had a detrimen-
tal influence on the breed. But it appears
that the Agricultural Society of Jersey,
ever watchful of the future interests of
the breed, condemned this color craze, and,
in 1878, it reports, “Let henceforth such
fanciful ideas as black tails and black
tongues be estimated at their proper value,
but let the large and rich yield of milk be
ever the breeder’s ambition to procure.”
The Jersey herdbook was started in
1866, and it has undoubtedly had a marked
influence on the improvement of the cattle
in the Island. In America or in England,
an animal may be registered as soon as
born, if its sire and dam are registered, or are ca-
pable of being registered. On the Island, however,
inspection is made a conditional precedent to regis-
tering. The following are necessary conditions to
registration :
(1) Every animal must be inspected by compe-
tent judges, and, if it is considered fit, it obtains a
qualification, namely, commended or highly com-
mended.
(2) Every bull submitted for qualification must
be accompanied by his dam, in order that the
merits of the latter may be taken into considera-
tion in awarding a commendation to the former.
(8) No heifer, although she may be descended
from registered parents, can be entered in the
herdbook until she has had a calf, and if at the
time of her examination she is a poor milker, she
receives no commendation.
It will readily be seen, therefore, that by the
iP
il
SKY SHOES i) |
i
Jayy))\ i
Jersey cow. Brown Bessie, champion cow of all breeds at World’s
Columbian Exposition, 1893,
364 CATTLE
method of registration on the isiand of Jersey, not
only the pedigree can be traced but it can be ascer-
tained whether the dams and sires for generations
back have been commended or highly commended
by the commissioned judges. These commendations
are shown in pedigree by the letter C. if commended,
and by the letters H. C. if highly commended.
Jersey cattle were imported into England as
early as 1835, and in large numbers in the forties.
Professor L. W. Low, in 1845, says, “The cows are
imported into England in considerable numbers,
and are esteemed beyond those of any other race
for the richness of their milk and the deep yellow
color of their butter.”
In America.—Importation into America began in
1850. In that year twelve animals were imported
under the auspices of a club of farmers organized
for the purpose. Only prize winners were pur-
chased. The bull “Splendens” was in this importa-
tion, and he proved to be a very valuable animal.
Other importations followed in the fifties, mostly
to Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey and
New York, and from 1860 to 1890, importations
were numerous and to nearly every part of the
United States. More than two thousand head a
year were imported year after year. Again, from
about 1900 to the present time, many importations
have been.made. In fact, so numerously have
Jersey cattle been imported and so rapidly have
they increased in America, that they outnumber
the Jerseys on the Island or any other breed of
dairy cattle in this country, and they have been so
largely used for grading, that the Jersey character-
istics are seen everywhere dairy cows are kept.
Distribution.
The Jersey is very widely distributed, due to its
wide adaptation to conditions. As has been said, it
is scattered through the United States and Canada.
England, France, New Zealand, Australia and many
other countries can boast of large herds.
Feeding and care.
Jerseys have a capacity of assimilating large
quantities of food and may be forced to advantage
when in full flow of milk, as all extra food, in such
case, is converted into milk. When the milk-flow
begins to slacken, the food should be reduced,
especially the concentrates. The Jerseys are large
eaters of roughage and succulent feeds, as roots.
A good average daily ration for a Jersey that is
giving forty pounds of milk a day is as follows:
Roughage Concentrates
Alfalfa, or clover hay .. . 20 |bs.
Corn silage
Wheat bran
Corn meal
Ibs.
3
5
Sy eins sco users ers
Oilmealearen ctr aaesmcmouie 2
5
ey aes 4“
32 Ibs. 164 lbs.
On the Island the method of caring for the cows
has been the same for nearly two hundred years.
©! ge ini as; int se oe! (8
CATTLE
-In the summer they are tethered in meadows and
pastures, and in the winter are warmly housed at
night. The same care should be taken in the man-
agement of Jerseys in this country. They should
have plenty of pasture to run on in the summer,
and they should not be confined in the winter in
day-time except in very cold and inclement
weather. They should be treated kindly, as they
have ever been on the Island. Nervous cows should
be excluded from the herd, as well as those giving
small quantities of milk, and those not persistent
in their milk.
At one time the Jersey was supposed to be deli-
cate, but the American breed of cows at this time
seems to be constitutionally as strong as any other
dairy breed, and not more subject to disease than
other cattle, with possibly the exception of milk
fever. But since the oxygen treatment for this
disease has been used, this heretcfore dreaded
affliction need no longer be considered a dangerous
disease.
Uses.
For milk and butter. — For many years the
Jersey was bred almost exclusively for its butter-
producing qualities. Many private and official but-
ter tests have been published, giving phenomenal
yields of butter. As the result of these tests, so-
called families of Jerseys have sprung up, as the
St. Lambert, the Signal, the Combination, the Vic-
tor, the Tormentor. But a careful review of
authenticated tests, and especially the results of
the official tests at the World’s Columbian and at
the Louisiana Purchase Expositions, show that the
excellence is inherent in the breed generally, and
is not confined to any particular line or lines of
breeding. Of late years, much attention has been
paid in the breeding of Jerseys for milk-production
as well as for butter, and for beauty of form, with
excellent results. Jerseys giving four to five gal-
lons of milk per day are not rare in most herds, and
such cows are noted for persistence in milking.
Records are given of individual cows giving 10,000,
12,000, and even more pounds of milk in a year.
Very interesting are the results from the dairy
test at the World’s Columbian Exposition at
Chicago in 1893, and the cow-demonstration tests
at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis,
in 1904. In both instances the cows were selected
and cared for by the American Jersey Cattle Club,
_and it may be assumed, therefore, that the best
cows in the breed available at that time were
selected in each case. The test was conducted in
each instance by a committee of the Association
of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment
Stations. The results show that the Jersey cows
can assimilate a large quantity of food, give
four to five gallons of rich milk per day, and that
they are persistent milkers ; and if conclusions can
be drawn from comparison of the two tests, each
with the same number of cows, selected in the same
manner, and under like conditions, it is that in
eleven years the Jerseys have increased largely iz
flow of milk, and in the production of butter.
The records of the Jerseys in the ninety-day test
CATTLE
ai the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago,
June-August 29, 1893, give the following summary
of results for the twenty-five cows entered :
Total lbs. Average per Total
milk cent fat Ibs. butter
Grandtotal..... 73,488.8 4.7844- 3,516.1
Average percow. . . 2,939.6 4.784+- 140.6
Daily average per cow . 32.6 : 1.56
Most of the cows had been in milk one to three
months, and one at least five months prior to the
beginning of the test.
The records of the Jerseys in the 120-day cow-
demonstration test at the Louisiana Purchase Ex-
position at St. Louis, June 16—-October 13, 1904,
give the following summary of results for the
twenty-five cows entered :
Totallbs. Percent Lbs. of Lbs. of
milk of fat fat butter
Grandtotal. . . 124,524.22 4.666+ 5,810.7 6,841.6
Total average per
OWA Gs c= < 4,981.0 4.666+ 232.4 273.7
Daily average per
(ONT Oo ROE “OLE 8 Sa 1.9 2.3
The cows averaged sixty-nine days in lactation
at the time the demonstration began, so in reality
at the close of the test, the cows, on an average,
had been in milk nearly six months. The Jerseys
not only gave over forty pounds of milk per day,
but the milk was the richest of any in butter-fat,
averaging 4.7 per cent, or an average of more than
two pounds of butter per day for each cow, making
a total of 274 pounds in 120 days. In the two
months in which they were milked prior to the
beginning of the test, they should have produced
about the same amount of butter in proportion to
the time as they had during the test, which would
give an average for each cow for six months of
4104 pounds of butter. When it is remembered
that the average dairy cow gives less than 250
pounds of butter per year, these results seem all
the more remarkable. These results were obtained
without feeding the cows to their fullest capacity
and without withdrawing a single cow because of
sickness. They were fed on a profitable basis, each
cow earning over cost of feed nearly $40, or a
daily profit of 43 cents.
It is interesting to compare results during the
first and last part of the test for the purpose of
showing the persistency of production and endur-:
ance. During the first ten days of the test, the
Jerseys gave 10,942 pounds of milk, or an average
per cow per day of 43.8 pounds; average per cent
of fat in the milk, 4.25; total pounds of fat, 466,
or an average per cow per day of 1.86 pounds.
During the last ten days they gave 9,382 pounds
of milk, an average of 37.5 pounds per cow; aver-
age per cent of fat in the milk, 5.13 ; total amount
of fat 481.1 pounds, or an average per cow per day
of 1.92 pounds. While the cows decreased in flow
of milk, they increased both in percentage and
amount of fat, and a general improvement in the
productive capacity of the Jerseys is indicated by
a comparison of the two tests.
For cheese.—The high butter-fat content of Jersey
milk adapts it especially to the production of high-
CATTLE 365
class cheese. At the World’s Columbian Exposition
it was given first place over the Guernsey and the
Shorthorn in a cheese-making test. The demand for
Jersey milk for the retail trade and for butter-mak-
ing allows but little of it to be made into cheese.
For beef—The Jersey is not pretended to be a
beef-producer. The meat is of good quality but is
off in color. The Jersey dresses out too small a
percentage of marketable meat, compared with the
beef breeds, to adapt it to the butcher’s block.
For grading.—The Jerseys have been much used
for grading on native cows to increase milk- and
butter-production. Carefully selected bulls may be
used for this purpose with very satisfactory results.
Organizations and records.
The two organizations which have done so much
for the development of the Jersey are the Royal
Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society,
organized in 1833, and the American Jersey Cattle
Club, organized in 1868, with offices at No. 8 West
Seventeenth street, New York. In 1866, the first
herdbook of the Island Society appeared. Eighteen
volumes have been published to date. The Associa-
tion of Breeders of Thoroughbred Neat Stock, the
first organization in America to care for the breed,
published six volumes of The American Jersey Herd-
book, the last volume being issued in 1878.
The American Jersey Cattle Club has done much
to develop and keep the blood of the Jersey pure in
this country. The Club registers only such animals
in its herd register as can be traced directly to the
island of Jersey. There have been sixty-three vol-
umes of the register published, bringing the records
and pedigrees for bulls up to 74,000, and for cows,
up to 199,000. To January 21, 1908, 78,855 bulls
and 212,515 cows had been registered on the books
of the clerk. It isestimated that there are 120,000
registered cattle alive in the United States today,
besides hundreds of thousands of grades. The Jer-
sey Bulletin, published at Indianapolis, Indiana, is
devoted exclusively to the development of the Jersey
cow.
Other organizations are the English Jersey Cattle
Society and the New Zealand Jersey Cattle Breed-
ers’ Association. The former has published seven-
teen volumes of its herdbook ; the latter, organized
in 1903, has published one volume of its herdbood.
Literature.
John Thornton, History of the Breed of Jersey
Cattle, Jersey Bulletin, Vol. 1 (1883); Black, Guide
to Brittany (1873); Report of Highland and Agri-
cultural Society of Edinburgh, 1878; Colonel Le
Couteur, On the Jersey, Misnamed Alderney Cow,
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land, Vol. 5 (1845); C. P. Le Cornu, The Agricul-
ture of the Islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney
and Sark, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England, Vol. 20 (1859); Ernest Mathews, The
Jersey Cow, Little Shardeloes, Amersham, Bucks ;
John 8. Linsley, Jersey Cattle in America, New
York (1885); W. P. Hazard, The Jersey, Alderney
and Guernsey Cow, Philadelphia (1872). [See also
page 302.]
366 CATTLE
Oxen. Figs. 14,16. Vol. I, Figs. 126, 127, 178.
By C. S. Plumb.
The word oxen as used in the United States is
generally understood to refer to mature, castrated
male cattle used for draught purposes. The term
steer is more commonly applied to castrated male
cattle fed for food only. In Europe and in New
England, the word steer applies to animals not of
full maturity. In Friesland it is applied to all bulls.
The word ox may be, and is, properly applied to
cattle in general, although not usually so used.
History of the use of oxen.
Oxen, as beasts of burden, have been used for
centuries. In Biblical times the ox was used to
tread out the grain at threshing time, and to haul
burdens. In various parts of the world, where
domestic animals have been used to till the soil,
oxen have been used extensively from time imme-
morial.
The use of oxen for draught purposes in the
more civilized countries has gradually been on the
decline. In 1789, George Culley, the noted English
stockman, in his “Observations on Live Stock,”
wrote that much fewer steers were then kept to
be oxen than was formerly the case. Two reasons
were given for this condition: one, the increased
cost of land rent, and the other, the greater slow-
ness of oxen than horses in draught work. Some
fifty years later, James Cowie, of Scotland, in a
prize essay before the Royal Agricultural Society
of England, on the comparative advantages of
horses and cattle in farm work, also commented on
the falling off in the use of cattle for farm work.
In southern Europe, in India and some other regions,
however, oxen are yet important beasts of labor.
In America, oxen have been used more extensively
in New England farming than elsewhere, but in
localities where, fifty years ago, yokes of oxen
were common on farms, they are now rare. In
general, the horse has replaced the ox. According
to J. D. Avery, in the fall of 1907, there were
exhibited at the Danbury (Conn.) fair approxi-
mately one hundred pairs, including all breeds on
the grounds. There were forty pairs of Devons.
Within a year or two, as many as fifty to seventy-
five pairs of oxen have been employed in some of
the large lumber camps in Vermont.
Oxen versus horses.
There are certain arguments in behalf of the
use of oxen for labor. They are steady at the yoke,
sure of foot in hilly, rough regions, have great
draught power, and may be sold to the butcher at
a fair price after being fattened, even if eight
years or more of age. Previous to the introduction
of horse-shoeing, the feet of oxen were more dur-
able than those of horses, and stood the wear of
labor better than the feet of horses. The chief
objection rests in their slowness and inadaptibility
to other work than slow draught. The wider range
of use of the horse, with his greater activity, has
resulted in the displacement of the ox on the farm
and in most lumber camps, where oxen at one time
CATTLE
were very popular. Cowie, in commenting on the
relative value of oxen and horses writes: “The
farm which I occupy has been tenanted by my
ancestors for many generations. At the time of
the Revolution, my great grandfather, and his sons —
for many years after that, employed twelve work-
ing horses and twenty-eight working oxen, one-
half of each set being yoked to one plow. I now
work the same land to better purpose, I presume,
with six horses and two oxen.”
Breeds of cattle for oxen.
The different breeds of cattle may be used in
draught work, but some breeds seem much better
suited to the purpose than others. Devon oxen
have long been famous in England and in New ~
England, showing much activity in the yoke, and
being known as the quickest walkers in England.
Herefords are also noted for draught use, while in
Sussex, England, the cattle of this county have
been regarded as of exceptional merit for labor.
Simmenthaler oxen (Fig. 16) are worthy of special
mention. In America, Devons, Herefords, Short-
horns and Holstein-Friesians were used consider-
ably for draught work.
Handling oxen.
While oxen may be broken in to work when two
years of age, or thereabouts, they are not regarded
as suited for hard work before four years of age.
Training, however, may well be begun early.
There are various contrivances for hitching up
working oxen, but the customary one is by means
of a yoke, with two animals abreast. The yoke
consists of a wooden main piece resting on the tops
of the necks, with two wooden bows placed about
the necks, with the ends of the bows inserted up
through the yoke and fastened by pins or otherwise.
At the center of the yoke, by means of a staple and
ring, the wagon pole or plow chain may be fast-
ened. There are also other methods of fastening or
harnessing. In Spanish countries the oxen are fast-
ened at the horns with straps and thongs, making
a very undesirable attachment to the line of draught.
In times past in England, various forms of harness-
ing have been used, in which bridles, lines, and tug
straps have formed a part.
The driving of oxen is usually conducted with an
ox-goad or whip with a long lash. The terms, “gee,”
meaning right, and “haw,” meaning left, are used
in driving. Oxen readily turn to the direction indi-
cated, and back or go ahead by the same instruc- —
tions as are usually given horses. The ox-goad in
the hands of the driver, very lightly used, with the
aid of the terms above indicated, will enable the
driver of a yoke of cattle to go through or around
very considerable obstacles.
Oxen are shod with a flat piece of iron on each
sole of the divided hoof. One of the familiar sights
of the writer’s boyhood, was a blacksmith shop,
with special frame, where many oxen were shod.
[For additional information, about these cattle
the reader should consult the; articles on Devon,
Hereford, Holstein - Friesian,,Shorthorn, Simmen-
thaler and Sussex cattle.]
CATTLE
Red Polled Cattle. Figs. 49, 382, 383.
By H. A. Martin.
Red Polled cattle are a dual-purpose breed, rank-
ing very highly in both milk- and butter-production.
Description.
In general, the bull is strong, impressive, low-set
and of good carriage, and weighs 1,800 to 2,000
pounds, when mature and finished. The cow is of
medium wedge-form, low-set, with top and bottom
lines straight, except at flank, and weighs 1,300
to 1,500 pounds when mature and finished. The
following standard of perfection, adopted by the
Red Polled Cattle Club of America, shows what is
desirable and undesirable in the breed.
SCALE OF PoINTS FOR RED POLLED CATTLE
For cows
DISQUALIFICATIONS.—Scurs, or any evidence whatever
of a horny growth on the head. Any white spots on body
above lower line or brush of tail. Perfect
score
1. Color.—Any shade of red. The switch of tail and
udder may be white, with some white running
forward to the navel. Nose of a clear flesh
color. Interior of ears should be of a yellow-
ish, waxy color
Objections: An extreme dark or an extreme
light red is not desirable. A cloudy nose or
one with dark spots.
2. Head.—Of medium length, wide between the
eyes, sloping gradually from above eyes to poll.
The poll well defined and prominent, with a
sharp dip behind it in center of head. Ears of
medium size and well carried. Hyes promi-
nent ; face well dished between the eyes. Muz-
zle wide, with large nostrils. ....... 6
Objections: A rounding or flat appearance
of the poll. Head too long and narrow
3. Neck.—Of medium length, clean cut, and straight
from head to top of shoulder with inclination
to arch when fattened, and may show folds of
loose skin underneath when in milking form . 3
4. Shoulder.—Of medium thickness and smoothly
laid, coming up level with line of back ... 6
Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving
the appearance of weakness in heart girth;
shoulder protruding above line of back.
5. Chest.—Broad and deep, insuring constitution.
Brisket prominent and coming wellforward. . 10
6. Back and ribs.—Back medium long, straight
and level from withers to setting-on of tail,
moderately wide, with spring of ribs starting
from the back-bone, giving a rounding appear-
ance, with ribs flat and fairly wide apart. . . 14
Objections: Front ribs too straight, causing
depression back of shoulders. Drop in back or
loin below the top-line.
7. Hips.—Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well
covered
8. Quarters.—Of good length, full, rounding and
level; thighs wide, roomy and not too meaty. 6
Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken
quarters.
9. Tail.—Tail-head strong and setting well forward,
long and tapering to afullswitch ..... 2
10. ae -—Short, straight, squarely placed, medium
jones tis E FY Euler seegleryt tO
Objections : Hocks crooked ;
close together.
legs placed too
CATTLE 367
SCALE OF Points ror RED POLLED CaTTLR, continued
Perfect
score
11. Fore-udder.—Full and flexible, reaching well
forward, extending down level with hind-
UGGS og lee YS. ol erie SDS. Se Beles ane 10
12. Hind-udder.—Full and well up behind .. .. 10
13. Teats.—Well placed, wide apart and of reasona-
Inky GOWN op ob ooo nao hoe OO 4
Objections : Lack of development, especially
in forward udder. Udder too deep, “bottle
shaped” and teats too close together. Teats
unevenly placed and either too large or too
small.
14. Milk veins. —Of medium size, full, flexible,
extending well forward, well retained within
the body ; milk wells of ‘medium size. . 6
15. Hide.—Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thick-
ness, with a good full coat of soft hair . . . 5
Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry hair. .
16. Condition.—Healthy; moderate to liberal flesh
evenly laid on; glossy coat; animal presented
mes Go 6 oon O :
For cows
Perfection. . ... 60006 0 0.6 6 ID
For bulls
DISQUALIFICATIONS.—Scurs, or any evidence whatever
of a horny growth on the head. Any white spots on body
above lower line or brush of tail. Perfect
seore
1. Color.—Any shade of red. The switch of tail
may be white, with some white running forward
to the navel. Nose of a clear flesh color. Inte-
rior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy
color
Objections :
light red is not desirable.
one with dark spots.
2. Head.—Wide, strong and masculine, relatively
short. Poll stronger and less prominent than
in cow. Hars of medium size and well carried ;
eyes prominent ; muzzle wide with large nos-
HE 6 00 bo O10 6 8 AiO OL aesets 12
Objections: Long, ne, or lacking in
masculine character.
3. Neck.—Of medium length, full crest, of good
thickness, strong, of masculine appearance. . 5
4, Shoulder.—Of medium thickness and smoothly
laid, coming up level with line of back ... 8
Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving
the appearance of weakness in heart girth;
shoulder protruding above line of back.
5. Chest.—Broad and deep, insuring constitution.
Brisket prominent and coming wellforward. . 12
6. Back and ribs.—Back medium long, straight and
level from withers to setting-on of tail, moder-
ately wide, with spring of ribs starting from
the back-bone, giving a rounding appearance,
with ribs flat and fairly wide apart... .. 14
Objections: Front ribs too straight, causing
depression back of shoulders. Drop in back or
loin below the top-line.
7. Hips.—Wide, rounding over the book and well
covered
8. Quarters.—Of good length, full, "rounding, and
i ontmame dark or an extreme
A cloudy nose or
/
level; thighs wide and moderately full, deep . 6
Objections: Prominent hooks, sunken quar-
ters.
9. Tail.—Tail-head strong and setting well for-
ward, long and tapering toafullswitch. .. 2
368 CATTLE
SCALE OF PoINTS FoR RED POLLED CATTLE, continued
For bulls Perfect
score
10. Legs.—Short, straight, squarely placed, medium
i) Chairs a eee boeearn omy cg. Aad als a
Objections: Hocks crooked; legs placed too
close together.
11. Rudimentaries.—Large, wide apart, and placed
well forward
Position of rudimentaries ......... 6
Objections: Rudimentaries placed back on
scrotum, or placed too close together, indicat-
ing tendency to transmit badly formed udders.
12, Hide.—Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thick-
ness, with a good full coat of soft hair ... 5
Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry hair.
13. Condition.—Healthy ; moderate to liberal flesh
evenly laid on; glossy coat; animal presented
ANON s ovo s Doo Ga a0 oo 10
Perfection
History.
Hornless or polled cattle have existed in the
county of Suffolk, England, from time immemorial.
The probability seems to be that they were intro-
duced soon after the Roman occupation. Bede says
that the people who settled in eastern England
after the Romans had gone, brought with them
slaves, their cattle, and all their live-stock. Cer-
tain it is the breed has existed in Suffolk as far
back as we can trace the history.
Of the Norfolk strain of the breed, Mr. H. F.
Euren, in the account prepared for the herdbook,
says: “The files of the Norwich Mercury show
that as early as the year 1778, there were whole
dairies of polled cows in Norfolk.” In the adver-
tisements of that and succeeding years, sales of
polled cows and bulls are specially referred to.
Mr. Money Griggs, of Gately, who died in 1872, in
his hundredth year, and who had been for upwards
Tp
Wii
i)
Ti
Ni
Ly,
Oe Eh eye
Zs Sy Gey”
Red Polled bull.
Fig. 382.
of eighty years, a tenant of the Elmham estate,
informed Mr. Fulcher, when making inquiries as to
the breed, that “from his earliest recollection Red
Polled cattle had been kept in the neighborhood of
Elmham.”
In America.—There seems little doubt that our
CATTLE
so-called native muley cows are descendants, more
or less mixed with other strains, of the Norfolk
and Suffolk cows brought over by the early emi-
grants from that section. They have been preserved
from extinction by the persistence of their good
qualities. The persistence with which the old Suf-
folk traits are transmitted, under what would seem
most adverse conditions, finds a striking illustration —
in what were known in Massachusetts as James-
town cattle. In 1847, during the famine in Ireland,
CHET
Uy
mM uN
Wy ys
Sy cS
Red Polled cow. Olena.
Fig. 383.
the people of Boston sent a shipload of provisions
to that country to relieve the distress. As a slight
token of appreciation, a Mr. Jeffries, living near
Cork, presented to the captain a Suffolk polled
heifer. She was delivered by him to the donors of
the provisions, and was sold at auction for the
benefit of the fund. She proved a remarkably fine
milker, and her progeny (mostly bulls, by what
were then known as Alderney sires) were used
largely in the dairy herds about Boston. The prog-
eny of these half-blood Suffolk bulls were nearly
all hornless, and were so superior to the ordinary
cattle of the district as to become noted. They
were known as Jamestown cattle, from the name
of the vessel in which the heifer came over. At
several local fairs they were shown in considerable
numbers.
The first regular importation of Red Polled
cattle for breeding purposes was made by G. F.
Taber, of New York, in 1873. This importation
consisted of a bull and three heifers. In 1875, he
imported four more cows, and in 1882, three bulls
and twenty-three heifers. From this time, the
number brought over increased rapidly from year
to year, until the prices on the other side became
so high that the business was unprofitable.
Distribution.
In England, we find the Red Polled cattle in
their native counties of Norfolk and Suffolk.
They are also found in South America, Australia,
Russia, South Africa, New Zealand, Canada and the
United States. In America we find the greatest num-
ber of Red Polled cattle in the Mississippi valley,
in the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin,
Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas, Kansas,
Nebraska and Missouri. We also find them on the
Atlantic coast, the Pacific coast and in Texas. In
ki ¢ t
Plate XII. Shorthorn (or Durham) bull and cow
CATTLE
the last-named place they are very numerous and
‘do exceptionally well.
Types.
Suffolk Red Polled cattle——This type was char-
acterised by a thin, clean head; clean throat with
little dewlap ; thin legs; a large frame; rib toler-
ably springing from the center of the back, but
with a heavy barrel; back-bone ridged; udder
large, loose and creased when empty; milk veins
remarkably large, and rising in knotted puffs. It
was the dairy type, and was remarkable for the
large and uniform yield of milk. It was developed
in the county of Suffolk, England, at a very early
date.
Norfolk Red Polled cattle——This type was char-
acterized by small bones, short legs and round
barrel, with good loins, and the head rather fine.
It was a hardy, thriving strain, maturing at an
early age and making a superior quality of flesh.
It was the beef type and had poor milking quali-
ties. It was developed at an early date in Norfolk
county, England.
Breeders of these two types, striving to produce
good dual-purpose animals, that should be polled and
red-colored, gradually worked toward the same
type. Mr. Buren says: ‘‘ The year 1846 may be taken
as the date “rom which the Norfolk and Suffolk vari-
eties merged into each other, so as to be spoken of
as one and the same breed.” There was a friendly
rivalry between the two counties at the agricul-
tural shows, and a constant interchange of the
best blood, with aresulting improvement and simi-
_ larity in the two strains. After an exhibit at
Battersea in 1862, when it was noted that the best
forms of the two types were of the same kind, the
name Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled cattle was
given them. Later, about 1882, the first part was
dropped, since which time the cattle have been
known simply as Red Polled.
Uses.
The Red Polled cattle are a dual-purpose breed,
and we find that they have made a Jarge number of
very creditable records, both in dairy tests and in
slaughter tests.
For milk and butter.—The cows give a good flow
of milk, which tests well, and milk right up to
calving if allowed. Some results of tests may be
given to illustrate this point. The following dairy
tests were made at the state fairs the past season
(1907). At Ohio State Fair a three-days’ test re-
sulted as follows: The cow Queen Bess 20335 gave
99 pounds of milk and 5.316 pounds of fat; the
cow Miss McKinley 17203 gave 82.7 pounds of milk
and 3.843 pounds of fat; the cow Cassandra 2nd
16305 gave 92.1 pounds of milk and 3.48 pounds of
fat. At the Illinois State Fair, in a three-days’ test
the Red Polled cow Olena 18772 gave 128.4 pounds
of milk and 4.533 pounds of fat. The next highest
cow of any breed in the show made 4.234 pounds of
_ fat. At the Wisconsin State Fair, in a three-days’
test the Red Polled cow Olena 18772 gave 125
pounds and 12 ounces of milk, and made 5.336
pounds of fat.
C 24 ‘
a > ===
: ~ unr
sly ney
Fig. 384.
cates oe
of flesh, and as they become fat there is a tendency
to produce patches of fat about the tail-head and
rolls along the sides.
A criticism of the breed that has been made in
the past is that Shorthorns were too long in the
legs. There was probably just ground for this
criticism in the old type of Shorthorn, but since
the breed has received such an infusion of the
blood of the low-set, short-legged Scotch type, this
tendency has been largely done away with.
The color of the Shorthorn is more variable than
that of any other breed of cattle. It may be pure
red, pure white, a mixture of these two colors, or
roan. Roan is distinctively a Shorthorn color, and
may always be regarded as an indication of Short-
horn blood. Red and white were always character-
istic colors of the old Shorthorn breed in England,
but after their introduction into the United States,
white became unpopular, especially on the western
ranges, and anything except a solid red color was
greatly discriminated against. The demand for red
cattle became greater than the supply of good
individuals, and sires of very ordinary character
were used for no other reason than that they were
red, while excellent individuals of the lighter
colors were rejected. Good sense and sound judg-
a \y SSEXNE SQ
WS Wit NN a
\\ a
.
Somer:
=z, ix ée ass E>
Champion Shorthorn bull. Whitehall Sultan 163573.
CATTLE
ment finally prevailed in the matter, and the red
color craze has abated so that whites and roans —
have again come into popularity.
No scale of points has been adopted for the
Shorthorn breed of cattle.
History.
As has been said, the Shorthorn breed of cattle
originated in northeastern England, and first
became popular in the shires of Durham, North-
umberland, Lincoln and York. From this somewhat
restricted ‘territory their popularity gradually ex-
tended throughout England and Scotland, until,
early in the nineteenth century, they were by far
the most popular race of cattle in the British Isles. —
Authorities differ somewhat as to the particular
stock used in developing this breed. All agree,
however, that the largest factor entering into their
production was the native cattle of the northeast-
ern section of England. That occa-
sional crosses of Dutch bulls were
used is probable.
Collings Brothers. — Improvement
began about 1750, although very lit-
tle methodical or efficient work was
accomplished prior to the cattle-—
breeding operations of Messrs. Rob-
ert and Charles Collings, of Barmpton
and Ketton Hall. By careful selection
\\} and inbreeding they succeeded in set-
ting standards towards which con-
temporary breeders aimed. Charles
Collings’ first Shorthorn purchase was
made in 1784. His herd was dispersed
successfully in 1810. Robert Collings’
herd was sold partly in 1818 and the
remainder in 1820. While these two
brothers operated their farms sepa-
rately and maintained separate herds,
their methods and accomplishments were similar
They were unusually fortunate in the purchase 0:
that first great Shorthorn sire, Hubback (319).
While this was an undersized bull, yellow-red in
color, he proved a fortunate “nick » for the late-
maturing, coarse cows so common in the early his
tory of the breed. As breeders of the Durham Ox,
The White Heifer that Traveled, Favorite (252) and
Comet (155), these pioneer breeders established a
reputation for breeding good Shorthorns that has
made an impression on every careful student of the
early history of the breed.
Other English breeders.—Among others, the fo
lowing breeders were identified with the early
history of the breed: Sir William St. Quintin, Sir
James Pennyman, and Messrs. Milbank, Sharter,
Pickering, Stephenson, Wetherell, Maynard, Do
son, Charge, Wright, Hutchinson, Snowdon, W:
tell, Richard and William Barker, Brown, E
Hill, Best, Watson, Baker, Thompson, Jack
Smith, Jolly, Masterman, Wallace, and Robe:
Darlington was for years looked on as the ce’
of Shorthorn interests, although, strange as it may
seem, there is but little activity in breeding Short-
horns in that section at the present time.
Thomas Bates of Kirklevington.—Thomas Bates,
ee
CATTLE
who was destined to become such an important
factor in the breeding of Shorthorn cattle, pur-
chased his first stock in 1800. He had previ-
ously been a breeder of Kyloes or West Highland
cattle. He was well prepared for the work he
undertook, and established families of Shorthorns
of such pronounced individuality and recognized
excellence of pedigree that they were at one time
by far the most popular strain of the breed.
Prices were paid during “boom times” for Bates’
Shorthorns that have never been approached by
Shorthorns of other lines of breeding. Thomas
Bates was a stickler for pedigree. He assumed
that cattle bred along certain specified lines would
produce, when mated, almost invariably certain
desired results. The particular family or tribe
which he developed most and favored most was the
Duchess. Fabulous prices have been paid for rep-
resentatives of this family. The highest recorded
price, $40,600, was paid for a cow of
this family at the New York Mills
sale of September 10, 1873.
Belvedere (1706) was one of the
best bulls used by Bates, while the
Duke of Northumberland (1940), the
acknowledged champion bull of Eng-
land in 1842, was undoubtedly the
best bull ever produced at Kirkley-
ington. Bates’ aim in breeding was
to produce a dual-purpose cow, and
as a consequence he gave careful
attention to preserving the milking
qualities of his Shorthorns. There
was a characteristic style and finish
about Bates’ Shorthorns that. still
clings to cattle containing a strong
infusion of this blood. While cattle
of Thomas Bates’ breeding were fre-
quently seen in the show-ring from
1838 to 1848, and wherever shown were unusually
successful, he was personally very much opposed
to training cattle for show. The Bates herd was
dispersed in 1850, when prices were very low, and
as a consequence the cattle did not bring what
they were worth.
The Booths——The elder Booth was a contempo-
rary of Thomas Bates. His first herd was established
at Killerby in 1790. His especial aim was to breed
an earlier-maturing beast that would be noted for
its beef-producing rather than its milk-producing
qualities. While Mr. Booth was very ready to admit
that the Collings had greatly improved Shorthorns,
he did not think, as many of the breeders of the
time apparently thought, that it was necessary to
buy the females composing his herd of them.
Among his early purchases were five heifer calves
from the herd of Mr. Broader of Fairholme. To
mate with these heifers, Mr. Booth purchased the
Robert Collings bred bull, Twin Brother to Ben
(660), and one of his get. Some of the best of the
Killerby and Warlaby cattle descended from this line
of breeding and from the following tribes or fam-
ilies: Blossom, Bright Eyes, Isabella and the Booth
Red Roses. Another bull which was purchased of
Robert Collings was Suworow (626), at the disper-
Fig. 385.
CATTLE 371
sion sale of the Ketton Hall herd in 1810. Mr.
Booth purchased the bull Albion (14), which proved
to be a most excellent sire. Most of his bulls were
from the Collings’ herds. Besides the families of
Shorthorns mentioned, Thomas Booth was partial
to the Strawberry and Bracelet tribes. In 1819, Mr.
Thomas Booth gave up the Killerby farm and a part
of his herd to his son John, and removed to his
Warlaby farm, so prominent in Shorthorn history.
To another son, Richard, who was on the Studley
farm, he had also sold a number of his Shorthorns.
Other families of Shorthorns which should be
associated with the Booth families are the Fare-
wells, the Broughton, Dairy Maids or Moss Roses,
Gaudy or Lady Betty sort, Mantilinis and Belindas.
Perhaps the three most famous show animals
bred by Booth were Bracelet and Necklace, twin
heifers, sired by Priam (2452) and Lady Fragrant.
The twin cows mentioned proved excellent breed-
oO
A typical dual-purpose Shorthorn cow. Gipsy Maid.
ers. The most famous bull used by any of the
Booths was Crown Prince (10087), “The bull of all
Booth bulls,” the one that was to Warlaby what
Duke of Northumberland was to Kirklevington,
and Champion of England was to Sittyton. Crown
Prince was considered too valuable a stock-getter
to be fitted for exhibition.
The Booth family is still interested in the breed-
ing of Shorthorns and the operations of this family
will always remain an interesting chapter in the
history of Shorthorns. They were prominent in the
leading live-stock shows of the country, and un-
doubtedly the breeding qualities of many of their
best cattle were affected by high feeding for exhi-
bition purposes.
In United States ——The first recorded importation
of Shorthorns to the United States was that of Mr.
Miller, of Virginia, and Mr. Gough, of Baltimore,
Maryland. These gentlemen imported from Great
Britain, in 1783, some cattle that were undoubtedly
of the Shorthorn breed. In the years 1790 and
1795, it is thought that they brought in consign-
ments of cattle of the same breed. In 1791 and
1796, Mr. Heaton brought several Shorthorns from
England to the state of New York, which were lost
among the common stock of the country. AScotch-
372 CATTLE
man named Cox, brought a Shorthorn bull and two
cows to Rensselaer county, New York, in 1815.
The first Kentucky importation was made in 1817,
by Colonel Lewis Sanders, who purchased through
an agent eight Shorthorns and four Longhorns.
At about the same time, James Prentice, of Lexing-
ton, Kentucky, imported two good Shorthorn bulls.
Importations were brought to the state of Massa-
chusetts in 1817 by Samuel Williams, in 1818 by
Cornelius Coolidge. In 1822, Mr. Williams sent over
the roan yearling heifer Arabella, by North Star
(460). The Arabellas were noted for being heavy
milkers, and at one time constituted a large and
valuable family. Other Massachusetts importations
of an early date were made by Messrs Lee, Orr,
Monson, Coffin, Rotch and Silsby. From 1821 to
1828, several unimportant importations were made
to New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland. In 1833,
Walter Dunn, living near Lexington, Kentucky,
imported six head of valuable Shorthorns. Another
importation was made by Mr. Dunn in company
with Samuel Smith in 1836.
The year 1833 was an important one in Short-
horn history, for it saw the organization of the
Ohio Importing Company, “For the purpose of pro-
moting the interest of agriculture and introducing
an improved breed of cattle.” Felix Renick was
chosen as the agent of this company to go to Eng-
land to select cattle for the company. While it
was not restricted to purchase all Shorthorns, it
decided, after considerable investigation, to import
only Shorthorns. Among the herds visited were
those of Maynard, Booth, Bates, Whitaker, Alth-
rope, Craddock, Raine and Paley. Seven bulls and
twelve females were carefully selected for the first
importation. In this lot were the two heifers, Rose
of Sharon and Young Mary, which were destined to
play such an important part in the history of Short-
horns in the United States. This importation was so
satisfactory to the shareholders of the Ohio Import-
ing Company that their agent was soon author-
ized to make arrangements for further importations.
In 1885 and 1836, Mr. Whitaker, through Mr.
Renick’s authorization, sent out two shipments
comprising forty-two animals to the Ohio Import-
ing Company. Among these were Josephine, Young
Phyllis, Nlustrious, and Harriet. In August, 1836,
this company held a sale on Felix Renick’s farm
in Rose county, Ohio. Forty-three animals were
sold at an average price of $803.25, or a total of
$34,540. The final dispersion sale of the company
was held in 1837, at which the fifteen animals
averaged $1,071.65. A number of importations
were made to Ohio from 1836 to 1840. In 1839,
the Kentucky Importing Company brought over a
number of Shorthorns.
From 1840 to 1850, agriculture in the United
States was in a very depressed state, and the cattle
industry, along with other farm interests, remained
practically at a standstill. There was little demand
for breeding cattle, which resulted in large num-
bers of Shorthorn breeding stock finding their
way to the shambles. In 1852, the Scioto Valley
Importing Company was organized. This company,
through its agents, George W. Renick and Dr.
CATTLE
Arthur Watts, imported ten bulls and seventeen
females, which were sold at auction at the very
high average of $1,351.85. This sale proved a
stimulus to Shorthorn-cattle-breeding interests, and
other importing companies were quickly organized, ;
among which were the Madison County, Ohio, the
Northern Kentucky, and the Scott County Import-
ing Companies, the Clinton County, Ohio, and Clark
County, Ohio, Associations. ,
In 1852 and 1853, Mr. A. J. Alexander of Kane}
tucky, who was visiting in Great Britain, laid the
foundation of the Woodburn herd of Shorthorns,
The first shipment of cattle to the Alexander farm —
was made in 1853; subsequently other importa-
tions were made, which included Duchess Airdrie,
Duchess Athol, Pearlette, Victoria 20th, Filigree,
Lady Gulnare, Minna, Constance, Rosabella, and
other cows. Three of the leading bulls imported
were Duke of Airdrie, Second Duke of Athol and
Dr. Buckingham. At the Northern Kentucky and
Scott County Companies’ sales, Mr. Alexander made
important purchases in the cows Mazurka, Maid of -
Melrose and Equity. The Woodburn herd took a
prominent place in Shorthorn affairs and was at
one time probably one of the largest and best
Shorthorn herds in America if not in the world.
The Duke of Airdrie (12730) was used a year by
George M. Bedford and to some extent by Abram
Renick and Jere Duncan, as well as by Mr. Alex-—
ander. Bell Duke of Airdrie 2552, Duncan’s Duke
of Airdrie 2748, and Airdrie 2478 are considered
among this great bull’s most famous sons.
Among the most prominent breeders of Short-
horns in the United States at this early period
should be mentioned Abram Renick of Kentucky.
Perhaps the most far-reaching accomplishment of
his efforts is to be found in the founding and
bringing to a high degree of excellence that family
that for many years attracted international atten-—
tion, viz., the Rose of Sharon. The bull Airdrie
2478, already mentioned, was spoken of as one of
medium size, very symmetrical, neat, smooth and
stylish, and a remarkable sire of high-class bulls.
This bull was used extensively in Mr. Renick’s herd
and sired, among other famous Shorthorns, the
bull Sweepstakes 6230, Joe Johnson, Airdrie 3d
13320, Dick Taylor 5508, and Airdrie Duke 5306.
It was with the get of Airdrie that Mr. Renick
began his system of in-and-inbreeding, producing
the Rose of Sharons that called forth the admira-
tion and respect of the entire Shorthorn-breeding
fraternity.
Even a brief history of Shorthorns should not
omit the name of Warfield. Benjamin Warfield
secured his first pure-bred Shorthorn in 1831. The
first great sire in the herd was Renick 903. He
was noted more as a sire than for his individual
excellence. Benjamin Warfield was succeeded by
his son, William Warfield, of Grasmere. One of the
famous bulls used by Warfield was Muscatoon
7057. This bull proved to be not only an excel-
lent show bull but a sire of superior show animals
Mr. William Warfield originated the Loudon Duch-
esses, by many persons ‘thought to be one of the
best tribes of Shorthorns evolved in America.
CATTLE
Several importations were made into the eastern
part of the United States from 1830 to 1860. .This
stock was very largely of the Bates strains. Per-
haps the most important importations during this
period were by Mr. Samuel Thorne, of Thorndale,
New York. His first importation was followed by
others in 1854, 1855 and 1856. These constituted
the highest-priced cattle that had thus far been
brought to the United States. In 1857, Mr. Thorne
purchased the Morris and Becar herd, consisting
of fifty-three Shorthorns, at the reported price of
$35,000.
While the principal importations were confined
to Kentucky, Ohio, and New York, Shorthorn
activity was apparent elsewhere, notably in IIli-
nois, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri and lowa.
In Canada.—In 1833, Mr. Roland Wingfield, near
Toronto, imported two Shorthorn bulls and five
cows from England. Other early importations were
made by the Home District Agricultural Society,
Adam Furgeson, Messrs. George and John Simpson,
William and George Miller and Frederick William
Stone. It may be said, however, that the Short-
horns were not imported extensively to Canada
until Scotch Shorthorns came into popularity.
Messrs. George and William Miller, Simon Beattie,
George Isaac and M. H. Cochrane were first respon-
sible for Shorthorn activity in Canada.
The first Canadian to bring Scotch cattle into
prominence in America was Mr. Joseph 8. Thompson,
Mayfield, Whitby, Canada. He imported the Cham-
pion of England heifers, Sylvia and Christobel, also
Violet 4th. Mr. James I. Davidson, Balsam, Ontario,
was also one of the early and most ardent supporters
of the Scotch type in Shorthorns. He started his
Shorthorn herd in 1860. From 1881 to 1887, practi-
cally all the stock from the Sittyton herd that was
brought to the United States passed through the
hands of Mr. Davidson. Hon. John Dryden, Brook-
lyn, Ontario, founded the Maple Shade Farm herd
of Shorthorns, in 1871. He imported that famous
Champion of England cow, Mimulus, and other
good ones representing the best of the Sittyton
blood. Hon. George Brown, of Bow Park farm, will
go down in history as a prominent factor in Cana-
dian Shorthorn activity. Among other Canadian
breeders and importers were John M. Armstrong,
Arthur Johnson, W. B. Telfar, W. Major, William
Collum, Thomas Russell, Francis Green and George
Whitfield.
Important events in Shorthorn history since 1860.
—In 1869 and 1870, Messrs. Walcott and Campbell,
of New York, imported Booth Shorthorns and the
entire Sheldon herd of Duchesses and Oxfords.
This was the beginning of the greatest boom in
Bates cattle in the United States. In 1867, Col. W.
8. King, of Minneapolis, Minn., founded his impor-
tant herd in the northwest. From 1860 to 1880,
Shorthorns of Bates families were undoubtedly
preéminently popular in the United States. In
Canada, however, Scotch Shorthorns were gaining
in popularity.
The first sale of cattle ever held in Dexter
Park, Chicago, was in the year 1872. These were
prosperous times for Shorthorn breeders. This
CATTLE 373
prosperity extended into the next year and culmi-
nated in one of the greatest if not the greatest public
sales of pedigreed cattle held in the. world, namely,
the New York Mills sale of Walcott and Campbell,
September 10, 1873. This herd contained the only liv-
ing Duchesses which were descended direct from the
Bates herd without the admixture of blood from
other sources. The sale was very largely attended
by Shorthorn fanciers from Great Britain, Canada
and the United States. At this sale the eighth
Duchess of Geneva brought $40,600, and many
others were sold at fabulous prices. Almost imme-
diately following this sale there came a period of
financial depression, and Shorthorn cattle gradually
decreased in value for a few years.
Popularity of Scotch Shorthorns.—Undoubtedly
the most notable feature of Shorthorn history from
1880 to the present time has been the growing
popularity of Scotch Shorthorns. Of all the breed-
ers of Scotch Shorthorns, Amos Cruickshank is
looked on as the most famous. He was an Aber-
deenshire tenant farmer, who thought that Short-
horns had been too much pampered for practical
use on the tenant farms of Scotland, where climatic
conditions made it necessary for the farmers to
choose a hardy race of cattle. He was a lover of
Shorthorns, and determined to develop a type that
would meet the requirements of the farmers of
Scotland. His ideal was a short-legged, broad,
thick-fleshed beast, carrying a good middle; that
is, a well-sprung rib and a thick, fleshy back and
loin. He selected animals of this type with which
to found his herd, and was so successful that his
herd soon became recognized as the foremost one
of Scotland. His brother, Anthony, was associated
with him. Mr. Cruickshank got a very strong hold
on Shorthorn breeders, that remains to this day.
To such an extent is this true that one Shorthorn
may be two to five times more valuable than
another of equal individual merit, simply because
it has a good Scotch pedigree and the other has
not.
Among those who have helped to popularize
Scotch Shorthorns in America may be mentioned
Col. W. A. Harris, of Linwood, Kans., J. J. Hill, of
St Paul, Minn., and Col. T. 8. Moberly, of Rich-
mond, Ky. Many other names might be added.
Distribution.
The Shorthorn is the most widely distributed
breed of cattle. It is found in Europe, especially
in Great Britain, in Asia, South Africa, Australia,
North and South America. It is the most popular
and most widely distributed beef breed of cattle in
the United States and Canada, and is found in every
state and province in these two countries. In the
United States, Shorthorns are found most numer-
ously in the following states, in order of their
importance: Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana,
Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, Michigan. They are
still growing in popularity.
One feature which adds greatly to the popularity
of the Shorthorns is their great adaptability. They
have the power to adapt themselves to varying
conditions of food, climate and treatment. Although
374 CATTLE
they are best adapted to temperate regions, they
readily adjust themselves to greater extremes of
temperature and climate. They possess a fair
degree of hardiness, and do fairly well under range
conditions. The Shorthorn was the first breed used
for the improvement of the cattle on the ranges,
and has been used extensively for this purpose in
the United States, Argentina and Australia, but in
recent years has been largely supplanted by the
Hereford. Notwithstanding its value on the range,
the Shorthorn is best adapted to a system of mixed
farming, such as is followed in the Mississippi val-
ley, where land is so valuable that a cow cannot be
kept for the calf alone, but must yield a profit in
the dairy. Mr. George M. Rommel, in Bulletin No.
34, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture, states that, of the
150,000 registered Shorthorns estimated to be
living in America, 5 per cent are found on the
range, and the other 95 per cent are in the hands
of the small farmer.
Uses.
For milk.—The Shorthorn ranks high in its dairy
capacity. In England there have always been
families or strains, notably those of Bates breeding,
which have been noted for their milking capacity,
and in England today the dairy qualities of the
Shorthorn receive as much consideration as its
beef-producing qualities. It is asserted that 90 per
cent of the milk-supply of London is furnished by
Shorthorns. In America, more attention has been
paid to the beef side of the question, and the dairy
qualities have been somewhat neglected, especially
during the past craze for the thick-fleshed, blocky
Scotch type, which were poor milkers. At present,
however, more and more attention is being paid to
the milking qualities of the breed, and efforts are
being made to develop milking strains of Short-
horns.
Major Henry E. Alvord, in Farmers’ Bulletin
No. 106, United States Department of Agriculture,
gives some performances of Shorthorn herds and
individuals as follows: “Records of several dairy
herds in the United States, within a quarter of a
century, show a milking season of about 275 days
and an average product of 6,500 pounds of milk.
One herd of ten cows, three to twelve years old,
averaged 7,750 pounds in a year. Single cows have
averaged much more, several instances being known
of 10,000 to 12,000 pounds in a season. The Short-
horn milk is of good quality, rather above the
average ; the fat globules are of medium and fairly
uniform size, so that cream separates easily; it is
rather pale in color. In 1824, a cow near Philadel-
phia made over twenty pounds of butter in a week
without special feeding. Herds of forty cows have
averaged 209 pounds of butter in a year; the herd
of ten cows mentioned above averaged 325 pounds,
and single cows have records of 400 pounds and
over, one being of 513 pounds.”
For butter.—The Shorthorns made a very credit-
able showing in the butter tests against the lead-
ing dairy breeds, the Jerseys and Guernseys, at the
World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago, in 1893,
CATTLE
In the ninety-day butter test, the best Shortuurn
cow, Nora, produced 3,679.8 pounds of milk, from
which was made 160.57 pounds of butter, and
during the period she gained 115 pounds in weight.
The best Jersey, Brown Bessie (Fig. 381), produced
3,634 pounds of milk, from which was made 216.66
pounds of butter, and gained 81 pounds. In this
test the showing made by the Shorthorn was very
good, considering the fact that not nearly so much
care and money were spent in selecting the herr
as was done with the Jerseys and Guernseys.
For cheese-—At the same time, the Shorthorn
made a like creditable showing in a 14-day cheese-
making test. In this, the Shorthorn ranked third
against the Jersey and Guernsey, yielding 12,186.9
pounds of milk, which made 1,077.6 pounds of
cheese. Nora, a Shorthorn, ran second to a Jersey,
making 60.56 pounds of cheese at a net profit
of $6.27.
For beef.—For the production of beef, the Short-
horn stands second to no breed, and there are very
few that equal it. Its popularity as a beef breed
both in England and the United States is shown by
the number of its representatives found at the
leading fat-stock shows of these two countries.
The Shorthorn is naturally thick-fleshed, with a
maximum development of the valuable parts of the
carcass, which causes it to dress out a high per-
centage of carcass to live weight, although it is
not so good in this respect as the Aberdeen-Angus.
The Shorthorn is a good feeder, and, when supplied
with an abundance of food, makes large gains,
yielding good returns for the food consumed. The
breed matures early and can be made ready for the
block at two to two and one-half years of age; but,
if so desired, it will stand a longer period of feed-
ing. When forced for a long time, there is a tend-
ency to take on flesh unevenly, with the fat in
patches or rolls on the rump and along the sides.
For crossing and grading.—No other breed has
been used for grading up common cattle to the
extent that the Shorthorn has, and marked improve-
ment has resulted wherever this method of grading
has been followed, as may be seen by noting the
improvement that has followed the use of Short-
horn bulls on our western ranges. In our American
cattle markets, grade Shorthorns predominate over
all other breeds in numbers. The first cross of a
Shorthorn on any of the beef breeds makes a good
beef animal. The “prime Scots,” which are so pop-
ular in the English markets, are crosses of the
Shorthorn and Aberdeen-Angus. The “blue-gray”
steers, which are also highly prized in the British
markets, are crosses of the light-colored Shorthorns
on the Galloway.
Organizations and records.
In 1822, George Coates, of Yorkshire, England,
published the Shorthorn Herdbook, the first registry
of live-stock to be issued. From this developed the
English Shorthorn Herdbook (Coates’ Herdbook), of
which fifty volumes have now been published.
Since 1876, it has been in the hands of the Short-
horn Society of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland.
CATTLE
The work of recording Shorthorns in America
was first taken up by Mr. Lewis F. Allen, of Black
Rock, New York, who published the first volume of
the American Shorthorn Herdbook in 1846. Mr.
Allen continued this publication as a private enter-
prise until 1882, when it was purchased by the
American Shorthorn Breeders’ Association. In
1869, Mr. A. J. Alexander, of Woodburn, Kentucky,
published the first volume of a herdbook known as
the American Shorthorn Record. In 1878, the Ohio
Shorthorn Breeders’ Association published the first
volume of the Ohio Shorthorn Record, two more
volumes of which were published later.
The registration of Shorthorns in the United
States at present is conducted entirely by the
American Shorthorn Breeders’ Association, organ-
ized in 1882. This association purchased the inter-
ests of all the Shorthorn herdbooks in the United
States, and continued the publication, beginning
with Volume 25 of the American Shorthorn Herd-
book started by Mr. Lewis F. Allen. Sixty-nine vol-
umes of this herdbook have been puolished, and
Volumes 70, 71 and 72 are now in preparation, two
volumes being published annually. Up to the close
of Volume 69, there are registered about 273,000
males and 421,000 females, making a total of
about 694,000.
The first Shorthorn herdbook in Canada was the
Canadian Shorthorn Herdbook, the first volume of
which was published in 1867. In 1881, the first
volume of the British-American Shorthorn Herd-
book was published, and the first volume of the
Dominion Herdbook appeared in 1887. The latter
took over the interests and records of the first two
herdbooks, and now the registration of Shorthorns
in Canada is through the Dominion Herdbook.
PoLtLeD DuRHAM CATTLE. Fig. 386.
Polled Durhams, as a breed, have the unique
distinction of being the only breed of cattle origi-
nating in the United States. They are very similar
to the Shorthorn, and, in fact, the Shorthorn is
chiefly responsible for their origin.
Description.
Like the Shorthorn, the Polled Durham is mas-
Sive in size, quiet in disposition, and a breed well
caleulated to meet the requirements of farmers
wanting a hornless race of dual-purpose cattle.
They are, however, better fitted to give satisfaction
as beef-producers than in the dairy. During the
early history of the breed much attention was paid
to color and milking qualities. Red was preferred,
but in later years roans have come to be looked on
with more favor. With the increase in numbers
comes the opportunity to make more careful selec-
tions, and the breed is making rapid advancement
both in real merit and public ‘esteem. It possesses
considerable prepotency.
No scale of points for judging Polled Durham
cattle has been adopted. Nearly all Polled Dur-
hams that are being recorded at the present time
are pure Shorthorn in blood, and breeders are
striving to produce, as nearly as possible, the ideal
CATTLE 375
Shorthorn, minus the horns. Polled Durhams are
judged by the same standards as are Shorthorns,
and in nearly all large shows Polled Durhams are
judged by a Shorthorn breeder.
Distribution.
Herds of Polled Durhams are more numerous in
Indiana, Iowa, Ohio and Illinois than in other
states, although they are being introduced rather
extensively into other sections of the country,
notably in North Dakota, Kansas, Kentucky, Wis-
consin, Texas and Nebraska. Several have been
shipped to the Argentine Republic, in South
America.
Types.
There are two somewhat distinct lines of blood
to be found among Polled Durhams. These are
designated as Double-Standard and Single-Standard
Polled Durhams.
Double- Standard Polled Durhams include the
hornless Shorthorns that are eligible for record in
the American Shorthorn Herdbook, as well as the
American Polled Durham Herdbook. They are the
Leos eh
\
Wi WW is ooh Zp
Fig. 386. ae Polled Durham bull.
result of retaining, as breeding animals, hornless
Shorthorns, which occasionally appear as freaks
in Shorthorn herds. The most of the Double-Stand-
ard Polled Durhams are from the three families,
White Roses, Young Phyllis and Gwynne’s.
Single-Standard Polled Durhams are eligible for
record in the Polled Durham record only. This
branch of Polled Durhams originated by the
attempts on the part of a number of breeders,
working, at first largely independently, to develop
a race of hornless cattle with the characteristics of
the Shorthorn breed. This was accomplished by the
use of Shorthorn bulls on the native muley cows.
Breeders of note.
Among the early breeders interested in the
development of the Polled Durham breed the fol-
lowing were most prominent: William W. Crane,
Tippecanoe City, Ohio; W.S. Miller, Elmore, Ohio ;
J. F. and A. EH. Burleigh, Mazon, Mlinois; and Shafor
and Clawson, Hamilton, Ohio.
Organizations and records.
The American Polled Durham Breeders’ Associa-
tion, which has for its object the furthering of the
interests of the breed, and the recording of animals
eligible to its herdbook, was organized in Chicago,
376 CATTLE
November 13, 1889, and was chartered November
2, 1890. Three volumes of the American Polled
Durham Herdbook have been published, the first
having appeared in 1894. “Animals to be eligible
to entry in the American Polled Durham Herdbook
must be at least six months old; must be natu-
rally hornless ; must have both parents recorded
therein or have one parent recorded in the book
and the other parent recorded in the American
Shorthorn Herdbook; and further, must have all
ancestry that are eligible recorded in the American
Polled Durham Herdbook.”
Literature.
A. H. Sanders, Shorthorn Cattle, Sanders Pub- ©
lishing Company, Chicago ; Lewis F. Allen, History
of Shorthorn Cattle; C. J. Bates, Thomas Bates
and the Kirklevington Shorthorns, London (1897);
W. H. Beaver, An Arithmetical Arrangement of the
Leading Shorthorn Tribes ; Thomas Bell, History of
Improved Shorthorn-Durham Cattle (1871); William
Housman, The Improved Shorthorn, London (1876);
Plumb, Little Sketches of Famous Beef Cattle,
Columbus, Ohio (1904); herdbooks of the various
Shorthorn associations. [For further references,
see page 302.]
Sussex Cattle. Figs. 387, 388.
By Overton Lea.
Sussex cattle are so called from the county of
that name in England, where they most abound.
They are distinctly a beef breed.
Description.
For a short description, by way of comparison,
imagine a Devon with the weight of a Shorthorn,
and the picture will convey an accurate idea of the
Sussex. More particularly, “the horns are of medium
length, coming out at any angle, but generally
horizontally, branching laterally, and turning
upward toward the ends ; nose tolerably wide, with
muzzle of flesh-color; thin between the nostrils
Vo Awvs .
RRR). by i he, Vth.
SH eu Seoul
Lh ONS
Fig. 387. A Sussex bull.
and eyes ; eyesrather prominent ; forehead inclined
to be wide ; neck short ; sides straight ; wide and
open in the breast, which should project forward ;
girth deep; legs short ; chine-bone straight; ribs
broad ; loin full of flesh ; hip-bone not very large,
CATTLE
and well covered; rump flat and long; tail with
white brush, which should drop perpendicularly ;
thigh flat outside and full inside; coat soft and
silky, with a mellow touch ; color solid red, both
light and dark, sometimes the two shades mingling
and making a beautiful dappled bay; and a few
gray or white hairs, nearly always single, except
on the foretop, are regarded most favorably.”
The special merits claimed for the breed are
large size, early maturity, propensity to fatten,
mas ‘ .
Fig. 388. A Sussex cow.
prime quality of flesh laid on the most desirable
parts, hardihood of constitution, uniform popular
color and capacity to impress these characteristics
on their offspring.
The American Sussex Cattle Association has
never adopted a scale of points for judging this
breed.
History.
The origin of the Sussex, like that of all the
oldest breeds of English cattle, is involved in
obscurity. According to Youatt and Martin, some of
the ancient Britons fled before the advance of their
enemies to the Weald of Hast Sussex and carried
with them their cattle, or found there some of the
native cattle of the country, and zealously guarded
them against all admixture. Mr. Alfred Heas-
man, editor of the first three volumes of the
Sussex Herdbook, and author of a chapter on
Sussex cattle in “The Cattle of the British
Isles,” doubts whether the breed was im-
ported or found native to the country on the
advent of William the Conqueror and his
followers. Be this as it may, the breed is univer-
sally recognized to be a distinct one. It has been
a prominent feature of Sussex from time im-
memorial, and has preserved, unchanged through
all vicissitudes, the same characteristics,—great
weight, aptitude to fatten, and red color,—except
in so far as improved by better feeding and greater
care. Originally they were used chiefly for draft
purposes, their great size and strength and activ-
ity, withal, enabling them to draw promptly the
heaviest loads and till the stiffest soil. But, even
in remote times, the quality of their flesh was highly
prized and, when the oxen became aged, they were
bought up, grazed a year, and supplied the markets
_with animals weighing 180 to 200 stone (a stone
a.
CATTLE
is about 14 pounds avoirdupois, making the weight
2,500 to 2,800 pounds.)
These cattle have always been the favorite of
the tenant farmer (than whom there is no better
judge of a profitable animal) of Sussex and adja-
cent counties, and have constituted for many years
one of the chief attractions at the local stock
shows. More recently, stimulated by the exporta-
tion of large numbers of the principal breeds at
fancy prices, some of the Hnglish breeders have
sought to bring forward the Sussex more promi-
nently at all of the leading shows of the British
Isles ; nor are they strangers in the show-yards on
this side of the Atlantic. Most gratifying success
has crowned these efforts both abroad and here, as
may be seen from the files of the Hnglish and
American agricultural press for the past quarter
of a century.
In America.—The date of the first importation
to America is uncertain. The characteristics of
many of the so-called native red cattle, found in
New England and in Tennessee on and near Cumber-
land plateau, and, perhaps, in other states, suggest
that they, in common with almost all species and
breeds of domestic animals, were brought over by
the early colonists. Since 1880, a number of impor-
tations have been made, and the Sussex are domi-
ciled on many farms and scattered over the ranges,
doing their full share toward the improvement of
the native cattle. In 1884, the writer imported a
number of this breed of cattle for his farm in Ten-
nessee. In 1891, the Ontario Agricultural College
at Guelph, Canada, made an importation.
Distribution.
Sussex cattle are not yet widely distributed.
Their local habitat is Sussex and the adjoining
counties in England. They have been exported to
Canada and the United States, and, as stated in
the agricultural press, to South Africa, Egypt, and,
perhaps, to South America also. As far as known
they have thrived wherever tried, and it may be
stated safely that they will do well wherever any
of the bovine species can be produced successfully.
Cattle from the herd of the writer have been dis-
tributed to several parts of Tennessee, and to Ala-
bama, Arkansas, South Carolina and Texas. Other
herds are found in Maine, Indiana and Illinois.
Feeding and care.
The breed responds as generously as any to full
feeding and care, and thrives on rough and scant
pasturage. In cold weather, shelter—the lee side of
a shed, or wind-shield, or straw-stack, if no better
is obtainable—is a distinct advantage; at other
seasons, nothing but fair grazing is required.
Uses.
For milk.— As the Sussex is primarily a beef
breed, its milk-giving qualities have not been espe-
cially developed. At the same time, the cows,
almost without exception, give milk of most excel-
lent quality and, if milked closely, make surpris-
ingly good dairy animals. They fatten when dry
more readily, perhaps, than the ox.
CATTLE 377
For beef.—The Sussex has achieved the highest
honors “on the scale and the block.” The object
of the breeders, as a class, revealed by the typical
Sussex of today, has been to produce the most
profitable butcher’s beast ; to hasten the period of
maturity and improve the quality, without forget-
ting for a moment to preserve these most excel-
lent characteristics of the breed,—sound constitu-
tion, capacity “to rustle,” fecundity and prepotency.
The Sussex makes large and rapid gains, and
attains great weight. About 1,500 pounds for cows
and 2,000 pounds for bulls represent the average
weights of animals in good breeding condition. The
average weight of a well-fatted bullock, twenty-
tour months old, may be safely put at 1,400 pounds.
For grading.—The prepotency of Sussex bulis
makes them valuable for crossing on native or
grade stock, to improve the beefing qualities and
ability to graze. They readily stamp their charac-
ters on their crosses.
Organizations and records.
At a comparatively early date in the history of
registration, the English Sussex Herdbook Society
established che English Sussex Herdbook, tracing
pedigrees to the year 1855. The American Sussex
Register was established in 1889 by the American
Sussex Cattle Association. Comparatively few Sus-
sex cattle have been imported to the United States,
and only one volume of the Register has been pub-
lished (1906), containing something less than 300
entries.
Literature.
Arthur Young, General Views of Agriculture in
the County of Sussex (1793). [For further referen-
ces, see page 302.]
Some of the Lesser Known Breeds of Cattle.
Figs. 389-394.
By C. S. Plumb.
A larger number of breeds, or so-called breeds, of
cattle exists than is commonly supposed. In various
sections of Europe, for many years the inhabitants
have bred and developed breeds that seemed espec-
ially adapted to the local environment. This condi-
tion exists even today, to such a degree that one
finds breeds of merit, yet of limited distribution, in
various districts of Great Britain and on the conti-
nent of Europe. Among the lesser known, yet valu-
able breeds, may be mentioned the Black Welsh,
Brahmin or Sacred, Breton or Brittany, Kerry, Long-
horn, Normandy, Simmenthal, and West Highland.
All excepting the Black Welsh and Longhorn have
been introduced to some extent into America.
These breeds, however, are very rare in this coun-
try. In America, there is also the Texas Longhorn
type, which is fast passing, but which has filled an
important need.
BLACK WELSH CATTLE. Fig. 389.
Black Welsh cattle are found principally in
Wales, and are of obscure ancestry. They have
been regarded as of aboriginal ancestry and have
378 CATTLE
numerous characteristics in common with the West
Highland breed. Black, horned cattle are found in
both North and South Wales, and represent two
different types. They resemble each other to a con-
siderable extent, but those of South Wales are
Fig. 389. Black Welsh bull. Prize winner at Royal Agri-
cultural Society Show.
distinctly coarser and larger than those of North
Wales. Those of the south are not popular in the
north. Some of the special characteristics are a
black color, although brownish black or reddish
black sometimes prevails. White hair rarely occurs,
excepting on the udder of the cow, the scrotum of
the male and the brush of the tail. The horns
are rather prominent, being yellowish white with
blackish tips, and somewhat wide-spreading and
carried forward with the bull, and narrower and
more upright with cows. These cattle are beefy in
type, and are inclined to be well-fleshed. They are
criticized for slackness of loin, flatness of rib and
prominence of rump. The temperament is some-
what lively.
These cattle are indigenous to a hilly grazing
country, and are particularly adapted to grazing
purposes. They are rarely stable-sheltered in winter
and depend on pasturage for food the year round.
As a result of this open method of life, the breed
is a very hardy one. When kept on the uplands
with sparse herbage, the cattle tend to be some-
what smaller than those on the richer lowlands.
They are also somewhat slow to mature. Some
specimens of the breed attain considerable weight,
however. In 1883, at the Smithfield Club Show, at
London, a four-year-old steer was exhibited that
weighed 2,464 pounds, while a fat cow was cred-
ited with a weight of 2,214 pounds. These, of
course, are very excessive figures. Fair represen-
tative weights are given as 1; 500 to 1,800 pounds
for the bull, and 1,300 to it 400 pounds for the
cow.
Black Welsh cattle are rated as very fair milkers
by Welshmen. The cows average about 3,000
pounds of milk a year, while a better sort of indi-
vidual produces 4,000 or more pounds. The quality
of the milk is excellent. The Earl of Cawdor, a
leading exhibitor of these cattle in the past, states
that his cows produce twelve to fourteen quarts of
milk daily, and that the quality, color and flavor of
the butter from this milk is unsurpassed.
This breed, although unknown in America, is
prominent in Wales and is well represented in some
CATTLE
af the important English cattle shows, notably the
Royal Agricultural Society Show. The breeders of
North Wales established a herdbook association in
1883, and published the first volume of their records
that year. The South Wales breeders also had a
herdbook association. In 1904, these two societies
amalgamated into the Welsh Cattle Society, and
published their first herdbook in 1905,
BRAHMIN, SACRED CATTLE oR ZEBUS. Fig. 390.
These are a species of humped cattle, known as
Bos Indicus. They are the so-called Sacred cattle
of India. In works on natural history they are gen-
erally described as “Zebus.” They were first intro-
duced to the United States, perhaps, in 1853, by
Mr. Davis, of South Carolina. Some other importa-
tion for agricultural purposes followed, notably in
1906. The Davis cattle were taken westward, their
descendants becoming distributed in the Southwest
and in Mexico. They are characterized by a light,
silvery-gray color, with darker shadings of fore and
hind parts; with hump over the shoulders, exces-
sive dewlap and fulness of throttle, large drooping
ear, and black, recurving horns. The disposition is
not good.
Brahmin cattle were introduced to the southern
states in the hope that they would better withstand
the warm climate, insects and disease than would
other cattle. In 1888, Prof. G. W. Curtis, of Texas,
wrote of them to some extent in his work on
“Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine,” in which he
stated that the pure-breds had played an important
part in improving the native stock in southern
Texas. The cross is said to improve the native beef,
but cattle of this kind and their grades are not to
be regarded seriously as factors in our live-stock
industry. The cows yield a fair amount of milk, it
is said, but it is very low in butter-fat. In India,
these cattle are used for domestic purposes, espe-
cially as oxen.
Zebu cattle are being imported from time to time,
but mainly for circuses or zodlogical gardens. They
Fig. 390. Brahmin ‘pull (Bos Indicus).
have been imported to South America, to cross with
the native Caracu, in the hope of securing a hybrid
that will be less subject to prevalent diseases.
In regard to the importaticn of 1906, Dr. Mark
Francis writes as follows: “In 1906, A. P. Borden,
Pierce, Texas, went to India and brought sixty-four
atl
CATTLE
head to America. They arrived at New York in the
spring (1906) and were held in quarantine on an
island off the coast of New Jersey all summer. The
Bureau of Animal Industry destroyed about one-
half of them for surra. The remainder were finally
released, and arrived on the Pierce Ranch at Pierce,
Texas, in November (1906). They were held here
several months, when the lot was divided, and one-
half of them taken to Victoria, Texas, and put on
the ranch of Thomas O’Connor. There are seven
distinct families, or strains of blood, represented.
All are bulls but three. I tested seven of them to
see whether they were immune to Texas fever. We
got no reaction from inoculation, and decided that
the whole lot were probably immune to Texas fever.
Mr. Borden shows that those cattle that have some
Brahma or Brahmin blood in them are in good flesh,
while those carrying some Shorthorn or Hereford
blood are in poor flesh, and must be fed in winter.
His claims appear to me to be sustained. The Brah-
min cattle seem to be able to stand the mosquitos,
ticks, horn flies, liver-flukes and parasites generally,
much better than the so-called improved breeds.
The bulls are of good size and bone, and not any of
them are the small ‘billy-goat’ type seen in a cer-
tain menagerie. The oldest of Mr. O’Connor’s bulls,
a four-year-old, weighs about 2,000 pounds. This
indicates the size that is attained.”
BRETON OR BRITTANY CATTLE.
Breton or Brittany cattle are native to that sec-
tion of Western France known as Brittany. They
are one of the oldest breeds of Hurope, and no doubt
their blood was used in the early stock of what
later became the Jersey and Guernsey.
The Breton cattle are black or black and white
in color, although in one section red and white
occurs. This is one of the smallest of the horned
breed of cattle, having an average height of about
thirty-six inches at the withers. It isa dairy breed,
and, like the Kerry, the cows produce generously
of milk in proportion to size. The average yield is
about 1,700 pounds of milk a year, with well-fed
individuals producing 2,500 pounds or more. When
we bear in mind that cows of this breed weigh 350
to 450 pounds, and receive but scanty attention
as arule, this is a fair record. It is said that the
Breton is very hardy, and that the cows live and
do well where cattle of other breeds would starve.
The Breton has been kept pure in some sections of
Brittany, and in other localities the cows have
been crossed with Shorthorn and Ayrshire bulls.
The Shorthorn improved the size and fattening
qualities, but unfavorably affected the milk secre-
ting capacity. The Ayrshire cows did not give
satisfactory returns either in beef or milk, while
the docile temperament of the Breton was mate-
rially injured.
A few Breton cattle were brought to Massachu-
setts many years ago, and the writer became
familiar with a pair of them in the herd of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College. These were
very small in size and mostly black in color. Unfor-
tunately, they were disposed of before their merits
became known.
CATTLE 379
HOLDERNESS CATTLE
In southern Yorkshire, Englund, lying north of
the river Humber, is a rich, level district long ago
known locally as Holderness. Here the cattle at-
tained considerable size, were rather light of shoul-
der, large behind, had a considerable reputation as
milkers, but were rather coarse in quality of flesh.
These cattle, which were often more or less black
in color, greatly resembled the Dutch cattle near
by in Holland; in fact, it has been said that they
originally came from Holland. Undoubtedly this
early stock played its part in the development of
the Shorthorn, and contributed toward establishing
the value of the Shorthorn as a milk-producer. The
cows were famous milkers and were especially pop-
ular with dairymen supplying London with milk.
As late as the middle of the last century they had
become much crossed with Shorthorn bulls, and the
old-fashioned Holderness cow was rarely met with.
In the present day this breed is of no special in-
terest, excepting historically.
The American Holderness is a very little known
American breed, said to have had its foundation in
Holderness cows imported from the West Riding
of Yorkshire about 1830. Just who was the first
importer is not known. It is said that they were
introduced into Massachusetts about that date. The
man who is responsible for whatever progress the
breed has made in America, is Truman A. Cole, of
Solsville, N. Y. About 1855, he purchased from
Mr. Knox, of Oneida county, N. Y., a single cow of
this breed, which was said to have been from im-
ported stock. She was a red and white cow, and
was a superior milker. When purchased she was in
calf, and in season dropped a bull. Later he was
was bred to his dam, and from this foundation, by
close inbreeding, has come this little-known Ameri-
can breed. In form, these cattle are said to resemble
much the black and white cattle of Dutch breeding,
with color which varies from red and white in
calves to very dark brown or black at full maturity.
They are deep-bodied, have large udders and teats,
swollen and tortuous milk-veins, and yellow skin.
The escutcheon is especially well developed. In
1879, Mr. Cole had in his herd nineteen cows that
averaged 308 pounds of butter per cow. While the
cows do not produce so heavy a yield as do the
Holstein-Friesians, they give milk somewhat richer
in butter-fat. The butter is excellent, of good keep-
ing quality, and sold on the Utica (N. Y.) market
at an advanced price. It is said that the cows fatten
readily when dry and make a good quality of beef.
A number of head from Mr. Cole’s herd were sold
to other breeders. [See pamphlet ‘“‘ Holderness Cat-
tle,” issued by Truman A. Cole (1887).]
KERRY AND DEXTER-KERRY CATTLE. Figs. 391-
393.
Kerry cattle, embracing both beef and dairy
types, have been bred by the people of Ireland as
far back as history gives record, and are distinctly
an Irish breed. Probably they are descended from
the smaller type of the aboriginal cattle of Britain.
They are found in largest numbers in the south-
western part of Ireland in what are termed the
380 CATTLE
Kerry mountains. Herds are found, however, scat-
tered all over the island.
There are two types of Kerry cattle, the true Kerry
and the Dexter-Kerry. The true Kerry (Fig. 391) is
(Jaa e
Fig. 391. Kerry cow.
distinctly a dairy breed, and is usually of a black
color; red, however, may occur. White often pre-
vails about the udder of the cow or the scrotum of
the bull, but not elsewhere. The type is muscular,
of the dairy form, with
lean head, fairly thin neck,
rather narrow withers,
thin thighs and compara-
tively capacious udder.
Good specimens show re-
finement, although, in
their native homes, Ker-
ries often show the effect
of scanty food in retarded
growth and rough appear-
ance. The true Kerry cow
at maturity usually weighs
500 to 600 pounds and the
bulls 800 to 1,000 pounds.
These figures vary accord-
ing to care and food. As
milk-producers, cows of
this breed rank high, yielding an unusually large
amount for their size. They have been known to
give sixteen quarts a day when fresh, and the cow
Red Rose produced nearly 10,000 pounds in one
year.
The Dexter-Kerry (Figs. 392, 393) is a beefy type
of the Kerry family. It is of obscure ancestry, but
it is supposed that a Mr. Dexter developed it by
crossing the true Kerries on cattle of a beefy sort,
possibly Shorthorns. This is really a diminutive,
dual-purpose type. The composition is rather beefy,
showing compactness, breadth of back, depth of rib,
thickness of flesh generally, with excellent udder
development. The legs are very short. Famous
bulls of the breed have weighed about 500 pounds
at maturity, and cows even less. Some well-known
show Dexter-Kerries have stood about thirty-six
inches high at maturity. The color is variable, and
may be black, red or roan. The Dexter-Kerry is
suited to beef-production on a small scale, and
yields a very high grade of meat. The steers are
found on the Irish market, and each year a small
but select class are on exhibition at the Smith-
Fig. 392. Dexter.
erty bull, La Mancha Union Jack.
A great prize winuer.
CATTLE
field Club Show in London, where special prizes are
offered for small cross-breds. In 1901, at a fat-
stock exhibition at Birmingham, England, the first-
prize Kerry steer weighed 840 pounds at eighteen
months of age. This family of Kerries also pro-
duces considerable milk, although the milk-secreting
habit is not so persistent as with the true Kerry.
Some choice herds of Kerries are to be found in
England on the estates of men of wealth, who have
taken up this little breed more as a fad than other-
wise. A few specimens found their way to America
many years ago, but the purity of breeding was
soon destroyed. Twenty-five years ago there were a
few pure-breds at the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, but these were dispersed. At the present
time, small herds are owned in New York and West
Virginia, and another has recently been established
in Illinois. Exportations of Kerries have been made
from Ireland and England to Australia, South
Africa and Canada. Undoubtedly the breed has
much of merit and it deserves more attention. Its
hardy character and capacity to produce milk on a
large scale, in proportion to its size and cost of
production, justifies its growth in public favor.
LONGHORN CATTLE.
Longhorn cattle repre-
sent a breed that was
established in a definite
manner by the breeding
operations of Robert
Bakewell, mainly in the
latter half of the eigh-
teenth century. Bakewell,
largely by a process of
selection, developed the
cattle in the midland
counties of England, nota-
bly Leicester, producing
more rapid fattening,
earlier maturity, and more
economical killers than
had previously existed. Longhorns became very
famous and for many years were regarded as the
best beef cattle of the country. Then the Shorthorn
began to receive the attention of intelligent breed-
ers, and the Longhorn gradually assumed an insig-
nificant position among British breeds. Today, Long-
horn cattle occur in very small numbers in Britain
and their reputation is largely a matter of long ago.
CATTLE
This breed is of the large beef type, carrying
considerable width of back, depth of rib, fulness of
hind-quarter and thickness of flesh. Longhorns differ
from other British breeds in the horn and color.
The horn is very long, spreading, and often droop-
ing. The writer has a photograph of a pair of these
horns which measured eight feet around the curve,
from tip to tip. The color of hair is commonly
brindle, or brindle and white, or red and white,
with white along the back and also with very light
shading along the belly. The hair attains con-
siderable length and the skin is thick and mellow.
Coarseness has also attended the Longhorn. While
not producing heavily of milk, the milk is regarded
as rich in butter-fat.
The breed today is comparatively unknown in
England, although efforts have been made to bring
it back into popular favor. At recent shows of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England, a few Long-
horns have been exhibited and have attracted much
attention, though mainly for their historic associ-
ations.
The Longhorn Cattle Society was organized some
years ago, and in 1878 the first volume of a herd
register was published, which recorded 286 bulls
and a somewhat larger number of cows.
NORMANDY CATTLE.
Normandy cattle are natives of Normandy, in
northwestern France. Strictly speaking, the com-
mon cattle of this section are known as the Co-
tentin breed, there being various other races or
breeds in France.
Some of the more important characteristics of
this breed are as follows: Color variable, but usu-
ally either brindle, black or red; head and neck
rather heavy, the latter possessing more dewlap
than with the British breeds; body of large size,
inclining to be flat of rib; bone inclined to coarse-
ness ; size large, developing heavy weight at ma-
turity. The character of the meat is said to rank
very high, although animals of the breed will not
dress out a percentage of carcass to offal equal to
the Shorthorn, Aberdeen-Angus or Hereford. As
producers, the cows rank very high in France,
yielding a large amount of milk rich in butter-fat.
In the late seventies, Richardson wrote of dairies
in LeBessin, near Isigny, that produced $5,000
worth of butter a year. Large amounts of butter
and cheese are made in Normandy and extensive
exports are made to other countries. Cotentin cattle
have been crossed considerably with the Shorthorn,
the two breeds nicking to great advantage.
A few cattle were brought to the United States
from Normandy about 1895 by the late Theodore A.
Havemeyer, and kept on his farm at Mahwah, N. J.
They were imported for experimental purposes, to
cross on Jerseys in the Havemeyer herd. The milk
records of the pure-bred Normandy cows in this
herd were quite comparable with those of so-called
dairy Shorthorns. This herd was dispersed before
the value of the cows became known.
A herdbook society, for promoting the breed,
exists in France (Herdbook de la Race Normande
Pure), with headquarters at Calvados.
CATTLE 381
SIMMENTHAL CATTLE. Fig. 16.
Simmenthal cattle, also called Bernese, and the
Spotted Race, are native to the valley of the Simme
in Switzerland. These'and the Brown Swiss are the
two important breeds of cattle in Switzerland. It
is a very old breed and has long been looked on
with favor in its native land. The cattle are better
adapted to the Swiss valleys than to the mountain
sides.
Not much of an attempt has been made to intro-
duce this breed to America. About 1895, Mr. T. A.
Havemeyer, of New York, imported some Simmen-
thal cattle with the purpose of crossing them with
Jerseys. This he did and continued the work some
years, but with his death the herd was dispersed in
1898, before any definite results were made public.
One purpose of Mr. Havemeyer’s experiments was
to use the Simmenthal blood on the Jersey to
improve the constitution, the former being a very
hardy breed. So far as the writer is aware, this is
the only serious attempt to introduce this breed to
America. Without doubt the Simmenthal has merit,
and it is singular that it should not have found its
way to this country toa greater extent than it has.
This breed is what may be known as a dual-
purpose sort, producing both beef and milk to a
creditable extent. The tendency is somewhat to
a blocky, thick conformation, covered well with
flesh, while the cows in mature form carry large
udders. The color is usually spotted, of drab or
yellowish red and solid white markings. Sometimes
the color is almost solid. Animals of the breed are
large, and bulls attain a weight of 2,000 to 2,500
pounds, and cows often weigh over 1,500 pounds;
and larger weights are not uncommon. These cattle
are also much used for oxen (Fig. 16), which may
weigh 2,000 to 2,500 pounds.
As milk-producers, the cows have a fair reputa-
tion. A number of dairies in Switzerland, where
records are kept, show milk-yields to range from
7,000 to 8,000 pounds a year. The milk is of a
medium quality, twenty-five pounds yielding about
a pound of butter. Ten pounds of milk are also
usually counted to make a pound of cured cheese.
Some interesting milk records were secured with
the pure-bred Simmenthalers in the Havemeyer
herd. The cow, Pfan (79), from April 24, 1896 to
February 27, 1897, produced 9,500 pounds of milk.
Bari (411), as a four-year-old, from July, 1896 to
September, 1897, produced 11,251 pounds of milk.
Spiess (413), a five-year-old, from April 11, 1896 to
April 22, 1897, produced 10,879 pounds of milk.
These are better records than those published in
Switzerland.
The Simmenthal as beef cattle rank high in
Switzerland. They are expected to mature in about
four years, and the beef is credited with being fine
of grain and of superior flavor.
TexAS LONGHORN CATTLE. Fig. 394.
There is no distinct breed of this name. What is
familiarly known as the “Texas steer” is descended
from the early Spanish cattle first introduced into
Mexico, later becoming distributed over the south-
western range. The color was variable, dun, yel-
382 CATTLE
low, black, and red prevailing, often with striking
white markings. These were narrow-backed, flat-
ribbed, leggy cattle, with heavy head and frequently
widely spreading horns. They were slow and hard
feeders, and did not attain large size, the bulls
rarely weighing over 1,200 pounds and the cows
ranging from 600 to 900 pounds. With the develop-
ment of the western range in the seventies, began
Fig. 394. Texas Longhorn.
the introduction on a considerable scale of pure-
bred Hereford and Shorthorn bulls. Since this time,
the old Longhorn has been about bred out, and today
Texas and the Southwest have cattle really much
superior in breeding to most of the other sections
of the country.
West HIGHLAND CATTLE.
West Highland cattle represent a distinctly
Scotch breed. From time immemorial the West
Highland, or Kyloe as it was formerly known,
has been bred among the mountains of western
Scotland. It is generally thought that this breed is
of aboriginal descent. Over a century ago, Culley
included the Highland as one of the very few breeds
treated by him in his book on live-stock. Undoubt-
edly, West Highland cattle have been bred for
centuries in the west highlands, especially in Argyll,
Perth and Inverness counties and on the Hebrides
islands.
The West Highland is distinctly of the beef
type, being blocky, broad of back, deep-ribbed,
thick-fleshed and short of leg. The long, wide-
spreading horn, and long, shaggy mane and coat of
hair are peculiar to this breed and give it much
individuality. The hair in winter has extreme
length and thickness, and gives admirable protec-
tion from rain and cold. The color is variable,
and black, brown, red and brindle are seen in the
same herd. A rich yellowish red or tawny color is a
favorite with some breeders. Broken colors are not
popular and are uncommon.
CATTLE
West Highland cattle do not usually attain large
size. They are slow to mature, and the cows weigh
about 900 pounds and the bulls 1,200. One may
see much larger specimens at the Scotch shows, but,
under ordinary field conditions, they do not weigh
heavy. The quality of beef produced by the breed
is very superior. Nothing excels it in the British
market. The flavor is choice and the grain fine and
of the best quality. In the London mar-
ket a well-fleshed West Highland steer
brings the highest price.
As milk-producers the cows are very
ordinary. This might naturally be expected, as
the main object is simply to furnish the calves with
milk, and not, to any extent, to furnish milk for
domestic purposes.
Cattle of this breed are very hardy. Their lives
are passed on the hills, and, as a rule, they never
see the interior of a barn, even in midwinter. In
temperament they are wild and high spirited when
on their native hills, and never assume the docility
of the Shorthorn or Jersey under the most domestic
surroundings. Their reproductive qualities are said
to be good, and the cows continue as active
breeders for more years than is usual with most
other breeds.
The West Highland breed is chiefly valued in
Scotland for its easy-keeping character and valua-
ble beef. It has never secured a foothold of sig-
nificance away from its native hills. One may
occasionally see herds on estates in England, but
these are steers brought from the Highlands for
fattening, and are kept in part for their picturesque
effect. A few specimens of the breed have been
brought to America, but they have been regarded
mainly as curiosities. Some attempt has been made
to introduce them on the western range, notably
in Kansas and the far Northwest, but nothing has
yet come from the movement. While their hardi-
ness and superior quality of beef commend them,
they are so inferior to the Hereford, Shorthorn or
other beef cattle on the range, in rapid maturity
and weight, that they are not likely ever to receive
serious consideration from the pure-bred point of
view. The cross-bred West Highland may be an
improvement on the pure stock, but even then the
value of the herd in America is open to serious
question. No doubt in the grazing districts of the
higher mountains of the Atlantic coast states the
breed might prosper and be of value. West High-
land cows may be crossed with other British beef
breeds to advantage, but this will be breeding away
from the blood of the mountain breed rather than
toward it. Galloway and Aberdeen-Angus bulls are
especially commended for this purpose. The use of
the West Highland bull on native cows might con-
tribute to constitutional vigor, but it is more than
likely that more will be lost than gained by such a
cross.
Literature.
American writings contain very meager accounts
of these lesser-known breeds of cattle. For gen-
eral references, the reader is referred to page
302.
DOGS
DOGS, FARM. Canis familiaris, Linn. Canide.
Figs. 395-399.
The dog belongs to the order Carnivores, the
family Canide, and the genus Canis. The origin of
the domestic dog is not known. It is supposed that
it is the result of many crosses with many different
types, under various conditions, as the owner wan-
dered from place to place. !t is probable that the
jackal and the wolf have been important elements
in the evolution of the domestic dog.
The dog has long occupied a prominent place on
the farm, especially as a watch-dog and a sheep-dog.
Much of the police duty:on the stock-farm is en-
trusted to the dog. He looks out for the vermin and
small game that would become troublesome ; he is
an indispensable aid in hunting ; and as a compan-
ion he is a privileged member of the household.
The adaptability of certain breeds of dogs for
farm purposes is generally known. The care and
intelligence displayed by a well-trained dog in
handling stock is well-nigh remarkable. The two
recognized breeds for herding and driving purposes
are the Collie and the Old English Bobtail Sheep-
dog. Individuals of many other breeds are trained
for this work with some success, and a great variety
of dogs, good, bad and indifferent, are found on
the farm.
The Collie Dog. Fig. 395. See also page 595.
By Herbert W. Mumford.
The Collie is one of the most useful breeds of
farm dogs. His origin is not known. Probably,
however, he has been developed from the Old Eng-
lish Sheep-dog by crossing with the Scotch Grey-
hound. The rough-coated Scotch Collie is the best
known and most highly prized variety in this coun-
try. The smooth-coated type is well known in Great
Britain and is preferred by some persons.
Dog shows and public sheep-driving trials have
had a tendency to popularize the Collie. They have
had a wholesome effect in setting standards and
bringing about greater uniformity in type among
so-called high-class Collies. There was a noticeable
lack of uniformity among them previous to the
establishment of these exhibitions. It should not be
inferred that all Collies are invariably good and
that one is sure to get a good dog if only he buys a
pedigreed Collie. It means simply that there is a
well-defined ideal type which progressive breeders
are striving to produce. As in other breeds of
domesticated animals, fashion in blood lines, in col-
oring, and in markings, has to be reckoned with in
determining the value of a Collie.
Description.
In general, the Collie is light and graceful, show-
ing a combination of agility, speed and suppleness,
with a power of endurance that few other breeds
possess. High intelligence, good appearance and
devotion characterize this breed. The following is
a description of a rough-coated Collie as revised by
the Collie Club in 1898 :
The skudl should be flat, moderately wide between
the ears, and gradually tapering to the eyes.
DOGS 383
There should be only a slight depression at “stop.”
The width of the skull necessarily depends on the
combined length of skull and muzzle, and the whole
must be considered in connection with the size of
the dog. The cheek should not be full or prominent.
The muzzle should be of fair length, tapering to
nose, and must not show weakness, or be snipy or
lippy. Whatever the color of the dog may be, the
nose must be black. The éeeth should be of good
size, sound, and level; very slight uneveness is
permissible. The jaws should be clean-cut and
powerful. The eyes are a very important feature,
and give expression to the dog. They should be of
medium size, set somewhat obliquely, of almond
shape, and of brown color except in the case of
Fig. 395. Animported rough-coated Scotch Collie.
Owned by J. I. Behling, Milwaukee.
marles, when the eyes are frequently (one or both}
blue and white or china; the expression should be
full of intelligence, with a quick, alert look when
listening. The ears should be small and moderately
wide at base, and placed not too close together on
top of skull, nor too much to side of the head. When
in repose they should be usually carried back, but
when on the alert, brought forward and carried
semi-erect, with tip slightly drooping in an atti-
tude of listening. The neck should be muscular,
powerful, and of fair length, and somewhat arched.
The body should be rather long, with well-sprung
ribs, chest deep, fairly broad behind the shoulders,
which should be sloping ; loins should be slightly
arched and powerful. The dog should be straight
in front. The fore-legs should be straight. and
muscular, neither in nor out at elbows, with a fair
amount of bone; the fore-arm should be somewhat
fleshy, the pasterns showing flexibility without
weakness. The hind-legs should be muscular at the
thighs, clean and sinewy below the hocks, with
well-bent stifles. The feet should be oval in shape,
the soles well padded, and the toes well arched
and close together. The hind-feet should be less
arched, with hocks well let down and powerful.
The brush should be moderately long, carried low
when the dog is quiet, with aslight upward “swirl”
at the end, and may be gaily carried when the dog
is excited, but not over the back. The coat should
be very dense, the outer coat harsh to the touch,
the inner coat soft, furry, and very close, so close
as almost to hide the skin. The mane and frill
384 DOGS
should be very abundant, the mask or face smooth,
as also the ears at the tips, but they should carry
more hair toward the base ; the fore-legs should be
well feathered, the hind-legs above the hocks pro-
fusely so, but below the hocks fairly smooth,
although all heavily coated Collies are likely to
grow a slight feathering. The hair on the brush
should be very profuse. The color is immaterial.
In general character the Collie should be a lithe,
active dog, his deep chest showing lung power ;
his neck, strength; his sloping shoulders and well-
bent hocks indicating speed; and his expression,
high intelligence. He should be a fair length on
the leg, giving him more of a racy than a cloddy
appearance. In a few words, a Collie should show
endurance, activity, and intelligence, with free and
true action. In size, the dogs should be twenty-two
inches to twenty-four inches at the shoulders ; the
bitches, twenty inches to twenty-two inches. In
weight, the dogs should register forty-five to sixty-
five pounds ; the bitches, forty to fifty-five pounds.
The smooth Collie differs from the rough only in
its coat, which should be hard, dense, and smooth.
Faults——The following are considered faults :
Domed skull, high-peaked occipital bone, heavy,
pendulous, or prick ears, weak jaws, snipy muzzle,
full staring or light eyes, crooked legs, flat or hare
feet, curly or soft coat, cow hocks, brush twisted
or carried right over the back, and an under- or an
over-shot mouth.
SCALE OF POINTS FOR COLLIE Doc Pertert
i Hie) 7s ee NRE MRE OAT LCT SA eatin: ion & 25
PAO OE ap Cee sg AG. tron tO O- Or yo 15
2b Binkeeg oo a 6 Db O10 OGD GO ooo Go 2 15
CEM eee aoe hy clo OO bo a6 a 6 5 15
BRE ae BO Gwe Seo ob oo oS Ss 25
Gs. Dally tremens) ise cs: fol ate eee cnte rr neato mn 5
Perfection ©.) 3.5: je, etic fame, thon ete hene 100
In the matter of color there is much variation.
There are the so-called sables, the sable and whites,
the black and whites, the whites and the tricolors,
black, tan and white. The most desirable white
markings on either the tricolors or the sable and
whites are a white stripe in the face, a full white
collar, white breast, white feet and white tip to
the tail. There are but relatively few Collies that
possess these perfect markings and some of them
that do are deficient in more important points.
Color should be the last consideration in buying a
Collie dog.
Distribution.
From his native home in Scotland, the Collie has
gone out into all parts of the civilized world ; and
wherever he has arrived he has made innumerable
friends. His rare beauty and intelligence, together
with the enterprise of Collie breeders, won and has
held for him a leading place among those who have
a fondness for dogs.
The Collie has become such a prime favorite that
his popularity in the city, as well as in the country,
is second to no other breed. Dog fanciers nearly
everywhere have taken up the breeding of Collies
_ DOGS
as a fad. The breeding of Collies in Great Britain ©
is attended with greater success than in this coun-
try, whether the measure of success be the number
of high-class individuals produced or the net profit
secured in the enterprise. r
Famous Collie dogs.
A few of the famous Collie dogs in this country
are: Wishaw Clinker, Winnetka Christopher,
Wellesbourne Conqueror, Ormskirk Olympian, Par-
bold Paragon and Ellwyn Perfection. Most of
these dogs are rich in blood of one or more of the
following dogs that have been looked on as pillars
in the Collie studbook : Stracathro Ralph, Christo-
pher, Metchley Wonder, Edgbaston Marvel and
Great Alne Douglas. One of the most celebrated
Collies of history is Southport Perfection. This
dog sold at one time for $6,000. Christopher, a
scarcely less celebrated dog, sold for $5,000.
Metchley Wonder and Edgbaston Marvel each sold
for $2,500.
Care and feeding.
Every dog, whether on the farm or elsewhere,
should have an individual kennel which he may
look on as his home, and where in case of sickness
he may be isolated and given proper care. The
location of the kennel should be carefully chosen.
Abundant sunlight and good drainage are prime
requisites in preserving the health of a dog. If it
is desired to have a yard in which the dog can be
confined, this should be dry and well drained, and
preferably have a concrete floor, as dirt yards about
kennels soon become foul and thus invite disease.
A southern exposure is best. In hot weather, ample
provision for shade should be made, but it is not
desirable to have the yard entirely or even largely
shaded, as the sun should have access, as far as”
practicable, at some time during the day, to every
part of the enclosure.
Straw makes very satisfactory bedding for the
kennel, the sleeping bench of which it is best to
have raised about ten inches from the floor. Ken-
nels should be cleaned frequently and thoroughly,
and the bedding changed every week. When the
kennels are being cleaned, they should be carefully
disinfected. An occasional liming or whitewashing
is excellent.
As a rule, mature dogs are fed too often. Twice
daily is ample, —a light breakfast and a hearty
evening meal. There is a great difference in the
food requirements of different dogs, some bein,
light eaters while others consume large quantities.
This difference is due largely to their temperament
and degree of activity. The judgment of the one
who feeds the dog must be depended on properly to
regulate the quantity of food required. The general
appearance of the dog’s coat and his behavior when
fed are fairly good guides. Meat should not com-
prise any large part of the ration of the dog. Mos
authorities on the feeding of dogs agree that the
should not be fed warm food. All cooked foods
should be allowed to cool before being fed. Dogs
should be encouraged in every way to eat dry bis-
cuits. Cooked vegetables should be fed at least
DOGS
twice a week, although care should be taken not to
feed too much soft food. Regularity in feeding
dogs produces the same beneficial effects that it
does in the feeding of other kinds of domestic ani-
mals. As a rule, the feeding of the dog is given
very little thought. Feasts and fasts are the order,
and such treatment is likely to cause serious diges-
tive disturbances.
Cost.
Tf one insists on buying a high-class Collie, that
possesses to a great degree all of the fancy points
of the breed, including color and markings, he must
be prepared to pay a high price, as has been shown
in the preceding paragraph. Such Collies are rare,
and the experienced breeder feels well satisfied if
he is able to secure a high-class one from each
litter. Pedigreed Collies of indifferent breeding and
individuality may be purchased at very low prices,
but Collies of choice breeding and individuality are
worth from twenty dollars up. Well-bred puppies
that are not desirable, from the fancier’s point of
view, because of some lack in individuality, are
disposed of by the breeders at ten to twenty
dollars. The breeding of Collies good enough to
win at leading shows is an extremely difficult busi-
ness. The breeding of Collies that are much more
handsome and more useful than the average dog,
is relatively easy.
Uses.
While originally developed as a sheep-dog to aid
the shepherd in guarding, herding and driving
sheep, and still holding a foremost place for this
purpose, the Collie has become a universal favorite
as a companion for children and grown-ups and as
a watch-dog.
There are those who think that the smooth-
coated Collie is a better worker than the rough-
coated type. Again, there are those who are preju-
diced in favor of the tricolor, or black and white
and tan, asa worker. The sable and the sable and
white, however, are most popular among the fan-
ciers and will usually sell more readily and at
higher prices than the tricolors.
Because the Collie is such a favorite at dog-
shows and has been so persistently bred for the
bench, it is said that the modern bench type has
lost much of its former intelligence and instinct
for driving. It must be admitted that but very few
of our most valuable Collies have ever been trained
to drive live-stock, and the majority of them, until
trained, would be useless for agricultural purposes.
It is even doubted whether some of them are sus-
ceptible of a high degree of training. This latter
is true not only of show Collies but of others as
well. There is no good reason why a good show
Collie should not make, with proper training, a
good driver. Well-trained dogs, however, are sel-
dom in proper condition for show. The rugged life
to which many of them are subjected unfits them
for exhibition purposes. In this way, the show
may militate against the best development of the
Collie for farm purposes.
Tt is doubtful whether the Collie has really lost
C 25
DOGS 385
in intelligence. He has certainly lost much in
opportunity, but what he has lost in opportunity
he has gained in beauty and elegance; and while
formerly only the sheep-herder was familiar with
his excellent qualities and privileged with his
companionship, he is today admitted te the most
exclusive society.
Ailments.
The ailments of dogs that are most troublesome
and likely to be met with are distemper, worms
and fleas.
Distemper.—Of all the diseases of dogs, distem-
per is by far the most to be feared. It assumes a
great variety of forms and is not so well under-
stood as other diseases (see page 142). The writer
takes the liberty of quoting from “The Collie”
[see Literature] the discussion of the disease as it
appears in that work: “It is a contagious febrile
disease, and therefore, once it has been diagnosed,
the subject should be isolated, and the same person
should not be allowed to wait on the affected dog
and the healthy ones, as the contagion is readily
conveyed. In order to prevent distemper, all that
the thoughtful owner can do is to keep his young
stock in robust health ; then, if any, or all, should
fall victims, they will be less liable to “go under”
than the weakling and the wastrel.
“Usually the disease is ushered in with catarrh,
accompanied by a poor appetite, lassitude, hot nose,
furred tongue, eye inflammation, and a discharge
alike from eyes and nose—thin at first, but becom-
ing thicker as the disease progresses. Usually, too,
the bowels are loose, while the under part of the
belly not infrequently becomes spotted. Good nurs-
ing will do more good than drugs, providing it be
in conjunction with warmth and well-ventilated
quarters. An even temperature is desirable, and
the patient should wear a flannel coat. The eyes
and nose should be sponged clean of discharge,
using a little rose-pink solution of Condy’s Fluid
(warm). There is almost certain to be a cough; but
so long as the lungs and bronchi are not involved,
this will soon cease to trouble. When, however,
pneumonia supervenes, the aid of the veterinary
surgeon should be at once invoked, as also when
that form of distemper accompanied by jaundice is
present. This latter is shown by the yellowness of
the mucous membranes—a condition that has given
rise to the name of the “yellows.” Diarrhea, if
present, should be relieved by means of carbonate
of bismuth, given dry on the tongue twice a day—
the dose varying from 10 grains to 380 or 40 grains.
If there be a high. temperature (over 103°), some-
thing must be done to reduce it. Dissolve 2 drams
of salacin ina little hot water, add 4 ounce of tinc-
ture of gentian and sufficient water to make 6
ounces, and give a dessertspoonful three times a
day.
“The food during the time the patient is unwell
should be light and nourishing. It may consist of
good broth poured over stale brown bread. The
best is made from sheep’s head boiled. The meat
may also be cut up and added to the mass. Beaten-
up egg and Bovril are also useful when more solid
386 DOGS
food is refused. The patient should be fed on the
‘little and often’ principle.”
Worms.—Tapeworms, threadworms and round-
worms are commonly met with. The roundworm is
the form which most prevails in puppies, while the
tapeworm is frequently found in adult dogs. The
presence of worms is usually indicated by a staring
coat, a cough, irregular bowels, and, in some in-
stances, severe diarrhea, and sickness. In some
cases worms are vomited. Various worm remedies
for dogs are on sale at drug-stores, and many of
these remedies are as satisfactory as any prescribed
remedies with which the writer is familiar. Vermi-
fuges, of whatever nature, should always be admin-
istered to a dog after a period of fasting.
Fleas.—Fleas greatly annoy dogs, and the long
coat of a rough-coated Collie makes a good refuge
for them. There are numerous insecticides on the
market that are good. Care should be taken when
attempting to eradicate fleas or lice, thoroughly to
clean the kennel and follow the cleaning with a
free use of some good insecticide.
Organizations and records.
The Collie Club of England was founded in 1881.
This club aided greatly in promoting the interests
of the breed both at home and abroad. An Amer-
ican Collie Club has also been organized. A Collie
studbook is issued. There are a few local Collie
clubs scattered over the country.
The Old English Bobtail Sheep-dog. Fig. 396.
By Frederick Freeman Lloyd.
The name of this useful, sagacious and quaint-
appearing dog exactly explains his ancestry and
occupation, although, strictly speaking, the Bobtail
Sheep-dog is as much a cattle-dog as a sheep-dog.
There are varieties of these rough- and heavy-coated
Sheep-dogs in other European and Asiatic countries
than England, which, however, have long tails. It
is one of the oldest breeds of dogs.
Description.
In general appearance, the Bobtail is a strong
compact-looking dog of great symmetry, absolutely
free from legginess or weaselness, profusely coated
all over, very elastic in his gallop, but in walking
or trotting he has a characteristic ambling or pac-
ing movement. His bark should be loud, with plenty
of “ring” in it. He is a thick-set, muscular, able-
bodied dog, with a most intelligent expression, free
from all poodle and deerhound character. While a
fast-enough dog for the wildest of sheep, he is not
hard on them; and his great sense or sagacity
makes him more of a human companion than simply
a dog-aid.
While breeders of Collies and some others of
their kind breed for long-headed dogs, the producers
of Bobtails strive, and rightly, after good, capacious
skulls, and those well-developed frontal bones that
go to make up, what is generally considered the
“brain-box,” that structure that contains the com-
mon sense always required in a dog whose every-
day occupation is tending herds and flocks.
DOGS
A great characteristic of the Bobtail is his rm
gedness. Because of the density of his coat he ¢an
put up with the most severe climates. The best
Bobtails have very heavy coats, there being an
undercoat on the body with a long, harsh and almost
wire-like overcoat of the texture of the mane of
a horse. The undercoat keeps the dog warm and
his skin protected from wet and rain, while mois-
Fig. 396. Old English Sheep-dog. Owned by Mrs. Mitchell
Harrison, Chestnut Hill, Pa.
ture will roll off the outer coat. Great points in
the breed are the all-round feathered fore-legs,
and the general massiveness and squareness of the
hind-quarters.
Bobtails may be of any color, but the most valued
and beautiful are the pigeon-blue and white, and
the dark steel-blue and white, the white being found
about the muzzle, head, collar, neck, fore-legs and
sometimes from the hocks to the feet of the hind-
legs. These hocks should be well let down, while
the fore-legs must be straight, and the body well
loined, comparatively short, and strongly ribbed and
rounded. The darker blue puppies are born black ;
with a little age, white hairs come through the
black, which become lighter, the whole making a
blue grizzle. Some dogs are entirely whole or self-
colored. While these are not less useful, the marked
ones are preferred, for they are more striking in
appearance, and, as workers, can be seen at a
greater distance, especially in dismal and indiffer-
ent weather.
The colors of the eyes of a Bobtail vary according
to the body or color of the dog. In the blues, the
eyes are bluish and grayish. With white dogs we
will very often find a “wall,” “china” or “marble”
eye. This is highly typical. It is said that a dog
with a wall eye never fails in the sight of that
organ.
It is more than probable that dogs of this breed,
in the ages that are past, were bigger, for they
had, generally, to protect their flocks from the
larger carnivore, which Britain does not now pos-
sess. Within the last two decades Bobtails have
become larger. Soft coats have, unfortunately, bee:
somewhat noticeable, but the majority of speci-
mens we see at the present-day shows are magnif-
icent creatures. The present-day dogs are in type,
DOGS
make and shape, coat, stature and general charac-
teristics a great deal better than the first of this
breed to arrive on this continent. A dog standing
twenty-five inches, fair measurement, at the
shoulder may be considered tall enough; a bitch
two inches less would be considered equally well
grown.
The following is the official description of the
Old English Sheep-dog: The skull should be capa-
cious and rather squarely formed, giving plenty
of room for brain-power. The parts over the eyes
should be well arched and the whole well covered
with hair. The jaw should be fairly long, strong,
square and truncated ; the stop should be defined to
avoid a deerhound face (the attention of judges is
particularly called to the above properties, as a
long narrow head is a deformity). The eyes vary
according to the color of the dog, but in the glau-
cous or blue dogs a pearl, wall, or china eye is
considered typical. The nose is always black, large
or capacious. The teeth are strong and large,
evenly placed and level in opposition. The ears are
small and carried flat to side of head, and coated
moderately. The fore-legs should be dead straight,
with plenty of bone, removing the body a medium
height from the ground, without approaching leg-
giness ; they should be well coated all around.
The feet should be small and round, the toes well
arched and the pads thick and hard. Tail: Puppies
requiring docking must have an appendage left of
one and one-half to two inches, and the operation
must be performed when the puppy is not older
than four days. The neck should be fairly long,
arched gracefully, and well coated with hair. The
shoulders should be sloping and narrow at the
point, the dog standing lower at the shoulder than
at the loin. The Jody should be rather short and
very compact ; the ribs well sprung, and the brisket
deep and capacious. The loin should be very stout
and gently arched, while the hind-quarters should
be round and muscular, with well let-down hocks,
and the hams densely coated with the thick long
jacket, in excess of any other part. The coat
should be profuse and of a good hard texture; not
straight, but shaggy and free from curl. The
undercoat should be a waterproof pile, when not
removed by grooming or season. As to color, any
shade of gray, grizzle, blue, or blue merled, with
or without white markings, or in reverse, is allow-
able. In height, twenty-two inches and upwards for
dogs, and slightly less for bitches is required.
SCALE OF POINTS FOR OLD ENGLISH SHEEP-
Dog r aebrs
ER CadMumemrcetsitc)iis.ts)ushcs bsp iesl cele: “an Gieere ve 5
CAV OMIA sP is ciis) < ysnie: ie! = & Gnd) 6 Ate been ao 5
EP COLOPM sev cicsi ve. Sco ce SMe Stale Arey, geen en sins 10
4b, IDES oi hg GeO ERR eG Ie ECan aS Ee aan 5
5. Body, loins andhind-quarters. ........ 20
Gad WAetee ih felieey isbia Meret aies ey atin Gee alse 10
EMNOSOFe eo! selec. RpreOect Cio wesi niet tence 5
ame Oh mm eectes tite, az weulntyts lai Sanaa cl) auce Veli 5
MEPS! oss ct) rome tal rer tate tewicahewat 10
HOM Neckvandishouldersii cn cus clea er cele 10
THER Coat aoe cauetrens ussite) (su cindeil'evoltele si atcuteliehea he 15
Bertectionins pe eyes niente eee ane: 100
DOGS 387
History.
Seventy-five to one hundred years ago, tailless
dogs were exempt from tax in England. It was
supposed that he would be a man of little pride
who would own a tailless dog in those days, a sure
sign that he was too poor or too mean to pay for
his canine farm help. Still, there were other rea-
sons. The game laws of the native country of the
Bobtail have always been very strict, and to kill a
hare was looked on, until a few years ago, as almost
a crime on the part of a tenant farmer. The tail
is a natural help to a dog in turning quickly, as
the hare turns when coursed and overtaken. With-
out his tail, the dog is sadly at fault in the wrench
and turn, and he loses much ground. For this
reason, the cut or bobbed sheep-dogs were not
looked on as dangerous to game, and their owners
were given tax exemptions for them accord-
ingly.
From this breed of short-tailed dogs arose the
splendid animals kept today for bench shows, sheep-
dog trials, sheep-herding, general farm work, and
companions. They are among the most valuable of
all breeds, and the importations and breeding oper-
ations in the United States and some parts of
Canada are extensive.
The Old English Sheep-dog was the old-fashioned
sheep-dog of the English farmer of generations ago.
But with the advent of Scotch Collies from the
North, which mostly accompanied their masters
engaged as stewards or managers,—for Scotchmen
have always been noted agriculturists and pastoral-
ists,—these dogs became somewhat generally and
widely distributed. Still, the Bobtails remained in
the hands of drovers; and among dealers and:
farmers attending markets and fairs, they have
always been held as of the utmost value. Their
ability to drive strange cattle and sheep through
crowded and difficult thoroughfares is remark-
able.
In America.—Perhaps the first dog of this breed,
of any note, to be imported was Sir Lucifer, which
was purchased in the middle “eighties” by the Glen-
coe Kennels, East Bethlehem, Washington county,
Pennsylvania, who also owned Bob and Dame Hes-
ter. About 1888, Mr. William Wade, then of Hulton,
Pennnsylvania, took more than a passing interest
in the breed and helped to develop it in this
country. These imported Bobtails weighed from
sixty pounds, with the bitches of less weight, down-
ward to forty-five pounds. Today the males and
females are much larger, and are far more valuable.
Twenty years ago in England (the dog market of
the world), good show specimens were worth $250 ;
now $500 to $1,000 is no uncommon price; and
at such figures some of the present-day dogs
have reached these shores. While there were but
three or four individuals in 1886, no fewer than
thirty-three first-class specimens were registered
at the American Kennel Club, New York, 1906.
Never were there more and better Old English
Bobtail Sheep-dogs than at the present time. The
breed is strongly supported, not only by agricul-
turists who value them for their work and good
looks, but other persons of position in both hemi-
388 DOGS
spheres, who recognize in this Sheep-dog the repre-
sentative of the old shepherd breed, and a pecu-
liarly sagacious and handsome animal.
Distribution.
The Old English Sheep-dog is now widely distrib-
uted in those countries where dog shows are held.
The home of the breed, and of kinds closely related
to him, is in northern Europe. The best Bobtail
living at the present day is Handsome Boy, owned
by Mrs. Tyler Morse, of New York and Boston.
Handsome Boy is a magnificent specimen, carrying
an enormous coat. He is blind in one eye, but so
truly representative is he, that judges are inclined
to overlook that blemish.
Feeding.
The general scraps of the farmhouse make a good
and substantial meal for the Sheep-dog. Cracked
corn, well boiled with vegetables and fat or lean
flesh, is eaten with avidity. With always access to
grass the dog will keep himself in the best of health,
the herbage being an excellent vermifuge.
Removing the tail.
Even in the best and most carefully bred litters
of Bobtails, whelps are to be found with tails
of different lengths, while some are tailless. All
the tails should be immediately removed close to
the rump with a pair of sharp scissors or nippers.
A little balsam may be placed on the small sore, or
it can be left to the good attention of the mother,
who will lick and clean it while it is healing. The
earlier the tail-cutting is accomplished, the more
forward will the puppy become, while the pain is
next to nothing.
Organizations and records.
The Old English Sheep-dog Club of England was
founded in 1888, with the present writer as its first
secretary. He drew up a description and scale of
points of the breed on which lines the breed was,
and is, generally judged. There is an Old English
Sheep-dog Club of America, organized in 1903. At
all times the addresses of the secretaries of these
clubs, formed to promote the interests of the breed
under notice, may be had by inquiry at the Ameri-
can Kennel Club, New York City, and the English
Kennel Club, London, England. The studbooks,
wherein these dogs are mentioned and the pedigrees
of many of the best types are given, are published
by the English and American Kennel Clubs.
Literature.
There is little literature that is related particu-
larly to farm dogs, although much has been written
on dogs in general. The latest illustrated descrip-
tion of Qld English Sheep-dogs is given by Lloyd,
in “Dogs,” The Library Supply Company of Amer-
ica, New York City (1907). The reader may also
consult Lloyd, The World’s Sheep and Cattle Dogs,
Dog-Lover’s Publishing Co., Lansdowne, Pa.; Raw-
don Lee, Field, London ; Hugh Dalziel, The Collie,
L. Upcot Gill, London ; Lee, Collie or Sheep-Dog ;
Wickham, Practical Training of the Shepherd Dog.
DOGS
Sheep-dog Trials. Figs. 397-399.
By Frederick Freeman Lloyd.
The first public sheep-dog trials ever held were ©
at Bala, North Wales, Great Britain, in 1873.
Since then they have become very popular and are
almost a national pastime in Wales, England,
Australia and New Zealand. There are also com-
petitions of this kind in Scotland, in the eastern —
states of the Union, and in Canada, the trials at
the annual international fair at Toronto being —
unquestionably the best held on the American
continent. The first trials to be held in the United
States were at Philadelphia, in 1880, and at Pitts-
burg, in 1881. The latter were under the patron- —
age of the Pennsylvania State Agricultural Society.
These trials prove great attractions at fairs and
are on the increase in this country, being supported
by the Collie Club of America and other institu-
tions or associations. Their value and charm lie in
the fact that they demonstrate the true utility of —
the dog.
Trials in Australia, England and France.
In Australia, a small, prick-eared and generally
black dog with a smooth or flat coat is used. He
is called “the Barb,” after a celebrated dog of that
name. Sheep-dog trials last for days in connection
with the annual show of the Sheep Breeders’ Asso-
ciation, at Sydney, N. 8. W., a very important
society, which interests itself in the flocks and
sheep-dogs of possibly the greatest sheep-raising
country in the world. Valuable prizes are offered
at nearly all Australian shows; and, as almost every
township and village has its annual gathering
devoted to matters agricultural and pastoral, it
can well be gathered that sheep-dog trials are of
great account and held in the highest esteem.
In England, prominent land-owners, such as
Lord Rothschild, give large sums for prizes for
sheep-dog trials. The competitions at Tring Park
each autumn are watched by a vast concourse of
town and country people, who are kept in breath-
less excitement by the interesting work of the dogs.
Welsh, Scotch or Herdwick sheep should always be
used for trials; the Down sheep are considered too
slow and too fat.
In France, a number of sheep—say a score—are
used, the dog being required to fetch, drive and —
house them in a railway truck at a station. The
trials are held under the patronage of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
The dogs.
All breeds of sheep-dogs are used for this work,
the show points of the animal counting for noth-
ing, except in the case of special prizes given for
dogs of any particular breed when merit is con-
sidered, so far as the bench or ring sheep-dog is
concerned. Some extra well-bred Collies have been
known to be very good workers in these contests,
but the majority of the dogs used are those that
are daily at work on farms, ranches or stations—
the latter the great Antipodean sheep-runs, where —
dogs are of the utmost value.
DOGS
The requirements of the dog are obvious. He
should be silent at his work and never, under any
circumstances, bite or mouth his sheep. He must
be taught to work in the direction of the swing of
the hand and drop to whistle or voice, or go on as
desired. The merit of a dog is estimated by the
time he takes to pen his charges without materially
forcing them. Naturally, now and then, a dog is
favored with “luck,” but the best animal is nearly
always to be found the winner of the stake. Three
money prizes are generally given, with extra
honorariums for the shepherd or handler.
All dogs, except the working one, must be held on
a leash during a trial; in the event of a dog get-
ting loose, the owner of it should be promptly
fined, or the dog disqualified from competition, at
the option of the stewards. The fine must be men-
tioned in the rules governing the meeting.
There is no studbook for dogs that have com-
peted or won at sheep-dog trials. Pedigrees may
be given on the entry form, but the age (if
known) must be mentioned at the time of making
Fig. 397. Simple course for sheep-dog trial. A, Sheep; B,
course, outside of flags; C, pen, made of three ordinary
hurdles, with sufficient room at opening to allow entrance
of only one sheep at a time; D, shepherd's first position
on sending dog to find sheep, say 800 yards away; 5, first
position of judges; F, public. Time allowed, say fifteen
minutes.
the entry. The fuller the particulars the more wide-
spread becomes the fame of the dog’s works. A
dog should be reckoned a puppy until he is twelve
months old on the first day of the competition in
which he is entered. Dogs and bitches are consid-
ered of the same account, but in no case may a
proud or in-season female be worked at public trials.
The sheep.
The handler or shepherd must not touch the
sheep with his hands, and should remain in close
proximity to the home hurdles and pen until the
driven sheep arrive in that neighborhood. Strange
(to the dog) sheep are always used, a trio from
flocks before unassociated being the charges.
* Strange wild sheep are wilder than ever ; they will
not pack but will “split” and run in all directions,
giving the dog the maximum of work and try-
ing his temper to the utmost. A ewe, a wether
and a big lamb—all strangers—make a difficult
trio. Sheep from the same flock are more easy to
handle, and it is advisable to provide such for early
trials when the dogs have not yet reached the per-
fection of “professional” trial dogs and worked by
very experienced public handlers. It may be men-
tioned here that Australians have been heard to
DOGS 389
back themselves and dog to drive a hen into a
small flower-pot placed lengthwise in the open field
in a given number of minutes. The progeny of
domestic dogs crossed with wild dogs cannot be
Fig. 398. Course for medium-trained dogs. A, Sheep; B, first
pair of single hurdles with room between for only one
sheep to pass; C, two sets of hurdles joined, placed twenty-
five yards from B, and allowing same room as B; D. pen
made of three hurdles, twenty yards from C, with room
for entry of one sheep at atime: E, shepherd; F, public;
G, judges. Time allowed, say fifteen minutes.
depended on for generations as honest and non-
worrying sheep-dogs.
The course. Figs. 8397-399.
Of the plans given, the one represented in Fig.
398 is recommended for medium-trained dogs.
The one suggested in Fig. 399 is very complex, and
is suitable only for dogs of considerable experi-
ence. It is difficult because of the maltese cross,
which is hard to negotiate. It is suitable for a
show-ring enclosure, the judges acting from a
stand. The arrows indicate the course over which
the sheep are to be driven. A study of these plans
will best indicate the nature of the trials. The
sheep are turned out of the yard at some distance
from the course. The yard may be in sight or
hidden, as arranged. From his first position, the
shepherd may follow his dog and sheep to the
sheep-pen. The public or audience should, if pos-
sible, be placed on a hill overlooking the interest-
ing work; the onlookers should be kept away, at
Fig. 399. A, Sheep; B, course, outside of
flags; C, single hurdles; D, Maltese cross (double hur-
dies); E, pen; F, judges; G, public; H, shepherd, who may
Complex course.
move anywhere inside the flags. Time allowed, say seven-
teen minutes.
all costs, from the actual arena. Sheep are stupid;
they become more and more so with a strange dog,
and midst the shouts of approval and groans of
disappointment that ever and anon arise from the
advocates at these exciting events. There is not a
slow moment at a good sheep-dog trial.
390 FISH
FISH. Pisces. Figs. 400-403.
The agricultural utilization of ponds and streams
as sources of food income has scarcely yet begun
in this country. The time must come when they
will be as carefully utilized as the fields of the
farm; in fact, they themselves will become farm
fields, yielding their regular product of food as cer-
tainly as the poultry yard yields its fowls or the
pasture its sheep. There is more or less breeding of
fish at present, but largely of game fish, from the
sportsman’s point of view; this point-of view must
be radically changed before water agriculture can
attain great efficiency. We have not yet begun to
domesticate fish in this country, although this has
proceeded in the Old World with the carp, which is
thus far the leading agricultural species. We shall
some day have domestic breeds of more than one
species of fish.
Aquiculture is the cultivation of animals and
plants that live in water, or whose habitat essen-
tially comprises a body of water. The animals may
be gill-breathers, as fishes and mollusks, or lung-
breathers, as frogs and turtles. The microscopic
organisms that are the food of so many aquatic
animals, such as sponges, clams, and the young of
fishes, constitute the plankton. [See page 393.]
It is not the province of this cyclopedia of agri-
culture to discuss fish at length. Brief attention
is given to the general subject of fish-culture and
fish-food, and to some of those kinds of fish for
which artificial methods of propagation have been
undertaken. The reader is referred to Shell-fish for
discussions of raising clams, crabs, crayfish, lob-
sters, oysters and shrimp. He may also wish to
consult the articles on Frogs, Sponges and Turtles.
Fish-culture. Fig. 400.
By W. E. Meehan.
The artificial propagation of fishes, under the
direction of the Federal Bureau of Fisheries and
state commissions, has become an extensive indus-
try. Rivers, lakes and ponds, depleted of their
fishes, are now commonly restocked with food and
game fishes from the hatcheries of the state and
national fish commissions.
Fish-culture of some kind was practiced by the
ancient Romans and also by the Chinese and Jap-
anese. The Romans built artificial ponds opening
into natural waters, and when the former were
stocked, screens were placed at the outlets so that
the fish could not escape. The Chinese and Japanese
gathered eggs of wild fish from one body of water
and carried them to another, where they hatched.
They also engaged in the systematic culture of
goldfish, and by selection produced what are now
known as “fancies,” that is, fish with more than
one tail and with abnormally shaped bodies. It is
supposed that this condition was produced by agi-
tating the eggs at a certain stage of development.
Artificial fish-culture was first employed in the
latter part of the fifteenth century by a Jesuit
priest, but it was put to no practical use. It was
revived again about the latter part of the seven-
teenth century by Jacoby, a German scientist, who
FISH
published a paper on the subject. This paper was
afterwards translated into French and English, but
even this was not followed by practical efforts. It
was not until about 1840 that fish-culture was
definitely undertaken. Its beginnings were brought —
about through experiments made by two Breton
fishermen, named Remy and Gehin. They made a
close study of the spawning habits of the trout,
and took eggs and devised an apparatus for hatch-
ing them. Thé attention of the French government
was drawn to their experiments, and Gehin was
made a commissioner to teach others the art of
artificial fecundation and hatching of fishes. A year
or two later, experiments in artificial fecundation
of salmon on the lines laid down by Jacoby and
Remy and Gehin were successfully undertaken in
Scotland by two Scotchmen. Later, the work was
introduced into the United States by private indi-
viduals, who had studied the methods of Remy and
Gehin. Shortly afterwards, Seth Green, of New
York, who may be considered the father of fish-cul-
ture in America, established a hatchery and under-
took the propagation of trout on a large scale. He
subsequently experimented with the artificial hatch-
ing of shad and brought it to a successful issue.
Livingston Stone, also of New York, followed Seth
Green’s work closely and established a hatchery.
The rapid reduction of fishes in this country, espe-
cially in the New England and Middle states, caused
much concern, and about 1866 a general con-
vention, composed of delegates appointed by the
authority of the legislatures of the several states,
was held with a view of devising means to restore
the fisheries. The result of the convention was the
establishment of fish commissions in the various
states and by the United States government. Both
the national and the state governments constructed
fish hatcheries or stations where fish could be prop-
agated artificially. The energies of the states were
at first directed principally towards the hatching of
brook trout, while the United States Fish Commis-
sion, although making a specialty of this fish,
sought a broader field. Little by little other states
followed the example of the National Fish Commis-
sion, until some of the commonwealths, notably
Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan,
Ohio, Wisconsin and Minnesota, are propagating
most of the more valuable game and food fishes —
within their borders. Pennsylvania and New York
are especially active in this particular, the former
even undertaking the culture of such fishes as
catfish, pickerel and sunfish, in addition to what
are commonly called the higher forms, as trout, —
shad, wall-eyed pike, whitefish and black bass.
The science of fish-culture is advancing rapidly,
and, while there is yet great advancement to be
made, it is now generally conceded that it is chiefly
a matter of the amount of money available for
the work.
Systems of fish-culture.
There are three distinct lines of work in fresh-
water fish-culture: First, the artificial taking,
fecundating and hatching of eggs; second, the
natural spawning of fish in artificial ponds in fish-
FISH
hatching stations; and, third, the catching of fish
from one body of water and transferring them to
others, and the taking of wild eggs and artificially
hatching them.
Artificial fecundation and hatching of eggs.—In
the first system, two methods are employed,—the
use of open troughs and trays and the
use of jars.
(1) The open trough and tray system
is used largely for the artificial hatch-
ing of salmon and trout. The general
form of the troughs used by the United
States Bureau of Fisheries and by the
several states is to all intents and pur-
poses the same, the chief difference
being in the size. The majority of the
states employ a trough twelve to six-
teen feet in length and about thirty
inches wide, with a division down the
center, and about eight inches deep;
but some of the states, and the United
States Bureau of Fisheries, use a
trough several feet in depth. Through
the first type of trough six to nine
quarts of water flow per minute. The
eggs, after being fecundated and thor-
oughly cleaned, are spread on wire-
mesh trays, previously painted with
asphaltum, or in wire baskets especially
designed. In the shallow type of
troughs there is set but one, or at most two tiers
of trays, but in the deeper types as many as six-
teen or more may be placed.
After the fish have hatched, they are often
retained in the troughs until the sac is absorbed,
and then either planted in the streams or trans-
ferred to outside ponds and held until the fish-cul-
turist deems it proper to plant them. The period
of planting varies, some culturists planting the
trout while the sac is still attached, some when the
sac is first absorbed, others when the trout arrive
at the fingerling stage, while others hold them
until they are about eight or nine months old.
(2) Jar system—The jar work was formerly
conducted under what was known as the table
system, which is still pursued by some states and
to some extent by the United States Bureau of Fish-
eries. The table system consists of a table in which
is set a tank, around which are placed glass jars
having hermetically sealed caps. Water is intro-
duced into the jars, by means of rubber and glass
tubes. There are two tubes for each jar; one
reaches nearly to the bottom of the jar for the
introduction of the water, and the other, shorter
one, carries the water into the tank from the jar;
the latter is also used to siphon out all the young
fishes and the dead eggs. Hggs are placed in the
jars and the water kept constantly flowing, so that
the eggs will be in perpetual motion during the
development of the embryo. The period of devel-
opment of the embryo depends on the species of
fish and the temperature of the water. Some fishes,
as the shad, under certain conditions will hatch in
four or five days; others, as the whitefish, will
require three to four months.
Fig. 400.
_ FISH 391
The table system is being abandoned for the
battery system (Fig. 400), for the reason that the
latter is simpler and a larger number of eggs may .
be hatched in a smaller space and with no more
water. A battery consists of a series of troughs
about twelve inches deep and twelve inches wide,
LZ
SLL |
Lie
Bi titi
Interior of a fish-hatching house equipped with battery and
jars, the latter showing the eggs.
and of a length corresponding to the size of the
hatching-house, set one above the other from the
floor to near the ceiling. There is another type of
battery in which the troughs are set step-fashion,
but the former method is in more general use. The
water is introduced into the top trough, from
which it flows to those beneath and finally into a
large tank at one end of the building. Faucets are
inserted at intervals on each side of the troughs,
from which water is carried by short pieces of
rubber hose attached to the glass or tin tubes that
reach to the bottom of the jars. The top of ajar is
open and the water flows out from a lip back into
the troughs, carrying with it the dead eggs and
young fishes, which afterwards flow into the tank
just mentioned. Several designs of jars are used,
according to the fancy of the fish-culturist, but
each type holds about four quarts of eggs. The jar
system is used for the eggs of such fishes as the
whitefish, shad, yellow perch and pickerel, which
are deposited in vast quantities but are much
smaller than the trout.
Spawning of fish in artificial ponds.—The pond
system is for fish from which the eggs either can-
not be taken artificially, or from which it is diffi-
cult to take them. The principal species for which
pond work is undertaken are the black bass, both
large and small mouth. The artificial culture of
black bass is comparatively but a few years old,
and is still largely experimental. Originally the
ponds were relatively small, but with growing
experience they are being enlarged, until now,
many fish culturists advocate bodies of water three
to five acres in extent.
A bass pond for breeding purposes should have
392 FISH
a shelf extending over the greater part of the
pond at an average depth of a foot and a half to
two feet, and a kettle with a depth varying from
two to eight feet, according to the climate of the
region, whether the winters are very severe or are
mild. The shelf is for the spawning grounds, and
the kettle for hibernating and refuge. The nests
are artificially made of coarse gravel and small
stones. About these nests is set a wooden screen
with two sides open. The two closed sides are to
prevent fish in one nest from seeing fish in another.
On these nests the fish deposit their eggs. The
usual practice is to permit the eggs to be incubated
under the care of the fish, and as soon as they are
hatched, the wooden screen is taken away and
replaced by a crib having a frame-work of iron or
wood, and the sides covered with cheese-cloth.
When the sac is absorbed, the little fish are trans-
ferred from the crib to fry ponds, in which there
is a large amount of aquatic plants of species on
which low forms of aquatic animal life thrive. On
this vegetation the young fish feed. When they are
of a certain size, they are planted in the streams.
Field-work.—The third method, which is usually
called field-work, is divided into two distinct oper-
ations: one, the catching of wild fish by means of
nets and transferring them to other waters; the
other, gathering the spawn or eggs of fish natur-
ally deposited, and transferring them to hatcheries
to be developed either by the jar or the trough
system. The gathering of wild eggs for hatching
is looked on as very important, since it saves a
very large number of eggs that would otherwise
be destroyed by spawn-eating fish.
Literature.
There is very little important literature relating
to fish-culture. Domesticated Trout, by Livingstone
Stone, is a good contribution of the earlier days.
The latest reference of value is the Manual of Fish-
Culture, issued by the United States Fish Commis-
sion, first in 1897, and revised about two years
later. See also, C. H. Townsend, the Cultivation of
Fishes in Natural and Artificial Ponds, Reprint
from Eleventh Annual Report of New York Zodlog-
ical Society.
Fish Food and Feeding-grounds.
By James G. Needham.
The food of fishes is almost as diversified as is
the life of the waters they inhabit. Our best native
game fishes are carnivorous. Some of them (as
pike, black bass) eat chiefly other fishes, mostly of
smaller size. Some, as the brook trout, that nor-
mally feed in part on other fishes, may thrive on
insects alone in a pond where these are abundant.
The sheepshead of our inland streams eats chiefly
mollusks. Its broad, flattened teeth are well adapted
for crushing snail and mussel shells. All our bottom-
feeding fishes eat more or less of the various crus-
taceans, insect larve, snails, worms and the like,
that occur in such places ; and all fishes, when very
young. eat largely the free-swimming life of the
open water, that is collectively known as plankton.
FISH
Plankton organisms continue to be through life
the food of a few fishes, even of some of the larger
ones, such as the spoon-bill (Polyodon).
Fishes may take food with the water they inhale,
if their gill-rakers are fine enough to strain out of
the water the minute organisms it contains; such
food, although it may be considerable in quantity
and importance, comes to them with as little seeking
as the oxygen dissolved in the water for their
breathing. But the demands of appetite usually
impel them to make conscious efforts to capture
larger game, and nature has endowed them vari-
ously to accomplish their special needs : with sharp,
hooked teeth, as the bass, for capturing other
fishes ; with grinding teeth, as the sheepshead, for
crunching snail shells ; with upturned jaws, as the
grass pike, for picking insects from the surface of
the water ; or with down-turned and pursed lips, as
the sucker, for drawing worms up out of the ooze
of the bottom. Some mud-eating fishes (that live
on the rich organic materials contained in the mud)
of great reproductive capacity, are important as
furnishing in their offspring a supply of food for
the other piscivorous sorts, as the native gizzard
shad of our sluggish inland rivers, and the imported
“German” carp. (Figs. 401-403.) Almost the only
fresh-water fishes that are fully protected against
being swallowed by others are the catfishes, whose
three stout rigidly-erected spiny fore finrays appear
to be adequate defense, and the stickleback.
But one reliable method of determining what fishes
eat has yet been found,—that is the examination
of their stomach contents. By this means it has
been determined that the food of our best fishes is
predominantly smaller fishes, insects and crusta-
ceans; that the largest percentage of their food is
insects, and that by far the most important part
of their insect food is the immature stage of may-
flies and midges.
Very little is yet known of the conditions that
make for abundance of fish-food. Plankton organ-
isms live in. the open water, but different waters
vary wonderfully in the richness of their plankton.
The supply they furnish varies also with the sea-
son, but it is a part of the balance of nature that
the supply is in all waters most abundant at that
season (spring) when the majority of fishes, being
newly hatched, are dependent on it. Most of them
will turn to other food when they attain to larger
size. On the bottom, in deep waters, there is a
scanty fauna consisting chiefly of a few forage
organisms, as “blood worms” (larve of midges of the
genus Chironomus), “caddis-worms” (larve of the
caddis-flies), and small bivalve mollusks (Pisidiwm).
Some of our best fishes, such as whitefish and trout,
forage largely there. The dense beds of submerged
waterweeds that grow on trash-strewn bottoms in
slack water, are probably the richest in organic life
of all fish-foraging grounds. These shelter teem-
ing hosts of mollusks, crustaceans and insect larve.
The smaller fishes swarm here, to be nabbed
on the outskirts of these beds by the larger pirati-
cal fishes that dwell in the deeper water. It is
noteworthy that these submerged meadows (beds
of Chara, Ceratophyllum, etc) are not browsed on
FISH
directly by water-animals, as are clover-fields by
cattle; on the contrary, they grow green, and
grow old and die almost untouched, and the her-
bivorous water-organisms (with the exception of a
few caddis-worms, and others) eat them only after
they are dead and disintegrating. The primary
source of organic food for the large aquatic ani-
mals is, in the water, dead plants instead of green
plants, as on land. The most important producers
of valuable fish-forage thus appear to be a few
herbivorous crustace-
ans and larve of may-
flies and midges; and
the best foraging
grounds, those sub-
merged meadows in
whose shelter and
nourishment these
forms develop in
greatest abundance.
Literature.
8. A. Forbes, The
Food Relations of
Fresh- water Fishes,
Bulletin of the Illinois
State Laboratory of
Natural History, Vol.
2, pp. 475-538 ; J. G.
Needham, The Food of
Brook Trout in Bone
Pond, Bulletin No. 68,
New York State Mu-
seum.
Fig. 401.
Plankton-Culture.
By Julius Nelson.
Plankton consists
of very simple or mi-
croscopic organisms
of water, both plant
and animal. These
organisms are very
numerous, and are
usually distributed
throughout the body
of water, being pas-
sively carried by its
currents. The plant-cells, nourished by the min-
erals in solution, and bathed by sunlight, multiply
rapidly, furnishing food for the microscopic ani-
mals; and both groups of organisms are the food
of sponges, mollusks, polyps, and the young of
nearly all aquatic animals, including the fry of
fishes and the tadpoles of amphibians.
Successful attempts have been made in France
in breeding plankton for both fish fry and for fat-
tening oysters (which see). The general method
employed is as follows: Shallow ponds are chosen
(or excavated), into which the flow of water may
be controlled, whether fresh or salt. For a few
weeks in the spring, such ponds, or claires, should
be emptied, and the bottom baked in the sun. Then
follows spading and raking, after which the pond
Fig. 403.
Fig. 402.
Leather carp.
Figs. 401-403, varieties of the domestic carp.
FISH 399
is allowed to fill gradually. The water, having no
exit, becomes warm and remains stagnant, and its
plankton increases. Then the ponds are filled, and
the oysters or fish are introduced. For fish-culture,
a series of such ponds are in readiness, are pas-
tured successively, and replenished by intervals of
rest.
The United States Bureau of Fisheries has suc-
cessfully conducted experiments in the application
of fertilizers to ponds for oyster-culture, and has
thereby so increased
the growth of oyster
food that three or
four weeks’ sojourn
of poor oysters in
such ponds has fat-
tened them for mar-
ket.
Carp. Cyprinus Car-
pio, Linn. Cypri-
nide. Figs. 401-
403.
By J. G. Needham.
The carp is the one
food-fish that may
fairly be considered
domesticated at pres-
ent. In common with
most of our domesti-
cated animals, it is a
native of Asia. It
was introduced into
this country from
Germany over thirty
years ago, and is al-
ready one of the most
widely distributed
fishes in America. It
has been cultivated
in ponds in Germany
for a long time, and
exists there in several
improved cultural va-
rieties. There are three
fairly well-known va-
rieties in our own
waters, all of which
are German carp: besides “scale carp” (Fig. 401),
the parental stock, which is uniformly covered with
scales of moderate size, there is the “mirror carp”
(Fig. 402), which has very large scales irregularly
disposed along the sides of the body, and the
“leather carp” (Fig. 403), which is almost scaleless.
But as these forms have often been liberated in the
same waters, unrestricted inter-crossing has re-
sulted in all sorts of varietal intergradations.
Feeding habits.
The carp is adapted well for life in farm ponds
and mill dams, where there is a muddy bottom and
an abundance of waterweeds. It is not well
adapted to clear streams or spring ponds, and
should not be introduced into such places ; to such
Scale carp.
Mirror carp.
394 FISH
waters, our native game fishes of finer flavor are
better suited and are far more desirable. The
young of these, when ready for planting, may be
obtained from the state fish hatcheries.
The carp is omnivorous in its feeding habits.
It eats the roots and soft stems of aquatic plants,
pulling and tugging at them and tearing off shreds
that may be swallowed, and often uprooting small
plants and leaving them floating. In this way
more or less damage is done in exterminating -
eelgrass (Vallisneria) and other aquatics. It eats
the soft parts of dead plants also and swallows
considerable quantities of mud, rich in organic
remains. It “roots” around in the pond bottom to
dislodge bottom crustaceans and insect larve.
In consequence of these habits, it should not be
allowed to become over-abundant in waters in
which the native life is to be preserved. The forag-
ing habits of the carp on the pond-bottom may be
likened to those of hogs, “rooting” in a pasture,
and over-pasturing produces like destructive results
with both.
Food value.
The flesh of the carp, when properly prepared,
from fishes that have had reasonably clean forage,
is excellent, although probably never so delicious
as that of the best of our native game fishes.
Carp will thrive where these will not live at all,
and for the vast areas of our country that are
remote from the seaboard and the mountains, will
furnish, perhaps, the best supply of table-fish avail-
able. To prepare carp in the best manner for the
table, it should be both skinned and drawn, soaked
in salt water over night, then boiled, and finally
baked with proper dressing.
Stocking streams with carp.
Ponds and streams may readily be stocked by
introducing a few adult fishes of both sexes, which
have been seined in the spring before their spawn-
ing season. The spawning time is early, in May
and June. The eggs are produced in vast numbers,
each female laying several hundred thousand.
They are scattered over the vegetation, and on the
bottom in shallow water. They hatch very quickly,
if they escape being eaten, and grow very rapidly,
attaining maturity in about three years. While
young, they may furnish an abundant food-supply
to carnivorous fishes, as the black bass. The latter,
of entirely different feeding habits, is a native fish
that thrives in the same waters with the carp.
There is no doubt that in some of our inland
waters, such as the Illinois river, with its slow
current and muddy bottom, the production of
marketable fish has been greatly increased as a
result of the introduction of the carp, and many a
lesser area of water of similar character, now pro-
ducing nothing of value, might be made to yield
excellent food, if carp were planted in it.
Literature.
L. J. Cole, The German Carp in the United
States, Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.
(1905).
FROGS
FROGS. Rana spp. Ranide. Figs. 404, 405.
By W. #. Meehan and FE. A. Andrews.
The Report of the Fish Commission for 1897
contains an estimate that the annual catch of frogs
in the United States is a little less than one million
frogs, worth $50,000 to the hunters and $150,000
to consumers. Reference is also made to a “frog-
farm” in Ontario that had been running for twenty
years, and in 1895-6 yielded 5,000 pounds of
dressed frog’s-legs for market and 7,000 living
frogs for stocking other waters and for scientific
purposes.
With reference to the possibilities of artificial
culture of frogs the report concludes as follows:
“While at present it would perhaps be advisable to
limit practical attempts at frog-culture to stocking
natural waters with paired breeders, experiments
in artificial methods should not be abandoned. There
seems no reason why methods similar to those at
present pursued in fish-culture may not eventually
be successful in the case of the frogs.”
The more specific statistics of the United States
Bureau of Fisheries for 1902, 1903 and 1904, show
an annual business of 345,759 pounds of frogs,
worth $26,327, and distributed as follows: Mis-
sissippi river, 285,811 Ibs., valued at $15,604 ; Illi-
nois river, 7,255 lbs., valued at $2,053 ; Red river,
1,850 lIbs., valued at $279; North Carolina, 5,990
Ibs. (11,980 individual frogs), valued at $599;
Virginia, 3,220 lbs., valued at $690 ; Lake Ontario,
500 lIbs., valued at $250.
While it is doubtless true that a very great many
thousands of dozens of frogs are annually sold to
hotels by a single commission merchant, many
thousands also sold for bait and perhaps one thou-
sand dozen to schools and laboratories, all these
sales and statistics relate almost exclusively to
frogs that are hunted and caught in nature, and do
not indicate the existence of any frog-farming
industry. Attempts to discover the numerous
“frog-farms” exploited in the newspapers generally
show them to be non-existent. Most of the so-
called “frog-farms” are at best places for holding
wild stock and are not breeding-places.
Pennsylvania experiments.
Until recently little or no systematic effort was
made in the United States to cultivate frogs for
the market in the same manner as certain species
of fishes.. A few persons had attempted to rear
them in a perfunctory way, but without system.
Pennsylvania, through its Department of Fisheries,
was the first to make persistent experiments in
scientific frog-culture, and to solve some of the dif-
ficulties that lie in the way of success. The initial
work was begun in 1899, in one of the State Fish
Hatcheries, but failures were met with until 1904,
when 40,000 young were developed from wild eggs.
It was not until 1906 that breeding frogs were
carried through the winter successfully and spawn
taken from them and hatched. As a result of per-
sistent experiments and investigations conducted
at all the Pennsylvania hatcheries, the conclusion
is reached that the mortality among wild tadpoles
FROGS
must be enormous. It is very heavy in the hatch-
eries, where the best conditions for successful
rearing prevail.
Edible species.
There are thirteen edible species of frogs in
America, with rather more than half a dozen sub-
species or varieties. In the eastern United States,
there are at least three species of edible frogs, the
» common bull-
frog(Rana cates-
biana), the green
frog (R. clami-
tans) and the
spring or leop-
ard frog (R. vir-
escens). The first
named is the
largest frog and
the last the
smallest, but the
leopard frogs
offer the best
chances for suc-
cessful cultiva-
tion because of
their gregarious
character, which the others do not possess. In the
case of most of the smaller frogs the present
abundant supply of wild material makes attempts
at rearing them unprofitable, but in the case of the
largest known frog, the American bullfrog, the
natural supply being apparently doomed to exhaus-
tion and the market prices high, the experiment of
rearing for the market is promising.
Fig. 404. Bullfrog (Rana catesbiana).
Points to be observed in frog-farming.
Experiments in the different state hatcheries in
Pennsylvania have demonstrated that tadpoles,
young frogs and mature frogs must be kept sepa-
rate; that while tadpoles will eat dead animal
food, frogs will eat only living things, preferably
insects; that ponds for tadpoles should contain
grasses, and those for young and old frogs must
be liberally provided with water-lilies and other
flowering water-plants to attract insect life; that
all ponds must be surrounded by tight boards or
mosquito-wire fences
to prevent frogs
from escaping ; that
overcrowding, even &
in the tadpole stage,
is fatal; that ponds
for tadpoles should
have and those for
frogs must have a
soft mud bottom below the reach of freezing, in
which the creatures may hibernate.
In the life-history of the frogs, the early part,
the tadpole, presents no difficulties, since they may
be readily fed on cheap animal or vegetable matter;
but later, when they have left the water, the hop-
ping frogs require live animal food. They need to
be kept for two or three years before being market-
able. As yet no adequate substitute for the natural
EA CaS EEA
Fig. 405. Leopard frog (Rana
virescens).
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 395
food, which is largely insects, has been found, and
therefore only a limited number of frogs can reach
maturity in a large enclosure. The bullfrog, especi-
ally, requires a large range to obtain food enough
and to escape the diseases that come from crowd-
ing, as well as to diminish the losses from frogs
eating one another.
Frogs in the northern United States spawn first
in April and early May. The eggs hatch in a few
days, and if the water is not too cold and there are
rest places, the period of development into a per-
fect frog is, in some species, about three months.
Frogs mature in two to three years. Eggs are also
secured in July and August, but the tadpoles
hatched therefrom do not complete development
until the following spring.
Ponds for tadpoles may be about sixty feet by
twenty feet, but ponds for young and mature frogs
should be at least half an acre in extent. Not less
than three acres is required to assure the farmer a
satisfactory income. Any swamp or other ground
into which water can be introduced may be utilized
for frog-farming.
Literature.
W. E. Meehan, Frog-farming, Bulletin No. 4,
Department of Fisheries, Harrisburg, Pa.; United
States Fish Commission, Report 1897, Washington,
D.C.
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS OF NORTH
AMERICA. Figs. 406-414.
By £. T. D. Chambers.
The fur-bearing animals of North America meant
more to its original inhabitants than do all the
flocks and herds of the present day to our agricul-
tural community. They constituted their chief
source of food and raiment. It was the chase and
the barter for their pelts that drew the earliest
European adventurers across the ocean. From the
very inception of colonization in the New World,
the fur trade has been associated with its industrial
and commercial development, and indirectly with
its social life, its romance and even its early wars.
Extent of the industry.
The rapacity of comparatively modern dealers
in and hunters of furs is responsible for the all but
total extinction of the buffalo and the sea-otter,
and for the vast diminution in the numbers of the
Alaska seal herd; and yet despite the steadily
diminishing proportion of much of the annual out-
put of material for furs, America’s fur-trade is
more important now than it was in the palmy days
of the old-time hunters and trappers.
In many parts of Canada, as well as in the
United States, there has been an enormous decrease
in the supply of beaver. The sea-otter, whick
formerly furnished 100,000 skins annually, now
yields less than 400, and the average number of
Alaska sealskins marketed has decreased from
100,000 to 10,000 per annum. Other fur-bearing
animals have taken the place of these to such an
extent, that according to statistics furnished by
396 FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
United States Vice-Consul Burrell, stationed at
Magdeburg, more money is now earned on skunk,
muskrat and fox skins, than ever before on beavers,
sea-otters, seals and other rare furs.
On the American side of the line, the volume of
the fur trade is the largest ever known in the
United States—greater than in the days when the
buffalo and the beaver had the whole continent as
a stamping ground. Its annual value runs into the
millions of dollars. Half a million opossum skins
are annually shipped from America to Europe, and
a still larger number of raccoon are sent across
the Atlantic from the northwestern states alone.
Michigan, Wisconsin and Ohio, and the group of
central-northwestern states furnish 600,000 skunk
skins annually to commerce, while 50,000 Alaskan
fox skins of all sorts find their way every year to
the great trade sales of furs at London, Leipzig, and
Nijin-Novgorod. The number of American foxes
taken by trappers may be judged from the fact
that Maine alone furnishes 70,000 a year. Hundreds
of thousands of rabbits are trapped yearly in Cali-
fornia, and millions of muskrats are contributed
from the swamps of New Jersey and Delaware, to
the value of half a million to a million of dollars
annually, in addition to those produced by the
states lying immediately to the south of the great
lakes. Of the half million or so of mink skins
exported every year from North America, the United
States contributes a fair share, although the larger
number go from Canada.
Many Canadian furs pass into the hands of
American traders, through St. Paul, St. Louis,
Chicago or San Francisco, to either a home or a
foreign market as the case may be.
The home market is responsible for the consump-
tion of an enormous amount of native fur, in addi-
tion to the importations of Persian lamb, Russian
sable, astrachan, monkey and others. The consump-
tion of raccoon for men’s coats, especially in Canada
and the northern states, of mink and muskrat for
linings, of mink, marten and otter for trimmings,
in both countries, and of skunk manufactured into
Alaska sable, for muffs, tippets, boas and the like,
is very great, and would largely increase the total
of the annual product, if added to the figure of
North America’s actual export of furs. It is
because of the impossibility of estimating the home
consumption that figures are not available to show
the aggregate annual value of the North American
fur catch. Miss Agnes Laut states that an estimate
of $6,000,000 placed on the annual value of furs
north of the forty-ninth parallel would not be suffi-
cient to include what has been used for the home
market. In Canada, as in the United States, the
demand for furs for local consumption is steadily
growing. The rapid increase in average wealth
places a set of furs in the category of reasonable
luxuries of many, whose parents, living in an era
when raw furs were more plentiful, wore mainly
homespun. But these must not all be placed to the
credit of local supply, for while, as in the case of the
‘United States, many native furs are manufactured
in Canada for domestic use, and while a considerable
proportion of the best furs worn in the country are
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
reimported from Europe as finished articles, after
having been exported as raw material, many firms
annually send buyers to the Russian and Asiatic
markets to purchase raw furs, which are not pro-
curable on this side of the Atlantic, but which are
made up here.
As much, perhaps, to the growing fashion of
wearing furs as to the decreased supply of fur-
bearing animals is due the rapid increase in the
values of domestic furs in the last few years.
Canadian otter, which sold a quarter of a century
ago for $2 to $8 per skin, and five years ago
brought $15 to $18, is now (1908) worth $30 to $50.
Mink skins sold freely in 1882 at 25 to 75 cents
each, and the primest could be bought for a dollar.
At present, the wholesale manufacturing establish-
ments will pay $10 for a prime skin. Marten that
sold for $1 to $4 per skin 25 years ago, and at $5
to $6 half a decade ago, is now worth $10 to $35.
Muskrat skins only a few years ago could be had
in large quantities for 3 to 8 cents each, and are
now worth 10 to 50.
Protection of fur-bearing animals.
With a constantly increasing home demand for
furs, it is satisfactory to note from the reports of
traders that the fur-bearing animals of the last
great fur preserve in the world, as the northern
part of North America has been called, are by no
means becoming extinct. These hunting-grounds
are for the most part in the hands of Indian and
half-breed hunters, who would no more think of
destroying the last beaver, fox, mink or marten on
their respective territories, than would a farmer of
killing off the last of his breeding stock. They only
thin out the animals which they hunt, in such num-
bers as to ensure the permanency of the supply. In
Labrador, in the Mackenzie river basin, and in
other northern parts of the continent, the territory
hunted by each Indian family is as much its own
for hunting purpose as is a farmer’s field for culti-
vation. Some hunters have several hundred square
miles of territory in their respective game - pre-
serves. Bears and caribou and such roaming animals
are killed wherever seen, if wanted, but beavers and
similar game and fur-bearing animals that inhabit
restricted areas are the property of the hunter
within whose territory they reside and breed. For
any but their owner to kill them, except in case of
absolute want of food, would be as unjustifiable as
the shooting down of a neighbor’s ox.
Further protection is afforded the most valuable
furs by the trade itself and by the dictates of
fashion. The trade does not care to purchase at all
the furs of animals killed out of season, so that the
hunting-season that pays does not often extend more
than four or five months of the year. Fashion is
particularly fickle in regard to furs, so that the
seasons in which there is but small demand for
a certain class of skins afford opportunity for a
satisfactory increase in the number of the animals
producing them, since the hunters are aware that
better paying prices are to be had for other furs.
Where they are found in largest numbers and
the greatest necessity for protection of fur-bearing
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
animals exists, they are usually afforded it by leg-
islation. Nearly all the provinces of the Dominion
of Canada, as well as Newfoundland, have enacted
laws for such protection. In the United States, the
majority of the states in which squirrels are found
afford them some protection at least. The rabbit is
protected, or partially protected, under the laws of
Delaware, District of Columbia, Indiana, Maine,
Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New
Jersey, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island, and Ver-
mont. The otter has been legislated for in Iowa,
Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New Hampshire,
North Dakota and Wisconsin. For the beaver, pro-
tective legislation has been enacted in Idaho, Iowa,
Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New Hamp-
shire, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota,
Pennsylvania and Vermont. There are closed sea-
sons for bears in Alaska, New York and Pennsyl-
vania, and the little mink is similarly protected in
Towa, Maine, Minnesota and New York.
Fur-hunting.
The story of the fur-hunter and trapper contains
many of the most thrilling pages to be found in the
realms of human daring and adventure. Many lives
are sacrificed in the annual hunts for skins of the
sea-otter and Alaska seal in the northern Pacific,
and for the Greenland or hair-seal amid the ice-floes
of Newfoundland waters and in the gulf of St.
Lawrence. The dreary wastes of Labrador and of
other far northern regions of the continent of
North America hold the bones of hundreds of Indian
hunters who have perished of starvation and dis-
ease on their annual fur-hunts, through the unex-
pected failure of the game on which they have
depended for a part, at least, of their food supply.
As late as the winter of 1906-7, a number of Mon-
tagnais hunters and their families perished of
hunger while on their way from the vicinity of
Lake Mistassini to the Hudson Bay station at Lake
St John.
Let us follow a party of these Indian trappers as
they start out from the Hudson Bay post at Lake
St. John, Bersimis, or some of the other posts on the
coast of Labrador. The journey is made by canoe
and portage, and the provisions and firearms, and
sometimes the traps, too, as well as tents and other
equipments, must all be conveyed to their respect-
ive hunting-grounds before the winter sets in and
makes the journey by water impossible. Sometimes
the journey is over one or two hundred miles in
length, and may occupy several weeks, because of
the many portages and the quantity of provisions,
ammunition, and the like, that must be carried
over them. There is the family tent, too, which
serves as dwelling on the way, and sometimes
throughout the entire winter, although some of
the more provident hunters erect log huts on their
preserves. The provisions carried are rarely suffi-
cient for the entire winter. For fresh meat the
trapper counts on caribou, deer, hares, rabbits and
partridges, and perhaps on an occasional bear. But
hunting is always a more or less pregarious pur-
suit, and when there is an entire failure of, game,
as not infrequently occurs, privation and hunger
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 397
result, sometimes accompanied by deaths from
actual starvation. Instances are on record in which
starving bands of Indian hunters in the far North
have been able to maintain life only by the awful
expedient of feeding on the flesh of the first vic-
tims of their sad plight.
Arrived at their winter headquarters, the hun-
ters set out their line of traps,—deadfalls or steel
traps, or both, as the case may be,—and thereafter
spend the short winter days in visiting the long
line, sometimes many miles in length, rebaiting
them when necessary and securing the catch that
any of them may happen to contain. The bear and
the beaver make luxurious prizes, for, in addition
to the value of their skins, the carcasses mean a
bountiful supply of delicious food. Even the musk-
rat is not despised as an article of diet.
Sometimes a successful hunter makes enough
money out of a season’s trapping to pay off all his
debts to the company and have a good balance to
his credit. It more often happens, however, that
the Indian is always indebted to the company or
trader who outfits him, and to whom he must bring
his catch of furs in payment of a part of the goods
which he purchased during the last summer he was
out at the coast, and of the clothing, ammunition
and provisions which he took with him into the
woods on the approach of the hunting-season. At
times, too, the hunt completely fails, or a carcajou
(wolverine), well called the Indian devil, falls on
the hunter’s line of traps, after which he may just
as well give up the hunt altogether, unless he has
the exceptional good luck of entrapping the cun-
ning beast, which, with almost devilish ingenuity,
has the knack of springing the traps and safely
extracting the baits, or will immediately devour
any other animal that he may find entrapped. When
the hunting-grounds are only a few days’ journey
from the coast.or a settlement, the hunter will
often come out of the woods for the midwinter
holiday, and take in more fresh provisions with him
on his return. In the majority of cases this is
impossible, however. In the woods he has enough
to do to keep him busy. There is game to be hunted
for food and wood to be cut for fires. There are the
traps to attend and to keep set, and when the hunt
is good there is the preservation of the skins to be
attended to. When these have been stripped from
the bodies of their first wearers, they are stretched
on hoops or other frames to dry, it being very
necessary that they should be preserved from de-
cay. Very valuable are some of the otter, marten
and mink furs secured in these northern wilds, and
sometimes a cross or even a black or silver fox may
be taken, the skin of which may easily exceed in
value that of the hunter’s combined catch of other
furs.
Hunting sea-otter and seal.
Sea-otter.—The story of the sea-otter (Enhydra
or Latax marina) reads like a romance. In the
days when this furred sea-dog of the Pacific ocean
was plentiful. it could be shot by still-hunting in
calm weather as it came to the surface of the water
to breathe. Now it must be hunted in the teeth of
398 FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
the wildest Alaskan gale. ‘“‘The native Aleutian,”
writes Miss Laut, ‘rides out in his skin-skiff, with
oiled-skin wrapping his body tight round the little
manhole where he sits in the skin covering, so that
the boat can take no water. Double-bladed paddle
plying from side to side, the hunter mounts the
seething waves and rides in on the back of the
storm to the reefiest coasts of the Aleutians. Here
the sea-otters have been driven by the storm, and
hide with their heads buried in the tossing, wave-
washed seaweed. Beaching his boat, the hunter
runs from rock to rock, slippery as glass, beaten
by the wind, sometimes caught by the waves and
hurled to death. A single blow of his gaff-pole, and
he has killed the sea-otter that supplies a fur more
valued today than any other in the world.”
The sea-otter is in shape very much like a large
dog. Its food consists of fish, and it is particularly
partial to lobsters and other crustaceans. Its fur
was first introduced into commerce in 1725 from
the Aleutian and Kurile islands, and is exceedingly
fine, soft and close, jet-black in winter, with a
silken gloss. The fur of the young animal is of a
beautiful brown color. It was formerly met with
in great abundance in Bering’s island, Kamchatka,
Aleutian and Fox islands, as well as along the
Pacific coast of North America. In 1780, furs had
become so scarce in Siberia that the supply was
insufficient for the Asiatic demand. It was at this
time that the sea-otter was introduced into the
markets for China. The skins brought such almost
incredible prices as to originate several American
and British expeditions to the northern islands of
the Pacific, to Nootka Sound and to the north-
western coast of America; and from that time has
been the rapid decrease in the supply. Off parts of
the coasts of Alaska, and especially at Belkovsky
bay and vicinity, and at St. Paul, Kadiac island,
sea-otter-hunting still furnishes employment to
many native hunters. Here the animals are taken
by means of bows and arrows, rifles and gill-nets.
The nets are fourteen to twenty fathoms long, and
twelve fathoms deep, with a ten-inch mesh. They
are made by the Indian women, and are declared
to be very destructive. At St. Paul, besides the
Indians, there are some twelve or fifteen white men
of various nationalities who engage in sea-otter-
hunting throughout the year. The white hunters
have small schooners of about twenty-five tons
burden, in which they make long voyages. Some of
these hunters are very skillful, and several thou-
sand dollars have been earned by a single indi-
vidual in a season. Captain Anderson, one of the
most successful hunters of St. Paul, and, in fact, of
Alaska, landed fifty sea-otter skins as the result of
one trip a few seasons ago, receiving for them one
hundred dollars each, which is very far below their
present value.
Seal.—No set of fur-hunters enjoy more thrilling
adventures or run such deadly perils as the sealers
of Newfoundland and the gulf of St. Lawrence.
Many are the sealing schooners and still more
numerous the men who have gone out to the seal
hunt in the spring of the year and never returned.
The risks that they run are illustrated by the loss
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
of the sealing steamer Greenland, in the ice, in the
month of March, 1907. The disabled vessel had
eighty-nine men on board, who abandoned the ship
after she had been crushed in the heavy pack ice,
against which she had been driven by a blizzard,
and were fortunately rescued by other sealers.
Only men of iron can successfully face and endure
such dangers. They are so accustomed to the sea
and the ice-floes that they seem to have an absolute
contempt for their terrors. They leap fearlessly
from pan to pan, and think little of passing the
night on the ice far from the steamer, going off as
far as four or five miles in their eagerness to slay.
Should a fog or snow-storm set in, there is great
risk of losing their way and perishing miserably in
these ice-deserts, or of falling through the open-
ings that are covered with the snow as it falls and
freezes. Sometimes the field-ice on which they
are at work separates into fragments without a
moment’s warning, and they are floated off, to per-
ish by cold and hunger, unless rescued by a passing
vessel.
Sealers’ luck is just as uncertain as that of the
average fisherman. One or more crews may be
exposed to the perils of the ice for weeks without
securing a single seal, while, under favorable
conditions, five or six hundred carcasses may be
secured in a couple of hours, by a crew of eight or
nine men. This is when the schooners are fortunate
enough to approach, unobserved, a large field of
ice containing a herd of unsuspecting seals. The
herds often include several thousands of seals. The
ice is always approached from the side which is
nearest to open water, so as to cut off the animals’
only chance of escape. Then, at a given signal, the
hunters leap on the ice and approach as closely to
the seals as possible, without creating any alarm,
sometimes even crawling a considerable distance
on their hands and knees. As soon as they are
observed, and can reach the nearest of the herd,
the slaughter begins. Each man is armed with a
stout stick, six to ten feet long, which not only
assists him to leap, when necessary, from fioe to
floe of the floating ice, but with which he effects
the slaughter of the defenceless animals. One blow
over the nose suffices to kill, or at least to stun a
seal, and as many as possible are disposed of, in
order to prevent their escape; the final slaughter
of the stunned ones beginning only when all the
animals within reach have either escaped or been
knocked on the head. The thin skull of the young
seal is easily fractured by the blow from the stick,
which may only stun the full-grown animal, and, in
the majority of cases, the little one feels no more
pain, death being instantaneous. In a moment the
knife is at work. The skin and the adhering fat
are rapidly detached from the carcass, which is
left on the ice, except when the animal is killed
close to the shore.
The catch of seals varies considerably with the
season. Sometimes it exceeds half a million seals.
At others it is only a quarter as good. Sometimes
a steamer returns home at the end of the season
perfectly “clean.” The Neptune, on the other
hand, after an absence of only eighteen days, came
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
into port in the spring of 1894, loaded down to the
water's edge, with 42,000 seals, valued at $105,-
000.
These loups-marins, or sea-wolves, of the gulf of
St. Lawrence, as the French-Canadians call them,
must not be confounded with the fur seals of Alaska
(Callorhinus Alascanus, Fig. 406), whose soft coat
Fig, 406. The Alaska fur seal (Callorhinus Alascanus).
is one of the cherished possessions of the city belle.
They are commonly known as the Newfoundland or
hair seals (Phoca Grenlandica). Until the last few
years their skins were used chiefly for the manu-
facture of a coarse-grained but expensive leather;
but in the last few winters, the fur has been exten-
sively dressed in both Newfoundland and Canada,
and coats and other articles of wearing apparel have
made their appearance on the streets of Montreal
and Quebec, made from this dark, rough, dappled-
gray, or pepper-and-salt colored fur. As it is far
from unsightly, and is uninjured by rain, it is
altogether likely, in view of the now almost pro-
hibitive price of the Alaska seal, that the Atlantic
seal may rapidly pass into popularity and fashion.
The story of the fearfully diminished seal-herd
of Bering’s sea is matter of American history. In
1874, it numbered close on five millions. In less
than a quarter of a century it had been reduced to
a single million. In less than another decade, only
175,000 seals of the herd remained. Ten to twelve
thousand skins a year are all that can be depended
on from this source until protection may have con-
tributed to an increase in the size of the herd. On
the Pribilof islands, the Alaska seals are slaught-
ered by hunters with sticks, much as the hair-seal
is on the ice-floes of the gulf of St. Lawrence.
The life-history of the seal, whether of the Pacific
or the Atlantic ocean, is more familiar to the aver-
age reader than is that of the sea-otter, or of most of
the fur-bearing animals of the interior of the con-
tinent. The fur or Alaska seal, formally known
more generally as the South Sea seal, is the most
perfectly organized of all the amphibians. It is
obliged by its nature to secure its living in the
water, and to reproduce its species on the land ; it
therefore “hauls up,” as it is technically called, at
a stated period every year on the breeding-grounds
where it is slaughtered for its fur. Its fore-feet or
flippers are exceedingly broad and powerful, and
when it comes out of the water it steps forward
with considerable rapidity and much grace. It is
an animal of great intelligence, speedily anticipat-
ing danger, and at the same time readily under-
standing when there is a disposition on the part of
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 399
man not to disturb it. The full-grown males or
bulls are the earliest arrivals at the islands,
approaching them during the last days of April,
and sleeping almost without interruption until
toward the end of May, when they begin to look
out for the coming of their families. The cows, or
females, usually recognize their former mates
and land at their respective rookeries. Owing to
the great difference between the male and female
in regard to the age of puberty, which is six years
for the male, and two for the female, this species
is necessarily polygamous, and an average family
numbers ten to fifteen cows to one bull. The female
gives birth to her pup almost immediately on land-
ing. By the beginning of August, the breeding is
nearly over, and the season of coition as well.
Many young males attempt to land, but all below
the age of six are quickly driven off by the old
bulls, and sometimes even killed. The seals that
are slaughtered for furs are carefully separated
from the rest by men who walk between them
before the killing begins. The females are spared,
and so are the yearling bulls. The best skins are
secured from two, three and four-year-old bache-
lors, and from those that arrive first on the islands.
Fur-bearing animals of the interior.
The more important of the fur-bearing animals
of the interior of the continent are the beaver, the
otter, the marten, the fox of different varieties,
the bear, the lynx, the mink, the ermine, the musk-
rat, the skunk and the raccoon.
The beaver (Castor fiber, Linn., Fig. 407), which
was formerly so abundant that its skin was the
unit of currency for the Hudson Bay Company in
its dealings with the Indian and half-breed trap-
pers, has so rapidly disappeared that the yield is
only half of what it was a few years ago. In the
shape of its body it bears a close resemblance to a
large rat, although it is much larger, with the head
proportionately thicker and broader. It is thick
and clumsy, gradually enlarging from the head to
the hips, and then is somewhat abruptly rounded
off to the root of the tail. This latter is very broad
{I ff
—— (==
ee BE = FA eS
a= 2 ==
Ti = ==.
Fig. 407. Canadian beaver (Castor fiber).
and flat, tongue-shaped and covered with angular
scales. The fur is of two kinds. The upper and
longer hair is coarse, smooth and glossy; the under
coat is dense, soft and silky. Its geographical
range appears at one time to have been co-exten-
sive with the whole of North America, although
400 FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
the progress of civilization seems to have extermi-
nated the animal in nearly all of that part of the
continent which constitutes the United States and
the settled parts of Canada. The remarkable dams
constructed by the patient and industrious little
animals show wonderful engineering skill. Cart-
wright found a beaver that weighed forty - five
pounds, and it is said that they have been taken up
to sixty pounds weight. The tail and other parts of
the body are much prized by the Indians as articles
of food. The animal is easily trapped.
The muskrat (Fiber zibethicus, Fig. 408) inhabits
almost every part of the United States north of the
30th degree, and all British America to the arctic
seas. It was fully described from personal opser-
vation, as early in 1725, by Monsieur Sarrasin, a
correspondent of the French Academy, and then
King’s Physician at Quebec. Its habits are aquatic,
and it spends the greater part of its time in the
water, where it secures most of its food. The lat-
ter consists chiefly of fresh water mollusca, the
roots of aquatic plants, and such tender grasses as
may chance to grow at the margin of the stream.
In addition to trapping them, the Indians sometimes
take them by spearing them through the walls of
their houses in winter. The shape of the body is
almost cylindrical, and the length of head and body
is about fifteen inches. The head is short, the neck
very short and indistinct, the legs short, and the
thighs hid in the body. The color of the animal so
much resembles that of the muddy banks of the
stream or lake on which it is often found seated,
that, when seen from a distance, it is likely to be
mistaken for a lump or clod of earth. On the upper
parts of the body the fur is a third longer than
Fig. 408.
Muskrat (Fiber zibethicus).
beneath, and from the roots to near the extremities
is bluish gray or lead-color tipped with brown,
giving the appearance of a general dark-brown
color when viewed from above.
The mink (Putorius vison, Fig. 409) is widely
distributed over the North American continent,
but the largest, best and darkest specimens are
found in northern Canada. Sir John Richardson
met with it as far north as latitude 66°. The popu-
‘alike to its taste. It has been known to catch a
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
lar name of Putorius vison is supposed to be a cor-
ruption of Moeuk, a name given to a closely allied
species in Sweden. The body is long and vermiform,
the head small and oval, the neck long, and legs
short, with five toes on each foot. The color of the
fur, which is highly esteemed, is a uniform brown
=
SS eT
Fig. 409. Mink (Putorius vison).
or tawny, with light brownish or yellow fur beneath,
near the body. Some specimens are much darker
than others, and there is usually a white spot under
the throat, and another on the throat. The length
of the head and body is about thirteen inches,
and of the tail about seven inches. The mink is
an expert fisher and hunter. Though largely of an
aquatic habit, it yet subsists much on birds, mice,
and other small animals. Fish, flesh and fowl seem
trout of a foot in length, while it is an expert rob-
ber of the hen-roost. Birds, mice, rats and other
small animals are amongst its victims. It is no
uncommon thing for a mink to rob an angler of his
catch, if he leave it behind him for a time on the
bank of the stream. In the southern states it feeds
largely on the marsh-hen. The mink possesses but
little cunning, and is easily captured in any kind
of trap. It is taken in both steel and box traps,
but more generally in what are called deadfalls.
It is attracted by any kind of fish or flesh, and traps
are baited with the head of a partridge, duck or
chicken, or a piece of fish. Like the skunk and the
ermine, it emits an offensive odor when provoked
by men or dogs. When taken young it is easily
tamed, becomes very gentle, and forms a strong
attachment to those who fondle it in a state of —
domestication.
Ermine.—The common white weasel or stoat of
Canada (Putorius erminea) is the true ermine,
virtually the same species as that of northern —
Europe and Asia, which in the feudal ages yielded
the fur for the choicest mantles of nobles and kings,
although the Canadian-produced fur, except in the
far north, is inferior to that of Europe and Asia.
Smaller than the mink, but not unlike it in form,
being but about ten inches long from the snout to
the root of the tail, the weasel is fiercer and more
bloodthirsty than Putorius vison, possessing an
intuitive propensity, says Audubon, to destroy every —
animal and bird within its reach, some of which,
like the American rabbit, the ruffed grouse and
domestic fowl, are ten times its own size. A single
ermine has been known to kill forty well-grown
fowls ina single night. Notwithstanding its mis-
‘
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
chievous and destructive habits, the ermine is rather,
perhaps, a benefactor than an enemy to the farmer,
ridding his fields and granaries of many depredators
on the product of his labor, such as the white-footed
mouse, the pine-mouse, the ground-squirrel, the rat
and the common house mouse, which would devour
ten times the value of the poultry and eggs that
at long and uncertain intervals it may destroy.
The skin of the little animal had become practi-
cally so valueless a few years ago that the hunters
scarcely secured more than five cents each for it.
Today it is worth twenty-five cents to a dollar each.
Naturalistsdo not agree as to whether the apparent
change of color from summer brown to winter
white is effected by shedding the old hair, the new
coat growing another shade, or whether the hair
actually changes color itself.
The marten (Mustela Americana, Fig. 410), also
called the pine-marten, and American sable, is
larger than the mink, and almost always lighter in
color. The body is slender, the head long and
pointed, legs short and stout, eyes small and black,
tail bushy and cylindrical. Its coat contains two
kinds of hair, the outer long and rigid, the inner
soft and somewhat woolly. The length from point
of nose to root of tail is about eighteen inches.
The color varies considerably in different individ-
uals, but is generally yellowish, shaded more or less
with black, the throat being yellow. The darkest
skins are the most valuable. Its food consists of
birds, mice, squirrels and other small animals, and
it climbs trees with great facility. It is so easily
caught in traps that it has been exterminated in
many parts of Canada and the northern states
where it was once abundant. Where the Indians
have properly preserved hunting-grounds, this val-
uable fur-bearing animal is as carefully preserved
as is the beaver. It is by no means unusual for a
good marten to sell for $35. Less than twenty
years ago martens could be had for $5 or $6 each.
The fisher or pekan (Mustela Pennauti), also
known as Pennaut’s marten, is a kind of marten,
about the size of a small fox, of a general dark
brown or nearly black color. It is sometimes known
as the blackcat. It frequents swampy lands, preying
on fish, frogs, squirrels, mice and other small ani-
mals. It is found all over the continent as far
south as the Carolinas, except where it has disap-
peared before a dense population. It is nocturnal
in its habits, will roba line of traps of bait, like
the carcajou, and has even been known to tear in
pieces a pine-marten that had been caught in a
trap. In the early part of the last century, when
these animals were more common in the state of
New York, the hunters used to get them by follow-
ing their tracks in the snow, when they had been
out in quest of food on the previous night. They
would thus trace them to the hollow trees in which
they were concealed, which the hunters chopped
down. It is said that as the tree was falling, the
fishers would dart from the hollow, which was often
fifty feet from the ground, and leap into the snow,
when the dogs usually seized and killed them,
although not without a hard struggle, as they are
much more dangerous to dogs and hounds than
C 26
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 401
either the gray or the red fox. An ordinary speci-
men measures twenty-three inches from the point
of the nose to the root of the tail, and weighs eight
or nine pounds.
The otter (Lutra Canadensis) is in appearance a
magnified mink. Its walk, fur and color bear strong
resemblance to those of the latter animal, and the
lightening of the tints of the pelage in old age is
the same in both. Its fur is short and thick, the
under part being of a silvery white shade, slightly
waved and silky, and of similar texture to that of
the beaver, but not so long. The color of the overe
lying hairs varies from a rich and glossy brownish
black to a dark chestnut. In summer the color is a
rusty brown, and the fur is shorter and thinner.
Its habits are aquatic. From the shortness of its
legs, its motions on shore are not so quick as when
in the water, and as its food is principally fish, it
resides in winter near some lake or river where it
keeps a hole open in the ice all the season. During
this period of the year its migrations on land in
high latitudes, where the ground is covered with
snow, are toilsome, and it leaves a deep furrow or
path in the snow, which, when seen by the trapper
soon after the animal has passed, invariably leads
to its destruction. If a trap be set on this road
Fig. 410. The marten (Mustela Americana).
the otter is almost certain to be caught, as it has
a strong objection to opening new paths through
the deep snow. In firing at an otter in the water,
care must be taken not to shoot it in an immedi-
ately vital part, as the body sinks like a stone
immediately after death.
Foxes.—In treating the different varieties of
foxes, it is extremely difficult to mark the line
where one ends and another begins, for every shade
of color from a bright flame tint to a perfectly
black pelt may occasionally be seen. Vulpes fulvus
is the common red fox, variety decussatus the
cross-fox, and variety argentatus the silver fox.
The appearance of the common red fox is too well
known to require description. In the cross-fox, the
legs, the muzzle and the under parts are black, and
the tail is blacker than that of the common red fox.
A dark band runs down between the shoulders,
crossed by another over the shoulders. The silver
fox is entirely black except on the posterior part
of the back, where the hairs are annulated with
402 FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
gray, although this feature is occasionally wanting.
The tail is tipped with white. Experiments having
proved that the offspring of a pair of silver foxes
are not always colored like their parents; there
are those who contend that the silver is not a spe-
cies but a freak. Whatever be its origin, it is the
most valuable fur known after that of the sea-otter.
As a rule, only a few score are taken each year in
any district. The annual American output does not
exceed a thousand. An exceptional skin has sold as
high as $2,500, but the usual price is $250 to
$1,000. Foxes are
by no means choice
about their food.
Mice, birds, hares,
fish, carrion, all
come aliketo them,
and they will even
make a meal of a
fellow fox if one
is found dead ina
trap. They are
killed by hunting,
by snaring, by
traps, by unearth-
ing and by poison-
ing.
The skunk (Me-
phitis mephitica,
Fig. 411) is found
throughout the
Dominion of Canada as far as 57 degrees north,
and ranges south to Kentucky, Carolina and Ala-
bama. It is about the size of a large cat, has a
broad, fleshy body, wider at the hips than at the
shoulders, long coarse fur and short legs. The
general color is blackish brown, with white longi-
tudinal stripes on the back. It is carnivorous, its
prey being small birds, eggs, insects, mice, frogs
and the like, and it is particularly destructive in
the poultry yard. In northern regions it hibernates
in winter. Although, in self-defense, capable of
emitting an odor perhaps the most offensive in
nature, the skunk is an exceedingly clean animal ;
a dozen may sometimes be concealed in a single
burrow, and yet not the slightest unpleasant smell
can be detected at the entrance. The flesh is eaten
by the Indians and pronounced by them superior to
that of the raccoon or opossum. Its fur is very
much in demand for dressing and dyeing, for the
production of what is known as Alaska sable. In
recent years it has become one of the most impor-
tant of North American fur-bearing animals.
Bears.—Of the bear there are several American
species, chief among which are the very common
black bear(Ursus Americanus, Fig. 412), which some-
times attains a weight of 600 pounds, the grizzly
(U. horribilis), the white or Polar bear(U. maritimus)
and the cinnamon bear. The last-mentioned is a
native of the Northwest; the grizzly is found in
the Rocky mountains; the Polar bear is a native of
the arctic regions, while the black bear, which is
most extensively trapped for the sake of its fur
for commercial purposes, inhabits all the wooded
parts of North America. It has very stout legs, a
Fig. 411.
Skunk (Mephitis
mephitica).
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
somewhat bulky but flexible body, and long, soft,
glossy fur. The general color is black, but it some-
times varies to brown or yellowish. Its food is
principally vegetable, consisting of roots, berries,
nuts, and the like, and it will even catch fish out
of shallow water for food. It will devour eggs and
small birds, and will carry off and devour hogs.
When driven to extremities, the bear will stand on
its hind-legs and make a terrible battle with its
powerful paws. The bear is often shot in burnt
lands and while swimming in lakes, but is more
often captured in deadfalls.
The rabbit is too well known to require deserip-
tion [see article on Pets], and space will permit only
brief accounts of the raccoon, the wolf and the lynx,
which supply a number of skins annually in the
United States and Canada.
The raccoon (Procyon lotor, Fig. 413) was classed
by Linneus among the bears, under the genus
Ursus, its feet being plantigrade with naked soles.
When it sits, it often brings the whole hind sole to
the ground, resting in the manner of the bears,
although it walks on its toes. Its body is rather
stout, the legs of moderate length, its color on the
upper part of the body grayish, mixed with black,
the ears and under part whitish, with a black
patch across the eye, and its long and bushy tail
having four or five annulations of black and grey.
While not intended for gréat speed, it is capable of
a tolerably rapid race and is able to climb, and
although not with the agility of the squirrel, yet
with greater alacrity than its near relative, the
bear. In the United States it is found as far south
as Mexico. In Canada it has been taken as far
north as Winnipeg.
The raccoon usually brings forth four to six —
young at a time. It may almost be called omnivor-
ous. Green corn and oysters, fish and poultry, eggs ~
and fresh-water shell-fish, honey and chestnuts are
all acceptable. Like the bear, the raccoon, in
northern latitudes, hibernates for some months
during the winter.
Wolf.—There are several varieties of the Ameri-
can wolf, all of about the same size. Sometimes
they band together in the same pack, black, white,
grey and red wolves being seen occasionally in the
same company. The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is the
variety most common in Canada and the northern
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
states. It has a thick head, long nose, erect and
conical ears, and a muzzle elongated and somewhat
thicker than that of the Pyrenean wolf. The gen-
eral appearance of the upper surface of the animal
is dark brindled gray, with an indistinct dorsal
line, a little darker than the color of the sides.
The under parts are of a dull white color. The
wolf is a cruel, savage, cowardly animal, and very
destructive of deer, which it hunts singly or in
packs. All the varieties are extremely swift of
foot, and it is difficult to run them down for the
purpose of shooting them. They are usually either
taken in traps or killed with strychnine. In
winter, when there is no crust on the snow in the
north for some time, sufficiently strong to carry a
wolf, many of the animals perish from hunger.
The American wolf burrows and brings forth
its young in earths having several outlets. The
number in a litter varies from four or five to eight
or nine. The skin of the wolf is used chiefly for
sleigh or carriage robes and for floor mats and
rugs. Rough driving coats also are sometimes
made of it, although the hair on the back is three
to four inches long.
Lynx.—There are two distinct varieties of the
lynx in North America, the Loup Cervier or Cana-
dian lynx (Lynx Canadensis, Fig. 414) and the
Bay lynx or wildcat of the United States (Lynx
rufus). This genus has been separated from the
old genus Felis because of the tufted ears, shorter
bodies and tails in proportion to their much larger
bulk, and also of the slight differences in the
teeth, the lynx having one tooth less on each side
of the upper jaw than the tame cats. Although
both of the American wildcats are found in Canada,
the so-called Canada lynx is larger than Lynx
rufus. The latter is of a yellowish or reddish
brown, while the larger variety is generally grey
Fig. 413. Raccoon (Procyon lotor). j
and clouded with irregular darker spots. Although
the skin of this latter may be seen in the collec-
tions of almost every extensive fur-dealer in
Canada, the animal is seldom met with in its wild
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 403
state, unless by those sportsmen or others who
penetrate into the more retired recesses of the
forest. The settlements are not often visited by
this beast of prey, for it can generally find a suffi-
ciency of food in the woods and is not, therefore,
Fig. 414. Canada lynx (Lynx Oanadensis).
very often compelled by famine to forage in the
farmyard. Its prey consists largely of such small
animals as the northern hare, the gray rabbit,
squirrels, mice, grouse and birds of various kinds,
although it is thought that the wolf is sometimes
blamed for carrying off a lamb which has feasted
the lynx. When it enters a place frequented by
rabbits, it seldom leaves the locality until it has
killed them all. From the great size of its claws
and teeth, and its formidable appearance, the
Canada lynx has acquired a reputation for ferocity,
cunning and daring, to which it is not entitled.
Although strongly built and capable of climbing
trees with ease, the lynx is timid and even cow-
ardly at the sight of man, and a very small dog
will instantly put it to flight. It swims well, breeds
once a year, having two young at a time, is easily
taken in traps, and some of the Indians eat its
flesh. When cornered by dogs it fights like a cat,
spitting and striking with its sharp claws, with
which it can inflict severe wounds. Its feet are
completely covered with long woolly fur, so that
its tracks on the snow are very large and do not
show any impressions of the toes. Most of what
has been said of this variety applies equally to the
common American wildcat, except that the latter
has never been known to attack any but animals
smaller than itself.
Handling the furs.
The American furs which find their way to the
great auction marts of the Old World are received
and sold in their raw state, much in the same con-
dition in which they left the hands of the trapper.
Until comparatively recent times, Germany had the
monopoly of the dyeing and dressing of certain furs,
particularly of squirrel skins and of white furs,
such as the ermine and Polar bear. Almost al?
Alaska seal skins are dressed and dyed in London,
404 FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
not because of a lack of expert workmen in the
United States, for some seal skins are skillfully
manufactured in New York, but because of the
favorable financial arrangements and harmonious
cooperation existing in London, where the raw furs
are sold, between fur- brokers, fur-dressers and
bankers, whereby most of the purchase money may
be withheld until the skins have been dressed and
dyed, six or eight months later. In the prin-
cipal cities of Canada and also in several in the
United States, there are establishments for the
dressing, dyeing and manufacture of native furs.
The great American center of this industry is the
city of New York, which leads the world as a con-
sumer of furs, the sales to individuals there exceed-
ing those of any other city in the world. Many
firms, long established, with large capital and of
international reputation, conduct the business.
Much space might be devoted to an account of
the interesting processes followed in the prepara-
tion of dressed furs from the raw skins. The finest
qualities of furs, with the exception of the Alaska
seal, are seldom dyed. The process of dressing
differs for various kinds of fur, but there are many
features of the industry common to almost all of
them, such as the removal of grease and dirt, the
conversion of the pelt or membrane into a sort of
soft and pliable leather, and a paring down of its
texture. Some of these operations are necessarily
very delicate ones. Very greasy skins, as those of
the mink, are first of all scraped, and then, like
others, are soaked in water over night for soften-
ing and opening the texture preparatory to.the
unhairing and leathering processes. Heavy pelts,
as those of the beaver and otter, are then “beamed,”
for the purpose of breaking up the texture of the
membrane and softening it. If the overhairs are to
be removed, that process is next in order, except in
the dressing of muskrat skins, when it is usually
postponed until after the dressing. After plucking,
heavy skins are shaved to a thin, even surface, with
a “‘skiving” knife. Next comes the leathering. The
pelt side is dampened over night with cold salt-
water, and the following day, butter, or other ani-
mal fat, is rubbed on the membrane. This greasing
is omitted in dressing mink or other very oily skins.
Then follows the tubbing, one of the most curious
processes of the trade. In order thoroughly to
soften or “leather” the pelt, a number of skins are
placed in large tubs with mahogany sawdust, each
tub being occupied by a workman, who for two or
three hours is engaged in tramping the skins with
bare feet. The skins are subsequently placed in
revolving cylinders with clean sawdust, this in
order to extract all the grease, which adheres to
the sawdust. After this the sawdust is beaten out,
and the combing of the furs completes the opera-
tion of dressing. The process is subject to many
variations for different kinds of furs.
Fur-farming.
Many experiments in fur-farming have been
attempted from time to time, but few, if any, have
proved a success. A skunk-farm, which has been in
operation for a number of years in Ontario on a
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS.
small scale, has given some fair results, many of
the animals having become partially tamed. Similar
farms have been established on a large scale in some
of the westernstates, but are still in the experimental
stage. The proposition has been more than once
made to stock Hudson bay with the Alaska seal.
The conditions as to food, temperature, and the like,
are declared to be favorable, and different varieties
of the hair-seal thrive admirably under similar
conditions. The project in question, which involved
the purchase and transfer to the bay of one hun-
dred cow seals and fifteen bulls, was submitted to
the Dominion government some time ago, but
nothing came of it. It may be revived later.
An extensive system of otter-farming in the
swamps of Florida was seriously proposed some
years ago. Beaver-farming, as attempted in a
restricted area on the north of Lake Superior,
proved a failure. There is no reason, however, why
the introduction of beaver from the Yellowstone
National Park into parts of the Adirondacks,
where they were once plentiful, should not be fol-
lowed by good results, if the animals are protected
from molestation ; for no effort has been made to
confine them within unnatural limitations. It is
the change from natural conditions, accompanying
almost every attempt at fur-farming, that dooms
it to failure. Beavers and foxes, as well as big
game, liberated by Mr. Menier on his island of
Anticosti, are apparently multiplying and doing
well. Fur-bearing animals of all kinds, on the
other hand, kept in close captivity, have deterior-
ated in the quality of their fur, often pining away
and dying. A few silver foxes are reported to have
been raised successfully in captivity by a trader on
the Labrador coast, but the experiment was not
repeated successfully through a second generation,
and the furs were of an inferior and bedraggled
character. They come to their greatest excellence,
as a matter of fact, only when the animal enjoys
that wide ranging of its natural state which
ensures robust health.
Literature.
The literature of the fur trade is very exhaus-
tive. On North American fur-bearing animals see :
Sir John Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana ;
George Cartwright, Journal during a residence of
nearly sixteen years on the coasts of Labrador;
The Canadian Naturalist for 1857 and following
years ; H. de Puyjalon, Histoire Naturelle a l’usage
des Chasseurs Canadiens, et des eleveurs d’animaux
a fourrure; The Fur Seal and Other Fisheries
of Alaska, published by the House of Representa-
tives, Washington (1889); Florida Fur Farming, in
the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission
(1897); various articles on the wild animals of the
United States in the annual reports of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington; The Seal Hunt
of the Gulf, E. T. D. Chambers in East and West,
Toronto, May, 1907 ; descriptions of the Newfound-
land seal hunts in books on Newfoundland, by
Judge Prowse and Rev. Moses Harvey ; A. P. Low,
Trail and Camp-fire. On the Indian fur-hunters,
the trapping of furs and the fur industry in gen-
GOAT
eral, consult histories of the Northwest and of the
Hudson Bay Company; Miss Laut, Story of the
Trapper, and Fur Trade of the World, in the
World’s Work of May, 1907; Geo. Bird Grinnell,
Story of the Indian; Hind, Labrador; E. T. D.
Chambers, The Montagnais Indians and Their Folk-
lore ; H. de Puyjalon, Petit Guide du Chasseur de
Pelleterie ; Horace T. Martin, Castorologia, or the
History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver ;
Charles H. Stevenson, Utilization of the Skins of
Aquatic Animals, in the report of the United States
Commission of Fish and Fisheries (1902).
GOAT. Capra spp. Bovide. Figs. 415-419.
The goat is a genus of quadrupeds, very closely
allied to the sheep. It seems probable that the do-
mestic goat is descended from the Persian pasang
(Capra egagrus), which is the most characteristic
species of the wild goats. The types of domestic <&
goats that have been developed under their long
period of domestication are very numerous, but
comparatively few are of economic value in
America. Perhaps the Angora (Capra angorensis)
is the best known in this country, although the
interest in milch goats is increasing. The zodlogi-
eal origin of the Angora goat is not known. The
prevailing opinion seems to be that the foundation
stock is some derivative of Capra egagrus, perhaps
with crosses from the markhor (C. falconeri) or
other wild Asian species. The goat has never been
held in high esteem in America, but this condition
may change.
Mention should be made of the Cashmere or Shawl
goat of India, which is valued for its fine, silk-like
under-wool, much prized in shawls. “Mountain
goat” is mentioned under Sheep.
Angora Goat. Figs. 415, 416.
By #. L. Shaw.
The Angora is raised primarily for its mohair
and meat. The male goat is called a buck, the
female a doe, the castrated male a wether, and
the young a kid.
Description.
The Angora goat was formerly described as a
small animal, but, owing to favorable conditions,
its size has been greatly increased. It is smaller
than the common goat, weighing sixty to one hun-
dred pounds, although specimens are frequently
found that weigh considerably more. Both males
and females have horns and beards, but in rare
instances an animal without horns may be seen.
The horns of the male grow to a length of fifteen
to twenty inches and turn upward and outward
with a backward twist, while those of the female,
which grow to a length of eight to fen inches, grow
upward and point backward, with only a slight
inclination to twist. The horns are grayish in color,
never black. The body should be round, the back
straight, with shoulders and hips of equal height.
The chest should be broad ; legs short and strong ;
head broad, with a wide muzzle and bright eyes ;
GOAT 405
ears either partially upright or distinctly pendent,
and six to eight inches long. The fleece should be
pure white, covering all parts of the body, as dense
on the belly and neck as on the back and sides, and
it should extend to the ears and the jaw. Many
Angoras have mohair on the forehead, face and legs.
The mohair should make an annual growth of not
less than eight to ten inches, and weigh three to
five pounds per fleece. It should hang in well-formed
Fig. 415.
Angora goats,
ringlets from all parts of the body, and should be
fine, soft, lustrous and strong. The fleece should be
free from kemp. The fibers become coarser, thin-
ner and straighter as the animal grows older. The
best mohair grows on goats of the best blood ; and
among these, that on the kids, yearling wethers
and does is superior in the order named.
The offensive odor from the bucks of the com-
mon goat is entirely absent in the Angora breed,
except at the rutting season, and then it is notice-
able only in a slight degree. The odor in a fleece
of mohair is milder than that in a fleece of wool.
History.
The Angora goat derives its name from the vilayet
of Angora, in Asia Minor. The city of Angora is
the capital of the vilayet of Angora, and is located
about two hundred miles south-by-southeast from
Constantinople. The province is mountainous to a
considerable extent and furrowed by deep valleys.
The climate is extreme. Some writers have ven-
tured to say that the Angora goat originated in
this district over 2,400 years ago.
It is said that the pure Angora goat was nearly
bred out in 1863. The reason for this was the
extensive crossing with the common Kurd goat.
In America.—The first importation of Angora
goats to America was made in 1849. During the
administration of President Polk, says Colonel
Richard Peters, the Sultan of Turkey requested
that a suitable person be sent to that country to
conduct some experiments in the culture of cotton.
Dr. James B. Davis, of South Carolina, was dele-
gated. On his return to the United States in 1849,
the Sultan presented to him nine choice Angoras.
These animals were imported as Cashmeres, and
were so regarded until after they were purchased
by Colonel Richard Peters in 1853. This importa-
tion was frequently exhibited at fairs, and always
406 GOAT
attracted much attention. Colonel Peters is gen-
erally regarded as the real founder of the Angora
goat industry in America.
There have been, from time to time, various other
importations of Angoras from Turkey and South
Africa. These are widely disseminated, and the
blood of most of them has been beneficial to the
industry in this country. The Civil war was dis-
astrous in its effects on the industry, and the
Angora goats in the southern and eastern sections
of the country were practically exterminated. The
western men who adopted the industry, and finally
saved it, were William M. Landrum, C. P. Bailey
and John S. Harris.
Distribution.
Angora goats are widely distributed throughout
America. They are found in almost every state and
territory in the Union, the largest numbers being
in Texas, New Mexico, California, Arizona, Oregon
and Montana. They are found in large numbers in
Cape Colony. The census report for April, 1904,
gives the number in Cape Colony as 2,775,927. It
is estimated that in 1894, there were over 1,230,-
000 Angoras in Asia Minor. [See page 409.]
Types.
Some strains of Angoras have fox-like ears, but
those with the pendent ears are preferred. In this
country, care must always be exercised to cull the
off-colored kids from the flock. These may be the
result of atavism, from a cross made on a common
goat, either red or black. It is reported that dif-
ferent colors are found in the province of Angora
among what were supposed to be pure-bred animals.
Some Angoras have very little or no mohair on the
forehead and legs, while others have a tuft on the
forehead, and the legs are well covered down to
the feet.
Breeding.
Goats of both sexes will sometimes breed when
they are five or six months old, but from the fact
that at this age they are but a month or two from
weaning time, and are not fully grown, it is obvious
that they should not be permitted to breed. They
reach maturity when about sixteen or eighteen
months old, and they should not be bred before
this time. If bred earlier, the kids will not be so
strong, nor so well developed. The goats are in
their prime when two to six years old. Does should
not be kept until they are very old, unless they
produce kids of exceptional merit, for their mohair
becomes coarser and less valuable as they mature.
The average life of goats is about twelve years.
Bucks usually come in heat about the middle of
July, and continue so about six months. Does do
not usually come in heat until the latter part of
August or the first of September. The period of
gestation is 147 to 155 days. The kids should not
come before the warm days of spring, or when
vegetation begins to put out vigorously. The only
objection to early kidding is the extra care required
to preserve the life of the kids, for they are deli-
cate for the first few days.
GOAT
A buck should be in the best possible condition
when put to service, and should be fed some grain
during the breeding season. For the best results,
about forty or fifty does should be allowed to a
buck. The pure-bred Angora does not often drop
more than one kid at a time, while the common
goat nearly always drops two. The kidding season
is the most important in the life of the goats. For
several days after the kids are dropped, they natu-
rally demand good care. After a few weeks they are
able to care for themselves, and can follow the
flock.
A few days before a doe is due to kid, she should
be separated from the flock. Some breeders would
put her alone in a pen, while others would put as
many as twenty in one pen. If the facilities are at
hand, a small pen for each doe is better, for the
reason that the doe will own the kid sooner, and
there will be less danger of injury. If kids are
dropped on the range or in the pasture, they must
be carried home and special care given to see that
the does are made to own them, for many times
they will refuse, especially if they have no milk.
There are in use two methods of handling the
does and kids at kidding time, namely, the corral
method and the staking method. Each of these
methods has its advantages.
(1) The corral method may be used with any
number of goats. When a large number of does
are expected to kid, it is necessary to have one or
two large corrals and several smaller ones. The
does expected to kid, or those that have kidded, are
put in the small corrals, and after a day or so are
removed to one of the larger ones. This procedure
is repeated until all the does have kidded.
(2) The other, the Mexican or “staking method,”
is used largely in Texas and New Mexico. When a
kid is born, it is taken to a convenient place to
“stake” and the mother is coaxed to follow, and the —
kid is “staked” or “toggled” with a string about
twelve inches long. This string is tied to one leg,
being changed occasionally from one leg to another
to avoid lameness. The string should have a swivel
in it to prevent twisting. Kids are usually staked
for a week to ten days.
Kids should not be weaned until they are about
four months old. The buck kids, not intended for
breeding purposes, should be castrated when about
two weeks old. The earlier it is done, the better
will be the meat and mohair.
No amount of cold will prove injurious to goats
if they are kept dry. A shed of easy access is one
of the essentials of goat-raising. Angoras are able
to withstand both extreme heat and extreme cold
if proper shelter and feed be provided. They require
a large amount of fresh air and exercise.
Feeding.
The browsing habit of goats is an important fac-
tor in their feeding. In some sections, they secure
browse all through the winter season, as in the
Southwest, where there is an abundance of live-oak.
Corn fodder, cowpea hay, clover hay, and alfalfa
are all excellent coarse feeds. Oats, corn and bran
are valuable winter rations. Goats require more
GOAT
salt than do sheep, owing to the more astringent
character of their feed. A running stream in a
pasture is valuable, but if it is not present, good,
fresh water should be supplied.
Marking.
Several devices for marking goats are in use,
but the metal tag in the ear is probably best
known. A practice which appears to give satisfac-
tion is to tattoo the numbers into the ear, using
indelible ink. It is found that the metal is some-
times pulled out by brush.
Shearing.
In Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and sometimes in
California, shearing is done twice a year, usually
in the months of March and April, and in Septem-
ber or October. The reason for this practice is
that, owing to the warm climate, the fleece will
often shed in the fall if not clipped. In other parts
of the country, shearing is done but once a year,
and that in the months of March, April and May.
The shearing machines, largely employed among
sheep-raisers, are coming into general use among
goat-breeders.
Goats are not so gentle in the hands of the
shearer as sheep, and many men, especially among
beginners in the industry, desire to know how best
to handle them during the operation of shearing.
For this purpose, a simple combination trough and
table (Fig. 416) was devised by F. W. Ludlow, of
Lake Valley, New Mexico. This table is first used
in the shape of a trough. The goat is placed in it
on its back and held down by means of a strap
across its throat. While in this position all the
underparts, sides and legs may be worked on. In
machine shearing, it is a good practice to start at
the brisket and shear all the belly as far back as
possible ; then shear the front legs and neck ; then
start at the hocks and shear up the hind-legs and
along the sides to the point of beginning. After
shearing one of the sides allowed by the trough,
the goat is tied —“‘hog tied,” to use a western
expression—that is, all four feet are tied together.
The sides of the trough are now dropped, forming
a table on which to finish the operation. There is
now free access from the tail to the head, and the
goat remains helpless. The proper course is to
leave all the fleece on the table until the goat is
liberated, and then roll it up inside out.
Mr. Ludlow’s description of this table is given
herewith : “The table is simple in construction. It
is about 22 inches high, 2 feet 10 inches long, and
21 inches wide. The top is composed of two 9-inch
sides, which are hinged to the 3-inch centerpiece.
On the lower side of these movable flaps is a
narrow piece 8 inches long, which catches on the
framework of the table when the sides are lifted
and holds them stationary. When. the sides are
elevated, the top of the table forms a trough 3
inches wide at the bottom and possibly a foot wide
at the top. Into this trough the goat to be shorn is
thrown, feet up. A small strap, which hangs from
the end of one of the sides, is run over the goat’s
neck and fastened to the other side. The goat’s
GOAT 407
head is hanging over the end of the table and the
strap prevents it getting free. The belly and legs
are then shorn. The legs of the goat are then tied
together, the strap removed from the neck, and the
sides of the table dropped, so that one has a plane
surface on which to shear the rest of the animal.
An untrained man can shear 100 goats a day witha
shearing machine and such a table.”
Few breeders wash their goats before shearing,
and if the animal has been properly cared for dur-
ing the winter and early spring, washing is not
necessary. Breeders find it to their advantage to
ship the mohair in as clean a condition as possible.
Colored fleeces, tag locks, mohair that is clotted
and that which is dirty, should be packed separately.
As kid hair is usually the finest, it should be packed
by itself; the doe hair and that from the wethers
may be placed together. Fleeces should not be tied
Fig. 415. A shearing trough and table combined.
with twine, as parts of it are likely to adhere to
the fleece, and can be removed only by great care
and effort. Fleeces from Turkey and Cape Colony
are not tied at all, but are simply rolled up inside
out ; this is the condition in which the mills desire
to receive them.
Uses.
The Angora goat is considered one of the most
useful of the domestic animals, and has been so
held from remote times. This usefulness is mani-
fested in many ways.
The mohair.—tThe fleece, called ‘‘mohair,” is used
extensively in the manufacture of plushes. It is
not generally known that practically all of the
plushes used in railway passenger coaches and
street cars are made of mohair. Besides these
plushes, which are usually plain, large quantities
of frieze and crush plushes are used in upholstering
furniture. The designs for the frieze plushes are
limited only by the ingenuity of man. The carriage
robes, couch covers, sofa-pillow covers, and rugs
are distinguished by their high pile and rich color-
ing. Most of the so-called astrachan now in use is
made of mohair.
Besides plushes, which form the principal item,
there may be mentioned dress goods of various
designs, coats and coat-linings, table covers, knit
mits, mittens and gloves, made from mohair.
In addition to the mohair, there grows on the
Angora goat coarse, chalky white, stiff, straight
hair, varying in length from half an inch to four
inches, technically known as “kemp.” It is gener-
ally thought that kemp is a relic of the common
goat blood in the Angora, as it is a matter of his-
408 GOAT
tory that the Angora flocks of America, as well as
those of Asia Minor and South Africa, have been
largely increased by crossing does of common blood.
It is objectionable.
The skins.—The skins of the Angoras, if taken
when the hair is about four inches long, make very
handsome rugs. The hair retain its original luster,
and may be used in the natural white, or dyed any
color desired. Carriage-robes are frequently manu-
factured from the skins. The smaller skins of the
does, wethers and kids find a use as robes for baby-
carriages, and are extremely attractive. The skins
are also used in the manufacture of children’s
muffs, and as trimmings for coats and capes. The
finest kid fleeces adorn the collar and border of
some of the ladies’ opera cloaks.
To clear brush land.—Goats are browsers by
nature, and there is no vegetation they will eat in
preference to leaves and twigs of bushes. The
Angora has been used in many parts of the country
for clearing land covered with brushwood. In
localities where valuable land is completely over-
grown with brushwood, the goats are considered of
more value for clearing it than for their mohair or
meat.
The milk.—The Angora is not primarily a milch
goat, and is not often employed for that purpose.
Information at hand shows that the quantity of
milk given by an Angora doe is uncertain, and in
exceptional cases only does it approach in quantity
that produced by the established breeds of milch
goats, such as the Toggenburg, Saanen, Maltese
and Nubian.
The meat.—The flesh of Angora goats is exceed-
ingly nutritious and palatable. When properly fat-
tened, they produce a meat so nearly like the best
lamb that it takes an expert to detect the differ-
ence. A large number of Angoras are slaughtered
annually in Texas, Arizona, New Mexico and Cali-
fornia. In Cape Colony, it is said that old does are
slaughtered to furnish meat for farm hands, and
young wethers are sold to butchers in the towns.
Kansas City is the leading goat market, over
sixty thousand head having been sold in this one
market in 1907.
Protection for sheep—There is very little com-
plaint heard from breeders of Angora goats con-
cerning the ravages of dogs. Bucks can be trained
to fight dogs and thus be a protection to sheep. A
few goats will stay with a flock of sheep, but if
there are many of them they will be likely to
separate.
Pets.—As pets for children, Angora goats are
popular. They are remarkably intelligent and are
easily trained. They are often harnessed to carts.
Organizations and records.
The American Angora Goat Breeders’ Associa-
tion, organized in 1900, maintains the only record
of pure-bred Angora goats in America. This or-
ganization has a membership of over five hun-
dred breeders, representing nearly every state
and territory in the Union. Over sixty-five thou-
sand animals are recorded in the Angora Goat
Record.
GOAT
Literature.
George Fayette Thompson, Angora Goat Raising
and Milch Goats; William L. Black, A New Indus-
try; C. P. Bailey, Practical Angora Goat Raising ;
Gustav A. Hoerle, The Angora Goat: Its Habits
and Culture; John L. Hayes, The Angora Goat:
Its Origin, Culture and Products; S. C. Cronwright
Schreiner, The Angora Goat; George Edward Allen,
Angora Goats, the Wealth of the Wilderness; C.
P. Bailey, California Angoras; E. H. Jobson,
Angora Goat Raising ; George Fayette Thompson,
Information concerning the Angora Goat, Bulletin
No. 27, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture; George Fayette Thomp-
son, The Angora Goat, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 137,
United States Department of Agriculture. This
article is largely adapted from the bulletins on
Angora goats prepared by the late George Fayette
Thompson. [See also page 411.]
Milch Goats. Capra hircus, Linn. Figs. 417-419.
By William C. Clos.
The breeding of goats for the production of milk
is a growing industry in some parts of America.
In the development of the dairy type, numerous
breeds and varieties of goats have been produced,
adapted to meet different conditions.
Description.
According to the best authorities, the following
general points and qualities are applicable to all
types of milch goats. They must possess good forms,
indicating constitutional strength and high produc-
tiveness. The head must be light (dry), eyes fresh
and lively, horns (in all horned breeds) small, neck
broad, breast wide, ribs well sprung, back long and
straight, hips broad and strong, legs sinewy and
straight. Healthy claws, a fine, thin skin and a
well-developed, but not too pendent udder and good
teeth are also necessary requisites.
History.
Goats are among the oldest domestic animals,
and have contributed their share to the subsistence
of mankind as far back as historic evidences reach.
Rutimeier discovered their remains among the
ruined piles of the ancient lake-dwellers in Switzer-
land. Goats and their products are mentioned fre-
quently in the Bible, and by Herodotus and Homer,
and have maintained their popularity, especially
among oriental nations, to this day.
The question of their origin is still in dispute.
According to Julmy, a majority of zodlogists main-
tain that the European goat is descended from the
Persian pasang or Bezoar goat (Capra egagrus),
while others seem to trace it to the Alpine ibex
(Capra ibex).
Whatever may have been their origin, they have
exerted a strong influence on the economic welfare
of the peoples among whom they have been found.
Their growth in numbers, outside of America, has
been noteworthy ; and in this country their popu-
larity may be said to be increasing. The following
GOAT
statistics indicate their popularity. G. F. Thompson
states, in his “Information Concerning Common
Goats,” published in 1903, that there were 1,871,-
252 goats of all kinds kept on farms in the United
States, as reported in the census for 1900, repre-
senting a total value of $3,266,080. Besides these,
there were 78,353 goats reported for cities and vil-
lages, which would bring the total up to 1,949,605
head. He estimates the number of Angoras at
700,000, and the remainder, he says, “are all sorts
of animals except recognized breeds of milch goats,
of which there are so few as not to affect the total
materially.” This is indeed a small number, but it
indicates the need as well as the possibilities of
improvement.
European statistics give far more satisfactory
results. Germany had (in 1883), according to Dett-
weiler, 2,639,904 milch goats; Switzerland (in
1896) possessed 416,323 head (Stebler). Pegler, in
his work (The Book of the Goat), gives the follow-
ing figures: France, 1,794,837 ; Russia, 1,700,000;
Austria, 979,104 ; Spain, 4,531,228 ; Italy, 1,690,-
478, and the grand total for continental Europe as
17,198,587 head. The Yearbook of the United
States Department of Agriculture for 1906, in its
statistical columns, gives the total number of goats
for South American countries as 5,662,239 ; North
and Central America, 6,296,192; Africa, 17,557,-
590; Asia, 40,557,402, while Australia (total
Oceanica) is marked down to a total of only 114,-
865 head.
In America.—As has been said, little effort has
been put forth to improve the common goat of
America, and no important milking strains or
families have been produced. It is only under the
stimulus of recent importations of some of the best
European types that interest in goats for milk-
production has sprung up. The first importation
was that of W. A. Shafor, of Ohio, who brought
over four Toggenburg goats in 1893. The next
important importation was made by F. S. Peer, of
Ithaca, New York, in the spring of 1904, when he
brought over a large number of Toggenburg and
White Saanen goats for individuals in Massachu-
setts, New York, New Jersey and Maryland. In
1905, the United States Department of Agriculture
became interested, and through G. F. Thompson
imported sixty-eight maltese goats for experimen-
tation in America. The results of this experiment
were not satisfactory.
Distribution.
At the present time goats are distributed over a
large part of the globe, but it is to be regretted
that statistics furnish but very meager informa-
tion in regard to their dissemination. Such statis-
tics as are available indicate that they are found in
larger or smaller numbers in nearly every inhabited
land. In America they are widely scattered. An
idea of their geographic distribution will be gained
by reference to the statistics given above.
Breeds and types.
Following are brief notes on the most promi-
nent breeds and types.
GOAT 409
The Nubian milch goat is a long-legged goat,
with generally a polled head, sunken nostrils, pro-
jecting lower jaw, long, hanging ears in most speci-
mens, large, well-shaped udder and teats. The
color is brown or black. The hair varies in length.
It is native in Nubia, northern Egypt and Abys-
sinia. Huart du Plessis and Pegler recommend
this breed very highly because of its large size and
unsurpassed milking qualities, giving four to twelve
quarts per day. However, it is very sensitive to
cold and for that reason is not adapted for northern
climates. Its ameliorative value, however, is not
to be lost sight of in cross-breeding experiments,
especially with southern varieties, as the New
Mexican.
The Maltese goat.—According to Thompson, this
type is about two feet and six inches in height and
will often weigh 100 pounds. It is usually hornless,
and the predominating color is white, although there
are many other colors, as red, brown and black. The
ears are moderately long and horizontal. The body
is low and stocky. It is said that the milking quality
of the breed has been so perfectly developed that
Owned
Fig. 417.
Milch goats, with udders too pendant.
by J. F. Zion, Phoenix, Arizona.
nearly every doe kid becomes a good milker. The
udder is large and is carried low, and yields two to
four quarts of milk daily. In Malta it is asserted
that Maltese goats never do well when exported.
The New Mexican goat.—By this somewhat arbi-
trary name is distinguished the only real American
breed of goats known. They are common in New
Mexico, Texas and the Southwest, where large
numbers of them are kept by the Spanish-speaking
populace. They are not uniform in color and size,
but have the reputation of being fairly good
milkers.
The_Spanish-Maltese goat.—B. H. Van Raub, of
Van Raub, Texas, is the most prominent breeder of
this type, and his efforts in improving and develop-
ing this variety are said to have given to the
United States the first pure-blooded breed of milch
goats of its own. Mr. Thompson indicates that
these Spanish-Maltese represent several varieties.
The Toggenburg milch goats (Fig. 418) are one of
the oldest and best known of the numerous breeds
of milch goats in Switzerland. They are hardy and
410 GOAT
hornless, and their slender bodies are covered with
silky hair of a peculiar brown color that varies much
in length. The males carry a heavy, coarse beard.
The legs and ears are white, the latter of medium
length and well carried. The breed is further dis-
tinguished by two white stripes on their heads,
running parallel on each side of the face from the
ne al oy
Fig. 418. Toggenburg milch goat.
ears to the mouth, and also by two peculiar small
cartilaginous appendages or “ wattles” on the side
of the neck, called zoetteli. These “wattles” are not
peculiar to Toggenburgs, but are found in nearly
all breeds of goats. They are very common in Mal-
tese breeds. They are splendid milkers, yielding four
to six quarts daily, and carry the well-developed
udders rather high. They bear confinement well, a
fact that should not be underestimated in consider-
ing this breed.
The White Appenzeller goat may be regarded as a
white variety of the Toggenburg breed, and is
native in the Toggenburg valley in Switzerland.
Like the latter, it is large, hardy and productive.
The White Saanen goat (Fig. 419) is another very
popular Swiss breed. It is generally hornless and
of large size. It is a good milker, and has been
exported extensively from Switzerland for amelior-
ative purposes.
The Black-necked Valaisan goat is a very pretty
and attractive variety covered with long, silky
hair, black on the head, neck, breast and front legs,
and snow-white on the entire middle and rear parts
of the body. It is a fairly good milker, has a splendid
constitution, but does not thrive under continuous
confinement.
Management and feeding.
Milch goats are very prolific, much more so than
Angoras or sheep. They usually drop twins and
often triplets, and as their period of gestation is
only about five months, they increase very rapidly,
because they will breed shortly after kidding, and
yearling does are fit for reproduction. Bucks should
be chosen carefully ; only those descended from
good milking dams should be used, and then only
when they are of good form and constitutional
vigor. Because of their repulsive smell, bucks
GOAT
should be kept entirely separate, and as far away
from the does as possible.
Milk from rutting does should not be used for
domestic purposes. Observance of this rule will
effectually prevent the complaints that goat’s milk
has a bad taste. Breeding should be so managed
that does will kid three times within two years, and
if several animals are kept, their lactation periods
may be easily arranged so as to provide a steady
and even supply of milk for their owners. The lac-
tation period is about five or six months in the
milking families.
Cleanliness is absolutely necessary when goats
are confined in stables. These animals are sensitive
to cold and damp and therefore should be kept in —
warm but light stables, with always dry bedding.
They like variety in their feed, and this peculiarity
should not be overlooked. They should be given
clean, sweet hay, and the good vegetable trimmings
from the kitchen. A handful of oats or a little
bran is a very good addition to the ration, especi-
ally during the period of heavy lactation. They
must have salt regularly, and as much clean water
as they will drink. In the winter they should have
provided for them occasionally, if possible, some
hazel-brush, birch, maple, box-elder, or similar twigs.
They like to nibble such things and will pay for the
trouble. Willow, oak, or any other bitter or acid
barks should not be used for this purpose, because
they impart unpleasant tastes to the milk. In the
summer a good pasture having a variety of forage
and fresh water is a splendid place for them. If
these directions are observed, goats will give good
wholesome milk plentifully. If the milk has an
uncommon flavor, the cause is usually in the feed,
unless the animals are sick.
If pasturage is not available, then they should be
let out into a clean yard daily, for they must have
exercise, as in their natural environments they like
to romp and play. Fences must be tight, otherwise
te
SS LG
S7/ if (
ME aig!
Ms) \ wii):
the goats will get out even in places where it would
seem almost impossible for them to crawl. All
braces should be on the outside, and no boards
should be allowed to lean against the fence, other-
wise the goats will climb over. Breechy goats should
be provided with so-called “ puzzles” or frames.
GOAT
Kids should be separated from their mothers and
fed from a nursing-bottle, because their mother’s
teats are usually too large for them. They should be
weaned gradually, and, when they are accustomed
to eat well, they will readily take care of them-
selves, as long as they have plenty before them to
eat. Young bucks that are not needed as repro-
ducers should be castrated early and butchered
when afew months old. Their meat is then even
more of a delicacy than lamb.
Uses.
Contrary to common opinion, goats have decided
virtues and capabilities that will eventually gain
for them a prominent place in the estimation of the
people, especially among the working classes in the
suburbs of large cities, and it is not at all improb-
able that they may win favor even with the rich.
For milk.—tThe principal value of the milch goat
is its eminent milk-producing quality. While it has
thus far been of relative unimportance in this coun-
try for its milk, this is not true in many other lands.
In Switzerland, milch goats are commonly called
the “poor man’s cows,” and well they may, as
they take the place of cows not only because of
their cheapness and the comparatively low cost
of their keep, but also because they enable poor
persons to enjoy the advantages usually derived by
the better situated classes from their cattle, under
conditions absolutely prohibitive to the successful
maintenance of milch cows. In that mountainous
land, three or four well-kept milch goats of good
breeding are commonly rated equal in milk-produc-
ing qualities to an average cow, and six to eight
goats may be kept on the quantity of feed required
for one cow. It should also be borne in mind that
two or three goats properly managed will provide
a steady supply of milk the year round, while the
single cow does not. Goats also are not nearly so
susceptible to the diseases that have proved to be
such dangerous enemies to mankind, from the fact
that they can be transmitted by cow’s milk. It is
generally held that goat’s milk is much more whole-
some than cow’s milk. Goat’s milk may be used fresh
or cooked, just as cow’s milk, and is recommended
as preferable for infants and invalids by the best
medical authorities. Milch goats are most pro-
ductive at four to eight years of age, and may live
to be twelve or more years old.
Dr. Kohlschmidt’s experiments on the milk-yield
of goats, conducted with twenty-four animals in
Saxony, demonstrated an average yearly quantity
of 725.7 litres per head. The highest yield ascer-
tained by him was 1,077.5 litres ; the lowest, 612.37
litres; the average per cent of butter-fat obtained
was 3.43 per cent (maximum 4.41 per cent). Huart
du Plessis cites the example of a pure-bred Nubian
goat giving an average of 4.5 litres per day, with
8.5 per cent butter-fat. This author estimates the
capacity of a good milch goat at two litres per day
for 270 days each year. Professor Anderegg says
that there are four breeds of Swiss goats capable
of a daily yield of four litres per head. Stebler
states, on the authority of a Swiss farmer, that the
total yearly expense for keeping a common goat,
GOAT Ail
exclusive of summer pasturage, is a trifle over $2
in American money, against a yearly income of
above $5, or a profit of over $3 per year on an
investment of about $7.
For butter.—Butter may be made from goat’s
milk, but, owing to the irregular size of the fat
globules, the cream is very slow to rise. The milk
should be carefully and very slowly heated on the
back of a stove until a wrinkled scum forms, and
then be removed to the pantry for further rising.
The longer time it takes to heat, the more cream is
secured. In churning, coloring must be added, or
else the product will be as white as lard, owing to
the whiteness of the milk. Perfect cleanliness and
special care are necessary or the butter will develop
a bitter taste.
For cheese—Goat’s milk makes most excellent
cheese, as all who have ever been treated to ‘tome
de chévre” or “Geisskaes” in Europe will admit.
The milk of goats is an ingredient that enters
largely into the manufacture of very expensive
kinds of cheese, as the famous Roquefort, Mont d’
Or, Levroux, Sassenage and others. Goat cheese
has the disadvantage that it will usually not keep
well unless extra care and pains are taken in its
manufacture and cure. For ordinary use, however,
the process is as simple as that employed in the
making of any common home-made curd cheese.
For meat.—As their name indicates, milch goats
are not intended as meat-producers. The flesh of
older animals, therefore, is of minor quality,
although capable of great improvement by proper
fattening. The flesh of well-fattened older goats
may be rendered very toothsome by smoking and
drying. Kid meat is esteemed as a popular delicacy
in Europe and elsewhere.
For skins.—The skins of milch goats are impor-
tant articles of commerce, furnishing, as they
do, the raw material for the finest leather (kid,
morocco, saffian, and the like). At present, most of
the hides used for this purpose are imported. This
may very readily be made an important source of
income wherever goats are kept in numbers. It is a
means of profit that has been underestimated in
this country.
Organizations and records.
In November, 1903, The American Milk Goat
Record Association was organized to care for the
interests of milch goats in America, and to pro-
mote the importation of good types. A registry is
maintained, entrance being based on milk-pro-
duction and satisfactory ancestry and individual
qualities.
Literature.
Prof. Anderegg, Die Schweizer Ziegen, Bern
(1887); Fr. Dettweiler, Die Bedeutung der Ziegen-
zucht, etc., Bremen (1892); Huart Du Plessis, La
Chévre, Paris, 4me edition; Felix Hilpert, Anleit-
ung zur Ziegenzucht und Ziegenhaltung, Berlin
(1901); Bryan Hook, Milch Goats and Their Man-
agement, London (1896); N. Julmy, Les races de
Chévres de la Suisse, Bern (1900); Dr. Kohlschmidt,
Untersuchungen ueber die Milchergiebigkeit des
412 HARE
im oestl, Erzgebirge verbreiteten Ziegenschlages in
Landw. Jahrbuecher Bd. XXVI; S. Holmes Hepler
The Book of the Goat, London (1886); Dr. F. G.
Stebler, Ziegenweiden und Ziegenhaltung in Alp
und Weidewirtschaft, Berlin (1903); G. F. Thomp-
son, Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats, Chicago
(1903); G. F. Thompson, Information Concerning
Common Goats, Circular No. 42, Bureau of Animal
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture
(1903); G. F. Thompson, Information Concerning
the Milch Goats, Bulletin No. 68, Bureau of Animal
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture
(1905).
HARE, BELGIAN. Lepus spp. Leporide. Fig.
420.
By U. G. Conover.
In America the names hare and rabbit are used
somewhat indiscriminately for various species of
rodents of the family Leporide. Hare is the gen-
eric term, while rabbit is applied properly to a short-
legged species of essentially burrowing habits,
whose naked, blind and helpless young are nurtured
in underground nests. The so-called Belgian hare
is not a hare at all, but is atruerabbit. It derives
its name from the fact that breeders imitate closely
the shape and habit of the hare. From an economic
standpoint, the Belgian hare is the most important
of the rabbit family, as it has become very popular
with the fanciers, as well as with utility breeders
who raise it principally for meat purposes. It is
thoroughly domesticated, responds quickly to kind
treatment, and is a very profitable animal to the
raiser. [Other species and varieties of rabbits are
discussed under Pets.]
Description.
The body of the Belgian hare is long and slim.
The fore-feet and legs are small, the hind-feet and
legs large and powerful. These characteristics,
together with the long head and fine ears, give the
Belgian hare a very racy appearance. The color is
described as “rufus-red,” and is rather a fox-color
or deep golden tan. It is not distributed equally,
but is richest on the shoulders and top of the neck.
The hair is tipped with black, which is called
ticking. The proper distribution of ticking adds
greatly to the beauty of the animal. It should be
confined largely to the back and flanks. The weight
of the standard-bred Belgian hare is about eight
pounds. There is the so-called heavy-weight Bel-
gian, which is of a much grayer color, and often
attains a weight as great as sixteen pounds. This
heavy-weight type is supposed to have been crossed
with the Flemish Giant rabbit, which is of a dark
gray color and weighs as much as eighteen pounds.
[See Pets.]
The following American standard of excellence
for the Belgian hare shows what is desired :
Disqualifications— (1) Lopped or fallen ear; (2)
white front feet or white bar or bars on same; (8)
decidedly wry front feet; (4) wry tail. A specimen should
have the benefit of any doubt.
HARE
ro
core
1. Color.—Rich rufus-red (not dark, smudgy color),
carried well down sides and hind-quarters, and
as little white under the jaws as possible. . 20
2. Ticking.—Rather wavy appearance and plenti-
falon' body;... 5) <<. os cctes) =a tern ae 15
3. Shape.—Body long, thin, well tucked-up flank
and well ribbed up; back slightly arched ;
loins well rounded, not choppy; head rather
lengthy; muscular chest; tail straight, not
screwed; and altogether of a racy appear-
ance
4, Ears.—About five inches, thin, well laced up on
tips, and as far down outside edges as possible;
good color inside and outside, and well set on. 10
5. Eyes.—Hazel color, large, round, bright and
bold. .\ca'a. Siccrse! cS. 'e Pon ae 10
6. Legs and feet.—Fore-feet and legs long,
straight, slender, well colored and free from
white bars; hind-feet as well colored as pos-
sible
7. Size.—About eight pounds
8. Condition.—Not fat, but flesh firm as that of a
race horse, and good quality of fur. .... 5
Without dewlap). « ¢ = <5 © «le =meneenenenen
Perfection . . .
SCALE OF POINTS FOR THE BELGIAN HARE
. Stray hairs
. Color of body .. °
Color of sides .
. Color of hind-quarters. ........ ce
. Color of jaws .
=
NNN NNY EEE ERROR RRR
Rubin Se Gina oo oc - d
. Symmetry of body .......-.
. Symmetry of flank andrib.....
WOAH OP COD
. Symmetry of back ....5,..
10. Symmetry of loins
1l. Symmetry of head .......
12. Lacing of ears ....
18. Size of ears . . .. ©
14. Shape of ears -., 5. 6 .<\=), =) 10 sso
15. Color of ears ....
16. Quality of ears ’-| <= (5 /-) =) siisiianiomeennen
17. Size of eyes
18. Shape of eyes .. .
19. Color of eyes j
20; Quality of'eyes. . < << 3) 5) s) osinemtennemne 4
21. Size of fore-legs and feet
22. Shape of fore-legs andfeet. ........ 2
23. Color of fore-legs and feet ......... 2
24. Quality of fore-legs and feet
25. Color of hind-feet .....
26. Size of specimen
27. Condition of flesh. ....
28: Condition of fur << 2): 4) es +) on ene
29. Shape of neck .
Perfection
History.
The Belgian hare is said to have originated in
Belgium, probably about the beginning of the nine-
teenth century, where it is now found, small in size,
but perfect in form, color and markings. The
modern Belgian hare, an animal of singular charm
and great utility, combining the beauty and tooth-
someness of the old domestic hare with the grace
and fecundity of the wild rabbit, is the result of
a process of breeding that has been practiced
HARE
for the past fifty years or more. Belgian hares
were introduced into England about 1850. When
they first came into England, there was no recog-
nized standard to which to breed, and there soon
came to be two classes of breeders, one class trying
to produce size for meat stock, with little regard to
other points, and the other breeding for points
according to their own ideas as to what constituted
an ideal animal. About 1882, the differences be-
came so great between the two classes of breeders
that it became necessary for them to get together
and devise and adopt a standard for their guidance.
The first standard required the animal to be some-
what racy in appearance and evenly ticked from
toe to tail. The lacing was a dense black block
on the outside of the ear near the point. In
1889, the standard was revised, and the new
standard confined the lacing to near the edge
of the ear, discarded the ticking from the
breast, ears, shoulders and front feet, and re-
quired a very racy appearance.
In America.—The Belgian hare was intro-
duced into this country probably early in
1860, but its merits were then little known,
as it was by no means the perfect animal
that we find in the hutches of American breed-
ers and fanciers today. It is only in the past
few years that its value as a fur- and meat-
producing animal has become generally known,
and in this short time it has made for itself
such a record in this respect that the raising of
Belgian hares for the market and for the fancy is
recognized today as a distinct industry. There is
demand by good hotels for the hares.
Distribution.
The Belgian hare is raised in many parts of the
United States and Canada, as well as in Belgium,
England, Germany and Mexico.
Breeding.
Belgian hares will usually breed at the age of
six months, but this is not advisable. When they
are bred so young, their offsping, as a rule, will not
be so large and strong as when one waits until the
doe is about eight months old before breeding. The
buck should be at least eight months old, and if he
is good he can be used for two or three years.
Every stud buck is able to serve a dozen does if
the services are not too close together. Every
breeder should keep two stud bucks, so as to fur-
nish stock not related. Some authorities assert
that an old buck and a young doe beget the largest
and best young. It should be remembered that
the buck is half of the herd or flock, and no one
should try to get along with a poor one. In breed-
ing, we look to the doe for size and shape and to
the buck for color. From a good doe, properly
mated, one will be certain to get good youngsters.
The doe should always be put in the buck’s hutch,
and not vice versa. If she is not in heat she will
make a plaintive little noise and run from him.
After waiting a few moments, remove the doe to
her own hutch if she is still unwilling, and try her
again the next day, and so on until she is served.
HARE 413
Better results follow one good service than several.
When the doe is bred, she should be placed in the
hutch where she is expected to raise her family.
The little ones may be expected in thirty days
from date of service. A nest-box should be placed
in the remotest corner of the hutch, in as secluded
a spot as possible. This box can be about eighteen
inches long by twelve inches high, with a cover so
that the top can be removed and the youngsters
examined after the doe has littered; and should
any dead ones be found they should be removed
and the rest disturbed as little as possible. After
kindling, and for that matter all through preg-
nancy, the doe should be kept as quiet as possible.
Fig. 420. Belgian hares.
As the period of gestation is only thirty days,
and with an early return of the sexual passion in
the rabbit family, many breeders are led to breed
their does too frequently. In order to secure the
best results, the writer would not advise breeding
the does until the young are two months old, and
in this way raise four litters a year and keep the
doe in good shape. Too frequent breeding will
have a tendency to impoverish the doe, thereby
causing the young to lack vigor and strength,
which otherwise she would have been able to give
them.
A doe supporting a large litter of young, must
give forth a large amount of the food she con-
sumes to her young, and it seems almost impossible
that a doe can support a litter of a dozen young
and make them all grow as fast as they do. Bel-
gian hares will double in size in a very short time,
and this rapid growth continues until they are six
to seven months old, when they grow less rapidly.
They mature in ten to twelve months.
Feeundity.—In point of fecundity, no other domes-
tic animal can compete with Belgtan hares. One
doe and her offspring, if allowed to breed at will,
may raise in one year about one-hundred and thirty-
six. To allow them to breed at will is not advisable,
but this serves to show that they are very prolific
and may be very profitable.
Caring for the young.—Many persons who are
not acquainted with Belgian hares, may think that
the care of the young is difficult, perhaps. This is
not so. The mother doe takes nearly all the care of
the young, so that very little responsibility rests
on the owner. All that is needed is to give the doe
an extra allowance of feed, for she will eat con-
414 HARE
siderable more at that time; and her food should
be of a milk-producing kind, so that she will provide
plenty of nourishment for her young. If it can be
afforded, feed the young as soon as they come out
of the nest-box ; bread and milk (not sloppy) and
other food, such as oats and clover-hay, should be
given at the same time.
The little ones make their appearance about three
weeks after birth, and are very timid at first.
When they are six weeks or two months old, they
should be weaned from their mother. After a few
days rest the doe can be bred again. The mortality
among hares is very slight.
Feeding and care.
This is an important part of raising the Belgian
hare, and on this, together with housing and breed-
ing, hinge most of the successes and failures of
the Belgian-hare business. Belgian hares should be
fed just as regularly as the best horse or cow,
with the exception that two meals be given instead
of three. This gives the hares ample time to
digest their food, and, if in good condition, they
will be hungry and ready for each meal if they
are not over-fed. The attendant should never
give more grain than they will eat up clean within
a half hour after feeding. When feeding clover hay,
enough can be putin to last a couple of days. It is
best to feed about the same hour morning and
evening.
Hares eat anything that sheep will. In the sum-
mer one can feed many different things in green
food, such as clover hay, corn blades, sorghum,
together with most kinds of weeds that grow except
the poisonous ones. In grains, one may choose from
oats, corn, wheat and rye; in vegetables, either
cabbage, carrots, parsnips, turnips, or potatoes.
A variety of food is relished by them both win-
ter and summer, but their main food should be
clover hay nicely cured, and good sweet oats that
have not become musty or damaged in any way.
Hares are rather dainty eaters, and they desire
everything clean. In fact, their eating is almost
identical with that of a sheep. For the winter, it
is well to provide for them in advance with regard
to the vegetables it is expected to feed. Winter
turnips can be raised after the early potatoes have
been dug, or a small plot of stock-beets can be
planted in the spring. The turnips or beets with
the regular grain-feed make an ideal ration for the
winter months, and are greatly relished by the hares.
The hares should be watered every day. A large
lump of rock-salt should be placed in each hutch.
Hach hare has an individual disposition, and the
breeder should study their habits and likes and dis-
likes, and try to give them what they desire. Some
eat more hay than others, while some want more
grain. For breeding does and their young, nothing
is so good as bread and milk. The bread should not
be musty, and the milk should be sweet. This
makes the youngsters grow fast and the doe gives
more milk.
Housing the hares.—No special building is re-
quired. A barn, stable, or shed, reasonably warm
in winter and permitting thorough ventilation, but
HARE
free from draughts, is all the shelter that is neces-
sary. Almost any building can be fitted very
quickly by one who is handy with tools. The writer
has erected a special building for housing his hares,
after the following general plan: The building is
40 feet long and 8 feet wide. It is 9 feet high in
front and 8 feet high on the back. This building is
placed on sewer tile, 10 inches in diameter, which
is filled with portland cement and placed in the
ground about 12 inches, on a cement foundation
below the freezing-point. There are eight of the
tile, filled with the cement, placed at proper dis-
tances for the building proper to rest on. The
purpose of having the building about. eighteen
inches from the ground is to make it rat-proof.
Old rats are very destructive to young Belgian
hares when they have access to them. The writer
has known rats to destroy a whole litter in one
night. ;
This building is divided into twenty separate
rooms or hutches by a “double-deck” arrangement,
each hutch being eight feet long by four feet wide.
The lower tier of hutches is three feet in height
from the ground floor to the floor of the upper tier.
In the lower tier all the partitions are made of
lumber. The writer has found oak lumber to be
the most satisfactory for the entire construction.
This does not make so attractive a house as would
pine, but it will be remembered that Belgian hares
seldom, if ever, gnaw oak lumber, which is not the
case with pine or softer woods. The partitions in
the upper hutches are made with lumber for about
three feet from the floor; then the upper part is
made with poultry netting, which is cheaper than
lumber, and gives the top hutches better ventilation.
The roofing of this building is of galvanized iron,
which seems to be better and more economical than
shingles. The doors in the hutches are three feet
long (the long way of the building) and two feet
high. The frame is made of oak, and the remainder
of one-inch poultry netting. The doors are hung
with six-inch hinges, and hasps are used to fasten
them. The building faces the south. Several trees
are so planted as to give it shade in the hot days
of summer. The building is enclosed in a yard as
described below.
Yards and parks.—A suitable site for a yard or
park for Belgian hares should be slightly sloping, -
so as to secure good drainage when heavy rains
come. There should be a tree of some kind for each
separate enclosure, to give the necessary shade in
the hot summer days. The writer does not recom-
mend fruit trees for this purpose, as when the fruit
falls the hares may eat too much and get sick or
die. Apples and pears are not harmful to them if
fed in small quantities. The writer has what he
considers an ideal park for the raising of Belgian
hares, made, in general, as follows: The park is
laid off fifteen rods long by five rods wide. The
outside is made of six-foot Page poultry-fence, so
as to keep out all dogs and other animals that
would be likely to harm the hares. The inside par-
titions may be poultry-netting, four feet high. The
park is divided into fifteen different yards, making
each yard nearly five rods long by one rod wide.
BoMOMLy Ul Vey] pue puL[sug ur peuao pun 4dAAq ul poagq *(pasvesep) uvAYeYg ‘asi0y ueIqeIy “IITX 93%Ig
a
HARE
There is an eight-foot aisle running the long way
of the park, so as to make feeding easy for all the
yards. Before erecting the fence and netting, a
furrow should be plowed in each place the netting
is to be stretched and also for the outside fence.
‘After the fence and netting have been properly
stretched, the dirt should be filled in again around
the netting and fence. The burying of the fence
and netting is to keep the hares from digging out,
and anything else from digging into the park.
Uses. :
For meat.—The principal value of the Belgian
hare is for its meat. The little care required
in its raising makes it a source of profit even
to the person who raises only enough for his
own use. The meat is white like the breast of
chicken. The Belgian hare will dress a pound for
every month of its age up to six months, and it will
furnish food for the table any time after two
months old. The most profitable age to kill for
market is about the fifth month. All the flesh is
edible, so there is practically no waste if the ani-
mal has been properly dressed. It has been esti-
mated that one breeding doe will produce over 300
pounds of meat in one year.
For fur.—Mention should be made of the fact
that Belgian hares are valued to some extent for
their fur. This comprises much of their interest to
fanciers.
Diseases.
When proper attention is given to feeding and
housing, and cleanliness of the hutches made a
matter of first importance, and a good disinfectant
intelligently used, no trouble will be experienced
in keeping Belgian hares in good health and condi-
tion. Cold and catarrh are troublesome, and should
be treated with human remedies in proportion to
weight. Indigestion is best cured by proper feed-
ing—by the addition of pepsin or other remedy to
food that is easily digested.
The most common disease, and perhaps the worst
to which the Belgian hare is subject, is snuf-
fles. The treatment of this disease is to build up
the system. Food that is extra nourishing, and
a little tincture of iron in the drinking water, may
be all that the animal will need to be able to throw
off the disease. If a mash is fed, about a spoonful
of flaxseed may be put in it, and if it is simply a
case of sneezing and discharge from the nose
resulting from a slight cold, nothing more in the
way of treatment will be required. It will be well
to spray the nose with lukewarm water, to which
a little salt has been added; after spraying, wipe
ry.
Organizations and records.
At present, the American Fur Fanciers’ Associa-
tion, with headquarters at Great Neck, New York,
is the only organization devoted to the Belgian hare
industry in America. A few years ago, when the
raising of Belgian hares was a fad, there existed
the National Belgian Hare Club of America, with
headquarters in Denver, Colo., and the American
HORSE 415
Belgian Hare Association. Both of these have dis-
continued.
Literature.
Books treating on the Belgian hare: Eph. Ruth,
American Belgian Hare Culture; Eph. Ruth, Bel-
gian Hare Breeding and Management; P. E. Crab-
tree, Belgian Hare Course of Instruction; Jacob
Biggle, Biggle Pet Book, illustrated ; U. G. Conover,
The Belgian Hare for Pleasure and Profit; The
Belgian Hare Guide, illustrated; Cuniculus, The
Practical Rabbit Keeper ; W. N. Richardson, The
Rabbit : How to Select, Breed and Manage, sixth
edition.
HORSE. Zquus caballus, Linn. Hquide. Figs.
421-495,
As a domestic animal, the horse has had an aris-
tocratic history. In the earliest historic times he
was used chiefly for purposes of war, and literature
abounds in allusions to this fact. He was the
animal of emperors and of persons of noble birth,
associated with chariots and with great occasions.
With certain nomadic peoples, he early became the
agent of speed. Gradually, he was pressed into the
common work of the world and became one of the
beasts of burden, gradually supplanting the ox.
Today, with the cow, the horsé is one of the in-
dispensable agents of the agriculture of the western
nations.
The horse is now bred chiefly for five types of
uses: (1) For speed, as in the trotters, pacers and
runners; (2) for sport, fancy and fashion ; (8) for
family driving; (4) for draft purposes, largely in
cities and towns; (5) for general farm uses.
It is in the last of these uses that the horse is of
greatest real value to man, and yet it in this very
respect that he has received the least definite in-
telligent breeding. There is no real farm horse in
this country, except as animals of mixed and mis-
cellaneous breeding, or of no breeding, are used for
general farm purposes. Of course, the farm pur-
poses are not single or uniform, for in some farm
business heavy draft animals may be needed and in
other business light roadsters may be needed ;' but
it is nevertheless a fact that when the farmer
breeds definitely to race-type or breed-type, he is
thinking of horses to sell to men in other business
rather than to sell to farmers or to produce the best
type for his own farm uses. Practically all the
farm-work horses are mongrels, with no such care
having been devoted to their parentage and pedi-
gree as is devoted to dairy cows, beef cattle, bacon
hogs or egg-laying fowls. The books usually con-
sider the horse least of all from the farm-utility
point of view. The sportsman, fancier and city
trucker have thus far had the greatest influence in
the breeding of types of horses. All this must
change if agriculture is to reach its highest
efficiency ; for the horse is to remain an indispen-
sable factor in country life, despite all that is said
and done about automobiles and mechanical power.
Heavier horses are needed for the better and deeper
fitting of the land; much of our agriculture has
416 HORSE
been weak because there has been insufficient horse
power properly to fit the land. But the general
farm horse, particularly on hilly farms, must be
not merely a heavy draft animal: he must have
ease and alacrity of motion and not such size and
weight as will make him clumsy. It is not likely
that a distinct registered breed of special farm
horses will arise ; but it is eminently desirable that
ideals be formed and that they be related to farm
necessities and the animals bred definitely for such
uses.
Aside from the dog and cat, the horse is more
closely associated with man on the personal side
than any other domestic animal of temperate coun-
tries. He becomes an object of personal regard on
the part of members of the household; and he has
been provided with better quarters and given greater
care than any other animal. He is the only farm
animal of this country with whom human beings
share living quarters under the same roof; it is
common for care-takers to live over stables, and
some of the most artistic of suburban and farm
buildings are devoted to such dual purpose. (Fig.
421.) The attention given to horse-stable construc-
tion and to harness and other equipage, as well as
to breeding for personal purposes, has resulted in a
large special literature on the horse.
The number of horses in the United States and
Canada is practically equivalent to the number of
” “Flay Chute
Hay Mow 15'x24
HORSE
dairy cows. According to the Yearbook for 1906
United States Department of Agriculture, the
number of horses in America was as follows :
Year Total
UNITED STATES :
Contiguous—
Oni farmsti. chs ask eee « -| 1907 | 19,747;0008
Notion tanms seme eee 1900 2,936,881 —
Non-contiguous—
Alaska (onutarms)) ieee 1900 5
Hawaii (on farms) ..... 1900 12,982
Porto Ricos came aceite 1899 58,664
Total United States (except ——_ eee
Philippinesvis;) ase 22,755,532
CANADA :
New Brunswick - «| 1905 62,000
Ontarior 4.5; incites chron mente 1906 688,147
Manitobar « ees
HackneysHorsd) sy) i-mcih sieemions «Jon eey Jo ee 464
iiinoddskii yy G Gos 4 50° «6 a (ela, ee
Steeple-chaser . . . 2 +,0 « « » » « so) eileen
Military: Horgolcc) <<< etter ts: fo eo eee 470
Orloff Trotting Horse <<). =. «) =) eee 474
Pacing Horse, Standardbred ....... Q 476
Percheron’ Horse’ <... sm. 2% = «; se ee - 478
Ponies Dycns iets) =) Gua Det ma umtonee tiles «joe
Saddle Horse; American .. . % «0 Seeune - - - 489
Shire Horse <4. .j «es. = So) er 493
Suffolk or Suffolk Punch Horse. ....... . 494
Thoroughbred Horse. = « = = » « +) sence 496
Trotting and Pacing Horse, American Standardbred .
Origin of the Domestic Horse. Figs. 422428.
By Frederick B. Mumford.
In a zodlogical sense, the horse is a vertebrate
animal belonging to the class Mammalia, the family
Equidz and the genus Equus. Ina broad sense, the
word horse applies to all members of the family
Equide, and all the existing members of this family
are included by Linnzus in the genus Equus. The
representatives of this class are distinguished by a
single hoof, a simple stomach, long, muscular
legs and a very high order of intelligence.
They all have hair on the neck, forming a
mane, and the tail terminates with or is coy-
ered with long coarse hair. The voice is loud
and often harsh, the ears are movable and the
hearing very acute. Most members of the horse
family are gregarious.
Prehistoric horse——The evolution of the horse
through various lower forms to the present useful
and universally admired form is one of great inter-
est to all students of the progressive development
of animals. From fossil remains scattered over
widely separated regions of the earth, we know
that the extinct horse became world-wide (except-
ing Australia) in its geographical distribution.
Although the modern form of the horse did not
exist on the American continent, many fossil
remains of the prehistoric horse have been discoy-
ered in New Jersey, Nebraska, South Dakota and,
notably, Wyoming. The gradual modification from
the various prehistoric forms to the modern horse
has occupied millions of years. The more important
links in the chain of descent have been described
both as to period of existence and general form by
H. F. Osborn (Century Magazine, November, 1904),
whose researches, partly following the early studies
of Leidy and Marsh, have been drawn on for the
facts given below.
The earliest prehistoric horse existed in the
Lower Hocene period, ranging from Mexico north-
ward, and inhabiting parts of continental Europe
and Great Britain. (Figs. 422, 423.) This early
horse was no larger than a small dog, which it
resembled. The color was probably dun, with incon-
spicuous spots or stripes. The Eohippus (Marsh) or
“dawn horse,” as this form was called, possessed
four toes on the front-, and three on the hind-foot.
HORSE
Tn the next higher form, the Orohippus (Marsh),
of the Middle Hocene period, the splints have disap-
peared, leaving four toes. The animal is still small,
being about fourteen inches high. This form was
discovered in the Big Horn mountains of Wyoming
-in 1880. There appeared later in point of develop-
ment the Mesohippus, from the Oligocene period,
which exhibited unmistakable evidences of rapid
progression toward the modern horse. This form
was eighteen inches in height, and had virtu-
ally lost all but three toes. The middle toe is
Fig. 424. Prejvalsky horse (aie Prejvalskii).
After Osborn,
enlarged, and bears more of the weight of the
animal, although the two remaining toes still touch
the ground.
An important side line was discovered in the
Hypohippus (Leidy) or “forest horse,” in eastern
Colorado, in 1901. This form was forty inches high,
provided with large lateral toes which supported
the animal on the soft marshes of that period.
During the same year, the explorers, working with
the aid of the Whitney fund, discovered the re-
mains of several three-toed horses, some of which
were widely different from the “forest horses.”
This form, called the Hipparion (Neohipparion),
was distinguished by a remarkable deer-like con-
formation which indicated the development of
great speed. Osborn says, ““Neohipparion was pro-
portioned like the Virginia deer, delicate and
extremely fleet-footed, surpassing the most highly
bred modern: race horse in its speed, and with a
frame fashioned to outstrip any type of modern
hunting horse, if not of the Thoroughbred.” These
somewhat extreme developments of structure soon
became extinct, while the Protohippus of interme-
diate form became the direct progenitor of the
modern horse.
In this type we find but one toe touching the
ground, with two lateral and rudimentary toes
corresponding to the splints in the modern horse.
The last stage in the development is represented
by Equus, the modern horse, which is characterized
by graceful limbs, terminating in a dense hoof coy-
ering the single middle toe. The remaining toes
have disappeared, but vestiges of two toes are to
be found in the splints on both fore- and hind-legs.
HORSE 419
The present horse is much larger than any of the
prehistoric forms. The gradual development of the
giant draft horse of today, from the early Hohip-
pus, a small dog-like animal no larger than the fox
terrier, is a most interesting phenomenon.
Connecting and side branches of the modern
horse and the prehistoric forms described above
are probably to be found in the zebra, the wild ass,
and an interesting form of the wild horse called
Prejvalsky horse. (Fig. 424.) The latter was dis-
covered on the Dzungaria desert in western Mon-
golia, in 1881, by Poliakoff. This horse very much
resembles the drawings found in the French caves,
along with other relics of the stone age.
Modern Equide.—The present living forms of
the Hquide include three types: Equus cabal-
lus, the horse proper ; H#. asinus, or the wild ass,
and the #. zebra, related to the various striped
forms of zebras and quaggas.
The £. caballus 1s distinguished by long hair
growing thickly on all parts of the tail, a callosity
on the ‘inside and below the hock and knee, mane
long and flowing, ears short, limbs long, feet broad
and head small. The wild horse is dun colored and
sometimes faintly striped. Wild horses are at
present found in but a very few remote localities.
Feral horses, called Tarpans (Fig. 425), are found
on the steppes north of the sea of Azoff, between
the Dneiper river and Caspian sea.
The #. asinus, or wild ass (Fig. 306), is charac-
terized by long ears, narrow hoofs, rather sharp
back, an absence of callosities on the inside of
legs, and a tail “tuft.” In a wild state, the ass is
very alert, vigilant and fleet. There exists no
authentic record of the time when this animal was
first used by man as a beast of burden, but the
Gi |
ae y) Wy =
a a
Fig. 425.
Tarpan (Equus tarpan).
domestication of the ass antedated that of the
horse.
The zebra (Fig. 426) and quagga (Fig. 427) are
much like the ass but are beautifully striped with
black on a dun- or drab-colored foundation. They
breed successfully with the horse, and the progeny,
called a zebroid (Fig. 428), resembles the mule and
is sterile. The zebra, which was long considered
untameable, has been successfully broken to har-
ness. The zebroid, zebrule, or zebra mule, has
recently claimed much attention because of the
420 HORSE
success attained in breeding it by Professor Ewart,
of Pencuik, Midlothian, Scotland. The zebroid is
strong and can be broken to harness and to saddle.
The domesticated horse——The value of the horse
as a powerful aid to man in his conquest of the
Fig. 426. Zebra ( Equus zebra).
earth did not at first appeal to primitive man. It
appears that the horse was first used for food. He
was later driven, then ridden, and lastly employed
as a beast of burden.
The first authentic evidence of the use of the
horse by man was discovered in the cave of La
Mouthe in France. In this cave, among the inter-
esting relics of the stone age are drawings which
represent the horse as varying somewhat in size
and character but resembling closely the present
wild forms. From other sources it seems certain
that there existed a larger type in the south of
Hurope and a much smaller form in the north.
The progenitors of our present horse can not
always be clearly traced. According to Ewart,
Ridgeway, Osborn and others there may have been
several distinct wild forms directly preceding
the modern horse. Ewart has described the Celtic
pony, a small dun-colored horse found in the
CSS (ES
Fig. 427. Quagga (Equus quagga),
islands of the Hebrides and in Connemara, Ireland.
This hardy animal resembles closely some of the
illustrations found in the cave of LaMouthe and
may have been the progenitor of the numerous
HORSE
pony breeds. A second form is much larger, over
fourteen hands high, also of a dun color, with large
coarse head and thick limbs. This form is widely
distributed over Europe and Asia. The most ancient
horses of the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks and
ancient Britons were of this type. It is also prob-
able that the horses of the ancient Chinese
resembled very closely this unimproved horse.
Still another distinct type seems to have existed
in the south and later became the foundation stock
of the beautiful horses of Persia, Arabia and the
Barbary states in northern Africa. It now seems
probable that it is principally to this form that —
we must look for the original stock of the modern
Thoroughbred trotting horse, saddle horse and
other races of speed horses.
This ancient stock, so fruitful in ultimate results
as exhibited by these highly improved blood horses,
probably had its origin in the dry desert regions
of northern Africa. The more modern representa-
tive of this race is called the “Barb,” and it is the
horse that was principally employed in the im-
provement of the English Thoroughbred,—a breed
of such remarkable endurance, great speed and
beautiful symmetry that it has been imported into
Fig. 428. Zebrul or zebroid.
on Irish mare.
Cross of a Burchell zebra
(After Wallace.)
every civilized country in the world, and has con-
tributed to the founding of every important breed
of light or speed horses in existence. ;
A great variety of domesticated races, called
breeds, have been developed from the wild forms
described above. These various types may be
classified as draft, coach, roadster, speed and saddle
horses and ponies. The principal draft breeds in —
America are the Percheron, Clydesdale, Shire, Bel-
gian and Suffolk. The coach-horse type is repre-
sented by the Hackney, French coach, German
coach, Cleveland bay and some strains of the Amer-
ican trotter. The roadster is a light driving horse,
developed from the American trotter. The speed
horses are the American trotter or pacer, the Orloff
trotter, and the Thoroughbred or English running
horse. The saddle horses are the American or Ken-
tucky saddle horse, the hunter and the cavalry
horse. The pony breeds are the Shetland, Welch,
Exmoor, Mustang, Indian pony, and others. More
recently the effort has been made to develop a par-
ticular carriage type of the American trotter, and
HORSE
it is suggested that this new type of sub-breed be
called the American carriage horse. In addition to
the breeds named above, of special interest to Ameri-
can readers will be the mention of the old Conestoga
draft horse, which originated on the banks of the
- Conestoga river in southeastern Pennsylvania. This
horse was of medium size, of rugged constitution,
pleasing conformation and of great endurance.
The word “type” used above is a generic term,
employed to designate a group composed of breeds
or races of similar size, conformation and utility.
The word “breed” is a specific term and applies to
smaller groups of animals more closely resembling
one another, and usually taking their name from
the locality in which they originated. “Grade” is
a term widely used to apply to animals having a
preponderance of the blood of a well-recognized
improved breed. A “‘cross-bred” is an animal result-
ing from the mating of animals of distinct breeds.
The Education, Harnessing and Gaits of the
Horse. Figs. 429-435.
By Thomas F. Hunt.
The education, harnessing and gaits of the horse,
in their practical aspects, involve many problems
and much detail that cannot be given here. A few
of these practical problems are indicated in the
succeeding article by M. W. Harper. The referen-
ces to literature at the end of this article will aid
the reader in finding some of the most valuable
published information on horse-training. In the
great mass of literature relating to this subject,
one needs to choose carefully between what is
really worth while and what is largely sentiment.
Education.
It is not the purpose to discuss the education of
the horse in detail nor to give methods by which
it may be accomplished, but rather to state briefly
some general principles that must underlie any
successful training. For methods of training
horses, as well as for the proper manner of riding,
see Anderson’s “ Modern Horsemanship” and Hayes
“Illustrated Horse Breaking.”
It is necessary to understand the mental pro-
cesses of the horse in order to train him ration-
ally. His mental processes can be determined only
by inference; and it may seem unjust, but if the
matter is considered candidly and without senti-
ment, it must be concluded that the horse is a rather
stupid animal. He appears, also, to have little
affection for other species of animals, man included,
and, so far as man is concerned, has little love of
=dmiration. The dog, for example, will do many
things to please because he loves to be admired. It
is doubtful, therefore, whether any system of pet-
ting or cajoling as a method of horse-training is
of much avail.
Apparently, the horse has but limited reason
(using the word for whatever mental processes are
present with the horse), much more limited than
that of the elephant or the dog. On the other
hand, the horse seems to have an excellent, per-
haps rather extraordinary, memory. If a horse is
HORSE 421
conquered by means of properly arranged straps
and ropes, he does not seem'to be able to reason
that when the straps and ropes are taken off he
could run away if he chose. While he seems
always to remember that the pulling on the bit,
which was done at the same time his front feet
were pulled up, was intended to make him stop, he
does not seem to be able to reason that it was the
pulling his feet off the ground and not the pulling
on the bit that stopped him during his first lesson.
Both because of his most excellent memory and
poor reasoning power, it is very important that
every stage in the process of training should be
successful. The spirit of bravado should not permit
the undertaking of a step which cannot be accom-
plished with certainty. If a horse throws one off
he is not likely to forget it, and is just as likely to
do it again as to do any other thing that he has
been trained to do. If he learns that certain things
will not hurt him he will generally remain gentle
to their influences.
As in the child, the vividness with which impres-
sions are made on the horse’s mind determines, to
some extent, the accuracy and certainty with which
they are remembered. Herein often lies the value
of those horse-breaking methods that induce the
horse to resist, and that at the same time contrive
effectually to overcome this resistance. The im-
pression made during the fight is so indelibly im-
pressed on the horse’s mind that he rarely forgets
it. Habit is also an important factor, and hence
the repetition of lessons is essential to the thorough
education of the horse.
During lessons, the trainer should receive the
undivided attention of the horse. It is desirable,
therefore, to train him in a comparatively small
enclosure, say seventy-five to one hundred feet in
diameter, and containing no other person or objects
which may attract the horse’s attention, except
the trainer, and an assistant, if needed. For the
same reason, a single lesson should not be too long,
since when the horse becomes tired his attention
can not be secured.
The ultimate purpose of training is to make the
horse understand and obey signals. Signals may be
made with the voice, the whip or the lines. In any
case, they should be made clearly, and a given
signal should be made for a single purpose. Per-
haps the greatest fault with persons in handling
horses is that they do not use their signals consist-
ently, and do not insist on the horse obeying them.
If “whoa” is used as a signal for a horse to stop,
it should not be used when it is desired merely that
the horse should go slower, but some other signal
should be used, as for example, “steady.” The rea-
son more confusion is not experienced in the use of
the signal “whoa” is from the fact that the user
consciously or unconsciously modifies the volume of
the voice, and the horse depends on this emphasis
for his signal. Obviously, a change both in the
word used and the volume of the voice would be
more desirable.
Manifestly, the command to stop should precede
and not succeed a pull on the bit. One would
hardly think of whipping a child before telling him
422 HORSE
to shut the door in order to make sure of his com-
mand being obeyed. One should not pull on the bit
both to make a horse stop and to make him go
faster. The horses that ran away when pressure
was put on the bit and ran faster the more the
pressure was exerted, but stopped immediately
when the driver slackened the lines, were not
vicious horses. They were simply obeying the sig-
nals their former driver had unwittingly taught
them.
Punishment, whether by pressure on the bit or
otherwise, should cease the moment the horse does
what is desired of him. Punishment may be
inflicted to induce a horse to perform an act or to
refrain from the performance of an act, but must
never be inflicted after the act is performed, no
matter how undesirable the act may be. One may
properly punish horses to cause them to pass an
automobile, but to inflict pain after they have
passed it will only give them just cause for fear
the next time they meet one.
A bit or the arrangement of the bit that con-
stantly hurts the horse gives him no idea of what
is wanted of him. Almost any horse will do as
directed to avoid pain, provided he understands
his directions and provided doing it actually
relieves him from the pain. The horse or the child
that is punished whether he does right or wrong,
is just as likely to do the wrong thing as the right
thing.
The use of the martingale is a good example of
the proper and improper application of punish-
ment. The standing martingale is attached
directly to the snaffle-bit, while the rings of the
ordinary kind slide on the rein. The martingale is
used with the saddle horse to prevent him carry-
ing his head too high or too nearly horizontal, or
to prevent him hitting the rider with his head.
With the standing martingale, every time the
horse throws his head too high the punishment is
inflicted, and the moment he holds his head prop-
erly he gets immediate relief. With the ordinary
martingale, a rider is about as likely to pull on
the bits whether the head is high or low.
This principle of punishment only for the pur-
pose of securing obedience to properly conveyed
and properly understood signals, and the immedi-
ate cessation when a signal is obeyed, is the key-
note of successful horse-training.
Harness.
When the harness with which a horse is dressed
comes to be examined critically, certain parts will
be found to serve essential purposes, while other
parts may be found to be like the buttons on the
back of a gentleman’s coat, remnants of former
customs or conditions. Obviously, harness may
serve three main purposes; viz., to enable the
horse to move the vehicle, to enable the driver to
guide the animal or regulate his speed, and to
improve the appearance of the animal or add to
the impressiveness of the equipage as a whole.
The collar, hames, tugs, breeching and neck-
yoke strap are concerned chiefly in the movement
of the vehicle, The back-band may serve a variety
HORSE
of purposes. In some instances it supports the
shafts, while in others, it, in connection with the —
belly-band, gives anchorage for the neck-yoke
strap. In connection with the coupler it also
serves as an attachment for the check-rein. When
breeching is used, the back-band is sometimes
omitted, the check-rein, if present, being supported
by the hames.
Since practically all the force of propulsion is
conveyed through the collar, this becomes the
most important single item of harness in the draft
horse. It is essential that the collar should be the
proper size and shape and the hames properly
adjusted. Obviously, the aim should be to dis-
tribute the pressure of the collar as widely and
evenly on the shoulders as possible. If the tugs
are adjusted too low, there is danger of too much
pressure on the point of the shoulder, causing col-
lar boils; if too high, there may be too much pres-
sure on the neck, causing soreness there. The
point of attachment may need to be modified for
the same horse, depending on the direction of the
tug. Wheeled vehicles permit of a more nearly
horizontal line of draft than do plows, harrows
and similar tools.
The bridle and lines form a means by which
signals are conveyed by the driver to the horse.
While there area multiplicity of bits intended to
convey varying degrees of pressure or pain, in
general the simpler the form and the less the pain
inflicted the easier the horse is controlled. In fast
driving or riding, more pressure on the bit is desir-
able than at the slower gaits, because of the more
constant and delicate guidance required. With
regard to the use of bits, it is necessary to remem- —
ber that the horse is a sentient being having indi-
viduality which may amount to idiosyncrasy, and
that, therefore, the bit which gives the best result
with one horse may not be best for another.
In order to understand fully the uses of bits, it
is necessary to distinguish between the different
purposes for which horses are employed. For work
horses, both the lines and the check-rein are
attached to an ordinary snaffle-bit. The side
check-rein is used, the chief purpose of which is to
prevent the horse getting his head to the ground
and thus getting into mischief when left standing.
Since a horse can pull most advantageously when
his head is low and well forward, the check-rein
should permit a reasonable movement of the head.
In the case of driving horses or coach horses, draft
is less essential, while speed or action becomes the —
important consideration. Speed is increased by
raising the center of gravity and thrusting it for-
ward. Action is increased at the expense of speed
by raising the center of gravity and thrusting it
backward. Since, in the horse, the center of gravity
is modified by the movement of the head, it is pos-
sible to modify speed or action by changing the
position of the head. In driving horses, therefore,
a snaffle-bit is used for the lines, while a straight
bit attached to an overdraw check is used to raise
the head and cause it to assume a somewhat hori-
zontal position, thus throwing the center of gravity
of the horse forward and upward,
HORSE
In coach horses, action is demanded, but great
speed is not required. In other words, the coach
horse is expected to raise his feet as high as may
be with relatively small forward movement. This
is facilitated by bringing the horse’s head into a
comparatively vertical position at the same time
that it is raised. To bring this about, a curb-bit is
used, the lines being attached to the longer arms
of the lever, and the curb forming the resistance
to the shorter arm. Side-reins are used to keep the
head up. These are sometimes attached to the cen-
ter rings of the curb-bit, but, to secure the best
results, the check-rein should be attached to a
separate snaffle-bit, for reasons given in explaining
the use of the martingale.
The horse may be ridden with either the snaffle-
or the curb-bit, but for high-class work, both should
be employed. The curb-bit is used at the gallop
and the single-foot, while the snaffle-bit is used at
the walk and trot. The two bits add to the safety
of the rider and increase the distinctness with
which signals can be conveyed.
Many trotting horses are transformed into coach
horses by substituting curb-bits and side-reins for
snafile-bit and overdraw check, replacing the breast-
collar with the ordinary collar, and by docking the
tail. Sometimes heavier shoes are also put on, to
make the horse lift his feet higher, and not reach
so far forward. Driving-horses with breast-collars
should have bridles, rings, and other metal parts as
inconspicuous as possible. Coach horses may have
hames, buckles, rings and other metal trimmings
made prominent by the use of nickel, brass, silver
or gold, according to the taste and means of the
owner.
Gaits.
There are four distinct gaits or types of locomo-
tion, viz., the amble or pace, the trot, the walk and
the gallop. There are also several intermediate
gaits. Thus, the so-called gaited saddle horse may
go the last three of these distinct gaits and two
intermediate gaits, the rack and the running-
walk. In place of the running-walk, other inter-
mediate gaits are permitted, but the true amble
or pace is not allowed as a saddle gait. There
is great difficulty in distinguishing and classifying
the intermediate gaits because there may be all
sorts of gradations between the distinct types.
This will be clear if these gaits are represented
diagrammatically. Let the shaded areas represent
the right feet and the solid black areas the left feet.
In the diagrams (Figs. 429-435) let the upper line
represent the front feet and the lower line the hind-
feet. The three gaits may then be represented as
shown in Figs. 429-431. It will be readily seen
Fig. 429. The pace or amble.
that in the pace or amble (Fig. 429) the lateral
bipeds strike the ground simultaneously and make
two beats for one step; that in the trot (Fig. 430)
Fig. 430. The trot.
the diagonal bipeds strike the ground together
and thus again make two beats for one whole step ;
while in the walk (Fig. 481) there is a condition
Fig. 431. The walk.
just half-way between the pace and the trot, con-
sequently each foot strikes the ground separately,
making four equally spaced beats. It is perfectly
evident that there may be all sorts of gradations
between the pace and the walk or between the
walk and the trot. If a horse went a gait that was
just half-way between a pace and a walk, it would
be represented as in Fig. 432. It will be seen that
Fig. 432. The rack.
in this case each foot strikes the ground separately;
but instead of being equally spaced there are four
unequally spaced beats, giving the familiar sound
of the singlé-footer : peck-a-peck, half-a-peck. It is
probable that the single-foot is not just half-way
between the walk and the pace, but that it is
nearer the pace than the walk.
A gait half-way between the walk and the trot
would be represented as in Fig. 433. In this case
—_— a_i __ aaa
Fig. 433. The running-walk.
each foot strikes the ground separately and in un-
equally spaced beats, but instead of the lateral
bipeds being closely associated it is the diagonal
bipeds that are associated.
In the gaits that have just been described there
are either two or four beats to a complete step. In
the gallop, however, there may be but three beats.
In this gait, assuming the horse to be off the
ground, he strikes the ground first with one hind-
foot, say the right, then simultaneously with the
left hind-foot and right fore-foot and then with the
left fore-foot. Sometimes, although less frequently,
the horse strikes the ground with, say, the right
hind-foot, then with both left feet and then with
and more
the diagonal
the right fore-foot. This is known as the lateral
or disunited gallop (Fig. 434), while the former
usual gallop
is known as
orunitedgal- jig. 434. Lateral or
lop(Fig.435). — disunited gallop.
Fig. 435. Diagonal or
united gallop.
424 HORSE
The horse in the gallop is said to lead with the
foot that strikes the ground last. Inasmuch as the
horse strikes the ground first with one hind-foot
and leaves it from’ the diagonal fore-foot, while
the other diagonal biped receives the concussion
at the intermediate beat, it is evident that it is
desirable for saddle horses to be able to change
the lead in order to rest themselves and in order
that the diagonal biped shall not be prematurely
worn out. When a horse gallops in a circle, the
center of gravity is thrown in to overcome centrif-
ugal force. As the horse is in danger of falling
inward under these circumstances he should and
generally will lead with his inner fore-foot. Ad-
vantage can be taken of this fact to teach a horse
to change his lead from one to the other fore-foot.
If a horse is ridden in a small circle to the right,
the rider throwing his own weight inward and
turning the horse’s head slightly outward at the
start, it will tend to make the horse lead with the
inner fore-foot. The lead may be reversed by rid-
ing to the left. After the horse will take the lead
readily by riding either to the right or to the left,
he may be ridden in the figure eight, in which case
he should change the lead as he changes from one
circle to the other. When a horse is thus trained
he may be induced to lead with the right foot when
moving in a straight line by turning the head
slightly to the left while the rider throws his own
weight to the right. To lead on the left foot,
reverse the operation.
For the purpose of simplicity, only the order
and association of beats have been represented in
the diagrams. As a matter of fact, at the walk a
horse has at certain times three feet on the
ground, while in the fast trot there are times
when all the feet are off the ground. In the run-
ning-walk and in the broken amble or rack, at
times the horse has three feet on the ground, but
not for so large a proportion of the time as in the
walk.
Literature.
Goubaux and Barrier, The Exterior of the
Horse, translated by Simon J. J. Harger, J. B.
Lippincott Company (1892) ; Anderson and Collier,
Riding and Driving, New York (1905); Herbert,
Frank Forester’s Horse and Horsemanship of the
United States, 2 Vols., New York (1871) ; Marvin,
Training the Trotting Horse, New York (1892) ;
Anderson, Modern Horsemanship; Hayes, Illus-
trated Horse Breaking; Roberts, The Horse, the
Macmillan Company (1905). [For further refer-
ences, see page 416.]
Practical Horse-training and Handling. Figs.
A36, 437.
By Merritt W. Harper.
Not every person is fitted by nature for the
training and care of horses, as the large number of
vicious and spoiled horses indicates. Many of the
ailments of horses are due, not so much to bad
breeding, as to faulty training and ignorant,
brutal driving. When the horse has been well
HORSE
trained, he may be depended on, especially if this
training is given in his early years. He will never
forget these early lessons. In the training of the
horse, it is of very little use to try to lay down
set rules. The man who trains colts finds new
situations to deal with in every individual he
undertakes to educate.
In training the horse, there are a few things
that should always be kept in mind. A horse
should never be trusted more than is necessary. A
good horseman never runs a risk when it can be
avoided. Many distressing accidents occur from
trusting old family horses. The harness and other
equipment should be of good quality and in good
repair. Children, women or incompetent men
- should never be left in charge of horses unless the
animals are thoroughly acquainted with them.
Horses should be tied about the neck by a strong
rope or strap, the latter passed through the ring of
the bit and then to the hitching-post.
Training colts.
There is far too much fuss made about training
young horses. If the training is made a gradual
process, it will be accomplished much as a matter
of course. If, however, colts are allowed to run
practically wild until three or four years old, and
are then suddenly caught and an attempt made to
force them into use quickly, there is likely to be
more or less trouble. In training colts, often the
mistake is made of trying to teach them too much
at one time. The colt should understand his first
lesson and have it thoroughly learned before
another is attempted.
Perhaps the first lesson should be to “halter,
break” the young animal. A strong, well-fitting
halter, not a new one, but one that has recently
been used and therefore familiar to his sense of
smell, should be placed on him, and he should be
tied short near to his dam and in such a position
that he cannot pull back too far or throw and
choke himself. He must be tied securely so that
there is no danger of his breaking loose, for if he
breaks loose once he is likely to try it again. Colts
should be treated gently but firmly. It is well to
avoid making great pets of them, as petted animals
are usually difficult to train.
After becoming familiar with the halter so that he
will stand tied, he may be taught to lead (Fig. 436).
If the method indicated is unavailable, the trainer
may take a fairly long lead strap, get behind him
and make him go ahead. The trainer should not stand
in front and pull on the colt’s head, for he will wall
his eyes, shake his head and step back. It is a gooe
practice to allow the colt to accompany his mother
by tying the lead strap to her hame or collar; thus
he becomes used to walking and trotting beside
another horse.
Training to bit and harness.—It is perhaps best
to train horses to the use of the bit and harness
when they are about two years of age. With rare
exceptions, the colt is made usable if for a few
hours each day for a week he is subjected to the
restraint of a bitting harness in an open paddock
This harness consists of an open bridle with a large,
cee
HORSE
smooth bit and check-rein, a surcingle and crupper,
and two side-lines running from the bit to buckles
on either side of the surcingle. (Fig. 437.) The
check- and side-reins should be left slack at first.
{. Bose rr
i Aen ag 7d Wy NE SIL
Mee Mel, Wes | VaMeye, Hata.
Fig. 436. A colt harnessed to be taught to lead.
onal Coke
) uy dG ily Uff YY
SS
Gradually, from day to day, the reins should be
shortened, care being taken that they are never
made so short as to place the head in an uncom-
fortable position, or draw the bit so tightly as to
make the corners of the mouth sore. Real lines may
now be substituted for the side-rein, and the colt
driven around until he will respond to the rein,
stop at the word “whoa” and step forward at the
ecommand “get up.”
After the colt has become used to the bitting
apparatus and to understand such simple com-
mands as “ whoa,” “get up” and “steady,” he may
be harnessed. The colt should be trained to stand
absolutely still when being harnessed, saddled, or
when it is desired that he should doso. A horse
that is continually stepping around while he is
being harnessed, is but half broken at best. The
attendant should be gentle about all these things
at first, but should go through with everything
that is undertaken. New harness should not be
used, but that which has been in constant use,
preferably by some horse that the colt knows.
After having been driven with the bitting appa-
ratus for a time, and when the colt is rather tired,
he should be put in his stall and the collar brought
to him; he may smell of it if he likes, and then
it should be put right on as if he were an old
horse. The harness should be placed gently over
his back. The attendant should not stand off as if
the horse were a kicking cow; he should walk
behind him, put the crupper strap on, then step to
the side and fasten the bands. The horse is then
ready to hitch to a vehicle.
Mitching double.—A well-trained, gentle but active
horse should be taken if the colt is active, for it is
a mistake to hitch a quick, active colt with a slow,
lazy horse. The vehicle to which they are attached
should be provided with a good brake. The colt
should be attached to the “off-side,” and they
HORSE 425
should be driven at first in a closed field until the
colt learns what is wanted of him. When hitching
the colt up double for the first time, it is a good
practice to keep a pair of single lines on the colt’s
bridle, which can be handled by an assistant.
Hitching single.—When the colt is desired for
single use, it is often advisable to train him to go
single from the first. This may be done after he has
become familiar with the bit, harness and use of the
lines. A training cart for hitching colts single
should be substantial, with long, heavy thills, and
the seat arranged behind so that the driver can get
off and on quickly. The colt should be hitched well
forward. A strap, commonly called a kick-strap,
attached to each thill and passed over the colt’s
croup, should always be used until the colt is accus-
tomed to the thills. When the colt is first hitched
up, an attendant should hold him until the driver
is ready, then he should be allowed to go. As soon
as he becomes familiar with the vehicle, he should be
compelled to stand still until he is wanted to start.
Training to mount.—In training a colt to mount,
one must be very careful that the colt does not
succeed in throwing the trainer, for if he once gets
the rider off, it is impossible to convince him that
he cannot do it again. The best time to take the colt
is after he has been exercised rather vigorously
and while tired. The best place is on soft ground,
where he can neither hurt himself nor the rider.
The saddle is put on with the same confidence as
the harness, and it is fastened securely. An assist-
ant should hold the colt’s head while the rider
mounts. The horse may rear, bound forward, buck
or lie down. In any event, the rider must stay on,
remembering that the colt is already tired and on
soft ground. It is often an endurance trial, and
this is the reason why one must have the colt tired
to begin with, for otherwise he may be able to
os
a Sr ZK mo
Fig. 437. The fittings of a colt to familiarize him witb
harness and bit.
bound and buck until the rider is soexhausted that
he can no longer hold to the saddle.
Training vicious horses.
In training or handling vicious horses, it is
most important to impress them very firmly that
426 HORSE
the trainer has complete control over them and
that they must obey him. The best way to
impress this on the animal is to “rarey” him.
The harness used for this consists of two short
straps fitted with D-shaped rings, a surcingle and
along rope. The straps are buckled around the
front pasterns, and the surcingle around the body.
One end of the long rope is tied into the ring in
the strap that goes around the pastern of the
“near” front foot. The free end is then passed
through a ring on the under side of the surcingle
and then down through the ring at the other pas-
tern. Then the rope end is brought up and passed
through a ring, tied about half way down the
“off” side of the surcingle. If the animal becomes
unruly, all that is needed is to pull on the rope;
this brings the front feet up to the chest and the
animal comes down on his knees and nose. A few
hard falls usually are sufficient for the most incor-
rigible. This is a very dangerous practice and
should be undertaken only as a last resort. It
sometimes happens that horses permanently injure
their knees, or even break their necks as a result
of a fall.
Balking.
Balking is the refusal on the part of the horse
to do the work required when he fully understands
what is wanted of him. It is often caused by
improper handling, although sometimes by a vicious
disposition. Balking is usually associated with ner-
vous temperament, and all influences that tend to
irritate the horse should be removed when possible.
It is essential that the trainer be quiet and not lose
his temper, as shouting, jerking and whipping only
make matters worse. Often if the horse is allowed
to stand quietly until the nervousness passes away,
he will start of his own accord. Attracting his
attention by adjusting the harness, giving him an
apple, a bit of sugar, or by lifting the foot and
gently pounding the shoe, will often overcome the
difficulty.
Aalter-pulling.
Allhorses that have this habit should be securely
tied by a stout neck-strap or rope. Often they can
be broken of the habit by placing a small rope, say
one-quarter inch, around the body just back of the
fore-legs, passing the rope between the fore-legs,
then through the ring of the halter, and tie to the
post. When the horse pulls back, the rope draws
down on his back and he will usually cease. Another
method is to tie one end of the small rope around
the tail in the form of a crupper, the other end being
passed along the back, through the halter-ring and
to the post. When he pulls back, the force is exerted
on the tail, and he soon stops.
Harnessing.
Good harness is one of the best advertisements
a horseman can have. It is economical to buy
good leather and then keep it in good condition.
Harness oils and dressing are cheap and it does not
take long to fix up a double set of harnesses. The
metal parts should be kept bright and clean. There
HORSE
is considerable art in harnessing a horse just right
The harness, from the bridle to the crupper, should —
fit; that is, it should be neither too loose nor too
tight. In harnessing, saddling or handling a horse,
the work should be done from the left side of the
animal, and the equipment fastened and unfastenec
from that side. In putting on the harness it should —
be gently but firmly placed on the animal. O:
should see that all loose flapping straps
avoided.
The collar is, perhaps, the most important part
of the harness to be looked after. If the colt’s
shoulders are tender they are rather likely to show
abrasions. In this case, the collar must be kept
scrupulously clean and the shoulders may
bathed at morning, noon and night with cold salt
water. If one is working a colt or a fleshy horse,
he must be on guard to see that it does not lose
flesh and the collar become too large. Breast-col-
lars are admissable when the load is light. They
must not be adjusted so high as to choke the horse
or so low as to interfere with the action of his
limbs. -
Perhaps the bridle is the next important item.
The length of the head-stall must be so adjusted as
to bring the bit in mild contact with the bars of
the mouth, so that the animal will respond quickly
to the slightest pressure on the lines. If the head- —
stall of the bridle is too short, the bars and corners
of the mouth soon become sore and the animal —
finally becomes unresponsive; on the other hand,
if too long, the horse becomes careless of the
driver’s wishes. As to the advisability of using
blinds, there is a great diversity of opinion. If the
horse works better with an open bridle, it should ,
be used ; if better with a blind bridle, the blind —
should be used. :
The check-rein should be properly adjusted.
There are two kinds of check-reins, the over-draw
and the side-rein. The over-draw, if worn tight, is
nothing short of cruel; it makes the horse hold
his head in an uncomfortable and unsightly posi-—
tion. If no check-rein is used, most horses become
slovenly and careless in their habits. The erupper
needs careful attention. It should fit and be kept
clean, lest it abrade the tail and produce a vicious —
horse. ;
as
Driving.
Driving is an art that does not lend itself well
to instruction by the medium of words. The inde-
scribable qualities which, rightly commingled, make —
the good driver, cannot be acquired from books,
but must, in a large measure, be born in the horse-
man. Study, observation and especially practice,
will add to his ability, but all that may be written _
will not make one adept. The understanding be- —
tween horse and driver is so keen that the horse ~
is inspired with courage and obedience by the
slightest touch on the reins or by the cheery voice —
of the driver. On the other hand, careless and —
lazy drivers are the source of far more disobedient
horses than is generally supposed. Just as surely
as the driver is shiftless, the horse will soon
become so, :
HORSE
Position of the reins in driving.—The most con-
venient way to hold the lines when driving is to
take them in the left hand, the left rein coming
into the hand over the first finger, the right com-
ing into the hand between the second and third
fingers. The guiding is to be done with the right
hand which manipulates the lines. The left arm
should hang naturally, with the forearm at a right
angle, and the elbow close to the body. This posi-
tion gives the driver the best control over the
lines, and at the same time is very comfortable.
Rules of the road.—There are a few common rules
in practice that should be observed by every one
when riding or driving on the highways. In general,
when two vehicles meet, they should each turn to
the right, each yielding more than one-half of the
road. This rule applies, no matter where the vehicle
may be. If, however, one of the vehicles is heavy
laden and cannot yield one-half of the road, it must
stop and let the lighter rig go around. It is the
rule for the driver of the heavy laden vehicle to
aid the driver of the lighter one to get around
when such aid is needed. In some states, a pedes-
trian or a man on horse-back is entitled to half the
road, the same as if he were in a carriage. If be-
hind a vehicle, and it is desired to drive around,
the rear vehicle should drive to the left. Asa rule,
the driver of the small moving vehicle will bear
off to the right if signalled. However, he is under
no obligations to do so in most states. When there
are two worn tracks, or on the city streets, each
driver is supposed to keep to the right track or
curb, as the case may be.
Training saddle horses.
Classes of saddle horses.—In a discussion of the
education of the saddle horse, it is well, perhaps,
to mention briefly the different classes of saddle
horses. There are four distinct classes: The plain-
gaited, usually called the walk-trot-canter horse ;
the gaited saddle horse; the hunter; and the high-
school horse. The plain-gaided horse is required to
walk, trot and canter only, but he must do these
few gaits very well or he is of little value as a
saddler. The gaited saddle horse is required to go
five gaits. He must walk, trot, canter and rack ;
and for the fifth he may choose any one of the three
slow gaits, running-walk, slow pace and fox-trot.
It often happens that he is able to go all three of
these, which, in addition to the four that he must
go, makes seven distinct and unmixed gaits. The
hunter must go the walk, trot and canter, and in
general, is similar to the plain-gaited saddler. How-
ever, in addition to the plain gaits, he must be
able to hurdle—jump hurdles, fences, ditches and
the like. The high-school horse is required to go the
gaits of the gaited saddler and many others, some
thirty-four in all.
The training of a saddle horse is an art that can-
not be learned from books, but must, in a sense,
be born in the man, or be learned at the school of
practice and experience.
Walk.—We will start with the horse at the walk,
as that is the foundation of all saddle gaits. The
horse should be provided with a double-rein bridle
HORSE 427
with both curb- and snaffle-bits. When ready to
start, the rider pulls up lightly on the snaffle-bit
and urges him to the top of his speed at the flat-
foot walk. The horse is held steady, andif heisa .
good walker, he should go four to five miles per
hour.
Running-walk, fox-trot or slow pace-——The next
step is the running-walk, fox-trot or slow pace.
The snaffle-rein is loosened, the curb-reins are lightly
drawn up and the animal is urged just out of a
walk. These gaits are faster than the walk but
slower than the rack. When well performed, they
are delightful riding. Whichever of the three gaits
the horse strikes, when urged out of the walk, he
he should be held steady, and not allowed to forge
ahead into a rack or trot, or fall back into a walk.
Rack.—The rack may be tried next. For this, a
smooth, hard road is desirable, as it is a hard gait
on the horse and if the road is soft or rough it will
fatigue him. The rider increases the pressure on
the curb-rein, grips the horse with the knees so
that he will feel the clasp, and at the same time
gently uses the spurs. A horse is taught to rack
by spurring him forward and curbing him back.
The rider must hold him steady and not let him fall
into a side-wheel pace. If he falters, the spur is
used lightly. The curb-reins are then slackened,
the horse taught to slow down at the command
“steady” and allowed to come to a walk.
Trot.—After the rack, thé trot may be under-
taken. The snaffle-reins are drawn up, letting the
curb-reins hang free; some horsemen, however,
prefer to execute the trot on the curb-reins rather
than the snaffle-reins. The horse is urged forward,
and as he starts off, the rider rises in the saddle.
The horse should take the trot at once. If he does
not, he is brought to the walk and again started.
At the start some trainers reach forward and grasp
the animal by the mane, well up the neck. What-
ever signals are employed, the same signals should
always be used for a given gait. When the horse
strikes a square trot, he is held to it steady.
Canter. —The canter, the most graceful and
enjoyable gait when perfectly performed, may next
be tried. The horse is taken in hand, and pulled
together until his legs are under him; the curb-
rein is taken in lightly, the rider leans forward,
urging him to move off quickly, and at the same
time saluting him by raising the right hand so that
he may see it. He should take the canter at once.
If he does not, he is brought to a walk and again
started. The moment he does strike the canter, he
is held steady until the lesson is complete.
This code of signals is in ordinary use in the
South, where riding is a popular pastime. All
horses will not respond to these signals. The indi-
viduality of each animal must be worked out, and
the trainer govern himself accordingly.
Position for riding.—Hach of the saddle gaits
requires a special position of the rider. All men are
not of the same build and each must take a position
to suit him. For these reasons and others, no specific
rules can be laid down for the position of the rider.
Only general directions can be given. The rider
should sit in the middle of the saddle, resting hig
428 HORSE
weight on his buttocks; he should hold his body
and head erect; shoulders well back ; chest thrown
slightly forward; left fore-arm horizontal, elbow
close to body; right hand hanging naturally; thighs
nearly parallel to the horse’s shoulders, and in
close contact with the horse’s body, the lower part
of the legs hanging naturally. The ball of the
foot should rest on the tread of the stirrup, and
the heels should be a little lower than the toe.
The stirrup straps should both be of the same
length and not so long as to render the tread
insecure, or so short as to cramp the leg.
Position of reins when riding.— The most con-
venient way to hold the reins when riding is to take
them in the left hand, the left curb-rein coming into
the hand around the little finger, the right curb-
rein between the first and second fingers; the left
snaffle between the third and little fingers, and the
right snaffle between the second and third fingers.
Practical horsemen differ as to whether the curb-
reins or the snaffle-reins should be on the inside.
The guiding is to be done with the right hand, which
manipulates the reins. The left arm should hang
naturally, with the forearm at a right angle and
the elbow close to the body. In this position one
has the reins separate and under good control.
Literature.
For references, see pages 416 and 424.
Feeding the Horse.
By Merritt W. Harper.
One who studies the practices of successful
horsemanship will become strongly impressed with
the fact that there are many ways of securing the
desired end, high finish and fine action, in the
horse. If in any locality we study the rations in
most common use, we will find them usually com-
posed of only one or two kinds of grain and the
same limited number of coarse dry fodders, the
feeder insisting that this is the most practical and
economical ration he can feed with safety. One
need not travel far to find the list more or less
changed, sometimes entirely so, yet with the same
claim to superiority or necessity as before. In the
northern states, the most common feeds for the
horse are corn or oats for the grain, and clover or
timothy hay for the roughage; in the West,
crushed barley is the common grain, while the hay
comes largely from the wild oat and barley plants ;
in the South, corn serves mainly for the concen-
trates, with dry corn leaves for the roughage.
Thus it seems that each section is rather limited
in the variety of foods composing the ration.
Horsemen in the northern states often state that,
with plenty of sound oats and good timothy hay at
hand, they care nothing for other food articles.
While it is true that a horse can be maintained on
this ration, and many race horses are fed no other
food during their severe campaigns, yet it seems
reasonable that equally good or better results
might be obtained, and the cost of the ration often
lessened, by feeding a ration containing more
variety, especially for other types of horses than
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those of the race-course. If energy and spirited
action were the only qualities desired in the horse,
then, perhaps, oats and timothy hay might suffice ;
but when we take into account the number and
complexity of the various organs in the ‘body, we
can well understand that these might be better
nourished by several grains and forage plants than
by a few. A ration is ordinarily considered well
varied if it furnishes four different materials. The
food should come from different plants ; if possible,
from different natural orders. A ration that is
composed entirely of grasses and cereals would not
afford the same variety to the animal as one in
which leguminous foods were given in part.
The feeding system.
Whatever feeding-stuffs are employed in the
ration, the horse should be fed regularly and uni-
formly at all times. He anticipates the feeding
hour, and becomes nervous if it is delayed. His
digestive system, his entire organism, becomes
accustomed to a certain order which must obtain
if one is to be successful. The digestive apparatus
of the horse is not nearly so large relatively as
that of the cow or sheep; he has no rumen, no
place to store his food to be masticated at will;
hence, when at work he must be fed regularly and
often.
Successful horse-feeding differs much from that
of most other domestic animals. Cattle, sheep and
pigs are fed to produce gain in weight or, in the
case of the milch cow and sheep, to produce body
secretions in the form of milk and wool, whereas
horses are fed almost exclusively as beasts of bur-
den, whether the work consists in carrying a rider
or in drawing a load. In late years, a new indus-
try has sprung into existence, that of fattening
horses for the market. This has become as much a
regular business as feeding steers.
Because of the small size of the horse’s stomach,
the order of administering grain, hay and water
assumes much importance. Colim’s investigations
on the stomach of the horse show that this organ
must fill and empty itself two or three times for
each feed given. From this experiment, it appears
that during the fore part of the meal, the material
is pushed, almost as soon as it enters the stomach,
into the intestines by the food that follows; while
toward the end of the meal, the passage is slow,
and the digestion in the stomach is more perfect.
Marlot, conducting experiments in France, showed
that if a horse is fed his grain first and then watered,
much of the food is carried by the water into the
intestines. Since the grain of the ration is rich in
protein, it should stay in the stomach as long as
possible, as the digestion of this nutrient is more
complete there. Thus it would seem that the horse
should be given water first, and that it should be
followed by hay, the grain being withheld until at
least a part of the hay has been consumed. There
are, however, very serious objections to this prac-
tice, as the horse is unsatisfied and very nervous
until fed his grain, and we should not make him
wait for the grain until he has consumed the hay
allowance. A middle ground may be taken by
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watering first, feeding the grain, sprinkled with
a small allowance of moistened chaffed hay, and
watering again after the ration has been consumed.
If this practice is followed, it will satisfy the desire
of the horse by supplying the most palatable part
of his food early, and yet insure the retention of
the grain in the stomach for a considerable period.
Sanborn, studying the effects of watering before
and after eating, reports in bulletin No. 9, Utah
Agricultural Experiment Station, as follows: (1)
Horses watered before feeding grain retained their
weight better than when watered after feeding
grain; (2) horses watered before feeding had the
better appetites or ate the most; (8) horses watered
after feeding grain, in ration of food eaten, seemed
to digest it as well as those watered before feed-
ing; (4) it seems advisable to water both before
and after feeding.
When horses are taxed to the limit of their
endurance, the preparation of the food should
receive much attention. In this case all grains
should be ground and sprinkled with moist chaffed
hay when fed. Food thus prepared is more thor-
oughly and rapidly masticated. Long hay, of course,
should be supplied the animal, to be consumed at
leisure. As hay is always more or less dusty, it
should be administered in such manner as to cause
the horse the least annoyance. Moistening or
sprinkling the hay with water is the simplest way
to reduce this trouble toa minimum. Dusty hay
should be avoided whenever possible.
Salt in limited quantities should be kept before
the horse at all times. While little is known from
investigation on this subject, it is evident from the
extreme fondness of the horse for salt that it
should be regularly supplied him. It is best not to
place too much before him at a time, as some
horses will eat it to excess.
The successful horseman will study each indi-
vidual and modify the ration according to the
needs of each: one horse should have a little more
than the regular allowance, and the next possibly
a little less, because some horses are more difficult
to keep in condition than others doing the same
work and under similar conditions.
In handling horses, we should remember that
they are very sensitive animals and that we can-
not be too quiet in our treatment of them. Strik-
ing them or shouting commands is a contemptible
practice ; it causes the animals to lose confidence
in their master, thereby rendering them less teach-
able, and destroying nervous energy, making them
less economical producers than if they were pro-
tected at all times from these nervous shocks.
Feeding the work horse.
The work horse has a hearty appetite, a vigor-
ous digestion, and responds as does no other animal
to intelligent care. He should be fed liberally and
frequently, the amount given being regulated by
the size of the animal as well as by the amount
and kind of work he is required to do. In general,
the horse should be supplied with something over
two pounds of provender daily for each hundred
pounds of weight, Of this, about two-thirds—the
HORSE 429
exact amount depending on the severity of the
labor—should be grain in some form. If the work
is exceedingly heavy, the grain in the ration should
be increased and the hay diminished ; if the work
is light, the grain should be diminished and the
hay increased. The morning meal should be com-
paratively light, and consist mostly of grain. It
should not possess much bulk. In many of the
larger stables, the midday meal is omitted. But
most horsemen hold that some grain should be
given at noon. In any case, the midday ration
should not be large. The heavy feeding should
come at night, after the day’s work is over and
when the animal has time to masticate and digest
his food.
A very good practice is as follows: For the
morning ration, feed one-fourth of the daily allow-
ance at least one hour before going to work. It
should be in condition to be consumed easily and
rapidly, so as to be well out of the way when the
animal is led from the stable. After being watered,
he is ready for his morning’s task. If the work is
exhaustive and exacting, he should be fed after
five hours of labor. When he comes to the stable
at midday, he should have a drink of fresh, cool
water, care being taken that he does not drink too
rapidly or gorge himself if very warm. At this
time give him another quarter of his daily allow-
ance. No greater service can be rendered the
horse at this time than removing the harness so
that he can eat his meal in quiet and comfort, and
gain a few moments of much needed rest. If pos-
sible, he should have one hour to consume his meal.
He should be watered again before going to work.
When the horse comes to the stable in the even-
ing, tired and warm, he should be allowed, first of
all, a fresh, cool drink, care being taken as before
that he does not drink too rapidly. He is now
ready for the remainder of his day’s allowance.
Unharness at once, and, when the sweat has dried,
give him a thorough brushing. If, for some reason,
the horse is forced to stand idle in the stable for a
few days, the ration should be decreased. Other-
wise he will become stocky, with his legs swollen
and stiff.
In cold weather, a more carbonaceous ration
may be used. When more food goes to furnish heat
for the body, a horse needs a large proportion of
heat-making food. Equal parts of corn and oats by
weight would be more satisfactory and ordinarily
much cheaper than a larger proportion of oats.
Most farmers have much less work for the horse in
winter than in summer. It is an excellent practice
and much more economical to rough through the
winter those not needed for work. Those reserved
for work should have good care and be fed accord-
ing to the amount and kind of work performed.
In providing a ration, whether for summer or
winter use, due consideration should be given to
cost. Roughage is ordinarily much cheaper than
grain, but a horse at work is unable economically
to dispose of a large quantity of bulky food. If
considerable time and energy must be expended in
masticating rough feed, the usefulness of the horse
for work is lessened thereby. The more concen-
430 HORSE
trated the food, within proper limits, the less
energy will be needed to make it available. The
proportion of grain to roughness depends on the
amount and kind of work to be performed. A horse
at hard work should never be expected to consume
more roughage than grain by weight.
Feeding the driving horse.
The driving or carriage horse is more difficult to
keep in condition than the work horse. The periods
of enforced idleness, occasioned by lack of busi-
ness engagements of his master, or because of
inclement weather, are often followed by long
drives and hours of over-exertion. This irregular
work weakens the constitution of the driving
horse, which generally has but a brief career.
When daily driving cannot be practiced, under-
feeding is considered the safest course.
In feeding this class of horses, the same general
system that has been suggested for the work horse
should be followed. When the horse is not taken
from the stable during the day, the concentrates,
or grain part of the ration, should at once be
reduced by one-third, and the normal allowance
should not again be given until work is resumed.
Carriage horses are usually overfed, because of
the desire of the owner to keep them in the pink
of condition. This over-feeding and irregular exer-
cise is the cause of most of the ills of driving
horses. Oats easily lead among the grains ; when
these are fed, the horse exhibits mettle as from no
other food. If at any time the animal should seem
constipated, a bran mash should be given. While
a certain amount of roughness must be fed to give
bulk or volume to the ration in order that the
digestive functions may be maintained properly,
yet we must remember that a large abdomen can-
not be tolerated in the carriage horse. Again, the
feeder of this class of horses must ever be on his
guard against laxative foods, such as clover or
alfalfa hay, or bran in too large quantities, for
when the horse is put on the road and warmed up,
it will prove very draining on his system as well as
disagreeable to the driver. Style and action are
generally considered prerequisites, while economy
in feeding, and often the health of the animal, are
but secondary.
Feeding the trotter.
in feeding the trotting horse, all must give way
to the single requisite of speed. Every pound of
useless weight, whether body weight or extra food,
must be worked off, otherwise it will become a
serious matter in the management of the trotting
horse. More important than this, however, is the
effect of the food on the character of the muscle
formed from it, and especially on the nerve and
mettle of the horse. As in the case of the driving
horse, economy in the cost of the ration is not to
be considered. Everything yields to speed.
When the campaign has closed, and the animal
is taken into winter-quarters, the feed should be
reduced by at least one-half. Good sound oats and
clean, sweet timothy hay should constitute the
bulk of the ration. At this time a few carrots may
HORSE
be given and a bran mash occasionally, for these
are cooling in their nature, and have a tendency
to reduce any feverish or inflammatory symptoms.
Horses turned out to the field should be fed oats
twice a day, as oats will keep the muscles hard and
the mettle up. In the spring, when shedding, bran
mash may be given more frequently to keep the
bowels open. Flaxseed and linseed should seldom
be given, as they are thought to be too laxative
and cause too severe a shock on the system.
When the horse goes into training, the strength
of the food must be increased, although but slowly
at first. As the oats are increased, the horse will
want less hay, but may at first have all he will
consume. Later it may be necessary to limit the
hay, in such case one should see that he does not
eat the bedding. No carrots should be given now.
The bran mash may be continued once or twice a
week if there is any tendency to constipation ;
otherwise, it may be best to dispense with the
mash altogether. During the last days of training,
or just before the coming trial, he should be put
on his largest allowance of strong food. The vari-
ous individuals differ so very much that no defi-
nite amount can be stated. It is at this time,
when all eyes are centered on the trotter, that the
skill of the feeder is appreciated.
Wintering idle horses.
On the average farm, most of the work comes
during the growing season. We think it more eco-
nomical and perhaps advisable that the idle horse
be turned to a lot, if it affords some protection, to
be roughed through the winter rather than to be
confined closely in the barn. As winter comes on,
these horses grow a heavy coat of hair, which
affords them excellent protection. Such horses
may be maintained wholly, or nearly so, on hay,
straw or corn fodder, fed uncut, as they have time
for masticating food, and their systems not being
taxed by labor, they are able to subsist on food
containing a large percentage of inert matter. —
We think it better to have the digestive tract of
the idle horse well distended with coarse material
rather than concentrated, as would be the case if
grains possessing only the requisite nutrients were
supplied. If the protected area is kept dry and
well bedded, horses can be wintered comfortably
in this way at much less expense than by stabling.
Light grain-feeding, together with some work,
should begin six weeks before the spring work
starts, to put the horses in condition for the
spring work.
Feeding the brood mare.
Many farmers are situated so that they may raise
a team of colts each year, without seriously inter-
fering with farm operations. This is a very good
practice, as there is a great demand for good
horses for both city and farm purposes. A team of
mares in foal can be worked until the day of foal-
ing, if the work is not too severe and the driver
careful. In fact, moderate exercise is necessary
for the mare in foal. Idleness is the bane of horse-
rearing and should be avoided whenever possible.
HORSE
The Arabs have a saying, “rest and fat are the
greatest enemies of the horse.”
Mares in foal should be fed much as suggested
for the work horse, with perhaps the addition of
more protein foods, as bran and oil-meal, as such
foods, rich in protein and mineral matter, are valu-
able for mares carrying foals. If the mare is con-
stipated, bran mash may be given occasionally.
Through the use of proper food, the bowels should
be kept in good condition, and should be a little
loose rather than otherwise at the time of parturi-
tion. While the mare may be worked up to the
time of foaling, she should be given several days of
rest after foaling to enable her to gain her strength
and give the foal the proper start. For the first
few days of recuperation, a hot bran mash fed once
a day has both a cooling and a laxative effect on
the mare, which is very beneficial. If all has gone
well with the mare and foal, the mare may be put
to work at the end of one week from the time of
parturition.
Some dams, especially those with their first foals,
fail to supply the proper amount of milk, and the
young fail to make satisfactory growth, in which
case the mare should be provided with food that
stimulates the milk flow; good pasture grass is best,
of course, but oats or wheat bran, with an equal
weight of corn-and-cob meal, will often prove very
beneficial. If there is an oversupply of milk, or
if the milk is too rich, the food supply may be
restricted.
Feeding the foal.
Very soon after birth, the foal should take a
good draft of the colostrum, or first milk of the
dam. Colostrum milk possesses purgative qualities
which tend to discharge from the alimentary
tract the fecal matters collected therein during
fetal life. If this result is not accomplished, a
small dose of castor-oil should be given the foal.
With the bowels clean, the foal is ready to begin
his career, and his treatment the first year will go
far towards determining whether for good or bad.
If the foal is obtaining an oversupply of milk, he
will have an attack of diarrhea. In such case,
some of the dam’s milk should be drawn, remember-
ing always that the last milk carries the most fat,
which is usually the cause of the trouble. Diar-
rhea, whatever its cause, should be checked at
once. Parched flour, rice-meal gruel, boiled milk
and whites of raw eggs, are all excellent for this
ailment. If the food is constipative, relief may be
had by the use of castor-oil and by injections of
warm water to which soap has been added.
Some farmers make a practice of permitting the
foal to go to the fields with the team, while others
prefer to keep the foal in the stable. During the
first few weeks, the foal should be fed oftener than
three times per day. For this reason it is better in
the field with the dam if no inconvenience is caused.
When older, however, the colt may be kept in the
barn and given nourishment when the dam comes
from work. If this method is practiced, the driver
should be careful about letting the colt to the dam
when the latter is very tired and warm.
HORSE 431
Tt is well to encourage colts to take nourishment
other than that supplied by the dam. This supple-
mentary feeding may begin when the colt is about
two months old. By placing the feed-box from
which the dam eats her grain, a little raised from
the ground, the colt will early begin to nibble from
the mother’s supply, and soon acquire a taste for
grain. In this way the colt may be taught to eat,
with the result that, when taken away from the
dam at weaning time, it does not miss its mother
so much. If eating well at the age of five or six
months, the colt may be weaned without as much
shrinkage as when unaccustomed to eating grain.
Growing colts should have more protein than is
required for the work horse. No definite rules can
be given that will apply to all colts. Oats, shorts,
peas and perhaps some corn, may constitute the
grain. Alfalfa, clover and mixed hays, which should
be sweet and clean, may constitute the roughness.
Colts suffer at times from teething, and to subsist
wholly on hard, dry food, may cause them to run
down in flesh. At this time, if one can steam the
crushed oats or bran, they will prove appetizing
and very nourishing. The first winter after wean-
ing is the most severe on the colt, and he should
receive much attention. The “big-belly,” which is
often noticed at this period, is nothing to its harm,
for it is important that the digestive tract be
developed to a moderate extent by distention with
coarse feed, that it may serve its purpose when the
animal is grown. At this period, the colt must have
an abundance of outdoor exercise. There is no
more certain way of ruining a colt than by liberal
feeding and close confinement.
Occasionally something happens to the dam and
the foal must be reared by hand or perish. Cow’s
milk, if modified with at least one-fourth its volume
of water, together with some sugar, makes a fair
substitute for the mare’s milk, but should be given
at about the same temperature as the dam’s milk.
Gruels made by boiling beans or peas, and removing
the skins by pressing the pulp through a sieve, or
oil-meal and shorts made into a jelly by boiling,
are excellent for the motherless colt.
Henry says that a fair grain allowance for the
colt, measured in oats, is as follows: Up to one
year of age, two to three pounds ; one to two years
of age, four to five pounds; two to three years of
age, seven to eight pounds.
Feeding the stallion.
The object in the management of a stallion is so
to feed, groom and exercise him as to keep the
horse up to the very highest possible strength and
vigor. Very many owners endeavor to have the
stallion in fine show condition by the time the sea-
son opens. The horse is not given sufficient exer-
cise, is kept closely blanketed and fed various drugs,
nostrums and condimental stock-foods ; he is loaded
with fat; his muscles becomes soft and flabby, and
although he may seem to be in the very pink of
condition, he is in reality not nearly so well fitted
for service in the stud as he would have been if he
had been fed on plain food, and given an abundance
of exercise each day.
432 HORSE
During the breeding season, the grain ration
should consist mainly of good, sound oats; but this
should be varied from time to time by a ration of
corn, corn-and-cob meal, or perhaps barley. Wheat-
bran is a valuable adjunct to the ration, and
should never be dispensed with. It is rich in pro-
tein,—an especially important element of nutrition
for the stud,—and is the cheapest, safest and best
of all regulators for the bowels. The roughness
should consist of sweet clean hay, such as timothy
or timothy and clover mixed.
No specific directions as to quantity of food can
be given. Some horses will require twice as much
as others. As a rule, it will be safe to feed as
much as the horse will eat with apparent relish ;
and if he be given plenty of exercise he will not
become too fat. The fact should be kept in mind
that anything that adds to the health, strength and
vigor of the horse will increase his reproductive
powers, simply because the sexual organs will par-
take of the general tone of the system ; and what-
ever tends to impair the health and vigor will have its
effect on the sexual organs as well. A horse in good
condition needs nothing but sweet sound food admin-
istered regularly, pure air and plenty of exercise.
After the close of the season, the stallion should
receive no mares; if permitted to
HORSE
large firm is now feeding twice daily of mixed
feed,—bran, shorts and oats,—and once of corn, with
good clover hay. The general rule stated in the
fore part of this article, that a horse should be
provided with something over two pounds of proy-
ender, of which one-half to two-thirds should be
grain, for each hundred pounds of weight, and that
the animal should have plenty of exercise, fails com-
pletely in this method of feeding, as the animals are
fed all they will consume and kept closely stabled
and blanketed, with frequently no exercise what-
ever. As a substitute for exercise, in order to keep
the blood in good order, thus preventing stock-legs,
glauber salts are often used. If mixed with oats or
bran, the horse consumes them readily. These salts
are fed once or twice a week. It is said that the
salts aid in fattening and that they give the skin
a soft, mellow touch. The average feeding period
is ninety to one hundred days, and an average gain
of three pounds per day is satisfactory.
Feeding rations.
Henry, in his “Feeds and Feeding,” gives the
following rations, from various sources, as a guide
in determining the amount of feed that should be
allowed the horse under various conditions:
serve a mare occasionally he will
be nervous and anxious, requiring
the same attention as in the height
of the season. When possible, he
should be turned into a small pasture
lot, securely fenced, adjoining his
stall, and the door left open at all
times except in extremely cold or
stormy weather. If the lot affords
sufficient grass, no other food need
be given. At the approach of win-
ter, when the grass begins to fail,
he may be given a limited feed of
grain each day, and all of the hay
or corn stover that he will clean up
nicely. In this way a stallion can be
brought through the winter in an
training
training
Colt, two years old, in
Colt, three years old, in
Trotting horse.—(Splan.)
Horse on circuit .
Horse on circuit . . . .
Character of animal and
work required
Trotting horse.-—(Woodruff.)
Colt, weaning time .. .
Colt, one yearold. . ..
Colt, two years old .. .
Ration
Concentrates Roughage
2 pounds oats Hay ad lib.
4 pounds oats Hay ad lib.
6 pounds oats Hay ad lib.
cuemucmete 8 pounds oats Hay, allowance limited
Sere OWS 8-12 pounds oats | Hay, allowance limited —
10 pounds oats
15 pounds oats,
in exceptional
cases (as with
Hay, fair amount
Hay, fair amount
economicaland satisfactorymanner. Frynsp variously used.— Bowe)
. i (Stonehenge.)
Feeding a for market. Race horse!) site. .< 15 pounds oats 6-8 pounds hay
In certain parts of the country, Hacksria tote ir iieelrems 8 pounds oats 12 pounds hay
feeding horses for the market has Horse variously used.—
become as much a regular business (Fleming.)
as feeding steers. As in beef cat- Pony 4 pounds oats Hay, moderate allow-
tle} quality sand! fat (eostoeether 1nnn liens ance
Haloouiaiee the ee of oe Rs Hunter, small ..... 12 pounds oats 12 pounds hay
aaculegl ats late oe sound, it is Hunter, liege eticn ave 16 pounds oats 10 pounds hay
hardly possible to get him so fat ee abecs ig Te 10 pounds oats 12 pounds hay
that buyers will object for that é draft horse.—(Sidney.) 18: poundnents
reason. We have said that exces- Heavy, hard work .. . ( 6 pounds beans 15 pounds chaffed
sive fattening, with little exercise, | 3 pounds corn clover hay
lessens the future usefulness of the Farm horse.—(Settegast.)
horse. But the shrewd business : 6-9 pounds hay
man proposes to meet the demands Oo) se Genie in Fond orey
of the market. Medi k 10 Astonta pounds hay
The methods practiced in vari- rare cs SOT { + poe i
ous parts of the country differ Heavy work. . . . . .| 18 pounds oats { 3 oaiiel pre }
widely, as do the foods used. One
HORSE
Literature.
Literature consulted in the preparation of this
article was as follows: Hayes, Stable Management;
Henry, Feeds and Feeding; Smith, Profitable Stock
Feeding ; Sanders, Horse Breeding; Woodruff, Trot-
ting Horses in America; Report of the Kansas
State Board of Agriculture, 1899; Principles of
Horse Feeding, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 170, United
States Department of Agriculture; Feeding Farm
Horses and Mules, Bulletin No. 189, North Carolina
Agricultural Experiment Station; Feeding Horses
and Mules, Bulletin No. 72, Florida Agricultural
Experiment Station; Feeding Colts, Bulletin No.
18, lowa Agricultural Experiment Station; Horse
Feeding, Bulletin No. 92, New Jersey Agricultural
Experiment Station; Experiment Station Record.
Determining the Age of Horses. Figs. 438-449.
By H. H. Wing.
The age of the horse is an important factor in
determining his present and prospective value.
Familiarity with the characters that most certainly
indicate age are, therefore, often extremely useful.
A knowledge of these characters is not difficult to
secure, but skill in their application depends much
on familiarity and continued practice.
General considerations.
In estimating the age of the horse, the teeth
furnish the best index, yet there are other general
considerations that play an important part, especi-
ally in the case of young and very old animals. In
very old horses, white hairs make their appearance
around the temple, the eyes, the nostrils, and else-
where; the poll or top of the head becomes more
pointed, the sides of the face more depressed, the
supra-orbits hollowed out; the back-bone becomes
more prominent and often strongly curved down-
ward, and the animal does not stand squarely on his
legs, which show more wear. The lower jaws will
be found much sharper in old animals than in
young, because the teeth are so much more deeply
incased in the alveoli in young animals. Little
by little the teeth are pushed from their sockets in
order to compensate for the loss occasioned by the
friction of mastication, and at the same time the
two borders of the lower jaw-bone are drawn to-
ward each other. Another general indication is
the appearance of knots or nodes on the side of the
tail. These nodes are nothing more than promi-
nences formed by the withering away of the flesh,
thus leaving the transverse processes of the first
coccygeal vertebra prominent. The first pair of
these nodes should appear between thirteen and
fourteen years of age ; the second should make its
appearance between the sixteenth and seventeenth
years ; and the third at about twenty-one years of
age. Bear in mind, these considerations are general
and to be considered as a whole ; each, alone, is of
very little or no use.
Examination of the teeth.
While differences in the appearance of the teeth
are considered the most impo~tant and the most
C 28
HORSE 433
accurate means of estimating the age of domestic
animals, and are the means employed by all horse-
men, yet these are not absolutely accurate, and
much depends on conditions as well as on the indi-
viduality of the animal. The teeth of horses that
have bones of a somewhat open structure, are likely
to indicate that the horses are older than they really
are ; while the teeth of horses whose bones are of
fine, close texture, may indicate them to be younger
than they are. Again, a horse fed on soft and suc-
culent food is likely to show a young mouth,
whereas one fed on hard, dry food is likely to show
an older mouth. Thus, it is apparent that the tex-
ture of the bones, the breeding, the kind of food the
horse has eaten, and other conditions, have more or
less influence on the teeth.
The horse when full grown has forty teeth,
twenty on either jaw, divided as follows: six inci-
sors, two canines, one on either side, and twelve
molars, six on either side. Since only the incisor
or nipper teeth are inspected in estimating the age,
they alone will be considered. It is the order in
which they make their appearance that enables us
to estimate the age up to five years, and the man-
ner in which their surface is worn that aids us in
the estimation from five to eight years of age.
After the horse has passed the eighth year, it is
sometimes difficult to determine his true age by
the teeth. Those who are familiar with the method
and in practice may come within a year or two of
it until the horse becomes very old, when he may
be said to be twelve or fifteen years past, for
example, but how much past cannot be told with
any degree of accuracy.
The colt—Since one is seldom called on to esti-
mate the age of a colt under two and one-half or
three years old, we will hasten over the earlier
period rapidly by simply pointing out the condition
of the teeth at one year of age. The colt is pro-
vided before the end of the first year with a set of
temporary or milk teeth. The difference in size of
the jaw-bone between the foal and the grown horse
makes a change from milk to permanent teeth nec-
essary. During the first month after the colt is
foaled, the temporary incisors make their appear-
ance, the first or middle pair appearing at about
one week of age; the second or intermediate pair,
at one week to two weeks of age, and the third or
lateral pair appearing at about one month of age.
When these teeth appear it will be noticed that
they are long from right to left and have well-
defined cups. The edges gradually wear down so
that by the time the colt is at the full age of one
year, the marks in the central incisors will be
much shallower and fainter than they were at first.
All of the incisors will be up and the corner ones
will be worn level. It requires much care to deter-
mine accurately the age of a colt after it has
passed the first year and up to the time the central
incisors are replaced by the permanent ones, which
will be when the animal is two and one-half to
three years of age.
When the colt is shedding teeth, its mouth should
be closely watched, and if the milk teeth have not
disappeared when the permanent ones have pushed
434 HORSE
through, they should be removed, as they only serve
to irritate the gums and to prevent the animal
consuming the proper amount of food. At this
time a little extra food, such as moist cut hay or
carrots, will greatly benefit the colt.
Fig. 439.
Lower nippers at
three years of age.
Fig. 438. The lower nippers of
the colt at two years old.
Two and one-half to three years old.—At about
two years and nine months to two years and eleven
months the central permanent incisors will appear,
and at full three years of age the outer part of the
teeth and sometimes the inner, also, will be up and
in wear. (Fig. 439.) The permanent incisors are
larger in every way than the temporary or milk
teeth. By this age, the intermediate temporary
incisors have worn down and lost all or nearly all
their cups. There will be a slight black indentation
that can hardly be called a cup. In the lateral or
corner teeth, the cups are greatly reduced. If the
colt be a male, small caps are likely to be present
or in the process of coming through the skin of the
jaw. These are called tusks.
Four years old.—At about three years and nine
months, the intermediate incisors appear. At four
years of age, they are fully up and in wear on the
outside, and sometimes on the inside. (Fig. 440.)
The central incisors show one year’s wear, and the
cups are not so deep as they were when the colt
was three years old. The cups have nearly or quite
disappeared from the lateral or corner temporary
incisors, often nothing but a slight dark indenta-
tion being left. The tusks, if any, have enlarged,
but are still sharp at their points and flattish on
the inside. A side view of a four-year old mouth is
shown in Fig. 441. Note that the crowns of the
two temporary or milk teeth, one upper and one
lower, come together closely over their entire sur-
face, while the two permanent teeth do not meet
at their posterior
corners.
Fig. 441.
Side view of the teeth of
a four-year-old horse.
Fig. 440. Lower nippers at four
years of age.
Five years old—At the age of about four years
and nine months, the permanent corner incisors
make their appearance. (Fig. 442.) When the horse
HORSE
is full five years of age, the outer exterior parts
of the teeth meet (Fig. 443), although almost one
year of wear must take place before the lateral or
corner teeth are worn level over their entire sur-
face. At five years of age, the horse has a full
mouth, and the central incisors have two years’
wear. They have also changed slightly in shape,
having become rounder on the inside. The inter-
mediate incisors show one year’s wear. The cups —
show in all, but are deepest and freshest in ap-
pearance in the corner teeth. In about one year
more they will disappear from the central incisors,
and in two years from the intermediate incisors.
The tusks have enlarged, but are not yet blunt.
Six years old.—At six years old, the cups in the
lower jaw have disappeared, or nearly so, from the
central incisors, have become smaller in the inter-
mediates, and the corner teeth are up and in full
wear over their entire surface. (Figs. 444, 445.)
Sometimes, however, a horse has “shelly” teeth,
in which case the inside corner teeth may not be
up and in wear;
in fact, they may
never come up,
but always have
‘the appearance of
corner teeth that
are not fully up.
The center inci-
sors have made
marked changes in
shape, becoming
roundish on the
inside, and the in-
termediates are
Fig. 442. Lower nippers of a
five-year-old horse.
also somewhat modified.
If the horse’s lips are
parted and the mouth
viewed from the front, it
will be noted that the
central ones will appear
much darker colored and
longer than they did at
three or four. This is due
to the shrinking or re-
ceding of the gums. In
this connection, compare Figs. 439, 440, 442.
Seven years old.—At seven years of age, the cups
in the lower jaw have disappeared from the inter-
mediate incisors, although small dark spots may
often be seen. The corner teeth still retain their
cups, although they are rather shallow. It is well
to bear in mind that, from the time when the teeth
in the lower jaw are well up and in wear to the
time the cups have disappeared in the lower jaw, is
three years. The teeth in the upper jaw retain
their cups a much longer time,—in fact, just twice
as long, disappearing in six years from the time
they made their appearance.
A side view of a seven-year-old mouth shows
one marked characteristic. The lower corner teeth
seldom extend as far backward as the upper ones.
(Fig. 446.) Only in rare cases do all four corner
teeth meet accurately. The result is that the face
of the tooth in the rear recedes, while that part of
Side view of the teeth of a
five-year-old horse.
HORSE
the tooth not in wear projects downward, forming
more or less of a notch.
Hight years old.—At eight years of age, the cups
have disappeared from the teeth in the lower jaw.
One must not be
misled by the slight
dark-colored inden-
Fig. 444. Lower nippers of a
six-year-old horse.
tations that are still present, for they are not deep
enough to be called cups. (Fig. 447.) The shape
of the teeth has undergone marked changes. (Com-
pare Fig. 439 with Fig. 447.) In the first place,
the teeth were thin from outside to inside, and com-
paratively broad from right to left, while in the
latter case they are much thicker from inside to
outside—they have become more triangular in
shape. If viewed from the side, they will appear
somewhat longer and will meet at a sharper angle
than they did when the horse was younger. As
age advances, the angle of the teeth decreases.
At three years of age, the upper and the lower
teeth meet nearly vertical with each other, while
at twenty they meet at an angle of only 45°.
Nine years old.—At nine years of age, the cups
will have disappeared from the upper central inci-
sors, and be shallow
in the intermediate,
and fairly deep in
the corners. The
cups are not likely
to disappear at as
regular intervals in
the upper jaw as
they did in the lower.
Therefore, it is not
always possible to
tell the age of the
horse within a year or two after he has passed his
eighth year. Horses with soft bones may show a
mouth older than they really are, while those with
hard dense bones may show a mouth younger than
they are.
Ten years old.—At ten years of age, the
cups have disappeared from the upper inter-
mediates, but are still in the corners, although
shallow. The teeth are more triangular in
shape, and those of the upper and lower jaw
meet at a sharper angle as the age increases.
Eleven years old.—At eleven years of age,
the cups have all disappeared from the upper
jaw. However, because of the fact that some
animals have denser bones than others, it is
not uncommon to find shallow cups in the
upper corner teeth as late as the twelfth or
the fifteenth year. The shape and angle of the
Fig. 446.
of a seven-year-old horse.
Side view of the nippers
Fig. 448.
teeth of an old horse.
HORSE 435
incisors will enable a close judge not to be much
deceived.
After the horse has passed the twelfth year, the
matter of two or three years amounts to little.
Much depends on the individuality of the animal,
as some animals are worth more at eighteen years
than others are at fourteen. One’s judgment of
the value of a horse at these ages should be
formed on general appearances and activi-
ties, rather than on age, which cannot be
accurately determined by an examination
of the teeth. One may distinguish between
a horse that is moderately old and one that
is very old, but after the horse has reached
his eighth year, the teeth do not accu-
rately indicate his age.
In old horses, the incisor teeth have be-
come nearly triangular, and they show long
wear. The tusks are large, blunt and round; the
front ends of the teeth have been broken off, and
they meet at an acute angle. These differences are
well illustrated in Figs. 448, 449. The teeth may
have grown out so
long as to prevent
the double teeth
from meeting, in
which case the
horse will spit out
his food after he
has masticated a
part of it. If the
incisors are rasped
off on their pos-
terior edges, the
grinders will then
meet and life will
be somewhat pro-
longed.
Irregularities in teeth.—Thus far we have con-
sidered the teeth as regular. It often happens that
the teeth are not regular. When these irregulari-
ties exist, the horse is said to have a false mouth.
While many of the irregularities are without
importance, there are certain others which should
be taken into consideration. They are important in
their physiological relations as well as in estimating
age. These irregularities occur in the number:
there may be more or less than the regular number
—thirty-six in mares, or forty in horses. Or, the
irregularities may occur in the form of the incisors
or through the uniting of two incisors; they may
iS
Fig. 445. Side view of the teeth
of a six-year-old horse.
Fig. 447. The lower incisor, or nipper
teeth, of an eight-year-old horse.
occur because one jaw happens to be longer or
shorter than the other; they
may occur as a result of
Fig. 449. A side view of the nip-
pers of an old horse.
The lower incisor
436 HORSE
cribbing—some horses have the bad habit of bit-
ing the stall fixtures or other surrounding objects,
thus breaking off the free borders of the teeth,
which make the teeth irregular and which must
not be confused with normal wear. Such cases can
usually be recognized by the broken-off particles
and the roughed surface. Then, again, irregulari-
ties may result from the employment of fraudulent
means, the horseman striving to give the mouth
the characteristics of that period of life in which
the animals have their greatest value, and endeay-
oring to make the young appear old and the old
appear young. It is ordinarily easy to detect a
mouth that has been tampered with. If the abnor-
mal wear has been produced by a file, the marks of
the latter can be seen on the teeth. If, after hay-
ing made a surface artificially, the latter be pol-
ished to remove the marks, the fraud can be de-
tected by the fact that the enamel is just on a
level with the dentine.
After the teeth have once been tampered with,
they no longer serve as an index in estimating age.
The dental tables, the cups and the like, have in
most cases been partly or wholly destroyed. A
person estimating the age of such animals must
rely on general indications, such as gray hairs
about the temple, eyes, nostrils ; the pointed poll ;
the depressed face; the sunken supra-orbits ; the
prominent back-bone; the sway back; the sharp
lower jaw; the nodes in the tail, and the angle at
which the teeth in the upper and lower jaws meet,
as well as the shape of the teeth, which, as we
have pointed out, become more triangular as the
animal advances in age.
Literature.
Much attention and study has been given to the
question of estimating the ages of horses by their
dentition, and discussions of the methods will be
found in many books devoted to the horse. Men-
tion is made here of two works in which the subject
is discussed carefully: Gaubaux and Barrier, The
Exterior of the Horse, translated by 8. J. J. Harger,
J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia ; Roberts,
The Horse, Macmillan Company, New York. [For
further references, see page 416.]
Common Ailments of Horses. Figs. 450-459.
By John R. Mohler and George H. Hart.
In this article only the sporadic or non-infectious
diseases of horses will be discussed, together with
the best-known methods of treatment. Diseases of
this class affect only one or two animals in a stable
at one time, and do not spread through a stable or
herd from one animal to another. As was noted
under the ailments of cattle, in many cases it is
advisable to employ a veterinarian to treat ailing
animals, as the slightest carelessness or misjudg-
ment may result fatally. While it is highly desir-
able for the farmer to be able to diagnose the
ailments of his stock, and to be able to treat the
less serious disabilities, he will generally find it to
his advantage to employ skilled assistance for cases
which may involve the life of the animal or which
HORSE
are liable to produce much suffering. It is well to
be on the safe side.
Temperature.
In order to restore diseased animals to health, it
is necessary to know the character of the disease
affecting them. It follows that the ability to make
a correct diagnosis is the fundamental principle on
which the treatment of the disease is based. In
the domesticated animals, we are unable to obtain
knowledge directly from the patient, as to where
the trouble is located ; and, therefore, we are com-
pelled to make a diagnosis, by carefully noting the
symptoms produced. Among the more important
symptoms that will be referred to frequently in dis-
cussing the following diseases, are abnormal tem-
peratures, pulse rates and respiratory movements.
In the first place, a knowledge of the tempera-
ture of an animal assists in making a diagnosis;
second, it keeps one posted as to how the case is
progressing ; third, in some diseases, as influenza,
swine plague and Texas fever, it is the first symp-
tom denoting the approach of the disease. The
normal temperature of the various animals is as
follows [See also page 21]:
Horses. nein ae oreo 99.5° to 101.3° Fahr.
Os aeUE Go, Fite ono 100.4° to 102.2° Fahr.
Sheeps sacs sisewen aes 102.2° to 104° Fahr.
Hoe ee teks - - - 100.4° to 104° ahr.
Do geneween eticia ements 99.5° to 102.2° Fahr.
In order to ascertain the temperature, it is nec-
essary to be provided with an ordinary clinical
thermometer. The end to be inserted should be
covered with vaseline or lard. It is placed in the
rectum for three to five minutes. Accompanying
fever there are always chills, an increase in the —
number of heart-beats per minute, loss of appetite
and general nervous depression. Care should be
taken not to miscalculate the reading of a high
temperature in the horse after the animal has been
doing heavy work on a warm day, or in other
animals when they become greatly excited during
the taking of the temperature. In horses, the tem-
perature, even in most severe diseases, rarely
passes 107° Fahr., except in cases of heat stroke,
when it has been known to reach 110° Fahr. The
highest normal temperatures are always recorded
in the afternoon, and the lowest in the morning.
A subnormal temperature is rare in diseases of
animals. The most striking and constant example
of this is seen in milk-fever in the cow. Sometimes
a subnormal temperature is recorded in cases when
the thermometer has not been inserted far enough, —
or when the passing of feces has taken place just
prior to the taking of the temperature, both of
which conditions should be carefully guarded
against.
Pulse.
The average normal pulse frequency in animals
is as follows [See also page 21]:
Horse, 28 to 40 Sheep, 70 to 90
Mule, 45 to 50 Swine, 60 to 100
Cattle, 40 to 80 Dogs, 60 to 120
HORSE
In disease, the character, frequency and regu-
larity of the pulse may be altered. It is usually
increased in frequency, although in chronic brain
troubles a reduction in the number of beats per
minute may be observed. In all febrile diseases,
and in severe hemorrhages, the number of beats
per minute serves to guide one in judging the
strength of the heart. When the pulse of the horse
exceeds 100 per minute, the chances of recovery
are very slight. By the regularity of the pulse is
meant the following of the beats in regular order
with the same period of time elapsing between
them. In an irregular pulse, a beat is dropped now
and then, or an extra one may be counted in. An
irregular pulse is seen normally in dogs, and occurs
also in horses when the pulse is very high during
the course of febrile diseases.
Respiration.
The frequency of respiratory movements per
minute in animals is as follows [See also page 21]:
Horse, 8 to 16 Swine, 10 to 20
Ox, 10 to 30 Dog, 10 to 30
Sheep, 12 to 20 Goat, 12 to 20
Normally, respiration is noiseless, although at
times fat cattle may grunt after feeding; and
lively horses and cattle may snort when startled.
In disease, various sounds may be heard, among
the more important of which is the wheezing sound
from the nose, caused by a narrowing of this
region, due to tumors or enlargements of the bone.
A rattling sound comes from the region of the
throat when the vocal cords are relaxed, as is heard
in sore throat. The most important respiratory
sound, perhaps, comes from the larynx and gener-
ally is increased in volume by violent exercise. It
is heard in horses affected with what is commonly
known as “roaring,” and varies in pitch from a
whistling to a roaring tone. Groaning is heard
when expiration is attempted through a partially
closed voice-box, and also in painful diseases affect-
ing the chest, as pneumonia and pleurisy.
Urticaria or hives.
Urticaria, also called nettle rash or hives, is an
affection of horses and other animals resulting from
a number of causes, and characterized by the erup-
tion of various-sized swellings (wheals) on the skin.
The disease is most common in young animals in
good condition. It occurs usually in the spring,
during rainy, muggy weather, with high humidity.
Not infrequently cases occur without any ascer-
tainable cause.
In the majority of instances, the disease is the
direct result of some digestive disorders ; and cer-
tain foods, as buckwheat, new oats, green potatoes,
are especially liable to produce the eruption. Such
disorders, however, are followed by urticaria in a
very small percentage of cases, and consequently
some co-existing condition is necessary, which is
thought to be some abnormal irritability of the
herves supplying the blood-vessels in the skin.
The disease is peculiar in the suddenness of its
onset. The owner’s attention is attracted to the
HORSE 437
animal by the swellings on the skin, which spread.
with great rapidity, and in a few hours may be
generally scattered over the body. They vary in:
size from a half-inch to two inches in diameter ;
and in some cases, several may become confluent
and the resulting swelling attain the size of a din-
ner-plate. The edges of the swellings are cut off
sharply from the surrounding tissues. They are
supposed to be due to a spasm of the blood-vessel
walls, with rapid leakage of blood serum therefrom,
being therefore localized edematous infiltrations of
the skin: The eruption is also accompanied with
marked itching, but there is no tendency to rupture
or to suppuration.
The disease is usually without fever and of short
duration, often entirely disappearing after one or
two days. Such animals, however, are liable to
subsequent attacks.
Treatment.—Food should be withheld for twenty-
four hours, after which bran mashes and small
quantities of hay may be given. The digestive tract
should be evacuated by the administration of a
quart of linseed oil or one and one-half pounds of
Epsom salts. The local application of alkaline solu-
tions, as one tablespoonful of sodium bicarbonate
to a quart of water, or a weak solution of ammonia,
will relieve the itching. Recovery is rapid, and the
swelling usually disappears in a few hours to two
days.
Heat-stroke.
This is a condition seen principally in horses,
but also at times affecting cattle and sheep on long
drives. It is due to excessive heating of the entire
body, thereby differing from sun-stroke, which is
due to the direct action of the sun’s rays on the
head and is rare in animals. Heat-stroke is seen
only in the hot summer months and usually affects
draft horses. The attack comes on much more
gradually than in sun-stroke. The animal stops
sweating, appears droopy in the harness, drags
along for a short distance, but soon goes down and
becomes unconscious. The breathing is rapid and
shallow, the pulse rapid and weak, and the body
temperature excessively high, sometimes reaching
110° or 111° Fahr.
Treatment.—The treatment must be very ener-
getic and directed toward the immediate reduction
of bodily temperature, as the animal can stand
this excessively high temperature only for a very
short time, if he is to recover. Ice-bags should be
applied to the head and cold water poured over the
body from buckets or, better, from a hose. This
will reduce the temperature of the skin, but at the
same time, it is essential to stimulate the weak
heart in order to increase circulation, and especi-
ally the circulation in the skin where heat-radia-
tion takes place. For this purpose, one-half pint of
whiskey should be given immediately, followed by
tincture of digitalis in one-dram doses by the
mouth, or one-half-dram doses subcutaneously. In
the latter method of administration, the action is
quicker. The cold water should be continued until
the temperature is reduced to 102° to 103° Fahr.,
when it should be withheld and applied again only
438 HORSE
in case the temperature rises. The limbs should be
rubbed briskly with straw or the hands. Bleed-
ing an animal affected with heat-stroke is a
very bad practice and should always be discour-
aged. Recovery is gradual and is prolonged over a
week or two, during which time the animal should
have general tonic treatment and be returned to
heavy work gradually.
Periodie ophthalmia (Moon blindness).
Moon blindness is an ailment affecting the horse
alone of all the domestic animals. It is an inflam-
mation of the interior of the eyeball, usually affect-
ing only one eye at a time, one attack of which is
almost sure to be followed by subsequent ones, and
leading eventually to complete loss of sight.
The exact cause of this disease is unknown.
Various parasites have been said to be instrumental
in its production, but none has been proved to have
a direct causative effect. However, it is especially
common in damp, marshy soils and seems to be
especially prevalent after wet seasons. Heredity is
also supposed to play some part in its production.
This, however, is not positive, as foals from affected
dams or sires, if taken to another locality, where
the disease does not exist, may not be attacked.
Animals are subject to the disease at any time of
life, but the largest percentage of cases occurs in
horses under six years of age.
The disease appears very suddenly, sometimes
over night. There is great irritation in the affected
eyeball, sensitiveness to light and an excessive
flow of tears, the eye being kept continuously
closed, and drawn back into the eye socket. The
conjunctiva or mucous membrane on the inside of
the eyelid is very red, swollen, and may protrude
between the closed lids. The blood-vessels around
the eyeball are enlarged, and the eyeball is cloudy.
After this has existed for a few days, healing usu-
ally begins. The sensitiveness to light diminishes,
and the excessive secretion of tears lessens. How-
ever, some signs of the inflammation usually remain.
In two weeks after the first attack, the eye may
appear normal, but within varying periods of time
another attack occurs, each attack producing
greater and greater change, until finally sight is
completely lost. Later, in about 25 per cent of the
cases, the other eye becomes attacked in the same
way. The outlook for recovery is poor.
Treatment.—Preventive treatment is most suc-
cessful. The attendant should remove foals to a
place where the disease is not prevalent. There is
no good medicinal treatment for the disease. The
old methods of bleeding from the eye, setoning and
blistering, are of no value, and should not be used.
Treatment consists in keeping the animal in the
dark, and washing off the eye several times daily
with a 4 per cent solution of boric acid. A few
drops ef this solution may also be dropped into
the eye with good results. Ice poultices may be
used over the eye for the first three or four days,
after which warmth should be applied by covering
the eye with cotton soaked in warm water, and
kept in place by means of a flannel hood placed
around the head. In recent years, the administra-
HORSE
tion of potassium iodid, one to two drams daily,
has been recommended.
Lampas or lampers.
This is acondition in which the mucous membrane
in the roof of the mouth becomes congested with
blood and protrudes below the incisor teeth. It is
frequently observed temporarily at the time of eat-
ing. In some cases, however, it may become exces-
sive, especially in colts during the eruption of the
permanent teeth, when it may be relieved by mak-
ing a few shallow punctures in the mucous mem-
brane with a sharp knife that has been sterilized.
Such treatment demands expert care. Searing the
roof cf the mouth with a hot iron is very cruel,
and never of any value. It is only on the rarest
occasions that any treatment is necessary. This
ailment is not common.
Osteoporosis, or bighead.
Osteoporosis is a general disease of the bones,
which develops slowly, and is characterized by the
absorption of the compact bony substance, and the
formation of enlarged, softened and porous bone.
It is particularly manifest in the bones of the head,
causing enlargement and bulging of the face and
jaws, thereby giving rise to the terms, “bighead”
and “swelled head,” which are applied to it. In the
United States the disease has been found in all the
states bordering the Delaware river and Chesa-
peake bay, in some of the New England states, and
in many of the southern states, especially along
the coast in regions of low altitude. The idea that
the disease is contagious has been advanced by
many writers, although no causative agent has
been isolated.
Probably the first symptom to be noticed is a
loss of vitality combined with an irregular appe-
tite or other digestive disturbance, and with a
tendency to stumble while
in action. These earlier
symptoms, however, may
pass unobserved, and the
appearance of an intermit-
tent or migratory lame-
ness without any visible
cause may be the first
sign to attract attention.
About this time, swelling
of the bones of the face
and jaw, which is almost
constantly present in this
disease, will be observed.
(Fig. 450.) The bones of
the lower jaw are the
most frequently involved,
and this condition is read-
ily detected with the fin-
gers by the bulging ridge
of the bone outside and
along the lower edge of the molar teeth. A thicken-
ing of the lower jaw-bone may likewise be identi-
fied by feeling on both sides of each branch at the
same time and comparing it with the thinness of
this bone in a normal horse. Other bones of the
Fig. 450. Bighead
( Osteoporosis).
HORSE
body will undergo similar changes, but these alter-
ations are not so readily noticed except by the
symptoms they occasion. The anima] becomes poor
in flesh, the coat is rough and lusterless, and the
skin tight and harsh, producing a condition termed
“hidebound,” with considerable “tucking up” of the
abdomen. The horse shows a short, stilted, choppy
gait, which later becomes stiffer and more restricted,
while on standing, a position simulating that in
founder is assumed, with a noticeable drop to the
croup. The animal at this stage usually lies down
and remains recumbent for several days at a time.
Bed-sores frequently arise and fractures are not
uncommon, in consequence of attempts to arise,
which complications, in addition to emaciation,
result in death.
Treatment.—The affected animal should be imme-
diately placed under new conditions, both as to
feed and surroundings. If the horse has been
stable fed, it is advisable to turn him out on grass
for two or three months, preferably in a higher
altitude. If the disease has been contracted while
running on pasture, the animal should be placed in
the stable or corral. In the early stages of the
disease, beneficial results have followed the supple-
mental use of lime in the drinking-water. One
peck of lime, slaked in a cask of water and addi-
tional water added from time to time, is satis-
factory and can be provided at slight expense.
This treatment may be supplemented by giving a
tablespoonful of powdered bone meal in each feed,
with free access to a large piece of rock salt; or
the bone may be given with four tablespoonfuls of
molasses mixed with the food. Feeds containing
mineral salts, such as beans, cowpeas, oats and
cottonseed meal, may prove beneficial in replenish-
ing the bony substance that is being absorbed.
Cottonseed meal is one of the best feeds for this
purpose, but it should be fed carefully. The
animal should not be allowed to work at all during
the active stage of the disease, nor should it be
used for breeding purposes.
Rheumatism.
Rheumatism is a painful febrile disease, affect-
ing both the muscles and joints, and seen princi-
pally in the horse, ox and dog. The exact cause of
the disease is unknown, although many theories
have been advanced. As predisposing causes may
be mentioned dampness and chilling. In the horse
and ox it usually affects the muscles and joints of
the extremities. It rarely becomes generalized
(spread over the entire body) in any of the domes-
tic animals.
The animal attacked suddenly becomes stiff and
lame, followed by arise of temperature (104° Fahr.).
A swelling appears around one or more of the
joints of the legs, which is exceedingly painful to
the touch. The point of localization changes fre-
quently, and one day the animal may show lame-
ness in one joint, as for example, in the hock, and
on the following day the hip or even the opposite
leg may be affected. The attacks are also inter-
mittent, and the animal may go sound for two or
three days between them. The death rate is very
HORSE 439
low, as the disease rarely proves fatal when uncom-
plicated.
Treatment.—First of all, a cathartic should be
administered. Aloes balls containing 7 drams of
aloes for the horse and 1 to 14 pounds of Epsom
salts for the cow will give good results. At the
same time, great benefit may be secured by thor-
ough rubbing of the affected joints or muscles
with some stimulating liniment, as camphor or
chloroform liniment, which can be purchased ready-
prepared at any drug-store. In this treatment, the
rubbing does equally as much service as the lini-
ment. The cathartic should be followed by some
antirheumatic medicines, as the salicylates, given
principally in the form of sodium salicylate. For
the horse and the cow, 6 to 8 drams may be given
two or three times daily in the food. In the sheep,
dog and pig, 4 to 2 drams should be dissolved in
water and given as a drench. During the treat-
ment the animal should be kept in a dry place, and
have plenty of fresh air.
Colic.
Colic is a collective term applied to all forms of
pain in the digestive tract. The term “false” colic
is frequently given to pain affecting the abdominal
organs, as the liver, kidney and bladder. It isa
very common disease, as in horses it forms about
10 per cent of all their ailments, and about 10 to
15 per cent of the affected animals die.
From the anatomical arrangement of the digest-
ive tract, especially of the stomach, which does
not allow of vomiting, the horse is more subject
to colic than any other animal. Eating at irregu-
lar intervals, overloading of the stomach or pro-
longed absence of food, the presence of worms in
large numbers in the alimentary canal and fermen-
tation in the intestinal tract, due to the ingestion
of new corn or hay, or sour decayed food, are
causes. Sometimes the intestines become displaced
or may become telescoped on themselves during
unusual exertion; or a loop of the gut may pass
down through the inguinal canal, causing the
blood-supply to be shut off as a result of pressure,
and giving rise to a rapidly fatal form of colic.
The symptoms are mainly those of pain. If the
animal is in harness, he lags and stops; if urged
forward, he will lie down in the shafts; if in the
stable, he stops eating and walks around the box-
stall restlessly. The animal looks around at the
side, kicks at the belly, and may grit the teeth.
The tail gets a peculiar crook in it and is held
extended. The animal gathers its feet together as
if to lie down, and when apparently it is going
down it suddenly straightens up again; or it may
lie down, roll, kick, and at times when the pain
is severe may make very violent movements, as
slamming the head against the ground or biting at
itself or the manger. The attacks are sometimes
intermittent and the animal will appear to be
eased and may start eating, but this is only tem-
porary. There may be fermentation in the intes-
tines, with consequent gas formation, and great
distention of the abdomen may occur. The patients
are usually constipated and intestinal movements
440 HORSE
lessened or entirely stopped. The rectum is fre-
quently filled with dry, hard feces. The duration
of colic is usually short, varying from a few
minutes to several hours. If the pain is continuous
for twenty-four .hours the outlook for recovery is
grave.
Treatment.—First of all, the animal should be
given plenty of room in a large stall or shed, the
floor of which should be covered with an abundance
of straw in order to prevent the animal producing
permanent injuries to itself during its violent
movements. Sometimes, especially in chronic colic,
walking exercise is to be recommended. One must
use judgment in this respect,-as there are many
cases of colic in which the animals are much
better if allowed to remain quiet. The internal
treatment should be directed toward allaying the
pain. For this purpose, cannabis indica, one to two
ounces, may be given ; or morphine sulfate, five to
seven grains, given subcutaneously. Larger doses
of either should not be given, as cannabis indica
stops intestinal movements and morphine in larger
than seven-grain doses in the horse produces
excitement instead of quiet. The following is an
excellent prescription for many forms of colic :
Fluid extract cannabis indica . . . . 4 drams
Airgas Sho 6 ooo ae 6 drams
Sulfuricsethory. ers ie. ie ee) eee 1 ounce
Sweet spirits of niter ....... 1 ounce
Give in one dose and repeat if necessary in one
hour. The intestines must be stimulated, for which
purpose eight drams of aloes or one pint of linseed-
oil may be given. Injections of lukewarm water
into the rectum after cleaning out the fecal matter
’ with the hand will sometimes stimulate the intes-
tinal movements. In fermentation colic with gas
formation, tapping the animal is the quickest and
surest method of getting relief. A sterile trocar
is necessary for this operation. The puncture is
made on the right side midway between the angle
of the haunch, the spinal column, and the border of
the last rib. The skin should be washed with a
5 per cent carbolic acid solution or some other
antiseptic and the trocar pushed through the skin
into the intestine. The stilette should then be
withdrawn, leaving the canula in place through
which the gas escapes. When all the gas is evacu-
ated, the stilette is again inserted and the instru-
ment withdrawn. This can be repeated if gas con-
tinues to form, care being taken not to push the
instrument in the same place twice.
Thumps.
This term has been applied to peculiar throbbing
movements of the sides of the chest, caused by
spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm. It is
analogous to hiccoughs in man. The condition is
easily recognized, the only thing with which it
could be confused being palpitation of the heart.
In thumps, however, the movements involve the
whole side of the chest and are entirely independent
of the heart-beats and less frequent. The breathing
is rapid, jerky and incomplete. By placing the hand
on the chest near the last rib, which is opposite the
HORSE
insertion of the diaphragm, the contractions may
be felt as distinct throbs against the fingers. The
condition may last for only a few minutes, or may
continue for several days, lead to congestion of
the lungs, and terminate fatally.
Treatment.—Frequently a single dose of some
antispasmodic, as 4 drams of asafetida, or 5 ounces
of the milk of asafetida, will relieve the condition.
If this is not successful, nerve sedatives, as mor-
phine sulfate, 5 grains, or potassium bromid, 1
ounce, should be administered. In obstinate cases,
a purgative dose of 8 drams of aloes or 1 pound of
Glauber’s salts, should be given.
Heaves.
This is a disease of the lungs of horses, due to a loss
of elasticity and permanent distention of the walls
of the minute air-sacs in the lungs. Horses that
stop and start a great deal, as milk-wagon horses,
are predisposed to the affection. Clover hay and
various other bulky foods containing little nutri-
tive elements, and thus requiring the ingestion of
large quantities to supply the needs of the animal,
are also considered a cause.
One of the first symptoms of the disease is the
distressing dry cough which frequently occurs in
paroxysms. It can best be produced by giving the
animal a drink of cold water, or by bringing it
suddenly from a warm stable into the cold outdoor
air. There is also present the characteristic double
respiration, and the expired air comes from the
nose in two jets, with a pause between them; the
flank movements are pronounced, and the anus is
forced backward at each expiration. Inspiration
is usually normal.
Treatment.—The condition is incurable, and all
medicinal agents are only palliative. The greatest
benefit is to be derived from the regulation of the
diet. All dusty hay should be withheld, and only
small quantities of the best timothy hay given,
which should be well sprinkled with lime or mo-
lasses water. Nutritious concentrated foods should
be given so that relatively small quantities will be
required, as the less aliment in the digestive tract
the more easily the animal can breathe. Corn, oats
and bran, with carrots, turnips or apples mixed in,
are good. Keep out on pasture when possible, away
from the dust of the stable. Do not allow the ani-
mal to drink water just before a drive.
Medicinally, arsenic is good for a time, given in
the form of arsenious acid, three grains, three
times daily in the food. As arsenic is poisonous its
general use is not advised. Fowler’s Solution would
be safer in this instance. Constipation should be
avoided, and when any tendency in that direction
is noticed, one and one-half pints of linseed oil, or
a pound of Glauber’s salts should be given as a
drench.
Laryngitis or sore throat.
This is an inflammation of the lining membrane
of the larynx (voice-box), caused by exposure, chil-
ling, cold air, and also by the inhalation of irritant
vapors as smoke or chlorine gas. It is classified
“according to the duration of the affection into
HORSE
acute and chronic laryngitis. In the acute form,
there is a rise of temperature with general symp-
toms of depression and a constant, more or less
painful cough. The animal coughs on the slightest
pressure in the region of the throat, when allowed
to drink cold water, or when excited from any
cause. If the ear is placed against the upper part
of the neck, just back of the jaws, a gurgling
sound may sometimes be heard. The sound is pro-
duced by the to and fro movement of fluid in the
larynx at each inspiration and expiration. The
head is held stiffly and extended on the neck, and
adischarge appears from both nostrils, accompanied
by fluid in the larynx.
Treatment.—The best results are obtained by
means of local applications. Toward this end,
absorbent cotton soaked in warm water should be
placed around the throat and evaporation prevented
by means of oiled silk or rubber cloth on the out-
side, which is kept in place by means of a bed-tick-
ing bandage passed around the head and tied over
the poll. Internally, a mixture containing potas-
sium chlorate 1 dram, codiene hydrochlorate 2
grains, powdered licorice-root 5 drams, and suffi-
cient honey or molasses to make a soft paste, should
be spread over the tongue or teeth twice daily.
Potassium iodid, 4 dram, :
two or three times daily,
is also valuable. In se-
vere cases showing no
tendency toimprovement,
steaming is to be recom-
mended. This is accom-
plished as follows: The
bottom of a large bran
sack is covered with a
thick layer of bran. A
bucket of water is heated
to the boiling-point, three
or four ounces of creolin
added, and the whole
poured quickly into the
sack on: the bran. The
open end of the sack is
then immediately tied
around the horse’s head,
so that the animal will
have to inhale the steam that rises inside the sack.
(Fig. 451.) This may be done twice daily, and may
be very beneficial in its effects.
Sy
Fig. 451. Steaming a horse
for sore throat.
Bronchitis.
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial
tubes. The causative agents are very similar to
those causing laryngitis, as chilling, sudden inhala-
tion of cold air, standing in draughts, or the inhal-
ation of smoke and other irritating gases or vapors.
It also frequently results from an extension of a
preéxisting inflammation of the larynx in laryngitis.
The disease is ushered in with a rise of tempera-
ture, and the animal becomes droopy, the appetite
is reduced and breathing is rapid. This rise of tem-
perature varies with the severity of the attack, and
may reach 106° Fahr. The cough is painful, barking,
and comes from deep down in the respiratory tract.
HORSE 441
In the beginning stages it is dry, later becoming
moist and accompanied by a nasal discharge.
The duration of ordinary uncomplicated bronchitis
usually extends over a period varying from one to
three weeks and terminates in recovery.
Treatment.—The general surroundings should be
good. Keep the animal in a cool place in summer
and a sheltered place in winter. Tempt the appe-
tite, which is likely to be fickle, with different kinds
of food, as bran mash, oats and grass, until some-
thing is found that it will eat. Steaming the ani-
mal as described under laryngitis is to be highly
recommended.
In order to prevent the spread of the inflamma-
tion into the air-sacs, and also to arrest the forma-
tion of fluid, a mustard plaster should be applied to
the sides of the chest. Mix about one-fourth-pound
of mustard in one pint of water and rub over the
sides of the chest, being careful not to get it under
the front legs where the skin is soft and the irrita-
tion it causes is very great. A mustard plaster of
this strength need not be washed off and may be
repeated in two or three days. Mustard plasters
must be used with caution, as they are very likely
to leave a blemish.
Internally, a paste consisting of ammonium
chlorid 1 dram, morphine sulfate 3 grains, pow-
dered licorice root 6 drams, and sufficient molasses
to make a soft mass, should be spread over the
tongue twice daily. General stimulants, such as
alcohol 2 ounces, tincture of digitalis 1 dram, may
be given in cases of heart weakness. During the
course of the disease a bucket of cold water should
be kept constantly before the animal. If the dis-
ease tends to become chronic, potassium iodid in
one-half-dram doses, or arsenious acid in three-grain
doses, should be given twice daily over a period of
two weeks.
Pneumonia.
Pneumonia is a common disease of the horse,
usually involving a lobe or even anentire lung. The
lung becomes solid and of the consistency of liver,
due to the filling of the air-sacs with exudate. Ill
health, excessive excretion and chilling are predis-
posing causes, while the direct cause is a micro-
organism.
The onset is sudden, with chill and very high
fever, 105° or 106° Fahr., depression, muscular weak-
ness, short dry cough, and increased pulse and
respiratory rate. Physical signs are present on
examination of the chest. The temperature remains
high for seven to fourteen days, and in favorable
cases drops suddenly, accompanied by a resolution
of the inflammation in the lungs, a moist cough,
and a discharge resembling prune-juice from the
nose. The disease may terminate completely in ten
to twenty days, or may pass into a chronic state and
last for two or three months, or lead to permanent
broken wind. The death rate is low, except in old
worn-out horses, and those weakened by previous
disease.
Treatment.—Place the animal in comfortable,
roomy surroundings, and tempt him to continue
eating by offering various kinds of food in small
442 HORSE
quantities. Milk will often be drunk when all else
is refused. Apply a mustard plaster to the chest,
as in bronchitis.
Medicinally, stimulants are indicated, as a mix-
ture consisting of tincture of digitalis 1 dram, tinc-
ture of nux vomica | dram, quinine sulfate 1 dram,
water in sufficient quantity to make an ounce, and
given three or four times daily for several days or
a week. When convalescence is established, arsenic
in three-grain doses and iron in one-dram doses may
be given in the feed. When the symptoms have
disappeared, potassium iodid in one-half-dram doses
twice daily should be given for a week, to aid in the
complete absorption of the inflammatory exudate.
Abscesses (poll evil, fistula, etc.).
Abscesses are well-defined collections of pus.
They are characterized by the fact that they
increase in size slowly, show symptoms of acute
inflammation, are firm to the touch, although later
they may show fluctuation. They follow as the
result of local inflammation in glands, muscular
tissue, or even bones. They are very common in
the first two cases. The abscesses most commonly
met with in horses are those of the poll (poll evil),
the withers (fistula) and the glands which occur
during the existence of strangles or colt distemper.
At first the swelling is uniformly hard and resist-
ing over its entire surface, but in a little while
becomes soft—fluctuating—at some part, mostly in
the center. From this time, the abscess is said to
be “pointing” or “coming to a head,” which is
shown by a small elevated or projecting promi-
nence, which at
first is dry, but
soon becomes
moist with
- transuded se-
rum. The hairs
over this part
loosen and fall
off, and in a
short time the
abscess opens,
the contents
escape, and the
cavity gradually fills up, and heals by granulations.
Treatment.—Abscesses in muscular tissue, such
as poll evil and fistula of the withers (Fig. 452),
are usually the result of bruises or injuries. In all
cases when abscesses are forming, we should hurry
the ripening process by frequent hot fomentations
and poultices of bread, bran, or flaxseed. When
they are very tardy in their development, a blister
composed of one part of cantharides and ten parts
of vaseline, rubbed over their surface, is advisable.
It is a common rule with surgeons to open an
abscess as soon as pus can be plainly felt, but this
practice can not be recommended to owners of
stock indiscriminately, since this operation requires
an exact knowledge of anatomy. This is imperative
if the abscess is in the region of joints. When
open, we must not squeeze the walls of the abscess
to any extent. They may be very gently pressed
with the fingers at first to remove the clots (in-
Fig. 452.
Fistulous withers.
HORSE
spissated pus), but after this the orifice is simply to
be kept open by the introduction of a clean probe,
should it be disposed to heal too soon. If the open-
ing is at too high a level, another should be made
into the lowest part of the abscess so as to permit
the most complete drainage. Hot fomentations or
Fig. 453. The appearance of bots in stomach of horse. (From
Diseases of the Horse, U. S. Dept. Agric.)
poultices are sometimes required for a day or two
after an abscess has opened, and are particularly
indicated when the base of the abscess is hard and
indurated. The cavity should be thorougly washed
with stimulating antiseptic solutions, such as 3 per
cent solution of carbolic acid, 3 to 5 per cent solu-
tion of creolin, 1 to 1,000 bichlorid of mercury, or
1 per cent permanganate of potash solution. If the
abscesses are foul and bad smelling, their cavities
should be syringed with one part of hydrogen
peroxid to two parts of water, followed by the
injection of any of the above-mentioned antiseptics.
Bots. (Fig. 453.)
Bots are the larvee of the bot-fly, a heavy-bodied
hairy insect. The larve are thick, fleshy grubs liv-
ing practically in the intestinal tract of horses. The
injury to the horse from the presence of the larve
may take one or all of four forms: (1) The attach-
ment to the walls of the stomach may cause an
irritation which may interfere with the normal
action of the glands that secrete digestive juices ;
(2) the bots abstract some nutriment from the
walls of the stomach, or by absorption from the
food content of the organ; (8) by collecting, par-
ticularly in the region of the pylorus (opening of
the stomach into the intestine), they serve as an
obstruction to the free passage of food from the
stomach into the intestine ; (4) in passing through
the intestine after they have released their hold on
the walls of the stomach, they may attach them-
selves to the intestinal wall or rectal walls and
cause great irritation.
The eggs are deposited in the hair, usually of
the front legs and chest of a horse, and are held
there by a sticky fluid, which quickly dries and
glues them firmly in place. The eggs are taken
into the horse’s mouth by licking, and if so taken
between the tenth and thirteenth day after the
deposition, will develop into the bot in the animal’s
stomach.
Treatment.—By far the most important point is
HORSE
to prevent the introduction of the larve. The eggs
are very plainly seen on the hair, and it is evident
that if they are removed before the tenth day (at
which time they begin to hatch) the animal can-
not get bots. Eggs may be removed in several
ways: by washing the hair in a dilute carbolic
acid solution, one part acid to thirty parts of
water, by rubbing the parts lightly with kerosene,
or by clipping. Horses pastured in July, August
and September should be examined every three or
four days, and if the eggs are present they should
be removed.
Tt is, of course, not an easy matter to determine
whether any particular disturbance of the digestive
organs is produced by bots or by some other agency
producing similar symptoms. If occasional bots are
noticed in the manure of the animal, together with
poor condition, their presence in numbers is to be
suspected. The animal should then be starved for
twelve hours, allowing only water, after which
give two teaspoonfuls of tartar emetic in water as
a drench. Repeat in four hours’ time. Hight or
twelve hours afterward give a drench of one pint
to one quart of linseed oil.
Worms (Ascarides, round worms).
These worms are found in all domestic animals.
The round worm of the horse (Ascarid megaloceph-
ala) is about five to six inches in length by one-
fourth inch in thickness, and white in color. It
is easily detected in the feces, its presence in which
is the only sure sign.
Treatment.—For the horse, tartar emetic is rec-
ommended in two-dram doses every four hours until
three doses are given, care being taken to starve
the animal twelve to eighteen hours before admin-
istering, and to follow it in three or four hours
with one and one-fourth pints of
linseed-oil.
Capped elbow or hock.
These conditions are some-
what similar in their nature,
although capped elbow is the
more common and more serious
condition. It is caused by re-
peated mild injuries from lying
on an unbedded floor or by lying
with the shod hoof bent under
the body so that the shoe comes
in contact with the elbow.
Capped hock results from strik-
ing the point by kicking back-
wards against the side of the
stall or other hard object. (Fig.
454.) The severity of the con-
dition may vary from a slight
inflammation with edema to cyst
development, or abscess forma-
tion, and even organization of the inflammatory
exudate with the presence of a large fibrous tumor
on the elbow, commonly called a shoe boil. In
Some cases these shoe boils may reach the size of
a child’s head, and may be very firm and hard or
soft and flabby.
Fig. 454.
Capped hock.
HORSE 443
Treatment.—In the early stages, the main object
is to prevent recurrence of the irritation. To
accomplish this in capped hock, the animal should
be placed in a large stall with the sides and posts
well padded. In capped elbow the branches of the
shoes should be shortened and their ends bevelled
forward, and a heel boot should be worn while in
the stable. The stall should also be well bedded,
and a dirt floor is better than boards or cement.
When a cyst containing a serous fluid is present,
it should be aspirated with a sterile syringe or
drained off with a sterile trocar. If pus is in the
sac, it must be opened with a free incision in the
most dependent part and washed out with hydrogen
peroxid diluted half with water, or 3 to 5 per cent
creolin solution. Stimulating liniments and even
blisters, in the subacute cases without pus forma-
tion, may cause a resolution and absorption of the
inflammatory products. In the old standing cases
with the presence of a fibrous tumor, the only
treatment is the surgical re-
moval of the mass. The condi-
tion may last for years, however,
without reducing the working
capacity of the animal.
Curb.
Curb is an unsoundness in the
horse sometimes leading to lame-
ness. It is caused by a rupture
of the ligament on the posterior
surface of the hock. (Fig. 455.)
The inciting causes consist in a
defective conformation of the
leg, and in sudden strains dur-
ing heavy draft work or under
the saddle. In recent cases there
is some swelling and heat about
the posterior surface of the hock,
with lameness. On examining
the hock joint in profile, the leg, which normally
should be perfectly straight, shows a bulging back-
ward below the point of the hock. A well-marked
curb may be present and cause slight or no lame-
ness.
Treatment.—This aims to remove the lameness
but cannot remedy the blemish. In the early
stages, when there is heat and edema about the
part, showing the presence of an acute inflamma-
tion, cold water should be applied for ten or
twelve hours daily from a rubber hose, which is
connected with a faucet passed over the back of
the animal and tied to the leg by tapes. If lame-
ness persists after about a week, a blister of bini-
odid of mercury one part to vaseline eight parts
should be applied and the animal allowed to rest
in the stable for two to four weeks. In the great
majority of cases, this will effect a cure. A cer-
tain percentage of cases, however, are obstinate
and require point- or line-firing, which must be
administered by a veterinarian.
Leg showing curb.
Cartilaginous quittor.
This is a chronic suppurative inflammation of
the lateral cartilage leading to necrosis and the
Fig. 456.
Muscles in the normal leg
of a horse. 1, M. su-
pra-spinatus; 2, M. In-
fra-spinatus; 3, M. del-
toideus; 4, long head of
M. triceps; 5, lateral
head of M. triceps; 6, M.
biceps; 7, M. sterno-
cleido mastoideus; 8, M.
brachialis internus; 9, M.
extensor carpi radialis;
10, M. extensor digito-
rum communis; 11, M.
extensor carpi ulnaris;
12, M. extensor digiti
minimi; 13, M. abductor
pollicis longus; 14, prin-
cipal tendon of the M,
extensor digitorum com-
munis; 15,fibrous sheath;
16, tendon of M. exten-
sor carpi radialis; 17,
small lateral tendon of
M. extensor digitorum
communis; 18, tendon of
M.extensor carpiulnaris;
19, M. flexor digitorum
sublimis; 20, flexor digi-
torum profundus; 21, in-
terosseus medius; 22, ex-
tensor digiti minimi; 23,
lateral part of interos-
seus medius. (After El-
lenberger. )
HORSE
formation of discharging
sinuses. It is most often
seen in the front feet of
heavy draft horses, and
especially in animals that
have flat hoofs with low
quarters and heels. The
exciting causes of quittor
are corns, deep quarter
cracks, or tread wounds
and other inflammatory
conditions which allow
the entrance of microdr-
ganisms.
There is first noticed a
swelling and inflamma-
tion in the region of the
quarters, extending up-
wards above the hoof.
This increases until
finally pus is formed and
breaks outward through
the skin. In old cases,
several openings may be
present, together with
scars of old sinuses that
have healed. The horny
hoof is bulged outward
and there may be lame-
ness, although this is not
a marked symptom, and
the animal is frequently
able to continue at slow
work. The course of the
disease is chronic and fre-
quently covers several
months. There is danger
of serious complications
arising.
Treatment.—In the
treatment of this condi-
tion, a great variety of
remedies have been tried.
Soaking the foot in a tub
containing 1 per cent cre-
olin solution is valuable.
When the animal is work-
ing daily, injections of
antiseptic solutions and
protecting the part with
bandages should be tried.
This, in addition to the
careful injection once
each week of a _ small
quantity of a saturated
aqueous solution of bi-
chlorid of mercury,
through a syringe with
a narrow nozzle that
reaches to the bottom of
the sinus, is very good
treatment. In severe
cases the condition can be
permanently cured in a
comparatively short time
HORSE
by the operative removal of the entire lateral
cartilage.
Scratches.
This is an inflammation of the skin in the hollow
of the fetlock, of various degrees of intensity.
Among the common causes may be mentioned stand-
ing in manure and urine, too frequent washing of
the skin with irritating soaps, working in stubble
fields, alkali dust, salt from the car tracks in win-
ter during snowy and icy weather, and bacteria.
It is most common on white-footed animals. There
may be a mere reddening of the skin, or the skin
may contain transverse fissures that gap on ex-
tension of the part in walking. In more severe
cases, warty excrescences may form around the bor-
ders of the fissures and project above the surface,
and rarely the condition may go on to gangrene.
The skin is thickened, thrown into transverse folds
and tender to pressure.
Treatment.—The first essential in the treatment
of the condition is to remove the cause. The ani-
mal should stand in a clean, dry stall, and all long
hair should be cut away from the hollow of the
fetlock. The parts should then be washed clean
with castile soap and warm water and thoroughly
dried. Frequent washings delay the healing pro-
cess. If any warty outgrowths are present, they
should be snipped off with the scissors or removed
with the hot iron. In the milder cases, astringent
powders may be applied, as tannic acid or equal
parts of zine oxid and boric acid. In the more
severe cases, ointments are more valuable, as 10
per cent ichthyol ointment or wet astringent dress-
ings, as Burrough’s lotion. The latter is composed
of alum 80 grams, lead acetate 24 grams, spirits
of camphor 60 cc. and water in sufficient quantity
to make 500 cc. The parts should be dressed twice
daily in severe cases.
Founder.
Founder is an inflammation of the soft structure,
especially the fleshy leaves, enclosed within the
horny hoof, accompanied with constitutional dis-
turbances, and frequently leading to marked ana-
tomical changes in the structures of the foot. The
causes of this disease are imperfectly understood.
Concussion, excessive ingestion of certain grains,
long drives, standing in unprotected places, or
drinking cold water while the body is overheated,
are all considered causes. Long standing on one
foot when the opposite one is diseased, frequently
leads to the development of founder. The condition
is more common inthe front feet, although all four
may be affected.
The disease is of sudden onset, with fever from
102.5° to 106° Fahr., rapid respiration, increased
pulse rate, and intense pain in the affected feet.
Indeed, the pain is so great that the animal cannot
be moved out of the stall or made to walk, nor can
one foot be raised from the ground if the opposite
one is affected ; and great difficulty is experienced
in getting the shoes removed. The animal stands
with the hind-feet well under the body to relieve
weight from the affected fore-feet. Marked throb-
HORSE
bing of the artery along the inside of the cannon-
bone is present. On tapping the wall of the hoof
with a hammer, extreme pain is produced, as shown
by flinching and tremor of the muscles.
Treatment.—When the condition is recognized
within the first twenty-four hours of the attack,
fee ‘
Fig. 457. Shod and unshod hoofs in founder.
457, 459, after Moller—Dollar.)
(Pigs. 454, 455,
bleeding is highly recommended, and six quarts of
blood should be drawn from the large vein in the
neck. The object of this measure is to lower blood
pressure. The internal administration of tincture
of aconite in ten-drop doses every two hours during
the first day, will have the same effect. Locally,
cold should be applied to the affected feet, by
allowing the animal to stand in a soaking-tub, or,
preferably, in a puddle of soft clay, the water of
which is kept cold by the addition of ice. Internally,
two-ounce doses of saltpeter in a pint of water
should be given three times daily, for a period of a
week. In those cases which fail to respond to treat-
ment, and the anatomical changes occur in the
structure of the foot, the hoof will be deformed
(Fig. 457), and we can only hope to make the ani-
mal useful for slow work, by properly dressing and
shoeing the hoof. j
Penetrating nail.
This condition is a not uncommon accident,
especially in city horses. The nail usually pene-
trates the point or lateral cleft of the frog and
may pass deeply into the soft structures. The
accident should always be considered serious, as it
may lead to lockjaw or suppuration and necrosis of
the soft structure within the horny hoof.
Treatment.—The nail should be removed if it
is found in the wound. The horny sole or frog
should be carefully cut down to the soft tissue
for a distance of one-fourth to one-half inch on all
sides of the puncture. The hole formed by the nail
should then be treated with some antiseptic solu-
tion, as 5 per cent creolin or carbolic acid solu-
tion or tincture of iodine. . In the absence of these,
turpentine may be used. The animal should then
be made to stand in a soaking-tub, containing 1
per cent creolin solution, for several days. If this
is not possible, a wet antiseptic poultice should be
tied over the hoof. This can be made of bran,
saturated with a 3 per cent creolin solution and
kept moist by adding more of the solution from
time to time. This should be kept in place and
changed daily until all lameness and discharge
from the wound ceases.
Bone spavin.
This term is applied to any bony enlargement
around the hock, the usual seat being on the inner
HORSE 445
and inferior surface of the joint. It is the result
chiefly of defective conformation, heredity, hard
work, slipping and sprains of the hock joint.
Spavin is a very prevalent condition and is the
most common cause of lameness in the hind-leg. It
is usually gradual in its onset. The lameness is
somewhat characteristic, in that it is most marked
when the animal is first brought out of the stable
and disappears on warming up. The animal brings
the toe down first, and this part of the shoe shows
greatest wear while the heels of the hoof tend to
become high and stubby. The lameness is inten-
sified by the spavin test, which consists in holding
the hock joint strongly flexed for three minutes and
then starting the animal off suddenly. The positive
proof of spavin consists in the presence of a bony
enlargement, usually on the inside, low down on
the hock joint. While spavin may be suspected, it
is doubtful whether a diagnosis should be made
before the bony enlargement
can be recognized. (Fig. 458.)
In occult spavin, where the in-
flammation is within the joint,
this enlargement does not ap-
pear until late.
Treatment.—This cannot re-
move the bony growth entirely
but may be successful in remoy-
ing the lameness. In shoeing
the animal the heels should be
spared, the toe shortened and
the shoe should have heel-calks.
Four to six weeks’ rest with
repeated blisters may give tem-
porary relief. The most success-
ful treatment, however, requires
the assistance of a veterinarian,
and consists in the combina-
tion of cutting the cunean ten-
don in conjunction with pene-
trant point-firing. This hastens the welding or
ankilosis of the articular surfaces of the inflamed
bones, the movement of which is the direct cause
of the pain and lameness.
Fig. 458.
Leg showing spavin.
Ringbone.
This term is applied to any new bony growth
on the phalangeal bones. It is most common in
the front leg and on the lower end of the long
pastern or upper end of the short pastern. The
causes are both internal and external. The in-
ternal causes are predisposing and consist in
abnormal directions of the phalanges, improper
dressing of the hoof and heredity. The exciting
causes are hard work early in life, fast driving on
hard roads, missteps, strains and deep tread
wounds.
The onset is gradual. Lameness develops gradu-
ally or may come on suddenly after stumbling or a
strain. It is made worse by fast work on hard
roads. At rest the animal “points.” There is local
heat, swelling and pain on passive rotation of the
foot in some cases. The most important symptom
is the presence of a bony enlargement about the
joint (Fig. 459), and when this is absent, as it may
446 HORSE
be in early articular ringbone, the diagnosis is
difficult. A large ringbone may be present, on the
other hand, without causing lameness.
Treatment.—The foot should be properly dressed
and shod. If lameness is marked, prolonged rest and
repeated mercurial blisters
(one part of biniodid of mer-
cury to eight of vaseline)
should be applied. If this
is unsuccessful, deep pene-
trant point-firing should be
done by an expert veteri-
narian to produce a welding
of the articular surfaces
and thus prevent movement
which causes the pain. As
a last resort in this disease,
double plantar neurectomy
has to be performed, for the
animal to be able to work.
Splint.
This is a very common
condition in the horse, pro-
duced by the deposit of new bone between the can-
non and rudimentary metatarsal or splint bones.
Its most common seat is on the inside of the front
leg, due to the anatomical arrangement of this
region, which subjects the internal splint bone to
more pressure than the external one. External
injuries may rarely be a cause. The condition
generally occurs before the fourth year of age,
at which time the splint bones become welded to
the cannon bone by ossification. The new bony
growth may sometimes be seen, and can always be
readily felt by running the fingers along the front
of the internal splint bone at its junction with the
cannon. The normal button-shaped termination of
the splint bone in the lower one-third of the can-
non should not be mistaken for a splint.
In a small percentage of cases splints lead to
temporary or obstinate lameness. The lameness
becomes apparent after speeding on a hard road,
and the animal will rest out of the lameness. Pres-
sure over the splint will cause the animal to flinch.
The skin will show an increase of temperature at
this point and there may be some edema.
Treatment.—Only those cases causing lameness
should be treated, as the blemish caused by the
new bone formation cannot be benefited. In the
early stages, when the inflammation is acute, cold
water should be allowed to run over the part for
several hours each day for a week. The hair
should then be clipped short and a blister, consist-
ing of biniodid of mercury one dram to one ounce of
petrolatum, applied and rubbed well into the part.
The animal should have three or four weeks’ rest in
the stable. In more severe cases, point-firing over
the bony growth will be required to effect a cure.
A veterinarian should be employed for the latter.
Many cases will get well in time without treatment.
Fig. 459. Leg showing
tingbone at left; at
right, normal leg.
Literature.
In addition to the references mentioned on pages
124-146 and 330, regarding the diseases and ail-
HORSE
ments of live-stock, reference is here made to the
following works: Law, The Farmer’s Veterinary
Adviser (1892); Special Report on Diseases of the
Horse, revised edition, United States Department
Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry (1908);
Moller and Dollar, The Practice of Veterinary Sur-
gery (1903); Fleming, A Textbook of Operative
Veterinary Surgery (1884); Williams, the Princi-
ples of the Practice of Veterinary Medicine, revised
edition (1890); Williams, The Principles of the Prac-
tice of Veterinary Surgery, revised edition (1890);
Hopkins, Veterinary Elements (1901).
Arab Horse. Fig. 460.
By Homer Davenport.
The Arab horse is notable as a saddler, and to
impart vigor, quality and intelligence in cross-
breeding. His blood has been prominent in the
development of the Percheron, Hackney, Thorough~
bred, Russian Orloff, Triccaney, Hanoverian, French
and German cavalry horses, the coach horse, polo
ponies ; in fact, a large proportion of our present-
day types are more or less traceable to the influence
of the Arabian horse.
Description.
The Arabian in his purity is a horse of high
courage, possessing length, power and substance,
combined with elastic and graceful movement. He
is gentle and affectionate. He seems to have no
fear of anything, even man, a trait shown particu-
larly in young colts. In his native country he
stands closer to fourteen hands and two inches
than any other height; but his size is merely a
matter of the feed given him when he is a colt, as
is shown by the fact that among the Gomussa tribe
of the Sabba Anazeh, who pay better attention to
their horses than do others, we find colts at two
years old standing fifteen hands high; and at the
Circassian villages up the Euphrates, where even
better care of the live-stock is taken than by any
of the Bedouins, we find the Arab horse much
advanced in size.
There is a peculiar balance and harmony through-
out the frame of the Arab. The beauty of head,
ears, eyes, jaws, mouth and nostrils is noteworthy.
The ears are not small, but are so shaped that
they appear small; the head is short from the eye
to the muzzle, broad and well-developed above ;
the eye is soft and intelligent; the nostrils are
long and appear puckered, drawn back up the face,
and are capable of great distention ; the neck is a
model of strength and grandeur, of which he can
make a perfect arch, that matches the arch of his
tail. The throat is large and well developed ; it is
loose and pliant when at rest, and much detached
from the rest of the neck. This feature is not often
noticed, but it is indicative not only of good wind,
but of the capacity for prolonged exertion without
distress, owing to the great width between the
jaws. The shoulder is good, as is the deep chest,
the appearance of which is diminished by the big,
deep ribs; the back is short, the loins of immense
power, and the quarters long and strong, the whole
HORSE
beautifully turned. The legs and feet are superior.
The two great features, possibly, that a stranger
would notice first in the Arab horse, are the fore-
head, or jibbah, which cannot be too prominent,
giving a peculiar dish to the lower part of the face,
and the tail, set high and carried in an arch. The
form of the Arabian horse is essentially one of
utility ; the space for the seat for the rider is suf-
ficient, and at once fixes his true position; the
weight is therefore carried on that part most
adapted for it. The rest of the frame is taken up
with the powers of progression. The color varies,
and may be white, gray, bay, chestnut, brown and
rarely black. Roan, spotted or pie-
bald and yellow colors are not found
among the Arabs, although roan
and yellow are common among
Barbs. The bays often have black
points, and generally one or more
white feet, with some white in the
face. The chestnuts vary from the
brightest to the dullest shades.
History.
There has been a great deal of
query as to where the Arab horse
came from. It seems probable that
he came originally from Mesopo-
tamia, although some writers hold
that his native home was in the
vicinity of Nejd. According to
Plumb, the Arabs are descendants
of Ishmael, who, according to tra-
dition, inherited a valuable horse
of the Kuhl race. The Anazeh tribe
descended in a direct line from
Ishmael, through Sheik Salaman,
who lived about 1635 B.C. (four generations re-
moved from Ishmael), and who owned five famous
mares. From this ancestry has come the purest and
best Arab horse blood. This race was in existence
Many centuries before the time of Mohammed.
Harly in the seventeenth century Arab horses were
brought to England, and in the eighteenth century
the importations were numerous. These exerted
considerable influence on the development of the
Thoroughbred and the Hackney.
In America.—tThe first record we have of the
Arab in America was the importation of the stal-
lion Ranger, about 1765, to New London, Conn.
Tn 1838, J. D. Elliott imported a number of both
sexes. The late A. Keene Richards brought them
to Georgetown, Kentucky, in 1856. His plant was
making the most rapid strides toward success,
when it was destroyed by the Civil war. The blood
of his horses, however, is found in the present Ken-
AG
_ tucky saddle horses, six and seven generations
_ back, and there is little doubt that much of the
_ beauty of that splendid animal today is traceable
;
to the horses that A. Keene Richards imported.
The next importation was the two stallions given
_ to General U. S. Grant, by the Sultan of Turkey.
_ These were of unknown families, but they sired
many beautiful and useful horses.
A number of Arabian horses were brought to the
: lg (Ee CV ENT yf
LM AIC Te Mas
Fig. 460.
HORSE 447
World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago, in 1893.
The Sultan was induced to permit these horses to
come to America for the exhibit, and through
mortgages they were eventually held. Nine were
burned to death in their stalls at the Exposition
by the Syrians that brought them, as the outcome
of a wrangle. From these horses, however, came
the best results from any Arab horses brought to
America. Most of them were bought by Mr. Peter
B. Bradley, of Hingham, Mass., who crossed them
on some of our best breeds, besides breeding
them in their purity. With a pure horse of his
breeding, Mr. Hess, of New York City, won the
WR ptr
“1 7
i ee Ane very) y
Gime ey ee Nt .
Qi, 2 AAT oe
4 WZ TH WN, & ake Z
WOK iz Pe
Haleb. A champion Arabian stallion.
only blue ribbon ever won over our own types of
saddle horses, with an Arab in open competition.
Mr. Bradley also bred a trotter, two removes from
Arab blood, that trotted to a record of 2:30 in the
sixth heat of his first race. He produced the finest
types of polo ponies and accomplished much with
the Arab blood.
Distribution.
The home of the Arab horse, speaking of the
pure Arab, is the district that is covered by the
Nomad Arabs, and is confined to Arabia proper and
the Syrian desert. In its greatest perfection it is
found among the Anazeh and Shamar Bedouins,
occupying the territory east and west along the
Euphrates river; the Shamar on the eastern shore
and the Anazeh west of the river. The latter make
a circuit of the desert annually, going from the
summer pastures near Aleppo, in the north, to
Nejd, in the south, in winter. They swing east
past Bagdad and Deyr on their way north, and on
their journey south, go west, brushing near Palmyra
and Damascus. Within that circuit the home of the
Arabian horse may be said to lie. The haunts of the
pure Arabian are those of the desert Bedouins, who
still carry the lance. Of course, specimens of pure
blood can be found sometimes at Beyrout, and the
coast towns, but such horses have been brought
448 HORSE
there by wealthy citizens. In like manner they
have been carried into northern Africa, Persia,
Turkey, Hungary, Germany, France, Russia, Eng-
land and America.
The adaptability of the Arab is noteworthy.
Accustomed naturally to the most intense heat,
yet he thrives in the extreme cold, and the writer
has known one to winter perfectly in the mountains
of Pennsylvania. His coat, while fine and silky in
spring and summer, in winter is as thick as a
beaver’s, and has an undercoating of fur-like hair.
Types and families.
It has been asserted that there were two breeds
of Arabian horses, a large breed and a small breed.
This is untrue; there is but one general breed of
Arabian horses, of which there are many families,
which are different and distinct in many ways.
While there are not two distinct breeds, there are
a first and a second class. A horse, or mare, about
whose breeding there is the slightest doubt, is dis-
qualified, and not called “chubby,” and therefore is
of the second class. The families originated and
descended from some great mare. In all cases the
breed of the colt is that of the dam, and not of the
sire; thus, a colt, whose father had been a Ham-
dani Simri, and whose dam had been a Seglawieh
Jedranieh, would necessarily be a Seglawi Jedran.
The Bedouins count the father little, so long as he
is “chubby,” meaning a Thoroughbred that the
Anazeh would breed from, but they place every-
thing in the value of the mother’s blood, and of
her own individuality.
The Gomussa, of the Sabba Anazeh, are the
shrewdest horse-breeders of the desert. They have
retained, in the largest numbers, specimens of the
five great families, which are called the Khamseh,
which means five. They also have the choicest of
the other families, which are rated equal in point
of blood. The Khamseh, so the story runs, have
descended from the five great mares, which, with
other mares of Sheik Salaman, were drinking at
the river after long hardships in war, when the
trumpet blew, calling them back to battle. Only
five responded to the call, and it was those five
that founded the five great families.
(1) The Keheilan Ajus.—This strain is the most
numerous, and from it all other Keheilans are off-
shoots. The words Keheilan Ajus mean the mare of
the old woman, derived from a legend that the
mare was dropped by its dam near a well kept by
an old woman, where the rider had stopped. The
traveler rode off in a short time, leaving the filly
colt with the old woman. The next morning the
colt was found by its mother’s side, having traced
her across the desert during the night. Among
the Keheilans, bays are more numerous than any
other color. They are the fastest, although not
the hardiest horses nor the most beautiful. They
bear a closer resemblance to the English Thorough-
bred than any others, as they are more nearly
related. The Darley Arabian, perhaps the only
thoroughbred Anazeh horse in our studbooks, was
a Keheilan of the sub-family called Ras-el-Fadawi.
(2) The Seglawi family have descended from four
HORSE
great mares owned by a man of that name. At his
death he gave his favorite mare to his brother
Jedran, and thus the Seglawi Jedrans are the favo:
ites of the Seglawies ; he gave the second mare to
his brother Obeyran ; the third to Arjebi; and the
fourth to El-Abd, meaning theslave. Many writers
consider that all four mares were full sisters.
Seglawi Arjebi are extinct, and of the remaini
strains, the Seglawi Jedran ranks first in the
esteem of the Bedouins, and Seglawi El-Abd second.
Some years ago, Abbas Pasha, of Egypt, purchas
nearly all of the Seglawi Jedran mares from t
Anazeh tribe, paying as high a price, it is said, as
3,000 pounds, for a single old mare. Many ches’
nut-colored horses are found among the Seglawis:
possibly, with the bays, they would form about an
equal division.
(3) Hamdani.—The Hamdanis are not common
anywhere on the Syrian desert, the Shammar bei
supposed to have the best. They are mostly greys,
although very handsome browns and chestnuts are
to be found in the Shammar. The only strain
of the Hamdani that is counted “chubby” is the
Hamdani Simri. Mares of the Hamdani Simri are
very rare.
(4) Abeyan.—The Abeyan is generally the hand-
somest breed, but it is small and has less resem-
blance to the English Thoroughbred than any of the
other families of the Arabian horse. The Abeyan
Sherrack is the most esteemed of the seven strains
of the Abeyan (and there are but two others 0
that seven, the Abeyan Zahaine and Abeyan Fadaha
that are counted “chubby”). It is the name of the
family, and the other strains are derived from
Abeyan Sherrack. Abeyan Sherracks carry their
tail much higher than other Arabian horses. They
are also noted for their prominent forehead or
jibbah. Their endurance is remarkable. The colors
are bay, chestnut and grey.
(5) Hadban.—There are five strains of the
ban family, Hadban Enzekhi being the favoril
and Hadban al-Fert being the only other that
considered “chubby” by the Anazeh. The Gomussa
of the Sabba Anazeh are supposed to have the bi
Hadbans at the present time. Brown and d
family.
Other families.—Besides these five families, there
are sixteen other families that are esteemed almost
as much as the Khamseh: (1) The Maneghi, sup-
posed to be an offshoot of the Keheilan Ajus. They
are plain and without distinction, being somewhat
coarse, with long necks, powerful shoulders, muel
length, and strong but coarse hind-quarters. They
are strong boned, and are held in high repute as
war horses. There are four sub-families in this
group, the favorite being Maneghi Sbeyel, which is
counted “chubby” all over the desert. Maneghi
Hedruj, the next esteemed, is not counted “chubby”
at Nejd, but is by some tribes of the north
desert. The family of Sbeyel of the Gomu
possesses the finest specimens of the strain kno’
by that name. (2) Saadan, often very beauti
horses ; the sub-strain, Saadan Togan, is the mi
highly esteemed. (8) Dakhman. (4) Shueyman,
HORSE
The sub-strain of Shueyman Shah are rated as first-
class. (5) Jilfan. Of this there is a sub-strain,
Jilfan Stam el Bulad, meaning the sinews of steel.
In some parts of the desert, the Jilfan Stam el
Bulad is prized equally with Hamdani Simri. (6)
Toessan. Of this, there is the sub-strain Toessan
Algami. (7) Samhan, with a sub-strain, Samhan el
Gomeaa. The horses of this family are frequently
very tall, and are much esteemed. (8) Wadnan,
with the sub-strain, Wadna Hursan. (9) Rishan,
with the sub-strain Rishan Sherabi. (10) Tamri.
The Keheilan Tamris are highly prized. (11) Melek-
han. (12) Jereyban. (13) Jeytani. (14) Ferejan.
(15) Treyfi. (16) Rabdan. Besides these, there
are the Keheilan Heife, Keheilan Kroash, Keheilan
el-Ghazala, Keheilan al-Denais, Keheilan al-Nowak,
Keheilan al-Muson, Keheilan abu junub, Keheilan
Rodan, Keheilan Wadnam Harsan, Dahman abu
Amr, Dahman Shawan, Dahman Khomais, Abu
Arkab, all of which are considered “chubby.” All
these are Keheilans, and most, or all of them, have
descended from Keheilan Ajus.
Feeding and care.
Unaccustomed to much feed, or regular feed, the
Arab is likely to get very fat under our method of
feeding, so that the horse, once the picture of all
that is beautiful and graceful, with us may soon
become a fat horse. He thrives best on half of
what other horses require. Of all horses, the Arabian
is least fit to stand idle in his stall. His life for
centuries has been under the saddle, as a war horse,
on the scantest rations any horse lives on; and to
pen him up inaclose stall and feed him three meals
a day so completely changes his life, that it
changes his form.
Uses.
For riding and driving.—As a saddle horse the
Arab horse ranks high. He has always been accus-
tomed to the saddle, and has developed remarkable
endurance, carrying riders long journeys, day after
day, in a scorching sun, with little feed or water.
He can carry very heavy weights on his back.
When hitched to the carriage, he makes a gentle,
attractive, driving horse.
For crossing.—The importance of the Arab for
eross-breeding purposes is well known. He has
entered into the development of many of our present-
day breeds,—trotting, running, saddle, coach and
draft,—and has imparted his endurance, quality and
intelligence wherever used. That he is still valued
for this purpose is evidenced by the fact that in
certain Huropean countries Arab studs are officially
maintained for breeding purposes. A new infusion
of his blood is much needed in our modern horses.
The farther we get from the Arab blood, that in
former days was strong in our runners and trot-
ters, the less our horses show of the powers of
endurance that made them great animals. And
while our race horses have become greater sprinters,
they have lost much of their staying power. A
fresh infusion of the best blood of the desert should
improve those families of horses that have been
bred in the extreme for any special purpose, to the
0 29
HORSE 449
exclusion of many of the qualities possessed in such
a marked degree by the Arabian horse. One of the
most noticeable differences between our best types
of today, especially in America, and the Arab horse,
is the flat and contracted sides of our horses com-
pared with the round, barrel-shaped ribs of the Arab-
ian and the narrow openings of the jaw-bones of our
horses compared with the wide openings of the
jaw-bones of the Arab horse. The importance of
this latter point is seen especially in race horses.
The many deaths among modern race horses, sup-
posed to be due to the bursting of blood-vessels,
are attributed to the narrow jaw-bones. The heart
is wrought to high action in the effort to force the
air through the narrow passage, and the result is
the breaking of a blood-vessel and death. This was
much less common a few generations ago. Another
very noticeable difference is the dropping off below
the knee of our American horses compared with the
big, flat bone below the knee of the Arab horse.
The finer quality of bone that is transmitted by
the Arab horse in crossing is one of his greatest
values. Beyond this, perhaps, is his ability to stamp
eyeness and beauty of disposition on his offspring,
a quality desired in all horses, especially in cavalry
horses. The very close relation that has long ex-
isted between the Arab horse and his master, has
produced in him a docility and intelligence that is
seldom found in horses of other breeds. The pre-
potency of the Arab is due to the fact that in his
veins flows only thoroughbred blood, with no admix-
ture of cold blood, a fact that cannot be said of
any other breed.
Organizations and records.
At this time efforts are being made to organize
an American Arabian Horse Association, which
shall publish a studbook. Arabian horses are now
eligible for registration in the American Studbook
and in the General Studbook of Great Britain.
Literature.
Roger D. Upton, Gleanings from the Desert of
Arabia, London (1881); Lady Anne Blunt, The
Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates, 2 vols., London
(1879) ; Same, A Pilgrimage to Nejd, 2 vols., Lon-
don (1881); Boucant, The Arab, the Horse of the
Future, Gay & Bird, Strand, London (1905). [For
further references, see page 416.]
Barb and Turk Horses.
By Carl W. Gay.
The Barb horse takes his name from his native
habitat, the so-called Barbary states of northern
Africa, originally peopled by the Berber tribes.
These states are Morocco, Algeria, Tunis and Tripoli.
The Barb is the “Horse of the Sahara,” of Daumas,
the “North African” or “Libyan” horse of Ridge-
way. The Oriental group is composed of the Barb,
the Turk, and the Arabian, although most recent
investigations indicate the Barb to have been the
real source of all Oriental blood. A common error
resulting in much confusion is the use of the term
Arabian in a sense synonymous with Oriental.
450 HORSE
Description.
The Barb is fourteen to fifteen hands in height,
short of body in proportion to length of limb, his
whole form being conducive to speed. The head is
beautifully proportioned, with a neat ear, broad,
full forehead, large, clear, prominent eye, flashing
fire and yet expressing intelligence, a deep jowl
with open angle, a trim muzzle and a nostril thin at
the margin, capable of great dilation and continu-
ally in play. The head is nicely set on a rather long,
high-crested neck, well cut-out in the throttle and
giving the head a lofty carriage; shoulders well
laid-in and sloping, well set-up at the withers ;
deep, well-arched rib; somewhat drooping croup,
although the tail is carried high; straight hind-
leg, long pasterns, and rather deep, narrow foot of
the most superior texture of horn.
The prevailing colors in Barbary are dark bay,
brown, chestnut, black and gray. Ridgeway con-
curs with other authors in his conclusions that bay
with some white markings, as a star or a blaze,
together with white coronets, was the original
color of the pure Barb. He reasons that the rigid
course of selection which modern, scientific breed-
ing has established for the improvement of the race
is, incidentally, gradually eliminating all but bays
and allied browns and chestnuts, and indicates the
final exclusion of all but the bays. Statistics re-
garding the winners of the principal racing events
bear out this conclusion. Thus, as the “blood tells,”
the bay color predominates.
History.
History first records the horse under domesti-
cation in Kgypt, and it is thought that his general
distribution throughout the civilized world, which
took place largely through the agency of the con-
quests of nations, has been made from this center.
Such an indefinite beginning is given a more satis-
factory explanation by the modern researches
reported by Ridgeway, which he maintains are
strongly suggestive that the Egyptians secured
their horses from Libya, where they are thought
to have been indigenous. This hypothesis has a
striking significance in view of the fact that the
Libyan horse of Ridgeway is identical with the
subject of this discussion.
Zodlogically, there have been demonstrated three
distinct species of horses in the genus Equus besides
the various species of asses, zebras, and the extinct
quagga. To these, Ridgeway adds Equus caballus
libyeus, held by him to be a distinct species or at
least a sub-species. This being the case, we are
justified in accepting the Barb as the progenitor
of all modern light breeds, the Turk and Arabian
being derivatives, and not antecedents of the Barb.
It is known that horses existed in Egypt 1,500
years before they were in Arabia, a fact that is
contrary to the popular belief that the genesis of
all good horses was in Arabia. It establishes the
Barb as the real origin of the Thoroughbred, the
blood influence of which is recognized in all horse-
breeding countries. Furthermore, in view of the
fact that the Andalusian horse of Spain traces its
ancestry across the Mediterranean, the Barb
HORSE
becomes an important part of the native base on
which the improvement of horses in America has
been made.
In America.—The most notable Oriental horses
brought to America are Grand Bashaw, a Barb from
Tripoli, whose immediate descendants founded the
Clay, Patchen and Bashaw families; Zilcaadi, an
Arabian from Turkey, and sire of the dam of Gold
Dust ; Leopard, an Arab, and Linden Tree, a Barb,
presented to General Grant and used by Randolph
Huntington in his creation of the Clay Arabian.
Most important of recent importations are those of
Mr. Homer Davenport, the most conspicuous indi-
vidual of which is Haleb. (Fig. 460.)
Importance of the Barb.
The importance of the Barb is a matter of his-
tory, although it is only recently that there has
been much reliable data concerning him available.
Much of the early literature has been more or less
obscured in mythology and superstition.
Authorities may differ in their views concern-
ing Darwin’s theory of the origin of species, but
the facts pertaining to the formation and develop-
ment of those subdivisions of the species called
breeds are too well established to admit of any
question. These facts show conclusively that the
striking contrast in the size, type, conformation,
quality, temperament and adaptability of the pon-
derous Belgian on the one hand, and the racy
Thoroughbred on the other, is directly a matter of
inheritance, no matter how much the environment
may have influenced the two original types from
which each respective line of inheritance has been
derived. A study of the origin of each of the
breeds of horses shows that there were two origi-
nal sources from which the foundation blood of
each breed was drawn. These were the wild Black
horse of Flanders, thought to have been indigen-
ous to central Europe from the Rhine river to the
Black sea, and characterized by his great scale,
grossness, slow awkward movement, sluggish lym-
phatic temperament, black color and extreme
development of hair; and the Oriental horse,
native to the desert regions of northern Africa,
Turkey, Asia Minor, Persia and Arabia, the most
notable characteristics of which were extreme
refinement and breediness, beauty of form, spirit
and intelligence, speed, stamina and grace of
movement, and an active nervous temperament.
The breeds of the heavier, draftier type show a
preponderance of the characters of the former,
while those of the lighter, speed type resemble —
more closely the latter. The so-called coach breeds
represent a more or less proportionate blending of
the two.
Use.
Some idea of the extent to which the Oriental —
blood has proved a potent factor in the foundation
or improvement of modern breeds may be had from
a review of the origin of some of them. The term
Oriental is used in this connection for the reason —
that earlier writers were not specific in their ref-
erences to Barbs, Turks, or Arabians. The Darley
HORSE
Arabian, Byerly Turk and Godolphin Barb, with
the “Barb mares,” have been called the real
foundation of the Thoroughbred. The Percheron
owes his origin to the mating of Oriental horses,
left by the Saracens or brought back by the Cru-
saders, with native French mares of the Flemish
blood. Subsequently, there were made at intervals
systematic top crosses of blood from the Orient.
Gallipoli and Godolphin were two of the most
important of these, and the former is regarded as
the most influential sire in the history of the
breed. The prototype of the Hackney, the Norfolk
trotter, was the result of a Barb union with the
Black trotter of Friesland. The Cleveland bay
was the product of a Barb-Yorkshire cart horse
cross. The hot blood of the desert is mentioned in
connection with the origin of the German coach
horse. Bars Ist, progenitor of the Russian Orloff
trotter, was three generations removed from
Smetanka, a gray Arabian taken into Russia. The
Prussian Trakehner is derived from an admixture
of Oriental and Thoroughbred blood with the
native stock. [See further under History in
America.]
There is some question as to the value of this
Oriental horse to the breeder of the present time,
although its importance as a foundation stock is so
well demonstrated. For example, the Thorough-
bred is an improvement over his Oriental ancestors
as a race horse, and fresh infusions of the blood
are generally regarded as detrimental. Further-
more, no increase in trotting speed can be expected
to follow crosses of the Oriental blood on our
American Standardbred trotter. Nevertheless,
there is an active demand in the markets of today
for a horse that is neither a running race horse
nor a trotting race horse, but a harness type. In
_ this horse, a pleasing appearance and good
manners are as valuable attributes as speed, and
to this end beauty of form, symmetry, quality and
finish, style and a pleasant, tractable disposition,
are essentials that offset extreme speed. It is
as a source of these desired characters that the
Oriental horse finds a place in meeting modern
market demands.
Organizations and records.
Barbs are registered in The Algerian Studbook, a
book of record recognized by the United States
Department of Agriculture. It is said that the
number of English and French horses in Algeria
has led to the Barb being more extensively crossed
with this blood than in Morocco, where there are
fewer foreign horses, and systematic efforts have
been made under the direction of the Sultan to
keep the blood pure. Some Barbs are also regis-
tered with Arabians in the General Studbook of
Great Britain.
THE TurK HOoRsE.
This horse, named with the Barb and the Arabian
as constituting the so-called Oriental group, has
much less significance than either of his contem-
poraries. Sanders suggests that the horses of
HORSE 451
Arabia and Persia were originally derived from
Turkey. In the light of recent investigations we
are led to conclude that the term Turk does not
imply any particular stock, but designates merely
the horses of Turkey. These have been of a, differ-
ent character at different periods. The originals,
called Turcoman, were probably offshoots from the
pony types native to the mountainous districts of
southern Asia. They were first reported in Turke-
stan, but became generally distributed later in Turk-
ish Asia and Persia; there are few horses in Turkey
in Hurope. These original ponies do not represent
the Turk as he is referred to in recent times, how-
ever. Their type has been so completely modified
by the Arabians with which they have been crossed
as to leave little evidence of their former charac-
teristics. However, plain heads with Roman noses,
ewe necks, light middles and long legs are still
noticeable, and are charged to the Turcoman foun-
dation. These modified Turkish horses are of fair
size, bay, black or gray in color, with uniform
white markings. In those parts of Turkey nearest
the Arabian border, many pure Arabians are found.
Captain Hayes reports that the horses in ordinary
use in Turkish towns at the present time are small,
hardy animals, grey or bay in color, and are pro-
duced by Arabian stallions out of Kurdistan pony
mares, the latter being similar to the Turcoman
ponies already referred to, and typical of the
horses indigenous to Turkey. Probably the best
Turks, so-called, were not Turks at all, but Ara-
bians or Barbs.
Literature.
E. Daumas, The Horses of the Sahara, London
(1863). [For further references, see page 416.]
Belgian Draft Horse. Fig. 461.
By W. L. Carlyle.
As the name suggests, this breed is developed
for draft purposes. It has little value for any
other purpose, being of a sluggish temperament,
although very powerful.
Description.
The Belgian draft horse is one of the most com-
pact in form of any draft breed found in America,
possessing a maximum of weight with very short
body set on short legs. The form is broad, mas-
sive and well proportioned, as a rule. In quality,
it is somewhat lacking, the legs appearing round
and rather coarse. The tendons of the legs are
large and not well defined. The skin is sometimes
fine, although the hair is occasionally rather coarse
and inclined to curl. The head is of good size, the
nostrils are large and the eyes small and not very
prominent. The ears are small, set wide apart and
generally are not well carried. The neck is short,
very thick and well crested. The shoulders are
upright, strong and heavily muscled. The chest is
deep and wide, giving a very large girth. The
ribs are long, well sprung, and closely ribbed up
to the hip, giving a better barrel than is found in
any other breed of draft horses. The back is short,
452 HORSE
very broad and inclined to sag somewhat more
than is desired. The loins are wide, short and very
thick. The flank is low and full. The hind-quar-
ters are inclined to be short, very wide and mus-
cular, and the tail is attached somewhat low and
not well carried. The lower thighs are usually
very wide and well muscled. The hocks are round,
not clearly defined and too “meaty.” One of the
serious faults the American horsemen have found
with this breed is in the character of the bone of
ac ae
Fig. 461. A Belgian stallion
the legs, particularly with the hock joints. The
feet also receive rather severe criticism, as the
hoofs are inclined to be small, narrow and very
high in the heels, predisposing to side-bones and
contracted feet. In action, the Belgians are
inclined to stumble at the walk, but trot off freely
and with apparent vim and spirit. In color, the
chestnut and roan are most common, although
brown and bay are frequently found. The grays
are not in favor, although occasionally one is seen.
In Belgium, these draft horses are classified
somewhat according to the sections of the country
in which they have been bred. Those from Flanders
are the largest and those from Ardennais district
the smallest, while those from Brabant are of
medium size and weight.
History.
In the early history of the Belgian breed of
draft horses, no particular animals appear to have
been prominent nor has any breeder of outstand-
ing merit appeared. This breed, unlike most other
draft breeds that have been developed, has been
almost entirely the product of its environment.
The small country of Belgium has a reputation as
the home of draft horses extending back through
several centuries. Many, if not all, of the draft
breeds of Great Britain and France were greatly
improved during their formative period by the
use of the heavy Flemish horses, the early pro-
genitors of the Belgians. Modern horse-breeding
in Belgium, however, is comparatively recent in
its greatest activity. A revival of the interest in
horse-breeding in Belgium was greatly stimulated
and developed with the establishment of govern-
ment breeding studs in 1850. The Belgium goy-
ernment annually sets apart about $75,000 for the
HORSE
supervision and encouragement of draft-horse
breeding in that country. By a system of prizes,
and financial encouragement of individual breeders,
as well as of the National Draft Horse Society
of Belgium and the local fairs, it has had a
very potent influence in the development of this
breed. By every means, the government seeks to
encourage the best efforts of individuals, and to
discourage the exportation of desirable animals.
The city of Antwerp, in Belgium, is noted threugh-
out the world as possessing many of the finest
specimens of draft horses to be found, and these
horses are without exception of the Belgian breed.
In America.
The history of this breed in America is compara-
tively brief. The earliest importation was prob-
ably in 1886, when a few horses were imported
into Illinois by Dr. A. G. Van Hoorebeke. They
were at that time incorrectly termed “ Boulan-
nais.” Since 1887, large numbers of Belgian draft
stallions have been imported into the United States
and have been found exceedingly valuable for
crossing on native grade draft mares. In 1888,
Mr. H. Lefebure began importing and promoting
the interest of the breed in this country. One
of the first firms to import these horses was
D. P. Stubbs & Sons, of Fairfield, Iowa. Since
1897, there has been a large and constantly
increasing demand for stallions of this breed. The
leading importers have been A. B. Holbart and
Lefebure & Sons, of Iowa; J. Crouch & Son, of
Indiana; McLaughlin Bros., of Columbus, Ohio;
Dunham & Fletcher, of Illinois, and H. A. Briggs,
of Wisconsin. Very few mares have been imported
into this country for reasons that are not well
understood. This is due partly to the fact that
there is not the demand for the Belgian breed to
encourage importing and breeding, as the trade is
better satistied with the Percheron and some of the
English draft breeds; and partly because of the
very high prices asked for Belgian mares abroad.
Distribution.
The Belgian draft breed of horses had no wide
general distribution outside of its native home,
until within the past ten years, since which time
it has had a wide distribution on the continent, as
it is particularly desirable for use in the heaviest
kind of work in large cities. Numbers have been
imported into Germany, France, Holland, Sweden,
Austria, and other European countries, the Argen-
tine Republic, and other South American countries,
and to the United States, where they have had a
wide distribution, particularly in the central states.
Feeding and care.
In its native country, the Belgian draft horse is
given the best of feed and care to produce a maxi-
mum of size and weight as early in life as possible.
The foals on the best farms are born early in March
or April, the dams usually doing all of the farm
work. The foals remain in the stables during the
day, and a number of them together in one inclosure
if possible. While the mares are at work, the foals
HORSE
are fed liberally on a sloppy mixture of equal parts
of crushed oats and bran and sufficient water to
form athin gruel. They are also supplied with fresh
drinking-water at all times and with an abundance
of good green clover and grasses. At night they
are turned into rich pasture lots with their dams.
They are weaned at four or five months of age,
very little change being made in their feed, and
they are allowed to eat all they will con-
sume of bran and oats, and of green clover
and hay. They are turned into grass lots at
night and confined to darkened stables dur-
ing the day. This system of feeding is fol-
lowed until they are three years of age,
when they are broken to work. Since most
of their feed is green and succulent, it is
thought that this is responsible for the great
depth of barrels of the Belgian horses, and to some
extent for the soft bone and poor quality of feet.
Uses.
For draft.—As has been said, these horses are
bred entirely for draft purposes, and they rank
well among the heavy breeds, especially in Europe.
The short, stocky legs, and low-set blocky body,
make them very useful for slow, heavy hauling
over city streets.
For crossing.—Belgian draft horses are especi-
ally adapted for crossing on grade draft mares,
lacking in weight and substance, for the production
of heavy draft horses. When crossed on grade
Percheron or Clydesdale mares, they impart an
increased depth of body with a comparative short-
ening of the legs, and a general massiveness of form
not easily secured by the use of any other breed of
draft stallions.
Organizations and records.
The National Draft Horse Society of Belgium
(Le Cheval de Trait Belge) was founded in 1886,
and the American Association of Importers and
Breeders of Belgian Draft Horses in 1887. The
former association has issued a number of stud-
books, and is very aggressive in the interest of the
breed. It receives national financial support. For
twenty years the latter association did very little
to encourage the breed, which accounts, in part, for
the little interest taken in these horses in America
until within recent years. It is now more active.
The first studbook was issued in 1905.
Literature.
For references, see page 416.
Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire Coach Horse. Figs.
462, 463.
By John A. Craig.
The Yorkshire coach horse is an outgrowth of
the Cleveland Bay coach horse, conceded to be
merely an improved type. The two are so insepa-
rably associated that it is deemed best to consider
them together. In fact, in America, they are con-
sidered to be one breed and are registered in the
same studbook.
HORSE 453
Description.
In the Cleveland Studbook (British) there is the
following description of the Cleveland Bay horse
which, in addition to being very accurate, is also
official: “From sixteen hands one inch to sixteen
hands two and one-half inches in height, he should
be possessed of good, sloping shoulders, a short
back, powerful loins, and long quarters. His head
3 tee wy | ey
Fig. 462. Cleveland Bay stallion. Special Delight.
is rather plain than otherwise, and on the long side,
but it is well carried, and his general appearance
denotes strength, combined in a manner not seen in
any other light horse breed. His action is not spe-
cially high, but it is the kind for getting over the
ground. In color he is bay—either light or dark—
with black legs clear of hair; and black, zebra-like
stripes on the arm and above the hocks are some-
times seen. These are known as the black points
and are supposed to denote special purity of breed-
ing. White, save a small star or a few white hairs
in the heel, is not admissible, a blaze or white foot
proclaiming at once the admixture of foreign blood.”"
An early writer* makes the following comment on
the old stamp of Cleveland Bay, just about the
time the Thoroughbred was to be used most liber-
ally : “Very many of the Cleveland horses are dis-
figured by having large heads and Roman noses ;
and it is only when these parts are, to a certain
extent, concealed by the winkers of the bridles and
the trappings that adorn them, and their heads are
borne up by the bearing rein, that they acquire the
imposing appearance which, when well matched,
so many of them possess. When stripped, a great
proportion of them appear a very different sort of
animal indeed, and, in all probability, a smaller
and more compact sort of horse would go through
double the quantity of work that they are capable
of enduring. Fashion, however, is to be consulted
by the breeder, to a certain extent ; and, so long
1 Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great Britain.
? John Burke, Royal Agricultural Society Report, Vol.
V, 1844.
454 HORSE
as he can obtain from job masters a large sum for
a pair of these overgrown animals, he will do well
to breed them without reference to their being
unequal in point of endurance to a smaller and
better-formed sort of draught horse. It is gener-
ally supposed that a horse destined for harness
should not have a very oblique shoulder, as when
so formed he is not capable of throwing so much
of his weight into the collar as when his shoulders
are more upright ; but it must be remembered that
grand and lofty action is highly prized in London
for the purpose of show, and not for hard work,
and hence a sloping shoulder is a point to be
desired by the farmer who breeds carriage horses
for the London market; for, as I have already
observed, it is one which is mostly accompanied by
high action.”
In the latter part of the nineteenth century,
after the organization of societies in the eighties,
to promote this breed, the British public became
Cleveland Bay mare.
Queen Dearest.
interested in the horse to supplant oxen on the
farm. At this time, too, the demand changed from
avery heavy carriage horse to a lighter horse
with more quality, more style and more coach or
high action. The Cleveland had to veer one way or
the other or become extinct. It is evident that it
was changed towards the latter largely by the
greater use of Thoroughbred blood, and that
resulted in the type more commonly known by the
name of the Yorkshire coach horse. To indicate
the tendency of the change, the following extract
from the Yorkshire Coach Studbook will be of
service : “It cannot be claimed for the Yorkshire
coach horse that he is a pure-bred animal, but
that, on the contrary, by the judicious crossing of
large-sized good-colored mares with stallions alto-
gether or nearly Thoroughbred, a class of horses
has been produced suited to the wants and cireum-
stances of the times. By universal consent, the
color should be bay or brown, with black eyes,
mane and tail abundant but not curly, the height
from sixteen hands to*sixteen hands two inches,
with fine head, sloping shoulders, strong loins,
and lengthy quarters, high-stepping action, good
HORSE
sound feet, flat legs and abundance of bone
muscle.”
History.
Perhaps the best evidence we have of the an
cient origin of this breed is the prevalence of
many theories as to the foundation from which i
started. Martin Doyle, writing in 1843, asse’
that it is descended from the old war horse of
Great Britain. There are other authorities, also.
who state that this breed has the best claim to th
distinction of being related to the horses tha’
pulled the war chariots of the early Britons when
Julius Cesar invaded England. As a matter o:
fact the first records of the Cleveland horse con-
nect it with being a pack or Chapman horse.
It is historically certain that the breed origi-
nated in Yorkshire, one of the northern counties of
England. The conditions of Yorkshire were emin-
ently suitable for the production of superior ligh'
horses. The people were horsemen, and the fertile
valleys and hills, underlaid in the best grazing dis-
tricts with limestone, were very productive of
nutritious grass.
No specific reference to the Cleveland breed
is made by any of the earliest writers. The fi
distinct reference to the Cleveland seems to be
that made by George Culley, in his “Observations
on Live Stock,” published in 1801. In this refer-
ence, Culley originates the theory that the Cleve-
land Bay horse is the result of the mixture of the
Thoroughbred with the cart horse, a theory which
some writers combat so far as to say that neither
the Thoroughbred nor a heavy strain like the old
cart horse had anything to do with the formation
of the breed. One authority’, who takes unusual
pains to substantiate the war horse theory of
Cleveland Bay origin, goes to considerable length
to disprove the introduction of either cart or
Thoroughbred blood, and this he has failed to
accomplish, as he has been forced to acknowledge
that “Probability points to a Thoroughbred Tray-
eller as having had something to do with impart-
ing fresh quality and courage to the Cleveland
Bay” The straight croup or level hind-quarter is
a decided Thoroughbred characteristic, and it is a
trait that most other breeds of light horses tend
towards when much Thoroughbred blood is used,
as has been found in the instance of both the
Hackney and the French coach horses. It is a mat-
ter of record, too, that Dunsley’s Dart, one of the
three sires that seem to have had most to do i
establishing the Cleveland as a breed, goes back
to the Darley Arabian, and the preface to the York-
shire coach studbook so states. The old Cleveland
Bay, the horse that was so popular in early days
for heavy coaches and for matched teams for the
London market, may not have had very much
Thoroughbred blood in it, considering the amount
that has been used later.
The best early history of the county of York-
shire appears in three separate prize essays by dif-
ferent writers, published in the ninth volume of
the Royal Agricultural Society (England) Report,
1 Light Horses: Breeds and Management. ,
HORSE
published in 1848, from which the following refer-
ence by George Legard is taken: “‘Formerly, a
large, powerful, bony animal was required for car-
riage purposes; the fashion of the present day
has, however, changed this particular, and now it
is necessary that the London carriage horse should
be at least three parts Thoroughbred. Conse-
quently, all traces of the original pure coaching
breed or Cleveland Bay, as it was termed, are
nearly obliterated.” Another writer on Yorkshire
in the same report, page 518, says: “The Cleve-
land, as a pure-bred, is losing something of its
distinctiveness. It is running into a proverb that
a Cleveland horse is too stiff for a hunter and too
light for a coacher, but there are still remnants
of the breed, though less carefully kept distinct-
ively than may be wished by advocates of the
breed.”
Other causes, too, were operating to change the
type of the breed and encourage the more liberal
use of Thoroughbred blood. One of these was that
the abundant grass-land was converted into til-
lage-land. The high price of grains, due to the
war, induced an unusual activity in farming, and a
heavier horse was called for. The coal industry
also demanded a heavier horse. Again, the use of
the horse on the road, because of lighter vehicles,
called for a lighter horse, so that, in a multitude of
ways, the old type of Cleveland was undergoing
dissolution. When the outlook seemed darkest, the
American trade opened up, and, in 1884, the Cleve-
land Bay Horse Society was formed, and a stud-
book established. At this time Thoroughbred blood
was used very liberally. So much stress would not
be laid on the Thoroughbred blood introduced, if
the writer did not believe that all our recognized
breeds of light horses have more or less Thor-
oughbred blood in them, and all are, as a conse-
quence, rooted deep in Oriental ancestry, chiefly
the Arab.
In 1889, the Royal Agricultural Society recog-
nized the Cleveland Bay as one of the distinct
breeds of English horses, and offered prizes for it,
although it was shown with the Yorkshire Coach.
At the meeting of the societies, in York, as early
as 1848, a few Clevelands were shown.
In America.—It cannot be said that the Cleve-
land Bay or Yorkshire coach horse ever had the
popularity in this country that has attended the
importation of some of the other breeds of light
horses. Those that were imported were considered
unusually good representatives, but the type and
breed characteristics never found much favor. In
coach or carriage horses, high and attractive front
action with good hock action are essentials, com-
bined with a stylish, smooth and symmetrical
appearance, associated with quality in all parts.
In these respects, the Cleveland Bay did not
approach the excellence shown by other breeds.
Distribution.
The Cleveland Bay horse has enjoyed some popu-
larity, notably in South Africa. Aside from impor-
tations into America, the horse has been taken to
South America, Australia and Sweden.
HORSE 455
Uses.
Hnough has been said to indicate the place of
the Cleveland Bay as a coach horse. It has found
some favor as a roadster, especially in England.
These horses are very uniform in color and mark-
ings, and they are very prepotent in transmitting
these characters when crossed on common mares.
Because of this their get is uniform and easily
matched into teams. Their size and power and dis-
position adapt them for some of the work of the
farm better than is the case with any of the other
breeds of light horses ; but, owing to their defic-
iency in quality and action, they have not been gen-
erally popular in American horse-breeding districts.
Organizations and records.
There are two studbooks in England, that of the
Cleveland Bay Horse Society and that of the Coach
Horse Society, devoted to the Yorkshire Coach.
In 1885, the Cleveland Bay Horse Society of Amer-
ica was organized, which registers both the Cleve-
land Bay and the Yorkshire Coach. The headquar-
ters of the society are in West Orange, N. J. It
has published two volumes of its studbook.
Literature.
For references, see page 416.
Clydesdale Horse. Figs. 464, 465.
By John A. Craig.
This breed has been known for many years as
the draft breed of Scotland. It is one of the oldest
breeds of British draft horses.
Description.
Clydesdales have a kind, quiet disposition, good
courage, and enough spirit. A weight of 1,700 to
2,000 pounds for stallions and 1,500 to 1,800
pounds for mares, with an average height of 164
hands for the former and 16 hands for the latter,
may be regarded as the standard for mature, well-
developed individuals of this breed. The charac-
teristics of the modern Clydesdale, in reference to
color, vary somewhat, the most prevalent being
bay, brown, black or occasionally chestnut, with
white markings on the forehead or face and below
the knees and hocks. They vary more in character-
istic markings than most of the other draft breeds,
but in uniformity of type there is a striking simi-
larity among the best. The head is almost inva-
riably intelligent. The shoulder is exceptionally
good, which gives a free, easy, long stride. It is
somewhat oblique, accompanied by high withers.
The arm is usually well muscled, and the bone clean
and flat. The feather (hair on the legs) in horses
of the best quality, springs from the edge of the
bone, and is fine, silky and long. It is not con-
sidered of much importance in itself, but is valued
for what it indicates. The assertion is made that
a proper feather protects the coronet and back
part of the pastern from filth and mud, and, con-
sequently, is preventative of scratches. It has
often been objected to in America. At any rate,
the feather, when fine, indicates that the other
456 HORSE
tissues, the bone and skin, are also of fine texture.
Conversely, when the feather is wiry and coarse
and curly in this region, it surely denotes a leg
predisposed to grease or scratches. The pastern
and feet have been vastly improved in this breed in
recent years, owing to the demand for more slope
and length in the former and larger hoof heads in
the latter. The same is true to a degree in regard to
the coupling, which at one time was considered the
weakness of the breed, attributable to the lack of
depth in the shorter ribs. Increasing the depth
y iy Ss
1 eo “Day
A. %: WD én Z es =
3 iy Yi 1)a Gt “Pr,
~whiNgg “aes aN Me (ge ‘
FS ToS 1) ey Soles << s
£ DSSS AY ili LO
Fig. 464. Baron’s Pride. Said to be the greatest Clydesdale sire in the world.
Owned by A. and W. Montgomery, Scotland.
of body and adding to the length of the hinder ribs
have been effective in lessening the prevalence of
this criticism. The croup of the Clydesdale ‘is
muscular, and the quarters are specially well devel-
oped. The set of the hocks is one of the strong
points of the breed. A properly set hock forecasts
pulling power, and it also implies freedom from
curbs and from coarseness, due to thoroughpin or
bog spavins. With the web of the hock free from
any filling, the latter works freer and stronger, and
is not predisposed to diseases ; and such a hock is
almost invariably properly set, for it will frequently
be noticed that it is the straight hock that is more
“meaty” and subject to bog spavins and thorough-
pins. Properly set hocks, above all other things,
insure the hock action which is so greatly sought
in Clydesdales. To bring the hocks well under the
body and not to spread too much in passing each
other are very desirable attributes, and these are
eminently characteristic of the Clydesdale’s hind
action. The front action in best form is free,
snappy and folding at the knee, chiefly attributable
HORSE
to a shoulder of correct slope, and springy yet
strong pasterns.
History.
The Clydesdale originated in the lowlands of
Scotland, with the county of Lanark as the chief
center of activity in producing the breed. It is
frequently referred to as the Clydesdale district,
and is divided throughout its length by the Clyde
river. While the lowlands of Scotland have long
been noted for the heavy horses bred there, yet it
was not until the latter part
of the eighteenth century
that the breed was much im-
proved by the importation of
some heavy stallions from
Flanders. John Paterson, of
Lochlyoch, is said to have im-
ported the first Flemish stal-
lion for this purpose early in
the eighteenth century. The
Flemish stallions were large-
boned and heavy horses of
sluggish temperament, with
slow, awkward action. The
lowlands of Scotland are
very favorable for the breed-
ing of heavy horses, as the
soil is fertile and the pas-
turage luxuriant; and these,
with a suitable climate, have
a marked effect on the char-
acteristics of the modern
Clydesdale, as they are fa-
vorable for growth of bone
and muscle, giving both
height and substance.
The Clydesdale of today is
the result of careful and per-
sistent breeding for definite
ends. The results of the
breeders’ efforts in a general
way may be summed up by
stating that they have ultimately been very suc-
cessful in combining weight, quality and action as
the prime essentials of a draft horse. These, suc-
cessfully united, produce a draft horse that has
pulling power, wearing quality or endurance, in
association with ability to move properly at a
satisfactory pace, either walking or trotting. The
evolution of this breed of draft horses is more
than usually interesting because of the decided
views of the home breeders and the singleness of
purpose which they have shown. The progress has
been secured through concentration on one feature
after another, until it produced the desired re-
sults. Without government direction or aid to
secure uniformity of progress, it is safe to say
that the Scottish breeders have accomplished as
marked improvement in their draft horses as the
breeders of any other nation, and the modern
Clydesdale of accepted type possesses inherited
characteristics so fixed by consistent breeding that
they are likely to be passed on to succeeding gene-
rations. Archibald MacNeilage, secretary of the
2
HORSE
Clydesdale Horse Society of Scotland, in a review
(Famous Clydesdale Sires, Transactions of High-
land and Agricultural Society, Vol. IX, 1897) of
the most noted Clydesdale sires from Champion to
MacGregor 1487, shows the evolution of a type
from a coarse prototype, which the author describes
as being a horse of weight with plenty of strength
of bone, but not at all “right at the ground” in the
modern sense, nor as “sweet” in his limbs as horses
are liked now.
For a century the Clydesdale breeders in Scot-
land worked without results that were striking on
the surface, but when this cycle had passed, the
evolution of such sires as Prince of Wales (678)
and Darnley (222) had crowned their efforts. The
former is credited with possessing style and action
in an unusual degree, and these qualities were very
desirable to graft on to the breed at that time.
But with the production of Darnley (222), a sire
possessing the true balance of qualities which mark
the serviceable draft horse, with the power to
reproduce these, the Clydesdale breed received an
impetus that effectively disarmed the old-time
eriticism of “light middles.” From the Prince of
Wales line have come Prince of Albion (6178), said
to be the highest-priced two-year-old draft horse
ever sold, he bringing £3,000. He was, in turn, the
sire of the two-year-old filly, Queen of the Roses, with
a similar record, she bringing £1,000. Also, from
the Prince of Wales came Cedric (1087), exported
to Scotland from the stud of Col. Robert Holloway,
Alexis, Illinois, one of the leading importers of
Clydesdales in America. From the Darnley line
have come MacGregor (1487), Baron’s Pride (9122)
(Fig. 464) McQueen (3513); and in such as these
the Clydesdale breeders secured that combination
of substance, quality and action, with right set of
legs, for which theyhad striven long and assiduously.
Beginning with a prototype coarse and weighty, it
was refined without loss of substance ; and then by
concentrating their attention successively on style,
action, set of legs, slope of pasterns, through years
of criticism and discussion, the Clydesdale of today
emerges with the characteristics desired very pro-
nounced, and in addition, equipped to transmit them.
In their adherence to quality, meaning thereby
texture of bone, cleanness of joints and fineness of
skin and coat and feather, the Scotch breeders
made no mistake in so improving the breed at an
early day, for it has not only added to the appear-
ance of the individuals, to free them from the
charge of grossness of joints and coarseness of
bone, but it has also added materially to their du-
rability under the strain of steady service. Fineness
of feather and sloping pasterns seemed fine fancy
points to the uninitiated, but a steady demand for
them improved the quality of the Clydesdale at a
rapid rate. The breeders previous to this had con-
centrated on action with a zeal that has hardly
been equaled by the breeders of any other breed
of horses. The demand became insistent for action
in show and breeding stock, and the result is that,
in the possession of this feature, judged from a
purely mechanical standpoint, the breed has made
marvelous progress. The action required had to be
HORSE 457
straight, regular and free, both at the walk and at
the trot, with a free flexion of the knee, a springi-
ness to the pastern and a straight and close pas-
sage of the hocks. In the effort to secure these
improvements, the Scotch breeders were very ably
supported by the American breeders, although the
latter did not feel like going so far in the securing
of quality as the home breeders. It is very likely
that the latter felt some misgivings on the point,
for there is no doubt but that the slight infusion of
Shire blood, which was made into the Clydesdale,
chiefly through the use of Prince of Wales (673)
blood, is, to some degree, evidence that they wished
to regain some substance and weight, which, for
the time being, had been sacrificed to a degree for
quality.
The Clydesdale breeders ultimately secured what
they had striven for, even though little attention
has been paid to the American dislike for splashes
of white on legs or body. In this connection it may
be given as a general principle that while it is well
to bear in mind the peculiar requirements of any
trade, yet it is well to be careful in the matter of
humoring any fad as to color or any other fancy
point, when it clashes in any way with real essen-
tials. Having secured the latter, then the question
of markings and color may properly be allowed to
enter asa substantial factor. Another feature is
that the history of the live-stock trade in this
country indicates that to cater to a color, especially
of a fad, has its dangers. The preference for red
among Shorthorn admirers carried to the point of
a prejudice against the roan, has reacted, although
not until the breed had suffered as a consequence.
The Percheron breeders submerged the old gray
Percheron and gave preference to the more
modern black in answer to American preference,
and now that the demand of the draft-horse market
in this country is said to place a premium on grays,
the breeders will have to swing back if American
preference is to be recognized. Uniformity of color
and attractive markings are admitted by every one
to be desired, and the Clydesdale is the sufferer for
bizarre markings.
458 HORSE
In America.—The first importations were made
into Canada in 1842, when Archibald Ward, of
Markham, Ontario, imported Grey Clyde, 78 ; three
years later, R. Johnson, of Scarborough, Ontario,
imported Sovereign, 181. Other importations were
made into Canada in 1850-51-54. About twenty
years later Clydesdales were imported to the United
States, both directly from Scotland and from
Canada as well. The largest importations were
made after 1880, and in the following twelve years
many thousands of both sexes were brought to
America. They are now widely distributed, and
generally known and used.
Distribution.
The adaptability of the Clydesdale, has led to a
wider distribution of it than of any of the other
draft breeds. It has found favor in the leading
English-speaking countries, including, in addition
to the United States, Canada, Australia and New
Zealand. The Argentine Republic has imported
many of the best, while several of the European
nations, notably Germany, Sweden and Russia,
have been most active in making importations. It
has also found its way into South Africa. On this
continent, the breed has been most popular in
Canada, and the good effects of the use of this
breed in grading up farm mares to produce draft-
ers serviceable on the farm and marketable on the
best markets, may be seen on almost any Canadian
farm, while on the streets of the large Canadian
cities, such as Toronto, Hamilton and Winnipeg,
the teams attached to the lorries, showing in their
characteristics Clydesdale breeding, will compare
favorably with any others doing like service under
similar conditions.
Uses.
For draft.—The Clydesdale is essentially a draft
horse, bred for that purpose alone. His free,
straight, rapid gait, and strong, heavy frame, give
him high rank among draft breeds.
For crossing.—Good types of pure-bred Clydes-
dales on native draft mares have given grades
with considerable snap and power, well adapted for
medium draft work in the city and on the farm.
The secretary of the American Clydesdale Asso-
ciation has reported the sale of four draft geld-
ings, largely of Clydesdale breeding, on the Union
Stock Yards market for $3,200, to Nelson Morris
Company. Sales by private treaty are not reported
to the extent that auction sales are, but this,
however, is considered to be a record price on
the Union Stock Yards’ market. It is, in a degree,
an index to the merit attainable by horses of this
extraction for draft purposes.
Organizations and records.
In 1877, the American Clydesdale Horse Asso-
ciation was formed to look after the interest of
this breed in America, and up to 1907, about 15,-
000 registrations had been entered, there having
been over 1,000 entries during the past year. The
Scotch Clydesdale Horse Society was organized in
1878, and it has a registration of over 30,000
HORSE
stallions and mares. Each of these associations
issues a studbook, the American Association having
published thirteen volumes and the Scotch Society
twenty-nine volumes. The headquarters of the
American Association are in the Union Stock
Yards, Chicago.
Literature.
For references, see page 416.
French Coach Horse. Fig. 466.
By John A. Craig.
The name “French coach” originated in America, —
and it is here the official designation of this breed
of coach horses, although it is not in use in France,
where the name “ Demi-Sang” prevails.
There has always been a strong demand in most —
of the horse markets of the world for high-class
coach or carriage teams. The fact that carriage
teams of right type and action bring unusually
high prices in the horse markets has always been
a strong stimulus for their production. This of it-
self has led to the development of breeds suitable
for the production of such horses in several coun-
tries, but an additional stimulus was added to the
production of the French coach through the French
government being actuated by the desire to supply
its army with the best remounts. The wisdom of
this has already accrued to the advantage of the
private individual, for superior carriage horses are
always at a premium, and it remains for a war to
bring to the attention of other nations the superior
foresight with which France has provided for her
cavalry and other army corps in the matter of re-
mounts. It is a national work, the matured fruit
of which will be fully apparent only in a national
crisis when most needed.
Description.
Coach type.—The French coach horse of the coach
or “carrossier” type is in every essential a coach —
or carriage horse according to the market require-
ments. These horses stand, on an average, sixteen
hands high, and in weight may vary from ten to
fourteen hundred pounds. Most of the horses of this
type are upstanding, carrying their heads and tails
high when in motion or at rest. They are smooth,
symmetrical and invariably of fine quality, with.
very graceful movement, having high and bold
knee action, with regular, uplifting, hock action.
They have intelligent heads, graceful necks,
snugly ribbed bodies, and muscular quarters. If
any part of the conformation might be chosen
as fit for general criticism, it would be the legs,
although these, in most instances, are well set
and have every evidence of quality. There is an
airiness and gracefulness about a well set-up French
coacher that is hard to find in any other coach
breed. It is due chiefly to their unusual length and
gracefulness of neck, in conjunction with a spirit
of alertness in movement or statuesqueness in
standing which, besides being due to bodily con-
formation, is also traceable to the excellent train-
f ing they receive to show their qualities to the best
HORSE
advantage. The common colors are bay, brown or
black. Considering the mixed breeding followed in
evolving the French coach, it is exceptionally uni-
form in type, a result due likely to the uniformity
in the standards of the men who as directors have
control of the government breeding operations. The
greatest success in producing the most handsome
and stylish carriage or coach horses has been
by using mares approaching as nearly as pos-
sible the type desired, with as much quality
and action as possible.
The trotting type-—The production of the
trotting type for many purposes has been
encouraged since 1836, when the French gov-
ernment began offering prizes for trotting
races, with the special object of encouraging long-
distance trotting, more especially under the saddle.
The races are usually for distances varying from
two to three miles, and are run over sod ground.
The records are established by the kilometre, which
is about five-eighths of a mile, without reference
to whether the race extended one or three miles.
They are made under saddle from a standing start
and carrying not less than 120 pounds. As might
be expected, those of the trotting type are racier
in appearance, being somewhat like our own trot-
ters, finely drawn, more angular than the coach
type, rangier in appearance and somewhat better
in quality. A horse of stamina and substance, as
well as speed, is required, for it is to be remem-
bered that the races are for long distances over
turf, which demands strong, bold going and pow-
erful action. [Speed records and races are discussed
on the following page.]
History.
In the latter part of the seventeenth century, the
French government, by establishing the Adminis-
tration des Haras, began the systematic improve-
ment of their horses, and as early as 1690 there
were 1,600 stallions known as “royal” or “ap-
proved.” During the many years of disturbance in
France, changes of government and national
reverses, the work has gone steadily on to the
present day. In 1789, there were 3,239 stallions
in the government service, and at the present time
provision is made for the maintenance of 3,300
government stallions, mostly kept in that part of
France west of Paris, and particularly in the
province or district of Normandy. It is in this
section that the breed has had its greatest growth,
and it was because of this that some of the earlier
importations were called Anglo-Normans. In 1838,
a studbook was established, and in 1870 the
department of agriculture was given control of
the government horse-breeding interests under the
Supervision of a director general and staff of
inspectors. The government control is exercised in
a way very similar to that described in discussing
the Percheron, except that the government, in the
case of the coach horses, does most of the breed-
ing, and consequently branded stallions among the
French coachers are not so common as among the
draft breeds. According to the report of the
Director General for 1903, about fifteen hundred
HORSE 459
stallions owned by private parties were approved
and authorized. The same classes are made as in
the case of the draft breeds, there being (1) the
stallions in the government service, (2) the stal-
lions subsidized to the extent of $100 to $1,000
yearly while approved, and (8) the stallions author-
ized for public patronage. All others are prevented
by a law passed in 1885 from
standing at public service, al-
though any owner, at his discre-
l ‘i
‘ My)
Yh y ff
} Oe Yyy
ly UY
— ilillfln
ZY
ly
St
Se ee Y4rn0
French coach mare.
, MeO
Fig. 466. Modjeska 2194.
tion, may use such for private purposes, a practice
that is not encouraged.
In the breeding operations of the government, a
great variety of sources are drawn on. Thorough-
breds have been very extensively imported from
England since the early days of the breed, and
Hackneys have been freely imported and liberally
used; in the inception of the breed, twenty to
thirty Hackneys were imported annually. Heavy
importations of Arabians and others from the
Orient, have been made, particularly in the early
stages of government control, and even stallions of
American breeding have been used. Niger, whose
record is quoted elsewhere as among the best, was
sired by the Hackney stallion Norfolk Phenomenon,
and had an American-bred mare for his dam.
Descendants of Norfolk Phenomenon were a popu-
lar line of breeding, and enter largely into the
pedigrees of many of the Demi-Sang. Another
stallion that had considerable to do with the better
type was Aemulus by Mambrino Pilot, and out of
a Morgan-bred mare, Black Bess, consequently
representing one of the old strains, common among
our Standardbred trotters. This is mentioned to
indicate further the variety of sources drawn on
for foundation stock. In the production of trotters
among the French coach horses, one stallion,
Fuschia, holds about the same relation to the breed
as Hambletonian 10 does to that of our American
Standardbred trotters, in the extent to which the
blood of each predominates in the respective breeds.
In America.—The French coach horse was most
extensively imported to this country during the
eighties, many of them coming to the eastern states.
460 HORSE
Those sent west were most largely taken to the
states of Illinois and Ohio. In the middle west they
have been liberally patronized, and when the foun-
dation mares were of suitable size and type, and a
fair degree of action, high-class carriage horses
have been produced. The scarcity of the proper
type of mares to breed to such stallions militated
against the reputation of the breed for crossing
purposes ; and especially has the scarcity of genuine
coach action been the source of some disappoint-
ment.
Distribution.
The French coach horse has been imported into
many parts of Europe and America, but has not
been bred systematically on a large scale in many
parts of the country. As has been said, it is found
in America chiefly in the eastern states, Illinois
and Ohio being, perhaps, the leaders.
Types.
Owing to the needs of the army, the French
coach horse in France is represented by two types,
referred to as the Demi-Sang trotteur, or those of
the trotting type, and the Demi-Sang carrossier, or
those of the coach type. There are now two stud-
books in France for the registration of these: The
French Studbook, A Register of Demi-Sang Horses
Born and Imported in France, established in 1833;
and the Studbook Trotteur, compiled and published
in 1907. Records had been compiled before this,
but only in recent years has the full importance of
these become manifest to the patrons of the breed.
Speed records and races.
As to speed, M. W. Dunham, who has been an
extensive importer and breeder, has compiled the
following data from official records: In 1891, there
were 1,899 contestants in races, 312 of which
trotted races of two to three and three-fourths
miles at less than three minutes per mile; 137
under 2:50, 112 under 2:45 and 62 under 2:40.
One hundred and one of the 312 were three-year-
olds. The average distance was 27; miles; aver-
age time per mile, 2:50; fastest time for three-
year-olds, distance 24 miles, 6:33; fastest time for
five- to seven-year-olds, distance 34 miles, 8 minutes.
In further reference to speed it may be noted that in
1877, Zacinthe is credited with having trotted 18%
miles over a good road in 59 minutes, and Niger
in 1878 trotted 24 miles in 6:55. To prevent the
sacrifice of size for speed, it is asserted by the
authority just previously quoted that a law was
enacted excluding all horses from public races that
were under fifteen and one-fourth hands high.
As illustrating the conditions under which most
of the races are held, the Derby of Rouen may be
cited. It is worth 20,000 franes, made for three-
year-olds, to be entered the year of their birth,
and trotted in June on turf track two miles under
saddle, fillies to carry 120 pounds, colts 125 pounds.
From these conditions and the data submitted, it
is easy to understand that the government’s aim is
to encourage speed at the trot without sacrificing
stamina or substance.
HORSE
Uses.
The use of the French coach horse for carriage, _
cavalry and fast saddle purposes will have been
gathered from the preceding discussion. It remains —
to mention the use of French coach stallions on
common mares bred in America for the production
of a grade coach horse for general city purposes.
Considerable success has followed such efforts when
pure-bred stallions have been used. Half- and three-
quarter-bred coachers have commanded high prices
on the market.
Organizations and records.
The studbooks devoted to this breed in Fran
are mentioned under types. The French Jockey
Club, organized in 1838, has been responsible for
much of the development of the breed. The French
coach is represented in America by two societies,
the French Coach Horse Society of America,
organized in 1888, with the present secretary a
Oak Park, Illinois, and the French Coach Horse
Registry Company, organized in 1904, with head
quarters in Columbus, Ohio. Each society pub
lished the first volume of its studbook in 1906.
Literature.
For references, see page 416.
French Draft Horse.
By W. L. Carlyle.
A number of breeds and types of draft horses
have been developed in France, and specimens of
most of them have been introduced into America
simply as French draft horses. This has led to
some confusion in the names, as there is no single —
French draft breed, but rather several distinct
Figs. 467, 468.
draft horse best known in America is the Per-
cheron (see pages 478-481). Others less well know
are the Ardennais, Boulonnais, Breton and Niver-
naise, which are here given brief treatment. ‘The
or type of the Boulonnais. By some writers it is
held to be a Belgian breed.
ARDENNAIS HORSE.
This draft breed or type is a native of Ardennais,
adjoining the Belgian. frontier in northeaster
France, and resembles very much in type and char-
acteristics the Belgian draft horse. It is a very
blocky, compact breed of great usefulness for pro-
ducing heavy farm “chunks,” and one type is us
largely as heavy draft horses. Individuals of this
breed scarcely equal in size the Belgians, but are of
the same general type. The heads are strong, with
small eyes and ears, short, thick necks, heavy shou
ders and short, thick and compact bodies. The legs
are short, of fairly good quality, although the fi
are high and narrow. The color of the Ardennais
is more frequently chestnut and roan than any-
thing else, although bay and brown are sometimes
found. Gray is not common and is not looked
on with favor. When imported into this country
‘a
horses of this breed are eligible for registration in
Plate XIV. Draft horses.—Percheron above, Belgian beneath
HORSE
the studbook of the National French Draft Horse
Association of America.
BouLonNAls Horse. Fig. 467.
The head of the Boulonnais is of good size, being
broad in the forehead and with a larger eye than
the Percheron, and somewhat more clean-cut about
2. —
Fig. 467. Champion Boulonnais horse. Bigotte. (No. 2405.)
the lower part of the head. The neck is medium
in length and clean-cut. The shoulders are laid
well into the body and well muscled. The body is
compact and deep-ribbed, with short and broad
back and well-muscled loins. The croup and rump
are inclined to be short and with a low-set tail.
The hind-quarters are muscular and broad with
well-filled thighs. The legs and feet are free from
superfluous. hair and are possessed of excellent
quality. Many Americans favor the feet of the
Boulonnais in preference to those of any of the
other French breeds. On the whole, the feet are
larger, more rounded and the pasterns have more
slope than the Percherons. The colors are dapple
gray, dark iron-gray, black, brown and occasion-
ally chestnut.
The northern part of France has been particu-
larly fertile in the production of high-class horses
of various types. This has been due in part to the
character of the soil and climate and to the char-
acter of food on which they have been fed, and in
part also to the taste and temperament of the
people in this section. In addition to the Percheron
and Demi-Sang Normand, or French coach horse,
there have been developed in this region several
distinctive types or breeds ranging in character-
istics from coach horses to the heaviest type of
draft animals.
The Boulonnais breed originated in the Boulogne
district in northeastern France adjoining Belgium.
In common with the other draft breeds of France,
the Boulonnais horses without doubt had their
origin in the heavy Flemish horses. In their general
characteristics they very much resemble the Per-
cheron, so much so that it is impossible in the best
specimens to distinguish one from the other. In
recent years more animals of gray color are to
be found among the Boulonnais than among the
Percherons, and there has probably been less change
and improvement in type in the Boulonnais breed
than in the Percherons. They are not so large as the
Percherons, and somewhat less refined, on the whole.
HORSE 461
The breed has an excellent reputation in its native
country, where an association has been formed and
a studbook kept in the interest of the breed. It
has been imported in large numbers to America
and has more largely than any other breed made
up what is known as the French draft breed.
This breed is growing in popularity in America,
and its interests, together with other French draft
breeds, are represented in the National French
Draft Association of America, which publishes a
studbook. This Association was first organized as
the National Norman Horse Association in 1876,
but its title was changed to the one that it now
bears in 1885. The Association thus far has pub-
lished nine studbooks. The present headquarters
of the Association are at Denver, Colorado.
BrETON Horse. Fig. 468.
This breed of light draft or general-purpose
horses belongs to Brittany, in the western part of
France in a section of country that is much broken
in surface.
In general, these horses have intelligent heads,
clean-cut necks of medium length, beautiful, round,
well-muscled bodies with short backs and rather
longer and straighter croups and rumps than the
other French breeds, and with more quality in the
legs and feet, the latter being large and more
rounded in form than the Percheron or the Boulon-
nais. In color they are dapple-gray, with very
few exceptions.
Brittany has been prominent in horse-breeding for
many years, although the animals bred are rather of
a miscellaneous type. The Breton horses are exceed-
ingly useful and of much the same general character
as the old-style Percherons, but are smaller and more
refined in type. Many of the Percheron stallions
‘i Vy
os : 5 $ |
As Wie YP Petes — ui fy
RM PE EOS 0, arse as
BA SG SESSA LIN 2.6 FE
Fig. 468. A Breton Stallion.
have been taken into this district in recent years
in an effort to improve the breed in size and char-
acter. Itis stated by some historians that English
races have been introduced into this section, which
possibly accounts for the more luxuriant growth of
hair about the legs. Representatives of this type
of horses are used very largely in France as omni-
462 HORSE ;
bus horses in the cities. They have not been
imported to this country to any great extent, prob-
ably owing to their lack of size and weight.
This breed may be registered in the studbook of
the National French Draft Horse Association of
America.
NIVERNAISE HOorRsE.
The Nivernaise is a breed of draft horses of
French origin. The horses are of large size, with
good length of neck, well-formed bodies of good
length, massive shoulders and hind-quarters, very
strong boned, giving the legs a rather round
appearance. They are uniformly black in color.
Seldom, if ever, is a gray, brown or chestnut to be
found.
This breed of horses has been developed in the
Department of Nivernaise, or Niévre, in central
France, and is one of the largest of the French
draft horses. Its interests have not been very
carefully looked after, and the choice specimens of
the breed are not very numerous. It is only within
the past two or three years that an association has
been formed in France for the keeping of records
in the form of a studbook. It is thought by Amer-
icans who have investigated the matter that the
transformation in color and size in the Percheron
horses in the past ten or fifteen years has been
brought about, to some extent at least, by the use
of the best types of Nivernaise stallions from this
district, crossed on the mares of the LaPerche
district.
This breed is being imported to America to an
increasing extent in recent years, where it is
classed as one of the French draft breeds. Individ-
uals of this breed may be recorded in the studbook
of the National French Draft Horse Association of
America on the same basis as are the horses of
the Boulonnais breed.
Literature.
For references, see page 416.
German Coach Horse. Fig. 469.
By M. W. Harper.
The name indicates that this is a breed of coach
horses, taking its name from Germany, where it
was developed. Horse-breeding in Germany is in-
fluenced greatly by military requirements, and there
are found few of the powerful and compactly built
types, such as the English Shire horse. Although
Germany has several types or breeds of horses that
are suitable for commercial and military purposes,
she still imports many English horses.
Description.
In describing the characteristics of a typical
German Coach horse as seen in America, the Ger-
man Hanoverian and Oldenburg coach Horse Stud-
book says :
“The typical German horse is bay, brown or
- black, sixteen to sixteen and one-half hands high,
and weighs 1,350 to 1,450 pounds. He has a deep,
round body, close ribs, well proportioned, neck long
HORSE
and high set on the shoulders, neat at the throat,
with neat head and with bright and intelligent
countenance. His back is short and strong, smooth
at coupling, tail well set, plump rounded quarters,
strongly muscled limbs, strong hock, clean flat bone,
and the best possible feet.”
From the discussion of types given below, it will
be evident that these horses vary in size. Coarse-
ness is not uncommon, as seen in large head and
joints, with more or less largeness of bone. In
action, there is a wide difference of merit, and,
from the coach horse point of view, they are fre-
quently deficient in this respect. A superior folding
of knee and flexing of hock, with desirable action,
is not a prevailing attribute of the American spec-
imens of the breed.
History.
The German Empire is composed of numerous
states and principalities. Owing to the number of
separate governments involved prior to the consol-
idation of the Empire, there was no single fixed
policy followed, for which reason there are many
marked differences between the various strains of
coach horses found in the Empire. The multiplicity
of states likewise renders it hard to reach very
accurate conclusions regarding the early history
of most of these strains, but there is no doubt that
in point of antiquity these horses rank with any of
‘the other breeds.
The northwestern parts of Germany, particularly
the lowlands drained by the rivers Elbe, Weser
and Ems, which flow into the North sea, has long
been noted as the horse- breeding section of the
Empire. Early records of horse-breeding in Ger-
many go back nearly five centuries. As early as
1500, important annual fairs were held in Fries-
land, near the Holland boundary, where buyers from
Holland, Belgium and Germany found superior
horses. A government stud was established at Ilo,
which contained 182 horses in 1648. At Harlinger-
land, in East Friesland, government studs were in
operation, and reports refer to these as far back as
1712, when sixteen stallions were used for the ser-
vice of 819 mares. In 1889, in this same region,
fifteen stallions were used on 1,421 mares. It does
not appear that the Germans have made extended
use of the Thoroughbred in the evolution of some
strains of their coach horses, although in others
the trace of the blood is plainly discernible. It is
well known that the German cavalryman with his
kit weighs more than the soldier of any other
army, hence we find the German horses possessing
much substance. In other horse-breeding countries,
we find draft and coach horses being developed
side by side, which leads to a division of labor, the
heavy or draft horses doing the heavy work, and
the light horses doing the lighter work. This is
not so in Germany, where the one breed serves both
purposes. This leads to increased size. No effort
to inject speed at the trot has been made at any
time. The heavier soldiers, the heavier work and
the slower gaits, all tend to increased size, hence
we find the German coach the heaviest of the coach
horses.
HORSE
Government supervision of horse-breeding in
Germany has obtained for centuries. The use of
stallions on mares of Hast Friesland was regulated
by royal edict for many years. It was made a law
that no permits should be issued authorizing the
use of stallions, unless the latter had passed a sat-
isfactory government inspection. At the present
time, both the government and the agricultural
societies promote intelligent horse-breeding. Prizes
are awarded to animals of special merit, and such
animals must remain in the country for a
specified term. First prizes are awarded only
to mature horses and mares that have shown
merit as breeders. Stallion shows have long
been held at Aurich, in Hast Friesland, where
the horses are brought annually for inspec-
tion and approval. Prizes for brood mares
are also awarded by the government.
In America.—The history of the German coach
horse in America is comparatively brief. It first
made its appearance in the United States in the
eighties. Not much prior to 1890 did the breed
receive recognition at American shows. A. B. Hol-
bert, of Greeley, Iowa, was one of the earliest
introducers of the breed. Oltmann Brothers, of
Illinois, and Crouch & Son, of Indiana, have also
been most actively and prominently identified with
its promotion in America.
German coach horses of importance are not as
yet found in America in large numbers. Among
the earlier ones imported, Moltke 13, Kaiser Wil-
helm 494, Young Altma I 458, and Young Adonis
476, met with favorable comment, the latter being
a successful prize-winner in California in 1891. In
the central West, Bertus, brought out by Oltmann
Brothers, and Ento and Hannibal, owned by Crouch
& Son, have been distinguished in the show-ring,
winning against the severest competition for years
in succession.
Distribution.
The German coach horse is found in many coun-
tries throughout Europe, South Africa and both
North and South America. In Canada, it is perhaps
most popular in the Northwest. In the United States,
it is most popular in the states of Indiana, Illinois
and Jowa, but it is found in many parts of the
country.
Types and families.
As stated above, owing to the conditions prevail-
ing in Germany, we have many types of German
coach horses. Perhaps the most noted are the Hast
Prussian or Trakehner horses, the Hanoverian, the
Holstein, the Oldenburg, the East Friesland, the
Rhenish Prussian, the Mecklenburg and the Schles-
wig coach horses. Most of these strains have
separate studbooks and are well recognized.
The Hast Prussian or Trakehner horse is per-
haps the lightest of all. It has a good disposition,
great endurance, a fine head, well-formed back and
is well ribbed up. It is, perhaps, rather long legged,
looks rather light for its height, and lacks the
action that is admired in a carriage horse. The
greatest horse-breeding center in East Prussia is
HORSE 463
the stud of Trakehner, which was founded in 1732
by Frederick William I, King of Prussia, and father
of Frederick the Great. He furnished this stud
with 1,101 horses from the royal studs. There
were a few importations from Arabia and a few
English Thoroughbreds added to the stud from
time to time.
The Hanoverian horses are larger than the Nast
Prussian horses. However, they are softer, and
their action not so good, due, perhaps, to the Ara-
bian and Thoroughbred blood in the
East Prussian horses. They are used
more for draft than for saddle pur-
poses. They have strong legs and a
Fig. 469.
German Coach stallion.
good back, on which they can carry a load suffici-
ently heavy to make them serviceable military
horses. These horses are bred by farmers, who
work the brood mares on their farms. There is no
trace of either Arabian or English Thoroughbred
blood in their veins.
The Holstein horses are about equal to the Hano-
verian in size. They are fine powerful horses, with
good legs and free action, are suitable for both
riding and driving, and are in great demand ; but
it is doubtful whether they are as enduring as the
East Prussian horses. For many centuries, Hol-
stein has been noted for its good horses.
Oldenburg horses are, perhaps, the parent of the
German coach horses, and are used for heavy coach
work, and for all-purpose horses, but seldom are
used as saddlers. Some writers contend that these
horses are not of the best quality, but stand in high
favor because of their great size, some being seven-
teen hands high, and broad in proportion. They have
good dispositions, and mature at an early age.
Hast Friesland horses are about as large as the
Oldenburg horses, and have grown up under simi-
lar conditions. The East Friesland Studbook says:
“The object of the breed is to produce a strong,
noble and docile carriage horse, which will develop
quickly, and can be put to light agricultural work
in its third year, in order to refund a part of its
cost of rearing.”
464 HORSE
Mecklenburg horses. — Although Mecklenburg
horses were the finest saddle and coach horses in
Germany eighty or ninety years ago, their breed-
ing has been so badly managed, and English thor-
oughbred blood has been so indiscriminately intro-
duced, that the best horses now in Mecklenburg are
perhaps those of the Hanovarian or Holstein breeds,
brought there to grow up under the favorable
Mecklenburg conditions of soil and climate. Meck-
lenburg possesses high-lying pasture lands, which
are admirably adapted for the breeding of good
horses, and it is unfortunate that the breed declined.
Breeding, feeding and management.
In general, one would breed, feed and care for
the German coach horse in the same way as for
any other coach horse. However, in the breeding
it is well to bear in mind that there are many
strains of German coach horses, and that some of
these strains differ very much in size, conforma-
tion, action and endurance. There is as much or
more difference between the two extremes repre-
sented in these strains as there is between some of
the distinct breeds, and it may be no more desir-
able to cross the light strains of German coach
horses with the heavy strains than to cross some
of the distinct breeds.
Uses.
As stated above, in the German Empire this is
the horse-of-all-work. At home, this breed is called
on to do the saddle work, the light as well as the
heavy carriage work, and the draft work. In this
country, the German coach horse differs from other
coach horses in at least two respects. In the first
place, there has never been any attempt to breed
or train them to speed at the trot ; and in the sec-
ond place, some strains are decidedly heavier than
the other coach horses, notably the Hackney and the
French coach. There may be individual exceptions
to this statement, but in this country the large Ger-
man coacher ranks between the French coach and
the Suffolk Punch, the lightest of the draft breeds.
Since we have the two extremes, varying so much
in size, conformation and action, we might expect
them to meet a variety of conditions. For example,
take the East Prussian or Trakehner horses, which
have some Arabian and Thoroughbred blood in their
veins, and we would expect these to meet any con-
dition requiring a light well-bred horse. They
possess much quality, action and endurance, and
are undoubtedly adapted for light coach work. On
the other hand, take the heavy horses from Olden-
burg, and we would not expect them to be so active
nor so enduring. In fact, these big horses are
looked on with disfavor by some persons. Count
Wrangel says of them: “‘ Most lovers of horses will
acknowledge that their value, from a useful point
of view, is not particularly great. The majority of
Oldenburg horses which I have seen, have given
me a very bad impression, and I would not use them
for breeding at any price. As I may have been
unfortunate in my acquaintance with them, I will
merely say that their hereditary defects are heavy
heads, weak backs, bad ribs, long legs, ‘tied in’
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below the knee, brittle hoofs and want of endur-
ance. These defects ought to prevent people from
breeding such animals, because the fact that the
horse is seventeen hands high and broad in pro-
portion, has good manners and matures at an early
age, is not sufficient to make a breeder ignore
other and perhaps more important qualities.” This
criticism is perhaps too severe, but it comes from
a German person of note.
Organizations and records.
The German, Hanoverian and Oldenburg Coack
Horse Association of America was incorporated
under the laws of the state of Illinois about 1892,
and a studbook was started, containing pedigrees of
registered stallions and mares imported, or raised in
America. Two volumes have been issued to 1906.
They contain the registration of about eighteen
hundred animals, mostly stallions. Soon after the —
organization of the German, Hanoverian and Olden-
burg Coach Horse Association, came the Oldenburg
Coach Horse Association, which was also incorpo-
rated in Illinois. So far as the American public is
aware, the various coach horses brought to Amer-
ica from Germany are known as the German coach
breed, whether Oldenburg, Hanoverian, or otherwise.
This difference of title may be accounted for in part
by the variety of types. It would seem that the advo-
cates of the breed would do well to clarify in some
permanent way this apparent confusion of names.
Literature.
For references, see page 416.
Hackney Horse. Fig. 470.
By John A. Craig.
The present-day Hackney is a carriage horse
breed. Among the early English writers on subjects
relating to the horse, the word “hackney” was appar-
ently used frequently as a synonym for roadster.
The word ocurs in the earliest English, but its mean-
ing, or rather the class of horse that it was applied
to, is not made clear. Mr. Euren, the secretary of
the English Hackney Horse Society, states that the
Normans, at the time of their invasion, introduced
the word haquenée or hacquenée, which he states was
recognized as far back as the year 1303. Chaucer
also used the word “hakeney” or “hacknay,” but
does not give any clue as to the class of horse re-
ferred to. Cully, an early English writer on live-
stock subjects, does not mention the Hackney.
Lawrence, however, in some of his writings, gives
us an inkling as to its application, and, as already
stated, it meant a roadster.
Description.
The Hackney of true type is a horse of substance,
extremely smooth and with gracefully curved out-
lines. Being full made, owing to splendid muscular —
development, and being on short legs, the repre-
sentative of this breed suffers in stature in com-
parison with most of the other coach breeds. The —
type most sought, and the one that may be said to —
be the old-fashioned type, represents a powerfully
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built horse, round-ribbed, muscular loin, and plump
quarters, with short legs. The desire for more
quality on the part of some of the breeders, and
the use of Thoroughbred blood to secure it, had the
effect of making some of them more bloodlike and
rangier in appearance. The question of height in
the Hackney has been liberally discussed, and the
general belief is that a height of 15.2 to 16 hands
is most compatible with the other features of the
type that are most desired. It might
be mentioned that until recent years
- the Hackney rings at the exhibitions
of the Royal Agricultural Society of
Hngland were open only to horses not
exceeding 15.2 hands in height. So
many of the noted sires of later years
have been over that height, that it was
not advisable to enforce the restric-
tion, and consequently it was removed. A well-
known writer states that it is somewhat remark-
able to note the circumstance that most of the
successful stallions, both as sires and exhibition
horses, of the present and past generations, have
stood 15.2 hands high.
For a horse of such substance, the Hackney is
not deficient in quality, although to combine the
two in aright degree is as much a problem with
the Hackney breeders as it is with the breeders
of the other breeds of coach horses. Substance,
meaning thereby muscular development and size of
bone, is easily enough secured; but to have with it
the refinement of features and tissues, with fluted
legs, which makes up quality, is a combination of
the highest excellencies.
Such being the general form, a more careful
analysis of the several features that blend into the
type desired is necessary to fill out the details of
the true type. The Hackney head sometimes
approaches meatiness, but, as a rule, it is well pro-
portioned to the body, clean cut, with full eyes
and specially alert and medium-sized ears. It has
been criticised for a tendency towards being
“pull” or thick-necked. There are some grounds
for this criticism, but it is to be remembered that
the heavy harness horse may be permitted to be
fuller in the neck than those of more coachy type,
in which length and slimness of neck contribute to
high-headedness. In the Hackney, the shoulder is
a point of particular importance, for it has a great
deal to do with the high knee-folding action, so
very much admired in the heavy harness horse.
A long, sloping shoulder, well clothed with muscle,
gives it that lifting power in front which is a
feature of the front action more often met with
in this breed than any other. The body must
necessarily be deep and round-ribbed, to give that
appearance of substance required, together with
the rotundity characteristic of the type. A loin
swathed in muscles, even to the extent of round-
ing upwards slightly, makes a strong, short coup-
ling, which should join smoothly a plump rounded
and deeply muscled hind-quarter. These, with
muscular thighs and well-set and strong hocks,
are derivative of the snappy and propelling hock
action behind.
Cc 30
HORSE 465
The action.—It is in the action of the Hackney
that the chief merit of the breed resides for heavy-
harness purposes, although this statement is not
meant in the least to belittle the special type re-
quired also. It is stylish, attractive action, not
speed, that is of most importance. The front feet,
in walking or trotting, are lifted with snap and
spring, and in the trot the foot goes forward after
being uplifted, as if it were following the rim of a
wheel. It is not held in the air at any one point ;
that is, the leg is not fully extended when the
foot is several inches from the ground, but
it is still following our imaginary rim
of a wheel when it reaches the
ground and is planted firmly. When
wally
HAH ||
ea 4
r/
Aes dev jy
ie INS: a~
SS ES
13 hands, 3 inches high.
pulled up, it does not fly toward the elbows as if
to hit them, but goes up and out without any delay
in the knee-folding. While the fore action is a
point of paramount importance, yet it may be said
that in its hock action for heavy-harness purposes
the Hackney has hardly a peer. The hock is lifted
sharply toward the body, and the action is in no
sense sprawling. Many horses can be made to step
high and fold the knee, as a Hackney or heavy-
harness horse should do, but the true heavy-har-
ness hock action is not susceptible to artificial
imitation. The weakness of most horses, other
than Hackneys, in the heavy-harness classes, is
that the hind-leg dwells somewhat like a duck
swimming in water; it is not brought up quickly
to the body. Very frequently, the leg from the
hock down is thrown stiffly forward, making the
horse spread or sprawl in his gait, as his hind-feet
have to be thrown out and past the fore-feet.
Such a horse, no matter how high or Yolding or
even perfect his fore action may be, cannot go with
that collected and well-balanced stride that a
heavy-harness horse should have. He may likely
go faster, but at a moderate gait, such as that
which is most useful for heavy-harness horses, he
cannot go collected and with snap and style. To
466 HORSE
have snap and style in hind action is as necessary
in the view of the critical horseman as that of the
fore-feet, and, to have it, the hocks must be prop-
erly flexed, with perhaps less stifle action than that
required for speed.
The color.—In reference to the color, it may be
said that these horses are mostly brown, bay or
chestnut, with some white markings. A rich, dap-
pled brown is not an infrequent color. As they are
mostly of solid colors, there is usually little diffi-
culty in matching teams in this particular respect.
Soundness of the Hackney.—A note should be
made of the fact that unsoundness is not frequent
among Hackneys. While not in the least desiring to
detract from this desirable trait, yet it needs to be
qualified somewhat, especially when it is used to
make invidious comparisons with the Standard-
bred trotter. The Standardbred trotter usually
leads a strenuous life, beginning to race when two
years old. The popularity of the colt trotter as a
money-maker, because of the large stakes for two-
and three-year-olds, as well as the large purses for
free-for-all campaigners, puts our Standardbred
trotter through a course of racing that is a very
trying ordeal. The Hackney is more carefully kept
and is never tried out in the sense that our trot-
ting horses are, consequently it should be sounder
and always fresher. The fact remains that the
Hackney as a breed is unusually free from unsound-
ness. Since the Shire Horse Society of Hngland
wisely decided, in 1885, that all horses at their
annual show should undergo veterinary examina-
tion conducted by three qualified veterinarians,
other societies have followed the system, although
with most of them only one veterinarian acts. In
regard to the Hackney, it may be stated that the
Hackney Horse Society for the past ten years has
subjected the entries to its show to veterinary ex-
amination, and the percentage rejected has been very
small. Of course, when such a system is in vogue,
much carefulness on this point would be observed
by exhibitors ; consequently it is hardly a complete
index to the prevalence of unsoundness in the breed
as a whole. However, combined with general
observation, the figures bear out the point that
unsoundness is not very prevalent. In the years
from 1896 to 1904, inclusive, 2,108 of the horses
were examined, and 106 of these were rejected,
showing an average of not quite 5 per cent rejected.
History.
The development of the Hackney into a breed
may be traced to definite stimuli, which have been
noticeable and in operation with more or less force
in the development of several other breeds of horses.
In the evolution of the breeds of light horses, there
may be said to be a district suitable for rearing
light horses of quality, which implies a soil well-
drained, either light, hilly or underlaid with lime-
stone, with good grass, all of which should indicate
wholesome grazing conditions. With these associate
men who love a horse, and let them be inspired with
adefinite aim, and the breed takes form and becomes
popular according to the force and growth of the
demand and ideals. A variety of sources are in-
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variably drawn on, frequently very diverse in some
attributes, but somewhat similar in the breed
characteristics desired ; and, these once secured, the
aim becomes to concentrate and multiply them.
With these general conditions in view, let us
bring their particular application to the Hackney.
As bearing on this, and also to show that these
factors were recognized by horsemen at a very early
day, a quotation from Lawrence will suffice: “ Light
soils and a hilly surface of ground generally pro-
duce clean, vigorous and active horses, and probably
there is no county in England where a better sort
are bred than in Shropshire. Yorkshire and Lin-
colnshire are celebrated for carriage horses, and
many very good ones are reared in those districts.”
Yorkshire and Norfolk were the original home of
the Hackney, at an early time known also as the
Norfolk trotter ; and Yorkshire became prominent
in the development of this breed, through the adapta-
bility for light horses and superiority over the
counties of Shropshire and Lincolnshire in this line,
chiefly because of the other stimulus referred to—
the Yorkshireman was an enthusiastic horseman.
To carry the postulate to its full and more recent
application, it is necessary only to direct attention
to what Kentucky, Vermont, Virginia, Tennessee,
and other states possessing the character of soil
and people referred to, have accomplished. Con-
versely, apply what has been stated to be the evo-
lution of draft breeds, and it will be apparent that
the heaviest breeds of draft horses come from the
lower and more level lands, with their more lush
vegetation.
Continuing our reference to Yorkshire and Nor-
folk, it should be said that the demand during the
earliest time was for a horse that could trot fast
under saddle, and the horsemen of these two coun-
ties vigorously took up the work of breeding a
stoutly built fast trotting horse of as much endur-
ance as possible. It is said (Wallace, Live-Stock)
that the Norwegian horse was used at a very early
day on the common mares of these counties, as it
was in Norfolk and Yorkshire, where the Norse
invaders had their principal strongholds in Eng-
land. The influence of this on the breed may be
slighted when the more potent influence of the
Thoroughbred is considered. It is also of interest
to mention that even the blood of the Standard-
bred trotter found its way into some of the Hack-
ney pedigrees through Shepherd F. Knapp, No. 282
in the register of Standardbred horses. The main
source of the Hackney blood lines runs back to
Arabian origin through the Thoroughbred, being
similar in this respect to all the other breeds of
light horses. Since the eighteenth century, the
breed has been undergoing evolution, and it may
be said to have had its inception with Shales (699),
variously called “The Original,” “Old Shales,” etc. —
This horse, in the history of the Hackney or Nor-
folk trotter, stands in relation to the breed very
much as Hambletonian 10 does in that of the
Standardbred horse or American trotter; and,
curiously enough, their breeding is of surprising
similarity. Shales (699) was sired by Blaze, a
Thoroughbred horse, foaled in 1733. It is said that
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Blaze was not a Thoroughbred, but the best evi-
dence we have credits him with being about as
much so as any other horse of that early day.
Blaze was by Flying Childers (a noted running
horse), by the Darley Arabian. The dam of Blaze
is asserted to have been by Grey Grantham, by
Brownlow Turk out of a mare by the Duke of Rut-
land’s Black Barb. Now the same Blaze sired Samp-
son, the sire of Engineer, he the sire of Mambrino,
and he, in turn, the sire of Messenger, which was
imported to America and was the grandsire of
Hambletonian 10. Again, the dam of Hambletonian
10 was the Charles Kent mare by Imported Bell-
founder, a Norfolk trotter tracing back through
the Fireaways to Driver, a son of Shales by Blaze.
The dam of the Kent mare was One Eye, by Bishop’s
Hambletonian, a son of Messenger. Yet again,
Mambrino Chief was by Mambrino Paymaster, by
Mambrino, by Messenger. So we have the two
great lines of the American trotter, Hambletonian
10 and Mambrino Chief II, tracing back through
Messenger to Blaze, and the most noted of the
early sires of Hackneys or the Norfolk trotters
going back to the same Blaze. May it not be rea-
sonable to assume from these facts that from the
latter horse has originated the trotting instinct,
which has later developed into breed characteris-
tics ? Following the development of the Hackney,
we find that Shales (699), considered the most
famous trotter of his day in England, sired Driver
(187) and Scott’s Shales (692), and, according to
the statement of a writer of authority, “to the
former of these horses many—very many—of the
best Hackneys of the day owe their origin.” For
example, Mr. Philip Triffitt’s great sire, Fireaway,
was by Achilles, by Achilles (Hairsines’), by Fire-
away (Scott’s), who was got by Fireaway (Rams-
dale’s), by Fireaway (Burgess’), by Fireaway
(West’s), by Fireaway (Jenkinson’s), ason of Driver.
It may be interesting to state here that John A.
Logan is authority for the statement that the stock
of Triffitt’s Fireaway has sold to the amount of
$2,500,000, which is somewhat of an index to the
value of this horse to the breed.
Mention of other noted sires should include Den-
mark (177), sire of Danegelt ; Lord Derby II (417),
sire of Cadet, 1251; Confidence (158), sire of the
Champion and Reality (665) ; and Rufus, an Elsen-
ham Challenge cup winner and a noted progenitor
of Hackney character.
With the change from use under the saddle to
driving on the road attached to a vehicle, the
Hackney’s proclivities to trot do not seem to have
undergone any change; although there was a ten-
dency at this time toward refinement of the type,
largely through the greater infusion of Thorough-
bred blood. This also added to the height without
changing the form much, except to add some to the
straightness of the croup. Up to this time, and
since, considerable evidence had been accumulating
to indicate that the Hackney possessed more than
ordinary excellence for long-distance trotting. Such
records, it remains to be said, are of use only to
enable us to understand the original characteristics
of the breed, not for their official value to establish
HORSE 467
the reputation of the Hackney of the present day,
for speed at the trot, for either long or short dis-
tances. It is to be remembered, also, that these
records, if they may be called such, are in nearly
all instances dependent on hearsay and not on official
trials over measured distances. It is said that
Driver (187), already referred to, trotted 17 miles
within the hour, and Fireway is credited with hav-
ing trotted 2 miles in 5 minutes. The performance
that is most noteworthy is that credited to the
mare Phenomena, that in July, 1800, trotted 17
miles in 56 minutes, and shortly afterward repeated
the same performance in 53 minutes. Attention
has been drawn to the fact that it was not until
1849 that Trustee, in America, trotted 20 miles in
59 minutes and 354 seconds. The mare’s rate would
be 20 miles in 624 minutes, showing that at that
early day the Hackney or Norfolk trotter was noted
for ability to trot long distances, with speed unusual
at that time.
The secretary of the Hackney Horse Society,
Mr. Euren, in the first volume of the studbook,
credits the era of railroad building with dampen-
ing the ardor of the breeders of Hackneys; and,
for a time, the breed did not receive much hearty
support. A revival came in a very decided manner
with the advent of exhibitions, and especially with
the inauguration of horse-shows. Until the breed
began to attract notice for heavy-harness and
high-stepping purposes, they were not very largely
imported from England, nor did they attain their
present popularity in England. It was in the
spring of 1893 that the first notable Hackney
exhibition was held in England. In America, the
horse-shows, the growth of recent years, as dis-
tinct from the usual live-stock shows, were factors
that did more to popularize the Hackney than any
other influences. The high-lifting action of the
Hackney, both fore and aft, made a very attract-
ive feature of the shows; and that, coupled with
the growth of the high-stepping fad, gave the
breed a strong impetus, although their genuine
merit as heavy-harness horses has outlived this.
The possession of stoutness of form with this action
has adapted them particularly for heavy harness
and heavy vehicles.
In America.—Aside from the first importation
to America of Bellfounder (55), in 1822, by James
Booth, of Boston, the next importation of note was
the stallion Fordham, a son of Denmark, brought
over in 1881, by Hillhurst Stock Farm, of which
Senator Cochrane, of Quebec, Canada, was pro-
prietor. Then comes the era of the horse-show,
when extensive importations were made, chiefly
into the New England states and Canada, with
scattering importations into Ohio, Wisconsin and
other states. The largest of these importations
was made in 1890 by Mr. Seward Webb, of Ver-
mont, who imported thirty-one horses, four of
which were stallions. About this time, there was
a lull in the profitableness of breeding Standard-
bred trotters, which put many horses of this
breeding on the market that otherwise would have
been retained in the breeding stud. Attention was
drawn to the fact that many horses of Standard-
468 HORSE
bred trotting lines were competing with the Hack-
ney, especially in the high-stepping classes, in the
show-ring. They were more or less freaks, with
the high stepping exaggerated by heavy shoeing
and training, but they sometimes made a more
popular show than the Hackney, by being able to
go fast as well as high. There was little inclina-
tion among exhibitors at that time to stop and
consider that fast going was not a much sought
after characteristic for a high-stepping or a heavy-
harness horse. A lessening of the interest in the
mere high goer, and more attention to the trueness
and serviceability of the action, has done good in
recent years; and the outcome has been to
strengthen the position of the Hackney and make
it more decidedly a heavy-harness horse.
Distribution.
The good qualities of the Hackney have attracted
world-wide attention, and, as a consequence, it is
now found in many lands. In general, from Eng-
land it has gone out into France, Germany, Hol-
land, Denmark, Belgium, Spain, Italy, far east
into Japan and south into Africa, Australia and
New Zealand, and westward into the Argentine
Republic in South America, and into Canada and
the United States in North America. It is pressing
its way into every land where heavy-harness horses
are in demand. In America, the Hackney is bred in
the largest numbers east of the Mississippi river,
but numbers of the breed have become very broadly
scattered over the states and provinces.
Uses.
From what has been written, it is clear that the
special field for the Hackney is the production of
heavy-harness horses, for the breed in itself has
been specifically bred for that purpose. The high
knee-folding action and attractive appearance,
either standing or in motion, adapt it for the
production of stylish heavy-harness horses for city
driving. Possessing these qualities, with the sub-
stance and smoothness of type to wear heavy
leather becomingly, the Hackney as a breed has
superior claims.
The degree to which a breed may be useful in
producing a marketable product is a factor that
has to be considered, as well as the breed character-
istics. However useful pure-bred horses may be,
yet the degree to which they may contribute to
the general improvement of the horses of acountry
is a broader and more influential factor entering
into their standing. In this respect, the Hackney
has established a reputation. On our common
mares of much quality and some action, the Hack-
ney makes a desirable cross. As Johnstone says,
“the similarity of action I count the most salient
of its features,” and it is because this mechanical
action is so deeply bred into the Hackney that it is,
perhaps, the most likely of any of the European
light horses to transmit it. It seems to be easier
to produce the type than it is to secure the natural
heavy-harness action. The tendency toward this
action and type is surely stronger in the produce
of the Hackney, because the breed itself has been
HORSE
bred for years for just those things ; yet it is not
safe to assume that it will come spontaneous to
the surface without proper mannering and encour-
agement.
Organizations and records.
The societies devoted to the breed are the Eng-
lish Hackney Horse Society, established in 1883,
with the first studbook published the following
year, and the American Hackney Horse Society,
with headquarters in New York City, established
in 1891. The first volume of its studbook was
published in 1893.
Literature.
For references, see page 416.
Hunter Horse. Fig. 471.
By W. C. Bacon.
The Hunter, as bred in America, cannot yet be
called a breed of horses. The Irish Hunter, how-
ever, has been recognized as a distinct breed for a
hundred years or more. The Hunter and the Stand-
ardbred trotter have come from the Thorough-
bred, the Standardbred trotter having been devel-
oped in America as the result of the desire for a
fast driving horse, and the Hunter breed developed
in Ireland as the result of the demand for horses
with Thoroughbred or ideal saddle conformation,
that were able to carry much more weight than
the pure-bred Thoroughbred. Ireland, therefore,
may be said to be the home of the Hunter, or
where this type of horses has been bred for so
many years that it has long since been classed as
a distinct breed, and recognized as such at all the
fairs and horse shows in Great Britain.
Description. 5
The Hunter should not be high-headed, and the
longer the rein the better. The fore-hand should
be light. The withers should be higher than the
croup, and the bones of the fore-limb compara-
tively long, so as to be able efficiently to raise the
fore-hand both in taking and landing. The shoul-
ders and pasterns should be long and sloping. The
muscles that lie above the fore-arm should be well
developed, as the fore-arm straightens the shoul-
der joint and the latter straightens the elbow
joint, two actions which help to prevent the horse
falling when he lands over a jump. The muscles
over the loins behind the saddle should be particu-
larly strong. The hocks should be large and gas-
kins broad.
The following is a detailed description of the
points of an ideal Hunter : Head.—Hars fine, not
too large, approaching each other at the tips,
when thrown forward ; cranium broad and nicely
rounded ; forehead fiat and broad; eyes wide
apart, prominent and bold in expression; nasal
bones straight in front, but slightly dished on lat-
eral surfaces ; nostrils firm, large and flexible, of
large capacity when the animal is excited; lips
firm, mouth medium-sized ; muzzle small and taper-
ing ; cheeks well but not too heavily clothed with
ae
aS LU oo ae a
Plate XV. Hackneys above (four years old); gaited saddler below
HORSE
hard, well-developed muscles; branches of lower
jaw well spread apart at their angles. Neck.—
Clean-cut and rangy; crest well developed and
whipcordy, but not so heavy as in other classes ;
head well attached to neck in a graceful, angular
manner; jugular gutter well developed. Withers.
—Well developed, high, and not too wide on top.
The withers should be sloping and of such form
that the saddle may be placed well back over the
center of gravity, which is especially desirable in
negotiating timber. Shoulders.—Long and
oblique, so as to give easy action; shoulder-
blades well covered with muscles. Chest.—
Deep, giving good girths, with a well-filled
breast. Arm.—Thrown well forward, so as
to give an oblique shoulder. Forearm.—Long,
well developed, and strong, well clothed with
hard, well-developed muscles, having grooves
of demarcation between them, showing the
outlines of each individual muscle. KAnee.—
Clean, straight, large and strong in all di-
rections, the bone forming the back part
being somewhat prominent. Knee to fetlock
joint—Cannon short, broad, flat, and clean;
tendons standing out plainly, hard and whip-
cordy. The lines of demarcation between ten-
don and ligament, and between ligament and
bone must be well supported beneath the knee,
not showing any tendency to weakness.
Fetlocks.—Strong and well supported. Front past-
ern.—Strong, medium length and oblique. Front
feet.—Rather smaller in proportion than in other
breeds, round, strong, and fairly deep wall; soles
concave, frog well developed; heels full and not
too deep; toes turning neither in nor out while
standing. Body.—Back strong and inclined to be
short, with a long under-line; loin broad and well
muscled; ribs well sprung and of good depth.
The under-line must be long, otherwise the horse
will be shortened in his gait. To get this long
under-line, perhaps a longer back will be required
than would otherwise be desirable. Crowp.—Well
muscled, carried out straight to tail, which should
be full haired and very stylishly carried. Hock.—
Deep and strong in all directions; all points well
developed, but not rough; absence of malforma-
tions or puffiness; point very well developed,
straight on posterior border; the whole joint
clean, hard, and of an angular shape. Hock to fet-
lock.—Cannon short, wider and flatter than in
front ; tendons well marked individually, and must
not have a pinched appearance below joint in
front, but very gradually taper in width from
hock to fetlock. Fetlock joint—Large, clean-cut
and strong. Hind pasterns.—Medium length, slop-
ing and strong. Hind-feet—Smaller and not so
round as the front ones; sole more concave; frog
well developed ; heel good width and not too deep.
Color.—Bay, brown or chestnut, black, roan and
gray; with reasonable modifications. Skin and
hair.—Skin soft, mellow, and loose, hair fine, silky,
and straight and soft in comparison with other
breeds. Temperament.—Mild, energetic, not vi-
cious nor too nervous. Action.—Prompt, free, and
elastic, not too much knee and hock action, but
3
“IES.
Fig. 471. The Hunter, ‘‘Guardsman.’’ Owned by John Clay.
HORSE 469
going close to the ground, especially in the canter
and gallop; no paddle or roll, and front feet not
to go close enough behind to interfere; a good
straightaway walker. Weight.—1,000 to 1,300
pounds. Height—15 hands 1 inch to 16 hands
and over.
Breeding in America.
The breeding of Hunters in America has hardly
progressed far enough in any one section of the
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country to distinguish such animals as “pure
bred.” However, a great many animals are yearly
bred in this country for the special purpose of pro-
ducing Hunters. The method of breeding is the
same as originally adopted in Ireland, namely, the
use of Thoroughbred stallions on native or grade
mares. As the external conformation usually fol-
lows the sire, the breeders of Hunters are usually
able to produce, even in the first cross, saddle con-
formation, and at the same time to have trans-
mitted to such a cross sufficient of the courage,
intelligence and staying qualities of the Thorough-
bred to make the first cross (half-blood) a most
satisfactory animal for cross-country riding to
hounds. The fact that those half-, three-quarter-
and seven-eighth-blood horses make such satisfac-
tory Hunters is probably the reason why, in this
country, there has been no general movement in
any one section to continue special breeding. How-
ever, a great many clean-bred horses are favored
by many persons for cross-country work. This
special line of breeding has not been followed long
enough for the breed to become fixed. In fact,
the demand for such horses has always exceeded
the supply in America to such an. extent that the
type has never had an opportunity to become
thoroughly established. Nevertheless, there has
been a National Steeple Chase and Hunt Associa-
tion organized in America under the auspices of
The Jockey Club, that admits to register almost
any animal with one or more crosses of Thorough-
bred blood, that has been regularly “hunted” a cer-
tain number of times, with some recognized pack
of hounds, and approved by the master.
Hunter-breeding in America is conducted to a
limited extent in the neighborhood of most of the
470 HORSE
organized hunt clubs, of which there are some fifty
in the eastern states. In such sections one will
find one to half a dozen Thoroughbred stallions in
general uSe among the farmers of that special
community. In the Genesee valley in Livingston
county, New York, for example, there are no less
than eight Thoroughbred stallions within a radius
of fifteen miles, being used on the farm mares of
the neighborhood for the special purpose of breed-
ing Hunters. Virginia probably produces more
animals that are especially bred for hunting than
any other state. Of late years, however, the
Jockey Club has put out many Thoroughbred
stallions throughout the state of New York, which
in a few years should make that state promi-
nent for breeding Hunters. Hitherto, Canada has
been one of the principal sources from which
American hunting men have been supplied. The
Canadian Hunters come largely from between
Toronto and London, Ont., where Thoroughbred
stallions have been very generally used.
Distribution.
As hunting has long occupied a place in the
sports of nations, horses that may be characterized
as hunters are widely distributed. From Ireland,
the home of the breed, the Hunter has been scat-
tered over great Britain and the continent. In 1904,
the Dutch government bought 350 young mares of
this breed in Ireland. In America, both Canada and
the United States are devoting increasing attention
to the production of horses for hunting purposes.
Classes.
At the leading horse shows there are several
classes for Hunters of different types and different
weight-carrying abilities. Qualified Hunters are
those that have been registered with the National
Steeple Chase and Hunt Association, but need not
be clean bred. Heavy-weight Hunters must carry
up to 200 pounds to hounds (qualified and not quali-
fied). Middle-weight Hunters must carry up to 180
pounds to hounds (qualified and not qualified).
Light-weight Hunters must carry up to 165 pounds
to hounds (qualified and not qualified). Thorough-
bred Hunters must be registered in the studbook.
Feeding and care.
The Hunter should not have more than three or
four days of all-day fox-hunting in a fortnight ;
with drags, some may go three times a week, but
much depends on the going and the length of the
runs. The Hunter should be jogged home after the
hunt, given warm gruel and thoroughly rubbed. A
groom should exercise him gently on non-hunting
days for about five miles early in the morning. He
should be carefully looked after and given the best of
oats and hay. The night before he is to be “hunted,”
water should be kept in his stall all night, so that he
may take it at will. He should be fed very early and
saddled only just before he is ordered.
Organizations and records.
In Great Britain, the interests of the breed are
in the hands of the Hunter Improvement Society of
HORSE
Great Britain. Two volumes of the Hunter Stud-
book have been published and a third is in prepa-
ration. The pedigree qualifications of the Hunter
Studbook are that the stallions shall be by a Thor-
oughbred or registered Hunter sire out of a fully
registered mare, and the mares shall show two
crosses of Thoroughbred or registered Hunter blood,
viz, sire and dam’s sire, or if dams of winners of
races under rules, and accepted after inspection.
The supplement of the studbook is open to mares (1)
by a Thoroughbred or registered Hunter sire, winners
or dams of winners of prizes or medals at national,
county or associated shows, or (2) by inspection
and veterinary examination. In America, The
Jockey Club with headquarters in New York City,
was instrumental in the organization of the
National Steeple Chase and Hunt Association, which
registers and otherwise looks after the development
of the Hunter and the steeple-chaser, discussed in
the following paragraph.
STEEPLE-CHASERS.
The steeple-chaser is almost always a clean-bred
horse, that has natural or made adaptability to
jump. He must be more seasoned than the Thor-
oughbred that is to run on the flat, and must be up
to a good deal more weight. There are certain
blood lines that have produced natural jumpers,
which, when “nicked” with certain mares, have
produced fencers. Many horses that, perhaps, have
not enough speed for the flat, have been schooled
and made good chasers. Unlike the steady fox-
hunting Hunter, the steeple-chaser must be able to
go a good pace and take his fences flying, or almost
as fast as ina hurdle race. In this type of horse,
the adaptability for the special performance and
the result gives the horse his place and name as a
steeple-chaser.
Literature.
The literature of the Hunter is for the most part
interwoven with expositions of the chase, and is
not specific and direct. Yet some direct discussions
will be found in the works referred to on page 416.
Other references are: Peer, Cross Country with
Horse and Hound; Walsh, The Horse in the Stable
and in the Field, Loudon (1871); Goodwin, The
Turf Guides; Nimrod, The Chase, the Road and the
Turf; White, The History of the British Turf, two
volumes, Loudon (1840); Curzon, A Mirror of the
Turf, Loudon (1892).
Military Horse. Figs. 472, 473.
For military purposes, several distinct types of
horses are required according to the use to which
they are to be put; and each type must conform
carefully toa standard set by the War Department.
The specifications for each type issued by the War
Departments of the United States and Great Britain
(for Canada) are inserted in this Cyclopedia for
their reference value, and also that farmers inter-
ested in breeding horses for army use may be
informed as to what is required.
HORSE
HorsE TYPES REQUIRED BY THE UNITED STATES
Wark DEPARTMENT
All of the specifications that follow were pre-
pared under the direction of the Quartermaster
General. Those for medium and light draft horses
and for cavalry horses, were issued under date of
November 25, 1903; for saddle horses for moun-
* tain batteries, August 3, 1907; for artillery horses,
October 15, 1906; for small horses for orderlies
and mounted messengers, January 17, 1908; for
mules, November 5, 1907.
Specifications for cavalry horses.
The cavalry horse must be sound, well bred, of a
superior class, and have quality; gentle and of a
kind disposition ; thoroughly broken to the saddle,
with light and elastic mouth, easy gaits, and free
and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop;
free from vicious habits, without material blemish
or defect ; and otherwise to conform to the follow-
ing description :
A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good
condition ; from four to eight years old ; weighing
from 950 to 1,100 pounds, depending on height,
which should be from 15 to 15% hands.
Head.—Small and well set on neck; with ears
small, thin, neat, and erect; forehead broad and
full; eyes large, prominent, and mild, with well-
developed brow and fine eyelid ; vision perfect in
every respect ; muzzle small and fine; mouth deep ;
lips thin and firmly compressed ; nostrils large and
fine ; and branches of under-jaw (adjoining neck)
wide apart.
Neck.—Light, moderately long, and tapering
toward the head, with crest firm and longer than
underside ; mane fine and intact.
Withers.—Hlevated, not unduly fine, well devel-
oped and muscled.
Shoulders.—Long, oblique, and well muscled.
Chest.—Full, very deep, moderately broad, and
plump in front.
Fore-legs.—Vertical, and properly placed ; with
elbow large, long, prominent, and clear of chest ;
fore-arm large at the elbow, long and heavily
muscled.
Knees.— Neatly outlined, large, prominent, wide
in front, well situated, and well directed.
Back.—Short, straight, and well muscled.
Loins.—Broad, straight, very short and mus-
cular.
Barrel.—Large, increasing in size toward flanks,
with ribs well arched and definitely separated.
Hind-quarters.—Wide, thick, very long, full,
heavily muscled, rounded externally; and well
directed.
Tail.—Fine and intact ; well carried and firm.
Hocks.— Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from
front to rear, well situated, and well directed.
Limbs.—From knees and hocks downward, verti-
cal, short, wide laterally, with tendons and liga-
ments standing well out from bone and distinctly
defined.
Pasterns.— Strong, medium length, not too
oblique, and well directed.
HORSE 471
Feet.—Medium size, circular in shape, sound ;
with horn dark, smooth, and of fine texture; sole
moderately concave, and frog well developed, sound,
firm, large, elastic and healthy.
Hach horse will be subjected toa rigid inspection,
and any animal that does not meet the above
requirements should be rejected. No white or gray
horses to be accepted.
Specifications for saddle horses for mountain bat-
teries.
The specifications are the same as for cavalry
horses, except that the weight must be 950 to
1,070 pounds, depending on height, which should
be 15 to 15% hands.
Specifications for small horses for orderlies and
mounted messengers.
The small horse for orderlies and mounted
messengers must be sound, well bred, of a
superior class, and have quality; gentle and of a
kind disposition ; well broken to the saddle, with
light and elastic mouth, easy gaits, and free and
General, a brown gelding. Winner of first prize as
cavalry horse type, Canadian Horse Show.
prompt action at the walk, trot and gallop; free
from vicious habits, without material blemish or
defect ; handy, speedy and suitable in all other
respects, and otherwise to conform to the follow-
ing description :
A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good
condition ; from 4 to 8 years old; weighing from
825 to 950 pounds, depending on height, which
should be from 144 to 15 hands.
The remainder of the description is the same as
that given above for cavalry horses.
Fig. 472.
Specifications for artillery horses for siege batteries.
The artillery horse for siege batteries must be
sound, well bred, of a superior class, and have
quality ; of a kind disposition, well broken to har-
ness, and gentle under the saddle, with easy mouth
and gaits, and free and prompt action at the walk,
trot and gallop; free from vicious habits; without
material blemish or defect, and otherwise to con-
form with the following description :
A gelding or mare of hardy color, in good con-
AT2 HORSE
dition, from 4 to 8 years old ; height, from 16 to
17 hands; weight, from 1,350 to 1,650 pounds.
Horses otherwise satisfactory, which fall short of
or exceed these limits of weight by not more than
50 pounds, due to temporary conditions, may be
accepted. Mares in foal will not be accepted.
SS
Fig. 473. Cassandra, a pure-bred Hackney mare. Winner of
first prize as artillery horse type, Canadian Horse Show,
Toronto, April, 1900.
tyne desired, weighing 1,325 pounds.
This mare represents the lighter
Head.—Small and well set on neck; with ears
small, thin, neat, and erect; forehead broad and
full; eyes large, prominent and mild, with well-
developed brow and fine eyelid; vision perfect in
every respect ; muzzle small and fine ; mouth deep ;
lips thin and firmly compressed ; nostrils large and
fine, and branches of under jaw (adjoining neck)
wide apart.
Neck.—Moderately long and tapering toward the
head, with crest firm and longer than under side ;
mane fine and intact.
Withers.—Elevated, not unduly fine, well devel-
oped and muscled. :
Shoulders.— Long, oblique, well packed with
muscle, not too heavy, smooth, rounded, and so
formed as properly to support the collar.
Chest.— High, wide, very deep; plump in front
and full.
Fore-legs.—Vertical and properly placed; with
elbow large, long, prominent, clear of chest, and
well placed; fore-arm wide, thick, long, heavily
muscled and vertical.
Knees.— Neatly outlined, large, prominent, wide
in front, well situated and well directed.
Back.—Short, straight and well muscled.
Loins.—Broad, straight, very short and mus-
cular.
Barrel.—Large, increasing in size toward flanks,
with ribs well arched and definitely separated.
Hind-quarters.— Wide, thick, very long, full,
heavily muscled, rounded externally and well
directed.
Tail.—Fine and intact ; well carried and firm.
Hocks.—Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from
front to rear, and well directed.
HORSE
Limbs.—From knees and hocks downward, verti-
cal, short, wide laterally, with tendons and liga-
ments standing well out from bone and distinctly
defined.
Pasterns.— Strong, medium length, not too
oblique, and well directed.
Feet.— Medium size, circular in shape, sound ;
with horn dark, smooth, and of fine texture ; sole
moderately concave, and frog well developed, sound, °
firm, large, elastic and healthy.
Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspec-
tion, and any animal that does not meet the above
requirements should be rejected.
Long-legged, loose-jointed, long-bodied, narrow-
chested, coarse and cold-blooded horses, as well as
those which are restive, vicious, or too free in har-
ness, or which do not, upon rigid inspection, meet
the above requirements in every respect, will be
rejected. A horse under five years old should not
be accepted, unless a specially fine, well-developed
animal. No white or gray horses will be accepted.
Specifications for artillery horses for light and horse
batteries.
These specifications are the same as those for
the artillery horses for siege batteries, except that
the height should be 153 to 16 hands, and the
weight, 1,150 to 1,250 pounds. The artillery horse
for light and horse batteries is required for quick
draft purposes, and should be heavy enough to move
the carriage, ordinarily, by weight thrown into
the collar, rather than by muscular exertion.
Specifications for light draft (coach) horses.
The light draft horse must be sound, well bred,
of a superior class, and have quality; of a kind
disposition ; thoroughly broken to harness; with
easy mouth, and free, prompt, straight, and true
action at the walk and trot; free from vicious
habits ; without material blemish or defect ; and
otherwise conform to the following description :
A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good
condition ; from five to seven years old; weighing
from 1,100 to 1,200 pounds, depending on height,
which should be from 154 to 16 hands.
Head.—Small, and well set on neck; with ears
small, thin, neat, and erect; forehead broad and
full; eyes large, prominent, and mild, with well-
developed brow and fine eyelid ; vision perfect in
every respect ; muzzle small and fine ; mouth deep ;
lips thin and firmly compressed ; nostrils large and
fine ; and branches of under-jaw (adjoining neck)
wide apart.
Neck.—Light, moderately long, and tapering
toward the head, with crest firm and longer than
underside ; mane fine and intact.
Withers.—Elevated, not unduly fine, well devel-
oped and muscled.
Shoulders.— Long, oblique, well packed with
muscle, not too heavy, smooth, rounded, and so
formed as properly to support the collar.
Chest.—High, wide, very deep, plump in front
and full.
Fore-legs.—Vertical, and properly placed ; with
elbow large, long, prominent, clear of chest, and
HORSE
well placed ; fore-arm wide, thick, long, heavily
muscled, and vertical.
Knees.—Fine, thick, and wide in front, prominent,
well situated, well directed, and free from blemishes.
Back.—Short, straight, and well muscled.
Loins.—Broad, straight, very short and muscular.
Barrel.—tLarge, with ribs definitely separated
from each other, and well-arched from girth toward
flank.
Hind-quarters.— Wide, thick, very long, full,
heavily muscled, rounded externally, and well
directed.
Tail.—Fine and intact, well carried and firm.
Hocks.—Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from
front to rear, and well directed.
Limbs.—From knees and hocks downward verti-
cal, short, wide laterally, with tendons and liga-
ments standing well out from bone, and distinctly
defined.
Pasterns. — Strong, medium length, not too
oblique, and well directed.
Feet.—Medium size, circular in shape, and sound ;
with horn dark, smooth, and of fine texture; sole
moderately concave, and frog well developed, sound,
firm, large, elastic, and healthy in appearance.
Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection,
and any animal that does not meet the above
requirements should be rejected.
Specifications for medium draft horses.
The medium draft horse must be sound, well
bred, and of a superior class ; gentle and of a kind
disposition; thoroughly broken to harness, with
easy mouth and free, prompt, straight, and regular
action at the walk and trot; free from vicious
habits, without material blemish or defect, and
otherwise to conform to the following description :
A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good
condition ; from 5 to 7 years old; weighing from
1,200 to 1,400 pounds, depending on height, which
should be from 153 to 16 hands.
Head.— Small and well set on neck ; with ears
small, thin and erect; forehead broad and full;
eyes large, prominent and mild, with well-devel-
oped brow and fine eyelid; vision perfect in every
respect ; muzzle fine; mouth deep; lips thin and
firmly compressed ; nostrils large and fine, and
branches of under jaw wide apart adjoining neck.
Neck.—Moderately long and tapering toward the
head, with crest firm and longer than underside ;
mane fine and intact.
Withers.—Hlevated, not unduly fine, well devel-
oped and muscled.
Shoulders.—Long, oblique, well muscled, smooth,
rounded and so formed as properly to support the
collar.
Chest.— Full, high, wide, deep, and plump in
front.
Fore-legs.—Vertical, and properly placed; with
elbow large, long, prominent, clear of chest, and
well placed; fore-arm wide, thick, long, heavily
muscled and vertical.
Knees.—Fine, thick, and wide in front, promi-
nent, well situated, well directed, and free from
blemishes.
HORSE 473
Back.—Short, straight, well muscled, and strongly
coupled to hind-quarters.
Loins.—Broad, straight, very short and muscu-
lar.
Barrel.— Large, with ribs definitely separated
from each other and well arched.
Hind - quarters.— Wide, thick, very long, full,
heavily muscled, rounded externally and well
directed.
Tail.—Fine and intact; well carried and firm.
Hocks.—Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from
front to rear and well directed.
Limbs.—F rom knees and hocks downward, verti-
cal, very short, wide laterally, with tendons and
ligaments standing well out from bone, and dis-
tinctly defined.
Pasterns. — Strong, medium length, not too
oblique, and well directed.
Feet.—Medium size, circular in shape, and sound ;
with horn dark, smooth, and of fine texture, sole
moderately concave, and frog well developed, sound,
firm, large, elastic and healthy in appearance.
Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection,
and any animal that does not meet with the above
requirements, should be rejected.
Specifications for mules.
The mule must be sound, well bred, and of a
superior class; of a kind disposition, gentle, and
well broken to harness, with the exception of the
pack mule; with free and prompt action at the
walk or trot; free from vicious habits, without
material blemish or defect, and otherwise to con-
form to the following description :
A gelding or mare of uniform and hardy color,
in good condition ; from four to eight years old ;
weight, depending on height, to be as follows :
Wheel mules for six-mule teams, to weigh from
1,150 to 1,200 pounds, and be from 15 hands 3
inches to 16 hands high.
Swing mules for six-mule team, to weigh 1,050
to 1,150 pounds, and be from 15 hands 1 inch to
15 hands 3 inches high.
Lead mules for six-mule team, to weigh from 950
to 1,050 pounds, and be from 14 hands 3 inches to
15 hands 1 inch high.
Wheel mules for four-mule team, to weigh from
1,100 to 1,200 pounds, and be from 15 hands 2
inches to 16 hands high.
Lead mules for four-mule team, to weigh from
1,050 to 1,100 pounds, and be from 15 hands 1 inch
to 15 hands 2 inches high.
Riding mules for wagons and pack trains, to
weigh from 1,000 to 1,050 pounds, and be from 15
hands to 15 hands 1 inch high, broken to saddle.
Saddle mules for mountain batteries to be broken
to saddle, to weigh from 950 to 1,000 pounds, and
be from 14 hands 2 inches to 15 hands high.
Pack mules to weigh from 850 to 1,000 pounds,
and be from 13 hands 3 inches to 15 hands high.
Pack mules for mountain batteries and for
machine gun platoons, to weigh from 950 to 1,000
pounds, and be from 14 hands 2 inches to 15 hands
high.
Head.—Fine and of medium size, with ears fine
474 HORSE
and erect; forehead broad and full; eyes large,
clear, prominent, and mild, with well-developed
brow and fine eyelid; vision perfect in every
respect, nostrils large and open.
Neck.—Medium length and smoothly joined to
the shoulder and withers, with crest firm and full.
Shoulders. —Long, oblique, well and smoothly
muscled, and so formed as to provide proper sup-
port for the collar.
Chest.—High, wide, very deep, and full.
Back.—Short, straight, and well and smoothly
muscled.
Loins.—Broad, straight, very short and muscular.
Barrel.—Large, with ribs well arched and defi-
nitely separated from each other.
Fore-legs.—Vertical and properly placed ; with
elbow large, long and clear of chest ; fore-arms
large, very long, heavily muscled and vertical.
Knees.—Large, wide in front, well placed, and
free from blemishes.
Hind-quarters.—Wide, thick, very long, full, heav-
ily muscled, rounded externally, and well directed.
Hocks.—Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from
front to rear, and well directed.
Limbs.—F rom knees and hocks downward, verti-
cal, short, wide laterally, with tendons and liga-
ments standing well out from bone, and distinctly
defined.
Pasterns. — Strong, medium length, not too
oblique, and well directed.
Feet.—Medium size and sound; with horn dark,
smooth, and of fine texture ; frog well developed,
elastic and healthy.
Hach mule will be subjected to a rigid inspection,
and any animal that does not meet the above
requirements should be rejected.
Horses REQUIRED BY THE BRITISH WAR OFFICE
The following specifications, issued by the Brit-
ish War Office, designate the types of army horses
called for in Canada. A discussion of the breeding
of horses in Canada for army use will be found in
Appendix I of ‘‘The Horse,” by Roberts.
The classes and types of horses required for the
army may be generally described as follows: (1)
Chargers (for officers).—Height from 15 hands 1
inch to 15 hands 3 inches. (2) Riding horses (troop-
ers).—Height from 15 hands 1 inch to 15 hands
2% inches. (3) Cobs (for mounted infantry).—
Height from 14 hands 2 inches to 15 hands. (4)
Draft horses (for gun and wagon).— Height from
15 hands 2 inches to 15 hands 34.inches.
Age.—From 4 years (off) to 6 years.
Color.—Bays, browns and blacks preferred, but
chestnuts will be accepted. Whites, grays, pie-
balds or skewbalds, etc., are required only for spe-
cial purposes. Light, washy-colored horses are not
accepted.
Sex.—Geldings or mares. Entire or unmanage-
able horses are not accepted.
Unhogged manes and undocked tails are desired,
especially in the case of chargers. Good horses
with short manes and docks can be accepted.
Soundness.—No horse is accepted without pass-
ing a veterinary examination; and soundness in
HORSE
wind, eyes and limb is insisted on. Stale, upright
and over-shooting joints, weak or curby hocks,
brushing, dishing, or untrue action, turned-in or
turned-out toes and weak feet are absolute dis-
qualifications.
Chargers, riding horses and cobs should be short-
legged, short- backed, good-barrelled, with good
rein and shoulders, of the hunter stamp, with sub-
stance and quality, action true and quite clear of
the joints.
Draft horses should not be too big, but fit to
carry a man driving postillion ; active and able to
gallop, deep, short-legged, well ribbed-up, with
plenty of substance and quality ; action true and
quite clear of the joints. Very coarse horses and
those with heavy rolling action are not accepted.
Note.—No horses will be purchased unless they
have been handled and are reasonably quiet.
Orloff Trotting Horse. Figs. 474, 475.
By C. S. Plumb.
The Orloff trotter, as its name implies, is a breed
of trotting horses used chiefly for driving purposes.
Description.
This Russian breed of horses does not possess
very great uniformity. A well-accepted height is
sixteen hands, with a weight of 1,100 to 1,300
pounds. The color is variable, gray, white or black
being most common, with chestnut and bay not
infrequent. Quality is not a notable feature. The
head is frequently small and neat, of Arabian
character, with some dish to the face. The neck is
inclined to be strong and a bit throaty, and in
good specimens is well arched and carried high.
The withers stand high, the back is short and
strong and the loin full and muscular. The croup
has a sloping tendency and is commonly criticized
in this respect, but is powerfully muscled. The
shoulders are rather sloping, and while strong and
active in character, lack heaviness of form. The
legs are strongly muscled, the tendons stand out
well, while the bone and feet are regarded as of
very superior quality. Russians lay much emphasis
on the soundness of limb and endurance of this
_breed. In its native home, the Orloff has a rather
heavy coat of hair and a thick forelock, mane and
tail. This heaviness of hair gives something of a
rough appearance, which may sometimes give an
unfair impression of the horse.
History.
The early history of the Orloff trotter seems to
be very well established, excepting for minor de-
tails. Count Alexis Orloff, of Russia, in 1777, it is
said, began the work of developing a new breed of
horses that would be better than any existing
Russian breed. Some authorities state that he
secured an Arab stallion from the Sultan of Turkey
in 1780, while others state that this same stallion,
Smetanka, was purchased by Orloff, in southern
Greece, in 1777, for 60,000 roubles ($8,570). This
was a very pure Arab, of a silvery white color,
very strong and muscular and about fifteen hands
HORSE
high. Smetanka was used in Orloff’s stud but one
year, when he died, but he sired four stallions and
one mare, all but one from English Thoroughbred
mares. One son, Polkan, known as Polkan Ist, was
from a “big, long, Isabel Danish mare.” Polkan
was sire of seven stallions and twenty-one mares,
Russian Orloff stallion.
Fig. 474.
one of which, Barss or Bars Ist, is an important
factor in foundation blood-line descent. He was
foaled in 1784 and died in 1808. The dam of Bars
was a big Dutch mare of fine knee action, and
from this ancestry comes the size and action desired.
Count Orloff used English Thoroughbred mares
for many years in his stables, and they were bred
to Orloff stallions, but no stallions were ever sold
from this stud. In-and-inbreeding was finally ac-
tively followed in one group, while another group
of Orloff and English blood stock was main-
tained. In 1845, the Russian government bought
the Orloff stud from the Countess Orloff, daughter
of its founder, when there were 21 stallions and
194 brood-mares of the Orloff breed, and 9
Seton and 112 brood-mares of Orloff-Hackney
lood.
In America.—There have been a number of
importations of Orloffs to America. In 1877,
four stallions and one mare were brought over
and sold at auction, all being purchased by
Lieutenant Ismailoff of the Russian army. In
1890, Jacob Heyl, of Wisconsin, imported two
black stallions, and, in 1892, two stallions and
four mares. One of these stallions, Wzmakh,
made a record of 2:214. This same year F.G.
Bourne imported five stallions and one mare. In
1893, eighteen head were imported from Russia
for exhibiting at the World’s Columbian Ex-
position. In 1902, Bergh & Company, of New
York, imported twenty-eight head, which were
sold at auction in New York, at an average
price of $1,243. The breed has never secured
any permanent foothold in America.
Distribution.
The Orloff is generally distributed over Russia,
and is the predominating trotting horse of that
country, although other breeds occur. It has no
distribution to a great extent outside of Russia.
HORSE 475
Types.
There are several types of the Orloff, and, of those
exhibited in 18938, criticism was made of the dif-
ference in type. Mr. M. W. Dunham, who judged
the breed at Chicago, especially commented on this
variation. Mr. Dunham, at that time, was one of
America’s most noted importers and breeders of
French coach horses, and was well qualified to
judge. He commented in particular on a heavy,
coarse type, and a fine, light type. Coarseness of
form is given as a reason for the unpopularity in
America. Without doubt, the Orloff does not show
any greater variety of type, however, than does
the American trotter, although the latter unques-
tionably possesses much more speed.
Uses.
For driving.—tThe main use of the Orloff is for
driving to carriages of the lighter type or to sleigh.
It is not used under the saddle, but in general ser-
vice compares well with the American roadster or
trotter of the heavier type. For long-distance
trotting the speed of the Orloff is very satisfactory,
surpassing the American trotter. For short dis-
tances it is inferior to the American.
For crossing.—The Orloff has been crossed with
the American trotter with the best of results.
When the dam is an Orloff, the offspring frequently
shows more speed than the sire. Little attention
has yet been given to this cross in America, but in
Russia it has found more favor.
Organizations and records.
The Russian government especially promotes this
breed in its own stud, and what is known as the
Record of the Imperial Russian Horse Breeding
Society, represents the Orloff officially. In 1906,
during the serious internal dissensions in Russia,
press reports stated that one of the government
Fig. 475. Russian Orloff mare.
studs was seized by rebels, the buildings detroyed
and many valuable pure-bred horses burned.
Literature.
The Orloff Horse, Country Gentleman, Vol. 68,
p. 330; Orloff Horses, Breeders’ Gazette, August
16, 1893. [For further references, see page 416.]
476 HORSE
Pacing Horse, Standardbred. Fig. 476.
By John A. Craig.
The pacer is not a separate and distinct breed of
norses. The name is applied to a class of horses
that are characterized by the pacing gait. The
American Standardbred trotting horse breed is the
most potent source of pacers.
Description.
It was a prevalent opinion some years ago that
there was a type evolving among pacers, but this
has been largely dispelled. Dan Patch (Fig. 476) is
as smooth and graceful in line of mold as it would
be possible to conceive an ideal, and Joe Patchen is
considered among horse-lovers, no matter what
their preference as to breed, as being very nearly a
model in finish, symmetry and style. So many old-
time pacers were steep in the hind-quarters and
some crooked in the hocks and pitched forward,
that it became the opinion of a coterie that a
pacing type was being evolved. Time demonstrated
with the pacer as with the trotter, that symmetry
and graceful lines and style in action or repose
were not opposed to speed.
History.
From the earliest writings referring to horses
and from the earliest representations of them in
sculptured frieze, we learn that pacing or ambling
was a gait common to the horse in earliest times.
This gait is shown in Greek sculpture and referred
to in the publications of some of the earliest
writers in Spain, Great Britain and America. It is
unnecessary here to recount these early references,
for they are accessible in nearly every work devoted
to the horse; and it is equally unnecessary to
attempt to locate the origin of the gait, for there
is no feature connected with the history of the
horse that depends more on legendary lore than
this. Suffice it to say that in Spain, where the
saddle horse as a pack animal and for traveling
was much in vogue, the pacing or ambling gait was
considered avery necessary attribute; and the same
is true in perhaps a lesser degree when the early
history of the pacer in Great Britain is considered.
In America.—It is in America in colonial days
that the pacer in the New England states seemed
to reach the highest point of utility; from there
and from Canada the pacer seems to have spread.
The Narragansett pacer of Rhode Island attained
a wide notoriety over the New England states in
colonial times, but with the improvement of roads
and the abandonment of horse-back riding for
long-distance traveling, this strain became extinct.
Whether or not it drifted over into Canada and
formed the foundation for the remarkable number
of pacers common to the Province of Quebec, is
not definitely known, nor is there any other satis-
factory supposition as to the origin of the Cana-
dian pacing families. It would seem more plausible
to account for the Canadian pacers in this way
than to accredit them to French origin, for they
were very dissimilar to the French horses of that
time in their characteristics.
HORSE
The theory that the French-Canadian pacer is
an offshoot of the Thoroughbred has also been
advanced and in some instances it may be proved,
but in most instances the originator of the strain
was by a Thoroughbred out of a pacing mare.
Again, it has been asserted that the French-Cana-
dian horse is a descendant of the French Perche-
ron, reduced in size by the more vigorous condi-
tions of climate. This seems to the writer the
most untenable of all the theories. Long obseryva-
tion among the more common types prevalent
among the French-Canadian people, and attend-
ance at their winter ice-racing, where the most of
those with speed would congregate, substantiate
the writer’s opinion. In all its characteristics the
French-Canadian comes nearer the Morgan in
some traits and nearer the Thoroughbred in others,
than those of any other breed or family. While
like the Morgan in type and style of going when
trotting, yet it must be admitted there are very
few pacers among the Morgans. Also, not many of
the Thoroughbreds pace unless there is a strain of
pacing through the dam’s side. The French-Cana-
dian families, especially those showing inclinations
to pace, although most of them were double-gaited,
have in time become submerged in the foundation
of other families which are now of most promi-
nence. Among the Canadian families of early origin,
the most noted spring from Copperbottom, Pilot,
Daniel Boone, Drennon, Davy Crockett, Corbeau,
St. Lawrence, St. Clair. Of those of more dis-
tinetly Thoroughbred origin, might be mentioned
Smuggler, Clear Grit, Uwharie and Hiatogas, while
perhaps the two most noted of all, the Hals,
springing from Tom Hal in Tennessee and Blue
Bull from Indiana, had their origin so shrouded in
misty legend that it is not even advisable to specu-
late on it. From all that we know, it may be safe
to assume that the Thoroughbred horse has had as
much to do with the evolution of the pacer as any
other up to the time of the introduction of the stand-
ards, although we have to admit that there seems
to have been an original stock on which the Thor-
oughbred, as a scion, was grafted with more or
less success.
The Copperbottoms and Pilots made a reputation
in Kentucky at an early time; the Columbus fam-
ily did the same in New England, the St. Clairs in
California, the St. Lawrences in Michigan, the
Blue Bulls in Indiana and Ohio, the Hiatogas in
Virginia, and the Hals in Tennessee. While all
these were in a general way known as pacers, yet
with most of them the gait was interchangeable,
and many of them could trot as fast as they could
pace, and very few of them sired a majority of
pacers. As might be expected, the fastest of their
get were pacers, and those made the reputation of
the sire, while as a matter of fact that sire would
be getting mostly trotters. For example, Blue Bull,
a fast pacer himself and a getter of some fast
pacers, sired fifty-six trotters out of a total of
sixty of his in the list. So also with many of the
others, with the notable exception of the Hal
family. This is the leading family of pacers that
is justly entitled to be called a family of pacers,
HORSE
and the writer does not know of any other like it,
pacing in origin and breeding on at the pacing
ait.
: What has been written may enable the reader
to understand the position of the pacer in the ear-
liest days. But to explain the position in our own
day is almost beyond the possibilities of the most
earnest student, so intertwined in breeding and
development are the trotting and pacing gaits.
When the standard for Standardbred horses was
established, pacers and trotters came in
on almost equal footing. At the races,
too, trotters and pacers at that time
mostly competed on equal footing, many
of the purses being open-class for trot-
ters or pacers. It was soon found that
the pacers were naturally faster than the
trotters, for they would win most of the
races when both competed on equal foot-
ing. The craze for speed and the desire to ay the
get of stallions in the list, increased the popu-
larity of the pacer at a bound.
Tt was found, too, that it was a very easy mat-
ter to change the gait of most horses from trot-
ting to pacing, especially with the use of hobbles
or hopples, as they are interchangeably designated.
This leads us to say that the difference in the gaits
is simply that in the pacer the two legs on the
same side move together, while in the trotter the
movement is diagonal (see page 423). By putting
a horse in hobbles, he must either pace or break
the hobbles, which are so strong as to be almost
unbreakable, or be thrown. Hobbles have been
permitted in races, but owing to the danger to the
driver if any entanglement occurs, they have not
become popular except to keep horses that show a
tendency to pace at that gait or train them until
they can do without them. At its meeting on Feb-
ruary 5, 1908, the American Trotting Register
Association adopted a resolution against the use of
hobbles. It was found that a change in the shoe-
ing, such as shoeing very light all round, would
encourage a horse to pace; and even the shifting
of the bit would accomplish the same purpose.
After the craze for speed at any cost had sub-
sided somewhat, and a different time limit set for
the pacer before he could become standard, the
winnings possible for green trotters increased, and
with that the purses and colt stakes for trotters
were augmented so that trotting as a part of the
sport of racing became again more than on a par
- with pacing. The pacing standard now in force is
appended. It should be said that it is identical
with the trotting standard except that the word
“pacer” is Substituted for the word “trotter” and
the word “pacing” for the word “trotting,” and
the speed standard is changed from 2:30 to 2:25 ;
furthermore, Rule 6 is an addition.
The pacing standard.—“When an animal meets
these requirements and is duly registered, it shall
be accepted as a Standardbred pacer:
“(1) The progeny of a registered standard pacing
horse and a registered standard pacing mare.
“2) Any stallion sired by a registered standard
pacing horse, provided his dam and granddam were
HORSE ATT
sired by registered standard pacing horses and he
himself has a pacing record of 2:25 and is the sire
of three pacers with records of 2:25 from different
mares.
“(8) A mare whose sire is a registered standard
pacing horse and whose dam and granddam were
sired by registered standard pacing horses, pro-
vided she herself has a pacing record of 2:25 or is
the dam of one pacer with a record of 2:25.
“(4) A mare sired by a registered standard
pacing horse, provided she is the
dam of two pacers with records of
BPAY,
“(6) A mare sired by a regis-
tered standard pacing horse, pro-
Dan Patch, 1:5534.
Fig. 476.
vided her first, second and third dams are each
sired by a registered standard pacing horse.
“(6) The progeny of a registered standard trot-
ting horse out of a registered standard pacing
mare, or of a registered standard pacing horse out
of a registered standard trotting mare.”
Distribution.
From the New England states and Canada, espec-
ially Quebec, the pacer was gradually scattered all
over America, and is now found more particularly
in Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Missouri, California
and Indiana.
Families.
Among the modern Standardbred horses it is
not possible to separate the familes into those that
pace as a family characteristic, and those that
trot. The Hal family is composed most distinctly
of pacers, for Tom Hal Jr. has fourteen in the list,
all pacers, while Brown Hal, one son, has seventy-
eight, all pacers. The latter has two noted sons,
Star Pointer, with fifteen in the list, all pacers, and
Hal Dillard with forty-two in the list, only three
of which are pacers. In some instances there is a
union of one of the leading families with the Hal
478 HORSE
strain which produces pacers consistently. For
instance, Direct, 2:054, of the Dictator family is a
pacer and has sired forty-two pacers and thirty-
seven trotters. He sired Direct Hal p., 2:044, the
sire of nine in the list, all pacers, and the fast-
est green stallion of 1907. While some of the
families of Standardbreds show a stronger tendency
to trot than to pace, the reverse is not common,
although it is possible that in time this may result,
as it is ostensibly the aim to establish two sep-
arate standards. The champion pacing stallion,
Dan Patch, 1:554 (Fig. 476), is sired by Joe
Patchen, a noted race horse and a pacer, sired by
Patchen Wilkes of the George Wilkes-Mambrino-
Patchen cross; and the dam of Joe Patchen was
by Joe Young of Morgan breeding. The dam of
Dan Patch was Zelicia by Wilkesberry, which was
a Wilkes on his sire’s side and a Clay on his dam’s.
There is very little of what might be called pacing
blood in her pedigree, although the Wilkes strain
and the Abdallah 15 strain have produced many
fast pacers. On the other hand, Lou Dillon, the
champion trotter, 1:584, comes as near being of
a pacing line through her sire as almost any note-
worthy pacer. She is by Sidney Dillon, no record
sire of eleven trotters and eight pacers, by Sidney,
pacing record 2:19%, sire of sixty-three trotters
and forty-seven pacers, including Citation 2:034,
the pacing queen of 1907. Sidney is sired by Santa
Claus, 2:174, trotting horse and sire of nineteen
trotters and six pacers. At present it does not
seem likely that the pacing families will become
separate from the trotting families.
Uses.
For racing purposes the pacer cannot be said to
equal the trotter as a money-maker, as the purses
are not generally so large; and the colt stakes for
the trotters are also large. For road purposes in
general, the pacer is not so popular as the trotter,
although for matinee uses it is held in high favor.
For the speedway, the pacer is decidedly popular
for several reasons. One is that in brushing, a pacer
can get away quicker than a trotter; and usually,
also, it is the faster gait. Pacing is an easier gait,
and in pacing a horse does not strike the pavement
so hard, a matter of some consideration on hard
roads. For usage on common roads or in snow, the
pacer cannot be said to be as popular as the trotter.
The pacer has not, as a rule, so evenly a rated gait
as the trotter. Very often it is a slow amble or full
speed. However, many pacers jog-trot, and when
forced to full speed at a trot strike into a pace
when urged to do more.
It is considered by some persons that the pace is
an ungainly gait, but it is to be remembered that,
like all other gaits, there is a difference in the
classes of it. Some horses pitch in such a way as
to be lumbering in gait, but others go as true and
as frictionless as the piston of an engine. Again,
for road-riders, the pacer does not develop, as a
rule, into a puller, which is sometimes so true of
the trotter. While the pacing gait is generally
considered to be the faster of the two gaits, five
seconds is thought to about express the difference
HORSE
in time. The pacer, as a rule, needs the lighter road
rig, for the trotter seems to have the advantage
slightly in pulling power.
Organizations and records.
The same registries and the same associations
look after the interests of the pacers as those that
have the Standardbred trotter under their auspices.
[See page 507.]
Percheron Horse. Figs. 42, 477.
By Charles F. Curtiss and John A. Craig.
The Percheron draft breed of horses is native of
the ancient province of La Perche, a territory about
one hundred miles square, in the north-central part
of France. This region lies in the heart of a fer-
tile farming country. The land is high and rolling,
the soil is fertile and the farms are watered by
numerous springs and small streams. These springs
and brooks give rise to some eight or ten rivers
flowing into the English Channel on the north
and the Atlantic ocean on the west. The numer-
ous valleys are rich and they produce sweet, nutri-
tious grasses and bountiful crops of grain. The
climate is mild, yet sufficiently tonic and invigorat-
ing to produce horses of good temperament. The
land is held mainly by tenant farmers who are fru-
gal and thrifty, and good tillers of the soil. The
natural conditions of this region all combine to
make a most favorable environment for this widely
known and popular breed. Among the breeds of
draft horses that have been imported to America
from France, the Percheron leads both in numbers
and in popularity.
Description.
Nearly a century ago the aim of the breeders of
horses in La Perche was to produce a medium-
weight draft horse, suited in type and action
for pulling a “diligence” or omnibus. At an
early day, the demand existed in France for a
horse that could haul a load at as rapid a rate as
possible. At this time, the breed was represented
by horses of upstanding type, somewhat rangy but
strongly built, with attractive and unusual action
for draft horses. They were then gray in color,
and these were the first to be brought to America.
While not so drafty in type as the modern Perche-
ron, they were horses of superb style, full of vigor,
and they had powerful action which enabled them
to pull strongly and more quickly at the same time.
In themselves, the gray Percherons of early days
were unusual draft horses, and it was the degree
to which they combined activity with pulling
power that made the Percheron a very popular
horse for farm work. But the demand in America
became more insistent for a heavier, blockier,
shorter-legged type, that would grade the produce
of our lighter mares to a draft weight quicker.
This demand resulted in the modern black Per-
cheron of somewhat stouter build, deeper body,
more weight, and as much quality as the proto-
type; but there was some sacrifice of style, stand-
ing or going, with somewhat less attractive action.
HORSE
The modern Percheron approaches more closely
the essentials of a draft horse to meet modern
markets, but the old type had some qualities, such
as style, endurance and activity, which were difli-
cult to retain in a shorter and stouter built horse
of more weight.
The present-day Percheron’s excellencies are to
be seen in the active temperament, intelligent
head, deep body, wide muscular croup and clean-cut
legs of the typical representative. The joints are
usually clean and hard, and the legs invariably
show an abundance of quality that guarantees dur-
ability; but frequently the set of the legs and,
particularly, the shape of the hind-quarters, is at
fault. A croup too sloping, with deficiency in
muscle below, cannot give the greatest pulling
power, especially when associated, as it often is,
with legs that are improperly set, being either too
straight, sickle-hocked or otherwise cramped in the
hind-quarters. The Percheron is rarely deficient in
quality and activity, and when the weight is suffi-
cient to meet the demands of the modern draft-
horse market, a draft horse of unusual excellencies
is the result. The action of the Percheron is almost
always quick enough for a draft horse, and the
feet are generally picked up with snap at the walk;
but these should not be allowed to overshadow
desirable mechanical action, which is straight
and distance-covering, although less showy and
attractive.
In size, the Percheron ranges from fifteen and
one-fourth to sixteen and one-half hands, and from
1,500 to over 2,000 pounds in weight. There are a
number of medium size, although the largest take
rank with the largest of any of the draft breeds.
In France there is a type smaller in size than the
medium. These are popular for general traffic and
for bus and tram use in cities. The demand in the
United States is for the larger types.
History.
France has long been noted for good horses. The
horses of France, like those of other countries, were
first improved for the purpose of war. The Flemish
blood was largely drawn on in early times and
importations of oriental blood were made at a
very early date. This blood was infused with the
native horse stock of France, which may have been
Flemish in its origin. The oriental blood imparted
a degree of refinement and finish that has ever
since characterized the modern draft-horse stock
of France.
Since 732, when the French defeated the Sara-
cens and captured their horses, infusions of Ara-
bian blood have been made, and the subsequent use
of Arabian stallions on the native mares continued
as late as 1820. In this way, a foundation was
laid for a breed of horses possessing activity,
quality and strength. The extension of railroads,
reducing the use of the omnibus, seems to have
diverted the breed towards a heavier type. This
led to the use of Flemish stallions. The conditions
of La Perche being favorable for the growth of
strong active horses, the breed started in this way
made very rapid progress. There are some features
HORSE 479
of French management that may have had an
influence also in directing the development of the
breed. It is a common practice to work the stal-
lions, and this may have been a factor of some
influence on their dispositions, making them more
amenable to work.
It should be said that the French government
recognizes several breeds of draft horses, but the
Percheron and the Boulonnais are apparently the
only two that may be considered pure, as they have
studbooks separate from the others. In addition,
there are the Breton, Nivernais and Ardennais, all
of which may be recorded in the General Draft
Studbook of France. [These breeds are discussed
on pages 460-462. ]
In addition to controlling the matter of registra-
tion, the French government has a system of inspec-
tion, which in some degree assists its horse-breeding
interests. The veterinary inspection, however, is
limited to periodic ophthalmia or moon blindness and
roaring or thick wind. Johnstone (The Horse Book),
states that there are only two maladies for posses-
sion of which approval, authorization or certification
is refused in France—periodic ophthalmia and thick
wind. This being so, the branding system carried
out by the French government does not carry so
much weight as is commonly supposed, for inspec-
tion apparently only discriminates against these
two diseases, and there is nothing in the law to
prevent any breeder using such unsound stallions
on his own mares. The author referred to states
OSS AS SS
22 NG Sa
et GMO Ge, =
Fig. 477. Etradegant. Champion Percheron stallion at all
leading live-stock shows in America in 1906.
further, that when a stallion is pronounced free
from the unsoundnesses named, he is branded on
the neck under the mane with a five-pointed star.
The colt must be over thirty months of age before
480 HORSE
he can stand for public service, and the certificate
of freedom from these diseases covers only one
year. If the colt fails to pass inspection for these
diseases, or if the diseases develop after the inspec-
tion, then the letter “R” meaning refused, is
branded over the five-pointed star. These are the
only brands used by the French government.
The French Percheron Society, however, uses a
brand that is put on all stallions and mares recorded
in its studbook. It is a monogram of the letters
S. and P., the initials of the society. It is branded
on the neck under the mane.
After successfully passing the inspection, the
horses are classified in three grades. The first are
known as “subsidized” or “approved,” and to such
a cash bonus is awarded to keep them in France on
the owner’s farm, and available to outside mares.
The other two are “authorized” and “certified,”
neither of which carries with it any subsidy.
In America.—The first importation to America
was made in 1839, by Mr. Edward Harris, of
Moorestown, New Jersey. The next importation
was made in 1851, by Messrs Fullington and Mar-
tin of Milford Centre, Ohio. This importation was
of far-reaching importance, although it consisted
of but a single horse named “Louis Napoleon.”
This horse was sold and taken to Illinois in 1856,
where he afterward passed into the hands of Mr.
Dillon, of Normal, Illinois. “Louis Napoleon” stood
fifteen and one-half hands high and weighed about
sixteen hundred pounds. He was, perhaps, the most
noted horse of the breed that has been brought to
America. It is estimated that he sired over four
hundred colts that were used successfully for stud
purposes. In 1851 and succeeding years, other impor-
tations were made which helped to lay the foun-
dation of the breed in America. In 1870, M. W.
Dunham, of Wayne, Illinois, took up the impor-
tation, since which time he has imported and
bred Percherons very extensively. Through his
efforts the breed has gained much popularity in
America. Many other importers might be men-
tioned, but the list is now a long one, as the
importations of horses of this breed have been very
extensive. The Percheron breed has made rapid
progress in popularity in this country. It is the
most numerous and the most generally popular of
any breed of draft horses in America. This is
accounted for chiefly by the degree to which the
Percheron is adapted for the work on the majority
of our farms, as well as to produce an active draft
horse for the market.
Distribution.
The Percheron breed has proved generally popu-
lar in nearly all parts of the United States, par-
ticularly in the farming regions where draft horses
are raised for market. It is well adapted to farm
conditions and meets with favor on the markets.
Plumb (Types and Breeds of Farm Animals) quotes
Weld as authority for the statement that in 1866
there were fully 5,000 Percherons in this country.
Illinois has been the chief center for the breed, with
the adjoining states of Ohio, Iowa, Michigan and
Wisconsin following with lesser numbers. The
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same author states that between 1851 and 1883
nearly 4,000 Percherons were imported or bred in
the United States, and these were distributed about
as follows: Illinois, 1834; Ohio, Indiana and
Michigan, 577; Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota,
424; New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey,
280; Missouri, Kansas and Nebraska, 186. These
figures are an index of the relative extensiveness
of the Percheron breeding interests today, although
it is likely the western states carry more compar
with the others than they did at that early time.
The southern states have become an altogether new
field for the Percheron, although not many of the
breed have been brought into the South or into
Canada, where the British breeds seem to be in
more favor. Wilcox (Farm Animals) has stated
that there are 30,000 registered Percheron horses
in the United States, which is a decidedly larger
number than any other draft breed may claim.
Uses.
The Percheron has little use except as a draft
horse and as a producer of grade draft horses. The
usefulness of this breed for draft purposes is so
well known that it is unnecessary to dwell on that
feature. But it is well to call attention to the fact
that a large proportion of our draft teams contain
Percheron blood, and that the results which follow
across of a pure-bred Percheron stallion on a mare
of other draft breeds, or even on the heavier types
of our common mares, are most excellent.
Organizations and records.
In France, the interests of this breed are in the
hands of Société Hippique Percheronne. It was
organized in 1883, and in that year published its
first studbook. The Percheron Society of America
has published nine volumes of the Percheron Stud-
book of America, the first two volumes, however,
having been published by the Percheron-Norman
Horse Association. The Percheron Registry Com-
pany has published three studbooks.
There have been many dissensions among the
importers and breeders of French draft horses,
leading to the formation of several societies and
studbooks. It becomes necessary to discuss these,
not because of any desire to state which were right
or which were wrong, but solely for the purpose
of explaining the status of the societies and stud-
books at present representing the breed.
The first importations of draft horses from
France to America were almost universally called
Normans. There was no apparent reason for the
name, for none of them came from Normandy.
This name at that time was intended to embrace
all the breeds of draft horses in France. Those
importers bringing horses from La .Perche, con- —
sidered the horses from that district the typical
draft horses of France. The French government
had not at that time established the Percheron
studbook (its publication was begun in 1883), con-
sequently there was more room for the discussion
of the claim at that time than there isnow. In
1876, when the importers of the French draft
breeds organized and issued the first studbook
Plate XVI. Small horses. Shetland pony stallion. Cowboy and broncho, a typical western outfit
HORSE
under the editorship of J. H. Sanders, a compromise
was effected by the adoption of the title Percheron-
Norman Studbook. Some of the members withdrew,
forming another association, which published the
National Register of Norman horses, and this was
afterwards changed to the National Register of
French Draft Horses. In this studbook are
registered all importations that are registered in
the General Draft Studbook of France. The Per-
cheron-Norman Studbook was changed to the Per-
cheron Studbook, and it is based on the Percheron
Studbook of France which, since 1885, has accepted
for entry only horses whose ancestors are reg-
istered in the book. As the present studbooks
stand, only pure-bred Percherons may be recorded
in the Percheron Studbook, while in the Register
of French Draft Horses all the draft breeds of
France, including Percherons, may be admitted.
From this unfortunate diversity of studbooks, the
Percheron Studbook had reached the point of being
recognized as the distinct representative of the
Percheron breed, when internal dissension arose
over the powers vested in the secretary. The out-
come has been a division into three associations
that have published or intend to publish studbooks.
The American Percheron Horse Breeders’ and
Importers’ Association was organized in 1902, but
in 1905 this name was changed to the Percheron
Society of America, with headquarters at the Union
Stock Yards, Chicago. Also in 1904, the Percheron
Registry Company was organized with head-
quarters at Columbus, Ohio. In 1905, the American
Breeders’ and Importers’ Percheron Registry was
organized, with headquarters at Plainfield, Ohio.
Literature.
Charles Du Hays, The Percheron Horse, New
York (1868). [For further references, see page
416.]
Ponies. Figs. AT8-486.
By S. B. Eiliot.
The dividing line between the horse and the
pony was vague and undefined until the Hackney
. Horse Society was established in England in 1883.
All horses measuring fourteen hands or under were
then designated ponies, and registered in a separate
part of the studbook. This standard of height was
accepted and officially recognized by leading agri-
cultural and horse-show societies in England, and
subsequently in America. In 1905, the American
Hackney Horse Society increased the height of
ponies to fourteen hands one inch, and in the case
of polo ponies the limit of height had previously
been raised to fourteen hands two inches.
Adverse climatic conditions, promiscuous breed-
ing and privation have had much to do with the
development of most breeds of ponies. Distinct
types of ponies are found in almost every coun-
try. the chief types being the Arab and his near
allies, the Turks, Barbs and Persians, the Mongo-
lian, Japanese, Korean, Burma and Manipuri pony,
Sumatra and Java pony, Russian, Scandinavian or
Norwegian pony, the Celtic or pony of Iceland,
C3
HORSE 48]
the ponies of the British Isles, and, in America,
the ponies of the western states. While some of
these, perhaps, are only of remote interest in
America at present, it has been thought best to
discuss most of them briefly. The following index
will aid in finding the separate discussions.
INDEX ® eng
LOTR) Go oOo o 6. old. dno 6 Uoldmor ocean 482
Mustang, Bronco or Indian pony ...... 483
Other sAmericansponiessasenieienisisyieenieh i nell
WAP WW
Fig. 494. A Thoroughbred mare of the saddle type.
Champion Jasmine.
There is such diversity of opinion, even among
authorities, as to the relative merits of the Thor-
oughbred and the American saddle horse for sad-
dle work, and the Thoroughbred and the part-bred
horse as hunters, that the fairest way to treat
them would be a review of the evidence on both
sides. By his opponents the Thoroughbred is
objected to as a saddle horse because of his dis-
500 HORSE
proportionate height at the withers and croup,
his unsymmetrical appearance from the saddle,
his low “daisy cutting” way of going, which they
assert is conducive to stumbling, and his erratic
nervous temperament, which renders him untract- .
able under restraint. Opposed to these objection-
able features are the spirit, the indomitable cour-
age, speed and stamina, which are possessed by no
other horse in the same degree. For riding to
hounds the Thoroughbred is said by some to be ill-
adapted because of his temperament, which makes
him fretful at checks and difficult to control when
running. Furthermore, the average Thoroughbred
is not up to the weight imposed by many riders
who care to indulge in this sport. On the other
hand, his supporters maintain that his speed,
stamina, courage, and nerve force may be relied
on to bring one in safely at the death when others
fail. It is said that he does not get “doppy” at
his fences, but will jump, as well as run, on his
courage when fatigued, and that altogether his
performance is more in keeping with the sport
than that of his colder-blooded contemporary. A
logical conclusion seems to be that the Thorough-
bred horse is best adapted to a thoroughbred
rider. As stated by one authority, “Thorough-
breds are horsemen’s horses,” and one who under-
stands their disposition and eccentricities is not
likely to be satisfied with any other kind of a
mount; while, for those less accomplished in
horsemanship, and’ satisfied with a more moderate
ride, the horse which has his fire cooled to some
extent by a dip of plebeian blood is more suitable.
For crossing.—To estimate properly the full util-
ity value of this race, it is necessary to consider,
in addition to the service which individuals of the
breed have rendered in performance on the flat
and cross country, the great influence of the blood
in union with that of other stocks. Notwithstand-
ing the fact that this horse has been the creation
of generations of sportsmen, with speed perform-
ance the standard of selection, it is the potency of
his blood when blended with common, native stocks
which is of greatest value in the production of
market horses for use outside the realm of sport.
In all but the draft breeds the influence of the
Thoroughbred may be demonstrated. In the heavy-
harness division, the foundation blood lines of the
recognized breeds are significant. The Hackney
descends from Shales, a son of Blaze, Thorough-
bred, out of a strong common mare of Norfolk.
Thoroughbred sires have produced from native
French mares the half-blood horses from which the
French coach has been evolved. They are still
called Demi-Sang (half-blood) in France. The Ger-
man coach horse has less of the Thoroughbred
character and foundation, but even here “the trail
of the blood” may be traced. The Yorkshire coach
horse represents a Thoroughbred-Cleveland Bay
cross. The representative light-harness horse is the
American trotter, and the two individuals accred-
ited with being the foundation sires are Imp.
Messenger, Thoroughbred, and Justin Morgan, said
to be of Thoroughbred extraction. The American
saddle horse, as a breed, is descendant from Den-
HORSE
mark, Thoroughbred, son of Imp. Hedgeford, and
repeated infusions of Thoroughbred blood are still
admitted. Furthermore, the ranks of the hunter,
jumper, and polo pony classes, not breeds, but
market types, are chiefly filled by either full- or
part-bred blood hotses.
Ailments.
It cannot be said that there are any diseases
peculiar to Thoroughbreds, nor that they show a
marked predisposition toward any of the affections
to which all horses are heir. It is true the disease
known as Osteoporosis, or, more commonly, “big-
head,” is frequently found in some of the large
Thoroughbred breeding-studs. We have reason to
think, however, that the disease is due rather to
the conditions under which Thoroughbreds are
especially likely to be kept than to the horse inde-
pendent of those conditions. Thoroughbreds in
training, especially youngsters, are prone to
develop sore shins, which involve the fore-limbs in
much the same manner that athletes are affected
under similar conditions. The most common abnor-
mality to which Thoroughbreds are subject is the
peculiar attitude of the fore-legs termed “buck
knees.” In other horses, a similar condition results
from hard road or track work, but in Thorough-
breds this standing over may be noticed in year-
lings that have had practically no work. It is said
by some trainers that colts which show this ten-
dency will stand up under severe training better
than those which stand straight on their fore-legs.
Organizations and records.
The first publication of recorded pedigrees and
performances was in 1829. The official organ and
record of the Thoroughbred in England is the
General Studbook of Great Britain. In this country,
Thoroughbreds are registered in the American
Studbook for Thoroughbreds, the official organi-
zation being the American Jockey Club.
Literature.
Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart., Thoroughbred and
Other Ponies; Horses Past and Present; Ridgeway,
The Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred
Horse, Cambridge (1905); Trevethan, The Ameri-
can Thoroughbred, New York (1905); Peer, Cross
Country with Horse and Hound ; Ware, First Hand
Bits of Stable Lore ; United States Department of
Agriculture, Nineteenth Annual Report of the
Bureau of Animal Industry.
Trotting and Pacing Horse, American Standard-
bred. Figs. 44, 476, 495.
By John A. Craig.
The trotting horse has entered more largely into —
the pleasures and uses of the American people than
any of the other classes of light horses, although —
the gaited saddle horse has been to some extent a
competitor in these directions in recent years. For
trotting purposes on the track or on the road, no
other strain or breed has approached the Amer-
ican Standardbred trotter. Its development to the
Plate XVII. Road ard speed horses. Morgan above; American trotter below
5
HORSE
present excellence is due wholly to the work of the
American breeder, although most of the original
material that entered into the foundation of the
American Standardbred trotting horse came from
outside sources.
Deseription.
There are many pronounced types among the
Standardbred trotting horses. Some are speed mar-
vels, as Lou Dillon, slim, graceful and of high
nervous organization; others are of the campaigner
type, stronger-framed, fuller-muscled, of larger
size, with controllable disposition, so as to be easily
rated, and of remarkable strength and durability.
Of such is Sweet Marie. The most successful blend
of these two types is Cresceus (Fig. 495), both a
speed marvel and a campaigner. A pen description
of him would embody the attributes of the best
type so far evolved. In general, such a horse should
be about sixteen hands high, upstanding, well set
up, and have that poise of body which horsemen
refer to when they say a horse is “above himself,”
either standing or in action. The head, propor-
tioned evenly with the other parts, is clean-cut and
carried high. The neck has length and is muscular,
making a noticeable crest in the stallion. The
shoulder is deep, covered with muscle, and the chest
is low and only moderately wide. The fore-leg is
long from elbow to knee, and short from knee to
fetlock. The knee is wide in front and sharp behind,
and the tendon drops from there almost vertically
to the pastern. The pasterns slope nicely, and the
feet, both before and behind, are even in size,
moderately large, and of a healthy, oily color. The
back is well covered with muscle and is rounding,
and the swelling muscles of the loin cause it to rise
slightly ; those of the hind-quarters make the croup
plump and the quarters full and deep. The leg is
long from hip point to hock, and short from there
to the pastern. The web of the hock is thin and the
leg below decidedly fluted. The action should be
clean, quick and frictionless. Above all, the dispo-
sition should be easily controllable, and yet ever
ready to race with zest. Good weights are 900
pounds for a mare and perhaps 1,150 pounds for a
stallion. The color is not fixed, but brown and bay
are very common.
History.
In common with all breeds of light horses, the
American Standardbred horse (the writer uses the
word “breed” advisedly, for he will show that our
horses officially known under this name are as much
entitled to it as any other) traces back through the
Thoroughbred to the Arab. The Arab is the original
source of the Thoroughbred, and nearly every breed
of light horses worthy of note has drawn so largely
on these two that it makes the Darley Arabian, the
Byerly Turk and the Godolphin Barb the triune
root of all of them. [See the articles on the Thor-
oughbred and the Barb and Turk.]
Previous to the advent of these Eastern impor-
tations, racing had not attracted much public
patronage in Great Britain. A writer’ refers to
'Light Horses: Breeds and Management.
HORSE 501
the time of their advent as follows: Byerly Turk, |
about 1689; Darley Arabian, early in the eight-
eenth century; Godolphin Arabian (probably a
Barb), 1728. Trotting matches seem then to have
been unknown, but it was about that time that
marked the era of running races. In1751, Reginald
Heber published the first number of the Racing
Calendar, and the light horse-breeding interests of
Great Britain began to assume noticeable propor-
tions.
The Darley Arabian sired the first great Thor-
oughbred or running horse in Flying Childers.
Cresceus, 2:0234.
American trotting horse.
Owned by W. W. Savage.
Fig. 495.
While Flying Childers was a stout race horse, yet
it was through his brother, Bartlett’s Childers, pro-
genitor of Hclipse, that the most turf performers
trace. Flying Childers sired Blaze, foaled in 1733,
whose pedigree is given very completely by Cap-
tain Urton (Newmarket and Arabia). This pedi-
gree shows that Blaze was deeply bred in Oriental
blood lines, and yet from him it seems a little
stream of trotting blood emanates, which history
pronounces to be the most ancient source of two
modern breeds,—the American Standardbred horse
and the Hackney. Perhaps the chief notoriety of
Blaze in Thoroughbred circles was attained through
his being the sire of the dam of Herod. He also
had two sons of interest in this discussion, namely,
Sampson and Shales. Sampson shows a derivation in
type from. other Thoroughbreds of the time, being
considered a very large horse, 15.2 hands high, and
said to be the largest-boned Thoroughbred horse
ever bred. He was a noted and proved race horse.
He sired Engineer, sire of Mambrino, sire of Mes-
senger. He was also the grandsire of the dam of
Useful Cub, that trotted seventeen miles in less
than an hour. Shales, the other son of Blaze, sired
Driver and Scott’s Shales, both of which were trot-
ters, and considered by careful investigators to be
pillars of the Hackney.
Messenger was imported in 1788. His line is an
unbroken series of trotters. He sired Mambrino,
which had about a dozen trotting sons, in three of
which we are chiefly interested: Mambrino, Bishop’s
Hambletonian and the mare Silvertail. Mambrino
sired Mambrino Paymaster, and Abdallah, the
502 HORSE
former the sire of Mambrino Chief, founder of the
family of that name among Standardbred horses.
Abdallah sired Hambletonian 10, the founder of
the Hambletonian family in the Standardbred
breed. Silvertail was the dam of One Eye, the dam
of the Charles Kent mare; and this mare was by
Imported Bellfounder, which traces back through
the Fireaways to Driver, the son of Shales, the son
of Blaze. To get all this clear, the following chart
is submitted :
HORSE
public in 1838, and for fifteen years raced the most
successful trotters of her time. The almost equally
famous mare, Green Mountain Maid (not to be con-
fused with the mare of the same name that was
Electioneer’s dam), and Princess, another notable
campaigner, were of this blood. Happy Medium
might also be said to be an inbred Messenger.
When we consider that his daughter, Nancy Hanks,
2:04, was out of Nancy Lee by Dictator by Ham-
bletonian 10, it is easy to understand how deeply
Darley Arabian
Flying Childers
Blaze
MiP:
Sampson
Engineer
Shales
| Useful Cub —_—
Driver Scott’s Shales
Mambrino | |
| The Fireaways
Messenger |
Pretender Achilles
Mambrino Hambletonian Silvertail |
(Bishop’s)
Fireaway
Beate (Triffit’s)
| Bellfounder 5
Mambrino Pay- Abdallah One Eye
master |
Chas Kent mare Bellfounder 55
Mambrino Chief 11
|
Hambletonian 10
With the advent of Messenger, the trotting
instinct becomes decidedly more pronounced. The
chief feature of his pedigree is that he was not
only a Thoroughbred, but dips deep into the foun-
tain sources of that breed. The records are preg-
nant with the performances of his progeny and
also attest to his value as a progenitor of trotting
speed, through the get of his sons, and the degree
to which their blood permeates the pedigrees of
even our most notable of modern trotters. In the
catalogue of the International Stock Food Farm,
there appears an exceptionally erudite pedigree of
Dan Patch 1:554, the champion pacer of the world,
and it is shown that he traces forty-three times to
Messenger. The first noted performer of this strain
was Topgallant. Paul Pry, a grandson of Messenger,
was ridden by Woodruff 18 miles in a fraction less
than 57 minutes, Lady Suffolk began racing in
bred this remarkable trotter of our day embodies
Messenger blood. ¢
Before taking up the influence of other Thor-
oughbred sources, there are other scattering
streams of Messenger blood that should be men-
tioned. The Clay family, through the founder,
Henry Clay, has a very distant infusion. The
Morgan family, also, has a considerable infusion
of Messenger blood. Among the old Canadian fami-
lies having Messenger blood, one of the most
prominent is that of Royal George 9. Royal
George’s descendants today bear out the fact that
the Messenger family was the most prolific source
of trotting speed in Canada. Another Canadian
family that runs into some of our best Standard-
breds originated in the Bullock horse, which traces
directly to Messenger. Strathmore (408), the
founder of one of the very best families of the
HORSE
Standardbred trotter, carried much Messenger
blood.
These references, showing the infusion of Mes-
senger blood into the families of Mambrino Chief
11, Hambletonian 10, Morgan, Clay and others,
will enable one to form some idea of the degree to
which Messenger blood forms a widespread founda-
tion for the present Standardbred trotter.
Other imported contributors.—Besides Messenger,
several other imported Thoroughbreds have con-
tributed to the breeding of the Standardbred
trotter. Suffice it to mention Bonnie Scotland,
Australian Trustee, Lapidist and Glencoe. The
influence of these was chiefly through their Ameri-
can-bred sons and daughters.
Influence of American horses.—Let us now con-
sider the status of the horses in use on this conti-
nent as road horses or trotters, about the time
(1788) that Messenger was imported. In the earli-
est colonial days, most of the traveling was done
on horseback, and a race most popular for journey-
ing this way was the Narragansett pacer, bred
most largely in Rhode Island. In addition, this
pacer was the racing horse of the people of Rhode
Island and Virginia as early as the last of the
seventeenth century. Dr. McMonagle states : “The
combination of these (Narragansett) with the
French stock imported from France to Quebec, in
1665, produced the Canadian pacers. Out of that
combination we have the Pilots, which were taken
to Kentucky and proved to be the producers of
some of the best trotting horses there. From the
same stock we have the Columbuses, which were
taken to Vermont, where they produced trotters of
which the fastest went in 2:19%—a daughter of
Phil Sheridan, the most potent sire of the family.”
Tt seems clear to the above writer that the Narra-
gansett pacer was largely the original source of
the Canadian blood so largely taken to Kentucky
and other states at an early day.
Justin Morgan, the founder of the family
of that name, was foaled in 1793 (some authori-
ties give it 1789), and Pilot, about the first
to attract the attention of the American public,
was foaled about 1826. The Pilots, St. Lawrences,
St. Clairs, Columbuses and Copperbottoms were
taken from Canada at the beginning of the
last century to Vermont, New York, Kentucky,
California and other states that were trotting-
horse centers at that early day, and blended well
with the other families that were forming. The
Morgans were well under way at this era. The
three sons that formed leading branches of the
family were Sherman, foaled in 1809, Bulrush,
foaled in 1812, and Woodbury, foaled in 1816.
Then, too, the Bashaws and the Clays were start-
ing under way ; for Grand Bashaw was imported
in 1820. He sired Andrew Jackson, foaled in 1827,
which, in turn, sired Henry Clay and Long Island
Black Hawk, both foaled in 1837. The latter sired
Green’s Bashaw in 1855. Andrew Jackson ranked
and was contemporaneous with Abdallah, the latter
being foaled in 1823. A little later Mambrino
Chief 11 was foaled in 1844, and five years later,
in 1849, Hambletonian 10 was born.
HORSE 508
It is seen that about the middle of the past cen-
tury the leading families of the Standardbred trot-
ter had their inception, and the breed began to
assume formation on this continent, for the chief
families, the Canadian Pilots and others of that
nationality, the Morgans, the Clays, the Mambrino
Chiefs and the Hambletonians, were making it evi-
dent that there were certain blood lines more pro-
lific than others in producing trotting speed.
Early trotting records.—The first trotting per-
formance in America of which we have record is
that of Yankee, at Harlem, New York, July 6, 1806,
when a little less than a mile was trotted in 2:50.
In 1859, Ethan Allen, of the Morgan line, trotted
against Flora Temple, when the latter trotted a
mile in 2:25. In the same year, Geo. M. Patchen
beat Ethan Allen in 2:24, and in turn was beaten
by Flora Temple in 2:21. Dexter, which began his
racing career in 1864, defeated George Wilkes in
2:223. According to official records, Lady Suffolk
was the first to trot below 2:30, in 1845, when she
won a heat in a race in 2:29; Pelham, breeding
unknown, in 1849 reduced this to 2:28; Highland
Man, of Thoroughbred breeding, in 1858 reduced it
to 2:27; Flora Temple reduced this several times,
finally bringing it, in 1859, to 2:192; in 1867,
Dexter reduced it to 2:174; and then Goldsmith
Maid continued lowering it until 1874, when, going
against time, she made a mile in 2:14.
The Trotting Register.— About this time the
greatest interest was being taken in trotting races
and trotting families, and it was further added to
by the founding and compiling of the American
Trotting Register by John Henry Wallace, which
was begun about 1865. Wallace’s Monthly and the
Yearbook also gave a great impetus to the study of
the pedigrees of the Standardbred horse, and out
of the racing and the data coliected grew the
enthusiasm for better breeding.
Tt was not until Volume IV of the Trotting Reg-
ister was published that the entries of stallions
were made numerically. For that volume a stand-
ard was prepared in which performance was given
precedence and pedigree a minor place. Under this
standard, Volumes IV to VII, inclusive, were com-
piled. Various changes were made, from time to
time, until we now have the following standard, as
revised and adopted by the American Trotting Reg-
ister Association, to take effect November 1, 1898:
“When an animal meets these requirements
and is duly registered, it shall be accepted as a
Standardbred trotter.
“(1) The progeny of a registered standard trot-
ting horse and a registered standard trotting mare.
“(2) A stallion sired by a registered standard
trotting horse, provided his dam and granddam were
sired by registered standard trotting horses, and
he himself has a trotting record of 2:30 and is the
sire of three trotters with records of 2:30 from
different mares.
“(8) A mare whose sire is a registered standard
trotting horse and whose dam and granddam were
sired by registered standard trotting horses, pro-
vided she herself has a trotting record of 2:30 or
is the dam of one trotter with a record of 2:30.
504 HORSE
“(4) A mare sired by a registered standard trot-
ting horse, provided she is the dam of two trotters
with records of 2:30.
“(5) A mare sired by a registered standard trot-
ting horse, provided her first, second and third
dams are each sired by a registered standard trot-
ting horse.”
To assist still further in the establishment of a
breed, the Register Association has made known
(February 5, 1908) a contemplated change in the
requirements for admission to the standard, looking
to the elimination of all the foregoing rules except
rule number one.
Influence of the standard.
At first, the importance of the standard, both as
to performance and pedigree, had an undue influ-
ence. If a horse was standard it was thought that
that was all that was necessary, and if a sire suc-
ceeded in piling up a large 2:30 list that was later
considered the sum total. Now breeders are also
considering the fact that a performance of 2:30,
with improved tracks, sulkies and appliances, does
not mean much, and they are considering the
amount of extreme speed as a very desirable qual-
ity, with a long line of producing lineage in the
pedigree. At this point, the importance of the
breeding of the dam and her value as a producer
of speed entered into the operations of most breed-
ing farms. In conjunction with this, the money-
making value of colt trotters, because of the large
stakes, began to receive more attention. Breeders
also began to find out that a horse might be a fine
“looker” and at the same time a good race horse or
a getter of fine “lookers” and race horses.
Present status.—This brings us down to the
present era, during which the modern breeder seeks
performance, individuality and pedigree, and it is
all traceable to the several stages of evolution
through which the breed has gone. To guide the
beginner in breeding, it may be said that nearly
all the families must necessarily be embraced in
up-to-date breeding operations, for the history of
the breed will show that they nearly all have
desirable qualities that should be apparent in the
modern representation of the Standardbred horse.
Distribution.
Other governments have recognized the worth
of the Standardbred trotter, for recently those of
Japan and China have made large importations.
Extensive sales of Standardbred trotters of high
merit have been made to prominent horse-lovers
and breeders in Russia, France, Austria, Italy, Ger-
many, England, Australia and the South American
countries.
Families.
The origin and importance of the heads of the
several prominent trotting families has been dis-
cussed above. It remains only to call attention to
the notable horses of each family.
The Hambletonian family, through the male line,
includes the following sons of Hambletonian 10,
with mention of some of the most noted performers: |:
HORSE
(1) Electioneer, 160 in the list, and sire of many
producing sons. Some of the holders of the fastest
records representing this line of breeding, are
Adbell, holding the fastest mile record, 2:23, for
yearling trotting stallion; Arion, the fastest mile
record, 2:10, for two-year-old trotting stallion ;
Endow, the fastest mile record, 2:14%, for two-
year-old trotting gelding; Fantasy, the fastest mile
record, 2:08#, for three-year-old trotting mare, and
also the fastest mile record, 2:06, for four-year-old
trotting mare. Boralma, which, with John Nolan,
is joint holder of the fastest mile record, 2:08, for
four-year-old trotting gelding; Major Delmar, the
fastest mile record, 2:054, for five-year-old trot-
ting gelding; Bingen, the fastest mile record,
2:064, for five-year-old trotting stallion, held jointly
with Ralph Wilkes. In addition, Sunol, 2:084, held
the champion trotting record in 1891; The Abbot,
2:034, held the champion trotting record in 1900,
and Palo Alto, 2:08%, was champion trotting stal-
lion in 1891. In summing up the standing of the
families in regard to the production of colt trotters,
Volunteer, in a very able tabulation,’ gives Elec-
tioneer second place to George Wilkes, with thirty-
three sires and seventy-one performers.
(2) George Wilkes, 83 in the list, and sire of
many notable producing sons. Some of the holders
of the fastest records representing this line of
breeding are Belle Acton, holding the fastest mile
record, 2:20%, for yearling pacing mare; Extasy,
the fastest mile record, 2:10, for two-year-old
pacing mare; Peter Sterling, the fastest mile
record, 2:114, for three-year-old trotting gelding ;
Hymettus, the fastest mile record, 2:08%, for three-
year-old pacing gelding ; Palmyra Boy, the fastest
mile record, 2:074, for four-year-old pacing geld-
ing, held jointly with King of Diamonds; Brenda
Yorke, the fastest mile record, 2:08%, for three-
year-old pacing mare; Online, the fastest mile
record, 2:04, for four-year-old pacing stallion ;
Coney, the fastest mile record, 2: 02%, for five-year-
old pacing gelding ; Searchlight, 2: 03%, joint holder
with Audubon Boy of the fastest mile record for
five-year-old pacing stallion; and Ralph Wilkes,
the fastest mile record, 2:064, for five-year-old
stallion, held jointly with Bingen. In addition,
George Wilkes, 2:22, held the champion stallion
trotting record, in 1868-71; Axtell, 2:12, held
the champion stallion trotting record in 1889;
Allerton, 2:094, held the champion stallion trotting
record in 1891; Dariel, 2:004, is the fastest pac-
ing mare, and Dan Patch, 1:55} (Fig. 476), is the
champion pacing stallion. In the production of colt
trotters, Volunteer gives this line first place, with
forty-seven sires and ninety-eight performers.
(3) Abdallah 15, 5 in the list, and sire of many
notable producing sons. Some of the holders of the
fastest record of this line are Pansy McGregor, the
fastest mile record, 2:23%, for yearling trotting
filly, and Paul D. Kelly, the fastest mile record,
2:203, for yearling pacing colt. In addition,
Cresceus (Fig. 495), 2:024, is the champion
trotting stallion, as well as holder of a great
many world records for different distances and
1 Horse Review, January 28, 1908.
HORSE
heats. Nutwood leads all other sires as sire of
producing brood mares. This line has been notable
for the production of campaigners and race horses
rather than for colt trotters, although Volunteer
ranks it among Hambletonian 10’s sons, with ten
sires and sixteen performers. Such race horses as
Robert McGregor, 2:173, Cresceus, 2:024, Nut-
bearer, 2:092, winner of the fastest eight-heat
race on record, and Highball, 2:06%, the fastest
green gelding of 1907, and Nutboy, 2 : 074, Turley,
2 :072, Robert Mac, 2 :084, were of this line. Gold-
smith Maid, 2:16#, of this strain, the champion
trotter in 1871-72, and again in 1874, when she
reduced her record to 2:14, has been conceded to
be the greatest campaigner of any time.
(4) Happy Medium, 94 in the list, and sire of
many notable producing sons. Nancy Hanks, 2:04,
was the champion trotter in 1892, and Maxie Cobb,
2 :134, was champion trotting stallion in 1884-89.
In his table of sires of colt trotters, Volunteer
ranks Happy Medium seventh among Hambletonian
10’s sons, with two sires and six performers.
(5) Dictator, 52 in the list, and sire of many
notable producing sons. Some of the holders of the
fastest records in this line, are Directly, holding the
fastest mile record, 2:074, for two-year-old pac-
ing stallion, and Directum (Fig. 44), holding the
fastest mile record, 2:054, for four-year-old trot-
ting stallion. In addition, Jay Eye See, 2:10, was
champion trotter in 1884; Phallas, 2:13%, was
champion trotting stallion in 1884, and Directum,
2:054, was champion trotting stallion in 1893.
This line is also noted for its number of race horses,
trotting and pacing, for it includes Director, 2:17,
Directum, 2:05, Direct Hal, p., 2:044, Direct, p.,
2:054, and Norman B, 2:054, winner of fastest
four-heat race in 1907. In the production of colt
trotters, the writer, Volunteer, in reference already
given, places Dictator fourth as his rank among
the sons of Hambletonian 10, with six sires and
sixteen performers.
(6) Strathmore, 62 in the list, and sire of sev-
eral notable sons. Klatawath, 2:054, is the holder
of the fastest mile record for three-year-old pac-
ing stallion. Lou Dillon, 1:584, of this line is the
champion trotter of the present time. This line
ranks very high in producing brood mares.
Among other noted sons of Hambletonian 10 are
Egbert, 85 in the list; Aberdeen, 52 in the list;
Harold, 45 in list (sire of Maud §, 2:08, champion
trotter 1883-5, and sire of Lord Russell, sire of
Kremlin, 2:084, champion stallion in 1892); Vol-
unteer, 34 in list (sire of St. Julien, 2:114, cham-
pion trotter in 1880); Jay Gould, 29 in list and
champion stallion in 1871-2. The Hambletonian
family as a whole is given first place by Volunteer
for siring colt trotters, with 106 sires of 223 per-
formers to its credit.
The Mambrino Chief family, through the male
line, includes the following sons of Mambrino
Chief 11, with mention of some of the most noted
performers :
(1) Woodford Mambrino, 13 in the list, and sire
of several notable producing sons. Helen Hale is
holder of the fastest mile record, 2:134 for two-
HORSE 505
year-old trotting filly, and John Nolan is holder of
the fastest mile record, 2 : 08, for four-year-old trot-
ting gelding. Alix, 2 :03%, was champion trotter in
1894. In the table that Volunteer has prepared,
Prodigal is credited with eleven colt trotters, which
places him in the lead of all sires of colt trotters.
A striking feature of this line is the purity of the
trotting gait, for there are but few pacers among
them.
(2) Mambrino Patchen, 25 in the list, sire of
several notable producing sons. This line has a
reputation, to which it is entitled, for having in
its ranks a large number of producing brood mares.
Many noted stallions, sons of George Wilkes, have
Mambrino Patchen dams, a blend that has been pro-
lific in speed.
(8) Clark Chief, 6 in the list, sire of Kentucky
Prince, 41 in the list, which in turn is sire of Dex-
ter Prince, 62 in the list. Dexter Prince sired Ele-
ata, 2:083, Lisonjero, 2:084, and James L., 2:094.
(4) Mambrino Pilot, 9 in the list, sire of Mam-
brino Gift, Caliban, Hannis, and others. Mambrino
Gift, 2:20, was champion trotting stallion in 1874.
The Clay family is generally considered to start
with Henry Clay, but it really traces back through
the male line to Grand Bashaw, imported in 1820
from Tripoli. The latter was fourteen and one-
fourth hands high, but was reputed to be a horse
of beauty and some speed for those early days.
Grand Bashaw was bred to Pearl by First Consul
out of Fancy by Messenger, and from this union
resulted Young Bashaw, the sire of Andrew Jack-
son. Andrew Jackson was a trotter of note in his
day, especially as a two-miler. The Long Island
Black Hawk line has given us Bashaw 50, 17 in
the list and Wapsie, with 11 in the list. Bashaw
50 is the sire of the dam of Joe Young, 2:18. Henry
Clay sired Cassius M. Clay 18, which sired Geo. M.
Patchen, 2:234, champion trotting stallion in
1859-60, and sire of four trotters. Perhaps the
most prolific speed line comes through Cassius M.
Clay 20, a son of Cassius M. Clay 18, for Harry
Clay, 2:29, with four trotters in the list and sire of
the dam of Electioneer, is by C. M. Clay 20, and
Clay Pilot is also by the latter. Clay Pilot sired
The Moor, 6 in the list, sire of Sultan, 2:24, 52 in
the list, sire of Stamboul, 2 :074, sire of forty-eight
trotters in the list. Stamboul, 2:074, is generally
conceded to have held the stallion record, but it was
disqualified because of a small technicality which
many did not accept. This family attains its noto-
riety most largely through the remarkable great
brood mares that are of this descent, among which
may be mentioned Green Mountain Maid (by Harry
Clay), dam of nine trotters, including Electioneer
and Beautiful Bells, dam of eleven trotters and
eight producing sires.
The Morgan family takes its name from Justin
Morgan by True Briton by Imported Traveller by
Morton’s Traveller, which traces in near and direct
lines to the Byerly Turk, Curwen’s Bay Barb, the
Lowther Barb, Bloody Buttocks and the Godolphin
Arabian. In his book, published in 1857, D. C.
Lindsley describes Justin Morgan as about fourteen
hands high and weighing 950 pounds. His color
506 HORSE
was dark bay, with black points. He was a very
stylish horse, of indomitable, though easily con-
trollable spirit. The three sons of Justin Morgan
that were most prolific as sources of trotters were
Sherman, Woodbury and Bulrush. Sherman sired
Black Hawk 5, sire of 3 in the list, and also sire of
Ethan Allen, 2:28, champion trotting stallion in
1858. Ethan Allen sired Daniel Lambert, the sire of
38 trotters in the list, including Ben Franklin, sire
of 33 trotters in the list, and Aristos, sire of 30 in
the list. Black Hawk 5 also sired King Herod, sire
of Herod, 2:244. Vermont Hero was also a son of
Black Hawk 5, and he sired General Knox, sire of
15 trotters, including Charles Caffrey, sire of 19
trotters in the list. General Knox sired General
Washington, sire of 15 in the list, including Poem,
2:114, with 24 in the list. Flying Cloud 134 is
another son of Black Hawk 5, that sired Trojan,
the sire of Ben Lomond, a producing sire.
From the Bulrush line comes Old Morrill, sire of
Young Morrill, sire of Winthrop Morrill, sire of 9
in the list, including Draco, the sire of Draco
Prince. Winthrop Morrill also sired Fearnaught,
2:23, sire of 5 trotters in the list, in turn the sire
of Royal Fearnaught, with 25 in the list. The other
son of Justin Morgan, namely, Woodbury, sired
Morgan Eagle, whose son of the same name got
Magna Charta, sire of 5 in the list. Woodbury also
sired Barnard Morgan, which in turn sired Vermont
Morgan, sire of Golddust, the founder of that strain.
The fastest trotters of the Morgan line include
Lord Clinton, 2:08%, Lamp Girl and Ethel Downs.
While the Morgan family has produced consid-
erable speed, yet its popularity is based chiefly on
the endurance, beauty and style of its members.
Pacers are exceptionally rare among them, and
the purity of their action being bold, free and tire-
less, is perhaps the most valuable attribute of the
family. In this connection, it may be stated that
the government, having recognized the tractable
and energetic disposition of the Morgans, as well
as their well-established reputation for endurance,
has established a breeding station in Vermont in
cooperation with the Vermont Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, with the object of “saving the Mor-
gan.” There are twenty-three horses in all in this
stud, headed by the stallion General Gates by Den-
ning Allen (the sire of Lord Clinton 2:08?) and out
of a Thoroughbred mare. Carmon, the stallion at
the head of the stud at Fort Collins, Colo., in the
efforts to establish a breed of American carriage
horses, carries some Morgan blood.
The blood of the Morgan horse has become rather
widely scattered over America, although there are
comparatively few Morgans available. Most of
these are found in New England and other eastern
states, although there are pure-blooded Morgans in
parts of Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky and Mis-
souri. The American Morgan Horse Register is
published at Middlebury, Vermont.
The Pilot family takes its name from old Pilot, a
Canadian pacer from near Montreal, afterwards
trained at both gaits. After passing through many
hands and sojourning in Connecticut, New York,
and Louisiana, he reached Kentucky in 1832.
HORSE
There he sired Pilot Jr., out of a mare of Thorougt-
bred breeding. He sired eight trotters in the list,
but his blood was chiefly valuable through the
female line because of the number of great brood
mares he sired. Pilot Jr. sired Tattler, sire of 5 in
the list, including Indianapolis, sire of 10, and
Rumor, sire of 24 in the list. Another son of
Pilot Jr. was Woodburn Pilot, sire of Argonaut,
with 5 in the list. Among the brood mares sired
by Pilot Jr., Miss Russell is most noted.
Other families.—In addition to the foregoing
recognized families, there are a number of others
that have been very aptly termed the submerged
families. Many of these are of Thoroughbred
origin, but they are mostly of Canadian pacing
origin. Among those of Thoroughbred breeding
are American Star 14, sire of the dams of Guy,
2:094, Dexter, 2:174, Robert McGregor, 2:174,
Aberdeen and other noted sires. Blackbird 401 is
another Thoroughbred that enters into many trot-
ting pedigrees. His son, Blackbird 402, sired 3 in
the list, and another son, A. W. Richmond, sired
Columbine. The Canadian pacing families are dis-
cussed in more detail in the history of the Stand-
ardbred pacing horse.
Uses.
For racing.—The Standardbred trotter occupies
a position about equally divided between pleasure
and utility. The degree to which the trotter em-
braces the former field depends on the popularity
of racing, both in the circuits and for matinee
purposes. Trotting races are an adjunct of nearly
every county fair, and occupy a prominent posi-
tion at all state fairs. However much the attend-
ant gambling may be deplored, the fact remains
that trotting and pacing races are popular, and
they also assist in developing a speedier and more
durable breed of horses. The racing is under the
jurisdiction of the National Trotting Association:
and the American Trotting Register Association,
the rules governing the races, under the auspices
of either, being almost identical; and they prevail
at all race meetings and on all tracks over which
officially accepted records are made.
For matinee racing.—After having finished their
racing career and having reduced their records so
that their money-winning capacity is reduced,
many trotters are purchased for matinee racing in
our larger cities. This sport has grown in popu-
larity to such an extent that a national League of
Amateur Driving Clubs has been formed.
As a roadster.—It is as a roadster that the trot-
ting-bred horse is most useful. This demands a
horse of medium height, 15.2 to 16 hands, of grace-
ful lines, without the least tendency to coarseness
in any part. Quality of bone, cleanness of limbs,
defined tendons and all other characteristics that
forecast durability, should be very much in evi-
dence. With it all there is a refinement of form
that differentiates this type from the coach or
heavy-harness class. Easy, elastic action and an
ever-present willingness to cover the ground in
jaunty style are desirable characteristics. At an
early day, the Thoroughbred was recommended
HORSE
strongly for crossing on common light mares, and
such breeding resulted, in many instances, in road-
sters noted for their ability to cover long dis-
tances at the trot, and to continue it day after
day. The Morgan horse, however, was soon recog-
nized as the strain possessing the highest type of
roadster characteristics, chiefly because of its in-
domitable perseverance and endurance, its willing-
ness, and the style and buoyance with which it
stood the strain of continuous road riding. The
roadster, in addition to having style, action and
durable individuality, must be in type in harmony
with the light harness and light, easy-running road
rigs now popular. A heavy, slow, but maybe
stylish-moving horse is as much out of place be-
fore a road rig as a slim racer-like horse would be
in heavy harness. While there are many speedy
trotters that are far from pleasurable road horses,
because the ability to go fast for a short distance
is not the chief requirement of a road horse, yet
the result of the continuous racing which the
trotter has undergone, undoubtedly has given it the
durability and the “do or die” spirit that is a valu-
able attribute of the roadster. At this day some
speed is required of the roadster.
As heavy harness horse-—Of recent years, atten-
tion has been drawn to the fact that some families
of the American Standardbred horse have shown
marked excellence for heavy harness use. During
the time when the horse-shows were perhaps most
popular, about 1890, the breeding of the trotting
horse was under a depression. For that reason,
many stallions, well bred in trotting lines but of
heavy harness conformation and action, were pur-
chased at gelding prices and shown in heavy har-
ness classes at the leading horse-shows. Undoubt-
edly they may properly be called freaks, for they
were not bred for this purpose, but that does not
dispose of the worth of the acquisition. The trot-
ting-bred heavy harness horse and high stepper
became a strong competitor of the Hackney, and
in some instances defeated the latter in these
classes. The result has been that the government
has realized the possibility of establishing a family
or, in time, a breed of heavy harness horses as an
offshoot of the Standardbred trotter. The Colo-
rado Experiment Station is conducting the work
under the auspices of the Department of Agricul-
ture at Washington. Carmon 32917, a grandson
of Robt. McGregor, 2:174, is at the head of the
stud. Previous to purchase by the government, he
had been a prominent winner at leading horse-
shows in the harness classes under the name of
Glorious Thunder Cloud.
For breeding “cow ponies.”—At this point, to
indicate further the versatility of the Standard-
bred trotter, it will not be out of place to mention
the fact that on many of the large cattle ranches,
where “cow ponies,” as they are called, are in
heavy demand, the Standardbred trotter is being
used as a sire in preference to the Thoroughbred.
The reason for this preference was given the
writer to be the better disposition of the Standard-
bred as compared with the Thoroughbred, said to
be a result of the restraint under which the trot-
MULE 507
ting horse has been held, and the necessity of a
trotter having a controllable disposition.
Organizations and records.
The National Trotting Association was organized
in 1870. The office of the present secretary is
at Hartford, Conn. The American Trotting Asso-
ciation was organized in 1887, and has headquar-
ters in Chicago. The American Trotting Register
‘appeared in 1868, with J. H. Wallace as pub-
lisher. The first volume contained some 3,000
entries. Wallace also established the Yearbook,
now in its twenty-third volume. The Register,
the Yearbook, and Wallace’s Monthly were dis-
posed of by Mr. Wallace to the American Trot-
ting Register Association, in 1891, and the latter
now publishes the Register and the Yearbook. As
has been said, a League of Amateur Driving Clubs
has been formed, with headquarters in Boston.
This league publishes a yearbook, giving a sum-
mary of matinee races and the time made. The
first volume includes the races of 1901-2.
Literature.
Busby, The Trotting and Pacing Horse in
America, New York (1994); Helm, American Road-
sters and Trotting Horses, Chicago (1878); Lins-
ley, Morgan Horses, New York (1857); Lowe,
Breeding Race Horses by the Figure System, New
York (1898); Marvin, Training the Trotting Horse,
New York (1892); Merwin, Road, Track and Stable,
Boston (1893); Splan, Life with the Trotters, Chi-
cago (1889); Woodruff, The Trotting Horse of
America, Philadelphia (1868). [For further refer-
ences, see page 416.]
MULE. Figs. 496, 497.
By Charles Wm. Burkett.
The mule is a draft animal. {t is not a true
breed, but is a hybrid, a cross between the horse
and the ass. An offspring of the male ass or jack
and the mare is known as a mule, while the progeny
of a stallion and a female ass is designated as a
hinny.
Description.
Of these two classes, the mule is the more valu-
able, since there is greater size, to which are added
style, finish, strong bone, and other requisites that
go to make the animal so valuable for draft pur-
poses. From this description it follows that the
hinny is smaller in size, somewhat unsightly in
form, lacking in finish, and adapted to environ-
ments that call for lighter work and effort. Still,
the hinny is able to endure drudgery and hardship
equal to and often greater than the mule.
Like all other animals, the mule and the hinny
naturally inherit qualities from both parents.
With the former, the body follows the maternal
type, but closely adheres to the paternal side in
the head, foot, ear and bone. The voice of the mule
is not like that of the jack, as popularly sup-
posed, but slightly resembles it. From the paternal
side come also patience, endurance, faithfulness and
508 MULE
ability to do hard work and much of it; and from
the mother come those qualities that haye made
the horse so prominent and so famous, namely,
courage, hardiness and strength.
Points of the ideal type-—The mule that most
nearly approaches the ideal type follows the horse
closely in all points of symmetry of form. The
body, however, is commonly
more cylindrical and some-
what smaller than the body of
the horse, a factor not alto-
gether in favor of the mule. A
large body, therefore, is more
desirable than a small body ;
but largeness of body must not
be confused with paunchiness,
for this is always objection-
able. The type in which the
body conforms as nearly as
possible to that of the ideal
draft horse should be selected.
Producers of mules are realiz-
ing that a critical trade is de-
manding mules of a superior
conformation in the region of
the body, much more so than
this same trade demanded a
few years ago.
Mules that most nearly meet
the ideal type possess fine,
hard legs, showing superior-
ity with every movement. The
bones should be smooth and dense; the tendons
should show considerable prominence; and the mus-
cles must be well developed. While the feet of the
mule are narrower and longer than those of the
horse, a large foot is always to be desired.
Fig. 496.
A good representative
of the large heavy
mule.
History.
The mule has been known from the earliest
times, some of the old Roman writers having dis-
cussed the mule in their descriptions of Roman
agriculture.
In America.—In America, the mule has been in
use from colonial days. As early as 1591, jacks
were brought to this country by the Spaniards.
The first of the kind, no doubt, went to Mexico.
With a more settled condition in our country, and
a demand for better work animals, the mule came.
One of the first men to engage in the production of
mules was General Washington (see page 276). The
superior qualities of the mule were early recog-
nized by southern planters. During the first half
of the nineteenth century mule-breeding extended
ever much of the country.
Distribution.
The mule is distributed throughout the world.
An English writer describes the geographical dis-
tribution as follows: “The mule line extends north
from the equator, including Africa and Europe, up
to 45° of latitude, and in Asia and North America
as far as 35°. On the south side of the equator we
can include most of Africa, the northern part of
Australia and South America, as far south as 35°.
MULE
Within this vast radius hundreds of thousands of
mules are bred each year. Many of the mules are
big, heavy animals, with great power and bone,
and stand sixteen to seventeen hands high.”
In America.—Mules are now found in use in
every state in the Union, but more largely in the
southern states. The table below shows the ten
states having the largest numbers of mules, accord-
ing to the census of 1900:
Missouri) 5 es are ee ote
POnnesseeic? l= 1s liskle! reuenie el menrouats
Mississippi. . .
Kentucky
Arkansas . .
Louisiana ....
North Carolina
South Carolina
Kentucky and Tennessee have been noted from
early days as mule-breeding centers. To these
states, many noted jacks have gone, not native
only, but those representing the best of the Anda-
lusian, Catalonian, Majorcan and the Maltese types.
During recent years, it has been learned that
while soil and climate may influence quality in the
individual, care in the selection of feeds and in the
breeding types are also fundamental among the
requisites of successful mule production ; and hence,
where these latter are heeded, mules may be pro-
duced. Consequently, Texas, Georgia, Missouri,
Kansas, and Oklahoma, as well as many other states,
are vying with Kentucky and Tennessee in produc-
ing mules of high quality that find favor in all
parts of the
world.
In 1906, the
estimated num-
ber of mules in
the United
States was 3,-
404,361, valued
at$334,660,000,
an average val-
uation of nearly
one hundred dol-
lars per animal:
The breeds of
jacks.
Up to the time
of the Civil war,
but two breeds
of jacks were
used,the Maltese
and the Spanish.
The Andalusian
and Catalonian
from the main-
land, and the Majorcan, from the island of Majorca,
were formerly known as Spanish. So great has
been the demand for jacks of Malta that practi-
cally all have been exported, and now but faw are
left on the island.
The jacks of Italy have not been successful as
Fig. 497. A matched mule team.
MULE
mule-producers in this country, and consequently
have entered but slightly into the mule stock here.
At the present time, there are three noted breeds
of jacks: the native, the Poitou, and the Cata-
lonian. In regard to favor and importance, perhaps,
these breeds should be ranked as mentioned here.
Many of our noted mule-breeders prefer native
jacks to those of foreign breeds. The native jack
produces a good finish, a good form, strong legs,
broad hocks, and is already peculiarly adapted to
our environments. Besides these qualities, he ex-
tends to his progeny immunity from diseases to an
unusual degree, and an exceptionally long life.
The Poitou jack is a French breed of Spanish
origin, and is ranked by some breeders as first
among jack breeds. He is liked especially for agri-
cultural use, because of the size of his limbs and
feet. The legs are short and straight with plenty
of bone, while the pasterns are short, as required
of a draft animal. The legs are flat and hard,
whilst the feet are large and more expanded than
those of any other breed of jacks. In this respect,
the Catalonian jack is not equal to the French
breed, although the Catalonian is finer in limbs
than the Poitou.
With the Poitou jack, both the head and ears are
enormous ; in fact, French breeders are inclined to
regard these as of very great importance,—more
valuable than the smaller kind. The neck is strong,
thin and broad. There is a want of withers, but
this is true of all jack races. The broad chest and
enormous legs of the Poitou jack promise much in
mule-breeding.
The Poitou jack varies from thirteen and one-
half to fifteen hands, which is about the height of
native, Catalonian, and other Spanish breeds. The
height of a jack is not nearly so important as the
character of the head, ears, legs, feet and barrel.
Tf height can be secured from the dam, it is better
to sacrifice height in the jack, in order to get other
and more desirable qualities. The breed is of less
importance than individual qualities.
Prices for individuals of the Poitou breed are a
little higher, perhaps, than for either the Catalonian
or native, but it is possible to get a good Poitou
jack for $1,000 to $1,500, although some have
sold at $2,500 to $3,500 each.
Raising.
The raising of mules is demanding more atten-
tion from year to year. Some of the reasons for their
increasing popularity may be briefly summarized as
follows: (1) It costs less to breed and raise a mule
to a suitable size than a horse. (2) Less time is re-
quired to prepare a lot of mules than a lot of colts
for the market. (8) Young mules may be sold
readily at any period, and in any amount. (4)
Mule colts uniformly command a higher price than
horse colts of similar relative quality and value.
(5) Mules are subject to fewer diseases and less
liable to serious accidents.
The type of jack to use—The jack for mule pro-
duction should be at least fifteen hands high and
should carry a maximum weight. By this is not
meant that the jack must be fat; rather, large
MULE 509
size, that with it may go heavy bone, a broad chest,
and great strength in the region of the hips. Con-
nected with size will usually be found a rather
large head, somewhat heavy and coarse, and not of
the best quality ; but it is better to sacrifice quality
here so as to secure weight and substance, requisites
of the first importance with the mule. A large
heavy foot is desirable also, and to these qualities
should be added all the style that is attainable.
The kind of mare to breed from.—A common error
is to suppose that as soon as a mare becomes
diseased and unfit for horse-breeding she may be
used for the production of mules. Perhaps this
accounts for so many inferior mule colts. It mat-
ters not how superior the jack may be, unless
the dam is equally sound, and of equally good con-
formation, one will seldom succeed, if ever, in pro-
ducing colts of high quality and of great useful-
ness. A mare that is sound and free from blemishes
is to be chosen. She must possess good length, with
a large well-rounded barrel ; her head must be fine
and clean, and attached to a neck of desirable pro-
portions ; her chest should be broad, her hips wide ;
and, finally, her style, bearing, and breeding should
be of high order.
For the production of large mules, large draft
mares only will serve. One may take good grade
mares of the Percheron, Clydesdale, or Belgian
breeds; either is good and all are satisfactory.
These are the breeds most commonly used, but
grades of any of the draft breeds will do.
Color.—Perhaps color is but a play of the fancy.
Still, in the case of the jack it suggests lineage
and purity of breeding. Generally speaking, a dark
color is preferable, if not altogether demanded of
the jack. Black, with white points, is the best
fashion. With mares, let the color be dark also:
bay, black, brown or chestnut. Good color in the
dam will help with good color in the colt, a matter
of no small importance if a discriminating public is
to be catered to. Otherwise, one need not bother.
There is no special merit in the color, and the
breeder must be careful not to sacrifice quality and
size and substance for color.
Feeding.
There is a prevailing opinion that mules may be
fed on less food than horses of the same size and
weight ; but this is an error. While it may be true
that the mule will utilize inferior feeding-stuffs to
a better advantage than his more aristocratic
associates, still, to do the work that he is called on
to do, demands for the mule a quantity of food
equally as great as that of his horse relatives. The
mule has marked preference for certain foods, or a
marked dislike for other foods, a discrimination
even more sensitive than that of the horse.
Market classes of mules.
Mules are generally grouped into four general
classes on the larger mule markets.
(1) Sugar and cotton mules.—The first class that
may be mentioned is the cotton and sugar mules.
While these are raised in the West, a great ma-
jority of them find their way into the southern
510 MULE
states, where they are used on cotton-farms or
sugar-farms. It is a good class of mules that goes
into this section. They are large, heavy, and of
splendid type. On the Kansas City market the
cotton and sugar mules stand fifteen to sixteen
hands, while the Chicago market calls for a some-
what higher animal. The cotton or sugar mule
that stands sixteen hands should weigh 1,050 to
1,350 pounds.
The class of mules that is used on the sugar
plantations is of the best quality, owing to the fact
that the sugar plantations are worked by wealthy
syndicates that could not afford to use poor mules.
It shows a very smooth finish, a marked refine-
ment about the head and neck, and a fine quality
of bone. In fact, no class is superior to the
sugar mule in smoothness and finish and polish.
The sugar class of mules shows also greater uni-
formity in quality, height and weight than do
those used for any other purpose. Cotton mules,
as a rule, are poorly graded, and lack the uni-
formity observed in the sugar class. Both cotton
and sugar mules begin service, usually, at three
or four years of age, although some at five years ;
but they are at their best age when six to nine or
ten years of age.
(2) Lumber mules—For the necessities of the
woods, where mules are used in great numbers for
purposes of lumbering, a very heavy, strong and
rugged animal is needed ; hence, we find the lumber
mules extremely tall and large, usually fifteen to
seventeen or more hands in height. Quality is not
of so much importance as the ability to do hard
and rough work, and a lot of it; therefore, weight
is especially essential when heavy logs are to be
moved. There is great variation in this class
of mules, everything being sacrificed excepting
capacity to do hard work, ruggedness to endure
hardships and fatigue, and size and height to
supply power.
(8) The general-purpose mule.—The general-pur-
pose mule is more or less familiar to the reader.
This animal is seen wherever railroad construction
is in progress; he is often observed on the farm ;
he is found on the roads wherever heavy hauling
is being done, in the cities, in towns, along rivers.
One of the requirements of this class is that it
be rugged, strong, and capable of doing hard work.
It is this class that competes with the ordinary
draft horse, and compared with the average draft
horse it is superior for many kinds of work. In
height this class ranges from fifteen to sixteen
and one-half hands. The weight varies from 1,000
to 1,400 pounds. The Chicago market grades the
general-purpose mule a little heavier and a little
higher than either the Kansas City, the St. Louis,
or the St. Paul markets.
(4) The mine mule—Mine mules are generally
classed as either pitters or surface mules. They
grade into the smallest of these four groups, stand-
ing ten and one-half to fifteen hands high, are
chunky and hardy, and possess a heavier bone in
proportion to size than those of the other classes.
The white mule is never used in the mines, for the
reason that it tends to frighten other animals;
MULE
hence, dark bay or black are the only colors
desired for this purpose. Those mules selected for
the pits are of heavy bone and of good weight,
capable of long, steady pulls with rather heavy
loads. The surface class, while heavy, are some-
what taller than those in the pit, and may be
lighter in bone.
Use.
The mule is a draft animal, found wherever
drudgery is performed and strenuous effort de-
manded. If the earth on which the feet must go is
broken, marshy and wet, there you will find the
mule in use; if climates are hot and sultry and
harmful to health; if paths are precipitous and
dangerous, requiring surefootedness and steadiness;
if bold courage and large demands are made, it is
the mule that is drafted into service, because it is
well known that he will be found equal to meet the
occasion. He is found in the cotton-fields of the
Black-belt, in the sugar-fields of the South, on the
stiff prairie lands of the West, on the difficult
mountain trails. The mule has been born and bred
to this environment. In it he serves better than
any other beast of burden, for he asks less and
does more ; because he enjoys immunity from dis-
ease in a large measure; because his span of life
is many years; and because his demands on his
master are few, simple and reasonable.
The mule has also a place as a saddle and a car-
riage animal, notably in parts of the South and the
central West. :
Disease immunity.
The mule shows considerable disease immunity,
which gives him a marked advantage over the
horse. While it is not true that he is exempt from
disorders or complaints, as has been said at times,
it is to be said to his credit that he is not so liable
to disease or disorders as the horse, and even when
affected with certain ailments he is likely to be
less disabled than the latter.
Organizations and records.
It has been within the last fifteen or twenty
years only that a national society in America has
undertaken to advance the interest in jacks, jen-
nets, and in mule-breeding. An American associa-
tion, called the “American Breeders’ Association of
Jacks and Jennets,” has published to date six stud-
books. The first one appeared in 1891. The number
of jacks and jennets registered to date is about
1,700. The office of the secretary is at Columbia,
Tennessee.
Literature.
Harvey Riley, The Mule ; Tegetmeier and Suther-
land, Horses, Asses, Zebras, Mules and Mule Breed-
ing; Burkett, Our Domestic Animals; Plumb, Types
and Breeds of Farm Animals; Feeding Horses and
Mules, Bulletin No. 72, Florida Agricultural Exper-
iment Station; Feeding Farm Horses and Mules,
Bulletin No. 189, North Carolina Agricultural
Experiment Station. [For further information, con-
sult the references cited on page 416.]
OSTRICH
OSTRICH. Struthio, spp. Struthionide.
498-500.
By Watson Pickrell.
The ostrich is the large African running-bird.
It has been successfully domesticated in America
and elsewhere for its feathers. Most of the ostriches
in America are from South Africa, and are of the
species Struthio australis. There are a few from
North Africa of the species S. Camelus.
Figs.
Description.
The ostrich is very much the largest of any
existing bird. A full-grown fat ostrich will weigh
375 to 450 pounds, and will stand eight feet high,
but can easily reach to a height of ten or eleven
feet. “There are no true down feathers but the
contour-feathers are soft and lax, with free barbs
and no aftershaft, and are distributed uniformly
over the skin. On the body the plumage is black
or blackish, with the quill plumes of the wings and
tail white. The head and neck are nearly and the
legs quite naked.” Wings and tail are not promi-
nent, and the former are not used for flying but
are of much assistance in running. The plumes are
very pretty. The neck is long, upright and curved,
and the head small. The speed of the bird is great.
History.
About the middle of the nineteenth century, the
inhabitants of the South African colonies saw the
ostriches fast disappearing. They enacted laws
restricting their slaughter, and later passed laws
prohibiting their slaughter altogether. For ages
there have been ostriches kept in captivity in
menageries and zoological gardens. About 1865,
persons in South Africa began to domesticate them
for feathers. Before they were domesticated,
nearly all the ostrich feathers of commerce were
taken from dead birds.
In America.—The first ostriches imported for
farming in America were introduced by Doctor
Sketchley in 1882. He left South Africa with two
hundred, and landed in California with twenty-two.
In 1884, fifty-five ostriches were imported, and in
1886, forty-four more, all from Africa to Califor-
nia. In 1901, there were twelve ostriches imported
_from Nubia; six went to California and six to
Arizona. All of the ostriches in America came
from these importations.
Ostrich-farming in America is really only in its
infancy. It has been only twenty-six years since
the first ostrich-farm was started. The early
attempts met with varying degrees of success.
The pioneer breeders in this county had to get
most of their knowledge from their own experience.
In fact, more than half the ostriches now in the
United States are the progeny of a single pair
owned in Arizona in 1891. Great progress has
been made in the last five years, and there are
now 2,500 ostriches on farms in the United States.
Distribution and adaptation.
Ostriches thrive best in a warm, dry climate,
but can be grown in any of the southern states
OSTRICH 511
and territories in this country. In a moist climate
they should have protection from cold and rain.
Of the ostriches in America, over two-thirds are
in Arizona, and the remainder in California, Florida
and Arkansas. Salt River valley, Arizona, is
thought to be the best place in the United States
for ostrich-farming. They are also found in Egypt,
North and South Africa, and Australia.
Raising.
The description of methods which follows is
based almost entirely on the experience and obser-
vation of the writer, and applies especially to
ostrich-farming as practiced in Arizona.
Ostriches come to maturity when about
§ four years of age. The female matures
f six months to a year before the male, but
I she will seldom lay a fertile egg until she
is three and a half years old. The nest is
around hole in
the ground
which the male
scoops out with
his feet. At first,
the female may
not take to the
nest, but may
lay her eggs on
the ground,
whereupon the
male will roll
them into the.
nest. Generally,
after the male
has put three or
four eggs into
the nest, the female will lay there. In about thirty
days she will lay twelve to sixteen eggs, and will
be ready to begin incubation.
Incubation under domestication is effected in two
ways: (1) By natural and (2) by artificial means.
Some growers prefer the first method, others the
second. Hither has been found to yield satisfactory
results with fertile eggs. About forty-two days
of very careful attention are required for good
results.
(1) In natural incubation, the male takes a
prominent part, covering the eggs fifteen or six-
teen hours out of the twenty-four. He will usually
go on the nest about five o’clock in the evening
and remain there till eight or eight-thirty the
next morning, the female taking her turn during
the day. It is thought that the color of the sexes
has had something to do with developing these
instincts. The male, being black, is not so easily
seen at night, and the female, being drab or nearly
the color of sand, can not be seen so readily in
daylight. The male usually begins sitting three or
four days before the hen stops laying. If the
weather is cold during the laying period, the male
may often be found covering the eggs at intervals
during the night to prevent their becoming chilled.
The birds are also very watchful during the warm-
est season to prevent the eggs from becoming
overheated by the sun. Often, in the heat of the
as ——
Fig. 498. Four-year-old male ostrich.
512 OSTRICH
day, one or the other of the old birds may be
found sitting on its ankle joints with both wings
extended to shade the eggs from the sun. The care-
ful ostrich-farmer should make this work unneces-
sary by providing artificial shade during the hot
season. The birds sit very much closer to the nest
during the first half of the incubation period, the
internal heat of the eggs making this less neces-
OSTRICH
tion of the egg. If this space becomes abnormally
large, small pans of water should be placed in the
incubator ; if it becomes too small, the moisture
should be reduced. An intelligent and watchful
attendant will experience no difficulty in this mat-
ter. Moisture pans are seldom required before the
fourth week.
In a warm climate, the incubator house should
be so constructed as to be as cool as possible, and,
at the same time, free from drafts and not subject
to sudden changes. During the period of incuba-
tion the attendant should observe the growth of
the embryo at least once every two days.
This he can do by shading the egg with the
open hand and holding it to a lighted candle.
Careful observation will enable him to detect
and remove the infertile eggs by the end of
Fig. 499.
Ostrich chicks just from the shell.
sary during the last half. As is usually the case
with all eggs in a dry climate, the shell of the
ostrich egg becomes dry and hard, and very diffi-
cult for the chick to break. When the time arrives
for the liberation of the young, they will be heard
to chirp and to move in the shell. The parent
bird seems to understand the situation, and will
often crack the shell with its breast-bone, some-
times taking the young bird by the head and draw-
ing it out of the shell. Sometimes three or four
days elapse between the hatching of the first and
the last eggs in the nest. During this time one or
the other parent bird takes care of the chicks,
while the other is attentive to the nest. Owing to
liability of injury to the young birds by reason of
anxiety of the parent birds, it is a good practice
after the first eggs have hatched to remove the
remaining eggs to an incubator.
(2) Artificial incubation can be performed suc-
cessfully with any good, well-regulated machine
that will hatch eggs of common fowls, provided, of
course, it is constructed on a large enough scale to
accommodate ostrich eggs, which are five inches in
diameter and seven inches long. It has been found
best to use an incubator that will hold only thirty
to thirty-five eggs, as, in case of a blunder or an
accident to the incubator, the loss will be com-
paratively small. The incubator should be heated
two or three days before the eggs are put in, to
see that everything is in proper working order.
The incubation should be started at a temperature
of 101° Fahr. In three weeks this temperature
will be slightly increased by the heat generated in
the eggs themselves. Every egg should be turned
at least once or twice a day. To be on the safe
side it is well to adopt the rule of turning the eggs
three times daily. ;
The regulation of the temperature is not the
only thing to be considered in hatching eggs in an
incubator. The question of moisture presents a seri-
ous problem. Inside the shell of the egg are two
fibrous coats, one of which adheres closely to the
shell and the other incloses the contents, they being
separated at one end of the egg by asmall air space.
This air space should be closely watched by the
attendant, as its size indicates the moisture condi-
the second week; but whenever there is
room for doubt, the egg should be allowed
to remain longer, perhaps to the end of the third
week, when the internal heat of the eggs will be
sufficient to indicate, unmistakably, the live eggs.
Near the end of the sixth week the eggs should be
watched more closely. By placing an egg to the
ear one can hear the unhatched chick scratch the
inside of the shell and chirp; also, the air space
will be observed to become filled up. It is then
time to crack the shell and thus aid the chick in
liberating itself.
It is not well suddenly to transfer a newly
hatched chick from the incubator temperature of
101° to that of the open air. A well-ventilated
brooder kept at 90° Fahr., is the proper place for
the first twenty-four hours, after which the tem-
perature may be brought gradually to that of the
outside air. The chicks should never be allowed
to become damp or cold, and they should not be
fed for the first three or four days, but they may
be allowed to pick up sand or gravel. Dry feed is
preferable for the first week. Cracked wheat and
moistened bran are excellent, but the chicks should
never be given feed that has begun to sour. The
inclosure should always be kept clean. At the end
of the first week, green alfalfa cut very fine may
be fed, but not too freely at first. It should not be
allowed to become dry. Fresh feed should be the
ostrich-farmer’s watchword at all times.
Young ostriches, like young chickens, should be
housed and protected from cool drafts until they
are two or three months old, the length of time
depending somewhat on the climatic conditions.
Ostriches are called “chicks” until six months
old, or as long as they have their first crop of
feathers. From then until one year old they are
called “young birds,” and from one to four years
they are known as “plucking” or “feather” birds.
It is difficult to determine the age of an ostrich
when it is more than three and one-half years old.
Handling.
Young ostriches are usually kept in troops of
twenty-five to fifty. When they are one year old,
the males should be separated from the females.
When they are three and one-half years old, the
birds should be paired off, each pair or set of a
OSTRICH
cock and two hens being placed in a separate
enclosure, which, in case the birds are to graze on
alfalfa or other green food, should be large enough
to furnish theni sufficient food. If they are fed on
dry feed, the enclosure need only be large enough
to allow plenty of exercise.
The usual way to fence an ostrich farm is to use
a woven wire for the outside fences, about five
and one-half feet high, and with meshes small
enough to keep out wolves and dogs. The fences
used to divide the farm into small paddocks may
be about five feet high and need not extend nearer
than eighteen inches to the ground. Paddocks for
chicks should be enclosed with woven wire, which
should extend to the ground but need not be so
high.
Ostriches are easily moved from one field to
another by one person going ahead, calling them,
and toling them on with grain, while another fol-
lows on a horse. The birds are very timid and do
not like to be driven unless some one goes ahead of
them. After ostriches are over one year old, no one
should go among them without a brush or stick in
hand, as at times they will want to fight, and a
person going among them is liable to injury unless
he has something with which to drive or frighten
them away.
Feeding.
One of the very best feeds for ostriches is alfalfa.
When pastured or fed on green alfalfa they are
always healthy. Where good alfalfa pasture has
been available, the birds bred in America have
grown larger than those first imported. The writer
has known troops of more than one hundred to be
kept on alfalfa for three or four years without a
death. Ostriches thrive well on any green forage,
and they prefer the kind they have been taught to
eat. Birds fed on hay, when turned out, often re-
fuse to eat grass until they become very hungry.
For dry feed, alfalfa or clover hay cut up, mixed
with bran and moistened, is excellent. An ostrich
will consume about three pounds of hay and one
pound of bran daily. It should have gravel and
broken bone at all times. Ostriches may be fed
any kind of grain—corn, wheat, barley, oats or
peas. Some farmers feed a little grain while the
birds are nesting. Ordinarily, however, if ostriches
are in good flesh and have plenty of good, green
feed they need no grain. If fed much grain, they are
likely to become cross and hard to manage. They
also become liable to digestive troubles. Good nutri-
tion is most important, as the quality and produc-
tion of feathers is thereby enhanced.
Although African writers assert that ostriches
will live for years without water, American farm-~
ers find that they drink water freely every day if
- it is supplied to them.
Plucking. (Fig. 500.)
The ostrich is plucked the first time when six
months old, and should be plucked about every
eight months thereafter during its lifetime. The
only feathers removed are those of the wing and
the tail. The process of plucking consists in cutting
33
OSTRICH 518
the tail feathers and one row of the largest quill
feathers in the wing with pruning shears, and
drawing by hand those of the remaining two or
three rows in the wing. Two months later the
quills of the cut feathers may be removed.
At plucking time the ostriches are driven in
from the pasture and placed in a small pen sur-
rounded bya tight board fence five or six feet high.
The plucking-box is about four feet high, twenty
inches wide, and three and one-half feet long, open
at one end and closed with a door at the other. An
ostrich is caught
and a hood placed
over its head; an
old black stocking
makes a very satis-
factory hood. The
hooded bird is very
easily handled. It is
placed in the pluck-
ing-box with its
head next to the
closed door. The
plucker stands be-
hind the bird while
removing the feath-
ers. This is neces-
sary, because the
ostrich can kick or
strike very hard,
but it always
strikes out in front
and never behind, so that the plucker is perfectly
safe if he stands in the rear.
When removing the feathers from the ostrich,
the pluckers usually tie in a bunch the feathers of
each length as they are taken from each bird.
When through plucking, the feathers are placed
on a grading table, having enough compartments
in it to hold all the grades and lengths of feathers,
which are many. The size of each compartment is
about four inches wide and four inches deep, and
the length varies from four to thirty inches. In
sorting, the feathers of the male are kept separate
from those of the female. The former are the most
valuable.
Plucking an ostrich.
Fig. 500.
Grades of feathers and their value.
Manufacturers in this country usually request
that the feathers be graded as nearly as possible
as they are in the London market, where nearly all
the feathers of the world are marketed. A London
report shows the following classification: White,
femina, bayocks, black, drabs, floss, spadones and
boos, with numerous subdivisions or grades.
The value of the American feathers depends on
the London market. In an American factory they
will bring 15 per cent more than the London price,
plus the freight charges. In January, 1907, ‘“‘white
primes” and “blood feathers”—the most valuable—
sold in London for thirty pounds sterling ($146)
per pound. It takes about ninety of the largest
feathers to weigh a pound. The “white primes”
and “blood feathers” are taken from the males, as
well as most of the “white firsts,” although occa-
514 OSTRICH
sionally a female bird will have what the feather
men call a “first white.” The black feathers are
plucked from the male birds and the drab from the
females. ‘“Spadones” are chick feathers of the first
plucking. “Boos” are tail feathers. “Bayocks”
(mixed colors) come mostly from the male birds.
The shortest drab feathers, which are frequently
used in making feather dusters, are worth about
four dollars per pound. An average ostrich will
yield one and one-half pounds of feathers annually,
worth twenty to twenty-five dollars per pound.
The United States is one of the largest consum-
ers of ostrich feathers in the world. America
imports about two and a quarter million dollars’
worth of raw or unmanufactured feathers annually,
which is more than one-fourth of the world’s supply.
The feathers produced in America are fully as good
as those coming from Africa, and it is said that
they are broader and finer looking, although some
manufacturers contend that they are not so strong
and tough as the wild feathers.
Uses.
The value of the ostrich as a domestic bird
depends on its production of feathers for ornamen-
tal purposes. It is hardly probable that the rela-
tions between supply and demand will so change as
to make the ostrich more valuable as a source of
food in the form of meat and eggs. The flesh of the
domestic ostrich, however, is said to be much
relished by those who have eaten it. The eggs are
fine for making omelets and are good scrambled.
One egg will make as much omelet as two and a
half dozen hen’s eggs. An ostrich has been known
to produce over three hundred pounds of egg food
in a year. There is no regular market for young
birds or eggs except for farming purposes, the
only sales being to persons who desire to engage in
the ostrich business.
Longevity.
Nothing is positively known as to how long an
ostrich will live. Some writers assert that it will
live one hundred years. Ostriches which are known
to have been in captivity for forty years, are still
breeding and producing feathers. It is the experi-
ence of Arizona farmers that among birds having
good nutritious green feed, deaths seldom occur
except as the result of accident. A dog or other
small animal will sometimes frighten an ostrich °
and cause it to run into the fence, which may result
in a broken leg. When this happens, the bird may
as well be killed, as few, if any, ever recover from
such an injury. Ostriches are exceptionally free
from disease.
Literature.
Mosenthal and Harting, Ostriches and Ostrich
Farming (1887); Martin, Home Life on an Ostrich
Farm (1891); Duncan, Report United States De-
partment of Agriculture, 1888; Paul, Ostrich Farm-
ing in California, Cosmopolitan Magazine, Vol. XI,
New York (1891); Newton, Dictionary of Birds,
New York (1896), which contains numerous ref-
erences,
PETS
PETS. Figs. 501-523.
By C. H. Ellard.
The subject of pets is of widespread interest and
includes a large variety of animals. The most
common and important of these in America are
dogs, cats, rabbits, cavies or guinea pigs, mice,
rats, squirrels, pigeons, bantams and cage-birds.
The extent to which pets are kept is greatly in-
creasing. The localities where they seem to be
most numerous are about the manufacturing towns
of New England and the middle Atlantic states,
thinning out as the West is approached. Statistics —
indicate that there are more pets in the state of
Pennsylvania than in any other state.
It is not the province of this Cyclopedia to dis-
cuss at length the subject of pets, as they are
scarcely to be considered farm animals. For that
reason, the accounts here given must be brief. Farm
dogs are considered on pages 383-889; cats on
pages 299-301; Belgian hares on pages 412-415,
and pigeons and bantams in their agricultural
relations in the following pages under Poultry.
Dogs.
The dog, since the earliest time, has been more
or less a help to and companion of man. It has
gradually become useful in many fields, and now is
the most universally kept pet, with the exception,
perhaps, of the canary and the cat. Hunting dogs
were evidently the first to be used and trained by
man. Of these, the setters, Pointer and spaniels
are the breeds now recognized other than the
hounds. These are all strong, speedy dogs, pos-
sessed of unusual intelligence in the work of the
huntsman. There are three varieties of setters
recognized today,—the English, the Irish and the
Gordon ; all are similar in shape, and differ chiefly
in color.
The setters.—The English setter is a trim, strong,
speedy dog, with rather long hair and with the
feathering that characterizes the setter,—that is,
a fringe of longer, rather wavy hair along his
lower outline, his back being smooth. The English
setter is usually black and white, or liver and
white. The Jrish setter is red, the only reason for
calling him Irish seemingly being the color,
although that kind of dog was used considerably
by Irish landlords. The Gordon setter is a bit
heavier than the others and is black and tan.
Good specimens of these latter dogs are not very
plentiful and are striking in appearance.
The spaniels embrace a number of different va-
rieties, and to this type of dog the setters belong ;
in fact, the spaniels were known in early times as
the setting spaniels. The Cocker spaniel is the most
widely bred of all the varieties, and some very
handsome specimens of it are seen in our large
dog-shows. It comes black, red and parti-colored,
and an occasional one of some other color appears.
It was originally used for hunting small game but
is now chiefly a house dog. The spaniel has a mel-
low, large, brown eye that is very expressive and
rather an important characteristic, as is also the
feathering of the legs, as in the setter. The Field
PETS
spaniel is of about the same style as the Cocker,
and, indeed, is really a larger Cocker. It is longer,
and hence appears lower, heavier built but not
clumsy. This variety is not very widely bred in
America, but there are a few studs of repute in
England. The Clumber spaniel has most of the char-
acteristics of the other spaniels, but the “stop,”
the indenture at the union of the forehead and
muzzle, is deeper. The dog is shorter than the Field
spaniel and larger than the Cocker. The Irish Water
spaniel is a dog used by the water-fowl huntsman,
and is a sturdy intelligent “retriever.” Several
studs are maintained in Canada, but few are bred
in the United States and few are seen at the dog-
shows. The dog is covered with a long, brown,
slightly curling coat, of which there is not enough
for his face and tail, both of which are practically
bare. To these varieties may be added the more
unusual Sussex and Norfolk spaniels, few of which
are bred in America.
The Pointer and “ Retriever” is the outcome of
a need for a dog trained for wing shooting. It is
more of a hound than a spaniel, and is rather com-
mon, especially in regions where there is much
shooting. It is usually a straight, short-haired dog
with a predominance of white, spotted and marked
with black or liver.
The Chesapeake bay dog is bred for water shoot-
ing along the bay, the name of which it bears, and
up into Ohio and along the Potomac. It is sym-
metrically built, with only moderate “ feathering ”
as compared with the setter. It is strong, and of
about the color of wet sedge-grass.
The Dalmatian or Coach-dog was, perhaps, origi-
nally a hound from Dalmatia, but most of the hound
characteristics are gone in the modern Coach-dog.
Tt is spotted with black on a white ground, and is
peculiar and striking when ideally marked. It is a
running dog, and hence is lightly but strongly
built. Its endurance is sometimes wonderful. It is
a stable dog, and is alert and discriminating. It
should approximate fifty
pounds in weight.
For the Collie and the
Sheep-dog the reader is
referred to the special
articles on pages 383-
389.
The bulldog (Fig. 501)
originated in the brutal
bull-baiting contests, in
which the dogs were
trained to pull down the
bull by the ears. To do
this, a heavy, tenacious
brute was necessary.
Later, the “nose-hold” was tried, and as it worked
better than the “ear-hold,” the dogs were trained
for this. As a smaller dog of greater agility was
necessary for the latter, the bulldog decreased in
size. Bulldogs are particularly homely, with their
huge, heavy head, broad shoulders, bow-legs, and
the hind-quarters and loins a trifle higher than the
shoulders. As a rule, these dogs are under-shot, and
show their teeth more or less. They are renowned
PETS 515
for their faithfulness, tenacity of hold and watchful
care of property. They have been bred for a long
time simply as a fancy dog, and a kink was bred in
their tails to keep these down. The French bulldog,
while not so lively and alert as the Boston, is a very
popular house dog. It has a broad, square jaw and
large, dark eye. It is seldom over twelve inches
high and should be smaller than the Boston. It is
usually of a
darker brindle
than the Bos-
ton, although
the latter is
now being shown in
black and white. The
French bulldogs are
generally of uniform
color. Their ears are
: erect. Recently they
= =— i have enjoyed the envi-
Fig. 502. Fox terrier.
able place at the crest
of the wave of fashion in dogs.
The terriers were used for a long time for the
hunting of foxes, badgers, rats and other small
game and vermin. Of these, the little Fox terrier
(Fig. 502) is the most popular. It was bred as early
as 1802. It should show a predominance of white,
marked with liver or black. The nose should be
black, the skull flat, rather narrow and decreasing
toward the eyes. The ears should be V-shaped and
always have a forward fall, pointing toward the
tapering muzzle. It should be over-shot slightly,
but the teeth should come together with the upper
ones just on the outside. The neck and body should
be trim and muscular, without coarseness. The tail
should be carried high but not over the back nor
curled. The Fox terrier is a lively, active, intelli-
gent dog, that makes an excellent watch-dog and
companion. It is an indefatigable ratter and ver-
min exterminator. It is very widely bred. Recently
there has been bred the Wire-haired Fox terrier.
This is similar in all respects, except the coat, to
the smooth-haired variety. In all probability it was
the original Fox terrier. The Avredale terrier was
probably produced by the crossing of the grizzle
and tan terriers with other dogs of the vicinity in
Fig. 503. Bull terrier.
Yorkshire. It has a stronger jaw and muzzle than
the Fox terrier and the ears are wider. The cross of
the bulldog on the terriers gave the Bull terrier.
(Fig. 503.) It was first noted asa distinct breed about
516 PETS
1820. It has a wide brisket, rather long, very muscu-
lar jaw and a rather round head, an appearance due
largely to the huge jaw muscles. It grows to very
good size and is usually heavily built, but not in the
least awkward. It possesses many of the traits of
the bulldog, and the activity of the terrier tribe.
With these terriers, the old Black-and-tan terrier,
the Bedlington terrier and the Irish terrier might
be classed. The Skye terrier is a rather large dog,
weighing over twenty pounds and covered. with long
hair of a bluish tint. Its ears are either erect or
fallen, the former being a bit more correct. It is
a long, low dog, and a great favorite as a house
pet with those who can care for its coat. The
Scottish terrier is a long, low grizzly little dog of
very ancient lineage, but only very recently seen in
America. It is prick-eared, nine to twelve inches
Fig. 504.
Greyhound.
high, and gives the impression of an oddity in dog-
dom. It is an active hunter of rodents and other
vermin. The Welsh terrier is medium sized, being
between the Irish and the Fox terriers. It is
usually black and tan, but not necessarily. The
Boston terrier is essentially an American dog, hay-
ing been produced, it is said, by the crossing of
the small bulldog and the Bull terrier, and display-
ing the best qualities of each. The skull should be
square, practically the same width at the ears and
at the eyes. The nose should be black and the face
marked with a white blaze; a white collar and four
white feet are ideal, but color is not an essential
feature. The color is usually one of the three brin-
dies on the remainder of the body. The eyes, ears
and back are covered with golden seal or mahogany
brindle. Occasionally a black or a black brindle is
seen, and less often a fawn color with a brown nose.
This is, perhaps, the most popular dog of the day,
sharing honors with the French bulldog. The Mal-
tese terriers are small, pure white dogs with drop
ears, like some varieties of the Skye. Their coat is
long, straight and silky, reaching to the ground.
They are always small and never should exceed
the twelve-pound limit set for “toys.” The York-
shire terrier is a pigmy in the terrier family, pro-
PETS
duced from the same general crossing that gave
the English fanciers the Airedale. Its coat is long,
straight and even, of a bright steel-blue color, with
tan markings. The Yorkshire is raised as a pet
to a large extent abroad. Not a very large num-
ber are seen in this country, but some are in
evidence.
The Great Dane is a strong, speedy dog, with
more of the litheness of the Greyhound than heayi-
ness of the Mastiff. The minimum size is thirty
inches and one hundred and twenty pounds for
males, and two inches and twenty pounds less for
females. As much greater height as possible, retain-
ing type, is sought by breeders. Great Danes are
of several colors, the gray, red, black or patched
being the most desired, although an occasional fawn
or white one is seen.
The Mastiff is one of the very oldest types of
dogs. It is massive, combining great courage
and docility, and built after the bulldog type. The
nose is blunt and square, making a muzzle about
one-fourth the total length of the head. It is not
nearly so popular as formerly.
The St. Bernard in America is a purely fancy
dog, different in type from that used at the Hos-
pice. It is a symmetrical, massive dog, with a
square muzzle, black nose and usually a white blaze,
The coat is long and not so thick as that of the dog
used at the Hospice.
The Newfoundland dog has very largely disap-
peared from view. It originated in Newfound-
land. It is black, at least twenty inches high, and
is a water dog. The coat is thick and long, the ~
head slightly domed, with rather a pronounced
“stop.”
The hound family includes a number of dogs of
- peculiar development, built to run and pull down
the quarry. These dogs follow mostly by scent,
although in the Greyhound and some others, sight
seems often to play an important part. The Grey-
hounds (Fig. 504) are slender, strong dogs, with a
muscular but graceful body, long, tapering muzzle,
lined with the sharpest teeth and manned withstrong —
jaw muscles. They area very early typeof dog. The
Wolfhound is much like the Greyhound in build, the
head being a little longer and narrower and show-
ing more of the Roman nose. It stands twenty-
eight to thirty-one inches high. The Russian Deer-
hound is the most common of this family of dogs.
There is also the Jrish (now being promoted by
Trish fanciers) and the Scotch Deerhounds. The latter
is rare in America. These have long shaggy coats —
and are heavier than the Greyhound. The Whippet
is closely related to the Greyhound, and is, indeed,
a small Greyhound in type. It is trained for racing.
These dogs are lined up and started like race horses,
and without rider or other incentive on the course,
fairly fly to the finish. In the Bloodhound we have
the exaggerated type of hound, with its peculiar
accuracy of scent, its hanging lip and dewlap, and
the falling under-eyelid, the pendulous ears and
strong, thick-set body on rather short legs. The
head is the most important part of the show Blood-
hound. As a watch-dog, it has a reputation for vigi-
lance and discrimination. The Foxhound is perhaps
PETS
the commonest of the hounds in America, and has the
misfortune of having no very distinctive type. It is
kept mostly in packs on southern estates, and is used
for the hunt either of the anise bag or of areal “Rey-
nard.” There are two breeds, known as the English
and the American, but as the type is not distinct-
ive, differentiation is difficult. The Foxhound ranges
from twenty-one to twenty-four inches high, and
should not weigh more than sixty pounds. The
Beaglehound is the smallest of the hound family,
excepting the dwarf Basset and Dachs. Beagles are
raised and trained in large numbers in various
parts of America, where they are also often called
rabbit hounds. They are distinct in type, with a
fairly long, slightly domed skull. They come in
several colors, in which white is a common admix-
ture. The Italian Greyhound is a small golden fawn
dog of the same general character as the larger
dog, but of even greater symmetry, with a pranc-
ing action of limb that carries with it the impres-
sion of unusual grace.
The Poodles, with their curly and corded “locks,”
form a family of dogs very tractable indeed, and
are invariably the mainstay of exhibitors of trained
dogs. They are chiefly bred as house-dogs or for
fancy, and in either case always apparently come
up to the expectations of those who fancy this
type of dog.
The Pomeranians are, perhaps, a development of
the hounds of Italy or Greece. They were also
known as the “Spitz.” They are a fad and win
many prizes at shows. The larger specimens are
about fifteen to twenty inches high, and the small
ones not more than ten inches and often less. They
have a long fine coat and lots of it except on
the face, where the hair is short. The tail is well
covered with long hair and is usually curled. They
have a quick, fox-like appearance and manner, that
often grows into a snappish disposition.
The Pug is a dog of oriental origin, from all that
can be gathered, and is useful only as a pet. It
is a square little dog, with a large proportion of
individuality.
The Griffon, with wiry coat and rough head,
the King Charles, with its out-of-proportion head,
short face and large eyes, but pretty manner, the
Blenheim and Pekinese, are all ladies’ dogs; and
while pets to which many a woman devotes her
energies, they are not possessed of any very re-
markable gifts of intelligence nor are they a very
safe dog when children are about.
Rabbits.
_ The domestic rabbit is bred in many varieties in
America. All varieties except the Imperial and the
Silver-brown are represented among the hutches of
the fanciers in the American Fur Fanciers’ Associa-
tion. Hach variety has a type of its own, distinct-
ive in shape, carriage, size, and often in color.
The raising of pet stock brings fair monetary
returns. While there is but small profit in raising
rabbits for the foreign element’s market, and cavies
and mice for the bacteriological laboratories, there
is much more in the raising of good pure-bred
fancy stock; and few fanciers with an exhibition
PETS 517
record and a reputation for “square dealing,” fail
to pay their feed bills and make a little profit.
Most fanciers combine the two practices, disposing
of the poor specimens or “culls” to the market-
man or dealer at market price and selling the
WZ
Sse
better specimens to new fanciers or others wishing
good standard-bred stock.
Belgian hare rabbit—This was the most popular
of the rabbit family. It is discussed at length on
pages 412-415, and will not be considered here.
Angora. —The aristocratic Angora (Figs. 505,
506) is, perhaps, second in popular favor and
fancy. It is one of the most attractive and hand-
some varieties of the rabbit family. These rabbits
are grown in France for the wool they produce,
the length and fineness of texture in reality taking
their coats out of the fur class. The Angora wool
used for babies’ caps is made from the wool gathered
from the nests of these rabbits, for which cotton
wool is substituted. France has regular farms
devoted to this enterprise. No similiar use is made
of the Angora rabbit in this country.
The Angora should be rather large, with its
head and body almost obliterated in outline by the
woolly coat. The feet and legs are completely
hidden, and good specimens show a heavy coat of
wool all over. The chest develops a huge fluff or
apron, into which the rabbit delights to sink its
chin, and as the fur on its cheeks and neck comes
forward about
the face, it loses
all rabbit ap-
pearance except
for the ears.
These should be
short, wide and
covered with
fur. The tips are
usually topped
by little tufts of
wool that give
them the appearance of being tasseled. The Angoras
are bred in uniform and broken color. Of the
former, the white or albinos seem to be the most
nearly perfected so far, usually producing larger
coats and larger specimens. There are also blues,
fawns, blacks and yellows.
Flemish Giant.—Next to the Belgian hare rab-
markings.
518 PETS
bit, the commercial spirit would place the Flemish
Giant (Fig. 507); in fact, its place is before the Bel-
gian hare in the estimation of many persons. As
its name implies, it is the giant of the race. It was
introduced into England by the present secretary
of the National Flemish Giant Club of that country,
in the early “eighties.” It was then a huge, sandy
gray rabbit, but today, a dark steel gray is the
proper color and sandiness is a disqualifying mark.
It was brought to America during the Belgian
hare craze, as were several other types, and much
crossing was done to increase the size of the
Belgian.
The Flemish should be a dark steel-gray, with as
even and deep a color over all parts of the body as
SS
SZ Se ——————SS—S|—S—_
SSS ~
. Fig. 507. Young Flemish Giant doe, typical for shape and
color. A sixteen-pound specimen.
possible. The under-body and under-tail are excep-
tions to this. They should be white or at least of
a light slate-color. The back, sides and chest
should all be wavily ticked, but not so much so as
to be smudgy. They should be bright in color, but
not light gray nor sandy or brownish. In almost
all specimens a little brownish patch appears at
the neck, just back of the ears. The feet too often
show a little inclination to ruddiness. They often
reach sixteen and occasionally twenty pounds in
weight. :
The Dutch rabbit (Fig. 508) is one of the oldest of
all the varieties. It has changed much in type, but
the present-day Dutch has the same general mark-
ings as the original, those of the Dutch Belted
cattle, approximately. The eye and ear are included
in a patch of color on the cheek, while a V-shaped
white patch should separate these between the
eyes, and in a hair-line between the ears join the
white collar that includes the fore-feet, chest and
neck. Just back of this is the saddle, of the same
color as the cheeks, and covering the rest of the
body except the hocks, which should also be white.
These and the saddle
should be level all
around. To reach the
~ ideal in the markings
of the Dutch rabbit
is no mean task, and,
abroad, twenty
pounds is not thought
exorbitant for anearly
perfect one. It is bred
extensively by farm-
ers’ boys throughout the country, in a more or less
haphazard way.
The Dutch rabbit was introduced with the Bel-
gians from abroad, when the latter were used as
PETS
foster mothers to rear the young of other rabbits
whose quality is not discernable at birth. The
Dutch rabbit is growing rapidly in popularity.
The English rabbit (Fig. 509) or, as it was known
at first, the “spotted” rabbit, 1s the Dalmatian of
the rabbit fancy. It
has what is known
as the “butterfly”
snout, a nose mark-
ing which, viewed
directly in front,
looks like a spread-
ing butterfly. The
back is to have an
unbroken herring-
bone marking following the spine. The sides should
be spotted, running from the shoulders to the
thighs and widening, but each spot clear and dis-
tinct. The cheek should have a spot and the eye
a circle of color with a spot just clear of it. The
ears should be the same color as the spots.
These rabbits come in black, blue and tortoise,
the black usually presenting the most effective and
pleasing combination with the white, which the
rest of the fur other than the spots should be.
There are three studs of these rabbits in this coun-
try, from which they have spread rapidly. All the
originals were imported within the last decade.
The Himalayan rabbit (Fig. 510) has been fifty
years or so in the making. It is probable that from
black or silver-gray rabbits an albino has sprung
with colored extremities. This has been inbred and
developed until we have our present-day pretty little
rabbit that, it is said, furnishes a great deal of arti-
ficial ermine. The entire body is white, eyes pink,
but the ears, nose, feet and tail are nearly black.
. The statement
is often made
that it came
from the Hima-
layan moun-
tains, but the
evidence seems
rather to sup-
port the origin
in the breeders’
art. It should
be compact,
with fine - cut
limbs, but not
chubby like the
Dutch nor yet racy like the Belgian. Particular
care has to be used in the amount of light admitted
to the hutches. It does not develop its full color
in the dark, and direct sunlight fades the black
extremities. It must also be kept carefully dry, as
accumulation of moisture and manure soon fades
the leg color.
The Lop-eared rabbit was one of the earliest of
all fancy rabbits. There are perhaps a ‘half-dozen —
breeders of this variety in America. The main
desire of the fancier of “Lops” is to get great
length of ears combined with breadth and thick,
tough, leathery substance. The ears grow very
rapidly, and in three or four months nearly reach
Fig. 509. English rabbit.
Fig. 510.
of special prizes, Madison Square
Garden, 1907.
A Himalayan rabbit. Winner
PETS
their maximum, although they grow slightly until
ayear old. It has been raised on the island of Jersey
to measure thirty-one inches across the head from
tip to tip of ears. The greatest width seen in this
country is about twenty-one or twenty-two inches.
For the most part it lacks in substance and width
as well as in length. The “Lop” is a big, heavy-
boned animal, with rather an awkward, unwieldy,
mulish appearance.
The Silver-grey rabbit is as old, if not older than
the “Lop.” It has been raised in England for its pelt
for a period of time covering several generations.
The fur is close and of the sheen and brilliancy
of silver. The coat is an admixture of white and
black hair, with an even and uniform ticking
all over the animal. One of the prime requisites of
a good Silver-grey rabbit is the evenness of his
coat, which should show no streaks darker or
lighter than the rest of the body. It is a chunky,
compact little rabbit. It is bred in this country in
grey and fawn.
The Tan rablit is the product of the breeders’
art, devoted to developing a little wild hedgerow
rabbit into one of the handsomest of the race. It
is either black or blue in body color (by blue is
meant a grey-blue, a cadet-blue, sometimes called
maltese in cats, although the latter is darker than
the blue in rabbits). The eyes are surrounded with
circles of rich tan, as are the nostrils. The outer
and inner margins of the ears, the under jaw or
jowl, the chest and inner parts of the legs, the
belly line at the side, should all be of rich tan
color; and a handsome combination of color it
makes. The
type is cobby
and should be
small. Thereare
but few studs
of Tan rabbits
in America
worthy the
name. There
Fig. 511. Broken color Peruvian cavy, are, however,
ing ‘‘s ”? and _
showing ““sweep’’ and mane some good
Tans bred in America. When it is at all near the
ideal, it is one of the prettiest of the rabbit family.
The Polish rabbit, often miscalled the English or
common rabbit, is a sprightly, bounding, little ball
of fur. It is the toy of the rabbit family and the
smaller it can be bred the greater its value. It
differs from the common rabbit in other particu-
lars than size. The ears should be very short and
very closely set, so that when turned back the
flanges meet. The eyes should be red, not pink. It
should have a very small ball-like body, with limbs
as delicate and fine-boned as possible. These rab-
bits are bred almost wholly as pets and have of
late been enjoying a very extensive “boom” in
England. There are but two studs known in this
country, and both are in New York. The Polish
rabbit was exhibited at Madison Square Garden for
the first time in December, 1907.
Imperial rabbit.—To the above varieties might be
added the Imperial rabbit, lately introduced in the
English fancy, but not bred in America at all so
PETS 519
far as known. It is all blue and of the same type
as the Tans in general, lacking the markings, of
course.
Cavy.
The cavy is a little pet more commonly known
by its misnomer, guinea pig. It was introduced
into England, it is said, by some sailors on their
return from a
South Amer-
ican voyage,
where they
found the na-
tives making
a domestic pet
of it. The nat-
uralist gives
us a list of
several varie-
ties of this species found in South America. The
domestic cavy has been kept and bred in England,
France and now in Germany and America, to a
very large extent, as a pet and asa hobby for those
interested in stock-breeding.
There are three main varieties recognized by the
standards of the various associations in each coun-
try. These are the Peruvian or long-haired cavy,
the Abyssinian or rough-coated cavy, and the
smooth or English cavy. To these might be added
the Angora, or what is now really a Peruvian sport
and called a “silkey” or pseudo-Angora. The real
Angora cavy, according to French authorities, has
disappeared. The geographical names used have no
significance as to origin in any of these varieties.
The Peruvian cavy (Fig. 511) issaid to be the result
of a cross of the Angora on the Abyssinian, and its
general type bears this out to acertain degree. It
has an exceeding long coat, completely obliterating
the general contour of the body. The young show
more or less rough rosettes in their coats, but as
these lengthen with age the rough spots are over-
whelmed with the long silky tresses. The fancier
divides the coat into three main parts, viz., the
“sweep” or hair over the loins and haunches ; the
mane, that on the shoulders ; and the head furnish-
ing, which includes the parts that grow from the
forward part of the shoulders, the neck, the fore-
head and about the face. The latter should com-
pletely hide the head and face when in condition, a
quality much
sought by the
breeder of
this variety.
An individual
possessing it
scores highly
in competi-
tion. The
mane should
be long, thick
and heavy,
and often is even harder to secure than head fur-
nishing. The sweep is the easiest point in which to
excel. In caring for the coats of these pets, one
has to be careful to have no litter likely to tangle
Fig. 512. Abyssinian cavy.
Fig. 513. A tortoise-and-white cavy. Win-
ner of many prizes, including Madison
Square Specials, 1907.
520 PETS
the coat. When the coats get so long as to drag
along the floor of the hutch they must be rolled up
and tied on papers to keep them from wearing off.
The Abyssinian cavy (Fig. 512) is the rough-coated
member of his tribe. He should present a coat radiat-
ing from centers allover the body ; the greater the
number of radiating centers the more valuable the
specimen. The coat should be harsh and wiry, and
so specimens are bred where the average tempera-
ture is cool. This cavy needs no especial attention
other than
cleaning and
feeding, ex-
cept to give
the coat an
occasional
brushing to
keep theroset-
ting as dis-
tinct as pos-
sible. It is
bred in broken and uniform colors, the coat often
taking the pattern of the Dutch marking; and
many handsome tortoise-colored ones are bred.
The smooth or English cavies are bred in a variety
of colors, both uniform and broken. The species
shows a strong tendency to a broken-colored coat,
and it was only by persistent line-breeding that
uniform coats were secured. The first good ones
were the red, then black appeared, and now we
have cream, fawn, both golden and silver, agouti,
white, chocolate, and the near future will probably
see a blue. These have all been produced by per-
sistent work on the part of fanciers.
Fig. 514.
Black Dutch cavy.
Mice and rats.
Mice are, perhaps, the smallest pets we have and
also the ones with the most enemies. These little
fellows are fast becoming favorites. They are bred
to a very great extent for biological research.
The period of gestation is twenty-one days and the
young grow very quickly, breeding when they are
eight to twelve weeks old. They are bred ina large
variety of colors, from the pink-eyed white to the
pink-eyed silver. There are black-eyed white, yel-
low, fawn, agouti, tan, chocolate, red, black, Dutch-
marked, broken-colored, and oftimes a remarkably
variegated type.
Rats should be classed with the mice, although
they are not bred so widely nor are they so popu-
lar. There are several varieties besides the white
rat, but they are not nearly so various in their
range of colors as the mice. Black rats, the so-
called Japanese rats, white with black face, shoul-
ders and a black stripe following the spine to the
tail, brown and Irish, are about the extent of pres-
ent varieties.
Squirrels.
Squirrels can hardly be considered domestic pets
as yet, usually being captured young and not bred
in captivity. The pets acquired from the wilds
must needs be gradually accustomed to their new
surroundings and the confinement. Squirrels and
similar animals should have quarters calculated to
PETS
simulate their natural environment as nearly as
possible.
Pigeons. [See article on pigeons and squabs under
Poultry.]
It is fairly well demonstrated that the origina-
tor of all domestic pigeons is the little rocky pigeon
common from Norway to India. From it the vari-
ous types of wild and domestic pigeons have been
developed, influenced largely by environment, but
more by the mind and hand of man in selection and
breeding. Pigeons, perhaps, of all domestic animals
have the longest and most brilliant history. Darwin
asserts that pigeons have been domesticated for
5,000 years. The actual records are available to
show their domestication prior to 1600. In 1676, a
Latin book on “Ornithologie,” by Willoughby, men-
tions several varieties of pigeons. In 1678, this was
published in English. In it seventeen varieties were
enumerated, some of which are still with us, giving
them a straight English history of over two cen-
turies. This early writing was followed by John
Moore's “Columbarium or Pigeon House” in 1735, in
which many of the modern varieties are described.
From then to the present, successive treatises have
appeared, so that the pigeon has not been neglected.
The amateur pigeon men in America are well
organized and each variety has its own club, to
which most of the reliable breeders of the variety
belong. Every poultry-show includes pigeons as
part of its exhibit.
The Pouter (Fig. 515) is usually the leader. Its
history dates back to before the beginning of the
seventeenth century. It is characterized by the
peculiarity of inflating its crop until it is almost
“out of sight,” except for crop and legs. In 1735,
y
Fig. 515.
Pouter pigeon.
Moore speaks of Pouters as having a twenty-inch
body, although the average was seventeen to eight-
een inches, and legs nearly seven inches long, the
average length then being six and one-half to six
and three-fourth inches. These pigeons now have
feathered legs, and are, perhaps, not so popular as
they were. There is a smaller variety known as
Pigmy Pouter that has the same characteristic of
inflating itself.
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The Carriers were first described by Willoughby
in 1677. These pigeons originally were brought
from Persia, and are remarkable for the length and
strength of beak and the carunculation of bare
skin about its base and about their eyes. They are
rather monstrous-looking birds. They are bred by
a number of fanciers here and abroad, and are
purely fancy birds, and not the pigeons used to
transmit messages.
Barb.—Closely allied to the Carrier is the Barb,
a pigeon of the same general development, eye, cere
and wattle, but whose beak is short and the wattle
not so exaggerated. This variety and the Carrier
are probably from the same original stock, the
Barb being in all probability the older type, and
from it the long-beak bird has developed. The pic-
tures of Aldronvandi (1600, about) seem to represent
the Barb rather than the Carrier.
The Dragoon is akin to the Carrier, and it is said
was produced by judicious crossing on the Carrier
and then back-breeding to the “Horseman” of the
earlier times. It is a stocky bird, being shorter in
body and heavier than the Carrier, and with a
very characteristic carriage from which the name
was derived.
The Fantail seems to trace its history back to the
Sanskrit days in India, where it was kept before
1600. This variety is to many the most attractive
of all the varieties. The wide-spreading tail, whose
feather ends are plumed like “my lady’s” fan, the
proud carriage, with the head touching the over-
shadowing tail, and crop and chest extended, give
it a very fascinating appearance. It is bred to as
large an extent as almost any other variety. It
comes in various solid or uniform colors, as black,
white, yellow and red.
Hooded Jacobin.— With the Fantails may be
classed the hooded Jacobin. These pigeons existed
before 1600, but were not nearly so well developed
as today, nor was the head white as in the modern
type. These pigeons wear a ruff about the neck
and head, often concealing the head completely.
They are one of the most popular of all breeds.
They are medium in size, with a long, slender body,
and the frill or “boa” covers the neck and head to
the eyes. The combination of color with this odd
neck-dressing makes a very pretty little bird.
The Turbits were probably the old cortheck of
the early writers, and appear for the first time, as
we know them, described by Willoughby. They are
very pretty birds, with short, rather curved beaks,
and have a topknot or crest at the back of the head.
The head is round and rather broad. Looking down
on it from above, the beak should be too short to
be seen, or at most, only just seen. The gullet is
deep. Down the front the Turbit wears a frill of
feathers turned so as to resemble the old-fashioned
frill our grandfathers used in place of a cravat.
These birds are bred in white with wing colors
alone, no uniform colored turbits having yet
appeared that can be classed with the winged
birds. These are rather expensive pigeons; good
ones are seldom priced under five dollars, and
prize-winners often sell at fifty dollars and more.
Oriental Frills, Saturettes, Blondenettes.—These
PETS 521
beautiful little pigeons, with their general trim-
ness and Turbit type, and their beautifully colored
plumage, are the product of the modern fancier
with his ready adaption of ecu Nae types to his
sense of the beautiful.
Owl pigeons are of this same type, a trifle
smaller, with a jaunty air and carriage, and usu-
ally in uniform colors. Their breeders make every
effort to bring them near, at least in head and .
beak, to the type of the owl.
The Tumblers were known in India before 1600,
although it was not until after 1687 that they
made their appearance in Europe, when Willoughby
describes a “football pigeon.” The peculiar flight
of these birds has been the subject of remark by
almost every natural history writer of the last
two centuries. While this tumbling flight is
retained or augmented by the selection of the
fancier, the characters of the face have been
changed, and we now have the Long- and Short-
faced Tumblers as well as the “ Muffed” and“ Par-
lor” Tumblers.
The Runts, Scanderoons and Hen pigeons are large
birds. The first carry the tail in the usual man-
ner, slightly slanted downward, while the Scande-
roon has a very short, narrow and elevated tail.
The Hen pigeon, so-called, seems
to be very closely allied to these
as far as general appearance is
concerned.
The Homer or Homing pigeon,
used so much for message-carry-
ing and racing, is a stout, stocky
bird, built to fly long and swiftly.
It is trained by short-
distance flights, grad-
ually being increased
up to several hundred
%, miles. Its fanciers
~ are organized into
an association, which
regulates carefully
the records of these
racing flights. This
variety has been much exploited for squab-raising.
The Archangels, Swallows, Helmets, Magpies, Spots
and Nuns are pigeons in which the greatest distin-
guishing features are color and marking. Some of
these colored varieties are “booted,” that is, wear
feathers on their legs like the Pouters, while others
are clean-legged. The Archangels are a rich cop-
per-bronze on the head, neck and breast. This
shades off in the wings and rump toa bronze-black,
with a blue-black tail. The Nuns are smaller than
their aboriginal ancestor, but have retained for a
very long time their characteristic markings, and
are probably the originals of the other similarly
marked varieties. They are very pretty with their
symmetrical markings on head, wing and tail. The
feathers on these parts of the bird are black or
red, the remainder of the feathers being white.
Spots belong with the Nuns, and differ only in car-
rying a spot in the forehead and tail of the same
color, the remainder of the body being white.
Swallows are a more recent breed, although bred
Fig. 516.
Dark mottle tippler cock.
522 PETS
before 1795 in Germany. They are now bred with
the wings colored and the legs feathered. The beak
is a trifle longer than that of the wild pigeon, and
they carry a larger body, but yet do not appear so
bulky. The Magpies and Helmets should be included
with the Nuns, Spots and Swallows. The former is
bred to imitate the bird whose name it bears, in
color particularly. The Helmet is a Nun whose
color is confined to the top of its head like a
helmet.
The Trumpeters and Laughers are characterized by
their peculiar coo, and the former by the odd curl-
ing feathers at the beak, curving forward over its
base. Their legs are excessively feathered.
The Fyill-Backs have a peculiar curl backward or
upward to their feathers, especially on the wing
coverts.
The Cumulets or “High-flyers,” as they are called,
are described best by their second name. With them
and the Tipplers and the Homers, the fancier can
easily use the barn-loft for housing. These varie-
ties delight in being up in the air, and are built
for flight.
Cage-birds.
The number of cage-birds kept as pets is very
large. Many common wild birds have been domesti-
cated as will be pointed out below. All of the birds
here mentioned are domesticated and found in
aviaries.
The canaries usually kept in America were for-
merly bred for the most part in Germany or Eng-
land, but now a large number are bred here, espec-
ially the fancier ones. These birds are about five
: and a half inches long, with rather
stout, compact bodies, and vary
in color from a very light mealy
yellow to nearly a clear green.
Some of these birds have crests,
but this is rather an unusual ad-
dition. Their voices
are mellow and play
over a long range of
notes. The St. An-
dreasburg canary is
bred in the same dis-
trict in Germany
as the other Hartz
birds. It is a small
bird of about the
same colors as the
others, but with a song of a greater variety of
notes than the regular Hartz canary. These cana-
ries are usually a light yellow or yellow and green,
and are one of the smallest varieties, being four
to five inches long. The English canaries are much
larger and of higher color, and sing louder than
the German canaries. They have many odd wild-
bird notes. The Manchesters are the largest cana-
ries. Some of them have plain heads and others
have thick, full crests falling over the eyes. The
Norwich canary (Fig. 517) is not so large as the
Manchester, but has higher colors, —deep gold,
both clear and mottled; odd cinnamon colors are
also popular. The Red canary is secured by breeding
Fig. 517.
Norwich canary.
PETS
from the gold or gold and green colors, and feeding
for color during molt. Gold Spangled Lizard cana-
ries have bright gold-capped heads and continuous
lines of spangles from the neck down the back.
Each spangle is decided, its clear gold edging and
olive-green center being distinct and regular. The
Silver Spangled are marked exactly like the gold,
having silver-colored spangles where the others
have gold. The
Goldfinch ca-
nary, or canary
mule, is secured
by breeding a
male goldfinchto
a light clear yel-
low hen, which
has descended
from __ several
generations of
clear yellow ~
hens. It isa free
singer, with
enough of the goldfinch traits to be pert and gay.
It isa very beautiful bird. Other mules are secured
by mating the female canary with the linnet, bull-
finch, siskin and other finches.
Goldfinch.—The true goldfinch (Fig. 518) is one
of the most delightful cage-birds, both for its
beauty and for its song. It is very: easily tamed.
There are many varieties, shown by the difference in
markings or color of the plumage. The most highly
prized is the Scarlet-headed or Crimson, which has
the entire head colored in scarlet or crimson. The
White-breasted Cheveral or King goldfinch has a
pure white breast and a clear white ring around
the neck. The pure white is also highly prized.
The goldfinch is found throughout Europe, and
when caged sings throughout the year with the
exception of the molting season.
The linnet (Fig. 519), either gray or brown, is a
beautiful songster, and is generally kept through-
out Europe. It is of hardy constitution and easily
domesticated. There is scarcely any bird that puts
on so many different dresses in the course of its
life as the linnet. The linnet male will sometimes
mate with the canary, but the males are not so
beautiful as those of the canary and the goldfinch.
The chaffinch is one of the many European song
birds, and should be generally kept for its sweet
song and for its sleek
plumage. It is extremely
docile and can be easily
tamed.
The nightingale (Fig.
520) is decidedly the most
melodious of all singing
birds, and when caged and
well treated will sing for
six or eight months dur-
ing the year. Improper
feeding with other causes
have seemed to render it impossible in many cases
to keep this bird more than a few months. The
nightingale is a very hearty eater.
The black cap, sometimes called the mock night-
Goldfinch.
Fig. 518.
Fig. 519. Linnet.
PETS
ingale, is a delightful singer whose song is heard
the year round except at the molting season.
The skylark comes from all parts of Europe. It
has a most peculiar manner of flying, the move-
ment being upward ina perpendicular line. After
leaving its grassy nest, it begins its song, which
it continues unceasingly until nearly out of sight ;
then it descends in like manner, still singing until
within a short distance of the nest. The skylark
can readily imitate the songs of other birds and
learn tunes. In confinement it sings during half
the year.
The wood lark resembles the skylark in color, but
is smaller. It perches on branches, but like the
skylark builds its nest on the ground. This bird is
more easily tamed than the skylark and is happier
in captivity.
The song thrush is a melodious singer, singing
only during the spring in the wild state, but with
careful treatment and good caging will sing eight
or nine months of the year. The male and female
are very similar
in color, the fe-
male being the
smaller. The
male has great
imitative pow-
ers and will
readily learn
tunes played on
wind instru-
ments or whis-
tled to him.
The blackbird, whose plumage is a pure velvety
black with an orange-yellow bill, is a fine songster.
His notes, although not so various as those of a
thrush, are of a more flute-like tone. He has the
ability to imitate airs that are whistled to him.
He also learns to imitate the songs of other birds
and in his wild state often mimics them.
The starling has a natural song that is rather
poor, but it has a good memory and will learn to
repeat airs that are played to it. It also learns to
pronounce words distinctly or imitate any sounds
repeatedly heard. It becomes very tame and can be
let out of its cage to walk about the room.
The talking minor or musical grakle is a good
talking bird and can whistle in sweet, full tones
any song that may be taught it. It is about the size
of a dove. The beak, feet and legs are orange-
colored. The prevailing color of the plumage is a
glossy black, tinged with purple, violet and green,
according to the light in which it is viewed. It is
a native of the East Indies. As a talking bird, the
Fig. 520.
Nightingale.
minor is unsurpassed. It speaks plainly and can .<
War i
—
retain a large number of words.
The bullfinch has no natural song but has the
ability to imitate with great accuracy almost any
air that is whistled or played to it on an instru-
ment. In Germany, particularly in Hesse and
Saxony, large numbers of these birds are taught to
Pipe popular or classical airs.
Troopial.—The South American troopial has a
beautiful rich plumage and looks very much like
our American golden robin or Baltimore oriole, the
PETS 523
chief difference being that he is much larger and
the orange of the body is more of a yellow. Few
birds have a natural song at once so sweet and
powerful, and none has a nicer ear or a more
retentive mem-
ory.
The Brazilian
cardinal is one
of the beautiful
whistling birds
of the tropics.
The back is dark
SS
. XQ. ‘Ss
gray; the quill- \,
feathers of the ,
wings area ~—¢7iis
darker shade of ou
the same color,
and the tail is nearly black; the head, crest, cheeks
and throat are bright red, of an orange hue, deep-
est on the chest, where it ends in a point; the
lower part of the body is grayish white, and the
feet and legs are black; the strong beak is dusky
gray; the crest is pointed like that of the Vir-
ginia nightingale and is raised and depressed at
pleasure. The brilliant scarlet head forms a beau-
tiful contrast to the snowy-white of the body.
The Java sparrow takes its name from the Java
islands, where it-abounds. Its chief recommenda-
tion is the great neatness of the plumage, the
glossy black head, clear white cheeks and delicate
rose-colored bill. The body is an ashen gray, the
plumage being so neat and smooth that the feath-
ers all seem to fit into one another. It can be
taught a variety of tricks, perhaps more than any
other caged bird.
The American mockingbird. (Fig. 521.) —This
songster unites in himself all the excellences to a
greater extent than any other living bird. The songs
of other birds, the rattling and creaking of gates
and swinging sign-boards, the cries of puppies and
the katydid, and all other familiar sounds are pos-
sible with the mockingbird. Itisa general favorite.
The Virginia nightingale (Fig. 522), or Virginia
redbird, sometimes called the cardinal, is a native of
the southern states, and is one of the handsomest
birds of the New
World. The color
is a brilliant red,
2g with the excep-
tion of the part
around the beak,
which is black ;
the wings are
darker than the
body color. The
head is orna-
mented with a
erest, which the
bird can raise or
depress, and which gives it a commanding appear-
ance. It has a very pleasing song or whistle.
The Red linnet is a beautiful singer or whistler
and should be kept as universally as the canary.
It sings all year round, with the exception of the
molting season, and in confinement becomes tame.
Fig. 521. Mockingbird.
Fig. 522. Virginia nightingale or
cardinal grosbeak.
524 PETS
The American yellowbird, or what is really the
American goldfinch, is a beautiful lemon-colored
bird with a black cap and white wings. It is a
universal favorite. The song has a brisk, cheerful
ring, although perhaps deficient in variety.
The nonpareil, as the name indicates, is without
an equal. It has been called by many the “ painted
finch” or “painted bunting.” *t has a violet head
and neck, a red circle around the eyes, the iris,
beak and feet brown, the upper part of the back,
throat, chest, and whole under part of the body as
well as the upper tail coverts bright red; the
wing coverts are green, the quills reddish brown
tinged with green, and the tail reddish brown. It
is about the size of an English robin and resem-
bles that bird in many ways.
The Japanese robin.—‘*The head of the robin is
bronze-green, beak yellow, body the color of a
mourning dove, eyes black with a circlet of white,
throat ecru tint of yellow shading on the breast
into orange, wing-feathers black with parti-colored
stripes of gold and white, and tail feathers glossy
black barred with white.” In size, the bird is simi-
lar to a bullfinch. Its voice embraces the notes
and semi-notes between the low contralto and high
tenor. It can also imitate the wild bird’s notes and
whistles every month in the year.
The avadavat, comes to us in great numbers
from China, Asia, Africa and India. Unlike other
birds, it changes its plumage yearly until the third
year. At this time, the head and under part of the
body are a fiery red tinged with black, the back
brown, tail black, wings a reddish brown; all the
feathers are tipped with white, giving the bird an
appearance of being specked with white spots.
The Gray-blue finch has a song that seems to be
a mixture of the canary’s and bobolink’s, but much
finer than either. It adheres to the southern
tropical spring month for its breeding and rearing
season. In November, it begins to build in the
aviary and rears its young in midwinter.
The Silver-bill or Quaker bird, the Orange-cheek
waxbill, the Zebra or Orange-breast waxbill, the
Chestnut finch, and the Magpie finch are all aviary
birds, and are much sought for their song and
peculiar mannerisms, their diminutive size and
brilliant colors.
Nuns.— No aviary is complete without the nuns,
both black- and white-capped, their white heads
forming a rich contrast to the chocolate- brown
and black bodies. Japanese nuns are a combina-
tion of the purest white intermingled with the
much admired cinnamon color. These pets, being
bred in cages, are very tame and of a quiet disposi-
tion, and sing very merrily.
The Cordon Blue, a native of Africa, is°a small
bird of great beauty. Sometimes he is called the
Crimson-ear waxbill. The male has a soft, pleas-
ing song and is usually heard cooing as if for his
own pleasure.
The Cut throat sparrow, a native of Africa, is
about half the size of a canary, of a delicate gray-
ish fawn color spangled with white spots.
The St. Helena waxbiii comes from Africa in
great numbers, The beak is a bright red, resem-
PETS
bling sealing-wax, with a darker shade of the same
color passing through each eye, and a dash of the
same color under the body, the rest of the body
being a grayish brown. The wings and tail area
shade darker. All the feathers have blackish wavy
lines all over them, giving them a soft and silken
appearance.
The Diamond sparrow is a native of Australia
and is ashort, stout bird somewhat larger than the
St. Helena waxbill. The under part of the body is
white, and the sides under the wings black with
oblong white spots.
The Fire finch is very much like the avadavat at
certain seasons of the year. It is larger but does
not possess much song, being kept chiefly for its
beauty and cheerful disposition.
The Saffron finch is very similar to the canary,
although not so large.
Parrots.
The parrot is the best known among the talking
birds. Many individuals have acquired several
languages and whistle and
sing any song that they
hear.
The African Gray parrot
(Fig. 523), with gray body, |
black bill and scarlet tail,
takes high rank. It varies
from twelve to fifteen inches
in length. It is an excellent
talker and whistler, but in-
dividuals vary greatly in
their ability to learn.
The Double Yellow-headed
Mexican parrot is the oper-
atic star of the parrot fam-
ily. His gift of song is great,
and his voice is clear and
sweet. He is a beautiful
green throughout the body,
with pale orange forehead
and scarlet and blue feathers, his feet and beak
white.
The Carthagena parrot is thirteen to fifteen
inches long and has all green plumage, except on
the back of the neck, where there is a pale orange
marking about the size of a half-dollar, and in the
wing and tail feathers where red and blue mark-
ings occur. This bird becomes a good singer and
whistles and talks very well.
The Single Yellow-headed parrot is smaller than
the double yellow-headed, but has the same colors,
except that the beak is dark instead of flesh color.
It makes a fair talker.
The Amazon is a native of upper South America.
It is not so large as the Mexican but is an apt
pupil and easily learns to talk and sing.
The Blue Front is twelve or thirteen inches long,
with plain green body and blue forehead, and slight
red and blue markings on the wings. It also be-
comes a fair talker.
The Maracaibo parrot is like a small edition of
the Mexican. It is about ten or eleven inches long
and sometimes makes an excellent talker,
Gray parrot.
Fig. 523.
sAoyIn} JO YOoy we puw !yIOX MONT UT JuowysTqriso Arnod y “TWIAX aed
PETS
The Cuban parrot is ten to twelve inches long,
with green body and white forehead, scarlet throat
and scarlet and blue wings. It is usually imported
when about three months old and is tame and very
teachable.
Paroquets.—The name paroquet is applied to the
smaller kinds of parrots. The Australian paroquet
is a beautiful and eccentric bird. It easily becomes
domesticated to cage life, and can be taught many
amusing tricks.
The Dwarf parrot is a little fellow found often
in our town bird stores, although not common
enough to be generally known. It is a little larger
than the paroquets or love birds, and of a uniform
green on the body, with a bit of orange or red
about the bill or throat and wings. It is said to do
some talking occasionally.
Literature.
Dogs.—J. V. Mott, Boston Terrier; R. B.
Playeman, House Dogs, Care and Treatment ;
Eugene Glass, Cocker Spaniel ; H. Daziel, Diseases
of Dogs; Ashmont, Dog Management and Treat-
ment; Al. G. Eberhardt, Everything About Dogs;
Ashmont, Kennel Diseases; Ashmont, Kennel
Secrets; J. W. Hill, Management and Diseases of
Dogs; S. T. Hammond, Practical Dog Training ;
W. C. Percy, Principles of Dog Training; E. H.
Haberlin, Amateur Trainer ; Stonehenge and Arma-
tage, The Dog; W. A. Sargent, Collies Useful and
How to Make So; J. Watson, The Dog Book: H.C.
Tugeg, American Foxhound; W. Mills, The Dog in
Health and Disease ; B. Waters, Training Hunting
Dogs ; B. Waters, Modern Kennel Management.
Rabbils and cavies.— Ambrose, Belgian Hare
Rabbits and All About Them; Moss and Ambrose,
The Dutch Rabbit ; Knightbridge, The Lop Rabbit;
L. Shaw, The English Rabbit; Richardson, The
Rabbit ; K. W. Knight, The Book of the Rabbit;
E. Ruth, Belgian Hare Culture; E. Ruth, The Bel-
gian Hare; Cunniculus, The Practical Rabbit
Keeper; P. O’Brien, The Belgian Hare; Rayson,
Rabbits for Prizes and Profit ; T. B. Mason, Some-
thing About the Silver Rabbits; C. A. House, The
Cavy; John Robins, The Cavy; C. L. Merick, All
About Cavies; Ellard and Johnson, Flemish and
Angora Rabbits, in preparation.
Mice.— Beake and William, Fancy Mice; “An
Old Fancier,” Fancy Mice.
Pigeons and cage-birds.—Browne and Walker,
American Bird Fancier; C. A. House, British
Canary; G. H. Holden, Canaries and Cage Birds;
G. H. Holden, Book on Birds; C. N. Page, Canary
Breeding ; R. L. Wallace, Canary Book ; J.D. Brad-
man, British Birds; C. N. Page, Feathered Pets;
W. F. Greene, Our Feathered Pets; Fulton and
Wright, Book of Pigeons; Feather’s Practical
Pigeon Book; Pigeon Standard ; Pigeon Queries ;
F. M. Gilbert, Pigeon Keeping; Twombly, Squab
Culture; L. Hoser, Homing Pigeon, Breeding and
Training; J. A. Summer, Diseases of Pigeons; R.
Woods, Dragoon Pigeon; C. A. House, Fantail
Pigeon ; C. H. Jones, Homing Pigeon of the Twen-
tieth Century ; H. C. Rice, Squab Book ; W. F. Lun-
dey, Owl Pigeon; W. F. Lundey, Turbit Pigeon ;
POULTRY 525
F. M. Gilbert, Pigeons ; L. Wright, Practical Pigeon
Keeper; J. C. Long, Practical Pigeon Book ; W. E.
Rice, Practical Squab Book; A. V. Meerch, Pigeons;
J. E. Webber, Working Homers ; Vale, How to Feed
Pigeons ; R. Woods, Diseases of Pigeons ; R. Woods,
Successful Pigeon Culture; Blaxton and Others,
Book of the Canary ; Beckstein, Cage Birds.
POULTRY. Figs. 524-604.
One of the features of the new contemporaneous
agriculture is the attention that is given to the
poultry live-stock. In former time, the fowls were
an unaccounted incident of the farm. They lived
on the refuse and on such food as they might find
in a free range, and all they produced in the way
of meat, eggs and feathers was counted as clear
vain. Because they thrived anywhere, cost practi-
cally nothing to keep, multiplied rapidly, and the
individual birds were not valuable enough to occa-
sion much loss if one or several died, giving at the
same time a steady and marketable product, fowls
became associated with practically every farm.
Fowls are kept on more farms and separate home-
steads than any other domestic animal except cats.
Just because fowls will take care of themselves,
they have been neglected; and not until recent
census and revenue figures were available did we
know the immense economic returns that poultry
live-stock gives to the people.
With the gradual refining of agriculture and the
application of business methods to it, we have
begun to realize that it is possible greatly to
extend the usefulness of all kinds of fowls. The
birds are coming to occupy a distinct department
of a good farm enterprise, as are sheep or orchards
or pigs, and the old phrase “barnyard fowls” is
dropping from use. There are two types of poultry
husbandry,—that which considers the birds as a
part of a general farm business; and that which
makes a specialty of fowls, with all other products
subordinate to them. In the latter class are estab-
lishments making a business of producing eggs
and meat, and other establishments making a
specialty of breeding.
We have now learned that any real satisfaction
in the rearing of poultry must come as a result of
as careful study and attention as that given to
any other kind of live-stock. The questions of
breeding, feeding, diseases, and general manage-
ment are complex and are much in need of scien-
tific investigation. Heretofore, the special interest
in poultry, so far as writers and investigators are
concerned, has been descriptive,—the characteriz-
ing of breeds and the discussion of formal and
fancy points. The result has been that the sub-
jects of breeds and exhibiting have been much
over-emphasized as compared with questions of
performance and utility, as they have been in all
other groups of animals. The entering of the col-
leges and experiment stations into the discussion of
poultry questions is changing all this. A new and
vital type of poultry literature is arising. This lit-
erature is yet largely fugitive, however, although
some of it is contained in experiment station pub
526 POULTRY
lications. We are betwixt the old and the new,—
the new being the writing founded on rational
scientific procedure.
The reputation of the poultry business, as a
separate enterprise, has no doubt suffered from the
exploitation of it by many persons who have gone
into it thinking it an easy and rapid road to for-
tune and a means of recouping broken health.
Many of these persons have failed, as they should
have had every reason to expect. To go into poul-
try-growing as a business is a serious undertaking,
as it is to go into market-gardening or dairying.
The person must learn the business. There are
plenty of persons who succeed well in the poultry
business, and this class will increase steadily.
As a rough statement, it may be said that it
costs one dollar a year per fowl to keep a flock
of poultry. This cost may be reduced on a farm
where the birds have free range and the feed is
produced on the place; it may be increased when
the birds are confined and all the feed is purchased.
What the proceeds are to be will depend on very
many conditions, and for what purpose the animals
are kept. The succeeding articles will throw some
light on this question. A person should expect a
minimum net profit from fowls reared for eggs and
meat, of one dollar a year; and this profit may
sometimes be doubled. [See Vol. I, pp. 183-187.]
The great effort, so far as the modification of the
bird is concerned, is to increase the egg-laying
capacity of the fowl. It must be remembered that
the hen originally laid eggs for the purpose of per-
petuating her kind, as the cow gave milk merely
to sustain her calf for a time. Instead of produc-
ing one or two broods of eggs, good hens will now
lay as many as 200 eggs a year, and the record
for individual birds exceeds this. This result is
brought about by long-continued attention to breed-
ing, by rational feeding, by good care, and by the
stimulus of comfortable and healthful quarters.
The egg-laying ability is also conditioned on the age
of the bird. Pullets usually lay best. Poultrymen
therefore like to keep only young fowls, disposing
of them for meat about the end of the first year.
By controlling the period of hatching, much may
be done to induce egg-laying in the cold months,
when the fowl would not naturally lay. The pullets
should be fully mature and in laying habit before
cold weather sets in. Thereafter the problem is
one of feed, exercise and housing. Probably half
the fowls in the country are not laying in the
winter months, and for this reason eggs are high-
priced in this period. It is easier said than done,
to be sure, to produce freely of winter eggs; but
the result is obtainable, as we shall find when we
learn how to prepare for the crop of eggs as we
prepare for a crop of potatoes or beans.
Illustrations of egg-laying under practical condi-
tions have been given us as follows : New Jersey.—
274 pullets, abont two-thirds of them White Wyan-
dotte and the remainder Barred Plymouth Rock,
laid 815 eggs in October, 1,247 in November, 2,024
in December, 2,956 in January, 3,326 in February,
4,933 in March, or a total for the six months of
15,301. Massachusetts.—172 pullets, 45 yearlings,
POULTRY
all White Wyandotte, laid 1,390 eggs in Novem-
ber, 1,787 in December, 2,537 in January, 2,940
in February, 4,035 in March, a total in five months
of 12,689. Maine.—The wife of a dairyman keeps
about four hundred and fifty head of Barred Ply-
mouth Rocks, and her accounts for the past five or
six years show an average of better than two dol-
lars a year net profit per fowl from the eggs sold
to market and the fowls sold alive before the time
of the molt. The averaye egg-product is ten to
twelve dozen eggs per bird, and the average prices
have ranged, for the series of years, somewhat
over twenty-five cents per dozen, which gives a
return of over two dollars and fifty cents for each
bird per year. The hens sold alive to market aver-
age a return of about a dollar apiece.
As there are beef types and milch types of cat-
tle, so there are meat types and egg-laying types
of fowls; and there are many fancy kinds, as the
game cocks, frizzles, and abnormal forms. No
-domestic animals of the live-stock kind possess so
many curious and interesting forms, particularly if
we include in the poultry class all the pheasants,
guinea-fowls, peafowls and swans. In the farm-
poultry of the past, no particular distinction was
made between meat fowls and egg-laying fowls, as
there was no distinction between beef cattle and
milch cattle; therefore, there was no special selec-
tion or breeding along the divergent lines by the
general farmer. There is a general-purpose or
dual-purpose fowl as there is a dual-purpose cow,
and this type of fowl, much improved, will probably
hold preéminence under general farm conditions.
Considered in its economic results, the greatest
‘utility of poultry husbandry no doubt is its part
in general farming, inasmuch as it is adapted to
practically every kind of farm scheme. And it is
in this field also that the greatest study and effort
need to be expended. The poultry specialist is an
enthusiast and he keeps in touch with every new
thing pertaining to the business; but the general
farmer has other and perhaps larger interests, not-
withstanding the fact that no part of his business
will probably yield a greater return for extra care
and attention than the poultry part.
Poultry-raising must come to be a regular part
of the plans for agricultural education. This will
_ place the subject in its proper relation with other
farm business. The colleges of agriculture are now
beginning to realize this fact and to act on it. In
the secondary schools, fowls probably afford the
most attractive and adaptable means of teaching
many of the fundamental principles of the live-
stock industries. Education has now reached the
point at which it is ready and willing to utilize the
common affairs as means of training men and
women; and there are departments in the colleges
devoted wholly to poultry, and professorships in
the subject are beginning to be created.
When we gather the poultry statistics from all
the farms and homesteads of the country, we find
that the figures assume enormous proportions.
The latest available statistics are those of the
Twelfth Census, 1900, some of the summary items
of which are as follows:
POULTRY POULTRY 527
POULTRY AND EGG¢s.
enue Numbe r of A of fowls three months old and over, June 1, 1900
farms reporting Giiekens (end Turkeys Geese Ducks
United States .. 2... 5,739,657 5,096,252 | 233,598,085 | 6,599,367 5,676,863 4,807,358
North Atlantic Division . . 677,506 605,732 27,952,114 529,932 144,527 453,580
South Atlantic Division . . 962,225 850,074 22,293,912 810,975 908,908 458,918
North Central Division 2,196,567 2,014,138 128,469,068 8,072,456 1,899,026 2,416,327
South Central Division. . . 1,658,166 1,441,315 50,299,631 1,876,382 2,589,164 1,257,048
Western Division. . ... 242,908 184,021 9,551,296 304,950 135,163 199,977
Value of all Value of poultry Dozens of eggs Value of eggs
poultry, June 1, 1900 raised in 1899 produced in 1899 produced in 1899
Himbenistates so. . 6. ss se $85,794,996 $186,891,877 1,293,819,186 144,286,158
North Atlantic Division. . . . . . 13,706,762 20,624,489 191,764,000 28,612,489
South Atlantic Division. .. ... 8,545,899 15,553,805 105,349,996 11,687,293
North Central Division ,..... 43,416,629 69,828,121 716,663,710 74,208,117
South Central Division ...... 15,672,938 24,770,049 222,096,860 20,465,926
Western Division ........ 4,414,365 6,053,738 57,787,867 9,266,716
More recent poultry figures, from the Department
of Agriculture Yearbook, may be cited as follows:
EXPORTS.
For the year ended June 30, 1902.
Quantity Value
Eggs,dozens. . . . 2,717,990 $528,679
Egg yolks. .... G96 14,700
Feathers ..... 239,756
Poultry and game. . 856,801
For the year ended June 30, 1906.
Quantity Value
Eggs,dozens. . . . 4,952,063 $1,038,649
Egg yolks. .... ee 54,851
Feathers a0 263,377
Poultry and game. . 1,397,004
WHOLESALE PRICE OF AVERAGE BEST FRESH EGGs
PER DOZEN.
January, 1901 January, 1906
Low High Low High
New York. . 194cts. 27 cts. 174 cts. 34 cts.
St.Louis . . 154cts. 184cts. 14 cts. 22 cts.
June, 1901 June, 1906
Low High Low High
NewYork. . 13 cts. 144cts. I174cts. 28 cts.
Stslouis : . 8%cts. 10) cts. 15) cts. 17s cts:
The summary figures of the number of fowls in
Canada in 1901 are as follows:
British Columbia, 363,379; Manitoba, 1,167,-
876; New Brunswick, 714,181; Nova Scotia,
798,145; Ontario, 10,464,551; Prince Edward
Island, 581,790; Quebec, 3,283,643; the Te._’-
tories, 549,143.
Number of poultry killed or sold (1901), 7,063,-
597, all Canada; number of eggs (1901), 84,132,-
802 dozens, all Canada; value of poultry (1901),
$5,723,890, all Canada.
If the reader is interested in statistics of edu-
cation in poultry husbandry in Canada and the
United States, he should consult pages 55 to 88 of
the Proceedings of the 32d Annual Convention of
the American Poultry Association, 1907.
Literature.
Following are some of the reference books on
poultry subjects. Much helpful information will
also be found in experiment station publications,
and those of the national Department of Agricul-
ture. American Standard of Perfection, published
by the American Poultry Association; Wright, Book
of Poultry, Cassel & Co., London; Salmon, Diseases
of Poultry, Geo. E. Howard & Co., Washington,
D. C.; Stoddard, New Egg Farm, Orange Judd
Company, New York; Lewis, People’s Practical
Poultry Book, Excelsior Publishing House, New
York ; Norys, Pocket Money Poultry, Geo. E. How-
ard & Co., Washington, D. C.; Tegetmeier, Poultry
Book, Routledge & Sons, London; Felch, Poultry
Culture, Donohue, Henneberry & Co., Chicago ;
Wright, Practical Poultry Keeper, Orange Judd
Company, New York; Watson, Farm Poultry, The
Macmillan Company, New York; Robinson, Poultry
Craft, Farm Poultry Publishing Company, Boston ;
Collingwood, The Business Hen, Rural New-Yorker ;
Biggle Poultry Book, The Farm Journal Company,
Philadelphia ; Weir, The Poultry Book, with colored
plates, by Doubleday, Page & Co., New York;
Perfected Fowls of America, Howard Publishing
Company, Washington; Barrows, Eggs; Robinson,
First Lessons in Poultry Keeping; E. C. Powell,
Making Poultry Pay ; McGrew, Perfected Poultry
of America; Davenport, Principles of Breeding ;
Poultry Houses and Fixtures, Reliable Poultry
Journal ; Reliable Poultry Remedies, Reliable Poul-
try Journal; Robinson, Broilers and Roosters ;
Ducks and Geese, Reliable Poultry Journal ; Hewes,
Hamburg Book; The Leghorns, Reliable Poultry
Journal; Report of Second National Poultry Con-
ference, Reading, England.
528 POULTRY
INDEX TO POULTRY ARTICLES
Page
Origin of the Domestic Fowl. ........-. 528
Breeding more Eonlthypem «1 a) '=tts: ol lemme ate 529
labs eiiae oop oo po oot OO one 533
Heading Waterfowl.) = jh ke mel mene 5386
Hatbentno mb ouluryieu vents) coilte ste) ven leurs iteitemaiIEms 538
CaponspandeC@aponizing )<) fe) is rehire meee Retn si 540
Incubation and Brooding. ......-.2.4..-. 542
Preparing and Marketing Poultry Products. . . . 544
Uoclateuniiawate omGecho a .c a Ss oc 5 oo 547
Common Ailments of Poultry. ......... 551
Poultry-house Construction ..........-. 556
Breeds and Types of Chickens ........ . 563
IDS a oOGwOONon dood Bio adb o-¢ 569
Geese\ate le: tanes.<. te tid bee eee aves testo 572
Grouse, Domestication of the Ruffed. ...... 576
Guingasfowls 2. \ei:s) pi. ceel ytleneone ey en een oe 578
Pheasants and Related Fowls. ........-. 579
btaayily GHGL STEW 5 oo lo a Gos 6 4p Bol ool
Quail, Domestication of the Bobwhite or American . 584
SiC Gene CeUAt nkcea’ GroMiGd ID op. S. o 585
Wh) CG) ee Gpeceotd C, GlG SHpalcro. 0.0 0 586
Origin of the Domestic Fowl. Gallus spp. Galline.
Fig. 524.
By Charles B. Davenport.
The domestic fowl belongs to the group of scratch-
ing birds that includes also the turkey, guinea-fowl,
pheasant, partridge, grouse. The ancestors of the
domestic fowl, like those of other domestic animals,
were wild species, but it does not follow that there
was only one ancestral species or that all the
ancestral species, if more than one, still persist.
Without going into the history of ideas concerning
the ancestry of fowl, it may be said that probably
two species were involved—one a wild form still
common in the jungle of India, southern China and
the East Indies, and known as Gallus ferrugineus,
or as Gallus bankiva (Fig. 597); the other, probably
an extinct progenitor of the Aseel or Malay fowl
(Fig. 524). The
Gallus ferrugin-
eus is a slender-
bodied bird, hav-
ing its plumage
colored like that
of the Black-
breasted Red
. Game fowl, and
having a single
~ comb, — slender,
willow - colored
shanks and cap-
able of consider-
able flight. It is
completely fer-
tile with domes-
ticated fowl.
The other extant wild species of Gallus are much
less like any of our domestic races and are usually
sterile with them. The reason for concluding that
a second species had been involved in the con-
struction of our domestic races is the existence
among them of a set of characters, other than
the usual color sports, that cannot be derived
from the jungle-fowl. Some of these are a broad,
Fig. 524.
Aseel fowl.
POULTRY
stocky body, a triple or pea-comb, stout, yellow-
skinned legs, a mottled plumage and an unwilling-
ness to fly far in the air. Such characters are
found, for example, in the Brahma fowl. They are
also found in the Aseel, probably the oldest fowl in
domestication. The Aseel has been bred in India
for over 3,000 years, and its wild ancestors seem
to have become extinct. Starting with the jungle-
fowl and the Aseel, we can write an intelligible
history of the domestic fowl, but we could hardly
do it if we started with the jungle-fowl alone.
Progress of domestication.
The history of the domestication of the fowl
reaches, as suggested above, to a remote antiquity.
The Institutes of Menu, 1000 B. C., alludes to the
sport of cock-fighting (probably with the Aseel).
From southeastern India the domesticated fowl
spread eastward and northward, reaching China,
according to tradition, about 1400 B. C., and subse-
quently gaining Japan. The movement toward the
West took place later. It is figured on Babylonian
cylinders of about 600 B. C., and Aristophanes
(about 400 B. C.) refers to the fowl as the Persian
bird. As it is not mentioned in the Old Testament,
the fowl probably did not reach Syria until three
or four centuries before the beginning of our era.
Its introduction into Europe from Persia was prob-
ably effected at the time of the conquest of that
country by Alexander (830-320 B. C.). Once in
Europe, the spread was rapid over that continent.
Caesar found fowl in Britain, whither they had
probably been carried by the Phceenicians, at the
time of his conquest of that country about 55 B.C.
It is probable that, at a later date, fowl were intro-
duced into Europe from Central Asia through
Siberia to Russia. From Europe, fowl were carried
in the early period of colonization to the New
World and parts of the Old World, where, up to
that time, they had been unknown.
The character of the fowl first bred in China
and eastern India differed from that of the western
birds, for the eastern fowl were of the stocky Aseel
type. Foot feathering, the uniform buff -colored
plumage and the reduction to bantam size were
early achieved by the Chinese. The Buff Cochins,
the source of all uniformly buff fowls the world
over, were cultivated in Hoangho 1,500 years ago.
The western fowl were more of the jungle-fowl
type: slender, active, clean-shanked birds. These
came to inhabit the whole Mediterranean coast from
Egypt, through Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy and
France, to Spain and the islands lying off shore.
Thence arose our Mediterranean fowl — active
birds, largely non-sitting ; such are the Leghorn,
Minorca, Spanish, Andalusian, Hamburg, Ancona,
Polish, Houdan, and many other varieties. The
colors became varied through the preservation of
various sports that cropped out: a melanic sport,
as seen in the black Minorcas and Spanish; a
“gray ”-white sport, as seen in the white Leghorn ;
and mottled or blue forms, derived by crossing the
black and white, as seen in the Hamburg, Ancona, ~
and Polish. Certain teratological conditions were
preserved : a fifth toe, known even to the Romans,
POULTRY
and preserved till today as the trademark of the
Dorking and Houdan races; a cerebral hernia,
known for over four hundred years, and become a
trademark of the Polish and Houdan; and a rudi-
mentary comb, probably associated originally with
the cerebral hernia but now capable of being in-
herited independently of it.
The fowls first imported to America were Games
(largely in the South), Leghorns direct from Italy,
and certain English derivatives of the Mediter-
ranean breeds, such as the Dorkings and Scotch
Grays, with their barred markings from which the
barred Plymouth Rocks of today have probably
been derived, in part. On this stock were engrafted,
by importations, the stocky eastern types—the
Brahmas, from the Brahmapootra river and the
Cochins from Shanghai, China. The latter two
were used to give the breadth and weight of our
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and others; the pea-
comb of the Brahma has been used to reduce the
great single comb of the Mediterranean breeds to
form the neat comb of the “Rocks,” and the solid
buff color has been used in the Rhode Island Reds
as well as the buff varieties of the Plymouth Rocks
and Wyandottes. The effect of crossing the Medi-
terranean and Asiatic types has been to give a
general-purpose fowl! of great utility to the farmer,
who needs a hen that is a fair layer, a good mother,
and a meat-producer. The American experiment of
making a general-purpose fowl proved so success-
ful that it was repeated in England and resulted
in the Orpingtons, made up of various combinations
of Mediterranean, Eastern and American types.
Thus, the general-purpose fowls of both England
and America owe their origin to combinations of
the derivatives of the jungle-fowl and the Aseel
types. But, for ege-production, the Mediterranean
type has never been surpassed, and as a table bird
the Aseel derivatives, including the Indian Games,
Cochins and Brahmas, have no rivals.
Literature.
For references, see page 527.
Breeding of Poultry. Figs. 525-530.
By Charles B. Davenport.
Perhaps one of the best tests of the domestication
of an animal is the control by man of its repro-
duction. Broadly, this control includes the feeding
and housing and all the apparatus for restricting
the free intercourse of the sexes. Leaving these
technical details for description elsewhere, this
article will consider only the principles to be fol-
lowed in selecting fowls for the breeding-pen in
order to achieve a certain ideal; and some account
of the results attained by breeders who have fol-
lowed these principles, often more or less uncon-
sciously, may be added.
The ideal and methods of attaining it.
The first requisite in breeding is a clear-cut ideal.
Let the breeder formulate clearly in his mind what
he wants to get, for the end will determine the
details of the procedure. The ideal may be simple,
C 34
POULTRY 529
such as increased egg-yield, or more rapid growth,
or greater vigor of stock, or a reduced size of
comb; or it may be complex, as, for example,
increased yield of eggs of a brown color, or large
size combined with heavy egg-yield, or a large
white bird with a small comb and laying many
brown eges of a large size. In case of such com-
plex ideals, it is a good rule to work for one or
two things at a time. In any case, the ideal should
be resolved, as in the foregoing examples, into the
maximum number of well-defined characteristics
that are to be combined in the ideal bird, and then
the proper means taken to get the combination.
Inbreeding and line-breeding.—In beginning to
work for the ideal, it is highly desirable to start
several families at once, because, if only one pair
be mated, the progeny must be mated with each
other, or with the parents; i. e., close inbreeding
must be practiced, and this is very likely to be
disastrous. It is the general experience of breeders
that very close inbreeding tends to produce chicks
that are weak and fall an easy prey to disease, or
which, if they survive, are infertile. By starting
two or more unrelated pairs, it will be possible in
later generations to introduce new blood without
retarding, as much as would otherwise be the case,
the progress toward the ideal. In some cases it is
impracticable to start several families. In such
cases, it is considered better to mate the off-
spring of a pair with father and with mother re-
spectively, than to mate brother and ‘ister. The
“grandchildren” of the original father may now be
mated to those of the original mother, and also
back on their parent-grandparents. By carefully
mating in each generation the most distantly
related individuals, matings of full brother and
sister are avoided. This method of breeding is
called line-breeding. It is illustrated in the accom-
panying chart prepared by I. K. Felch. (Fig. 525.)
j
'
4
if
it
am
L
4
1
4
4
'
Y
y
1
ot)
Fig. 525. Felch’s chart for line-breeding.
530 POULTRY
In the chart, a dotted line represents female blood
(egg), and a full line male blood (sperm); the circle
at the union of two such lines indicates the prog-
eny of the union of the egg and the sperm. In the
third filial generation, whose blood is derived equally
from the two parents, No. 10 constitutes a strain
distinct from No. 8, which has thirteen-sixteenths
blood of the original hen, and from No. 12, which
has the same proportion of the original cock. From
these three strains, by proper manipulation addi-
tional strains may become established.
The methods employed for attaining an ideal are”
of two general sorts, depending on the end sought.
If it is desired merely to improve a quality already
present, the method of selection is employed. If,
on the other hand, it is desired to add a new char-
acteristic to a given breed or to combine the char-
acteristics of one or more breeds, then hybridization
is necessary.
Selection involves the careful inspection of the
individuals of any generation, and the preservation
for breeding of only the best. Let it be required
to improve the egg-yield of a given strain: study
the egg records of the yearling hens, and preserve
for breeding the progeny of the best. Let it be
required to increase the rate of growth: keep and
study growth records, and save the fastest growers
for breeders. Even those who do not keep records
make aselection, as the breeding season approaches,
of the most vigorous cocks and the shapeliest hens,
and this rough selection helps to maintain the
strain at a high standard of general excellence. A
more rigorous selection and selection for particular
points often involves measurements, weighing, and
the like, and pedigree breeding, of the methods of
which something will be said in a later paragraph.
Hybridization involves the crossing of two strains,
varieties, or races in order to combine the favor-
able qualities of the two. Eventually, the qualities
of three or more races may be combined. Let us
suppose a breeder finds that, in his excellent strain
of Minorcas, the large combs are likely to get frost-
bitten, so that the reproductive processes are inter-
rupted ; and he has the idea of replacing the large
single comb with the small pea-comb. He must
first cross his Minoreas with a Dark Brahma or
Indian Game, or some other race that has a pea-
comb. He will find that, even in the first genera-
tion, all of the “hybrids,” as they are called, have
the pea-comb. But his goal is not reached in the
first generation, because the hybrids have certain
characteristics of form, feathering, and the like,
that he does not want, and because in the second
generation a single comb will crop out again. The
second generation of hybrids (got by breeding
members of the first generation) is technically
known as the second filial generation, or F>. It
will yield a great variety of combinations of form,
feathering, fecundity, and so on, combined with a
pea-comb. The breeder selects for breeding the
combination that comes nearest to his ideals. But
it will still be several generations before his ideal
is fully realized. In this connection, a knowledge
of Mendel’s law will be helpful.
Mendel’s law states that, when, in two races that
POULTRY
are being crossed, there is a pair of contrasted
characters, as single comb and pea-comb, only one
of the pair will appear in the progeny; it will
dominate over the opposite ; and as the other has
receded from view, it was named by Mendel the
recessive character. Dominance of a character in
the body does not imply that the recessive char-
acter is absent, but only that in the development
of the body the dominant character is bound to
appear. The dominant character is usually a stage
in advance of the recessive, so that one may say
an organ will develop to the highest stage that is
potential within it. So a pigmented condition dom-
inates over absence of pigment, extra toe over the
normal number, feathers on the feet over their —
absence, and the lateral ridges of the pea-comb —
over their absence in the single comb.
But while in the body of the first generation the
dominant character is uniformly visible, the germ
cells (eggs and sperm) in their repeated division
become of two kinds, those possessing the recessive
character only and those possessing the dominant
character only ; and these are equally numerous.
Consequently, in the haphazard union of any egg
and any sperm, these four combinations are equally
likely to occur, forming the second generation
(F.): Two germ cells with the recessive character
(the union may be expressed as RR); two with the
dominant character (DD); and a dominant egg
with a recessive sperm (DR), and a recessive egg
with a dominant sperm (RD). The individuals that
develop from the first kind of union, having none
of the dominant character, are of the recessive
type only and form germ. cells of this type only.
They are technically called homozygous. Conse-
qently, two individuals of the recessive type bred
together will have progeny of that type only and
may be ancestors of a race pure in respect to the
given character. The individuals that develop from
the second kind of union (DD), having none of the
recessive character, will not only be of the domi-
nant type but may found a race pure in respect to
the dominant
character. The
other sorts of in-
dividuals (DR
and RD) are hy- /
brids like their °
parents, and are
called techni-
cally —heterozy-
gotes. Bred to-
gether, hetero-
zygotes will pro-
duce homozy-
gous recessives
and dominants
and heterozy- Fig. 526. oe white fowl. The
otes again. grandchild (F2) of a rose-combed
ih ar b Black Minorea and a single-combed
; ELE f Ns F 2 White Leghorn. See Fig. 527.
wo of this type
to every one of the pure dominants. Thus, hetero-
zygotes are essentially impure. While the first
hybrid generation is characterized by uniformity,
the second generation is characterized by great
POULTRY
variety. In Figs. 526 and 527 are shown two grand-
children (F.) of a rose-combed Black Minorca and
a single-combed White Leghorn. Among others, a
rose-combed white and a single-combed black fowl
appeared, thus revers-
ing the relation of
comb and color.
Since the heterozy-
gotes contain the dom-
inant character, this
alone will appear in
the body as in Fj, and
it will often be impos-
sible to distinguish be-
tween a homozygous
dominant and a hetero-
zygote. Yet, to get a
Single-combed black
fowl. The grandchild (F2) of
a rose-combed Black Minorca
pure race one must and a single-combed White
Seat
separate them. Con- Leghorn. See Fig. 526.
sequently, the dominants of F. must be tested.
To test a dominant, mate it with a recessive. If
the dominant is pure (DD), all offspring will be of
the dominant type ; if impure (DR), the offspring
will be equally of the combination DR and RR, and
hence half of them will
be of the recessive
type. Hybrids, which,
on testing, throw only
dominants, may be
used to found a pure
dominant race. Thus,
one character at a
time (or several at a
time if great numbers
be available), a race
pure in respect to the
desired characters,
whether dominant or
recessive, may be
built up. And the prog-
eny of members of
this race, bred inter se, will ordinarily show no re-
version to the eliminated characters. The new race
is established but it is not yet perfected.
In the process of hybridization, the various
characters often become somewhat damaged. It
will be necessary to improve them; and this is
done by the process of selection. Those individuals
in which one or more of the characters approach
most nearly to the ideal are preserved for breeding.
Thus, in a few generations the ideal may be fully
achieved.
It may be of
assistance to %
give here a table
of some of the ™ SS
Fig. 528. A Game-colored Friz-
zled fowl. See Fig. 530.
characters of Se oN
poultry, show- ENS See
ing which are i ly ee Sy
dominant and Kt PRS 3 .
which recessive. KN NG WAS
; SSSR
It sometimes HA REN
happens that NVIN MS
certain ad-
vanced condi-
Fig. 529. An albinic Silkie fowl.
See Fig. 530.
POULTRY 531
tions are incompletely dominant over the less ad-
vanced or rudimentary characters. Characters usu-
ally showing incomplete dominance are marked
by aT.
: aac Recessive
Characters Dominant condition condition
(Combaemarieane Lateral elements | No lateral ele-
(in pea and rose) ments
Cerebral closure . | Perfect, plain skull/Imperfect, hernia
as in Houdan or
Polish
Crest . . 6 Present Absent
Feather, form. . Typical, plain Embryonic, silky
Feather, form. . Frizzled Plain
WANTS 6 6 oo 6 Present Absent
Skin color . . .| Pigmented, black Unpigmented
Iris color. . . . | Heavily pigmented, Red
black
Plumage color Pigmented Albinic, white of
silkies, ete.
Plumage color . |Gray-whiteof White} Pigmented
Leghorn
Shafting. . .. Present Absent
Penciling. . . . Present Absent
Extra toes . . . +Present Absent
Booting .... 7Present Absent
Egg pigment . .| Present, brown Absent, white
Broodiness . . . Sitting Non-sitting
Combinations of characters.
Ordinarily, the hybrid shows no new character
but only a new combination of the parental char-
acters. Occasionally, however, an apparent excep-
tion makes its appearance. Thus, when a white
and a black bird are mated, it sometimes happens
that the hybrids have a blue plumage. This blue is
really a fine mosaic of black and white and is best
known in the
race of poultry
called Andalu-
sian. When two
blue birds are
mated, however,
they throw black
and also white
chicks as well as
Fig. 530. The granddaughter, by in-
blue ones. The breeding, of the Frizzled (Fig. 528)
blacks and the and the Silkie (Fig. 529) fowls. Show-
whites arehomo- ing how characters may be combined
in the second hybrid generation.
zygous and the
blues heterozygous again. Similarly, under cer-
tain circumstances the crossing of a light and a
dark bird may produce offspring with a barred plum-
age; and two such barred birds will throw light
birds and dark birds again as well as barred birds.
Again, if a single-combed fowl is crossed with one
having two horns, as the Polish, the hybrid has a
Y-shaped comb; but in F,, the single and the
paired combs reappear. In all these cases we have
a heterozygous form due to the mosaic-like union
of the two contrasted characters. The mosaic is
not a permanent character but only the badge of
impurity. Whether a heterozygous form can ever
be fixed is a moot question. The barred condition
532 POULTRY
has apparently been fixed in the Plymouth Rock
and a mottled condition in the spangled races, and
it is even alleged by certain fanciers that they have
fixed the Andalusian blue. The history of fixation,
however, in any case, is still obscure.
In order to show how characters may be com-
bined in the second hybrid generation, Figs. 528—
530 are introduced. Fig. 530 shows the grand-
daughter (by inbreeding) of the Frizzle and the
Silkie. [Figs. 528, 529, are adapted from Publica-
tion No. 52, Carnegie Institution of Washington.]
Reciprocal crosses.
The crossing of distinct varieties introduces cer-
tain special questions in addition to the general
one of the behavior of alternative characters. The
commonest is that of the behavior of reciprocal
eresses. When two races are crossed, are the off-
spring the same whichever race is used as the male
parent ? In general, it may be said the product of
a given cross is the same as that of its reciprocal.
This is true, however, only within limits. If one
race is a bantam and the other large, the size of
the egg and consequently of the chick will be
determined by the mother, so that if the mother is
the bantam the chicks will be bantams, but if she
is of full size so will they be. There are occasion-
ally other differences in reciprocal crosses. The
present writer has found that the “booting” of
the progeny is likely to be heavier when it is the
mother that is booted than when it is the father.
Other slight differences of this sort no doubt occur
at times.
Double mating.
Quite different is the operation of double mating.
Several races of poultry show sexual dimorphism,
and breeders have sought to exaggerate the differ-
ence between the sexes. If it is desired in the
dark Brahma to perfect the penciling of the female
but to group the colors of the male into masses,
then one selects, to improve the hens, the best pen-
ciled hens to mate with a cock showing as much
lacing as possible ; and to improve the cocks, the
darkest hens to go with a cock that is devoid of
lacing and other small feather patterns. Thus,
the sexual dimorphism in color pattern may be
increased.
Control of sex.
Still another problem is that of the control of
sex in the offspring. Since one cock will suffice for
many hens, an excess of female offspring, especi-
ally on egg-farms, is desired. Despite the fact
that directions for securing a predominance of
either sex are frequently published in poultry
books, there is every reason for thinking that a
great deviation from the average proportion of 50
per cent of each sex is found only as a rare acci-
dent. It seems probable that sex is determined at
the moment of fertilization of the egg and by a
particular combination of particular kinds of germ
cells. Sex control in birds, as in mammals, seems
at present beyond our human power, notwithstand-
ing certain opinions to the contrary.
POULTRY
Breeding superstitions.
Two alleged phenomena of breeding must be
relegated to the limbo of superstition. One is that
of the influence of a former sire on the character
of subsequent chicks. Even after a cock has been
removed from a pen he may be the father of off-
spring in that pen because the sperm of the male
is retained in an active condition by the hens for
ten days or more. But if, after the eggs have com-
pletely ceased to be fertile, a new cock is added,
different from the first, no influence of the first
cross will be detected. Stories to the contrary
doubtless depend on unsuspected impurity of the
second cock. So, too, there is no ground for
believing in the “influence of the imagination” in
modifying the character of the offspring. One
hears such stories as these: A flock of Brown Leg-
horns in a pen adjacent to White Indian Games
began to produce white progeny; or a breeder of
White Cochins kept them next toa pen of Black
Minoreas and the former produced chicks that
were black splashed. In both cases it is more than
likely that a cock from the adjacent pen climbed
over the fence and fertilized the eggs.
Reversion.
One of the most striking instances of an appar-
ently new character appearing in hybridization is
seen in the examples described by Darwin as cases
of reversion. Darwin taught that hybridization
per se leads to a reversion on the part of the off-
spring to the ancestral characters of the jungle- —
fowl. An analysis of the facts in poultry does not
support Darwin’s views of reversion. Black birds
and buff birds may be crossed with White Leghorns
without the appearance of the jungle type of
coloration. When, however, a White Silkie (whose
plumage is truly albinic) is crossed with a black bird,
as Minorca or Spanish, the black sons have red
on the back, hackle, saddle and wing bars, as in
the jungle-fowl. Whence has the red come? Dar-
win ascribed it to reversion. But if a White Silkie
be crossed with a White Leghorn, the males are
wholly white except for red hackle, saddle, back
and wing bar. Other experiments show that the
red comes from the Silkie but is not visible in it,
due to the absence of pigment. When pigment is
added (even the hidden pigment of the White Leg-
horn plumage), the red appears. It is not the
jungle-fowl coloration, but solely the red that
results from the hybridization. The remainder of
the hybrid plumage may be white or black or buff.
The alleged reversion of hybrid fowls is then merely
the staining, as it were, through a cross with a
pigmented bird, of an otherwise invisible color
pattern in albinie fowl.
Literature.
Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants
Under Domestication; Bateson, Mendel’s Principles
of Heredity; C. C. Hurst, Experiments with Poultry,
Report to the Evolution Committee, Royal Society,
II, London (1905); Davenport, Inheritance in Poul-
try, Carnegie Institution of Washington (1906).
[See also page 527.] ’
POULTRY
Feeding Poultry.
By James HE. Rice.
Domestic poultry are omnivorous. All classes of
poultry, including the domestic fowls, turkeys,
ducks, geese and guineas, eat freely and naturally
of the grains, meat foods and green forage. They
differ, however, in habits of eating as regards their
preferences for certain classes of foods. For
example, fowls may be classed primarily as grain-
eaters, turkeys and guineas as insect-hunters, ducks
and geese as grazers and fishers.
What constitutes a good ration.
The digestible nutrients.—First of all, a good
ration must contain a sufficient quantity of diges-
tible nutrients to meet the needs of the animal. This
means that the ration must be varied in quantity
and composition, according to the size, age, condition
and environment of the animal. The amount of food
which a flock of fowls requires must be determined
by knowing the kinds and composition of the foods
available, and the kind, size, age and productivity
of the bird to be fed. With these data, rations may
be compounded which will be likely to meet the
requirements. With our present knowledge of the
digestibility of feeds and the feeding standards for
poultry, it is unsafe to depend solely on calculated
rations.
The animal’s appetite is a safer guide as to the
amount of food which it needs than is the most
carefully calculated ration weighed out and fed
according to accepted standards. The fact that the
food requirements of animals vary from day to day
makes it impossible to calculate accurately in
advance just how much of each nutrient should be
fed. Feeding standards, nevertheless, are exceed-
ingly helpful in forming a judgment of the animal’s
probable needs, to prevent the possible serious mis-
take of feeding radically wrong rations, which
could not supply the needs of the system because
they contained too much or too little bulk, or fiber,
or ash, or protein, or carbo-hydrate material, in
proportion to the other ingredients.
A perfect ration should satisfy the following
requirements of the animal: Repair broken-down
tissue ; make new growth; produce heat ; furnish
energy ; store up surplus fat to be used for heat or
energy in case of need ; meet the needs of repro-
duction.
The ration should be properly balanced—There
should be exactly enough, and no more, of the pro-
tein and carbohydrate nutrients to meet the needs of
the bird. A ration must have the protein, carbo-
hydrate and fat in proper proportion without an
excess of any one. If the protein is lacking, the
animal cannot make the white of the egg, nor grow
new muscular tissue, and in the end will starve
even with an abundance of carbohydrate. If there
should be a deficiency of carbohydrate and a sur-
plus of protein, the animal would be obliged to
burn up protein for fuel, or use it for the formation
of fat, which would be too expensive, and might
also be injurious by overtaxing the kidneys in
carrying off the waste nitrogen. According to our
POULTRY 533
present knowledge of balanced rations for fowls,
the food nutrients should be fed in about the pro-
portion of one pound of protein to 4.6 pounds of
carbohydrates for egg-production; one pound of
protein to seven or eight pounds of carbohydrates
for fattening; and one pound of protein to four
pounds of carbohydrates for raising young chickens.
The ration should consist of food which the fowl
likes.—Fowls have a decided preference for certain
foods which cannot be accounted for by their com-
position. Rye and wheat are almost identical in
composition, yet fowls will eat wheat in preference
to rye. The following grains are preferred by
fowls in the order in which they are named : Wheat,
corn, oats, peas, barley, buckwheat and rye. The
food should be palatable. The palatability of a food
may be said to be the quality which determines a
fowl’s preference for it. Flavor and texture deter-
mine the palatability. The medicinal qualities and
composition also are determining factors. The way
a food tastes has much influence on the way it is
digested. Digestion begins in the mouth. Foods
that are not palatable do not stimulate the proper
secretions for digestion. The mouth and stomach
must be educated as to what is best for the system.
The stomach tells the palate what it does not like.
Habit plays an important part in determining a
fowl’s preference for certain foods. It will refuse
to eat grains at first, because they are new to it,
that it later learns to like best: e. g., wheat will be
refused at first by fowls that have been accustomed
to eating other grains.
The ration should provide a good variety.—A good
variety of food helps to increase the palatability of
a ration. Fowls become tired of eating the same
kind of food continuously. It is better to feed
several kinds of foods, all of which an animal likes,
than it is to feed any one food, no matter how good
it may be. Fowls thus have a better chance to
balance their own rations, and get foods that are
best suited to their needs. A good variety prevents
a fowl from eating exclusively of one grain which
it may prefer, but which might cause over-fatness.
It appears to be immaterial whether a variety of
grain is fed at each feeding, or whether the same
grains are fed separately and alternately during
the day or on different days.
The ration should have sufficient bulk to enable the
digestive secretions to act on it quickly—When a
large amount of certain concentrated ground grain
is fed, the ration may be so concentrated that it
becomes compacted in the crop. Because of the
concentrated nature of a finely ground ration,
which makes it possible for the food to pass quickly
through the intestinal tract, the fowl is more
easily over-fed. Thus, a certain amount of bulk in
a ration is necessary. This is provided by feeding
wheat bran, clover, alfalfa meal, or the like, to
overcome the too concentrated nature of such
foods as oil-meal, wheat middlings, corn meal, and
the like. The whole or cracked grains also give bulk
to a ration.
The ration should not contain too large an amount
of indigestible fiber—When adding bulk to a ration,
it should be done by adding foods that are readily
534 POULTRY
digestible. Foods that are bulky are likely to con-
tain a large proportion of woody fiber (cellulose),
which the animal is compelled to reduce to fineness,
and pass through the body undigested. This re-
quires a large and unnecessary expenditure of
energy, and makes impossible the rapid metabolic
changes that are necessary with the laying or
growing fowl.
Part of the ration should be of whole grain and
part of ground feed.—Fowls are essentially grain-
eaters. They prefer whole or cracked grain to the
ground grains. The most rational system of feed-
ing fowls requires that both whole grain or cracked
grain and ground feed should be supplied. The
whole grain insures the activity of the body in
grinding the grains and makes over-feeding less
likely. It also has the advantage of inducing fowls
to take exercise in hunting for the grain, which
shduld always be scattered in a deep litter of
straw. Ordinarily, if left to their own choice,
with free access to both whole grain and ground
feed, fowls will consume one-third to one-half
ground feed, depending largely on the nature of
the mixture.
All of the common grains, with the exception of
peas, have a wide nutritive ratio. The ground
feed mixture, therefore, should be made narrow.
In order to do this, a little oil-meal or alfalfa meal
may be used to advantage. Generally, however,
the meat food will have to be depended on to nar-
row the ration. [See page 107.]
It seems necessary to feed at least one-third
ground grain in order to supply the fowls with
readily available nourishment, especially when
they are in heavy laying. Fowls do not seem capa-
ble of grinding the whole or cracked grain rapidly
enough to satisfy their needs, except during the
season when they are least productive. Wheat is
the most desirable of grain foods. Corn, however,
because it is usually cheaper, should be used
largely throughout the United States. Heavy oats
are next to be preferred; light oats are to be
avoided. Peas, although one of the best foods for
poultry, cannot be used extensively because of
scarcity and high price.
For ground feeds, the wheat by-products—bran
and middlings,—and corn meal and ground oats
are the most desirable. Gluten meal or gluten feed
is being fed successfully in a limited quantity in
connection with other ground feeds. As a rule,
fowls do not eat oil-meal so readily as the other
ground feeds, but because of its richness, it is
desirable to include not to exceed 5 to 10 per cent
of it in the ground feed ration. Cottonseed meal
has not proved satisfactory.
Meat in some form should be a part of every
ration, whether for raising the young, or for feeding
the mature stock for production or fatlening.—A
pound of protein in the form of meat appears to
be more valuable than a pound of protein in any
other class of foods. Meat should form at least 10
to 15 per cent of the total food consumed each
day, depending on the kind of meat and other food
and their composition. Beef scraps, because of
high protein content and good keeping qualities,
POULTRY
must be mainly depended on. Skimmed milk at 15
to 20 cents per 100 pounds is probably the most
desirable of all meat foods, to be fed either in the
liquid or as pot cheese. Sour milk is more desira-
ble than sweet, but it is not well to alternate sour
milk and sweet milk. Green cut bone is very desir-
able for variety, and one-half ounce may be fed
each day per fowl in addition to other meat foods.
Milk albumen has not been sufficiently tested to
warrant a recommendation.
Green food should jorm some part of the daily
ration.—The chief value in feeding green food is
the fact that the succulence and medicinal quali-
ties assist in the digestion of other foods and tend
to promote health if judiciously fed. The most
desirable green food is clover pasturage. Cut
clover, fed either dry or steamed, furnishes excellent
green food for winter use, but lacks in succulence.
The mangel beet, when fed in limited quantity, is
perhaps the best winter green food. Cabbage, if
fed in a reasonable quantity, does not appear to
injure the flavor of the product and is much rel-
ished by all kinds of poultry.
Grit forms an indispensable part of a poultry
‘ration.—Experiments at Cornell University have
proved that grit has a double function, namely to
grind or crush food in the gizzard and to furnish
lime. Most of the grits on the market contain little
or no lime. Cracked oyster shells or mortar are
the chief sources of lime. They also meet the need
for grinding material.
The foods should not injure the flavor or the color
of the product.—It has been demonstrated by sey-
eral experiments and is well recognized in practice
that certain foods influence the color of the yolk
of the egg, the fat of the body, the skin and the
feathers. Yellow.corn and clover impart a deep
yellow color pigment. Wheat, oats, and especially
buckwheat, produce a very light colored pigment.
Experiments at Cornell University show that
onions and fish, except when fed in excess, do not
impart a marked flavor to the eggs. Cabbage fed
in excess, in two carefully conducted trials, did not
produce undesirable flavor that could be detected
even in the raw egg.
The cost of the ration should be considered.—The
fact that the principal poultry foods vary in cost
from time to time, according to the supply and
demand, makes it desirable that rations be varied
somewhat to suit the market conditions. It is sel-
dom necessary to feed largely of the most expen-
sive foods. Generally, the by-product feeds are less
expensive to purchase per pound of food nutrient
than the whole grains. This is particularly true
in the case of wheat, buckwheat and corn. Wheat
bran, wheat middlings, buckwheat middlings and
gluten meal, by-products respectively of the grains
mentioned, should be used largely.
Special types of poultry-feeding.
Fowls appear to need more available protein and
fat during the molting period than at other times.
This seems to be due to the need of supplying
nitrogen for the growth of feathers and fat, to
be readily converted into heat. The practice of
POULTRY
“forcing the molt” has not met with universal
approval. It is reported to have proved satisfactory
in inducing fowls to molt earlier in the fall, and to
lay more eges during early winter than they other-
wise would. Three experiments at Cornell Univer-
sity with one-, two- and three-year-old Leghorns,
indicated that it did not pay to “force the molt.”
It is possible that forcing the molt may produce
different results with other breeds of fowls. In the
light of our present knowledge, the best general
practice appears to be to furnish the most favor-
able conditions for production at all seasons of the
year, and never to check production with the expec-
tation of again starting it at astated time. It is
easier to stop hens laying than it is to start
them.
Feeding according to age.
The system of feeding must be adapted to the
age of the fowl. Young fowls naturally utilize
their food in the production of new growth and
energy. Mature fowls, having completed their
growth, utilize their food in production. Old fowls,
having completed their development and their years
of greatest production, have a tendency to use their
food in the production of fat.
Feeding fowls during different seasons of the year.
Theoretically, more heat-forming foods should
be fed during the winter season than at other
times ; that is to say, wider rations are required
during the cold weather, and narrower rations
during the warm weather. Generally this is accom-
plished by increasing or decreasing the amount of
corn fed during different seasons of the year, corn
having a wider nutritive ratio, and therefore, pre-
sumably, being a better producer of heat and energy,
than most of the other feeds.
Feeding sitting hens.
A broody hen needs less food than at any other
time of her life. As a rule, she is mature, non-pro-
ductive, non-active and simply requires a main-
tenance ration. This should be largely of whole
grain with a limited amount of vegetable food, if
any, and only a small amount of meat. The object
is to prevent the development of the ovaries by too
large a supply of readily digested nourishment.
Breaking up broody hens.
The broody hen should be fed with a view to
inducing egg-production in the shortest possible
time. It should be fed, therefore, the most attrac-
tive and best ege-producing rations.
The feeding of the breeding stock.
In feeding the breeding stock, the object should
be to prevent over-feeding, especially during the
non-productive seasons—fall and early winter. Asa
result, a large egg-yield cannot be secured. The
rations should not be too narrow, and thus produce
a phlegmatie condition, nor too fattening, and
cause sluggishness and fatty degeneration, either
of which would come by over-feeding of rich rations.
A limited amount of meat, whole grains fed in a
POULTRY 585
litter to mduce exercise in the open air, and a
limited amount of green food with an abundance
of bone and oyster shell, should be fed.
Feeding the different breeds.
The heavier and the more sluggish the breed, the
greater is the tendency to become fat, and, there-
fore, the greater is the need of proper methods of
feeding, which will compel exercise and prevent
over-eating. The lighter and more active breeds
apparently can be fed a wider ration with less
danger of over-fatness than can the heavier and
more phlegmatic breeds. The fine art of feeding
consists in furnishing the right kind of foods in
such a manner that the fowls can be kept in the
best physical condition. This means that the fowls
must have some surplus fat in the body. A poor
hen cannot lay. A very fat hen may become so
sluggish that death will result from fatty degener-
ation. The fowl thatis in the best laying condition
always has a large amount of surplus fat in the
body. How to furnish the available nourishment to
meet the needs of egg-production, and at the same
time prevent the fowls from becoming too fat, is
the problem in feeding. In a word, it consists in
feeding a well-balanced ration in such a manner
that the appetite shall be kept good, which means
that once a day fowls should come eagerly for the
food, preferably in the morning, and once a day
have all the food that they can possibly consume,
preferably at night.
Feeding turkeys.
Turkeys are grain- and insect-eaters. They are
the best of foragers. When very young, they are
the most delicate of poultry. After they “throw
the red,” i. e., show their comb, which they do
when they get their first full plumage, they are
among the most hardy of poultry. The young,
therefore, need great care when they are reared
artificially and in large numbers.
The feed for the first few days should be largely
of bread and milk, made crumbly and mixed with
“not cheese” in the proportion of three of the
former to one of the latter. To this should be
added a little chopped onion. This mixture should be
fed two or three times a day, as much as they will
eat. Once or twice a day they should be given
finely cracked corn, wheat and oatmeal, mixed in
about equal parts. The proportion of bread and
‘milk should be decreased after the second week, at
the same time finely cracked grains and pot cheese
being fed more largely. Fine grit and charcoal
should always be available. Water should be pro-
vided in areceptacle where the young turkeys can-
not become wet. Gradually, as the turkeys grow,
coarsely cracked or whole grain may be used, and
a good grade of beef scrap gradually substituted
for the “pot cheese.” The latter, however, is to
be preferred.
A board enclosure, one foot high and twelve or
fourteen feet square, placed around the coop on
closely cropped, clean grass sod, makes a desirable
place to start young turkeys. Until they have
thrown their wing and tail feathers, so as to fly
536 POULTRY
over the board, they cannot be trusted to roam far
from the coop. They should not be allowed at any
time to run in the wet grass, as they are easily
chilled. More young turkeys are lost through
exposure than through improper feeding.
When turkeys are permitted to roam the fields,
which they do in most cases, they will get a large
part of their living. In order to make certain that
they are well fed, and also to induce them to return,
they should always be fed grain at night. This
usually will be corn, although wheat, oats or peas
may be added to advantage.
Turkeys, young or old, should never be permitted
to run with the young or old of the domestic fowl.
They are not so lively, rugged or intelligent as
chickens, and therefore suffer when compelled to
compete with them for food.
When fattening turkeys for market, it is better
to permit them to continue on free range. They
worry in confinement and will not eat well. They
should be fed all the whole corn they will eat at
night. In the morning they should be given corn
meal, middlings and meat scrap, mixed with sour
skimmed milk. This mixture should be about in
the proportion of 60 pounds of corn meal, 30
pounds of wheat middlings, 10 pounds of beef
scraps, and enough sour skimmed milk to make a
thick dough. Turkeys may be finished during the
last week by placing them in dark coops and cram-
ming them by hand with pellets consisting of two
parts of corn meal, two parts of ground oats
(shucks out), one part of wheat middlings, and one
part of meat scraps, mixed with sour skimmed
milk.
The breeding stock should be permitted to roost
in the open air, but be protected from the storms
and winds. This exposure requires fattening foods
to enable the turkeys to keep warm. Whole corn
alone is too fattening. Oats and peas should also
be fed. During the breeding season, one feeding a
day of ground feed, which contains a liberal
amount of meat, should be given. A good mixture
for this purpose is equal parts, by weight, of corn
meal, wheat bran, wheat middlings, ground oats and
meat scraps, mixed with sour or sweet skimmed
milk. Oyster shells and water should be available
at all times.
Literature.
For references, see page 527.
Feeding Water-fowl.
By Geo. H. Pollard.
The most common water-fow] raised in domesti-
cation, and the ones receiving attention here, are
ducks and geese. While these are commonly con-
sidered to be water-fowl, because they delight to
be in the water, the accessibility of a body of
water for swimming purposes is no longer held to
be necessary in raising them.
Feeding ducks.
Under natural conditions, ducks feed on water-
grasses and roots, and on the lower animal life
POULTRY
which inhabits low lands and wet places. Under
the influence of domestication, their habits have
changed somewhat, although their instincts are
much the same as in the wild state. The best feeder
is the man who considers these facts and works as
much as possible along natural lines.
The feeding of breeding birds necessarily differs
somewhat from the feeding of market stock. In
either case, the ration should be made up of such
of the accessible grains and supplies as will furn-
ish a palatable mixture at a minimum or fair cost.
Ducks are voracious feeders, and, in order to save
a profit, waste both in cost and in spending must
be carefully looked after. When breeding birds
have a water-run, coarser and richer food may be
fed more safely than when they do not, as the
extra exercise the ducks take will utilize the
materials more fully. When both free range and
water-ways are to be had, either whole corn,
wheat, oats or barley, or a mixture of any or all,
may be fed, and the ducks will “balance the
ration” for themselves and do well. If there isa
profitable market for the eggs, either for table or
for incubation, it is well to provide a supply of
good beef scrap and feed it in a box or hopper,
allowing the ducks to help themselves. A constant
supply should be kept before them, or it may be
given in such quantities as will produce the results
wanted most economically.
When kept in confinement, and the earliest and
greatest possible number of eggs are wanted, soft
food should be fed night and morning, and a light
feed of hard grains given in the middle of the day.
A good mixture is three parts of corn meal, two
parts of wheat bran, one part of red-dog or low- —
grade feeding flour, one part of cut alfalfa, cut
clover, or vegetables, such as cabbages, turnips or
beets cooked or suitably chopped, and one part of
best beef scrap, or an equal quantity of dried and
prepared fish. When fresh fish can be procured, it
may be fed raw or cooked, if made fine enough.
The mixture is moistened to a crumbly consistency
with cold water. Night and morning, as much of
this or some similar mixture as the ducks will
clean up within fifteen or twenty minutes should
be supplied. If preferred, this mixture may be fed
dry, in which case it should be kept before the
ducks all the time in boxes or hoppers. Obviously,
if fish is used it must be dried and prepared. This
method saves much of the labor, and the labor
cost is one of the heaviest items in the production
of ducks.
Drinking-water should be within reach at all
times. Owing to the habit of washing down their
food, ducks should never be fed without a plenti-
ful supply of water easily available.
When there is green range, no clover or vege-
tables need be added to the ration. Sometimes it
pays to feed more meat and meal in the laying sea- —
son and less in the dry months. Gluten, hominy
chops, or any of the various food-stuffs, may be
substituted in the above ration, and a close watch
of effects will determine which is the most profit-
able under the special conditions of the feeder.
The main point to keep in mind is that full feeding
POULTRY
of satisfying feeds is generally the most profitable,
-and in this respect the freest spender is the best
saver.
Young ducks intended for market must be pushed
from hatching to killing time. All the profit to be
made depends on quick growth. The leading factor
in this growth is a proper supply of animal food in
some palatable form. High-grade beef scrap is the
main dependence of most growers. Properly pre-
pared fish will answer as well. Some growers object
to fish, on the ground that it flavors the carcass of
the duckling. Unless it is an oily, rancid prepara-
ation, it will seldom cause such trouble.
Ducklings should not be fed until they are thirty-
six to forty-eight hours old. The first feed may be
a mixture of two-thirds wheat bran and one-third
corn meal, moistened with water or milk, and with
a raw egg stirred in with each quart of the grain.
Tt is moistened only enough to make a slightly
damp, crumbly mass. A little sand or prepared grit
is added, and this feed is kept before the ducklings
for forty-eight hours. The attendant must be care-
ful to renew it before souring, and feed only sweet
food. Clean water must be provided in such kind
of fountain or vessel as will let the ducklings get
their bills and heads but not their *bodies into the
water. Water should be kept before them night
and day, until killing time. To prevent their play-
ing in it, some growers water only at feeding time
after the ducklings are a few days old. They should
not be allowed water-runs, if the quickest growth
is wanted.
By the time the ducklings are one week old, they
should be getting as much as 5 per cent of beef
scraps, and three parts of wheat bran, and two
parts of corn meal. The proportions should be
changed gradually, until at six weeks old the meal
and bran are equal, and the beef scrap amounts
to 15 per cent of the whole. After the first few
days, the feed should be given four times a day
until six weeks old, and then three times until
the ducks are marketed. On this simple ration,
ducks can be carried to a good market condition at
ten weeks old. If there is too great looseness of
the bowels, the proportion of scrap should be
reduced for a time. Many persons feed a greater
proportion of meal the last two or three weeks.
Green food is greatly relished by the ducklings,
but too much must not be fed, or the skin will
become yellow; the best markets prefer white-
skinned ducks and geese. Wheat bran helps greatly
in this respect, as well as in growing the frame.
It is well to provide a constant supply of crushed
oyster shell, and gravel or grit.
The rations given for both old and young birds,
while general, are sufficient, although they may be
varied greatly to suit conditions and the cost of
different grains. Dry-feeding, or the feeding of a
mixture of ground grains in a dry state, is yet in
an experimental stage. The success of this system,
which is coming into general use with other poultry,
would revolutionize the business of growing market
ducks. The grain mixture is left before them at
all times, and the hoppers or boxes are filled only
as fast as emptied by the ducklings, which may
POULTRY 5387
be once or twice a week if the holders are suffi-
ciently large. There is yet some question whether
the ducklings can be grown as big in ten or twelve
weeks, at which age the pin-feathers start’ and
they should be dressed. If permitted to run three
or four weeks longer, they will gain one to two
pounds in weight and will again be in condition
for marketing. On the later hatches, at least, it
seems as if the great saving in labor and the gain
in weight would more than pay for the extra four
weeks of keep.
Ornamental ducks and pet stock may be fed any-
thing they will eat, save a too full ration of fat-
tening foods. When only a few are kept, the hard
grains will answer for the old stock most of the
time, and the young may have any simple mixture
of soft food. Green food may be given as freely
as convenient. As quick growth is not a necessity,
there is no need of the great forcing which must
be given market birds.
Feeding geese.
When given the opportunity, geese graze almost
as freely as cattle. This fact leads many persons
to suppose that a grass range is all that is neces-
sary for growing market geese. This is a mistake.
Breeding geese will do well on a grass range, espe-
cially if a low meadow or marsh with considerable
water. In winter they should have a moderate
grain feed and a liberal allowance of roots, cab-
bage, or other succulent food, but not too much of
a fattening nature. The closer the confinement
the more care is necessary in this respect. Geese
fatten readily, and the breeding stock should not
be permitted to put on too much weight.
At about laying time, the attendant should begin
to increase the feed and give twice a day a liberal
ration, containing considerable animal food in some
form. The ordinary duck foods will answer. After
the grass has a good start, one full feed of grain a
day will do if the geese have sufficient range.
Geese wash down their food much the same as
ducks, and water should always be accessible at
feeding time.
Goslings do best when they have a limited range
on fresh, tender grass. This they eat freely, and
they may be grown on it after a fashion; but
they will never make the size, and will fatten less
rapidly than when fed a proper grain ration. On
grass range, and given a food similar to that for
young ducklings, and fed as often, they will grow
rapidly and make weight faster than any other
poultry. When grass-fed geese are fattened for
the market, they may be fed corn meal with 10 per
cent of beef scrap added. This may be scalded or
wet with cold water. Whole corn may be fed once
a day. It usually takes about four weeks to fatten
them properly. Gravel or grit in some form should
always be within reach.
Ornamental and fancy geese may be fed the
same as ornamental ducks, and for the same
reasons.
Literature.
For references, see page 527.
538 POULTRY
Fattening Poultry. Fig. 531-539.
By W. R. Graham.
Much of the poultry offered for sale on our mar-
kets is thin in flesh and poorly dressed,—a testi-
mony to the lack of skill or
care on the part of the grower.
The majority of the chickens
now sold represent a waste.
Not only are they inferior in
quality and quantity of flesh,
but they are very unsatisfac-
tory to the buyer. It is the
purpose of this discussion to
deal almost entirely with the
fattening, or perhaps oae
should say the “fleshening,”
of chickens, and to suggest
how it may be accomplished.
What applies to chickens will
apply largely
to fowls also.
As with other
classes of live-stock, much de-
pends on the condition of the
subject that is to be fed, whether
it is old or young, large or
small, bred from meat-producing
breeds and of a strain in which
this habit is well established, or
from a strain that has no partic-
ular ability to put on flesh with
economy.
Fig. 531.
Fowl with well-devel-
oped breast.
Fowl with very
poor breast
development.
The type for meat-production.
The writer has paid considerable attention to
the question of type for meat-production, and begs
to submit the following discussion taken from Bul-
letin No. 151, published by the Ontario Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Toronto :
“When looking over dressed poultry in some of
the exporters’ shops, I have often thought how easy
it would be to improve the appearance of much of
the ordinary poultry, and some of that which is
specially fattened, if the birds were bred to a
proper type. I have spent much time in examining
different types of birds, alive and dressed, and in
observing the feeding capacity of certain types;
but it would take years to arrive at definite con-
clusions on these points. I am of the opinion, how-
ever, that one of the most important things to be
sought is constitution. This may have no actual
market value, but it certainly has much to do with
the bird’s ability to grow and put on flesh. What
we want is a good feeder and an economical pro-
ducer. Generally, a bird with a short, stout, well-
curved beak, a broad head (not too long), and a
bright, clear eye, has a good constitution. I have
noticed that when a bird has a long, narrow beak,
a thin, long comb and head, and an eye some-
what sunken in the head, it is usually lacking in
constitution. Such a bird is likely to have a
narrow, long body and long legs, on which it sel-
dom stands straight. There are some exceptions
to this rule ; yet, generally speaking, if a bird has
POULTRY
a good head the chances are favorable for a good
body; and if it has a poor head the chances:
are against it. I have frequently noticed in the
rose-comb breeds, such as Wyandottes, that a good-
shaped one is seldom found with a long, narrow
comb.
“The neck should be moderately short and stout,
indicating vigor. The breast is the most impor-
tant point in a market chicken. It should be broad
and moderately deep; and if broad, it will present a
fine appearance and appear well-fieshed. It is quite
possible that a broad, deep breast will carry more
meat than a moderately deep breast of the same
width ; yet there is no doubt that the latter will
present much the better appearance, and sell more
quickly and at a higher price in the market. The
breast-bone should be well covered with flesh to
the very. tip.
“When considering the length of the breast, we
must try to have it come well forward (Fig. 531),
and not be cut off at an angle, as in Fig. 532. The
body, in general, should present the appearance of
an oblong when the head, neck and tail are removed.
We frequently see birds that are very flat in front,
and cut up behind, as in Fig. 533. Chickens of this
class have a very short breast; and if the breast
happens to be deep, as it is in this bird, the chicken
will have a very poor appearance when dressed, as
it will show a marked lack of width and length of
breast, with excessive depth. Notice that the head
is narrow and long, the body is narrow, the eye is
bright but slightly sunken,
the legs are long and not
straight under the body. In
Fig. 532, observe the very flat
breast, the length of back, the
long neck and head, the nar-
row comb, the sunken eye,
and the length of legs. The
breast comes fairly well back,
but not well forward. In Fig.
531, the bill is short and stout,
but not so well curved as it
should be. Note the breadth
of head, the prominence and
brightness of the eye, the
short, stout neck, the great
width of the breast, the ful-
ness caused largely by the
breast-
bone ex-
tending well forward, the
short, stout legs (straight
under the body), and the width
between the legs. There is an
expression about this chicken
that indicates health and the
essence of vigor.
“The back should be broad,
to give lung and heart capac-
ity; and the width should
extend well back to the tail-
head. We do not want the
Fig. 533.
Fowl that is flat in
front and cut up be-
hind.
: Fig. 534.
wedge-shaped back, as seen in 4 gooa market type
some fowls that have great of fowl.
POULTRY
width at the shoulders and taper rapidly toward
the tailhead.
“Tt is much easier to get good-shaped market
pullets than good cockerels. The market demands
a five-pound bird when dressed, and farmers have
gone into raising big chickens. To that end they
are asking for large, overgrown cockerels, of
excessive depth, for breeders ; the result is that we
get dressed chickens weighing four to five pounds
each, that have immense, high breast-bones and
very long legs. These are not attractive to the
buyers, and they sell at less per pound than plumper
birds. For example, if given two birds of the same
width of breast, one is one and one-half inches
deeper in the breast than the other. The result
will be that one bird will look plump and sell
rapidly, while the other will lack in plumpness and
be slow in selling. This lack of plumpness can be
bred out by using such males as that shown in Fig.
531. We like to have birds as well built as we can
get them, and Fig. 531 is as near the ideal market
chicken as we have in the breed which he repre-
sents. The hen seen in Fig. 534 is a good market
type. Note the width and fulness of breast. As
a breeder, she is a little fine in bone, and rather too
small. She has, however, that blocky appearance
which is desirable. Fig. 5385 represents a cross-
bred chick (sire, Buff Orpington; dam, Houdan).
Note the length and fulness of the breast; also
good beak and eye. Fig. 536 is a picture of a ten-
weeks-old son of the male shown in Fig. 531. You
will observe the same general characteristics as
seen in the father—fair beak, good eye, excellent
breast, both as to length and width, without exces-
sive depth. The thigh is also medium in length.
Fig. 5387 represents the long, narrow sort. Note
the long beak, the narrow head, the sunken eye, the
long neck, and long, crooked
legs. When dressed, his ap-
pearance will not be pleasing.
Fig. 538 shows a good head
throughout, very full and
wide breast, and legs that
stand well under the body and
well apart. This bird is of the
type we like to feed in the
fattening crate.”
The question of size and
age have to be decided largely
by one’s market. It is very
little use
Fig. 536.
Young son of fowl
\,° to try to paoyal in Fig. 531.
+ ote resemblance
satisfy z of characters.
buyer
with a four-pound chicken
when a six-pound one is
wanted. It is the writer’s ex-
perience that healthy, thrifty
birds of such breeds as Ply-
mouth Rocks, Wyandottes,
Orpingtons, make most eco-
nomical gains when they
weigh three to four pounds
each, or at an age of say
three to three and one-half
Fig. 535.
A cross-bred chick,
showing length and
fulness of chest.
POULTRY 539
months. By special feeding for three to four weeks,
the birds will easily dress four to five pounds each.
Large birds, weighing six to seven pounds, cost
more to produce a pound of gain. One need not,
under any consideration, ex-
pect rapid gains or fine-ap-
pearing dressed poultry from
diseased or stunted stock.
The fattening-pen.
The fattening-pen should
be dry and, if possible, well
ventilated and free from
drafts. The birds that are
cooped must not be placed in
direct drafts or many will
take cold. An open shed, with
three sides tight, makes a
good place for early fall or
summer fattening, but for
late fall more protection is
required to
secure the
best gains.
Crate-feed-
ing vs. loose pen-feeding.—For a
number of years the writer has
conducted experiments with
chickens in erates and in loose
pens. He has tried six different
feeders, with varying results.
With some feeders, equally good
results were secured with birds
in crates as in loose pens. In the
case of two feeders in particular,
\ the birds could’ not be fed to
| 2 advantage in loose pens as com-
Pig pared with crates. With one
He el feeder, on the other hand, slightly
Aviones eee OCuLET returns were secured in
type of fowl. Some cases with birds in pens.
The majority of buyers of chick-
ens seem to think that the crate-fed birds are
much superior to those fed in loose pens. The
writer prefers to feed birds in crates, for the rea-
son that it takes lessroom. They are fed with less
expenditure of labor, and a more even profit is
returned. However, there are many persons who
can get good results from feeding birds in box-
stalls and like apartments.
Construction of fattening crates.—A fattening
crate is usually made six feet six inches long,
eighteen to twenty inches high, and sixteen inches
wide. It is divided into three compartments, each
holding four to five birds, according to the size of
the chickens. It is made of slats, except the ends
and partitions between the compartments, which
are solid wood. The slats on the top, bottom and
back run lengthwise of the coop, while those on
the front run up and down. They are usually one
and one-half inches wide and five-eighths inch thick.
Those in front are placed two inches apart to allow
the chickens to put their heads through for feed-
ing. The slats on the bottom are placed about three-
fourths of an inch apart, so as to permit the drop-
Fig. 538.
A good type of fowl
for fattening.
540 POULTRY
pings to pass through to the ground. Care should
be taken not to have the first bottom slat at the
back fit closely against the back. An opening at
this point prevents the droppings collecting and
decomposing. The slats on the top and back are
usually two inches apart. There is a small V-shaped
trough arranged in front of the coop for feeding
and watering the chickens. The trough is two to
three inches deep and is generally made of three-
fourth-inch lum-
ber.
Very fair
coops may be
made from old
packing - boxes,
by taking off the
front and _bot-
tom, and substi-
tuting slats in
their places.
(Fig.539.) When
fattening chickens inside of a building, it is well
to darken the building and keep the birds as quiet
as possible.
Fig. 539.
A single crate or coop for
fattening fowls.
Feeding.
It is somewhat difficult to write clearly on this
subject, as the writer’s experience has been largely
in the production of white-fleshed chickens for
home and export markets. The yellow-skinned
Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes can be made fairly
white if fed on such foods as milk, oats and buck-
wheat. Some years ago, the writer took birds that
were full brothers and fed some on such foods as
the above, while others were fed yellow corn,
boiled pumpkins ‘or red carrots. When the two
lots were killed, one lot was nearly white in color
of skin while the other was yellow. The object in
feeding is not only to make flesh and fat, but also
to soften the muscles. The softer the muscles, the
more tender; and a tender, juicy chicken that
carries plenty of flesh pleases the consumer.
Sour milk has given better returns than sweet
milk. The sour milk appears to aid digestion and
the birds keep in better health when it is fed.
When milk cannot be had, whey is useful, if some
animal meal or beef scrap is fed with it ; not more
than 10 per cent of the ration should be beef scrap.
If nothing but water is available, the meat meal
may be increased to 15 per cent.
The best grain ration is composed of two parts
of very finely ground oats, two parts of finely
ground buckwheat, and one part of ground corn.
This mixture is by weight, not by measure. To the
ground grain, sufficient sour milk is added to make
the mass about the consistency of gruel, or so that
it will drip from a spoon like pancake batter. If
the milk is thick, it will take nearly two pounds of
milk to one of grain. A little salt is added two or
three times a week. The writer feeds not more
than one ounce to one hundred birds. Should the
birds show signs of feather-pulling, the salt should
be slightly increased. Other grain mixtures give
good results. The food must be palatable and the
grain finely ground.
POULTRY
If there is any secret in fattening chickens it is
in the method of feeding. When the birds are first
put in the crates or shut in the pen to be fattened,
they should not be fed anything for the first twenty-
four hours, or until such time as their appetite
becomes keen. During the first week they should
not be fed much more than one-half of what they
would ordinarily eat. The writer usually begins by
feeding one dozen chickens not more than eight to
twelve ounces of grain mixed with about twice as
much milk. After the first week the ration is grad-
ually increased until the appetite is fully satisfied.
Should the feeder fully satisfy the appetite of the
chickens during the first three or four days, or even
the first week they are in the crate, in all proba-
bility the birds will do very poorly. A feeder with
good judgment at no time will over-feed his birds.
He should feed all they will eat after the first week,
but should stop short of the full capacity. If the
feeder can accomplish this, he will be able to get
on an ordinary Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, or what
might be called a general-purpose chicken, one and
one-half to one and three-fourths pounds in three
weeks’ feeding. Cockerels should be fed two weeks
or more before they are killed and sold. The writ-
er’s experience tends to show that if chickens can
be purchased at eight cents per pound, live weight,
and sold plucked, but not drawn, for twelve cents
per pound, a return of fifty cents to one dollar per
hour can be secured for the time it takes to feed
the birds, allowing four to five cents each for pluck-
ing, one dollar and thirty cents per hundred weight
for grain, and twenty cents per hundred weight
for skimmed milk.
Literature.
For references, see page 527.
Capons and Caponizing. Figs. 540, 541.
By T. Greiner.
A capon is a castrated male fowl. The act of
caponizing consists in the removal of the testicles
of acockerel, in order that he may grow larger,
become more gentle, and fatten more readily than
he otherwise would. The castrated cockerel, or
capon, grows somewhat plumper and fatter, even
if not much heavier, than the unaltered male, and
retains much of the tenderness and juiciness of
flesh and the higher meat value of the spring
chicken. Surplus cockerels of the larger yellow-
skinned breeds, as the Brahma, Cochin, Wyandotte,
Plymouth Rock, Indian Game, Rhode Island Red,
and the like, may be, and are now to some extent,
turned into capons and sold in our leading markets
at prices ranging from sixteen cents to over thirty
cents per pound. The Langshan, although white-
skinned, also makes a good, large capon. The
dressed capon of the Brahma, Langshan, and other
large breeds often exceeds ten pounds in weight.
The equipment.
The first thing necessary is a good set of instru-
ments. There are a number of different styles on
the market. One of the best and handiest for the
POULTRY
beginner (Fig. 540) consists of a lance, spreader,
steel hook, probe, a pair of nippers or tweezers and
acanula. For the removal of the testicle, a piece
of fine pliable wire is better than a horse hair (from
the horse’s tail).
Little bits of
sponge are used
to mop up any
blood that may
gather around
the incision, or
in the interior of
the bird while
under the oper-
ation. There is
little cause for
nervousness or
excitement on
the part of the
operator, for the
operation does
not appear to
SS
SS sil
= arin tt
)
Fig. 540. Acaponizingset. Beginning
at the top: Lance, spreader, nip-
pers, probe, steel hook, canula.
cause much suf-
fering or incon-
venience to the
bird. If a blood-
vessel is accidentally ruptured, as may happen in a
small percentage of the cases, the bird will quickly
die under the operator’s hands, and may be used
for the table.
The operation.
The operation is simple, and may be learned from
printed instructions without actual practical dem-
onstration. If the beginner has a chance to see it
performed, all the better. The testicles are removed
through an incision, about an inch in length, made
between the last two ribs (those next to the hip,
Fig. 541). The expert operator usually takes both
testicles from one opening, on the left side. But to
undertake this task usually means failure for the
beginner, who will find it far less difficult, and less
inconvenient and dangerous for the bird, to cut
both sides, taking one testicle
from each side.
To prepare the cockerel for
the operation, let him go with-
out food for thirty to thirty-six
hours. This is necessary so that
the bowels will be empty, al-
lowing the testicles to be seen
and removed more easily. The
beginner must be able to see
what he is doing, and he there-
fore needs good light,—subdued sunlight. The hours
nine to eleven in the forenoon and two to five in
the afternoon, during July, August and early Sep-
tember, are the best. The expert can caponize on
dark days, and at any hour of the day. He knows
the exact location of the organs and can find them
without being able to see them plainly. The begin-
ner must see them for safe operation. During the
noon hours on a clear day, the sun’s rays being
intercepted by the operator’s head, so deep a shadow
is cast that nothing inside the fowl can be seen to
Fig. 541.
Diagram of ribs.
Dotted line shows
where to cut.
POULTRY 5AL
advantage. With the sun nearer the horizon, say
half way between there and the. zenith, the table
or barrel on which the bird is fastened may be
tilted enough to catch the direct sun rays through
the incision so that the beginner can plainly see
the interior organs.
A rather lean bird, weighing two pounds or less,
is a better subject for the operation than a fleshy
one of much heavier weight. Fasten the bird on
its left side, in any convenient way, on a plain,
light operating table, or on the head of a barrel.
A good, simple method is to loop a cord around the
wings, near the body, and have a weight fastened
to the free end, suspended from the side of the
table or barrel. Another cord is looped around the
legs just above the feet, with a weight hanging
down on the other side of the table or barrel. This
will hold the victim firmly in proper position. Pluck
the few small feathers that are found over the last
ribs close to the hip, pull the skin toward the hip
with the left hand, while the right hand, holding
the lance, makes the incision with a quick but
careful dip. There is seldom much bleeding. Any
blood may be mopped up with a sponge moistened
with warm water or a very weak solution of car-
bolic acid. With healthy birds there is no danger
from blood poisoning. Insert the spreader to keep
the cut surfaces apart. With the fine steel hook,
carefully tear the thin membrane (peritoneum)
that covers the intestines and bring the interior
organs to full view. If the testicle is not already
in plain sight, introduce the small ring of the
probe and push the bowels aside until the object
sought after is found. Next slip the fine wire loop
of the canula around the testicle, and by twisting
and pulling the wires, detach that organ and pull
it up through the incision. The cord or membrane
to which it is attached may have to be severed,
say an eighth or a quarter of an inch from the
testicle, with the lance. Remove the spreader and
let the skin slip back over the wound. Then turn
the bird over on the right side, and go through
the same proceeding as before on the other side.
Loosen the capon and mark him in any way
desired, if by nothing more than by cutting off the ,
end of one of his toes. Give him his freedom and
plenty to eat. He will have a ravenous appetite
and grow rapidly, and finally get very fat. The
wound heals over perfectly in less than ten days,
so that only a light scar is left.
For a week or so after the operation, capons are
usually given soft food only, and had better be
kept in a yard by themselves. If wind-puff (a
gathering of air under the outer skin) occurs, it is
easily relieved by pricking the skin with a sharp-
pointed sterilized pen-knife. Capons may be kept
until the winter or spring following, and then killed
for use or sale. At times they have been used for
brooding newly hatched chicks.
Literature.
Dow, Capons and Caponizing, Clarence C. DePuy,
publisher, Syracuse, N. Y.; Greiner, Capons for
Profit, Cyphers’ Incubator Company, Buffalo, N. Y.
[For further references, see page 527.]
542 POULTRY
Incubation and Brooding. Fig. 542-546.
By Charles A. Cyphers.
On commercial poultry-farms, the artificial incu-
bating and brooding of chicks is an accepted prac-
tice. It has long since passed the experimental
stage. It has contributed no small part to the
development of an extensive commercial poultry
industry. A knowledge of the principles involved
is a necessary part of a poultryman’s equipment.
Chickens are grown artificially because it is
difficult to get enough broody hens to hatch the
eggs in large numbers, and hens do not sit during
the months when it is desired to raise the birds.
Small chickens are raised through the winter for
broiling and frying, and large roasting chickens or
capons are hatched and reared through the fall and
winter, to be marketed in the spring, when the sup-
ply of soft roasting chickens produced under natural
A modern incubator, small size.
Fig. 542.
methods during the spring and summer has been
consumed. These winter and spring birds bring
high prices. Large producers of market eggs hatch
and rear their birds artificially in the early spring
months before the hens begin to sit. By so doing,
they are able to get their birds developed and to
lay in the early fall. Marketeggs bring high prices
in the fall and winter, because the larger number
of hens are still hatched under natural methods in
the late spring and early summer, and they do not
begin to lay until spring, leaving a period in the
fall and winter when there is a short supply.
Incubation.
The essential feature of incubation is to apply
to the egg a constant warmth of about 102° Fahr.
In nature, we find the parent bird sitting on the
eggs, imparting to them the warmth of the body.
The only exception we find to this in nature is in
the Megapodes, or Mound-birds, which are native
to the Philippine islands, the islands of the Indian
archipelago and Australasia. A huge mound of
POULTRY
decaying vegetable matter is raised, the eggs are
deposited vertically in a circle at a certain depth,
and the chick is developed with the aid of the heat
of fermentation.
There is a theory that the heat of the sun is suf-
ficient for incubation in tropical climates ; and the
ostrich is said to leave her eggs to be hatched by
the heat of the sun’s rays alone, when she breeds
in the region of the equator. This is a fallacy, how-
ever, as a steady continuous temperature of about
102° Fahr. is requisite for successful incubation.
The heat of the sun, alternating with the cold of
night, would hatch no bird’s egg. The ostrich
deposits about fifteen eggs in a hollow of the sand,
the male bird helps to incubate, and the young are”
excluded in thirty-five or forty days, according to
the species. The body of the parent bird not only
protects the egg from the chill of night, but also
from the heat of the sun during the day. It imparts
its own even body warmth to theegg. [See Ostrich,
page 511.]
When a fertile egg is laid and becomes cold, the
germ remains dormant until heat is applied, when
this stimulus rouses the sleeping energy to vital
‘action. The embryo is dependent on an external
source for the warmth necessary to its full develop-
ment. In other words, all vital action requires a
certain amount of heat for its due performance,
and can continue only within a certain definite
range of temperature, within the limits of which
it is excited by the additional application of the
heat, and depressed by its abstraction. This is no
less true of the embryonic life within the ineubat-
ing egg, than it is with the adult. In the adult,
heat is obtained by endowing the body itself with
the means of generating warmth, and this heat
generated within the body is subject to constant
regulation through the equalizing powers of the
animal organism. With the developing embryo in
the egg, which has no power to maintain its own
temperature, and is wholly dependent on external
influences for its development, an even tempera-
ture of 102° must be maintained for the full period
of incubation. With domestic hen eggs, this period
is twenty-one days; with duck eggs, twenty-eight
days; with geese eggs, thirty-five days. Ostrich
eggs require the longest period of incubation, vary-
ing from thirty-five to forty days, according to the
species.
The origin of the artificial hatching of bird’s eggs
is obscure. We have authentic accounts of the
Egyptian methods as practiced in the twelfth cen-
tury. Large ovens, or mammals, of sun-dried brick
were constructed. These were made large enough
for the attendant to enter and work around and
handle the eggs. They were heated with smudge
fires, and the proper temperature determined by
the sense of touch.
The Chinese were among the first to practice the
art. The eggs were packed between layers of por-
ous paper, and were placed for the first few days
in a closed closet or bin, where they were heated
with a charcoal fire. After a certain degree of
development of the chick was established, the ani-
mal heat generated within the egg was utilized to
POULTRY
‘effect incubation. This close packing made it nec-
essary to expose the eggs to the air for a short
period each day, in order to supply sufficient oxy-
gen to complete the development of the embryo.
A day or two before exclusion, the eggs were
unpacked and laid on shelves between layers of
porous paper until they began to hatch, when the
top layer was removed. The rooms in which the
eggs were placed were kept warm by utilizing the
heat of the sun; and the temperature was regu-
lated by the use of shutters. The art was thus
practiced only in warm climates, and its successful
performance required long experience ; so that the
trade was usually handed down from father to son.
Modern artificial incubating and brooding bear
but little resemblance to the ancient art. Both the
English and French built hatching ovens heated
by coal fires about 1770; but portable incubators
ur did not come
into existence,
as far as we
can tell by the
patent office
records, until
1846. It was
not until about
1880 that port-
able hatching
machines came
into popular
use. In the
past thirty years, portable artificial hatchers have
been the subject matter for a great many patents.
Various contrivances have been perfected for dif-
fusing the heat in the hatching chamber so that all
the eggs may receive the same degree of heat ; and
various regulating devices have been designed for
controlling the temperature.
The commercial incubator (Fig. 542) or hatching
machine has an incubating chamber with heavy
walls to insulate it from outward changes in tem-
perature. To diffuse the heat evenly, some manu-
facturers use a circulation of hot air, while others
use a radiator placed in the upper part of the egg-
chamber, in which warm water circulates. The air
or water is warmed by a small oil or gas heater
attached to the side of the incubator. The temper-
ature in the ege-chamber is controlled by a ther-
mostat, which acts on levers and valves to regulate
the height of the lamp or gas flame, or to regulate
the flow of heated air into the incubating chamber.
The young chick.—After the chicks are hatched
they are left in-the incubator twenty-four to thirty-
six hours to dry and to keep warm. The baby chick
is particularly sensitive to the slightest draft. It is
thinly clad, has little power of resistance, and can-
not keep up its temperature in a cool room. The
power cf resistance increases with its development.
Within the egg, while the embryo is developing, it
is immersed in a fluid, and breathes in like manner
to a fish, by means of an outer circulatory system
called the allantois. A short time before the chick
is excluded from the shell, the lungs, which have
previously been filled with the fluid, begin to dry
out, and the chick has a double circulation. That is,
Fig. 543. Double indoor brooder.
POULTRY 543
it begins to breathe by inhaling the air contained
in the egg at this time into the lungs, while the
circulation in the allantois is gradually decreasing.
As the chick breaks the shell the circulation in the
allantois ceases, and then it depends entirely for
Fig. 544. Interior view of double indoor brooder, ready for
hover cover.
the aération of the blood on the lungs. The change
from the aquatic state to the aérial state is rapid,
and when the chick is first excluded from the shell
the vitality is low. It requires a few days before
the circulation has become strong enough to give
the chick any resisting force.
Brooding.
To help the chick maintain its temperature when
it is artificially reared, not only is it necessary that
it should have a place in which it can be kept warm
by day, but it must have a place to sleep where
the temperature is within a few degrees of the
normal blood temperature. For this purpose, an
artificial mother is provided, commonly called a
brooder. (Figs. 548, 544.) This is usually divided
into three compartments: A sleeping compartment
or hover; a nursery in which the hover is placed
and where the chicks are fed and confined for the
first week ; and a temperate exercising room. For
the first week the hover temperature is kept at 95°
to 100°, and the nursery temperature at 80° to 85°.
This high temperature enables the newly hatched
chick to keep up its normal temperature until its
Fig. 545. Interior of brooding house, showing (eight-pipe)
hot-water system.
vital forces are sufficiently developed to enable it
to withstand a colder temperature. After the chick
is six or seven days old, it is given a little more
freedom, a little more exercising room, a little
colder air to breathe. In this manner it is grad-
ually hardened until it can maintain its own tem-
perature in the outer atmosphere. For a time after
the chick is first let out of the brooder, the temper-
ature of the nursery and hover is kept up, so that
should the chick feel chilly it may run to the hover
for warmth. Because of the liability of the chick
544 POULTRY
to become chilled if it strays too far from the
brooder, it is confined to a space near the brooder
for a week or two, and, in the early spring, when
the weather is still chilly and damp, for a longer
period.
For brooding during the cold winter months,
large houses are constructed, heated with hot-
water pipes. (Fig. 545.) This heating system is
controlled by an electric regulator so that the tem-
is
Fig. 546. A fifty-foot nursery brooder, capacity 2,500 chicks.
perature varies but a few degrees. A large colony
brooder that has been in operation is indicated in
Fig. 546. :
When growing broilers in the winter, the chicks
are confined to a brooding house until they weigh
one to two pounds before killing, according to the
season and market demands. In growing winter
roasting chickens, the cockerels are caponized at
about two pounds in weight, after which they are
removed to colder houses and grown to large size.
In growing laying birds for egg-production, the
birds are usually hatched in the late winter and
early spring months. When about twelve weeks
old they are placed out on grass runs in small col-
ony houses scattered over the fields. Here the birds
get plenty of insect life and green food, and with
the fresh air and exercise develop strong, vigorous
constitutions that will withstand the strain of
heavy egg-production.
Literature.
The literature on this subject is meager. For
references, see page 527.
Preparing and Marketing Poultry Products, and
the Care of Eggs. Figs. 547-551.
By D. J. Lambert.
Poultry designed for market, if well fed and
cared for from the shell, will take on flesh rap-
idly when cooped and given extra feed for two
weeks previous to killing. An abundance of fat is
not so desirable as a plump, well-rounded carcass
POULTRY
of fine-grained, soft, tender meat of superior table
quality.
Chickens of the same age should be cooped
together, four or six in each pen. Coops should
be slatted two inches apart to allow plenty of air.
The bottom slats may be one-half inch apart. The
coops should set up off the ground in a dry, shel-
tered place. The food should be equal parts of
wheat bran, corn meal and ground oats, cooked or
scalded, or corn bread, wheat bread and milk. All
that will be eaten three times a day should be fed
in troughs placed directly in front of the slatted
pens. Clean, cool water should be kept constantly
before the fowls. No onions or meat food should
be given during this special preparation. Uni-
formity of size is secured by selecting those of
the same breed and age.
Young chickens, weighing one to one and one-
half pounds each, are termed squab-broilers, and
bring best prices in January. As the season ad-
vances, the prices decline, and then the demand
is for two- to two-and-one-half pound chickens ;
these are called club-house or Philadelphia broilers.
Later and larger market chickens, weighing three
to three and one-half pounds each, are sold as
fryers at a still lower price. Roasters, ranging
from four pounds each upwards, are in constant
demand. Capons at the age of eight or ten months
usually are ready for market, and weigh eight to
twelve pounds each, according to the breed. Fowls
are hens one year old and over. Old males are
classed as stags or roosters ; they are invariably
hard in flesh and bring the lowest prices of any
market poultry.
Young ducks should be sent to market when ten
or twelve weeks old. They are rapid growers, and
by that age will be nearly matured and in prime
condition, if well fed and not allowed water for
swimming. Green geese (goslings ten or twelve
weeks of age) are marketable at highest prices. A
large goose will also sell well in November and
December. Geese are good foragers, subsisting
mainly on grass and green food, but will need
special grain rations for a month before marketing.
Turkeys command best prices at Thanksgiving
time. A feed of whole corn at evening when they
come home to roost will fatten them rapidly.
Turkeys worry in confinement and should not be
cooped longer than is necessary.
Methods of preparation.
Coop twenty-four hours previous to killing;
give plenty of water to drink, but. no food. This
will cause the crop to be empty. Nearly all mar-
ket poultry is now sold with the head on and
undrawn, although some states have laws that it
must be drawn before being offered for sale. The
fast will cause it to look and keep better in the
shambles.
There are several methods of killing and pick-
ing. The most popular is to hang the bird by the
feet by a stout cord suspended from a hook over-
head. (Fig. 547.) It is well to have a large wooden
button on the end of the cord so that with one
twist around the shanks of the fowl it can be fast-
POULTRY
ened quickly. After locking the wings, by putting
one over the other, over the back, stun by a blow
on the top of the head with a billet of hard wood ;
then immediately draw a sharp knife across the
roof of the mouth, deep enough to pierce the brain.
Grasp the wings as soon as possible, and, when the
blood begins to flow
freely, begin pick-
ing, starting with
the breast, which is
the most important
part of market
poultry and should
not be torn. Do not
attempt to pull out
many feathers at
once; a few each
time in rapid suc-
cession will clean
the bird while
warm. One of the
barrels underneath
is for offal and
coarse feathers, and
the other for the
soft feathers. As
soon as the bird
ceases to struggle, both hands can be used in pick-
ing. A dull knife for removing pin-feathers should
be kept handy. All kinds of poultry, except ca-
pons, are picked clean, except the wing tips and
neck for about two inches from the head. With
capons, the feathers are left on the head, wings,
tail, and on about two inches of the lower part of
the thighs just above the shanks.
When the head is to be removed before market-
ing, the bird need not be stunned, but may be
quickly killed by inserting a sharp knife near the
throat just back of the ears, turning the sharp
edge over against and breaking or dividing the
first joint of the neck. This causes profuse bleed-
ing. The bird immediately loses consciousness and
loosens its feath-
ers. This is per-
haps the most hu-
mane method.
If the operator
prefers to sit while
picking, a large box
is provided with its
upper edges on a
level with his knees.
First stun the bird
by a sharp blow
against a post or a
very hard surface.
Then hold the bird
under the left arm
with its head in the
left hand and the
knife in the right.
Open the mouth and cut deep across the roof, going
well up into the brain. As soon as profuse bleeding
is started, grasp the bird by the shanks in the left
hand, lay the breast up across the knees, the head
C3
Fowl suspended for picking.
4 We
Fig. 548. Position for picking a fowl
in a sitting posture.
POULTRY 546
being held between the knee and the box (Fig.
548), and pluck as rapidly as possible with the
right hand. While this method allows a sitting
posture, the picker has only one hand free to work
with, as he holds the bird with the other.
The cleanest and perhaps the least difficult way
to kill a chicken or fowl is as follows: Grasp the
bird by the shanks with the left hand and the head
with the right hand, with the thumb and the fore-
finger just back of the head, the second finger
being bent around so that its point comes directly
under the bird’s lower mandible. Straighten your-
self up so as to give a steady vigorous pull with
both hands until the neck is dislocated. The bird
will be easy to pick and all blood will collect in
the broken part of the neck.
In some instances, when poultry is sold to a
home trade, it is scalded before picking. The
kettle or boiler in which the scalding is to be
done should be large enough to contain the entire
body at once. The water should be at or near the
boiling point. The head and shanks should not
touch the hot water unless they are to be re-
moved before marketing, for they
would then present an unsightly
appearance. After the bird has
finished struggling, take it by the
feet in one hand, the head in
the other, and submerge it in the
hot water, drawing it backward
through the water two or three
times ; then remove and place on
a table and pick as rapidly as pos-
sible, being careful not to bruise
the skin. As soon as the bird is
picked clean it may be plumped by
submerging again for five or six
seconds in the hot water, and then Fig. 549
put in iced or cold water and left 4 piucked capon.
there until thoroughly cool.
Dry picking is preferable, because the stock
thus dressed will keep better, look nicer and bring
best prices. The methods of killing apply to all
kinds of poultry, although the bloodless method
would be a difficult task with geese or turkeys
and should not be attempted with them.
In cold weather, after picking and washing feet
and heads, the birds can be hung in a clean cool
place and kept from freezing until shipped. In
warm weather they should first be soaked in iced
or very cold running spring-water to remove
all animal heat. This plumps them somewhat, also,
and they can be quickly washed and dried a few
hours before shipping. If put in V-shaped troughs
and weighted, they are given a plumper and more
compact appearance than when they are hung by
the shanks.
Shipping and marketing.
Each bird should be wrapped in waxed paper,
and in very warm weather packed with ice. The
boxes for shipping may be of various sizes, as long
as they are large enough to contain a dozen or more
birds, and not too large to be easily handled. Pack
in two rows, with the heads towards the middle of
546 POULTRY
the box. Two or three layers can be put in a box,
provided ice is packed between each two layers in
hot weather. Put ice on top of the birds, and cover
the boxes with burlap. The best soft roasters are
often shipped in single layer cases.
The quickest way to dispose of this
product is to ship to some reliable
commission house. If the stock is
choice, not torn, clean picked and
carefully graded, the commission-
house will allow full wholesale market
value, less express charges and com-
f mission. The cases when shipped
should be plainly marked for whom,
from whom, the number of birds, the
weight and the kind. The same sys-
tem of packing and marketing should
be used when shipping to dealers or
In addition, this class of
trade should first be visited, written
or telephoned to, and a bargain made
as to the number and size wanted, and the prices
to be paid for them. Probably the most profitable
trade is to sell to the consumers themselves, when
the distance is not too great, although sometimes
the expresses will deliver for less than can the
producer.
Feathers, when dry picked and sorted so as to
keep the stiff from the soft, and the white from the
colored, have a market value worth considering.
All colors of soft chicken feathers bring 43 to 10
cents per pound, and pure white bring 20 cents
per pound. Duck feathers bring 33 to 42 cents per
pound, goose feathers 42 to 60 cents per pound,
goose quills 15 cents per pound. Long, bright-
colored chicken feathers are sold for millinery pur-
poses at about $1 per pound. The stiff turkey feath-
ers are in great demand for feather dusters and the
like. Feathers are cured in sacks of thin material
exposed to the sun and air for several days. They
can be sold and shipped in these original sacks.
Fig. 550.
Plymouth Rock retailers.
hen properly
dressed.
Care of eggs.
Eggs for market will keep better from spoiling
*f not fertilized. Those from mated pens should be
kept from warmth and heat over 60 degrees. The
laying nests should be well supplied with dry saw-
dust or some clean absorbent. The eggs that be-
come soiled should be wiped with adamp cloth and
never submerged in water if they are to be kept
more than one week. The natural color of the shell
is not indicative of the quality of the contents,
although the preferences of the market should be
catered to, if one wishes to secure best prices.
Brown-shelled eggs are usually larger than white-
shelled ones, because all the larger breeds except
one lay brown eggs, or those from a delicate pink
to a light chocolate. The color of the yolk is con-
trolled by feeding green foods rich in ash and pro-
tein. Eggs are porous and susceptible to taint from
bad odors. Care must be taken to keep them in
clean, cool places. Marking the shells in any way
is not desirable. Cartons holding one dozen eggs
can be purchased from paper dealers. These have
specially printed covers, “One Dozen Fresh Eggs,”
POULTRY
etc., and can be used several times if desired,
Cases holding fifteen or thirty dozen each, for
shipping to the trade, are popular sizes. (Fig. 551.)
Deliveries and shipments should be made each week;
if a private trade, on the same day of each week.
There are wire fillers for the cartons that display
the eggs very attractively, but require more time
in placing the eggs and removing them from the
trays. With the straw-board fillers, each egg is in
a separate compartment, and there is little danger
of breakage. If one becomes cracked, the leakage
is usually confined to the one compartment.
The prices fluctuate during the different seasons,
highest prices being reached just previous to
Thanksgiving time, and continuing until the latter
part of January. The price then gradually declines
until the latter part of March or first part of April,
when lowest ebb is reached. By June 1 the market
recovers, and the price gradually increases until
November. The weather at times may affect prices.
It is during these low-price periods that the surplus
is bought up for cold storage or for the different
methods of preservation, Those intended for cold
storage must be absolutely fresh, free from dirt and
packed in standard size thirty-dozen cases and the
fillers must be free from mold, dirt or odors of any
kind. Cold-storage plants begin operations as soon
as the lowest prices are reached, about April 1, and
continue until the latter part of May. During warm
weather the quality of eggs deteriorates and they
do not keep so well as when cooler. The market
for these cold-storage goods opens in the fall and
continues until Christmas.
Eggs should be gathered every day, and all
broody hens removed from the house. If a nest is
found in an unusual place, the eggs should be tested
with a lighter before selling.
Preserving eggs.—There are several methods of
preserving eggs during the period of low prices and
keeping them wholesome until they will bring
higher prices, but none by which they can be kept
any length of time and sold as fresh-laid ones.
The shells may be covered
with melted paraffin or vase-
line to prevent evaporation,
and they will not spoil so
long as they are kept cool
and turned every few days.
Packing in common salt and
turning occasionally is an-
other method. The contents
remain sweet and whole-
some, but the albumen will
not beat up as it will in
fresh-laid ones. The shell will lose its freshness
and the eggs will not remain good long after being
taken out of the preservatives, and they should be
designated as preserved eggs when offered for sale.
The best method of preservation is as follows:
One part of water-glass (sodium silicate) mixed
with nine parts of boiled spring water. Put the
eggs in a stoneware crock when gathered from the
nests, if cool and clean, until the crock is nearly
full; then pour in the water-glass solution until
there is at least two inches of liquid over the top
| 380 :D0zZ
FRESH EGGS
Fig. 551.
Cases for egg shipping.
Rhode Island Red hen
Partridge Cochin hen
White Rock hen
M4
[s)
8
o
8
us}
qa
ij
D
B
2
|
B
Dark Brahma hen
Light Brahma cock
Prominent breeds of fowls
Plate XIX.
POULTRY
layer of eggs. Keep inacool place. If carefully
done, this method is reliable.
Another successful method is to slake two pounds
of good lump lime, and while hot add one pound of
common salt. After cooling, add ten quarts of
boiled spring water and stir thoroughly several
times the first day. Then let it settle, using only
the clear liquid, which may be poured over the
eggs after they have been placed in a stoneware
erock ; or the liquid can first be put in the crock
and the eggs put in that, day by day, when
gathered. The eggs must always be two inches
below surface. More of the solution can be put in
when necessary. Stoneware vessels are the most
desirable ones for keeping these mixtures in.
Hggs are sometimes removed from the shells,
canned and kept in cold storage or frozen, and sold
to large consumers. The most wholesome method
is evaporation. The egg is then reduced to powder
that will keep any length of time, in any climate,
and can be carried to places where poultry-keep-
ing is out of the question, and where all eatables
carried must be reduced to a minimum weight.
The market prices of all kinds of poultry prod-
ucts are affected by the supply and the demand.
During the fall and winter, the surplus fowls and
summer chickens are disposed of and there is an
abundance of table poultry offered for sale. The
lowest prices of the year then prevail until the
bulk of the supply is gone. By April, the chickens
hatched in the previous spring and summer become
hard and tough in flesh and have to be sold as
fowls, while those hatched during the previous
fall, of either sex, if kept separate during the
winter, will be soft and tender and bring roaster
prices, which are the highest in the spring.
The market for fowls is uniform the year round,
except for arise of perhaps two cents per pound
during the spring when all hens are laying and
but few are being marketed. The annual molting
period, July to November inclusive, affects the
supply of eggs, as does the winter weather in any
cold climate, and prices rule accordingly. When
fresh killed poultry and fresh eggs are scarce and
prices high, cold storage products and preserved
eggs are in demand , but never does the held-over
product sell at prices equal to that of recently
killed poultry and fresh eggs.
The regular market reports of prices are usually
reliable when applied to the average quality of
poultry products, yet a superior quality of either
dressed poultry or eggs will sell in advance of any
current published quotations and a good market
is never overstocked with this class of goods.
The retail price is usually 5 cents per pound above
the wholesale price for poultry, and 5 cents per
dozen for eggs. Consumers who desire the best
will pay a premium of 10 cents per dozen on eggs
and 10 cents per pound for poultry that they
know is brought to them direct from the farm.
This particular trade often comes from clubs,
hotels, hospitals and high-class resorts.
Literature.
For references, see page 527.
POULTRY 547
Judging Poultry. Figs. 552-554.
By Y. #. Orr.
Prior to the year 1873, there was but little uni-
formity or system in the methods of judging fowls
at shows. Indeed, until nearly as late adate as the
one mentioned, there were few poultry shows to be
judged. These were nearly all held in the autumn
in connection with some agricultural fair, and were
largely in New York and New England.
In February, 1873, and again in December, 1878,
a few of the leading fanciers met in Buffalo, New
York, and in these two meetings organized the
American Poultry Association. The main purpose
of this organization was to disseminate a more
accurate knowledge of pure-bred fowls, and so to
describe their characteristics of form and feather
that a better system of breeding and judging them
might result. Two meetings were held in 1874 and
in 1875. By this time the real scope of the work
had become manifest, and specific work was being
accomplished. From the first it was realized that a
definite description of both sexes of each variety,
section by section, both in shape and color, was
an absolute essential, and these descriptions were
speedily formulated and tabulated, and then printed
in a book called The Standard.
From that time to the present the work of the
American Poultry Association has not greatly
varied. The publication of Standards and the edu-
cation of breeders and judges to uniformity, has
been its chief work. Of course, in those early days
there were not nearly so many varieties to describe
or judge, so the work was much less comprehensive
than at present. Cochins and Brahmas, Games and
Hamburgs, Leghorns and Polish were the leading
classes seen at shows. Some Dorkings and Spanish
fowls were seen. Barred Plymouth Rocks were
beginning to be heard from. Wyandottes, Lang-
shans and many later additions to the Standard
family were then unknown. Soon a multiplicity
of varieties were knocking for admission to the
Standard, and still it continues, although in the
intervening years a hundred types have secured
admission.
The Standard, with its detailed descriptions, was
no sooner out than the Association deemed it its
duty to put restrictions on those who should inter-
pret the Standard by judging fowls at public exhi-
bitions. Some members of the Association excelled
as fanciers of some breeds, and some of others ; so
a committee was appointed to examine candidates
and license judges. There are those still living
who hold licenses as Specialty Judges and as Gen-
eral Judges. And now again, the practice of licens-
ing judges, abandoned thirty years ago, was
renewed in 1907.
Methods of judging.
There are two distinct and well-known methods
of arriving at a decision in placing awards. One
is by comparison ; the other is by the use of the
score-card. Hach method depends on an accurate
knowledge and a correct interpretation of the
Standard. Hach has its advantages and its advo-
548 POULTRY
cates. Some persons are bitterly opposed to one
method, some to the other. This should not be.
They really stand on the same foundation. One
method, the comparison, depends on an accurate
knowledge of the other, the score-card, for its ele-
mentary principles. Both methods, when accurately
and intelligently applied, should reach exactly the
same results when judging any class, or combina-
tion of classes, at a given show.
Comparison judging.—This is undoubtedly the
older method. It has been employed in England
from the inception of their now
famous exhibitions. It pre-
vailed in America exclusively
until the Standard and the
score-card method were pro-
mulgated by the American
Poultry Association. It is the
method followed today in all
summer and fall shows, for
until fowls have recovered
\\\ ‘)
Fig. 552. Skeleton of cock. 1, Cranium; 2, septum interorbitale;
3, beak; 4, mandible; 5, cervical vertebra; 6, scapula; 7,
humerus; 8, radius; 9, ulna; 10, metacarpal bone; 11,
‘thumb’ bone; 12, ‘‘middle’’ finger; 13, ‘third ’’ finger
(rudimentary); 14, fureula, fork bone or ‘ wish-bone’’;
15, coracoid bone; 16, sternum; 17, crest or keel of ster;
num; 18, ribs; 19, pelvis; 20, candal vertebrw; 21, femur;
22, patella; 23, tibia; 24, fibula; 25, metatarsus; 26, spur;
27, hind toe with two joints; 28, inner toe with three
joints; 29, middle toe with four joints; 30, outer toe with
five joints. (After Ellenberger.)
from their annual molt, and until chicks have be-
came mature in form, size and feather, the score-
card, accurately applied, would show such low
scores that exhibitors could not be induced to come
forward with their birds.
Formerly all entries were made in pairs, a cock
and a hen, or a cockerel and a pullet constituting a
pair. This method still prevails in some fall shows
or in out-of-the-way places. It cannot be discon-
POULTRY
tinued too soon. A poor, or even a disqualified
specimen may chance to be mated with the choicest
bird of the opposite sex in the class, but the hand-
icap is so heavy that the “best bird” wins nothing.
Single entries, single and uniform cooping, and the
entries so classified that all cocks of the same
variety shall be adjacent to each other, likewise the
hens, cockerels and pullets,—this is the only method
that permits a judge to do his best work by this
method. The birds being all in their places, each
coop bearing a distinct coop number, then, and not
until then, is the judge ready to take his first look
at the competitors.
Suppose the judge finds twenty cock birds in the
first class. It will take him but a minute or two to
pass up and down before them and mark on his
memorandum ten birds that he thinks are “not in
it.” But he must not pass them wholly by with
this hurried glance. The exhibitors have all paid
the same entry fee. Each one is entitled to atten-
tion. The judge may find, indeed often does find,
that one of those cocks that he condemned so
quickly, on closer examination, is found to be pos-
sessed of quality not seen at first, that puts him in
the “upper ten,” rather than in the list of “shut-
outs.” It is the safe thing for the judge to handle
every bird. A group of exhibitors at the end of
the aisle or up in the gallery, each anxious about
his entry, may develop among themselves some
jealousy if their birds are not even handled. On
the other hand, if they see the judge going over
and around and through each bird thoroughly, they
will at least give him credit for trying to earn his
money.
We cannot too strongly condemn the practice of
marking the coops with the judge’s private hiero-
glyphics. It is better for the judge to keep a pri-
vate judging card on which he enters the coop
number of each bird in the class ; then, in his pre-
liminary judging, he can mark off some for shape,
some for color, and some for condition. He can then
make his marks for shape, color and the like, on the
good birds that remain. As he finally narrows the
class down to a few birds, he will mark opposite
each bird’s number the strong or weak points of
each section, until he has finally placed the win-
ners in their correct order. He will then transfer
the awards to the secretary’s book, but will keep
the card for his own reference and satisfaction.
This method is a great protection to the judge.
After having, with care, eliminated one-half the
birds in the class, the judge’s hardest work is just
begun. Every bird of the remaining ten may be
worthy of a prize, but, at most, only five of them
can receive recognition, unless it be at some large
exposition, as the one at St. Louis, where seven
awards were made. The judge’s task continues to
be a work of elimination. By going over and over
the best ten birds, the judge begins to come to a
conclusion as to which is the best bird in the class
and which is poorest of the ten, and he makes
memoranda on his card, looking to that result ;
then he decides which is second-best, and which is
the next one to go down and out; and so he con-
tinues until the five best are so marked in their
POULTRY
proper order, and the poorest half of the best ten
have been checked off.
Just at this point comes in the chief advantage
of comparison judging over the score-card method.
With a large and strong class before him, the
judge can generally select for his five prize-win-
ners fowls more uniform as to type than is gen-
erally possible by the score-card. The reason for this
is hard to explain
to the amateur,
but every experi-
enced score-card
judge knows that
when the awards
are placed by the
footing up of the
scores, he has found
that the five birds
scoring highest,
and thus standing
closest together
in the awards, are
sometimes very dissimilar in style and type,
and he will sometimes wish that he could re-
arrange the winners a little, just for the
sake of uniformity. Here is the only excep-
tion the writer will admit to the general rule
laid down in the beginning, that the results
will be the same no matter which method is
followed.
However carefully the judge has made his plac-
ing of the five best birds in the class, he will do
well to spend a little more time and labor before
he hangs up the awards. Let him remember that
his awards will surely be criticised on the score-
card basis; that there are many experts well
posted as to Standard cuts who will not hesitate
to grade the judge pretty low if he makes serious
mistakes. If his first-prize bird is a perfect model
in color, but not typical of his breed, has a bad
comb, a bad eye and a badly carried breast or tail,
he may deserve cuts aggregating six points on
these four sections alone; so the judge must be
careful to estimate the real value of each speci-
men with absolute justice. Again, a judge must
not allow himself to be dazzled or overawed by
the great beauty of some one section. This is the
place above all others where the score-card method
has the advantage of comparison ; it compels delib-
erate, careful work, of which a written record is
made and preserved.
Score-card judging.—By some persons this method
is thought more closely to interpret and apply the
Standard than does comparison judging. It should
not be so. The comparison judge should be just as
familiar with Standard descriptions, and should
apply them just as exactly as does the score-card
judge. The only difference is in the method, not in
the result. In the one case the judge makes a
record in writing of the defects of each section as
he considers it ; in the other, he holds these cuts
and defects in mind, adding to them as he goes
along, until the aggregate thereof is reached, and
this constitutes the value of that bird. He may
not make these cuts in actual figures for each sec-
POULTRY 549
tion, carrying the number in mind until he has
their sum, which, subtracted from one hundred,
gives the final score of the bird ; but he does what
is just as hard when he carries these approximate
cuts clear through, and as he passes each section
institutes a comparison between the bird in hand
and the one that stands next to him in position or
quality.
There are those who maintain that comparison is
easier either for the amateur or for the profes-
sional judge than is score-card-judging. With this
conclusion we cannot agree, especially if the
classes be large and close. Why is the score-card
less laborious? It is easier because the judge
handles each bird but once, and calls off his opinion
of each section to the clerk, who makes a record of
it. He is then done with that bird. It is “out of
sight, out of mind,” so far as he is concerned, and
he proceeds to pass on another bird on the one-
thing-at-a-time method ; whereas, by the compari-
son method, he may come back to the same bird a
dozen times to compare one section with that of
one competitor, and another section with that of
another competitor, before he can finally place the
best birds in their proper order.
The essential qualifications of: a score-card judge
may be enumerated as follows: (1) He must possess
an artist’s eye, that at a single glance he may take
in the bird as an individual, measure his defects in
type and conformation, deduct a proper valuation
for the extent that he falls short of the typical
bird of his breed in style, carriage and conforma-
tion, and place the sum of these defects in the
column of symmetry. (2) He must have an accurate
knowledge of the correct shape of head, comb, neck,
wings, back, tail, and the other parts of the typical
bird of this breed, also of the various cuts that the
Standard prescribes for these defects, so that he
can instantly place a correct valuation on them.
(8) He must have an intimate acquaintance with
shades and colors, not necessarily that he may give
a name to the various shades of color, but have an
accurate knowledge of the color demanded by the
Standard for each section of each variety, so that,
without bringing birds together for comparison, he
may give to each section a just cut for its defects
in color. (4) He
must possess an
intimate knowl-
edge of the com-
binations of
color that make |[/
up the strong |
points of parti-
colored speci-
mens. For ex-
ample, in Barred
PlymouthRocks,
Silver Wyan-
dottes, Silver
Spangled Ham-
burgs, Silver Sebrights, Silver Polish and Light
Brahmas, it is not so much to know that these birds
are a combination of black and white, as to know
just how black and white come together in vari-
PLAS A LLL IZ LL EA
AAAI
Fig. 554. Judging fowls. Removing
the fowl from the cage.
550 POULTRY
ous sections, even in the same feathers. These
combinations, for example in the tail coverts of
the Light Brahmas, and in the flights and wing
coverts of the Silver Wyandottes, are most intri-
cate and delicate; and, in the case of the Silver
Polish, the combination proper in chicks is re-
versed in the adult, a point for which, strange to
say, our Standard does not provide.
Some shows and some judges insist on having
the birds carried by attendants to a central point
at which the judgé and his clerk are seated, with
an open exhibition coop before the judge, into
which the birds are placed, one at a time. This
method is slow, laborious, productive of many mis-
takes, and, worst of all, is utterly unfair to the
birds. To go to the coop of a nervous hen, grab
her by the legs and carry her, head down, to the
judge, as most attendants are sure to do, and throw
her into the judge’s coop, and she will be so flus-
tered and frightened that she may not assume a
natural position for ten minutes. Before that time
has elapsed, the judge has been compelled to pass on
her and several others, and the cuts he has made
on her symmetry, shape of breast and shape of tail
are probably very unjust. It is far better that the
judge pass quietly from coop to coop and size the
birds up as to symmetry and shape, with as little
disturbance as possible. While he is doing this, he
can, in his own skilful way, lift each bird from its
coop and call off the cuts to the clerk, thus com-
pleting each bird as he goes along.
Much can be done by the show management to
facilitate the work of the judge. One of the best
methods is to tack to each coop the score-card for
that bird, giving in duplicate the entry-number,
variety, sex, band-number and weight. As the
judge reaches the coop, he tears off the card at
the perforated line, leaving the duplicate heading
still attached to the coop. When the score-cards
have been footed and filled out, a clerk can pass to
each coop, filling in, on the attached head-piece,
the owner’s name, the score and the award. The
exhibitors are entitled to this much publicity, and
visitors who pay their admission fees are entitled
to this much information. Some shows follow the
practice of tacking to each coop the complete
score-card. This is well, provided a copy of the
card has been recorded on the books of the
association.
Some judges refuse to have a clerk, and not only
fill out, but foot and sign their cards while stand-
ing in front of the coops. This makes “safe”
work for the judge, as it enables him to see the
complete score of each bird, also to locate the win-
ners of each class before he leaves it, correcting
what appear to have been errors in scoring. But
the real judge never does this. He calls off the
cuts for each section in their proper order, which
the clerk records, and then both pass on instantly
to the next specimen. The best judges do not even
foot the scores or touch the score-cards until they
are through with their work, and then go to the
office to “sign up.”
Unless the cards are copied in the records, they
should not be given to exhibitors until the close of
POULTRY
the show. Much trouble results from giving out
the cards too soon.
The one thing that has caused more trouble, the
past two years, than all things else combined, is the
Standard directions for awarding sweepstake and
special prizes. In the opinion of the writer, this is
unfortunate legislation. In the first place, there
should never be a sweepstake prize offered that
brings different breeds or varieties into competi-
tion. All specials should name some one variety
on which they are to be placed. While show com-
mittees continue to offer sweepstakes that involve
different breeds or varieties, the actual scores of
the judge should govern. This would soon make
this class of prizes so unpopular with the fanciers
of weight-clause varieties, that the practice of
offering such specials would be killed. The other
objectionable feature in the paragraph of the
Standard above referred to is that of handicapping
solid-colored specimens in favor of those that are
parti-colored. Under the old Standard, this handi-
cap was one and one-half points. It has since been
reduced to only one point. The idea prevails in
some circles that it is easier to breed a solid-colored
variety than one that is parti-colored. As a breeder
for many years of seven varieties of one breed,
four of these being parti-colored and three of them
being solid-colored, the writer can demonstrate
that it is much easier to breed ten birds of the
parti-colored varieties that will score, honestly,
ninety-two points each, than to get five birds of
the solid-colored varieties that will reach a like
score. The judge who has had long experience,
who has good sight, and who will unhesitatingly
enforce the prescribed Standard cuts for creami-
ness and brassiness in white birds, knows that
there is no bird so rare, even in our largest shows,
as one that is pure white throughout. A buff bird,
pure in color, free from any other shade, is scarcely
less rare. A truly black bird is a trifle easier to
find among the young females, but is still rarer
than parti-colored birds of equally high scores.
Details of scoring. — The symmetry should be
caught before the bird is touched. It means, not
the cutting for ill-shape of the various sections,
but a harmonious union of those various shape sec-
tions so as to make, as a whole, a bird typical of
his own breed, and with a style and finish about
him that is peculiar to the breed in hand.
The weight should have been taken, and recorded
on the card before the judge touches it. He then
makes his weight cuts in accordance with Stand-
ard rules, not forgetting that in American varieties
over-weight is to be punished as well as under-
weight. In non-weight varieties, judges should be
more careful than they are to cut for under size.
Failure to do this in past years has done much
harm to Leghorns and Hamburgs.
Under condition is the place where the careless
exhibitor should be punished, so that the painstak-
ing man, who has kept his fowls in perfect health,
who has not allowed their combs and wattles to
become frost-bitten, who has manicured their shanks
and toes, and has carefully washed and plumed his
birds, will get his due reward.
POULTRY
In examining the head, the judge should give
close attention to the length and curvature of skull
and beak. An American specimen with a long and
level top-piece, as in a Game, is very undesirable.
The judge should also punish severely a white or
pearl eye when the Standard calls for “red or bay,”
and see that the shape of the eye is typical of the
breed. The comb stands for so much in both Medi-
terranean and American varieties that a most care-
ful study of Standard illustrations and cuts is
recommended. The judge should not hesitate to dis-
qualify a comb that is unmistakably lop-sided.
Wattles and ear-lobes vary in value so much with
the breed that they require special attention. The
judge should notice the difference in this section
between Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes and
Orpingtons. In order that the large, shapely ear-
lobe of the Mediterranean, with its enamel-white
surface, free from folds, wrinkles or red spots,
may have its just value, occurring in its perfection
so seldom, cuts for the many common defects of
ear-lobes should be made freely.
Most judges fail to assign full Standard value to
the neck. It ranges from six points in some of the
Bantams to ten points in the ornamental varieties
and in Asiatics. In the Asiatics, we think this is
rather high, but in the American breeds, three for
shape and six for color is about right; and the
judge should enforce it, especially on Barred Ply-
mouth Rocks and Silver Wyandottes. Correct neck
color indicates much in the breeding power of a
male bird of these two varieties.
By the new Standard, the judge passes from
neck to wings. This is the natural order. He should
not be in a hurry to get away from the wings.
Only four points are assigned to shape of wings,
and on these four points must be made the cuts for
unnaturally shaped wings, also for broken or miss-
ing feathers. We find the limit of four points
scarcely enough in some cases, and often cut the
full limit. The judge should study very carefully
the color cuts for wings of parti-colored birds, such
as Light Brahmas, Silver Wyandottes and Barred
Plymouth Rocks.
The back is the great shape indicator of the
American breeds, even more than breast or body.
The writer thinks that this section should be rated
just as high in Asiatics and Mediterraneans, and
he predicts that the next Standard revision will
witness changes in this direction. It is true that
the back does not carry somuch meat as the breast
and body, but it is the point or place that sustains
these sections, and with an ill-shaped back no
breast or body can be good enough to work redemp-
tion. The judge should cut bad-shaped backs to the
limit, if necessary.
The fail is one of the beauty points that requires
careful attention. The judge must note carefully
all the ranges of tail carriage, almost over his
head in the case of the Japanese Bantam Cock,
very high in the Langshan, and away down in the
Minorca and the Game. He must study and famil-
jarize himself with all the intermediate stations,
and cut accordingly.
The shape of the breast of a specimen varies
POULTRY 551
more with his fatness than does any other section.
The judge must take this into consideration, but
should not fail to punish a “turkey breast” when
a “low-set keel” is called for. And here let the
writer explain that fatness and fleshness mean the
same. The cockerel that today weighs only four
pounds, his keel as sharp as a knife-blade, his
shanks seemingly “coming out of the same hole,”
has just as many fibers of muscle or flesh as he
will have three months later when he tips the beam
at eight pounds, with his deep, round breast, every
muscle interlarded with delicate tissues of luscious
fat, which is not greasy, but which makes each
fiber round and smooth; and his shanks will then
stand so far apart that he fairly waddles as he
walks. The judge must learn to take all these
things into consideration, and must base his cuts
on breast and body on the typical bird of his breed
in perfect condition.
The section, body and fluff, as outlined in the
scale of points, has to do chiefly with the lower
and rear parts of the body, the back and breast
having had previous consideration. Care must be
exercised in judging females to notice whether
they are producing eggs or not. At such times,
the egg-producing organs being very active, the
abdominal section covered by the fluff is likely to
be abnormally developed. One should hesitate to
cut a hen heavily on shape when the evident cause
is the fact that she is in daily performance of the
very functions that nature intended her for.
The last item on the score-card is legs and toes.
Here, shape and color have equal value. A very
common fault with American.and English varieties
is that the thighs and shanks are too long. Some
years ago, special rewards were offered by large
western packing houses for one variety that pro-
duced a large percentage of specimens with the
“legs” (first joints above the shanks) so short that
when the fowl was dressed the legs would not
extend beyond the rump. With the Leghorns, a
common fault is that the legs and shanks are too
short, making the bird low and squatty, instead of
rangy and up-standing. In Cochins, these organs
should be short ; in Langshans, they should be long.
The scale of points says nothing about wnder-
color, but as it is mentioned in almost every section
containing feathers, the writer wishes to call the
special attention of the young judge to it. By
the English Standard and the superficial English
method of applying it, under-color counts for but
little. With our American Standard, calling for a
thorough and searching investigation of every sec-
tion, it becomes a most important factor. The judge
should give it close attention and remember that
if “slate” or “buff” is called for, for example,
white under-color is a disqualification and must be
punished severely.
Literature.
The reader should consult The American Standard
of Perfection, published by The American Poultry
Association, for full information for judging fowls,
and for score-cards for the several families. [For
further references, see page 527.]
552 POULTRY
Common Ailments of Poultry.
By Prince T. Woods.
Nearly all poultry diseases are preventable.
Very few cases of serious illness undergo a suffi-
ciently rapid and complete recovery to make pro-
longed treatment worth while. It is not good
judgment to spend several dollars’ worth of time
and money in treating and dosing a sick bird worth
less than one dollar at market prices. The practical,
useful life of the average fowl seldom exceeds four
years. When kept exclusively for market purposes,
eggs and meat, the poultryman cannot afford to
keep hens beyond their third year as egg-producers,
and not many beyond their second year. The first
two years of egg-production yield the best profits.
This short period of useful life does not allow much
time for doctoring sick fowls. Except in mild cases
of sickness, the wisest, safest and most economical
treatment is to kill the sick bird and burn the car-
cass. By so doing, one gets rid of a possible source
of contagion, and minimizes the danger of spread-
ing the trouble to the remainder of the flock.
Prevention.
The five essentials in preventing poultry diseases
are :
(1) Breed only from sound, vigorous, healthy,
well-matured stock. A poultryman should never
use in a breeding pen a deformed specimen or one
that has apparently been cured of serious illness.
It is difficult to know when a fowl is really cured.
Many supposedly cured individuals have the disease
in chronic form. The tendency to become diseased
can be transmitted to the progeny. Likewise, the
tendency to resist disease may be inherited. Breed-
ing only from perfectly healthy birds, fully grown
and in their prime, insures chicks that will be
able to resist disease. One cannot produce strong,
healthy chickens from debilitated or unsound breed-
ing stock. Starting with healthy breeding stock,
one must keep it sound and vigorous by common-
sense care and management. The eggs from healthy
stock, properly incubated, should give the maximum
vitality in the chicks. Such chicks, properly cared
for, should possess the greatest disease-resisting
power. One can breed health in poultry and fix the
tendency to, health, generation after generation,
more easily than he can breed fancy points in size,
shape and plumage.
(2) Sensible fresh-air housing is essential to keep
fowls healthy. Fresh-air quarters or open-front
colony houses are in the majority of cases the most
satisfactory. The curtain-front, or building in
which a part of the south windows are replaced by
coarse unbleached muslin screens, is the next best
type of building. The tightly closed house, unless
run with one or more windows open night and day,
and the fowls protected from drafts, is the least
desirable type. An abundance of fresh air is abso-
lutely necessary for fowls both night and day,
summer and winter. It must be supplied so that
there are no drafts about the roosting fowls.
Artificially heated houses are always unsafe. Close
or tight houses, unless thoroughly aired daily, will
POULTRY
show frost and dampness on the walls in cold
weather. Dampness invites colds and other ail-
ments. Houses must not be over-crowded. Crowd-
ing on the roosts at night is inimical to health.
The poultry-yards should be of good size and well
drained. With poultry-houses of ordinary height,
the minimum amount of house air space should
not be less than twenty-five cubic feet per fowl.
For yard room, breeding stock and layers should
have a range of at least sixty-five square feet of
land for each bird.
(8) Wholesome food in variety and pure water
are essential to keep fowls healthy. Elaborate ra-
tions are not necessary. Fowls fed exclusively on
dry grain are less liable to disease than those fed
heavily on moist mashes. The average fowl requires
three to five ounces of dry grain daily (according
to size and appetite), in addition to meat food,
green food, grit, oyster shell, charcoal, granulated
bone and pure water. The staple feeding grains
are corn, wheat, oats and barley. Only sound, clean
grain should be used, and it should be free from
dust, mustiness and mold. The drinking - water
should be clean, pure and fresh. Fowls should
never drink from a stream into which barnyard
seepage and other filth empties. Unclean food and
impure water are prolific sources of poultry disease.
(4) Prompt isolation and disposal of sick birds
are important in preventing disease. Sick speci-
mens should be removed from the remainder of the
flock as soon as possible, to prevent spread of the
trouble.
(5) Reasonable cleanliness in poultry quarters is
necessary in preventing disease. The houses must
be cleaned regularly. The runs should be plowed
up and seeded down with quick-growing grain or
grass twice a year. Small, hard or sandy runs
should be swept frequently and the manure removed
in dry weather or before heavy rains. Litter
material, when used in the houses, should be clean,
bright and free from any mold or mustiness. Food
and water receptacles should be kept clean. Nest-
ing material should be changed frequently. Floors
of poultry-houses should be cleaned or, in case of
earth floors, renewed when badly fouled.
One general rule that should be followed in
every case of sickness is, seek and find the cause
of the disease and remove it before treatment is
attempted.
Lice.
By far the most common ailments of poultry are
the parasitic diseases. There are many varieties of
lice and mites affecting fowls. The presence of
body lice may be readily detected by examination.
Look under the wings and on the skin about the
feather roots, on the abdomen, back, neck and head.
All fowls are lousy unless treated. Pure, fresh,
unadulterated Persian insect powder is the best
remedy for body lice. It should be thoroughly
dusted into the plumage and worked well down to
the skin all over the body. Repeat the dusting in
ten days. This, if properly done, should give sev-
eral months of freedom from the pest. Lice breed
on the fowl! in the plumage.
POULTRY
Mites.
Red, black or gray mites are poultry bed-bugs.
They breed in the cracks and crevices about the
house or under accumulated droppings. Keep the
roosting quarters clean, use freely a mixture of
kerosene, one quart, and creolin, one fluid ounce,
or a good liquid lice-killer, for painting roosts
and dropping-boards. Do this in the morning
when needed, so that roosts will be dry at night.
Sealy-leg.
This is a parasitic disease caused by a scab-mite.
It is characterized by rough grayish or whitish
scales and crusts, accumulating on the shanks and
feet. It may spread gradually to other fowls. For
treatment, apply an ointment made by mixing one
teaspoonful of creolin in one cupful of melted lard.
Stir the mixture until cool, when it is ready to
apply. Apply daily until the scales and crusts
come away and leave the shanks clean.
Simple canker or aphthe.
The cause of simple canker is infection of
scratched or abraded mucous surfaces with mold
spores, other fungi or germs. It commonly appears
after birds have been fighting, particularly where
dusty, musty or moldy litter material is used. It
is indicated by yellowish or whitish patches in the
mouth or throat ; these usually appear as irregular
white or yellowish ulcers, surrounded by an
inflamed area of mucous membrane. The treatment
is to dust a little powdered boracic acid on the
canker spots or sores, or apply pure creolin with a
cotton swab (a bit of absorbent cotton twisted
around the point of a sharp stick). A solution of
fifteen grains of boracic acid in one ounce of water
may be used freely as a wash.
Diphtheria.
This is a not uncommon disease of poultry, some-
times confused with canker. The cause is thought
to be a specific germ, and the disease is very con-
tagious. An apparently healthy fowl becomes sud-
denly ill, loses appetite, the feathers hang loosely,
the bird appears dumpish, legs hot, comb hot and
deep red, but later may become pale. These symp-
toms are accompanied by difficult breathing, cough
with sharp “pip” sound, redness and inflammation
of throat. Small pearl-gray or yellowish-colored
patches appear on the back part of the throat,
about the cleft palate. These increase rapidly in
size and run together. False membrane may grow
so rapidly as to cause the death of the fowl from
suffocation. An attempt to remove the membrane
results in bleeding. The breath is fetid. Great
weakness comes on from constitutional poisoning.
Paralysis may appear at any stage, and the fowl
loses the use of legs or wings. Paralysis of the
heart may cause death. One attack of this disease
predisposes to another.
Remove the sick fowl promptly from the flock,
to prevent further spread of the disease. It is sel-
dom advisable to waste time doctoring, and it is
better to kill the bird and burn the carcass. For
internal treatment, give four times daily a one
POULTRY 553
one-hundredth of a grain tablet of biniodid of mer-
cury. Cleanse mouth and throat frequently with
full strength peroxid of hydrogen, or with a solu-
tion of one teaspoonful of creolin in four fluid
ounces (half a glass) of water. [See Aspergillosis.]
Aspergillosis.
This disease is sometimes confused with simple
canker and diphtheria, when “cheesy” accumula-
tions form in the mouth, throat and eyes. It is
caused by parasitic fungi, which are commonly
found in the dust and mold of filthy litter or dirty,
damaged grain. It usually attacks only suscepti-
ble members of a flock. It sometimes appears in
epidemic form and results in the speedy loss of
many fowls. The fungi are inhaled with dust and
may make their first attack on the lungs or inter-
nal organs, so that the presence of the disease is
not suspected until well established. Sick pigeons
may spread disease.
This disease is frequently mistaken for tubercu-
losis, as the nodules or deposits in the lungs or
other organs resemble tubercles. Usually the first
visible symptom is a small white nodule or
“cheese” patch in the mouth at the side of the
tongue or beneath it, or white patches on the back
wall of the throat, the cleft palate, or at the open-
ing of the windpipe. Frequently the fowl breathes
with difficulty and expels the air from the lungs
with a loud wheezing or peculiar whistling sound.
Death may follow from suffocation. The course of
the disease is usually prolonged, although when it
appears in epidemic form it is often rapidly fatal.
Mouth, throat, lungs and sometimes other internal
organs are rapidly filled with “cheesy” deposits or
small nodules.
For treatment, first remove the cause. Supply
only clean grain, free from dust and mustiness.
Remove all litter from the pens and supply only
clean white sand for the birds to scratch in. Take
sick specimens from the flock and kill all of those
that are seriously affected. Mild cases may be
placed in open sheds on some part of the farm
remote from other poultry quarters. Spray the
poultry buildings with a 3 per cent formaldehyde
solution in water. It will be beneficial if the fowls
inhale the vapor from this spray mixture. Dipping
the heads in the creolin solution is often helpful.
For this purpose, use one teaspoonful of pure creo-
lin in one pint of water. Mix fresh when used and
do not dip the heads of more than six fowls in the
same solution. When the disease is apparently con-
fined to the mouth and throat, mix thoroughly one
grain of finely powdered permanganate of potas-
sium with one ounce of finely powdered sugar of
milk. Blow this into the mouth, throat and nos-
trils, directly onto the “cheesy” patches or ulcers,
three or four times daily at first, then less fre-
quently as the case improves. This remedy will be
found useful in all cases of so-called canker, regard-
less of the precise diagnosis.
Roup.
This is a general term applied to a great variety
of poultry diseases, and to diphtheria when accom-
554 POULTRY
panied by a swollen head or a discharge from the
eyes and nostrils. The name “roup” is applied to
all diseases accompanied by a discharge from the
nostrils and eyes, including common colds and con-
tagious catarrh.
Common colds are caused by exposure to cold,
dampness, cold winds, drafts, dust, crowding in the
houses, insufficient supply of fresh air, houses
closed too tightly at night, or sudden weather
changes. The symptoms are sneezing, watery eyes,
bubbles in the corners of the eyes, glairy discharge
or bubbles from nostrils, and swollen face. The
treatment is to remove the cause when possible.
Provide plenty of fresh air in the sleeping quar-
ters. Usually the use of condition powders in the
food or tonic in the drinking-water is all the medic-
inal treatment necessary to break up a simple
cold. Seasoning mashes with ginger and red pep-
per, and feeding raw onions, often prove benefi-
cial. If taken at the start the following remedy
will usually cure: Mix twenty to thirty drops of
spirits of camphor with a teaspoonful of granulated
sugar. Dissolve the whole in a pint of drinking-
water and allow the birds no other drink.
Contagious catarrh or true roup is thought to be
caused by a specific germ. It is usually mildly con-
tagious. In epidemic form it is very contagious
and spreads rapidly.
The most characteristic symptom of roup is the
peculiar, penetrating, fetid odor. Frequently the
presence of the disease may not be suspected until
this peculiar odor attracts attention. Handling the
fewl and squeezing the nostril with the thumb
shows the presence of a glairy water-white, gray-
ish or yellowish discharge having the roup smell.
The discharge at first is usually frothy and watery ;
later, it becomes grayish, then thick and yellow.
It may accumulate in considerable quantities
beneath the eyelids. It dries on the beak, also on
the feathers of the body, particularly about the
wings, where the fowl has wiped off discharges.
The legs are hot, the comb and the wattles usually
hot and deep dark red. The disease may spread
through the sick birds’ contaminating the food and
the drinking-water. It usually develops in two to
seven days after infection. Many cases are mild,
but in all the roup smell is present. It frequently
appears in chronic form, running a course of weeks,
months, or years, the specimen being always a
source of infection for other birds. Neglected com-
mon colds prepare the way for roup. After the
fowls are apparently cured, the roup smell will
cling to the plumage, and even to the poultry-house
after disinfection.
Do not waste time and money on a seriously sick
specimen ; kill and burn it. Remove all suspected
cases to an open-front shed, remote from other
poultry buildings. Use the creolin dip recommended
in aspergillosis. Thoroughly disinfect poultry quar-
ters as soon as sick or suspected birds are removed.
Make the fowl inhale creolin vapor by spraying
over it (in a sprayer throwing a fine mist) a solu-
tion of one teaspoonful of creolin in a pint of
water. Cleansing the fowl’s head, eyes, nostrils,
mouth and throat with creolin disinfectant, followed
POULTRY
by keeping the bird in strictly open-front fresh-
air quarters, will do more to cure this disease than
dosing. When accompanied by ulceration of the
mucous membrane in the mouth or throat, use per-
manganate of potassium and milk-sugar powder, as
recommended in the treatment of aspergillosis.
Feed stimulating and easily digested food.
Diarrhea.
Diarrhea, which is often a symptom of many
diseases, is a trouble commonly noticed by the
poultry-keeper. It is usually the result of indiges-
tion, eating spoiled food, or too much meat food.
It is indicated by looseness of the bowels with yel-
lowish, greenish, dark or watery discharges. The
treatment is to find and remove the cause, put the
affected bird on a diet of dry grain, withhold meat
food, and feed charcoal freely. Scalded milk, thick-
ened with well-boiled flour and seasoned with gin-
ger, may be given freely, and is usually all the
treatment necessary in simple diarrhea,
Contagious diarrhea.
Under this general head, we include all contagious
or infectious diseases resulting in inflammation of
the mucous surface of the intestines. These dis-
eases are usually the result of infection with one of
several varieties of bacteria or germs which mul-
tiply rapidly, resulting in irritation and inflamma-
tion of the mucous lining of the intestines, with
invasion of the liver, kidneys and other internal
organs. The infection usually takes place through
contaminated food or drinking-water. It commonly
occurs when fowls are kept in dirty, filthy runs
and obliged to drink water polluted with their own
droppings, or with the excrement of pigeons and
water-fowl, or with seepage from the barnyard.
The symptoms usually develop rapidly. The bird —
is thirsty, has little appetite, is dumpish and not
disposed to move about. The discharge from the
bowels is loose and watery, and may be a dark or
bluish green, sometimes streaked with blood. The
affected bird stands with the neck drawn back on
the body, the tail drooped and the feathers held
loose. The comb and the wattles are dark red or
purplish and the legs hot. The disease may run a
course of five days to five weeks. In prolonged
cases, there is usually great loss of flesh. Some
cases recover spontaneously, but in others death
occurs, usually from exhaustion.
For treatment, first of all remove the cause.
Isolate the sick birds; use disinfectants freely;
disinfect and remove the excrement; supply only
wholesome, easily digested, stimulating food and —
pure water in clean receptacles. Calomel given in
one one-hundredth of a grain doses three times a
day frequently proves beneficial. For obstinate
cases or cases in which the excrement is blood-
streaked, dissolve twelve tablets of mercury bi-
chlorid, one one-thousandth of a grain drug strength
each, in one quart of drinking-water and allow the
birds no other drink; or for individual treatment,
give one one-thousandth of a grain tablet of mer-
cury bichlorid three times daily. Give remedy less
often as soon as case shows improvement. ;
POULTRY
Fowl cholera.
Fowl cholera is caused by a specific germ. It is
very contagious and may be transmitted by con-
tact, inoculation or through the food and drinking-
water. It usually makes its appearance in three
days to three weeks after infection. The earliest
symptom is a yellowish discoloration of that part
of the droppings normally white, which gradu-
ally becomes a deeper yellow, frequently turning
greenish or deep bluish green. The fowl is inclined
to separate itself from the flock, becomes unsteady
on its legs, and walks with a staggering gait; the
feathers are rumpled and stand out from the body;
the wings droop, the head is drawn down with an
apparent shortening of the neck, tail drooped or
horizontal ; the comb and the wattles become pale,
and the legs hot; the appetite vanishes and the
bird refuses to eat ; the crop remains hard and full
of food, due to partial paralysis. Death may occur
at any time and is usually ushered in by convul-
sions and sharp cries.
Treatment is seldom satisfactory. Sick birds and
all suspected cases during a cholera epidemic should
be promptly removed from the flock. Disinfectants
should be used freely about poultry-houses and
yards, and every precaution taken to avoid further
spread. The remedy most likely to prove effective
is mercury bichlorid in tablets of one one-thou-
sandth of a grain-drug strength each, as recom-
mended under contagious diarrhea.
Limberneck.
This is another common name applied to all ail-
ments in which the common symptom of paralysis
or loss of the use of the neck muscles occurs, so
that the head and neck hang limp, or the head
hangs with the neck arched from the body, or the
neck is twisted back on the body. It is due to
nerve disturbance, usually dependent on intestinal
irritation. The most frequent causes are poisoning
from eating putrid meat, paint skins, commercial
fertilizers, spray mixtures and the like, or irrita-
tion caused by the presence of intestinal parasites.
In cases of suspected poisoning, remove the bird
to a small, clean, dry coop in warm, well-aired
quarters. Make it swallow quantities of flaxseed
gruel, white of egg and warm milk seasoned lightly
with ginger. Hxamine the premises carefully to
remove the cause if possible.
Worms.
Fowls commonly have intestinal worms. These
are spread rapidly through the flock by the food
and the water becoming contaminated with the
droppings of affected birds. Worms may be noticed
in the droppings. In other cases, one may get lim-
berneck or wry-neck symptoms that cannot be
attributed to poisoning. The best treatment is to
give the bird, after it has been fasting twelve
hours, at one dose, a mixture of two teaspoonfuls
of oil of turpentine and one tablespoonful of sweet
or olive oil. This should be introduced directly into
the crop through a rubber tube passed down the
throat. The dose may be repeated in twelve to
twenty-four hours if necessary. Disinfect all drop-
POULTRY 555
pings with a strong creolin solution, not jess than
five fluid ounces of creolin to a gallon of water.
Gapes.
Gapes is a disease of small chickens caused by a
parasitic worm common in some sections of the
country. The worms attach themselves to the
mucous lining of the windpipe. Fowls are some-
times affected and may spread the contagion. Fre-
quently clean and disinfect coops and runs occupied
by young chicks. Prepare the ground for the occu-
paney of the chicks by a thorough top-dressing
with slaked lime worked well into the soil. Plant
to some quick-growing green stuff. Confine the
chicks until well grown. Remove frequently to
new runs prepared in the same way. Disinfect old
ground with a strong creolin solution, or a 3 per
cent sulfuric acid solution, as soon as the chicks
leave it. Gape-worms may be removed from the
windpipe of the chicks by means of a loop of horse
hair or a wire gape-worm extractor. The extractor
should be dipped in a weak solution of creolin.
Shake off all excess of the solution before intro-
ducing the extractor into the windpipe. The
chick’s neck should be stretched and the mouth
held open, the extractor introduced into the wind-
pipe through the mouth, and removed with a twist-
ing motion. This will usually bring out the greater
part of the worms and the remainder will be killed
by contact with the solution adhering to~ the
extractor. The extractor with the worms attached
should be dipped immediately into a strong
disinfectant.
Pip.
Pip is acommon ailment, and the name is applied
by poultrymen to inflammation of the mouth usu-
ally characterized by drying of the mucous mem-
brane, resulting in a hard, horny scale forming on
the end of the tongue. Frequently this occurs as a
symptom of some other trouble, as a heavy cold or
bronchitis. In such cases the disease and not the
symptom should be treated. Do not attempt to
remove the “pip” or horny scale by force, but wait
until it comes away easily. Glycerine and water
equal parts may be applied freely, and this is usu-
ally all the treatment needed ; or the attendant
may wash out the mouth frequently with a solution
of fifteen grains of boracie acid in one ounce of
water. Hither remedy may be used freely without
danger.
Bronchitis.
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the larger air-passages. It is usually
the result of exposure to bleak, wintry winds, cold,
wet storms, sleeping in drafts in crowded quarters,
too close confinement in tight houses with an
insufficient supply of fresh air, or inhaling irritat-
ing dust. The most noticeable symptoms are rat-
tling in the throat and difficult noisy breathing.
Place the fowl in comfortable fresh-air quarters,
where it will not be exposed to drafts. Feed nour-
ishing, stimulating food. In the drinking-water,
use twelve tablets of arsenite of antimony, one one-
556 POULTRY POULTRY
thousandth of a grain drug strength each, to each fowls profitably. One of the efforts to overcome
pint of water, and allow the bird no other drink. this handicap is to increase the number of fowls
F kept in a pen. It may be laid down as a principle
Literature. of general application that dividing the fiock mul-
Wood, The Poultryman’s Formulary; same, Facts tiplies the labor, and conversely, multiplying the
About White Diarrhea; same, Insects Affecting flock divides the labor. It is also true that increas-
Poultry ; Salmon, Diseases of Poultry, George E. ing the number of fowls ina flock multiplies the
Howard & Co., Washington, D. C. [See also, refer- danger and increases the responsibilities. Further-
ences on page 527.] more, it seems to have been proved that the smaller
the flock, the larger the production per fowl, other
Poultry-House Construction. Figs. 555-570. things being equal. Just what size of flock will be
: likely to yield the maximum production with the
By James Hi. Rice. minimum labor and risk, is not yet proved. Twenty
The modern poultry-house is a compromise be- years ago, flocks of fifteen to twenty-five fowls in
tween two extremes in poultry-house construction: a pen were common; today they are rare. Now
between the open-shed shelter on the one hand, flocks of thirty to fifty are common, and on a few
which was too open, and the large, double-boarded, of the large and apparently successful poultry-
tight house, which was too close. In the former, farms, fowls are being kept in flocks of sixty to
fowls suffered from the cold; in the latter, they one hundred, and in rare instances, two hundred to
three hundred or more in a single pen.
Amount of space per fowl.
The unit for estimating the capacity of
poultry-houses is the square feet of floor space
allowed per hen. In this respect, also, the
effort to save labor has modified the practice.
Formerly it was thought necessary to allow
each fowl eight to ten square feet of floor
space ; now, four to five square feet per hen
is generally thought to be sufficient. A few
poultrymen allow as little as two and one-half
to three square feet of floor space per fowl.
S = The space that must be allowed for the maxi-
Fig. 555. A hen-house complete. mum capacity of a pen, with the minimum
§ of labor and risk, will depend on several
suffered from lack of fresh air. Of the two, the important considerations :
first was to be preferred. The modern poultry- (1) The locality and the season of the year. If
house is the composite of the successes of centuries the fowls are to be allowed to run out on the
and the result of the elimination of many mistakes. range a large part of the year, the danger from
It has been gradually worked out through the ex- congestion in the houses will be far less than in a
pensive, practical experiences of poultrymen, rather locality where the season of close confinement in
than by the discoveries of scientific truths regarding the houses is longer. Manifestly, during the sum-
poultry architecture. Poultrymen built houses of mer season, when hens are largely out-of-doors,
various types and gradually discovered which gave more fowls can be kept in a pen than during the
them the best results. The scientist now endeavors winter season when they are confined.
to formulate theories to explain these results. (2) The larger breeds require more floor space
The successful poultry-house must be, first of than do the smaller breeds, but not so much per
all, cheerful, healthful, comfortable, convenient, pound live weight, because of the fact that the
inexpensive and durable. In order to meet these lighter breeds are more active and impatient under
requirements, it must be built to meet the condi- restraint. For the more active breeds, a good
tions of the climate. Manifestly, a poultry-house
that is best adapted to meet the requirements of
the long, cold winters of the North would not be
best suited to meet the requirements of the long,
hot season of the South. The principles of con-
struction, however, are of general application and
may be modified to suit conditions.
The size of the flock in its relation to construction.
The modern tendency in poultry-plant manage-
ment is toward larger flocks and therefore toward
larger houses. This is in conformity with the working rule is to allow about one square foot of
effort to save labor. The great’ handicap to exten- floor space per pound live weight, i. e., about four
sive poultry-keeping in the past has been the limi- square feet per fowl. With the heavier breeds, a
tation of man’s ability to handle large numbers of little less floor space per pound live weight is
=_— G
Fig. 556. Location of poultry-houses with reference
to air-drainage,
POULTRY
needed ; in other words, six-pound fowls should be
allowed about five square feet each.
(8) Fowls kept in large flocks require less floor
space per hen than do those kept in small flocks.
bx 75 Meaney.
Si Sb4* = 75059...
10X25 ae fi.
LESTE PS Osgtt.
[54350*45059.ft E
Fig. 557. Showing relation of shape of house to economy of
construction. Square houses economize lumber and labor
of construction.
This is due to the fact that in large flocks each hen
has greater freedom of action, i. e., has more space
for exercise.
Location of the poultry-house.
The location of a poultry-house has much to do
with its value. The following factors must be con-
sidered :
(1) It should face the south if possible, in order
to get the largest benefit from the sun.
(2) It should be protected from the prevailing
winds by being placed in the lee of a hill, of trees,
or of buildings.
(8) It should stand on well-drained soil in order
to insure dryness, warmth, cleanliness and health-
fulness.
(4) It should be placed on productive soil in
order to insure good sod pasturage and healthful
growth of trees for shade.
(5) It should be on land high enough to insure
good air-drainage. (Fig.
556.) Cold air settles in low
pockets. Such locations are
frequently colder than the
higher and more exposed
situations.
Shape of the house.
The nearer square a pen is,
the less will be the cost for
material and labor of con-
struction as compared with
apen that is longer and nar- yA
rower and contains thesame ‘S¥%
number of square feet of WSS
floor space. (Fig. 557). It 8 =
Sin
is 162 feet around a house
6x75 feet, and only 84.8
feet around a house 21.2x
21.2 feet,—a difference of
77.2 feet. Hach house con-
tains the same number of SSS"
cs
square feet of floor space, eae) Se
and therefore each would
POULTRY 557
accommodate the same number of fowls. Pens 15,
18 or 20 feet square are the more desirable widths,
depending somewhat on the kind of roof that it
is desired to build.
Foundation.
Heavy, expensive foundations are unnecessary
for hen-houses. A well-made concrete wall, four to
six Inches on top and eight to ten inches on the
bottom, straight edge on the outside, the top six
inches above ground and the bottom eighteen
inches below ground, is all that is required. Such
a foundation should keep out surface water, is
practically rat-proof, and if the land is naturally
or artificially well drained, should not be affected
by freezing. When sand and gravel cost not to
exceed $1.25 per cubic yard, cement 55 cents per
bushel, and labor $1.50 for ten hours, the wall should
be built for 17 cents a square foot. In Fig. 558, at
A is shown a combination of stone and grout founda-
tion combined with cement floor. Both foundation
and floor are built complete before the framework
of the house is begun. The stone under the foun-
dation and floor provides drainage and lessens the
danger from heaving. At B is shown a stone
foundation and cement floor. The loose stone wall
is cheaper but not so tight or serviceable. Note
the method of cementing against the sill in order
to prevent the entrance of air between the sill and
foundation. At C is indicated a beveled outside
edge of the foundation, which is less desirable than
the foundation shown at A, where the outside edge
is vertical and the siding overlaps the sill and
cement floor. At D is,illustrated a type of stone
wall laid in mortar and “pointed up,” in order to
insure neatness and tightness. This ordinarily is
too expensive because of the high price of labor.
Height of the poultry-house.
Poultry-houses must be built much higher than
would be necessary for the hens, in order that they
Tea
SUss
ee -“Stones.
Fig. 558. Different styles of foundations.
558 POULTRY
256CUFT. AIR SPACE
FOR 64 aes We iiae
NS
egieroon’
ee 16%*/G6%* 2’
5/2 CUFT, AIR SPACE FOR -
64HENS WEIGHING 4LBS.
EACH-8CUFT PER HEN
=ecu, ae PER POUND LIVE
POULTRY
condensation of moisture. Several possible
types are as follows :
(A) Single, unmatched boarding. This is
too open, too cold, and too drafty. é
(B) Same as (A), with cracks covered with
batten. It is not tight enough. Battens are
expensive.
(C) Matched (tongued and grooved) boards.
This is sufficiently tight and warm for most
sections of the country. It is the least ex-
pensive construction considering its effective-
WEIGH
I6SG6*8'= 2048 CU.FT.
FOR 64 HENS WEIGHING
+LBS. FACH-32CUFT. ~
FER HEN—-8 CU FT_ PER
POUND LIVE WEIGHT.
ness.
(D) Same as (C), with heavy building-
paper either on the inside or outside. Tighter
and warmer than (C) and desirable on exposed
locations. Outside papering is preferable to
inside.
(E) Same as (D), with inside lining of
matched boards with dead-air space. It is too
expensive and unnecessary. The dead-air
airs,
5 weight fara 4pound hen.
Fig. 559. Amount of air space in houses of various heights,
and the square feet of floor space allowed for each pound
of live weight.
may be convenient for the attendant to work
inside. The rule of one cubic foot of air space to
one pound of live weight, which is used in building
stables, would make the hen-house only one foot
high. This is assuming that we are to allow one
square foot of floor space to each pound of live
weight. Such a condition is illustrated in Fig. 559,
which shows the allotment of the floor space in a
pen 16 feet square to 64 hens, weighing 4 pounds
each. Numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 show the height of
the pen, not including the roof space, when 1, 2, 4
and 8 cubic feet of air space, respectively, are
allowed per hen. The roof space alone provides 4
cubic feet of air space for each pound live weight
for 64 hens weighing 4 pounds each. It will be
seen that with the above allowance, a poultry-
house with a one-half pitch gable roof and 6 feet
high at the eaves, would allow 10 cubic feet of air
space for each pound of live weight, which is about
ten times as much as would be allowed per pound
of live weight in building a stable ; hence, the rule
which requires that a poultry-house should be built
as low as possible without inconvenience to the
person working inside.
Kinds of walls. (Fig. 560.)
The walls should be so constructed that they
will prevent drafts, retain the heat, and prevent
252-459. ft. Hoor space x/=4cuf.
e-Icuft. per pound Jive.
space becomes a cold-air chamber, which is
likely to cause moisture to condense on the
inner wall if the house is tight.
(F) Same as
(E), except that
the dead-air
space is stuffed
with insulating
material, which
makes it less affected
by weather condi-
tions, but it is too
expensive.
(G) Same as (F),
except that the ceil-
ing is unmatched
and permits the free
entrance of air. It
prevents the forma-
tion of acold jacket,
because it warms
during the day, and
the wall and straw
serve the purpose of
preventing the warm
air of the room com-
ing in contact with
the cold outside
boarding and having
its heat taken away.
It is cheaper than(F),
and more to be de-
sired, but will form
a harboring place
for mites if roosting
arrangements are
placed against it
during the summer
season. (H) This is
double-boarded and
double-papered, with
dead-air space; or
the same material
may be built solidly
together. Both are
Fig. 560.
Eight types of walls —
used in poultry-houses,
POULTRY
Me Tete Reet 2 ay
AG
Total Sides UG
Fig. 561. The shape of the roof influences the cost. The com-
bination-roof type of house takes less material than the
gable-roof type, and the latter takes less than the shed
roof.
too expensive, and therefore are undesirable. The
solid construction is tight, but cold.
Numbers 1, 2 and 3 in Fig. 560, show the com-
parative temperatures outside and inside a house at
different times of the day, and the effect that each
type of wall will have on the warmth and dryness
of the house un-
der varying con-
ditions. When a
house is tight
and insulated,
and the air is
not allowed to
change freely, it
will be warmer
during the cold
nights inside
than it is outside
the house. When
the sunshine, the
following day,
warms the air
outside, frequently it is colder inside than it is
outside the house. When warm air enters it picks
up the moisture. The moisture-laden air comes in
contact with the cold walls, which condense
the moisture, and the house is said to sweat.
If the walls are sufficiently cold, the moisture
freezes and the walls are covered with frost.
Tn order to secure reasonable warmth and
dryness in a hen-house, the walls should be
tight on all sides, including roof and floor,
except the south, which may be compara-
tively loose. This provides a quiet inter-
change of air without draft.
Roof of the poultry-house.
The style of roof influences to a large
extent the cost and efficiency of a poultry-
house. Fig. 561 shows the three most com-
mon types of roofs,—the shed, the gable and
Fig. 562.
The shed roof requires the
most lumber.
Fig. 564.
one-half monitor; 5, combination shed and gable; 6, hip roof.
POULTRY 559
the combination shed and gable: If the pitch of all
of these roofs is alike, there is no difference in the
amount of material required to build them. There
is considerable difference, however, in the amount
of material required to build the house when these
three kinds of roof are compared. The difference is
due to the amount of material required to build the
sides in each type. It will be readily seen in Fig.
561 that the house with the combination roof re-
quires less lumber than the gable-roof house, and
that the latter requires less than the shed roof. The
gable is one and one-half feet higher in the rear,
and the shed roof three feet higher in front—a
difference of one and one-half feet in favor of the
gable roof. The steeper the pitch of the roof, the
greater is the difference in favor of the gable roof,
and against the shed-roof type. (Fig. 562.) If all
three types are built with the same pitch, and the
same amount of material in the roof and sides, and
the front in all three types is built high enough to
permit the top of the window to be placed five feet
high, the three types of houses will appear as in
Fig. 563. In the shed-roof house, the ceiling is too
low to be practicable, but the windows can be
placed highest. In the gable-roof type the windows
Fig. 563. Each of these three houses requires the same amount
of material, and the pitch of the roof is the same.
must be placed too low. The combination roof
furnishes the best combination of head room and
height of window, with the least amount of build-
ing materials, same floor space, and least cubic
feet of air space.
In Fig. 564 are shown six styles of roof. The
monitor (1) and half monitor (4) are types adapt-
able to houses twenty feet wide or wider. They
provide for light in the back part of the house and
save expense for material, permit a steeper pitch,
Roof types. 1, monitor; 2, shed roof; 3, gable roof; 4.
POULTRY
Fig. 565.
avoid the weakness of long spans and reduce the
air spaces as compared to the very wide shed-roof
house. For houses up to eighteen feet wide, the
shed roof is to be preferred because of its simple
construction. It throws all rain water to the rear,
has the highest vertical front to permit high win-
dows and to furnish shelter to the yard in front. It
is easy to keep cool in summer because it allows
the hot air an easy escape through the high front.
The paper roof lasts longer if it slopes to the north.
The gable-roof type is generally considered to be
more attractive, but provides too much air space
and is too éxpensive if the sides are built high
enough to permit the
windows to be placed so
as to light the entire
house.
Windows.
In Fig. 565 are shown
eight types of windows
and methods of hanging
them. No. 1 is hinged on
the side, which may gen-
erally be considered the
most desirable, all things
considered. It can be quickly swung against the
wall, out of the way, and can be opened little or
much to provide ventilation without permitting the
wind to blow directly into the house. No. 2 ig a
double-sash window which slides up and down. It is
Fig. 566.
Methois of hanging windows.
The angles at which the sun’s rays enter the
house through windows at different heights.
POULTRY
difficult to remove in the
summer season and costs
more to buy and install
than a single sash of the
same size. No. 3 slides
to one side. It is difficult
to move because of
weight, especially in cold,
stormy weather, when ice
may freeze it fast. No. 4
swings out from the top
and makes it necessary
to have the wire on the
inside; it is difficult to
move, likely to be broken
by the wind,and makes the
pens too hot in summer
by reflection of the sun’s
rays. No. 5 is hinged at
the top and swings in-
ward. It must be raised
out of the way when
opened, and, because of weight, is likely to fall and
break. No.6 is in the way when opened and in
that position permits the fowls to roost on it; it
cannot be easily removed. No.
7 makes it impossible to have
wire on either the outside or
the inside, and is not strong
and durable. No. 8
has the same objec-
tions as No. 7.
Sun from
April atst
hic
3 Sept.aist.
Sun at
- Dec.Zish
Glass windows should
be placed high up and
down rather than wide
horizontally, in order to
throw the sunlight far
back. Fig. 566 shows the
angles at which the sun-
light enters a poultry-
house at different times of
the year, when the tops of the windows are placed
four feet, six feet and seven feet, respectively. It
will be seen that in order to have the direct sun-
shine reach the back of a house fifteen feet wide,
in December when the sun is the lowest and sun-
shine is most to be de-
sired, it is necessary to
have the top of the win-
dow seven feet high. By
having a long, narrow
ribbon of light enter the
house through along, high
window, placed vertically,
the sun, passing from east
to west, sweeps the entire
floor space, drying the
Fig. 567. Types of doors and methods of hanging them.
floor, killing disease,
POULTRY
warming the room and giving good cheer. There
should be about one square foot of glass surface
provided for each twenty square feet of floor space,
and about the same amount of cloth window area.
If only cloth or only glass windows are to be used,
there should be about one square foot of window
opening to each ten square feet of floor space.
Windows in the roof are undesirable because
more easily broken, and are likely to leak.
Windows placed on the east and west
ends of a house are desirable, provided
they do not permit drafts through
the house.
Doors.
In Fig. 567 are
shown six types of
doors and methods of
hanging them. No. 1 ~
shows a door that is
hung to swing in to-
ward the middle of
the room. It is objec-
tionable because it
frightens the hens and
POULTRY 561
cleaning and durability, with reasonable cost. A
properly constructed cement floor accomplishes all
the requirements better than either a board or a
soil floor. A board floor lacks durability if it is
near the ground and if the outside air is excluded
from beneath. If the outside air is not thus
excluded, the floor is cold, and if it is made of
unmatched boards, it is also drafty and permits
much grain and litter to fall through, which
is both wasteful and unsanitary. (Fig.
558, D.) The board and earth floors
harbor rats, and the latter is diffi-
cult to clean and likely to be
damp. Hach of these floors-
will be cold unless it
is well carpeted with
a litter of straw.
A properly con-
structed cement floor
must be well under-
drained, with three to
six inches of fine stone
or coarse gravel, on
which two or three
inches of grout is laid,
is less convenient as
it must be opened so
wide. No. 2 opens
against the side wall away from the middle of the
room, and does away with the objections to No. 1.
Both of these doors have threshholds raised six
inches above the floor, which prevent the litter
from interfering with the action of the door and,
when the door is open, prevent the fowls scratch-
ing out the litter. No. 3 is a “Dutch” door, i. e., it
is in two parts. The upper door may be opened
during winter weather, thus serving the purpose
of an open window, and the lower part may remain
shut to prevent the wind from blowing on the
fowls. No. 4 does not have the raised thresh-
hold. No. 5 is a double door, swinging both ways
on double-acting hinges. This is a desirable form
for large houses, where a trolley and truck are
used, but is unhandy for general use. No. 6 is a
single door swinging from the side with heavy,
double-acting hinges, and is greatly to be desired
because it permits rapid passage through the house
without the necessity of stopping to latch and
unlatch doors. Doors
should. be not less
than two feet, six
inches wide and six
feet, six inches high,
in order to permit a
person topass through
easily with a basket in
each hand and toavoid
bumping the head.
Floors. (Fig. 558.)
over which should be
placed about one inch
of cement. The grout
should be mixed one part portland cement to three
parts clean, sharp sand and five parts coarse gravel
or fine stone. (Fig. 558, ABC.) The one-inch coat
should consist of one part portland cement to three
parts clean, sharp sand, well mixed dry and then
thoroughly mixed with water and applied before
the grout is hard, so that they will set together.
Cement floors, if possible, should be made in sum-
mer or early fall, so that they wiil have time to
harden and dry before the houses are occupied.
Note wall construction, ventilating
device, and gable stuffed with straw.
Ventilation.
However desirable the elaborate modern sys-
tems of ventilation may be for larger buildings,
they are not to be recommended for hen-houses.
The chief reason why they have proved unsatis-
factory in poultry-buildings is because of the com-
paratively small amount of heat generated by the
fowls’ bodies in proportion to the large amount of
air space. This makes a draft in the ventilator
less certain because
of a lack of difference
Lhe EF in temperature be-
=se=—- tween the outside and
the inside air. Fig.
568 shows a common,
undesirable type of
ventilator shaft. This
form is better, how-
ever, than the venti-
lator shaft that opens
near the roof, because
The floor of the
poultry -house should
it takes the air from
near the floor and does
not allow the warm
be so built as to in-
sure dryness, warmth,
rat-proofness, ease of
C 36
Fig. 569. Interior of hen-house in process of construction.
Finished structure shown in Fig. 555.
air to escape so rap-
idly, nor is it so likely
562 POULTRY
to permit counter currents to form, by which the
cold air pours down on the fowls.
The simplest, most effective, least expensive and
most easily operated system of securing a quiet
change of air in a poultry-house is by means of a
loose-mesh cloth window. When properly installed,
this provides for a moderate change of air with-
out draft. The amount and kind of cloth that
should be used will depend on the location and the
nature of the house. The tighter the house, the
larger the window area and the looser the mesh of
the cloth may be; and conversely, the more loosely
the house is constructed, the smaller the cloth
opening and the closer the mesh of the cloth must
Suspended from Rafters
| SS
be. A small opening on the back, the ends, or in
the roof or floor of a house, will cause drafts of
air to pass through the cloth, which otherwise
would permit only a slow diffusion. In a very
tightly constructed house, cheese-cloth will prove
more satisfactory than heavy muslin. A poultry-
house having a cloth window may become damp
if there is not sufficient change of air, which fre-
quently is the case when too heavy muslin or too
small area of cloth is used in a tight-walled house.
Oiled cloth should never be used. It shuts out both
air and sunlight and defeats the whole purpose of
the cloth window. The cloth windows should hinge
from the top and be so hung that they may be
raised, lowered and removed easily.
A poultry-house should be kept as cool as possi-
ble in the summer by hanging the cloth window
frames from the top on the outside of the windows.
They thus serve as an awning and make the house
much cooler during the hot season. An opening in
the front, near the peak of the shed-roof house
(Fig. 555), covered by a wooden door hinged by
the top to swing outward, prevents the hot air
from pocketing in the highest parts of the roof
and makes the house much cooler. A single open-
ing in the rear of the house, under the eaves, if
ees
Fig. 570. Nests and roosting alrangements.
POULTRY
placed so as to prevent draft on the fowls, is a
desirable feature, keeping the house cool during
summer. The method of double boarding behind
and above the perches (Fig. 569) makes it possi-
ble to have a free passage of air through the
house by means of the back window without
drafts on the fowls.
Interior arrangements.
The interior arrangement should be portable,
simple, convenient, and should not occupy floor
space. Fig. 570 shows four methods of placing the
roosting and nesting arrangements. In “A,” the
perches and nests hang from the rafters away from
the side wall, making it
easy to fight the mites.
The droppings platform
must be made rigid or it
will be difficult to clean.
Type “B” provides for a
rigid droppings platform
and removable perches.
Type “C” is not to be ree-
ommended because it lacks
rigidity. The nests should
i be close up under the plat-
form instead of on the level
Door to Nests
i=
ies of the floor, which requires ~
/ the person gathering the
;
eggs to bend over. Type
D “1D” is perhaps the most
desirable of the four de-
vices shown. The nests are
placed directly under the
droppings platform, where
they are least in the way,
most accessible, least ex-
pensive to construct, and
seclusive, permitting the
fowls to hide their nests. The perches are built
together in a rack, are not hinged, and are removed
together. The droppings platform rests on cleats,
and, like the nesting compartment, is removable.
Nests should be at least ten to twelve inches square
and six to eight inches deep. One nest should be
allowed to five fowls. About six inches of perch
room is required for small fowls and eight inches
for larger breeds. Every pen should be provided
with a dust bath and broody coop, water pan, grit-
and feed-hoppers and a grain-supply can. The feed-
and grit-hoppers should be rat proof, force-feeding
and non-wasting. The broody coop is best provided
by partitioning off a part of the perch platform
and providing a false floor to keep the fowls dry
and clean. The dust bath should be placed close to
the glass window, where it will be warmest and
dryest. It should be covered to prevent the dust
entering the room. A pit sunk in the cement floor,
near a low window (Fig. 555), makes a desirable
dust wallow. Water pans should hold more than
enough to last the flock twenty-four hours, ‘should
be easily cleaned, filled and emptied. They should
have flaring sides to make the removal of ice easy,
and should be made of material that will not rust
or break easily.
Plate XX. Prominent breeds of fowls
Top left, Buff Cochin; top right. Silver-laced Wyandotte. Second row, left, Barred Plymouth Rock hen and cock;
right center, White Plymouth Rock; upper and lower right, Silver Spangled Hamburg cock and hen. Third row left, Black
Minorea hen; center, Black Minorea cock; right, Single-comb White Leghorn hen. Bottom row left, Silver Wyandotte
cock; center, Silver Penciled Wyandotte hen; right, Single-ccomb White Leghorn cock,
POULTRY
Breeds and Types of Chickens. Figs. 571-581.
By f. #. Orr.
The acknowledged authority on poultry matters
is the American Poultry Association. This is a
body of fanciers, organized in 1873, now having a
membership of nearly nine hundred persons. It
publishes once in five years a book, “The Standard
of Perfection,” which describes and illustrates
varieties considered worthy of recognition. This
book prescribes rules for the management of shows
- and for the judging of fowls by both the score-card
and the comparison methods. The one hundred
and four varieties now recognized in the Standard
may properly be classified under the two general
headings, “ practical” fowls and “fancy” fowls, as
follows :
I. PRACTICAL FOWLS
. seventeen varieties
. eight varieties
American family . . . six breeds .
Asiatic family . three breeds
Mediterranean family . five breeds . . fourteen varieties
English family . . . . three breeds . seven varieties
French family . . . . three breeds . three varieties
Dutch family .. . .one breed . . six varieties
Indian family . . . . one breed . . two varieties
Il. FANCY FOWLS
Polish family . . one beeed .
Game family . . one breed .
Game bantam family . one breed .
Oriental Game family . two breeds
Oriental bantam
. eight varieties
. eight varieties
. eight varieties
. two varieties
iia Goo so) oO GnD one breed . . one variety
Ornamental bantam
Hil 5 5 og om seven breeds . seventeen varieties
Miscellaneous . . . . three breeds . three varieties
I, PRACTICAL FOwWLs
Tt isnot easier to approximate perfection of show
points in the first group than in the second, but
each variety in the first group retains its popularity
because of some practical point,—for example, the
production of eggs or flesh, the former under pecu-
liar circumstances or the latter of a particular
quality, so as to make-the breed or variety profit-
able to the man who pays little or no attention to
the fancy points of form or feather. It has been
said, and we think truthfully, that no variety can
become universally popular that is not possessed of
some characteristic that commends it to the atten-
tion of the practical, money-making American
farmer.
The American family.
Dominique.—Of the seventeen American varie-
ties, the Dominiques are certainly the earliest of
origin. Some persons maintain that they originated
in the West Indies. We do not know. Their form
does not indicate this. The writer recalls having
seen them in Virginia, on the farm of his grand-
mother, very close to their present form and feather,
in the fifties.
In form they are very compact and deep-bodied.
In weight the cocks average eight pounds, and the
POULTRY 563
hens six pounds. In habit they are very active.
They are rather slow of growth, but when mature
the hens are persistent layers and excellent moth-
ers. In color, each feather should be crossed with
alternate light and dark bars of the same color as
the well-known Barred Plymouth Rocks. Fine spec-
imens of this ;
variety are now
rare. Their
close,rosecombs,
clean yellow
shanks, and good
commercial ///
qualities should 77
make them pop-
ular once more.
Java.— This
breed, with its
two varieties,
Black and Mot-
tled, is second
of the Ameri-
cans in antiq-
uity. The Java
had its origin
in eastern New
York. In the
early sixties, it
had reached such uniformity of both color and
shape, particularly the Black variety, as to attract
the attention of the public. It often grows larger
than the Plymouth Rock. Its leading characteris-
tics are a long, rectangular body and a deep yellow
skin. No American variety breeds more true to
form and color than does the Black Java.
The color of the Mottled Java is black and
white, evenly broken in alternate splotches through-
out the entire plumage. Both varieties have
single combs and clean shanks.
Plymouth Rock.
—This breed is di-
vided into three
varieties, the
Barred, White
(Fig. 571) and Buff
(Fig. 572). The
Barred variety
Z originated in the
Z sixties, in New
England. Fowls by
the name of Plym-
outh Rock had
been produced fif-
teen years sooner,
but they bore no
relation in blood
or type to the pres-
ent Barred Plym-
outh Rock. Like
all other Ameri-
can varieties, the
Barred Plymouth Rock is of mixed origin. Two
things are certain, both Dominique and Black Java
blood were a part of the combination. There were
other bloods used: by the early experimenters, par-
Fig. 571.
White Plymouth Rock cock.
Mi / YAMS =
HCG ay
\ Aaa 2 ay
QA (VS
\\ ASS:
Buff Plymouth Rock
pullet.
Fig. 572.
564 POULTRY
ticularly that of Brahma and Cochin. However
uncertain its ancestry, the result has been to give
us in the Barred Plymouth Rock, the. best-known
and most widely disseminated American fowl. In
shape, the Plymouth Rock is a nice average between
its two ancestors, the Dominique and the Java. The
back and body are rather long, breast broad and
deep. The size of all three varieties is the same,
the cocks weighing nine and one-half pounds and
the hens seven and one-half pounds.
The wonderful popularity that fell to the lot of
the Barred Plymouth Rock in the early seventies
hes
Fig. 573. Buff Wyandotte male and female.
and the fabulous prices secured for good show spec-
imens, made the American public want more of
them, and it was not long until White Plymouth
Rocks, true sports from the Barred variety,
became known, and speedily became popular. The
Buff variety came later, but to secure the buff color
considerable foreign blood was introduced. All Plym-
outh Rocks have single combs and yellow shanks.
As indicated by the names, the plumage of the
White variety is pure white throughout, and that
of the Buff pure buff throughout. Black feathers,
or even black specks in the plumage of the White
variety, are serious defects, and in the Buff variety
black or white in any part of the plumage is
equally objectionable. The skill of the breeder of
the Barred variety is measured by his ability to
secure a plumage, each feather of which is barred
to the skin with alternate narrow crossings of a
light and a dark color. No variety is more difficult
to bring to perfection than this variety ; but, when
it is attained, high prices are the breeder’s reward.
Wyandottes.—This is the earliest of the Ameri-
can breeds whose history we can trace with any
degree of accuracy. The Silver variety is the orig-
inal variety of this breed. The wonderful popu-
larity of the Plymouth Rock in the seventies stimu-
lated fanciers to produce something different that
would surpass it and yield them large profit. They
sought a fowl of plumper form and quicker matu-
rity than the Plymouth Rock, and if possible of
greater egg-producing capacity. Dozens of fan-
POULTRY
ciers were at work along these lines, and several
strains very similar in shape and color, and known
by a half-dozen different names, such as Ham-
bright, Hambletonian, Sebright Cochin and Ameri-
can Sebright, were known by 1880. Mr. Whit-
taker, of Michigan, seems to have had the most
definite purpose, and to have worked along the —
most specific lines, and it was his description and
the illustration made for him by B. N. Pierce in
1874, and published by Whittaker that same year,
that won their admission to the Standard in 1883.
An error in the description of the wing-bars of
cocks, published in the Standard of 1883,
and which was not corrected until the issue
of 1888, made much confusion, and evi-
still found.
In size, all Wyandottes are the same,—
eight and one-half pounds for cocks, and six
and one-half pounds for hens. In shape, all
. should be the same; a bird of curves, back
short and broad, body deep and round, breast —
broad and deep, with a low-set keel, shanks
short, strong and carried well apart.
The Silvers were the original Wyandottes.
The Whites and Blacks are the only true
sports from these. The Buffs (Fig. 573), Gol-
dens, Partridge, Silver Penciled and Colum-
bians each contained in their origin some
outside blood to produce their several colors,
unless it be one strain of the Columbians,
which was produced by a single, almost acci-
dental, cross of two other varieties of stand-
ard Wyandottes.
The Silvers, the original Wyandottes, have never
been surpassed in “eggs early and often.” Hun-
dreds of cases are on record of pullets laying at
five months. Before the writer is the daily record
of a hen that in the first three years of her egg-
production yielded 203, 202 and 201 eggs per year
respectively. She is now hard at work on her
fourth year and is doing well; and this hen has
done all her work in the cold climate of Minnesota.
This variety, having three times won the great
international egg-producing contest conducted in
Australia, stands without rivals in profitable egg-
production. But of all the eight Standard varie-
ties, the original Silvers are hardest to breed to
Standard requirements of color. The back and
shoulders of the male should be white, the saddle
and hackle white, each feather with a black stripe
in the center. The tail should be black. The breast
and thighs of the male, these same sections of the
female, and also her back and shoulders, should be
covered with white feathers, each having a narrow
black margin. This is difficult of attainment, but
is beautiful almost beyond description.
The Golden Wyandottes are colored exactly like
the Silver, except that golden bay is substituted
for white. The plumage of the White, Black and
Buff varieties is indicated by their names. The
Partridge Wyandottes have the color-markings of
the Partridge Cochins ; the Silver Penciled Wyan-
dottes have the color-markings of the Dark
Brahmas; the Columbian Wyandottes have the
dences of this widely disseminated error are —
POULTRY
color-markings of the Light Brahmas. The White
Wyandottes have far outstripped all of the other
varieties of this breed in popularity. In fact, the
entries at the greatest fall and winter shows, the
past four years, reveal them to be more popular
than any other standard variety. This is possibly
accounted for by a popular prejudice in circles of
commercial poultry against dark feathers, a preju-
dice that is more fanciful than real.
All Wyandottes have close-fitting rose combs,
and all have an abundant, fluffy but close-fitting
plumage. In the original Silvers, Hamburg and
Dark Brahma blood were the chief elements. In
the Buff and Partridge varieties, some Cochin
blood was introduced. The admission of these eight
varieties to the Standard covers twenty-three
years, from the Silvers in 1883 to the Columbians
in 1906.
Rhode Island Red.—During the twenty years
prior to 1900, some thrifty fanciers and egg-pro-
ducers in the southern part of New England
labored diligently to produce a fowl of good size,
of marketable excellence, of large egg-producing
ability, and of a reddish buff color. They succeeded
in all these particulars, but they quarreled amongst
themselves on some minor color requirements, and
especially as to whether their favorites should have
single combs, rose combs or pea-combs. It was not
uncommon to find two or even three kinds of combs
in the yard of the same breeder.
Finding that the Rhode Island Reds could never
gain admission to the Standard with these diversi-
ties, the fanciers set about a more specific method
of breeding, with the result that the Single-comb
Rhode Island Reds were admitted to the Standard
in 1904, and the Rose-comb variety in 1906. In
1902, the fanciers of the Pea-comb variety, under
the leadership of Mrs. Metcalf, of Ohio, separated
from the others, and having changed both the color
and shape somewhat by the introduction of some
Cornish Indian blood, secured the admission of
their favorites under the name of Buckeyes in 1905.
The tail color of both Rhode Island Reds and
Buckeyes calls for black. The former variety dis-
plays a red surface of body-plumage, with a red or
salmon under-color, free from slate. The Buckeye
surface color is a dark, rich, garnet, and the under-
color allows a bar of slate-color next to the surface.
The standard size of Rhode Island Red cocks is
eight and one-half pounds, and of hens, six and one-
half pounds. The Buckeye cocks should be one-
half pound heavier, and the hens one-half pound
lighter. The body of both breeds is long ; of the
Rhode Island Reds it is level; of the Buckeyes it is
carried at a slight elevation in front.
The Asiatic family.
Brahma.—This breed has but two varieties,
the Light and the Dark. While the two varieties
are of the same shape, the size is different. Dark
Brahma cocks must attain a weight of eleven
pounds, and hens eight and one-half pounds. In the
Light Brahmas, each sex must go one pound heavier.
Like all other Asiatic breeds, Brahmas are distin-
guished by heavy leg and toe feathering. They are
POULTRY 565
also endowed with thick, close plumage, which
enables them to endure with comfort a cold climate.
This makes them good winter egg-producers, pro-
vided they have dry quarters and are not exposed
to wind. Their great size and good quality of flesh
make them a favorite in some markets, especially
where capons are in demand. All Asiatics are slow
of maturity, either for the table or for egg-pro-
duction. While the ancestors of all the Asiatic
varieties came originally from Asia, their present
perfection is due more to American and English
fanciers than to what they were when first im-
ported. ‘
The general color of the Light Brahma is white,
with a black tail and black center stripes in both
hackle and saddle feathers. The wing-color of both
sexes is a combination of black and white too
intricate to describe here. The appearance of the
Light Brahma is most stately and commanding,
and its great size and handsome coloring always
win admiration.
The color of the Dark Brahma, except of the
neck and tail, is entirely different. The wings of
the cock are crossed by a heavy black bar, and
the entire breast and body, also the leg and toe
feathering, are black. The back, wings, breast and
body of the female have for each feather a basis
of gray on which are distinct, dark concentric
lines of penciling, which in its perfection makes
a very handsome bird.
Cochin : Buff, Partridge, White, Black.—The shape
of all Cochins is the same, and their peculiarity is an
appearance of massiveness and fluffiness. The heavy
but short feathering of the Cochin, piled high on
the back, and extending wide at the sides, makes
it appear larger than the Brahma, but it is not, the
weight being the same as that of the Dark Brahma;
the cock weighs eleven pounds and the hen eight
and one-half pounds. The excessive thigh and
shank feathering of Cochins adds to their appear-
ance of massiveness.
The names of the Buff, White and Black Coch-
ins indicate their coloring. The Partridge vari-
ety is very different. This cock has a neck and
back of bright red, shading to orange-brown color,
each feather having a center stripe of black. His
shoulders are red, and across the wing is a broad,
black bar. His breast, body and thighs are black,
also his tail. The hen has the same neck and tail
color as the cock, but all her remaining surface
color should be mahogany-red, each feather dis-
tinctly penciled with concentric circles of a rich
dark brown. The combs of all Cochins are single,
low, close on the head and evenly serrated with
five distinct points.
Langshan: Black (Fig. 574), White—There are
two varieties of this breed and their names indicate
their color. The Langshan is more up-standing than
the Cochin, and in stateliness isa rival of the Light
Brahma. The Langshan differs from other Asiatics
in that he has longer shanks, is more scantily
feathered, and that he carries both head and tail
high, these members coming up close toward a
meeting point, thus giving him the appearance of
having a short back. This, however, is seeming
566 POULTRY
rather than real. The Langshan differs from all
other Asiatics, and indeed from all American vari-
eties, in that its skin is not yellow, but is a pinkish
white. The bottoms
of its feet, instead
of being yellow as
in the Cochin, must
be a pinkish white.
This peculiarity of
the skin of the
Langshan marks it
as of peculiarly good
table qualities. As
is the case with all
white-skinned fowls,
the skin is thin, the
flesh-fibers fine, and
the flesh flavor very
superior. This char-
acteristic of supe-
rior table quality
marks the Dorking,
the Orpington and
all three of the
French varieties. It
is in this particular,
more than all others,
that the English
and French surpass Americans in the production
of extra fine table poultry. The best American
poultry markets are now insistently demanding
white-skinned fowls, and shrewd American pro-
ducers will soon be supplying that demand.
Black Langshan
cock.
Fig. 574.
The Mediterranean family.
Leghorn.—There are eight varieties of the Leg-
horn: Single-comb and Rose-comb Brown Leghorn
(Fig. 575), Single-comb and Rose-comb White Leg-
horn (Fig. 576), Single-comb and Rose-comb Buff
Leghorn, Single-comb Black Leghorn and Single-
comb Silver Duckwing Leghorn. The size and
shape of all are identical, except as to shape of
combs indicated by the variety names. Leghorns
had their early
homes in south-
ern Europe. The
coloring has
been greatly
modified by
American fan-
ciers in the past
forty years.
Early matu-
rity and great
activity char-
acterize all the
Leghorns. Give
them dry, warm
quarters and
they all pro-
duce large num-
bers of eggs. Their large combs, pendulous on the
females, are easily injured by frosts, so for winter
egg-production warm houses are essential. Leghorn
eggs are white, as are the eggs of all Mediterranean
POULTRY
varieties. This color of egg is the favorite of the
New York City market, and the White Leghorn is
the favorite of the egg-producers who cater to that
market. A large majority of the cockerels of this
variety are marketed by their producers as broilers
at two months of age. This combination, White
Leghorn eggs and White Leghorn broilers, has
proved very profitable, as both products command
high prices.
The Brown Leghorn is very peculiar and very
handsome in color. The color of the cock is the
same as that of the Partridge Cochin cock already
described (page 565). The color of the Brown Leg-
horn hen is nearly the same as that of the Part-
ridge Cochin hen (page 565) as to neck, wings and
tail; but her back, shoulders, breast and body, in-
stead of the distinct penciling of the former, have for
Dasaiy :
LAB) 3
’ eta) | oF
Fig. 576. White Leghorn male and female.
the basis of each feather a delicate brown on which
a darker shade of brown is finely and evenly stippled.
Minorea: Single-comb Black, Rose-comb Black,
Single-comb White-—The shape of the Minorca is
peculiar. It hasa long body carried rather upright,
deep at the breast with the back tapering sharply
toward the tail, and this organ long and carried
rather low. The comb is rather large. The ear-lobes
are large and pure white. The last two particulars
are characteristic of all Mediterranean varieties.
The cocks carry a weight of eight pounds and the
hens six and one-half pounds in the Rose-comb
variety; each sex of the Single-comb variety is one
pound heavier.
White-faced Black Spanish.—This is one of the
oldest and best-known Mediterranean varieties,
but, of late years, few good specimens are seen at
our shows. The shape and color and the shape of
the comb is the same as of the Single-comb Minorca,
but each sex weighs one pound less. The peculi-
arity of this breed is its white face, a very exag-
gerated enlargement of the white ear-lobe of other
Mediterranean breeds.
Blue Andalusian.—This is one of the later and
POULTRY
one of the most beautiful additions to the Medi-
terranean family. In shape, it is similar to other
members of this family. In size, it is about mid-
way between the Leghorn and the Minorca. The
cock weighs six pounds and the hen five pounds.
The plumage is a clear, slaty blue, each feather
delicately laced with a darker shade of blue, ap-
proaching black.
Ancona.—This is the latest addition to the
American Mediterranean family, although it has
long been bred in Hurope, especially in England,
where the color demand for shanks is yellow, while
ours allows yellow, shaded or mottled with black.
In size, the Ancona is about the same as the Leg-
horn. In color of plumage it is the same as the
Mottled Java, already described (page 563).
The English family.
Dorking.—On the Dorking, more than on any
other breed, the English people have established
their enviable reputation for producing the choicest
of poultry. The skin of this breed is white, which
indicates the excellence of its flesh quality for table
use. [See comments on this subject under Lang-
shan, page 565.] The Dorking has a shape pecu-
liarly its own. The body is long and deep, carried
at a slight elevation in the males and rather level
in the females. It carries an abundance of flesh in
the most desirable sections. The Colored Dorkings
are the largest. The cocks weigh nine pounds and
the hens seven pounds. The White Dorkings are
the smallest, the cocks weighing seven and one-half
pounds and the hens six pounds. In size, the Silver-
gray variety, the most beautiful in plumage, is
between the two sizes just given. There is no bird
in our American Standard more beautifully colored
than the Silver-gray Dorking hen. Her back, wings
and breast have gray as a base, each feather deli-
eately stippled with a darker shade. All Dorkings
& have an extra or
IN fifth toe.
S Redcap.—In
size, this bird is
about the same
as the White
Dorking. In
color, the male
has various mix-
tures of red and
black, the fe-
male of brown
and black. An
enormous rose
comb adorns the
head of both
Sexes.
Orpington:
Buff (Fig. 577),
Black, White-——
These are the
only varieties of
this breed to be
accorded admission to the American Standard,
although other varieties are sure to seek admission
soon, notably the rose-comb varieties with the same
ae EWE,
Buff Orpington cock.
ve 5
tiny aN
+7.
Fig. 577.
POULTRY 567
colors as the above three, these all having single
combs.
The late William Cook, who did more to pro-
mote the Orpington in England, Africa and America
than any other individual, said that the chief ori-
gin of the Orpington was in Dorking and Cochin
Houdan fowl.
Fig. 578.
blood. The color of the skin indicates Dorking
relationship, and the tendency to feathered shanks,
especially on the Buff Orpington, indicates some
Cochin blood. From their peculiar shape, some-
what different from that of the Buff Orpington,
we should imagine that the Black Orpington and
White Orpington dipped into both Langshan and
Cochin blood. Be their origin what it may, the
Orpingtons have taken a strong hold on the affec-
tions of American fanciers, and we predict a large
increase in their number in the near future, to
enable the producer to supply the demand for
white-skinned fowls, referred to under Langshan
(page 565).
The Orpington has in reality a long body,
although its abundant plumage, particularly of
the black males, gives it the appearance of having
a short back and a short body. In size, it is larger
than the Plymouth Rock, the cock weighing ten
pounds and the hen eight pounds. To carry this
enormous weight, it should stand on short, heavy
shanks. The Orpingtons are good producers of
large, brown eggs.
The French family.
Houdan.—The Houdans (Fig. 578) are the best
known in America of the French breeds. In color,
they are the same as the Mottled Java and Ancona.
The cocks weigh seven pounds and the hens six
pounds, but both sexes often run heavier. Houdans
have head ornaments of both crest and beard. They
are good producers of white eggs and also have the
white skin and fine flavor so dear to the heart of
the French epicure. The Houdans, like the Dork-
ings, carry the extra or fifth toe on each foot.
Creveceurs (Fig. 579) are black fowls with both
crest and beard. In size they are half-way between
the Plymouth Rock and the Wyandotte.
La Fleche fowls are also black, but do not have
the crest or beard. The cocks weigh eight and one-
half pounds and the hens seven and one-half pounds.
568 POULTRY
With their superb methods of feeding, the French
producers frequently bring capons of this variety
to a weight of twelve pounds, and poulards to ten
pounds each. The fact that the two last-named
French breeds,
when properly
fatted and
dressed, com-
mand the high-
est prices in the
most fastidious
market in the
world should
help to dissi-
pate the Ameri-
can prejudice
against fowls
with black
plumage.
The Dutch fam-
ily.
Hamburg:
Pg) Re y Golden Span-
Fig. 579. Crevecceur cock. gled, Silver Span-
gled, Golden Peneiled, Silver Penciled, White and
Black. —This family is often classed erroneously
among the purely fancy breeds. For a half cen-
tury or more it has maintained a right to the name,
“Dutch Everlasting Layers,” and Dutch eggs form
a large part of the eggs consumed in the great city
of London. The Hamburg is about the same size as
the Leghorn, and like them it lays a large white
egg. Its coloring is too intricate for a description
here, but this is a breed well worth more attention
than it receives in this country.
The Indian family.
Indian: Cornish and White—The two varieties
of this family, often called Games, erroneously,
evidently trace to Indian origin, the Cornish variety
still bearing a strong resemblance to the red Aseel.
They came to England, and various crosses on the
original importations with the Black-breasted Red
Game and with the Black Sumatra have produced
the present Cornish Indian. The White Indian is
not so easily traced. Many persons think it is
simply a sport from the Cornish. Its similarity in
shape makes this the simplest solution. The Indian
is a bird of strong proportions, and so fine is his
texture that his weight deceives the uninitiated.
The cocks weigh nine pounds and the hens six and
one-half pounds. The beaks and shanks are yellow.
The back and wings of the cock are a beautiful
mixture of black and red. The tail and breast are
black. The hen’s back, wings, breast and body are
a rich bay, penciled with black. The Indian makes
a fine market bird and is particularly good for
crossing on Brahmas and Cochins for certain
markets.
II. Fancy Fowis
We now come to a consideration of those breeds
and varieties that are seldom if ever bred for prac-
tical purposes, for table use or for egg-production,
POULTRY
but are bred as the fads and pets of fanciers who
admire their peculiarities of form or feather, and
have little regard for the question of profit or loss-
in their poultry transactions so long as their own
artistic or esthetic tastes are gratified. Not being
of strictly farm value they have little place in a
work of this nature.
The Polish family.
Polish: White-crested Black, Bearded Golden,
Bearded Silver, Bearded White, Buff-laced, Non-
bearded Golden, Non-bearded Silver, Non-bearded
White-—These eight varieties constitute the beau-
tiful Polish family, probably the joy and pride of
more strictly fancy fanciers than any other family.
The Polish are easily controlled and confined, by
reason of their immense crests, but require good
care and housing, as they cannot endure exposure
in snow or rain. Four of these varieties, as their
names indicate, have, in addition to their crests,
ample beards. The color-markings of the Polish
varieties are too elaborate to allow detailed de-
scriptions here. With good care, Polish hens pro-
duce a good supply of choice white eggs.
The Game and Game bantam families.
Game: Black-breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden
Duckwing, Silver Duckwing (Fig. 580), Birchen,
Red Pyle, White, Black.—These eight varieties of
standard Games have each its counterpart in ban-
tams. The standard or exhibition Game has a style
peculiarly its own. The corresponding bantams
differ only in size. The standard Game differs
greatly from the pit Game. The latter is bred for
fighting, the former for exhibition at shows, where
the bird that stands highest and straightest, looks
the fiercest and
has the most
correct plumage
wins the prize.
Oriental Game
and bantam
families.
Black . Suma-
tra.—This is a
medium - sized
bird with long
drooping tail-
plumage of very
rich greenish
black. It is
much used in
making certain
crosses.
Black-breasted
Red Malay.—
This is a large,
handsome bird.
The cock is
twenty -six in-
ches high and weighs nine pounds; the hen is eight-
een inches high and weighs seven pounds. The color
of the cock is chiefly a rich reddish brown ; that of
the hen is dark brown with black in some sections.
Fig. 580.
Silver Duckwing cock.
POULTRY
Black-breasted Red Malay bantam.—The Malay is
also produced in bantam size, which is very popular.
Ornamental bantam family.
Sebright: Golden, Silver.—These are proud little
birds. The cocks and hens are feathered alike.
The plumage of the Golden Sebright has a yellow
base, and each feather is distinctly laced with
black. The plumage of the Silver Sebright has a
white base, and the same black lacing as the
Golden.
Rose-comb bantam: Black
(Fig. 581), White-—Both black
and white types are found
among these. Both sexes ot
both varieties have a proud
carriage, a large, white ear-
lobe and a long tail.
Booted White bantams.—
The peculiarity of this breed
is a heavily feathered vulture
hock, which gives it the ap-
pearance of wearing boots.
Brahma bantams: Light,
Dark.—These are simply the two standard vari-
eties of this name in miniature. It has been very
difficult to get them sufficiently dwarfed in size.
Cochin bantam: Buff, Partridge, White, Black.—
Each of the four standard Cochin varieties has its
corresponding bantam, very grotesque little crea-
tures. The Standard weight for cocks is thirty
ounces and for hens twenty-six ounces. Weights
four ounces higher disqualify.
Japanese bantams: Black-tailed, White, Black.
—The leading characteristic of Japanese bantams
is that they are seemingly almost legless, that their
long wings touch the ground, and that their big,
high tails come as near as possible to touching the
back of their heads.
Polish bantams: Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non-
Bearded.—These follow the standard Polish vari-
eties already referred to, except in size. The cocks
should weigh about twenty-six ounces and the hens
about twenty-two ounces.
reece
Fig. 581.
Black bantam.
Miscellaneous breeds.
Silkies.—These are a peculiar white fowl of
small size, with bluish red face and comb. Their
leading characteristic is that their feathers are
without quill or web, thus giving them a plumage
that is soft, downy and fluffy, from which the
name is derived. (Fig. 529.) ;
Sultans. —These are booted Polish fowls,
with both muff and beard. Their plumage is
white. The comb should be invisible or very
small V-shaped with two small spikes. The
crest is large, full and compact, the feathers
falling backward.
Frizzles—These are fowls of any size or color,
but having the tip of each feather turned back so
Ss Ms give them a peculiar ruffled appearance. (Fig.
Literature.
For references, see page 527.
POULTRY 569
Ducks. Anatide. Figs. 582-585.
By Charles McClave.
The domestic duck is a web-footed, short-legged
fowl that is raised chiefly for its meat. The eggs
cannot compete on the market with hen’s eggs, and
are seldom offered for sale except for hatching
purposes. It is the general opinion of naturalists
that the domestic duck of today is a descendant of
the wild Mallard (Anos bosechas), and that different
types and colors have been produced only after
many generations of careful selection and breed-
ing.
"The American Standard of Perfection recognizes
twelve varieties of domestic ducks as follows:
Aylesbury, Rouen, Pekin, Cayuga, Crested White,
Indian Runner, Blue Swedish, White’ Muscovey,
Colored Muscovey, Gray Call, White Call, and Black
East India. These twelve varieties comprise all
colors, types, and sizes of the duck family, from
the little two-and-one-half-pound Call to the twelve-
pound Muscovey or Pekin.
Aylesbury.
The Aylesbury duck is the leading English mar-
ket variety. Itis native of the county of Aylesbury,
England. It is to Europe as a market duck what
the Pekin is to America. The Aylesbury is slaty
white in color, of large size, with flesh-colored
beak and yellow shanks and feet. It is a good layer,
rapid grower, and ranks high as a market variety.
Rouen. (Fig. 582.)
The Rouen duck is a descendant of the wild Mal-
lard, which it resembles in color. By careful selec-
tion and breeding it has attained more than twice
the weight of the Mallards. Some writers have
designated it as a native of Rouen, a city in the
province of Normandy, which is noted for its fine
Rouen ducks.
Fig. 582.
poultry, but this cannot be verified, as larger and
better specimens can be found in both England and
America than in Normandy. The Rouen is the
largest and most popular of all colored market
varieties. The standard weight of mature speci-
mens is nine pounds for drakes and eight pounds
for ducks.
570 POULTRY
Black Cayuga.
This is the largest solid black duck known. It is
strictly an American production and first made its
appearance about Lake Cayuga, New York, from
whence it derived its name. It is of fair size, a
mature pair weighing fifteen pounds. The body is
of good length. It is a good layer, the young grow
rapidly, and as a market variety it ranks with the
Rouen and Aylesbury.
Pekin. (Fig. 583.)
The Pekin is the greatest market duck of modern
times. It was first imported to America from China
in 1873. For two or three years following this
importation, Pekin duck eggs for hatching were
difficult to secure at ten to thirteen dollars per
dozen. The Pekin is today the largest white duck
in existence, exhibition specimens frequently weigh-
ing as high as ten to twelve pounds each. Asa
market variety, it outranks all others. Without
doubt, there are more Pekins grown for market in
America than all other varieties combined. The
head and beak are long, and of good size; beak
orange-yellow in color ; back, breast and body long,
broad and deep, with deep keel; color creamy
white. It is a good layer, feathers early and
matures rapidly.
Crested White.
This is a medium-sized white duck, with large
white crest or topknot. It is about two-thirds the
size of the Pekin, and resembles it in color and
shape of body, with the exception of the crest. It
is strictly an American production. It is a good
Fig. 583. Pekin ducks.
layer, and the young grow rapidly. The Crested
White is an excellent market variety, and at the
same time is very ornamental, so that it is in
demand.
Blue Swedish.
The Blue Swedish is the latest acquisition to the
standard varieties. It is an English production,
and has been bred in England for several years.
It is of good size, mature birds weighing fifteen
pounds per pair, and is of the same general charac-
POULTRY
ter as the Pekin, except in color. The color is a
uniform steel-blue throughout, except on the bib or
front of the breast, which is clear white and heart-
shaped, extending to the throat. The beak in drakes
is greenish blue in color, and in the duck smutty
brown, with dark brown blotch, the eyes deep hazel ;
shanks and feet
reddish brown.
Indian Runner.
(Fig. 584.)
This is a small
variety midway
in size between
the Call and the
Crested White.
It originated in
England. It is
termed the “Leg-
horn of the duck
family” because
of its great lay-
ing capacity.
It is, without
doubt, the best-
known layer of
the aquatic fam-
ily. In color it is
entirely different ;
from any other standard variety of ducks. The
head is long and flat, light fawn in color, cap and
cheek-markings light fawn; bill straight, green in |
color with black bean at tip; eyes hazel; neck
white from head to point where breast-markings
begin; back light fawn or gray; breast light fawn,
evenly divided half-way between point of breast-
bone and legs; body light fawn, the rear half white;
shanks and feet orange-yellow; carriage very erect,
almost in a perpendicular form. The young feather
rapidly and come to maturity earlier than the larger
varieties.
Black East India.
The Black East India duck is an exact counter-
part of the Black Cayuga, except in size. It is
rated with the Call as the bantam of the domesti-
cated duck family. The best authorities inform us
that it is a “sport” from the common or wild
Mallard (Anos boschas). It has the same general
characters as the Mallard. While it should be solid
black in color, many specimens have white on the
breast, which is a disqualification. It is more freely
bred in England than in America. Really good
specimens are scarce and hard to secure at any
price.
Colored Muscovey. (Fig. 585.)
The Colored Muscovey is an entirely distinct
species from all other standard varieties of ducks.
It is a native of South America and inhabits the
country along the equator from Guiana to Para-
guay. It is the native wild duck of that locality
and is not a migratory bird, as are nearly all other
varieties of wild ducks. While it is somewhat slow
and inclined to be awkward on foot, it is very
Fig. 584.
Indian Runner duck.
POULTRY
active on wing and can.fly miles with a very little
effort. The males are about twice the size of the
females and pugnacious in disposition, especially at
breeding time. The Muscovey will cross with other
domestic ducks, but the progeny are useless for
breeding purposes.
The Colored Muscovey is of good size, black and
white in color, the black predominating. The most
peculiar characteristic is that the side of the head
and the region around the eye are without feathers
and are carunculated or corrugated and scarlet in
color. Unlike many other varieties, this duck builds
her nest and never scatters her eggs. She will sit,
hatch and rear her young with diligent care. It
requires the Muscovey five weeks to hatch, while
other varieties hatch in four weeks. It is the duck
that never quacks.
White Muscovey.
The White Muscovey has been bred from the
Colored variety by careful selection of the whitest
specimens for many years, and now breeds true to
color. The young usually show some black at the
top of the head and frequently on the back, under-
neath the wings, but this disappears after the first
molt. Unlike others, it molts but once a year. The
White is the same as the Colored variety except in
color. ,
Gray Call.
The Gray Call duck is the bantam of the duck
family, and weighs only four to five pounds per
pair. The color is identical with that of the wild
Mallard or the Rouen. It is an ornamental variety
and is used principally as a decoy to bring down wild
ducks, and for ornamenting the waters of public
and private parks. While domestic in its habits, it
is very active on the wing and flies as well as any
wild variety. The female prepares her nest very
carefully in a secluded place and lays ten to four-
teen eggs; she is a good mother, rearing all her
young, barring accident. The young are rapid
growers and come to maturity at eight to ten
weeks old.
White Call.
This has the same general characteristics as the
Gray Call, except that in color it is a spotless
white. The White has never been so popular as the
Gray and good specimens are not plentiful.
Wild ducks of America.
There are more than fifty known species of wild
ducks scattered over North America from the Canal
zone to the Arctic ocean. Some varieties are much
more numerous than others. It will be possible
here to mention only a few varieties and to describe
the one or two most important. The most important
are the Wood duck, Mallard, Pintail, Shoveller, Cin-
namon Teal, Blue Wing Teal, Green Wing Teal,
Widgeon, Godwall, Mottled duck, Florida Dusky
duck, Black duck and others. All of these are what
are termed non-diving varieties, and derive most of
their living from the vegetation found in the shal-
low water of streams, pools and marshes. The
POULTRY 571
fresh-water ducks also relish any kind of grain or
animal food found in the water. All varieties are
practically migratory in their habits, passing the
summer and nesting in the North, and wintering
in the South.
There are fully twenty-five species of diving
ducks, including the well-known Canvas-backs,
Red-heads, Broad-bills, Labradors, American Hiders,
Velvet Scooter and many others. Nearly all vari-
eties migrate more or less at night, especially vy hen
they are disturbed by hunters, and frequently pass
the day on the water far from shore as a means of
protection.
Wood or Carolina duck (Aix sponsa).—This is
the handsomest and most gorgeously colored of any
American variety. While a migratory bird, it does
not go so far north as most other varieties of wild
ducks, and confines itself at all seasons of the year
Fig. 585. Colored Muscovey ducks.
a long flowing crest, extending backward nearly to
the shoulder. It is purple and green in color, with
bright metallic reflections. Two narrow lines of
white, one starting from the upper base of the bill,
the other at or behind the eye, pass backward to
the point of the crest; the throat and side of the
neck are white, nearly enclosing the violet-black
back of the head. The breast is chestnut, shaded
with purple, and spangled with triangular patches
of white; the wing coverts and back are purple
and black, with rich reflections; the sides of the
breast are marked with a broad black bar; the
sides of the body are barred with fine black lines
with yellowish brown ground or undercolor, the
longer feathers ending with a white bar. The bill
is deep red or scarlet, with black at the base, and
black bean or nail; eyes bright red with scarlet
eyelids ; legs and feet dusky yellow. The female is
similar to the male in color, but much duller in
shade.
The Wood duck is rivaled only by the Mandarin
duck of China, which is a smaller variety and some-
what less gaudy in color. The Wood duck prefers a
secluded place, near a small lake or swamp where
trees abound. The nest is usually made in hollow
trees near the water, and is composed of feathers
572 POULTRY
and down only, plucked by the duck. Should the
nest be far from the water, the young are carried
by the mother in her beak, one at a time. Here
they are at home, and like other wild varieties
come to maturity in a very short period.
The Mallard duck (Anos boschas) is the most
numerous of all North American varieties, and is
found more or less in Europe and parts of Asia and
northern Africa. In color, it is the same as the
standard Rouen; medium in size; head of the male
clear lustrous green; bill greenish yellow; eyes
dark hazel; neck green, with distinct white ring
nearly meeting at the back; breast clear purple,
brown extending well back; back ashy gray, shaded
with green; wings grayish brown shaded with
green. The duck is entirely different in color from
the drake, the entire plumage being light brown
penciled with dark lustrous brown throughout.
Literature.
Geo. E. Howard, Ducks and Geese: Standard
Varieties and Management, Farmers’ Bulletin No.
64, United States Department of Agriculture
(1906). [For further references, see page 527.]
Geese. Anatide. Figs. 586-590.
By Charles McClave.
The goose is a water-fowl raised for its meat
and feathers, and also to some extent for orna-
nental purposes. The breeding and rearing of
domesticated and wild varieties of geese is an
industry that is not only interesting in many ways,
but of value from a commercial standpoint.
The goose may be said to be midway in general
appearance and size between the swan and the
duck. It is much smaller, with shorter body, wing
and neck than the swan, and much larger than any
known variety of ducks. The beak of the goose is
different in form from that of the duck, being nar-
rower and deeper and more like that of the swan.
The tarsus or shank—that is, the part of the leg
not covered by feathers—in the goose is covered
by naked skin, marked with small lines, enclosing
sections like meshes of a net. In the duck family
this is very different ; the front of the shank or
tarsus is covered with scales or scutellz, one over-
lapping another and forming a perfect covering
just as the scales cover a fish. In the goose the
tarsus is said to be reticulate, while in the duck it
is said to be scutellate.
The origin of all our domestic and standard
varieties of geese, except the wild or Canadian, is
said to be the European gray-lag variety (Anser
cinereus). By careful selection and breeding for
a great number of years, man has wrought many
changes in color, type, and general characteristics
of the domestic varieties. The geese that excited
the attention of the guard by their loud noise and
saved the Roman capitol from destruction by the
enemy, were of a very different type from our
improved varieties of the present day.
The varieties of geese recognized by the Ameri-
can Standard of Perfection are the African, Emb-
den, Toulouse, White Chinese, Brown Chinese,
POULTRY
Wild or Canadian and Egyptian. All are natives
of the eastern. hemisphere except the Wild or Cana-
dian. The first three varieties are generally desig-
nated by breeders and specialists as the “heavy
weight” or “market” varieties of the goose
family. Mature geese, when fattened for market,
weigh seventeen to twenty pounds each; single
specimens have been known to reach more than
twenty-five pounds, but the latter figure is an
extreme weight.
The following notes on African, Embden and
Toulouse geese, not prepared by the writer of this
article, are inserted by the Editor to complete the
discussion.
African.
African geese rank with the Embden and Tou-
louse in size, and are considered more prolific than
either. They are strong, vigorous and active
birds. They are characterized by a large head,
bearing a pronounced black knob, and a heavy gray
dewlap under the throat. The neck is long, back
broad and flat, breast full and round, body large
and upright. The thighs are short and plump, and
the shanks medium long and dark orange colored.
The wings are of good size, and fit close to the
body. The plumage of the neck is rather light gray
in color, traversed from the head to the body by a
stripe of dark gray color. The breast is gray, the
under part of the body and thighs a lighter gray,
and the back dark gray. The wings and tail are
dark gray. The standard weights are given as fol-
lows: Mature gander, 20 pounds; mature goose,
18 pounds; young gander, 16 pounds; young goose,
14 pounds.
African geese are most profitable because of
their prolificacy and early maturity. Nine-pound
market birds are ready in ten weeks. Their dark
bill and skin is against them, and they are consid-
Fig. 586. Embden.
ered difficult to pick. But the flesh is fine-flavored,
and esteemed for the table. The ganders are sure
breeders, and mate readily with any geese and with
large numbers. The females are splendid mothers,
and fairly good layers.
African geese are an old variety and were
brought to America at an early date, variously
known as African, India and Guinea geese. They
have not been much shown, and consequently are
not so well known as some other breeds, but are
highly prized by a few breeders.
POULTRY
Embden.
The beautifu. white plumage, square, compact
body, and tall, erect carriage of the Embden make
it a very attractive bird. It is not so prolific, per-
haps, as the Toulouse, averaging only about twenty
eggs in a season, but it is highly esteemed as a
practical bird. The neck is long and massive-
appearing, carrying rather a large head and a
medium-sized, orange-colored bill. The back is
slightly arched, the breast round, deep and full,
shanks short, stout, and deep orange in color, the
thighs strong and well-proportioned, toes straight.
The wings are large and strong and the tail short.
The eyes are bright blue, indicating vigor and
attention. The standard weights are given as fol-
lows: Mature gander, 20 pounds; mature goose,
18 pounds; young gander, 18 pounds; young goose,
16 pounds.
Embden geese were originated by the north Ger-
mans, and especially those living in or near the
province of Westphalia.
For breeding, it is well to choose a bright, active
gander of good parentage, that is two to five years
old. The goose should have similar qualities, and
be clean and compact. Fall or early winter is the
best time to mate. The gander and geese, one to
three in number, should be put together and isolated
until they become acquainted. Embden geese will
breed profitably until ten to twelve years of age,
but they are not generally allowed to do so. They
like to hide their nests, and it is well to place the
nests in out-of-the-way places, free from disturb-
ance. A few nest-eggs should be provided so that
the eggs may be removed each day, and stored at
a temperature of 45° to 60°, until enough for a
sitting have been secured. By that time the goose
will be broody. Incubation takes thirty days. If
the eggs are hatched under a hen, she will need
attention at hatching time, until she gets familiar
with her strange brood.
Toulouse.
Toulouse geese are an old French breed, and have
long been popular in France for their superior fat-
tening qualities and hardiness, making them very
profitable. They derive their name from the city
of Toulouse in France. They are bred largely on
farms in America, and are in demand on the mar-
ket. They are less esteemed for table purposes
than some other breeds, owing to the coarse and
flabby nature of the flesh. They are late maturing
and prolific, averaging about forty eggs in a season.
Toulouse geese are blue-gray in color, marked
with brown ; the head is gray, the neck dark blue-
gray, the back dark gray, the breast a tight gray or
steel-blue, the belly and under surface of the tail
white ; the shanks and feet are deep orange-red
colored, and the bill is orange colored. The prima-
ries of the wings are brown, the secondaries a
darker brown, edged with lighter gray, the coverts
dark gray. The head is rather large but short, the
bill short and stout, neck medium long and well
carried; body compact, medium length, deep, the
belly almost touching the ground; back broad,
moderately long, slightly arched ; breast broad and
POULTRY 573
deep; wings large, strong, folded close to the body;
tail short ; thighs and shanks stout. The standard
weights are given as follows: Adult gander, 20
pounds; adult goose, 18 pounds; young gander,
18 pounds; young ;
goose, 15 pounds.
The comparative
value of the differ-
ent breeds for mar-
ket purposes is a
matter of opinion.
African geese are
hardy, good breeders
and prolific; other- .
wise they are not so-
good for market pur-
poses as either the
Embden or the Tou-
louse. African gan-
ders are frequently
used to cross on
other breeds, but
they are pugnacious, quarrelsome and hard to han-
dle. The Embden is preéminently the market goose
for family trade; especially is this so where pro-
ducer and consumer deal direct.
Young geese are often as good or better breeders
than old. Breeding qualities are to be judged by
results rather than by age. It is well to keep the
good breeders as long as they produce satisfac-
torily. Geese that have been good breeders should
not be condemned on one season’s failure. All
breeding geese have their “ups and downs,” and
results are not always good. It is better to set all
but the last eggs under hens ; the latter are easier
to handle, and the goose will usually lay two
litters.
White and Brown Chinese. ( Fig. 588.)
The White and the Brown Chinese (Cygnopsis cyg-
noides) have the same general characteristics, but
are entirely different in color. The original Chi-
nese were colored and the White has been bred
from sports. It is thought that no entirely white
variety of geese existed among any known wild
species of the goose family. These two varieties
are native of China, and are bred in Europe and
America in large numbers.
The Chinese are the most ornamental of all
domestic varieties of geese. For ornamenting the
lakes and lagoons of public and private parks they
rank high, even rivaling the European swan in
this respect. They are also a practical variety. In
egg-production they outrival even the famous
Toulouse. As a market goose, the Chinese are of
very superior quality. The bodies are plump and
round and the meat is of excellent quality. As
feather-producers they are also valuable, being
covered with a good coat of soft feathers and fine
down. They are of medium size, mature specimens
weighing ten to fourteen pounds each according to
flesh. In general appearance, the Chinese have
long arch necks, carried very upright, with a large
round knob or protuberance at the base of the
beak—the larger the knob the better. They dis-
Fig..587.
Toulouse goose.
574 POULTRY
play a short erect body and carriage, giving them
a novel appearance. They are especially valuable
on farms on which marshy or broken land by
stream or brook abounds, for this is their natural
home. During
the spring and
warm months
they gain nearly
their entire liv-
ing from pas-
ture and water.
During the win-
ter, they need
the protection
of an open shed,
and if supplied
with clover hay
and other rough
fodder require
only a _ small
amount of grain
each day. The
breeding geese
should be fed
sparingly on
corn or other grain, as fattened specimens are poor
egg-producers and eggs from them hatch few
goslings.
Experience has taught that it is best to mate
two geese with one gander, although some ganders
will mate with three geese. When large flocks are
kept together, they usually mate in pairs and trios,
and at laying time the ganders become pugnacious
among themselves and fight viciously. It is advis-
able to allow the goose to sit and hatch her young,
but the eggs can be hatched by chicken hens and
reared by hand with good success. Should the
latter method be adopted, the goose should be
removed to new quarters as soon as she begins to
be broody, and in a few days she will lay again.
After the second laying it is well to allow the
goose to hatch and grow the young. The young
grow rapidly from the shell, and at four months of
age are nearly mature. The gander will always
care for and protect the young as well as the goose.
The young hatched and cared for by the chicken
hens can be turned over at any age to the flock, as
the ganders will fight for the young at any age,
and every old gander in the flock will endeavor to
father the young goslings.
Wild or Canadian. (Fig. 589.)
The American wild or Canadian goose (Branta
Canadensis) is a native of North America from the
gulf of Mexico to the Hudson bay country and even
Alaska. It is a migratory bird, spending the
winters in southern United States and in Mexico
and California. In the early spring great flocks are
seen passing northward, beyond the eye and habi-
tation of man to the silent desolations of unknown
countries. It seeks the wild solitudes uninhabited
by man, on the shores of lakes and marshes. It
usually nests near the water on elevated patches of
ground, and frequently on muskrat houses made of
reeds in the water. The nest is carefully made and
Fig. 588.
White Chinese geese.
POULTRY
protected with diligent care by both gander and
goose. The goose does not begin to lay until three
years of age, and produces five to eight eggs of
large and uniform size. Invariably all are fertile
and each brings forth a strong, vigorous gosling.
As soor as all are hatched, the young are taken to
the water by the parent birds, where they feed
mostly on vegetable matter and water insects.
The young are very rapid growers and come to
maturity in about twelve weeks, while other vari-
eties of our domestic geese require four to five
months to reach maturity. The Canadian Wild geese
mate only in pairs.
Wild geese were domesticated and bred on farms
at an early period with varied success. No change
in appearance or color has been wrought by man;
their appearance and habits are the same. The
writer has had many years of experience in breed-
ing and handling these wild fowls, and finds their
wild instincts always foremost. Birds reared with
our domestic geese will rise and fly if an opportun-
ity presents itself. The only means of controlling
them is to remove the last joint of one wing when
the goslings are only a few days old so that they
cannot fly.
The standard weight of Wild geese is ten to
twelve pounds. They are of medium size, with long
arched neck, small, well-elevated head, with black
beak and an ever-watchful eye; head black, with
a triangular white patch or cheek piece meeting
under the throat ; neck black, shading to gray at
base ; the back dark gray, breast light gray, shad-
ing to white on under part of the innit wings
long, large and powerful,
and in color dark gray
approaching black. The
young are
similar in
color to the
adult, except
that they are
alittle duller
in shade and
the white
cheek piece
is marked
with black.
This disap-
pears at ma-
turity, however, and at one year old the young
have precisely the same color as the adults.
Egyptian (Chenalopex Afgypticus). (Fig. 590.)
This variety is entirely different from all other
standard or domestic varieties of the goose family.
It produces only a small number of eggs and is of
little value except for ornamental purposes. Its
native home is north and central Africa and the
shores of the Mediterranean sea. Historians and
naturalists allude to the Egyptian as the oldest and
most ancient variety of pure-bred geese. At pres-
ent it is common over southern Europe and occa-
sionally fine specimens can be found in America.
It is the native wild goose of the River Nile
country. Because of its small size and peculiar
Wild or Canadian geese.
Fig. 589.
POULTRY
shape, some naturalists place the Egyptian as much
in the duck family as in the goose family. It is the
smallest standard or domesticated variety, weigh-
ing six to ten pounds, the latter weight being the
extreme for mature males.
The male and female are alike both in shape and
in color, and it is frequently difficult to distinguish
the sexes under ordinary circumstances. It is
necessary to “wing” both mature and young birds
to prevent their flying away. They care little for
other domestic vari-
eties of geese and
ducks, and prefer to
remain by themselves
near the pond or
marsh. They are
sought principally for
parks and public ex-
hibitions. While
small in stature, the
old males are very
pugnacious and quar-
relsome with all other
_ aquatic fowls, and es-
* pecially with males of
their own species.
With better domesti-
cation this trouble-
some characteristic
will no doubt be
overcome to a great
extent.
In color, the Egyptian goose is the most varied
and gaudy of the goose tribe. The head is small
and rather long, a little inclined to duck shape;
the bill of medium length and rather flat, and in
color purple or shaded red ; the eyes orange color,
prominent and bold; the neck medium length,
small, gray and black in color; the back narrow
and arched or egg-shaped from base of neck to
tail, color grayish black; the breast round and
deep, with a chestnut-colored middle, the lower
part dark gray. The same chestnut color extends
around the eye, covering the side of the head in
both male and female. The wings are large and
powerful, and underneath the wing joints are pro-
vided with a strong, horny spur five-eighths of an
inch long, being entirely different in this respect
from other varieties of geese. The surface of the
wing is white, with a narrow black stripe or bar
of clear metallic luster, wing flights clear black,
tail medium size and metallic black, thighs pale
buff or gray, feet reddish yellow. Altogether the
Egyptian is a most interesting variety and worthy
of more than passing attention. It breeds well in
confinement under favorable conditions, the goose
producing six to eight eggs, making a nest and
hatching her young. If it has access to a pond or
waterway, it requires very little attention or grain
food.
Fig. 590. Brown Chinese Geese.
Sebastapool.
The Sebastapool goose is a native of eastern
Europe and western Asia and the Black sea, and
was imported to America as early as 1860. It isa
POULTRY 575
pure-bred, but not a standard variety, pure white
in color, of medium size, mature specimens weigh-
ing ten to eleven pounds each. The peculiarity of
this most novel variety is its plumage, the back
and wing surface feathers being long, inclining
forward and downward, without shaft and curling
as though fanned by the breezes. The irregular
ribbon-like plumage attracts attention wherever
exhibited. Very few good specimens are to be
found in America.
Wild geese of North America.
Brant found some twenty distinct types or vari-
eties of wild geese in North America. We here men-
tion only a few of the more prominent. All North
American varieties are birds of rapid and powerful
flight, non-divers except when wounded, and nest
on the ground in high latitude; but nests have
occasionally been found in the forks of a low tree
afew feet from the ground.
The wild Blue goose (Chen cerulescens) is a dis-
tinct variety found in the interior in the Missis-
sippi valley and north to the Hudson bay country.
It is rarely seen on the Pacific or Atlantic coasts.
It winters along the gulf of Mexico and nests in
the interior of Labrador. It is somewhat smaller
than the Canadian Wild goose and much shorter in
neck. The head and the upper part of the neck are
white, the breast, back and wings brown and blue
tinged with gray, the tail brown edged with white,
the bill pale pink with a black mark along each
mandible, and the shanks and feet bright pink in
color.
Large Snow goose (Chen hyperborea).—This vari-
ety is native from Alaska to Texas and Cuba. It
feeds largely on the land from growing vegetables,
and returns to the water for resting and drink.
The adult specimen is white in color, except the
primaries of the flights, which are black, shading
to gray at the base. The bill and feet are bright
red.
Small Snow goose—The color and general char-
acteristics of the Small Snow goose are the same as
those of the Large Snow goose except as to size. It
is found from the Mississippi valley to California,
and from as far south as Lower California to as
far north as Hudson bay.
The Ross goose.—This goose is the same in color
as the Snow goose, but very small in size,—in fact,
it is the smallest of all wild varieties, mature
specimens weighing only about three pounds. It is
without doubt the bantam of the wild goose family.
It is not numerous. In summer it occupies the
country about the Arctic ocean and in winter is
found along the Pacific coast and in southern Cali-
fornia.
The White-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) is of
medium size and grayish brown in color. The first
short feathers from the beak toward the eye are
white bordered by dark brown, and hence the name,
White-fronted goose. The bill, legs and feet are
pink or red. It inhabits the entire western part of
North America from Mexico to the Arctic ocean.
It feeds almost entirely on grass and other vege-
table matter, and occupies the water only at night
576 POULTRY
and during the molting period. The nest is made
on the low ground near fresh-water marshes and
small lakes. The goose produces five to seven eggs
of a cream color.
The Hutchins, Western, and Cackling varieties of
wild geese are all similar in characteristics and
color to the Canadian Wild goose except in size,
and are less numerous.
The Bernacle goose (Bernicla eucopsis) is said to
be a straggler from Europe, where it is common.
It is very scarce in America, and is found only
along the Atlantic coast. It is a small bird about
the size of the Brant. The head is white except
the top, which is black ; the neck, back and wings
are white, the under part of the body dull white,
ending in clear white at the rear end; the tail,
bill and feet are black.
The Emperor goose is a rare variety, found princi-
pally about the Bering sea, and said by some writ-
ers to be the handsomest of all American varieties.
In color, the head and back of the neck are white,
the front and sides of the neck are brownish black
checked with white, the tail is dark gray at the
base and white at the end. The wing and body
plumage is of a bluish shade, each feather ending
with a band of white and lacéd by crescent-shaped
black markings; the primaries of the wings are
black, and the secondaries slaty black laced with
white. It nests on the low marshy islands of Alaska,
near the water mark.
Black Brant. (Branta bernicla.)\—This goose is
of medium size, nearly black in color except the
under rear part of the body. It inhabits nearly all
of North America as far east as Greenland, and
nerth to the Arctic ocean. The nest is made on the
ground on small islands in fresh water in Franklin
bay. The nest usually contains four or five eggs.
Wild varieties of the eastern hemisphere.
Of the wild varieties of Europe, there are three
distinct types: the Gray-lag goose, the Pink-footed
goose and the Bean goose. The common domestic,
or English variety, is no doubt a descendant of the
wild Gray-lag.
The wild Gray-lag goose (Anser cinereus), alone
among wild varieties, will cross with domestic
geese and produce fertile progeny. Very few Gray-
lags are to be found in Europe except in the Shet-
land islands and on the coast of Norway. As a
variety it has become almost extinct.
The Bean goose (Anser segetum) closely resembles
the Gray-lag in many respects, but is shorter in
beak and has greater length of wings or flight
feathers.
Pink-footed goose.—Very little can be said regard-
ing the Pink-footed goose except that it resembles
the Gray-lag and Bean varieties in color and gen-
pe type, and is very difficult to distinguish from
them.
The Gambian or Spur-winged goose is a native of
. the eastern hemisphere, and is very rare in Amer-
ica. The plumage is black and white, the former
predominating. The goose is of medium size, erect
in carriage, with a knob on the head similar to that
in the Chinese variety. The eyes are bright brown,
POULTRY
the beak and shanks dull red. Because of its wild
nature it is rarely bred in confinement.
The Cereopsis goose is a native of New Holland
and is becoming very scarce even in Europe. It is
a handsome variety. It is very pugnacious in dis-
position, and cannot be kept successfully with any
other variety of water-fowl.
Judging geese.
For judging geese, the American Standard of
Perfection provides a standard weight for each
standard variety—adult male, adult female,
young male and young female. In competition with
others of the same kind, the specimen nearest the
required weight, other conditions of color and form
being equal, shall be the winner. However, in the
large market varieties, such ‘as the Toulouse, the
Embden and the African, the writer thinks that, all
other conditions being equal, the largest specimen
should be the winner.
Literature.
Geo. E. Howard, Ducks and Geese: Standard
Varieties and Management, Farmers’ Bulletin No.
64, United States Department of Agriculture
(1906). [For further references, see page 527.]
Grouse, Domestication of the Ruffed. Bonasa
umbellus., Tetraonide. Figs. 591, 592.
By C. F. Hodge.
The possibility of rearing the ruffed grouse, or
American partridge, in domestication is now a dem-
onstrated fact. Six birds from a clutch of twelve
were thus reared by the writer in 1904, and three
were brought to maturity by Arthur Merrill, of
the Massachusetts State Hatchery, at Wilkinson-
ville, in 1906. One pair of the former lot bred
successfully in captivity when they were ten
months old, and those at the Wilkinsonville Hatch-
ery are apparently breeding normally this season.
Rearing the birds.
The ruffed grouse lays ten to sixteen eggs in a
slight depression in the ground, in a brush-pile or
at the base of a tree. The clutches are usually
completed in Massachusetts by May 1 to 10, and
the incubation period is twenty-four days. At any
stage of incubation the eggs may be transported by
the “hat method” in perfect safety. This method
consists in laying a pad of cotton-batting in the
crown of a felt hat, placing the eggs on this and
then simply wearing the hat with the eggs next to
the head. One case is known in which the chicks
actually hatched in the hat. The young pip the
shell usually a full day before they finally emerge.
The eggs hatch well under Cochin bantam hens
(less so, thus far, in incubators), and the young
may be allowed to remain undisturbed in the nest
one day without feeding. The rule to be followed
after this is, feed lightly and often, and keep them
hungry: especially, keep them hungry and active.
The only excepticn to this rule is at night, when
they must be fed enough to send them to sleep con-
tentedly. After feeding liberally one evening, for
POULTRY
example, one four-days-old chick was found wan-
dering disconsolately about in the dusk. It ate
sixty-five full-grown maggots before it crept under
the hen. This incidentally illustrates both quanti-
tatively and qualitatively the food of the young
chicks, which is, at first, almost wholly small insects
and spiders.
Feeding and care.—The best first-feed is supplied
by cutting branches of apple, maple, chestnut, and
elm, with leaves covered with aphides, and spread-
ing them down before the brood; or the chicks
may be allowed to pick the small insects from the
grass or from the plants in the garden. If the
weather is cold or wet so that they cannot be risked
out of the brooder, they may be fed for the first
day or two on well-ripened and cleaned maggots,
a few at a time; and if these fail, as they do in
exceptionally cold seasons, the attendant may give
sparingly of pheasants’ custard. This is made by
beating up a fresh egg with a half cup of fresh
milk, and baking or scalding until coagulated. It
is well to add a pinch of chick bone-meal to each
feeding. The chicks will also need a good supply
of grit, and it is well to keep a bunch of fresh
chickweed, wood sorrel, shepherd’s purse, or wild
peppergrass before them from the first. They
should, in fact, be encouraged to eat all the bulky,
coarse, vegetable matter possible. Grated carrot is
excellent during the first weeks. All this vegetable
food may be kept constantly before them, as it
always is in nature. This rule also applies to all
kinds of fruits as they ripen through the season,
from strawberries, mulberries and cherries to
huckleberries and black cherries, which are a
staple food through the summer, and grapes and
apples, chestnuts and acorns in the late fall.
Throughout the summer, grasshoppers form the
staple insect diet. These can generally be secured
in any desired quan-
tity by sweeping the
mowings with insect
nets.
In the late summer
and fall, leaves of
trees and shrubs form
a large part of the
bird’s diet. It is
strange that, with all
sorts of fruits and
grains before them,
they will insist on
eating leaves and
buds; but queer as the
taste may seem, there
is no disputing it.
The birds winter easily, in fact, winter them-
selves if supplied with abundance of budding
brush, poplar, apple or birch, some grains and
seeds, as of kafir, corn, buckwheat, millet, wheat
and sunflower, a cabbage head occasionally and
apples. We may also add cranberries and winter-
green berries, but these may be an unnecessary
extravagance. If provided with a warm shelter
with sunny windows, the partridges will spend
their days in it wallowing and feeding. They
C37
Ruffed grouse cock about five
months old.
POULTRY 577
sleep, however, invariably outside, either perched
in the brush, preferably a thick mass of spruce,
pine or hemloek branches, or in snow burrows that
they dig whenever the snow is deep enough.
In the spring the flock must be carefully watched
and the cocks must be put each into a separate
cage as soon as any signs of fighting appear. The
hens may be kept
inacage together,
at least until
mated, when it will
probably be best
to give each one
a cage or run to
herself. When the
cocks begin to
drum, place the
hens with them
and they will mate
immediately. The
hens should then
be removed, as it seems to be the rule for a cock
to peck a hen to death if confined with her after
mating.
Fig. 592.
Ruffed grouse strutting.
Difficulties in the way of domesticating ruffed grouse.
It is usually stated that the ruffed grouse is
untamable, and this is given as the reason why the
species has not been successfully domesticated.
The experience of the past five years has entirely
disproved this theory. It has also been asserted
that it is too nervous to submit to the necessary
confinement of domesticated fowls. This, too,
is disproved. If actually hatched under domestic
conditions, the birds are quite as tame as barnyard
fowls, and remain so; and they are quiet, show no
abnormal restlessness and appear quite as contented
as ordinary fowls. The real reason why the Ameri-
can partridge—and this probably applies to the
bobwhite and other native grouse—has not been
brought under domestication is, that the species
succumbs to a disease, generally present in the
domestic fowl. The disease is caused by a parasite
which produces the “black-head” or “favus”
of the turkey. This disease has made the rear-
ing of turkeys over wide areas impossible on
ground contaminated by the domestic fowl, and
will render the rearing of grouse with fowls impos-
sible in the same regions. Turkeys or grouse may
be reared in these localities if the chicks are kept
in brooders, off the contaminated ground, for the
first two or three weeks, and are then taken to the
woods where the ground is uncontaminated by
fowls. It is possible that a resistant strain may
be developed, but this will take time. Cochin ban-
tams may also be reared in incubators and brood-
ers so as to be entirely free from the parasite,
and then, on uncontaminated ground, they might
be used successfully to rear grouse or quail. How-
ever, experiments have only recently been pro-
jected along this line on the theory, which is
probably safe, that the parasites are not trans-
mitted through the egg.
Another disease, known as the grouse disease,
has recently been distributed among the breeding
578 POULTRY
stations and has presented a new and serious dif-
ficulty. This is bacterial in origin, due to B. Scoticus.
All precautions should be taken against spreading
or harboring this germ wherever the rearing of
grouse is to be attempted.
Literature.
Sylvester D. Judd, The Grouse and Wild Turkeys
of the United States and Their Economic Value,
Bulletin No. 24, Bureau of Biological Survey,
United States Department of Agriculture (1905);
C. F. Hodge, Domesticating the Ruffed Grouse,
Country Life in America, April, 1906.
Guinea-fowl. Numida meleagris. Numidide. Fig.
593.
By T. F. McGrew.
The guinea-fowls belong to the gallinaceous
division of birds. They were found originally in
Africa, and are said to have been reared centuries
ago by the Greeks and Romans as table poultry.
They were brought into the West Indies by immi-
grants, and from there were well distributed over the
entire American continent. They are of a semi-wild
nature ; even when domesticated they almost refuse
to make their nests other than in hiding, where
they deposit, hatch and rear their young.
Varieties.
The Pearl guinea, the most common variety of
the family, has been so named from the fact that
its plumage is dotted with white spots, the body
color being purplish gray. The spots are of a pearl
shape and color. The
head is bare of plu-
mage, with a bony pro-
tuberance on the crown
that is often called a
helmet, sometimes
spoken of as the comb
of the guinea-fowl. It
has small wattles,
bright-colored eyes,
and alert, quick car-
riage. It is difficult to
distinguish the male
from the female. The
male has a tendency
to travel on tiptoe as
he moves about, and his ery or call is a little louder
and harsher than that of the female, and of greater
duration. This variety is most valued because it is
the largest and most vigorous.
Vulturine guinea (Aeryllium vulturinum).—The
so-called Vulturine guinea-fowl is a most beau-
tiful wild bird. It is not a true guinea-fowl, but
‘ears a close resemblance. It is seldom produced in
_aptivity. A few specimens have been known to
deposit their eggs when confined in runways, but
there is no record of their having reared any young
in captivity. The Vulturine has a bare head, the
neck, which is of a reddish color, is ornamented
with flowing feathers of considerable length, which
have a broad stripe of white down the center. The
Fig. 593. Common Sante -fowl.
POULTRY
feathers of the back are of similar form, dotted
with white spots; other parts of the body are
blackish brown, ornamented with numerous spots.
The breast and sides of the abdomen are of a beau-
tiful metallic blue, shaded with black. The whole
plumage is emblazoned with rich, metallic blue,
and some parts are shaded with a dull pink.
The wild crested variety is said to have come from
Hastern and Central Africa. It has a black crest
instead of the bony protrusion of the other varie-
ties. It has also blue markings instead of white ;
the neck and wattles are of a bluish cast.
The white variety is thought to have originated
from albino sports of the Pearl guinea. This, like the
broken-colored varieties, is not natural to the breed,
but has resulted from sports. Attention has been —
given the breeding of the white guinea-fowl within —
recent years, and much has been added to its size,
vigor and attractive qualities.
Raising.
Guineas prefer to mate in pairs, but they do not
object to mating with three to five females, or in
trios when there are more females than males.
They lay small eggs, about two-thirds the size of
an ordinary hen’s egg. The shell is very strong, of
a dark color, and spotted throughout. The eggs
are usually remarkably fertile. The fowls have
been known to make a deep, tapering nest, in which
they would lay twenty-seven to thirty eggs, and
hatch the greater part of them in four weeks’ time.
They like to conceal their nest, and will leave it
if they see a person near it. It is said that they
are able to detect whether the hand has touched
the nest in their absence, and if so they will de-
sert it. If eggs are removed with a stick or
spoon, either some should be left or others sub-
stituted, so as to leave about five in the nest.
When first hatched, the keets (young guineas) need
to be fed frequently on finely broken particles of
grains or seeds. As they grow older, whole wheat
and cracked corn seem to be the best food to furnish
them. Barley, oats, buckwheat and millet are also
recommended. Guinea-fowls generally feed with
the’ chickens, and thrive on the same foods. They
should not be over-fattened for market. A fatten-
ing period of one to two weeks is ordinarily enough.
Generally, only a few guinea-fowls are bred on
afarm. A few attempts have been made to breed
them in considerable numbers, the most successful
of which were in Ohio, where a guinea broiler farm
of modest pretensions has been conducted for
several years. The place most suited to the guinea-
fowl is the farm, from the fact that it prefers to
live in a partially wild state. It is a wonderful
forager, and will almost support itself and young
during the entire summer months, if there is a
good supply of bugs, worms and seeds over the
range. It likes to wander over great distances. It
retains in captivity its ability to fly almost as well
as though it had never been domesticated.
Guineas prosper remarkably well in the South.
It is not unusual to see large numbers of them in
flocks during the early fall. They seem to cluster
in groups at that time, as do the blackbirds. They
POULTRY
take up their abode at night in the trees near to
buildings, or feed-lots, where they can gain a food
supply from waste grain and other materials.
Improvement.
If proper attention were given to the mating of
guinea-fowls to improve their size and laying qual-
ities, they could be developed into a most profitable
kind of poultry. They are prolific ege-producers
during the spring. Attention should be given to
the culling out of inferior specimens and the
smaller sized hens, breeding for improvement being
done only by the best specimens.
Uses.
The eggs are more valued for cooking than for
table use. The guinea-fowl is very wholesome meat,
and the broiler is considered one of the delicacies
in poultry. Both old and young are used as substi-
tutes for game birds. Guineas are very watchful,
and sound the alarm if the poultry-yard is molested.
Literature.
J. H. Edgerton, Guinea Culture, Marietta, Ohio ;
The Guinea-Fowl: and Its Use as Food, Farmers’
Bulletin No. 234, United States Department of Agri-
culture. [For further references, see page 527.]
Pheasants and Related Fowls. Phasianide. Figs.
594-597.
By Homer Davenport.
The pheasant family includes within its scope,
the turkey (which see), peafowl and jungle-fowl,
aside from what are called pheasants in common
speech. The guinea-fowl is nearly related. The
members of this group are valued chiefly for their
feathers and for ornamental purposes. But the
economic value of pheasants to the farmer is
scarcely sufficiently appreciated. The birds destroy
enormous numbers of injurious insects. Upwards
of twelve hundred wire-worms have been taken out
of the crop of a pheasant; if this number were
consumed at a single meal, the total destroyed
must be almost incredible. There is no doubt that
insects are preferred to grain, while the roots of
various weeds are apparently relished. One pheas-
ant, shot at the close of the shooting season, had
in its crop 726 wire-worms, one acorn, one snail,
nine berries and three grains of wheat. Yet it
must be noted that in captivity grain forms the
favorite food, and a field of standing beans, as is
well known, will draw pheasants for miles. Pheas-
ants are occasionally carnivorous.
Description.
The pheasants, typified by the genus Phasi-
anus, are readily distinguished by their long,
straight, pointed tail feathers, eighteen in number,
the middle pair being much the longest, and the
tail tapering to a point. These tail feathers attain
their maximum development in the Reeve’s pheas-
ant, reaching, in that species, to a length exceed-
ing five or six feet. The writer once exhibited a
Reeve’s pheasant that measured six feet and one
POULTRY 579
inch from the first bar on his tail to the tip. The
pheasants are all destitute of feathered crests or
fleshy combs, but are furnished with small tufts of
feathers behind the eyes. In their native state they
are essentially forest birds, frequenting the mar-
gins of woods, coming into the open tracts in
search of food, and retreating into the thick under-
wood at the slightest cause for alarm.
The flight of the pheasant is strong, and is per-
formed by rapid and frequent beats of the wings,
the tail at the same time being expanded. The
wings, considered with reference to the size and
weight of the bird, are short and small (with the
exception of those of the Argus pheasant), the sec-
ondary quills being nearly as long as the primary ;
they are very rounded in form. The third and
fourth primary feathers are the longest. The wings
are not adapted to very prolonged flight, although
the denizens of the wilder districts in the country
fly with a speed and cover distances that are
unknown to the oyer-fattened birds in our pre-
serves. Long flights, however, are not altogether
beyond the powers of pheasants. The compara-
tively small size of the wings necessitates their
being moved with great force and velocity, and
consequently the moving powers or muscles of the
breast are very large and well developed, taking
their origin from the deep keel on the breast-bone.
Breeding notes.
As the breeding season approaches, the crow of
the male of the common pheasant (Torquatus) and
others of like species, may be heard distinctly,
resembling the imperfect attempt of a young fowl.
It is followed, and not preceded, as in the game
cock, by the clapping of the wings; the pheasant
and the domestic cock invariably reverse the order
of succession of these two actions. Like the domes-
tie fowl, pheasants will also answer any loud noise,
occurring either by day or by night. The display of
the plumage by the males during courtship varies
in almost every species of gallinaceous birds.
Pheasants seem to possess no other mode of dis-
play than the lateral or one-sided method. In this,
the males disport themselves so as to exhibit to
the females a greater number of their beautiful
feathers than could otherwise be seen at one view.
In a state of nature there is little doubt that
the pheasant is polygamous. The males are armed
with sharp spurs, with which they fight, the
stronger driving away the weaker, and the most
vigorous propagate their kind. This is true with
the single exception of the Argus pheasant, most
beautiful of all in plumage. The nest of the female
is usually a simple hollow scraped in the ground.
The eggs that are laid vary largely according to
the species. The Torquatus pheasant in its wild
state in Oregon generally lays fifteen to nineteen
eggs in its nest before sitting, whereas the Pea-
cock pheasant lays but two. Asa rule, the male
pheasant takes no heed of the eggs laid by the
female, but he seems to have great regard for the
offspring, and in some instances will defend them
to his death. Pheasants usually nest to lay in the
latter part of April, the date varying somewhat
580 POULTRY
with the season and the latitude. The Silver pheas-
ant usually is the first to lay, and the Impeyan, or
Monaul pheasant, the last.
DESCRIPTIVE NOTES
Peafowl or peacock.
The peafowl or peacock represents the genus
Pavo of the sub-family Pavonine, of the pheasant
family (Phasianide). Of the peafowls there are
two distinct species, both apparently coming from
India or the neighbouring countries. The common
or grey-winged peafowl is the one generally seen
throughout the civilized world at the present time.
The green or Java peafowl is found in Java and
Burmah, and is a distinctly different species from
the others. The black-winged peafowl, which is
probably a variety, is said to have originated in
Japan. Two other varieties are known, the white
and the pied.
The Green or Java (Pavo mutieus).—This bird is
a native of Chittagong, in the eastern part of
India, through Burma to Java. Perhaps, if feather
for feather were contrasted with other birds, this
would rank as the most beautiful of all known
birds, possessing in its majestic plumage every
color of the rainbow, every tint and tone in the
prismatic scale. Its neck feathers, less rich in hue
than the blue of its rival, have a particularly
beautiful effect, as if made of metal ; and the almost *
equal beauty of the hen places her far above the
dowdy mate of the common peacock. It is much
larger than other species, breeds readily in any cli-
mate, and is a handsome ornament to any country
home. Most important, perhaps, is the fact that
it does not utter that shrill, ear-splitting scream
that makes the common peacock a rather unpopular
bird.
The Common peafowl (Pavo cristatus).—Little
need be said of this beautiful bird. It is found all
over the world, breeds readily in any climate, and
is very tame.
The Japanned or Black-winged (Pavo nigripennis).
—This peafowl, erroneously called the Japanese
peacock, is attributed to Japan. It is among the
really beautiful types of the peacocks. The male
bird is the darkest of all the peacocks, and,
strangely enough, the female is the lightest, being
almost white. It is hardy, and can be reared in
any climate where peacocks are bred.
White and pied peacocks.—Of the peacock family,
there are two other varieties, the white and the
pied. Both have attained wide popularity owing to
their delicate beauty. The white peacock has
reached its highest state of cultivation in India,
and for a time, at least, was supposed to have been
worshipped as a sacred bird by some of the people
of India. The pied peafowl is one of the most
attractive, and, possibly, is the result of the cross-
ing of one or two species of the peacocks.
Pheasant.
The Argus (Argusianus argus) is classed by
some naturalists in the peacock group. It is a
native of Malacca, Siam and northwestern Borneo,
POULTRY
frequenting the jungles. It is undoubtedly one of
the most magnificent of the pheasant family. It is
so extremely shy in its habits that there are few
instances of its being shot, even by native hunters.
It measures five feet in length, the tail being three
feet and over in length. The prevailing color is
ochreous red or brown, without brilliant relief.
There is a pronounced harmony in the distribution
of the tints, there being such a profusion of small
spots, sometimes lighter and sometimes darker than
the ground, that they assume, apparently at will,
the tones of their environment. Its broad secondary
feathers are covered in their entire length by a
row of eye-like spots imitating half globes, and
nothing from the brush of nature is more artisti¢
or more beautiful. It is from these spots that
the Argus takes its name. The naked skin of the
face and neck is bright blue, contrasting well with
the bronze hue of the plumage. The female pos-
sesses none of the markings of beauty characteris-
tic in the male, and is but twenty-six inches in
length. Although the Argus is remarkably wild in
its native state, it becomes unusually tame in cap-
tivity, returning to its aviary at night after enjoy-
ing full liberty during the day.
The Impeyan (Lophophorus impeyanus).—The
Monaul or Impeyan pheasant is one of the most
gorgeous birds. The wonderful metallic brilliancy
of the cock’s plumage, gleaming in purple and gold,
baffles description. It inhabits the high ranges of
the Himalayas, seldom coming below an elevation
of 6,000 feet. It is tough and hardy, and digs with
its strong bill for roots and worms. It becomes
tame enough in eaptivity to be allowed to run loose
in the barnyard. Owing to its unsurpassed beauty,
combined with its rugged nature, few species of
pheasants are more attractive than the Impeyan.
The Tragopan (Tragopan, or Ceriornis, spp).—
There are five species of the Tragopan family:
Crimson, Temminck’s, Cabot’s, Horned and Slater’s.
They are easily secured, with the exception of the
last named. In the display of his plumage, the
Tragopan cock is more interesting than any other
of the pheasant family, mainly for the reason that
under the proper conditions the male bird elevates a
tiny pair of bluish fleshy horns on either side of the
ears on top of the head. This gives the bird a
satanic expression, bewildering and unparalleled
in the bird family. Under the throat he drops down
a fleshy bib. Then, with the tail scraping on the
ground, and his wings down like those of a turkey,
he struts in a semi-circle. The Tragopan is very
tender. It is bred readily in captivity.
Manchurian or Eared pheasant (Crossoptilon Ma
churicum).—This bird is a native of Pekin. It is not
of gorgeous plumage, although a majestic bird. It
is hardy, with a glossy hair-like plumage of the
richest bronze, shading to a delicate purple on the
lower feathers of the tail; the upper tail feathers
are peculiarly curved up and down. Under the
throat it has a white muff running up back of the
head, giving the appearance of a person with a
sore throat having a handkerchief tied round it.
It is the only member of the pheasant family in
which the plumage of the male and the female are
POULTRY
exactly the same. There are several species of the
Manchurian or Hared pheasant.
Peacock pheasant (Polyplectron chinquis). —This
strange pheasant is one of the most peculiar, and,
at the same time, one of the most fascinating. It
inhabits the deep gullies of the Asiatic mountains.
Tt is small and quick of flight. The hen lays but
two eggs before sitting. On the male bird, at the
A ee we
Bee LEE“ yj
Vay
end of each gray feather, is a metallic purple or
greenish spot, whence the name Peacock pheasant.
Unlike other pheasants, the legs of the male are
adorned with many spurs, and the writer has had
males with as many as five spurs on one leg. The
- cock bird whistles so plainly that he has been
known to call the dogs.
Reeve's pheasant (Phasianus Reevesi).—This is
the largest of the true pheasant family, and is
one of the grandest. It is a very hardy bird, and
is the swiftest of all the pheasant family on the
wing. Its tail measures more than six feet. It
inhabits the mountains of China.
Semmerring’s pheasant (Phasianus Semmer-
ringi).—This bird, also called the Copper pheasant,
is a native of Japan. It is one of the handsomest
of the true pheasants. The males are very pugna-
cious and sometimes battle to death with others of
the same race. It is rather rare, both in aviaries
and in the wild state, mainly, perhaps, because of
the number killed for the feathers. The tail of this
pheasant is frequently seen dangling from women’s
hats.
Elliot’s pheasant (Phasianus Ellioti).—This spe-
cies, named after Prof. D. G. Elliot, of Chicago, is
one of the very fine species of the true pheasant.
It is very hardy. It inhabits the mountains near
Ningpo, China. In aviaries, the hens have been
known to hatch and rear their young without a
single loss.
The Mongolian (Phasianus Mongolicus), Fig. 595.
—The Mongolian pheasant is a native of Asia. It
comes from the valley of Syr-Daryr, and as far east
as Lake Saisan, in the valley of the Black Irtish. In
England, it has been crossed on the common Eng-
lish pheasant, and the hybrid has produced a remark-
able game bird. Only one pair is known to have
reached America alive, and they were so wild that
no young were ever reared from them. This pheas-
ant is commonly mistaken for the Chinese ring-
necked pheasant (P. torquatus), but the Mongolian
is a much larger and more beautiful bird.
Versicolor or Green Japanese (Phasianus versi-
color).—This beautiful small bird inhabits nearly all
parts of Japan. Owing to its use to the milliner,
it is perhaps better known than any other variety,
POULTRY 581
although the pure specimens are very rare in
America.
Ring-neck (Phasianus torquatus)—This hand-
some game bird, called also the China torquatus,
is the common pheasant of China. It is frequently
miscalled the Mongolian pheasant. In 1884, a few
specimens were liberated in Oregon, and today there
are probably more in Oregon than in China.
Throughout the Willamette valley, in Oregon, it
can be found in great numbers. It is far superior
to the English pheasant as a game bird, as it is
much wilder and swifter on the wing. It is exceed-
ingly hardy.
English (Phasianus colchicus)—The common
Black-necked English pheasant was a native of Cen-
tral Asia, and is supposed to have been brought to
England by the Romans. Owing to the infusion of
Torquatus blood, it is almost impossible at the
present time to find the old common English pheas-
ant in its purity.
Cheer (Catreus Wallichi).—This rather large
pheasant inhabits the mountains of Asia. It is very
hardy and relishes roots, but seldom eats grass. Its
plumage is a sort of monotonous check of gray.
The male and the female much resemble each other.
Siamese Fireback (Lophura prelata).— There
are several species of the Fireback pheasant, the
most common of which is the Siamese, which in-
habits parts of Siam. It is a beautiful, small, gray
bird, witha tassel on the head, and an oddly hooked
black tail. The male displays the beauty of his
plumage by lowering his wings, so that his bright
yellow and red back are exposed to view.
Bornean Fireback (Lophura nobilis)—This spe-
cies is, perhaps, the next most familiar of the Fire-
backs. It comes from Lower Borneo, and is very
similar to the Siamese, except that the color of the
flesh of the face, instead of being bright red, is
deep blue. It is also a slightly larger bird.
Villiot’s Fireback (Lophura rufa).—This is pos-
sibly a more beautiful bird, owing to its brilliant
blues, than the other species of Fireback. It is a
Fig. 595.
Silver pheasant (Genneus nycthemerus).—The
Silver pheasant is one of the most common species
of the family known as the “Kaleege.” It isa native
of China. The males are strikingly marked, the
upper part of the body being white, delicately
marked with black diagonal stripes ; the lower part
of the body is jet-black.
Lineated pheasant (Genneus lineatus).—This spe-
cies of pheasant inhabits Burmese countries. It is
very beautiful and graceful, quick on the wing and
very hardy.
582 POULTRY
Anderson’s Kaleege (Genneus Andersoni).—This
type is native of the Himalayas. It is as handsome
as any of the Kaleege, and as hardy. It is slightly
lighter than the Lineated and darker than the Sil-
ver pheasants.
The Melanotus or Black - backed Kaleege (Genneus
Muthura).—This pheasant inhabits Sikhim, Napal.
It is characteristic of the male to churn the air
with his wings until he causes vibrations that are
truly remarkable in their effect.
Swinhoe’s pheasant (Genneus Swinhoii).— This
bird inhabits Formosa. Its glossy feathers have the
appearance of blue velvet. The female of this spe-
cies is unlike most of the other dull brown hens, as
her feathers resemble exquisite tapestry, so deli-
cate and finely are they marked.
The Lady Amherst (Chrysolophus Amherstie), Fig.
596. —This bird, as an ornament for the aviary,
cannot be surpassed. It is more striking, even, than
its relative, the Golden pheasant. It is found in
China, bordering on Eastern Tibet, and is called by
the natives the Flower pheasant. The species de-
rived its name from the fact that Lady Amherst, of
England, is considered to have received the first
pair that ever came to Europe.
The Golden (Chrysolophus pictus).—This pheasant,
perhaps, needs no description. It is to be seen in
every zoological garden. It inhabits the mountains
of Western and Central China. The male bird is
much prized for his gaudy red and golden feathers.
Black-throated Golden.—The habitat of this beau-
tiful pheasant is not known. It varies slightly
from the common species. The hens are darker
and handsomer, and the chicks when small have
white throats.
Jungle-fowl.
The jungle-fowl are of the genus Gallus, of the
pheasant family. They are native of southeastern
Asia, India, Sumatra, Java and’ Borneo. Four spe-
cies are known, and all bear striking resemblance
to the common domestic fowls, being rather over
bantam size. They possess the carriage of the
Fig. 596. Lady Amherst pheasant.
pheasant, but the tail is vaulted and carried rather
low. The cocks have single, small-sized combs and
long sharp spurs.
The Red (Gallus ferrugineus), Fig. 597.— This
resembles the old Red-black Game of the English
fighting type, and is frequently mistaken for small
specimens of that breed. This gives rise, with jus-
tice, to the conclusion that it is the direct ancestor
of all our domestic breeds of fowls. It is easily
tamed. The hen lays nine eggs. The cocks are very
POULTRY
pugnacious and will battle to the death. The Red
jungle-fowl is found in India and most of the
islands south as far as the Philippines.
The Gray or Sonnerati (Gallus sonnerati).—A)-
though rather somber, this species possesses a
peculiar hackle feather, tipped with a wax-like sub-
stance that resembles :
burnished gold. It is less
hardy than the Red jun-
gle-fowl, particuiarly in
captivity. The Gray jun-
gle-fowl is one of the rar-
est of the pheasant fam-
ily, and it is indeed un-
usual to find one in any
of the great “zoos” of the
world. It inhabits lower
India. The cock’s cry re-
sembles a scream more
than a cry. It is impos-
sible to domesticate this
jungle-fowl.
The Green or Java (Gallus varius).—This is the
most distinct of all the species. The cock’s comb is
plain edged, and not serrated. The face is very
naked, and instead of wattles he has a dewlap that
expands and contracts like that of a turkey, the
face and dewlap changing color when the latter is
contracted. Under this condition the bird actually
blushes a bright red. The neck, instead of being
composed of hackles, is made up of green scale-like
feathers that extend to the upper part of the back.
The general plumage is a metallic-purple and
golden-green. It is the rarest of all the jungle-
fowls. Although the writer has bred this species in
captivity, he has failed up to the present to rear
any mature birds.
The Ceylon (Gallus Lafayettii).—This is found on
Ceylon, and is seldom met with in captivity. It is
not, in any particular, so beautiful as the species
above described. The peculiarity of the cock is the
yellow center to his comb, and the peculiar note
that he issues in his cry, which, at a distance,
sounds like some one calling “George Joyce.”
Fig. 597. Red jungle-fowl
(Gallus ferrugineus or
bankiva.)
Literature.
Tegetmeier, Natural History and Management of
Pheasants, new edition, New York (1907); Elliot,
Monograph of the Phasianide, London (1870-72);
Stejneger, Standard Natural History, Vol. IV, Bos-
ton (1885) Nolan, The Domestic Fowl.
Pigeons and Squabs.
Fig. 598.
By Thomas Wright.
The raising of pigeons for fancy has long re-
ceived attention, but it is only comparatively
recently that the raising of squabs for meat pur-
poses has assumed commercial importance. Fancy
or “toy” pigeons are generally kept for amuse-
ment, and are valued rather for their ornamenta-
tion than for their usefulness. [See Pets.] Most of
them are too small to be classed as utility birds,
although occasionally a few grow to good size, and
Columba, spp. Columbide.
. POULTRY
because of imperfect plumage are killed and dressed
for the table. The following varieties, among a
great many others, are raised for fancy: Tumbler,
Owl, Turbit, Jacobin, Barb, Archangel, Fantail,
English Carrier, Nun, Swallow.
The utility or squab-breeding pigeons are receiv-
ing more attention today, perhaps, than the toy
pigeons. The breeder who grows squabs for the
market not only has the pleasure of handling the
pigeons, but gets a reward for his efforts in addi-
tion.
Choice of pigeons for squab-raising.
Practical men differ in their opinions as to the
best variety of pigeons for squab-raising purposes,
just as there are advocates of certain breeds of
dairy or beef cattle. By some breeders the Homer
pigeon is held to be the best, and many of the
squab plants in America raise only Homer pigeons.
The writer, among others, has had best results
from a bird that combines the qualities of the Runt
(English), Mondaines (Swiss and French), and typ-
ical Florentine Amalgamated, infused with the
Homer. This pigeon produces a large, heavy
squab for the same outlay as the Homer, and
is equally prolific.
In crossing for utility, the cock should
always be the largest bird and should be
young. One should never breed a bird that
may often be seen with the wings drooped,
as it is direct evidence of poor health or lack
of constitution. The front of the legs and
the beak should be a light color, as dark legs
and beak denote dark meat. A black bird
with a bright red leg is more desirable than
a white bird with a dark leg or beak. The
male should exhibit a good disposition; the
bird that does much cooing and promenading
is likely to be a good breeder. A bird with
an apparent sullen, phlegmatic disposition
should not be used. The plumage should not
be ruffled in any way, but the feathers should be
close to the body. Any other condition of the
plumage is unnatural in a perfectly healthy speci-
men. One should not use a bird for breeding that
is in any way related to its mate or that is bred
from blood relations. Inbreeding is frequently in-
dulged when type alone is required, but it is per-
missible only under certain conditions. Market
specimens need a vigorous, hardy constitution, and
this depends much on the union.
Feeding and care.
In the matter of feeding, variety is essential. A
good ration consists of equal parts of whole corn,
cracked corn, red or amber wheat, Canada field-
peas and kafir. Hemp seed, millet and rape may be
fed occasionally at the rate of about one-tenth
the quantity of other ingredients. Two kinds of
green feed that may be fed safely are lettuce and
plantain, and it is well to supply them in season.
The drinking-water should be placed inside the
pens, preferably in a galvanized fountain. A bath-
pan, eighteen inches across and four inches deep,
should be placed in the aviary outside, and should
POULTRY 583
be accessible every day, except in the severe
weather of winter, when it should be placed inside,
twice each week. A box containing grit and oyster
shells should be on the floor of the pen. A piece of
mineral rock salt, similar to that used for cattle,
should be always before the birds. Table salt,
which is sometimes recommended, is likely to be
used too freely for health and may better not be
used.
Housing.
A house for pigeons should be entirely free from
dampness and should be set up on posts at least
two feet above the ground. Any building that is
tight and dry may easily be converted into a
pigeon house. A southern exposure is preferable.
About one-third of the front should be of glass, so
as not to admit of any draft. Pigeons are hardy
and not very susceptible to disease, and owing to
the fact that the blood is about 50° warmer than
that of man, they can withstand rather severe
weather without evil results. A warm house that
is damp will promote disease very quickly. Three
A well-designed pigeon ‘‘ fly.’?
Fig. 598.
square feet of floor space in the pen to every pair of
breeding birds is about right. Perches may or may
not be used in the lofts. If the birds are properly
working, while one of the pair is sitting on the nest
at night, its mate is roosting on the front of it.
If roosts are desired they may be made by nailing
a piece of scantling seven inches long to the end
of a piece six inches long, each piece being five
inches wide. When nailed they form the letter V.
These pieces are turned up-side-down, and may be
nailed to a strip the height of the pen, seven or
eight inches apart. On these the birds may roost,
one above another, without fouling one another.
The droppings are easily gathered, and are always
in demand by leather manufacturers, who pay
about sixty cents per bushel, by florists and by
gardeners. The use of earthern nest-pans, or “nap-
pies” as they are more generally known, is a matter
of dispute, and many large commercial plants have
abandoned their use. The writer has had good suc-
cess by using nest-pans nine or ten inches across
and four inches deep, and has not been troubled
with the squabs getting over the edges, as some
growers have reported.
584 POULTRY
Dressing.
It is impossible to dictate a method of dressing,
as so much depends on the wishes of the customer.
Some buyers prefer the squabs simply with their
necks broken; others prefer to have the feathers
removed ; still others prefer to have them bled as
is done with poultry. If they are picked, they
should be placed in cold water after picking, as it
gives them a plump appearance. Picking should be
done while the body is still warm. When sold un-
picked, they should always be laid on a cool recep-
tacle with the breast down, for the animal heat to
leave the body.
Diseases.
Pigeons are relatively free from disease, and will
endure much privation and abuse without bad
results. The most common ailments are atrophy
or “ going-light,” megrim and canker.
Atrophy may be treated most easily and success-
fully by giving five or six drops of cod-liver oil
night and morning for four or five days. All tail
feathers should be drawn and a good variety of
food should be fed, including bread crumbs, which
never injure the birds.
Megrim is generally the result of injudicious
feeding, and afflicts only over-fat birds. Carbona-
ceous food, such as corn, fed to excess, causes the
blood to congest in the brain. The bird may be
seen with the head twisted, and often throwing
itself on its back as if in a convulsive state. The
remedy is to isolate the patient in a perfectly dark
pen, and give it a mild dose of Epsom salts. It is
taken from its dark solitude once each day to drink.
The bird is held in the hand and the beak inserted
in the water. A few days should effect a cure. If
this treatment is not successful the bird should be
killed.
Canker is a form of diphtheritic roup. Gener-
ally, a bird afflicted with it should be killed.
Literature.
Money in Squabs, Howard Publishing Company,
Washingfon, D. C.; Tegetmeier, Pigeons, London
(1868); Evans, Birds, New York (1900); Wm. E.
Rice, Squab-Raising, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 177,
United States Department of Agriculture (1904).
[For further references, see page 527.]
Quail, Domestication of the Bobwhite or Ameri-
can. Colinus Virginianus (sub-family Odonto-
phorine). Tetraonide. Figs. 599, 600.
By C. F. Hodge.
No bird is more prolific or more easily reared in
domestication than the bobwhite; and certainly
none makes a more interesting and companionable
household pet. The past season a pair nested and
laid eighteen eggs in a window-box. Two hens
with a cock in a yard at the Massachusetts State
Hatchery produced seventy-six eggs. Merrill has
found that bobwhite eggs can be hatched _suc-
cessfully in an incubator by allowing them long
periods for cooling off, as much as one, and, in hot
weather, even two hours a day. They also hatch
‘eges,” maggots
POULTRY
well under bantam hens, the incubation period
being normally twenty-four days.
The young have been reared successfully simply
by allowing them to range about the yard with
their bantam mother, care being taken that they
are well supplied with food for the first few days.
This may consist
of scalded or
fresh “ants’
or pheasants’
custard, and,
best of all, in-
sects secured
by sweeping the
grass with an
insect net. As
with the ruffed
grouse, there is
danger of dis-
ease, especially
if the brood is
confined with
the hen. The safest method is probably to hatch
and rear them with the incubator and brooder.
Great numbers of eggs from nests broken up in
cutting hay and grain might be saved and be made
to supply a domesticated strain of the species. The
eges may always be prevented from chilling by ~
wearing them in the crown of a hat, and they may
be carried in this way for the better part of a day
without injury. The young mature rapidly, being
nearly full-grown in about ten weeks from hatching.
Uses.
Perhaps no bird is capable of rendering more
varied and important service to American agricul-
ture than the bobwhite. The young have been
found to eat their weight of insects daily. For the
year as a whole, animal matter, mainly insects,
forms about 15 per cent of the bird’s food; and
from May to September this item increases to 31.5
per cent. The great variety and large numbers of
the insect pests consumed by the bobwhite make
5 this bird a more effect-
ive ally of the farmer
than many smaller birds,
although the latter may
eat a larger percentage
of insect food. “ Over
one hundred potato bee-
tles” and “a tablespoon-
‘SS ful of chinch-bugs” are
= reported from the crop
\ of a single quail; and,
Fig. 599. One-week-old bobwhites,
hatched in an incubator.
:}) if sufficiently numerous,
/)}} probably similar num-
bers of nearly one hun-
reared ~~ dred other injurious in-
sects would be eaten,
among them the rose beetles, cucumber beetles,
squash - bugs, cutworms, cotton- worms, tobacco-
worms, clover-weevils, all kinds of grasshoppers
and crickets, cabbage caterpillars, many plant-lice
and mosquitoes. A bobwhite about three weeks old
ly
Axx
Fig. 600. Bobwhite,
from the egg.
POULTRY
ate 568 (all there were) mosquitoes as fast as it
could catch them. The bobwhite eats the Hessian
fly larva, pupa and adults, and would consume
thousands daily if they were numerous and accessi-
ble. A tame bobwhite hen was fed, in addition to
all the seeds and grains she wished, 1,280 fully
grown rose-slugs in one day.
Weed seeds form over half the bobwhite’s yearly
food. Among the weeds whose seeds are thus con-
sumed may be mentioned ragweed, pigweed, dock,
bindweed, lamb’s quarters, sorrel, wild buckwheat,
beggar-ticks, witch-grass, crab-grass and barn-
yard-grass, and perhaps one hundred others. The
quantities taken at a meal are enormous: 300
smartweed seeds, 500 red sorrel seeds, 1,000 rag-
weed seeds, 2,000 ticktrefoil seeds, 5,000 foxtail
grass seeds, and 10,000 pigweed seeds. It is little
wonder that the farmer is beginning to lose sym-
pathy for the sportsman. And to one who, as a
boy, has lived on a birdless farm and seen more
chinch-bugs than wheat on the platform of the
reaper, it would seem that the farmer’s judgment
in the matter is correct.
In addition to its value as a destroyer of insect
pests and weed seeds, at present prices the bob-
white might be reared to better profit than ordi-
nary poultry. After securing breeding stock, a
prime condition of success must be the strict con-
trol of natural enemies, chief among which at
present in most localities is the cat. If it were not
for this arch enemy of bird life, we might soon
have the bobwhite at home in every garden in the
land. Other comparatively rare and occasional
enemies, as snakes, foxes, weasels, minks, skunks, -
rats and certain hawks and owls, must be dealt
with effectively. It is about as easy, and much
more interesting, to keep traps always set in likely
places as it is to have them lying about idle, as is
commonly the case.
Winter care of native quail.
Great numbers of bobwhites are killed during
severe winters, especially in sleet storms that may
cover their food with ice or imprison whole coveys
under the crust. Winter provision should be gener-
ally made north of Virginia and Kentucky, by
leaving clumps of sumac and wild rose under shelt-
ered banks and on the south sides of groves. An
ideal shelter with food combined may be made
cheaply by laying down first a pile of weeds, chaff
or hay-loft sweepings, placing over this a lot of
brush, and then piling over all a rick of coarse
weeds cut before the seeds drop, as ragweed, pig-
weed, sunflower, dock, and the like, leaving the brush
exposed on the south side. An arrangement of this
sort, placed in a sunny, sheltered exposure, will pro-
vide food accessible at all times as well as shelter
and protection from hawks. Fresh supplies of
screenings or grain may be thrown into the brush
as needed during the winter. In this way great
numbers of bobwhites might be carried safely
through the winters, their numbers rapidly in-
creased up to the natural limits of insect and weed-
seed food-supply, and the range of the species
extended northward considerably.
POULTRY 585
Literature.
Sylvester D. Judd, The Bobwhite and Other Quails
of the United States in their Economic Relations,
Bulletin No. 21, Bureau of Biological Survey, United
States Department of Agriculture.
Swan. Cygnine. Fig. 601.
By Charles McClave.
Swans are the largest aquatic fowls of the duck
family and are found wild in the eastern and the
western hemispheres, especially north of the equator.
Black (Chenopis atrata).
Australia, isolated south of the equator, has a
distinct variety—the Black swan. Like many other
so-called black varieties of water-fowl, it is not
solid black in plumage. The bill is red, edged with
white, the eyes scarlet, the plumage shaded black,
edged with gray, and the wing flights slaty white
or pure white. The slender, arched neck and curly
appearance of plumage over wings and back give it
Fig. 601.
Swan.
a novel appearance on the water. Though less
common than the white swan, this species is a
familiar sight in city parks. It is mute.
Mute (Cygnus olor).
The Mute swan is a native of Europe, Asia and
Africa and is the common domesticated species.
The neck is long and slender, the bill red, the eyes
brown, the legs and feet brownish gray, and the
entire plumage spotless white. The young cygnets
for the first year are gray or dusky chestnut in
color, but change to white after the first molt.
When migrating, it is a very rapid flyer, and with
a favorable wind has been known to travel fully
one hundred miles an hour.
Polish.
The Polish swan is a large white variety of C. olo7-.
found in Europe. It resembles the Mute swan, but
the shape of the head is different. The young
cygnets hatch white instead of gray or chestnut.
Whistling (Cygnus musicus).
The Whistling swan is also a white species, but
is somewhat smaller than the foregoing species ;
the neck is shorter and thicker, and the bill is
yellow without protuberance. The naturalist, Olaf,
writing of the notes of the Whistling swan, speaks
as follows: “ When a company of these birds passes
586 POULTRY
through the air, their song is truly delightful,
equal to the notes of a violin.” It is a native of
northern Europe and is seldom domesticated.
Berwick (Cygnus Berwicki).
The Berwick swan is the smallest white variety.
The neck is short and very slender. This swan is
very shy and wild in disposition and difficult to
breed in confinement.
Black-necked (Stenelus nigricollis).
The Black-necked swan is native to South
America. It is very rare and is seldom seen in pub-
lic or private parks. It is of good size, with brown
eyes, the bill a lead color with a red protuberance
at the base, the legs a reddish orange. The plum-
age is spotless white except on the head and neck,
which are clear black with a narrow band of black
across the eye. The carriage of the neck is much
straighter than that of any other variety of swan.
Trumpeter (Olor buccinator).
The Trumpeter swan is a native of the United
States and is found principally west of the Missis-
sippi river, but has been seen as far east as Ohio.
In former years it bred in Dakota, Montana and
Idaho, but at the present time it nests in the
country about Hudson bay. The nests are made on
small islands and in the marshes and shores of
lakes. Five to seven eggs is the usual number pro-
duced. Mature birds are pure white, while cygnets
are gray or rusty color.
American (Olor Columbianus).
The American swan is a pure white variety
slightly smaller than the Trumpeter swan. It is a
native of the United States and is found principally
west of the Mississippi river, although often seen
in autumn south to Florida and Maryland. It win-
ters principally in Oregon, Washington and Cali-
fornia. In early spring, it migrates north to Alaska
and the Yukon country to nest.
Literature.
Stejneger, Proceedings of United States National
Museum, Washington (1882); Newton, Dictionary
of Birds, Vol. IV, London (1896); Grinnell, Ameri-
can Duck Shooting, New York (1901).
Turkeys. Meleagris spp. Phasianide. Figs. 602-
604.
By T. F. McGrew.
The present-day turkeys are all grouped in one
breed, but represent a number of varieties. The
origin of the present domestic turkey was undoubt-
edly in what is known as the North American
turkey, which existed ina wild state over the greater
part of North America from the Carolinas well
up into Canada. Records show that turkeys were
grown or domesticated in England as early as 1541.
They were reasonably plentiful in 1573 throughout
the agricultural districts of England. Some writers
think that the first ones were taken from the West
India islands into Europe.
POULTRY
Wild turkeys. (Fig. 602.)
There are three distinct “originals” or wild
turkeys, one known as the North American, one the
Mexican, and the third, the most delicate of all,
the Honduras or Ocellated turkey.
The American “original” or wild turkey, the
one that frequented the United States north of
Carolina and into Canada, is designated as Melea-
gris Americana. The color of this type is black,
shaded with a rich bronze; the breast plumage is
very brilliant, tinged with a finish of coppery gold
inflection. In the rays of the sun the combination
of bronze with the copper and gold glistens like
burnished metal. From this wild
original, crossed with the do-
mestic Black turkey, which was
undoubtedly brought by the
early settlers from England, was
created the well-known variety
of Bronze turkeys.
Fig. 602.
Wild turkey.
The Mexican wild turkey (Meleagris Mexicana) is
of shorter build than the northern turkey. The
color is very much the same, but even more bril-
liant in shading than the North American variety,
with the distinction that the tail and other feathers
are tipped with white. This species seems to have
been the first introduced into Spain and other coun-
tries. It is thought that the white markings of this
variety had an influence in creating what is known
as the Narragansett turkey.
Honduras turkey.—The wild species known as
the Honduras turkey (Meleagris ocellata), the origi-
nal breed of Honduras and Central America, is
described as the most beautifully colored of all the
turkey family. The head and neck of this wild
variety are naked. No breast tuft is found thereon.
The caruncles of the head and neck differ some-
what from those of other turkeys. The plumage
color is described as a beautiful bronze-green,
banded with golden bronze-blue and red, with some
bands of brilliant black. This variety has never
been domesticated successfully. The few that have
been kept in confinement have failed to produce of
POULTRY
their kind, and live but a short time out of their
own natural realm. They are of what might be
termed a low carriage, the breast rather drooping,
the tail usually carried in a downward or low
position.
Crested turkey.—A distinctive domestic variety
is the crested turkey. This has a crest or topknot
of feathers on the head, or rather just back of the
head on the neck. This type cannot be classed as
an original variety.
Common domestic varieties of turkeys.
The domestic varieties of turkeys, as known to
this country, are the Bronze (Fig. 603), Narragan-
set, Buff, Slate, White (Fig. 604) and Black. The
Bronze, as originated in the United States by
crossing the wild variety with the Black turkey,
known in England as the Norfolk. It is the largest,
hardiest and most admired of all varieties of tur-
keys for the market. The Narragansett turkey
undoubtedly had somewhat of the same original
blood as the bronze, influenced, perhaps, by a cross
of the variety from Mexico, which gave a mixture
of white in the bronze and black plumage of this
variety. It is second in size only to the Bronze,
and has been most favorably considered in many
parts of New England. The Buff turkey should
have true buff plumage throughout. As usually
seen, the feathers are of a reddish buff, the wing
flights, and at times other feathers of the wing,
being white. The Bourbon Red, which is undoubt-
edly a kindred variety of the Buff, that originated
in Kentucky, perhaps, is of deep reddish buff in
plumage, and somewhat larger than the Buff
variety. It is thought to have been created through
a mixture of the wild and the Buff varieties. The
Slate turkey might be called a blue variety, the
plumage color being of a bluish, slaty shade. The
White variety
is pure white
in plumage
throughout, and
has pinkish
white shanks.
the Black vari-
ety is pure black
throughout the
entire plumage.
As we now see
it, it has un-
doubtedly been
crossed with the
Bronze variety
to improve its
size, and this
cross has illuminated the plumage somewhat with
coppery shading.
Fig. 603.
Bronze turkey.
Turkey-raising.
Considerable attention has been given to the
raising of turkeys for market throughout the
world. The early tendency to neglect the constitu-
tional requirements and permit constant inbreeding
without the intermingling of new blood reduced
the vitality and permitted a disease to creep in,
POULTRY 587
known as black-head, which can be obliterated only
through care in selecting the most vigorous speci-
mens and introducing them as new blood into the
flocks.
Turkeys seem to adapt themselves to diverse
climatic conditions. They do equally well far north
into Canada and
south into Texas.
The climate both
of New England
and of California
seems fitted for the
growing of large
numbers of them
for market pur-
poses. Locality
does not seem to
influence their cul-
tivation, provided
the parent is strong
and healthy and the
young are pro-
tected from the
cold, damp and in-
sect vermin, all of
which may be con-
sidered most dire-
ful enemies of
young turkeys. Being of a rather semi-wild nature,
they do best when permitted to have their freedom
and range with their young over an extended area.
Where the natural food on the range is unbounded,
they prosper best.
These fowls do not seem to do so well in confine-
ment as other poultry, being more like the guinea-
fowl. They become nervous and restless when con-
fined in limited quarters. A few of them may be
handled successfully in enclosures, as are poultry. .
Under such conditions they will not grow so large
nor prosper so well as they will in freedom. The
turkey hen lays thirty-five to forty eggs in a season.
It takes twenty-eight days for the eggs to hatch.
The young turkeys feed themselves as soon as they
come from the nest. “Little and often” is the
rule for feeding the young turkey for the first few
days after coming from the shell. [See article on
Feeding Poultry.]
Turkeys for breeding purposes should be strong,
vigorous, healthy, well matured and not akin.
Constitutional vigor is of first importance in the
male or tom, as it is called. A medium-sized male
with good fair-sized females of strong constitu-
tional vigor and mature age will give best results.
The best rule for mating is to have four or five
females to one male, although greater numbers of
females have been used with good results.
Fig. 604.
White Holland turkey.
Literature.
T. F. McGrew, Turkeys; Standara Varieties and
Management, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 200, United
States Department of Agriculture (1904); J. F.
Crangle and others, Turkey Culture ; Herbert Myr-
ick, Turkeys: How to Grow Them; Turkeys: Their
Care and Management, Reliable Poultry Journal,
Quincy, Ill. [For further references, see page 527.]
588 REINDEER
REINDEER. Rangifer tarandus, Linn.; Rangifer
lapponicus, Frisch. (Rangifer refers to the old
French word “rangier,” plus the Latin “ fera,”
wild beast, while the common name, reindeer, is
probably an adaptation of the Lapp “reino,” pas-
turage, or of the Icelandic “hreinn,” reindeer.)
Cervide. Figs. 7, 605, 606.
By C. C. Georgeson.
The reindeer has been successfully introduced
into Alaska, and efforts are now being made to
‘introduce it into Labrador, to supply the inhabit-
ants of the barren lands with meat and other
products, and to afford a means of transportation.
The reindeer is the only domesticated member of
the deer family. Fundamentally, it is identical with
the American caribou, although the latter has been
divided into several species by mammalogists, the
name “reindeer” being now applied, however, only
to the European deer, both wild and domesticated,
while caribou is the name of the wild deer found
on the American continent.
Description.
Reindeer vary much in size. The food supply is
an important factor in their development, as in
the case of other animals. Again, breed—or, per-
haps, we should call it race—characteristics are a
factor having an influence on size. The average
animal is three feet and nine inches to four feet at
the withers, but some breeds are larger, as for
example, the Tunguse deer in Siberia. Many of
them stand five feet high and can carry a burden of
two hundred pounds on their backs, and because of
their strength are rather generally used for riding.
Compared with other members of the deer family,
the reindeer is not a graceful animal. The head is
large, muzzle broad and nose covered with hair ;
neck short, set low and usually carried horizontally;
when the animal walks, the top line of the neck is
below that of the back; the withers are high,
reaching above the line of the back; shoulders
rather heavy, with prominent shoulder points. The
back is narrow, rump sloping, hind-quarters light,
flank low and rather full, and the under-line nearly
parallel with the back. In the fawns, the legs
seem disproportionately long, but in the mature
animal, on the contrary, they appear rather short.
The fore-legs are straight, but the hind-legs are
crooked and spread outward from the hock as if to
brace the hind-quarters. The feet are large and the
hoofs spread when pressed against the ground—a
provision of nature which aids the animal to get
over soft snow or mud. The prevailing color of the
domestic reindeer is a grayish brown—darker in
summer, lighter in winter, but many are more or
less spotted and some almost white. All are lighter
on neck, shoulder and belly than on the back. The
coat is thick, longer in winter than in summer,
and underneath the neck the hair is five or six
inches long. There is no mossy undercoat, such as
most animals have that are indigenous to arctic
latitudes. The hair is brittle and breaks readily
when handled. For this reason, reindeer skins do
not make good rugs. The hide is thick and imper-
REINDEER
vious to water to a marked degree, and, by a cer-
tain mode of tanning practiced by the Lapps, it
can be made perfectly impervious. On the face and
lower parts of the legs, the skin is particularly
thick and durable, for which reason the Lapps use
these parts for footwear.
A peculiarity of the genus is that both males
and’ females have horns, or antlers. They shed
them annually in March and April, after which a
new pair immediately starts to grow. The young
animal has cylindrical horns, which grow to a foot
or more the first summer; as the animal grows
older the horns become palmated and curve outward
and backward. The prongs or branches increase in
number annually up to the age of seven or eight
years ; from that time they decrease in number,
until in old animals there are only a few points on
the outer ends of the horns. In the prime of life,
one, or sometimes both horns produce flattened
branches that reach down over the face. The size
of the antlers varies with the size of the animal ;
those on females are smaller than those on males.
Antlers have been found that measured four feet
in length and weighed as much as forty pounds ;
but this is extreme. Half this length and weight
more nearly represent the average on the domesti-
cated animal.
It is not easy to see just what function the
horns fulfill in the animal economy. They appear
to be a hindrance rather than a help in the struggle
for existence. It must be a vast drain on the sys-
tem to furnish nourishment for their rapid and
prodigious growth, and they are tender and of but
little use for defence during the summer months
while growing. They are at this season covered
with skin, which is abundantly supplied with blood
vessels, and a coat of fine hair. This condition is
technically called being “in the velvet.” They are
full grown about the time the breeding season
begins in the fall of the year, and then the males
use them freely on each other. Otherwise, they are
not of use either for offence or defence ; instead,
reindeer strike their antagonists with their fore-
feet. Nor does the animal use the antler in digging
away the snow to reach the moss underneath, for
this is done with the feet and nose. The natural
life of the reindeer is about fourteen years, and it
does not reach its prime until it is six or seven
years of age.
History of reindeer in Alaska.
Although the reindeer has been domesticated for
ages by the Eskimos on the Siberian side of Bering
Strait, the Eskimos on the American side have not
kept it. They could not have been ignorant of the
value of the deer, because trading expeditions from
one side of the Straits to the other were of fre-
quent occurrence. One is forced to the conclusion
that they lacked the enterprise and thrift neces-
sary to take up the work of reindeer-breeding.
Instead, they hunted the wild caribou, which was
abundant; they hunted the whale, the walrus and
the seal, and the spoils of the hunt gave them their
food, and the furs and skins afforded them goods
for barter, With the coming of the white man all
REINDEER
this was changed. He killed or drove away the
whale, beyond the reach of the Eskimo with the
means at his command. The fur animals became
reduced to the point of extinction; the caribou was
killed or driven away. In addition to this, the
white man introduced intoxicants, and his vices
spread disease and destruction among these primi-
tive people so as to reduce their power to pursue,
as well as the amount of their food supply. This
was the condition of the Eskimos in arctic Alaska,
when, in 1890, Dr. Sheldon Jackson was sent to
that region by the United States Commissioner of
Edueation to establish schools. It became apparent
to him at once that something must be done to
provide the Eskimo with a food supply, and, in cast-
ing about for means to that end, it occurred to him
that the reindeer would solve the problem. On his
return to Washington, he urged that Congress
should make an appropriation for the introduction
of reindeer in Alaska. Congress did not act imme-
diately, however, and as the needs were urgent,
Dr. Jackson, with the approval and aid of the Com-
missioner of Education, Dr. W. T. Harris, made an
appeal for funds through the public press, where-
with to begin the work. In response, the sum of
$2,146 was received, and with this fund he began
the purchase of reindeer in Siberia and their
transfer to Alaska. The first importation consisted
of sixteen head, which were landed in Unalaska in
the autumn of 1891. During the summer of 1892,
he made five visits to Siberia and purchased and
imported 171 head of reindeer. These deer were
landed at Port Clarence, where, on the 29th of
June of the same year, the first institution in
Alaska for the breeding of reindeer was estab-
lished. It was named Teller Reindeer Station, in
honor of Senator Teller, of Colorado, who had taken
much interest in the enterprise. The government
aided in the work, however, by assigning a revenue
cutter to transport the purchased deer to Alaska.
The first appropriation by Congress for the intro-
duction of reindeer into Alaska was made March
3, 1893, and consisted of $6,000, to be expended
under the direction of the Secretary of the In-
terior, who delegated the work to the Bureau of
Education, and Dr. Harris, the Commissioner of
Education, assigned the task to Dr. Jackson, who
has thus been the prime mover of the enterprise
throughout. The object was primarily to provide
food for the Eskimos, but, before the deer could
become of real benefit to them, it became neces-
sary to teach them how to care for and handle the
deer. The task was beset with difficulties. It
meant a change in the mode of life of these primi-
tive people. As fishermen and hunters their chief
accomplishment was to destroy life; now they had
to learn to foster and preserve it. It was a process
of education. They had first to learn the advan-
tages of the new life and then slowly and labori-
ously be introduced to it, and the plans that were
finally adopted for the breeding and distribution of
the deer were formulated with a view to meet
these conditions.
Appropriations and purchase of deer.—From the
first appropriation, in 1893, to the close of the
REINDEER 589
fiscal year 1906, Congress had appropriated $222,-
500 for this purpose, in varying amounts from
$6,000 to $25,000 annually, and in all, twelve hun-
dred and eighty deer were imported from Siberia
between the years 1892 and 1902. No importations
have been made since 1902. Of these imported
deer, 254 were the large Tunguse deer, a race or
breed kept by the Tunguse people in central Siberia.
These were purchased and introduced by Lieut. E.
P. Bertholf of the Revenue Cutter Service, who
was detailed for that duty. They are noted for
their great size and strength. The herds brought
here have done so well that it is deemed unneces-
sary to make further importations.
Plan of distribution.—Since the object of their
introduction was to benefit the Eskimos, it was
evident that the sooner they could be taught to
handle and care for them the sooner the end in
view would be attained. Arrangements were there-
fore made with a number of mission stations,
already established at all the main settlements of
natives, to become teachers of their wards. The
government made loans of small herds, usually one
hundred head, to these stations, as an outfit of
an
Pym ill WAG
Hy, ty és “-
EE YIU in.
Fig. 605. Reindeer as pack animal.
industrial apparatus, the loan to be returned to the
government at the end of five years, .but the
increase to remain the property of the mission.
The slaughter or sale of female deer was strictly
prohibited. Male deer might be sold, but only with
the advice and consent of the government reindeer
superintendent. The mission obligated itself to
support a corps of apprentices, while under instruc-
tion in the art of herding and training the deer.
The apprentices were selected from the brightest
young men, and the average period of apprentice-
ship was fixed at five years. As a reward of merit,
each of these young men who faithfully completed
the stipulated period as a pupil was given a few
deer, which were to form the nucleus of a personal
herd. Competent teachers to instruct the appren-
tices were hired by the government. These instruct-
ors were Lapps who had been reindeer masters in
their native country and who were brought to Alaska
for the purpose. The government assumed general
supervision over all the herds. At present, the
reindeer territory is divided between two general
590 REINDEER
superintendents in the employ of the government,
one having charge of the herds along the shores of
the Arctic ocean and northern Bering sea, and the
other having charge of the herds on the shores of
Golovin bay, Norton Sound, and in the valleys of
the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers.
Stations.—According to Dr. Jackson’s report,
there were, in 1906, the following stations, with
the number of deer at each:
Deer
Barrow and Wainwright (Presbyterian mission). 797
Kivalina (native Eskimos). ........ 279
Kotzebue (Society of Friends) ....... 900*
Deering (Society of Friends). . ...... 649
Wales and Shishmaref (Congregational mission). 1,770*
Gambell, St. Lawrence island (Presbyterian) . 250
Teller (Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran) . . 1,169
Golovin (Swedish Evangelical Union) . . . . 1,434
Unalakleet (Swedish Evangelical Union) . . . 1,177
Eaton (Swedish Evangelical Union)... .. 1,395
Bethel, Kuskokwim river (Moravian) 1,700*
Illiamna (Government) .........-. 535
Koserefsky (Roman Catholic) ....... 320*
Danang) (episcopal) iia, sur) waite ete eninine 440*
Bettles, Koyukuk river (Government). . . . 400*
18,215
*Estimated. Report not in.
The missionary societies here named do not own
all the deer accredited to their respective stations.
In 1905, seventy-eight Eskimo apprentices had
become the owners of a total of 3,817 deer, acquired
partly as rewards of merit and partly through
loans from the government on the same basis as to
the missions. Several of the Lapp herders had in
like manner received loans of deer from the goy-
ernment, as wages for their services, and all these
various owners, with their herds, were located at
the stations named. In 1905, when the total num-
ber of deer aggregated 10,241, the ownership was
divided thus: Eskimo apprentices 3,817, govern-
ment 3,073, mission stations 2,127, Lapp herders
1,224. These various owners kept their herds at
the stations named, scattered from Point Barrow
in the extreme north to Lake Illiamna on Cook
Inlet.
Inecrease.—The average annual increase in the
herds by fawns, from 1893 to 1905, was 45 per
cent. This does not mean the number of fawns
born, but the number that survived each year. As
the herds increase in size the percentage of fawns
that survive, however, is slightly diminished, prob-
ably due to the fact that the native herders are
less vigilant than their Lapp teachers, who could
give every deer individual attention when the herds
were small; but it is assumed as a safe basis of
computation that the increase will not fall below
33 per cent, and at that rate there will be 256,000
deer in Alaska in 1919. From 1892 to 1905, 4,184
deer were sold, butchered or died.
An importation from Lapland.—An experiment,
which proved a failure, should be mentioned, because
it has been advanced as a proof against the practi-
cability of the reindeer enterprise. In the winter
of 1897 the rumor spread that many American
miners in the Yukon valley were on the point of
REINDEER
starvation. Congress appropriated money for their
relief, and it was thought that the best way to
transport provisions to them was by means of rein-
deer. Pursuant to this plan, 539 trained reindeer
and sixty-eight Lapp drivers with their families
were imported from Norway and brought to the
head of Lynn Canal, Alaska, from which point they
were to start overland. Owing to unforeseen delays,
the moss brought from Norway, on which to feed
the deer, became exhausted before the start was
made, and the alfalfa and other hay given them
caused digestive disturbances which resulted in the
death of most of the deer before they could reach
the moss fields in the interior. In the meantime,
word came that the report of starvation was untrue,
and the expedition was abandoned. These deer ©
were geldings, and form no part of the breeding
experiments.
Distribution.
The reindeer occupies the arctic zone on both
hemispheres. In the western part of the American
continent the caribou ranges from the shores of
the Arctic ocean, along the Alaskan range, through
British Columbia to the boundary of the United
States, and in the eastern part through Labrador to
New Brunswick and Newfoundland, where it is
yet numerous, while on the plains it ranges as far
South as latitude 64. The domestic reindeer can
also maintain itself, therefore, through the whole -
of this range.
In Europe, the reindeer is found throughout the
northern regions of Norway, Sweden, Russia and
Siberia, the range extending far below the arctic
circle. It is found in Iceland, in Greenland, in
Spitzbergen and other islands of the Arctic ocean,
even beyond the eightieth-parallel. It is domesti-
cated in this extensive region, wherever man has
a permanent abode, but more particularly by the
Lapps in Norway, Sweden and Russia, and also by
the tribes occupying Eastern Siberia from Kamt-
chatka to the sea of Okhotsk, and other regions of
northern Siberia. In short, the present range of
the reindeer and caribou is bounded on the south
by the isothermal, which determines the character
of the vegetation on which they feed, and on the
north by the limit of mosses and lichens in quantity
sufficient to sustain it.
In a by-gone epoch, the reindeer inhabited all of
Europe, even down to the Mediterranean, having
apparently been driven south by the advancing ice.
Its remains have been found in France and else-
where in continental Europe, and in Scotland and
Treland.
Caribou were numerous in Alaska until recent
years. But, since the influx of the white man in
pursuit of gold, the number is rapidly decreasing.
In the Kenai peninsula they may still be found, —
although scarce, while in the interior they are now
numerous only in the unexploited regions, more
particularly in the so-called Alaskan range, in
which Mt. McKinley is the principal peak. In the
winter of 1905-6, thousands of them crossed the
Tanana river some miles below Fairbanks, and were
slaughtered by the hundreds.
REINDEER
The reindeer occupies a zone wholly outside that
in which agriculture is possible. It lives on lichen
and herbage peculiar to the region where no agri-
cultural plants will grow. It does not thrive in
the warmer regions where agriculture is practicable,
and it cannot live on the kind of forage we feed to
cattle and horses. But it is by far the most useful
animal under domestication for the region north of
the agricultural belt. It is a means of transmuting
a vast amount of otherwise useless vegetation into
forms that can be utilized by man for food and
shelter.
Training.
Training for the sled begins at the age of three
years, and the stoutest males and geldings are
selected. The lessons begin by lassoing the se-
lected animals. The poor beasts are much scared
and jump about in frantic efforts to escape. When
quieted, they are led about for some time, or tied
to a post to accustom them to confinement. They
are then released, to have the lesson repeated day
by day until they are tame enough to be harnessed,
and in the same manner accustomed to draw light
loads. This takes a long time and persistent work.
There are several methods of harnessing them.
The most primitive and least humane consists in
putting a raw-hide strap about the neck, and to
this attach a single trace, which is either drawn
between the legs, or simply stretched along the
side of the animal, and fastened to the sled. An
improved harness used in Alaska consists of a col-
lar and a pair of light hames, from which a short
trace goes back on each side to the ends of a swingle-
tree, suspended under the body by a strap over the
back. From the center of this, a single trace goes
back to the sled, either between, or on one side of
the hind-leg. This trace is covered with fur, to
prevent it chafing the legs. A single line is fastened
to the left side of the halter, and with this the
animal is guided and held in check. In Alaska, as
in Lapland, there is seldom more than one hitched
to a sled.
The accompanying illustration (Fig. 606) shows
two forms of the sleds used. The one placed
above is imported from Lapland, and is there
called a “pulka.” It is seven feet long and two
feet broad, pointed in front, and square in the
back, and rounded underneath like a boat. It pulls
easily and does not sink into soft snow. The other
sled figured is like the dog sled or hand sled in
common use. It is largely home-made, and varies
in size and shape with the art and fancy of the
maker. It is usually nine feet long and two feet
broad, built of thin slats, and the top inclosed by a
railing’ a foot high. It may or may not have han-
dles behind to use in guiding it, or to hold on to
when the driver runs behind for exercise.
Habits.
The reindeer is gregarious, and, when left to
itself, pastures in great herds, sometimes number-
ing thousands. In summer it feeds on the twigs
and leaves of the alder, willow and other shrubby
plants, on lichens and mosses, and to a less extent
REINDEER 591
on grass. In winter it lives almost exclusively on
a whitish nutritious lichen (Cladonia rangiferina),
which for this reason has been termed reindeer
moss. It feeds also on other mosses and lichens,
however, and is very fond of mushrooms. It is of
a roaming disposition and is almost constantly on
the move from place to place in search of food.
For this reason a herd requires constant watching
day and night to prevent its breaking up and stray-
ing off in different directions. It is timid like other
members of the deer family, and a herd is easily
scattered by dogs, wolves or other wild animals.
It is polygamous, as are cattle. The rutting season
occurs in the fall, and the fawns are dropped in
March and April. If the weather then happens to
be severe, there is large mortality among the new-
born fawns. The herder’s life then becomes stren-
uous, indeed. He cannot seek shelter himself, but
must face the storm and give succor to the fawns
by way of shelter and warmth.
Uses.
In Siberia and among the Lapps, where the rein-
deer is almost the only domestic animal, it supplies
all the frugal needs of its owner. The meat is his
chief food; from the milk he makes cheese, or he
keeps it in frozen chunks for use in cooking, or it
is made into butter; the blood is saved and eaten ;
the fat is used for food, for candles, and for making
footwear and clothing waterproof; the skins are
used for clothing, for tents, mats and blankets,
straps and thongs; the bones and horns are used
for tools and utensils, or, together with the hoofs,
they are used in boiling glue; during life, the
animal draws his sled over the snow and carries
his burden. The reindeer thus enables part of the
human race to secure a livelihood in a region where,
without it, life would be well nigh impossible.
Their value tested.—That the reindeer is an
unqualified success both as a source of food and
as a means of transportation has been proved re-
peatedly in the last ten years. The most severe
test to which they have been put was, perhaps, the
relief expedition to Point Barrow, under the leader-
ship of Lieut. D. H. Jarvis of the Revenue-Cutter
Service, in the winter of 1897-98, when the whaling
fleet froze in and some 300 whalemen faced starva-
tion. Lieutenant Jarvis, assisted by Lieut. E. P.
Bertholf, Surg. 8. J. Call, Mr. W. T. Lopp, and some
natives, drove a herd of several hundred deer for
more than 800 miles, across the barren snow-cov-
592 REINDEER
ered, uninhabited waste, from Norton Sound to
Point Barrow, during the dead of winter, with the
temperature 20° to 50° below zero, and brought
them safely to their destination. The deer found
their own food in the moss which they uncovered
by scraping away the snow, and on arrival in April
a large number of healthy fawns were born to the
herd. The leading participants were awarded gold
medals and the thanks of Congress. Reindeer have
also been employed to carry the mails between the
scattered settlements along Bering sea. They have
the advantage over dogs that it is not necessary
to carry their food with them.
Diseases and disabilities.
Hoof disease, perhaps, is the most troublesome
affliction of the reindeer. It produces a swelling
above the hoof, with a formation of pus. Opening
the swelling and treating it with disinfectants may
result in a cure; or it may become systemic, in
which case the animal usually dies. An affliction
designated “liver and lung disease,” resulting from
an affection of the spleen and from congestion of
the brain, is usually fatal. No adequate remedies
appear to have been discovered. The great number
of savage, wolf-like dogs that infest all Indian and
Eskimo settlements in Alaska wound and kill many
deer, and are a great drawback to the handling of
the herds. The reindeer is also very prone to acci-
dent. The bones are brittle, especially during the
summer, when the antlers are growing fast. Many
deer break their legs, their necks, or their backs
while running about, or while fighting with each
other.
Reindeer for Labrador.
By D. W. Prowse.
Guided by the good results secured in the intro-
duction of tame reindeer into Alaska by Dr. Sheldon
Jackson, the Governor of Newfoundland, Sir Wil-
liam Macgregor, and Dr. Grenfell, of the Deep Sea
Mission to Labrador, very earnestly took up the
project of introducing domesticated reindeer into
Labrador. Before the scheme could be carried out
practically, measures were taken by the Governor
and Dr. Grenfell, assisted by the Moravian mission-
aries at Labrador, to ascertain whether the common
food of the caribou existed in sufficient quantities
all over the peninsula. Specimens of mosses, lichens
and grasses from every part of the great peninsula
were collected. These were carefully arranged and
sent tothe authorities at Kew, England, for classi-
fication and identification. They were pronounced
to be the true reindeer moss and the actual common
food of the reindeer. This was a foregone conclusion,
as the native caribou were known to have been
abundant at Labrador. The indiscriminate slaugh-
ter of the herds by the Eskimos has driven them
farther inland, but they are still fairly abundant,
although not to be compared with the vast herds
of Newfoundland.
With these preliminaries settled, the next prob-
lem was to secure funds for the experiment. Dr.
Grenfell toured the United States and Canada, and
SHEEP
aroused much interest in the undertaking. The
Canadian government made a grant of $5,000 for
the work. The Newfoundland administration may
alsoassist. Togetherwith private subscriptions, suffi-
cient funds were collected to begin the enterprise,
and it is now in the process of accomplishment.
The purpose of the undertaking is largely the
same as in the Alaska importations, namely, to
provide food and other products, and a means of
transportation for the people living on barren
Labrador. The place for the landing of the rein-
deer has been carefully chosen. Lapland herdsmen
will instruct chosen apprentices from among the
natives in the handling of the reindeer, and, even-
tually, if the experiment succeeds, the animals will
be parceled out to the natives. Much interest cen-
ters in this venture, as far-reaching results may be
expected if it is successful.
In this connection, the question arises, why not
domesticate the native wild caribou? Every year
fawns are taken and trained, and they make delight-
ful pets. But thus far it has been impossible to erad-
icate the wild nature, and it would probably require
many generations to develop a domesticated type.
About $13,000 was collected, and in 1907, after
a highly satisfactory voyage, a herd of 300 domes-
ticated Lapland reindeer were landed in northern
Newfoundland, accompanied by Lapland herdsmen
and dogs. As soon as navigation opens up, a part
of the herd will be taken to Labrador. Some fifty
reindeer were also brought over by the Harmsworth
Company, and have been placed on their estate at
Grand Falls, Newfoundland. So far, the experiment
has been a complete success, and the reindeer are |
reported to be in excellent condition.
SHEEP. Ovis aries, Linn. Bovide. Figs. 50-54,
133, 288, 607-638.
Sheep-farming in North America has passed
through several phases, and it is now represented
by several rather distinct types of effort. In the
eastern states, sheep-farming is a business of small
flocks that are kept within fenced fields and are
housed in winter in regular barns. The European
system of shepherded flocks is practically unknown
anywhere in this country, due to the price of labor,
the fact that persons are not trained to the busi-
ness of shepherds, and to general economic and
social conditions.
In the great West, a characteristic American
type of sheep-ranching has developed, on a very
large base. This ranching is subject to ups and
downs, depending on the price of wool and mutton;
but as a general statement it may be said that it is
following the large-area cattle-ranching, which is
now passing away. Sheep can subsist on lands that
are not adapted to cattle-ranching, and the returns
from sheep are rapid, as there is a crop each year
of both wool and lambs.
The business of winter sheep-feeding has now
grown to great proportions. This consists in the
feeding of purchased sheep—chiefly range sheep
of the West—for the winter and spring market.
Immense feeding enterprises of this kind are con-
Wein ur esuer daays “IXX 011d
SHEEP
ducted in the sheep states, as in Colorado, Montana,
‘Wyoming, the animals being brought down to the
feeding-pens from the high summer ranges. These
“feeders” are also shipped into the Hast, as far as
New York, where great numbers are now fed in
barns and sheds, in close proximity to the markets.
Because of the great areas of cheap lands and
public range in parts of the West, sheep-farming
has largely passed out of the East. The equilibrium
romises soon to be restored, however. Not only
will the old style of sheep-farming be revived, but
it is probable that something like the range effort
of the West will come into the cheap-land hill
regions of the Hast. Many of the semi-abandoned
areas are excellently adapted to sheep, particularly
when several farms can be combined, or when the
owners can agree to engage in a similar business.
In some eases it will probably be found to be more
economical to introduce a system of shepherding
than to attempt to re-fence the old arms.
Another type of sheep business is the rearing of
“hothouse lambs.” Ewes are bred at such time
that the lambs are dropped early in winter, and
the lambs are fattened by forced feeding and extra
care, and are ready for market in about sixty days.
Not all sheep, or all kinds of sheep, will breed
freely at this time of the year (in June or summer :
the period of gestation for the sheep is five months),
and importations of Dorsets and others have been
made for this purpose. It is now a prevailing
opinion that the mountain-bred sheep of the West
are well adapted to this business, whether because
they are mountain-bred or because they are of the
proper type for this business, is not determined.
The long-wool kinds do not breed well for this pur-
pose, nor do the lambs fatten quickly. The Merino
types give better results but the pure Merinos
- seem to lack in milk-producing and other qualities
for the best production of winter lambs. The middle-
wools, as the Dorset, are now preferred, the large
producers of hothouse lambs securing their ewes
mostly from the West, but the smaller producers
breeding their own stock. The ideal season for win-
ter lambs to be dropped is November, but it is difficult
to make sheep breed early enough for this, so that
December-dropped lambs are more common. The hot-
house-lamb business depends on very special markets
and it does not appear to be increasing at present.
It must not be inferred that the sheep business
has actually left the East, for this would be erro-
neous; but in some regions it has decreased, and
in few has it developed codrdinately with other
agricultural business. The business of breeding
sheep, as well as the general rearing for mutton
‘and wool, is important in many eastern regions,
particularly in parts of Canada; the interest in
high-class animals has not died out for sheep more
than for other live-stock; there are many sheep-
breeders’ societies in the Hast ; and at present the
interest in sheep in that region is rapidly increas-
ing. One of the great handicaps to sheep-hus-
bandry is the danger from dogs. Tight woven-
wire fences prove to be effective barriers to dogs ;
but the only real relief is to make all dog-owners
legally responsible for the acts of their dogs, and
C 33
SHEEP 593
this can readily be done and the law can be effec-
tively enforced when the sheep-growing sentiment
of the community is well developed.
The western ranching.
The sheep-farming of the mountain states of
the West is practically a pasturage business.
Advantage is taken of the very high pastures in
summer, and of the plains in winter. Immense
flocks or “bands” are kept, being moved from
place to place as the pasturage dictates. This
nomadic business requires men and a regular “ out-
fit” of camp equipment that move with the sheep.
The work is done in a wholesale way, with very
few of the niceties of care and feeding but with an
excellent business management of the entire enter-
prise. The sheep are exposed to many risks and
the losses of animals are likely to be great. The
real range ranching business is largely speculative.
Tt is often spoken of as a “game.” With the pass-
ing of the public range, this type of business will
recede, and a kind of fenced farming, with fewer
risks, will take its place, although, because of the
character of the land, great areas will still be held
in single ownerships and large flocks will be kept.
For years there has been dispute and contention
between the cow-men and the sheep-men as to the
occupancy of the public range. This contention
has often taken the form of open violence, usually,
in the past, to the disadvantage of the sheep-men,
who have sometimes lost whole flocks by having
them driven over cliffs and into canyons and by
other means. With the passing of the big cow-
men, however, and the growth of the sheep busi-
ness, the sheep-men have now gained supremacy
in many parts. This old strife will soon be a part
of the romantic history of an unsettled country.
In so vast a region, it is to be expected that the
practices will vary greatly; but it is possible to pre-
sent a graphic picture of features of the business
as it is followed in at least part of the great West.
The essential features of the sheep-ranching of
the West are the winter range and the summer
range. The winter range is the home area or the
place of business. It is on the plains or in a val-
ley. It may be an enclosure or domain of several
hundred acres or several thousand. It usually
becomes parched in summer, and it is also too hot
for the best success with sheep.
The summer range is on the high lands, often
above timber-line and near the snow-line. Here
the grasses are fresh and nutritious, and the cli-
mate is cool. To the summer range the sheep are
taken—either “trailed” or shipped by train—just
after shearing, and here they remain till the sea-
son closes. The summer range is usually not owned
by the sheep-man. The summer range will be una-
vailable with the settling of the country, and this
will determine the extent of the business.
On the summer range the sheep are in charge of
herders, whose business it is to see that the band
is moved on to fresh pastures, that the band is
kept together, that poisonous weeds (page 119)
and wolves are avoided, and to look after the sheep
that are drepping lambs and to take care of the
594 SHEEP
lambs themselves. The herder remains with the
band the entire season. The sheep may be herded
by corralling them or by allowing them to run
free. The corral is made of board fencing in panels
fourteen to sixteen feet long and about four feet
high, which is transported by wagons. The corral
is made near a water-hole or spring, and is moved
when the pasturage becomes poor.
The free ranging allows the sheep to drift over
the country, being guided by the herder and his
dogs. The herder lives in a covered wagon. Often
there are two men, one man doing most of the herd-
ing, on horseback, and the other cooking and acting
as assistant. If the band contains only 2,000 to
2,500 sheep, only one herder may be needed and he
may not have a horse ; the camp-tender visits him
two or three times a week, bringing provisions
and moving camp.
In whatever way the herding is done, the men
on the range are supplied with “grub” from head-
rete
ere tego He «eraser
¢ ene eoserecme yh
: ame evrer s
-_-*
SHEEP
The weather is often rainy at the lambing season.
The new arrivals, when first dropped, must be kept
under cover if the weather is not bright and warm,
The herder in charge of the “drop band” must
keep a sharp lookout for ewes that are having
lambs, for these sheep, with their lambs, must
hauled to the main corral. The wagon for this
work is divided into compartments, altogether hold-
ing about twelve ewes. The man driving this wagon
goes to the herder and determines how many ewes
have had lambs and where they are. The teamster
then catches the ewes and, seeing that the lamb
has had milk, he puts ewe and lamb in a compart-
ment. He then takes them to the main corral
where the man in charge checks up the ewes and
sees that they all claim their lambs.
There is often trouble if the ewe is roughly
handled and she is frightened, for when turned
loose she may leave her lamb. In this case, the corral
man catches her and puts her in a “claiming pen.”
Fig. 607.
quarters once or twice a week, taken out by a
camp-tender. One tender makes the rounds of all
the herders in an “outfit” or single ownership. A
hardy and self-reliant lot of men are bred in this
herding business, but the occupation lacks the pic-
turesqueness of the old cowboy days. When the
summer ranging is over, the herders go to head-
quarters and are assigned duty on the winter range.
Plains that are apparently lifeless in summer
often afford excellent grazing after the rains come.
The sheep roam at large all winter, securing feed
from various plants and the natural hay made of
the dry grasses. In many establishments, cheap
sheds are provided on the winter range where
supplemental feeding may be given in very cold
weather or when the snowfall is heavy. These
sheds are usually covered with wild hay. A shed
one hundred feet square will provide feeding-place
for 2,000 to 3,000 sheep. Seventy-five tons or less
of hay should provide winter feed for 2,500 sheep.
Wethers are handled in bands of 2,000 to 3,000
animals. Ewes are handled in bands about half
this size, for the care of lambing sheep is arduous.
7% ; “ff
. All i
A Montana sheep corral and range.
meer omette
“a Sai Te
Water-hole in the distance.
This pen is just large enough for her to stand in,
and yet give the lamb a chance to get milk without
being butted away. If the ewes all “claim,” they
are taken to a small corral that will hold about one
day’s drop, with good pasturage near. One day’s
drop on the start, with 2,500 ewes, will be 25 to 30
lambs, increasing to a maximum of 100 to 150 in
the middle of the period. These small bunches of
ewes and lambs are moved from one small corral to
another to make Way for different days’ drop; and
after ten days they are merged into what is called
a “lamb band.” This band is added to daily as the
lambs become strong, and, finally, when all the
ewes have lambed, it becomes the main band. The
lambs that come in the night are separated, with
their mothers, by the night man, who patrols be
corral all night.
It requires about ten men to “lamb” a band of
2,500 ewes, and this is as many as can be lambed
together with good results. When the lambs are
about a month old, their tails are cut off, they are
ear-marked, and the ram lambs castrated. To
ascertain the percentage of increase, the tails are
SHEEP
counted, this giving the exact number of lambs.
The average increase, one year with another, will
be from 75 to 80 per cent. This means the lambs
that are counted in the autumn. It is generally
estimated that it costs twenty-five cents per head
for every lamb dropped, but this depends on how
close expenses are watched.
Probably there is no place in the world where
the sheep-dog is more useful than in this ranching
in the great West. The dog is a Collie, light, quick,
intelligent. The pup is usually trained by working
him with an older dog. The dogs bring in the
straggling sheep, round up the flock, look out for
wolves and other dangers, and guard the outfit.
They are the objects of much affection by the
sheep-men. They work persistently on rough and
often cactus-covered lands, and share with the
herder his privations of food and water. This use
of the sheep-dog (see page 383) is in marked con-
trast to the damage done the sheep industry in
other regions by untrained and irresponsible dogs.
Tt is said that the dog and western wolf cross,
and that the hybrid animal is preferred by some
herders as being hardier and also tougher in the
feet. Others say that the dog and coyote cross.
This cross is said to partake of the color of the
coyote, but, when the dog parent is a collie, the
animal carries himself more like a dog, holding his
head in the air rather than carrying it down as the
coyote does. The fact that no systematic efforts
are put forth to make either of these crosses,
Taises a question as to their value, if they occur.
As a general proposition, the sheep-rancher cal-
¢culates that the wool crop will pay the cost of the
business. This leaves mutton and lambs to repre-
sent the profits. Although the chief crop is wool,
yet, where so many sheep are raised, there are a
great number of mutton wethers shipped out each
year. The major part of this mutton product goes
Hast, chiefly to Chicago. The sheep that are in
prime condition and fat go directly on the market.
They will average about 110 pounds, and bring
from $3.50 to $4 per hundred live weight. It costs
from 60 to 75 cents per head to ship and care for
them in transit. They are shipped in double-decked
cars, each car holding about 225 sheep, this, how-
ever, depending on the size of the sheep. From
points in Montana, these sheep are unloaded and
fed twice before reaching Chicago. They are
finally delivered at some of the numerous feeding
stations near the market, where they are held for
a few days and generally put on the market in
from two- to six-car lots. The commission man
regulates the quantity, however, and orders from
day to day the number of cars he thinks he can
sell to the best advantage. The sheep that are not
in shape to send to market at once, are put on feed.
This feed consists of mill screenings, corn and hay,
all of which is given them for about ninety days.
The sheep intended for long feeding are gener-
ally put in the feed-pens during the autumn and
winter. Very few, if any, are fed in summer.
Tn late years, the farmers of Michigan, Illinois and
Indiana have fed great numbers of western sheep.
They seem to have made good profit, for they secure
SHEEP 595
the market price or better for their grain and hay
by feeding it, and they have the manure and are
able to find employment for their men.
The shearing on these ranches is performed by
men who go from place to place, beginning early
in the South and working northward with the sea-
son. The work is done by piece or contract, either
by hand or with clippers run by electric, steam or
gasolene power. Although the machine is nearly as
slow as hand-shearing, it does cleaner work and
therefore gives the owner a heavier fleece. An
expert workman will shear about one hundred sheep
per day on an average, although the number runs as
high as 150 sheep in ten hours, and it is said that
there is a record of 308 in this time. At eight cents
each, a shearer expects to earn $8 to $10 a day.
Great numbers of high-class sheep have been
introduced into the western sheep regions in recent
years, largely of the fine-wool and middle-wool
classes, and these are having a marked effect on the
flocks. Sheep-breeding centers are developing in the
West. From its natural adaptabilities, the region
will always remain a great mutton and wool country.
The number and farm value of sheep in the
United States, and in the seven leading states (all
above a farm value of $10,000,000), on January 1,
1907, are given in the Yearbook of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture (1906) as follows:
Number Farm value
United States . . 53,240,282 $204,210,129
Montana. .... 5,636,711 20,833,283
Wyoming 4,986,796 19,244,045
QHO coo ca 6 3,140,720 15,119,427
New Mexico 4,558,365 13,468,363
IGENW® og co 00 0 3,648,133 13,184,353
WIN 65 oo 6% 2,853,250 11,131,953
Michigan . 2,108,795 10,314,117
The wool-product for the United States, and of
the eight leading states (all above 10,000,000
pounds), is given in the same Yearbook as follows:
Wool washed
No. of sheep and unwashed
April 1, 1906 lbs.
United States . . . 38,540,798 256,915,130
Montana ..... 4,940,000 35,815,000
Wyoming..... 4,531,000 32,849,750
Idaho = -= = = 23300;000 16,905,000
New Mexico. . . . 2,900,000 15,950,000
ORO 6 6 6 50 0 1,800,000 15,300,000
California. . ... 1,750,000. 13,125,000
Wins ao 6 6 00 1,900,000 12,350,000
Ohio 1,850,000 11,562,500
The imports and exports of wool, unmanufac-
tured and raw, for the seven months ending Jan-
uary 1, 1906, 1907, 1908, are given as follows in
the Quarterly Report of the Treasury of the United
States:
Pounds Value
IOS 555000 100,180,796 $18,165,727
MOE 6) bugs Oo. c 95,339,555 17,532,704
1908 - 71,205,366 13,860,068
Exports— ,
IWS 256 6 oo 5 11,375 $2,126
WO 6 56 60 6 169,824 40,118
NGOS Me mere sais cuire 41,763 12,005
696 SHEEP
The Yearbook of the United States Department
of Agriculture for 1906, gives the number of sheep
in Canada as follows :
Year Number
Motali@anaday yin enews 2,971,212
New Brunswick . 1905 183,000
CeO S665 Bb Se oo 4 1906 1,304,809
Manitobat.ti) <1 eohemte 1906 28,975
Saskatchewan ..... 1906 121,290
PA Dextan-ietue) nc eee emt 1906 154,266
Others ecto) scares 1901 1,178,872
The Canada Yearbook for 1905, gives the value
of sheep in 1901 as follows: Total Canada, $10,-
490,594; British Columbia, $164,679 ; Manitoba,
$144,018; New Brunswick, $538,682; Nova
Scotia, $757,278; Ontario, $5,518,403; Prince
Edward Island, $384,790; Quebec, $2,376,471 ;
Territories, $606,273.
Literature.
Probably the one book that has had most influ-
ence on American sheep-husbandry is Randall’s
“Practical Shepherd,” by H. 8S. Randall of Cort-
land, N. Y. Since the publication of this work the
character of the business has changed radically,
and no single book now has undisputed precedence.
Following are some of the titles: Youatt, Sheep :
Their Breeds, Management and Diseases, London
(1837); L. A. Morrell, The American Shepherd,
New York (1846); H. S. Randall, The Practical
Shepherd, Rochester (1863); same, Fine Wool Sheep
Husbandry, New York (1868); same, Sheep Hus-
bandry, New York (1883); Powers, The American
Merino, New York (1887); Spooner, Sheep; His-
tory, Structure, Economy, Diseases, London (1888);
Henry Stewart, The Shepherd’s Manual, New York
(1890); same, The Domestic Sheep, Chicago (1898);
Carman, Heath and Minto, Special Report on the
History and Present Condition of the Sheep Indus-
try of the United States, Washington (1892);
Wrightson, Sheep : Breed sand Management, (1893);
Coleman, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs of Great Britain,
London (1887); Craig, Judging Live Stock, The
Author (1904); George W. Curtis, Horses, Cattle,
Sheep and Swine (1888); David Low, On the Do-
mesticated Animals of the British Islands, London
(1842); Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great Bri-
tain, Edinburgh (1907); Shaw, The Study of Breeds
in America, New York (1905); Sanders, The Breeds
of Live Stock, Chicago (1887); The Best Breeds of
British Stock, London (1898); Plumb, Types and
Breeds of Farm Animals (1906); J. E. Wing, Sheep
Farming in America, Chicago (1905); Rushworth,
The Sheep, Buffalo (1899); Milburn, Sheep and
Shepherding ; Bennett, Wool and Sheep ; Miller
and Wing, The Winter Lamb; Clarke, Fitting
Sheep for the Show Ring and Market.
It is seen that the literature on sheep is abun-
dant. These little animals have long been popular
with writers, popular and scientific, and as well
with those who delight to use the camera. Numerous
illustrated articles. are to be found in the current
magazines. There are many experiment station and
government publications on sheep, which may be
traced through the Experiment Station Record.
SHEEP
INDEX TO SHEEP ARTICLES
Origin of Domestic Sheep ........ ane 36
Wool- and Mutton-Production. ........ 9}
The Feeding of Sheep. ........ oo « » OO
Determining the Age of Sheep ......... 08
Common Ailments of Sheep ........ « . 608
CheviotiSheep) Ss) 6 ey 0c mentee ope J
Cotswold Sheep. . ......=.-6 o +) 5 = lo
Dorset-Horm Sheep) ~ % ©.) = nen ielnene ee 1s
Hampshire Down Sheep ............ 614
Leicester Sheep. ....... oe. sn
Tincolns SHEep ec! =) eis) a) Nelo aae oe = f
Merino Sheepie ec) )- 1-1 i- ti eietennenae oie eluate
American Merino ....... o a) le la veig
Delame Merino. =. aes 2 osha
Rambouillet or French Merino ...... .
Oxford) Down Sheep) =.) +) =a 7 one
Shropshire Down Sheep ...... Arr
Southdown Sheep. - 9: = = = slleitensntsnemm
Suffolk Down Sheep. .... oo e Net oh na
Miscellaneous Breeds of Sheep . . .....s «
Origin of one Domestic Sheep.
musimon).
The argali, or wild sheep of Asia, is a large!
Kamschatka and the ocean. They are very agile
and strong, but wary and suspicious. They roam
together in small flocks. They are hunted for thei
flesh and their skins, which are made into clot
Taken young, it has been found possible to t
oughly domesticated. ;
The musmon or mouflon (Fig. 608) inhabits ¢ the
is with aed domesticated. The musmon has
been crossed with the common sheep and the prog
eny are fruitful.
Whether these two wild forms are really to he
regarded as distinct species, and whether our com:
mon sheep have descended from them, or ei
one of them directly, or from a related form
extinct, are questions that do not appear to h
been settled by zodlogists. There are other forr
of wild sheep in many parts of the world, but the
apparently have not contributed to the commo
domestic races. All members of the sheep tri
are mountain and highland animals. In fact, there
are few animals that live in more inaccessible and
inhospitable heights. Our domestic sheep inherit
SHEEP
this peculiarity, preferring cool climates, high
lands, open ranges, and quickly suffering when
closely housed for any length of time.
In North America there are three species of
wild sheep,—the big-horn (Ovis canadensis, some-
times called O. cervinus and O. montanus), the
black sheep (Ovis stonei), the white sheep (0.
dalli). There are two or three subspecies or forms
of these. Of these, the best known is the big-horn,
native to the mountain region from Mexico to
The musimon (Ovis musimon).
Adapted from Brehm.
Fig. 608.
British Columbia, but are most abundant in the
northern parts of the United States and parts of
Canada. This animal, which is considered as one
of the “big game” of the West, is characterized
by immense horns curled downward at the sides
of the head. It stands, when mature, about forty
inches high and weighs 325 pounds. It is yellow-
ish in summer and gray-brown in winter. It is
exceedingly alert and very difficult to capture.
There is now a herd of about two hundred head of
these fine animals in the Yellowstone Park, roam-
ing free. There appears to be none in captivity,
nor has any effort been made to breed them. The
white sheep and black sheep are smaller than the
big-horn, with much lighter horns. The white is
an Alaskan species; efforts to bring it into cap-
tivity have failed. The black sheep is native to
British Columbia; specimens are in several z00-
logical parks.
Not to be confounded with the big-horn or other
mountain sheep are the “wild sheep” or “native
sheep” of the West and South, which are degener-
ate and run-wild forms of domestic sheep early
introduced by the Spaniards or others. With the set-
tlement of the country, better blood is being intro-
duced and the scrub range sheep are passing out.
An animal that may be confused in the popular
mind with the big-horn and the “native sheep” is
the mountain goat (Oreamnos montanus). This is a
SHEEP 597
goat only in looks. It is more nearly allied to the
antelopes. It inhabits the highest ranges and
peaks from Idaho and Washington to Alaska. The
male animals weigh as much as 300 pounds when
mature. The mountain goat has a coarse shaggy
coat of white hair and nearly straight erect shin-
ing black horns. It is a peculiar beast, quite unlike
any other animal in any part of the world. No
efforts have been made to domesticate this animal,
but a few specimens are in captivity.
As is to be expected of an animal that has been
long under domestication in many countries, the
Sheep presents many forms. The animal is grown
chiefly for wool and meat, and there are breeds
valuable primarily for wool and others primarily
for mutton. There are variations that are not cor-
related with these uses, however, as those with
three, four or more horns, and those with no horns.
There are short-tailed and long-tailed breeds, and
there is an Asian breed with very thick fat tails.
There are also dwarf races, as the Shetland and
Faroe island sheep, yielding a fleece of two pounds
or less, which is pulled instead of being sheared.
There are many kinds of fleece. Some kinds of
sheep have a marked double coat, and in tropical
countries there are woolless sheep. The Shetland
and similar sheep have a fleece with hair inter-
mixed ; in fact, this intermixture is characteristic
in cold, moist climates. Sheep differ greatly in
color, the exposed parts being soft white or some-
times jet-black. There are Asian forms with an
extreme development of fat on the haunches.
In Roman times, the mountains of Spain were
recognized as excellent sheep countries; and as
more northern regions were not then civilized, the
Spanish sheep early gained great prominence. The
Spanish sheep is a fine-wool type. The English de-
veloped coarse- wool types, apparently not from
Spanish foundations. The early Spanish introduc-
tions to North America gave character to our early
sheep husbandry. Later, the long wools and middle
wools of England were introduced, and they are now
the prevailing types. The character of the introduc-
tions from Europe has changed from time to time,
depending very largely on the tariff conditions and
the general nature of the demand for wool-stuffs.
The domestic sheep is a good illustration of the
influence of domestication. The modern animal has
very few characters that would indicate its descent
from the wild species. Sheep have been under sub-
jection to man from earliest recorded time. Abra-
ham’s wealth was measured by his “sheep and oxen
and camels.” The peculiar sheep-herding methods
recorded in scripture are followed today by the
Kurds, Turcomans and Arabs of Asia. There are
remains of sheep in the prehistoric lake dwellings
of Switzerland.
The character of the wool has given rise to the
classification of breeds. The domesticated varieties
of sheep are numerous. In this article only those
of most importance to America are considered.
The breeds most prevalent in America are the
Merino, a breed noted for the fineness of its fleece,
and the Shropshire, Hampshire, Oxfordshire, South-
down, Horned Dorset and Cheviot, sometimes
598 SHEEP
called middle-wooled breeds, but more frequently
spoken of as mutton sheep. The Lincoln, Leicester
and Cotswold are large breeds with long, coarse
fleeces, primarily raised for their flesh.
It has been a common practice to classify sheep
according to the length or quality of fleece pro-
duced. Thus, we have (1) fine-wool breeds : Ameri-
can, Delaine and Rambouillet or French Merinos ;
(2) medium-wool breeds : Dorset-Horn, Hampshire
Down, Oxford Down, Shropshire Down, Southdown,
Suffolk Down, Tunis; (8) long-wool breeds: Cheviot,
Cotswold, Leicester, Lincoln. Another classifica-
tion would group the breeds, according to utility,
into the fine-wool type, as (1) above, and place all
the others together under the mutton type. There
are numerous miscellaneous breeds, not included in
this classification, as Black-Faced Highland, Kent
or Romney Marsh, Wensleydale, Herdwick, Ryeland,
Barbados.
Wool- and Mutton-Production.
By G. C. Humphrey.
The production of wool and mutton is an indus-
try of very great proportions, and of increasing
national interest.
Wool-production.
Wool is a staple article, very essential to all
mankind. Next to cotton, it is the product most
extensively used in the manufacture of cloth, felt
and other fabrics. Argentina, Australia, America,
Russia, Great Britain and British India are the
most noted wool-producing countries. According
to an estimate made by the National Association
of Wool Manufacturers, the world’s wool clip for
1900 was 2,685,000,000 pounds. The United States,
in 1905, as reported by the National Department
of Agriculture, produced 298,915,130 pounds of
wool, equivalent, when scoured and ready for the
manufacturer, to 129,410,942 pounds.
For many years, sheep-breeders in America
devoted their main efforts to the improvement of
wool, and developed some excellent types of the
American and Delaine Merino breeds. These were
most popular when sheep were reared principally
for wool-production, and prices for wool were com-
paratively high. Since the marked decline in the
prices in 1893, and the demand and prices for mut-
ton have increased, sheep-growers, especially in
the East and middle West, have turned their atten-
tion largely to the medium-wool mutton breeds,
and have had little regard for the improvement of
wool. The time undoubtedly will never come when
the sheep-grower can afford to ignore the value
of his flock for mutton-production, but he likewise
cannot afford to ignore or neglect the improvement
of wool.
Improvement of wool.—tIn all instances, wool is
incidental to the growth and existence of sheep,
and any improvement in its character insures
greater profits in sheep-rearing. At the present
time, to say the most, wool is very much neglected
and badly handled in America. On the ranches of
the West and the Southwest, more attention is
SHEEP
given at present to wool-growing than in the
eastern states. Experience has taught that the
fine-wool breeds, especially the strong-bodied, well-
wooled Rambouillets, are more hardy and more
capable of withstanding range conditions than are
the Down breeds. The ranchman has also learned
that he can better afford to produce and market a
good clip of wool than attempt to fatten sheep for
market. He can grow lambs for feeders, and for
this reason, a breed that will combine wool and
mutton qualities is being sought. The United
States Department of Agriculture is lending aid
to this project through the Wyoming Agricultural
Experiment Station, which is endeavoring to estab-
lish and develop a breed of sheep highly adapted
to the range.
Great improvement can be made in the wool of
all breeds, without altering their other character-
istics, by giving careful attention to the selection
of pure-bred rams that are well-wooled, providing
better feed and shelter, and giving more heed to
keeping dirt and foreign substances out of the
fleece. A good fleece should be dense and even
over the entire body; be free from foreign sub-
stances, kemp and cot; possess a strong, well-
crimped fiber of bright and lustrous appearance ;
and have sufficient yolk or oil to preserve and keep
the fiber strong. Exposure and lack of proper
nourishment affect the value of wool from the
point of view of the manufacturer, who buys wool
on its merits and is dependent on the grower for
the quality. There should be a close relationship
between the grower and the manufacturer, which
would force the local buyers and commission men
to make more distinction between prices paid for
different lots of wool than they are accustomed to
make.
Classification and grades of wool.—According to
Mumford, wools are classified on the basis of their
length and strength as (1), clothing wools, com-
prising short, fine wools suitable for making high-
grade woolen cloth; (2), combing wools, which
are strong, over three inches long, used for worsted
goods; and (3), delaine wools, which are fine,
strong wools, two to three inches long, desirable
for making delaine cloth.
Clothing wools, according to the fineness of
their quality, grade as Picklock, XXX, XX, X, No.
1 or 4 blood, No. 2 or 2 blood and No. 3 or # blood.
Picklock and XXX are very rare grades, which
formerly found their way to American markets
among imported wools. Combing wools do not
grade higher than 2 blood. Delaine wools grade
as fine, medium and low.
Marketing wool.—All wools that are bright and
comparatively clean are termed “domestic wools.”
Dirty and discolored wools are quoted as “territory
wools.” The bulk of wool is marketed today as
“unwashed” or in the grease,” which refers to
wool with dirt and yolk adhering to it. Formerly,
it was the common practice to wash sheep and
remove a part of the dirt and yolk, when the wool
was marketed as “washed wool.” “Tub-washed
wool” is wool that has been washed by hand or
machinery after it has been taken from the sheep.
SHEEP
“Scoured wool” is factory-washed wool, from which
all dirt and yolk have been removed and which is
ready for the manufacturer.
Growers should familiarize themselves with
market demands and quotations, endeavor to re-
move all features that are objectionable to the
manufacturer, and insist that local buyers and com-
mission men pay prices corresponding to the merits
of the wool.
Mutton-production.
The rearing and feeding of sheep for the produc-
tion of mutton is today a prominent feature of the
live-stock industry. The number of sheep slaugh-
tered during the years 1880 and 1907, respectively,
at the Chicago Union Stock Yards, the greatest
packing-house and live-stock center in the world,
indicates the growth of the sheep industry and the
popularity of mutton as an article of food. In 1907,
there were 3,069,391 sheep slaughtered at this
point, as compared with 179,300 in 1880. Prices
paid per hundred pounds in 1907 for sheep,
grouped in the following classes, ranged, according
to the grade, as follows: Native sheep, $2 to $7;
native yearlings and lambs, $4 to $8.60; western
sheep, $2 to $7.25; western and Mexican lambs,
$4 to $9.25. These prices, on the average, have
not fluctuated materially for the past ten years,
although the sheep market tends to fluctuate at
certain seasons of the year in a manner greatly to
concern feeders having large flocks to market.
Methods of producing mutton.—Several methods
of feeding and fitting sheep for the market are
in practice. One is the forcing of lambs from the
time they are dropped until they are six to ten
weeks old, when, if properly fitted, they furnish the
finest quality of mutton and bring the highest
market price. When special houses are provided in
which to force this class of lambs, whatever may
be the season of the year, the term “hothouse
lambs” is given them. Such lambs, depending on
the season they are produced, are also termed
“Christmas,” “winter,” “Easter” or “spring lambs.”
They are much sought, and, when one understands
breeding and forcing them, large profits are derived.
The cost of production, so far as feed is concerned,
is relatively low; but unless one has suitable build-
ings and is willing to devote the utmost care and
attention to the work, he had better be satisfied to
produce mutton after some other method.
The selection of ewes that will breed at the
proper season of the year, be prolific and produce
an abundance of milk, is the first consideration.
The profits come in having the lambs at some
extraordinary season, when extremely high prices
will be paid for them. Consequently, one must aim
to breed the ewes much earlier than the usual time.
Dorsets are the most popular for early lamb pro-
duction, since it is characteristic of them to breed
at any season of the year, be prolific and produce
an abundance of milk. The Rambouillet, Tunis,
Hampshire and Delaine breeds are also worthy of
consideration, if one can select choice deep-milking
ewes.
At the Wisconsin Agriculturul Experiment
SHEEP 599
Station, six ewes, four being grade Dorsets and two
Shropshire—Merino grades, produced seven lambs at
about New Year’s time. A warm pen haying arti-
ficial heat was provided for the ewes at lambing
time, and the feed for ewes and lambs was care-
fully recorded after the lambs were dropped. The
ewes were fed oats, bran and oil-meal, 20:10:1,
with clover, alfalfa, cabbage, roots and silage. By
providing a lamb-creep, the lambs were fed, sepa-
rately, bran, oats, corn meal and oil-meal, 4:2:2:1,
and alfalfa hay. The lambs were marketed when
seventy-five days old. They averaged 60.4 pounds
per head, and returned a profit over and above the
cost of feed for ewes and lambs, and of marketing
lambs, of $6.48 per head.
Another method more commonly practiced than
the above, is to carry the lambs until fall and sell
them at a time when they otherwise would have to
be housed. By feeding well-bred lambs continuously
a small amount of grain, perhaps one-half pound
per head daily, while on good pasture, it is possible
to make them weigh close to one hundred pounds
at the age of eight months at a comparatively low
cost. To sow rape (Brassica campestris, Dwarf
Essex variety) in corn or on ground specially set
apart for it, and pasture it supplementary to grass,
greatly assists in this method of fattening sheep.
A third popular method of fattening sheep for
market is feeding native or western lambs and
yearlings, beginning at about the ages of eight or
twenty months, respectively. Corn is the principal
grain, used in conjunction with clover or mixed
hay, corn stover or other dry roughage. Oats are
excellent at the beginning of the feeding period,
since sheep like them and will eat them at once
without harm. They produce little gain, however,
and should be substituted by corn as rapidly as
sheep will bear the change and continue to mani-
fest a keen appetite, which is essential to insure
good results. Peas produce excellent results, but
are usually too expensive. Barley has been tried
and produces fair returns, but will prove more
satisfactory if mixed with other grains, as peas and
corn. Some succulent feed, silage or roots, tends
to keep fattening sheep healthier, and thus make
better gains. Pea-straw and corn stover are next
to alfalfa and clover hay as roughage for fattening
sheep.
Cull ewes are usually marketed soon after shear-
ing, when a sacrifice can be made, if necessary, on
the amount they will bring for mutton. Using good,
pure-bred rams, docking and castrating lambs at
ten days to two weeks old, and giving them a good
start, are factors to be emphasized in attempting
to produce mutton.
Literature.
Mumford, The Production and Marketing of
Wool, Bulletin 178, Michigan Agricultural College
(1900); National Association of Wool Manufactur-
ers, Annual Wool Review, Boston; Wisconsin Experi-
ment Station, Twenty-third Annual Report (1906);
Union Stock Yard and Transit Company of Chicago,
Annual Live Stock Report (1907). [For further
references, see page 596.]
600 SHEEP
The Feeding of Sheep. Figs. 609, 610.
By John A. Craig.
It is noticeable that the most successful shep-
herds are invariably quiet in manner, low-voiced
and gentle in their ways. Sheep respond to such
characteristics on the part of their care-takers more
sympathetically than other classes of stock, and at
no other time more than at the feeding hour. They
are easily frightened and stampeded, and con-
versely, they are very trustful and dependent on
those having charge of them. Boisterousness,
coupled with rough usage and reckless driving in
changing about from pasture to feed-lot, and any
carelessness in management, are directly opposed
to thrift and well doing.
It is necessary to see that the food and the
troughs are clean. This requires that the troughs
should always be cleaned before the sheep are fed
from them ; and, furthermore, especially in the case
of lambs, the troughs should have a strip along the
top which will prevent the lambs crowding into
the trough, or putting their feet into the feed. They
dislike damp and muddy conditions, so that a clean
and dry feeding-place is necessary. Sheep can
stand almost any amount of cold, provided the
quarters are dry and they are sheltered from
wind. The latter not only materially interferes
with their comfort, but also induces eye troubles
under some circumstances. Regularity in feeding
is imperative. Irregularity will make the sheep
restless, which will retard their thrift and gain.
Under most conditions, it will be advisable to feed
sneep twice a day. The more the shepherd sees his
AaMyi )onusi LW)
nok mn om alt
Fig. 609.
Sheep-feeding scene.
sheep, and the more he is with them, the better
they are likely to thrive.
When only a pound of grain, or less, is fed, it is
hardly necessary to divide it into two feeds. The
usual practice, unless self-feeders are used, is to
feed the grain first, and then fill the racks. In this
way the shepherd may follow the feeding more
closely, for at no time is it easier to gauge the
thrift of the sheep than when they are lined up at
the feeding trough. It is often good practice to go
among the sheep, and by feeling their backs make
accurate note of their condition.
As a rule, it does not pay to grind grain of any
kind for sheep, although this statement should be
SHEEP
qualified when peas or beans are fed, for sheep do
very decidedly better when these are cracked. In
the case of young lambs, ground corn will give
gains so much greater over the whole corn as to
pay for the grinding. In the case of old ewes with
lost teeth, it will pay too, although when feedirg
such, especially in the summer, soaked corn will
give even more satisfactory results. It will likely
prove profitable to shred or cut corn fodder, owing
to the reduced waste; but clover hay, pea-straw,
oat hay and other forage of this class, may just as
well be fed uncut. Roots may be fed sliced, more
satisfactorily, as a rule. As accessories to success-
ful feeding, the sheep need to have access to salt
and water at all times. Some shepherds are of the
opinion that water is not necessary where snow is
abundant; but clean, fresh water at all times
certainly contributes to their well-being. It is a
common practice to mix some sulfur with the salt,
and this may be considered good practice for a few _
days at a time during dry weather.
Feeding lambs before weaning.
When a ewe has but a single lamb and she has
an abundance of milk, there is no need of feeding
the lamb any grain until near weaning time. In
fact, some ewes give too much milk for a single
lamb, and the latter may become too fat in the
early stages of its life to secure the best ultimate
results in health and thrift. When a ewe has two
lambs, the latter are the better for getting some
grain. It is generally advisable to feed some grain
prior to weaning, so that when the lambs are being
weaned they can be carried on without any check
in growth or thrift because of the withdrawal of
the mother’s milk. It is very easy to teach lambs
to eat grain before weaning by arranging a creep
that they can go through into a small lot or sec-
tion of the fold and get the grain without the ewes
going through.
When the ewes are getting nourishing and succu-
lent food, there is nothing gained by feeding them
grain while they are suckling lambs; hence, if
any grain is to be fed, it should be given to the
lambs direct. If the lambs are to be sold before
weaning, or at that time, and it is advisable to
have them then as fat as possible, it is necessary
to begin feeding them grain as early as possible.
When they are two weeks old, they may sometimes —
be induced to eat a little grain, but it is not likely
they will do so until they are about a month old.
The most satisfactory mixture, if rapid gains are
desired, is, perhaps, a combination of three-fourths
corn meal and one-fourth bran by weight. The
lambs will take their time in beginning to eat, but
soon after they start to eat_this ration they will be
eating one-fourth to one-half pound per head, daily. —
When they begin to eat it, it is well not to feed
them enough to cloy their appetites. They should
be given only what they will eat up clean, and
always with a relish. If they are somewhat back-
ward in eating after they have been started nicely, —
old feed should not be left in the feeding-trough,
but regularly changed, so that the feed may not be
stale at any time. Lambs intended for breeding —
SHEEP
purposes, as a rule, do not require any grain until
very shortly before weaning; then they should have
it in order that they may not become checked in
growth incident to weaning. The aim in feeding
lambs intended for breeding purposes should be to
pee them in nice flesh and splendid growing con-
ition.
Feeding lambs after weaning.
To keep the lambs unchecked in growth after
weaning, they should have the best of feed and
care just at this time. It is well to have for them
fresh pasture, or rape, or some other succulent
feed which they like. If grain has been fed before
weaning, the lambs have gradually become accus-
tomed to grazing, and have relied more and more
on the grain as the milk of their dams has dried
up. So, when the lambs reach the weaning age,
they are relying mostly on their own rations, and
they will not miss the milk. It is advisable to
remove the ewes as far as possible from the lambs,
so that they will be encouraged to forget each
other.
In addition to good pasture, or rape or some
other green food, the lambs should be fed liberally
on grain. Those intended for breeding purposes
should get such food as tends to favor growth as
well as condition, such as bran and oats, while
those that are intended for market should be fed
more fattening food. For these reasons it is well
to separate the wether lambs from the breeding
lambs. Again, the latter should be separated so
that the ewe lambs are together and the ram lambs
by themselves.
If the wether lambs are to be fattened for the
early fall market, they should be given a liberal
allowance of grain. There is no grain more fatten-
ing for lambs and wethers than corn. But to get the
best results from it, some other grain should be fed
with it, so that the appetites of the lambs may be
sustained and the gain in flesh progress steadily.
Bran is always a safe food to feed wethers, and it
is always advisable to feed some of it, although it
has never proved very fattening in any feeding
experiments. The same is true of oats. They are
both very wholesome and nutritious feeds, greatly
relished by sheep. When it comes to making fat or
gain, however, corn or cracked peas are the most
satisfactory. Cracked corn and peas, with some
bran, make a very superior ration for fattening. In
feeding wethers that have already had grain, it is
an easy matter to start them gaining quickly and
sustain the increase; while some care is needed,
yet there is seldom any danger, as in the case of
feeding sheep unaccustomed to grain. Lambs fed
grain before weaning will take a pound of grain
daily, per head, after weaning, and make satisfac-
tory gain on it, while, to feed lambs unaccustomed
to grain that amount, immediately after weaning,
would likely result in serious loss.
When the lambs are being fed so that they may
go on the market fat, sometime during January or
thereabouts, they do not need such rapid crowding
during the fall months, for it is easy to get mature
lambs too fat and heavy for the highest market price
SHEEP 601
per pound. It isa fact that the general market
prefers a fat lamb of one hundred pounds or under
to one that is over that weight, provided the con-
dition as to fleshiness is the same. For fattening
mature lambs during the fall season, there is noth-
ing better than good grass pasturage and rape or
rutabagas, with a mixture of grains, such as corn
and oats. The grass pasture should be used to
turn the lambs on in the morning before they are
permitted to go on the rape. If the lambs get a
small grain ration, too, in the morning, before be-
ing permitted to graze on the rape, there is very
little danger from bloating. This grain ration may
consist of bran and corn or oats and corn, half and
half by weight.
After the season for rape and roots and pasture
is passed, the wether lambs being fattened should
be penned or yarded. They apparently do better
Fig. 610. A sheep-feeding shed in Utah.
when limited in range at this time. A nice, dry
yard adjoining the feeding-pen is very desirable to
turn them in. In the North, fattening lambs need
dry shelter but do not need to be closed in so
as to be warm. Dryness, with free ventilation of
the quarters, are the main considerations. In the
South, it is advisable to have a corral on a high
dry site, where the lambs can be put during
feeding time and at night. A woven wire corral,
dog and wolf proof, is a necessity under such con-
ditions. In the South, the lambs can be allowed to
run on rape or turnips during the greater part of
the winter season, and fed dry fodders only a short
time before shipping, so that the shrinkage may be
reduced. In the North, fodder-feeding becomes a
necessity during the yard-feeding, although such
foods as wheat screenings, or others in which
there is considerable chaff or roughage, may be
fed alone. Both dry and succulent fodder, with
some grass, will give the best results. Of the dry
fodders for fattening, it is hardly likely that any
will surpass alfalfa or the clovers. For succulence,
corn silage or roots are very satisfactory, while
for grain, corn, oats and bran and, perhaps, some
oil-meal or cottonseed meal, if not too high in
price, may be used to advantage. The lambs, when
put in the feeding yard or pens, should be taking
about a pound per head daily of the oats-and-corn
mixture. This should be increased gradually.
Highly bred mature lambs, accustomed to grain
all their lives, will ultimately take two and one-
half to three pounds of grain per head daily when
they are ripe for market or show ; but, of course,
this high feeding cannot be continued long. They
602 SHEEP
will make corresponding gain on it, thus showing
what careful training in feeding will do, coupled
with inherited fattening tendencies. The lambs
need just enough exercise in the yards to keep
them strong and sound on their legs; more than
this or any excitement tells in reduced gain.
Referring back to the breeding lambs, they
should have a run of rape and pasture and have
some oats and bran, although, if they keep in good
growthy condition without the grain, it would be
good economy to withhold it. By keeping the ewe
lambs growing steadily and feeding them nourish-
ing fodders during winter, such as clover hay,
corn fodder, and some oats or bran during the
winter, they grow into good large yearlings and
clip a surprisingly heavy fleece in the spring.
The ram lambs should also have an abundance
of nourishing food,—clover hay, oats, roots and
such foods as tend to encourage growth and flesh
rather than fat. Both the ewe lambs and the ram
lambs should have abundant exercise. This may
be encouraged in the North by feeding them their
fodders some distance from the sheds, and thus
inducing them to take exercise to get their feed.
Short fattening period—The majority of the
lambs that go on the fat market have had a short
fattening period of three to four months. Western
lambs, or those from the ranches, are fed in this
way. In feeding these lambs, the first point to
remember is that they have never had any grain,—
nothing except grasses. To feed such lambs on the
farm, it is advisable to get them comparatively
early in the season, unless the market is not favor-
able for purchasing. When they are brought on
the farm early, they may do a great deal of good
in cleaning up stubble corn-fields, weedy pastures
and the like before the feeding begins, provided
the fields are free from burs. For such lambs
there is nothing better than a month or so of pre-
paratory feeding on rape or roots, as it puts them
in sappy and thrifty condition. They need to be
managed very carefully while becoming accustomed
to the rape. Of all things, they need most the run
of a pasture before being turned on the rape, and
when on the latter, they should be hurdled; that
is, a temporary fence should be used in such a way
that the lambs get only a limited amount of rape.
For grain, bran or oats is about the safest feed
to begin with. At first, put about one-fourth of a
pound per head daily inthe trough. As soon as they
realize what the grain is for, they will be anxious
for more. Whether the grain should be increased
rapidly or very slowly will depend greatly on the
quality and previous feeding of the lambs. At any
rate, it is always safest to increase the quantity
slowly. At the end of two weeks, they may have
one-half pound per head daily, and by the end of a
month, one pound per head daily will be about as
much as they should have. When this quantity is
reached, make the grain ration one-half corn and
one-half bran or oats by weight, and feed this mix-
ture in two feeds, one in the morning and the other
in the afternoon. For fodder, feed clover hay, corn-
stalks, or pea-straw, varying the ration according
to the foods available.
SHEEP
At the end of three months of careful feeding,
the lambs will be taking one and one-half to two
pounds of grain, and about two or three pounds of
clover hay, according to the quality and their
relish for it. A pound and a half to two pounds per
head per week may be considered to be the range
of gain in live weight from such feeding. A western
lamb weighing fifty to sixty pounds when purchased
may be expected to weigh eighty to ninety pounds
at the end of three and one-half months of feeding,
provided the lamb is of a smooth, thrifty type, and
continues to do well on such feeds as those men-
tioned.
Feeding breeding ewes.
While sheep will eat a wider range of weeds and
other plants than other classes of stock, yet they
show very decided preferences for some fodders.
To carry breeding ewes over winter successfully,
in the North, it is very necessary to know their
likes and dislikes. Breeding ewes, and, in fact, all
classes of sheep, have a decided liking for clover
hay, and the finer it is in leaf and stem the cleaner
they will eat it up. For this reason, alfalfa and
alsike are greatly liked, although second crops may
surpass either of these. Pea-straw, shredded corn
fodder and oat hay are good. The fodders may be
fed some distance from the fold so that the ewes
are forced to take some exercise. A mutton grade
ewe, weighing 100 to 150 pounds, will eat two to
three pounds of these fodders daily during the
winter season. If the breeding ewes have had good
grass in the fall, they will have gained in flesh after
the weaning of the lambs, and they are not likely
to need any grain unless just at breeding time.
They should certainly have some oats if the pasture
has not been sufficient and they have not received
any rape to supplement it. The ewes should go into
winter in strong condition. It is advisable to cor-
ral them and handle their backs, to be satisfied on
that point, although most shepherds can tell by a
ewe’s appearance as to whether or not she is
thrifty enough.
As lambing time approaches, the ewes should be
fed liberally on a variety of roughage. Some suc-
culent food, such as corn silage and roots, is
thought to induce a free flow of milk. As soon as
the ewes lamb, they should receive some grain.
Wheat bran and oats are very satisfactory. Corn
may be fed in moderation, but it cannot be con-
sidered as wholesome a food for breeding ewes as
bran or oats. If the ewes lamb about the time
grass is ready for them, there will be no need of
feeding them further on grain, although, if the
grass is very lush and immature, some grain may
be fed profitably. Frequent change of pasture, with
some rape cut and fed, should keep the ewes milk-
ing well. They may become thin, but it is not
advisable to feed them grain if the succulent feed
is available and the ewes remain in good condition.
Feeding rams.
In the feeding of ram lambs, there is no grain
more satisfactory than clean heavy oats. The ram
lambs should get oats from weaning time. This,
SHEEP
with good pasture, will be all that is necessary
until winter. Then clover hay and corn fodder,
with roots or silage, should constitute the ration.
The ram lamb should be given little service, if
any. A ram lamb that was born very early and
has made an uninterrupted growth, and has been
fed well, may be used for service as a lamb, but as
arule it is best to delay until a year old. During
the winter the ram lambs should be run together.
They should get their fodder outside, so that they
are made to take as much exercise as possible.
During the breeding season, a ram requires
extra attention, especially in feeding. Bran and
oats are splendid foods, and these should be fed
liberally if necessary to maintain the ram’s condi-
tion. A ram in good condition, with firm flesh,
will prove more satisfactory as a breeder than one
over- or under-fed. To secure such condition,
experience teaches that the most effective method
is to include liberal feeding on clover hay, roots
and oats, coupled with abundant exercise.
Literature.
For references, see page 596.
Determining the Age of Sheep.
By H. H. Wing.
Sheep have two sets of incisor teeth, on the
lower jaw only. The first or middle pair of tempo-
tary teeth is replaced by permanent ones when the
lamb is thirteen to fifteen months old, and there-
after the succeeding pairs of permanent teeth
appear at intervals of a little less than a year.
Most shepherds reckon a year for each pair, so
that, when the last pair is fully up and in wear, the
sheep is four years old. As age advances, the teeth
grow narrower and slimmer until advanced age,
eight or nine years, when they often shorten
rapidly from wear and finally disappear. So long
as the teeth remain strong and fairly firm, the
sheep may be said to be in good working condition.
Common Ailments of Sheep. Figs. 611-614.
By Louis A. Klein.
We may group the ailments of sheep that are
to be discussed in this connection under three
general heads: (1) Diseases caused by animal
parasites; (2) bacterial diseases; (8) non-con-
tagious diseases. It is possible to consider here
only the more common ailments that come under
these three heads.
I. DISEASES CAUSED BY ANIMAL PARASITES
The diseases that are most common among sheep,
and that are of the greatest economical import-
ance, are caused by animal parasites — worms,
flukes, ticks, mites, lice, grubs. Because of their
smaller size and strength and, to a less extent,
their habit of cropping forage close to the ground,
sheep are more vulnerable to the attacks of these
pests than the domestic animals of other species;
while the custom of keeping them in flocks favors
‘to one inch long, of a whitish color with
SHEEP 603
the reproduction and development of the parasites.
Lambs are more susceptible than older sheep. The
warm season of the year is the most favorable
period for the development of the parasites and the
infestation of the sheep, which fact explains why
these diseases are more severe in the warmer sec-
tions of the country; but the symptoms of disease
do not usually appear until late summer or in the
fall. Low-lying wet pastures, and those with a
retentive soil or with a clay subsoil near the top,
supply conditions favorable to the development of
the parasites. Keeping sheep continually in the
same lot or pasture also assists in the propaga-
tion of the parasites, and the smaller the pasture
in comparison with the size of the flock, and the
longer it is used, the more severely will the sheep
suffer from these diseases.
Stomach-worm disease.
This is the common name for a condition which
occurs when the fourth stomach is infested with a
large number of thread-like worms (Hemonchus or
Strongylus contortus, Fig. 611) one-half
a red spiral running through the body
like a cork-screw. The infested animals
are unthrifty, dull, and gradually lose
flesh and strength. After a time, a soft,
non-inflammatory swelling appears under
the jaws and diarrhea develops. Thirst
is increased. The appetite for food may
be diminished or it may continue to the
end, the animals eating after they are too &
weak to stand. The eggs of the worms ~~
pass out with the manure and young ae Be
worms hatched from them are swallowed ¢tomach
by sheep and cattle feeding on infested worm on
ground. In this way the disease is trans- blsde.
mitted from one animal to another.
Treatment.— Changing the flock to high, dry,
well-drained land which has not been occupied by
sheep for at least a year, feeding generously and
providing plenty of salt, will bring about an im-
provement and usually stop losses, although it will
not save those animals that are in the advanced
stages ; and, if the sheep are moved from time to
time to other lots or pastures, the improvement
will continue. No drug or combination of drugs
can be absolutely depended on to remove the worms
from the sheep, but good results may be obtained
with coal-tar creosote or gasoline. Ten drams of
coal-tar creosote are shaken up ina gallon of water,
and of this mixture four to six tablespoonfuls are
given to lambs, and eight to ten tablespoonfuls to
yearlings and older sheep, every other day until
three doses have been given. The mixture should
be well shaken before measuring out each dose.
The gasoline is given in milk, raw linseed oil or
flaxseed tea, two teaspoonfuls for lambs and one
tablespoonful for sheep daily, for three successive
days, each dose being measured and mixed sepa-
rately. The sheep should have no feed for at least
twelve hours before the medicine is given, and no
feed or water for at least three hours after. All
the sheep in the flock should receive treatment.
604 SHEEP
Medicines intended to operate in the fourth
stomach or in the bowels are most effective when
given in a liquid, being poured slowly into the
mouth from a bottle, with the sheep standing in a
natural position and the head slightly elevated.
Those who may prefer the easier but less effective
method of giving medicine with the feed can use:
Arsenious acid 1 dram, sulfate of iron 5 drams,
powdered nux vomica 2 drams, powdered areca nut
2 ounces, common salt 4 ounces ; mix thoroughly,
divide into thirty doses and give each sheep one
dose daily in ground feed for ten days.
Eradication of the worms from infested lots or
pastures has been attempted in several ways.
Burning off the grass in the spring or fall has
proved effective. Keeping sheep out of a pasture
will not cause the worms to die out unless cattle
are also excluded for at least a year.
Nodular disease.
Nodular disease is characterized by the presence
in the wall of the intestines of tumors or nodules,
in which is found a miniature worm about one-
eighth of an inch long, which is the cause of the
disease. This is the larval stage of the (sophagos-
toma columbianum. The fully developed worms are
one-half to three-fourths of an inch long, and are
found attached to the inner lining of the large intes-
tines. The eggs and worms pass out withthe manure,
and the pastures or feeding lots, and pools receiving
the surface drainage from them, become infested.
Lack of condition may be the only indication of
the disease. When the infection is more extensive
the sheep is dull, weak and thin, the wool dry and
the eyes and lips pale. In severe cases there is
rapid emaciation and diarrhea.
Treatment.—The entire flock should be removed
from the infested pastures to land that has not
been used by sheep for at least eight months,
should be given as much range as possible, and
should be shifted about as often as conditions will
permit. A plentiful supply of salt, with some grain
in addition to the grass, would also be beneficial.
Water free from infection should be provided.
Much can be accomplished in this way in repressing
the disease even if it is not eradicated, especially
if the sheep are placed on high, dry land. If prac-
ticable, each sheep should recéive a dose of thymol,
thirty to forty-five grains, shaken up in water or
in the coal-tar creosote solution prescribed for
stomach worms, before the flock is removed to the
clean pasture. Repeat in a week or ten days. The
greatest benefit will be derived from the medical
treatment, if the sheep are removed in about a week
or ten days from the inclosure in which they are
placed after treatment, to another clean pasture.
Tape-worms.
Two species of tape-worm are found in sheep
in America, the fringed tape-worm (Tenia fim-
briata) and the broad tape- worm (Tenia expansa).
When fully developed, the fringed tape-worm is
six to twelve inches long and consists of a head
and a large number of small joints or segments;
but in the immature form in which it is swallowed
SHEEP
by the sheep, it is only one-fifth of an inch in
length. The broad tape-worm also consists of a
head with many joints or segments attached, and
is found only in the intestines. It attains a length
of five yards and grows very rapidly. The seg-
ments or joints at the end become separated and
pass out with the manure, and, as these are filled
with eggs or embryos, pastures are infested.
The indications of infestation develop slowly.
Unthriftiness is usually the first sign. Later, there
is gradually increasing weakness and loss of flesh,
the flanks are drawn up or distended with gas and
the gait is unsteady. The appetite for feed and
water is often increased, or preference is shown
for unusual substances. In cases of extensive infes-
tation, the weakness and emaciation is extreme and
there is pronounced diarrhea. Segments or joints of
the worms may be observed in the bowel discharges.
Treatment.—Sheep that do not show symptoms
of infestation should be removed to a pasture or
lot which is not infested and provided with clean
drinking-water, fed well, given plenty of salt, and
provided with sufficient protection against severely
cold weather and storms. Those that are visibly
affected should be cared for in the same way, and if
they can also be placed on land free from the worms
it will be advisable to do it. The pastures should not
be overcrowded, and the sheep should be moved fre-
quently from one pasture to another. Planting for-
age crops will greatly facilitate the change to fresh
feeding-ground at frequent intervals.
Drugs are of little or no value in combating the
fringed tape-worm, as it is not possible to reach
the worms in the bile ducts; but when the broad
tape-worm is present, every sheep in the flock
should receive one-half to one dram of the extract
of male fern in two to four ounces of castor-oil, or
one to one and one-half drams of kamala. They
should have no feed the night before, nor on the
morning of the day on which the medicine is to
be given, and they should receive no water for
five or six hours after treatment. Feeding pine
sprouts is recommended; also pumpkin seeds,
twenty to thirty seeds to each animal.
The species of tape-worm present can be deter-
mined by making a post-mortem examination of
one of the most seriously affected sheep. Pastures
that are badly affected with the fringed tape-worm
can be most economically cleaned by excluding
sheep and using them for horses and cattle until
the worms die out. Where the broad tape-
worm is present, cattle must also be ex-
cluded, as this worm infests cattle as
well as sheep.
Fluke disease or liver-rot.
This disease is caused by flat, leaf-
shaped parasites (Distomum hepaticum, D.
lanceolatum Fig. 612) which, after haying a5
been swallowed with the food or water, iver fluke.
migrate to the liver and destroy the sub- Natural
stance of that organ. The eggs deposited *"~
by the flukes are carried out with the manure, but
the embryos that are hatched from them must
pass a period in certain snails (Limneus truncula-
SHEEP
tus s. minutis), and another stage in the water
before they are capable of infesting sheep. Damp,
swampy pastures and stagnant pools of water fur-
nish the conditions favorable to the development of
the parasites.
Lambs and yearlings and sheep of feeble consti-
tution suffer most readily. The symptoms of the
disease do not appear until the damage to the
liver is extensive—about one and one-half to two
months after infection. Then, there is a rapid loss
of condition and weakness ; the wool becomes dry
and may drop off ; the eyes and lips become blood-
less and puffy swellings may appear around the
eyelids, under the jaw and along the brisket ; the
appetite is poor, or unusual substances may be
eaten; the bowels are irregular, constipation
alternating with diarrhea.
Treatment.—Preventive measures are of more
value in combating the disease than medicinal
treatment, as the flukes are so located that drugs
cannot operate on them with sufficient effect, and,
in those sheep showing symptoms of infestation,
the changes in the liver are too extensive to be
repaired by drugs. The sheep should be removed
to high, dry pastures, the sick being separated
from the well; they should be given nourishing
food with a plentiful supply of salt. Infested past-
ures and pools should be drained and should not be
used by cattle or sheep fora time. As snails are
essential to the development of the flukes, their
destruction will assist in the eradication of the
parasites. Frogs, toads and carp have been used
for this purpose with good results. The introduc-
tion of carp into the Willamette and Columbia
Tivers was followed by a great decrease in fluke
disease in sheep pasturing in slough lands along
the lower parts of those streams.
Gid, sturdy, staggers, turn-sick (Fig. 613).
The most prominent and characteristic symp-
toms of this disease are the peculiar, unconscious
and uncontrollable movements of the victims—
moving in a circle, twisting
or turning as on a pivot,
swaying and reeling, running
straight forward with the
head elevated, and the like.
It is caused by the presence
in the brain or spinal cord of
the gid bladder worm (Cenuris
cerebralis), the cystic or blad-
der stage of one of the tape-
worms infesting the dog
(Tenia cenuris). The eggs
are scattered by the dog on
the grass or in the drinking
places, and the embryos that
are hatched from them when
they are swallowed by sheep
migrate in some manner to the brain or spinal cord.
This period of migration lasts eight to ten days and
is attended in some animals with little or no dis-
turbance, while others are more seriously affected,
depending on the number of parasites. There may
only be some depression, a clumsy gait or stupid-
Skull of sheep, showing
brain infested with
gid bladder-worms.
SHEEP 605
ness. When the infestation is more extensive, the
head is hot, the eyes red, the head is held in a
peculiar position, and the animal may run aimlessly
about, turn in a circle, press to one side, or stag-
ger. Death may occur in four to six days, but
usually the symptoms subside when the embryos
‘have established themselves in the brain or spinal
cord, to reappear in four to six months when the
bladders have reached a sufficient size to seriously
affect the functions of these organs. The animal
will stop eating suddenly without any apparent
cause, there is dullness and weakness, the eyes are
glassy and staring, sight is lost, and the uncon-
trollable and unconscious movements referred to
above occur at intervals several times during a day.
Treatment.—It will be found most economical to
slaughter infested animals when the first symp-
toms of the final stage appear, and while they are
still in good flesh. Preventive measures are very
important. Carcasses of infested sheep should be
disposed of in such a manner that the brain or
spinal cord cannot be eaten by dogs; and the dogs
on the place should be treated at regular intervals
for tape-worms. This treatment should be given
as follows: the dog should receive one to two
tablespoonfuls of castor-oil to empty the bowels,
and should receive no food for a day except a lit-
tle soup or milk. The next morning, fifteen to
forty minims of extract of male fern should be
given, followed in two hours with a tablespoonful
of castor-oil. During the course of treatment the
dog should be kept tied up, and the bowel dis-
charges should be buried in quicklime or burned.
Grub in the head.
This is a disease of the cavities of the nose and
sinuses of the head, which is caused by the larvee
or grubs of the sheep gadfly (@strus ovis). On the
appearance of the flies the sheep become greatly
excited, and seek to protect themselves by thrust-
ing their noses between the fore-legs, holding their
heads close to the ground, or by crowding together
in a circle with heads depressed. If larve are de-
posited about the nostrils they shake their heads,
run about and rub their noses against their fore-
legs or any object that may be accessible. No
symptoms of disease appear until the following
spring, when the larvee begin to emigrate. Then a
nasal discharge occurs, which is sometimes bloody,
and there is also considerable sneezing and snort-
ing, during which larve are often cast out. These
are three-quarters to one inch long and of yellowish
brown color. There is also shaking and swinging
of the head and rubbing of the nose; the eyelids
are often swollen and there is a discharge of tears;
sometimes the brain is also affected and then there
is dullness, fits of dizziness, an unsteady gait, or
convulsions.
Treatment.—It is possible to open the sinuses
with a trephine and remove most of the larve, but
this method of treatment is not available to the
average flock-master. Injections are of no value
as they cannot be used in sufficient strength to
destroy the larve without injuring the membranes
of the nasal cavities and sinuses. All animals
606 SHEEP
severely affected should be sent to market; the
others will recover as soon as all the larve have
emigrated. All larvee found on the ground should
be destroyed and the heads of any infested sheep
that may be slaughtered should be disposed of in a
manner that will destroy the larvee. Where the
gadfly abounds, the noses of the sheep should be
smeared every three or four days during the
swarming season with a mixture of equal parts of
tar and grease, or tar and fish-oil, or tar and whale-
oil. Another method of prevention is to plow a
furrow in the pasture to give the sheep an oppor-
tunity to bury their noses when the fly approaches.
Hoose, husk, paper-skin, lung-worm disease.
These terms are used to designate a disease of
the lungs and bronchial tubes produced by two
species of parasites, the thread lung-worm (Strongy-
lus filaria) and the hair lung-worm (Strongylus ovis-
pulmonalis). The thread lung-worm is one-half to
two inches long and is found in the bronchial tubes.
The hair lung-worm is much smaller, two-thirds to
one inch long and of the diameter of a hair, and is
found in the air cells and lung tissue.
Infested sheep do not show any signs of disease
until many worms are present and extensive
changes have occurred in the bronchial tubes and
lungs. The most prominent symptom is a cough,
which occurs in fits or spasms, leaving the victim
almost suffocated. During these coughing spells
the worms are ejected and scattered about, and as
these discharges contain the embryos, food and
water contaminated in this way become infectious.
There is also a discharge from the nostrils in which
the young worms and fragments of old worms can
likewise be found. In the later stages, the skin is
dry and harsh, whence the name paper-skin; the
wool is dry and can easily be pulled out; the eyes
and lips are bloodless and there is loss of flesh and
gradually increasing weakness. The appetite is
fair in the beginning but later it may disappear
entirely.
Treatment.—It will be best for the flock in which
this disease appears to send all the sheep which
seem to be most infested to market, unless they are
of value for breeding purposes, or unless the dis-
ease has advanced so far that they are weak and
emaciated ; in any case, they should be separated
from the flock, as they are a source of infection
to the others. The entire flock should be removed
to non-infested enclosures and given nourishing
feed, plenty of salt, and water free from the para-
sites. Lambs should be weaned as soon as possible,
and placed in a pasture or lot which has not been
occupied by sheep since the previous winter at least.
Injections of vermicides into the wind-pipe, either
in solution or in the form of a spray, have given
good results in the treatment of sheep infested
with the thread lung-worm, but these methods are
not available to the ordinary flock-master. A more
simple method of treatment is fumigation. To carry
this out, it is necessary to have a tightly-closed
room in which to place the sheep. A mixture of
flowers of sulfur and alcohol in a deep dish or pan
floating in a vessel of water is then placed in the
SHEEP
room; the alcohol and sulfur is ignited, and the
door closed. Some one should remain in the room
with the sheep, or they should be closely watched,
so that they will not be suffocated. A mixture of
one part of salt to twenty-five parts of copperas is
also advised, to be kept constantly before the sheep.
For the eradication of the worms from infested lots
or pastures, the same methods can be used as for
stomach worms.
Scab. (Fig. 614.)
Scab is an itch or disease of the skin caused by
a species of mite (Psoroptes communis) just large
enough to be visible. These little insects bite the
skin to obtain food, and the irritation or itching
thus produced causes the sheep to scratch, rub and
bite the infested
places; little
blisters form
where the mites |
bite, and therub-
bing, scratching
and biting of the
sheep inflames
the skin, which
becomes red,
thickened, hot
and tender. The
blisters rupture and the yellowish liquid they con-
tain, drying on the skin with the sweat and dan-
druff, forms the yellowish-brown scab from which
the disease takes its common name. The wool be-
comes “tagged” or glued together in tufts and
finally falls out, exposing the rough, dry, scab,
which may be full of cracks or fissures and ulcera-
tions. The disease is very contagious from one ani-
mal to another. Tags of wool from infected sheep,
fences or posts against which scabby sheep have
rubbed, sheds or buildings occupied by them, or old
bedding may harbor the mites and convey the dis-
ease to healthy sheep. The common variety of scab
affects the back, sides, rump and shoulders. The
other varieties—head scab or black muzzle, foot
scab and follicular seab—occur very rarely in this
country. Itching caused by ticks and lice, inflam-
mation of the skin glands, and rain-rot have been
mistaken for scab; but such mistakes will not oce
if the mange mite is always searched for in the
edges of the scab. ,
Treatment.—When scab appears in a flock, all 0:
the sheep should be sheared and confined to one
part of the farm or in a certain pasture for tw
to four weeks, after which each animal should b
“dipped” in a mixture that will kill the mange
mites, and returned to the same part of the farm,
or to the same pasture. Seven to ten days later
they should be “dipped” again, and then placed in
that part of the farm or pasture from which
they have been excluded since shearing. The lime
and sulfur dip is one of the most satisfactory mix
tures for treating scabby sheep. It is made as fol-
lows: To eight to eleven pounds of unslaked lime
add enough water to slake to a paste ; sift into this
paste exactly three times as many pounds of flowers”
of sulfur as of lime used, weighing the sulfur and
A case of sheep scab. ‘
Fig. 614.
SHEEP
lime accurately ; place the mixture ina boiler, add
twenty-five gallons of water, and boil for at least
two hours, stirring frequently ; allow the sediment
to settle, and then dip off the fluid and add enough
water to make one hundred gallons. While using
the dip, it must be kept at a temperature of 100°
to 110° Fahr., the temperature being determined
by a thermometer. Each sheep should be kept in
the dip for two minutes by the watch, the entire
body being covered with the liquid, and the head
immersed at least once. When only a small flock is
to be treated, an ordinary kettle may be used for
preparing the dip, and a wash-tub for the dipping ;
but when large numbers of sheep are to be dipped,
involving much work, special apparatus will be
found most economical.
Sheep ticks.
The sheep tick, which is really not a tick but a
wingless fly with a leathery, bristly, flattened body
about a quarter of an inch long, inhabits the fleece
of the sheep and bites the skin at intervals to suck
blood. When the ticks are few in number, they
have little effect on the sheep, but when they are
numerous the itching and pain caused by the bites
of the insects keep the sheep biting and scratching
most of the time, affecting their general condition.
Lambs suffer most severely.
Treatment.—Dipping the flock in the lime and
sulfur mixture or in a kerosene emulsion will rid
them of the parasites. The kerosene emulsion is
made as follows: shave a pound of soap into a
gallon of water and dissolve by boiling, add two
gallons of kerosene and churn or mix until the oil
is “cut” or emulsified; use one gallon of the
emulsion to eight of water. It is best to dip twice,
with an interval of two weeks, and to keep the
sheep out of the old pens or pastures for a week.
The pens and other resting-places should ke
scraped out and cleaned.
Sheep lice.
The sheep louse is very small, only one twenty-
fifth of an inch in length, with a reddish head and
whitish body. Itching is a symptom of the pres-
ence of this parasite, which also causes the skin to
become thickened, rough, and covered with small
black scabs, while the wool covering these places
becomes short, dry and twisted. Infested flocks
should be dipped in the kerosene emulsion.
Maggots.
Maggots are sometimes found in wounds on
sheep. These are the larve of a fly (Lucilia macel-
laria) that is common in America, especially in the
warmer sections, and that is to be recognized by
its blue body, streaked with darker blue or purple
bands. The fly deposits its eggs on the wool or in
the wounds or sores, and when the larve are
hatched they burrow into the diseased tissues,
causing much distress to the sheep. Flowers of
sulfur and benzoated lard, mixed in equal parts, or
oil of tar, applied to the diseased areas will destroy
the maggots and also prevent the fly from depositing
eggs,
SHEEP
Il. BACTERIAL DISEASES
For information concerning those contagious or
infectious diseases which affect sheep as well as
the domestic animals of other species, the reader
is referred to the article on Infectious Diseases
of Animals, pages 124-146.
Foot-rot.
Foot-rot usually begins in one foot and subse-
quently attacks one or more of the others. Lame-
ness is the first indication of the disease, and when
the foot is examined a red, moist spot is found in
the cleft just above the horny part. The disease
extends beneath the horn, and inashort time there
is a thin, sticky discharge of a disagreeable odor
from a hole in the horn. The region above the
hoof becomes swollen, hot and tender. If the dis-
ease is neglected, a large part of the horn is under-
mined and loosened, and the extension may continue
until even the bones are affected. During warm
weather, maggots may attack the affected parts.
The disease is caused by a germ (Bacillus necro-
phorous), which exists in large numbers in the dis-
charge from the diseased feet, and healthy sheep
placed on ground or in sheds contaminated with
this material are liable to contract the disease.
Contagious foot-rot should not be confused with
foul-foot, which results from muddy lots or marshy
pastures, or from wounds from sharp stones and
the like; or with the swelling, suppuration and
lameness that occurs when the opening of the lit-
tle oil gland in the cleft of the hoof is choked up
with mud or sand.
Treatment.—When the disease is discovered, the
feet of the healthy sheep should be treated with a
solution of one pound of chlorid of lime to each
twelve quarts of water, or one pound of carbolic
acid crystals to each four gallons of water, after
which they should be removed to uncontaminated
lots or pastures. When the flock is large, the solu-
tion may be placed in a wooden trough about six
feet long, twenty inches wide and one foot deep,
the solution being about four inches deep, and the
sheep made to walk through it slowly. The diseased
sheep should be treated as follows: Cut away all
loose or undermined horn and all proud flesh, and
stand the animal for ten minutes in a solution con-
taining four pounds of copper sulfate in each five
gallons of water, applying a soft bandage when
deep cutting has been necessary. When the disease
has extended into the deeper parts, the affected
area should be carefully washed with a solution
containing one ounce of carbolic acid crystals in
twenty ounces of water, then dusted with a pow-
der consisting of equal parts of boric acid and
oxid of zinc, and covered with a soft bandage.
After treatment is begun, the diseased sheep should
be placed in lots or pastures free from infection.
In order to prevent the introduction of the dis-
ease, sheep purchased for addition to the flock
should be kept under observation in separate quar-
ters for a few days. Keeping the feet of the sheep
properly trimmed will assist in keeping the cleft
of the foot free of dirt and help to prevent the
608 SHEEP
spread of the disease. Pastures occupied by dis-
eased sheep can be used safely for healthy sheep
the following spring, but infected lots and sheds
should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.
Sore mouth and feet.
The contagious foot-and-mouth disease of Europe
does not exist in this country, but sheep are some-
times affected with an ulcerative condition of the
mouth and feet that is often referred to by this
name. This disease, which is caused by the Bacillus
necrophorous, does not spread from animal to ani-
mal like the true foot-and-mouth disease, but cer-
tain lots, pastures or sheds become infected with
the germs, which enter the tissues when the mouth
or foot is injured by stiff, brittle forage or briars,
and set up the disease. Ulcers appear in the skin
of the leg above the hoof, and in the membrane
lining the lips. If the disease is neglected, these
ulcers may spread over a large area and extend
deep into the tissues; the ulcers may also appear
on the face. When the feet are affected there is
lameness, while disease of the lips is accompanied
by an interference with feeding.
Treatment.— Removing the scabs or shreds of
tissue from the diseased areas and washing them
twice daily with a solution of one tablespoonful of
creoline in a quart of water, then painting with
Lugal’s solution of iodine, will result in a complete
cure, if treatment is begun in time. In using the
latter solution on sores in the mouth, care should
be taken to confine the application to the diseased
places. Infected lots and sheds should be cleaned
and disinfected.
Sore mouth may also result from the sheep feed-
ing on grains or grasses affected with fungi and
other vegetable organisms, a condition which may
exist in wet seasons. Blisters or ulcers are seen on
the membrane lining the mouth and lips, and the
breath may have a sour odor. These blisters and
ulcers sometimes occur on the teats of the ewes, and
lambs suckling them suffer an attack of the mouth
disease. The treatment consists in changing the
feed, washing the mouth with a solution contain-
ing a half ounce of boric acid to a pint of water,
and afterward placing a little powdered alum on
the tongue. Affected teats can be treated with the
same drugs. Sore mouth has occurred in sheep fed
on wheat screenings rich in mustard seeds, and
ulceration of the gums and jaw-bones has occurred
from the barbed awns of squirrel-tail grass.
Malignant catarrhal fever.
This disease usually affects a number of sheep
simultaneously. There is a discharge from the nos-
trils; the eyelids are swollen and may be stuck
together with a greasy matter; in addition, there
is a cough, rapid breathing, constipation or diar-
rhea, and loss of appetite.
Treatment.—Sheep that are severely affected
should be slaughtered, and the healthy animals
should be separated from those slightly affected.
The sheds occupied by the diseased animals should
be cleaned and disinfected. The entire flock should
be given nourishing feed and each sheep should
SHEEP
receive a tablespoonful of the following tonic mix-
ture in the feed twice daily : Powdered nux vomica
3 drams, powdered sulfate of iron 3 ounces, powdered
gentian root 4 ounces, powdered potassium nitrate
1 ounce, linseed meal 8 ounces, mix thoroughly.
Ill. NoN-CONTAGIOUS DISEASES
Wool-eating.
Wool-eating is regarded as a habit and also as
an indication of a deficiency in certain food ele-
ments. Asa rule, the general health is not affected,
but, when the vice is practiced excessively, wool is
swallowed in such quantity that digestion is dis-
turbed, and there is loss of condition. The affection
usually develops during the winter, when the sheep
are confined and are being fed on dry feed, and
disappears when they are turned out to pasture.
Treatment.—W ool-eaters should be immediately
separated from the flock, and there should be a
change of feed, especially of the hay or roughage.
The feeding of corn often has a good effect. A
generous ration should be fed, and the following
should be mixed with the ground feed, one tea-
spoonful being allowed for each sheep in the flock :
Powdered gentian 4 ounces, common Salt 8 ounces,
bicarbonate of soda 4 ounces, and sulfate of soda 4
ounces. Some veterinarians have used with great
success hypodermic injections of apomorphine, one
and one-half grains daily for three successive days.
Lambs usually begin the practice of the vice by
gnawing the soiled “tags” of wool about the udders
of the ewes, and for this reason trimming the
udders has been recommended.
Bloating.
Bloating usually occurs when green corn, rape,
clover and other succulent plants are eaten by sheep
unaccustomed to them, or when these plants are
consumed in unusual quantity ; the condition is
especially liable to occur if the plants are wet
from dew or rain. Drinking cold water in large
amount immediately after eating, and frozen feed,
are other causes. The digestive processes of the
paunch are deranged and the material in this organ
ferments, forming gas. The abdomen becomes
swollen or bloated, especially on the left side, and
emits a drum-like sound when struck with the
fingers ; feeding and rumination ceases, there is
dullness or depression, and breathing is difficult.
Usually a number of sheep are affected, and prompt
action is necessary to save them from suffocation.
Treatment.—Relief can be afforded most quickly
and certainly by letting the gas out of the paunch
with a trocar and canula; if one of these instru-
ments is not available, a knife may be used, but
the blade should be clean. Following the operation
each sheep should receive a tablespoonful of baking
soda dissolved in a half pint of warm water to
check the fermentation. Driving the sheep into a
stream will often cause the expulsion of the gas.
After the acute symptoms have subsided, each ani-
mal should receive the following dose : Sodium sul-
fate 3 ounces, powdered Jamaica ginger 2 drams,
tincture of nux vomica 4 dram, water 1 pint.
ae —-—
we vb,
Plate XXII. Breeds of long-wool sheep
1. Oxford Down ewes 3. Border Leicester ram 5. Shropshire ewes 7. Hampshire ram
2. Romney Marsh ram 4. Lincoln ram 6. Shropshire ram 8. Cotswold
SHEEP
Bloating may also occur in choking. In such
eases it will disappear with the removal of the
obstruction in the gullet.
Scours.
The chief sign of this disease is a diarrhea, the
foul-smelling discharges soiling the tail, hips and
legs; the appetite is lost; the abdomen is dis-
tended ; there is abdominal pain, which is mani-
fested by restlessness and switching the tail;
gradually increasing weakness and emaciation fol-
low. In sucklings, the condition results from faulty
feeding or mismanagement of the ewe, or is due to
a contagion that enters through the navel cord
immediately after the lamb is dropped. In the lat-
ter case, the lambing pens must be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected, and as soon as the lambs
are dropped the stump of the navel cord must be
washed with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid
and then painted with tincture of iodine. Over-
feeding, sudden changes from dry to green feed,
cold and damp quarters, are some of the causes of
the condition in weanlings. In these cases, two
teaspoonfuls of castor-oil containing two or three
drops of creolin should be given at once, end fol-
lowed with a tablespoonful of the following mix-
ture three times daily: Paregoric 1 dram, sherry
wine 3 drams, subnitrate of bismuth 2 drams, salol
4 dram, mucilage of acacia 5 ounces. Attention
should also be given to the feeding, and clean,
dry, sunny quarters provided.
Grass staggers.
Grass staggers is a term used to describe chronic
catarrh of the stomach and intestines when it is
associated with a staggering gait, restlessness,
delirium, running into objects, drowsiness, or other
symptoms of nervous derangement. The condition
sometimes occurs when dry, woody, and innutri-
tious feed is eaten in large amount with insufficient
water; when sudden changes of feed are made
repeatedly ; and when rich concentrates are fed in
excess, and the roughage or bulky feeds are insuf-
ficient. Millet hay rich in seeds has also caused it.
Usually, the disease develops slowly. At first,
there is only diminished appetite and irregular
rumination ; then, constipation, abdominal pain,
grinding of the teeth, groaning, and fever, which
is indicated by the dry, hot nose and staring eyes ;
later, the nervous symptoms mentioned above may
appear. The condition should not be confused with
gid.
Treatment.—A ffected animals should receive the
purge prescribed under “Overloading,” and this
should be followed with two tablespoonfuls of the
following mixture in a half-pint of linseed tea
twice daily: Aromatic spirits of ammonia 14
ounces, fluid extract of nux vomica 4 dram, alco-
hol 2% ounces. When the appetite returns, easily
digested feed should be given, with oil-meal.
Gar get.
There are two diseases commonly known under
this name. One is a simple inflammation of the
udder, which results from increasing the grain
C 39
SHEEP 609
feed too rapidly after lambing, lying on cold
ground, the bunting of the lamb, or from the milk
not being removed, as may occur when a lamb
dies. The udder, or a part of it, is swollen, hot and
tense; the milk contains clumps of pus or streaks
of blood. The other disease is a malignant inflam-
mation in which the udder is swollen but soft or
doughy, and the skin is red or purple. In addition,
the general health is affected; the ewe is dull,
stops eating, is feverish and loses flesh rapidly.
Finally, the. affected part of the gland becomes
gangrenous and sloughs off. This form is infec-
tious. }
Treatment.—In the simple form of garget, five
ounces of epsom salts, dissolved in a pint of water,
should be given; the udder should be bathed fre-
quently with warm water and rubbed with cam-
phorated oil and kept milked out clean. Treatment
of the malignant form is very unsatisfactory, but
much good can be accomplished by preventive
measures in controlling the disease. Affected ani-
mals must be isolated, and the places they have
occupied cleaned and disinfected. When gangrene
has set in, the affected part should be amputated.
Injections of antiseptics into the udder are of no
value.
Interature.
For references to literature on ailments of sheep,
the reader should consult the publications cited on
pages 124-146, 330, 446, 657. [Figs. 611-614
adapted from publications of the Bureau of Ani-
mal Industry, United States Department of Agri-
culture. ]
Cheviot Sheep. Fig. 615.
By David MeCrae.
The Cheviot is one of the mountain breeds of
Scotland, named after a range of grassy hills on
the eastern borderland between England and Scot-
land. It is noted both for wool- and for mutton-
production.
Description.
The Cheviot is of medium size, hornless, face
and legs white, the body closely covered with wool
of a soft fiber akin to the Down wools; but unlike
the Downs, which are always likely to have more
or less a gray tinge to the wool, the Cheviot gives
a pure white wool. The head is bold and broad,
and the fleece of snowy whiteness comes close. up,
forming almost a ruff about the face. The ribs
are flatter than in either the Southdown or the
Highland. It is a very active, hardy animal, with
a bright eye and erect ears. Unfortunately it has
a tendency to scatter rather than flock together.
The following scale of points was adopted by
the American Cheviot Sheep Breeders’ Association :
SCALE OF POINTS FOR CHEVIOT SHEEP Bertoct
ri
1. Blood.—Pure-bred from one or more importa-
tions from Scotland
2. Constitution and Quality.— Indicated by the
form of body ; deep and large in breast and
110 SHEEP
ScALE OF PoINTS FoR CHEVIOT SHEEP,
continued Perfect
score
through the heart ; back wide and straight and
well covered with lean meat; wide and full in
thigh; deep in flank; skin soft and pink in
color ; prominent eyes ; healthful countenance.
Deficiency of brisket or fish-back objectionable. 20
3. Size.—In fair condition, when full-matured rams
should weigh not less than 200 pounds, ewes,
150 pounds (when bred in America. Imported
stock, rams, 125 to 150 pounds, ewes, 100 to
15) ee aOR lt Chora ery Cai Vea 10
4, General Appearance.—Good carriage; head well
up; elastic movement ; showing symmetry of
form and uniformity of character throughout. 10
5. Body.—Well proportioned; small bone; great
scale and length ; well-finished hind-quarters ;
thick back and loins ; standing with legs well
placed outside; breast wide and prominent in
front ; tail wide and well covered with wool. 10
6. Head.—Long and broad, wide between the eyes ;
ears of medium length and erect ; face white,
but small black spots on head and ears not
objectionable ; straight or Roman nose; a
white nose objectionable; end of nose dark
(but never smut nose on top with black or
brown); no tuft of wool on head... ... 10
7. Neck.—Medium in length ; thick and well placed
onthe:shoulderss cjesireme-n i-mate Smee: 5
8. Legs and feet.—Short legs, set well apart ; color
white ; no wool on legs ; fore-legs round; hind-
legs flat and straight ; hoofs black and well
Shaped! "as Susie ts: smeaen a cee 5
9. Covering.—Body and belly well covered with
fleece of medium length and good quality. . 10
10. Quality of wool.—Medium; such as is known
in market as half combing wool
Perfection
History.
The cheviot has been bred for a very long pericd
on the Scottish borders. The monks of the middle
ages had the breed about the pasture lands of the
old monasteries ; and to the sheep-farming church-
men of Teviotdale are we indebted for the first
improvements in the breed. The monks of Melrose
had large flocks, which were dispersed in the bor-
der fields. It was not till about 1750 that the bor-
der farmer gave much attention to the breed or
accomplished anything in its improvement.
In America.—Cheviots were taken to Canada
early in the nineteenth century. In 1838, Robert
Young, of Delhi, New York, made an importation,
followed four years later by other importations to
the same county. In 1845, they were imported
into Wisconsin by T. J. Carmichael. Subsequent
importations have been made, but the breed did
ee much progress in America prior to
Distribution.
In the Cheviot hills, the Cheviots are still the lead-
ing breed. About the year 1800, Sir John Sinclair
tried them in Caithness shire, in the extreme north
of Scotland, and they have spread into Sutherland-
shire, where they are bred in large numbers, They
SHEEP
have done well in many parts of the United States,
but not so well in Canada, where the close confine-
ment of the winters is against their active habits.
Wherever they can have outdoor exercise all the
year round, they are at home. They are specially
adapted for high, grassy tablelands. They are
most numerous in central and eastern United
States, but have become very widely scattered
throughout the country.
Uses.
The Cheviot is remarkably hardy, and can live
on very poor grazing; but, nevertheless, it must
have grass of some kind, and with it needs little
else. It yields a good class of well-marbled mut-
ton, that is not too fat. It dresses a carcass of
good weight. It bears traveling on foot for long
distances better than other modern breeds, and is
exceedingly hardy. The ewes are good, careful
mothers, and highly prolific. The Cheviot cannot
be said to be superior as a wool-producer, owing
to the light fleece, which, however, is of good
quality, medium length, and in demand. Accord-
ing to Wallace, an average clip for ewes is four
and one-half to five pounds of washed wool. The
tendency of American breeding is to improved
wool-production and more compact form. Cheviot
ewes produce a good class of early maturing grade
mutton sheep when crossed with Lincoln, Leicester
or Oxford Down rams. These crosses have been
popular in the native home of the breed for some
years.
Organizations*and records.
The Cheviot Sheep Society of Great Britain was
organized in 1891, and has published a volume of
its flockbook for each year, Volume I having been
issued in 1893. The American Cheviot Sheep
Breeders’ Association was organized in 1891, at
Hartwick, New York, and two years later issued
its first flockbook. In 1894, the National Cheviot
Sheep Society was organized at Indianapolis, Indi-
ana. Six years later, these two societies united to
form the American Cheviot Sheep Society. The
latter organization continues the publication of
the flockbook.
Literature.
For references, see page 596,
SHEEP
Cotswold Sheep. Fig. 616.
By David McCrae.
The Cotswold is a breed of sheep raised both for
wool and for mutton. It is of large size, and capa-
ble of enduring much hardship and exposure, and
well adapted to many soils. The name is derived
from a range of bleak uplands in Gloucestershire,
England, known as Cotswold hills.
Description.
The Cotswold is a large, high-standing breed,
with heavy fleece of long, white, lustrous wool. A
mature ram should weigh 250 pounds or more, and
a mature ewe 200 pounds at least. An ample top-
knot, often covering the eyes, is one of the distin-
guishing characteristics of the breed. It is uniform
in type, with bold, upright carriage, broad back,
and shows a fair leg of mutton. It is a superior
feeder, specially well adapted to good pasture land,
and fairly prolific.
The following is the standard of excellence and
scale of points adopted by the American Cotswold
Sheep Association :
SCALE OF PoINTS FoR COTSWOLD SHEEP
For rams rerfect
score
. Head.—Not too fine, moderately small, and broad
between the eyes and nostrils, but without a
short, thick appearance ; and in young animals
well covered on crown with long lustrous wool. 8
. Hace.—Hither white or slightly mixed with gray
or white dappled with brown
. Nostrils.—Wide and expanded; nosedark .. 1
Eyes.—Prominent, but mild looking BoD oO
. Ears.—Broad, long, moderately thin, and coy-
ered with short hair .......... 4
. Collar.—Full from breast and shoulders, taper-
ing gradually all the way to where the neck
and head join. The neck should be short, thick
and strong, indicating constitutional vigor, and
free from coarse andloose skin .... . 6
» 7, Shoulders.—Broad and full, and at the same time
join so gradually to the collar forward and
chine backward as not to leave the least hol-
lori UNE ECDs o oo hoo ooo 8
8. Fore-legs.—The mutton on the arm and fore-
thigh should come quite to the knee. Leg up-
right, with heavy bone, being clear from
superfluous skin, with wool to fetlock, and
may be mixed with gray ..
9. Breast. —Broad and well forward, keeping the
legs wide apart. Girth or chest, full and deep. 10
10. Fore-flank.—Quite full, not showing hollow be-
hind the shoulder
11. Back and loin.—Broad, fiat and straight, from
which the ribs must spring with a fine circular
arch
12. Belly.—Straight on under-line .
a
> OW
eo 8 © ee
2
3
13. Quarters. —Long and full, with mutton quite
down to the hock ORD: OG LANNE Ion al conan eer tes
14. Hock.—Should stand neither in nor out . . . 2
15. Twist, or junction inside the thighs, deep, wide
and. full, which, with a broad breast, will keep
the legs open and WON 6 5 o oo Oa OO 5
16. Fleece.—The whole body should be covered with
long lustrous wool. ....... suorono. dls)
IRGC Go oo bo ooo oO 100
SHEEP 611
SCALE OF POINTS FOR COTSWOLD SHEEP, continued.
For ewes Perfect
score
1. Head.—Moderately fine, broad between the eyes
and nostrils, but without a short, thick appear-
ance, and well covered on crown with long lus-
(ON WOO so oa po oop oo DOO
Face.—Hither white or slightly mixed with gray,
or white dappled with brown. . ......
. Nostrils.—Wide and expanded, nosedark ... 1
. Eyes.—Prominent, but mildlooking. . .... 2
Ears.—Broad, long, moderately thin and covered
with short hair
. Collar.—Full from breast and shoulders, taper-
ing gradually all the way to where the neck
and head join. The neck should be fine and
graceful, and free from coarse and loose skin. 5
7. Shoulders.—Broad and full, and at the same
time join so gradually to the collar forward
and chine backward, as not to leave the least
hollow in either place
8. Fore-legs.—The mutton on the arm or fore-thigh
should come quite to the knee. Leg upright
with heavy bone, being clear from super-
fluous skin, with wool to fetlock, and may be
mixed withgray. ........- 4
9. Breast.—Broad and well forward, keeping the
legs wide apart, girth or chest full and deep . 10
10. Fore-flank.—Quite full, not showing hollow be-
hind the shoulder
11. Back and loin.—Broad, flat and straight, from
which the ribs must spring with a fine circular
ARAN 6 6 9 0 5 2
12. Belly.—Straight on under-line . . 5
8
2
OD PC Po
13. Quarters. —Long and full, with mutton ‘quite
down tothe hock .... op a 4
14. Hock.—Should stand neither in “nor out...
15. Twist, or junction inside the thighs, deep, wide
and "full, which, with a broad breast, will keep
the legs open and upright . . D
16. Fleece.—The whole body should be covered witn
long lustrous wool. .....2.-.+.... 18
IDAHO 6 6 5G G-O000 6 D980 6 6 0 JNO)
History.
The Cotswold is an old English breed, whose
antiquity is undoubted. It is one of the earliest
sheep mentioned by name in Anglo-Saxon records.
In the time of the Roman conquests, the region
from which these sheep came is said to have been
famous for the production of wool. Low suggests
that the Cotswold was developed from the sheep
found in the counties of Warwick and Oxford at
an early period. The modern Cotswold is not so
large nor so high-standing as was the older breed,
but has more style, being remarkable for symmetry,
early maturity and weight, with a lofty carriage,
a fine, well-covered head, and an abundant fleece of
white, wavy wool. Much of this improvement is
ascribed to the use of Leicester rams on Cotswold
ewes, a practice very common about the beginning
of the nineteenth century.
The type of the breed has been well maintained
by the English breeders, and the flocks of the vari-
ous breeders now show a uniformity that is very
desirable. Garne of North Leach, Hugh Aylmer of
Norfolk, Gillett of Chalsbury and Swanwick of
Cirencester were notable breeders who had flocks
of good type.
612 SHEEP
In America.—We have a record of an importa-
tion of Cotswold sheep by Christopher Dunn, of
Albany, N. Y., in 1832. Doubtless there had been
previous importations, for even at that date sheep
of this type were rather common in New York.
In 1834, Isaac Maynard took a small flock into
Ohio. In 1837 they reached Kentucky, where they
later became very popular. In 1840, Erastus Corn-
ing, also of Albany, brought over a select lot; and
W. H. Sotham made an importation of nineteen
about the same time. In 1854, George Miller, of
Markham, Canada, brought over thirty head, and
these were shown at the Provincial Fair. In Que-
Cotswold ewe.
Fig. 616.
bec Province, A. H. Torrance, of Montreal, and J.
L. Gibb Compton had good flocks, from which they
sold into Maine, Massachusetts and Vermont. Begin-
ning about 1870, with the decreasing popularity of
Merinos, the Cotswold experienced an increasing
demand, and many flocks were established, espec-
ially in central United States.
Distribution,
The Cotswold has become wide-spread in Amer-
ica. The largest number of breeders are in Ontario,
although there are many flocks in the other proy-
inces of Canada. In New York, there are good
flocks. Going westward, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio,
Michigan, Iowa and Wisconsin stand in the order
named for number of breeders, but all are ex-
ceeded by Oregon, which has the largest number
of any state in the Union. There are large flocks
in Utah, and many half-breeds in Montana and
other sections of the West. Kentucky at one time
had large flocks, and the blood there is still in
evidence, but they have not been kept on record. In
England, the Cotswold is most popular in its native
county of Gloucester and neighboring counties. It
has been exported to Russia, Germany and France,
on the continent, and to Australia and New Zealand,
as well as to many parts of North America.
Uses.
The Cotswold is a fair mutton sheep, giving a
big carcass of strong mutton, very popular in the
SHEEP
mining districts of England. It has not been se
popular in America for mutton, except the lambs,
The abundance of external fat is against it. In
America it has been used for crossing on Merino
and native sheep, the produce being a lamb of the
mutton type, quick-feeding and hardy, weighing
120 to 140 pounds at a year old and carrying fair
fleece. For wool, the breed has always been cele-
brated, giving a heavy fleece of strong combing
wool, weighing sixteen to eighteen pounds per
fleece in the best specimens. The staple should
average ten inches in length, and frequently
exceeds this. The half-bred lambs yield a large
fleece, giving much profit to the wool-grower.
Organizations and records.
In 1878, the American Cotswold Sheep Associa-
tion was formed to keep the record of the breed.
Fourteen volumes of the record have been issued,
with over forty thousand animals recorded. The
list of breeders is steadily increasing. The pres-
ent headquarters of the association are at Wau-
kesha, Wis. The English representative of this
breed is the Cotswold Sheep Society of Eng-
land, organized in 1892. It also publishes a flock-
book.
Literature.
For references, see page 596.
Dorset-Horn Sheep. Fig. 617, 618.
By H. P. Miller.
The Dorset is an English breed that takes its
name from the county in which it originated. It is
a mutton breed, specially valuable for crossing to
produce early lambs. It is characterized by grace-
fully curving horns in both male and female.
Description.
In form and fleece the Dorset-Horn closely re-
sembles the Down breeds, but in some features pre-
sents strong contrasts. Its face and legs are pure
white, and the modern American type has a flesh-
colored nose. Both sexes have horns, the rams
very heavy ones that have a forward spiral curve.
In size these sheep are between the Southdown and
the Shropshire, the standard weight for rams being
about 200 pounds and for ewes, 160 pounds. They
generally are taller than either of the above, but
are not so uniform. In length, quality and quantity
of fleece they are also between the above two breeds.
Some of the breed early brought to America were
excessively tall and inclined to be coarse. They
were also quite bare of wool on legs and belly. The
prevailing type at present approaches the Shropshire ©
in form, although it is not so heavy in the breast
and chest. It is now well covered over the body and
legs to knees and hocks, and has a good foretop.
There is still lack of uniformity, style and quantity
of fleece. A somewhat common defect is a con-
stricted heart-girth. The breed stands confinement
well and is a good feeder. It is also prolific. [A
general discussion of the mutton type is given on
pages 51, 52.]
SHEEP
The Continental Dorset Club adopted the follow-
ing scale of points for scoring Dorset-Horn Sheep :
ScALE OF PoInTS FoR DorsET-HoRN
SHEEP Perfect
score
1. Head. —Neat, face white, nostrils large, well
covered with wool on top and under jaws. . 5
2. Horns.—Small and gracefully curving forward,
PAMEETCLOSLLOMJAW at =) ces (el (eoie) (er ie) ies) 5
3. Eyes.—Prominent and bright .. . 2
4, Ears.—Medium size and covered with shod siti
Na tre Wel fey dor iso (sic) te 2
5
. Neck.—Short, symmetrical, strongly ‘set on shoul-
ders, gradually tapering to suction with
Gaal Gg Louomonomae cate tenia 5
6. Shoulders.—Broad and full, joining “neck and
chine, with no depression at either point . . 15
7. Brisket.—Wide and full, chest full anddeep. - 8
8. Fore-flank.-—Full, showing little depression be-
lind! aw iG Bod 6 Bn of evo alr a ale 8
9. Back and loin.—Wide and straight; ribs should
spring with a fine circular arch ...... 10
10. Quarters. —Wide and full, with mutton extend-
ne donani@ lil 6.6 4.6 0 Gb G oo aio 10
11. Belly. —Straight on under-line. . . . 3
12. Fleece.—Medium grade, of even quality, oxionde
ing over belly and well down on legs, and pre-
senting asmooth surface. ........ 12
13. General conformation.—Of the mutton type,
body moderately long; short, stout legs, placed
squarely under body; skin pink; appearance
attractive
History.
The Dorset is one of the oldest distinct breeds
in England, no other race having been mingled
with it originally, within the time of any records
referring to it. It was first mentioned in 1707,
when it was reported to have yeaned in December
and again in June. The two counties of Dorset and
Fig. 617. Dorset-Horn ram.
Somerset seem to have been the home of two races,
differing somewhat, which became mingled in the
present Dorset. The original stock of Dorsetshire
was small, light in the shoulders, with white face
SHEEP 613
and legs and a black nose. Both males and females
bore horns. The stock of Somerset was larger,
coarser, longer-wooled, with flesh-colored nose and
better form. The Dorset seems never to have had
a devotee with the genius of Bakewell or Ellman,
and at one time came near losing its identity
Fig. 618.
Dorset-Hom ewe.
through admixture of the improved breeds of the
day. Its ability to produce lambs earlier than any
other breed seems to have saved it.
The Dorset was first recognized at the leading
English shows in 1862. It has been greatly im-
proved since that date ; in fact, American breeders
have greatly modified and unified the breed in the
past quarter century.
In America.—The introduction of Dorsets to
America has been very recent. The first specimens
were shown at the Chicago Fat Stock Show, in
1885. That same year an importation was made
into Canada. In 1887, A. Thayer, of Hoosic Falls,
New York, and E. F. Bowditch, of Framingham,
Mass., made importations. In 1889, T. S. Cooper, of
Pennsylvania, imported 153 head. They have not as
yet gained the popularity in America that other
English breeds have, and have had only a limited
trial on the ranges.
Distribution.
The principal flocks in America are to be found
in New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Pennsyl-
vania, Virginia and Canada, although the sheep
are found in other states. A few have been taken
to Australia and elsewhere, but they have not the
wide dissemination of the other English breeds.
They are numerous in théir native counties of
Dorset and Somerset, in England, while very excel-
lent flocks may be found on islands of Wight and
Portland.
Uses.
The strong recommendation of the breed in
America, as in England, is for the production of
hothouse or winter lambs. It will breed earlier
than any other of the English breeds, and the ewes,
being heavy milkers, prepare their lambs for mar-
ket in about ten weeks, so that they command a
good price for mutton. Under high feeding they
614 SHEEP
will produce lambs twice a year in some climates,
but it has never proved expedient to have them
do so. It is doubtful whether they have superior
merit as a general farm sheep, but for the produc-
tion of early market lambs they are especially
suited. Rams of the breed are very satisfactory
for use on grade Merino ewes in the production of
feeders. The ewes are also bred to Shropshire or
Southdown rams to produce market lambs. The
mutton, except that of fat lambs, is not superior.
For wool-production the Dorset-Horn has rather
a light fleece. The fleece is short, and still some-
what scant under the body. Ewes average about
six pounds and rams about seven pounds of wool of
fair quality. The fleece probably has the least oil
of any of the middle-wool breeds, and is less dense.
Organizations and records. Z
The American Dorset-Horn Sheep Breeders’ Asso-
ciation was organized in 1891, and the Continental
Dorset Club in 1897. The former issued two vol-
umes of its flockbook bound together, in 1894, and
the latter issued its seventh volume in 1907. The
Continental Dorset Club publishes a book on the
breed entitled “The Winter Lamb.” The Dorset-
Horn Sheep Breeders’ Society of England, organ-
ized in 1891, has issued six volumes of its record.
Literature.
For references, see page 596.
Hampshire Down Sheep. Figs. 133, 619, 620.
By H. P. Miller.
The Hampshire breed derives its name from the
county of that name in the south of England, one
of the counties in which it was developed. It is a
mutton breed.
Description.
The Hampshire is a black-faced breed, larger than
the Shropshire, and is ranked by some persons as
the largest of the Down breeds, although that dis-
tinction is generally accorded the Oxford. An
average weight should be 250 pounds for mature
rams, and 185 to 195 for mature ewes.
It is the coarsest in bone and head of any of this
group. Its fleece somewhat resembles that of the
Southdown, although it is coarser and less dense.
The breed ranks rather low in wool-production, the
Suffolk only ranking lower. The wool is of about
the same grade as that of the Shropshire, but shorter,
and covering the body less completely. The face is
inclined to be long, and the nose somewhat Roman
in the rams. The ears are large and drooping, the
face and legs are almost black, or a very dark
brown. As compared with the Shropshire, it is
somewhat longer in body and leg, and perhaps 10
per cent heavier. The ewes are prolific and heavy
milkers. They strongly compete with the Shrop-
shire in the production of twins. [A general discus-
sion of the mutton type is given on pages 51, 52.]
The American Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders’
Association adopted the following standard in
1890: Head moderately large but not coarse, and
SHEEP
well covered with wool on forehead and cheeks;
nostrils wide ; color of head and legs, dark brown
or black ; eyes prominent and lustrous; ears mod-
erately long and thin; legs well under outside
of body, straight, with good size of bone; neck a
regular taper from shoulders to head, without any
hollow in front of shoulder, set high up on body ;
shoulders sloping, full, and not higher than the line
of the back and neck; chest deep and full in the
heart place, with breast prominent and full; back
straight with full spring of rib; loin wide and
straight without depression in front of hips; quar-
ters long from rumps to hips without sloping, and
deep in thigh; also broad in hips and rumps with
full hams ; inside of thighs full.
SCALE OF POINTS FOR HAMPSHIRE SHEEP Pertees
1. Head.—Size and shape ........ .
2. Eyes ‘andieaes'. . .\. << < vane tateneeeenne 3
3. (Color... 2. \0Re ie) fe) see, fo 0) ol oa ear 5
4, legs and) feet™=) |. 2). cee) cae a ones
5. Neck, shoulders and breast.—Neck ..... 5
Shoulders! (2 = 5 0: °-1 0 sete a', caine) ene
Chest and ‘breast =< < = =) -senmene epee aie’
6. Body.—Back and loins. .... Pererey cra 2
Ribs) Ge = in toe eon 2
7. Hind-quarters.—Length < es 6 le eee
Width... %.20 2 2 che eee Ps
Twist. Soest sss, eee oe 0) © al tae
8. Wool.—Forehead and cheeks ....... oe
Belly well covered .......2.e-e-s ae
Quality * . =. % % % 2/%s) Sa Rmene mre 5
Periection emcee sient a Sesto el ene aoe
History.
The Hampshire Down sheep was produced by the
use of the Southdown on the Wiltshire-horned and
the Berkshire-knot sheep. The former was a white-
Hampshire ram.
Fig. 619.
faced race, and the latter black-faced. The Wilt-
shire was considered the largest of the native
breeds. Mr. William Humphrey, of Newbury, Hamp-
shire, who is accredited as being the first and
SHEEP
greatest improver of the breed, assembled, about
1834, a flock of carefully selected ewes of what
were then referred to in a general way as West-
Country Downs, including the two above-mentioned
lecal strains. He began his work of improvement
by selection, but later became imbued with the idea
Fig. 620. Hampshire ewe.
that crossing would be advantageous, and in suc-
cessive years purchased three Southdown rams from
Jonas Webb. A little later, James Rawlence began
improvement of what was known as the Sussex
sheep. He used some Hampshire and West-Country
Down blood. Later, the two flocks were coalesced
to form the Hampshire Down breed. Hampshires
were first accorded a class at the Royal Agricul-
tural Society Show in 1857.
In America.—Hampshire Down Sheep were impor-
ted into America in 1855 by Thomas Messenger of
Long Island. No further importations are recorded
until 1881. In that year, Henry Metcalf, of Canan-
daigua, New York, imported the ram, Shepherds’
Pride 2. In 1883, the breed was introduced into
Michigan, and in 1885 into Ohio.
Distribution.
This breed is now widely disseminated through-
out the United States and Canada, especially in the
eastern sections. It seems hardy and well adapted
to American conditions, and is a good grazer. it
has made its way throughout the southern counties
of England, and into all the English colonies. Now
it is found in many countries, among which, aside
from North America, including Mexico, may be
named Russia, Germany, Portugal, Hungary, South
Africa, Australia, New Zealand and several parts
of South America, notably Argentina and Uruguay.
Uses.
The claim of the breed to superiority is based on
the rapidity with which the lambs grow. In Eng-
land, the flocks are generally folded, and the lambs
fed for rapid development. It is not unusual for a
Hampshire lamb to gain a pound a day. The breed
ranks very well for mutton-production, especially
where early market lambs are wanted. In this
SHEEP 615
country, Hampshire rams are especially prized for
siring lambs to be marketed at three to five months
of age. They are winning some favor on the range,
as sires for mating with Merino grade ewes. The
lambs are said to be good rustlers. Pure-breds will
doubtless prove profitable for the production of
lambs to be marketed in the early spring or
summer. But pure-bred flocks will be chiefly valu-
able in America for the supply of rams for cross-
breeding.
As has been said, for wool-production the Hamp-
shire Down is very mediocre. The fleece is light,
short, and of rather inferior quality.
Organizations and records.
The Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders’ Association
was organized in England in 1889, and had published
seventeen volumes of its flockbook up to 1907. The
Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders’ Association of
America was also organized in 1889, and had issued
nine volumes of its flockbook up to 1907. The
number of registrations in each is large.
Literature.
For references, see page 596.
Leicester Sheep. Fig. 621.
By David McCrae.
The Leicester (pronounced Les’ter) sheep are a
long-wool mutton breed, developed largely in the
county of Leicester in England. The land in this
county is fertile and rolling, and well adapted for
sheep-raising.
Description.
The Leicesters are a hornless breed of sheep, of
large size, rectangular form of body on clean legs,
and with bare faces or carrying a very scant
topknot.
The Leicester breeders have no authorized stand-
ard of excellence or scale of points. The fact that
there are two types in the breed, the English or
Bakewell, and the Border Leicesters, and that these
vary somewhat in form and details, has so far pre-
vented the adoption of a uniform scale. Both types
are recognized by all Leicester associations. The
following scale of points, prepared by the writer,
favors the Border type, and, while not authorized,
has been carefully considered and approved by good
judges of the breed. It is introduced here merely
as a Suggestion.
SCALE OF PoINTS FoR LEICESTER
SHEEP Perfect
score
1. Head.—Long, moderataly small, tapering towards
the muzzle ; white and well covered with hair;
lipsjand mostrilsblacks 3 90-5 3 = + = -- 6
2. Nose.—Somewhat narrow, almost straight in
ewes and slightly Roman inrams...... 2
3. Face.—Having a wedge-shaped appearance, well
covered with fine white hairs ....... 2
4, Ears.—Thin, rather long, mobile and directed
backward; a black speck on face and ears net
WAGON 5°56 6 4 6 a 6,00 0.6 6 6 0 2
. Eyes.—Large and prominent ........ 4
(oat
616 SHEEP
ScALE OF PoINTS FOR LEICESTER SHEEP,
continued Perfect
score
6. Neck.—Strong and moderately short, level with
the back and broad at its base where it leaves
the chest, gradually tapering toward the
head, being fine where head and neck join;
neck straight from chest, showing a straight
line from rump to poll
7. Breast.—Deep, broad and full. .......
8. Shoulders.—Upright, wide across the top, giv-
ing good thickness through the heart... . 6
9, Chest.—Well filled behind the shoulder, with
JBTgvoinivo Boo 6 5 5 of a one 8 oe 6
10. Back.—Broad and well-fieshed ; ribs well sprung;
loins wide; hips level; quarters straight andlong 12
11. Barrel round, well ribbed home; straight lines
aboyerand!| helowsnus eourentel uien tinct ritaeins 10
12. Legs of moderate length, fairly large and wide
apart, with strong, flat bone, covered with
white hair; brown hair or spots objectionable 6
13. Flesh firm, springy pelt; pink skin. . .... 8
14. Fleece fine, uniform and sound in staple, curly,
with good bright luster and no dark hairs or
kemp; belly well covered. . .......
15, Carcass.—Rectangular, legs well set on, hocks
straight, pasterns good, with neat feet; good
general appearance
Perfection .
History.
The Leicester sheep are named from the county of
Leicester (Les’ter) in England, where the breed had
its origin. Robert Bakewell of Dishley, near Lough-
borough in Leicestershire, began his sheep-breed-
ing efforts about 1755. His object was to produce
a breed that would fatten quickly at an early age.
Before this, bulk of body and weight of fleece had
been the aim of breeders of long-wools. The com-
mon sheep of the county at that time were large,
heavy and coarse-wooled, white-faced, flat-sided,
with large bones and long, thick, rough legs. Mr.
Bakewell would never tell how he got his flock up
to the excellence which later distinguished it, nor
yet the breeds he used, but it is thought that the
basis was the old Teeswater breed, modified by
selections from the local breeds of long-wools in the
district. This Teeswater breed, from the valley of
the river Tees in Yorkshire, was a tall, clumsy ani-
SHEEP
mal, small in the bone, round in the rib, and with
a thin fleece of long wool. It made good mutton,
but was slow in maturing. Bakewell bred for mut-
ton, with the least bone and the least waste, and
for quick-feeding lambs. The breed was called the
New Leicester or Dishley breed. Formed by care-
ful selection and inbreeding, the new flocks had
great prepotency, were sometimes delicate in con-
stitution and shy breeders. Even now, after 150
years, these features sometimes appear.
The Dishley flock became famous. Mr. Bakewell
decided to let his rams instead of selling them out-
right. In 1760, he let three rams for $4 each, and
two for $4.50 each. The next year his price was
$5 each, and this continued with varying success,
until in 1780 he reached $50 for his best. Then
the demand increased rapidly. In 1785, the top price
was $500. In 1789, he let three rams for $6,000,
seven for $10,000, and the remainder of his flock
for $15,000. His reputation was established, and the
New Leicester became the most popular breed in
England. It was much used for crossing with other
breeds to produce quick-feeding lambs; and this
reputation still holds.
In America.—Bakewell or Dishley sheep reached
America in colonial days. It is said that George
Washington had Bakewell ewes at Mount Vernon.
Others were known in Pennsylvania and New
Jersey. About the beginning of the nineteenth
century, Mr. Toofy, of Quebec, made an importation.
Later, about 1806, they were imported into Massa-
chusetts. In the same year, Captain Beanes brought
some rams and ewes from England, and placed
them on a farm in New Jersey. The Beanes flock
subsequently, in the hands of others, attained much
notoriety. A number of importations were
made later, and gradually the breed worked
westward. i
In America, a type has been developed that
differs somewhat from both the English Leices-
ter and the Border Leicester, both of which
types have been used in many of the flocks in
Canada and the United States. Some owners
assert that the modern American Leicester is
a better sheep than either of the English
types, and that this is the only English breed
of sheep that has been improved in America.
Certainly the modern American Leicester is a
fine sheep, evenly developed, and when in good
form is a beautiful animal.
Distribution.
The Leicesters are at home in the borde:
counties of England and Scotland, and in other
parts of Great Britain. While tried to some extent
abroad, notably in part of Europe, New Zealand,
Australia and America, they have not attained the
reputation of the heavier-wooled breeds. In Amer-
ica they are found mainly in Ontario and othe
Canadian provinces, and in Pennsylvania, Michigan,
Illinois, Iowa and Nebraska.
Types.
The Dishley or Bakewell type became widely used
in England, and has become known as the English
SHEEP
Leicester. Because of its great prepotency and its
quality of putting on fat quickly, it became popular
as the greatest of all the mutton breeds for crossing
purposes and for early market lambs.
The Border Leicester is so named because it is
bred in the border counties of England and Scot-
land, Roxboroughshire in Scotland being now the
headquarters of the breed. George Culley, of Den-
ton, near Darlington in Durham, and his brother
are looked on as the original breeders of the Border
Leicester. The Culleys hired rams from Dishley
and crossed them on a stock of Teeswater ewes till
they had a flock of Leicesters. When they retired
in 1806, their flock, through that of Compton of
Learmouth, supplied a part of the Mertoun flock
of Lord Polworth. This flock has been bred with
the greatest care since 1802, and by judicious selec-
tion and without outside blood has been made the
premier flock of the breed.
The Border breed has a white face, free from
wool. The English Leicester may have a small tuft,
and may be bluish white in color. At one time,
blue faces were in fashion. The head and eye are
important points in a quick-feeding animal. “Never
pick a rascally head and a bad eye,” no matter
what the carcass may be, is the advice of a famous
breeder.
Uses.
The Leicesters are used very much for crossing
purposes, to get early lambs for the market. Hav-
ing been bred more for mutton than for wool, the
breed has so far not been so widely distributed in
America as its good qualities deserve. Of late
years, however, the market for fat lambs has
become a feature, and there is now more demand
for the Leicester for cross-breeding. For mutton
alone, the breed is inferior. It is too large and too
fat, unless killed young. The cross-bred mutton on
Hampshires or Merinos is superior to the pure-bred.
The Border Leicester-Cheviot cross has found much
favor for the production of choice mutton for the
British market.
The wool of the Leicester is fine and long, and the
fleeces will weigh nine to eleven pounds. Fine-wool
rams on grade Leicester ewes produce a fine, com-
pact fleece that is heavier than that of the Leicester
pure-bred.
For grazing, the Leicester is in no way supe-
rior. It is not specially hardy, and cannot rustle
pu cioutly well to adapt it to much of the range
ands.
Organizations and records.
The first organization devoted to the Leicester
was the Dishley Society, which was formed to sus-
tain the efforts of Bakewell. This society has been
succeeded by the Leicester Sheep Breeders’ Society.
In England there is also the Society of Border
Leicester Sheep Breeders. The American Leicester
Breeders’ Association has issued four volumes of
its flockbook, since its organization in 1888.
Literature.
For references, see page 596.
SHEEP 617
Lincoln Sheep. Fig. 622.
By David MeCrae.
This breed is of large size, with a heavy fleece
of long, wavy or curly wool and a moderate tuft
of wool on the face.
Description.
For many years, the fleece has been made a
leading feature of the Lincoln breed. The wool is
long, somewhat lustrous and of a strong and sound
combing quality. For length of fiber and strength
of staple, no other breed but the Cotswold can
rival the Lincoln. The color is white. The head is
large, and without horns. The sheep gives the
impression of massiveness. It is gentle, and a good
feeder, maturing early. Its grazing qualities are
fair. It cannot be said to be very prolific.
SCALE OF PoINTS FOR LINCOLN
SHEEP Perfect
score
. Constitution.—Body deep, back wide and straight,
wide and full in the thigh ; bright large eyes ; ;
SkinvSohtran du pin Kemi iaeeesies tice oceans 10
Objections: Horns disqualify ; white face dis-
qualifies; head with prominent bones; bare on
top of head.
6. Neck.—Medium length, good bone and muscular
development; and especially with the rams,
heavier toward the shoulders, set high up and
rising from that point to back of head. . . 5
7. Legs and feet.—Broad, short, straight ; well set
apart ; well shaped ; color dark brown, and well
wooled to the knee. . . « « Jjamannn 10
8. Fleece.—Body, head and legs to the knees well
covered with fleece of even length and quality ;
scrotum of rams well covered with wool . . . 10
9. Quality of wool.—Medium, such as is known in
our markets as “medium delaine” and “half
combing,” strong, fine, lustrous fiber, without
tendency to mat or felt; and at one-year’s
growth not less than 34 inches in length. . . 5
Perfection ..« .: 0‘! vi le) (einen 100
Additional points: The nose of the ram should be
broad and wrinkled; the ears of both sexes of an even
dark color, and neither erect nor drooping; a soft black
color of face and legs is preferred; black and gray wool
anywhere and coarse wool on the hips are objectionable.
History.
Its friends claim for the Shropshire an equally
remote origin with the Southdown. The name, as
applied to sheep, is mentioned in English literature
as far back as 1341, there being at that time 4
grade of wool designated as Shropshire. The breed
had not taken on many of its present characteris-
tics, however, a century ago, as Plymley, in his
SHEEP
“Acriculture of Shropshire,” published in 1808,
described the sheep of that county thus: “There
is a breed of sheep in Longmynd, with horns and
black faces, that seem an indigenous sort. They
are nimble, hardy and weigh about ten pounds to
Fig. 630.
Shropshire ram.
the quarter when fatted. Their fleeces weigh about
two and one-half pounds.” Professor Wilson, in his
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vol.
XVI, states that when the Bristol wool society, in
1792, procured all the information available re-
garding sheep in England, it reported that on
Morfe Common there were about 10,000 sheep kept
during the summer that had black, brown or spotted
faces, a superior quality of wool, and were con-
sidered a native breed. These are accepted as the
progenitors of the present Shropshires, although it
is a common belief that the Southdown was used to
hasten the improvement. It is thought, also, that
the Leicester and Cotswold were used to increase
the size and amount of wool, and that the sheep
from Cannock Chase, in the county of Stafford,
were used in the early breeding efforts. Samuel
_ Meise, of Barrington, and George Adney, of Harley,
were among the most successful of the early im-
provers. The Shropshire first attracted attention
at the Royal Agricultural Society Show, in 1855;
and in 1859 it was recognized as a distinct breed
and given a class.
In America.—The first American importation on
record was made into Virginia, in 1855. In 1860,
Samuel Sutton introduced a number of ewes and a
ram into Maryland. In 1862 and again a few years
later, flocks were established in New York. They
had also made their way into Canada, as they
are reported to have been taken from Canada to
Michigan in the early seventies. There was a
great influx in the early eighties. The American
Record Association was organized in 1884, at
Lafayette, Ind.
Distribution.
The sheep are now recorded from almost every
state in the Union and from Canada, and far exceed
SHEEP 627
in numbers any other English breed in America.
They are more popular in the North and East, not
being extensively found on the ranges. They do
best on good pastures, as their rustling qualities
are only medium. They are found very generally
throughout England and her colonies and, in fact,
throughout the civilized world, especially in Hurope,
Africa, Australia and South America.
Uses.
Their good mutton form and quality and profit-
able wool production make the Shropshires the
great American sheep after the Merinos, in their
Delaine and Rambouillet forms. They have a much
longer, more open and coarser fleece than the
Southdown, are covered more extensively over the
head and legs, and yield perhaps 50 per cent more
wool. Hwes average eight pounds or more and rams
twelve pounds of fleece. The fleece is of good fiber
and carries considerable oil. They are also hardier
than the larger breeds, although yielding to the
Southdowns in this particular. The lambs may be
profitably marketed at any time from five to twelve
months of age, though usually the earlier they are
marketed the greater the profit. The rams are
very generally used on Merino and native ewes for
the production of high-class mutton lambs.
Organizations and records.
In 1882, the English Shropshire Sheep Society
was organized. The first volume of its flockbook
was issued in 1884. The American Shropshire Sheep
Association was organized in 1884, and had issued
twenty volumes of its flockbook up to 1908. There
is also a National Shropshire Association that has
issued one volume of its flockbook.
Literature.
For references, see page 596.
Fig. 631. Shropshire ewe.
Southdown Sheep. Figs. 54, 632, 6338.
By H. P. Miller.
The name Southdown as applied to sheep arose
from the use of the term in referring to the low
range of chalk hills in southeastern England, in
Sussex county, where the breed was developed.
The date at which it was first used is not known,
628 SHEEP
but in 1794, Arthur Young, in an essay, brought
the breed into prominence. The breed ranks in the
first place for mutton-production.
Description.
It is the smallest of the Down breeds that are
prominent in America at this time, but it is the
model in form toward which all other breeds are
tending. Its compact form and short fleece, how-
ever, give it a weight greater than its appearance
suggests. Mature ewes weigh up to 150 pounds,
and rams up to 200, although average weights are
somewhat below these weights.
In 1788, Arthur Young wrote: “The true South-
down, when very well bred, has no horns, a long
speckled face, clean and thin jaw, a long, but not
a thin neck, no tuft of wool on the forehead, which
they call owl-headed, nor any fringe of wool on the
cheeks, thick in the shoulder, open breasted, and
deep ; both fore- and hind-legs stand wide; round
and straight in barrel ; wide on the loin and hips;
shut well in the twist, which is a projection of flesh
on the inner part of the thigh that gives a fullness
when viewed behind, and makes a Southdown leg of
mutton remarkably round and short, more so than
other breeds ; thin speckled legs free from wool ;
the belly full of wool ; the wool close and free from
projecting or strong fibers. Those flocks not bred
with particular care are apt to be coarse-wooled on
the back.”
The Southdown of today presents some contrasts
to this: It is characterized by very short, straight
legs, set wide apart ; broad, level back, very thickly
fleshed ; long and broad hips, with tail setting very
little below level of back; short neck, very thick
at shoulder and sharply tapering toward head ; the
head small, but comparatively broad and flat
between the ears; forehead full; face short and
in ewes somewhat dished; eyes very prominent ;
ears small, carried above the level and covered,
the English association says, with wool, while the
American says with fine hair. The face and legs
are now a uniform reddish brown, except some
lingering white hairs about the nose. The face has
a lively apperance, in keeping with the quick move-
ments of the Southdown. The hind-quarters carry
down very heavy ; the twist is extremely deep and
full; the breast very broad and prominent; both
fore and hind flanks very full, thus giving an almost
straight under-line. The hoofs are often black.
They are of thin yet firm horn, making a good foot.
There is now a large cap of wool on the forehead,
and on many specimens the wool is working farther
down on the legs. A bright pink color of skin
is desired, and is uniformly’ found with healthy
individuals. It may safely be said to be the
hardiest of all the English breeds under American
conditions and methods. It is freer from catar-
rhal troubles and does not so quickly succumb to
the ravages of internal parasites. In these par-
ticulars it approaches the Merino. [A general
discussion of the mutton type is given on pages
51, 52.]
The American Record Association adopted the
following standard of excellence :
SHEEP
SCALE OF POINTS FOR SOUTHDOWN SHEEP Perfect
score
1. Head.—Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried
well up, the forehead or face well covered with
wool, especially between the ears and on the
cheek, and in the ewe slightly dished . . 5
2. Lips and under jaw.—Light andthin.... 1
8. Ears.—Rather small, tolerably wide apart, cov-
ered with fine hair and carried with a lively
back-and-forth movement. .......-. 2
. Eyes.—Full and bright... ... +. sane
Face.—A uniform tint of brown, gray or mouse-
COlOr. so) s/s.» «= «2 3
Neck.—Short, fine at head but nicely tapering,
and broad and straight on top at shoulder. . 4
. Shoulders.—Broad and full, smoothly joining the
neck with the back
. Breast.—Wide, deep and projecting well for-
ward, the fore-legs standing wide apart... 5
. Back and loin.—Broad and straight from shoul-
ders to rump
10. Ribs.—Well arched, extending far backward,
the last projecting more than the others. . . 6
11. Rump.—Broad, square and full, with tail well
© © AD OP
Seb UD. 6 2 5 oie! 1s al ae ee 6
12. Hips. Wide, with little space between them and
last.rib 6.0.5 & co te) aiden 6
13. Thighs.—Full and well Jet down in twist, the
legs standing well apart ........ « 6
14. Limbs.—Short and fine in bone and in color to
agree withiface). <7. (1s) ls) isle) een 3
15. Fore-legs.—Well wooled and carrying mutton to
the knee, but free from meat below. . . . . 2
16. Hind-legs. Well filled with mutton and wooled
to the hocks, neat and clean below... . . 2
17. Belly.—Straight and well covered with wool, the
flanks extending so as to form a line parallel
with the back or top-line. . . 5
18. Fleece.—Compact, the whole body well ‘covered
with moderately long and close wool, white in
color and carrying some yolk . . 12
19. Form.—Throughout smooth and symmetrical,
with no coarseness in anypart. ...... 9
20. General appearance.—Spirited and attractive
with a determined look, a proud and firm step,
indicating constitutional vigor and thorough
breeding.) <. snsc . viv oe
Perfection < ..°'. <=: o) seen ane 100
oe! yey ketal
History.
The Southdown breed was developed through
selection from the native Sussex sheep on the
chalky downs of southeastern England. The native
sheep were small, ill-shaped and coarse-wooled.
About 1780 or earlier, John Ellman, doubtless tak-
ing inspiration from the success of Bakewell with
the Leicester, began the development of the breed,
striving for better mutton form and constitution,
and at the same time to improve the fleece. He
made rapid progress in fixing the present features
of the Southdown. About 1820, Jonas Webb began
breeding Southdowns with a selection from the
Ellman and other flocks, and he proved to be the
genius among the breeders. He built on Ellman’s
foundation, and produced this superior mutton
sheep, of larger size and better feeding quality.
The Southdown was thus the first of the Down or
middle-wool breeds to be improved, and has been
employed in the development of the other Down
breeds, more particularly the Shropshire, Oxford
SHEEP
and Hampshire. It early became the breed of the
English royalty and aristocracy, and remains so to
the present time.
In America.—The first authentic importation
into America was by Dr. Rose, of Seneca county,
N. Y., in 1803. The sheep of this importation,
however, were crossed with Merinos in 1813. In
1823, Sidney Hawes, of New York, made another
importation and sold thirty-six ewes and two rams
to C.N. Bement of Albany. In 1834, Francis Rotch,
of Otsego county, N. Y., imported six ewes and a
ram from the Ellman flock. In the same year, Isaac
Maynard, of Coshocton county, Ohio, made an im-
portation. During the forties and fifties of the
same century, while wool was very low and
Merinos falling into disfavor, Southdowns became
disseminated very widely. With the revival in
interest in Merinos from the high prices for wool
following the Civil war, Southdowns fell into dis-
favor, and because of their low wool-yield and the
relative importance of wool in this country, they
have not regained wide popularity in the North or
on the ranges. South of the Ohio river, however,
especially in Kentucky and Tennessee, they were
for many years the prevailing breed, and are still
popular.
Distribution.
The general adaptability and good grazing quali-
ties of the Southdown, together with its superior
mutton, have led to its wide dissemination. In
America it has been especially popular in the Cen-
tral-East and South, although it is found in practi-
cally every state and territory in the Union and in
Canada. In South America it is found in Argentina,
Fig. 632.
Southdown ram.
Chili and other countries. It has been introduced
throughout Europe, Asia, Japan, Africa and Aus-
tralia.
Uses.
Southdown rams prove highly satisfactory for
mating with the long-legged mountain ewes for the
production of mutton lambs. Pure-breds are also
in favor for production of lambs to be sold at
weaning time. The rams bred to Merino ewes
SHEEP 629
produce highly satisfactory lambs for feeding off
at eight to ten months of age. They produce
a high quality of mature mutton, as they do not
develop fat in bunches. The ewes are not suited
Southdown ewe.
Fig. 633.
for growing winter lambs, as they will not breed
at the right season, but the rams are very satisfac-
tory for siring such lambs. The lambs are good
feeders and mature rapidly. Single lambs are the
rule, but a flock of ewes usually produces 125 per
cent of lambs. Southdowns have rarely been known
to produce triplets.
The Southdown has the shortest and finest wool
of any of the Down or middle-wool breeds. The
attempt has been to develop a fleece with a com-
pact, smooth surface, that is without spiral tips
on the locks of wool. The average weight of the
fleece for ewes is about six pounds, and for rams
about eight pounds. The wool grades as one-half
and three-eighths.
Organizations and records.
English and American record associations were
organized in 1882. The Southdown Sheep Society,
with headquarters in London, had issued sixteen
volumes of its flockbook up to 1908, and the
American Southdown Breeders’ Association, with
headquarters at Springfield, Ill., had issued sixteen
volumes of its flockbook. The latter has registered
sheep from nearly every state in the Union
Literature.
For references, see page 596.
Suffolk Down Sheep. Fig. 634.
By David McCrae.
Suffolk sheep get their name from the county
of Suffolk, England, where the breed was origi-
nally developed. They are a short-wooled mutton
breed.
Description.
The Suffolk is a large, rangy sheep, black-faced,
hornless, with long, clean, black legs. It resembles
the Southdown in character and wool, but is about
one-third larger in body and much longer in the
leg. The wool is of good quality, of the clothing
630 SHEEP
type, and the mutton is excellent. It is a good
feeder, and is reputed to be very ae yielding
twins and triplets frequently.
ScALE OF POINTS FOR SUFFOLK SHEEP Perfect
score
. General appearance.—Pleasing outline, good car-
riage, and symmetry of development. . . . .
2. General form.—Large in size, inclined to be long
in body, medium strength of bone, somewhat
cylindrical in shape, and straight above, below
andinthe rear ... 15
3. Head.—Medium in size, inclining to be long, and
covered with fine, short, glossy, black hair to
the junction with the neck; a small quantity
of clean white wool on the forehead is not ob-
jected to; muzzle moderately fine, especially in
the ewes ; eyes bright and full; ears, of medium
length and fineness . . 10
4, Neck.—Moderately long and well set, and blend-
ing well with the body, with some crest in the
PEI Ss OP SO Ol Dong) o) do Guo Ol OLS 5
5. Fore-quarters.—Well developed, breast wide, deep
and full, brisket broad; chest capacious, with
good heart girth ; shoulders broad, oblique, and
well filled in the neck and in the crops; withers
broad; arm well developed .......-. 15
6. Barrel.—Roomy. Back straight, broad and well
fleshed throughout its entire length; ribs well
sprung and moderately deep; fore and hind
Hanks oll and, deep issn) setacee sete aes ome 15
7. Hind-quarters.—Long, deep and full; tail broad
and well set up; buttock broad; twist full;
Uinta eben~lI SS 5 Ao Goon 15
8. Feet and legs.—Straight, of medium length, with
flat bone; bare of wool below the knee and
hock; glossy black in color and set well apart. 8
9. Fleece.— Moderately short, with close, fine, lustrous
fiber, and without tendency to mat or felt to-
gether or to shade off into dark or gray wool or
hair, especially about the neck and tail. The
fleece should cover the whole body, except the
head and the legs below the knee and hock, and
the skin underneath it should be fair, soft and
Oreos G5 Go 4 clo oo 5 a da 1G)
=
Perfection’ 2) '.: ie eel teltea on seronte ears 100
History.
The Suffolk is the modern representative of the
old Norfolk breed, crossed with the Southdown.
In some respects, the old Norfolk breed resembled
the Black-faced Highland, having the same colored
face and legs, with full bone, long spiral horns,
long body, flat ribs, rather narrow loins. It differed
from the latter in having very fine short wool.
The mutton was of that fine, rich flavor that is
found in many semi-wild animals. The great value
of the old breed was its mutton, which, when long
kept, more closely resembled venison than that of
any other breed.
The Suffolk is the result of a cross between this
old Norfolk breed and the Southdown, and shows
what very important results may be achieved by
able and enterprising breeders. The modern Suf-
folk is a conspicuous example of remarkable suc-
cess in cross-breeding. By careful selection and
management, the horns have disappeared. The
Suffolk possesses excellent grazing qualities, and
yields a carcass of lean, well-flavored mutton.
SHEEP
Separate classes were first made for this breeu ac
the Suffolk show in 1859, but it was not rec-
ognized by the Royal Agricultural Society until
1886.
In America.—The Suffolk may be considered a
recent introduction to America. In 1888, sheep of
TRU a.
i HN
Br
oe VARY /
Fig. 634. ~ Suffolk Down 1 Tam.
this breed were brought both to Canada and to the
United States, the importation to Canada having
been made by B. D. Sewell, of New Brunswick, and
that to the United States by M. B. Streeter of
Brooklyn, New York. They were taken to Iowa in
1892, and have since been established elsewhere.
The following is the scale of points adopted by
the Board of Directors of the American Suffolk
Sheep Record.
Distribution.
In England, the breed abounds in the counties of
Suffolk, Norfolk and Cambridge. It has been ex-
ported to the continent of Europe, to Holland,
Germany, France, Spain, Saxony, and elsewhere,
where the rams are in demand to give a superior
quality of mutton in their produce. It has been
taken to South Africa, and Australia and New Zea-
land. It has been tried with success both in the
United States and in Canada, but it is as yet rela-
tively unimportant here.
Uses.
The Suffolk has a place as a mutton sheep, giv-
ing a large percentage of lean meat with a rich
flavor. It is valuable for crossing purposes, to
produce a quick- growing lamb of good quality,
popular both with the butcher and with the con-
sumer. The wool is well adapted for hosiery pur-
poses, but is rather small in quantity.
Organizations and records.
The first English flockbook was published in
1886, by the Suffolk Down Sheep Society organized
in that year. Some twenty volumes have been
issued since. In America, the American Suffolk
Flock Registry Association, organized in 1892, has
issued the third volume of its flockbook.
Literature.
For references, see page 596.
SHEEP
Miscellaneous Breeds of Sheep. -
There are a great many little-known (in
America) breeds of sheep that are worthy of men-
tion, as some of them have met special needs in
special regions, and have qualities to recommend
them. There are still others, such as the Welsh
Mountain, the Lonk and the Shetland, that are of
so little interest to farmers in America, that they
may safely be ignored.
BARBADOS OR “WOOLLESS” SHEEP. Fig. 635.
By #. L. Shaw.
This breed of sheep was imported by the United
States Department of Agriculture from the island
of Barbados, West Indies, in 1904. It is thought
to be of African origin. It is hardy and very pro-
lific. The ewes breed at any season of the year,
and produce one to five lambs at a time. The
young lambs are very attractive. The breed is of
ANN alt
ANN \ ANY si Wh
y WAZ f f
Wf iy Zi Z
Fig. 635.
AY ly ii) .) f Ly
ALA Ay paw)
Ai DG: o
“*Woolless ?’ sheep.
medium size and has somewhat of a deer-like
appearance. The color varies from a light fawn to
a dark brown. The under part of the body and the
legs are very dark in color, almost black. The
ewes are hornless and the bucks are usually so,
but in some cases the bucks have small horns
curving backward and downward. The rump is
steep, the tail set low, reaching the hocks. The
breed is practically without wool, the body being
covered with coarse hair. The small quantity of
wool is of very fine fiber. The hair has a decided
crimp. The bucks have a very decided beard, which
extends from the angle of the jaw almost to the
brisket. This breed is considered to be valuable in
warm climates for its mutton.
BLACK-FAcE HIGHLAND SHEEP. Fig. 3.
By John A. Craig.
This mountain breed of sheep is most commonly
called “Black-Face,” although in the effort to be
more specific it is frequently referred to as the
“Scotch Black-Face” or the Black-Face High-
land. It isof medium size, with a bold, commanding
SHEEP 631
appearance, added to somewhat by the fact that
both the ewes and the rams have horns. The face
is mottled or speckled, the fleece long in fiber and
somewhat coarse. The chief point of merit is its
thriftiness under conditions that would result in
the extinction of almost any other breed of sheep.
The mature sheep of this breed are very hardy and
easily sustained. They subsist largely on heather
and on the roughest kind of land, and withstand
extreme exposure during severe storms. The
newly born lambs share in this strength of consti-
tution, and they are singularly equipped to un-
dergo exposure by having a short, tight fleece cover
them from heel to ear as soon as born.
The Black-Face may justly claim to be one of
the oldest breeds of Great Britain; and being so,
their early history is little known. It is commonly
thought that they are the original stock of the
country. The very earliest mention of these sheep
is by a writer, Hector Boethius, born in 1470, who
says that until the introduction of the Cheviot sheep,
the rough-woolled Black-Face was the only kind
known in the vale of Esk. The breed at the pres-
ent time has been estimated to comprise about two-
thirds of the sheep stock of Scotland, and one-third
of the total sheep stock of the north of England.
They are mainly confined to this territory, for
their importation to other countries or localities
has not been very successful. Some have come to
America, being first imported into New York state
in 1861; but they have not been popular here.
Black-Face sheep are much used for cross-breed-
ing, but no infusion of outside blood has been suc-
cessful in improving them for their native condi-
tions. In addition to their hardiness, they have
other characteristics which adapt them peculiarly
for the Highlands. They are not only capable of
traveling long distances on rough ground in search
of food, but they also have a peculiar “homing”
instinct, based presumably on their strong attach-
ments to certain parts of their grazing.
HERDWICK SHEEP. Fig. 636.
By John A. Craig.
This is one of the smaller mountain breeds, with
the instincts and type of mountain sheep strongly
developed. It has a heavy fleece of strong wool ;
head broad, nose arched or Roman, eye prominent
and lively. Horns in the rams are desirable.
The tradition of the origin of these sheep is that
they came from forty small sheep that escaped from
the galleons of the Spanish Armada that were
wrecked on the coast of Cumberland, making the
ancestry Spanish. Macdonald says that in the
beginning of the last century a ship was stranded
on the coast of Cumberland that had on board some
Scotch sheep, which seem to have been unknown
in that country. The sheep were landed and turned
on the neighboring hills. Their excellent qualities
and adaptation to their new situation became
speedily evident. Their fleece was considerably
finer than that of the common black sheep, and the
matted quality of the wool enabled them to endure
any severity of weather, and even to pass the whole
632 SHEEP
of the winter without the smallest quantity of hay
being expended upon them. By their ceaseless
activity they scraped away the snow, however
deeply the herbage might be buried under it.
aos
wn Sis. 5+ Sr Pare es
Line
Ve
Ni : Ls
Nidigs ) Uh
hi ts
Wht CM
Gia
: a *
Fig. 636. Herdwick ram.
These sheep are credited with living to a very
old age, Macdonald stating that the ewes will
breed for fifteen or twenty years.
In the English Lake country, the mountains of
Cumberland and Westmoreland, in the north of
England, these small sheep hold their own against
the encroachments of all other breeds.
PERSIACOT AND PERSIARINO SHEEP
By #. L. Shaw.
The Persiacot is a cross between the Persian and
the Cotswold breeds. This cross is said to be very
hardy, and produces an excellent quality of mut-
ton. The lambs make very rapid gains, and are in
demand at good prices. The Persiarino is a cross
between the Persian and the Merino breeds. This
cross is said to produce a very hardy sheep and an
excellent quality of mutton. All grades of these
crosses are said to be fertile. The Persian (Fig. 3)
resembles the Tunis, has a fat tail, and dark, hair-
like wool. It has been used in a small way in the
West for crossing.
ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP.
By John A. Craig.
This breed takes its name from the district known
as Romney Marsh in the counties of Kent and Sus-
sex, in the south of England, which has led also to
its being spoken of as the Kent breed.
The Romney Marsh may be said to be one of the
largest of the lowland breeds, likely being surpassed
in weight only by the Lincoln. It has a white,
broad face, and most frequently a tuft of wool on
the forehead. It does not have horns. The native
or original stock of the breed was large and
coarse, but it is likely that the infusions of Leicester
and Lincoln blood added both to its weight and
improvement of appearance. The type is long and
low, with comparatively thick legs and feet, and a
strong-boned frame. The wool is long, compara-
tively fine, and the weight of the fleece from six
and one-half pounds upward.
SHEEP
The special utility of the breed is its adaptability
to low-lying lands which produce luxuriant feed,
and will stand heavy stocking. The Romney Marsh
may be run more thickly on such ground than any
other breed, and continue thrifty. Under such con-
ditions, it attains a large size and heavy weight,
and the records of Smithfield and other British
shows bear out the statement that it is rarely sur-
passed in the latter by any breed excepting the
Lincoln.
RYELAND SHEEP. Fig. 637.
By W. L. Carlyle.
The Ryeland breed of sheep originated many
years ago in the midland counties of England. Its
name comes from the Ryelands of Hereford, a poor
upland district. The breed originated by crossing
Southdown and Leicester rams on the old Morfe
Common type of sheep, from which the Shropshire
breed originated. In its blood lines it is similar to
the Shropshire and the Morfe Common type of
sheep, being leggy, with light fleece of wool and
with a speckled black and white face. The Rye-
land breeder selects the lambs with the white faces
and legs, and the Shropshire breeder takes those
with the dark faces and legs. The Ryeland is a
very compact and hardy breed, and fattens very
readily. In form, it is thick ’and heavy in the
hind-quarters, with broad, level back, full round
body, a little inclined to ‘be coarse in the shoul-
ders; short, well-set neck, and broad head, with
some little wool covering on the head. It is ‘set ‘on
short, straight legs. It is an active, vigorous
type, filling the place in the sheep world midway
between the Southdown and the Shropshire. Both
the lambs and the ewes of the Ryeland breed are
hornless, and the wool is finer in character, per-
haps, than that of any of the other medium-wool
breeds.
The first importation of the Ryeland sheep into
America was made by Mr. George McKerrow, of
Pewaukee, Wisconsin, early in the summer of 1907,
i ea
x x
a - j
Ui Wind ty
A) Mie WA
14 ays Yo .¥y Hf
/ iiss yA) 474
Wi rae ‘4 P iibtee ay bi a
es ee
ore an Ryeland ram.
for the Colorado Agricultural College. The breed
has been but a short time in this country, but it
is excellently adapted for the mutton-producing
sections of America. The lambs are dropped very
SHEEP
fat, and the ewes are wonderfully good mothers.
They seem to cross well with both the Southdown
and Shropshire types. The fleece of the Ryeland is
not so heavy nor so dense as that of the Shrop-
shire, but it is longer and finer in the staple.
TUNIS SHEEP.
By David McCrae.
Tunis is a province of North Africa, bordering
on the Mediterranean sea. Much of the land is
hilly. The fat-tailed sheep living in the upland
region of the province are called Tunis sheep.
They are generally hornless ; face and legs of a
yellow-brown or tawny color ; a few are brown or
mottled brown and white. The tail is broad, being
five to ten inches wide, and is usually docked to
about six inches. The ears are large, broad, pen-
dulous, and covered with fine hair. The fleece is
soft, fine and fairly compact, about three inches
long, and varies in color. One may have a fleece
almost white, another reddish, and another mot-
tled. Mature specimens weigh 120 to 150 pounds.
The origin of the Tunis breed is unknown. The
type has no doubt existed in Tunis for centu-
ries, and also in the adjoining sections of North
Africa. Similar fat-tailed sheep are found in Syria
and are supposed to be derived from a variety
of the primitive race bred by the patriarchs
and the early shepherds of Palestine and ‘adjacent
lands.
In America.—the introduction of Tunis sheep to
America is said to date back to 1779, when the
Bey of Tunis allowed General Wm. Haton, then
United States Consul at Tunis, to ship to America
several “broad-tailed Barbary or Mountain Tunis
sheep.” Only one pair reached the United States.
These were placed in the care of Judge Richard
Peters, on his farm near Philadelphia, where they
did well and-increased in numbers. The original
ram was afterwards used on the farm of General
Hand, in Lancaster county, Pa. In 1807 or 1808,
another importation was made by Commodore Bar-
ron of the United States navy. These were bred
in Virginia and the District of Columbia. In 1825,
another importation was made, some of which
went to near Albany, N. Y. From the early Peters
flock, these sheep spread into Georgia and South
Carolina, and were common in the South before
the Civil war, which nearly exterminated them.
More recently Mr. Roundtree, of Indiana, has
been a leading promoter of the breed. There are
several flocks in Indiana and Ohio. In 1876, an
American Tunis Sheep Breeders’ Association was
organized.
The Tunis as a mutton sheep has met with much
favor. The lambs fatten early, and as the ewes
will breed at various seasons they have been used
to raise lambs for the Christmas market. Cross-
bred lambs are popular, as they are easily and
quickly fattened and yield mutton of an excel-
lent quality. As a wool-producer, the Tunis does
not rank high. The color is objectionable, and
the weight of the fleece is only six to eight
pounds.
SHEEP 633
WENSLEYDALE SHEEP. Fig. 688.
By John A. Craig.
Being included among the lowland breeds, these
sheep have the characteristics most common to
sheep of that class, namely, large size, with long
wool, thereby attaining heavy weights of both car-
cass and fleece. “he Wensleydale is an upstanding
sheep, similar to the Leicester in some respects,
but with more style. The face and skin is of a
bluish tinge, and this characteristic is encouraged,
while in nearly all the other breeds a pink skin is
sought, and the bluish tinge considered undesirable.
The wool of these sheep is peculiar in that it is
unusually lustrous, and is very wavy or full of
“nirls,” as they are called. It is long, strong, and
comparatively fine, considering its length.
MT af > Biel +N
Binet Melis Shy SNe
Fig. 638. Wensleydale ram.
The original stock of this breed seems to have
been most prevalent in Yorkshire, and at an early
day it was known as the Teeswater. The new name
of Wensleydale Longwool was attached to it about
the time the Yorkshire Agricultural Society began
giving prizes for it, it being more common in
Wensleydale than in any other district. Its origin
seems to be akin to that of the old Leicester breed,
and later infusions of Leicester blood undoubtedly
have been made. The present type and character-
istics have long been fixed, however.
The rams are used to cross on Black-Faced ewes,
as it has been found that the cross-bred product
makes a good feeding-lamb, and they have the
additional desirable qualification of throwing dark-
faced lambs.
The breed is confined closely to its native dis-
trict, few having been exported to other countries.
The most notable introduction of Wensleydale
sheep to America was the importation made by the
Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, which is
said to be giving promise of valuable results. Aside
from this, little attention has been given the breed
in this country.
The Wensleydale has two societies and flockbooks
devoted to it—the Pure Select Wensleydale Sheep
Breeders’ Association, with headquarters at Car-
perby, Bedale, England, and the Wensleydale Long-
wool Sheep Breeders’ Association and Flock Book
Society, with headquarters at Howgrave, Ripon,
England.
634 SHELL-FISH
SHELL-FISH. Figs. 639-644.
A shell-fish is defined as an aquatic animal, not
a fish, having a shell, and especially one which
comes under popular notice as used for food or for
ornament. Specifically, the term is applied to the
mollusks, represented by the oysters, clams, snails,
slugs, squid and cuttlefish, and to the crustaceans,
represented by the lobster, crayfish, shrimp, crab,
and barnacle. The more common food shell-fish of
the Mollusca are the oyster and the clam, and of
the Crustacea, the crab, the crayfish, the lobster
and the shrimp. These are given notice in this
place. The general subject of fish-culture or aqui-
culture is treated on pages 390-394. Turtles,
frogs and sponges, other aquatic animals, are dis-
cussed separately in their proper places.
The literature of shell-fish is largely in bulletin
form. The publications of the national Bureau of
Fisheries and of the state departments of fisheries
should be consulted. A few publications are men-
tioned here. Frank R. Wood, The Shell-fisheries of
New York State, Forest, Fish and Game Commis-
sion, Albany, New York (1904); Same, Shell-fish
Culture in New York (1906); Report of the Bureau
of Shell-fisheries, State of New Jersey, Trenton,
N. J. (1905); Annual Reports of the Biological
Department of the New Jersey Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, New Brunswick, New Jersey. In this
connection, the reader should consult, especially,
the Reports of the United States Bureau of Fish-
eries for 1893, 1897, 1899, 1903 and 1904, and
bulletins of the same for 1884, 1889, 1897, 1898
and 1904. On the Giant Scallop fishery, see the
bulletin of 1889.
Clam. Mollusca.
By Julius Nelson.
Of the various edible bivalves of our coast,
including the scallops, the mussel (Mytilus), the
hard-shelled clam (Venus mercenaria), and the soft-
shelled clam (Mya arenaria), the last two, and par-
ticularly the last one, have been the subject of
experimentation, with the object of learning the
principles of their cultivation. As yet, the only
progress has been to imitate primitive oyster-cul-
ture, viz., to secure the young as “seed,” and to
plant them in favorable localities not already
stocked.
The spawning period, the reproductive products,
and the development of the egg are much as in
the oyster (which see). The young clams resemble
the young oysters in becoming fastened to objects,
but instead of cementing themselves fast by one
of the shell-valves, they develop a sticky, tough
thread, called a byssus, like that which anchors
the mussels. They also develop a plow-shaped,
muscular projection back of the mouth, known as
a “foot,” by means of which they burrow into the
soil at the bottom of shallow areas, generally
between tide marks on the beach. They require a
tenacious bottom or else they will be smothered.
At the posterior end, the mantle grows out as two
tubes (known as “‘siphons”), called the “neck” of
SHELL-FISH
the clam. The ventral tube is for the inhalation of
water containing the air needed for respiration,
and the microscopic food needed for growth; the
dorsal tube exhales the water, after it has tra-
versed the pores of the gills. These siphons project
upward through the soil toward the water. If the
young clam finds a suitable place, it remains there
permanently. Often the young are very much
crowded and many starve to death; then others
die from the decay of their neighbors. Thus there
is an advantage in transplanting. In a year or
two a marketable size will be reached on good
ground.
The New England coast is the principal home of
the soft clam, while the middle Atlantic states
produce the hard clam. The total catch marketed
in 1904 exceeded one and a half million dollars in
value.
Crab. Crustacea.
By Julius Nelson.
In 1904, over 40,000,000 crabs were marketed
in the United States. The chief center of the crab
fishery is in the Chesapeake bay, near Crisfield,
Maryland. The fishery began in 1875, and at first
was confined to the capture of soft-shell crabs, i. e.,
those that have just shed their shell; but later the
taking of hard-shell crabs developed. The latter
are either sold alive, or boiled, the meat extracted
and put up in sealed cans or in buckets surrounded
by ice. In the latter case, the shells are cleaned
and shipped in the same crate with the meat, to be
used in serving “deviled” crabs. The soft-shell
crabs are shipped alive, closely packed. The fisher-
men get two cents each, and the shippers about
four cents. Hard crabs are worth less than a fifth
as much.
Soft crabs are taken either by hand nets from
small boats, or by dredging from larger boats,
usually carrying a dredge on each side. Hard crabs
are taken on baited lines. Crabs that have not yet
shed, but “show signs,” are put into floats, where
the shedding is completed; and this is really all
that can properly be termed “culture” in connec-
tion with these shell-fish. Practically, only the blue
crab (Callinectes hastatus) is involved.
The females are mature at three or four years of
age, and are said to spawn but once and then die,
while the males survive several years. The major-
ity spawn in the early spring, and their young are
hatched the same summer; those spawning in the
late autumn carry the eggs over winter, going into
deep water. The female molts before spawning, and
as the molting time approaches, she is seized by the
male and carried about. After shedding, and while
the shell is still soft, copulation is effected, lasting
a day or two. Then the female seeks deeper water
and produces about three million eggs, each a
hundredth of an inch in diameter. The young hatch
in the form of zceas that molt several times, becom-
ing transformed to a stage called megalops, which
in turn become transformed into the adult form
after six molts. Then the young migrate toward
the shallow shore waters.
SHELL-FISH
Crayfish. Crustacea. Crawfish. Figs. 639, 640.
By #. A. Andrews.
It is not generally known that the sales of cray-
fish in the United States amount to more than
$25,000 annually, so extensively are they used as
food and garnish, as bait and as subjects for study.
Fig. 639. Crayfish bearing eggs.
While the supply of wild crayfish seems at present
adequate to meet the demand, there is no doubt
that from the increase in our population and the
over-fishing of crayfish haunts, the demand will
come to exceed the supply, as has been the case in
so many departments of natural food supply.
In France and in some other European countries,
crayfish-farms for hatching, feeding and rearing
erayfish for market have long been conducted in
successful competition with the natural supply.
The crayfish in America are so much like those of
France that the same general methods of culture
will apply, as has been demonstrated by experiment
at the Johns Hopkins University.
Of importance for experimental culture of cray-
fish in this country is the fact that America pos-
sesses a very large number of kinds of crayfish of
different market values, and that some are very
large so that they might fill the place left by the
fast-disappearing lobster. A fundamental fact of
importance in crayfish-culture is that these ani-
mals are easily fed, at all periods of their lives,
on cheap vegetable and animal matter. Where
there is easy access to large cities having a good
market for crayfish as food, experiments on the
introduction and culture of large and attractive
kinds, such as the crayfish of Oregon, would seem
to be well worth trying, with the expectation of
adding to the revenue from
cheap pond and marsh land.
Points to be observed in cray-
jish-culture.
To rear crayfish it is neces-
sary to have shallow ponds that
may be easily drained and pro-
tected from large fish and other
enemies of crayfish. The com-
mon crayfish breeds in the
spring, and when found carry-
ing eggs, or “in berry,” as
shown in Fig. 639, it may be
removed to a special pond
where the young will hatch, and as minute crawl-
ing larve receive special care and food during their
first summer. In the first autumn the young should
be two inches long. In the winter the crayfish
require little attention, as they are inactive and do
not grow. But in the summer the growth is
Fig. 640.
SHELL-FISH 635
accompanied by shedding of the shell, and good
feeding will induce rapid growth. In large enclo-
sures the natural vegetable and insect food will
support many crayfish, but in smaller ponds and
rivers, soft vegetable and animal food must be
given.
Too great crowding is to be avoided, as parasites
and disease may destroy large numbers. In fact,
in Europe, epidemics caused by certain bacteria
have destroyed the crayfish in large river areas,
and attempts are in progress to restock with
American crayfish.
Since each female crayfish lays several hun-
dred eggs each year for several years, and
may begin to breed when less than one year
old, a rapid increase in stock may be secured
simply by protecting the mothers with eggs, and
lessening the naturally large death rate among the
yous By keeping away enemies and giving plenty
of food.
Lobster. Crustacea.
By Julius Nelson.
Experiments in the artificial propagation of lob-
sters have been conducted by the United States
Bureau of Fisheries since 1888, and more particu-
larly since 1894. In 1900, along the coast of the New
England states, there were employed in the lobster
fishery 4,348 persons, 191 vessels, 3,960 boats,
208,563 lobster pots or traps, involving a total in-
vestment of $1,668,000. There were taken 15,767,
741 pounds of lobsters, which sold for $1,390,579.
[United States Fish Commission Report for 1903.]
This shows a decline in the production, the yield
eleven years earlier having been twice as great,
of which 25,000,000 pounds were produced by
Maine alone. Outside of New England waters, the
lobster production of our coast is unimportant.
With decrease in production, the price hs trebled.
The lobster spawns not oftener than once in two
years, and carries its eggs attached under its abdo-
men, popularly called the tail. Such females are
then said to be “in berry.” The eggs are carried
ee pe mi mel ;
Y
Mt
Crayfish reared from eggs in captivity. Twenty-five months old.
through. the winter, the lobsters going into deep
water, and are hatched the next spring. As with
the crab, the adult probably casts its skin, a pro-
cess called “molting,” before it lays the next crop
of eggs. The young, when hatched, are a third of
an inch in length, and they seek the surface. They
636 SHELL-FISH
grow, with frequent molts, until nearly an inch in
length; then they seek the bottom. In approxi-
mately four years they are eight inches long and
produce their first batch of eggs, about five thou-
sand in number.
For artificial rearing, the eggs are removed in
the early summer from “berried” females and
hatched in floating crates, covered with cotton
scrim. Hatching begins in June, and the larval
moltings, six in number, consume nine to twenty-
five days, according to the temperature (70° to
60° Fahr.). There is great mortality among the
young, principally from a fungus, the growth of
which can be restrained by the use of copper net-
ting. The larve eat iobster and crab liver and
crushed menhaden, but not the flesh of herring or
beef. The best results come from feeding natural
plankton (see page 393), but the mortality is very
great. It is still a question whether the mortality
under nature is greater or smaller than under
artificial conditions. But if the eggs of lobsters
that are caught can be saved, evidently natural
methods will be supplemented. Laws prohibiting
the taking of “berried” lobsters should prove the
most efficient means of preventing depletion. At
the end of the larval period the young lobsters are
turned into the sea to shift for themselves. They
do not wander far, and so particular regions can be
stocked.
Oyster. Ostrea spp. Mollusca. Figs. 641-644.
By Julius Nelson.
The oyster industry has been considered a fish-
ery, but it attains its best development through
the application of aquicultural methods. Its inter-
ests are in charge of the United States Bureau of
Fisheries, state fish commissions, or of special
oyster and shell-fish commissions. In 1902, the
United States produced
nearly twenty-six million
bushels of market oys-
ters, about five -sixths
of the world’s product,
worth at first cost $15,-
566,805. More than a
third of the product came
from the Chesapeake bay.
Species.
The following species
are commonly cultivated:
Ostrea lurida, native of
the Pacific coast from
British Columbia to Cali-
fornia; O. cuculata of
Japan; O. edulis of Eu-
rope, from the North sea
to Italy; O. Adriatica of the eastern Mediterranean;
O. angulata of Portugal and southern France; 0.
Virginiana, the common oyster from the gulf of
St. Lawrence to Texas, but now exterminated
between Nova Scotia and Cape Cod; the native
oyster north of the Cheaspeake is variety borealis.
Other species are found on the coasts of Mexico
Fig. 641.
Left: Oyster-shell
viewed from dorsal edge:
H, hinge end (anterior);
P, “‘nile’’ end (posterior) ;
IL, left valve; R, right
valve. Right: Oyster
shell viewed from upper
(right valve) side; D, dor-
sal edge; l, l, lines of
growth.
SHELL-FISH
and the Antilles. O: edulis is hermaphroditic and
viviparous. O. Virginiana and QO. angulata are
dicecious, each individual being either a female,
producing “roe” (ova), or a male, producing “milt”
(sperms). They
are oviparous, the
reproductive cells
being emitted to
conjugate while
floating in the sur-
rounding water,
where the entire
development pro-
ceeds.
Reproduction.
The eggs of 0.
Virginiana, the
common eastern
oyster, are one
five-hundredth of
an inch in diame-
ter, which is thou-
sands of times
larger than the
sperms. The roe
and milt, about
equal in amount
in the two sexes,
are indistinguish-
able to the naked
eye, appearing,
when mature, asa
creamy layer be-
neath the skin in
Fig. 642.
Diagrams showing the gross
structure of the oyster: Upper,
longitudinal section of shell and
contents; lower, view from the left
side, the soft parts lying on the right
“half-shell.”’ A, Hinge ligament;
m, points of attachment of the mus-
cle in previous seasons; 1, edges of
the shell of previous seasons (lines
of growth); JN, “nile,” or posterior
end; Mt, edges of mantle; B, gills;
CO, cloacal chamber; M, adductor
muscle; A, auricle of heart; V,
ventricle; G, reproductive tissue; I,
intestine; S, stomach; J, left
(lower) valve; R, right or upper
valve; An, anterior end; Li, liver;
Dr, dorsal edge; Po, posterior end;
O, opening for the exit of ‘‘spawn"’;
Ve, ventral edge; P, lips; mo,
mouth; D, first part of intestine;
a, vent of intestine; W, water
tubes, opening from gills into cloa-
eal chamber.
front of the heart.
The ejection of the milky fluid is called spawning,
and the reproductive fluid is called spawn. The
height of the spawning season is reached by the last
week in June. The length of the season depends
on the temperature of the water. The optimum tem-
perature for spawning is about 80° Fahr. In Long
Island Sound, spawn is not visible in oysters before
May or June, nor after August or September, but
in Florida waters oysters may also spawn at
Christmas time, and have been known to reproduce
in February. Oysters probably repeat the spawn-
ing act several times during the season, especially
in the South.
The reproductive cells grow at the expense of
nutriment stored in the connective tissue, and
hence oysters are very lean just after spawning.
If food is abundant, they soon recuperate. When
the cooler weather of August and September comes,
they store up fat to be used for reproductive
purposes the following summer. Hence it is that
oysters are most relished in the months with an
“‘r,.” which constitute preéminently the oyster sea-
son. Oysters also spoil readily in warm weather.
An oyster filled with spawn contains as much nutri-
ment as ever ; it has a poor flavor when eaten raw,
but is greatly improved by cooking. There is a
limited summer trade in such oysters at coast
resorts, and in nearby cities.
Development.—The eggs of the oyster are fertil-
SHELL-FISH
ized within a few minutes after reaching the sperm-
atized water, and development follows rapidly and
normally at temperatures between 60° and 85,°
the optimum lying between 68° and 78°. In five to
seven hours the egg has completed its segmentation
and becomes a ciliated, free-swimming larva in the
gastrula stage. It is scarcely larger than the egg,
and has a ciliated stomach cavity less than one
two-thousandth of an inch in diameter, so the food
consists of only the minutest of alge spores and
microbes. Growth is slow at first, but the mantle-
folds are formed, and the primitive shell secreted
by the end of the first day. The valves are alike,
resembling those of a clam. The embryos may now
be called oyster “fry.” They swim awkwardly by
means of a ciliated velar disk protruding between
the valves. They are distributed by means of tidal
currents, their limited swimming powers being
used at first to change their vertical distribution
while floating, and finally to secure a location on
an object suitable for their attachment. Such
objects are called clutch or collectors, and consist
of the shells of oysters and other shell-fish, dead or
living; but grass, bushes, trees, posts, rocks, peb-
bles, pieces of crockery, glass, bricks, boats, leather
and rubber boots are readily utilized. The clutch
must be clean, not coated with slime, for the fry
at this time are each less than one one-hundredth
of an inch in diameter. After fixation, the baby
oyster is called spat. The length of time the fry
swims free has been variously stated as being from
one to seven days, depending on temperature and
food conditions, but it is certainly not shorter than
’ five days, and often more than seven.
Attachment is made by the left mantle edge, and
growth is so rapid that the spat becomes visible to
the naked eye within three days. Young oysters
reach an inch in diameter in two months, and then,
as cold weather comes, the growth is arrested.
When a year old they average two and one-half
inches. A second year adds little more than an
inch, as the increase lessens with age.
The food of the oyster consists of microscopic
organisms floating in the water, belonging mainly
to the vegetable kingdom. The alga, called dia-
toms, constitute nine-tenths of this food.
Natural oyster beds.
Under natural conditions, the successive genera-
tions settle on the shells of their ancestors. Hven-
tually the oldest generations become buried and
smothered in the accumulating mud, and finally a
reef is formed whose surface reaches the average
level of low water. Such reefs lie near the shore,
with a deep channel beyond. Natural beds may
also form in deeper water. The living oysters on
the top of reefs are so crowded that an acre may
yield eight thousand bushels. But they are mostly
poor oysters of all sizes, and are lean through com-
petition for food, and few are fit for market. Near
the reef and in adjacent coves are isolated speci-
mens in good conditicn. Reef oysters transplanted
to certain grounds, not naturally oyster-producing,
grow and fatten rapidly.
There are nearly 600,000 acres of so-called
SHELL-FISH 637
natural oyster ground in the United States, dis-
tributed principally as follows: Connecticut and
New York, 35,000; New Jersey, 90,000; Dela-
ware, 70,000; Maryland, 123,000; Virginia, 250,-
000; North Carolina, 10,000; South Carolina and
Georgia, 2,000 ; Florida, 12,000 ; Alabama, 2,200 ;
Louisiana, 32,000. Only a tenth of these areas is
actually productive in some of the states, but
these grounds at present yield over half of our
supply. They will require special attention to pre-
vent their disappearance.
Oyster-fishing.
Oysters are taken by tongs and by dredges. (Fig.
643.) The right to take oysters is usually permitted
only to residents who pay a yearly license. Dredges
operated by steam may not be used, and dredging
in water so shallow as to allow the use of tongs is
prohibited. Operations are forbidden at night, on
Sundays and during the spawning season. The
duration of the closed season is generally from
April or May to September or October, although
it varies.
Tongs and dredges gather indiscriminately
empty shells, oysters of all sizes, and clusters that
must be knocked apart. Sorting out the marketa-
ble oysters is called culling. The shells and small
oysters remaining, formerly were sold at two to
four cents a bushel for burning into lime. They
Fig. 643. Outfit for oyster-gathering. a, Tongs for water less
than twenty-five feet deep; b, * tangles,’ to be drawn over
oyster-beds to entangle star-fish in the mops; c¢, knife for
opening oyster shells; d, deep-water tongs; e, dredge for
scraping oysters from beds in deep water.
have also been used extensively for filling and
road-making. Excessive fishing leads to denuday
tion of the reefs and a decrease in the size of the
oysters, until at last only the crop spawned the
previous season is present. Then the bed is said to
be depleted, and produces only seed for the plant-
ing grounds. Finally, all the clutch is removed
and the bed is destroyed. To protect the natural
oyster beds, various regulations are in force.
Planting ground.
Outside the limits of natural oyster ground,
opportunity has been given for the development of
638 SHELL-FISH
private oyster-planting. Such grounds are some-
times secured under a title that permits their sale
and transfer by inheritance. The market value of
the best ground is above a thousand dollars an
acre, although the average is thirty dollars. The
grounds are taxed, or a rental may be charged for
land leased from the state.
The area of leased land in the United States is
about 360,000 acres. Ten times this area is avail-
able for future expansion, aside from the natural
ground, which, if it came under cultivation, would
yield thirty times its present product. Only a
third of the leased area is actually under cultiva-
Fig. 644.
Tonging oysters into a scow.
tion. The amount one person may hold is some-
times limited. The largest oyster farm (7,000
acres) is owned by a firm in Connecticut.
It is advantageous to shift oysters to new
ground in the spring or autumn, and it is good
policy to let a plot lie fallow for a year after the
crop is removed, in order to disperse enemies that
have gathered. As it requires three or four years
for seed to grow to market size, the annual crop is
produced from only a fourth of the ground occu-
pied.
About three hundred bushels of average young
seed, costing twenty to forty cents a bushel, may
be planted per acre. Under favorable conditions,
this will have increased threefold when ready for
market. Usually the planter is content to gather
nearly the same quantity as was planted, the
oysters having become enhanced three to four
times in value. Young seed doubles in growth the
first season, the losses during the next balance the
increase, and thereafter the death losses overbal-
ance the growth. The average annual net profit is
about 10 per cent on the investment.
Oyster-culture.
Oyster-culture has developed through several
stages of progress by the pressure of circum-
stances. So long as the natural beds yielded a suffi-
cient supply of choice oysters, there was no cul-
ture. The first step was to transplant adult oysters
for the purpose of improving their flavor and fat-
ness. As demand increased, the supply of natural
adult oysters gave out, and it became necessary to
take the second step, i e., to cultivate small
oysters. The areas furnishing this seed in the
vicinity of planting grounds in turn became over-
taxed. The northern planter was forced to seek
seed in Chesapeake bay, where, at first, it could be
secured in unlimited quantities at ten to twenty
cents a bushel. In the spring of 1880, a fleet of
SHELL-FISH
fifty vessels was carrying nearly two million
bushels of seed from Maryland te be planted in
northern waters. Finally, the affected southern
states, to protect their own supplies, prohibited
the export of seed oysters. This would have bee
a serious blow to the planting industry had not
another step in the progress of oyster-culture been
taken, viz., the raising of seed on private grounds.
Artificially produced seed.—In 1868, Capt. Chas.
H. Townsend of New Haven, Conn., following a
suggestion from European methods, spread oyster
shells on his own grounds and secured a good “set”
of spat. This practice gradually developed into a
great and successful industry. A single firm annu-
ally planted a quarter million bushels of shells.
This seed is either raised to adult size by the pro-
ducer or is sold to other planters. Of the 6,879,405
bushels of seed oysters sold in the United States in
1902, one-fourth was raised on private beds in
Long Island Sound.
The amount of clutch used per acre is about five
hundred bushels, but if the bottom is soft, as much
as two thousand bushels may be necessary. The
clutch rapidly becomes slimy in the water, and so
is generally not planted until the last week in June
or the first week in July, when there are the great-
est number of fry ready to “set.” If the “shelled”
ground is not reached by currents flowing over
oyster-beds containing suitable spawners, about
thirty bushels of adult oysters should be planted
per acre, at least several months before the shells
are spread, as handling oysters during the spawn-
ing season interferes with the proper formation of
their spawn.
Artificial propagation.—It was supposed that the
reproduction of the American oyster, O. Virgini-
ana, resembled that of the European oyster, O. edu-
lis, until 1879, when Dr. W. K. Brooks, of Johns
Hopkins University, succeeded in raising oyster
fry by artificial fecundation. This discovery gave
hope that we would be able to devise a method of
multiplying oyster seed at will in unlimited
quantities. The next dozen years witnessed ex-
tended experimental studies of the problem by
many eminent fish-culturists. The general method
used by these investigators is as follows: Dur-
ing the spawning season, oysters are opened and
those filled with spawn are chosen. Their spawn
is examined microscopically, until two or three
“ripe” specimens of each sex are secured. A
very small amount of spermatic fluid is added to
clean sea-water, and to this the carefully washed
eggs of the female are added. Development readily
follows, and after a few hours the surface of the
experimental dish is crowded with swimming em-
bryos. These are now poured into new sea-water
and can be kept several days, but are best planted
when their shell is perfectly formed on the second
day. Development is frequently abortive, due to
errors of manipulation, faulty conditions or evil
influence affecting the mother oyster. Oysters
should be opened immediately after they are taken
from their beds. The fry is planted in an enclosure
suited to prevent its floating away; and by means
of introduced clutch, observations are made on spat
SHELL-FISH
fixation. Certain essential principles governing
spat fixation are still to be discovered.
European methods.—In Europe, the natural beds
are specially protected by the government. Their
main use is to furnish spat for artificial collectors
placed on adjacent grounds. These collectors are
eurved tiles. They are coated with plaster and ce-
ment and are put into position as soon as inspection
- shows that spawning has begun. This industry (of
securing spat in this way) is in the hands of private
parties, who pay rental to the government. Many
of these tiles are on ground exposed at low water.
- They are frequently inspected and rinsed from sedi-
ment. In autumn, when the attached spat has
reached the size of a finger-nail, the tiles are
removed from the producing ground to the rearing
ground. In Holland, they are submerged in diked
ponds to keep them from freezing ; toward spring,
the young oysters are carefully detached by thrust-
ing a thin knife beneath the cement. The young
plants are then placed on special growing grounds.
In France, a more complex method is employed.
The spat are collected by specialists who sell the
tiles in October to others, whose special work is to
continue the cultivation. The spat are detached at
once and put into “elevage” boxes, provided with
wire screens to keep out enemies. The boxes are
placed in ponds or pares, in which they are daily
submerged by the tides. The largest oysters are
sorted out from time to time and transplanted to
other ponds. Special fattening ponds, called claires,
are so constructed that only the highest or spring
vides can enter when permitted by the opening of
a gate.
In early summer these ponds are allowed to
become dry; the bottom is carefully tilled, and a
small amount of water, both from the sea and from
fresh-water streams, is allowed to enter. Under
the hot sun, the algoid organisms present multiply
greatly. Then the pond is allowed to fill, and the
water to stand stagnant. In this the oysters are
placed in September for two or three weeks. They
fatten rapidly, but through want of sufficient air,
many die. The claires of Marennes are noted as
giving a green hue to the oysters placed therein.
The oysters are removed from the fattening claire
into clear, well-aérated sea-water for a few days for
the purpose of cleansing. Finally they are pre-
pared for market by being placed in ponds, where
they are exposed the greater part of each low tide.
This accustoms them to hold their shells shut dur-
ing transport.
At Tarente, Italy, twigs entwined in grass ropes
suspended from posts are used as collectors. In
Japan, bamboo branches or shibi are set on the
bottom in rows or in clusters; and-when the tide
is out, an oyster-garden resembles a vineyard.
The shibi, loaded with oyster fruit, are themselves
transplanted into culture plots in deeper water.
By this means the growth of three years equals
that of four when the oysters lie on the bottom.
In America, the cost of labor prevents our
giving the oysters the individual attention they
receive in foreign lands. Oysters grow rapidly in
Datural or artificial tidal ditches in our salt
SHELL-FISH 639
marshes, so that we may expect soon to see these
vast areas made productive through proper ditch-
ing. It is a general practice among American
oyster-producers to prepare their crop for market
by a process called plumping, freshening or fat-
tening. The laden boats returning from the plant-
ing grounds are unloaded at high water in a fresh-
water creek. As the tide runs out, the oysters
absorb water of decreased saltness, and swell
about twenty-five per cent in volume. The oysters
are removed at low water and prepared for ship-
ment. After they are opened most of this extra
water becomes squeezed out as “liquor.”
Marketing.
Oysters are shipped in the shell, to be opened
elsewhere, in sacks or in barrels holding two and a
half to three bushels. They are sold by the thou-
sand. Small oysters, not over three years old, are
called culls. They run from 1,000 to 1,500 per
barrel, and are worth to the producer about $2.50
per thousand. Oysters running 650 to 1,100 per
barrel are “box sizes,” worth $5 per thousand ;
larger sizes are “primes,” and the largest are
“extras.” These prices should be doubled for
“eastern” oysters cultivated in California. Since
1894, about 9,000 barrels of seed from Newark
and Raritan bays have been sent annually to be
planted in San Francisco bay, where it competes
with native oysters (O. lurida) imported from
Washington state. Over a hundred thousand bar-
rels of oysters in the shell are annually sent from
Long Island Sound waters to Europe.
Shueked oysters.—As the shells are dead weight,
there arose the practice of opening oysters near
the locality of production and shipping the meats
packed in “preservalene” or ice in tubs. This began
in New Haven, Conn., in 1836. At first, oysters
were transferred from the South to be opened in
the North, but shucking houses were started in
1850 in Baltimore, and later at Crisfield and other
Maryland points, Norfolk, Virginia, and Seaford,
Delaware. In 1880 nearly four million bushels
were opened in Baltimore. In 1897, all Maryland
houses together opened less than five million gal-
lons. Lately there has been more rapid decline,
while packing-houses have started on the gulf
coast.
Canning.
In 1846, the industry of oyster-canning was
initiated. Small oysters are used. They are first
killed by steaming so that they can be rapidly
opened. After packing, the can is sterilized. In
1880, three million bushels were steamed in Balti-
more, which still held a monopoly of this trade.
In 1897, over twenty-five million pounds were
canned in Maryland, but, owing to scarcity of
oysters, this trade has now passed to the states
farther south. In 1900, Maryland produced only a
third of the thirty-three million pounds of oysters
canned in the United States ; Mississippi produced
another third, and the other southern states the
remainder. The canning-houses are engaged in
canning fruit in the summer. According to the
640 SHELL-FISH
census of 1900, there were thirty-nine oyster-
canning houses in the United States,
Literature.
Ernest Ingersoll’s memoir on the “ Oyster Indus-
try,” written for the Census of 1880, is classic.
United States Fish Commission Report for 1892
gives a bibliography of oyster publications in
English, including 546 papers by 278 authors.
Shrimp. Crangon vulgaris. Crustacea.
By Julius Nelson.
Practically no effort has been made to assist
nature in the production of shrimp. The chief
shrimp fisheries are on the Gulf and Pacific coasts
of America. The annual catch is about four hun-
dred thousand dollars’ worth, a fourth of which
may be credited to San Francisco bay. These
shrimps or prawns are canned. An unknown num-
ber are used for bait all along the coast.
SILKWORM. Bombyx mori, Linn. Bombycide.
Figs. 645-649.
By L. O. Howard.
The cultivation of the domestic silkworm for the
production of raw silk, subsequently to be made
into cloth, seems to have originated in China, and
as an agricultural industry is of very great anti-
quity both in China and in India. The ancestral
form of the silkworm of commerce was probably a
native of the northern provinces of China or of
Bengal. It was, as a wild species, probably a full-
winged, flying moth, whose larva was of a dark
color, and spun a much smaller and less dense
cocoon than does the silkworm of today. After
countless generations of confinement, cultivation
and breeding, however, the insect has become a
true domesticated animal; the moth has practically
lost the power of flight ; the larva or caterpillar
has become for the
most part nearly
white in color, except
in certain rather
aberrant races; the
silk glands have be-
come very large, and
the silk has become
most excellent in
quality and very
abundant.
Life history of the silk-
worm. (Figs.645—
647.)
é. The silkworm of
Fig. 645. The moth. a, the ¢@ommerce passes the
male; b, the female. é =
winter in the egg
stage, and with most of the races there is but one
generation each year. With certain other races
there may be two or more generations, but in
most silk-growing countries these are not exten-
sively cultivated because of the difficulty of secur-
ing food of the right quality at other seasons than
SILKWORM
late in the spring and the beginning of summer. In
Japan, however, the great increase in the silk indus-
try during the past thirty years is said to be due
to improved methods of feeding, so that three crops
of worms may be fed annually. This, however, is
not done by the use of the varieties having several
d
Fig. 646. The chrysalis: a, silkworm completing its cocoon,
b, cocoon and chrysalis—east of skin of larva beneath;
c, back view of chrysalis; d, side view of chrysalis.
(Redrawn from Maillot.)
generations (bivoltins, trivoltins or polyvoltins),
but by the use of an annual race, and the cold
storage of the eggs, part of which are removed at
intervals and the worms reared. Under ordinary
conditions, such as exist in America and in South
Europe, the eggs hatch naturally in April; the
larve molt four times, feed for about four weeks,
and then spin the cocoon, taking about three days
for the process. About eighteen days elapse in the
chrysalis stage within the cocoon, and then the
adult insect emerges. The moths will lay their eggs
about the end of June, and in this condition the
insect remains until hatching time the following
spring.
Care of the silkworm.
It is not necessary here to give a full account
of the care of the silkworm. It is a more or less
complicated process, and involves a full consider-
ation of temperature, ventilation, certain essential
implements, character of the trays and tiers of
trays, the picking of the mulberry leaves, the
absence of moisture on the leaves, and many simi-
lar facts, together with the preparation for spin-
ning, and the care and harvesting of the cocoons.
The operations, however, are not such as require
necessarily any high degree of intelligence. Chil-
dren may become accustomed to the culture of silk-
worms, and may practice it with success. The
labor of caring for a comparatively small number
of worms (say four or five thousand), is not great,
except in the later stages of growth. Then, to
keep them full-fed will occupy the temporary ser-
vices of an adult in the collection and distribution
of the large amount of leaves required for food.
All of these details are displayed in publications
of the United States Department of Agriculture,
which will be sent to all persons on application ;
these publications also consider the care of the
mulberry tree, together with the important matter
of the diseases of the silkworm.
History of the industry.
For many hundreds of years the cultivation of
the silkworm was confined to Asiatic countries. It
seems to have been an industry in China as early
as 2600 B. C., and was not introduced into Europe
SILKWORM
until 530 A. D. After the latter date the culture
rapidly increased, and soon became prominent in
Turkey, Italy and Greece, and has held its own in
those countries, becoming of great importance in
Ttaly, and achieving a considerable rank as an agri-
cultural industry in France, and less so in Spain
and Portugal. Silk-culture has also been practiced
to some extent, but with slight comparative success,
in parts of Germany, and recently with rather
favorable results in Hungary. Attempts to estab-
lish the industry in England, although made from
time to time, have failed. Silk-culture has held its
own in China, is still in vogue in India, and in
Japan has made great strides. The latter country
today produces a very considerable proportion of
the world’s supply of raw silk. Thus, of the forty-
one millions of dollars spent by the United States
in 1902 for raw silk, more than twenty millions
went to Japan. [See page 643.]
In America.— With the colonizing of North
America, attempts were made at an early date to
practice silk-culture, and the colonists of Virginia,
9 wy WD
0D bic scorch arm jars
Fig. 647. Full-grown silkworm: 1, head; 2, thorax; 3-10, 12,
abdominal segments; 11, horn; 13, true legs; 14, pro-legs;
15, anal pro-legs.
South Carolina and Georgia engaged in the indus-
try to a certain degree. Some reeling was done on
hand-reels, and both cocoons and reeled silk were
sent to Europe. In 1759, Georgia produced 10,000
pounds of cocoons, and, reeled in the colony on
hand-reels, the resulting silk commanded a higher
price in the London market than that from the
old silk-producing countries. The culture was in-
troduced into New England about 1660, in parts of
Connecticut and also on Long Island. Pennsylvania
and New Jersey started the industry in 1771, but
all work in the northern states was interrupted by
the Revolutionary war. In 1828, an attempt was
made to revive the industry and a treatise on the
raising of silkworms was published by order of the
national Congress, which was followed by a deter-
mined effort to establish the culture on a firm
basis. In 1833, it was estimated that four tons of
cocoons were produced in the county of Windham,
‘Conn. The interest in the industry soon passed be-
yond bounds, and what was known as the “ Morus
multicaulis craze” originated. Thousands of indi-
viduals purchased mulberry cuttings and planted
Many acres of valuable land; investments far
exceeded possible returns ; heavy freezes destroyed
the plantations, and, in the course of a few years,
the many failures caused so complete a revulsion
of feeling that not only was silk-culture practically
C 41
_reels were operated in New Or-
SILKWORM 641
abandoned in the United States, but the very name
became a byword.
Since the bursting of the multicaulis bubble,
sporadic attempts to revive the industry have been
started in California, Utah, Lou-
isiana, Alabama and Georgia.
Moreover, in 1884, Congress be-
gan making appropriations for
the encouragement of silk-cul-
ture in the United States, under
the United States Department
of Agriculture. These appropria-
tions were continued until 1890
and then lapsed. During the
progress of this work, under the
Department of Agriculture, mul-
berry trees and eggs of the silk-
worm moth were sent to corre-
spondents throughout the country,
a manual of instructions was pub-
lished and distributed, and silk
leans and in Washington. The
work ceased June 30, 1891.
The national work, under the
Department of Agriculture, was
resumed in July, 1902. The Sec-
retary of Agriculture, Hon. James
Wilson, had come to the conclu-
sion that every possible effort
should be made to ameliorate the
condition of the extremely poor
people of the southern states, and
particularly of the colored race. Among the many
ideas that suggested themselves to him was that of
silk-culture, which, as a household industry, adds
to the wealth and prosperity of other countries
and to the family incomes of the extremely poor.
Congress made a special appropriation, and the
work has been continued up to the present time.
Silk reels have been imported from Hurope ; opera-
tors were also imported as teachers, and American
girls have been shown the process of reeling
cocoons. Well-tested disease-free eggs have been
imported from Europe, and mulberry seed of desir-
able varieties has also been brought over. Hxperi-
mental nurseries have been started; experimental
rearings have been
made; eggs have
been sent to all ap-
plicants who could
guarantee a supply
of food for the
worms, and mul-
berry cuttings have
been sent to those
not similarly situ-
ated. The cocoons
raised by the corres-
pondents of the De-
partment have been
purchased at the Huropean market price, and have
been reeled at the reeling establishment in Wash-
ington. The resulting raw silk has proved to be of
good and salable quality.
Fig. 648.
Silk glands ofa ma-
ture worm: P,
part of glands
that secretes the
silky matter; S,
reservoir; OC,
conducting ca-
nal; F, spin-
neret; G, acces-
sory glands.
(Redrawn from
Verson and
Quajat.)
TRAY NS
Fig. 649. Arrangement of spin-
ning places. (Redrawn from
Pasteur. )
642 SILKWORM
So long as Congress continues its support, there
is, therefore, at least a temporary market for
cocoons in America. The profit to raisers is
extremely small, but a large number of corres-
pondents throughout the country have considered
it worth while to continue the culture, and even-
tually it is hoped by the Department that a more
natural market for cocoons will be established.
The prerequisite for such a market, however, is a
guaranteed crop of cocoons, and it is to establish a
good supply of mulberry trees in different parts of
the country and a large number of skilled silk-
worm-raisers that the efforts of the Department
are devoted.
It has been very difficult to prevent false hopes
from being aroused. In spite of the greatest care
in the wording of circulars and other publications
and of correspondence, very many persons have
taken up silk-culture in the hope of being able
to make a living exclusively from this industry.
Pathetic letters have been received by the writer
and others from widows who hoped to support
dependent families in this way, and other individ-
uals have expected to become wealthy in a short
time by the raising of silk. Such persons have soon
abandoned the attempt, but there remains a fairly
good number of well-trained silk-culturists in
America as a result of the efforts of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
Limitations of the industry.
In considering the raising of silkworms as an
agricultural industry, it must be noted that the
countries where it has been most successful are
the countries where labor is cheapest. The profits
from the raising of worms are nowhere large, and,
owing to various conditions, can never be large.
It has been shown to be practically impossible to
raise cocoons on a large scale in a single establish-
ment. At all events, exper‘mental work in this
direction has almost invariably failed. The silk-
worm thrives best in small cultures, and for
that reason in silk-raising countries the” industry
has become a household industry. A given family
of peasants —nearly always agriculturists — will
raise a certain number of worms annually, and the
money resulting from the sale of the cocoons
furnishes only a part of the annual income of the
household. In other words, it is a side industry,
as is the household TEE of bees and chickens in
other countries.
Then too, the suecessfal operation of an estab-
lishment for the reeling of cocoons with the reel-
ing machines devised up to a comparatively recent
date has also depended to a very large extent on
cheap labor. There is a prospect that this diffi-
culty may be overcome to a certain degree by the
operation of a machine recently invented and intro-
duced into Italy, whereby the earning capacities
of the machine itself are very greatly improved.
But, even with improved machinery, the country
where labor is cheapest will always be able to pro-
duce the cheapest raw silk.
In the United States, therefore, as in other coun-
tries, silk-culture must always be a household
SILKWORM
industry of little profit, and therefore one to be
undertaken largely by those who have no other
means of occupation, such as the non-productive
members of a large family, simply as a help
toward the paying of the expenses of the family.
Possibilities of the industry.
Conditions in China, India, Persia, and other
Asiatic countries, including Syria, are not to be
compared with those in South European countries,
or scarcely even with those in Japan, and it is with
Italy and France that the possibilities of silk-eu
ture in the United States must be compared.
France has long been able to raise excellent
cocoons, and as a manufacturer of silk goods she
late years Bere to operate large reeling estab-
lishments without government aid, and this aid
has been furnished in the nature of a government
subsidy of a certain number of francs annually
per basin operated in all of the filatures of France,
climate, with the scientific and practical qualifica
tions of its people and its intelligent peasantry,
affords the best example of what can be done with
silk-culture as an agricultural industry among a
civilized modern race. ;
A concrete example of what silk-culture means
toa poor family of Italian agriculturists may be
cited, perhaps, as an average example. The writer
studied the cocoon harvest in northern Italy in the
summer of 1905. Owing to a rather small crop
throughout the kingdom, the price was somewhat
higher than normal, reaching 3.68 lire, or 71 cents
per kilogram of 2.205 pounds of green cocoons
The question of compensation of families for
cocoons reared was observed. The best result
noted was in the case of one small, hard-working
family consisting of a husband and wife, a half-
grown boy and two little girls. This fam
brought in 87.40 kilograms, or 1922 pounds, for
which they were paid 321.63 lire, or about sixty-
two dollars. The average amount earned per fam-
ily on the large estate where observations were
made was twenty-five to thirty dollars, a very wel-
come addition to the income of a hard-working
peasant family. q
Supposing the eventual establishment of com-
mercially paying filatures in America, on a scale
commensurate with those of Italy, the examp!
cited will serve as an illustration of what m
be expected of the raising of silkworms as an ag
however, is one that has not yet been solve
Could America produce her own raw silk, the
money saving to the nation could be approximately
estimated from the following table of the importa-
tions of raw silk during the years 1898 to 1902.
SILKWORM SPONGE 643
IMPORTATION OF RAW SILK (AS REELED FROM THE Cocoon), 1898-1962
Countries from which imported 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902
PRB GMM ars}! c/a). 65 6) sisi «eset ss $1,192,058 | $1,248,037 | $1,607,569 | $1,220,874 | $1,866,202
CATER 3s Sp Mego ice S OaeICmOmeticl tie iclice ar Hitc 1,101 19,480 2,386 29,106
Lite a 6,227,004 8,929,776 | 10,816,084 7,151,488 9,954,501
Switzerland 9,194 4,133 40,950 681 17,422
MTLARY Bn LRRD Io 10 (6.28 GR cio meine |S od a6 Men ou NM Soalcy oq anos] ene Louacteer ec Ik O mca cmtir 38
Mimbed Kintsdom . . s . «sw 6 2 es 1,752 956 7,301 9,763 1,421
ommion of Ganada .......-:-s 56,468 18,296 157,161 60,109 807,706
Chinese Empire ..... chen ucts 7,506,409 6,497,983 | 12,171,809 6,303,523 8,308,383
East Indies—British ......... 389 476 24,659 33,456 27,190
EMSROUG Metts 0c oc; ate we ee 120 205,516 TOE oc awa o) Call Guowo: oe
SSR oc S..0) OR OCOD Cen ene 16,453,406 | 14,920,787 | 19,686,182 | 14,571,547 | 20,702,101
MEE VRINOASAne Matta tie!= tic! “e:-ie 0) cw lay al) | felsePacd eh suf elie se! cal : Rac ilM ins weenie 261
Nova” Cena eee iat cPismeters $31,446,800 | $31,827,061 | $44,549,672 | $29,853,777 | $41,714,331
Literature.
Enrico Verson, II filugello e l’arte sericola, Trat-
tato teorico-pratico, Padova, Verona (1896); Gio-
vanne Bolle, Der seidenbau in Japan, Budapest
(1898); Henrietta Aiken Kelly, The Culture of
the Mulberry Silkworm, Bulletin No. 39, new
series, Division of Hntomology, United States
Department of Agriculture (1903); Henrietta
Aiken Kelly, Silkworm Culture, Farmers’ Bulletin
No. 165, United States Department of Agriculture
(1903); George W. Oliver, Silkworm Food Plants,
Bulletin No. 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, United
States Department of Agriculture (1903); L. 0.
Howard, The United States Department of Agricul-
ture and Silk Culture, Yearbook of United States
Department of Agriculture for 1903; H. L. Al-
phonse Blanchon, Manuel pratique du sériculteur,
Paris (1905); Pierre Vieil, Sériciculture, Paris
(1905); Maillot & Lambert, Traité sur le ver a
soie, Paris (1906).
SPONGES. Porifera.
By Julius Nelson.
The sponge fishery in the United States began in
1852. It is confined to Florida, particularly in the
region of the coral “Keys.” The most valuable
form commercially, is the sheepswool (Spongia
gossiping), which brings two to five dollars a pound.
The yellow sponge and grass sponge, of stiffer tex-
ture, bring only twenty-five to fifty cents a pound.
The Florida sponge industry employs 2,245 persons,
on 156 vessels, which, with other apparatus, are
worth nearly $600,000. The annual catch was
valued at about $400,000 in 1904. Key West and
Tarpin Springs are the main centers of the sponge
trade.
The sponge, as seen on the market, is only the
horny, fibrous skeleton, which in nature is clothed
with cells (flesh). The pores and channels seen in
the skeleton are present also in the living animal.
Water laden with microscopic organisms is drawn
in through the small pores, and emitted by the
larger channels, being propelled by cilia that
clothe numerous small chambers, which are inter-
posed between the inhalent and exhalent channels.
Sponges reproduce by fertilized eggs, scattered
through the flesh. The young develop into ciliated
larve, and are discharged by the exhalent chan-
nels. They very soon settle and become attached to
the bottom ; and, in case of the wool sponge, they
grow to be a weight of one-tenth of a pound in six
months, attaining a minimum marketable size within
a year.
Sponge-fishing.
The sponges are observed from the small boats
by means of a water-glass. This is a box or bucket
with a glass bottom, placed on the surface of the
sea. The sponges are torn loose by means of a pole
armed with long, hook-like teeth, or by means of
tongs, not unlike oyster tongs. Placed on the deck,
they soon die of suffocation and undergo decay.
After a few days, when the larger boat has become
loaded, it proceeds to the “kraals,” which are pens
made of saplings, and having interspaces small
enough to prevent the sponges floating out, while
permitting free circulation of water. Thus, the
decayed flesh is macerated away, and then the
sponges are washed and beaten to clean them, and
finally are dried in the sun. This is known as
natural bleaching. The very white sponges on the
market have been bleached by means of acids and
alkalies, which greatly weaken the fiber. Washing
in soapsuds also bleaches, but without weakening
the fiber.
Artificial propagation.
Professor Wilson, of the University of North
Carolina, ascertained the feasibility of raising
sponges from the egg. It is necessary in July and
August to transfer the sponges to tubs of sea-
water, without exposing them to the atmosphere.
Then the embryos will be prematurely discharged
through the stimulus of the unnatural environment,
and they can be transferred to live boxes of cloth
floated in the sea, where they will fasten and start
growth. Professor Wilson also found that when
sponges in aquaria or tubs undergo partial decay
and degeneration, along the canals, on the surface
and about the central chambers are formed clusters
of cells that revert to a plasmodial condition. Hach
644 SWINE
such cluster is capable of reproducing the sponge,
similar to the natural “gemmules” of the fresh
water spongilla.
Quicker results in propagation are secured by
means of cuttings and grafts. Successful experi-
ments in raising sponges from cuttings were con-
ducted in 1903, by J. Percy Moore, under the
direction of the United States Fish Commission.
This method is, commercially, more practicable
than are the other methods.
Literature.
Bulletins of United States Fish Commission :
1897, p. 241; 1899, p. 149; 1900, Vol. 2, p. 875;
1902, p. 161; Science, Vol. XXV, p. 912.
SWINE. Sus scrofa, Linn. Suwide. Figs. 55-57,
290, 650-679.
In North America the hog has undergone a spe-
cial development, due in part to the existence of
abundance of maize and in part to the desire of
the people for fat pork. The English hog is likely
to be large-boned, long-bodied, flat-sided and rangy.
The American hog, in its typical development, is
small-boned, short, cylindrical and compact in
body, with short legs and flat or broad back, and
it is capable of maturing early and laying on an
enormous load of fat. The American hog is less a
question of breed than of feeding and manage-
ment. The Poland-China is an American breed,
however, embodying the American ideas of a well-
shaped fat-producing or lard hog. There are sey-
eral other American breeds, as described in the
subsequent pages. The Canadians have given much
attention to bacon-producing hogs, but swine-raisers
in the United states have given comparatively lit-
tle consideration to this type. [For a comparison of
the two types, see the score-card discussion on
pages 54, 55.]
Throughout the corn-belt, the fat or lard hog
attains the greatest perfection, and there it is
bred in enormous numbers. The practice has devel-
oped of producing hogs to “follow the cattle,”
which is to turn hogs in with cattle that are being
fed for beef in order that they may secure the
wasted and voided grain. Wherever beef animals
are corn-fed, therefore, hogs have come to be nat-
ural accompaniments.
Much has been said about the relation of breed
to economy of meat-production, and it may be well
to examine the subject. Probably the most exten-
sive experiments with breeds of swine have been
conducted by the Ontario Agricultural College
and the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.
At the Ontario Agricultural College, five experi-
ments were conducted in which six breeds of swine
were compared as to the cost of producing 100
pounds of gain in live weight. The average amount
of meal consumed for 100 pounds of gain, live
weight, in the five experiments is given in the
table, only the meal being considered. Such foods
as dairy by-products and green feed, which were
fed sometimes, were the same for all breeds, and
have been omitted to simplify the comparison :
SWINE
MEAL CONSUMED FOR ONE HUNDRED PounpDs GalIN,
Live WEIGHT
(Average of five experiments)
Berkshire «2 —.- 4 -1s—s-0 (eee 364.45 pounds
Yorkshire «6's 0 6 » 6 SOD ponnEES
Tamworth, so. (ca chen omcmeate 380.47 pounds
Durot-Jersey” 2s. eeeeees 384.23 pounds
Chester-White. . . .. . . . 387.89 pounds
Poland-China ..... . . . 391.42 pounds
Averages, however, are frequently misleading.
For example, in a certain experiment one breed
may suffer from some unfavorable circumstance
which is in no way related to, or influenced by, the
breeding of the animals, yet this circumstance may
seriously affect the records of the breed in ques-
tion. It is much more satisfactory, therefore, to
examine each experiment individually, and see
whether there is any constancy in the standing
of the breeds. The table given below shows the
breeds ranked in order of economy of gain for
each experiment : :
ONTARIO EXPERIMENTS
Breeds arranged in order of economy of produc-
tion.
First experiment | Second experiment} Third experiment
1. Berkshire 1. Berkshire 1. Yorkshire
2. Tamworth 2. Tamworth 2. Berkshire
3. Poland-China | 3. Poland-China | 3. Duroc-Jersey
4, Duroc-Jersey | 4. Chester-White | 4. {eae on
5. Chester-White} 5. Yorkshire ° wn,0
6. Yorkshire 6. Duroc-Jersey | 6. Poland-China
—~——— =
Fourth experiment Fifth experiment
1. Berkshire 1. Berkshire
2. Tamworth 2. Yorkshire
3. Yorkshire 3. Duroc-Jersey
4, Chester-White 4, Chester-White
5. Duroc-Jersey 5. Tamworth
6. Poland-China 6. Poland-China
Before any comment is made on these results, it
will be better to examine the Iowa experiments,
where three tests were made with the same si
breeds. ;
IowA EXPERIMENTS
Breeds arranged in order of economy of produc-
tion. ;
First experiment | Second experiment | Third experiment —
1. Duroc-Jersey | 1. Duroc-Jersey | 1. Yorkshire
2. Yorkshire 2. Yorkshire 2. Poland-China
3. Tamworth 8. Berkshire 3. Berkshire
4, Poland-China | 4. Poland-China | 4. Duroc-Jersey
5. Chester-White | 5. Chester-White | 5. Chester-White
6. Berkshire 6. Tamworth 6. Tamworth
sZoy ayy Jo spaatg “AIXX Id
reog OGM od1eT
SWINE
The results of these eight experiments make an
interesting contribution. A careful study of the
case can result in but one conclusion,—that econ-
omy of production is not a question of breed, but is
a matter of individuality. The hog that has consti-
tution and quality will make economical use of the
food it consumes, no matter to what breed it belongs.
To illustrate the fallacy of judging the relative
merits of different breeds as feeders, from the
results of experiments with breeds, attention may
be called to the fact that, if a man based his judg-
ment of the breeds on the results of the Ontario
experiments, he would arrive at an entirely differ-
ent conclusion from the man who drew his conclu-
sions from the Iowa experiments; and the man
who averaged the Ontario and the Iowa results
would make a still different arrangement of the
breeds. Or, if another person judged the rela-
tive feeding qualities of Yorkshires, Tamworths,
and Poland-Chinas from the average results of
Shaw’s two experiments with these breeds in Min-
nesota, he would reverse the standing of the Tam-
worths and Poland-Chinas as given in the Iowa
experiments. It may be possible that some breeds
contain more animals of high merit as feeders than
do others, but experimental work has not yet dem-
onstrated which breeds these are. A breed that
might be best in one place or under one set of
conditions, might not be so good under other con-
ditions. Therefore, so far as experiments go, it
has never been demonstrated that any one breed
excels all others in point of economical use of food.
Breed experiments have demonstrated that hogs of
bacon type are capable of making as cheap gains
as hogs of the fat or lard type. This fact has been
a surprise, since it is contrary to established beliefs
and prejudices; but it stands out more promi-
nently than any other point in the comparisons
that have been made.
SWINE 645
The best hog-raiser is the one who most critically
chooses a breed as a starting-point, and then feeds
and manages a drove most consistently.
The Yearbook of the United States Department
of Agriculture for 1906, gives the number and
farm-value of swine in the United States and in the
seven leading states (all with a farm-value above
$20,000,000), on January 1, 1907, as follows :
Number Farm value
United States . . 54,794,489 $417,791,321
NOW. -Sasthusaiatest co 8,584,500 81,552,750
TN inoisi sitar ee 4,449,705 37,377,522
Nebraska. .... 4,080,000 35,496,000
MISSOUTINN seco cure 3,454,950 24,530,145
InGheMme, 5 5 Gg 9 0 2,924,879 23,399,032
NENRES 6 6 4 6 6a 2,561,200 21,001,840
Ohiowemes seins) es 2,436,797 20,108,575
The same yearbook gives the number exported
for the year ended June 30, 1867, as 3,577, with a
value of $40,092 ; for the year ended June 30, 1906,
59,170, with a value of $680,998.
Again, the number of swine in Canada is given
in the same yearbook as follows:
(CWanadaimenia nemo tentstie 2,875,692
New Brunswick . . . . 1905 55,000
Ontariowie--eciiciie-iite 1906 1,819,778
WEI, 6 5 od a 6 6 1906 200,509
Saskatchewan ..... 1906 128,916
MADOrtAYD Senpeyncibsmeey ics se 1906 114,623
Other 1901 561,866
The Canada Yearbook for 1905, gives the num-
ber of swine killed or sold in 1901, as 2,555,413.
It gives the value of swine in Canada, for the same
year, as $16,445,702, and the total number as
17,922,658.
In regard to the exports of hog products, the
1906 Yearbook of the United States Department
of Agriculture, gives the following figures :
1902 1906
Quantity: Wale nae Value
Lei 6 .6°°6 Vals gacaecrec een Caen 556,840,222 $52,375,864 741,516,886 $60,132,091
ALdECOMPOUNGS, Gs <2, 6) cts) =< ots 36,201,744 2,687,653 67,621,310 4,154,183
Pork
RICCS Wr aewe ce turepreshicpatey toils: ae fal. ewe 8 44,171,674 3,652,464 13,444,438 1,261,412
Cured :
BaGOR + 608 Sood geome OMieone 383,150,624 35,449,797 361,210,563 35,845,793
LFGHARS GG Galo IC NBIIOMO MCHEED GURenECH eae 227,653,232 25,222,744 194,267,949 20,075,511
Naltedior pickled) 4 2 2 ss) = = 2. = 115,896,275 10,117,562 141,820,720 11,681,634
Rotalicured mrirewrcurs a lawee cues 726,700,131 70,790,103 697,299,232 67,602,938
Seine Umm eur cee Per Ue Met sac teye) ce ils fists aty 9,603,882 832,910 12,699,800 1,215,857
BR Obalyporkeyen wrciiiel sel) ‘sptcn ests) 'at 780,475,687 75,275,477 723,443,470 70,080,207
Sausage and sausage meat ....... 7,137,297 726,437 7,926,786 881,686
These various figures seem to confirm the general
American experience to the effect that the empha-
sis on feeding, to which so much attention is given,
is not misplaced. It is not wise for the hog-raiser
to ignore breeds, but he must not depend wholly on
the breed for the production of desired results.
Further statistics may be found in the Twelfth
Census Reports, but these animals breed so rapidly
and are likely to fluctuate so much that figures
eight or nine years old may not express the present
facts. The Canada Yearbook for 1905, gives the
following figures on exports of hog products :
646 SWINE
1902 1905
Bacontemeieatemteinahe: vox ts $12,162,953 | $12,194,458
Hampitjemanreaicmetss 4 240,840 321,501
letidies Geo eo. & acene 54,070 188,194
Liard oan tcmiirelas: (i sire 22,186 110,540
Literature.
The following books may be consulted for addi-
tional information on swine: F. D. Cobourn, Swine
Husbandry, New York (1888); John Coleman, Cat-
tle, Sheep and Pigs of Great Britain, London (1887);
John A. Craig, Judging Live-Stock, College Station,
Texas (1904); George W. Curtis, Horses, Cattle,
Sheep and Swine, College Station, Texas (1888);
George E. Day, Swine, Agricultural College, Guelph,
Canada (1905); Joseph Harris, Harris on the Pig,
New York (1870); James Long, The Book of the Pig,
London; David Low, On the Domesticated Animals
of the British Islands, London (1842); Charles S§.
Plumb, Types an Breeds of Farm Animals, College
of Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio (1906); J. H. San-
ders, The Breeds of Live Stock, Chicago (1887);
Thomas Shaw, The Study of Breeds in America,
New York (1900); S. M. Shepard, The Hog in
America, Indianapolis (1896); Samuel Sidney, The
Pig, London (1871); Sanders Spencer, Pigs : Breeds
and Management, London (1897); Robert Wallace,
Farm Live-Stock of Great Britain, Edinburgh
(1907); Various Writers, The Best Breeds of Brit-
ish Stock, London (1898); William Youatt, and
W. C. L. Martin, The Hog, New York (1868); F. D.
Coburn, Swine in America.
INDEX TO SWINE ARTICLES
‘Page
Origin of Domestic Swine .. . 2.2.5... 646
Lard- and Bacon-production .......+.+.- 647
HUG ME hre OWS 6 6 goo 6 o 66 5 06 6 649
Determining the Age of Swine ......... 653
Common Ailments of Swine. .......... 653
LE! God o A oo Goo Og oS 6 658
Cheshire Swinere cartel fist eaten raitat cris ects mie 660
Chester-WhiteSwine® (2). « \-) elie) sit) a) ce eeieeine 661
IDOL SINE IG Gio ba oo nob oe SG 663
MSsex-/S winless) le ares america citonl ch Meme a eons TRS 666
Hampshire or Thin Rind Swine ......... 667
Large Yorkshire or Large White Swine. . . .. . 669
Poland-China:‘Swine).. ss) iss su cae tel levine’ sv uke 671
Small Yorkshire or Small White Swine. ..... 674
Suffolk iSwinew <)7eovaurseecuncl ce ules state bite 675
Tamworth Swine: .: oc)... ope ls im (el poe ne renee 676
Victoria Swine: 2:4: cusceatemes ect mle mente nem meta 678
Miscellaneous Breeds of Swine ........ .679
Origin of Domestic Swine. Figs. 650-652.
Swine belong to the natural family Suwide,
mostly of tropical countries, which is represented
by several genera, of which the chief is Sus. The
exact zoological origin of the domestic hog is not
clearly made out. It is generally considered to
have descended from the wild boar, Sus serofa (Fig.
650), of Europe, North Africa and Asia. It is
likely, however, that an Indian species (probably
SWINE
Sus cristatus or S. Indicus) has entered into the
evolution of the domestic forms.
Hog-like animals of other genera inhabit many —
parts of the world, as the babirussa of East India
(Fig. 651), the little peccaries (Fig. 652) of South
America (ranging also as far North as southern
Arizona and Texas) and the only close relatives of
swine indigenous to the American continent, the
warthog of South Africa. None of these swine-like
animals appear to haye been domesticated, although
tamability and fecundity in confinement seem to be —
characteristic of most of the group.
Pe ~ Z =
Fig. 650. Wild bear (Sus scrofa).
The hog seems to have come into domestication
in the Orient, but the animal is now widespread,
with many variations that adapt it readily to very
various conditions. It tends to run wild in mild
climates, as exhibited in the razorbacks of our
southern states. Although very widely domesti-
cated from earliest times, the hog is not eaten by
some important races or religions of people, as the
Jews, Egyptians and Mohammedans. The hog yields
hides that produce very tough and resistant leather,
but it is grown only for its flesh, in this respect
differing from all other domestic animals.
The wild boar (Sws scrofa) still exists in central
and southern Europe and in Asia; it is extinct in
Great Britain. From the earliest times it has been
a much-sought game animal, the boar hunt being
one of the leading diversions of royalty and nobility.
It is a fierce and swift animal, larger than the do-
mestic swine. It sometimes stands over three feet
high, and will weigh 250 pounds, which is heavy
weight for a swine-like animal that is not fat. The
wild boar is grayish black or iron-gray or brownish,
when mature, but spotted and striped when young.
The male becomes shaggy, with a heavy crest or
mane along the forward part. When young, the
male follows the sow and the litter, but after three
or four years roams alone, developing in ferocity,
and attacking dogs and men when pursued. The
great tusks are formidable weapons. The boar in-
habits mostly low forests, where it roots up the
ground in furrows.
Domestication has greatly modified the hog. It
has become docile, although old boars may be vic-
ious when aroused. The most marked development
has been in the great ability to lay on flesh. So
far has this gone, that, in some cases, the legs will
barely support the animal and it is practically
incapable of locomotion to any extent. The head
and snout have become refined and modified and
+
SWINE
changed in shape; the color varies from white to
brown-red and black ; the size from 150 pounds to
as much as 900 pounds when mature and fat. Hogs
are now slaughtered before they have reached full
age, and the demand has changed somewhat from
fat pork to lean bacon and hams.
The hog is a non-perspiring animal (in the sense
in which horses and men perspire). It wallows in
water and mud to keep itself cool. In the hot mid-
continental hog regions it is generally considered
that wallows for hogs are necessary, but in other
regions they need not be provided, particularly if
groves or woods are accessible. The hog is usually
considered to be a dirty or unclean animal in its
habits, but this habit is due mostly to the way in
which the animals are kept. Hogs would be clean
if given an opportunity. The modern hoghouse
plans for thoroughly cleanly and sanitary quarters
(Vol. 1, p. 260).
The male of the swine is known as a boar; the
female, as asow. A young pig, particularly after
weaning, is a shoat or shote; a castrated animal
is a barrow. A young sow is sometimes known
as a gilt. In North America, the common gen-
eric term for all these animals is hog; in England
pig seems to be preferred. In America, pig: is
generally used for a young hog.
Swine are variously classified, according to color,
size or utility. The classification by color has not
been popular, but either of the other two may be
said to be accepted. A classification based on
utility—the production of lard or bacon—would
seem to be the more rational; but even this clas-
sification is unsatisfactory, as some breeds are
useful for both purposes. On this utility basis we
have the American fat- or lard-hog type, embrac-
ing the Berkshire, Chester-White, Cheshire, Duroc-
Jersey, Essex, Poland-China, Small Yorkshire,
Suffolk and Victoria; and the bacon type, em-
bracing the Large Yorkshire and Tamworth. If
we classify the breeds according to size, we
would have: (1) Large breeds: Chester - White,
Ui
a
HAN Hh "4
way
\ vn Mi
Fig.651. The Babirussa (Babirussa alfurus). Adapted
from Brehm.
Large Yorkshire, Tamworth. (2) Medium breeds:
Berkshire, Cheshire, Duroc-Jersey, Hampshire, Po-
land-China, Victoria. (3) Small breeds: Essex,
Small Yorkshire, Suffolk.
Interature.
For references, see page 646.
SWINE 647
Lard- and Bacon-production.
By M. W. Harper.
Of late years, pork-production has become some-
what diversified, and, as a result, we have two
kinds of hogs, the lard hog and the bacon hog, the
former noted for its natural heavy fat-production,
the latter for its liberal admixture of lean with
fat. In general appearance, the lard hog should be
species are native in South America.
compact, with a thick, deep body, short head, broad
back, strong hams, short legs, and plenty of quality
as shown in abundance and fineness of hair, strong
bone and joints. The temperament should be mild,
yet active, for the disposition has much to do with
determining whether the animal is a desirable
breeder or feeder. Size and weight have a bearing
on the market price for pigs of this type, and at
the present time the average weight of pigs sold
on the market ranges about two hundred and
twenty-five pounds. With the bacon hog, the back
is not so broad, the sides are longer, the shoulder
smoother, the ham lighter and the leg somewhat
longer. The general flesh covering is much less
fat than with the lard type. The weight of the
bacon hog most acceptable in the market is 180 to
190 pounds live weight, although 200 pounds is not
excessive. The larger hog is not approved in the
bacon- producing sections of this country, the
smaller being preferred. Denmark, Ireland and
Canada furnish much of the bacon of today. In
describing the type most desired, the Ingersoll Pack-
ing Company of Canada says that the packer calls
for the long, lean pig, as it is the one that suits best.
It is the most difficult to procure, but is the only
kind that will furnish the desired “Wiltshire sides;”
and it will also make any of the other cuts the
market calls for. [See page 54, 55.] :
Factors in lard- and bacon-production.
The differences in type have been brought about
in part by climatic conditions, which control the
kind of food with which the pork has been pro-
duced, and in part by market requirements.
Throughout the dairy districts of northeastern
United States and in Canada, the bacon type can
be produced at a handsome profit, due in part to
the fact that bacon-producing foods can be grown
more cheaply than lard-producing foods, and in
part to the fact that there is a better market for
the bacon type than for the lard type. This is
648 SWINE
especially true of Canadian bacon, which is ex-
ported to England in large quantities. The ques-
tion of a better market is very important, for hogs
fed to produce a large percentage of lean meat, to
be profitable, must sell for at least ten per cent
more than the current prices. The eastern and the
English markets, which are very discriminating,
recognize this and pay the difference for a good
product. On the other hand, throughout the corn-
belt we have every condition favorable to the pro-
duction of the lard hog. As long as corn can be
produced as cheaply, compared with other crops, as
at present, it must remain the great pork-producing
food. Corn makes pork of fine quality and great
firmness if properly fed. Since it is a highly car-
bonaceous food, it must be supplemented with
some food rich in protein if the best results are to
be obtained. It is against the abuse of corn and
not the use of corn, that we should contend, for if
pork-production is to continue one of the leading
industries, a large part of the product must con-
tinue to be the result of feeding corn. Since corn
is the great fat- or lard-producer, we have the lard-
belt almost co-extensive with the corn-belt. It is
well to bear in mind, also, that many packers
in the West pay more for the fat or lard hog than
for the bacon hog. This is not because they expect
higher prices for lard, but because a high price for
salt pork is paid for that which is thick, heavy
and nearly free from lean meat.
Among the qualities necessary for first-class
bacon, none is of greater importance than firmness.
A tendency to softness or tenderness is quite suffi-
cient to rate bacon at second-class prices, and if
this softness is at all pronounced, to make it alto-
gether unsalable at a profit.
Before we can discuss intelligently the production
of “firm” and “soft” bacon or pork, it is necessary
to ascertain the difference in composition between
them. We find that the fats of meat are made up
essentially of olein,—a fluid fat at ordinary tem-
peratures,—and palmatin and stearin,—solid fats
at ordinary temperatures. Hence, we conjecture
that the percentage of olein would be greater in
the fat of soft than of firm pork. The Central Ex-
perimental Farm of Canada made some experiments
to determine this matter, and found such to be the
case—the soft fat containing a relatively higher
percentage of olein and the firm fat a relatively
higher percentage of palmatin and stearin. These
experiments indicate that not only is there a close
relationship between the consistency of a fat and
its composition, but also that the food hasa marked
effect on the composition and hence on the consist-
ency or relative firmness. The oil of certain foods
possesses more of the fluid fats, while the oil of
other foods possesses more of the solid fats, which
find their way in part through the animal economy
into the body fats. Again, the fat of very young
pigs, of pigs that have made a rapid growth, and
of pigs that have made an unhealthy growth, is
softer than of finished pigs that have increased
steadily in weight. As yet no exact standard of
firmness has been established ; that is, it cannot be
said exactly what percentage of olein is to be con-
SWINE
sidered as the limit for pork that may be said
to be firm. ;
Market rating of American bacon.
Since our lard pork has a world-wide market, it
need receive no comment here; but since most of
the bacon finds its way to England, it might be
well to point out some of the peculiarities of the
English market. England is the great bacon
market, and procures most of this product from
Denmark, Ireland, Canada and the United States.
One fact worthy of consideration is that of these
four countries, the bacon from the United States sells
for less per pound than that from the other three
countries. During the seventeen years for which
we have figures regarding Danish bacon, the valu-
ation per hundred pounds has been less than eleven
dollars in only three years. In the years 1893 and
1901, it was more than thirteen dollars. On the
other hand, during the same period, in only three
years has the bacon from the United States had a
valuation of more than nine dollars per hundred
pounds. In no year has it sold up to the average
valuation per hundred pounds for the total imports
of bacon to the United Kingdom.
There are, perhaps, three general causes of this
condition. First, as these figures would seem to
indicate, the Danish bacon is no doubt a finer
product than that produced in the United States.
Second, there is a more constant demand for the
Danish bacon in the English markets. Third, be-
cause the Danes do furnish regularly the better
bacon, they supply the finer trade. It is evident
that the English people buy American bacon be-
cause it is in abundance and cheap in price, and
they pay for it only when forced to do so by the
small amount and the high price of the Danish
bacon.
An example.
The methods of producing Danish bacon may be
of interest. Mr. J. H. Ginge, manager of the Cana-
dian Packing Company, of London, Ontario, and
others who have made a study of Danish methods,
report that the Danish farmers select long, lean
sows from the best mothers, more especially of
white color. Pork-packing corporations bring in
the right sort of boars, which are often of the
Middle or Large English Yorkshire breed, as these
produce the best English bacon. The finest Danish
bacon is made by feeding the right sort of pigs on
barley and rye, with boiled potatoes, raw turnips
cut fine, skimmed milk, buttermilk and grass in
summer and roots in winter. The young pigs are
allowed to run about and grow without putting
on much fat from the time they are weaned till
within six or eight weeks of the time they are
to go to market. A finished Danish bacon pig
ranges from 180 to 225 pounds in weight. It is a
long, lean hog with plump, well-developed hams,
thick, straight belly, and fat on back not exceed-
ing one and one-half inches in thickness. The Dan-
ish hog is raised largely on dairy-farms, but many
small lots are raised and fed by peasants or labor-
ing men. As arule, the grain fed is ground and
SWINE
soaked over night, mixed with other foods and
given to the hogs when on the point of turning
sour. The hogs are never fed more than is eaten
up clean at each meal.
Literature.
For references, see page 646.
The Feeding of Swine. Figs. 653-657.
By W. J. Kennedy, Wayne Dinsmore and J. A.
McLean.
The question of swine-feeding engages the atten-
tion of persons in practically all parts of the
civilized world. In some places farmers engage in
the industry as a specialty ; in others, only enough
pigs are reared to utilize the wastes of the farm;
* while in the American corn-belt, the hog is used to
utilize that part of the grain ration which escapes
the digestive organs of the cattle. In many coun-
tries in which dairy-farming is followed as the
chief occupation, pigs are reared and fed in con-
siderable numbers as an auxiliary industry. While
several different methods of feeding and manage-
ment are pursued with good results, certain prin-
ciples in common are recognized as forming the
basis of the work. These will be treated under
four different heads or divisions, namely: the
breeding boar, the breeding sow and young pigs,
finishing the lard or fat hog, and finishing the
bacon hog.
The breeding boar.
The food of the boar should be varied somewhat
in accordance with his age and the season of the
year. Young boars should be fed more concen-
trated food than should mature animals. During
the breeding season, the boar should be fed more
liberally and on a more nutritious ration than dur-
ing that part of the year when not used for ser-
vice. At all times the food of the boar should be
varied, of a nutritious nature, and, in the case of
grown animals, moderately bulky. It is especially
important that some form of succulent food be
supplied throughout the entire year. Where grass
Fig. 653.
Pig-feeding scene in middle West.
is not available, such foods as roots or finely cut
clover or alfalfa leaves during the winter, and
green food of some kind during the summer, should
always be fed in addition to the grain ration. The
SWINE 645
grain ration should be composed of foods rather
rich in protein and of a cooling nature, as foods
rich in carbonaceous matter tend to produce obes-
ity and a heated condition of the digestive organs,
Fig. 654.
Colony houses and pens in the West.
both of which are detrimental to any sires, often-
times causing sterility
Of the various kinds of grain, finely ground oats
are perhaps the most desirable for the bulk of the
ration. The addition of wheat middlings in the
case of a young boar, or wheat bran in the case of
a mature animal, to the extent of one-third to one-
half of the ration by weight, added to the oats,
makes a most useful combination. Skimmed milk
may be fed to good advantage, especially to young
boars. For the purpose of furnishing bulk, variety
and succulence during the winter months, some
second-crop clover or alfalfa hay, cut up finely,
soaked in warm water and mixed with the grain
ration, gives excellent results. The boar should
not be overfed, but given just what he will eat up
clean. By all means, the feeder should avoid hav-
ing the boar fat, as it is just as injurious as
to have him too thin. Regular exercise should be
given throughout the entire year. This can usu-
ally be furnished through the medium of a grass
lot in the summer and a small yard adjoining the
pen during the winter months.
The feeding and management of breeding sows and
young pigs.
Breeding sows are kept for their present or pros-
pective value as pig-producers. Their manage-
ment and feeding is purely a business proposition.
Irregular breeders, sows that produce but few pigs
at birth, or sows whose pigs are not of high excel-
lence as individuals, should be weeded out as soon
as possible. Sows that are not in themselves good
representatives of the type sought, and that are
not descended from prolific ancestry, should not be
taken into the herd as breeding sows.
In the practical management of sows, or sows
and pigs, health is of primary importance. Sun-
light should have access to all parts of the hog
sheds or shelters. With sunshine, good ventilation
and thorough cleanliness must be provided. All
sleeping quarters, feeding floors, troughs and shel-
ters frequented by the pigs should be disinfected
once a month with some good disinfectant. The
coal tar or other good disinfectants should be used
freely by means of a good barrel spray-pump.
Careful study will enable any intelligent owner or
herdsman to keep his herd in a healthy condition,
650 SWINE
and every hog-raiser should keep in touch with
sources of information, such as the agricultural
experiment stations and the national department
of agriculture.
In feeding breeding sows, the aim should he to
supply the nutrients needed for maintenance or
growth, and such additional food nutrients as may
be required for the pigs in utero or nursing, as the
case may be. Good pasture (blue-grass, clover or
alfalfa) is the cheapest feed, and furnishes the
elements most needed to build a strong, bony
framework and a well-developed muscular system.
In the southern states, cowpea and soybean pasture °
fill the place that is occupied by clover in the
Fig. 655. Concrete hoghouse.
central states and by alfalfa in the central-western
and far western states. In most of the northern
states, clover or alfalfa can be grown, and where
these are not regularly grown the Canadian field-
pea fills the same place, and, with blue-grass,—
often known as June-grass—must form the chief
pasture feed. The sows should have access to pas-
ture for as much of the time as weather conditions
will permit. In practically all localities south of
the forty-second parallel of latitude, they can be
permitted to range at will on winter pastures, ex-
cept during the stormiest days of winter, which
are few.
If sows are to produce but one litter per year,
this should come about the first of March; when
two litters are to be produced, the second litter
should come early in September. Sows should be
in fair flesh and gaining well about the time they
are to be bred, for conception is then more certain.
The period of pregnancy is 112 to 116 days. This
makes it possible to have the sows on pasture (in
all districts south of the forty-second parallel) dur-
ing both periods when they are to be bred.
In feeding sows that are to produce but one lit-
ter per year, one must see to it that their pigs are
weaned by the first of August. Young sows that
have never produced pigs should receive, from the
time they are weaned until they are of age to
breed, about one-half ration of grain; and the
mixtures recommended later for young growing
pigs are the right ones for these young sows on
SWINE
pasture. Mature sows need nothing except good
pasture during August and September. In Octo-
ber, some corn—about two pounds per head—
should be given to these sows on pasture to in-
crease their gains. After the sows (young and
mature) are bred, the feeder should return them
to pasture and continue to feed some grain, pref-
erably corn and oats in equal parts by weight.
About three or four pounds of this grain should be
allowed to 300- or 400-pound sows until late in
December. Then the feeder must begin feeding
ground corn, 2 parts, ground oats, 2 parts, and
bran, 1 part. If corn is not available, barley or
wheat may be substituted in its place. When the
feeds named are not available, selection can
be made from the following rations: corn
7 parts, tankage 1 part; corn 2 parts, cow-
peas 1 part; barley 2 parts, Canadian field-
peas 1 part; corn 2 parts, shorts 2 parts ;
corn 2 parts, fine alfalfa 2 parts; corn 3
parts, soybeans 1 part.
All these rations are to be mixed by
weight. All are improved if mixed well with
skimmed milk. Of these mixtures, about five
or six pounds per head should be allowed
daily. This grain should be fed dry or ina
very stiff slop, and pasture allowed. In the
northern states and Canada, where the se-
verity of the winter prevents pasturing,
the sows should have all the good bright
clover, alfalfa or pea hay that they will eat,
and daily exercise is essential. Even when
sows are closely housed, as in the North,
every pregnant sow should be obliged in
some way to walk half a mile every day. Lack
of exercise is certain to lead to trouble at farrow-
ing time, either with the sows or pigs.
Pregnant sows are liable to constipation, and
this is likely to lead to a feverish condition at time
of parturition. They should therefore be closely
watched, and the bowels regulated by supplying
more bulky feed, such as fine alfalfa or clover hay,
or better still, more wheat bran.
When the sow is due to farrow she should have
a dry, comfortable stall or pen with but little bed-
ding in it. The pigs should be removed as fast as
they are born and placed in a basket or barrel on
some dry straw. A blanket may be thrown par-
tially over the top of the basket or barrel to keep in
the heat, but care must be taken to permit access
of air or the pigs will smother before the attend-
ant is aware of it. At the end of three-quarters of
an hour, the young pigs may be allowed to nurse,
then returned to the barrel for two hours, when
they may nurse again and then be left with the
sow. The owner or attendant must be present to
give close attention to sow and pigs as indicated,
or success cannot be expected.
For the first twenty-four hours after the pigs
are born, the sow should receive no feed. All the
lukewarm water she will drink may be allowed,
. but nothing more. After this she may be started
on a light ration of + ground corn, } ground oats,
and 4 shorts, mixed with skimmed milk, using 3
to 5 pounds of milk to one of grain. This may be
SWINE
gradually increased until by the end of ten days
the sow is receiving all of this slop she will con-
sume. This should be continued for at least two
months.
Other grain rations that can be substituted for
the one given above are:
In southern states.—Corn 3, cowpeas 2 parts.
Corn 2, cowpeas 1 part, mixed with skimmed milk.
Corn 3, soybeans 1 part. Corn 5, tankage 1 part.
In far western states.—Barley 1, oats 1, shorts
1 part. Barley 1, shorts 1 part.
In far northern states and Canada.—Barley 2,
peas 1, shorts 1 part. Barley 3, peas 1 part. Bar-
ley 1, oats 1, shorts 1 part.
All of the above rations are improved by mix-
ing with skimmed milk. The grain should be ground
for sows suckling young pigs. Numerous other
grain rations could be suggested, but those given
are thoroughly satisfactory, usually as cheap as
any, and apply to practically all parts of the United
States and Canada. No matter which of the above
rations is chosen, the sow should be allowed all she
will eat, and should also be put on good pasture as
soon as possible. The pigs should be given a little
of the feed in a small trough of their own, by the
time they are three weeks old. They will soon learn
to eat, and may then be allowed all they will con-
sume. Any of the grain mixtures recommended for
the sows nursing pigs will do for the young pigs,
for in feeding the sow we are merely feeding the
pigs through the dam.
The pigs must also be kept dry for a week or
two, and allowed plenty of exercise. This, with
abundant feed, is all they need. As soon as sows
and pigs are on good pasture, much less grain feed —
will be required, but the practice of allowing them
all they will eat should be followed until they are
at least three months old, for the gains made
when the pigs are young are very much cheaper
than any made thereafter. After the pigs are of
this age, if feeds are high priced, they should be
Fig. 656.
Overlay of plank on cement floor.
made to depend largely on good pasture, and the
grain ration should be cut down to about half of
what the pigs would eat. If feeds are cheap, the
policy of full-feeding may be continued until the
SWINE 651
pigs are weaned, which will usually be when the
pigs are about four or five months old.
When two litters per year are to be raised, the
pigs must be weaned when they are about six
weeks old, to permit the sow to flesh up for a
couple of weeks before re-breeding. If this is not
done, it will seldom be possible to breed the sow
as promptly as she should be bred. Pigs weaned at
so early an age must be very liberally fed.
Success in managing and feeding breeding sows
or young pigs lies in keeping them healthy at all
times, and in supplying them with an abundance
of food, which will build up bones and muscles.
Feeds lacking in protein and ash will not do, and
the rations given are those which supply an abun-
dance of the needed elements. Good pasture is one
of the cheapest and one of the best feeds.
Finishing the lard hog.
In the corn-belt area of America, where corn is
the chief part of the ration, hogs are used to fol-
low the fattening steers, gleaning from their drop-
pings the undigested food which would otherwise
be wasted. From this source comes a large part of
the food of the fat hogs of the market. They are
given the same run as the cattle, and usually given
the same amount of shelter, although in the milder
parts of the country, where the winters are open
and where the only shelter provided for the steers
is a windbreak, there should be provided for the
swine a shelter from the rain and snow by a tem-
porary roof beneath which a dry sleeping-place is
assured.
The manner of feeding these pigs is determined
largely by the form in which the corn is fed to the
steers and by the quantity and nature of the sup-
plementary feed-stuffs that enter into the ration.
The corn is usually fed to the steers as ear corn,
chopped corn, shelled corn, soaked shelled corn,
corn meal or corn-and-cob meal. The most corn is
available for the pigs if shelled corn forms the
ration for the steers; the steers consume more
corn when it is fed in this form, eating it more
rapidly, so that it is less perfectly masticated and
more of it passes from the body unaltered. Soak-
ing the corn from one feeding time to the next
softens the corn so that less mastication is required,
and results in a more nearly perfect digestion, so
that much less corn is found in the droppings for
the pigs. Grinding the corn for the steers has a
result similar to soaking, but with the difference
that what corn is found in the excreta, being in a
much finer physical condition, is less perfectly
gleaned by the swine, while they must work more
diligently to get it. Grinding the cob with the corn
insures a more complete digestion than of the corn
meal alone, with the consequence that the swine
following can secure but scant rations from the
droppings. The addition of various supplementary
foods containing a high percentage of digestible
proteids has a marked effect on the utilization of
the carbonaceous part of the ration, thus reducing
to a minimum the available nutrients in the excreta
when fed in conjunction with the ‘less wasteful
‘forms of corn.
652 SWINE
When shelled corn alone forms the ration, the
preferable practice is to place after the steers an
equal number of pigs of about six months of age.
They should be fed one-fourth to one-third of a
pound of tankage per day, or its available proteid
equivalent, in the form of a thin slop, to produce
the maximum utilization of the excreted corn.
During the first few months of feeding, no other
concentrate need be added, but under such manage-
ment, as the pigs approach ripeness they will prac-
tically cease to make gains, and they will not
thoroughly glean the corn from the droppings. For
the last four or five weeks, therefore, they should
be taken from the steer lots and fed as much corn
as they will take per day, while in their place
younger pigs should be placed after the steers.
——
Baa
SSK SAY
=; LAX J\
Fig. 657.
Movable cot for use in fields.
When the amount of food available for the swine
is lessened by narrowing the ration, by grinding
the corn or by the use of corn-and-cob meal, addi-
tional corn should be supplied from the very be-
ginning, varying from one and one-half to three
pounds per head per day, according to the maturity
of the pigs. As before, during the last weeks they
should be removed entirely from the steer lot. It
has been abundantly proved that for economic
results from pigs following steers in dry lots, some
nitrogenous concentrate should be fed, and that for
the finishing period corn must be given in addition
to that in the excreta. When hogs follow steers
on pasture they will make slightly more economic
gains when the only source of protein is the pas-
turage. As in dry-lot feeding, the pigs should be
closely yarded during the final weeks, receiving a
ration of corn and tankage, meat meal or shorts,
forming a nutritive ratio of 1:7.
By far the greatest number of hogs are fitted
for market during the summer and early fall
months. During the summer the requirements for
shelter, maintenance and labor are least, while gains
are greatest and cheapest at this period of the
year. Of these summer-fed pigs, much the greater
SWINE
per cent are fattened on pasture. It is found that
pigs fed corn alone on blue-grass pasture make
equally as great gains as pigs fed in dry lot ona
ration balanced with the most suitable proteid-rich
foods. However, clover or alfalfa pasture gives
much greater gains than a timothy or blue-grass
pasture, when corn alone is fed in conjunction. In
fact, corn alone on an abundant clover pasture
forms almost an ideal ration, excelling a ration of
corn and shorts in parts two to one, and almost
equaling a ration balanced with tankage or meat
meal in rapidity of gains, while it excels all other
rations on pasturage when both rate and economy
of gains are considered. On pastures other than
leguminous ones, it is desirable to use with corn a
nitrogenous concentrate. Meat meal, tankage or
oil-meal are very desirable foods for this purpose.
Meat meal or tankage are most profitably used in
the proportion of 1:10 by weight, although slightly
greater gains arise from a proportion of 1:5. Oil-
meal, having a deleterious effect on the quality of
the fats, should not be be used in the last weeks of
finishing. Gluten feed, being in itself a corn by-
product, and deficient in palatability, is not well
suited for the purpose; shorts are not sufficiently
rich in protein to give the most profitable results,
while wheat bran is too coarse and bulky.
Feeding pigs in the dry lot in the summer markedly
increases the cost of production. In dry lots the
pigs require more concentrates per hundred pounds
gain, are less thrifty, and make noticeably less
gains. Under these conditions, the influence of
adding protein to the ration is greater than on
pasture. The most advantageous rations in dry-
lot feeding but slightly excel the feeding of
corn alone on timothy pasture, from the stand-
point of rate of production, and it is much
more costly at all times.
Care must be exercised in the preparation of
food for swine. Coarse, bulky foods never give
satisfactory results ; as a consequence, the use of
wheat bran, corn-and-cob meal, oat feed or gluten
feed is not recommended. When corn is finally
ground, or soaked from one feeding time to the
next, there is a more thorough digestion. Coarsely
ground corn, especially if it is dry, is poorly util-
ized. Practically all rations should be mixed and
soaked at least twelve hours, while all utensils
must be kept sweet.
Winter feeding does not differ essentially from
dry-lot feeding during the summer, except that
more feed is required per hundred pounds gain.
Much of the winter feeding consists in following
after steers, which method has been described
already.
Finishing the bacon hog.
Throughout North America, bacon hogs are pro-
duced chiefly in Canada and parts of those regions
of the United States outside the corn-belt. While
considerable bacon is manufactured in the United
States, much of it is from fat-hog sides and is an
inferior quality of meat. There is, however, some
feeding of hogs for bacon practiced in the more
eastern, the northern and the mountain states,
SWINE
where the food-stuffs are adapted to this purpose
rather than to the production of the fat hog.
In the bacon hog only a moderate degree of fat-
ness is desired, not exceeding an inch in thickness
along the spinal column. The fat and lean must
be nicely interspersed. But even more essential
than the quantity of fat is the quality of it. In
bicon production, a common source of trouble
arises from the softness of the sides. There is a
certain firmness to the fat, a freedom from greasi-
ness and softness which is absolutely essential in
No. 1 bacon. This quality is never secured in
bacon made from the sides of fat hogs, nor can it
be secured where, in feeding, the methods used are
similar to those used in feeding fat hogs; neither
is the desired quality found in pigs that are car-
ried to extreme weights. The pigs must be mark-
eted between 180 and 220 pounds, after having
been fed in a careful manner, if the bacon is to be
of the highest grade.
In the production of bacon the feeds entering
into the ration must be carefully chosen. Some of
the feed-stuffs used for pork-production can be
used but sparingly, if at all, for bacon. The use of
corn in the proportion larger than one-third of the
ration is almost certain to produce softness. Feed-
ing rye or beans exclusively produces similar
results. Even an over-abundance of green forage
tends to produce a softness in the bacon. The
feeds uséd most largely and successfully are bar-
ley, peas, oats, shorts and skimmed milk, and these
feeds give best results when mixed rather than
when used alone. Although “Canada pea-fed bacon”
has had considerable reputation of late years, peas
have been a small factor in feeding operations.
When used alone they give dry, rather hard, fla-
vorless bacon. Barley is the feed most used. It
should be ground or soaked twenty-four hours; it
can be fed alone, but gives better results if a
small quantity of peas, oil-meal, tankage or finely
ground oats is added. Oats are objected to because
of their hulls, which for younger pigs necessitates
sieving them; with larger pigs careful grinding
makes them usable.
Bacon is usually a production of dairy districts,
where skimmed milk is always available. Skimmed
milk makes an excellent feed, and if supplied in
the proportion of 3 to 5 of milk to 1 of meal gives
the very best results both in gain and in quality of
meat.
Summer feeding on pasture of clover, alfalfa or
rape supplies the greater quantity of bacon. Less
skimmed milk is required on such pastures, and a
protein-rich supplement is not required. One of
shorts to two of barley with skimmed milk makes
one of the most satisfactory rations. In the north-
ern states there is a greater use of shorts, corn and
of small or spoiled wheat. One of corn to two of
shorts, or a ration solely of damaged wheat, gives
satisfactory results. In Colorado, some bacon is
produced on peas alone, gleaned in the field, but so
little has been done that conclusions can not be
drawn.
Winter feeding is approximately 25 per cent
more costly. The succulence supplied by the pas-
SWINE 653
tures must be furnished by mangels or sugar-beets,
while more tankage, blood meal, oil meal or skim-
med milk must be used to balance the ration.
Literature.
For references, see page 646.
Determining the Age of Swine.
By H. H. Wing.
While swine have two sets of teeth, temporary
and permanent, as in the other domestic animals,
the dentition is so irregular as to be of little service
in determining the age of the animal. Moreover,
the difficulty of catching, holding and examining
the animal is so great that the teeth are seldom, if
ever, used to determine the age of swine. In market
stock, the age does not play an important part, as
the value depends entirely on the weight and con-
dition of the animal, except in the case of old sows
and stags (castrated mature males). The former
are easily distinguished by evidence of having
suckled pigs, and the latter by the tusks and the
development of the “‘shield”—a coarse heavy fold
of muscle under the skin on the shoulder. In breed-
ing animals, the age is always indicated on the cer-
tificate of registry of pure-bred stock.
Common Ailments of Swine. Figs. 658-662.
By John R. Mohler and George H. Hart.
Probably the most important diseases of swine
are tuberculosis and hog cholera, which have been
described by Dr. Moore on pages 185 and 187.
These two diseases have been given the greatest
amount of attention by investigators with a view
to determining satisfactory methods of prevention
and treatment. In addition to these two affections,
there are a number of ailments of hogs that cause
serious losses, although they have received but
scant consideration either from the hog-raiser, vet-
erinarian or investigator. In fact, stockmen are
very reluctant to secure the services of a veteri-
narian for their sick hogs unless the losses are
great or the existence of an infectious disease is
suspected. Medicines should never be given unless
there is a well-defined idea as to what they are
expected to accomplish, and “specifics” for hog
diseases should be avoided the same as “ specifics”
for affections of man.
The most satisfactory way of administering
medicine to hogs internally is by putting it in their
feed or drink, as drenching adult hogs is often dan-
gerous. To no other class of animals is the auage,
“an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of
cure,” so applicable as it is to hogs, and preven-
tion of disease by rational, decent treatment, which
includes proper housing, feeding, breeding, and the
like, should be given first consideration.
Paralysis or paraplegia.
This is an ailment of hogs, the nature of which
is not clearly understood. It is characterized by a
progressive paralysis, affecting first the hind-lees
and gradually extending over the entire body (Fig.
654
Fig. 658.
Muscular system of the hog. 1, Superior levator muscle of the lip; 2, superior
levator proprius muscle of the lip; 2), accessory muscle to the levator; 3, muscle caninus
(pyramidalis); 4, muscle depressorrostrum;5,muscle orbicularis oris; 6, inferior depressor
muscle of the lip; 7, muscle zygomaticus major; 8, masseter muscle; 9,9), 9u, muscle cleido-
mastoidens; 10, muscle sterno-mastoideus; 11, muscle sterno-hyoideus; 12, a small part of
the shoulder portion of the trapezius muscle; 13, trapezius musele; 14, ventral levator
muscle of the seapula; 15, latissimus dorsi musele, 16, dorso-lumbar fascia; 17, external
oblique abdominal muscle; 17;, tendinougs fescia of external oblique muscle; 18, inferior
posterior serratus muscle; 19, portion of anterior serratus muscle; 20, portion of the
smaller pectoral muscle; 21, supraspinatus muscle; 22, deltoid muscle; 23, the long head of
the triceps muscle; 24, the outer or lateral head of the triceps; 25, muscle tensor fascia
anti brachii; 26, muscle brachialis anti brachii; 27, muscle extensor carpi radialis; 28,
muscle extensor digiti quarti; 29, muscle extensor digiti quinti; 30, muscle extensor carpi
ulnaris; 31, muscle palmaris longus; 32, muscle glutens medius; 33, muscle tensor fascis
late; 34, muscle glutens maximus; 35, muscle biceps femoris; 36, muscle semi tendinosus;
(After Ellenberger.)
SWINE
sites, the Sarcoptes sca-
biei, and the Demodex
folliculorum. The female
of the sarcoptes burrows
into the skin, giving rise
to irritation and the for-
mation of papules, vesi-
cles, pustules and crusts.
The crusts are often the
initial evidence of the
disease noticed by the
owner, and appear first
about the‘eyes and ears.
From these locations the
disease spreads to the
neck, inner side of the
thighs, flanks, withers
and may cover the entire
body. There is marked
itching, due to the irri-
tation set up by the para-
sites in the skin. In se-
vere cases there is loss
of flesh and unthrifti-
ness, and in young pigs
death may occur. The
sarcopt of the pig is the
37, muscle semimembranosus; 38, tail muscle; 39. subeutaneous fat.
659). Excessive feeding of corn has been advanced
as a cause in some instances. It has also been said
that kidney worms are a causal factor, but they
can be excluded, as the disease is frequently seen
in hogs which, on postmortem examination, are
found to be free from kidney worms, while, on the
other hand, many hogs affected with kidney worms
do not become attacked with paraplegia. Animals
dead of the disease show no constant lesions. The
most important symptoms consist in the progressive
weakness of the hind-quarters, which is unaccom-
panied by any general disturbances. The appetite
remains good and there is no emaciation until late
in the disease.
Treatment.—This consists in deep point-firing of
the affected animals with the actual cautery, mak-
ing eight punctures on each side of the spinal col-
umn in the region of the loins. The iron should not
be more than one-eighth of an inch thick and
should be at a red heat. It is made to penetrate
about two inches, so as to pass through the subcu-
taneous layer of fat into the muscles. The first
holes should be made about three inches in front of
the tail and one and one-half inches to each side of
the median line of the back. They are then con-
tinued forward about one and one-half inches apart
until eight have been made on each side. A small
quantity of vaseline should be rubbed over the
punctures. Corn should be withdrawn from the
diet. Improvement begins in one to two weeks
following the firing, and in the majority of cases
complete recovery occurs. Considerable care is
demanded in the application of this treatment.
Mange.
This is a not uncommon contagious skin disease
of pigs, caused by two varieties of animal para-
largest of its species and
can be seen with an ordinary hand-lens by remoy-
ing the crusts and examining the scrapings from
the skin. The disease is contagious, and healthy
hogs may contract it from affected hogs, or by
being placed in infested pens or yards.
Treatment.—When only a few animals are at-
tacked, the crusts and scabs should be removed by
scrubbing with soap and water, followed by the
application of a 3 per cent creolin solution or an
ointment composed of sulfur 2 drams, resorcin 1
dram, and vaseline in sufficient quantity to make an
ounce. Balsam of Peru in ointments, a dram to the
ounce, is valuable as a curative agent, but it is ex-
pensive. The treatment should be continued daily
until all the parasites are destroyed. When large
numbers of animals are affected, dipping is the
only practical treatment. (Fig. 660.) The animals,
however, should not be dipped in cold weather nor
should they have mud cakes over the body at the
time of dipping. In bad cases, the dip should be
rubbed into the skin of the animals by means of a
Fig. 659. Hog with paralysis.
broom or brush. A second dipping should be given
at the expiration of six days to kill the young
parasites that have hatched since the first treat-
ment. The lime and sulfur dip may be used, con-
sisting of unslaked lime 10 pounds, flowers of
sulfur 24 pounds, and water 100 gallons,
SWINE
The Demodex folliculorwm, causing the other vari-
ety of hog mange, lives deep in the hair follicles
and sebaceous glands. Its presence causes pustule
formations, which rupture and leave small ulcers
on the skin. The soft skin is usually attacked, as
the snout, neck, belly and inside of the legs. The
parasite is present in the pustules in enormous
numbers. The outlook for recovery is doubtful,
asthe parasites are so deep that parasiticides do
not reach them. In case the animals are market-
able, they should be sent to the butcher at once.
Otherwise the treatment as recommended in sar-
coptic mange may be tried, but the course of treat-
ment will be necessarily prolonged. [For further
information on mange and lice in hogs, see Bureau
of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 69.]
Verminous bronchitis.
This is a common disease of pigs in certain
localities, characterized by an inflammation of the
bronchial tubes with paroxysms of coughing and
stunting of the
growth. The
cause is asmall
round worm,
the Strongylus
paradozus,
about one inch
in length and
ofthethickness
of a thread. It
may be present
‘In enormous
numbers and
completely
plug the small
bronchial tubes
mechanically,
giving rise to
irritation of
the lining
membrane.
The disease
is most frequent among young pigs. A large per-
centage of the animals are usually affected. The
owner’s attention is first attracted by the parox-
ysms of coughing, which are very constant. This
continues over many weeks; the growth of the
animal is stunted and emaciation becomes marked.
The diagnosis is made positive in case of doubt by
killing one of the worst affected animals and exam-
ining the lungs for the presence of the parasites.
In making this examination, it is important to open
the bronchial tubes longitudinally with the scissors
and not crossways, as the worm may be readily
overlooked by the latter method.
Care should be taken in purchasing new pigs
that they are free from the disease. Young pigs
in infested localities should not be allowed to run
over low marshy ground, or drink from pools and
ditches.
Treatment.—The use of drugs in this disease is
rather unsatisfactory. It is better to kill adult
pigs for food, in the early stages. In young and
half-grown pigs, a teaspoonful of turpentine in
Dipping pigs for mange and
lice. Ready for the plunge. (Peters.)
Fig. 669.
SWINE 655
milk swill or other fluid food should be given three
times daily. Turpentine is excreted by the lungs,
numbs the worms, and allows them to be expelled
during the fits of coughing.
Black tooth.
Many farmers are inclined to attribute various
ailments of swine to the presence of one or more
Fig. 661. Hog with rachitis or rickets.
dark-colored teeth in the mouth. As soon as any
of the animals become sick the mouth is examined,
and in case black teeth are found they are consid-
ered sufficient to account for the trouble. This
discoloration of the teeth is due to the deposit of
tartar, and in the majority of cases can be readily
scraped off, leaving the white enamel underneath.
Black teeth are often found in the mouths of healthy
animals, never produce any abnormal condition,
and their presence cannot account for any symp-
toms the animal may be showing. At the time of
shedding the milk teeth and penetration of the
permanent teeth through the gums, the latter may
become sore and interfere with mastication, but
this has no connection with the presence of black
teeth.
Rachitis or rickets.
This is a bone disease of young pigs, the cause
of which is not positively understood. It is thought
to be due to errors in diet and to indigestion,
together with mal-assimilation of food and lactic
acid fermentation, as a result of which there is
not sufficient lime deposited in the bones, and they
remain too soft.
The affected animals are usually stunted in growth
and poorly nourished. There is lameness, with the
swelling of the bones about the joints, making the
latter appear too large. This is especially notice-
able in the hock and pastern joints. The legs may
be so weak that they are unable to support the
body weight. (Fig. 661.) In some cases the nasal
and maxillary bones are involved, and become
enlarged to the extent of causing difficult respi-
ration. This form of the disease has been termed
“bull nose” and “snuffles.” The latter name, how-
ever, should not be used in designating rickets [see
catarrhal rhinitis, page 656]. The emaciation is
often progressive ; the animals are unable to move
about, and die from weakness or some terminal
affection, as pneumonia or enteritis.
Treatment.—Attention to the diet is important.
It should consist of concentrated nutritious nitrog-
enous food. Carbohydrates (starchy foods) are
656 SWINE
more likely to undergo fermentation, with lactic
acid formation, which is to be avoided. Milk, mid-
dlings and bran are valuable. At the same time
lime-water should be added to the milk or given to
drink. Ground bone-meal may be added to the feed.
Sunlight, fresh air, clean quarters and exercise
are important. Medicinally, the precipitated phos-
phate of calcium in one-dram doses, two or three
times daily in the
feed,together with
oil of phosphorus
in one-drop doses,
is valuable.
Sore mouth.
This is an ail-
ment of young
pigs, also called
necrotic stoma-
titis and canker of
the mouth, affect-
ing the mouth and
adjacent struc-
tures. It is caused
by a specific microdrganism, and is frequently
associated with constitutional disturbances. The
direct cause of the condition is the Bacillus necroph-
orus. It usually appears in winter and lasts until
warm spring weather. (Fig. 662.)
The first symptoms noticed are a disinclination
to take nourishment and the dropping of saliva
from the mouth. On examination is found a con-
gestion of the gums, and in more advanced cases
necrotic patches, especially about the region of
the front teeth and tusks. The necrosis of the
gums may be so extensive that the teeth loosen and
fall out. The jaws are swollen, and the lips and
snout are frequently cracked and covered with
scabs. There is a foul odor to the mouth. The dis-
ease often extends to the larynx, pharynx, and in
some cases to the nasal cavities. In the latter case,
the term snuffles has been applied, but its use should
be discouraged when referring to this disease. [See
Catairhal rhinitis.] The mucous membrane of the
stomach and intestines may become involved, caus-
ing an offensive diarrhea. Prostration and emaci-
ation may be excessive. The disease, if untreated,
may result fatally in one to five weeks, but with
proper treatment nearly all cases recover. The dis-
ease may-be transmitted to healthy hogs. The
association, however, must be intimate, and there
must be a break in the continuity of the mucous
membrane of the mouth in order that the germ
may gain entrance.
Treatment.—The affected animals should be re-
moved from the healthy, and the sheds and pens
disinfected by thoroughly saturating them with 5
per cent carbolie acid, or zo'o5 bichlorid of mer-
cury solution. Medicinally, the mouth should be
washed with 2 per cent warm creolin solution to
soften and remove the necrotic patches, or the
animal may be grasped and its head forced down
into the solution contained in a bucket. After
washing in this solution, a 10 per cent ointment of
salicylic acid or ichthyol may be applied in aggra-
Fig. 662. Hog with sore mou
or canker.
SWINE
vated cases. The treatment should be repeated
daily until the condition is cured.
Catarrhal rhinitis.
Catarrhal rhinitis is an inflammation of the
mucous membrane lining the nasal cavities, also
called acute coryza or cold in the head. The con-
dition results from exposure to cold, especially
when the animal is in a run-down condition, or
after over-heating or eating improper food, or get-
ting the surface of the body wet during a cold
rain.
The animal appears less active than usual, stands
in protected places away from the cold, and may
show slight chills. The eyes are red, the appetite
is reduced and constipation is present. Soon, a
watery discharge appears from the nostrils. Ina
day or two this becomes thicker and composed of
mucus, and later changes to a thick purulent dis-
charge which dries on the nose, occluding the nos-
trils and giving rise to difficulty in breathing.
The animal makes violent snorting efforts to clear
the nose, and these may result in rupture of a
small blood-vessel in the engorged mucous mem-
brane, and lead to hemorrhage. The blocking of
the nostrils, with consequent snuffling, has caused
the word snuffles to be used as a synonym for the
disease. The use of this term is more or less con-
fusing, as it is used indiscriminately at present to
designate the nasal form of rickets, sore mouth,
which has extended into the nasal cavity, and
catarrhal rhinitis. In rickets, the obstruction is due
to enlargement of the bones. While the Germans
have used snuffles as a synonym for this disease, it
would seem that “bull nose” is more descriptive
of the condition. In cases of sore mouth, the term
should not be used, as the nasal involvement is
merely an extension of the inflammation from the
canker in the mouth. The word snuffles in reality
refers only to one symptom, and it is doubtful
whether it should be used to designate any disease
entity. If it is to be used, however, it should be
confined to cases of rhinitis, or cold in the head, as
in this disease above all others the symptom of
snuffling is constant.
Acute coryza usually terminates in recovery in
one to two weeks. However, it may run into a
chronic nasal catarrh, or complications, as bron-
chitis or pneumonia, may intervene and lead toa
fatal termination.
Treatment.—The animal should be protected
from the cold, and have clean, well-lighted quar-
ters. Liquid foods, as milk or slops, should be
warmed. Medicinally, 14 ounces of castor-oil
should be given. Fumigation may be tried by plac-
ing the animals in an enclosed room and burning
tar. Tincture of belladonna leaves in one-half-tea-
spoonful doses may be added to the feed twice daily
to lessen the nasal secretions.
Thumps, or spasm of the diaphragm.
This ailment is common in young pigs, and usu-
ally affects the fattest and most thrifty animals in
the litter. Thumps is similar to the same condition
in horses, which has been described on page 440
SWINE
Tt sets in suddenly and usually occurs as a result
of digestive disorders, especially overloading of the
stomach. Worms or any other cause of irritation
may produce it. Excitement and insufficient exer-
cise may likewise cause it to appear.
The first indication of this trouble is a sudden
jerking movement of the flank, which continues at
irregular intervals, being more frequent at one
time than at another. It may increase in strength,
causing a violent thumping or throbbing of the
side and producing a backward and forward move-
ment of the body. The animal takes but little
exercise, has a poor appetite, and in some cases
becomes unthrifty and stunted.
Treatment.—lf worms are suspected as the cause
of thumps, the pigs should be treated for worms
by giving dried sulfate of iron in the swill, at the
rate of one-fourth pound of the sulfate for forty
pigs, once daily. This treatment may be given for
at least a week and continued if necessary. If the
condition is caused by indigestion, the quantity of
food should be reduced, access given to charcoal or
wood-ashes, and as much exercise afforded as pos-
sible every day. If practicable, the pigs should be
turned on pasture and plenty of opportunity given
to run around. At the beginning of the trouble, a
physic of two ounces of raw linseed oil, followed
with three to ten drops of the tincture of opium in
a little oil, should be given every four hours.
Cottonseed poisoning.
This is a peculiar, often fatal poisoning of hogs,
resulting from the ingestion of too large a quantity
of cottonseed meal, or feeding it over too long a
period of time. The acute poisonous principle is
not definitely known, although all domestic animals
are liable to its effects if fed in sufficient quanti-
ties.
The symptoms may follow a single ingestion of
the material in those cases in which the animal has
got into a bin or feed room and eaten its fill. It
more commonly occurs, however, after the hogs
have been fed on the material for a period cover-
ing several weeks. In some cases there may be
several mild attacks, as evidenced by loss of appe-
tite and jerky movements of the flanks (thumps),
which pass off in a few days if the cottonseed feed
is stopped. In other cases, after the feed has been
given for about four weeks the animals, without
warning, drop over, kick and squeal for a few
moments and die from asphyxia due to edema of
the lungs. In these cases, on post-mortem exami-
nation there is found an intense congestion and
cloudy swelling of the internal organs, with severe
inflammation of the gastro-intestinal tract and
edema of the lungs.
Treatment.—The positive prevention is the abso-
lute withdrawl of cottonseed meal from the ration
of hogs. Cottonseed meal, however, is a valuable
food for hogs, and given in the proper quantities it
is safe. The amount to be given, as pointed out by
Dinwiddie, varies with the weight of the hog, and
should be one-fourth pound per day for animals
under 50 pounds, one-third pound per day for
animals between 50 and 75 pounds, 0.4 pound per
C 42
SWINE 657
day for animals between 75 and 100 pounds, and
one-half pound for animals between 100 and 150
pounds.
Inguinal hernia.
Inguinal hernia is a condition extremely cominon
in young male pigs. It consists of the descent of a
loop of the intestine into the scrotal sac. It is
diagnosed by the enlargement of the affected side
of the scrotum, the doughy feeling of the mass,
and by the fact that it is reducible in the majority
of cases by manipulation or by raising the hind-
quarters of the animal. These latter measures
cause the protruded part of the intestine to pass
back into the abdominal cavity, leaving only the
testicle in the scrotum. If not treated, the growth
of the animal is frequently stunted, and the intes-
tine may become strangulated and cause death in
a short time.
Treatment.—This necessitates the castration of
the animal. In young pigs, anesthesia is not neces-
sary. The animal is either suspended by its hind-
legs or held on its back with the hind-quarters
elevated. An incision is made through the skin
directly over the tumor. The hernial sac is sepa-
rated from the surrounding tissue. When possible,
the hernia is reduced without opening the sac. In
case adhesions have formed, it is necessary to cut
into the sac and separate them before reduction can
be accomplished. After the loop of the intestine
has been put back into the abdominal cavity, the
sac and testicular cord are twisted up to the
inguinal ring, which obliterates the sac. A ligature
is then applied close to the ring and fixed to the
lips of the ring by a suture or two to prevent
entwisting of the sac. The testicle is then removed,
and the skin wound sutured, a strip of iodoform
gauze being inserted for drainage. The other test-
icle is usually removed at the same time.
Every precaution possible should be taken to
prevent infection of the affected parts.
[The following infectious diseases are discussed
by Dr. Moore, in addition to hog cholera and tuber-
culosis menticned above: Swine erysipelas, page
133; swine plague, page 133.]
Literature.
The literature relating to the diseases of swine
will be found in part in books relating to the dis-
eases of other farm stock (which see). Craig and
Bitting, Diseases of Swine, Bulletin No. 100, Pur-
due University, Agricultural Experiment Station ;
Geo. M. Rommel, The Hog Industry: Selection,
breeding and management, Bureau of Animal In-
dustry, Bulletin No. 48; F. D. Coburn, Swine Hus-
bandry: A practical manual for the breeding,
rearing and management of Swine, with sugges-
tions as to the prevention and treatment of their
diseases ; G. T. Brown, The Pig: Its External and
Internal Organization; R. Jennings, Sheep, Swine
and Poultry, embracing the history and varie-
ties of each, best modes of breeding, their feeding
and management, together with the diseases, etc.
[For further references, see page 646, and pages
124-146.]
658 SWINE
Berkshire Swine. Fig. 663.
By G. £. Day.
Berkshire swine are of the “fat-hog” type, and
are greatly valued in America, ranking among the
first in popularity.
Description.
The Berkshire is a stylish, handsome hog, the best
type being of rather more than medium size, although
not so large as the Large Yorkshire or the Tamworth.
The snout is of medium length, and the face dished. .
The ears are generally nearly erect, although in
the larger strains and in aged animals they fre-
quently incline forward. They should be well car-
ried. The jowl is rather heavy, and the neck short,
usually carrying considerable crest. The shoulder,
back and rump are of good width, although the
back is probably not quite so broad as that of the
Poland-China. The ham is thickly meated, and is
generally somewhat trimmer in appearance than
that of the Poland-China. The Berkshire generally
has good depth of body, and indications of a strong
constitution. The bone is of excellent quality in
the best specimens, and the animal usually stands
well on its feet. The standard color is black, with
a white mark on the face, white on each foot, and
white on the tip of the tail. Sometimes, some of
these white markings are absent, and sometimes
white occurs on other parts of the body, such as a
white blotch on the jowl, on the shoulder, or else-
where. The standard of excellence prepared by
the American Berkshire Association does not dis-
qualify an animal for defective markings, but
in selecting breeding-stock, some breeders shun
animals too freely marked with white.
Following is the standard of excellence adopted
by the American Berkshire Association :
ScALE OF PoINTS FOR BERKSHIRE
SWINE Perfect
score
1. Color.—Black, with white on feet, face, tip of
tail and an occasional splash on the arm .. 4
2. Face and snout.—Short, the former fine and
well dished, and broad between the eyes. . . 7
3. Eye.—Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or
fae) ig I Cn CG, yy eG oom [OG ao. Or ieO0c 2
4, Ear.—Generally almost erect, but sometimes in-
clined forward with pape age; medium
size, thinand soft... 4
5. Jowl.—Full and heavy, running well back on
HOD PEG ond polo ooo Og G@ ors - 4
6. Neck.—Short and broad ontop ....... 4
7. Hair.—Fine and soft, medium thickness. . .. 3
8. Skin.—Smooth and pliable ......... 4
9. Shoulder.—Thick and even, broad on top, and
deep through’ chest) es jemewiaie) es eeiicmre 7
10. Back.—Broad, short and straight; ribs well
sprung, coupling close to hips. ...... 8
11. Side.—Deep and well let down; sent on bot-
tom lines . . 6
12, Flank.—Well back and low down on ‘leg, ‘mak-
ing nearly straight line with the lower ee of
side. . : 5
13. Loin.—Full and wide . 4)
14. Ham.—Deep and thick, extending “well up ‘on
back, and holding thickness well down to hock 10
SWINE
SCALE OF POINTS FOR BERKSHIRE SWINE,
continued re
15. Tail.—Well set up on back; tapering and not
COaTSO'.” 5 ss (sas 0.16 a) 5) ol 2
16. Legs.—Short, straight, and strong, set wide
apart, with hoofs erect and capable of holding )
good weight .. - «a
17. Symmetry.—Well proportioned throughout, de-
pending largely on condition ....... 6
18. Condition.—In a good, healthy, growing state ;
not over-fed .. < .)«. so) aan 5
19. Style.—Attractive, spirited, indicative of thor-
ough breeding and constitutional vigor ... 5
Perfection . . . . » os selvannennennenne 100
History.
The name Berkshire comes from County of Berks
in England. The breed is not by any means confined
to this county, but is now spread all over the
British Isles. The original Berkshire was of ancient —
origin, and very little is known regarding its origin.
The color of the old Berkshire was commonly a
sandy, or reddish brown, spotted with black, or
white with black spots. It was very much coarser
than the present type and possessed lopped ears ;
but even in its unimproved state, it had a reputa-
tion for producing a good quality of meat.
As to the method of improvement, it is said by
some that black Siamese boars were used on the
old Berkshire sows, and some persons state that
white, and black and white Chinese boars, were also
used. It is easy to understand how breeds of the type
of Siamese and Chinese swine should be eminently
well adapted to modifying the original coarse type —
of Berkshire. Mr. A. B. Allen favors the theory
that Chinese blood was used to some extent, and
from his investigations in England, fixes the begin-
ning of improvement in the Berkshire by crossing
as some time previous to 1780.
In America.—According to Allen, the first impor-
tation of Berkshires to America was made in 1823,
by John Brentnall of New Jersey. The next im-
portation was in 1832, and great numbers have
been brought into the United States since that
time. It is stated that the first importation to
Canada was made about 1838. Coburn states that
for ten years subsequent to 1831, speculation in
importing and selling Berkshires at inflated prices
was rife in the United States, and that the methods
employed by speculators did much to prejudice
persons against the breed, and seriously retarded
its progress. The breed has outlived this prejudice,
however, and has firmly established itself in the
confidence of both American and Canadian farmers.
Distribution.
Berkshires are found in every state and territory
of the United States, the most important centers
being Illinois, Missouri, Indiana, Texas, Ohio, Kan-
sas, Iowa, New York, Michigan, and Tennessee.
They also are found in every Canadian province,
the province of Ontario taking the lead. They are
found in practically all parts of the British Isles,
in South America, in Hawaii, and in some European
countries.
SWINE
Types.
The type of the Berkshires is affected by the
methods of individual breeders, and, to some ex-
tent, by the market demands of the countries in
which they are bred. In the United States there
was a tendency for some time to breed a fine-
boned, somewhat undersized type, emphasizing
smoothness and quality rather than size. Fortu-
nately, however, some of the leading American
breeders are maintaining both size and quality,
and the future of the breed is no doubt safe in
their hands. In Canada, owing to the demands
of the market for bacon hogs, and owing to
the competition of strictly bacon breeds, the
tendency on the part of the best Berkshire
breeders has been to select for a lengthy,
strong-boned type, which, compared with the , _. Nl
American type, looks somewhat leggy and
coarse, but which, in reality, is a first-class
farmer's hog. A good deal is heard at present
about the so-called Large English Berk-
shire. The Large English Berkshire is no dif-
ferent in breeding from the ordinary Berk-
shire, but in England, as in any other country,
the Berkshire will be found to vary more or
less in type, and some importers select the
larger, stronger-boned animals for importation
to America, and call them Large English Berkshires.
As a matter of fact, they may be litter mates of
animals of the very finest-boned type.
Uses.
The Berkshire is better suited for supplying the
market demand for fat hogs than it is for produc-
ing bacon hogs. When backs, shoulders, and hams
are the main requirements, the Berkshire fits in
exceptionally well; but for the export bacon trade
in what are known as “Wiltshire sides,” the Berk-
shire has scarcely enough length of side, and has
too heavy a neck and shoulder, because the neck
and shoulder furnish cuts which are low in price
and difficult to sell in connection with a “ Wilt-
shire side.” When crossed with the Large York-
shire or Tamworth, an excellent farmer’s hog is
the result, although it is perhaps a little nearer to
the bacon type than to the fat type. Berkshires
have made an exceptionally good showing in the
market classes at leading American shows, where
they come into competition with other breeds.
It is difficult to secure data regarding the rela-
tive early maturity of different breeds, but the
Berkshires certainly stand well in this respect.
They attain reasonably good weights at an early
age and fatten readily. It is a matter of dispute
whether they are equal to the Poland-China in
point of early maturity, some good authorities
placing the Poland-China first, while others would
place the Chester-White or Duroc-Jersey at the
head of the list. Asa matter of fact, it is quite
probable that among the best representatives of
the breeds mentioned, there is not any very marked
difference in point of early maturity.
As an economical converter of feed into pork,
the Berkshire is probably not excelled, although it
would be too much to say that it leads other breeds
SWINE 659
in this respect. Breed experiments have been con-
ducted at several agricultural experiment stations,
but if we study each individual experiment care-
fully, we will be forced to the conclusion that the
ability to make economical use of food is appar-
ently a question of individuality rather than one
of breed. With our present knowledge of the prob-
lem, we feel safe in stating that the Berkshire will
produce pork as cheaply as any other breed.
The flesh of the Berkshire is of excellent quality,
and carries a large proportion of lean to fat.
\
ANN
.
XN
NN
\
\ \
i \ \
)
Fig. 663. Berkshire sow.
Investigations regarding the quality of meat trom
different breeds generally agree in giving the
Berkshire a high place both in quantity of lean
and fineness of quality. With more length of side,
and less tendency for the fat to run unduly thick
over the top of the shoulder and neck, the Berk-
shire would make a capital “Wiltshire side” of
bacon.
Berkshire sows of the more lengthy type are
prolific, and generally make good mothers. The
extremely fine, short type of sow does not, as a
rule, produce such large litters. The boars are pre-
potent, and cross well with almost any other breed,
as well as being useful for improving common
stock.
Organizations and records.
The American Berkshire Association was organ-
ized in 1875, and has the distinction of having
started the first record of swine in America. The
first herdbook was published in 1877, and up to
the present (1908) thirty volumes have been issued,
containing the names of 111,540 animals.
Registration of Berkshires in Canada was begun
in 1876, and was conducted by the Agriculture and
Arts Association until 1891, when the records were
taken over by the newly organized Dominion Swine
Breeders’ Association. The first volume of the
Dominion Swine Breeders’ Record was published in
1892. This record recorded all breeds of swine
represented in Canada. In 1905, the Dominion Swine
Records, together with nearly all the live-stock
records in Canada, were placed under the direct
supervision of the Canadian Department of Agri-
culture at Ottawa, but are under the control of a
“Record Board,” comprised of representatives
elected by the various breed organizations. This
National Live-Stock Record records ail breeds of
660 SWINE
swine in Canada, but the herdbook still keeps
the name of Dominion Swine Breeders’ Record. Up
to January 1, 1908, eighteen volumes of the record
had been published, and 25,804 Berkshire pedigrees
recorded.
In England, Berkshires are recorded in the
British Berkshire Herdbook, controlled by the
British Berkshire Society.
Literature.
For references, see page 646.
Cheshire Swine. Fig. 664.
By G. BE. Day.
Cheshire swine are a breed of American origin,
and may be classed with the fat-heg types. They
have not attained much popularity outside of a
restricted area in New York state.
Description.
The Cheshire is about medium in size, but some
specimens attain heavy weights. It is said that the
Cheshire weighs well for its appearance, and is a
heavier breed than is generally supposed. Although
the body is not noted for depth, it generally has
good length, and the shoulders and hams are
usually well developed. The face is slightly dished,
and the ear rather small and erect. The bone is
fine, and of fair quality. The color of the breed is
white. Black spots frequently occur on the skin,
which, though objectionable, do not disqualify.
Following is the standard of excellence and scale
of points adopted by the Cheshire Swine Breeders’
Association :
SCALE OF PoINTS FOR CHESHIRE
SWINE Perfect
score
1. Head.—Short to medium in length, short in pro-
portion to length of body. ........
2. Face.—Somewhat dished and wide between the
li Mee Otc: becce te. oid Or co 8
3. Jowl.—Medium infulness ......... 3
4, Ears. —Small, fine, erect, and in old animals
slightly pointing forward ......... 5
6s Neck? Shortand broads ealiel en snien siren 3
6. Shoulders.—Broad, fullanddeep ...... 6
(o GbaleyeimynGleees oo oo gob odo oe 8
8. Back.—Long, broad and straight nearly to root
Cie LAM Oe os Ico, Gaduostiboen ow Oo 0.55 10
9. Sides.—Deep and full; nearly straight on bot-
tomilina: <9. 32° tecpkeeath By ereienisteceoa 7
10. Flank.—Well back and low down, making flank
girth nearly equal to heart girth . aS 3
11. Hams.—Broad and nearly straight with back,
and running well down toward hock .... 10
12. Legs.—Small and slim, set well apart, support-
Ane bodyswelltonstoGs teem sna asinine 10
13. Tail.—Small, slim and tapering ....... 3
14. Hair.—Fine, paedunii in thickness and quantity. 3
15. Color.—White; any colored hairs to disqualify. 2
16. Skin.—Fine and pliable ; small blue spots objec-
tionable but allowable
17. Symmetry.—Animal well proportioned, hand-
some, and stylish; and when grown and well
fattened should dress 400 to600 pounds. . . 8
Perfection...
SWINE
History.
The Cheshire originated in Jefferson county,
New York, and dates from about 1855. J. H. San
ders, of Chicago, who bred Cheshires for som
years, stated in
a letter to F. D.
Coburn, that he
considered the §
Cheshire to be
“simply a deriv-
ative of the
Yorkshire.” The
Yorkshire was
brought into
Jeffersoncounty
and used on the white pigs of the district. Earl
in the sixties hogs of this breed were shown at
the agricultural fairs, where they attained some
popularity. The Swine Breeders’ convention, in
a meeting at Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1872,
adopted the name Cheshire for the breed. It is
thought that Suffolk blood was also used in
the combination, which eventually resulted in the
Cheshire.
Distribution.
The Cheshire is found mainly in New York state,
with a few scattered herds in other states, more
particularly in certain of the New England and
Middle states. The breed has made but little prog-
ress, and does not seem likely ever to attai
prominence. No doubt a few have been taken into
Canada, but none have ever been recorded in the
Canadian record.
Cheshire barrow.
Fig. 664.
Types.
In his letter to F. D. Coburn, previously referred
to, J. H. Sanders stated that in his herd he had pro-
duced ‘‘all the different types of Yorkshire, from
the Large York down to the Lancashire Short-
Face.” The type he succeeded in producing “
almost identical, in size, form, and quality, with
the most approved medium Berkshire.” As bred at
present, the type probably does not vary any more
than that of other breeds.
Uses.
The Cheshire, as- generally seen, belongs mo
to the fat hog than to the bacon class, although it
should not be difficult to develop it into a fairl
good bacon breed. It appears to be a good feeder,
and its meat is admitted to be of excellent quality.
The sows are fairly prolific and breed very readily,
and the boars appear to be prepotent, although but
little is known regarding their value for crossing
purposes.
Organizations and records.
The Cheshire Swine Breeders’ Association was
organized in 1884, and has published four volum
of its herdbook to date (1908). The first volume
appeared in 1889.
Literature.
For references, see page 646.
SWINE
Chester-White Swine. Fig. 665.
By G. E. Day.
The Chester-White is an American breed of swine
of the fat- or lard-hog type, but possessing good
bacon qualities.
Description.
Some years ago, the Chester-White was rated as
the largest breed in the United States, but modern
methods of breeding have decreased the size and
produced an animal of more quality than the
original type. As bred at present, the Chester-White
may be ranked as of medium size, or about the same
as the Poland-China. The face is straight, or
very slightly dished, and the snout is gener-
ally somewhat longer than that of the Poland-
China. The ear droops, somewhat like that
of the Poland-China, although it is generally
heavier, and the droop, or break, is usually
farther from the tip. It is common for the
ear to be somewhat loosely attached to the
head. In general conformation, the Chester-
White is similar to the Poland-China, although
the latter generally excels in depth and ful-
ness of ham.
The color is white, no black hair being
admissible, although it is common for black
or bluish spots to occur on the skin. In
many specimens, the hair has a decided tendency
to be wavy, and even curly.
Following is the scale of points adopted by the
Standard Chester-White Record Association :
SCALE OF POINTS FOR CHESTER-WHITE
SWINE Perfect
score
peHeadvand! face... 3 3 6s eh Se 4
EREDV ESI et chi: s\ ys. 3 Chat Oe oat oo to. or 8 2
3, WEES: Qlgla Ma GionSRG: Cac mou CME mere site 2
AUBIN CCIE Py ire) ere) say, satus hicuitesuneactrcdlemene (oe
EN OI retire i rosKiottetetst Yop vate ifCVIe\ aye lariveh ‘eu
GMShoulderswees fee assy wos) sn ieibiime) sur ise (0
"io (CHIGELS "Sone Sam CR ane SOM GRE aoe ee)
SMD ACKANGUIOIN Vs) of hence) wise) eel aitce 15
9. Sides and rib ..... Go TO oed ns TOL lie
HOmbellysanduflank 5s.) es 6) ss eh ees 6
11. Hams andrump............. 10
piomebeetvandilegsi= 7.) =) seis 4) .
14. Coat
15. Color
Gh SV 6 Gla Gc
17. Action and style
18. Condition ...
19. Disposition ..
ss) ie; 08,
rh A eicrerciek ery 8) Ceeuecha te Citar ClO: ay Cl
one. 18 leptiame\ de> el bs 8) Fem ee ler ease Ole:
eis) (@) fe Os ol ie) ie 0 6 0, 8) (Oye sem OP rwene:
SO thateith Oem) Or eD, O'e eO-t) Olu
Cot) Oeceiteeg, Died Sols cre ac eO
@ 0) a 6 Ye: (ee) oe 8 eye eevenym, .emue.
real ett Dag Ly Pet Omir tOy 8c)
ey (epi) (ares wa redre ms
a) LONE tecelte ser aaa
5 Oro
leas Goo 0.0 G1 00 6 6 oo lkhD)
Disqualifications.
Form.—Kars standing erect; small cramped chest, and
crease back of shoulders and over back so as to cause a
depression in the back easily noticed ; seriously deformed
legs, or badly broken-down feet.
Size.—Very small, or not two-thirds large enough as
given by the standard.
Score.—Less than fifty points.
Pedigree.—Not eligible to record.
Detailed description.
1. Head and face-—Head small in proportion to size of
body ; wide between eyes; face nicely dished (about half
way between a Poland-China and a Berkshire), and taper-
ing well down to the nose; surface smooth and even.
Objections.—Large and coarse; narrow between the
eyes ; face straight ; crooked nose, or too much dished.
2. Hyes.—Lively, bright and prominent.
Objections.—Dull, weak and obscure.
3. Hars.—Medium, moderately thin, pointing forward,
downward and slightly outward, carrying a slight curve;
attached to head very neatly.
Objections.—Very large, nearly round, too thick, swing-
ing or flabby; not of same size; different position and
not under control of animal.
4. Neck.—Short, thick and very deep and slightly
arching.
Objections.—Long, shallow and thin.
5. Jowl.—Broad, full and neat ; carrying fulness back
to point of shoulders and on a line with breast-bone.
Objections.—Too large, loose and flabby; small, thin
and wedging.
6. Shoulders.—Moderately broad, very deep and full;
carrying thickness well down and not extending above
line of back.
Objections. — Small, thin, shallow; extending above
line of back. Boars under one year old heavily shielded.
SWINE
7. Chest.—Large, very deep, filled full behind shoul-
ders; breast-bone extending well forward so as to be
readily seen.
Objections.—F lat ; shallow, or not extending well down
between fore-legs.
8. Back and loin.—Back medium in breadth ; straight
or slightly arching ; carrying even width from shoulder to
ham; surface even and smooth.
Objections.—Narrow, crease behind shoulders ; swayed
or humped back.
9. Sides and ribs.—Sides very deep, medium in length;
level between shoulders and hams, and carrying out full
down to line of belly. Ribs long, strong, and sprung in
proportion to width of shoulders and hams. ;
Objections.—F labby, creased, shallow, and not carrying
proper width from top to bottom.
10. Belly and flank.—Straight and full and carrying
well out to line of sides. Flank well down to lower line of
sides.
Objections.—Narrow ; tucked up or drawn in; sagging
or flabby.
11. Hams and rump.—Broad, full and well let down
to the hock; buttock full and coming nearly down and
filling full between hocks. Rump should have a round
slope, from loin to root of tail; same width as back and
well filled out around tail.
Objections——Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting
well down to hock ; cut up too high in crotch. Rump nar-
row, flat or peaked at root of tail; too steep.
12. Legs and feet.—Medium size and length, straight,
nicely tapered; wide apart and well set under the
body; pasterns short and strong. Feet short, firm, and
tough.
Objections.—Legs extremely long, or very short, slim,
coarse, crooked; legs as large below knee and hock as
above; set too close together; hocks turned in or out of
straight line. Feet, hoofs long, slim and weak; toes
spreading or crooked.
13. Tail—Medium ; large at base and nicely tapering,
and rather bushy at end.
Objections.—Extremely heavy ; too long and ropy.
14. Coat.—Moderately thick and fine ; straight, smooth
and covering the body well.
Objections. — Too many bristles; hair coarse, harsh
and rough, wavy or curly ; swirls, or not evenly laid over
the body.
15. Color.—Cherry-red, without other admixtures.
Objections.—Very dark red or shading brown; very
pale or light red; black spots over the body ; black flecks
on belly and legs not desired but admissible.
16. Size. — Large for age and condition. Boar two
years old and over should weigh 600 pounds ; sow same
age and condition, 500 pounds. Boar eighteen months, 475
pounds; sow, 400 pounds. Boar twelve months, 350
pounds ; sow, 300 pounds. Boar and sow pigs six months,
150 pounds. The figures are for animals in a fair show
condition.
Objections.—Rough and coarse and lacking in feeding
“qualities.
17. Action and style—Action vigorous and animated.
Style free and easy.
Objections.—Dull or stupid ; awkward and wabbling. In
boars, testicles not easily seen nor of same size or car-
riage; too large or only one showing.
18. Condition.—Healthy; skin free from scurf, scales,
sores and mange; flesh evenly laid over the entire body
and free from any lumps.
Objections.—Unhealthy, scurfy, scaly, sores, mange ;
too fat for breeding purposes ; hair harsh and standing
up ; poor feeders.
19. Disposition.—Very quiet and gentle; easily han-
dled or driven.
Objections.—Wild, vicious or stubborn.
SWINE
History.
Red pigs have existed in the United States for a
great many years, and there seems to be no satis-
factory account of their origin. It is said that
slave traders brought in a red breed of hogs from
western Africa, known as the Guinea breed. It
is also stated that Henry Clay imported
Spanish red pigs in 1837, and that Daniel
Webster brought red pigs from Portugal in
1852. It is further stated that the Berk-
shire, which, in its early days was freely
marked with red or sandy hair, is responsi-
ble for some of the red pigs. Whatever breeds,
or mixture of breeds, were responsible, it is
certain that a large breed of red hogs attained
to considerable prominence in New Jersey, and
was eventually given the name of Jersey-Red.
The Jersey-Red had large lop ears, and good
length of body. It was rather long in the
leg, and coarse in bone and hair. It was
valued because of its size, strong constitu-
tion, and rapid growth.
The Duroe originated in Saratoga county, New
York, and, to put it briefly, resulted from crossing
a red boar on the common sows of the district. It
is uncertain whether the boar came merely from
another part of New York state, or from England.
It is said that the boar was named “Duroc” after
a famous stallion, and hence the name of the breed.
The Duroc also had lopped ears, but it was a much
finer type of pig than the Jersey-Red.
In the course of time, the breeders of Jersey-Reds
and Durocs came together, and the two breeds were
blended into one, under the name of Duroc-Jersey.
The amalgamation took place in 1883.
Distribution.
The Duroc-Jersey is found in a great many
states, the most important of which are Iowa, IIli-
nois, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio,
Minnesota, Oklahoma, Texas, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Michigan and Wisconsin. The breed is also largely
represented in many other states. The breed has
been introduced into Canada, but has not made
Fig. 666.
Duroc-Jersey sow.
much progress as yet in that country. It is prac-
tically unknown outside the United States and
Canada.
Types.
Like other breeds, Duroc-Jerseys present varia-
tions in type. On the whole, breeders have been
SWINE 665
striving for a fine-boned, smooth type of hog of
medium size. It is asserted by some persons that
this refining process has been carried too far, and
breeders are to be found who are producing hogs
of more bone and more size. These larger, heavier-
boned hogs are attracting considerable attention
SSS AAs
S\ AA iN WS
ah ’ WL Sots
WN"
Waa ast Wi
A i
NA A
\ | if \ x HANS
HAUS
\)
]
|
Fig. 667. Duroc-Jersey boar.
among Duroc-Jersey breeders, and it would seem
that they would yet perform an important work
for the breed.
Uses.
The Duroc-Jersey is essentially a producer of fat
or lard hogs, and it seems to be meeting the
demands of the American packer in a satisfactory
manner. As a bacon hog, it is not a success.
It is an early maturing hog, and makes economical
gains, as has been demonstrated by experiments.
It must be repeated again, however, that individu-
ality is much more important than breed in regard
to economy of production. It is safe to say that
the Duroc-Jersey will make as cheap gains as
any other breed. The Duroc-Jersey has consider-
able reputation as a grazer, and also takes kindly
to corn-feeding. It has an advantage over most
white breeds, in that its skin does not blister with
the sun, and it is therefore gaining favor in the
South. The meat of the Duroc-Jersey is similar to
that of the Chester-White and the Poland-China
when fed under the same conditions. If fed a
mixed ration, it is capable of producing meat with
a good proportion of lean.
The Duroc-Jersey, for a fat hog, is prolific,
although it can hardly be said to equal the Large
Yorkshire and the Tamworth in this respect.
The Duroc-Jersey crosses well with other breeds,
and a cross with the Poland-China and the Berk-
shire is very popular. The boars do excellent work
as improvers of common stock.
Organizations and records.
The American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders’
Association was organized in 1883, but it was not
incorporated until 1888. The first herdbook was
published in 1885, and twenty-five volumes have
been issued since, containing 38,000 registrations.
The National Duroc-Jersey Record Association was
organized in 1891, and published its first herdbook
in 1893. It has published twenty-eight volumes to
date, containing 130,000 registrations. In Canada,
666 SWINE
Duroc-Jerseys are recorded in the Dominion Swine
Breeders’ Record, but only 1,079 animals have been
recorded to date.
Literature.
“The Duroe Bulletin” is a semi-monthly paper
published at Peoria, Illinois, in the interests of
Duroc-Jersey swine. The Duroc-Jersey is the only
breed of swine having a paper published solely in
its interests, although some other associations pub-
lish yearbooks or directories for their respective
breeds. [For further references, see page 646.]
Essex Swine. Fig. 668.
By G. E. Day.
The Essex is a small, easily fattened pig of the
American or fat-hog type. It originated in Hng-
land.
Description.
The Essex must be classed with the small breeds,
being, as a breed, decidedly smaller than the Berk-
shire or the Poland-China. It is a short, thick,
deep, chunky type of pig, with short, fine-boned
legs. The snout is short, the face dished, the fore-
head broad, and the ears small, fine and erect, but
inclined to droop slightly with age. The neck is
very short, and the shoulders and hams largely
developed. Altogether, it is a very smooth, compact
type of hog. The color is all black, no white being
admissible.
Following is the scale of points adopted by the
American Essex Association :
SCALE OF Points FoR Essex SWINE Perfect
score
1. Color.—Black .. . 2
2. Head.—Small, broad and face dished . . . . 3
3. Ears.—Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age . 2
4. Jowl.—Full'and neat’. 2. 22 S26 es iH
5. Neck.—Short, full, well arched ....... 3
6. Shoulders.—Broad and deep ........ fe
YO (eniganietgnreG tices FA Glo ao wb mao 6 6
8. Back.—Straight, broad and level. . ..... 12
9) Sides-—Deeprand full’) oy ie ween Sie
LO} Ribs;——Well’sprnnpa.1le) veuretronren alten al romreiirs 7
1s Loin.—Broad and strong eater) etien etter eects 12
12. Flank.—Well let down... .......-. 2
13. Ham.—Broad, fullanddeep. ........ 12
14, Tail.—Medium, fine and curled ....... 2
15. Legs.—Fine, straight and tapering ...... 3
1G; Reet.—Smalll® 2) accrue aaa elie ee eioiee 3
17, Hair.—Fine and silky, free from bristles ... 3
18. Action.—Hasy and graceful. ........ 4
19. Symmetry.—Adaptation of the several parts to
eachwother\:./c. taaneameere mses: Senter seers
Perfection ..... Sor eno@sts od . 100
History.
The Essex pig takes its name from the county
of Essex in England. The original Essex pig was
an extremely undesirable feeder’s type, being
coarse in bone, flat in the rib, and long in the leg.
It was hard to fatten and slow to mature. In color
it was generally black and white. In 1830, Lord
Western imported black Neapolitan pigs from
SWINE
Italy, and crossed them with the Essex pigs. In
the course of time he evolved a type that was a
wonderful improvement on the old Essex, and it is
said that he used other blood than that of the Nea-
politan. It is stated that Lord Western inbred too
closely, and that his pigs became weak in constitu-
tion and lacking in fecundity.
Soon after Lord Western began his work of
improvement, one of his tenants, named Fisher
Hobbes, took up the breeding of Essex—Neapolitan
pigs, and in his hands the breed was much im-
proved, increasing in size and improving in consti-
tution and breeding qualities. The Hobbes’ strain
was called Improved Essex, and gained in popular-
ity very rapidly.
In America.—It is said that some of the old
Essex pigs existed in the United States as early as
1820. When the Improved Essex had established
its reputation, importations to America became
common, and large numbers were brought out, but
of ne years very few importations have been
made.
Distribution.
The Essex has spread from its native county
into several other English counties. It has been
exported to several European countries, to Aus-
tralia, Canada and the United States. It would be
Essex boar.
Fig. 668.
difficult to select any state as an important center
for this breed, but it occurs, scattered here and
there in small lots, in a large number of states. It
has become very popular in the South.
The Essex has nearly disappeared from Canada,
only one or two herds being left. None of the
Canadian exhibitions make a separate class for this
breed.
Types.
To meet the modern demand, many breeders of
Essex swine are striving to develop a type with
more size, heavier bone, and greater length. That
they are meeting with some degree of success is
evidenced by the types of Essex placed on exhibi-
tion at some of the fairs during the past few years.
This recent type gives more promise of present-day
utility than the type we have been accustomed to
see.
Uses.
The Essex belongs to the extremely quick matur-
ing, easily fattened type. Its lack of size prevents
SWINE
it becoming popular with the general farmer, and
it is more suited to the requirements of the villager,
who keeps one or two pigs, and who wishes to use
the minimum amount of food. He will not have so
many pounds of pork, but he will have a finished
hog with a small outlay. The breed is regarded as
being a cheap producer of meat, and no doubt such
is the case; but it would not be safe to assume that
it will always produce meat at a lower cost than
larger breeds. The meat from the Essex is fine-
grained, but excessively fat.
The sows are not regarded as prolific, but a great
deal depends on how they are fed and managed.
_ For cross-breeding, the Essex is suitable for
crossing with unduly coarse types. In the past, it
played an important part in improving other
breeds, but as the breeds of swine have been
brought to a finer type, the field of the Essex has
become narrowed, until the breed is now more
famous for what it has accomplished than for what
it is capable of doing at present. About the only
important opening for it in the United States at
present, is the conquest of the “Razorback” of the
South, and on this mission it has already set forth.
Organizations and records.
The American Hssex Association was organized
in 1887, but its membership is not large. It has
published two volumes of its record, which contain
some 1,500 names. In Canada, Essex swine are
recorded in the Dominion Swine Breeders’ Record,
but only 286 animals have been recorded to date
(1908). In England, they are recorded in the herd
book of the National Pig Breeders’ Association.
Literature.
For references. see page 646.
Hampshire or Thin Rind Swine. Fig. 669.
By G. E. Day.
The Hampshire or Thin Rind is said to be a
bacon hog, but it may be placed more correctly
between the bacon and fat-hog types.
Description.
The Hampshire is only medium in size, and, if
there is any difference, it will scarcely equal the
Chester-White and the Duroc-Jersey in weight.
The face is straight, and the ear is inclined for-
ward but does not droop like that of the Poland-
China. The jowl is lighter than that of the gen-
eral run of fat hogs, as is also the shoulder and
the ham. The back is of medium width, and the
side has fair length but is not so deep as that of
a typical fat hog. The legs are of medium length,
and the bone is of good quality. It may be de-
scribed as between the bacon and the fat type.
Mr. H. F. Work, at one time Secretary of the
American Hampshire Association, describes the
color as follows: “In color, they are either listed
or blacks, the most fashionable colors consisting
of black extremities with a white belt four to
twelve inches wide, encircling the body and irclud-
ing the fore-legs, which should also be white.”
SWINE 667
The term “listed” means that the white belt is
present. Mr. Work further states that there are
some breeders who try to run their herds all black,
and asserts that breeders should not be too par-
ticular regarding color, except in cases when
white spots occur.
Following is the standard of excellence adopted
by the American Hampshire Swine Record Asso-
ciation :
SCALE OF POINTS FOR HAMPSHIRE SWINE
Disqualifications.
Color.—Spotted or more than two-thirds white.
Form.—Any radical deformity, ears very large or
dropping over eyes, crooked or weak legs or broken-down
feet.
Condition.—Seriously impaired or diseased, excessive
grossness, barrenness in animals over two years of age,
chuffy or squabby fat.
Size.—Not two-thirds standard weight.
Pedigree.—Not eligible to record. Perfect
score
1, Head and face.—Head medium length, rather
narrow, cheeks not full; face nearly straight
and medium width between the eyes, surface
even and regular .. . 4
Objections: Head large, coarse and ridgy ;
nose crooked or much dished.
2, Eyes.—Bright and lively, free from wrinkles or
fat surroundings
Objections: Small, deep or obscure, or
vision impaired by fat or other cause.
3. Ears.—Medium length, thin, sHenty inclined out-
ward and forward. . . 2
Objections: Large, coarse, thick, large or
long knuck, drooping or not under good con-
trol of the animal.
4, Neck.—Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering
from shoulder to head
Objections: Long, thick or bulky.
5. Jowl.—Light and tapering from neck to point,
TEAR EME hie 6 616 6 6.6.0 oa om 6 0 2
Objections: Large, broad, deep, or flabby.
6. Shoulders.—Deep, medium width and fulness,
well in line with back
Objections: Narrow on top or bottom, thick
beyond line with sides and hams.
7. Chest.—Large, deep and roomy ; full girth, ex-
tending down even with line of belly . . 12
Objections: Narrow at top or bottom,
small girth, cramped or tucked up.
8. Back and loin.—Back straight or slightly arched;
medium breadth, with nearly uniform thick-
ness from shoulders to hams and full at loins;
sometimes higher at hips than at shoulders . 15
Objections: Narrow, creased or drooped
behind shoulders ; surface ridgy or uneven.
9, Sides and ribs.—Sides full, smooth, firm, carrying
size evenly from shoulder to hams; ribs,
strong, well sprung at top and bottom ... 8
Objections: Sides thin, flat, flabby or creased,
or ribs not well sprung.
10. Belly and flank.—Straight and full, devoid of
grossness ; flank full and ae nearly on
line with sides . . 6
Objections: Belly sagging or r flabby ; ; ‘flank
thin or tucked up.
11. Hams and rump.—Hams of medium width, long
and deep; rump slightly rounded from loin to
root of tail; buttock full and neat and firm,
devoid of flabbiness or excessive fat .... 10
668 SWINE
ScALE OF PoINTS FOR HAMPSHIRE SWINE,
continued Perfect
score
Objections: Ham narrow; cut too high in
crotch, buttock flabby; rump too flat, too
narrow or too steep, or peaked at root of tail.
12. Legs and feet.—Legs medium length, set well
apart and squarely under body, wide above
knee and hock and rounded and well muscled
below, tapering; bone medium; pasterns
short and nearly upright; toes short and
firm, enabling the animal to carry its weight
With ease... . . 10
Objections: Legs too long, slim, crooked,
coarse or short; weak muscles above hock
and knee bone; large and coarse legs without
taper; pasterns too long to correspond with
length of leg, too crooked or too slender; feet
long, slim and weak ; toes spreading, too long,
crooked or turned up.
13. Tail.—Medium length, slightly curled. . .. . 1
Objections: Coarse, long, clumsy, swing-
ing like a pendulum.
14, Coat.—Fine, straight, smooth ....... 2
Objections: Bristles or swirls, coarse or
curly.
15. Color.—Black, with exception of white belt en-
circling the body, including fore- legs . . 2
Objections: White running high on hind-
legs or extending more than one-fourth length
of body, or solid black.
16. Size.—Large for condition; boar two years old
and over, 450; sow, same age, 400; eighteen
months, boar, 350; sow, 325 ; twelve months,
boar or sow, 300; six months, both sexes,
TAO ens cet ich abe ou mei aai ae ane me oa 6
17. Action and style. ei ctv vigorous, quick and
graceful ; style attractive and spirited ... 4
Objections : Dull, sluggish and clumsy.
18. Condition.—Healthy, skin free from all defects;
flesh evenly laid on and smooth and firm, not
patchy, and devoid of all excess of grossness. 4
Objections: Skin scurfy, scaly, mangy or
otherwise unhealthy; hair harsh; dwarfed or
cramped, not growthy.
19. Disposition.—Docile, quiet and easily handled . 3
Objections: Cross, restless, vicious or with
no ambition.
Perfection . . Soy Sr oly)
® © @ ele ies
History.
The original American name of this breed is
Thin Rind. In 1904, the organization which looks
after the interests of the breed, changed the name
to Hampshire, which is now the official name of
Fig. 669.
Hampshire ioe F
SWINE
the breed. It is the latest addition to the recog-
nized pure breeds of swine in the United States.
According to Mr. H. F. Work, the Hampshire
traces to pigs brought to Massachusetts from
Hampshire, England, about 1820 or 1825. It is
also stated that descendants of this importation
were taken to Kentucky about 1835. Be this as it
may, the breed has been known in Kentucky for
many years. Various theories regarding its origin
have been advanced, but it seems impossible to
secure definite and reliable information regarding
the origin of the breed.
Distribution.
According to the secretary of the Hampshire
Association, the breed is to be found in a large
number of states, but the numbers in any one
state are not large, comparatively speaking. Ken-
tucky, Illinois and Indiana are probably the most
important centers, but the breed has been making
rapid progress of late. One or two very small
importations have been made into Canada, but no
registrations have yet been made in the Canadian
Record.
Types.
Hampshires do not vary extremely in type, if
we may judge by exhibits made at the leading
shows, and the breed has not yet attained sufficient
prominence to admit of an intelligent study of
this phase of the question.
Uses.
It is claimed for the Hampshire that it is a
bacon hog. In regard to this claim, we must bear
in mind that what the American packer calls a
bacon hog is a very different animal from the one
required to make a ‘“‘ Wiltshire side” for export to
England. It is animals suitable for making “ Wilt-
shire sides” that have given rise to the market
term, “bacon hog,” and if judged from this stand-
point, the Hampshire would fall far short of
requirements. It is altogether too short in the
side, too thick in the shoulder, and too heavy in
the neck to make a number one “ Wiltshire side,”
but as a light-weight hog for supplying bacon for
home consumption, the Hampshire answers the
purpose very satisfactorily.
In early maturity and feeding qualities, the
Hampshire seems to be giving good satisfaction to
those who are handling it, and it is highly esteemed
as a grazer. It is an active, hardy breed, and
there is no apparent reason why it should not give
as good an account of the food it consumes as any
other breed.
In quality of flesh, the Hampshire has an envi-
able reputation. It has made an excellent record in
the dressed carcass competitions at the Interna-
tional Live Stock Exposition at Chicago, and the
packers appear to regard it with high approval.
Its strong point is the large proportion of lean.
The Hampshire ranks high in regard to fecun-
dity, and appears to be one of the most prolific of
American breeds so far as we are able to investi-
gate the matter.
SWINE
The value of the Hampshire for cross-breeding is
not well known, but it seems reasonable to suppose
that it should cross well with the fat types of hogs.
Organizations and records.
The American Hampshire Swine Record Associa-
tion was organized in 1893, and published its first
herdbook in 1906. Three volumes of the herdbook
have been published to date (1908), with a total of
4,775 registrations.
Literature.
For references, see page 646.
Large Yorkshire or Large White Swine. Figs.
670, 671.
By G. #. Day.
The Large Yorkshire is an English breed of swine.
Té possesses very superior bacon qualities, and
stands preéminent among the bacon-hog types.
Description.
The Large Yorkshire is one of the largest breeds
of swine. The snout is of medium length, and
should possess little or no dish, although there is a
moderate dish in the face. The jowl is of good
width and muscular, but it should not be flabby,
nor heavily loaded with fat. The ears are rather
large, and sometimes inclined forward, especially
in old animals, but they should be firmly attached
to the head, should not be coarse, and should be
fringed with fine hair. The shoulder and back are
only of medium width, the side is long, and the
ham carries very little surface fat, making it
lighter than the ham of the fat or lard type
of hog. The flesh of the ham should be carried well
round the inside of the thigh, and the ham gener-
ally shows a tapering appearance toward the hock.
The bone is fairly heavy, but should be clean and
flinty in appearance. The leg is longer than the
leg of the fat hog. The color is white. Black hair
on any part should disqualify. Black or blue spots
on the skin do not disqualify, but are objected to,
and the aim of breeders is to reduce these spots to
a minimum. In the description of the snout of the
Large Yorkshire, the standard of excellence pre-
pared by the American Yorkshire Club falls short
of the ideal of the best breeders of the present day.
The short, turned-up snout is no longer popular,
although it is very frequently seen.
Foilowing is the standard of excellence and scale
of points adopted by the American Yorkshire Club
in 1899:
SCALE OF PoINTS FoR LARGE YORKSHIRE
SWINE Perfect
score
1. General outline.—Long and deep in proportion
to width, but not massive; slightly arched in
the back, symmetrical and smooth, with body
firmly supported by yell plared legs of medium
eng thyme) fe 5
2. Outline of head. — Moderate in 1 length and size,
with lower jaw well sprung, and considerable
dish toward snout, increasing with advanced
TAS oo & 6) 6: blo. oolke Dads oOo 4
SWINE 669
ScaLE oF PomnTs FoR LARGE YORKSHIRE SWINE,
continued Perfect
score
3. Forehead and poll— Wide ......... 1
4. Eye.—Medium size, clear and bright ..... z
5. Jowl —Medium, not carried too far back toward
Meck wandinobslab bysemenn meneame 1
6. Snout. —Turning upward with a short curve, in-
creasing with age... . 1
7. Ear. —Medium i in size, standing \ Ww ell out frot om the
head, of medium erection and inclining slightly
Girarpiail b6 508 Sate Ae Ee a 1
8. Neck.—Of medium length, fair width and depth,
rising gradually from poll to withers ; muscu-
lar, but not gross, evenly connecting head with
DOd yaa sm eeeNe! ot Ceca erst crue ese ie 3
9. Outline of body.—Long, deep and of medium
breadth, equally wide at shoulder, side and
hams; top-line EB) arched, under-line
straight . . 7
10. Back. —Moderately broad, even in “width “from
end to end; strong in loin, short ribs of good
Nengrthetese euch veh ispscsp shies val nee deu, eee as 10
11. Shoulder.—Large but not massive, not open
above . . 6
12. Arm and thigh. ~ Broad and of medium length
Erl deOlWmne 6 65 ooo boo 6 ale 2
13. Brisket.—Wide and on a level with under-line . 3
14. Side.—Long, deep, straight and even from shoul-
Gerstowhipwecine csete spilt vey a) fetes rites) tat Me 8
15. Ribs.—Well arched anddeep ........ 5
16. Heart girth and flank girth.—Good and about
equal... Riciniecouteace oo (em ctaepe tas
17. Hind-quarters. —Long, to correspond with shoul-
der and side; deep, with moderate and gradual
GOGH IO UN) Boake le Mole oO oo obo ob 6 5
18, Ham.—Large, well let down on thigh and twist,
and rear outline somewhat rounded. . ... 10
19. Twist.—Well down and meaty 5 Broo: ae
20. Tail.—Medium, not much inclined to curl Sune ee
21. Legs. —Medium in length, strong, not coarse, but
standing straight and firm 9 5
22. Hair.—Abundant, long, of medium fineness, ‘with-
out any bristles 2 O09 4
23. Skin. —Smooth and white, ition scales: but
dark spots in skin do not disqualify. . .. . 2
24. Color.—White on every part ........ 1
25. Movement.—Active, but not restless .... . 5
PEON 6 566006 000.00 60:0 100
History.
The large Yorkshire undoubtedly descended from
a race of a large, coarse-boned, leggy, white hogs,
that were common in Yorkshire and adjacent coun-
ties for so long a time that we have no definite
knowledge of their origin. These coarse white hogs
possessed the merit of size, and hence it was pos-
sible to improve them by crossing with finer breeds,
and still retain plenty of size in the improved type.
It is only within the past sixty or seventy years
that any marked improvement was effected in the
Large White hogs of Yorkshire. According to
Sidney, the first important step was the crossing
of the Yorkshire with the white Leicester, a large
breed, but finer in bone, and more easily fattened
than the original Yorkshire. Perhaps the most
important improvement was effected by crossing
with the Small Whites, or, as they are now called
in America, the Small Yorkshires. These small, fine-
boned, easily fattened hogs, produced a very marked
670 SWINE
improvement in the old Yorkshire, which has been
still further improved and brought up to its deca
high standard of excellence by judicious selection
in the hands of skilful breeders.
Fig. 670. Large Yorkshire boar.
In America.—Large White hogs have been
brought to the United States at different times
during the past century, but the improved type of
Large Yorkshires can scarcely be said to have
attained a standing in the United States until
1892. Among the first to import them into Canada
were some of the packing houses, who brought
them into the country for the purpose of improv-
ing the bacon qualities of Canadian hogs. During
the past twenty or twenty-five years, the breed has
made wonderful progress in Canada, and has more
animals recorded in the Canadian record than any
other breed.
Distribution.
On the American continent, Large Yorkshires
have made the greatest progress in Canada, owing
to the fact that Canadians have been paying
special attention to the production of bacon hogs.
In the United States, their progress has been com-
paratively slow, and it is doubtful whether they will
ever attain a high degree of popularity, especially
in the corn-belt, where the fat type of hog seems
better adapted to prevailing conditions. Minnesota
is the headquarters for the breed, and they
are also found in North Dakota, South Da-
kota, Iowa, New York, Ohio, Michigan, Wis-
consin, Virginia, Massachusetts, and some
other states. In Canada, they are to be
found in every province, Ontario taking the
lead.
Large Yorkshires occupy a very important
place in Denmark, and there are compara-
tively few countries of any importance, from
a live-stock stand-point, where the breed is
not represented.
Types.
Large Yorkshires vary more or less in
type, and it requires skill in selection to keep
them true to the best type. Some years ago,
it was common to find Large Yorkshires with very
short, turned-up snouts. This style of snout is gen-
erally associated with a rather heavy jowl, neck
and shoulder, which, from a bacon standpoint, are
SWINE
very objectionable. Another type, which is fre-
quently seen, has a long, scrawny neck, narrow
chest, and long coarse-boned legs. This type is
generally very long in the side and smooth in the
shoulder, both very desirable foatures from a
bacon curer’s standpoint ; but it has too much
bone and too coarse a skin, and lacks in quan-
tity and quality of flesh. It is also a some-
what slow feeder, and is therefore objection-
able from a farmer’s standpoint. The most
desirable type has sufficient length of side to
make a good packer’s hog, and has constitu-
tion and quality to such a marked degree that
it is unexcelled from a feeder’s standpoint.
Uses.
As previously intimated, the Large York-
shire is especially valued for bacon-produe-
tion, where a long side abounding in lean
meat, and a light shoulder and neck are espe-
cially desirable. The large size and strong bone of
this breed make it valuable for crossing on breeds
that have become unduly fine in the bone, and
lack size. It crosses remarkably well with the Berk-
shire, Chester-White and Poland-China, as well as
other fat breeds, increasing the size and the pro-
portion of lean meat without impairing the feed-
ing qualities.
The Large Yorkshire is frequently spoken of as
being “slower maturing” than the fat types of ©
hogs, but this is not a fair way of stating the
case. From the bacon curer’s standpoint, the breed
will reach desirable market weight and condition
at as early an age as any existing breed, and there
are few breeds that equal it in this respect. There-
fore, from the standpoint of the farmer who is
feeding hogs for the bacon trade, no breed excels
the Yorkshire in point of early maturity. For the
production of a fat carcass at an early age, how-
ever, the Large Yorkshire is not so well adapted.
It is a special-purpose breed, and must be regarded
as such.
From the fact that the Large Yorkshire grows
rapidly and develops bone and muscle more rapidly
Large Yorkshire sow.
Fig. 671.
than it develops fat, feeders are inclined to regard
it as an expensive hog to feed. Careful experi-
ments go to show that such is not the case, and
that, under most circumstances, it is capable of
SWINE
giving as good results for food consumed as any
other breed. It is, perhaps, not so well adapted to
azing as some other breeds, and a hot sun is
likely to blister the skin. It is probable, too, that
an exclusive corn ration would not agree with it
so well as with some other breeds that have been
developed especially to consume corn. The Large
Yorkshire has been developed in a country where
“a mixed ration is used, and where feeding in pens
is largely practiced ; and under such conditions it
gives an excellent account of the food it consumes.
For quality of bacon, the Large Yorkshire is
rivaled only by the Tamworth. The large propor-
tion of lean to fat, the thick, fleshy belly and great
length of side, render the breed peculiarly desira-
ble from a bacon curer’s and a consumer’s stand-
point. At the Provincial Winter Fair, held annually
at Guelph, Canada, there is the largest exhibit of
bacon carcasses of any show in existence, and the
Yorkshires and Yorkshire grades always carry off
the largest share of the prizes.
Large Yorkshire sows are very prolific, and are
splendid nurses. The boars are exceptionally pre-
potent and stamp their character and color on their
progeny to a remarkable degree, no matter what
they are crossed with.
Organizations and records.
The American Yorkshire Club was organized in
1892, and the first herdbook was published in 1901.
Up to 1908, three herdbooks had been published,
in which 10,582 animals are recorded. In Canada,
Yorkshires are recorded in the Dominion Swine
Breeders’ Record, and up to January 1, 1908,
29,185 animals had been recorded. For further
information regarding Canadian records, see under
Berkshires.
Interature.
For references, see page 646.
Poland-China Swine. Fig. 672.
By G. #. Day.
Poland-China swine are entirely the product and
development of American swine-breeders. They are
of the lard-hog type.
Description.
The Poland-China is a medium-sized breed, and,
as commonly bred, is not so large as the large
type of Berkshire; but the average Poland-China
is well up to the average Berkshire in weight.
The face is slighty dished; the jowl full and
heavy ; the ears should be fine, firmly attached to
the head, and about one-third of the ear should
droop. The neck is short, thick, and heavily arched
on top. The shoulder is heavy, the side rather
short, but deep, and the back wide, with a slightly
arched top-line. The whole hind-quarter is heavily
fleshed, the ham being exceptionally wide and deep.
The legs are short, and the bone fine, breeders hav-
ing gone to an extreme in regard to fineness of
bone in many cases. Some years ago, Poland-
_ Chinas were freely marked with white, but the
SWINE 67).
fashionable color today is black, with six white
points, namely, white in face, on the feet, and tip
of the tail. A limited number of white markings
on other parts of the body are not seriously
objected to.
Following is the description and scale of points
adopted by the National Association of Expert
Judges of Swine:
SCALE OF PoINTS FOR POLAND-CHINA
SWINE Perfect
score
Pa Hea ditrems, co iecuveprisear ci ser, oi sias eel onions 4
Ps LOMCELT ONG von Se BEOMG nO mCnICnOIG 000 2
SATS ee RY SS awial Fen elim ied. iss stra vorieha tens 2
CU 0 eae US ROUGE On Er TOHRU AIRE RI SEIeS MON NS 2
SM) ONVLU eee aereievcat ey utadccyi rel re\icorepiee roles Na 2
@; SROWGSS) 66 515 6 16)h 6 6 ooo SO able 6
(aChestyaererecch ie: eich coviat “at oot vo) series carats 12
SpbackdandglomMrcw noha enemeues aire enements 14
OMS 1d estandyriDSewr trees ionien ici cn cnreie eerenenits 10
1@), Ligh emGlikms 5 54 go Oooo ooo 4
iil, LEONE THAN. 5 oo 6g Goo GD OOOO 10
lawReetandulegsiwrewicvenci se venen ie ctun ener ene 10
Sey Pauly are ton elas matric e sie: lane yet crete ey ane 1
WAN Contin eweWre center tensiceriah onrentiay tomate 3
SSPE C OL OL Meet eee tay tcl eo) costal Fotilat youceuanie sits is 3
NGS CHG 6) oo 0.6 Ono Old IO OL (Okano cono 5
iapActiontandistylel vey s cys) ie eieeresl ci rele el 3
1 See Conditiony men eae ete cos) ie 5 oto. Gco0 2
1Q, WMO 5 6 50 oo Gg 0 0000 2
20. Symmetry of points. ........... 3
INAWION o 6 ooo O00 DO 000 100
1. Head—Head should be broad, even and smooth
between and above the eyes; slightly dished, tapering
evenly and gradually to near the end of the nose; broad
lower jaw, head inclined to shortness, but not enough to
give the appearance of stubby nose; and in male, a mascu-
line expression and appearance.
Objections.—Head long, narrow between the eyes; nose
uneven and coarse; too large at the muzzle or the head too
short; not full or high above the eyes, or too much
wrinkled around or above the eyes.
2. Hyes—Full, clear, prominent and expressive.
Objections.— Dull expression, deep set or obscure.
Sight impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause.
3. Hars.—Hars attached to the head by a short, firm
knuck, giving free and easy action; standing up slightly
at the base to within two-thirds of the tip, where a gentle
break or droop should occur; in size neither too large nor
too small, but even, fine, thin, leaf shape; slightly inclined
outward.
Objections.—Large, floppy, straight, upright or eearse;
knuck long, letting the ear droop too close to the head
and face, hindering the animal of free use of the ears.
4. Neck.—Short, wide, even, smooth, well arched;
rounding and full from poll to shoulder, with due regard
to the characteristics of the sex.
Objections.—Long, narrow, thin and drooping from the
shoulder to the poll, with unevenness caused by wrinkles
or creases.
5. Jowl.—Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying
fullness back to near point of shoulders, and below line of
lower jaw so that the lower line will be as low as breast-
bone when head is carried up level.
Objections—Light, flabby, thin and wedge-shaped,
deeply wrinkled, not drooping below line of lower jaw.
and not carrying fulness back to shoulder and brisket.
6. Shoulders.—Broad and oval at the top, showing
evenness with the back and neck, with good width from
672 SWINE
the top to the bottom, and even smoothness extending
well forward.
Objections.—Narrow at the top or bottom; not so deep
as the body; uneven width. Shields on pigs under eight
months of age, or showing too much shield at any age.
7. Chest.—Large, wide, deep and full ; even under-line
to the shoulder and sides with no creases; giving plenty
of room for heart and other organs, making a large girth,
indicating much vitality. Brisket smooth, even and broad,
wide between legs, and extending well forward, showing
in front.
Objections.—Pinched appearance at the top or bottom,
or tucked in back of fore-legs; showing too narrow
between the legs; not depth enough back of the shoulder.
Brisket uneven, narrow, not prominent.
8. Back and loin.—Broad, straight or slightly arched,
carrying same width from shoulder to ham, surface even,
smooth, free from lumps, creases or projections, not too
long, but broad on top, indicating well-sprung ribs; should
not be higher at hip than at shoulder and should fill out
at junction with side so that a straight-edge placed along
at top of side will touch all the way from point of shoulder
to point of ham; should be shorter than lower belly line.
Objections.—Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed
or hollow, drooping below a straight line; humped or
wrinkled; too long or sun-fish shaped; loin high, narrow,
depressed or humped up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or
uneven, width at side not so much as shoulder and ham.
9, Sides and ribs.—Sides full, firm and deep, free from
wrinkles; carrying size down to belly; even from ham to
shoulder. Ribs of good length, well sprung at top and
bottom. : :
Objections.—Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not so full at
bottom as at top; drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a
crease, or pinched and tucked up and in as it approaches
the ham; uneven surface; ribs flat or too short.
10. Belly and flank.—Belly broad, straight and full,
indicating capacity and room, being about the same or on
a level at the flank with the under chest-line. Under-line
straight or nearly so, and free from flabby appearance.
Objections.—Belly uneven and flabby, or apparent
looseness in the make-up. Pinched up in the flank or
flanked too high.
11. Ham and rump.—Hams broad, full, deep and long
from rump to hock; fully developed above and below,
being wide at the point of the hip, carrying width well
down to the lower part of the hams; fleshy, plump, round-
ing, fulness perceptible everywhere. Rump rounding and
gradually sloping from the loin to the root of the tail;
broad and well developed all along from loin, and gradu-
ally rounding to the buttock; lower front part of ham
should be full, and stifle well covered with flesh. Even
width of ham and rump with the back, loin and body;
even a greater width as to females not objectionable.
Objections.—Ham, short, narrow, too round or slim;
not filled out above or below, or unshapely for deep meat;
nor so wide as the body, back or loin; too tapering or
small. Rump narrow or pointed, not plump or well filled,
or too steep from loin to the tail.
12. Legs and feet.—Legs medium length, straight, set
well apart and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled
and wide above knee and hock; below hock and knee
round and tapering, capable of sustaining weight of
animal in full flesh without breaking down; bone firm and
of fine texture; pasterns short and nearly upright. Feet
firm, short, tough and free from defects.
Objections.—Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles
small above hock and knee; bone large, coarse; as large
at foot as above knee; pasterns long, slim, crooked or
weak; the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs too
close together; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading
or crooked or unable to bear weight of animal without
breaking down,
SWINE
13. Tail.—Tail of medium length and size, smooth and
tapering well, and carried in a curl.
Objections.—Coarse and long without a curl; short,
crooked or stubby; too small, even, not tapering.
14. Coat.—Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and
covering the body well; not clipped, evenly distributed
over the body. J
Objections.—Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or
curly; swirls, standing up, ends of hair split and brown,
not evenly distributed over all of the body except belly.
Clipped coats should be cut 1.5 points.
15. Color.—Black, with six (6) white points: Tip of
tail, four white feet and white in face on the nose or on
the point of lower jaw; all to be perceptible without close
examination. Splashes of white on the jaw, legs or flank,
or a few spots of white on the body not objectionable.
Objections.—Solid black, white mixed or sandy spots;
speckled with white hairs over the body; mottled face of
white and black, hair mixed, making a grizzly appearance.
16. Size-—Large for age. Condition, vigor and vitality
to be considered. There should be a difference between
breeding animals and those kept or fitted for the show, of
at least 25 per cent in size. In show condition, or when
fat, a two-year-old boar should weigh not less than six
hundred (600) pounds, and a sow not less than five hun-
dred (500) pounds. Boar one year and over, four hundred
(400) pounds; sow, three hundred and fifty (350) pounds.
Boar, eighteen months, five hundred (500) pounds; sow,
four hundred and fifty (450) pounds. Boars and sows six
months old, not less than one hundred and sixty (160)
pounds. All hogs in just fair breeding condition, one-
fourth less for size. The keeping and chance that a young
hog has cuts a figure in his size and should be considered,
other points being equal. Fine quality and size combined
are desirable.
Objections.—Overgrown; coarse, flabby, loose appear-
ance, gangling, hard to fatten ; too fine, undersize; short,
stubby, inclined to chubby fatness; not a hardy, robust
animal.
17. Action and style-—Action vigorous, easy and
graceful. Style attractive; high carriage; and in males,
testicles should be prominent and of about the same size,
and yet not too large and pouchy.
Objections.—Clumsy, slow, awkward movement; low
carriage; waddling or twisting walk; a seeming tired or
lazy appearance; not standing erect and firm.
18. Condition.—Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales
and sores; soft and mellow to the touch; flesh fine; evenly
laid on and free from lumps and wrinkles. Hair soft and
lying close to body; good feeding qualities.
Objections.—Unhealthy, skin scaly, wrinkled, scabby
or harsh; flabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for
breeding. Hair harsh, dry and standing up from body;
poor feeders; deafness, partial or total.
19. Disposition.—Lively, easily handled and seemingly
kind, responsive to good treatment.
Objections.—Cross, sluggish, restless, wild or of a
vicious turn. |
20. Symmetry or adaptation of points.—The adaptation
of all the points, size and style combined to make the
desired type or model.
History.
The Poland-China originated in Butler and War-
ren counties, in Ohio. These two counties are
drained by the Great Miami and the Little Miami
rivers. The valley of the Miami is a very fertile
district, and its name is closely associated with the
early history of this breed. The history of the
origin of Poland-China swine is not altogether
clear, and some points haye been the subject of
sZ0Y paiojoo Jo speelg “AXX 2%
sos ol1ysdweH ; Jeoq omysyiog
ich
with some sandy and black spots. These Big {
SWINE
lengthy controversies. From the varying theories
and claims put forward, we may accept the following
statements as being reasonably accurate. Previous
to 1816, the Russia and Byfield breeds were largely
used for crossing on the common hogs of the Miami
valley. These were both white breeds, possessing
more or less merit as feeders. In 1816, the Society
of Shakers, of Union Village, Warren county,
brought a boar and three sows from Philadelphia.
The pigs were represented to the Shakers as being
of pure Chinese blood, and they were called Big
Chinas. The boar and two of the sows are said to
SWINE 673
Types.
As is the case with other breeds, the Poland-
China differs more or less in the hands of different
breeders. The older type of Poland-China was a
larger, more rangy, and heavier-boned hog than
the Poland-Chinas seen in the show-rings of today.
Breeders of Poland-Chinas have gone rather to an
extreme, on the whole, in the matter of selecting
have been pure white, and the other sow was white, # fi
Chinas and their descendants were extensively
crossed on the hogs then in the county, and the
resulting type came to be known as the Warren
county hog. The Big China was a medium-sized
breed, of fine bone and good feeding qualities, and
its use on the hogs of Warren county effected a
marked improvement. It is also stated that subse-
quent to the introduction of the Big China, other
China hogs of finer and smaller type were brought
into the county. In 1835 or 1836, Berkshires were
introduced and extensively used, and about 1839 or
1840, the Irish Grazier was imported and used on
these pigs of complicated breeding in Warren
county. The Irish Grazier was a white breed of
considerable merit and did its share toward modi-
fying the Miami valley hogs. It was also said by
some persons that a Poland breed was used for
crossing on Warren county hogs, while others
maintained that no such breed was ever introduced.
An extended controversy ensued, which was finally
ended by the findings of a committee that was
appointed to investigate the origin of the breed,
and which reported its findings to the National
Swine Breeders’ Convention held in Indianapolis
in 1872. This committee reported against the
theory that a Poland breed had been used, but
recommended that the name Poland-China be
recognized as the accepted name of the breed. The
recommendation was adopted, and since that
time the breed, which previously had been known
by a great variety of names has been known
as the Poland-China. It is said that since
ae no outside blood has been infused into this
reed.
Distribution.
The Poland-China is widely distributed over the
United States. The principal states in which the
breed is found, according to the Secretary of
the American Poland-China Record Association,
are lowa, Illinois, Texas, Missouri, Kansas, Ne-
braska, Indiana, Ohio, Minnesota, South Dakota,
Wisconsin, Oklahoma, and Michigan, but there are
few states where Poland-Chinas are not to be
found.
In Canada, the breed has not obtained a very
strong foothold, and has rather decreased in num-
bers during recent years. The strong demand for
the bacon type in Canada is mainly responsible for
_ this fact. Outside of the United States and Canada.
the breed is but little known.
C 43
Fig. 672.
Poland-China boar.
for fineness of bone, and the result, in many cases,
is a hog that lacks somewhat in size and in fecun-
dity. These facts have been brought forcibly before
breeders during recent years, and any defects of
the nature stated will be remedied, no doubt,
by thoughtful breeders. Even now, we can see
evidences of a change in methods, and there
is little doubt that the Poland-China will be bred
to retain its high quality without sacrificing its
utility.
Uses.
The Poland-China has been developed especially
to meet the market demand for a fat or lard hog.
Its heavy shoulder, wide back, and heavily developed
hams, render it an exceptionally good yielder from
the packer’s standpoint.
The quality of the meat produced by the Poland-
China has frequently been criticised because of its
large proportion of fat to lean. The development
of a tendency to produce lean along with fat has
been largely overlooked in bringing this breed to
its present stage of perfection from a feeder’s
standpoint, but it appears to meet the demands of
the American packer, and he is willing to pay top
market price for it.
In early maturity, that is, in ability to produce
a finished fat carcass for the packer at an early
age, the Poland-China is unexcelled. It has been
bred for early maturity for generations, and
has attained an enviable reputation in this con-
nection.
As a feeder, the Poland-China is a favorite with
corn-belt farmers. The breed has been developed on
corn-feeding, and seems to thrive on an exclusive
corn ration better than many other breeds. In a
colder climate, and on a mixed ration, the Poland-
China might not show to so good advantage as
some other breeds, but for the purpose of turning
corn into pork, it is difficult to beat. The Poland-
China has also demonstrated its usefulness as a
grass hog, making good gains on pasture with a
674 SWINE
light grain ration. Experiments with breeds of
swine have resulted differently at different stations,
and it would seem that economy of production is
more a question of individuality than of breed.
Their exceptional tendency to fatten renders ani-
mals of this breed especially valuable for crossing
purposes, and the Poland-China is highly esteemed
for crossing on other breeds, as well as on common,
or grade stock. A cross between the large York-
shire and the Poland-China has been found to give
an excellent hog, both from a farmer’s and a packer’s
standpoint. For crossing with the Berkshire, Duroc-
Jersey and Chester-White, the breed is very highly
esteemed, and the cross-breds are generally re-
garded as superior to the pure-breds for feeding
purposes.
The most serious criticism directed against the
Poland-China is on the score of fecundity. In any
breed in which so much attention has been paid to
the development of fine bone and a very marked
tendency to fatten, it is only natural to expect that
there would be some loss of fecundity, and statistics
appear to indicate that the Poland-China is no
exception to the rule. This criticism applies especi-
ally to the very fine-boned types.
Organizations and records.
Organizations in the interests of Poland-Chinas
are numerous. The largest organization is the
American Poland-China Record Association, which
was organized in 1878. It published its first herd-
book in 1879, and has published fifty volumes to
date (1908), containing the names of 278,000 ani-
mals. The Ohio Poland-China Record was organized
in 1877, and up to 1906 had published twenty-seven
volumes. The Central Poland-China Association
was organized in 1880, and published twenty-six
volumes of its Record up to 1906. In 1906, the
Ohio and Central Associations amalgamated under
the name of the National Poland-China Record
Company, and since amalgamation two volumes
have been published, which are numbered twenty-
eight and twenty-nine, beginning where the Ohio
herdbooks left off. The Ohio Association recorded
103,000 head, the Central Association 48,000 head,
and since amalgamation, 13,000 head have been
recorded in the two volumes of the National. The
Northwestern Poland-China Swine Association was
organized in 1881. The Standard Poland-China
Record Association was organized in 1887, and has
published some twenty volumes since that time.
The Southwestern Poland-China Record Association
was organized in 1896, and has published two herd-
books, with 2,378 registrations. These associations
in the main are thrifty and influential, as indicated
by the large number of registrations ; but the best
interests of the breed demand greater unity of
effort and of ideals.
In Canada, Poland-Chinas are recorded in the
Dominion Swine Breeders’ Record, but only 3,367
Ha of this breed have been recorded to January
, 1908.
Literature.
For references, see page 646,
SWINE
Small Yorkshire or Small White Swine. Figs.
673, 674.
By G. E. Day.
The Small Yorkshire is an English breed of pigs,
and may be said to be of the fat-hog type. It is of
relative unimportance in America.
Description.
The Small Yorkshire may be considered the
smallest breed of swine kept in the United States.
It has a very short, turned-up snout, wide face,
small, erect ears, heavy jowl, and a very short,
heavy neck. The body is short, thick, deep, and
smooth, and the legs are very short and fine in the
.bone. The color is white and the hair is abundant,
but fine.
Following is the description and scale of points
adopted by the American Yorkshire Club.
SCALE OF PoInTs FoR SMALL YORKSHIRE
SWINE Perfect
score
1. General outline.—Wide and deep in proportion
to the length, straight above and below, and
short in head, neck, body and limbs... . . 5a
2. Outline of head.—Short, abrupt, inclining to
fine, and possessed of much dish and down-
ward springing under the jaws. . ..... 4
3. Forehead and poll.—Wide . . . . . . oa
4, Eye.—Medium size, clear and bright . . 1
5, Jowl.—Large, smooth and canna well back to-
ward the neck
6. Snout.—Short, turning upward somewhat with a
deep indenture or curve immediately above it. 1
7. Ear.—Small, thin, erect and inclining slightly
forward rather than backward at the tips . . 1
8. Neck.—Short, wide and deep, the width slightly
9
increasing towards the shoulders. . . .. . 3
. Outline of body.—Short, broad, deep and sheet
above, below, and on the sides: «.. 3) see 7
10. Back.—Very broad, of even width and straight
from withers to tail head. . ....... 10
11. Shoulder.—Large, smoothly and evenly devel-
ae and blending perfectly with neck and
12. rene oad thigh. — Moderately wide, tapering
nicely down, and inclining to be short. . . . 2
13. Brisket.—Wide and on level with under-line. . 3
14, Side.—Deep, thick in every part, straight and
even from shoulder tohip. .......-. 8
15. Ribs.—Widely and deeply sprung
16. Heart and flank girth.—Excellent in proportion
to the length of body and about equal. . .. 8
17. Hind-quarters.—Relatively long ; broad in every
part and deep, with but little lowering toward
the tail head
18. Ham.—Large, well let down at thigh and twist
and inclined to be straight behind ..... 10
19. Twist.—Well down andfull ..... ee
20. Tail.—Fine, short and inclined tocurl .... 1
21. Legs.—Short, fine rather than coarse, strong,
straight, and placed well apart ...... 5
22. Hair.—Abundant, fine, even in quality .... 4
23. Skin.—Smooth and white and free from creases
and scales, a: 0) ss ie epee 2
24, Color.—White on every part ....... 1
25. Movement.—Gentle and easy but not sluggish . 5
Perfection .\. ‘s. »» ss » onalnel tei sine
SWINE .
History.
The Small Yorkshire comes from England, where
it goes by the name of “Small White,” the name
“Small Yorkshire” being of American origin. The
breed is thought to be of Chinese origin, modified,
DS eR TES ak
Pe eR
NE)
Fig. 673.
of course, by the methods of the English breeders.
Various types or strains of Small Whites have been
bred in England, but at present they are all classed
as one breed.
In America.—The Small Yorkshire was brought
to the United States, according to Curtis, in 1860,
and numerous importations were made between
that time and 1878.
Distribution.
Small Whites are found in many parts of Eng-
land. In the United States, under the name of
Small Yorkshire, small herds are to be found,
mainly in the Hast. The breed no longer attracts
much attention.
Uses.
It is somewhat difficult to give any very impor-
tant use for Small Yorkshires in America. The
breed matures very early, and fattens easily, but
produces excessively fat meat. It is probably most
suitable for the cottager who wants a pig that can
be matured with a small amount of feed,
There is no American breed that requires cros-
sing with a breed like the Small Yorkshire, unless
it is the “Razorback,” and the Essex seems to be
rather better adapted to this purpose, as it will
stand the hot sun of the South better than a white
pig. Any advan-
tage from cross-
ing with ordi-
nary breeds
would accrue to
the Small York-
shire, rather
than to the
other breed.
The Small
Yorkshire is not
noted for fecundity, and it would seem as though
the breed were destined gradually to disappear,
unless some unforeseen conditions arise which call
for the services of a pig of this kind.
Small Yorkshire sow.
Fig. 674.
Organizations and records.
The American Small Yorkshire Club was organ-
ized in 1878, and has recorded some 1,500 pigs in
its herdbook. The American Yorkshire Club also
records Small Yorkshires, the Small Yorkshires
SWINE 675
being recorded in what is called Class A and the
Large Yorkshires in Class B. In England, the breed
is registered in the herdbook of the National Pig
Breeders’ Association. No Small Yorkshires have
been recorded under this name in Canada.
Literature.
For references, see page 646.
Suffolk Swine. Fig. 675.
By G. #. Day.
The Suffolk is an English breed of swine, closely
identified with the Small Yorkshire, and of little
importance in America. It may be classed with
the fat- or lard-hog types. It is best adapted to
intensive conditions, where land for grazing is
scarce and soiling food is used in addition to
pasture.
Description.
At the National Swine Breeders’ Convention at
Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1872, the following de-
scription of the Suffolk was approved: ‘“ Head
small, very short ; cheeks prominent and full; face
dished; snout small and very short; jowl fine; ears
short, small, thin, upright, soft and silky ; neck
very short and thick, the head appearing almost as
if set on front of shoulders, no arching of crest ;
chest wide and deep; elbows standing out ; brisket
wide but not deep; shoulders thick, rather upright,
rounding outward from top to elbow ; crops wide
and full, long ribs, well arched out from back, good
length between shoulders and hams; flanks well
filled out and coming well down at ham; back
broad, level, straight from crest to tail, not falling
off or down at the tail; hams wide and full, well
rounded out, twist very wide and full all the way
down ; legs small and very short, standing wide
apart—in sows, just keeping belly from the ground;
bone fine, feet small, hoofs rather spreading ; tail
small, long and tapering ; skin thin, of a pinkish
shade, free from color ; hair fine and silky, not too
thick ; color of hair, pale yellowish white, perfectly
free from any spots or other color; size, small to
medium.” In size, the Suffolk is probably slightly
larger than the Small Yorkshire, but it is practi-
cally the same breed.
Following is the scale of points adopted by the
American Suffolk Association :
676 SWINE
SCALE OF POINTS FOR SUFFOLK
SWINE Perfect
score
IL Color:——Wihite’ 5 sie) <8 eee eine 2
2. Head.—Small, broad, and face dished. . . .. 3
3. Ears.—Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age . 2
4" Jowl.—aollvand neat an-tier eles) alee 1
5. Neck.—Short, full and slightly arched. . . . . 3
6. Shoulders.—Broad and deep ........ 7
7. Girth around heart, (-) -) teaeieiel stele erele 6
8. Back.—Straight, broad, level ........ 12
9. Sides:—Deep and full .........- 6
10: Ribs:—Wellisprungy:. = (<)/e) seem icleh eure tf
11. Loin.—Broad and strong ; - 2... = «= «= 12
12. Flank.—Well letdown. .......... 2
13) Ham>—Broads toll) deep! a) cess tometer oreale i,
14. Tail.—Medium, fine and curled. ....... 2
15. Legs.—Fine, straight and tapering ..... . 3
16;. Reet; Small” 2.) sh eo eh, ery eee ad omen 3
17. Hair.—Fine and silky, free from bristles ... 3
18. Action.—Easy and graceful. ........ 4
19. Symmetry.—Adaptation of the several parts to
CUMS ID eo Sao aoc 1G bho 4 x
Wei Gig oo OOo 0 Ooo ood 100
History.
The Suffolk is undoubtedly of the same origin as
the Small Yorkshire, and is an offshoot of the Small
White breed in England. There is no such breed as
a White Suffolk recognized in England, but the
name Suffolk is sometimes applied locally to the
Small Black breed, of which the Essex is a repre-
sentative.
In America.—The breed is said to have been
brought to the United States in 1855, but it has
never made much progress, and seems to be losing
ground steadily.
Distribution.
The so-called Suffolk pig is confined to the United
States and Canada, although it has practically dis-
appeared from the latter country. In the United
States it is found mainly in the Mississippi valley,
but herds are not at all numerous.
Uses.
What has been said regarding Small Yorkshires
under this heading applies here, as the breeds are
essentially the same. [See page 674.]
Organizations and records.
The American Suffolk Association was organized
many years ago, but no herdbook has yet been
published. In Canada, Suffolks are recorded in the
Dominion Swine Breeders’ Record, only 850 animals
having been recorded up to January 1, 1908.
Literature.
For references, see page 646.
Tamworth Swine. Fig. 676.
By G. E. Day.
Tamworth swine are of the bacon type, and as
such have been accorded a high place by breeders.
They are much more popular in Canada than in
the United States.
SWINE
Description.
According to the standard of excellence adopted
by the National Pig Breeders’ Association of Great
Britain, the Tamworth should have “golden red
hair on a flesh-colored skin, free from black.”
However, the shade of red varies considerably in
individuals, and a chestnut shade is very common.
In aged animals, it is not uncommon to see such a
dark shade of chestnut that the casual observer
might mistake it for a dull black. The snout is
long and straight, and the ear large, and somewhat
more pointed than the Yorkshire ear. The ears
should be firmly attached to the head. The jowl is
narrower and lighter than that of the Yorkshire,
the neck and shoulder are light, the back and loin
of medium width, and the side of good length and
only moderately deep. Deficiency of ham is a com-
mon weakness of the Tamworth. Since the Tam-
worth belongs to the bacon type, it is not desira-
ble that it should have a heavy, fat ham like a
fat hog; but the ham is often lacking seriously
even from a bacon standpoint, and the breeders
are making an effort to strengthen this point.
The Tamworth is a large hog, strong in the bone,
and looks leggy beside a hog of the fat type. The
Tamworth and Large Yorkshire are similar in size,
and are the two leading breeds of the bacon type.
Following is the standard of excellence adopted
by the National Pig Breeders’ Association of Great
Britain.
STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR TAMWORTH SWINE
1. Color.—Golden red hair on a flesh-colored skin, free
from black.
2. Head.—Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite
straight, face slightly dished, wide between ears.
3. Ears.—Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid
and inclined slightly forward.
4, Neck.—Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar.
5. Chest.—Wide and deep. .
6. Shoulders.—Fine, slanting, and well set.
7. Legs —Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and
set well outside body.
8. Pasterns.—Strong and sloping.
9. Feet.—Strong and of fair size.
10. Back.—Long and straight.
11. Loin.—Strong and broad.
12. Tail.—Set on high and well tasseled.
13. Sides.—Long and deep.
14. Ribs.—Well sprung and extending well up to flank.
15, Belly.—Deep, with straight under-line.
16. Flank.—Full and well let down.
17. Quarters.—Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail.
18. Hams.—Broad and full, well let down to hocks.
19. Coat.—Abundant, long, straight, and fine.
20. Action.—Firm and free.
Objections: Black hair, very light or ginger
hair, curly coat, coarse mane, black spots on skin,
slouch or drooping shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent
knees, hollowness at back of shoulders.
History.
The Tamworth takes its name from Tamworth,
in Staffordshire, England. It is also to be found
in adjoining counties. It is of ancient and uncer-
certain origin, and there seems to be no well
authenticated account of where it came from. As
first known, it was an extremely leggy, narrow
SWINE
type of hog, but it has been greatly improved dur-
ing the past thirty years. Whether this improve-
ment was wrought solely by selection, or whether
cross-breeding was resorted to, is uncertain. Pro-
fessor Long favors the theory that the Tamworth
was crossed with some white breed, but apparently
no proof exists as to the correctness or incorrect-
ness of this claim. Although it is one of the oldest
—
LGA SSNS << \..
\ SASS
Tamworth sow.
Fig. 676.
English breeds, it was not given aseparate class at
the Royal Agricultural Society’s Show until 1885.
In America.—Representatives of the Tamworth
breed were brought to the United States nearly
thirty years ago, but the breed does not make
rapid progress. The long snout tends to prejudice
the average farmer, and the fact that the produc-
tion of bacon hogs receives little or no encourage-
ment in the United States also tends to work
against the general adoption of the breed.
Like the Large Yorkshire, the Tamworth was
brought to Canada by the packers some twenty
years ago, with a view to improving the bacon
qualities of Canadian hogs, and large numbers have
been imported by Canadian breeders during the past
twenty years. The Tamworth has not attained the
degree of popularity in Canada that is enjoyed by
the Yorkshire, although it is always well repre-
sented at the leading Canadian fairs.
Distribution.
As already stated, the Tamworth has not made
rapid progress in the United States, although rep-
resentatives are to be found in Illinois, Kentucky,
Towa, Kansas, Texas, Wisconsin and Ohio. In
Canada, it is more numerous in Ontario than in any
other province, but it is to be found in practically
every province. England and Canada are the two
leading countries in the production of this breed.
Uses.
The Tamworth is especially adapted to the pro-
duction of bacon. Its light shoulder, neck and
head, its good length of side, and its tendency to
produce a large proportion of lean to fat, render
it well suited to the bacon curer’s requirements.
Being a large breed, and strong in the bone, it has
become popular for crossing on finer and fatter
breeds in districts where it is well known. A cross
between the Tamworth and the Berkshire is very
popular in Canada.
SWINE 677
As to early maturity, it is similar to the Large
Yorkshire. For producing fat carcasses at an
early age, it is unsuitable, as this is not the pur-
pose for which it is bred. It will reach suitable
weight for the bacon curer, however, at as early
an age as any of the fat breeds, and will not carry
the excessive fat which renders the fat breeds
unsuitable for bacon purposes. For bacon-produc-
tion, therefore, it matures early, and it is from the
bacon standpoint that the Tamworth must always
be judged.
There is a popular belief among farmers that
the Tamworth does not make economical use of
food. A good deal of this prejudice is due to the
appearance of the animal, and the man who is used
to the short, thick, fine-boned type of hog, finds
- difficulty in reconciling himself to a hog of Tam-
worth type. Experiments show, however, that the
Tamworth is capable of making good use of the
food it consumes, and that it compares very favor-
ably with other breeds in this respect. Like the
Yorkshire, it is rather better adapted to pen feed-
ing than to pasture. It has been impossible to
secure much information regarding its ability to
stand exclusive corn-feeding. Available informa-
tion indicates that the breed is not particularly
well adapted to this purpose.
It is asserted by some persons that Tamworths
produce higher class bacon than any other breed,
but this is too sweeping an assertion, and when
they have come together in dressed-carcass compe-
titions, the Large Yorkshire has won the largest
share of prizes. There is no question, however,
that the Tamworth produces excellent bacon,
which is well mixed with lean of fine quality. The
Large Yorkshire and Tamworth are the only
strictly bacon breeds with which we are familiar
in America.
Tamworth sows are prolific and are good moth-
ers. The boars are prepotent, but perhaps scarcely
equal to the Large Yorkshire in this respect.
According to Shaw, the Tamworth as compared
with the Chester-White shows greater adapta-
bility, is more active as a grazer, more hardy, and
produces a superior quality of bacon.
Organizations and records.
The American Tamworth Swine Record Associa-
tion was organized in 1897. The first volume of
the herdbook was published in 1903, and up to
January 1, 1908, two volumes had been pub-
lished, in which 4,510 animals are recorded. In
Canada, Tamworths are recorded in the Dominion
Swine Breeders’ Record. Up to January 1, 1908,
6,970 animals had been recorded. [For further
information regarding Canadian swine organiza-
tions, see under Berkshire swine, on pages 659 and
660.
In Great Britain, Tamworth swine are recorded
in the herdbook of the National Pig Breeders’
Association.
Literature.
For references, see page 646, where a general
list of swine books is given.
678 SWINE
Victoria Swine. Fig. 677.
By G. EH. Day.
The Victoria breed of swine was originated in
America, but unlike the Poland-China, the great
American breed, it has not gained much popularity.
It is of the fat-hog type.
Description.
The Victoria ranks with the medium-sized breeds,
being similar to the Berkshire in size. The snout is
rather short, the face dished, and the ear, which is
of only medium size, is firmly attached to the head
and erect. The body is broad and deep, and the hams
7 iy yy
2 oS ay
ie Z,
Bay ae Tp,
Lp
Victoria sow.
Fig. 677.
and shoulders reasonably well developed. The color
is white, with occasional dark spots on the skin.
Following is the scale of points adopted by the
Victoria Swine Breeders’ Association :
ScALE OF PoINTS FOR VICTORIA
SWINE Perfect
score
. Color.—White, with occasional dark spots in the
skin
Head.—Small, broad, and face medium dished . 3
Ears.—Fine, pointing forward. .......
Jowl.—Medium size andneat ........
Neck.—Short, full and well arched
Shoulders.—Broad anddeep ........
A Girthyaronund sheart. 1 ule it cisions eile
. Back.—Straight, broad and level. . .....
. Sides.—Deep and full
LON Ribs-—Wellisprung at eavesstist eeeetesiionte te sir
11. Loin.—Broad and strong .
12. Flank.—Well letdown. . ........-.
13. Ham.—Broad, full and deep, without loose fat .
14, Tail.—Medium fine and curled. .......
15. Legs.—Fine and straight
UGE eel Bo eb oo oo
17. Hair.—Fine and silky, free from bristles
18. Action.—Hasy and graceful. . .
19. Symmetry.—Adaptation of the several parts to
each other... .
Bi tent sl ie) forte
CHOARM Rr Pe
jay nes et ete) ce! fe) ee, ow we
AENOUG Oo oo 6 4 Ooo ole pb oO otk)
Detailed description.
1. Color.—White, with occasional dark spots in the
skin.
2. Head and face.—Head rather small and neat. Face
medium-dished and smooth ; wide between eyes ; tapering
from eyes to nose.
3. EHyes.—Medium size; prominent, bright, clear and
lively in young, and quiet expression in aged animals.
4. Hars.—Small, thin, fine, silky; upright in young
SWINE
pigs, pointing forward and slightly outward in aged
animals.
5. Neck.—Medium wide, deep, short, well arched, and
full at top.
6. Jowl.—Medium full, nicely rounded, neat and free
from loose, flabby fat.
7. Shoulders.—Broad, deep and full, not higher than
line of back, and as wide as top of back.
8. Chest.—Large, wide, deep and roomy, with large
girth back of shoulders.
9. Back and loin.—Broad, straight, or slightly arched;
carrying same width from shoulders to ham; level and
full at loin, sometimes slightly higher at hips than at
shoulders.
10. Ribs and sides.—Ribs well sprung at top; strong
and firm; sides deep, full, smooth and firm; free from
creases.
11. Belly and flank.—Wide, straight and full; as low
_ or slightly lower at flank than at chest. Flank full and
nearly even with sides.
12. Hams and rump.—Hams long, full and wide,
nicely rounded ; trim and free from loose fat. Buttocks
large and full, reaching well down to hocks. Rump
slightly sloped from end of loin to root of tail.
13. Legs and feet.—Legs short, set well apart and
firm ; wide above knee and hock, tapering below. Feet
firm and standing well up on toes.
14. Tail—Small, fine and tapering, nicely curled.
15. Coat.—Fine and silky, evenly covering the body.
16. Size.—Boar two years old and over when in good
condition should weigh not less than 500 pounds; sow
same age and condition, 450 pounds. Boar twelve months
old, not less than 800 pounds; sow in good flesh, 300
pounds. Pigs five to six months old, 140 to 160 pounds.
17. Action.—Hasy and graceful, but quiet.
18. Condition. — Healthy ; skin clean, and white or
pink in color, free from scurf ; flesh firm and evenly laid
on.
19. Disposition—Quiet and gentle.
Disqualifications.
Color.—Other than white or creamy white, with occa-
sional dark spots in skin.
Form.—Crooked jaws or deformed face; crooked or
deformed legs ; large, coarse, drooping ears.
Condition.—Excessive fatness ; barrenness ; deformity
in any part of the body.
Pedigree.—Not eligible for record.
History.
At one time there were two breeds of Victoria
swine, but only one breed and type is now recog-
nized. The breed that has secured the ascendancy
was originated by George F. Davis, Dyer, Indiana,
and was formed by combining the blood of the
Poland-China, Berkshire, Chester-White, and Suffolk,
accompanied by careful selection to a type. The
origin of the breed dates to about 1870.
The other breed was established about 1850 by
Colonel F. D. Curtis, of New York state, who is
said to have used Irish Grazier, Byfield, Yorkshire,
and Suffolk blood. This breed seems to have disap-
peared as a recognized pure breed.
Distribution.
According to Professor Plumb, the Victoria is
found mainly in Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois, with
scattered herds in a few other states. A very few
Victorias have found their way into Canada, but
the breed is now nearly extinct in that country.
SWINE
For some reason the breed does not make much
progress.
Uses.
The Victoria belongs to the fat class. We have
little information regarding its early maturity and
feeding qualities, but from the fact that it does
not increase rapidly in popularity, it would seem
that the public does not recognize any outstanding
merit, or advantage over other breeds. In quality
of meat, it appears quite equal to other breeds, and
it has a good reputation for being prolific.
Its value for cross-breeding has not been well
demonstrated.
Organizations and records.
The Victoria Swine Breeders’ Association was
organized in 1886, and the Victoria Swine Record
is published by this association. In Canada, only
nine animals of this breed have been recorded in
the Dominion Swine Breeders’ Record.
Literature.
For references, see page 646.
Miscellaneous Breeds of Swine.
By G. #. Day.
There are certain little-known breeds or types of
hogs that are of interest historically, or in restric-
ted areas. In order to make the discussion of swine
in this cyclopedia more nearly complete, brief notes
on several of these breeds are introduced.
Historic BREEDS.
It is an old opinion, apparently well substanti-
ated, that the English swine, from which the
modern American types are derived, sprung from
breeds introduced from the east, as Chinese, Nea-
politan and Siamese pigs. Even in such a noted
live-stock country as Great Britain, the pigs of less
than a century ago, were, on the whole, a rather
undesirable lot, according to descriptions that have
been handed down to us. Long legs, general coarse-
ness, and slow fattening propensities were then
commonly characteristic of British breeds. It is
out of the question, even if it were desirable, to
attempt to trace all the steps that led to the estab-
lishment of British breeds as we know them today,
but there is no doubt that much of the improve-
ment came from the introduction of foreign breeds,
which were crossed on the native stock. Although
these foreign breeds are now practically unknown
in Great Britain and America, there are three
breeds whose influence has been so far-reaching as
to render them worthy of at least a passing notice.
The introduction into England of these Chinese,
Neapolitan and Siamese pigs wrought a revolution
among the earlier types of swine, and the crossing
and inter-crossing of various types, which followed
.the introduction of foreign blood, and which is too
intricate and too little known to admit of complete
investigation, resulted eventually in the English
breeds of the present day.
Chinese, Neapolitan, and Siamese swine were also
SWINE 679
imported into the United States. The great bulk
of American foundation stock came from Great
Britain, especially England, and as was the case in
England, the use of Chinese, Neapolitan, and other
similar blood, followed by the crossing of various
local types, has led to the establishment of what
are known as American breeds.
Chinese swine.—Youatt writes of these swine as
follows: “There are two distinct varieties, the
white and the black ; both fatten readily, but from
their diminutive size attain no great weight.
They are small in limb, round in body, short in the
head, wide in the cheek, and high in the chine;
covered with very fine bristles growing from an
exceedingly thin skin; and not peculiarly sym-
metrical, for, when fat, the head is so buried in
the neck that little more than the tip of the snout
is visible.”
Neapolitan swine-—This breed came from the
country about Naples, in Italy, and was also of the
extremely fine-boned, easily fattened type. It is
especially noted for the part it played in the
formation of what is now known as the Hssex
breed.
Siamese swine-—Mr. A. B. Allen, who bred
Siamese swine many years ago, describes them in
part as follows: “They varied in color from deep,
rich plum to dark slate and black; had two to
three white feet, but no white on the legs or other
parts of the body. The head was short and fine,
with a dished face and rather thin jowl; -ears
short, slender, and erect; shoulders and hams
round, smooth and extra large; back broad and
slightly arched; body of moderate length, deep,
well ribbed up, and nearly as round as a barrel;
. . . legs fine and short; hair soft, silky, and
thin; no bristles, even on boars; . . . flesh firm,
sweet and very tender, with less lean than in the
Berkshire.”
MUuLE-FooT Hoe.
A hog in which the hoof is single has recently
come into notice. Its origin seems to be obscure,
being attributed by one account to a cross of a
Berkshire boar on a native razorback sow in Ar-
kansas previous to 1900, and by others to intro-
ductions from various foreign countries. The
National Mule-foot. Hog Record Association, re-
cently organized in Indiana, makes the following
statements : foot solid, short, smooth, enabling the
animal to carry its own weight with ease ; color
black, with white points admissible; boar two
years and over should weigh 500 pounds, sow same
age 450 pounds; neither a lard or bacon hog, but
a medium between the two.
LARGE BLACK SWINE.
The Large Black, as its name implies, is a large
breed, all black in color, and possessing very large
drooping ears. In general conformation it ap-
proaches the bacon type, having a good length of
side, medium width of back and shoulder, a rather
light neck and jowl, and fairly heavy bone.
The Large Black hog is the latest addition to the
recognized pure breeds of swine in Great Britain.
680 SWINE
The origin of the breed is not well known, but it
has been bred for a great many years in the east
and south of England. It is hardly known outside
of England, and is not widely distributed even in
England, being confined mainly to the southern
part of the country. Some years ago, representa-
tives of the breed were brought to the Central
Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, but did not
prove very satisfactory. At present, the breed is
practically not represented on the American conti-
nent.
The main claims for the Large Black are its
bacon qualities, its fecundity, and its value as a
scavenger. Its bacon is highly esteemed in England,
containing, as it does, a large percentage of lean.
It is worthy of note, however, that at Ottawa the
bacon of the Large Black was not equal to thut of
the Large Yorkshire or the Tamworth. The sows
are excellent nurses, and the breed is regarded as
a first-class farmer’s breed in England.
The interests of the breeds in England are looked
after by “The Large Black Pig Society of Great
Britain.” This organization publishes the only herd-
book for the breed.
MIDDLE WHITE OR MIDDLE YORKSHIRE SWINE.
Fig. 678.
The Middle White, as the name implies, is inter-
mediate in type between the Large White and the
Small White. It is recognized in England as a dis-
tinct breed, but it is a difficult breed to describe,
because of its variations. Some representives of
the breed might easily pass as Large Whites, and
from this extreme they shade down nearly all the
way to the Small White type. There is little doubt
that many so-called Large White pigs carry some
Middle White blood, and that many Middle Whites,
or pigs containing a large percentage of Middle
White blood, have been brought to America and
passed as Large Whites. Generally speaking, they
are smaller than the Large Whites, have a shorter
side, shorter leg, finer bone, and a heavier neck and
jowl. They usually have a shorter snout than the
Large White, and have moredish in snout and face.
They belong to the fat type of hog.
The Middle White originated from a cross
between the Large White and the Small White
breeds. Even at present, pigs may appear in
Large White litters that are classed by their
breeders as Middle Whites, so that it sometimes
happens that Large Whites and Middle Whites may
SWINE
come from the same litter, especially in those
herds in which Middle White blood is occasionally
used to refine the Large White. Sometimes Middle
Whites are produced by one cross of Small Whites
on Large Whites, and animals produced in this
way should scarcely be regarded as a distinct
breed.
The Middle White is unknown outside of its
native country, and if any have been brought to
America, they were introduced under the name of
Large Yorkshire.
The utility of the Middle White is necessarily
limited. The practice of crossing, followed by
many breeders, has told against the usefulness of
the breed. Middle Whites which have been bred
pure for a number of generations would no doubt
prove satisfactory, but so many of them possess
recent crosses of other blood, that the breed as a
whole lacks prepotency and trueness to type. The
mixing of Middle White blood with that of Large
White, as practiced by many English breeders,
cannot be too strongly condemned. A so-called
Large Yorkshire boar produced in this way may
look more attractive to the inexperienced breeder
of Large Yorkshires than a pure Large Yorkshire,
but he makes a very unsatisfactory sire. Breeders
of Large Yorkshires soon learn to avoid boars
showing any evidence of Middie White blood.
RAZORBACK SWINE. Fig. 679.
Whether it is strictly correct to call the
“Razorback” a distinct breed may be open to
question, but since it represents a type of hog
existing in some parts of the United States, it
should receive passing notice.
The “Razorback” is characterized by long,
coarse legs and snout; coarse ears, coarse skin,
and a bristly coat; narrow back, slab sides, no
hams worth mentioning, and an absence of any
tendency to fatten. In spite of its undesirable
qualities, it is more or less amenable to improve-
ment, and some of the finer breeds, notably the
Essex, have been crossed on it with a fair degree
of success. Its hardiness and its ability to look
after itself, are its main recommendations.
xy WHY.
tis Quits mM
Razorback sow and litter.
Fig. 679.
There is little doubt that the “Razorback” is a
degenerate descendant of pigs brought into the
country by the earliest white settlers. Hunger,
exposure and the necessity for looking after itself.
and foraging its own living, have been the chief
factors in evolving the type.
The “ Razorback” is now found almost exclus-
ively in a comparatively limited area of the South,
TURTLES
and this area is becoming more and more restricted
as improved agriculture advances. It is only a
question of time until the type entirely disappears.
Literature.
For references, see page 646.
TURTLES AND TURTLE-FARMING. Figs.
680, 681.
By #. A. Andrews.
Along the coasts of America, four kinds of ma-
rine turtles lay their eggs in the sandy beaches,
where they are left to develop by themselves, if
such enemies as the bear and man do not discover
them. While the flesh of the green turtle is most
highly esteemed, and the shell of the “ hawk’s bill”
or tortoise-shell turtle is greatly valued, a third of
these four, the loggerhead, is also used as food,
so that much profit would come from an increase
in the abundance of these marine turtles. How-
ever, as they are wide wanderers, seeking food
over large areas and coming to shore only to lay
their eggs, there is no question of private turtle-
farming for these large oceanic reptiles, although
the government might well take steps to lessen
the too rapid extermination of the race by dimin-
ishing the destruction of eggs and young, just as
has been done for equally pelagic fish.
The green turtle feeds on marine grass, off the
Florida coasts, in comparatively shallow water, but
the females, after mating in May, migrate hun-
dreds of miles to lay their eggs on the Bahama
banks and small islands. The eggs are laid in
batches of 130 to 180, and it is thought that each
female may lay four batches in June, July and
August, but no more for one or two years. The
eggs require ten to twelve weeks to hatch, and
so many are eaten by gulls and sharks that prob-
ably only 2 to 3 per cent survive the first week
out of the shell.
Fresh-water and land turtles.
Among the fresh-water and land turtles the
problem is somewhat different, and, in time, a
turtle-farming industry will arise. There are some
fifty kinds of these land and fresh-water turtles:
snappers, mud turtles, painted turtles and terra-
pins, pond turtles and wood-terrapin (Chelopus
imsculptus), box turtles, tortoises or gophers of
Florida, and the soft-shelled turtles. The wood-
terrapin eats berries and insects, and, in New York,
is protected by astate law from capture and sale.
Of these several turtles, the terrapins and snap-
pers are most often used as food, although the
soft-shelled turtles are sold in the markets, both
North and South. The snapping turtles may be
readily kept alive and fed on animal refuse, which,
however, they must take under water to swallow.
On the market they bring but ten cents a pound, so
that there is not the incentive to artificial culture
that there is in the very high-priced diamond-back
terrapin. The snapping turtles leave the water to
lay their eggs—some two dozen—in the earth, and
if there were a sufficient supply of cheap animal
TURTLES 681
food, a business of rearing these turtles in confined
areas might be developed. However, like the bull-
frog, these large carnivorous animals belong natu-
rally to the conditions prevailing in wild, unsettled
regions, and man will not find it profitable to rear
carnivorous animals as food unless they may roam
over unutilized regions, or for some reason they
become esteemed far above their real food value.
This latter condition is met in the diamond-back
terrapin, which sells for $60 to $70 per dozen
when eight inches long. When about seven and
one-half inches long they bring $6 each; at eight
inches long, bring $8; but when five inches long,
Fig. 680. Terrapin (Malaclemmys centrata concentrica).
bring only $1.50. Every year these turtles are
becoming scarcer and the price higher. To take
their places, many of the less-esteemed species of
the same genus, and of the related forms of painted
turtles (Chrysemys), are sold as “sliders,” at $1.25
to $1.50 each for large specimens.
The diamond-back terrapin differs from the
others in living in salt and brackish water along
the coast and up tidal rivers. In captivity, it does
not thrive without the addition of some salt to the
water, becoming, in fresh water, infected with a
fungus that causes its death. However, it needs
fresh water also. In captivity, it may be fed on
chopped clams, meat, fish, crustacea and periwin-
kles. As in the case of the snapper, all the feed is
taken under water, so that these turtles cannot be
reared without sufficient water. In nature, the
diamond-back turtle eats such soft shell-fish as its
weak jaws enable it to crush, and also a consider-
able amount of soft roots and shoots of plants.
The different sorts of diamond-back turtles have
been divided by Hay into the following species:
Malaclemmys centrata, the Carolina terrapin; M.
centrata concentrica, the famous Chesapeake bay
terrapin; M. macrospilota, the Florida terrapin ;
M. pileata, the Louisiana terrapin; M. litteralis,
the Texas terrapin. The life history and habits are
best known in the case of the Carolina terrapin.
It has been found as far north as Buzzard’s bay.
The adults sleep in the bottom of ponds and rivers
all winter and mate in the spring. The males are
so small, not exceeding five inches as measured
lengthwise of the under shell, that they are ex-
cluded from the market by the laws of some states,
which fix the limit at five or six inches. Hence,
there is great destruction of females and rapid
diminution in the number of eggs that might be
laid. The female lays the eggs in May or June,
digging a hole in the bank, five or six inches deep,
and carefully covering the five to twelve eggs with
earth and then leaving them to hatch by them-
selves. This they do in six to twelve weeks, accord-
682 TURTLES
ing to the temperature of the season. Soon after
hatching, the young bury themselves in the marsh
and there remain all winter and perhaps part of
the following summer also. They grow about one
inch a year up to five inches, and then more slowly.
They reach a maximum length of eight to nine
inches and are supposed to live twenty-five to
thirty years. Apparently the diamond-back does
not migrate but remains in the region where it
was hatched or where it was put, so that it would
be readily possible to protect and increase the local
supply.
Turtle-farming industry.
In Japan.—It is only in Japan that a profitable
turtle-farming industry has been developed. There,
the soft snapping-turtle (Trionyx Japonicus) is
reared from eggs laid by captive turtles in special
Arrangement for catching newly-hatched turtles.
ponds made for the business. The farms of the
Hattori family have shown a healthy and steady
growth since their establishment in 1875, with a
stock of fifty turtles. In 1904, the three “farms”
of 25, 7 and 2 acres were expected to yield about
4,100 batches of eggs, or say 82,000 eggs, hatch-
ing 70,000 young and yielding some 60,000 mar-
ketable turtles at the end of the third year.
One of these “farms” is a collection of ponds fed
by canals and separated by low board walls to con-
fine the turtles. The ponds are but two to three
feet. deep, and as the turtles are shy and will not
feed well in clear water, it has been found expedient
to keep carp and other fish in the same ponds, in
order that they may stir up the mud to conceal the
turtles. The eggs are laid in the steep banks of
earth, and each batch is at once covered with wire
netting by the attendants. When the young hatch,
Fig. 681.
TURTLES
they are prevented from crawling into the water by
planks on edge, that divert them from a straight
course to the water until they finally fall into sun-
ken jars, whence they are removed by the attend-
ants and placed in rearing ponds. There they are
fed on chopped fish until they go into the winter
sleep. Gradually they are given the food of the
adults, and are finally not kept separate from large
turtles. The young of three to five years are the
most esteemed, and are the ones sold in the market.
When six years old, they begin to breed, but are
not yet at the maximum of reproductive power.
These farms have been successful because of the
abundance of cheap animal food—a kind of clam,
which is crushed under heavy millstones. The
turtles are also given boiled wheat grains, dried
fish scraps, silkworm pupe, and other food.
In America, the so-called turtle-farms prove to
be merely places for holding the stock for shipment
to market, with the one important exception of the
turtle-farm at Lloyds, Maryland. This is now under
the control of the United States Bureau of Fisher-
ies. It has been there demonstrated that young
turtles may be secured from eggs laid in enclosed
pens by the diamond-back terrapin. Whether the
young can be reared profitably to a marketable
size, remains to be demonstrated by this experi-
mental farm. Although this industry is thus merely
in the experimental stage, there is hope that if
properly undertaken on a large scale, with large
outlay and with the realization that some six years
must elapse before the product of the hatched egg
can be of marketable size, finance success might
result.
As turtles lay but few eggs as compared with
fish and crustacea, the first essential in turtle-farm-
ing is to have ponds with proper conditions of
moisture and temperature in the neighboring shores,
so that all the eggs laid in the ground may hatch.
Another necessity is to protect the young turtles
and to feed them enough, not only for growth, but
to carry them safely through the long hibernating
period of winter. On the other hand, the long life
of the adults enables one to secure many successive
broods from the same parents. At the best, only
exceptional conditions of cheap, natural feeding-
grounds and cheap labor may be utilized for profit
in turtle-raising.
Literature.
Hay, Revision of Malaclemmys, Bulletin of the
United States Bureau of Fisheries, Volume XXIV
(1904) ; Munroe, The Green Turtle and the Possi-
bilities of its Protection and Consequent Increase
on the Florida Coast, Bulletin of the United States
Fish Commission (1897) ; R. L. Ditmars, The Rep-
tile Book, Doubleday, Page & Co., (1907) ; Mitsu-
kuri, The Cultivation of Marine and Fresh Water
Animals in Japan, Bulletin of the United States
Bureau of Fisheries, Volume XXIV (1904).
INDEX
Abdallah, 501, 502, 503.
Abdallah 15, 478, 504.
Abdominal sweetbread, 20.
Aberdeen, 505, 506.
Aberdeen-Angus cattle, 330-333;
heredity in, 36; notes, 34, 303.
Abeyan Arabs, 448.
Abnormal characters, transmission of, 37.
Abomasum, 18.
Abortion, 32; contagious, 32, 143; notes, 123.
Abscess, 125, 442.
Abyssinian cat, 300.
Abyssinian cavy, 520.
Achilles, 467, 502.
Acid test, 180, 202.
Acidimeter, 211.
Aconite, 120.
Aconitum Columbianum, 120.
Acorns, composition, 96; digestibility, 99; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102.
Acquired characters, inheritance, 39.
Acryllium vulturinum, 578.
Actinomycosis, 138; effect on meat, 248.
Acute bronchial catarrh, 327.
Acute gastro-intestinal catarrh, 325.
Adams, Seth, quoted, 619.
Adbell, 504.
Adney, George, quoted, 627.
Adulteration of milk, tests for, 179, 180.
Advanced register, Holstein—Friesian, 358.
Aemulus, 459.
African ass, wild, 276.
African geese, 572.
African gray parrot, 524.
Afterbirth, retained, 324, 325.
Age, determining, of cattle, 321; horses, 433; sheep,
603; swine, 653.
Agronomy, 273.
Aguirre Merino sheep, 619.
Air, atmospheric, composition, 21.
Airdrie 2478, 372; 3d 13320,372; Duke 5306, 372.
Airedale terrier, 515.
Aiton, Mr., quoted, 335.
Aix sponsa, 571.
Ajax flakes, 74.
Aladdin oven, 269.
Alaska fur seal, 89; farming, 404; notes, 404.
Alaska sable, 402
Albion (14), Bie
Albumen, 177; notes, 17.
Alderney cattle, notes, 335, 361.
Aldrich, D. G., quoted, 338.
‘Alexander, eds , quoted, 372, 375.
Alexander, Dr. , quoted, 494.
Alfalfa, as honey-plant, 285; composition, 95; digesti-
bility, 98, 99; digestible’ nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 102, 109; factors affecting feeding value,
71; for meat-production, 247; notes, 11,151; nutritive
ratio and protein-equating ‘value, 104; production
# value, 67.
Alfalfa hay, available energy in, 66; for beef cattle,
318-321; for colts, 43; composition and digesti-
bility of dried, 68; for dairy cows, 316; digestibility,
61; digestible nutrients in stated amounts, ililils
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105:
production value, 67.
Algarroba as honey- plant, 286.
Alix, 505.
Alkali water poisoning of stock, 118.
Allen, A. B., quoted, 658, 679.
Allen, L. F. 7 quoted, 31, 375.
Allerton, 504.
Allround 6498 (Fig. 366), 340.
Almonds, composition and fuel-value, 264.
for baby beef, 318;
Alpaca, 7.
Alterative foods, 106.
Althrope quoted, 372.
Alvord, Major Henry E., quoted, 374.
Amazon parrot, 524.
Amble, 423, 424.
Ameba meleagridis, 140.
American Breeders’ Association of Jacks and Jennets
quoted, 276.
American Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders’ Association
quoted, 303, 337.
American Girl, 492.
American Hackney Horse Society quoted, 481, 487.
American Jockey Club quoted, 499.
American Merino sheep, 621.
American mockingbird, 523.
American Poultry Association quoted, 547, 563.
American sable, 401.
American saddle horse (See Saddle horse).
American Saddle Horse Breeders’ Association quoted,
490.
American Sebright fowls, 564.
American Star 14, 506.
Amides, 58.
Ammonia, for poisoning, 120; refrigeration, 259.
Amylopsin, 20.
Ancona fowls, 567.
Andalusian ass, 277; horse, 450; jacks, 508, 509.
Andalusian fowls, Blue, 566.
Anderegg, Professor, quoted, 411.
Anderson quoted, 37.
Anderson, Captain, quoted, 398.
Anderson and Findlay quoted, 332.
Anderson’s Kaleege, 582.
Andrew, J. T., quoted, 625.
Andrew Jackson, 503, 505.
Andrews, E. A., articles by, 394, 635, 681.
Angle-berries, 328.
Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company quoted, 191.
Angora goat, 405-408, 409.
Angora rabbit, 517.
Angus Doddie, 331.
Animal, breeding, 26-43; chemical basis of, 158; com-
position of body, 58; domestic, place in civilization,
3-14; husbandry, progress. of, 9-11, 273; number
and value, 122; physiology, 15-26; products, total
value of, 9; types and score-cards, 44-55.
Animals, wild, in relation with agriculture, 163-169.
Anos boschas, 569, 572.
Anser albifrons, 575; cinereus, 572, 576; segetum, 576.
Antar Jr. 217 (Fig. 307), 277. .
Antelope, 2.
Anthrax, 129-131; inoculating for immunity,
note, 126.
145;
Apes, 2.
Aphthee, 553.
Apiculture, 278.
Apis Adansonii, dorsata, florea, Indica, unicolor, 279;
mellifica, 278, 279
Apoplectiform septicemia in chickens, 129.
Appenzeller goat, White, 410.
Apple pomace, composition, 95,96; digestible nutrients
in stated amounts, 116.
Appleby, J. C., quoted, 481.
Apples, composition, 96; composition and fuel-value,
264; digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 116, 117.
Aquiculture, 390.
Arab horse, 446-449, 488; notes, 450, 497, 501.
Arabella, 372.
Aratus, 490.
Archangel pigeon, 521.
Arctomys monax, 165.
Ardennais horse, 460.
Arenga saccharifera, 286,
(683)
684
Argali, 596.
Argallus spicatus, 121.
Argonaut, 506.
Argus pheasant, 580.
Argusianus argus, 580.
Arion, 504.
Aristophanes quoted, 528,
Aristos, 506.
Aristotle quoted, 144, 278.
Armsby, H. P., article by, 58.
Armstrong, John M., quoted, 373.
Arnold test for boiled milk, 180.
Arrowside Duke (Fig. 488), 493.
Artichoke, composition, 95; digestible
and fertilizing constituents, 102.
Artillery horses, 471, 472.
Asbestos as insulating material, 239.
Ascarid megalocephala, 443.
Ascarides, 443.
Aseel fowl, 528, 529.
Ash of milk, 177.
Ash, nature and function, 58, 62.
Asiatic ass, wild, 276.
Aspergillosis, 553.
Ass, 276-278; diseases, 122-146; extent of sweating,
23; milk of, 176; period of gestation, 31; wild, note,
419.
Association of Breeders of Thoroughbred Holstein
Cattle quoted, 357.
Aster as honey-plant, 285.
Asthenia in fowls and pigeons, 131.
Astrachan, 396, 407.
Astragalus mollissimus, 121.
Atavism, 39.
Atlas gluten feed, digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 100; meal, 74; nutritive ratio and pro-
tein-equating value, 105.
Atrophy, 584.
Atropin for poisoning, 120.
Atwater quoted, 65.
Atwood Merino sheep, 619.
Audubon quoted, 400.
Audubon Boy, 504.
Aurochs, 287.
Australian Merino sheep, 620.
Australian Trustee, 503.
Auten 495 (Fig. 368), 342.
Avadavat, 524.
Avery, J. D., quoted, 366.
Avian tuberculosis, 135.
Awards, show, 158.
A. W. Richmond, 506.
Axtell, 504.
Aylesbury duck, 569.
Aylmer, Hugh, quoted, 611.
Ayres, H. L., article by, 226.
Ayrshire cattle, 333-337; notes, 177, 303.
nutrients
Babcock, Dr. 8. M., quoted, 178, 181, 185.
Babcock milk test, 178, 179; note, 308.
Babirussa, 646; alfurus (Fig. 651), 647.
Baby-beef, 318, 319; Hereford cattle for, 353.
Bacillus alvei, 285; cholerze suis, 137; chauvei, 137;
diseases caused by bacteria of genus, 136-138;
necrophorus, 137, 607, 608, 656.
Bacon, canned, 262; production, 647-649; notes, 644,
645, 646; shipping, 260; sugar-cured, 256.
Bacon hog, finishing, 652; type, 55.
Bacon, W. C., article by, 468.
Bacterdemia, 124.
Bacteria, in milk, 182, 187-190, 200; in relation to
infection, 124; in relation to meat-canning, 261.
Bacteriology applied to refrigeration, 238.
Bacterium, anthracis, 126, 129; asthenie, 131; dis-
eases caused by bacteria of genus, 129-136; mallei,
ae ; of Preisz, 132; sanguinarium, 131; tuberculosis,
Bactrian camel, 297.
Badgers, notes, 164, 168.
Bailey, Charles, quoted, 31.
Bailey, C. P., quoted, 406.
Bailey, Vernon, quoted, 166.
Baker quoted, 370,
INDEX
Baker’s cheese, 230.
Bakewell Leicester sheep, 615, 616.
Bakewell, Robert, quoted, 43, 303, 352, 380, 493, 616.
Balanced rations, computing, 103-118; supplementing
pasture, 118,
Balata as honey-plant, 286.
Bald Stockings 76, 490.
Balking, 426.
Balls, 322.
Banastar (Fig. 492), 497.
Bang method of tuberculosis control, 136.
Bang, Professor, quoted, 136.
Bane-berry, 121.
Bantams, 568, 569.
Barb dog, 388.
Barb horse, 449-451; notes, 420, 497.
Barb pigeons, 521.
Barbados sheep, 631.
Bari (411), 381.
Barker, Richard, quoted, 370.
Barker, William, quoted, 370.
Barley and peas, digestibility, 98.
Barley, composition, 93; digestibility, 96; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100, 112; feed,
74; feeding value, 72; for calves, 313; for horses,
428-432; for show animals, 153; fresh, digestibility,
98; green, digestible nutrients and fertilizing con-
stituents, 101; nutritive ratio and protein-equating
value, 105 ; screenings, 93.
Barley hay, composition, 94; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 101; digestibility, 98; nutri-
tive ratio and protein-equating value, 104; produc-
tion value, 67.
Barley meal, composition, 93; digestibility, 99; nutri-
tive ratio and protein-equating value, 105.
Barley-straw, composition, 95; digestibility, 98; digesti-
ble nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 101; feed-
ing value, 71; for dairy cattle, 316.
Barnacle, 634.
Barnard Morgan, 506.
Barnum, P. T., quoted, 342.
Barnyard millet, composition, 94; and soybean silage,
composition, 95; digestibility, 99; digestible nutri-
ents and fertilizing constituents, 102
Baron’s Pride (Fig. 464), 456, 457.
Barrel churn, 202.
Barrenness, 33, 34.
Barrett, O. W., quoted, 293.
Barron, Commodore, quoted, 633.
Barrow, 149, 647.
Bars Ist, 451, 475.
Barss, 475.
Bartlett’s Childers, 501.
Barton, E. M., quoted, 338.
Bashaw, 503.
Bashaw 50, 505.
Bashaw Arabian, 450.
Bass, black, 391, 392, 394.
Basswood as honey-plant, 285.
Bates, Thomas, quoted, 43, 370-372.
Bats, 168.
Battledor (Fig. 478), 482, 483.
Bay lynx, 403.
Baynes, E. H., article by, 287.
Beaglehound, 517.
Beale, Lieut. E. F., quoted, 297.
Beall, C. H., quoted, 622.
Bean goose, 576.
Bean straw, digestible nutrients in stated amounts,
111, 112.
Beanes, Captain, quoted, 616.
Beans, available energy in, 66; factors affecting feed-
ing value, 71; feeding value, 72; for horses, 431, 432; —
dried, composition and food value, 264; fresh, 264.
Bear, 402; notes, 168; period of gestation, 31; protec-
tion, 397.
Bear mice, 166.
Beattie, Simon, quoted, 373.
Beautiful Bells, 505.
Beauty 604, 491. -
Beaver, 399, 400; farming, 404; notes, 165, 404; period
of gestation, 31; protection, 397.
Bedding, 147; for show animals, 156.
INDEX
Bedford, George M., quoted, 372.
Bede quoted, 368.
Bedfordshire pigs, 662.
Bedlington terrier, 516.
Bedson, 8. L., quoted, 290.
Bee-plant, 285.
Bees, 278-286; notes, 33.
Beef, amount of dry matter to produce a pound of, 11;
canned roast, 262; characteristics of good, 265; com-
position and fuel-value, 264, 269, 275; cutting, 253;
dried, 255; scrap for fattening fowls, 540; shipping
carcasses, 260; storing, 258; tallow, 259.
Beef cattle, feeding, 317-321; type, 48-50.
Beeswax for candles, 259.
Beet molasses, composition, 96; digestible nutrients
and fertilizing constituents, 102, 116; nutritive ratio
and protein-equating value, 105.
Beet pulp, 75; composition, 96; digestibility, 99; diges-
tible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102.
Beets, composition, 95; digestible nutrients and ferti-
lizing constituents, 102; feeding value, 71; nutritive
ratio and protein-equating value, 105.
Beimling milk test, 178, 179.
Belgian draft horse, 451-453; notes, 274.
Belgian hare, 412-415; note, 517. (See Hare, Belgian.)
Belindas Shorthorns, 371.
Bell Duke of Airdrie 2552, 372.
Belle Acton, 504.
Belle Sarcastic, No. 1108 (Fig. 379), 358, 359.
Bellflower as honey-plant, 286.
Bellfounder 5, 2025 £55), 467, 502; Imported, 502.
Belvedere (1706), 3
Bement, C. N., eal 629.
Ben Franklin, 506.
Ben Lomond, 506.
Benign venereal disease, 140.
Benjamin 1931 (Fig. 374), 346.
Bergh & Company quoted, 475.
Berkshire swine, 658-660; fitting for exhibition, 154;
notes, 644.
Berkshire-knot sheep, 614.
Berlin Board of Health quoted, 134.
Bernacle goose, 576.
Bernese cattle, 381.
Bernicla cucopsis, 576.
Berry, William, quoted, 622.
Bertholf, Lieut. E. P., quoted, 589, 591.
Berthune, 490.
Bertus, 463.
Berwick swan, 586.
Best quoted, 370.
Betsey Harrison, 490.
Beverages, milk, 187.
Bey Mohammed Pasha quoted, 297.
Bezoar goat, 408.
Big China swine, 673.
Big head, 138, 438; notes, 500.
Big-horn ’sheep, 597.
Bigotte (No. 2405) (Fig. 467), 461.
Bile, 19.
Biles XXXX, digestible nutrients in stated amounts,
Biliary jaundice, 20.
Bilirubin, 19
Bilivirdin, 19.
Bingen, 504,
Bird-hawks, 173.
Birds, cage-, 522-524.
Birds as carriers of disease, 127; in their relations with
agriculture, 169-173.
Birth, premature, 32.
Bishop’s Hambletonian, 467, 501, 502.
Bison, 2, 287-292; Americanus, 287; bison, 287;
bonasus, 287.
Bisulfid of carbon for rodents, 165, 167.
Bitting, Dr. A. W., quoted, 663.
Black-backed Kaleege, 582.
Black Bess, 459.
Black Brant goose, 576.
Black-breasted Red Malay fowl, 568.
Black brood, 285.
Black cap, 522.
Black Cayuga duck, 570.
685
Black Eagle 74, 490.
Black East India duck, 570.
Black-face Highland sheep, 631.
Black-footed ferret, 168.
Black, George, quoted, 623.
Black grass hay, digestibility, 98.
Black gum as honey-plant, 285.
Black Hawk 5, 506.
Black horse of Flanders, 450, 493.
Black leg, 137; immunity, 145.
Black-necked Valaisan goat, 410.
Black quarter, 137.
Black sheep, 597.
Black Spanish fowls, White-faced, 566.
Black Sumatra fowls, 568.
Black swine, Large, 679; Small, 676.
Black squirrel 58, 490.
Black-throated Golden pheasant, 582.
Black tooth, 655.
Black-top Spanish Merino sheep, 622.
Black trotter of Friesland, 451
Black Welsh cattle, 377, 378.
Black-winged peafowl, 580.
Black-and-tan terrier, 516.
Blackbird, 170, 171; red-winged, notes, 170.
Blackbird 401, 506.
Blackbird 402, 506, 523.
Blackburn’s whip, 490.
Blackeat, 401.
Blackhead, 140.
Blanketing stock, 148, 154.
Blaze, 466, 467, 497, 500, 501, 502.
Bleeding cattle, 250.
Blenheim dog, 517.
Blind gut, 20.
Bloating, 326; of sheep, 608.
Blondenettes, 521.
Blood circulation, 20, 21
Blood, dried, digestibility, 99; digestible nutrients
and fertilizing constituents, 102; nutritive ratio
and protein-equating value, 105.
Blood meal for show animals, 153.
Blood poisoning, note, 150.
Blood’s Black Hawk, 490.
Blood worms, 392.
Bloodhound, 516.
Bloody Buttocks, 505.
Blossom, 371.
Blue-birds, 173.
Blue Bull, 476, 490.
Blue Front parrot, 524.
Blue goose, 575.
Blue-grass, notes, 69, 71.
Blue-grays, 347.
Blue-joint grass, digestibility, 98.
Blue Swedish duck,
Blue thistle as eeerand 285.
Blundeville, Thomas, quoted, 497.
Boar, feeding, 649; wild, 646.
Board of Health lactometer, 181.
Bob Hester, 387.
Bobolink, 171.
Bobtail Sheep-dog. (See Sheep-dog.)
Bobwhite, domestication, 584, 585.
Body functions, 62, 63.
Boece, Hector, quoted, 631.
Boiled milk, test for, 180.
Boiling meats, 268.
Bollinger quoted, 132.
Bologna sausage, 257; canned, 263.
Bombay buffalo, 295.
Bombyx mori, 640.
Bonasa umbella, 576.
Bone, 174; flour, 174.
Bone spavin, 445.
Bonnie Scotland, 503.
Boodphilus annulatus, 141.
Booted White bantam, 569.
Booth, James, quoted, 467.
Booth, John, quoted, 371.
Booth Red Roses, 371.
Booth, Richard, quoted, 371.
Booth, Thomas, quoted, 371.
686
Boracic acid, as meat preservative, 254; in milk, test,
179.
Boralma, 504.
Borax as meat preservative, 254; test for, in milk, 179.
Borden, A. P., quoted, 378.
Borden, Gail, quoted, 191.
Border Leicester sheep, 615, 617.
Bornean Fireback pheasant, 581.
Bos bubalus, 292; frontosus, 302; Indicus, 301, 303,
378; longifrons, 302; primigenius, 302; taurus, 301,
302, 303.
Boss, Andrew, article by, 248.
Boston, 498.
Boston terrier, 516.
Botryomycosis, 125.
Bots and bot-fly, 442.
Boulonnais horse, 461; notes, 452, 479.
Bourbon Chief 976, 490.
Bourne, F. G., quoted, 475.
Bovovaccine, 136.
Boyd, Mossom, quoted, 291.
Bowditch, E. F., quoted, 613.
Bracelet tribe of Shorthorns, 371.
Bradley, Peter B., quoted, 447.
Brahma bantam, 569.
Brahma fowls, 565; note, 529.
Brahmin cattle, 378
Braising meat, 268.
Bran, 73; composition, 92, 93; for beef cattle, 318-321;
for dairy cows, 316; for dairy heifer, 314; for horses,
431, 432; for show animals, 153; mash, 430, 431;
notes, 151.
Branch grass, digestibility, 98.
Branding stock, 151.
Brant quoted, 575.
Branta bernicla, 576; Canadensis, 574.
Brassica campestris, 597.
Brazinan cardinal, 523.
Breaa, composition and fuel-value, 264.
Breed, defined, 421.
Breeders’ associations, notes, 27.
Breeding, animal, 26-43; back, 39; poultry, 529-532;
young stock, 306.
Brennus, 33
Brentnall, John, quoted, 658.
Breton cattle, 379.
Breton horse, 461.
Brewer, W. H., article by, 3
Brewers’ grains, 74; for calves, 313; composition, 93;
digestibility, 97; digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 100; digestible nutrients in stated
amounts, 1 14, 115 : nutritive ratio and protein-equat-
ing value, 105; production value, 6
Brewing, notes, 74.
Brick-cheese, 224; notes, 220.
Bridle, 426.
Brie cheese, 223; notes, 220.
Brienz No. 168, 338.
Briggs, H. A., quoted, 452.
Bright Eyes, 371.
Brimse cheese, 223.
Brindse cheese, 223.
Brine-curing of meat, 255.
Brinse cheese, 223.
British War Office quoted, 474.
Brittany cattle, 379.
Broader quoted, 371.
Broiling meat, 267.
Broken-wind, 22; inheritance of, 38.
Bronchitis, 327, 441; in fowls, 555; verminous, 655.
Bronco, 483, 484.
Broncho- -pneumonia, 133.
Brooding, 542-544.
Brooks, Dr. W. K., quoted, 638.
Broom-corn seed, composition, 93; digestible nutri-
ents and fertilizing constituents, 100.
Broughton Shorthorns, 371.
Brown Bessie (Fig. 381), 363, 374.
Brown, E. A. paoree: 335.
Brown’ Hal, 477
Brown, Hon. George, quoted, 373.
Brown’ Schwyzer cattle, 338.
Brown Sequard quoted, 38, 39.
INDEX
Brown Swiss cattle, 337-339; note, 303.
Brown Switzer cattle, 338.
Brownlow Turk, 467.
Bubalis arni, bos, bubalis, buffalus, 292; Caffer, 293.
Bubonic plague immunity, 145.
Buchan, George, quoted, 345.
Buchan’ Humblies, 331.
Buck knees, 500.
Buckeye fowls, 565.
Buckskin, tanning, 271.
Buckthorn for birds, 172.
Buckwheat, bran, 73, 93, 100, 105, 114; composition,
93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents,
100, 113; flour, 93; as honey-plant, 285; hulls, 93,
100; middlings, 73, "74, 93, 100, 105, 114; shorts, 93,
100: straw, 95.
Buffalo, 292-296; milk, 176; period of gestation, 31.
(See Bison).
Buffalo-grass, nutritive ratio and protein-equating
factor, 104.
Bulk in the ration, 106.
Bull, dairy, 304, 306; feeding, 308, 317.
Bull nose, 655.
Bull terrier, 515.
Bulldog, 515.
Bullfinch, 523.
Bullfrog, 395.
Bulle Rock, 498.
Bullock horse, 502.
Bulman quoted, 42.
Bulrush, 503, 506.
Bureau of Animal Industry qos: 161, 325.
Bureau of the Census quoted, 272.
Bureau of Fisheries quoted, 390, 391, 393, 394.
Burke, John, quoted, 453.
Burkett, Charles W., article by, 507.
Burleigh, A. E., quoted, 375.
Burleigh, J. F., quoted, 375.
Burma pony, 489.
Burnens quoted, 278.
Burrell quoted, 396.
Burrell-Lawrence—Kennedy milking machine, 312.
Burro, 276, 277.
Buttel- Reepen, H. von, quoted, 279.
Butter, 198-207; amount of dry matter to produce a
pound of, 11; ‘composition and fuel-value, 264; milk
for, note, 176; notes, 174; packing, 204; pasteurized,
207; records, "207; refrigeration, 236, 245; workers,
204
Butter-fat, cost of producing, 14; increase in percent-
age of, 10; nature, and causes of variation in quan-
tity in milk, 176, 177
Buttercups, composition, 94; digestibility, 98.
Butterine, note, 259.
Buttermilk, composition, 96; composition and fuel-
value, 264; digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 102, 117; nutritive ratio and protein-
equating value, 105.
Buttiro, cheese 219.
Butyrin, 177.
Byerly Turk, 451, 497, 501, 505.
Byfield swine, 662, 673.
By-product feeding-stuffs, 73; production value, 67.
Cabbage, composition, 96; composition and fuel-value,
264; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents,
102, 116; for show animals, 153; tainting milk, 86.
Cabell’s Lexington, 490.
Cabeza de Vaca quoted, 498.
Cackling goose, 576.
Caddis-worms, 392.
Cadet 1251, 467.
Czcum, 20.
Czenuris cerebralis, 605.
Cesar, Julius, quoted, 302, 484, 493, 528.
Cage-birds, 522-524,
Caked-bag, 323.
Calamagrostis Canadensis, 98.
Caldwell, William H., article by, 348.
Calf, composition of body, 59; edige the dairy, 305,
306, 313; pulse in, 21.
Caliban, 505.
Call ducks, 571.
sue
INDEX
Call, Surg. S. J., quoted, 591.
Callinectes hastatus, 634.
Callorhinus Alascanus, 399.
Calorie, 65, 264.
Camas, death, 120.
Camel, 296—299; pulse ,21; rumination in, 18.
Camelus bacterianus, 297; dromedarius, 297.
Camembert cheese, 223; notes, 220.
Campbell Patent, 193.
Canada Chief, 490.
Canada lynx, 403.
Canada peas, digestibility, 98.
Canadian geese, 574.
Canaries, 522; mule, 522; notes, 31.
Candles, making, 259.
Canine malaria, 139.
Canis familiaris, 383; lupus, 402.
Canker, 584; of fowls, 553; of the mouth, in swine, 656.
Canning meat and fish, 261-263; oysters, 639.
Canter, 427, 491.
Capital investment on stock-farm, 12.
Capons and caponizing, 540, 541; notes, 149, 150.
Capped elbow, 443; hock, 443.
Capra xgagrus, 405; angorensis, 405; falconeri, 405;
ibex, 408.
Carabao, 292. (See Buffalo.)
Caracu, 278.
Carbohydrates, nature and function, 58, 62, 63; fuel-
value, 65.
Carbolic acid as disinfectant, 146, 147.
Carcajou, 397.
Cardinal, 523; Brazilian, 523.
Caribou, 588, 590, 592.
Carlyle, W. L., articles by, 451, 460, 632; quoted, 483.
Carmichel, T. J., quoted, 610. ;
Carmichel, W. E., quoted, 31.
Carmon, 506, 507.
Carnivorous mammals, 167.
Carob bean as honey-plant, 286.
Carolina duck, 571.
Carp, German, 393, 394; notes, 390, 392.
Carpet-grass as honey-plant, 285.
Carriage-horse breeding, 274; type, 46, 47.
Carrier pigeons, 521.
Carrot, available energy, 66; composition, 95; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102, 110; feed-
ing value, 71; for horses, 430; nutritive ratio and
protein-equating value, 105; production value, 67.
Carthagena parrot, 524.
Cartilaginous quittor, 443.
Casein, 177.
Caseous lymph-adenitis, 132.
Cashmere goat, 405.
Casings for sausage, 257.
Cassandra (Fig. 473), 472; 2nd 16305, 369.
Casserole, 268.
Cassius M. Clay 20, 505.
Casswell, I. E., quoted, 618.
Castleman, David, article by, 489.
Castor fiber, 399.
Castration, 149.
Cat, 299-301; fecundity, 33; mastication in, 17; notes,
167, 173; period of gestation, 31; sweating in, 23;
vomiting, 19.
Catalonian jack, 277, 508, 509.
Catarrh in fowls, 554.
Catarrhal fever, malignant, 608; rhinitis, 656.
Catbird, 170, 172.
Catclaw as honey-plant, 285.
Catfish, 392.
Catreus Wallichi, 581.
Cattalo, 2, 288-292.
Cattle, 301-382; age to breed, 30; branding, 151; com-
mon ailments, 122-146, 321-330; composition of
increase in live weight, 80; determining the age, 321;
digestibility notes, 61; distribution, 10; dressing,
250-252; dry matter per day for, 13; feeding stan-
dards, 82, 108; fitting and exhibiting, 153-158; in-
crease in number, 910; inspection, 161; maintenance
requirements, 77; marketing, 158-162; number in
relation to size of farm, 12; origin of domestic, 302,
303; period of heat in, 30; poisoning, 120, 121; pre-
paring for shipment, 151; prolificacy, 13; proteid re-
687°
quirements, 81; puberty, 30; pulse, 436; statistics,
302; types, 47-51; value, 10; vomiting, 19.
Cattle tick, 141; as an agent of infection, 125; notes, 123.
Cavalry horses, 471.
Cavanaugh, Geo. W.., article by, 194.
Cavy, 519-520.
Cecil, Lord Arthur, quoted, 487.
Cecil Palmer 933, 490.
Cedar birds, notes, 170.
Cedric (1087), 457.
Cell, animal, characters and functions of, 28.
Cellulitis, infectious suppurative, 125.
Cellulose, 58, 59; notes, 17.
Celtic ox, 302; pony, 420, 488.
Central Experimental Farm (Ottawa) quoted, 344,
648, 680.
Centralizers, 230.
Century plants as honey-plants, 285.
Ceratophyllum, 392.
Cereal grains, feeding value, 72, 316; notes, 8, 11.
Cerebritis, notes, 119.
Cerebro-spinal meningitis in horses, 143.
Cereopsis goose, 576.
Certified milk, 186; note, 175.
Ceylon jungle-fowl, 582.
Chaffinch, 522.
Chamberlain, Wm., quoted, 620.
Chambers, E. T. D., article by, 395.
Champion, 467.
Champion, E. R. B., article by, 299.
Chapman horse, 454.
Chapped teats, 323.
Chappie Lee (Fig. 493), 498.
Chara, 392.
Charcoal as insulating material, 237, 239; notes, 106.
Charge quoted, 370.
Chargers, 474.
Charlemagne (Fig. 43), 46.
Charles II quoted, 497.
Charles Caffrey, 506.
Charles Kent mare, 467, 502.
Chaucer quoted, 464.
Chauveau quoted, 24.
Chesapeake bay dog, 515.
Cheddar cheese-making, 208-217.
Cheer pheasant, 581.
Cheese, 208-226; American, composition and fuel-
value, 264; factories, 174, 208, 209, 214-217, 245;
importations, 220; milk for, notes, 176; notes, 174;
refrigeration, 236, 245, 246.
Chelopus insculptus, 681.
Chemical basis of plants and animals, 58.
Chemical-poisoning of stock, 118.
Chen ceerulescens, 575; hyperborea, 575.
Chenery, Winthrop W., quoted, 357, 360.
Chenopis atrata, 585.
Cherry, wild, 121.
Cherry birds, 172.
Cheshire quoted, 285.
Cheshire cheese, note, 208.
Cheshire swine, 660.
Chester Dare 10, 490.
Chester White swine, 661-663; notes, 644.
Chestnut finch, 524.
Cheviot sheep, 609.
Chicago Horse Show rules, 157.
Chickadee, 170, 173.
Chicken, canned, 263.
Chicken cholera immunity, 145; pox, 143.
Chickens, breeds and types, 563-569 ; care of young,
543; marketing, 544-547; statistics, 527.
China torquatus, 581.
Chinalopex Aigypticus, 554.
Chinese geese, 573, 574; swine, 658, 679.
Chipmunks, 164.
Chloral hydrate for poisoning, 120,
Chlorinated lime as disinfectant, 146.
Choice goods (Fig. 46), 48.
Chokeberry for birds, 172.
Choking, 326.
Cholera, effect on meat, 248; fowl, 131, 555.
Christobel, 373.
Christopher, 384.
688
Churn, 202.
Churning, 202-204, 207.
Chrysolophus Amherstiz, 582; pictus, 582.
Cc e, 19:
Cicuta occidentalis, 120.
Cinghalese buffalo, 294.
Cinnamon bear, 402.
Circulation of the blood in animals, 20, 21; in fowls, 25.
Citation, 478.
Citellus Oregonus, 164.
Cladonia rangiferina, 591.
Cladothrix actinomyces, 138.
Clam, 634.
Clark Chief, 505.
Clark County (Ohio) Importing Association, 372.
Clark, Henry M., quoted, 338.
Clay Arabian, 450.
Clay family, 502, 503, 505.
Clay, Henry, quoted, 276, 499, 665.
Clay Pilot, 505.
Clear Grit, 476.
Cleome integrifolia, 285.
Cleveland Bay horse, 453-455; note, 451.
Cleveland Studbook quoted, 453.
Clift, L. D., quoted, 618.
Climate as a cause of variation in animals, 34.
Clinton County (Ohio) Importing Association, 377.
Clipping horses, 148.
Clos, Wm. C., article by, 408.
Close-breeding, 42.
Clothilde No. 155, 359.
Clover, factors affecting feeding value, 71; as honey-
plant, 285; hay, 59, 61, 63-66, 151, 316, 318-321,
428-432; notes, 11.
Clover, alsike, composition, 95; digestibility, 98;
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents,
101, 102; hay, 104.
Clover, crimson, as honey-plant, 285; composition, 95;
digestibility, 98; digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 102; hay, 105; nutritive ratio and pro-
tein-equating value, 104.
Clover, mammoth red, 95, 102.
Clover, Japan, 95.
Clover, red, composition, 94, 95; digestibility, 98; di-
gestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 101,
102, 109; hay, 111; nutritive ratio and protein-equa-
ting value 104; silage, 67, 95.
Clover, white, 95, 98, 102, 104.
Club-house broilers, 544.
Clumber Spaniel, 515.
Clydesdale horse, 455-458; notes, 274.
Coach dog, 515.
Coach horse, for military purposes, 472; type, 46, 47,
420. (See French coach horse and "German coach
horse.)
Coal sparks as insulating material, 235.
Coal-tar dyes in milk, test for, 180.
Coates, George, quoted, 374.
Cobs, 474.
Coburn quoted, 658, 660.
Cochin bantam, 569; fowls, 565; notes, 528, 529.
Cochineal insect, 2.
Cochran milk test, 178.
Cochrane, M. H., quoted, 373.
Cocker spaniel, 514.
Cockle-bur, 121.
Cockspur, 490.
Cococavallo cheese, 219.
Coconut, cake, 93, 101; as honey-plant, 286.
Codman, James M. , quoted, 350.
Coffee as honey- -plant, 286.
Coffin quoted, 372.
Cohippus, 418.
Coit, Henry L., quoted, 175.
Colantha 4th’s Johanna, 310, 359.
Cold-storage, note, 245. (See Refrigeration.)
Colds, in fowls, 554.
Cole, ‘Truman A. , quoted, 379.
Coleman, Hon. Robert W. , quoted, 342,
Coleman's Eureka, 490.
Colic, 439.
Colin, Dr., quoted, 37, 428.
Colinus Virginianus, 584.
INDEX
Collagen, 261.
Collie dog, 383-386; notes, 595.
Collings, Charles, quoted, 370.
Collings, Robert, quoted, 370, 371.
Collum, William, quoted, 373.
Colon, 30.
Colorado Experiment Station quoted, 274, 507.
Colored Muscovey duck, 570.
Coloring butter, 202.
Colostrum, 311; composition, 96; digestible nutrients
and fertilizing constituents, 102.
Colts, training, 424.
Columbianus, 586
Columbine, 506.
Columbus quoted, 498.
Columbus pacing family, 476, 503.
Columella quoted, 278.
Combination Jerseys, 364.
Comet (155), 370.
Compton, J. L. Gibb, quoted, 612.
Concentrated feeding-stuffs, 69, 316; composition, 92,
93; nature and value, 72; when to feed, 18.
Condensed milk manufacture, 190-194, ; notes 176.
Condimental foods, 106.
Condition powders, 106.
Gouestoes horse, 421.
Coney, 504.
Cantiledéd (158), 467.
Congenital diseases, 38.
Connemara pony, 488.
Conover, U. G., article by, 412.
Consanguineous breeding, 42.
Constance, 372.
Consumption, 133.
Contagious pleuro-pneumonia in cattle, 142.
Continuity of germ plasm, 39, 40.
Controlling sex of offspring, 40, 41.
Cook, William, quoted, 567.
Cooking feeds, value, 69; meats, 265-270.
Coolidge, Cornelius, quoted, 372.
Cooling arrangements for milk-room, 205.
Cooper gravity brine-system of refrigeration, 246. (See
Vol. I.)
Cooper, T. S. zqaaked, 613.
Copelad 1153, 4
Copperbottom, ue, 503.
Corbeau, 476.
Cordon Blue bird, 524.
Cork, granulated, as insulating material, 237, 239.
Corn} 264; bran, 75, 92, 100; cob, 92, 96, 100; -and-cob
meal, 67, 92, 96, 99, 100, 105, 113, 431, 432; composi-
tion and value, 67, 72, 92, 96, 100, 103, 105, 112;
effect on fecundity of animal, 33; energy in, 66;
ensiling, 68; feeding value, 314, 318-321; flower, 121;
fodder, 67, 94, 97,. 101, 104, "109, 111; forage, 94;
germ meal, 76, 92: as honey-plant, 285; for horses,
428-432; husks, 94; kernels, 99; leaves, 94; meal,
59, 63-66, 76, 92, 96, 99, 105, 151, 264; notes, Be 1,
69-71, 151; and’ oats, 105; for show animals, 53:
silage, 67, 95, 99, 102 104, 110, 247; and pee
silage, 95, 99, 102; stover, 67, ily 94, 97, 101, 104,
111, 316.
Corn, ‘sweet, composition, 92.
Corn’stalk disease, 119, 130.
Corned-beef, 255, 262; shipping, 260.
Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station
quoted, 182, 310.
Corning, Erastus, quoted, 612.
Cornish Indian fowls, 568.
Correlation of parts in animal-breeding,
Corrosive sublimate as disinfectant, 146.
Cortez quoted, 498.
Coryza, acute, 656.
Cotentin cattle, 381.
Cotswold sheep, 611, 612.
Cottage cheese, 220; 221; composition and fuel-value,
264; ripened, 226,
Cotton, notes, 8; as honey-plant, 285.
Cotton rat, 166.
Cottonseed feed, 93, 97, 101, 105; feeding value, 73,
313, 316, 319-321; hulls, 93, 97, 101, 105; kernels,
93; meal, 67, 75, 76, 93, 97, 101; 105, 115, 116; oil,
notes, 753 poisoning, 119, 657.
38, 39.
INDEX
Cottontails, 167.
Cough, 327.
Coulommier cheese, 224; notes, 220.
Country Gentleman, The, quoted, 33.
Couteur, Colonel Le, quoted, 361, 362.
Couture, Dr. J. A., quoted, 345.
Cow, fecundity, 33; period of gestation, 31; records,
181; test associations,
Cow ponies, 483, 507.
Cowie, James, quoted, 366.
Cowpea, 93, 101, 104; hay, 67, 95, 98, 99, 102, 105,
151, 318-321.
Cows, milch, feeding standards, 107, 108; number in
United States, 176.
Cox, quoted 372.
Coyotes, 164, 167, 595.
Crab, 634, 635.
Craddock’ quoted, 372.
Craig, John A., articles by, 453, 455, 458, 464, 476, 478,
493, 494, 500, 600, 631, 632, 633; quoted, 44,
Crane, William W., quoted, 375.
: Crangon vulgaris, 640
Crawfish, 635.
Crayfish, 635.
Creameries, 226-232;
241-245.
Creamery ec thede of butter-making, 206, 207.
Creaming milk, 1
Cream cheese, Dat
Cream gauge milk test, 178.
Cream gluten, 92, 96, 105.
Cream, refrigeration, 236.
Creatin, 19, 22.
Creatinin, 22.
Creeper, 170.
Cregan, 38.
Creole ponies, 484.
Cresceus (Fig. 495), Pou, 504, 505.
Crested White duck, 5
Crevecceur fowls, Ser
Crib-biting, inheritance of, 38.
Crimson-ear waxbill, 524.
Crisp horse, 495.
Crocker, Daniel, quoted, 482.
Crosman, Maj. cS. H., quoted, 297.
Cross-bred, defined, 421.
Cross-breeding, ea as related to reversion, 39; effect
on fecundity, 3
Cross-fox, 401.
Cross-heredity, 37.
Crossoptilon Mantchuricum, 580.
Crouch & Son, J., quoted, 452, 463.
Crow, 170, 171, 172, 173.
Crowfoot, 120.
Crown Prince (10087), 371.
Cruickshank, Amos, quoted, 373.
Cruickshank, Anthony, quoted, 373.
Crying back, 39.
Cuban parrot, 525.
Cuckoo, yellow-billed, notes, 170.
Cud, loss of, 330.
Culley quoted, eo5, 366, 382, 454, 464, 617.
Cumberland pigs, 6'
Cumulets, 522.
Cunningham cattle, 334.
Curb, 443.
Curb- bit, 422, 423.
Curing meats, 254; recipes, 255-257.
Curtis quoted, 378, 6
Curtiss, Charles iy, eae by, 478.
Curwen’s Bay Barb, 505.
Cushing, John P. , quoted, 335.
Cut-throat sparrow, 524,
Cutting fodders, effect on feeding value, 68, 69.
Cuttlefish, 634.
Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, 1.
Cygnopsis cygnoides, 573.
Cygnus Berwicki, 586; musicus, 585; olor, 585.
Cynomys Ludovicianus, 165.
Cyphers, Charles A., article by, 542.
Cyprinus Carpio, 393.
Dachshund (Fig. 4), 5.
C 44
notes, 174; refrigeration in,
689
Dairy breeds, 275; bull, 304, 306, 308, 317; herd, se-
lection and management, 303-309; husbandry, 309;
type, 50, 51, 303, 304, 310.
Dairy Maids, 371
Dairy products, manufacture of, 175-246; relation to
farm management, 12; total value, 9.
Dairy refrigeration, 232-246.
Daisy, white, composition, 94; digestible nutrients and
fertilizer constituents, 101.
Dalmatian, 515.
Dame Hester, 387.
Dan Eateh, v6, 477, 478, 502, 504.
Dandruff,
Dandy Tee 1689 (Fig. 376), 353.
Danegelt, 467.
Daniel Boone, 476.
Daniel Lambert, 506.
Danish methods of bacon-production, 648.
Danthonica spicata, 98.
Dariel, 504.
Darley Arabian, 448, 450, 451, 467, 497, 498, 501, 502.
Darnley (222), 457.
Dartmoor ponies, 487.
Darwin quoted, 31, 33, 37, 38, 42
Date as honey-plant, 286.
Daumas quoted, 449.
Dave Alsin, 775, 491.
Davenport, C. B., articles by, 528, 529.
Davenport, Eugene, article by, 26.
Davenport, Homer, articles by, 446, 579; quoted, 450.
Davenport, Samuel, quoted, 490.
Davidson, James I. , quoted, 373.
Davis, Mr. , quoted, "378.
Davis, George F. , quoted, 678.
Davis, James B. , quoted, 405.
Davis, Jefferson, quoted, 297.
Davy, Colonel, quoted, 340, 341.
Davy Crockett, 476, 490.
Davy, John Tanner, quoted, 340.
Dawn horse, 418.
Dasen quoted, 131.
y, G. E., articles by, 343, 658, 660, 661, 663, 666,
‘667, 669, 671, 674, 675, 676, 678, 679.
De Kol Creamelle, 359. *
De Laval lactocrite, 178. ;
De Schweinitz quoted, 137.
De Soto quoted, 498.
Death camas, 120.
Decker, John W., notes by, 218, 219, 224, 225.
Decotyles torquatus (Fig. 652), 647.
Deer, 2, 163.
Deer mice, 166.
Deerhounds, 516.
Degive quoted, 24.
Deglutition, 17.
Dehorn, note regarding use of word, 332.
Dehorning cattle, 150.
Delaine Merino sheep, 622; notes, 599.
Delhi buffalo, 294.
Delphinium bicolor, 120; glaucum, 120.
Demi-Sang horse, 458, 461, 500.
Demodex folliculorum, 654, 655.
Denis Albert No. 1477 (Fig. 370), 344.
Denise Championne No. 6247 (Fig. 371), 344.
Denning Allen, 506.
Denmark, 467, 490, 500.
Derby, 498; of Rouen, 460.
Derbyshire cheese, 218.
Dettweiler quoted, 409.
Deviled meats, 263. .
Devon cattle, 339-341; heredity in, 36; milk, 177;
note, 303; period of gestation, 31; oxen, 366.
Dexter, 503, 506.
Dexter, Mr., quoted, 380.
Dexter-Kerry cattle, 379, 380.
Dexter Prince, 505.
Dextrin, 58, 59.
Diabetes, 20.
Diamond-back terrapin, 681.
Diamond sparrow, 524.
Diarrhea, in calves, 126; in foals, 431; in fowls, 554.
Diaz, President, quoted, 342.
Dick Taylor 5508, 372.
2, 43, 276, 520, 532.
690
Dickinson Delaine Sheep, 622.
Dickinson, Wm. R., quoted, 622.
Dictator, 478, 502, 505.
Didelphis Virginiana, 163.
Digestibility of feeding-stuffs, 59-62.
Digestion, coefficient, 60; conditions affecting, 60-62;
in animals, 17—20; in fowls, 24, 25.
Dilham Prime Minister (Fig. 470), 465.
Dillon, Mr., quoted, 480.
Dinsmore, Wayne, article by, 649.
Dinwiddie quoted 657.
Diomed, 498.
Diphtheria, immunity, 145; in fowls, 142, 553.
Direct, 478, 505.
Direct Hal, 478, 505.
Directly, 505.
Director, 505.
Directum, 505; (Fig. 44), 47.
Disease, of animals, 122-146 (See also, Cattle, Horse,
Poultry, Sheep, Swine); heredity of, 38; of the
rump, 140.
Dishley sheep, 616.
Disinfection, 146.
Distemper, colt, 442; in cats, 301; dog, 142, 385.
Distillers’ grains, 74, 100, 105, 115, 313.
Distillery slop, 74, 96.
Distomum hepaticum, 604; lanceolatum, 604.
Divi-divi as honey-plant, 286.
Dobinson quoted, 370. :
Docking horses, 150; lambs, 150.
Doddies, note, 331.
Dog, amount of blood in body, 21; as carriers of disease,
127; digestion in, 18, 20; distemper, 142; fecundity,
33; heredity, 37; mastication in, 17; nature of stom-
ach, 18; notes, 7, 595; period of gestation, 31; pulse,
21, 436; respiration, 21, 437; sweating, in 23; tem-
perature, in 21, 436.
Dogbane, 121.
Dogs, farm, 383-389; notes, 167; pet, 514~517.
Dominique fowls, 563.
Dominor 2631, 490.
Donkey. (See Ass.)
Dorking fowls, 567; notes, 529.
Dorothy 1210, 492.
Dorset-Horn sheep, 612; hothouse lambs, 595, 599.
Double-Standard Polled Durham cattle, 375.
Double-Standard Polled Hereford cattle, 355.
Double Yellow-headed Mexican parrot, 254.
Dourine, 139; note, 125.
Doves, mourning, note, 170.
Down-Cotswold sheep, 625.
Doyle, Martin, quoted, 454.
Dr. Buckingham, 372.
Draco, 506.
Draco Prince, 506.
Draft breeds of horses, 420; for military purposes, 472,
473, 474; type, 4446.
Dragoon pigeon, 521.
Drenches, 322.
Drennon, 476.
Dried beef, 255; canned, 262.
Driver, 467, 501, 502.
Driving, 426, 427.
Druce, Samuel, quoted, 625.
Dry-cured pork, 256.
Dryden, Hon. John, quoted, 373.
Drying forage, effect on digestibility, 68.
Dual-purpose cattle, 303; type, 48, 50.
Duchess Airdrie, 372.
Duchess Athol, 372.
Duchess family, 371.
Duchess of Geneva, 373.
Duchess X, No. 8900 (Fig. 367), 340.
Duck, effect of domestication, 35; period of incuba-
tion, 542.
Ducks, 569-572; feeding, 536; notes, 35, 542; statis-
ties, 527; wild, 2, 571, 572.
Dudding, Henry, quoted, 618.
Duke of Airdrie, 372; (12730), 372.
Duke of Northumberland (1940), 371.
Duke of Rutland’s Black Barb, 467.
Duncan, Jere, quoted, 372.
Duncan’s Duke of Airdrie 2743, 372.
INDEX
Dunham «& Fletcher quoted, 452.
Dunham, M. W., quoted, 460, 475, 480. ;
Dunlop cattle, 334. F
Dunlop cheese, note, 208.
Dunn, Christopher, quoted, 612.
Dunn, Walter, quoted, 372.
Dunsley’s Dart, 454.
Durham cattle, 369; Ox, 370; Polled, 375, 376; note,
303. (See Shorthorn cattle.)
Duroc-Jersey swine, 663-666; notes, 644,
Dutch Belted cattle, 341-343; note, 303. -
Dutch cattle, 357; horses, 498; rabbit, 518.
Dutch cheese, 221.
Dwarf parrot, 525.
Dzierzon quoted, 278.
Eagles, notes, 164.
Eared pheasant, 580.
Earl of Arundel, quoted 497.
Earl of Cawdor quoted, 378.
Earl of Marchmont quoted, 335.
Earl of Morton mare, 41.
Earl of Spencer quoted, 31.
Earth-wax for candles, 259.
East Friesian cattle, 357.
East Friesland horse, 463.
Eaton, Gen. Wm., quoted, 633.
East Prussian horse, 463.
Echo II 701 (Fig. 369), 342.
Eclipse, 497, 501.
Ecology, 15.
Ecraseur for castrating, 150.
Edam cheese, 218; note, 208.
Edgbaston Marvel, 384.
Edueation of horse, 421, 422, 424-428.
Eelgrass (Vallisneria), 394.
Egbert, 505.
Egg-cell, nature and function, 29.
Eggs, care and preservation, 546, 547; composition
and fuel-value, 264; feeding to show animals, 153;
formation, 26; notes, 174; period of incubation, 542;
statistics of production, 527; value, 9. 2
Egyptian geese, 574.
Elder for birds, 172.
Eldredge, J. B., quoted, 338.
Eleata, 505.
Electioneer, 504, 505.
Electuaries, 322.
Elephant, 3; notes, 9; period of gestation, 31; pulse in,
21; (Fig. 12), 10.
Bis)
Ellard, C. H., article by, 514.
Ellenberger quoted, 17, 18.
Elliot, Prof. D. G., quoted, 581.
Elliot, S. B., article by, 481.
Elliot’s pheasant, 581.
Elliott, J. D., quoted, 447.
Ellis quoted, 617.
‘Ellman, John, quoted, 628.
Ellwyn Perfection, 384. :
Ely, David, quoted, 37. aa
Emasculator for castrating, 149.
Embden, geese 573.
Emily 855, 492.
Emmenthaler cheese, 218.
Emperor goose, 576.
Endocarditis of erysipelas, 133.
Endow, 504.
Energy values of feeding-stuffs, 65.
Engineer, 467, 501, 502.
English canary, 522.
English Cart Horse Society, 493.
English cavy, 520.
English dairy cheese, 218.
English pheasant, 581.
English rabbit, 518.
English setter, 514.
English sparrow, 171, 173.
Enhydra Marina, 397.
Ensiling, effect on feeding-stuffs, 68.
Entering show stock, 155, 156.
Entero-hepatitis in turkeys, infectious, 140.
Ento, 463. .
INDEX
Environment as a cause of variation, 34.
Eohippus, 419.
Epithelioma contagiosa, 143.
Epizoétic catarrhal’ fever, 144; lymphangitis, 139.
Equine contagious pleuro-pneumionia, 128, 129.
Equine malaria, 140.
Equisetum arvense, 121.
Equity, 372.
Equus asinus, 276, 419; caballus, 415, 419; caballus
libyeus, 450; hermionus, 276; zebra, 419.
Erf, Oscar, article by, 232.
Ergot, 121.
Ermine, 400; notes, 403.
Erysipelas, 125; swine, 133.
Escurial Merino sheep, 619.
Esparsette, digestibility of, 68.
Essex swine, 666; note, 675.
Ethan Allen, 503, 506.
Ethel Downs, 506.
Etradegant (Fig. 477), 479.
Eucalyptus as honey-plant, 285, 286.
Eugenia, 492; Jambas as honey-plant, 286.
Euren quoted, 368, 369, 464, 467.
Evaporated cream, 190; milk, 190.
Ewart, Professor, quoted, 42, 420.
Ewes, fecundity, 33; milk, composition, 96; note, 176.
Exchange, live-stock, 160.
Exercise, 148; in relation to meat-production, 82;
to milk-production, 84; of show stock, 155.
Exhibiting animals, 152-158.
Exmoor ponies, 487
Extasy, 504.
Factories, butter and cheese, 208, 209, 214-217, 226—
232; refrigeration in, 241-245.
Failyer and Willard milk test, 178.
Fairchild quoted, 294.
Falle, Rev. Philip, quoted, 362.
Fallopian tube, 29.
False colic, 439.
False mangrove as honey-plant, 285.
Fancy, 505,
Fantail pigeon, 521.
Fantasy, 504.
Farcy, 131, 132.
Farewell Shorthorns, 371.
Farm management, relation of domestic animals to,
11; relation of feeding practices to, 57.
Farm products, total value, 9.
Faroe island sheep (Fig. 3), 4, 597.
Farrington, Harvey, quoted, 209.
Farrington’s alkali tablets, 180.
Fat, crude, 59; digestibility of, 64; fuel-value, 65;
nature and function, 58, 62, 63; notes, 17.
Fat in milk, nature and quantity, 176, 177.
Fat hog type, 54, 55.
Fat-tailed sheep, 597, 633.
Fattening stock, 79, 80; poultry, 538-540.
Favorite (252), 370.
Fearnaught, 506.
Feathers, value, 527.
Fecundation, 23, 24.
Fecundity, 32, 33; as affected by heredity, 36; as af-
fected by crossing, 42.
Feed, effect on health of cows, 182.
Feeding, 56-118; beef cattle, 317-321; dairy cattle,
308,.310, 313-317; horses, 428-432; poultry, 533-540;
sheep, 600-603; swine, 649-653; for exhibition, 153,
154, 156; for gains, 82; standards, 57, 89, 107, 314,
315; standards for meat-production, 82; for milk-
production, 85, 86; tables, 64, 92-102.
Feeding-stuffs, 63-76; composition and digestibility of,
59; preservation and preparation of, 68; relative
values, 63
Feet, care of horses’, 149; sore, in sheep, 608.
Felch, I. K., quoted, 529.
Felis domesticus, 299.
Fenugreek, notes, 106.
Feral horses, 419.
Fermentation test of milk, 184.
Ferret, black-footed, 168.
Fertility of animals, 32, 33.
Fertilization of ovum, 29, 30.
691
Fescue, meadow, notes, 71.
Feser’s lactoscope, 178.
Fiber, crude, 59.
Fiber zibethicus, 166, 400.
Field, Capt. Thomas, quoted, 298.
Field-curing of forage, effect, 68.
Field mice, 166.
Field-pea vine silage, composition, 95.
Field spaniel, 514.
Figgis 76106 (Fig. 37), 36.
Figs, composition and fuel-value, 264.
Filho-de-Puta, 490.
Filigree, 372.
Finch, 524.
Findley. (See Anderson & Findley.)
Fire finch, 524.
Fireaway, 467, 502; (Burgess’), 467; (Jenkinson’s),
467; (Ramsdale’s), 467; (Scott’s), 467; (Triffit’s),
502: (West’s), 467.
Fireback pheasant, 581.
Fireless cooker, 269.
Fireweed as honey-plant, 285.
First consul, 505.
Fish, 390-394; canning, 261-263; culture, 390-392;
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents in,
102; dried, composition, 96; food and feeding-
grounds, 392, 393; notes, 35.
Fish Commission, United States, quoted, 390, 394.
Fish guano, digestibility, 99.
Fishcher, Ferdinand, quoted, 620.
Fish-hawks, 172.
Fisher, 401.
Fisher, Dr. A. K., quoted, 171.
Fisheries, United States Bureau of, quoted, 635, 636.
Fistula, 125, 442.
Wistulous withers, 125. (See Fistula.)
fitting live-stock for exhibition, 153.
Fjord’s control apparatus, 178.
Flamande cattle, 357.
Flashwood (3604), 493.
Flat-footed walk, 491.
Flat pea, composition, 95.
Flax, notes, 8
Flaxseed, composition, 93 ; digestibility, 97 ; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100; feeding
value, 73; for horses, 430; meal, 75, 153, 154, 313.
Fleas on dogs, 386.
Flemish cattle, 357.
Flemish Giant rabbit, 517; note, 412.
Flemish horses, 451, 452, 456, 461, 479, 493.
Flesh meal, digestibility, 9
Flicker, notes, 170, 173.
Flies as agents of infection, 125.
Flora Temple, 503
Florine of River Meadow, No. 1407 (Fig. 365), 339.
Flour, composition and fuel- value, 92, 264; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100, 113, 114.
Floyd, John B., quoted, 297.
Fluke diseases of sheep, 604.
Flycatcher, 171, 173.
Flying childers, 467, 501, 502.
Flying Cloud 134, 506
Flying Fox, 499.
Flying-squirrel, 164.
Foal, feeding, 431; pulse in, 21.
Fodder, coarse, 69; production value, 67.
Food, measure of nutritive value, 264; requirements,
81, 264; supply as a cause of variation, 34, 35.
Foot-and-mouth disease,
325; notes, 123.
Foot-rot, 125, 137, 607.
Forage-poisoning of stock, 119.
Forbes, E. B., quoted, 44.
Forbush, E. H., article by, 169.
Fordham, 467.
Forest horse, 419.
Formaldehyde test of milk, 179.
Formalin as disinfectant, 146; as preservative, 254.
Forshay, C. G., quoted, 625.
Foul brood, 285.
Foul-foot, 607.
Founder, 444: inheritance of, 38.
Four-horned sheep (Fig. 3), 4
143, 296; non-infectious,
692
Fowl cholera, 131, 155; pest, 143; typhoid, 131.
Fowlers quoted, 350.
Fowls, 525-587; composition and fuel-value, 264;
cost of keeping, 526; diseases, 122-146; fecundity, of
33; marketing, 544-547; origin of domestic, 528;
period of incubation, 31.
Fox, 166, 167 ; as carrier of disease, 127 ; notes, 396,
397, 404; period of gestation, 31; skins, 401.
Fox terrier, 515.
Fox-trot, 427, 492.
Foxhound, 516.
Francis, Dr. Mark, quoted, 378.
Francisco, Stephen, quoted, 175.
Franco-Merino sheep, 624.
Frandsen, Peter, quoted, 164.
Frappé, 195.
Frederick William I quoted, 463.
Free-martin, 24, 33.
French bulldog, 515.
French-Canadian cattle, 343-345; notes, 275, 303.
French-Canadian pacer, 476.
French coach horse, 458-460; influence of Thorough-
bred on, 500.
French draft horse, 460-462; notes, 274.
French Merino sheep. (See Rambouillet sheep.)
French Percheron Society quoted, 480.
Friesland cattle, 302.
Frill-back pigeon, 522.
Frizzles, 569.
Frogs, 2, 394, 395.
Fromage de Brie, 225.
Fromage d’Isigny, 225.
Frosch, 143.
Friihstiick Keese, 226.
Fruit-bloom as honey-plant, 285.
Fryers, 544.
Fuchsia, 459.
Fuel-values of feeding-stuffs, 65.
Fulcher, Mr., quoted, 368.
Fullington, Mr., quoted, 480.
Fungi, diseases caused by, 138, 139; infection by, 124.
Fur-bearing animals of North America, 395-404,
Fur-seal, 399.
Furgeson, Adam, quoted, 373.
Furs, tanning, 271.
Gadfly, sheep, 605.
Gaines’ Denmark 61, 490, 491.
Gaits of horses, 423, 424; saddle, 491, 492.
Galalith, 177.
Galbraith Brothers quoted, 495.
Gallberry as honey-plant, 285.
Gallipoli, 451.
Gallop, 423, 424.
Galloway cattle, 345-348; notes, 34, 154, 303,331-333.
Galloway ponies, 487, 488.
Gallus bankiva or ferrugineus, 528, 582; Lafayettii, 582;
sonnerati, 582; varius, 582.
Gambian goose, 576.
Game birds, 2.
Game fowls, 568; bantams, 31; note, 529.
Game preserves, 2
Gammelost cheese, 223; notes, 220.
Gangrene, treatment, 323.
Gapes, 555.
Garbage poisoning of stock, 118.
Garden mole, 168.
Garget, 323, 609.
Garlic, tainting milk, 86.
Garne quoted, 611.
Garrard quoted, 362.
Garvanza peas as honey-plant, 785, 286.
Gas-producing bacteria in milk, 188.
Gathered-cream creamieries, 230.
Gaudy Shorthorns, 371.
Gay, Carl W. , articles by, 449, 496.
Geese, 572- 576; feeding, 537; ; period of incubation, 131,
542; statistics, 527; wild, pa
Gehin’ quoted, 390,
Geisskaes, 411.
Gelding, defined, 149.
General (Fig. 472), 471.
General Gates, 506.
INDEX
General Knox, 506.
General-purpose cow. (See Dual-purpose cow.)
General Washington, 506.
Gennzus Andersoni, 582; lineatus, 581; Muthura, 582;
nycthemerus, 581; Swinhoii, 582.
Gentian, notes, 106.”
Gentry, N. inl, “quoted, 43.
Geomyide, 167.
Geo. M. Patchen, 503, 505.
George Wilkes, 478, 503-505.
Georgeson, C. C. , article by, 588; quoted, 175.
Gerber milk test, 179.
Germ meal, 75; composition, 92; digestible nutrients,
and fertilizing constituents, 100.
Germ plasm, continuity of, 39, 40.
German breakfast cheese, 225.
German coach horse, 462-464; influence of Thorough-
bred on, 500; note, 451.
penn feeding standards. (See Wolff feeding stand-
ards,
German Merino sheep, 620.
Germinative vesicle, 29.
Gestation period in animals, 30, 31.
Giant thistle as honey-plant, 286.
Gid, 605.
Gilbey, Sir Walter, quoted, 481.
Gillett quoted, 611
Gillett, Wm. Sat 625.
oa Rev. John, ‘quoted, 346.
ilt, 6
Ginge, J. H., quoted, 648.
Ginger, notes, 106.
Gipsy Maid (Fig. 385), 371.
Giraffe notes, 35; period of gestation, 31.
Gist’s Black Hawk, 490.
Gizzard shad, 392.
Glanders, 131, 132.
Glencoe, 503.
Glorious Thundercloud, 507.
Glossinia morsitans, 140.
Gloucester cheese, 218; note, 208.
Glucose, 17; meal, 100; notes, 75.
Glue, note, 174.
Gluten feed, 75; composition, 92; digestibility, 96; di-
gestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100,
115; for beef cattle, 319-321; for dairy cows, 316; for
dairy heifer, 314; nutritive ratio and protein-equating
value, 105; ‘production value, 67.
Glycocholate, 19
Glycocholic acid, 19:
Glycogen, 20, 58.
Goat, 405-412; milk, 96, 176; mountain, 597; nature of
stomach, 18: period of gestation, 31; rumination in,
18; respiration, 21, 437.
Godolphin Arabian, 505.
Godolphin Barb, 451, 497, 501.
Going light, 131, 135.
Gold Spangled Lizard Canary, 522.
Golddust, 450, 506.
Golden pheasant, 582.
Goldenrod as honey-plant, 285.
Goldfinch, 522; American, 524; canary, 522.
Goldsmith Maid, 503, 505.
Goodnight, Charles, quoted, 290, 292.
Goodwin, John S., article by, 330.
Goose. (See Geese.)
Goose septicemia, 132.
Gopher, pocket, 167; notes, 164.
Gopher turtles, 681.
Gorden setter, 514.
Gorgonzola cheese, 220, 222.
Gouda cheese, 218; note, 208.
Gough, Mr., quoted, 371.
Grade, defined, 421; grading, 27, 42.
Grakle, musical, 523.
Graffian follicles, 28, 29.
Graham, W. R., article by, 538.
Graham Brothers quoted, 346.
Graham flour, 264.
Grain, effect. of grinding on feeding value, 69; feeding,
151; ; feeding value, 72; production value, 67; when to
feed, 18.
Grana cheese, 219.
INDEX
Grand Bashaw, 450, 503, 505.
Grandeau quoted, 79.
Grano-gluten, composition, 92; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 100
Grant, Gen. U. S8., quoted, 447, 450.
Grapes, composition and fuel-value, 264.
Grass, digestible nutrients, 101; fresh, for beef-produc-
tion, 318-321; mixed hay, nutritive ratio and pro-
tein-equating value, 104; notes, 12, 69-51, 171; pas-
ture, percentage composition and digestible matter,
69-70; silage, 102; time to harvest for hay, 70.
Grass staggers, 609
Grass swine, 662.
Grasses, and clover mixed, composition, 94; digesti-
bility, 97; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constit-
uents, 101, 110, 111; nutritive ratio and protein-
equating value, 104.
Grasshopper mice, 166.
Gray-blue finch, 524.
Gray call duck, 571.
Gray, Charles, article by, 345.
Gray-lag goose, European, 572, 576.
Great Alne Douglas, 384.
Great Dane, 516.
Great white plague, 133.
Green, Francis, quoted, 373.
Green frog, 395.
Green Mountain Maid, 502; (by Harry Clay), 505.
Green Japanese pheasant, 581.
Green peafowl, 580.
Green’s Bashaw, 503.
Green, Seth, quoted, 390.
Greenheart as honey-plant, 286.
Greiner, T., article by, 540.
Grenfell, Dr., quoted, 592.
Grey, Clyde, 78, 458.
Grey Grantham, 467.
Greyhound, 516; notes, 34.
Greylight, 486.
Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, 1.
Griffon dog, 517.
Griggs, Money, quoted, 368.
Grinding grain, effect on feeding value, 69.
Grindley, H.S., quoted, 265, 268, 270.
Grits, 73.
Grizzly bear, 402.
Grooming, 148; exhibition animals, 154; notes, 23.
Grosbeak, cardinal, 523.
Ground-hog, 165.
Ground-mice, 166.
Ground-squirrel, 164; notes, 401.
Grouse, ruffed, domestication, 576-578.
Growth, feeding for, 79, 80.
Grub in the head, 605.
Gruyere cheese, 218; note, 208.
Guadalupe Merino sheep, 619.
Guaranteed milk, 175.
Guardsman (Fig. 471), 469.
Gudgell, Charles, article by, 351.
Guenon’s Lad 54422 (Big. 380), 363.
Guernsey cattle, 348-351; milk, percentage of butter-
fat in, 177; note, 303.
Guinea-fowl, 578-579; notes, 31, 172; statistics, 527.
Guinea-pig, 519; Brown-Sequard experiments with, 38,
39; note, 5.
Guinea swine, 665.
Gujarat buffalo, use, 295.
Gum, 58, 59; trees as honey-plant, 285.
Gunn quoted, 141.
Gutta-percha as honey-plant, 286.
Guy, 506.
Gwynne’s Shorthorns, 375.
Hackney horse, 464-468; influence of Thoroughbred
on, 500; pony, 484; Society quoted, 466, 481, 487;
note, 451.
Hadban Arabs, 448.
Hemonchus contortus, 603.
Hagemann quoted, 79, 87, 88, 89.
Haight, D. H., quoted, 342.
Haines, Reuben, quoted, 349.
Hair, felt as insulating material, 237; treatment of
show animals, 154.
693
Hair seals, 399;
Hal Dillard, 477.
Hal family, 476.
Haleb (Fig. 460), 477.
Hall, Capt. Basil, quoted, 279, 370.
Hall, D., quoted, 338.
Halter-pulling, 426.
Ham, production, 644-646; shipping,
cured, 256.
Hambright fowls, 564.
Hambletonian 10, 502, 503, 504; note, 467.
Hambletonian family, 504, 505.
Hambletonian fowls, 564.
Hamburg fowls, 568; period of incubation, 31.
Hamburg steak, 257.
Hamdani Arabs, 448.
Hampshire Down Sheep, 614, 615; notes, 599.
Hampshire swine, 667-669; note, 342.
Hand, General, quoted, 633.
Handling stock, 148.
Handsome Boy, 388.
Hannibal, 463.
Hannis, 505.
Hanover, 499.
Hanoverian horse, 463.
Happy medium, 502, 505.
Hard cheeses, 208-219.
Hare, Belgian, 412-415; wild, 167.
Harger, S. J. J., article by, 17.
Harness and harnessing, 422, 423, 426; leather, 271.
Harold, 505.
Harper, M. W.., articles by, 424, 428, 462, 647.
Harriet, 372.
Harris, Edward, quoted, 480.
Harris, John §., quoted, 406.
Harris, Col. W. A., quoted, 373.
Harris, Dr. W. T. quoted, 589.
Harrison Chief 1606, 491.
Harry Clay, 505.
Hart, Geo. H., articles by, 321, 436, 653.
Hartz Kese, 226.
Harvest mice, 166.
Harvey quoted, 41.
Haskins, Joseph, quoted, 662.
Hattori family quoted, 682.
Havemeyer, Theodore A., quoted, 381,
Hawes, Sidney, quoted, 629.
Hawk, 171; notes, 164, 166.
Hawk’s bill turtle, 681.
Hay, composition, 94; digestibility, 97, 98; production
value, 67; time for digestion, 18; when to feed, 18.
Hayes, Captain, quoted, 451.
Hayward, Harry, article by, 333.
Head-cheese, 256.
Heart, 20
Heartsease as honey-plant, 285.
Heasman, Alfred, quoted, 376.
Heat, period of, 28, 29, 30.
Heat-stroke, 437; notes, 23.
Heather monk (Fig. 360), 332.
Heaton, Mr., quoted, 371.
Heaves, 440.
Heber, Reginald, quoted, 501.
Hedgehog, 167.
Hegelund method of udder manipulation, 84.
Hehner’s test for formaldehyde, 179.
Heifer, feeding dairy, 314.
Helen Hale, 505.
Helmet p:geon, 521.
Hemaglobin, 21.
Hemlock, water, 120.
Hemoglobinuria, 141.
Hemorrhagica septicemia, 132; note, 296.
Hemp seed for birds, 173.
Hen pigeons, 521.
Hengerveld, Professor, quoted, 356.
Henry Clay, 502, 503, 505.
Henry, G. W., quoted, 33.
Henry, Professor, quoted, 92, 109.
Henry VIII quoted, 497.
Hens, period of incubation, 31.
Hepatic toxemia, 20.
Herdwick sheep, 631.
260; sugare
694
Hereditary diseases, note, 125.
Heredity, 36-38; as a cause of variation, 34; effect on
fecundity, 33, 36.
Hereford cattle, 351-355; for baby-beef, 318; period
of gestation, 31; heredity in, 36; note, 303, 319; oxen,
366; Polled, 355.
Hermaphrodites, 24.
Herod, 501, 506.
Herring, canned, 263.
Herterozygotes, 530.
Hess, Mr., quoted, 447.
Heteromyide, 167.
Heyl, Jacob, quoted, 475.
Hiatogas, 476
Hide industry, 272; preserving, 252; shipping, 260;
tanning, 271.
Highball, 505.
High-flyer pigeon, 522.
Higgins quoted, 131.
Highland Denmark 730, 490.
Highland man, 503.
Highland sheep, Black-face, 631.
High-school horse, 427.
Hillhurst Stock Farm quoted, 467.
Hills, H. W., quoted, 335.
Hills, J. J., quoted, 373.
Himalayan rabbit, 518.
Hinny, 507.
Hipparion, 419.
Hippurie acid, 22.
Hives, 437,
Hoard, W. D., article by, 246.
Hobbes, Fisher, quoted, 666.
Hobbles, 477.
Hodge, C. F., articles by, 576, 584.
Hofmeister quoted, 18.
Hog, carcasses, shipping, 260; dressing, 252; pulse,
436; respiration, 437; temperature, 436. (See Swine.)
Hog cholera, 137.
Holbart, A. B., quoted, 452, 463.
Holbert, J. A., quoted, 343.
Holderness cattle, 379; note, 335.
Holland Land Company quoted, 357.
Hollow horn, 19, 330.
Holloway, Col. Robert, quoted, 457.
Holstein-Friesian cattle, 355-361 ; milk percentage of
butter-fat in, 177; note, 303; oxen, 366.
Holstein horse, 463.
Home District Agricultural Society quoted, 373.
Homer (Homing) pigeon, 521; for squab-raising, 583.
Hominy chop, 74; composition, 92; digestible nutri-
ents and fertilizing constituents, 100; digestible
nutrients in stated amounts, 115; nutritive ratio and
protein-equating value, 105.
Homozygotes, 530.
Honduras turkey, 586,
Honey, 281.
Honey-bees. (See Bees.)
Honey-plants, 285, 286.
Hooded Jacobin pigeon, 521.
Hoofed mammals, 163.
Hoofs, disease of, in reindeer, 592; fitting for exhibi-
tion, 155,
Hook-in-the-eyes, 329.
Hoomes, Colonel, quoted, 498.
Hoose, 606.
Hopley & Co., Peter, quoted, 495.
Hopples, 477.
Hornaday quoted, 290, 291.
Hornless cattle, notes, 331.
Horns, fitting for exhibition, 155; note, 174.
Horse, 415-507; age to breed, 30; ailments of, 436-446;
branding, 151; capacity of stomach, 17; care of feet,
149; causes of variation in, 34; cost of maintaining,
14; determining age, 433-436; development, notes,
274, 275; digestibility, notes, 61; diseases, 122-146;
notes, 123; distemper, 144; docking, 150; dry matter
per day for, 13; education, harnessing and gaits,
421-424; extent of sweating, 23; feeding, 428-433;
feeding for work-production, 86-92 ; feeding stand-
ards, 107; fitting and exhibiting, 153-158; inspection,
161; maintenance requirements, 78, 79; mastication
in, 17; amount of blood in body, 21; number of
INDEX
respirations, 21; native American, 498; number, 7,
10; notes, 9; marketing, 158-162; number of acres
cultivated by one, 11; of the Sahara, 449; origin of
domestic, 418; period of heat, 30; poisoning, 120, 121;
puberty, 30; pulse in, 21, 436; respiration, 437; tem-
perature, 21, 436; training and handling, 424-428;
types, 44-47; value, 10; value of grinding grain for,
69; vomiting, 19.
Horse bean, composition, 93; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 101; roughage, 95; straw, 95.
Horseman pigeon, 521. ;
Horseshoeing, 149.
Horsetail, 121.
Hot iron test of acidity, 212.
Hothouse lambs, 593, 597.
Houdan fowls, 567; notes, 529.
Hounds, 516.
House wren, 170.
Hoven, 326.
Howard B. (Fig. 481), 485.
Howard, H. P., quoted, 624.
Howard, L. O., article by, 640.
Hoxie, Solomon, article by, 355; quoted, 358,
Huajilla as honey-plant, 285.
Huart du Plessis quoted, 409, 411.
Hubback (319), 370.
Huber quoted, 278, 279, 281.
Humblies, note, 331.
Humming-birds, 173.
Humped cattle, note, 303.
Humphrey, Col. David, quoted, 619, 620.
Humphrey, G. C., article by, 598.
Humphrey, William, quoted, 614.
Hungarian grass, composition, 94; digestibility, 97,
98; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents,
101, 109; hay, 104, 111; nutritive ratio, 104; produc-
tion value, 67; seed, note, 93.
Hunt, Thomas F., articles by, 7, 421.
Hunter horse, 468-470; gaits, 427.
Hunter, John, quoted, 281.
Huntington, Randolph, quoted, 450.
Hunziker, O. F., article by, 190.
Husk, 606.
, Hutchins goose, 576.
Hutchinson quoted, 370.
Hybrids, animal, sterility of, 24.
Hydrophobia, 144.
Hymettus, 504.
Hypohippus, 419.
Ibex, 408.
Ice, harvesting, 235; houses, farm, 232-236.
Ice-cream manufacture, 195-198; poisoning, 198.
Ices, 195. ‘
Ictero-hematuria in sheep, 140.
Illinois Experiment Station quoted, 13; State Fair
rule, 158.
Tllustrious, 372.
Immunity, disease, 145.
Imp Diomed, 490. e
Imp Hedgeford, 490, 500.
Imp Saltram, 490.
Imp Whip, 490.
Impeyan pheasant, 580.
Imperial rabbit, 519.
Imported Bellfounder, 467, 502.
Imported Traveller, 505.
Improved Black-top Merino sheep, 623.
Improved Essex swine, 666.
Improved land in United States, 11.
Inbreeding, 42, 43; effect on fecundity, 33.
Incestuous breeding, 142.
Incompatibility, 33.
Incubation, 542-543; periods, and factors affecting,
31 ;
Indian Chief 1718, 491.
Indian fowls, 568; games, note, 529.
Indian pony, 483, 484.
Indian Runner duck, 570.
Indianapolis, 506.
Individuality as related to milk-production, 83, 84;
relation to feeding, 77; to meat-production, 81.
Infantado Merino sheep, 620.
oe
i Infection, 124.
INDEX
Infectious abortion, 143; entero-hepatitis in turkeys,
140; mastitis, 125; suppurative cellulitis, 125
Influenza, 123, 143.
Inglis quoted, 362.
Inguinal hernia, 657; note, 149.
Inheritance of acquired characters, 39.
Inoculation, protective, against disease, 145.
Insectivorous mammals, 168.
Insects as carriers of disease, 127.
Inspection of live-stock, 161.
Insulating materials for ice-houses,
erator, 236.
Inter-breeding, 42.
International Encyclopedia quoted, 296.
International Live-stock Exhibition quoted, 156, 157.
International Stock Food Farm quoted, 502.
Intestinal juice, 19.
oe Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 644,
45.
Ipomeea sidzefolia as honey-plant, 286.
Irish deerhound, 516; setter, 514; terrier, 516; water
spaniel, 515.
Trish Grazier swine, 673.
Irish Hunter horse, 468.
Trish rats, 520.
Iron, notes, 106.
Isaac, George, quoted, 373.
Tsabella, 371.
Isigny cheese, 225.
Ismailoff, Lieut. , quoted, 475.
Italian greyhound, 517.
Italian cowpea, 94.
Italian rye-grass, 94.
Ivory, 174.
Jack rabbits, 167.
Jackass. (See Ass.)
Jacks, breeds of, 508, 509. (See Ass. )
Jackson, Dr. Sheldon, quoted, 589, 590, 592.
Jackson, Wm., quoted, 490.
Jacobin pigeon, hooded, 521.
Jacoby quoted, 390.
Jafarabadi buffalo, 294, 295.
James I quoted, 497.
James L., 505.
Jamestown cattle, 368.
Japanese bantam, 569; peafowl, 580; robin, 524.
Japanese millet, composition, 94; seed for birds, 173.
Japanese pony, 489.
Japanese rats, 520.
Jarvis, Lieut. D. H., quoted, 591.
Jarvis, William, quoted, 357, 619.
Jasmine (Fig. 494), 499.
Java fowls, 563; jungle-fowl, 582; peafowl, 580.
Java pony, 489.
Java sparrow, 523.
Jay, 170, 171, 173.
Jay Eye See, 505.
Jay Gould, 505.
Jefferson, Thomas, quoted, 490, 499.
Jeffries, Capt. James, quoted, 662.
Jeffries, Mr., quoted, 368.
Jennets, 276.
Jenny Cockracy, 490.
Jensen quoted, 133.
Jersey cattle, 361-365; milk, percentage of butter-fat
in, 177; note, 303.
Jersey-Red swine, 665.
Jilt 15th (Fig. 361), 332.
Jockey Club quoted, 470.
Joe Johnson, 372.
Joe Patchen, 476, 478.
Joe Young, 478, 505.
John Dillard, 490, 492.
John Nolan, 504, 505.
Johnson, Arthur, quoted, 373.
Johnson“grass, composition, 94; digestibility, 98.
Johnston, Robert, quoted, 458, 623.
Johnston quoted, "467, 479.
Jolly quoted, 370.
Jones, C. J., quoted, 290, 291.
Jordan, Ww. H., article by, 56.
235; for refrig-
695
Josephine, 372.
Jowari buffalo, 294.
Judas tree as honey-plant, 285.
Judging poultry, 547.
Jumping mice, 167.
Juncus Gerardi, 98.
Jungle-fowl, 528, 582; note, 529.
Justin Morgan, 497, 500, 503, 505, 506.
Jutland cattle, 357.
Kafir, nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105.
Fodder: Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constitu-
ents, 101; nutritive ratio and protein-equating
factor, 104. Meal: Nutritive ratio and protein-equat-
ing value, 105. Seed: Composition, 93, 100. Stover:
Nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 104.
Kaiser Wilhelm, 463, 494.
Kaleege pheasants, 581, 582.
Kangaroo rats, 167.
Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 165.
Kate Spray 4th (Fig. 131), 154.
Keheilan Ajus Arabs, 448.
Kellner quoted, 66, 67, 81, 85, 86, 89.
Kennedy, W. J., article by, 649.
Kent sheep, 632.
Kentucky blue-grass, composition, 94; digestible nu-
trients and fertilizer constituents, 101 nutritive ratio
and protein-equating value, 104.
Kentucky Importing Company, 372.
Kentucky Prince, 505.
Kentucky saddle horse. (See saddle horse.)
Kephir, 187.
Kerry cattle, 379, 380; note, 301, 303.
Kiang, 276.
Kilbarne, quoted 141.
Kingbird, 171, 172.
King Charles dog, 517.
King, Col. W. S., quoted, 373.
King of Diamonds, 504.
King Herod, 497, 506.
Kings’ mares, 497.
Kip, 272.
Kitasato quoted, 138.
Klatawath, 505.
Klein, Louis A. aruicle by, 603.
Klippart quoted, 3
Knight of Malta, see
Knox, Mr., quoted, 379.
Koch, W., quoted, 134; 338.
Kohlschmidt, Dr., quoted, 411.
Kolmogorian cattle, 357
Korean pony, 489.
Koster quoted, 279.
Kremlin, 505.
Kumyss, 187.
Kurdistan ponies, 451.
Kyloe cattle, 382.
LaFayette, Marquis de, quoted, 276.
La Fleche fowls, 567.
La Mancha Union Jack (Fig. 392), 380.
La Tristeza, 141.
Lactic acid, 177; bacteria in milk, 188.
Lactobutryometer, 178.
Lactocrite, De Laval, 178.
Lactometer, 180, 181.
Lactoscope, 178.
Lactose, 177.
Lady Amherst pheasant, 582.
Lady Amy 7th (Fig. 276), 249.
Lady Betty Shorthorns, 371.
Lady Fragrant, 371.
Lady Gulnare, 372.
Lady Jackson, 490.
Lady Matchless 2nd (Fig. 377), 353.
Lady Suffolk, 502, 503.
Lady Vere de Vere (Fig. 329), 299.
Lakenvelder cattle, 341; poultry, 342.
Lamarck quoted, 35, 39,
Lamarre, L. Bert de, quoted, 293.
Lamb, characteristics of good, 265; composition and
food value, 264, 269; docking, 150; hothouse, 593, 599.
Lambert, D. J., article by, 544.
696
Laminitis, inheritance of, 38.
Lamp Girl, 506.
Lampas, 438.
Lampers, 438.
Lancashire cheese, 226.
Lancashire Short-Face swine, 660.
Lance, Dr. H. W., quoted, 342.
Landrum, Wm. M., quoted, 406.
Langshan fowls, 565.
Langstroth, L. L., quoted, 278, 282.
Langworthy quoted, 89.
Lanolin, 23.
Lantz, D. E., quoted, 164, 166, 167.
Lapidist, 503.
Lard, 174; production, 647-649; notes, 644, 645, 646;
shipping, 260; trying-out, 256.
Lard hog, finishing, 651.
Large Black swine, 679; White swine 669-671; York-
shire swine, 669-671. :
Larkspur, 120.
Laryngitis, 440.
Latax marina, 397.
Laugher pigeon, 522.
Laurel, 121; as honey-tree, 285.
Laut, Miss Agnes, quoted, 396, 398.
Law, James, article by, 122.
Lawes and Gilbert quoted, 11, 13.
Lawrence, A. A., quoted, 464, 466, 618.
Lea, Overton, article by, 376.
League of Amateur Driving Clubs, 506.
Leather, 271; industry, 272; notes, 8, 174.
Leather carp, 393
Leeches, 139.
Lefebure, E., quoted, 452; & Sons, quoted, 452.
Leghorn fowls, 566; notes, 529.
Legumes as source of coarse fodder, 69; factors affecting
feeding value, 71.
Leguminous grains, feeding value, 72, 73.
Leicester sheep, 615
Leicester swine, 669.
Leicestershire cheese, 218.
Leopard, 450.
Leopard frog, 395.
Leporide, 167.
Leucanthemum vulgare, 98.
Leuckart quoted, 280.
Leucocytes in milk, 190
Levroux cheese, 411.
Lexington, 498.
Libyan horse, 449.
Lice on animals, 329; on fowls, 552; sheep, 607.
Ligard, George, quoted, 455.
Light horse types, 46, 47.
Lighting stables, 147, 182.
Ligniéres quoted, 141.
Lignum-vitz as honey-plant, 286.
Lima beans as honey-plant, 285.
Limberneck, 555.
Limburger cheese, 225; notes, 220.
Lime, slaked, as disinfectant, 146.
Lincoln sheep, 617, 618.
Linden tree, 450.
Lindsley, D. C., quoted, 505.
Line-breeding, 43.
Lineated pheasant, 581.
Liner felt as insulating material, 239.
Linnet, 522.
Linnzus trunculatus minutis, 604.
Linseed, cake, available energy in, 66; for horses, 430.
Meal, 75, 76; composition of, 93; digestibility of, 97;
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents in,
100; digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 115;
for calves, 313; for dairy cows, 316; nutritive ratio
and protein-equating value, 105; production value,
67. Oil, notes, 76.
Lion, period of gestation, 31.
Lippia repens as honey-plant, 285.
Lisonjero, 505.
Livarot cheese, note, 225.
Live-stock, cost of producing, 13; distribution, 10;
exchange, 160; inspection, 161; place in civilization,
7-14; relation of crop rotation, 11.
Liver, function, 19, 20.
INDEX
Liver and lung disease of reindeer, 592.
Liver-rot, 604.
Livingston, Robert, quoted, 619.
Lizard canary, 522.
Llama, (Fig. 11), 2, 7, 9, 296; note, 5.
Lloyd, Frederick Freeman, articles by, 386, 388.
Lobelia, 120.
Lobster, 635, 636.
Lockjaw, 138; note, 150.
Loco-weed, 121
Lecomotion, energy required for, 87.
Locust as honey-plant, 285.
Loeffler quoted, 133, 143.
Logan, John A., quoted, 467.
Loggerhead, 681.
Logwood as honey-plant, 285, 286.
Long Island Black Hawk, 503, 505.
Long, Professor, quoted, 677.
Long yearlings, fattening, 319.
Longhorn cattle, 380, 381.
Long-tailed fowl (Fig. 5), 5.
Lonk sheep, 631.
Lop-eared rabbit, 518.
Lophophorus impeyanus, 580.
Lophura nobilis, 581; prelata, 581; rufa, 581.
Lopp, W. T., quoted, 591.
Lord Clinton, 506.
Lord Derby II (417), 467.
Lord Russel, 505.
Lord Rothschild quoted, 388.
Lord Western quoted, 42.
Lorillard, Pierre, quoted, 498.
Losing the cud, 19.
Lou Dillon, 478, 501, 505.
Louden Duchesses, 372.
Louis Napoleon, 10, 480.
Loup Cervier, 403.
Loups-Marius, 399.
Low quoted, 334, 335, 357, 364, 611, 619.
Lowther Barb, 505.
Lucilia macellaria, 607.
Lumpy jaw, 138.
Lunch cheese, 225.
Lung plague, notes, 123.
Lung-worm disease, 606.
Luob, No. 2107 (Fig. 364), 338.
Lupine, feeding value, 72; poisonous, 121.
Lutra Canadensis, 401.
Lydlin quoted, 133.
Lynx, 403; Canadensis, 403; notes, 167; rufus, 403.
Macdonald quoted, 631.
MacGregor (1487), 457.
Macgregor, Sir William, quoted, 592.
MacNeilage, Archibald, quoted, 456.
Mack, G. A., article by, 296.
Mad staggers, 119.
Madison County (Ohio) Importing Company, 372.
Madras buffalo, 294.
Madrona as honey-plant, 285.
Maeterlinck quoted, 281.
Maggots in sheep, 607.
Magic, 491.
Magna, 492.
Magna Charta, 506.
Magnolia as honey-plant, 285.
Magpie, 521; finch, 524.
Mahogany as honey-plant, 286.
Maid of Melrose, 372.
Maine Experiment Station quoted, 275.
Maintenance requirements of farm animals, 76-79;
of cattle, 77; horse, 78; sheep, 78; swine, 78; values
of feeding-stufts, 65.
Maize feed (Chicago), composition, 92; digestibility,
96.
Major, W., quoted, 373.
Major Delmar, 504.
Majorca ass, 277, 508, 509.
Mal de caderas, 140.
Malaclemmys centrata, 681; centrata concentrica, 681 ;
litteralis, 681; macrospilota, 681; pileata, 681.
Malaria, bovine, 141; canine, 139; equine, 140
Malay fowl, Black-breasted Red, 568.
=
camel
INDEX
Malignant catarrhal fever of sheep, 608; malarial
jaundice, 139.
Mallard duck, 569, 572.
Beatese ass, 277; goat, 409; jacks, 508, 509; terrier,
16.
Maltose, 17.
Malt-sprouts, 74; composition, 93; digestibility, 96;
digestible nurients and fertilizing constituents, 100;
digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 114; for
calves, 313; nutritive ratio and protein-equating
value, 105; production value, 67.
Mambrino, 467, 478, 501, 502; Chief II, 467, 502, 503,
505; Chief family, 505; Gift, 505; Patchen, 505;
Paymaster, 467, 501, 502; Pilot, 459, 505.
Mammals, wild, in their relations with agriculture,
163-169.
Mammitis, 323. (See Mastitis.)
Management of animals, 82, 122-151.
Manchester canary, 522.
Manchurian pheasant, 580.
Mandarin duck, 571.
Mange, 328, 654.
Mangel, composition, 95; digestibility, 99; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102; digestible
nutrients in stated amounts, 110; feeding value, 71;
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105.
Mangrove as honey-plant, 286.
Manipuri pony, 489.
Mann’s acid test, 180.
Mantilinis Shorthorns, 371.
Manufacture of animal products, 174-272.
Manx cat, 300.
Manyplies, 18.
Manzanito as honey-plant, 285.
Maracaibo parrot, 524.
Maraldi quoted, 278.
Mare, fecundity, 33; feeding brood, 430; milk, 96, 176;
notes, 24; period of gestation, 31; prolificacy, 13.
Market grades of stock, 161.
Marketing farm stock, 151, 158-162; poultry products,
544-547
Markhor, 405.
Marlot quoted, 428.
Marquis of Salisbury quoted, 487.
Marsh-hen, note, 400.
Marsupials, 163.
Marten, 401; notes, 396.
Martin (bird), 170, 171, 173.
Martin, H. A., article by, 367.
Martingale, 422.
Martin quoted, 376.
Mary Marshall, 350,
Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture
quoted, 350.
Masterman quoted, 370.
Mastication, 17.
Mastiff, ‘516.
Mastitis, infectious. 125; non-infectious, 323; strepto-
coccus, 129.
Matchem, 497.
Matchless Theodore (Fig. 132), 154.
Mate, 492.
Mating, double, 532.
Maud §., 505.
Maxie Cobb, 505.
Mayflower (Fig. 486), 488.
Maynard quoted, 370, 372.
Maynard, Isaac, quoted, 612, 629.
Mayo, N.S., articles by, 118, 146; quoted, 139.
Mazurka, 372.
McClave, Charles, articles by, 569, 572, 585.
McClelland Bros. quoted, 622.
McCormick Brothers quoted, 338.
McCrae, David, articles by, 609, 611,615, 617, 629, 633;
quoted, 615.
McDonald, W. T., notes by, 151.
McDowell, James, quoted, 622.
McGrew, T. F., articles by, 578, 586.
McKerrow, Geo., article by, 632; quoted, 625.
McKissick, N. E., quoted, 291.
McLaughlin Bros., quoted, 452.
McLaury Brothers quoted, 338.
McLean, J. A., article by, 649.
697
McMonagle, Dr., quoted, 503.
McQueen (3513), 457.
Meade, R. W., quoted, 622.
Meadow, area in United States, 11. Grass, composition,
digestibility and total nutrients at different stages, 70.
Hay, available energy in, 66; digestibility, 97.
Meadow fescue, composition, 94; digestible nutrients
and fertilizing constituents, 101; nutritive ratio and
protein-equating factor, 104.
Meadow fox-grass, low, digestibility, 98.
Meadow mice, 166.
Meadowlark, 170.
Meat, 248-271; buffalo, 295; composition, 261; cook-
ing, 262; cost of producing, 13, 14; inspection, 161;
nature and composition, 79; notes, 174; production
79-83; scrap, 96, 99, 105; shipping, 260
Mecklenburg horse, 464.
Meehan, W. E., articles by, 390, 394.
Megapodes, 542.
Megrim, 584.
Mehring quoted, 283.
Meise, Samuel, quoted, 627.
Melanosis, inheritance of, 38.
Melanotus pheasant, 582.
Meleagris Americana, 586; Mexicana, 586; ocellata,
Melipona tetrasoma, 279; trigona, 279.
Menapause, 24.
Mendel’s law, 530.
Menhaden, 263.
Menier, Mr., quoted, 404.
Meningitis notes, 119.
Mephitis mephitica, 402.
Mercurie chlorid as disinfectant, 146.
Merino sheep, 618-624; fitting for exhibition,
notes, 275, 598; period of gestation, 31.
Merrell, Arthur, quoted, 576, 584.
Merriam, Dr. C. H., quoted, 171.
Mertoun flock of Leicester sheep, 617.
Mesohippus, 419.
Mesquite as honey-plant, 285.
Messenger, 497, 501, 502, 505; note, 467, 500.
Messenger, Thomas, quoted, 615.
Metabolism, 62.
Metastasis, 124.
Metcalf, Henry, quoted, 615.
Metcalf, Mrs., quoted, 565.
Metchley Wonder, 384.
Mexican turkey, 586.
Mice, 165, 166; pet, 520.
Michigan Agricultural College quoted, 38, 39; Experi-
ment Station quoted, 359.
Micrococci, diseases caused by, 129.
Micrococcus caprinus, 129.
Microtus, 166.
Middle Yorkshire or M. White Swine, 680.
Middlings, 73; composition, 93; for show animals, 153.
Migula quoted, 128.
Milbank quoted, 370.
Milch cows, increase in number, 9, 10; numbers in
United States, 176; value, 10.
Milch goats, 408-412.
Miles, Dr., quoted, 34, 38, 41.
Military horses, 470—474.
Milk, 176-187; bacteria, 187-190; beverages, 187;
buffalo, 295; certified, 186; clean, 175; composition
and fuel-value, 85, 96, 176, 194, 264; computing
total solids of, 181; condensed, 190-194; cost of
producing, 13, 14; digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 102; digestibility, 99; feeding show
animals, 153; fermentation test of milk, 184; for
poultry fattening, 540; for young stock, 308, 313;
increase in production, 10; market milk, 185, 186;
modified, 186; notes, 174, 175; nutritive ratio and
protein-equating value, 105; pasteurization, 184, 185;
physical properties, 177; powder, 194, 195; produc-
tion 83-86, 181-184, 309-313; records, 181; refrige-
ration, 236; sanitary, 181-184; score-cards for pro-
duction of sanitary, 182-184; secretion, physiology,
310, 312; standard, 186; standardized, 186; tests,
178-180; transportation rates, 185, 186.
Milk-bottling plants, refrigeration in, 245.
Milk-fat. (See Butter-fat.)
154;
698
Milk-fever, 324.
Milk-room, 205.
Milk-sugar, 177.
Milk-weed, 121.
Milking, 308, 312; in relation to milk-production, 84;
machines, 312, 313.
Mill feeds for calves, 313; for dairy cows, 316.
Miller, E. D., quoted, 482.
Miller, George, quoted, 373, 612.
Miller, H. P., articles by, 612, 614, 624, 626, 627.
Miller, Mr., quoted, 371.
Miller, Robert, quoted, 625.
Miller, W. S., quoted, 375.
Miller, William, quoted, 373.
Millet, barnyard, composition, 94. Hay, for dairy cows,
316; for beef cattle, 319. Japanese, 94. Seed: com-
position, 93; seed, digestible nurients and fertilizing
constituents, 100.
Milling residues for feed, 73, 74.
Mimulus, 373.
Mineral wool as insulating material, 237, 239.
Miniature cheese, 225.
Mink, 400; notes, 166, 168, 396, 404; protection, 397.
Minna, 372.
Minor, talking, 523.
Minorca fowls, 566.
Mirror carp, 393.
Miss Craigie, 490.
Miss McKinley 17203, 369.
Miss Russell, 506.
Missouri Agricultural College quoted, 33.
Mites on fowls, 553.
Moberly, Col. T. S., quoted, 373.
Méckern Experiment Station quoted, 66, 77.
Mockingbird, American, 523.
Modified milk, 186.
Modjeska 2194 (Fig. 466), 459.
Mohair, 407; note, 174.
Mohler, J. R., articles by, 321, 436, 653; quoted, 129,
137.
Molasses, as meat preservative, 254; beet, composition,
96; beet, digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 116;
beet, nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105;
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102;
feeds, 175; feeding to show animals, 153; feeding
value, 75; pulp, 75.
Moles, 168; garden, notes, 35; mice, 166.
Mollusks, notes, 390, 392.
Moltke 13, 463.
Monaul pheasant, 580.
Mongolian pheasant, 581.
Monyolian pony, 489.
Monkey skin, 396.
Mont d’ Or cheese, 411.
Montrose 106, 490.
Moon blindness, 438.
Moore quoted, 131.
Moore, John, quoted, 520.
Moore, J. Perey, quoted, 644.
Moore, Veranus A., article by, 124.
Moose, 2.
Morgan Eagle, 506.
Morgan family, 505, 506; horse, 503, 505, 506; notes,
274, 275, 507.
Morocco, 411.
Morphine for poisoning, 120.
Morphodites, 24.
Morris and Becar Shorthorns, 373.
Morrison, Alexander, quoted, 41.
Morrison, Wm., quoted, 288.
Morrison, W. K., article by, 278; quoted, 279,
Morse, Mrs. Tyler, quoted, 388.
Morton’s Traveller, 505.
Mosquito as an agent of infection, 125.
Moss Roses, 371.
Mouflon, 596.
Mound-birds, 542.
Mountain fever, 144.
Mountain Hero II (Fig. 484), 487.
Mountain loin, 167.
Mouse, 165; note, 401; white-footed, note, 401.
Mouson, quoted 372.
Mousse, 195.
INDEX
Mouth, sore, in sheep, 608; in swine, 656.
Mueller quoted, 284.
Mule, 507-510; acres cultivated by one, 11; diseases,
122-146; sweating, 23; military, 473; number of,
7,10; notes, 9; pulse, 436; value, 10.
Mule-Foot hog, 679.
Muley cattle, note, 331.
Mumford, Frederick B., articles by, 28, 44, 302, 418;
quoted, 598.
Mumford, H. W., articles by, 146, 369, 383.
Munster cheese, 219; notes, 220.
Muntz quoted, 79.
Muride, 165.
Mus musculus, 165; Norvegicus, 165; rattus, 165,
Muscatoon 7057, 372.
Muscovey duck, white, 571.
Muscular structure, 265.
Musical grakle, 523.
Musk-ox, 2.
Muskrat, 166; notes, 396; skins, notes, 396, 404.
Musmon, 596.
Mussel, 634.
Mustang, 483, 484.
Mustard, wild, tainting milk, 86.
Mustela Americana, 401; Pennauti, 401,
Mustelide, 168.
Mute swan, 585.
Mutilations, transmission of, 37.
Mutton, characteristics of good, 265; composition and
fertilizing value, 264, 269; cutting, 253; pressing, 252;
production, 599; notes, 595; sheep, type, 51, 52, 53;
storing, 258.
Mya arenaria, 634.
Mycotic stomatitis, 139, 325.
Mylton, Mr., quoted, 490.
Myopia, notes, 37.
Myristin, 177.
Myrtle of Avondale 24942 (Fig. 373), 346.
Nagana, 140.
Nail in the heart, 18; penetrating, 445.
Nancy Hanks, 502, 505.
Nancy Lee, 502.
Nannie Garrett 472, 491.
Narragansett pacer, 476, 503.
Nathusius quoted, 39.
Nauenal Association of Medical Milk Commissions,
176.
Natonal Association of Wool Manufacturers quoted,
598.
National Delaine sheep, 622.
Navel-ill, 126.
Neapolitan, 195.
Neapolitan swine, 666, 679.
Nebraska Experiment Station quoted 319, 320.
Necklace, 371.
Necrotic erysipelas, 133. e
Necrotic stomatitis, 656.
Nectar (4177) (Fig. 491), 495.
Needham, James G., articles by, 392, 393.
Negrette Merino sheep, 619.
Negri bodies, 144.
Nehring, quoted, 1.
Nelson, Julius, articles by, 393, 634, 635, 636, 640, 643.
Nemours, M. Dupont de, quoted, 619.
Neolupparion, 419.
Neotoma, 166.
Nether Craig Spicy Sam (Fig. 362), 335.
Neufchatel cheese, 221.
New Forest pony, 487.
New International Encyclopedia quoted, 272.
New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station quoted,
350.
New Leicester sheep, 616.
New Mexican goat, 409.
New-process linseed meal, 76.
New York Agricultural Experiment Station quoted,
77, 350. :
New York Board of Health lactometer, 181.
New York Mills sale, 371, 373.
Newfoundland dog, 516; seals, 399.
Newton, Mr., quoted, 194.
Niger, 459, 460.
INDEX
Nigger (Fig. 479), 482.
Nighthawk, note, 170, 171.
Nightingale, 522; Virginia, 523.
Nightshade, 121.
Nitrate of soda, poisoning cattle, 118.
Nitrogen-free-extract, 59.
Nitrogenous constituents of milk, 177.
Nivernaise horse, 462.
Nixon, C. D., article by, 337.
Nocard quoted, 126, 135.
Nodular disease, 604.
Nonpareil, 524.
Nora, 374.
Norfolk Phenomenon, 459.
Norfolk Red Polled cattle, 369.
Norfolk sheep, 630.
Norfolk spaniel, 515.
Norfolk Thin Rind pigs, 662.
Norfolk trotter, 451, 466.
Norman B., 505.
Norman horses, 480. ‘
Normandy boar, 662;
Normandy cattle, 381.
North African horse, 449.
North American farm animals, 273-682.
North Star (460), 372.
Northern Kentucky Importing Company, 372.
Norwegian horse, 466; pony, 488.
Norwich canary, 522.
Nubian Milch goat, 409.
Numida meleagris, 578.
Nuns (birds), 524.
Nuns (pigeons), 521.
Nutbearer, 505.
Nutboy, 505.
Nuthatch, 170, 173.
Nutrition, principles, 58-63, 263.
Nutritive ratio, 103, 106, 107.
Nuts for birds, 173.
Nutwood, 505.
Oaks, 498.
Oat-grass hay, production value, 67; tall, composition,
Oats, available energy in, 66; composition, 93; digesti-
ble nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100; digesti-
ble nutrients in stated amounts, 112; digestibility,
97; feeding value, 72; for beef cattle, 318-321; for
ealves, 313; for heifers, 314; for horses, 428-432;
for show animals, 153; notes, 151; nutritive ratio
and protein-equating value, 105. Chaff: compo-
sition, 95; digestible nutrients and fertilizing con-
stituents, 101; digestibility, 98. Dust: composition,
93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents,
100. Feed (shorts): composition, 93; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100. Fodder:
composition, 94; digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 101; digestibility, 98; nutrient ratio
and protein-equating factor, 104. Hay: composition,
94; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents,
101; nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 104.
Hulls, 74; composition, 93; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 100. Meal: composition, 93;
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100;
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105.
Straw: composition, 95; digestibility, 98; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 101; digestible
nutrients in stated amounts, 112; feeding value, 71;
for dairy cattle, 316; nutritive ratio and protein-
equating value, 105; production value, 67
Oats and peas, 98; and vetch, 98.
O’Connor, Thomas, quoted, 379.
(sophagostoma, 135; Columbianum, 135, 604.
Qstrus ovis, 605.
Ohio Importing Company quoted, 372;
Ohio Improved Chester-White swine, 662.
Ohio State Fair entry rules, 156.
Ohio State University quoted, 74.
Oidium lactis, 222, 224, 225, 226.
Oil-cake, 75; for show animals, 153.
Oil-meal, 75; for beef cattle, 318-321; for brood mare,
431; for calves, 313; for dairy cows, 316; for show
animals, notes, 151.
699
Okra as honey-plant, 285.
Olaf quoted, 585.
Old English Bobtail Sheep-dog, 386-388; note, 383.
Old Morrill, 506.
Old-process linseed meal, 76.
Old Shales, 466.
Oldenburg cattle, 357.
Oldenburg coach horse, 462-464.
Olein, 177.
Olena 18772, 369.
Oleomargarine note, 177, 259.
Oleo-oil, 259.
Olor buccinator, 586.
Oltmann Brothers quoted, 463.
Omasum, 18.
Omphalophlebitis, 126.
Onager, 276.
Onchomys, 166.
One Eye, 467, 502.
Onions, composition and feeding value, 264; wild, 120.
Online, 504.
Ontario Agricultural College quoted, 332, 377, 644,
645; Department of Agriculture quoted, 538.
Opossum, 163; skins, 396.
Opthalmia, in cats, 301; specific, inheritance of, 38.
Orange-breast Waxbill, 524.
Oranges, composition and fuel-value, 264.
Orchard-grass, composition, 94; digestible nutrients
and fertilizing constituents, 101; digestibility, 97, 98;
nutritive ratio and protein-equating factor, 104. Hay:
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 104.
Oreamnos montanus, 597.
Oregon ground-squirrel, 164.
Oriental Frills, 521.
Oriental horses, 449.
Oriole, 170, 172, 173.
ores Count Alexis, quoted, 474; Countess, quoted,
Orloff trotting horse, 474, 475; note, 451.
Ormskirk Olympian, 384.
Orohippus, 419.
Orpington fowls, 567; fattening, 539; note, 529.
Orr, T. E., articles by, 547, 563; quoted, 372.
Orville, 490.
Oryzomys, 166.
Osborn, H. F., quoted, 418, 419, 420.
Osprey, 172.
Osteoporosis, 438.
Ostrea Adriatica, 636, angulata, 636; cuculata, 636;
edulis, 636, 638; lurida, 636, 638; Virginiana, 636,
638.
Ostrich, 511-514; eggs, period of incubation, 542;
notes, 33, 542.
Oier, 401; farming, 404; notes, 168, 396; protection,
Ovaries, characters and functions, 28.
Oven-roasting of meat, 267.
Oven thermometer, 267.
Ovine caseous lymph-adenitis, 132.
Ovis ammon, 596; aries, 592; Canadensis, 597; cervinus,
597; Dalli, 597; montanus, 597; musmon, 596;
Stonei, 597.
Ovum, nature and function, 29.
Owen, Prof. Richard, quoted, 297.
Owens quoted, 302.
Owl, 170, 171,; notes 164, 166; pigeon, 521.
Ox-eye daisy, digestibility, 98.
Oxen, 366; amount of blood in body, 21; composition
of body, 59; feeding standards, 107, 108; nature of
stomach, 18; notes, 9; number on farms, 11; pulse
in, 21; respiration, 21, 437; rumination in, 18, 20;
sweating in, 23; temperature in, 21, 436.
Oxford Down sheep, 624-626.
Oxford Shorthorns, 373.
Oxyhemaglobin, 21.
Oyster, 636-640; notes, 393.
Ozokerite, 259.
Pablo, Michael, quoted, 291, 292.
Pace, 423; show, 427.
Pacing horse, Standardbred, 476-478.
Packing butter, 204; eggs, 546, 547.
Page, George H., quoted, 191.
700
Painted finch, 524; bunting, 524.
Paints, lead, poisoning cattle, 118.
Palatability of a ration, 106.
Paley quoted, 372.
Palia buffalo, 294.
Pallin quoted, 139.
Palm-nut meal, 93, 101.
Palmetto as honey-plant, 285, 286.
Palmitin, 177.
Palms as honey-plant, 286.
Palmyra Boy, 504
Palo Alto, 504.
Pan-broiling meat, 267.
Pancreas, 20.
Pancreatic juice, 19, 20.
Pansy McGregor, 504.
Pantegras cheese, 218.
Paper as insulating material, 237.
Paper-skin, 606.
Paraffin for candles, 259.
Paralysis in swine, 653.
Paraplegia, 653.
Parasitisms, 124.
Parbold Paragon, 384.
Park animals, 2.
Parmesan cheese, 219; note, 208.
Paroquets, 525.
Parrots, 524, 525; Cuban, 525; dwarf, 525.
Parsnip, composition, 95; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 102.
Parson’s milk test, 178.
Part-bred horses, 499.
Parthenogenesis, 280.
Partridge, domestication, 576-578.
Parturition, 31; difficult, 32.
Pasang, 405, 408.
Pastes, 322.
Pasteur quoted, 130.
Pasteur treatment for rabies, 144.
Pasteurization of milk, 184, 185; notes, 189.
Pasteurized butter, 207.
Pasture, area in United States, 11. Grass: composition,
94; digestibility, 98; digestible nutrients and fer-
tilizing constituents, 101; supplementing pasture with
balanced rations, 118.
Pat Cleburne, 490.
Pat Ryan of Red Cloud 20038 (Fig. 372), 346.
Patchen Wilkes, 478.
Pates, 263.
Patrick milk test, 178.
Patterson, John, quoted, 456.
Patterson, John D., quoted, 624.
Patterson, Robert, quoted, 340.
Paul D. Kelly, 504.
Paul Pry, 502.
Paular Merino sheep, 619.
Paunch, 18.
Pavo cristatus, 580; muticus, 580; nigripennis, 580.
Pea, available energy in, 66; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 101; digestible nutrients in
stated amounts, 113; dried, composition and fuel-
value, 264; sugar, 264; factors affecting feeding value,
71; feeding value, 72; for colts, 431; hay, 316; meal,
composition, 93; digestibility, 97, 99; nutritive ratio
and protein-equating value, 105.
Peacock, 580.
Peacock pheasant, 581,
Peafowl, 31, 580.
Peanuts, composition and fuel-value, 264; feed, diges-
tibility, 97; kernel, composition, 93; meal, compo-
sition, 93; meal, digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 101; vines, composition, 95; vines,
digestibility, 98.
Pea-vine 85, 491.
Pea-vine, hay, composition, 95; silage, digestible
nutrients in stated amounts, 116; straw, digestible
nutrients in stated amounts, 111; digestible nutrients
and fertilizing constituents, 102;
Pearl, 505.
Pearl disease, 133.
Pearl guinea-fowl, 578.
Pearl millet, digestibility, 98.
Pearlette, 272.
INDEX
Pearson, R. A., article by, 176; quoted, 176.
Peas and barley, digestible nutrients and fertilizin
constituents, 101; digestible nutrients in stated
amounts, 109; and oats, digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 101.
Pebbled grain leather, 271.
Peccary, 163, 646.
Pedigree versus individual excellence, 43.
Peer, F. 8., quoted, 409.
Pegler, quoted 409.
Pekan, 401.
Pekin duck, 570.
Pekinese dog, 517.
Pelham, 503.
Pelts, shipping, 261.
Pembroke cattle, 302.
Penetrating nail, 445.
Penicillium camemberti, 224; roqueforti, 221.
Pennant’s marten, 401.
Pennisetum spicatum, 98.
Pennsylvania Department of Fisheries quoted, 394;
Experiment Station quoted, 77; State Agricultural
Society quoted, 388.
Pennyman, Sir James, quoted, 370.
Pens for show animals, 156.
Pepper notes, 106.
Pepper-tree as honey-plant, 285, 286.
Pepsin, 17.
Peptones, 18, 19.
Percheron horse, 478-481.
Perennial rye-grass, composition, 94.
Pericarditis, 126.
Periodic ophthalmia, 438.
Peristalsis, 19.
Peritonitis, 126; notes, 125, 150.
Permanganate of potash for poisoning, 120, 121.
Peromyscus, 166.
Persiacot, 632.
Persian lamb fur, 396.
Persian sheep (Fig. 3), 4, 632.
Persiarino, 632.
Persimmon as honey-plant, 285.
Perspiration in animals, 23.
Peruvian cavy, 519.
Peter Sterling, 504.
Peters, Richard, quoted, 405, 633.
Peter’s Halcorn, 490.
Pets, 514-524; notes, 8.
Pfan, (79) 381.
Phallas, 505.
Phasianus colchicus, 581; Ellioti, 581; Mongolicus, 581;
Reevesi, 581; Scemmerringi, 581; versicolor, 581.
Pheasant, 2, 579-582.
Phenolphthalein test of milk, 180.
Phenomena, 467.
Phil Sheridan, 503.
Philadelphia broilers, 544.
Philadelphia cream, 195.
Philip, James, quoted, 291.
Phoca Grenlandica, 399.
Pheebe, 171, 173.
Phcenix sylvestris, 286.
Phthisis, 133.
Physiology of domestic animals, 15-26; of poultry,
24-26
Phytotechny, 273.
Picardy draft horse, 460.
Pickering quoted, 370.
Pickled brood, 285.
Pickrell, Watson, article by, 511.
Picnic cheese, 218.
Pictou disease of the horse, 127.
Pierce, B. N., quoted, 564.
Pietertje 2nd, 309, 359.
Pig, digestion in, 20; heredity in, 37; mastication in, 17;
nature of stomach, 18; perspiration, 21; vomiting,
19. (See Swine.)
Pigeons, 582-584; milk, 24; period of incubation, 31;
pet, 520-522.
Pigmy Pouter pigeons, 520.
Pike, 392.
Pills, 322.
Pilot, 476, 503; family, 506; Jr., 506.
_ Pine-marten, 401.
Pine-mouse, note, 401.
‘Pineapple cheese, 218.
pink Fig. 42), 45.
Pink eye, 144.
‘Pink-footed goose, 576.
ioscope, 178.
ip in fowls, 555.
Piroplasma bigeminum, 140, 141; canis, 139; of dogs,
139; equi, 140; ovis, 140.
_ Pisces, 390.
; "Pisgah, 492.
_ Plain condensed bulk milk, eo. 193.
" Plankton, 393; note, 390, 3
- Plants, chemical basis of, a3
et Pleuritis, 126.
4 Pleuro-pneumonia, equine contagious, 128, 129; in
cattle, 142; inoculating for immunity, 145.
Plumb, (on S., articles by, 153, 158, O76, 366, 377, 474;
quoted, 447, 480, 619, 621, 678.
Plymley quoted, 626.
Plymouth Rock fowls, 563; fattening, 539; notes, 529.
Pneumonia, contagious 123; in cats, 301; :in horses, 441.
_ Pocket mice, 167.
Pocket gopher, 167.
~ Poem, 506.
Pointer, 515.
Poisoning, 124; bile acid, 20; stock, 118-122
Poisonous weeds and their eradication, 119-122.
Poisons for rodents, 164.
Poitou ass, 277, 509.
_ Poland-China swine, 671-674; notes, 275, 644, 645.
Polar bear, 402; notes, 403.
Poliakoff quoted, 419,
Polish bantam, 569; fowls, 568; note, 529.
Polish rabbit, 519
_ Polish swan, 585.
Polkan, 475.
Poll-evil, 125, 442.
Pollard, ‘George H., article by, 536.
- Polled, "Aberdeens, 331; cattle, note, 331; Durham cat-
tle, 375, 376; note, 303; Hereford, 355; note, 303.
Polo pony, 482, 483,
_ Polo Pony Society quoted, 486, 487.
Polworth, Lord, quoted, 617.
Polyarthritis, 126.
Polyplectron chinquis, 581.
Polyps, 393.
Pomace, apple. (See Apple pomace.)
Pomarosa as honey-plant, 286
Pomeranian dog, 517.
Ponies, 481-489; cow, note, 507.
Pont L’ Eveque cheese, 225; notes, 220, 225.
Pony preeds, note, 420; of Iceland, 488; of Ireland, 488.
Poodles, 5
Bete, as compared with number of farm animals,
Me gee at
“5
Porcupines, 167.
Pork, characteristics of good, 265; composition and
. fertilizer value, 264, 269; cutting, 254; dry-cured,
256; production notes, 644, 645, 646; salt, 256;
storing, 258.
| Port du Salut cheese, 225; notes, 220.
_ Porter, John F., article by, 271.
_ Porter, Lieut. D. D., quoted, 297, 298.
Pot cheese, 221.
Pot-roasting meat, 268.
Potassium iodid, notes, 106.
_ Potato, available energy in, 66; composition and feed-
. ing value, 95, 264; cooking for feed, 69; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102, 110;
digestibility, 99; feeding value, 71; nutritive ratio
aud protein-equating value, 105; production value,
Potted meats, 263.
Pouched mammals, 163.
Poultry, 525-587; ’ ailments, 552-556; breeding, 529—
532; development, 275; fattening, 538; feeding,
533-537 judging, 547; ph ysiology of, 24-96: products,
marketing, 544-547; relation to farm management,
12; reproductive functions, 25; shipping, 261; tem-
1 perature of body, 25; value, oF
Poultry-house construction, 556-562.
INDEX
701
Pouter pigeon, 520.
Powder, milk-, 194, 195; notes, 193.
Powell Brothers, 495.
Prairie chicken, 2.
Prairie dog, 164, 165.
Prairie-grass, nutritive ratio and protein-equating
value, 104.
Pregnancy, 31.
Prejvalsky horse, 419.
Pre-natal influences, 41.
Prentice, James, quoted, 372.
Prepared cheese, 218.
Preservatives for meat, 254.
Preserved products, notes, 174.
Pretender, 502.
Priam (2452), 371.
Prickly comfrey, 96, 102.
Prince of Albion (6178), 457.
Prince of Wales (673), 457.
Princess, 502.
Princess of Wayne, 359.
Procamelus, 296.
Procyon lotor, 402.
Prodactylism, 37.
Prodigal, 505.
Production values of feeding-stuffs, 66-68.
Prolificacy, 32, 33.
Proprietary feeds, notes, 74.
Proteids, 58; function in animal body, a Rrclvaliee,
65; non-, 38; notes, 17; when to feed,
Protein in foods, 265; equating factors, 108, 105; nature
and function, 58, 62, 63
Prothero quoted, 11.
Protohippus, 419.
Prototylops, 296.
Protozoa, diseases caused by, 139-142; infection by,
124.
Prowse, D. W., article by, 592.
Prunes, composition and fuel-value, 264.
Pseudo-tuberculosis in sheep, 132.
Psoroptes communis, 606.
Ptyalin, 17.
Puberty, 30; notes, 24.
Pug dog, 517.
Pulmonary tubercular affection, 124.
Pulse, defined, 21; of animals, 436.
Puma, notes, 167.
Pumpkin, composition, 96; digestible nutrients and fer-
tilizing constituents, 102.
Punch, 195
Putorius erminea, 400; vison, 400.
Pyogenic bacteria, 125.
Quack-grass, digestibility, 98.
Quadrupeds, wild, in relation to farming, 163-169.
Quagga, 419.
Quail, domestication, 584, 585; note, 170.
Quaker bird, 524.
Quarantine, 146; ‘of market stock, 162.
Quartly family quoted, 340.
Quartly, Francis, quoted, 340.
Quayle, Thomas, quoted, 362.
Quebec-Jersey cattle, 343.
Queen Bess 20335, 369.
Queen Dearest (Fig. 463), 454.
Queen of the Roses, 457.
Quevenne lactometer, 180.
Rabbit, 517-519; fecundity, 33; heredity in, 37;
notes, 396; period. ee gestation, 31; protection, 397:
skins, 402; wild, 16
Rabies, 144; pe te 145.
Raccoon notes, 168, 396; skins, 402.
Rachitis, 655.
Racing Calendar, 501.
Rack, 423, 424, 427, 492.
Ragwort, 127.
Raine quoted, 372.
Raisins, composition and fuel-value, 264.
Ralph Wilkes, 504.
Rambouillet sheep, 623; notes, 598, 599.
Rana catesbiana, 395; clamitans, 395; virescens, 395.
Randall quoted, 10.
702
Randolph, John, quoted, 499.
Range stock, feeding, 317-321.
Rangifer lapponicus, 588; tarandus, 588.
Ranunculus acris, 98.
Rape, composition, 96; digestible nutrients and ferti-
lizing constituents, 102; for show animals, 153;
nutritive ratio and protein-equating factor, 104;
seed, feeding value, 73; tainting milk, 86; seed, cake,
93, 101.
Raspberry, wild, as honey-plant,285.
Rat, 165; note, 401; period of gestation, 31; pet, 520.
Rations, computing balanced, 106-118; for dairy
cattle, 316, 317; method of exact balancing, 103-105.
Ravenel quoted, 144.
Rawlence, James, quoted, 615.
Ray fungus, 138.
Razorback swine, 680, 681; note, 646, 667, 675.
Reality (665), 467.
Reaumur quoted, 278.
Reciprocal crosses, 532.
Records, butter, 207; cow, 181.
Redbird, Virginia, 523.
Red, canary, 522; linnet, 523.
Red clover hay, available energy in, 166;
Red fox, 401.
Red Polled cattle, 367-369; note, 303.
Red Rose, 380.
Redcap fowls, 567.
Redfield, F. B., quoted, 332.
Redfield’s theory of dynamic development, 40.
Redstart, American, 170.
Red-top, composition, 94; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 101; digestibility, 97; hay,
104; nutritive ratio and protein-equating factor,
104; notes, 69, 71.
Reed, Alex., quoted, 622.
Reeve’s pheasant, 581.
Refrigeration of dairy products, 232-246; of meat, 258.
Regginao cheese, 219.
Reindeer, 588-592, note, 176.
Reithrodontomys, 166.
Remy quoted, 390.
Renick, Abram, quoted, 372.
Renick, Felix, quoted, 372.
Renick, George W., quoted, 372.
Renick 903, 372.
Reproductive functions and processes of animals, 23,
24, 28-34; of fowls, 25.
Respiration, calorimeter, notes, 56; in animals, 21, 22;
in poultry, 25.
Reticulum, 18.
Retriever, 515.
Reversion, 39; in fowls, 532.
Rex arbuckle 1467, 492.
Reybold, Clayton, quoted, 625.
Rheumatism, 439; of fowls, 135.
Rhinitis, catarrhal, 656.
Rhode Island Red fowls, 529, 565,
Ribbons, show, 158.
Rice, James E., articles by, 533, 556.
Rice: composition and feeding value, 93, 264; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100. Bran, 73;
composition, 93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 100. Hulls: composition, 93; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100. Meal, 73;
composition, 93; digestibility, 97. Polish, 73; com-
position, 93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing con-
stituents, 100.
Rice-field mice, 166.
Richard II quoted, 497.
Richards, A. Keene, quoted, 447.
Richards, H. B., quoted, 342.
Richardson quoted, 381.
Richardson, Sir John, quoted, 400.
Richardson, W. D., article by, 261.
Richmond quoted, 178, 181.
Rickets, 655.
Ricotte cheese, 219.
Ridgeway quoted, 420, 449, 450, 497.
Ridgling defined, 149.
Riding, horse, 427, 428.
Riding horses for military purposes, 474.
Rigor mortis, 265.
INDEX
‘ Rinderpest, 145; notes, 122, 123, 296.
Ringbone, 445; heredity of, 38.
Ring-neck pheasant, 581.
Ring-worm, 329.
Ripened Cottage cheese, 226.
Ripening cream for butter, 200, 207; milk for cheese,
Rivolta quoted, 139. (210,
Roadster horse, 420; type, 46, 47.
Roaring, 22; inheritance of, 38.
Roasters, 544.
Robert Mac, 505.
Robert McGregor, 505, 506, 507.
Robertson quoted, 370.
Robertson, J. W., quoted, 213.
Robin, 170, 171, 172, 173.
Rock cotton as insulating material, 237, 239.
Rodents, 163.
Romane cheese, 219.
Romatur cheese, 226.
Rommel, George M., quoted, 374.
Romney Marsh sheep, 632.
Root, A. I., quoted, 279.
Root crops, 69; factors effecting feeding value, 71; for
dairy heifer, 314; for show animals, 153; production
value, 67.
Ropy milk, 188.
Roquefort cheese, 221; notes, 220, 411.
Roquefort Penicillium, 222.
Rosabella, 372.
Rose-apple as honey-plant, 286.
Rose-comb bantam, 569.
Rose, Dr., quoted, 629.
Rose, Flora, article by, 263.
Rose of Sharon, 272.
Rosentein cattle, 357.
Rosewood as honey-plant, 286.
Ross goose, 575.
Rotch quoted, 372.
Rotch, Francis, quoted, 629.
Rouen duck, 569.
Rouget immunity, 145.
Roughage, 69; composition, 94, 95; digestibility, 97-99;
for dairy cattle, 316.
Roundworms in dogs, 386.
Roup, 142, 553, 554.
Rowen, composition, 94; digestibility, 97, 98; diges-
tible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 101; hay,
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 104.
Royal Agricultural Society (England) quoted, 454.
Royal Fearnaught, 506.
Royal George 9, 502.
Royal Gift, 276. q
Royal Guernsey Agricultural and Horticultural So-
ciety quoted, 349.
Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society
quoted, 362.
Royal mares, 497.
Royal palm as honey-plant, 286.
Rubies, 339.
Rubner quoted, 65.
Ruddick, J. A., article by, 208.
Rufus, 467.
Rumen, 18.
Ruminants, digestibility notes, 61.
Rumination, 18, 19.
Rumor, 506.
Running horse type, 46, 47.
Running-walk, 423, 424, 427, 492.
Runt pigeons, 521.
Rural New-Yorker, The, quoted, 33.
Russell quoted, 184, 185.
Russell, R. H., quoted, 622.
Russell, Thomas, quoted, 373.
Russet leather, 271.
Russia swine, 672, 673.
Russian deerhound, 516.
Russian mulberry for birds, 172.
Russian Orloff horse. (See Orloff trotting horse.)
Russian pony, 488.
Russian sable fur, 396.
Rutabaga, composition, 95; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 102; digestibility, 99; nutri-
tive ratio and protein-equating value, 105.
INDEX
Rye, composition, 93; digestible nutrients and fertiliz-
ing constituents, 100, 112; digestibility, 98; feeding
value, 72; nutritive ratio and protein-equating value,
105; production value, 67. Bran: composition, 93;
digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100,
114; digestibility, 99; nutritive ratio and protein-
equating value, 105; production value, 67. Flour:
composition, 93. Fodder: composition, 94; diges-
tible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 101; nutri-
tive ratio and protein-equating factor, 104. Meal:
digestibility, 96. Silage: composition, 95. Shorts:
composition, 93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 100. Straw: composition, 95; digesti-
bility, 98; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constit-
uents, 101; feeding value, 71; as insulating material,
235, 239; nutritive ratio and protein-equating value,
105; production value, 67.
Rye-grass, 67.
Saanen goat, White, 410.
Sable, American, 401; Alaska, 402.
Sable island ponies, 484.
Saccharomycosis farciminosus, 139.
Sacred cattle, 378.
Saddle horse, American, 489-492; horse type, 46, 47;
influence of Thoroughbred on, 500; notes, 34.
Saddle horses for mountain batteries, 471; note, 420;
training, 427, 428.
Saffian, 411.
Saffron finch, 524.
Sage as honey-plant, 285.
Sage cheese, 218.
Sainfoin as honey-plant, 285, 286; digestibility, 98.
Saleratus as meat preservative, 255.
Salicylic acid as meat preservative, 254.
Saliva, 17.
Salmon quoted, 131.
Salmon, canning, 263.
Salt, for horses, 429; for show animals, 153; as meat
preservative, 254; as a poison to sheep, 118.
Salt hay, digestibility, 94, 98.
Salt pork, 256.
Saltpeter as meat preservative, 254, 255.
Saltram mare, 490.
Salvator, 499.
Sampson, 467, 501, 502.
Sanborn quoted, 429.
Sanders, l'rank R., article by, 341.
Sanders, Colonel Lewis, quoted, 372.
Sanders, J. H., quoted, 451, 481, 660.
Sandpiper, 170.
Sanitary milk-production, 181-184
Santa Claus, 478.
Sapremia, 124.
Sapsucker, red-bellied, 170.
Sarcoptes scabiei, 654.
Sardines, canning, 263.
Sarrasin, Monsieur, quoted, 400.
Sassenage cheese, 411.
Saturettes, 521.
Saunderson, Dr., quoted, 38.
Sausage, 257; canned, 263; production notes, 645.
Saw-palmetto as honey-plant, 285.
Sawdust as insulating material, 235, 237.
Saxon Merino sheep, 620.
Saxon ram, notes, 37.
Scab, sheep, 606.
Scale carp, 393.
Scaly-leg, 553.
Scallops, 634.
Scamorze cheese, 219.
Scanderoon pigeons, 521.
Scandinavian pony, 488.
Scarlet fever germs in milk, 188.
Schmierkase, 221.
Schottelius quoted, 133.
Schutz quoted, 128, 129.
Schweineseuche, 133.
Schweitzer cheese, 21S. .
Scioto Valley Importing Company, 372.
Bciuridae, 164.
Score-cards, 44-55; for the production of sanitary
milk, 182-184; note, 330.
703
Scoring fowls, 550.
Scorpion mice, 166.
Scotch Black-face sheep, 631.
Scotch Cheddars, 208.
Scotch deerhound, 516.
Scoteh Gray fowls, 529.
Seotch greyhound, note, 383.
Seott & Harris quoted, 338.
Seott County Importing Company, 372.
Scottish terrier, 516.
Scott’s Shales, 501, 502; (692), 467.
Scours, sheep, 609.
Scovell, M. A., article by, 361.
Serapple, 256.
Scratches, 444.
Sereech owl, 173.
Screenings, 73; composition, 93.
Scribner, F. Lamson, article by, 292.
Scrofula, 133.
Scrofulous diseases, inheritance of, 38.
Sea-otter, 397, 398; notes, 395.
Sea-wolves, 399.
Seal, 398, 399; notes, 404.
Sealskins, Alaska, note, 395.
Searchlight, 504.
Sebastapool goose, 575.
Sebright Cochin fowls, 564.
Sebright fowls, 569.
Sebum, 23.
Second Duke of Athol, 372.
Seglawi Arabs, 448.
Selection, as applied to animal-breeding, 35, 36;
methodical, 35; natural, 35, 39.
Selling stock, 160.
Senecio Jacobea, 127.
Separating milk, 198.
Separators, centrifugal, 199.
Septicemia, 124, 125; hemorrhagica, 132.
Serradella, composition, 95; digestibility, 98.
Servin, Mrs. S. A. F., quoted, 343.
Setters, 514.
Sewell, B. D., quoted, 630.
Sex control, 532; controlling, of offspring, 40, 41.
Shad, gizzard, 392.
Shadines, 263.
Shafor, W. A., quoted, 409, 625.
Shafor and Clawson quoted, 375.
Shakers, Society of, quoted, 673.
Shaler quoted, 9.
Shales, 500, 501, 502.
Shales (699), 466, 467.
Sharter quoted, 370.
Shavings as insulating material, 235, 237, 239.
Shaw quoted, 677.
Shaw, E. L., articles by, 405, 631, 632.
Shawl goat, 405.
Sheep, 592-633; age to breed, 30; ailments, 603-609;
amount of blood in body, 21; branding, 151; carcasses,
shipping, 260; composition of body, 59, 80; cost of
producing, 13; determining age, 603; development,
275; digestibility notes, 61; diseases, 122-146; dis-
tribution, 11; dressing, 252; dry matter per day for,
13; farming, 592-595; feeding, 600-603; feeding
standards, 107, 108; fitting and exhibiting, 153-158;
increase in number, 9, 10; inspection, 161; mainten-
ance requirements, 78; marketing, 158-162; nature
of stomach, 18; notes, 582; number in relation to
size of farm, 12; pelt, shipping, 261; period of ges-
tation, 31; period of heat, 30; poisoning, 120, 121;
prolificacy, 13; proteid requirements, 81; puberty, 50;
pulse, 21, 436; respiration, 21, 437; temperature in,
21, 436; types, 51-53; value, 10; wild, 596; wool-
production, 10.
Sheep-dog, Old English Bobtail, 386-388; note, 383;
trials, 388, 389.
Sheep-pox, inoculating for immunity, 145.
Sheepshead, 392.
Sheepswool, 643.
Shell-fish, 2, 634-640.
Shelter of animals for meat-production, 83.
Shepherd F. Knapp, No. 282, 466.
Shepherds’ Pride 2, 615.
Sherbet, 195.
704
Sherman, 503, 506.
Sherringham window, 147.
Shetland pony, 484-486; notes, 34, 35.
Shetland Pony Studbook Society quoted, 485.
Shetland sheep, 597, 631.
Shipment, preparing cattle for, 151.
Shipping fever, 144.
Shipping meat and hides, 260, 261.
Shire horse, 493, 494; notes, 274.
Shire Horse Society quoted, 466.
Shoat, 647.
Shoeing horses, 149.
Short two-year-olds, fattening, 319, 320.
Shorthorn cattle, 369-376; milk, percentage of butter-
fat in, 177; note, 34, 303; oxen, 366; period of ges-
tation, 31.
Shorts, 73; composition, 93; for calves, 313; for heifers,
314; for horses, 431, 432; for show animals, 153.
Shote, 647.
Show-ring rules and methods, 157.
Shrews, 168.
Shrimp, 640.
Shrirron’s cord, 150.
Shropshire Down sheep, 626, 627; notes, 31, 38, 152.
Siamese cat, 300.
Siamese Fireback pheasant, 581.
Siamese swine, 679; note, 658.
Sierra cheese, 226.
Sidney, 478.
Sidney quoted, 669.
Sidney Dillon, 478.
Siebold, Prof. Von, quoted, 278.
Sigmodon hispidus, 166.
Signal Jerseys, 364.
Silage, beef cattle, 318-321; for cows, 316; for dairy
heifer, 314; for show animals, 15; notes, 151, 306,
307, 308; poisoning of stock, 119; production value,
67; summer, 315.
Silesian Merino sheep, 620.
Silk notes, 8.
Silkies, 569.
Silkworm, 640-643.
Silsby quoted, 372.
Silver, L. B., quoted, 662.
Silver-bill, 524.
Silver fox, 401.
Silver-grey rabbit, 519.
Silver pheasant, 581.
Silver-spangled Lizard canary, 522.
Silvertail, 501, 502.
Simmenthal cattle, 381; oxen, 366.
Simpson, George, quoted, 373.
Simpson, John, quoted, 373.
Sinclair, Sir John, quoted, 610.
Single-foot gait, 423, 492.
Single-Standard Polled Durham cattle, 37%.
Single Yellow-headed parrot, 524.
Sir Archy, 498.
Sir Lucifer, 387.
Sir Teddy, 481, 482.
Sisson, L. P., article by, 339.
Sketchley, Dr., quoted, 511.
Skimmed cheese, 218.
Skimmed milk, composition, 96; digestible nutrients
and fertilizing constituents, 102,111; for calves, 308,
3 3, 319; nutritive ratio and protein-equating value,
105.
Skimmed-milk-powder, 194.
Skimming stations, 226-232; note, 174.
Skin of animals, nature and function, 23; treatment of
show animals, 154.
Skinning cattle, 251.
Skunks, notes, 164, 165, 166, 168, 396; farming, 404;
skins, 402.
Skye terrier, 516.
Skylark, 523.
Slugs, 634.
Small Black swine, 676; White swine, 674, 675; York-
shire swine, 674, 675.
Smallpox immunity, 145.
Smetanka, 451, 474.
Smith quoted, 21, 133, 141, 184, 370.
Smith, Howard R., article by, 317.
INDEX
Smith, M., quoted, 17.
Smith, Samuel, quoted, 372.
Smith, T., quoted, 140.
Smoked meat, canned, 262.
Smoking meats, 257, 258.
Smooth cavy, 520.
Smuggler, 476.
Snaffile-bit, 422, 423.
Snails, 634.
Snakes, notes, 167, 173.
Snapping turtles, 681, 682.
Sneeze-weed, 121.
Snow geese, 575.
Snowball (Fig. 505), 517.
Snowbird, note, 170.
Snowdon quoted, 370.
Snowflake, note, 170.
Snuffles, 415, 656.
Soap-making, 259.
Soap, poisoning of stock, 118.
Sobernheim quoted, 130.
Scemmerring’s pheasant, 581.
Soft cheeses, 219-226.
Soiling, 315.
Sole-leather, 271.
Song thrush, 523.
Sonnerati jungle-fowl, 582.
Soola clover as honey-plant, 286.
Sore throat of horses, 440; tongue, 325
Sorghum, digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents
101; fresh, digestibility, 98. Bagasse: composition,
96; digestibility, 98. Fodder: composition, 94;
digestibility, 98; nutritive ratio and protein-equating
factor, 104. Hay: for beef cattle, 319; for dairy cows,
316. Seed: composition, 93; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 100. Silage: composition, 95;
digestibility, 99; digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 102; nutritive ratio and protein-equat-
ing factor, 104. '
Sorghum-poisoning of stock, 119.
Sorrel as honey-plant, 285.
Sotham, W. H., quoted, 612.
Sour milk, digestibility, 99.
Sourwood as honey-plant, 285.
Souse, 256.
South sea seal, 399.
Southdown sheep, 627-629; period of gestation, 31.
Southport Perfection, 384.
Sovereign 181, 458.
Sow, 647; fecundity, 33; milk, composition, 96; note,
176; period of gestation, 31.
Soxhlet’s method of testing milk, 178.
Soybean, composition, 93; digestible nutrients and fer-
tilizing constituents, 101; feeding value, 72; nutritive
ratio and protein-equating value, 104. Hay: com-
position, 95; digestibility, 98, 99; digestible nutrients
and fertilizing constituents, 101, 102; fresh, 95;
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105;
production value, 67. Meal: digestibility, 97;
nutritive ratio and protein-equating value, 105;
Silage: composition, 95; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 102. Straw: composition, 95;
digestibility, 98; digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 102; nutritive ratio and protein-equat-
ing value, 105. :
Spaniels, 514, 515.
Spanish-fly blisters, 23.
Spanish-Maltese goat, 409.
Sparrow, 170, 171,; pet 524.
Spartina juncea, 98; stricta, var. glabra, 98.
Spasm of the diaphragm, 656.
Spavin, 445; inheritance of, 38.
Spaying, 150.
Special Dehght (Fig. 462), 453.
Specific infectious diseases, 124, 126, 127.
Speed horses, 420.
Spencer quoted, 37, 39.
Spermatozo6n, nature and function, 29.
Spermophiles, 164.
Spiess (413), 381.
Spinach, composition and fuel-value, 264.
Spitz dog, 517.
Splendens, 364.
J
‘
,
INDEX 705
Splint, 446; inheritance, 38.
Sponges, 643, 644; notes, 392, 393.
Spongia gossipina, 643.
Spoon-bill (Polyodon), 392.
Sporadic aphths, 325.
Spots, 521.
Spotted liver, 135.
Spotted Race cattle, 381.
Sprague, Elizabeth, quoted, 268.
Spraying solutions poisonous to cattle, 118.
Spur-winged goose, 576.
Spurry, composition, 96; digestible nutrients and fer-
tilizing constituents of, 102.
Squabs, 582-584; broilers, 544.
Squid, 634.
Squirrels, 164; flying, notes, 33; notes, 173: period of
gestation, 31; pet, 520; protection, 397: skins, notes,
403.
St. Andreasburg canary, 522.
St. Bernard dog, 516.
St. Clair, 476, 503.
St. Helena waxbill, 524.
St. Julien, 505.
St. Lambert Jerseys, 364.
St. Lawrence, 476, 503.
St. Leger, 498.
St. Quintin, Sir William, quoted, 370.
Stable, construction and management, 147.
Stabling dairy stock, 307; of show animals, 155.
Stag defined, 149.
Staggers, 605.
“Stallion, feeding, 431.
Stalls for show animals, 156.
Stamboul, 505.
Standard milk, 186.
Standardbred pacing horse, 476—478.
Standardbred trotting horse, 500-507; note, 466, 468.
Standardized milk, 186.
Standards, feeding, 107.
Star Pointer, 477.
Starch, 58, 59, 75; notes, 17. Feed, 75; composition,
92. Refuse: digestible nutrients and fertilizing con-
stituents, 100. Test, for boiled milk, 180.
Starling, 523.
Starter, artificial, 200, 207, 210.
Steam, for dairy-house purposes, 206.
Steam-cooker, 269.
Steapsin, 20.
Stebler quoted, 409, 411.
Steeple-chasers, 470.
Steer, defined, 149.
Stenelus nigricollis, 586.
Stephenson quoted, 370.
Stepping-pace, 492.
Stevenson mare 43, 490.
Stickleback, 392.
Stilton cheese, 223; notes, 220.
Stirred-curd cheese, 218.
Stoat, 400.
Stock, branding and marking, 151; care of young,
305, 306; feeding, 58-118; management, 146-151;
marketing, 158-162.
Stock-cars, 158, 159.
Stock-poisoning, 118-122.
Stock-yards, care of market stock at, 160.
Stocking, W. A., Jr., article by, 187.
Stomach-worm disease, 603.
Stone, Frederick William, quoted, 373.
Stone, John L., article by, 106.
Stone, Livingston, quoted, 390.
Stone, R. J., quoted, 625.
Storage of meat, 258.
Sige Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 222,
Stracathro Ralph, 384.
Strangles, 123, 128, 442.
Strathmore (408), 502, 505.
Straw, available energy in, 66; digestibility, notes, 61;
factors affecting feeding value, 71; for feeding dairy
cattle, 316; for horses, 430; notes, 11; production,
value, 67.
Strawberry tribe of Shorthorns, 371.
Streeter, M. B., quoted, 630.
C 45
Streptoeseci, diseases caused by, 128, 129.
Streptococcus equi, 128; mastitis, 129.
Stringy milk, 188.
Strongylus contortus, 603; filaria, 606; ovis-pulmonalig
606; paradoxus, 655.
Struthers quoted, 37.
Struthis Australis, 511; Camelus, 511.
Strychnine for pests, 164.
Stubbs & Sons, D. P., quoted, 452.
Stump-the-dealer, 490.
Sturdy, 605. °
Sturtevant, E. Lewis, quoted, 360.
Stuyvesant theory of sex control, 40.
Succulent feeds, 86, 316.
Succus entericus, 19.
Sucker, 392.
Sudbourn Count (3257) (Fig. 490), 495.
Suet for birds, 173.
Suffolk Down Sheep, 629, 630.
Suffolk or Suffolk Punch horse, 494-496.
Suffolk Red Polled cattle, 369.
Suffolk Studbook, quoted 495.
Suffolk swine, 675, 676; note, 660.
Sugar, 58, 59; feeding to show animals, 153; as meat
preservative, 254; notes, 17. Feed, 75; composition,
92. Meal: digestible nutrients and fertilizing consti-
tuents, 100.
Sugar, milk, 177.
Sugar-beets, composition, 95; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 102, 110; digestibility, 99;
feeding value, 72; nutritive ratio and protein-equat-
ing value, 105. Leaves: composition, 96; digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 102, 116; nutri-
tive ratio and protein-equating value, 105. Pulp:
digestible nutrients in stated amounts, 116; nutri-
tive ratio and protein-equating value, 105.
Sugar-cane as honey-plant, 286.
Sugar-cured bacon, 256; ham, 256.
Sulfate of aluminum for poisoning, 120; of iron, notes,
106; of soda, notes, 106.
Sulfur, notes, 106.
Sultan, 505.
Sultana of Paxtang 8732 (Fig. 375), 350.
Sultans, 569. :
Sumatra pony, 489.
Summer silage, 315.
Sunflower seed, composition, 93; digestible nutrients
and fertilizing constituents, 101; for birds, 173. Cake:
composition, 93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 101.
Sunol, 504.
Superfecundation, 31.
Superfcetation, 31.
Surface, H. A., quoted, 172.
Surra, 140, 296.
Surti buffalo, 294.
Sus cristatus, 646; Indicus, 646; scrofa, 644, 646.
Susette, 490.
Sussdorf quoted, 21.
Sussex cattle, 376, 377; note, 303; oxen, 366.
Sussex sheep, 615.
Sussex spaniel, 515.
Sutton, Samuel, quoted, 627.
Suworow (626), 371.
Swallow, 170, 171, 173.
Swallow pigeon, 521.
Swallowing, 17.
Swammerdam, Jan, quoted, 278.
Swamp camas, 121.
Swamp-hay as insulating material, 235; digestible nu-
trients and fertilizing constituents, 101; digestibility,
98.
Swan, 585, 586.
Swanwick quoted, 611.
Sweating in animals, 23.
Sweepstakes 6230, 372.
Sweet clover as honey-plant, 285, 286.
Sweet corn, digestible nutrients and fertilizing consti-
tuents, 100; digestibility, 97. Silage: digestibility,
99.
Sweet Marie, 501.
Sweet-oil, use on show animals, 154, 155.
Sweet-potato, composition, 95.
‘
706
Swelled head, of horses, 438.
Swift, 171.
Swine, 644-681; age to breed, 30; ailments, 653-657;
amount of blood in body, 21; branding, 151; com-
position of body, 59, 80; cost of producing, 13;
determining age, 653; development, 275; diseases,
122-146; notes, 123; dry matter per day for, 13;
erysipelas, 133; feeding, 649-653; feeding standards,
108; notes, 82; fitting and exhibiting, 153-158; in-
crease in number, 9, 10; inspection, 161; maintenance
requirements, 78; marketing, 158-162; number’ in
relation to size of farm, 12; origin, 646, 647; period
of heat, 30; plague, 133; poisoning by cottonseed
meal, 119; prolificacy of, 13; proteid requirements,
81; puberty, 30; temperature, 21; tuberculosis, 135;
types, 54, 55; value, 10; value of grinding grain for, _
69.
Swinhoe’s pheasant, 582.
Swiss cheese, 218.
Sylvia, 373.
Syracuse Farmers’ Club quoted, 182.
Taber, G. F., quoted, 368.
Tabes, 133.
Tacitus quoted, 331, 357.
Tenia cenuris, 605; expansa, 604; fimbriata, 604.
Taints in milk, 86.
Takosis, 129.
Talabda buffalo, use, 295.
Talking minor, 523.
Tallow, rendering, 259.
Tamworth swine, 676, 677; notes, 644, 645.
Tan rabbit, 519.
Tankage for show animals, 153; note, 174.
Tanning hides, 271.
Tapeworms, 604; in dogs, 386.
Tarpan, 419.
Tattersall, 492.
Tattler, 506.
Taurocholate of soda, 19.
Taurocholic acid, 19.
Tea-bone porterhouse steak, 266.
Teak as honey-plant, 286.
Teats, chapped, 323.
Teeswater cattle, 369; notes, 335.
Teeswater sheep, 616; note, 617.
Telegony, 41.
Telfor, W. B., quoted, 373.
Teller, Senator, quoted, 589.
Temperature of animals, 21, 436; of animal body in
relation to feeding, 77; in relation to meat-produc-
tion, 82; in relation to milk-production, 84.
Terrapin, 681.
Terriers, 515.
Tessier quoted, 31.
Tetanus, 138; immunity, 145; neonatorum, 138; note,
150.
Texas fever, 141; inoculating for immunity, 145; notes,
123.
Texas Longhorn cattle 381, 382.
Texas steer, 381.
Thaer quoted, 57.
Thayer, A., quoted, 613.
The Abbot, 504.
The Moor, 492, 505.
“The Original,” 466.
Thermometer, oven, 267.
Thin Rind swine, 667-669.
Thistles as honey-plants, 285.
Thom, Charles, articles by, 218, 220.
Thompson quoted, 370.
Thompson, G. F., quoted, 409.
Thompson, Joseph 8., quoted, 373.
Thorne, Samuel, quoted, 373.
Thoroughbred horse, 496-500; heredity in, 36; notes,
420, 450, 451, 454, 468, 469, 470, 475, 489, 490, 501;
type, 46, 47; for polo ponies, 482, 483.
Threadworms in dogs, 386.
Thrush, 170, 171; song, 523.
Thumps in horses, 440; in swine, 656.
Tick, sheep, 607.
Tiger, notes, 35.
Tigerstedt quoted, 264,
INDEX
Timothy, composition, 94; digestible nutrients and
fertilizing constituents, 101, 110; digestibility, 97,98; —
for dairy cows, 316; for horses, 428-432; fuel and main-
tenance values, 66; notes, 69, 71, 76; nutritive ratio
and protein-equating factor, 104; production value
Timothy and clover hay, 98. (67.
Tippler pigeon, 521, 522.
Tit Bits (Fig. 483), 486.
Ti-to as honey-plant, 285.
Titmice, 170.
Toda buffalo, 294,
Todd, Isaac, quoted, 662.
Todd, S. H., quoted, 662.
Todd’s Improved Chester-White swine, 662.
Toggenburg milch goat, 409.
Tokishige quoted, 139.
Tom Hal, 476, 477, 490.
Tome de chévre, 411.
Tomhavye, W. H., article by, 260.
Tongue, canned, 262.
Tonie foods, 106, 153.
Toofy, Mr., quoted, 616.
Topgallant, 502.
Tormentor Jerseys, 364.
Torquatus pheasant, 581.
Torrance, A. H., quoted, 612.
Tortoise, 681.
Toulouse geese, 573.
Townsend, Capt. Chas. H., quoted, 638.
Toxemia, 124.
Toxins, 124.
Tragopan pheasant, 580.
Training horses, 424-428; show stock, 155.
Trakehner horse, 451, 463.
‘Prseportation of show stock, 156; of market stock,
158. .
Traumatic pericarditis, 327; notes, 18; tetanus, 138.
Triffitt, Philip, quoted, 467.
Trionyx Japonicus, 682.
Trojan, 506.
Troopial, 523.
Trot, 423, 424, 427, 491; fox, 427.
Trotter, feeding, 430.
Trotting, energy required for, 87, 88.
Trotting and pacing horse, American Standardbred
500-507 ; notes, 36, 38; type, 46, 47. ‘
Trotting Register, American, 503.
Trout, brook, 392.
Truckle cheese, 218.
True Briton, 505. -
Trueman, J. M., article by, 303.
Trumpeter pigeon, 522.
Trumpeter swan, 586.
Trustee, 467.
Trypanosoma equinum, 140; Evansi, 140.
Trypsin, 20.
Tsétsé-fly disease, 140.
Tuberculin test, 136.
Tuberculosis, 133-136; effecton meat, note, 248;
germs in milk, 188; notes, 123, 181, 182; quarantine
notes, 162.
Tubers, factors affecting feeding value, 71.
Tulip-tree as honey-plant, 285.
Tumbler pigeon, 521.
Tunguse deer, 588, 589.
Tunis sheep, 633, notes, 599.
Tupelo as honey-plant, 285.
Turbit pigeon, 521.
Turcoman, 451.
Turk horse, 451; note, 497.
Turkey, 2, 505, 586, 587; canned, 263; feeding, 536; _
period of incubation, 31; statisties, 527.
Turnip, composition, 95; digestible nutrients and fer-
tilizing constituents, 102, 110; digestibility, 99; feed-
ing value, 71; nutritive ratio and protein
value, 105; production value, 67; tainting milk, 86.
Turn-sick, 605.
Turtles and turtle-farming, 2, 681, 682.
Twin Brother to Ben (660), 371.
Twynham, John T., quoted, 625.
Type, defined, 421.
Typhoid fever germs in milk, 182, 188.
Typhoid fowl, 131.
INDEX 707
Udder, 310.
Ulcer, 125.
Unadilla Valley Breeders’ Association quoted, 357.
Ungulata, 163.
United States Department of Agriculture quoted, 10,
222, 224, 264, 269, 645.
United States War Department quoted, 471.
University of Missouri quoted, 44.
Unripened Isigny cheese, 225.
Urea, 22.
Urie acid, 22.
Urine, 22, 26.
Ursus, Americanus 402; horribilis, 402; maritimus, 402.
Urticaria, 437; swine, 133.
Urton, Captain, quoted, 501.
Urus, 1, 302.
Useful Cub, 501, 502.
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station quoted, 429.
Utensils, care of dairy, 182, 206.
Uterus, character and function, 29.
Uwharie, 476.
Vaccinating animals, 145.
Valaisan goat, Black-necked, 410.
Van Hoorebeke, Dr. A. G., quoted, 452.
Van Horne, Sir William, quoted, 342.
Van Meter’s Waxy, 490.
Van Norman, H. E., article by, 195.
Van Raub, B. H., quoted, 409.
Van Slyke’s recipe for viscogen, 185; test for boric acid
in milk, 179; for coal-tar dyes, 180.
Variation, causes of, in animals, 34, 35.
Variety in the ration, 106.
Variola in animals, 145.
Varnish-tree as honey-plant, 285.
Veal, 251; composition and fuel-value, 264, 269; char-
acteristics of good, 265; cutting, 254; storing, 258;
shipping, 260.
Veldlarker cattle, 341.
Ventilation of stables, 147, 182.
Venus mercenaria, 634.
Vergil quoted, 278.
Verminaus bronchitis, 655.
Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station quoted,
506.
Vermont Black Hawk, 490.
Vermont Hero, 506.
Vermont horse-breeding experiments, 274, 275.
Vermont Morgan, 506.
Versicolor pheasant, 581.
Vetch hay, composition, 95; digestibility, 98; note, 71.
Vietor—Beall Delaine Merino sheep, 622.
Victor Jerseys, 364.
Victoria 20th., 372.
Victoria swine, 678, 679.
Villemin quoted, 134.
Villiot’s Fireback pheasant, 581.
Violet 4th., 373.
Vireo, 170, 173.
Virginia nightingale, 523; redbird, 523.
Viscogen, 185.
Voles, 166.
Volunteer, 505.
Volunteer quoted, 504, 505.
Vomiting, 19.
Von Behring quoted, 136.
Von Homeyer, Baron F., quoted, 624.
Von Hruschka Major, quoted, 284.
Von Thering, quoted 279.
Von Planta, Dr., quoted, 279, 281.
Von Vinke quoted, 620.
Vulcan (4145), 493.
Vulpes argentatus, 401; decussatus, 401; fulvus, 401.
Vulturine guinea, 578.
Wade, William, quoted, 387.
Waistell quoted, 370.
Walcott and Campbell quoted, 373.
Walk, 423, 424, 427.
Walker-Gordon Laboratory Company quoted, 175,
Walking, energy required for, 87, 88.
Wall Street Journal quoted, 247.
Wallace quoted, 293, 275, 370, 453, 466.
Wallace, John Henry, quoted, 503, 507.
Wallace’s Monthly, 503, 507.
Walnut, composition and fertilizing constituents, 264,
Wapiti, 2.
Wapsie, 505.
Warbler, 170.
Ward quoted, 131, 142.
Ward, Archibald, quoted, 458.
Warder, Dr., quoted, 281.
Warfield, Benjamin, quoted, 372.
Warfield, William, quoted, 372.
Warren county hog, 673.
Warthog, 646.
Warts, 327.
Washburn quoted, 129, 137.
Washington, George, quoted, 276, 499, 508, 616.
Water-bag, 18, 19.
Water, for animals, 147; effect on health of cows, 182;
function in animal body, 58; percentage in food-
stuffs, 58; proportion in milk, 177.
Water-buffalo, 292-296.
Water-fowl feeding, 536, 537.
Water-glass for preserving eggs, 546.
Water hemlock, 120.
Water-ice, 195.
Water spaniel, 514.
Water-supply for animals for meat-production, 83;
for dairy-house, 205; for milk-production, 84.
Watering horses, proper time, 18, 428, 429.
Watson, Hugh, -quoted, 331, 370.
Watt quoted, 293.
Watts, Dr. Arthur, quoted, 372.
Waxbill, 524.
Wayne, Maj. Henry C., quoted, 297, 298.
Weasels, 168; notes, 165, 166, 167; white, 400.
Webb, Jonas, quoted, 615, 628.
Webb, Seward, quoted, 467.
Webster, Daniel, quoted, 665.
Webster, Edwin H., article by, 198.
Weed, Clarence M., article by, 163.
Weeds, poisonous, eradication, 119-122.
Weismann quoted, 39, 40.
Weld quoted, 480.
Wellsbourne Conqueror, 384.
Welsh cattle, Black, 377, 378.
Welsh Mountain sheep, 631.
Welsh pony, 485.
Welsh terrier, 516.
Wensleydale cheese, 226.
Wensleydale sheep, 633.
West-Country Down sheep, 615.
West Highland cattle, 382.
Western goose, 576.
Western, Lord, quoted, 666
Wether defined, 149.
Wetherell quoted, 370.
Wheat, composition, 92; digestible nutrients and fer-
tilizing constituents, 100, 112; feeding value, 72;
for show animals, 153; nutritive ratio and protein-
equating value, 105; production value, 67. Bran: 73,
74; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents,
100, 113; digestibility, 96, 99; nutritive ratio and
protein-equating value, 105; production value, 67.
Chaff: as insulating material, 235, 239; composition,
95; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents,
101; digestibility, 98. Flour: composition and fer-
tilizing constituents, 264. Middlings: digestible
nutrients and fertilizing constituents, 100, 113;
digestibility, 96; for calves, 313; nutritive ratio and
protein-equating value, 105. Screenings: compo-
sition, 93; digestible nutrients and fertilizing constitu-
ents, 100. Shorts: digestible nutrients and fertilizing
constituents, 100; digestibility, 99; nutritive ratio
and protein-equating value, 105. Straw: as insulating
material, 235; composition, 95; digestible nutrients
and fertilizing constituents, 101, 112; digestibility,
98; feeding value, 71; for dairy cattle, 316; nutritive
ratio and protem-equating value, 105; production
value, 67
Whey, composition, 96; digestible nutrients and fer-
tilizing constituents, 102; nutritive ratio and protein-
equating value, 105.
Wild (Canadian) geese, 574.
708
Wild geese of North America, 575; White-fronted, 575.
Whippet, 516.
Whippoorwill, notes, 35.
Whistling swan, 585.
Whitaker quoted, 372.
White Appenzeller goat, 410.
White-footed mice, 166.
White Heifer That Traveled, 370.
White Roses, 375.
White Saanen goat, 410; note, 409.
White scours, 126.
White sheep, 597.
White swine, Large, 669-671.
White weed, 98.
Whitefish, 392.
Whitehall Sultan 163573 (Fig. oy 370.
Whitfield, George, quoted, 332, 373
Whiting, CL. , quoted, 625.
Whiting, Thomas E., quoted, 357.
Whittaker, Mr., quoted, 564.
Whyte, Mr., quoted, 482.
Wickliffe, Robert, quoted, 290.
Wilch-grass, digestibility, 98.
Wilcox quoted, 480.
Wilcox, E. V., article by, 119.
Wild life and its relation to farming, 163-173.
Wild-oat grass, composition, 94; digestibility, 98.
Wild parsnip, 120.
Wildcat, 403; note, 167.
Wildund Rinderseuche, 132.
Wilkesberry, 478.
Willard. (See Failyer and Willard.)
Willard, J. T., article by, 103.
Williams, Jesse, quoted, 208.
Williams, Samuel, quoted, 372.
Willoughby quoted, 520, 521.
Wilson, D. B., quoted, 343.
Wilson, James, article by, 274; quoted, 161, 641.
Wilson, Professor, quoted, 627, 643
Wiltshire cheese, 218.
Wiltshire-horned sheep, 614.
Wiltshire side, note, 659, 668.
Wing, H. H., ‘articles by, 309, 321, 433, 603, 653.
ne Joseph E., article by, 618.
Wingfield, Roland, quoted, 373.
Winnetka Christopher, 384.
Wintering idle horses, 430.
Winthrop Morrill, 506.
Winton disease of the horse, 127.
Wire-haired Fox terrier, 515.
Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station quoted,
13, 599
Wishaw Clinker, 384.
Wolf, 167, 402; note, 31; wolf-dog hybrid, 595.
Wolf-in-the-tail, 19, 330.
Wolff quoted, 78, 79, 85, 89; standard, 85, 117, 314.
Wolff-Lehmann standard, 85.
Wolfhound, 516.
Woll, F. W., article by, 313.
Wolverine, 397.
Wood duck, 173, 571.
Wood lark, 523.
Woodburn herd of Shorthorns, 372.
Woodburn pilot, 506.
Woodbury, 503, 506.
Woodchuck, 164, 165.
Woodcock, 170.
Wooden tongue, 138.
Woodford Mambrino, 505.
INDEX
Woodpecker, 170, 173.
Wood-rats, 166.
Woodruff quoted, 502.
Wood-terrapin, 681.
Woods, Prince T., article by, 552.
Wool- -eating, 608.
Wool fabrics, 174.
Wool- production, 598, 599; influence of food on, 78;
notes, 8, 11, 595; increase in, 10,
Wool sheep type, 52, 53.
Woolless sheep, 631.
Work, effect on digestion, 61; feeding for, 86-92.
Work, H. F., quoted, 667, 668.
Worm-in-the-tail, 330.
Worms in dogs, 386; in fowls, 555; in horses, 443.
Wound infection, 124-126; treatment, 322, "323.
Wrangel, Count, “quoted, 464,
Wren, 170, 173.
Wright quoted, 370.
Wright, J., quoted, 42.
Wright, Thomas, article by, 582.
Wyandotte fowls, 564; fattening, 539; notes, 529.
Wyomng Agricultural Experiment Station quoted
8.
Wazmakh, 475.
Xanthium Canadense, 121.
Yankee, 503.
Yearbook, Canada, quoted, 302, 416.
Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture
quoted, 302, 409, 416.
Yellowbird, American, 524.
Yellow-headed parrot, 524.
Yellowwood as honey-plant, 285.
Yeo quoted, 106.
Yorkshire coach horse, 453-455; influence of Thorough-
bred on, 500.
Yorkshire Coach Studbook quoted, 454.
Yorkshire swine, Large, 669-671; Middle, 680; Small,
674, 675; notes, 644, 645, 648, 660.
Yorkshire terrier, ' 516
Youatt quoted, 31, 376, 487, 488, 679.
Youghort, 187.
Young, Arthur, quoted, 628.
Young, Milton, quoted, 499.
Young, Robert, quoted, 610.
Young Adonis 476, 463.
Young Altma I 458, 463.
Young America cheese, 218.
Young Bashaw, 505.
Young Mary, 372.
Young Morrill, 506.
Young Phyllis, 372, 375.
Zacinthe, 460.
Zapodide, 167.
Zebra mule, 419; notes, 9, 419.
Zebra waxbill, 524,
Zebroid, 419.
Zebrule, 419.
Zebus, 378; notes, 303.
Zelicia, 478.
Zileaadi, 450.
Zoolak, 187.
Zooétechny, 273.
Zuntz quoted, 79, 87, 88, 89,
Zygadenus venenosus, 120.
ruin
BITGYPA