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DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO
SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.

TORONTO

DAIRY CATTLE

AND

MILK PRODUCTION

PREPARED FOR THE USE OF AGRICULTURAL
COLLEGE STUDENTS AND DAIRY FARMERS

BY

CLARENCE H. ECKLES, B.S.A., M.Sc.

» >

PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1911

All rights reserved

<•

COPYRIGHT, 1911,

BT THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1911.

NottoooU

J. S. Cashing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

Co
GEORGE LEWIS McKAY

FOBMERLY PROFESSOR OF DAIRYING AT THE IOWA

STATE COLLEGE
MY TEACHER, MY COLLEAGUE

ANT) STEADFAST FRIEND
THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED

225963

PREFACE

THIS book presents in printed form material that has
been gathered by the author during the past ten years
for presentation to students in the form of lectures. The
author has had charge of a herd of from thirty to fifty
cows for fifteen years. Among these have been many
high-producing animals and all the leading dairy breeds.

It has been the aim of the author to bring together the
essential information regarding the dairy cow in a com-
pact and usable form. An immense amount of knowl-
edge exists on this subject. It is found scattered through
the publications of State Experiment Stations and of the
Federal Government, in the Agricultural Press, and in
the possession of practical herdsmen. An attempt has
been made to bring this information together with the
object of acquainting the student who expects to be a
farmer with the principles he must understand and prac-
tice in order to be successful with dairy cattle. It is
hoped it will be serviceable as well to the practical farmer
interested in dairy cattle, who will find the material pre-
sented in such a way that it will assist him to care prop-
erly for his animals and to produce milk economically.

The author desires to express his appreciation of the
assistance of his former student, Professor O. E. Reed,
of the Kansas Agricultural College, who has supplied
part of the photographs and assisted in preparing portions

of the material.

C. H. ECKLES.
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI,
February, 1911.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION ....... . . 1

II. ORIGIN OF DOMESTICATED CATTLE ..... 9

III. THE DAIRY TYPE ........ 17

IV. HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS ........ 27

V. THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS . . . . ... 42

VI. AYRSHIRES .......... 63

VII. BROWN Swiss ......... 74

VIII. MINOR DAIRY BREEDS — DUTCH BELTED, POLLED JER-

SEY, KERRY, FRENCH-CANADIAN .... 81

IX. DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE ..... . .87

X. STARTING A DAIRY HERD ....... 107

XI. SELECTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL Cow .... 116

XII. How INDIVIDUAL SELECTION is MADE .... 132

XIII. SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL ..... 154

XIV. CALF RAISING ......... 174

XV. CALF RAISING ......... 191

XVI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAIRY HEIFER . . . 203

XVII. ^MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE ..... 210

XVIII. ""MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE (Continued) . . . 229

XIX. WATER AND SALT REQUIREMENTS ..... 241

XX. THE SOILING SYSTEM ....... 248

XXI. s FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION ..... 254

ix

X TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

XXII. FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION (Continued) . . . 274

XXIII.* STABLES FOR Cows ........ 294

XXIV. HANDLING MANURE ; MATERIAL FOR BEDDING . . 316

XXV. COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE . 324

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Group of Dairy Cows exhibited by University of Missouri at the

Missouri State Eair Frontispiece

2. Skull of Bos sondaicus (Keller) 10

3. Skull of Bos primigenius (Keller) 11

4. Cross-section of a High-class Jersey Cow ..... 19

5. Cross-section of a High-class Fat Steer ready for Market . . 20

6. Pure-bred Jersey Cow facing 21

7. Pure-bred Jersey Cow " 21

8. Pure-bred Ayrshire Cow » 21

9. A Pure-bred Jersey Cow of Great Capacity . " 23

10. Examples of Well-developed Milk Veins ... " 24

11. Examples of Well-formed Udders .... " 24

12. Defective Udders " 25

13. Diagram showing Points of the Cow .... " 26

14. Pure-bred Holstein Cow u 30

15. Holstein Bull "32

16. Pure-bred Jersey Cow " 46

17. Group of American Type Jersey Cows bred by the University

of Missouri ........ facing 48

18. Pure-bred Jersey Bull " 49

19. Pure-bred Guernsey Cow, " Dolly Dimple " . . " 57

20. Guernsey Bull, " Imported King of the May " , . " 59

21. Ring of Aged Ayrshire Cows at Alaska, Yukon Exposition " 66

22. Ayrshire Bull. A Famous Prize Winner ... "67

23. Brown Swiss Cow, " Onetta " " 76

24. Group of Dutch Belted Cattle "81

25. Pure-bred Shorthorn Cow, " Lula " .... "94

26. Pure-bred Shorthorn Cow, " Lady Stratford " . . " 94

27. Red Polled Cow "100

28. Jersey Cow, " Pedro's Ramaposa " . . . . " 126

29. "Bessie Bates," a Pure-bred Jersey .... "132

xi

Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

30. An Example of the Difficulty in selecting by Type . facing 132

81. Scales for weighing Milk 136

32. Milk Sheet 138

33. Form for keeping Milk Records, weighing Three Days per

Month 139

34. Form for a Permanent Record 143

35. Frame for holding Milk Record Sheets . . . . .145

36. Bull Shed built at Purdue University . . . facing 171

37. Skim Milk Calves in Pasture "196

38. Calves tied in Stanchions for Feeding ... "196

39. Influence of Feed upon Size and Conformation of Dairy

Heifers facing 206

40. Influence of Age at First Calving upon Size of Dairy Heifers " 208

41. The Influence of the Age of Calving and Feeding when Young

upon Dairy Cows. — Light Fed Early Calving compared with
Heavy Fed Late Calving . . . . . facing 209

42. Devices for marking Cattle 213

43. Correct Position of the Hands when Milking (Grotenfelt) . 220

44. Instruments for Treatment of Udder Troubles . . . .225

45. Apparatus for treating Milk Fever ...... 237

46. Improvised Apparatus for treating Milk Fever .... 238

47. Plan of a Two-story or Loft Barn. (U. S. Dept. Agric.) . . 296

48. A One-story or Shed Type Barn .... facing 297

49. A Good Example of a Round Barn .... "298

50. Interior Arrangement of a Good Barn . . " 298

51. Arrangement and Plan of a One-story Barn. (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 301

52. Cross Section of a One-story Barn (Erf. ) . . . . .303

53. Cross Sections (one half) of Barns showing Common Plans of

Construction .......... 307

54. Cross Sections showing Various Types of constructing Mangers 309

55. Stall constructed of Iron Piping 311

56. The King System of Ventilation 313

57. Trocar used for Bloat . . 337

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PEODUCTION

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

IMPORTANCE OF DAIRY FARMING — ADVANTAGES — ITS PLACE
IN A SYSTEM OF PERMANENT AGRICULTURE

MILK, with its products, serves as one of the most important
sources of food for all highly civilized nations. A large
proportion of the best agricultural lands of the world are
utilized for its production. Although milk and products
of milk have been used to some extent for food as far back as
history records, the general use of milk as food has come about
only with the development of highly civilized nations.
Martiny l points out that the native races of America,
Africa, and Australia, which have never developed past the
stage of barbarism, do not use milk as food. The primitive
races of Western Asia and of Europe made use of milk, as
have their descendants, and according to this author, to this
fact is due in no small degree the great intellectual develop-
ment of Europe and America.

To what extent this is true may be a question, but it is
a well-known fact that the most prosperous agricultural
nations and communities to-day are those in which the dairy
cow is the foundation of agriculture. We have only to com-

1 Benno Martiny, Kirne und Girbe.
B 1

2 : '' b'AtRY GATTLti AND MILK PRODUCTION

pare Russia with Denmark, and Spain with Holland, to show
what the dairy cow will do for a nation. If a list were pre-
pared of our own states, selecting those where on the average
the soil fertility is best conserved, the most intelligent system
of farming followed, and the highest grade of intelligence
found among the people, it would be a list of the leading
dairy states.

The dairy cows of the United States number nearly twenty
million, and the annual value of their products reaches the
enormous sum of nearly one billion dollars. Only the corn
crop and animals sold for meat exceed dairy products as a
source of income to the American farmer. The rapid growth
in the population of our country, together with a slow but
constant increase in the per capita consumption of dairy
products, makes it certain that the dairy cow will in the
future occupy a still more important position. Some of the
fundamental reasons why the cow is certain to play an im-
portant part in the future agriculture of America are pointed
out in the following pages.

Relation to Fertility of the Soil. — It is now conceded
that the conservation of the fertility of the soil is the greatest
problem of agriculture. There is some difference of opinion
as to the possibility of maintaining fertility where grain
crops are sold from the farm. It is certain that whether it
be possible or not, it is seldom done. So far in our history
grain selling has meant selling fertility that has been stored
up in the past ages, and has been followed by impoverished
soils and unprofitable agriculture. On the other hand, we
find farms in almost every locality, and even entire countries
can be pointed out where the fertility of the soil has been
vastly increased by live-stock farming. The most marked

INTRODUCTION 3

examples of this are in connection with dairy farming. The
following table gives the fertilizing constituents of common
feed stuffs and of dairy products. The value is calculated
on the basis of nitrogen at 20 cents per pound, and phosphoric
acid and potash at 6 cents per pound, which values are in
use at present by chemists connected with 'the inspection
of commercial fertilizers.

FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS AND VALUE AS FERTILIZERS IN 100

POUNDS

NITROGEN

PHOSPHORIC
ACID

POTASSIUM
OXIDE

VALUE
PER TON AS
FERTILIZER

Corn Fodder (with ears) .
IVlixed Hay

1.76
1.41

.54

.27

.89

1.55

$8.76
7.82

Timothy Hay ....
Red Clover Hay . . .
Alfalfa Hay . . .

1.26
2.07
2.19

.53
.38
.51

.90
2.20
1.68

5.78
11.38
11.39

Cowpea Hay ....
Wheat Straw ....
Com

Wheat

1.95
.59

1.82
236

.52
.12
.70
.79

1.47
.51

.40
.50

10.19
3.12

8.60
9.59

Oats

2.06

.82

.62

9.97

Bran

2.67

2.89

1.61

16.08

Gluten Meal

5.03

.33

.05

20.58

Cottonseed Meal . . .
Linseed Meal ....
Milk

6.64
5.78
.53

2.68
1.83
.19

1.79
1.39
.18

31.92
26.90
2.56

Cheese

452

18.08

Butter

.16

.64

It will be noted that in proportion to their market value
dairy products take but little fertility from the farm. Wheat
at $1 per bushel is worth $33.32 per ton, while it carries
with it elements of fertility worth $ 9.59. Corn at 60 cents
per bushel is worth $ 21.40 per ton, while it removes fertility

4 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

worth $8.60. A ton of milk at $ 1.50 per hundred is worth
$ 30 per ton and is worth $ 2.56 on the basis of the fertility
contained.

The comparison is still more striking when cream or butter
is sold. 'Since butter fat contains only carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, it has no value as a fertilizer. The only element of
fertility in butter is the small amount of nitrogen contained in
the curd, amounting in value to only 64 cents per ton while
the market value of this amount of butter at 30 cents per
pound is $ 600.

A dairy cow weighing 1000 pounds voids about 12 tons of
solid and liquid manure in a year, worth on the basis of the
elements of fertility contained $ 30 in round figures. The
Minnesota and Ohio experiment stations found from field
experiments that barnyard manure has an actual value of
from $2.50 to $3.50 per ton when applied to the land, depend-
ing upon the fertility of the soil. Under fairly good con-
ditions at least 80 per cent of the fertilizing constituents of
the manure may be returned to the soil.

But this does not tell all the story. The dairy farmer usu-
ally is a purchaser rather than a seller of grain, and by this
means adds constantly to the fertility of his farm. The pur-
chase of concentrated feeds rich in protein, as will be seen from
the table, add a large amount of fertility to the farm. Fur-
thermore, the keeping of dairy cattle usually means that a
large proportion of the land is kept in grass, which makes it
possible to prevent washing of the soil, which is responsible for
the rapid deterioration of many farms.

It is a well-known fact that the yield of grain per acre of
the agricultural lands of Denmark, Germany, and parts of
England whene dairy farming has been followed for a period

INTRODUCTION 5

of years has been materially increased. The Hosmer farm
at Marshfield, Mo., for the past five years has yielded an
average of 70 bushels of corn per acre on land that produced
15 bushels per acre 17 years ago, when the present owner es-
tablished it as a dairy farm.

Adaptation of Dairying to High-Priced Land. — As a rule a
thinly settled region is not a dairy country. When land
becomes high in price, and it is necessary to secure a cor-
respondingly larger income, the dairy cow usually comes into
use. Exceptions to this are level rich lands that may be
used for grain growing for long periods without exhausting
the available fertility. Dairy husbandry is intensive farming,
and a comparatively small area is sufficient to carry on
such a system of farming. An example of what is possible
along this line is a farm in Pennsylvania l of 17 acres from
which milk to the amount of $ 2400 per year was sold, and
young stock to the amount of $ 500. The purchased feed
amounted to $ 625 per year.

Land on the Isle of Jersey, the annual rental of which is $50
to $ 60 per acre, is used for keeping the Jersey cow. Land in
Holland, worth from $ 1000 to $ 2000 per acre, is used almost
exclusively for dairy purposes. The same is true of most of
the high-priced land in other parts of Europe.

The Cow a Cheap Producer of Human Food. — Henry says:2
" Not only is dairying the leading animal industry of our
country at the present time, but so it must continue indefi-
nitely, for the reason that the cow is a more economical pro-
ducer of human food than is the ox or pig." The following
table from data gathered by the Missouri Experiment Station

1 Farmers' Bulletin No. 242, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

2 Feeds and Feeding, p. 401.

6

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

illustrates this fact forcibly. The comparison is made of the
milk produced by a Holstein cow in one year and the compo-
sition of the carcass of a fat steer weighing 1250 pounds.

18,405 LB. MILK

STEER, WT. 1250 LB.

Proteids
Fat

552
618

172
333

Sugar

920

Ash

Total

128

2218

43

548

The total amount of dry matter in the milk was 2218
pounds, all of which is edible and digestible. The steer, with
a live weight of 1250 pounds, contained 56 per cent of water
in the carcass, leaving a total of 548 pounds of dry matter. In
this dry matter of the steer is included hair and hide, bones
and tendons, organs of digestion and respiration; in fact,
the entire animal, a considerable portion of which is not edible.
The analysis of the steer's carcass was made from samples taken
after grinding up together one half of the complete carcass.

The cow produced proteids sufficient for more than three
steers; nearly fat enough for two, ash enough to build the
skeleton for three, and in addition produced 920 pounds of
milk sugar, worth as much per pound for food as ordinary
sugar.

In the above comparison the cow was far above the ordinary,
and for this reason the following additional data is given from
the Missouri Experiment Station, representing the total con-
stituents in the milk of several cows of ordinary dairy capac-
ity : —

INTRODUCTION
PRODUCTION FOR ONE YEAR

BREED

Jerseys

Ayrshires

Holsteins

Milk ....

8522

6775

6033

6276

6382

8685

8815

Protein ....

339

278

264

195

213

261

283

Fat

469

373

368

220

246

281

283

Sugar ....

393

290

254

305

317

437

375

Ash

63

51

45

40

39

56

62

Total Solids

1264

992

931

760

815

1035

993

The above table shows that these ordinary cows all pro-
duced more protein in a year than was contained in the carcass
of the 1250-pound steer. Three of them also produced more
fat. The solids of all except two contained more ash than was
found in the carcass of the steer. In addition the cows pro-
duced from 290 to 437 pounds of sugar each. The seven cows,
representing three breeds, in one year averaged 970 pounds of
total solids each, or nearly as much as was contained in the
carcass of two steers.

A comparison of the feed consumed by the steer and the
cows would be still more striking, since the steer required
nearly two years of liberal feeding to build this carcass while
the product from the cows was made in less than one year.

Constant Returns. — One of the advantages of dairy farm-
ing that appeals to the farmer with limited capital is the cer-
tainty of the returns. There is little of the element of specu-
lation in this line of farming. The returns are not large at
any one time, but steady throughout the year, and may be
depended upon. The market price of dairy products varies
on the whole less than almost any other class of farm products,

8 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

making it safe for the farmer of small capital as well as for the
larger.

The Labor Question. — The problem of securing sufficient
and satisfactory labor is generally counted the greatest diffi-
culty experienced in conducting a dairy farm. This difficulty
arises from the necessity of treating the cow carefully at all
times, and especially from the fact that the work becomes some-
what monotonous from having to be done regularly every day.
While the labor problem is a serious one, it is no worse than
experienced in conducting almost any other line of farming,
and in fact under proper conditions may be less. The grain
farmer crowds his work into a few months and requires a large
amount of help for a few days or weeks only, and finds it al-
most impossible to secure, since he has no work to offer the
remainder of the year.' Work on the dairy farm is distributed
throughout the year, and arrangements may be made ac-
cordingly. The special objections raised to the labor on the
dairy farm are the long hours, the steady, regular work, and
the nature of the work. To reduce the labor problem to the
minimum, first of all the hours must be made as reasonable as
in any other kind of farming. Provision should also be made
for regular time off by each laborer in turn. The objections
made to the nature of the work comes almost entirely from
the conditions under which the work is done, and that may
be removed. If the cows are milked in a clean, well-lighted,
comfortable stable at reasonable hours, and modern methods
of handling the manure and feed by overhead carriers are in-
stalled, the objections to the work will mostly disappear. In
most localities by furnishing a comfortable house, a man with
a family may be employed by the year with the best satis-
faction to the employer.

CHAPTER II
ORIGIN OF DOMESTICATED CATTLE

CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS

Origin of Domesticated Cattle. — There are no cattle
native to America. All those found in North and South
America are descended from animals brought from Europe.
The domesticated cattle of Europe are descended from wild
forms that formerly lived in Europe and Asia. Where and by
whom cattle were first domesticated is unknown, as it took
place in prehistoric times. Within recent years considerable
light has been thrown on the subject by extensive investiga-
tions which have been made regarding the early types of cattle
and their relationship to the domesticated breeds of the pres-
ent.

This study has been carried on largely by comparing the
skeletons of different breeds and types of cattle from all over
the world. Other sources contributing to the knowledge of
this subject have been extensive studies of bones found in
ancient human dwelling places, as those of the Lake Dwellers
of Switzerland. Ancient historical records and works of art
which depict cattle have also been carefully examined by those
studying this subject. The material that has been gathered
is so fragmentary that even those who have given the subject
most study do not agree on more than the general details. It
is known from fossil remains that the ox existed in Europe

9

10

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

before the glacial period, but it is uncertain whether the do-
mestic cattle are descended from this form or from an Asiatic
type. Among the most recent investigators on this subject
is Kellar.1

According to this author the investigations so far indicate
that the cattle of Europe are descended from two original

types or species.
One is called Bos
sondaicus, the
other Bos primi-
genius. This
author believes
cattle were do-
mesticated long
before the records
of history began,
while the ances-
tors of the present
Europeans still
dwelt in Asia. The
Bos sondaicus,
which was the first
type domesti-
cated, is still rep-
resented in Asia
by the Banteng
or native wild ox, found in small numbers on certain islands
of the East Indies. Similar forms are said to be also found
in a state of domestication in the same countries.

These cattle were taken to Europe during the great migra-

1 Naturgeschichte der Haustiere.

FIG. 2.

-Skull of Bos sondaicus (Keller), showing
the broad head and short horns.

ORIGIN OF DOMESTICATED CATTLE

11

tions that took place, and were spread over the greater part of
that continent. Numerous remains of this type are found in
the oldest ruins of the Lake Dwellers in Switzerland. These
cattle at this time were small in size, short-bodied, and had
small horns. From this type have descended most of our

Fio. 3. — Skull of Bos primigenius (Keller), showing the long, narrow head
and long horns.

breeds in use to-day, as the Brown Swiss, Jersey, Guernsey,
and all of the breeds of England except the Longhorn and
Scotch Highland. However, part of the English breeds, es-
pecially the Shorthorn and Ayrshire, while having this type
as a foundation were mixed in the early days of these breeds

12 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

with the blood of the Bos primigenius type through crossing
with Holland cattle.

The Bos primigenius was an immense, powerful animal with
tremendous horns. Historical records show this form existed
in a wild state in Europe until the twelfth or thirteenth, and
possibly the fourteenth century. This animal was appar-
ently domesticated in Europe within historic times. From
it are descended the cattle of Holland and other parts of North
Europe, the large, long-horned cattle of Hungary and adjacent
regions, the Fleckvieh or Spotted Cattle of Switzerland, and
the Longhorns and Scotch Highland breeds in England.

The chief basis of classification is the skull, which is quite
different in the two types. In the Holland or Holstein breed,
for example, we have the long, narrow head, indicating descent
from the Bos primigenius, while in the Channel Islands breeds
we find the head broad and short, which is characteristic of
those breeds descended from the Bos sondaicus.

Origin of Breeds. — Varieties or breeds of cattle came into
existence first of all as a result of environment, such as climate,
food, and the nature of the surroundings. In the early times,
with no organized means of transportation, there naturally
was little exchange of animals from one locality to another, and
probably little, if any, attempt at improvement. The effects
of natural conditions were allowed to work out almost un-
disturbed by the agency of man. Breeds formed by such
means may be called natural breeds.

On the continent of Europe the breeds and sub-breeds are
almost innumerable, and they are mostly breeds originated in
the manner mentioned. In Great Britain alone ten or twelve
distinct breeds have been originated. Up to about the middle
of the eighteenth century these natural influences were the

0 RIO IN OF DOMESTICATED CATTLE 13

chief factors developing distinct breeds. About this time a
great interest was aroused in England in regard to improving
the quality of the cattle and other domestic animals of Great
Britain. This exceedingly important movement, which was
largely the result of the work of Robert Blakewell, spread
more or less to other cattle-breeding countries. The begin-
ning of modern improved breeds is to be traced to this great
movement.

The methods used were careful selection of breeding animals,
liberal feeding, and general good management. In most
cases, as, for example, in improving the Shorthorns and Ayr-
shires, crossing and inbreeding was at first practiced. At the
present time the efforts of cattle breeders are directed toward
further improvement in the breeds already in existence, and
not toward the establishment of new breeds, because it is gen-
erally recognized that selection may be made among those al-
ready established to suit any conditions under which cattle
may be profitably kept.

Value of Breeds. — The breed is only one of many factors
to be considered in carrying on profitable milk production.
In some cases the value of the breed is overestimated, but
more often the reverse is true. Our present dairy breeds
represent the efforts toward improvement in certain definite
lines made by several generations of breeders. It would be
folly for a man to attempt to start at the beginning to build
up for himself what it has taken a century or more to build
by others. By making use of animals of a highly developed
breed adapted to the purpose for which they are to be used,
he is taking advantage of all the work that has been done, and
is starting in at the highest point of advancement reached by
other breeders.

14 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

On the Market. — Cows of a distinct dairy breed usually,
and rightly, sell for more than the same number of cows of
mixed or unimproved breeding, even if the latter are known
to be equally good as dairy cows. The cows of a distinct
dairy breed are worth more to the buyer, because he can
reasonably expect these animals to show the typical charac-
ter of the breed to which they belong in production of milk,
in disposition, and in other breed characters. Further, he
can reasonably expect that these cows, when mated with
a male of the same line of breeding, will produce offspring
having the same typical breed characters. A cow of mixed
breeding, even if a good dairy cow, or an unusually good
milker in a breed where milking qualities are not generally
found, cannot be counted upon to reproduce herself in her
offspring. It is a well-known fact in animal breeding that the
longer a certain character has existed in a breed, the more cer-
tain it is to be transmitted.

Pure breeds have been bred generation after generation
with certain objects in view, and in course of time these charac-
ters become fixed as breed characters, and are transmitted. It
is easy to understand why the chances are good for getting a
good dairy cow if the ancestors are Holstein, known to have
been bred about 2000 years in one locality and noted for hun-
dreds of years as great dairy animals, or if the parents are
Jerseys bred for 500 years, or longer, along one line.

Classification of Cattle. — No system of classification has
yet been devised that can be applied in more than a general
way to the individuals that make up the great mass of cattle.
If we undertake to arrange them by breeds, we find, in addition
to the numerous pure breeds, animals with all possible mix-
tures of the blood of two or more breeds, or with more or less

ORIGIN OF DOMESTICATED CATTLE 15

improved blood mixed with the scrub or unimproved. If we
should attempt to arrange them according to the purpose
for which they are adapted or kept, we would have a constant
gradation from the extreme of beef to the extreme of dairy
development.

It is even difficult to arrange a suitable classification of the
pure breeds, since the animals may vary greatly within a breed
due to environment and treatment. The following descrip-
tive terms are in common use : —

Unimproved, Scrub, or Natives. — These terms generally
indicate that the animal does not carry more than at least a
small amount of the blood of any of the improved breeds.
Typical scrubs are not numerous except in those sections
where very little attention is given to cattle raising. The
term " scrub " is often applied also to inferior animals of any
breeding.

Cross-bred is a term used to indicate that the animal is the
offspring of parents of distinct breeds, either high grades or
pure bred.

Grade. — This term is generally used with a certain breed
name, as Grade Jersey or Grade Shorthorn. This means that
the animal in question has one half or usually more of the
blood of the breed mentioned. When the proportion of the
pure blood is large, the animal is called a " high grade." The
proportion of the blood predominating may be so great that
for all practical purposes the animal is the same as a pure bred,
but it cannot be called a pure bred no matter how many crosses
have been made, and such animals cannot be registered in the
various Herd Books.

Pure Bred. — The term "thoroughbred " is often improperly
used instead of the proper term, "pure bred." The term

16

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

thoroughbred is properly applied only to the well-known
English breed of horses. Pure-bred cattle, as understood in
America, are those whose ancestors came from the native
home of the breed in question and conformed to the require-
ments of this breed here. This blood must be kept pure and
unmixed, and records must be available showing the descent
from these ancestors. The records of descent of these animals
are kept in a systematic manner by associations formed for
the purpose by those interested.

The breeds of cattle common in America are usually classi-
fied as dairy, dual-purpose, and beef.

Dairy Breeds

Holstein

Ayrshire

Jersey

Guernsey

Dutch-Belted

Brown Swiss

Beef

Dual-purpose

Shorthorn
Hereford
Aberdeen Angus
Galloway

Shorthorn
Red Polls
Polled Durham
Devon

In addition to the above, small numbers of French-Cana-
dian, Kerry, and Polled Jersey cattle, all to be classed as
dairy breeds, are found in certain localities in America.

CHAPTER III
THE DAIRY TYPE

THERE is but one entirely satisfactory way to select cows
for dairy purposes, and that is by records of the production of
each individual, made by the use of the scales and Babcock
test. Since up to the present time individual milk and fat
records have been kept for only a small proportion of the cows
used for dairy purposes, the selection of individual cows on
this basis is impossible in more than isolated cases. Most
selection must be based upon conformation, or the degree to
which the animal approaches what is known as the dairy form
or type. The excessive development of the function of milk
production through generations of selection and breeding in
that direction has brought about certain characteristics in the
conformation of the animal that may be taken into account in
judging of the development of these functions.

The breeders of Jersey Island in 1834 formulated the first
scale of points for dairy cattle. At the present time the
breeders' associations have prepared for each breed a care-
fully drawn scale of points that are of assistance in acquiring
a skill in the selection of cows by conformation. A scale of
points undertakes to describe the conformation of the animal
that in the judgment of the author denotes the highest devel-
opment of the characteristics sought. The comparative im-
portance of the parts described is represented by points that
total 100 for a perfect animal. The lack up to the present of
c 17

18 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

a real scientific basis for preparing a scale of points makes
them unsatisfactory in many ways, but of great general
value, especially to the beginner.

The General Characteristics of the Dairy Type. — A person
familiar with cattle in general, but not with highly developed
dairy cattle, looking for the first time upon a high-class dairy
cow in full flow of milk would have his attention especially
directed to three points, as follows : —

1. The extreme angular form, carrying no surplus flesh, but
showing evidence of liberal feeding in her vigorous physical
condition.

2. The extraordinary development of the udder and milk
veins.

3. The marked development of the barrel in proportion to
the size of the animal.

These three statements should be kept in mind as describ-
ing the special characteristics of the dairy animal as compared
with those bred for beef, or with inferior dairy animals.
Sometimes the error is made of attributing this lack of flesh, so
characteristic of a good dairy cow, to insufficient feeding. The
dairy cow does not, however, have the same appearance as an
animal not of the dairy type that is thin in flesh on account
of insufficient feed. A high-class dairy cow never carries
much flesh when in full flow of milk. The stimulation to pro-
duce milk is so strong that all the feed she can consume and
digest is utilized in producing milk. Such an animal, al-
though thin in flesh, has an alert, vigorous appearance, her hair
is soft and healthy, the skin pliable and loose, her paunch is
full, and a general appearance of thrift and contentment is
noticeable. An animal thin in flesh on account of insuffi-
cient feed has a stupid appearance, and shows a lack of vigor,

THE DAIRY TYPE

19

while the rough, long hair stands on end. The paunch may
be large or not, depending upon the bulkiness of the feed con-
sumed by the animal.

The Dairy Form. — So characteristic is this angular ap-
pearance of the dairy cow that an animal that does not show
this form when in full flow of milk should not be selected. It

FIG. 4. — Cross-section of a high-class Jersey cow. a, at heart girth ;
6, at paunch. Weight, 900 pounds.

should be understood that it is natural for a cow to fatten con-
siderably towards the end of her milking period and when dry.
This surplus fat is mostly taken from the body during the first
three or four weeks after calving. It is impossible with any
ration to fatten a high-class dairy cow during the best part
of her milking period, or even to keep the fat on her body at
calving time from being removed, during the first few weeks
she is in milk.

The cow that shows these characteristics to a marked degree

20 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

is said to have a good dairy temperament. This means she is
endowed by nature with a strong stimulation to produce milk,
and uses practically all the nutrients she can digest for milk
production. This accounts for the spare form and absence
of any surplus fat, even when the animal evidently has abun-
dant food. As a result of the above, a high-class producing
cow when in milk is usually thin and sharp over the withers,

5

FIG. 5. — Cross-section of a high-class fat steer ready for market,
a, heart girth ; b, paunch. Weight, 1500 pounds.

her backbone stands out strong and prominent, her hips and
pelvic region stand out almost free from flesh.

Figs. 4 and 5 show the contrast between highly developed beef
and dairy animals. These cross-sections were made by the
method devised by the Missouri Experiment Station.1 When
the cow is dry or nearly so she should carry more fl esh than when
in full flow of milk, and should not be criticised on this account.
The breed type should be taken into account as well, and the
mistake avoided of judging all by the same arbitrary standard.

1 Waters, Proceedings Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science,
1908, p. 71.

FIG. 6. — Pure-bred Jersey cow. Lacks dairy temperament. Average
record for four years, 2501 pounds milk, 122 pounds fat.

FIG. 7. — Pure-bred Jersey cow. Lacks capacity and dairy temperament.
Record for one year as 2-year old, 1260 pounds milk, 62 pounds fat.

THE DAIRY TYPE 21

Types of Cows. — Fig. 6 is a good illustration of a cow
lacking in dairy temperament, although a pure-bred animal of
one of the leading dairy breeds. This animal has a good bar-
rel, and a splendid digestion, an unusually good heart girth,
and good skin and hair. She lacks the stimulation necessary
to use her food for producing milk. This is shown by her
thick withers, thin covering of flesh over the back, and gen-
eral smooth beefy appearance. Fig. % illustrates the other
extreme. This cow has the tendency to produce milk so
strongly developed that she uses all the food she can eat and
digest for this purpose and carries no surplus flesh. Her
withers are thin and sharp, her back and pelvic region angular
and bony, although she receives a liberal ration.

A cow should also be expected to carry somewhat more than
her normal flesh for a short time after calving, but this beefy
appearance should disappear within a month or less.

Limitations of Selection by Type. — The selection of dairy
cows by type as indicated is often uncertain. Still the practi-
cal breeder or dairyman must select most of his animals in
this way. The limitations should be understood. Any one
familiar with dairy type will seldom fail to choose between
a high-class animal and an inferior one, as, for example,
between the cow shown in Fig. 8 and that in Fig. 7. It is
usually easy to choose between a cow producing 350 pounds
of butter fat in a year and one producing 150 pounds.
However, as between the good and the extraordinary cow,
type gives little upon which to base selection.

The author has yet to see a cow of extraordinary dairy
quality that does not conform to the descriptions given in
the following pages. While in some cases these cows would
fail to score high on account of not conforming to the score

22 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

card in some respects ; for example, on account of a weak
fore udder or a sloping rump, they showed the important
characteristics described later in every case. On the other
hand, some cows exhibit all the characteristics of high pro-
ducers in regard to type, but fail in not having sufficient stim-
ulation to produce large quantities of milk. To judge a dairy
cow with any accuracy, she must be in milk, and preferably
near the best stage of her milking period. A dry cow offers
in most cases very little upon which to base judgment. A
dairy cow thin in flesh from underfeeding is also in a con-
dition that makes it almost impossible to form any estimate
of her value.

Development of the Barrel; 4 — The dairy cow that is a
heavy producer must have large organs of digestion in order
to utilize the enormous quantities of feed necessary to produce
large quantities of milk. This results in the development of
a large barrel, as that part of the animal's body between the
fore and rear legs is called. A high producing cow has wide-
sprung ribs and a deep abdomen, giving great capacity for
the digestive tract and other vital organs. An animal lack-
ing in this barrel capacity cannot use sufficient feed to be
a large producer. The age of the animal has some influence
on the size and depth of the abdomen. The depth of the
barrel increases some with the age of the cow. The feeding
of a ration consisting mostly of bulky feeds, as hay and silage,
also tends to give the appearance of a greater barrel capacity
from the greater contents of the digestive tract. In con-
sidering the barrel development of a cow, the depth as
viewed from the side should be observed, then the width
as viewed from behind. Some animals show a great
depth, but on account of being narrow have no more real

THE DAIRY TYPE 23

capacity than another animal with less depth, but greater
width.

Fig. 9 is an illustration of a Jersey cow of great capac-
ity. She shows an exceptionally good development of the
barrel. Fig. 7 is a Jersey equally as well bred as the
former, but on the other extreme in dairy capacity. She
shows an unusually small development of the barrel, in keep-
ing with her inferior dairy qualities.

Circulation. — After the food is digested and absorbed
into the circulation it must be carried to other organs of the
body, and undergo many changes before it is secreted in the
form of milk. A strong, active circulation is of great im-
portance, since without it the whole organism lacks tone. A
large heart girth is usually assumed to indicate a large capac-
ity of the heart and lungs. There is, however, some question
as to the relation between the size of the body at the point
called the heart girth and the size of the vital organs, but
there are but few exceptions to the rule that cows of great
milk-producing capacity, especially those that continue to
produce for a series of years, have more than an average de-
velopment in this respect. A soft, pliable skin is also an
indication of a good circulation. When the animal has good
" handling qualities," it means the small blood vessels below
the skin are active and that the animal is in good health.
A clear bright eye is also an index of a good circulation.

The Milk Veins and Milk Wells. — The most important
point to be observed regarding the circulation is the develop-
ment of the milk veins. The blood, after supplying the udder
with material for milk secretion, starts back towards the heart
through the milk veins. One of these opens on either side
near the front line of the udder attachment to the body, and

24 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

passes forward just beneath the skin. These veins crook
back and forth more or less, in some cases divide into two
or more divisions, and finally pass upwards through one or
more openings in the wall of the abdomen into the body
cavity. The portion of the veins from the udder to the
opening through which it passes into the abdomen is called
the milk vein. The opening in the abdomen through which
the vein passes is popularly known as the milk well. Fig.
10 shows exceptionally good development in this respect.
The milk vein is one of the most reliable indications of dairy
capacity, since a large production of milk calls for a large
quantity of blood to pass through the udder, and a large milk
vein denotes such a circulation. The size of the milk vein
is influenced to a great extent by the age of the cow. In
a young animal the vein is smaller and more elastic than in
the aged cow. When a cow is producing the maximum
amount of milk, the veins are larger than is the case
when the same animal is dry. The milk wells, on the
other hand, remain of practically a constant size after the
cow is once mature. In judging a dry cow, or one far ad-
vanced in the period of lactation, the size of the milk well is
of greater importance than the size of the milk veins.

The Udder. — The development of the udder is of the
greatest importance in selecting the cow, especially in regard
to its size and shape. In the manufacture of milk, the food
of the cow is first digested and becomes blood, then passes
through the circulation to the udder. Since this gland is
responsible for the secreting of milk from the blood, its size
and development are of the greatest importance of all as
indicating the dairy qualities of the cow.

It is not the size of the udder alone that is important,

FIG. 10. — Examples of well-developed milk veins.

FIG. 12. — Defective udders, a, weak for quarters ; b, a fleshy udder ; c, a
pendulous udder ; d, udder greatly lacking in capacity, especially in front.

THE DAIRY TYPE 25

but the number of active secreting cells. An udder gland
filled with inert cells and fatty tissue is not effective. This is
illustrated by b in Fig. 12. This is a large, well-formed^udder,
but the cow is a very moderate milker. Her udder is nearly as
large after milking as before. The best type of udder has an
especially long attachment to the body, both in front and
behind. A good circulation of blood and healthy tissue is
indicated by the soft,, pliable skin and prominent veins.
Before milking the udder is naturally considerably extended;
after milking it should be greatly reduced in size and show an
abundance of loose skin and a soft, pliable texture. Fig.
11 shows splendid examples of well-balanced udders.

The attachment to the body in the rear should extend well
up behind. Special attention should be given the fore udder,
as this part of the gland is especially subject to incomplete
development. Fig. 12 illustrates defective udders. No. A
in this illustration, in spite of her weak fore quarters, has a
large udder capacity, and is a heavy milk producer. The
quarters should be even in size, without deep indentations
between. The teats should be of proper size for conven-
ient milking, and evenly placed.

For show purposes especially, the shape and symmetry
of the udder is especially important. From the standpoint
of production the essential thing is to have sufficient udder
capacity to admit of the secretion of a large amount of milk,
with teats of such size as to admit of convenient milking. When
a cow is dry it is impossible to judge accurately of the de-
velopment of her udder. However, a large number of loose
folds of skin, showing an abundance of room for expansion
when the udder is filled, may be taken as an indication that
the udder will develop in a satisfactory manner. The length

26 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

of the attachment to the body should be especially noted
in this condition. But little can be judged regarding the
future size and shape of the udder in the calf or heifer until
the time for calving approaches. The size and placing of the
teats may be observed and judged with more accuracy than
can the future development of the udder.

The Score Card. — Score cards as adopted by the associa-
tions concerned will be found for each breed with the other
matter pertaining to that breed. From these a detailed
study may be made of the type of that breed as described by
those most concerned. Before using the score card the reader
should be familiar with the points of the animal as illustrated
in Fig. 13. The use of the score card is of advantage to the
beginner as a means of impressing the points to be taken into
account and their relative importance. The value of the
score card decreases as experience is gained. Judging of
cattle in the show ring is done entirely by comparison.

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CHAPTER IV
HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS

ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS

Origin and Distribution in Europe. — This breed originated
in Holland, and more especially in the province of Friesland.
They are not, as the name would indicate, natives of the
duchy of Holstein, which is a province in North Germany.
The compound name Holstein-Friesian, the official name of
this breed in America, resulted from a union of the Hol-
stein Breeders' Association and the Dutch Friesian Associa-
tion in 1885. In common usage now in America the breed
is called Holstein.

The ancestor of this breed, according to Kellar, was the Bos
Primigenius, the wild ox of Europe. This breed is one of
the oldest in existence. Historical references indicate that
they have been bred in the same region for at least 2000 years,
and probably there has been very little, if any, mixing with
outside blood. In the time of Caesar the region now part
of Holland was famous for its cattle. In the ninth century
Holland was well known for its cheese and butter. Accord-
ing to Motley, in the seventeenth century Holland exported
annually immense quantities of butter and cheese, and was
noted for its immense oxen. This reputation has been
maintained ever since, and during all these centuries cattle
rearing has been almost the exclusive business of the Holland

27

28 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

farmer. To-day no fruit is grown, and very little grain. The
caring for cows, growing and preparing feed for them, and
utilizing the milk for butter and cheese manufacture monop-
olizes the attention of the farmers.

This breed is best developed in its native home, the prov-
ince of Friesland and across the Zuyder Zee in North
Holland. This breed has been the parent stock of several
others, which through local influences have been somewhat
modified from the original. Most prominent among these
are the Oldenburg, East Friesian, East Prussian-Holland, and
the Flanders of Belgium.

The Holland cattle, or their descendants in these latter
mentioned sub-breeds, are now distributed over a large
portion of North Europe, extending into Russia. In the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Holland cattle were
taken to England, where, according to Professor Low, the
eminent English authority, they were a factor in the forma-
tion of the Teeswater or Shorthorn breed, from which our
modern improved Shorthorns are descended. It is also
believed by good authorities that Holland blood was an im-
portant factor in the foundation stock from which the pres-
ent Ayrshire breed is descended.

Conditions in Holland. — The best part of Holland is
mostly below the level of the sea, which is kept out by enor-
mous dykes. The land is very fertile, and almost entirely
used for growing grass. The farmers, who are mostly tenants,
pay from $30 per acre upwards annual rent. The land,
which is seldom bought or sold, is valued at from $ 800 to
$2000 per acre.

In no other part of the world does the cow receive such
careful attention as in Holland. The cattle are placed in

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS 29

the stable, which is separated by a door from the living room
of the family, about the first of October, and remain there as
a rule constantly until about the first of May. The stables
and the cows are kept in a condition beyond criticism from
a sanitary standpoint. If an animal becomes soiled with
manure, she is washed and cleaned carefully before milking.
The feed is mostly hay, with a small allowance of linseed or
other cake.

In the summer season the cattle are kept on the pastures
and not brought to the barn. The milkers carry the milk
from the pasture rather than fatigue the cows by driving
them. If a cold wind blows up, the cows are at once blanketed
in the pasture. Great care is taken in raising stock only
from the best animals. Only a few bulls and about one fifth
of the heifers are raised, and these from the best milkers only.
The surplus calves are sold for veal, and the cows as a rule
are sold for beef at an age of eight or nine years. In Fries-
land the milk is used largely for butter making and in North
Holland mostly for cheese making.

Importations and Distribution in America. — A few were
imported as early as 1795, but were not kept pure. The
first importations that were kept pure were made into Mas-
sachusetts in 186 1.1 Only a few were brought over before
1875, but from this date until 1885 about 10,000 were im-
ported. From these are descended most of the animals of
this breed now in America. After 1885 none were imported
until about 1903, partly on account of the high fee required
for registering imported animals and on account of the preva-
lence of foot and mouth disease in Holland.

The first breed association, called the Holstein Herd Book

1 Houghton, Holstein-Friesian Cattle, p. 17.

30 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Association, was formed in 1873, and five years later the Dutch
Friesian Association was organized. In 1885 the two united
under the present name, Holstein-Friesian.

At the present time this breed ranks in number second
only to the Jersey among the dairy breeds in America, and
they are gaining in numbers and popularity very rapidly.
At present they are found in every state, but the largest
numbers are in the Eastern states, New York, Wisconsin,
Pennsylvania, and Ohio having especially large numbers of
this breed. Up to the present there have been registered
something over 225,000 head, of which about one third are
bulls.

Form and Characteristics. — The Holsteins are the largest
of the dairy breeds. The average weight of the mature cow
is 1200 pounds, but individuals vary from 1000 to 1600
pounds. The bulls weigh from 1800 to 2200, as a rule. The
color markings are variegated black and white. As a rule
the breeders have preferred animals on which the two colors
are about evenly divided. The colors are always sharply
defined and not blended. Fortunately this breed has never
been injured by a color fad, although there is recently a
tendency to favor those having more white than black.

As a breed the Holsteins have the best disposition or tem-
perament of any dairy breed. In this respect they resemble
the Shorthorns more than any other breed. While cows of
this breed as a rule have plenty of nervous energy, which is
necessary to high dairy production, they are not nervous in
the common meaning of that term. Where Holsteins and
other more excitable breeds are kept together, the contrast
is easily noticed. A change of milkers, or any sudden dis-
turbance, as the presence of a stranger or a dog, will produce

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS 31

little or no effect on most Holsteins, while cows of some other
breeds will show a marked change in milk production. The
Holstein is less alert and active than the other dairy breeds,
but her nerves are well under control. This is of considerable
advantage on account of the usual necessity of having dairy
cattle handled by men more or less careless and inefficient.

In the descriptions found in the early volume of the Ad-
vanced Register of this breed, the cows are classified accord-
ing to form as follows : —

Milk and Beef Form.

Milk Form.

Beef and Milk Form.

Beef Form.

This form of description is little used now. It was ar-
ranged for use in examining cows for admission to the Ad-
vanced Register by inspection. Cows are now admitted by
an official test, and no description is required. The milk
and beef form is the type of most of the imported cows, and
the prevailing type. They have the wedge shape, but not
especially pronounced ; the shoulders are rather thick, deep,
and broad. The barrel is round, with hips and loin broad
and full. The quarters are straight and rather full.

The milk form is more angular in general appearance,
the shoulders thinner and the wedge shape more pronounced,
the loins and hips broad, thigh thin and incurving. The
other two divisions of the classification are seldom used but
indicate a more pronounced tendency towards flesh produc-
tion.

The cattle of this breed, as found in Holland, on the average,
show somewhat more of a beef type and less pronounced
dairy type than those found in America. The Holland

32 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

farmer generally sells his cows far beef while still compar-
atively young, and also expects to derive considerable in-
come from veal production. For these reasons he insists
on some meat-making capacity. Those brought to America
have generally been those having the best developed milking
indications, since their reputation in America is based upon
their milk-producing capacity.

The type of this breed as bred in America is believed by
some to be changing slowly since they were first introduced.
This change is attributed by those claiming to recognize such
a change to the fact that as a rule the judges at fairs within
recent years have had a strong prejudice in favor of the ex-
treme dairy type, brought about by association with other
breeds or as a result of agricultural college instruction. The
winners in the show ring in recent years have usually been
cows of medium or smaller size and those showing the most
pronounced dairy form. In judging Holsteins care must be
taken especially by the agricultural college student to keep
the breed type in mind and not judge them according to the
standard of other smaller breeds.

It is probably safe to say, the typical Holstein as now bred
in America is slightly smaller than the Holland animal, and
a larger proportion have a pronounced dairy type. It is
also claimed by some breeders that the per cent of fat has
been increased by American breeders. While it is possible
that the strong efforts now being made in this direction by
the leading breeders has resulted in richer milk from certain
herds of selected animals, there is no evidence to show that
the average of the breed has been changed. Data based
upon seven-day official tests is of little if any value in this
connection,

FIG. 15. — Holstein bull, " Hengerveld DeKol," sire of 114 daughters in the
Advanced Registry. One of the most remarkable sires known among
dairy breeds.

" Pontiac Gerben DeKol." A good type Holstein heifer. Record as 4-year-
old, 17,692 pounds milk, 519 pounds fat.

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS 33

Dairy Characteristics. — The following summary shows
the yield and composition of the milk produced by this breed
as reported for animals owned by American experiment
stations. Only yearly records are used which represent
registered cows.

AVERAGE

No. Cows REPRESENTED

Pounds milk per year . .
Per cent fat

8699
3.45

83

83

Yield of fat per year, Ib. . .
Per cent total solids .

300
12.29

83
9

The fat represents 28 per cent of the total solids, as com-
pared with 34.5 for the Jerseys.

The Holsteins produce more milk on the average and at
a cheaper cost for 100 pounds than any other breed. The
per cent of fat averages the lowest. The fat globules are
small, rather variable in size, and do not show much yellow
color. V0n account of the small globules, the cream does not
separate so quickly nor so completely by gravity as is the case
with larger fat globules. The lack of color in the fat results
in the milk and cream showing much less color than if it was
of equal quality but the product of a Jersey or Guernsey.
The lack of color is of some disadvantage in selling market
milk, since in the popular mind color erroneously is con-
sidered an index of the richness. The Holstein breed is well
adapted for supplying milk for market. The small fat glo-
bules are an advantage, as they allow the milk to be handled
easily without churning. The yield is large, and the fat and
solids not fat well balanced for human food. If most of the
cows in a heavy producing herd are fresh at the same time,
the milk may be below standard in fat and solids at times.

34 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

This may be remedied by standardizing the milk. This
consists in bringing it to a uniform per cent of fat by using
a separator and taking out some of the skim milk if too low
in fat, or taking out a portion of cream if above the standard.
The milk of the Holstein cow is well adapted for calf raising,
if it is desired to feed the calf whole milk. The solids not fat
are high in proportion to the fat, and the latter is sufficient for
the best results.

Excessively rich milk is not suitable for calf rearing, as has
long been known by practical experience and recently con-
firmed by experimental work. As beef producers the breed
ranks high for a dairy breed. As is the case with the other
dairy breeds, the gains are made as rapidly and as cheaply
as with animals of beef breeds. The market price is always
lower than for animals of the beef breeds, partly as a result
of prejudice, but mostly on account of the smaller proportion
of high-priced cuts and the greater amount of offal.

The calves are especially well adapted for veal production.
The average birth weight is 90 pounds, and they gain rapidly
during the first few weeks. This breed is not especially
early maturing. The heifers come into milk usually between
twenty-four and thirty months. The breeding qualities of
this breed are of a high order, being regular and sure breeders.

The Holstein cow is adapted for rather level, rich pastures,
and where liberal feeding is practical. As grazers on hilly
or scanty pastures the breed is surpassed by the Jersey and
Ayrshire, especially the latter. They are heavy consumers
of roughness.

The strong points of this breed are : the high average milk
production ; the marked vigor and strength of constitution ;
the strong vitality of the calves ; the good breeding qualities ;

HOLS TEIN-FRIESIA NS 35

the adaptation of the breed for veal production, and the quiet,
contented disposition.

The low per cent of fat in the milk is generally considered
the weakest point of this breed.

Families. — There are no well-defined families in this breed.
The aversion of the Holstein breeders to in-and-in breeding
has largely prevented the formation of families. Holstein
breeders often refer to animals under what seems a family
name ; for example, referring to a certain animal as a Johanna
or a DeKol. This means the animal in question is a de-
scendant of the noted animal mentioned. As a rule, certain
cows have been given prominence in Holstein affairs more
than bulls. At the present time cows having large official
records and their descendants are in greatest demand among
breeders. Since a large number of official records have been
recorded, the value of certain bulls as sires of high testing
cows is shown clearly, and by this means certain bulls have
more recently come into prominence and their descendants
are especially sought after.

The Advanced Registry has been one of the important factors
in the increase of popularity of this breed in America. The
Holstein-Friesian Association, and especially Mr. S. Hoxie, of
Yorkville, N.Y., should be credited with the introduction of
this system, since adopted in somewhat different forms by other
dairy cattle associations in America. The plan is to make
record of dairy performance, in addition to regular registration.

The first entries were made in 1886. Under the original
plan the animals were admitted on making certain milk and
butter records as the result of tests made and reported by
the owners themselves and after an inspector had scored and
examined the animal.

36 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

This association was the first to adopt the Babcock test
as their official method which was done in 1894. At first the
plan was adopted of printing the records in the form of butter
calculated on the basis of 80 per cent fat. Since this overrun
is higher than is ordinarily secured in making butter, this
method was criticized severely until, in 1903, the rules were
changed. At the present the supervisor of the test reports
the milk and fat yield only. If it is desired to express the
result on the basis of estimated butter, one sixth should be
added to the fat. In examining a Holstein pedigree it
should be observed whether the records are given in butter
fat or butter, and if the latter, upon what basis it is estimated.
The majority of the Holstein breeders still use the 80 per cent
basis in giving the records of butter production by their cows.
The majority of the tests are for seven days, but they may be
for any longer period. Breeders are encouraged to test again
after eight months. The tests are conducted by the ex-
periment station in the state where the cow is located. If
the cow reaches certain requirements, she is given a number
and entered in the Advanced Registry. She is afterwards
commonly referred to as an A. R. O. cow.

The minimum requirements for admission are the follow-
ing : —

2-year-old 7.2 pounds fat in 7 days

3-year-old 8.8 pounds fat in 7 days

4-year-old 10.4 pounds fat in 7 days

5-year-old 12.0 pounds fat in 7 days

Every day of increased age at date of calving increases the
requirement .00439 pounds of fat until five years is reached.
After a cow is entered in the Advanced Register on a seven-
day test she is eligible to a year's test. The owner keeps
the daily records of milk produced, and the product for two

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS 37

days each month is weighed and tested by the representative
of the experiment station.

Objections to Seven-Day Tests. — The Holstein-Friesian
Association should be given credit for starting the system of
testing cows, and for being the first to adopt the Babcock test.
The dairyman is interested in knowing what it is possible to
get from a cow in a week, but much more interested in know-
ing what the cow in question will do in a year. The cow that
makes a large weekly record is not always an animal that
makes a large or even fair record for a year. There is an
increasing demand for yearly records, and it is probable that
in the near future all records will be made by the year and
the short period will be dropped. A more serious objection
to the seven-day test is that it makes it possible to obtain
an abnormally high per cent of fat, as first shown by the writer.1
The average per cent of fat for the breed is 3.45, but many
seven-day tests are now reported with a per cent of fat over
4.50, and several above 5 per cent.

Many of the largest yearly milk records made by this breed
were by some of the early imported cows or their immediate
descendants. These records, however, were all private, and
are not ranked with those authenticated by experiment
stations. Some of the best of the early private milk records
are the following : —

Clothilde 26,021 Ib. milk 1 year

Clothilde 2d 23,602 Ib. milk 1 year

Pietertje 2d 30,318 Ib. milk 1 year

Boukje 21,679 Ib. milk 1 year

Sultana 22,042 Ib. milk 1 year

Princess of Wayne 29,008 Ib. milk 1 year

Fat records were not made of the above.

1 Hoard's Dairyman, Vol. XL, p. 696.

38

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

The highest official records for a year up to the present are
as follows : —

AGE

LB. MILK

LB. FAT

MATURE Cows

Colantha 4th Johanna . .
Pontiac Artis
Belle Netherland Johanna .
Missouri Chief Josephine .
Pontiac Pleione ....

4 TO 5 YRS. OLD

Johanna DeKol Wit

8
6
6

8

7

27,432
21,834
20,516
26,861
24,820

16 176

998
861
808
741
740

626

Inka Plum DeKol ....

3 TO 4 YRS. OLD

•Pietertje Lass 2d's Johanna.
Katy Gerben

19,398

18,134
18,573

626

633

620

2 TO 3 YRS. OLD

Copia Heng. 2d's Buttercup
K. P. Alcarta . . .

.

18,349
15528

679
609

SCALE OF POINTS

FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN BULL

Head — Showing full vigor ; elegant in contour

Forehead — Broad between the eyes ; dishing

Face — Of medium length ; clean and trim, especially under
the eyes ; the bridge of the nose straight

Muzzle — Broad with strong lips

Ears — Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair plentiful and
soft ; the secretions oily and abundant

Eyes — Large ; full ; mild ; bright

Horns — Short ; of medium size at base ; gradually diminish-
ing towards tips ; oval ; inclining forward ; moderately
curved inward ; of fine texture ; in appearance waxy .

Neck — Long ; finely crested (if the animal is mature) ; fine
and clean at juncture with the head; nearly free from
dewlap ; strongly and smoothly joined to shoulders . .

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS 39

Shoulders — Of medium height ; of medium thickness, and
smoothly rounded at tops ; broad and full at sides ; smooth
over front 4

Chest — Deep and low ; well filled and smooth in the brisket ;
broad between the forearms ; full in the foreflanks (or
through at the heart) 7

Crops — Comparatively full ; nearly level with the shoulders . 4

Chine — Strong ; straight, broadly developed, with open

vertebrae 6

Barrel — Long ; well rounded ; with large abdomen ; strongly

and trimly held up 7

Loin and Hips — Broad; level or nearly level between hook
bones ; level and strong laterally ; spreading out from the
chine broadly and nearly level ; the hook bones fairly
prominent 7

Rump — Long ; broad, high ; nearly level laterally ; compara-
tively full above the thurl ; carried out straight to dropping
of tail 7

Thurl — High ; broad 4

Quarters — Deep ; broad ; straight behind ; wide and full at

sides ; open in the twist 5

Flanks — Deep; full 2

Legs — Comparatively short ; clean and nearly straight ; wide
apart ; firmly and squarely set under the body ; arms
wide, strong and tapering; feet of medium size, round,
solid and deep 5

Tail — Large at base, the setting well back ; tapering finely to
switch ; the end of bone reaching to hocks or below ; the
switch full 2

Hair and Handling — Hair healthful in appearance ; fine, soft
and furry ; skin of medium thickness and loose ; mellow
under the hand ; the secretions oily, abundant and of a
rich brown or yellow color 10

Mammary Veins — Large ; full ; entering large orifices ;
double extension; with special development, such as
forks, branches, connections, etc 10

Rudimentary Teats — Large ; well placed

Escutcheon — Largest ; finest 2

100

40 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW

Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance ; fine in contour . 2

Forehead — Broad between the eyes ; dishing 2

F<iC3 — Of medium length ; clean and trim especially under
the eyes, showing facial veins; the bridge of the nose

straight

Muzzle — Broad with strong lips 1

Ears — Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair plentiful

and soft ; the secretion oily and abundant 1

Eyes — Large ; full ; mild ; bright 2

Horns — Small ; tapering finely towards the tips ; set moder-
ately narrow at base ; oval ; inclining forward ; well bent

inward ; of fine texture ; in appearance waxy 1

Neck — Long ; fine and clean at juncture with the head ; free

from dewlap ; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders . 4
Shoulders — Slightly lower than hips ; fine and even over tops ;

moderately broad and full at sides 3

Chest — Of moderate depth and lowness ; smooth and moder-
ately full in the brisket, full in the foreflanks (or through

the heart) 6

Crops — Moderately full 2

Chine — Straight ; strong ; broadly developed, with open

vertebrae 6

Barrel — Long ; of wedge shape ; well rounded ; with a large
abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age

must be considered) 7

Loin and Hips — Broad ; level or nearly level between the
hookbones; level and strong laterally; spreading from
chine broadly and nearly level ; hookbones fairly promi-
nent 6

Rump — Long ; high ; broad with roomy pelvis ; nearly level
laterally ; comparatively full above the thurl ; carried out

straight to dropping of tail 6

Thurl — High; broad 3

Quarters — Deep ; straight behind ; twist filled with develop-
ment of udder ; wide and moderately full at the sides . . 4

Flanks — Deep ; comparatively full 2

Legs — Comparatively short ; clean and nearly straight ; wide
apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; feet of
medium size, round, solid and deep 4

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS 41

Tail — Large at base, the setting well back ; tapering finely to
switch ; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or below ;
the switch full 2

Hair and Handling — Hair healthful in appearance ; fine, soft
and furry ; the skin of medium thickness and loose ; mel-
low under the hand ; the secretions oily, abundant, and of
a rich brown or yellow color 8

Mammary Veins — Very large; very crooked (age must be
taken into consideration in judging of size and crooked-
ness) ; entering very large or numerous orifices ; double
extension ; with special developments such as branches,
connections, etc 10

Udder and Teats — Very capacious ; very flexible ; quarters
even ; nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist,
extending well forward in front ; broad and well held up . 12

Teats — Well formed ; wide apart, plumb and of convenient

size 2

Escutcheon — Largest ; finest 2

100

CHAPTER V
THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS

JERSEYS

Origin and Distribution in Europe. — The Jersey and the
Guernsey breeds are often called the Channel Island breeds.
They take their name from the islands of the same names,
which are a part of the group called the Channel Islands.
This group of several small islands lies in the entrance to the
English Channel about nine miles from the coast of France
and about seventy from England.

The cattle from these islands were formerly classed to-
gether and called Alderney, after the third island in size of
the group. The cattle on these islands are supposed to be
descendants of the cattle of Normandy and Brittany in France.
According to Kellar, they belong to the Bos sondaicus type,
and are therefore related in origin to the Brown Swiss, the
Devons, Kerry, and more or less to other cattle of England,
but not to the Holsteins. When they were brought from
France to the Islands is not known, but it is known that they
have been kept pure for a very long time. Since 1789 a law
has been in force on Jersey Island which entirely prohibits
the importation of cattle except for slaughter. A few years
later Guernsey adopted a similar law.

Outside of Jersey Island this breed is found quite numerous

42

THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS 43

in England, but only a few are used elsewhere in Europe.
The first demand for them outside of their native island came
from England where they were placed on the estates of the
nobility largely on account of their beauty. Even at the
present time this breed does not contribute very much to the
total dairy products of England.

Conditions on the Isle of Jersey. — Jersey Island is eleven
miles long and about nine wide. Its area is 36,680 acres,
of which 25,000 are tillable. The population is about 60,000.
This island rises from the level of the ocean on the south in a
long gradual slope to the north side, which has cliffs about
200 feet high along the ocean. The climate is mild and even,
grass remains green throughout the year and is rather fine
and nutritious. The cattle are pastured during the day by
the tethering system. From May to October the cows, as
a rule, remain outdoors all the time. In winter the cows
are out in the daytime and in the evening are housed and fed
hay, roots and a small ration of bran, or oil cake. But little
grain is fed at any time.

Two crops at least of some kind are raised each year on
the same land. The average annual rental is over $ 50 per
acre, and this includes ground occupied by the dwelling house
and barn as well as for the cultivated land. The Island was
at one time in a very low state of fertility, but its productive-
ness has been increased until it ranks among the highest
developed agricultural regions in Europe. About 10,000
cows are kept on the Island, or one to every 2.2 acres of culti-
vated land.

The cattle have been bred and improved with special
reference to butter production for about 100 years. In 1834
a scale of points was made out for both cows and bulls and

44 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

prizes offered for the animals conforming nearest to the scale
of points. The breed began to improve more rapidly from
that time on. At the present time the cattle on the island
are a very uniform lot, but their average production is prob-
ably lower than that of equally good representatives of the
breed in America, largely because they are fed a less liberal
ration, especially of grain.

Plan of Registration on the Island. — The plan of registra-
tion of cattle on the Island is quite different from that fol-
lowed in America. Cows are registered as Pedigree Stock
and as Foundation Stock; bulls as Pedigree Stock only.
Within twenty-four hours after the birth of a heifer calf
which is to be registered, the owner must notify a member of
the Agricultural Department, who issues a certificate showing
the calf is from the cow claimed. This certificate, with one
from the owner of the sire, is filed with the Secretary of the
Register within six months. This is called preliminary
registration.

Every two months examinations are held for the qualifica-
tion of these registered cattle. The cattle to be examined
are taken to the appointed place and examined by the judges.
If the heifers meet with the approval of the judges, they are
given qualification C., if commended, or if of exceptional
merit, they are given qualification H. C., high commended.
Cows in milk not registered under the first qualification may
be examined for foundation stock, and if passed, are registered
with the others. When a bull comes up for examination, his
dam must be shown also, and her qualifications are taken into
account before registering the bull. Animals passing these
examinations are given herd book numbers.

Practically no milk or butter records are kept except one-

THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS 45

day tests at fairs. The system of registration followed has
resulted in making the Island animals a strikingly uniform
and beautiful lot, but does not tend to the most rapid develop-
ment of the milking qualities. The testing system in use by
the American Jersey Cattle Club for testing the milk and
butter producing capacity of cows is in advance of the system
practiced on Jersey Island as far as improving the dairy
qualities of the breed are concerned, while the Jersey Island
plan is certain to result in a more uniform type and greater
beauty.

Importations to America. — In 1850 several Jersey cows
were imported to Hartford, Conn., and in 1868 S. S.
Stephens of Montreal, Canada, imported nine animals, from
which have descended some of the most famous producers
in the Jersey breed. Since 1868 the importations were nu-
merous until about 1890, and then few were brought over
for several years. At present several importations are gen-
erally made each year. The interests of the breed in the
United States are looked after by the American Jersey
Cattle Club. Something over 300,000 animals have been
registered in the United States up to 1910, of which about one
fourth are bulls.

They are found in all parts of America, but most numer-
ously in the Eastern and Middle states. In the South they
include practically all of the dairy cattle. If numbers be
taken as the basis of judgment, the Jersey is the most popular
breed of dairy cows in America. The popularity of this
breed has been helped by the fact that it has been in this
country longer than other breeds, and further by the skill
shown by the American Jersey Cattle Club in looking after
its interests.

46 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

At an early date this breed was afflicted by a color craze,
which injured it somewhat for several years. The fad was
for solid colors, which means no white markings, and for a
black tongue and switch. At present very little attention is
paid to color, although the majority of the Jerseys found in
this country have the solid colors and black points. In the
late seventies and early eighties a great boom struck the breed
in the United States. Cows of the St. Lambert breeding
brought enormous prices. As high as $ 25,000 was paid for
a single cow. In 1893 twenty-five animals each of the Jersey,
Guernsey, and Shorthorn breeds competed in a dairy test
at the World's Fair, Chicago. In both the production of
cheese and of butter the Jerseys won first place on total pro-
duction and economy of production. This gave the breed
greatly increased popularity, and their numbers increased
very rapidly in the following years. They also stood first
in the dairy test at the World's Fair in St. Louis, in 1904,
with the highest average production and greatest economy
of production of butter fat.

Form and Characteristics. — The Jersey is the smallest
of the dairy breeds, with the exception of the Kerry. The
weight of the average cow is generally between 800 and 900
pounds. The bulls, as a rule, range from 1200 to 1700 pounds.
The breeders in America have generally favored the larger
animals, and for this reason, and possibly also on account of
the more liberal feeding practiced, it is generally believed the
breed tends to gradually increase in size after a few genera-
tions in America. Cows weighing 1000 pounds are quite
common here, but unknown on the Jersey Island. Recently,
on account of the numerous importations and the wide use of
bulls of a smaller type from the Island, the tendency for the

THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS 47

average size of the breed to increase is checked, temporarily
at least.

The difference is so marked between the imported or their
near descendants, and those descended from the early impor-
tations, that two types are generally recognized, the American
and the Island types. The American type is well repre-
sented by animals of the St. Lambert breeding. This type
is larger and coarser than the Island type, and less beautiful.
This type is often deficient in fore udder development, is
inclined to coarseness in the head and pelvic region, and is
often lacking in general symmetry. Cows of the American
type hold most of the best milk and butter records of the breed
at present.

The origin of this type is to be credited largely to Philip
Dauncey, and in part to W. G. Duncan, both of England.
Mr. Dauncey first made the Jersey breed well known in Eng-
land through the remarkable results of his breeding opera-
tions, which covered forty-one years' time, beginning in 1826.
He developed large, rather coarse animals of great constitu-
tion and with remarkable milking qualities. Mr. Duncan
began breeding Jerseys in 1849, and made use of the Dauncey
blood largely, and continued the development of the same
type.

In developing this type, these breeders selected animals
of the type they desired, then inbred freely and continuously.
They also bred the heifers to calve at three years of age,
which probably was an important factor in developing a large
animal. The early importations to America were largely
cattle from the Duncan herd, or were descendants of the
Dauncey herd. The fad for solid colors, formerly so strong
in America, was introduced by these breeders, and the practice

48 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

of inbreeding followed so persistently by them has been con-
tinued by American breeders.

The Island type is small and delicate-looking, beautiful
in form and with splendidly developed udders, especially in
front. They have fine, symmetrical heads and necks, and
level flat rumps. This type has been the favorite in recent
years in show ring competition, and includes the most fash-
ionable breeding and highest priced animals of the breed
at present.

A good Jersey cow is the model of what is generally taught
to be the dairy form. She has the pronounced wedge shape,
an immense barrel for her size, a well-developed udder, and
does not carry a pound of surplus fat while in full flow of
milk. The color of the Jersey varies greatly. It may be
any shade of yellow, except orange, from almost white to very
dark squirrel gray or black. The most common color is
fawn with black shadings below and on the head. White
spots may appear most commonly on the underline, but they
are not generally looked upon with favor, especially among
breeders of the American type. The tongue and switch are
generally black. The muzzle is intensely black, encircled
by a light-colored ring. The bulls are as a rule darker in
color than the cows.

Cows of this breed are quite sensitive, on account of having
a highly developed nervous temperament, which is not very
well under control. When carefully handled, they become
exceedingly gentle. On the other hand, when carelessly
handled or abused, they become very much the reverse.
They are more easily disturbed by unusual surroundings than
other dairy breeds.

Jerseys are easy keepers, but, like all dairy animals, need

THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS

49

good pastures and liberal feeding for good returns. They
do better than the Holstein on rough and scanty pastures,
but are not equal to the Ayrshire in this respect. They are
best adapted for a mild climate, and better adapted than
other breeds for warm southern climates.

As meat producers they stand low, even for dairy breeds.
The body fat is very yellow and is not well distributed. The
calves are small, weighing usually between 50 and 60 pounds
at birth, and do not gain rapidly for the first few weeks.
For this reason they are not well adapted for veal production.
If Jersey calves are raised for meat, they should usually be
sold by the time they are eight or ten months old.

This breed is very prepotent when crossed upon common
cattle or grades of other breeds. The cross usually partakes
strongly of the Jersey type and milking qualities. The
heifers mature young. They are usually sufficiently well
developed to come into milk at the age of 22 or 24 months.

Dairy Characteristics. — Reports of American experiment
stations up-to-date show the following facts regarding the
yield and composition of milk produced by pure-bred Jerseys
in the herds belonging to these institutions : —

AVERAGE

No. OP Cows

REPRESENTED

Pounds milk per year . .
Per cent fat

5508
5.14

153
154

Yield fat per year ....
Per cent total solids . . .

283
14.9

153

29

On the average the fat constituted 34.5 per cent of the total
solids as compared with 28 per cent for the Holsteins.

50 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

In quantity of milk produced the Jersey, as a breed, is
exceeded by the Holstein, Ayrshire, and probably by the
Brown Swiss and Guernsey among the common dairy breeds,
and in England by the milking Shorthorn. On account of
this fact, where milk is sold by quantity alone, as is too often
the case with market milk, at milk condenseries and at many
cheese factories, the Jersey does not find her best adaptation.

As an economical producer of butter fat the Jersey and her
near relative, the Guernsey, are unsurpassed. The Jersey
milk has the highest per cent of fat of any dairy breed com-
mon in this country. In economy of production of fat this
breed has always led where opportunity has been given to
make fair comparison with other breeds. The probable ex-
planation of this is the fact that the fat constitutes a greater
proportion of the total solids than it does in other breeds.
The most prominent and best known characteristics of Jersey
milk are the high per cent of fat, the pronounced yellow color,
and the easy creaming of the milk. The latter characteristic
is due to the unusually large fat globules. The large fat
globules also cause the fat to churn easily, which is some-
thing of an advantage in butter-making. The same ease of
churning is a slight disadvantage when the milk is to be
handled much, as in the market milk business, because it
results in small masses of butter appearing on the surface.

In persistency of milking the Jersey ranks very high,
probably the highest of any breed. Cows of this breed are
general favorites as family cows on account of the richness
of their milk, its easy creaming characteristics, their per-
sistency of milking, their easy keeping qualities and gentle-
ness. The Jersey cow finds her special adaptation as a family
cow or as an economical producer of butter fat. In the

THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS 51

judgment of the author a lack of vitality in the young calves
and of good breeding qualities with the cows are the weak-
est points of this breed.

Testing System. — In 1884 the Jersey Cattle Club author-
ized seven-day butter tests. The first volume of these tests
was published in 1889. These tests cover seven days' time
and are made by the owner, who afterwards takes oath to the
correctness of the results reported. Cows producing 14
pounds or over of butter in seven days are admitted to this
registry, and such cows are afterwards spoken of as tested
cows, or said to be in the " 14 pound list." These early
private butter records, while probably in the main correct,
are not looked upon by the public with the same confidence
as are those made more recently under official supervision.
The highest among the private seven-day records is Princess
2d, who is credited with a production of 46 pounds of butter
in seven days from 299 pounds of milk. If this was normal
butter containing at least 82.5 per cent of fat, the milk must
have contained 13.7 per cent fat. Since the Babcock test
has been in use no cow has been found in this breed testing
much over 7 per cent when any quantity of milk is produced.

In 1903 the Register of Merit was established and the rules
were changed to admit records made by using the Babcock
test.

Bulls are entered in two classes. To be eligible to Class A
a bull must have a score of 80 points and have three daughters
from as many different dams in the Register of Merit. Bulls
are eligible to Class B without scoring when they have three
daughters entered. There are four classes of cows. To
be entered in Class AA a cow must : —

(a) Meet the requirements of milk and fat production.

52 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

(b) Have a score of at least 80 points.

(c) Give birth to a living class within 125 days after the
close of the year's record.

Cows that have met the requirements under (a) and (6)
above are entered in Class A. Class B includes those meet-
ing the requirements under (a) alone.

In 1911 the rules were amended so that now only authen-
ticated butter fat and milk records are accepted covering seven
days or a full year.

The representative of an experiment station or other agent
of the Jersey Cattle Club tests and weighs each milking
separately for seven days. The cow must produce 12 pounds
of fat in 7 days. This test may also cover a year, and in this
case the owner weighs the milk from each milking during the
year, and for two days in each month the milk is weighed
and tested by the representative of an experiment station
or by another agent of the Jersey Club. The average of
the per cent of fat for these two days is taken as the average
for the month. A two-year-old heifer must produce 260
pounds of fat per year and a mature cow 400 pounds of
fat.

Prominent Jersey Families. — There are some fairly well
marked families in this breed. The best known, probably,
is the St. Lambert. This family originated in Canada, and is
descended from the cattle imported by Stephens of Montreal
and St. Clair of Vermont. The bulls Stoke Pogis and Stoke
Pogis 3d are supposed to be predominant factors in the for-
mation of this family, which includes many of the best known
animals of this breed in America. Animals of this family,
as a rule, are large in size and often rather coarse in make-up,
generally fawn or gray in color, and seldom black. It has

THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS

53

produced many remarkable dairy cows. Like other promi-
nent Jersey families, it is deeply inbred.

The Island cattle imported to America within recent years
mostly carry the blood of Golden Lad. Recently the descend-
ants of Golden Fern's Lad, a grandson of Golden Lad, have
been especially sought after. The bull, Golden Lad, is
counted the greatest bull the Island has yet produced, and
his descendants show remarkable uniformity and high
quality.

Inbreeding. — The leading breeders in America have
usually followed Dauncey and Duncan in practicing inbreed-
ing freely. As a rule, every high-class animal of the Ameri-
can type is more or less inbred. The Island breeders do not
follow this practice to such a marked extent. The object of
inbreeding has been to increase the proportion of blood of
certain animals supposed to be unusually prepotent in trans-
mitting milking qualities and other desirable characteristics.

The following are the ten highest yearly records up to the
present for the Jersey breed : —

LB. MILK

LB. FAT

Jacoba Irene

17,253

952

Sophie 19th of Hood Farm .

14,373

855

Adelaide of Beechlands . .

15,572

849

Rosaire's Olga 4t?h Pride . .

14,104

. 836

Financial Countess . . .

13,248

795

Molle of Edge wood . . .

14,036

705

Lass 30th of Hood Farm .

11,990

685

Bessie Bates

13,895

680

Olive Dunn

9,930

671

Peers Surprise .

14452

653

54 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COW
Head, 7.

A — Medium size, lean ; face dished ; broad between eyes

and narrow between horns 4

B — Eyes full and placid ; horns small to medium, incurv-
ing ; muzzle broad, with muscular lips ; strong under

jaw 3

Neck, 5.

Thin, rather long, with clean throat ; thin at withers ... 5
Body, 33.

A — Lung capacity, as indicated by depth and breadth

through body, just back of fore legs 5

B — Wedge shape, with deep, large paunch ; legs propor-
tionate to size and of fine quality 10

C — Back straight to hip bones 2

D — Rump long to tail setting and level from hip bones to

rump bones 8

E — Hip bones high and wide apart ; loins broad, strong . 5

F — Thighs flat and well cut out 3

Tail, 2.

Thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at setting on . . 2
Udder, 28.

A — Large size and not fleshy 6

B — Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between teats . 4
C — Fore udder full and well rounded, running well forward

of front teats 10

D — Rear udder well rounded, and well out and up behind . 8
Teats, 8.
Of good and uniform length and size, regularly and squarely

placed 8

Milk Veins, 4-

Large, tortuous and elastic 4

Size, 3.

Mature cows, 800 to 1000 pounds 3

General Appearance, 10.

A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a proportion of
parts to each other, depending on size of animal, with the
general appearance of a high-class animal, with capacity
for food and productiveness at pail 10

100

THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS 55

SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY BULL

Head, 10.

A — Broad, medium length ; face dished ; narrow between

horns ; horns medium in size and incurving ... 5
B — Muzzle broad, nostrils open, eyes full and bold ; entire

expression one of vigor, resolution, and masculinity 5
Neck, 10.

Medium length, with full crest at maturity ; clean at throat . 10
Body, 54.

A — Lung capacity as indicated by depth and breadth
through body just back of fore shoulders ; shoulders

full and strong 15

B — Barrel long, of good depth and breadth, with strong,

well-sprung ribs 15

C — Back straight to hip bones 2

D — Rump of good length and proportion to size of body,

and level from hip bone to rump bone 7

E — Loins broad and strong ; hips rounded, and of medium

width compared with female 7

F — Thighs rather flat, well cut up behind, high arched flank 3
G — Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well apart,

and not to weave or cross in walking 5

Rudimentary Teats, 2.

Well placed 2

Tail, 4.

Thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at setting on . . 4
Size, 5.

Mature bulls, 1200 to 1500 pounds 5

General Appearance, 15.

Thoroughly masculine in character, with a harmonious
blending of the parts to each other; thoroughly
robust, and such an animal as in a herd of wild cattle
would likely become master of the herd by the law of
natural selection and survival of the fittest .... 15

100
GUERNSEYS

Origin and Distribution in Europe. — The Guernsey breed
originated on the island of the same name, which is the second

56 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

in size of the Channel Islands. Like the Jerseys, they are pre-
sumably descended from the cattle of France. A century ago
the cattle on the islands of Jersey and Guernsey were practi-
cally the same in form and color, but even then the Guernsey
is said to have been a little larger. In 1819 laws were passed
prohibiting the importation of cattle into Guernsey, and since
that time the breed has been kept pure.

Professor Low, writing in 1841, says the cattle of Guernsey
and Jersey were at that time essentially the same, although he
further describes the former as being larger, the form rounder,
and the bones less prominent than with the cattle on Jersey
Island. He also refers to the unusually orange yellow skin
and yellow milk and butter. It appears from his writings
that these two breeds at that date were nearer together in
type than is now the case, but that the Guernseys showed
the same characteristics in general as at present.

The Guernseys have been taken to England in consider-
able numbers, and are used considerably, especially in the
southwestern part, but on the whole are of little importance
in that country from a dairy standpoint on account of their
comparatively small numbers. They are not found elsewhere
in Europe to any extent.

Conditions in Guernsey. — The conditions on Guernsey
Island are practically the same as in Jersey. The Island is
second in size of the Channel group, and has a population of
about 41,000. It is ten miles long, with an area of about
16,000 acres, of which 12,000 are tillable. The climate is a
little more severe than that of Jersey, as it is exposed toward
the northwest. The south coast rises from 200 to 400 feet
above the ocean, and slopes to the level of the ocean on the
north.

THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS 57

The system of agriculture and the general management
of the cattle is much the same as that followed in Jersey.
There are about 8000 cattls on the Island. The Guernsey
breeders have kept the idea of utility alone in view, and have
given less attention to the development of the beauty of their
breed.

Importation to America. — There seem to be no records
available in regard to the first animals of this breed brought
to America. Most of the importations were made in the
period from 1880 to 1890, or since 1900. The American
Guernsey Club was founded in 1877. Up to the present
there have been something like 50,000 animals registered in
the Guernsey Register, the first volume of which was issued
in 1878. Of these close to one third are bulls.

Guernseys are distributed most abundantly in the East,
especially in New York, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania,
and in the West in Wisconsin and Minnesota. Their rapid in-
crease in popularity within recent years has been brought
about to no small extent by the excellent system of yearly
records established by the Guernsey Cattle Club and by the
remarkable records made. The breeders of this breed should
also be commended for the general use they have made of the
tuberculin test, probably standing first in this respect in
America.

Form and Characteristics. — The Guernsey cow weighs
about 1000 pounds on the average, ranking in size about the
same as the Ayrshire, and at least 100 pounds larger than the
Jerseys. This breed is coarser boned and more irregular in
conformation than the Jersey. The colors resemble the
Jersey in general, but include some colors not found in that
breed. The common colors are a reddish yellow, or lemon

58 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

or orange fawn, with white markings. The white markings
are usually found on the face, flanks, legs, and switch, but may
be on any part of the body.

The temperament of the Guernsey cow is good. She is
alert and wide awake, but not nervous and irritable. She
has a good dairy conformation, and gives the impression of a
plain animal bred for utility. While the breed lacks uni-
formity in type to some extent, there are no special types of
the breed recognized. The breeding qualities are fair, but
probably not equal to some other breeds. As a breed they
do not mature quite so early as does the Jersey. The heifers
come into milk at 22 to 26 months. Like the Jersey, they
have little adaptation for meat production.

Dairy Characteristics. — In yield of milk the Guernsey
ranks with the Jersey. The experiment stations report the
following results, which are all yearly records of animals
owned by these institutions : —

AVERAGE

No. OF Cows REPRE-

SENTED

Milk per year

5509

17

Per cent fat

498

21

Yield fat per year ....

274

17

Per cent total solids . . .

14.2

6

In the records above reported the fat constituted 35 per cent
of the solids as compared with 34.5 per cent for the Jersey and
28 per cent for the Holsteins.

Guernsey milk and butter has the yellowest color of any
breed. For this reason milk from this breed is often mixed
with that from other breeds for the sake of the high color it

THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS 59

imparts. The color of Guernsey butter is so high that it
is even occasionally objected to in the market by those not
familiar with it, especially when the cows are on fresh pasture.
The fat globules are likewise the largest on the average of any
breed. The Guernseys have the same advantages and dis-
advantages as the Jerseys as cows for producing market milk,
and on the whole they cannot be said to be well adapted for
this purpose, although special favorites for producing a high-
grade cream for market. They share with the Jerseys the
power of producing butter fat very economically on account
of the richness of their milk. For this reason they find their
greatest adaptation as producers of butter or cream.

An excellent system of testing for advanced registration
was adopted by the Guernsey Cattle Club in 1901 . The test at
first was for either seven days or a year, but now only the
latter is accepted. It is under the supervision of an experi-
ment station or agricultural college. The records include
milk produced and butter fat as determined by the Babcock
method. The owner of the cow keeps the milk records in
detail throughout the year, and the supervisor of the test
visits the herd once each month and weighs and tests each
milking for two days. The average per cent of fat for these
two days is taken as the average for the entire month. The
cows are admitted to Advanced Registry by meeting the
following requirements : —

A cow beginning at two years of age must produce 6000
pounds of milk within a year, with an addition of 3.65 pounds
of milk per day up to five years of age, at which time the
requirements are 10,000 pounds of milk. The butter fat
requirements for admission are the production of 250.5
pounds fat, if the record begins at two years of age, and for

60

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

each day past two years at the time of beginning .1 pound is
added. The requirement for cows of mature age is 360
pounds of fat per year.

Bulls are admitted to Advanced Registry by having two
daughters in the Registry.

The Guernseys have a remarkable list of yearly butter fat
records. The following are the highest records in print up
to the present : —

LB. MILK

LB. FAT

MATURE Cows

Yeksa Sunbeam ....

14,920

857

Dolly Bloom

17,297

836

Imp. Princess Rhea . . .

14,009

775

Modena .......

14,001

728

4 TO 5 YEARS OLD

Imp. Itchen Daisy ....

13,636

714

Standard Morning Glory

12,917

714

3 TO 4 YEARS OLD

Dolly Dimple

18,458

906

Dairy Maid of Pinchurst

14,562

860

2 TO 3 YEARS OLD

Dolly Dimple

14,562

703

Langwater Princess

12,280

651

THE CHANNEL ISLAND BREEDS

61

SCALE OF POINTS FOR GUERNSEY COWS

Clean-cut, lean face ; strong, sinewy jaw ;
wide muzzle with wide-open nostrils;
full, bright eye with quiet and

gentle expression ; forehead long and
road

Long, thin neck with strong juncture to
head; clean throat. Backbone rising
well between shoulder blades; large,
rugged spinal processes, indicating
Dairy good development of the spinal cord .

Temperament. Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ;
Constitution, wide, strong structure of spine at setting

38. on of tail. Long, thin tail with good

switch. Thin, incurving thighs .
Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide
apart, giving an open, relaxed conforma-
tion ; thin arching flanks

Abdomen large and deep, with strong
muscular and navel development, indic-
ative of capacity and vitality . . .
Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling
and texture, but not thick 3

Milking Marks, f Escutcheon wide on thighs ; high and

denoting I broad, with thigh oval 2

Quantity of j Milk veins long, crooked, branching, and

Flow, 10. [ prominent, with large or deep wells . . 8

Udder full in front 8

Udder Udder full and well up behind .... 8

Formation, < Udder of large size and capacity ... 4
26 "Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of

good and even size 6

Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of
tail, at base of horns, on udder, teats,
and body generally. Hoof, amber-
colored

Indicating

Color of Milk,

15

Milking Marks

denoting

Quality of Flow,

6

Symmetry and
Size, 5

15

15

Udder showing plenty of substance, but
not too meaty

Color of Hair, a shade of fawn, with white"
markings. Cream-colored nose. Horns
amber-colored, small, curved and not
coarse

Size for the breed : Mature cows, four
yearg old or over, about 1050 Ib. . .

_2

100

62

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

SCALE OF POINTS FOR GUERNSEY BULLS

Clean-cut, lean face ; strong sinewy jaw ;
wide muzzle with wide-open nostrils ;
full, bright eye with quiet and gentle
expression ; forehead long and broad .

Long, masculine neck with strong juncture
to head ; clean throat. Backbone rising
well between shoulder blades; large,
rugged spinal processes, indicating good
development of the spinal cord . . .
Dairy Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide,
Temperament. - strong structure of spine at setting of
Constitution, tail. Long, thin tail with good switch.
38 Thin, incurving thighs

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide
apart, giving an open relaxed conforma-
tion; thin arching flank

Abdomen large and deep, with strong
muscular and navel development, indic-
ative of capacity and vitality . . .

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling
and texture, but not thick

Dairy

Prepotency,
15

Rudimentaries

and Milk Veins,

10

Indicating

Color of Milk

in Offspring,

15

Symmetry and
Size, 22

As shown by having a great deal of vigor,
style, alertness, and resolute appearance

Rudimentaries of good size, squarely and
broadly placed in front of and free from
scrotum. Milk veins prominent . . .

15

15

10

Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of
tail, at base of horns and body generally,
hoofs amber-colored 15

Color of hair, a shade of fawn with white
markings. Cream-colored nose. Horns
amber-colored, curving and not coarse 8

Size for the breed : Mature bulls, four
years old or over, about 1500 Ib. ... 4

General appearance as indicative of the
power to beget animals of strong dairy

qualities 10

100

CHAPTER VI
AYRSHIRES

ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS

Origin and Distribution in Europe. — The native home
of this breed is the county or shire of Ayr in southwest
Scotland. It is comparatively a new breed, but has made
wonderful advancement in a short time. The origin of this
breed is veiled in some obscurity, but traces back to the latter
part of the eighteenth century. The cattle of this district
are described in 1750 as being small, ill-fed, ill-shaped, and
producing but little milk. In color they were black and
white. This foundation stock was probably descended from
or kin to the original wild white cattle described in early
historic records and represented now by the wild park cattle.

During the latter half of the eighteenth century a wide-
spread movement for better cattle spread over Great Britain,
and resulted in an immense improvement being made in the
cattle of Ayrshire as elsewhere. This improvement was
brought about by more careful selection and breeding, and
especially by the introduction of blood from several other
regions. According to Howard,1 writing in 1863, cattle im-
ported from Holland furnished one of the most important
crBsses made. Another important cross was made with cattle

1 Vol. 1, Herd Record of the Association of Breeders of Thoroughbred
Neat Cattle.

63

64 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

of the Durham or Teeswater breed, which afterwards in the
improved form became known as the Shorthorns. It is
reasonably certain, according to this author, that Channel
Island blood was also introduced quite generously. It is
also probable that Holderness blood was introduced to some
extent at an early date.

Professor Low, the eminent English authority, makes the
following statement : " From all evidence which, in the ab-
sence of authentic documents, the case admits of, the dairy
breed of Ayrshire cows owes its character to a mixture of
the blood of the races of the continent and of the dairy breed
of Alderney."

In Ayrshire some attention has always been given to the
beef-making capacity of the breed especially in the early
period of their development. During the early part of the
nineteenth century, the hind quarters especially were im-
proved and the udder brought to its present symmetrical
proportions.

They are the leading dairy cattle in Scotland, and are com-
mon in some parts of England. This is one of the few British
breeds that has spread to any extent on the Continent of
Europe. They are quite numerous in Finland, Sweden, and
Norway, while in New Zealand they are the most important
dairy breed.

Conditions in Ayrshire. — Ayrshire is situated on the south-
west coast of Scotland. The land rises from the level of the
ocean on the west to mountains about 2000 feet high on the
east. The soil is a heavy clay of moderate fertility spread
over a hilly surface. The temperature ranges from 25 to
65° F. during the year, and is not subject to great ex-
tremes, although swept by fierce storms occasionally. The

AYRSHIRE 8 65

moist air and abundant rainfall results in good pastures.
The milk is used mostly for cheese making.

Importation and Distribution in America. — Ayrshires
were brought to Canada in the early part of the nineteenth
century by Scotch settlers. More recently the importation
of breeding stock into Canada has been extensive. The first
importation into the United States was probably in 1837,
when several were brought to Massachusetts by the Society
for the Promotion of Agriculture, although it is claimed
that some were taken to Connecticut as early as 1822. These
importations continued at intervals for twenty or thirty years,
then gradually ceased on account of the serious objection
raised to the short teats of the imported animals. The
Ayrshires now known as the American type are descended
from these early importations and their improved de-
scendants.

Within recent years a considerable number of cattle of
this breed have been imported into the United States. The
importations into Canada have also been numerous in recent
years, so that the Canadian animals are largely of the type
now called the Scotch type. This type is now the most popu-
lar among the American breeders also.

The Ayrshires have never been boomed or even well
advertised in the United States, and their increase in popu-
larity has therefore been entirely on their merits. This
breed took part in the dairy demonstration at the Pan-
American Exposition in Buffalo in 1898, and made a very
creditable record, standing third as a breed in butter produced
and in net profit. The first herd book of the breed was
established in the United States in 1863, the Scotch Herd
Book began in 1878, and the Canadian in 1870.
p

66 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Form and Characteristics. — In size, the Ayrshires rank
between the Jersey and Holstein breeds. The average cow
weighs about 1000 pounds at maturity, while some exceed
this figure considerably. The bulls range from 1400 to 2000
pounds. The Scotch type is probably rather under these
figures.

The common color is spotted red or brown and white in
varying proportions. In the American type the red or brown-
ish red usually predominates, with only a small amount of
white, while in the Scotch type the white predominates. The
two colors are distinct, and do not blend to form a roan.
The horns are rather long, and as a rule curve outwards and
upwards, and in some cases slightly backwards. The Scotch
type have rather heavy horns, especially with the bulls.

In disposition they stand rather between the Jersey and
Holstein. They are more active and alert than the Holstein,
and like them are less affected by unusual surroundings than
some other breeds. In form the Ayrshire do not show the
extreme angular dairy type as exhibited by high-class Jerseys
or Holsteins. They are smoother over the shoulders, back,
and hips, and have fuller rear quarters. At the same time, the
barrel is large, showing great capacity, and the udder develop-
ment the most perfect of any breed. For many years the
Scotch breeders have bred especially for large, symmetrical
udders, and have attained this end with remarkable success.
The udder is attached high behind, and extends far forward,
with a flat, even lower surface. The teats are placed regu-
larly on the udder, and are of uniform size. Ayrshires are
regular and sure breeders. This probably results from the
favorable conditions under which the breed has been devel-
oped and from the avoidance of inbreeding.

A YRSHIRES 67

There are two fairly well marked types, but with individ-
uals standing all the way between the two types. These
two types are known as the American and Scotch. As
already explained, the former are descended from the early
importations dating before 1850. The cattle of these early
importations were objected to on account of their short teats,
and the breeders set about to remedy this defect by selection
and breeding. This they accomplished, and at the same time
increased the size somewhat and retained the other desirable
characteristics. In color this type is mostly red or brownish
red, with a few white spots. They do not show, as a rule, as
symmetrical an udder as the imported animal, and are more
of the angular, spare, dairy form, and have longer teats.

The Scotch type is that bred at present in Ayrshire and
imported to this country in large numbers within recent years.
In color these animals are mostly white with brown ears, and
a few red or brown spots irregularly arranged on the body.
They are more handsome and symmetrical than the American
type animals, and have a remarkable udder development, as
already described. This type is best represented in Canada
at present, but is being rapidly introduced into the United
States. The chief objection urged against this type is the
short teats, which are often altogether too small for men to
milk with convenience. In Scotland the milking is largely
done by women, and the short teats are not considered objec-
tionable. American breeders are now giving attention to
increasing the length of the teats to remove this criticism.

The Ayrshire is not as early maturing as the Jersey, rank-
ing about with the Holstein in this respect. The cows come
into milk from 24 to 30 months of age. They are noted for
being productive to a greater age than most breeds-

68 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

For veal production the Ayrshire ranks between the Jersey
and the Holstein. The calves weigh 60 to 75 pounds at birth,
and are strong and vigorous. In beef production this breed
ranks high for a dairy breed. When dry they fatten readily,
and are said to make a good quality of beef.

Dairy Characteristics. — The following summary of yearly
records of pure-bred Ayrshire cattle owned by American
experiment stations shows the chief facts regarding their
milking qualities : —

AVERAGE

No. ANIMALS REPKE-

8ENTED

Pounds milk per year . . .

6533

24

Per cent fat

385

24

Yield of fat per year .

252

24

Per cent total solids . . .

12.98

17

In the above the fat constitutes 29.6 per cent of the total
solids, as compared with 34.5 for the Jerseys and 28 per cent
for the Holsteins.

As a breed the Ayrshires are noted for a good uniform
production of milk rather than for remarkable records. They
have not yet made the enormous records of fat and milk
production that have been made by the Holsteins, Jerseys,
and Guernseys, but at the same time there are few really infe-
rior animals found in this breed, and the average production
as a breed is probably equal to that of any other.

The fat averages a little under 4 per cent, and the total
solids 12.5 per cent. The fat globules are small, and the
milk and butter does not show much yellow color, ranking
in this respect with the Holsteins. This breed is especially
well adapted for the production of market milk, because they

A YESHIRES 69

produce a large yield of milk of average composition. The
small fat globules are an advantage in this connection, and
the total solids are also well balanced between fat and other
solids. The only objection to this milk for market purposes
is the lack of a pronounced yellow color.

The milk of this breed is well adapted for cheese mak-
ing on account of the small fat globules and relatively high
per cent of casein, and is generally used for this purpose in
their native land. They are fairly economical producers
of butter fat, but as a breed are probably excelled in this
respect by the Jerseys and Guernseys. When their milk is
creamed by gravity the loss in the skim milk is greater than
from the milk of the Channel Island breeds with their large
fat globules, but with the cream separator this difference is
too small to be taken into account.

An Advanced Register for this breed was established in
1902 to encourage and record records of dairy performances.
The rules make the following requirements for admission : —

As a two-year-old a cow must produce 6000 pounds of
milk and 214 pounds of fat in one year. For each day
above two years there is added to the two-year-old require-
ments 2.74 pounds of milk and .12 pound of fat. This is
continued until five years of age is reached when the cow
is supposed to be mature. The requirements for this age or
older are 8500 pounds of milk and 322 pounds of fat in a year.

The milk records are kept by the owner. The milk from
each cow is weighed and tested for two consecutive days each
month by a representative of the experiment station in
that state.

A Home Dairy Test was established in 1901. In this
competition prizes are given to the best herds of five and

70 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

also for best individual cows. The record of milk is kept by
the owner and the samples taken and records verified in the
same manner as for the Advanced Register. Bulls are eli-
gible to entry in Advanced Registry by having four daugh-
ters in the registry from as many dams or by having two
daughters and scoring 80 points.

The leading official records of this breed up to the present
are as follows : —

Mature cows — Netherhall Brownie 9th, 18,110 pounds of milk and
781 pounds of fat.

Rena Ross, 15,072 pounds of milk and 644 pounds of fat.

Four-year-old — Bessie of Rosemont, 14,102 pounds of milk and
578 pounds of fat.

Three-year-old — Mattie of Sand Hill, 14,381 pounds of milk and
612 pounds of fat.

Two-year-old — Hazel of Sand Hill, 11,078 pounds of milk and
627 pounds of fat.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR AYRSHIRE COW

Head, 10.

Forehead — Broad and clearly denned 1

Horns — Wide set on and inclining upward 1

Face — Of medium length, slightly dished, clean cut, show-
ing veins 2

Muzzle — Broad and strong without coarseness, nostrils large 1

Jaws — Wide at the base and strong 1

Eyes — Full and bright with placid expression 3

Ears — Of medium size and fine, carried alert 1

Neck — Fine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to head
and shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, nearly

free from loose skin, elegant in bearing 3

Fore Quarters, 10.

Shoulders — Light, good distance through from point to

point, but sharp at withers, smoothly blending into body 2
Chest — Low, deep, and full between and back of forelegs . 6

Brisket — Light 1

Legs and Feet — Legs straight and short, well apart, shanks
fine and smooth, joints firm ; feet medium size, round,
solid, and deep 1

A YRSHIRES 71

Body, 13.

Back — Strong and straight, chine lean, sharp, and open-
jointed 4

Loin — Broad, strong, and level 2

Ribs — Long, broad, wide apart, and well sprung .... 3
Abdomen — Capacious, deep, firmly held up with strong

muscular development • . 3

Flank — Thin and arching 1

Hind Quarters, 11.

Rump — Wide, level, and long from hooks to pin bones, a

reasonable pelvic arch allowed 3

Hooks — Wide apart and not projecting above back nor un-
duly overlaid with fat 2

Pin Bones — High and wide apart 1

Thighs — Thin, long, and wide apart 2

Tail — Long, fine, set on a level with the back 1

Legs and Feet — Legs strong, short, straight when viewed
from behind and set well apart ; shanks fine and smooth,
joints firm ; feet medium size, round, solid, and deep ... 2
Udder — Long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy ;
firmly attached to the body, extending well up behind and
far forward; quarters even; sole nearly level and not
indented between teats, udder veins well developed and

plainly visible 22

Teats — Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal
to half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal to
one third the length ; length 1\ to 3| inches, thickness
in keeping with length, hanging perpendicular and not

tapering 8

Mammary Veins — Large, long, tortuous, branching and

entering large orifices 5

Escutcheon — Distinctly defined, spreading over thighs and

extending well upward 2

Color — Red of any shade, brown, or these with white ;
mahogany and white, or white ; each color distinctly
defined. (Brindle markings allowed, but not desirable.) . 2
Covering, 6.

Skin — Of medium thickness, mellow and elastic .... 3

Hair — Soft and fine 2

Secretions — Oily, of rich brown or yellow color .... 1
Style — Alert, vigorous, showing strong character ; temper-
ament inclined to nervousness, but still docile 4

Weight at maturity not less than one thousand pounds . . . 4

Total 100

72 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

SCALE OF POINTS FOR AYRSHIRE BULL
Head, 16.

Forehead — Broad and clearly defined 2

Horn — Strong at base, set wide apart, inclining upward . . 1
Face — Of medium length, clean cut, showing facial veins . 2
Muzzle — Broad and strong without coarseness .... 1

Nostrils — Large and open 2

Jaws — Wide at the base and strong 1

Eyes — Moderately large, full, and bright 3

Ears — Of medium size and fine, carried alert 1

Expression — Full of vigor, resolution, and masculinity . . 3
Neck, 10.

Of medium length, somewhat arched, large, and strong in
the muscles on top, inclined to flatness on sides, enlarging
symmetrically towards the shoulders, throat clean and free

from loose skin 10

Fore Quarters, 15.

Shoulders — • Strong, smoothly blending into body with

good distance through from point to point and fine on top 3
Chest — Low, deep, and full between back and forelegs . . 8
Brisket — Deep, not too prominent, and with very little dew-
lap 2

Legs and Feet — Legs well apart, straight, and short,
shanks fine and smooth, joints firm, feet of medium size,

round, solid, and deep 2

Body, 18.

Back — Short and straight, chine strongly developed and

open-jointed 5

Loin — Broad, strong, and level 4

Ribs — Long, broad, strong, well sprung, and wide apart . 4
Abdomen — Large and deep, trimly held up with muscular

development 4

Flank — Thin and arching 1

Hind Quarters, 16.

Rump — Level, long from hooks to pin bones 5

Hooks — Medium distance apart, proportionately narrower
than in female, not rising above the level of the back . . 2

Pin Bones — High, wide apart 2

Thighs — Thin, long, and wide apart 4

Tail — Fine, long, and set on a level with back 1

A YRSHIRES 73

Legs and Feet — Legs straight, set well apart, shanks fine
and smooth; feet medium size, round, solid, and deep,

not to cross in walking 2

Scrotum — Well developed and strongly carried 3

Rudimentaries, Veins, etc. — Teats of uniform size squarely
placed, wide apart and free from scrotum; veins long,
large, tortuous, with extensions entering large orifices ; es-
cutcheon pronounced and covering a large surface ... 4
Color — Red of any shade, brown, or these with white, mahog-
any and white, or white ; each color distinctly defined . . 3
Covering, 6.

Skin — Medium thickness, mellow and elastic 3

Hair — Soft and fine 2

Secretions — Oily, of rich brown or yellow color .... 1
Style — Active, vigorous, showing strong masculine character,
temperament inclined to nervousness, but not irritable or

vicious 5

Weight at maturity not less than 1500 pounds 4

Total 100

CHAPTER VII
BROWN SWISS

Origin. — There are two distinct and leading breeds of
cattle in Switzerland and several minor ones closely related
to them. In the western portion, including the region around
Berne, the Simmenthaler or Fleckvieh is the common breed.
This is a large-boned, spotted red and white breed used for
milk and beef as well as for work. They have not been im-
ported into this country. The other Swiss breed, known in
Switzerland as the Braunvieh or Schwyz and in America as
the Brown Swiss, is found in the northeast part in the can-
tons of Zurich, St. Galen, Luzern, and Schwyz.

This breed is probably one of the oldest in existence and
is supposed to be descended from the cattle which have been
used in this locality since before historic records began.
According to Keller this breed represents the Bos sondaicus,
the smaller of the two types of wild cattle supposed to have
been domesticated. Bones found in the ruins of the Swiss
Lake Dwellers, which date back to the Bronze Age, show a
type of cattle which are apparently closely related to the
present Swiss cattle. It is not believed that any consider-
able infusion of foreign blood ever has been introduced.
Th'3 Brown Swiss is one of the few breeds originated on the
Continent of Europe that is used outside of its native locality.
This breed has spread over about one half of Switzerland
and largely into the noted dairy districts of Algau in Bavaria.

74

BROWN SWISS 75

They are also in great demand in Germany, Hungary, and
other parts of Europe. Foreign buyers take all the surplus
stock offered for sale. The cows bring from $125 to $150
to be used as milkers.

Conditions in Switzerland. — The total area of Switzer-
land amounts to 15,976 square miles, of which about 71 per
cent is said to be productive. The total number of cows is
approximately three fourths of a million and from these are
produced dairy products sufficient for a population of three
and a half million and surplus dairy products exported to a
value of around $26,000,000 per year. The Brown Swiss
cattle are found from the shores of Lake Constantine at an
elevation of 1400 feet above the sea to near the line of per-
petual snow in the Alps. During the winter season the
cattle are kept in the valleys and stabled closely in rather
warm but dark, poorly ventilated barns and in not especially
sanitary conditions. During this season they are fed almost
entirely upon hay grown in the meadows in the valleys
which is handled with the greatest care and is of exceptional
quality. In addition they are fed turnips, potatoes, and a
small quantity of grain, usually oil cake, but never more
than three or four pounds per day. As spring opens they
are taken to the edge of the valleys and the lower Alps up
to an elevation of about 3000 feet where they are pastured
on an average of about 116 days.1 As the summer advances
the herds are moved upwards to the Middle Alps which are at
an elevation of from 3000 to 6500 feet, where they are pas-
tured on an average of 92 days. In July and August they
are taken on to higher pastures which are called the High
Alps at an elevation of from 6000 to 8500 feet. As winter

1 Baechler-Massuger, Journal British Dairy Farmers' Assoc., Vol. 10, p. 47.

76 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

approaches the cattle are taken to the lower levels. During
the summer season they are out of doors practically all the
time, being sheltered at night during the cold weather and
in case of storms in the temporary shelter sheds which are
built on the mountains. The herds are accompanied by
the herders who remain with them and who take the milk
to the cheese makers. During the summer the milk is used
almost exclusively for cheese making, but during the winter
is used in part for butter making. The calves are usually
born in the spring in the herds that pasture in the mountains,
but in the herds that remain in the valleys, the cows often
freshen in the fall.

Importations to America. — The first cattle of this breed
to be imported to the United States were brought by H. M.
Clark of Belmont, Mass., in 1869. In 1882 an importation
was made by Scott & Harris of Massachusetts. A number of
importations have been made since this time, but never in
very large numbers. Among the recent important impor-
tations was one made in 1904 by McLaury Brothers, of New
York. At the present time they are found in almost every
state, but not in large numbers. The best known herds at
the present time are in Connecticut, New York, and Illinois.
Their spread has not been very rapid, partly because they
have not been extensively advertised. Their increase in
numbers and popularity has been entirely on their own
merits.

Form and Characteristics. — In appearance, animals of
this breed are plain, substantial, and well proportioned, al-
though rather fleshy, and give the impression of being some-
what coarse in the bone and in general make-up. The head
and neck especially are large, contrasted with the English

BROWN SWISS 77

breeds of cattle, and seem rather plain and coarse. The back
is well developed and the hair abundant and soft. As a rule,
the skin is of unusually fine quality. The hind quarters are
full, round, and inclined to be distinctly beefy. The cows
have large, well-shaped udders with teats of sufficient size
to be milked conveniently. Milk veins and milk wells are
of medium development. In size the cows reach an average
weight -of about 1200 pounds and the bulls from 1600 to
2000 pounds. The color varies considerably in shade.
They are called brown, but the prevalent color is more of a
mouse color. The brown varies from a silver gray or light
brown to a dark brown or almost black. The nose, switch,
tongue, and horn tips are always black. The mouth is sur-
rounded by a mealy ring, and a light stripe is always found
along the backbone. Small patches of white on the under
line near the udder are not objectionable, but white on other
parts of the body is not desirable and in Switzerland dis-
qualifies the animal. The uniformity in color markings adds
to the attractiveness. The head, neck, and legs may be
almost black.

In disposition this breed is especially good, being quiet
and docile and easily handled. There are no distinct types
of this breed recognized as is the case with some other breeds,
but there is considerable variation in types, depending upon
where they were raised and for what purpose. Those raised
in the higher altitudes are said to be somewhat smaller than
those raised in the valleys. Some herds have been kept
largely for the purpose of raising work animals, and this has
resulted in these herds being of a larger and coarser type.

This breed is not very early maturing, ranking about
with the Holstein breed or perhaps a little behind in this

78 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

respect. In Switzerland the cows usually come into milk at
about three years of age. While they are rather slow to
mature, they are noted for continuing to be sure breeders
until they reach an advanced age. Their excellent breeding
characteristics which are one of the strong features of this
breed come from the favorable conditions under which they
have been kept and the sensible management.

In Switzerland this breed is considered to be a dual-pur-
pose breed and is usually classed that way in America.
However, recently the Brown Swiss breeders decided that
their breed should be classed in America as a dairy breed
and developed for this purpose. The animals of this breed
produce a fair quality of beef, grow rapidly, and reach a
good size at an early age, but they are not received very well
on the market on account of the large bones and probably
in part from prejudice on account of their similarity in color
to the Jerseys. For production of veal they rank high as
the calves are large at birth and grow rapidly.

Dairy Characteristics. — There are comparatively few
figures available showing production by animals of this
breed in America. One of the leading herds of this breed
owned by E. M. Barton, Hinsdale, 111., includes cows
with the following 12 months' records : —

MILK No. Cows

12,000-13,000 2

11,000-12,000 7

10,000-11,000 8

9,000-10,000 4

8,000- 9,000 10

7,000- 8,000 2

The highest fat yield in this herd is 513 pounds, while 23
are above 400 pounds. These records indicate that this breed

BROWN SWISS 79

has high dairy qualities. The majority of the cows of this
breed can be counted on to produce from 5000 to 7000 pounds
of milk per year with an average fat content of about 4 per
cent.

There are many records in print from cattle of this breed
in Switzerland. The following figures show the average milk
yield for five years of fifty cows owned by an Agricultural
School, Plantahof, Graubuenden, Switzerland: —

LB.

1892 5782

1893 5500

1894 6117

1895 6307

1896 6252

The average per cent of fat during this time was 3.7 per cent.
It is reported by Mr. F. H. Mason, U. S. Consul at Zurich,
that 6000 cows supply the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk
Company an average of 5115 pounds milk per year each,
and that the milk received averages 3.68 per cent fat. The
average per cent of dry matter is given as 12.46 in the milk
received at this factory. In composition the milk of this
breed is well adapted for market milk purposes containing
about the proper amount of fat and solids. In natural color
the milk is about the same as that of the Shorthorn breed.
The milk is well adapted for cheese making, as well as the
average for butter making and for feeding to calves.

No system of Advanced Registration has been adopted in
this country yet. In Switzerland the interests of the breed
are looked after very carefully by a cooperative association
which is subsidized by the government. The animals used
for breeding purposes are approved by representatives of this
association which also holds fairs at intervals which serve

80 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

the purpose of markets for disposing of surplus animals.
The breeding herds are so well controlled by this Association
and their breeding interests promoted so skillfully that the
demand for their cattle has been stimulated in other parts
of Europe and the surplus stock is readily disposed of at
good prices. This organization gives the records of pro-
duction of twenty-eight cows, the dams of bulls offered for
sale, as 9179 pounds of milk with an average fat content of
3.91 per cent and of total solids 13.28 per cent.1

1 Jahrbuch der Schweiz, 1904.

CHAPTER VIII

MINOR DAIRY BREEDS — DUTCH BELTED, POLLED
JERSEY, KERRY, FRENCH-CANADIAN

DUTCH BELTED

THIS oddly colored breed originated in North Holland
and has been bred for over 200 years to produce a perfect
belt of pure white in the center of a coal black body. In
Holland, they are called "Lahenfield " or "Lahenvelder,"
which means a field of white, but conveys the idea of a
white body with black ends. Very little is known of their
history; they are probably descended from the cattle of
Holland, the ancestors of the breed known as Holstein in
America.

This breed first attracted attention about 1750, but the
selection and breeding for the white belt probably began
long before this, possibly as far back as the sixteenth cen-
tury. According to the early records, these cattle were bred
by the Nobility of North Holland, on account of the peculiar
markings. They also bred hogs and poultry with a white
body line somewhat similar. The Lahenvelder poultry of
England and America, the Lakenscheswine of Holland and
Germany, and the Hampshire hog of America that is sup-
posed to have its ori'gin in Hampshire, England, are un-
doubtedly descendants from the herds of the Nobility in
Holland. The development of these animals with this dis-
G 81

82 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

tinct belt of white between coal black ends of the body, is
counted a most skillful work of breeding.

In size, the Dutch Belted cattle rank about with the
Ayrshires. The general form and conformation is more like
that of the Holstein. The cows weigh from 900 to 1300
pounds; the bulls weighing from 1600 to 2000 pounds.
The dairy type is highly developed, being of a highly nervous
temperament and very quiet disposition. Their most dis-
tinctive characteristic is the presence of the belt around the
center of the body. This belt should extend around the
body from just behind the shoulders to just in front of the
hips. Otherwise, the body is coal black.

Importation and Distribution in America. — The first im-
portation of Dutch Belted cattle into America, of which we
have any record, was made by D. H. Haight in 1838. He
made a second importation in 1848. The animals from
these two importations were scattered throughout Orange
County, N.Y., where their descendants are found at the
present time. Robert W. Coleman also imported a large
herd to place on his estate at Cornwall, Penn. The cattle of
this breed in America to-day are nearly all descendants of
these two herds. In 1840 P. T. Barnum imported a num-
ber of Dutch Belted cattle for show purposes, but soon
sent the cattle to his farm in Orange County, N.Y. In
1906 one heifer was imported, but prior to this date none
were imported for a period of over 50 years chiefly on account
of the scarcity of the animals in their native land. Within
recent years, importations have been made into Canada,
Cuba, and Mexico.

In the United States, cattle of this breed are found most
numerously in the Eastern states, especially New York, New

MINOR DAIRY BREEDS 83

Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and the New England states ; a
few are found in the South and several small herds are to be
found on the Pacific coast.

Dairy Characteristics. — The cattle of this breed are re-
puted to be excellent milkers. A few cows hold records of
over 400 pounds of butter per year. At the Pan-American
Exposition at Buffalo in 1901, five Dutch Belted cows were
entered in the cow test in competition with the same number
of cows of nine other breeds. While the five cows of this
breed came out last in the test, they made a very creditable
showing. The average production per cow for this breed
was 4978 pounds of milk and 169.4 pounds of butter fat
during the six months' trial. The average per cent of fat
was 3.4. One breeder in New York, after keeping yearly
records for eight years, reports twenty-five cows and heifer
averaged 9000 pounds of milk for one year. A New Hamp-
shire breeder reports eleven cows in his herd, making an
average of 8579 pounds of milk in one year. One cow in
this herd produced 12,672 pounds of milk in one year and
60,297 pounds in a period of six years with an average butter
production during the same length of time of 596 pounds.

Herd Association. — The Dutch Belted Association which
was organized in America in February, 1886, has registered
between 2000 and 3000 animals. In Holland, the cattle of
this breed are registered in the Netherland General Staur-
buck, published at the Hague.

FRENCH-CANADIAN

This breed is descended from the native cattle of the prov-
ince of Normandy and Brittany, France, and is very closely
related to the Guernsey and Jersey breed on this account.

84 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

The French settlers who came from these French provinces
and settled in Quebec, Canada, brought their cattle with
them and have bred and improved them under the existing
conditions and environment for more than 250 years. They
have become adapted to severe climates and are noted for
their vigor and ability to withstand the cold winters of the
North.

In size and conformation they are very much like the
Jerseys and Guernseys, the cows averaging about 700 to
900 pounds at maturity. They are active and well adapted
to hilly and rough pastures. In color, they are black or
black with a fawn or orange-colored stripe down the back
and around the muzzle. In quantity of milk they compare
with the Jersey, and the fat content averages between 4 and
5 per cent. Five cows of this breed were entered in the
Dairy Demonstration at the Pan-American Exposition at
Buffalo in 1901 and they stood seventh among the ten breeds
represented on the basis of net profit in production. The
five cows averaged 4932.8 pounds of milk and 196.2 pounds
of fat for the six months.

The French-Canadian Herd Book was established in
Canada in 1886. Cattle of this breed are found mostly in
the Province of Quebec, but also in small numbers in other
parts of Canada and in New York and the New England
states.

POLLED JERSEYS

This breed originated in Ohio and is the result of the
effort on the part of a few breeders to develop an animal
with the characteristics of the Jersey, but without horns.
In establishing this breed pure-bred Jerseys have been crossed

MINOR DAIRY BREEDS 85

with animals with alien blood that were hornless, and with
this has been combined the blood of pure-bred Jerseys that
were naturally polled. Animals of this breed have the same
characteristics as their horned ancestors and have won at-
tention on their merits. Nearly 1000 animals have been
recorded.

The American Polled Jersey Herd Book Association was
formed in 1895 with headquarters at Springfield, Ohio. The
first volume of the Herd Book has not yet been published.
Animals must be at least six months old and be born polled
to be eligible to registration. A number of animals are now
recorded in both the American Jersey Cattle Club and in the
American Polled Jersey Herd Book.

Five animals of this breed were entered in the Dairy
Demonstration held in connection with the Pan-American
Exposition at Buffalo in 1901 . The average production of the
five cows for six months was 4065.6 pounds of milk and 190
pounds of butter fat, making an average test of 4.66 per
cent.

KERRY CATTLE

The Kerry, the smallest of all the dairy breeds, is the
native breed of cattle of Ireland where it originated and has
been bred for centuries. Very little is known of the history
of this breed prior to the middle of the eighteenth century.
Pringle writing in 1872 described this breed as "A light,
neat, active animal with fine and rather long limbs, narrow
rump, fine small head, lively projecting eye, full of fire and
animation, with a fine white cocked horn tipped with black,
and in color either black or red." Relative to their size he
described them as follows: "38 inches in height at the

86 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

shoulders, 70 inches in girth, and 42 inches in length from
the top of the shoulder to the tail head and a weight of
about 30 ' imperial stones.' ' In regard to their products
he states, "The average daily yield of milk of a Kerry cow
properly fed and attended to is 3 gallons — a quantity ca-
pable of producing 6 to 7 pounds of butter weekly." An-
other type of the Kerry known as the Dexter Kerry origi-
nated by the introduction of some foreign blood ; it is claimed
by some that they are a result of a cross of the Kerry and
Devon cattle of England. They differ from the original
Kerry by being somewhat larger, very low set, round body,
full hind quarters, and with short, thick legs, a heavy head,
and rather straight horns.

There is very little difference in the two breeds of Kerries
to-day ; the points desired in either type are much the same ;
about the only difference is in the fineness of bone and re-
finement about the head in the true Kerry. The average
cow weighs between 600 and 700 pounds. A black color is
preferable, although other colors are often found. The most
common color 'is black with a little white on udder and under
the belly. They are vigorous and good rustlers, but are
slow in maturing.

There has been a number of animals imported into this
country, but they have not been widely distributed over the
United States. Several herds are to be found in the Eastern
states. The Kerry is best adapted as a family cow. They
give a fair amount of milk containing about 4 per cent of
fat.

CHAPTER IX
DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE

GENERAL DISCUSSION — SHORTHORNS, RED POLLS,
MINOR BREEDS

Definition of the Term. — The term " dual-purpose " is
used to describe those breeds of cattle which are bred for
both milk and beef production in contrast with those called
special purpose which are bred primarily for either milk or
beef. However, the question of beef production in connec-
tion with that of milk is largely one of degree since prac-
tically all dairy cattle are used for beef when their period of
usefulness as milk producers is at an end.

Much of the discussion regarding the question of dual-
purpose as compared with special-purpose cattle comes from
erroneous ideas of what constitutes a dual-purpose animal.
The man who is interested primarily in milk production is
inclined to call every cow that does not produce milk profit-
ably, especially if she shows a tendency toward beefiness, a
dual-purpose cow. The cow in question might more often
be correctly classed as a no-purpose cow. Other dairymen
go to the other extreme, and call such cows as the Holstein
dual-purpose because they have some value for beef produc-
tion.

The breeder of pure-bred Shorthorns often calls any cow
showing a good-sized udder when fresh a dual-purpose cow.

87

88 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

He is inclined to minimize the dairy part of the dual-purpose,
as a rule, but at the same time points to large records
which have been made by animals of the breed as proof that
the breed has dairy qualities.

The true dual-purpose type stands about midway between
the extremes of the dairy type, or large milk producers, and
the beef type with little tendency toward milk production.
A dual-purpose cow is one that produces a medium quantity
of milk for a dairy cow, and that will sell at a fair price for a
beef animal when fattened. A dual-purpose breed is one in
which these characteristics are fixed so they are transmitted
with reasonable certainty. There is occasionally a dual-
purpose Angus or Hereford cow, but these breeds cannot be
so classed, for the reason that this characteristic is not trans-
mitted. Again we find cows in the dual-purpose breeds that
are such remarkable milkers' and show such inferior beef-
making characteristics that they should be classed indi-
vidually as special dairy animals, and not as dual-purpose.
There is such a thing as a dual-purpose cow, if we correctly
define the limitations of the term. It must not be expected
that a cow of this type will compare as a dairy animal with
good individuals of the special dairy breeds, or that her
calves will be able to compete in beef production wi^th those
of the special beef breeds. A dual-purpose cow should be
expected to produce about 200 pounds butter fat per year
against about 300 for an equally good specimen of the dairy
breed, and her calves should make fair beef animals.

Adaptation of the Dual-Purpose Cow. — The question
whether the farmer should breed special-purpose dairy cattle
or dual-purpose when dairy products are sold from the farm
is one that has called forth endless discussion. The view

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 89

represented by one extreme is that if a cow is to be milked
at all, she must be of a special dairy breed, and that no such
thing can exist as a profitable milk and beef producer com-
bined. The other extreme holds to the view that the average
farmer, who produces the largest bulk of the dairy products
of the country, can make the best use of a cow that will
produce a fair amount of milk and at the same time raise a
calf which will be salable for beef purposes.

The question can best be considered by eliminating the
points upon which there is practically no difference of
opinion and concentrating attention upon the points where
there is a chance for difference of opinion.

(1) It is generally admitted by all that cows of the special
dairy breeds will, on the average, produce milk and butter
cheaper than those of dual-purpose type, and that the special
beef breeds excel the dual-purpose in beef production.

(2) The man who intends making dairying his chief busi-
ness, with everything else of secondary order, should make
use of the special dairy cow, and the man who produces beef
animals and does not milk the cows should make use of the
special beef breeds.

(3) The highest development of both milk and beef pro-
duction- cannot be combined in the same animal.

This leaves the general farmer for whom the dual-purpose
cow is adapted, if for anybody. This large class of farmers,
especially in the Central States, sells a number of things from
the farm, among which milk or cream occupies a more or
less important position.

The main question regarding the dual-purpose cow is
whether this type is better adapted for this type of farmer
than the special dairy breed. If a farmer of this class, who

90 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

is using dual-purpose cattle, is asked why he does not use
special-purpose dairy cattle in preference to the dual-purpose,
he will give one or all of the following reasons : —

(1) The calves from the dairy breeds are not salable for
beef purposes.

(2) The cows of the dairy breeds are not salable for beef
when they are no longer useful for milk production.

(3) The cows of the dairy breeds are delicate, and require
better care and attention than he can give them.

There is some ground for these statements. The calves
of the dairy breeds, as a rule, cannot be raised for beef with
profit, and it is often unprofitable even to raise them for
veal.

It is also true that cows of the dairy breeds are not readily
salable for beef when no longer profitable in the dairy, and
when herds are properly weeded out it is necessary to dis-
pose of a considerable number of cows every year. On the
other hand, profitable dairy cows when once secured usually
are kept at a profit for a comparatively long time, and the
difference in return for the milk produced by a cow of the
dairy breed and of the dual-purpose breed .far more than
makes up for the difference in beef value when placed upon
the market. It is also true that cows of the dairy breed
need good attention, or they will not be kept at a profit, but
it cannot be said that they are especially delicate, although
they will be of little value if allowed to go without proper
shelter and food. The dual-purpose cow that produces
milk for a few months during the summer only is as well
adapted as the highly developed dairy cow for the farmer
who will not provide the proper conditions. It requires good
intelligent care to make use of as highly developed an animal

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 91

as the modern dairy cow, and the farmers who are not able
to meet these requirements might as well let her alone.

There is more to recommend the dual-purpose cow in the
corn belt than elsewhere, and here the type is the most
numerous. The typical farmer of this region finds it im-
practicable to secure sufficient labor to carry on a herd of
dairy cows large enough to consume the feed, especially the
roughness, grown on the farm. The raising of a number of
beef cattle allows this surplus roughness which cannot be
put upon the market with advantage to be utilized with
small additional labor.

The dual-purpose cow also serves a useful purpose in
many cases as an intermediate step in changing from a sys-
tem of beef production to milk production when conditions
make this change necessary. That is, when the farmer
who has been engaged in beef production begins to sell dairy
products, he usually milks the cows he has for a time, and
gradually changes toward a dairy type by using dairy-bred
sires. In this way he gains experience in handling dairy
cattle gradually as the herd is developed.

Fully as many difficulties are experienced in breeding dual-
purpose cattle as in breeding special-purpose dairy oat tie.
One of the tendencies observed is for individual breeders to
emphasize either the beef or the milk production side, in-
stead of keeping the two of about equal importance. This
results in dual-purpose breeds varying much in type as bred
by different breeders. The judging of dual-purpose cattle
in the show ring is often unsatisfactory on account of the
lack of a definite standard for such types, and the tendency
of many judges is to 'minimize either the beef or milk-
producing characteristics.

92 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

THE SHORTHORN BREED

Origin and Development. — This breed takes its name
from its characteristic short horns. It is also known in
some localities as the Durham breed, from one of the counties
in which it originated. The original home of the breed is in
Northeastern England, in the counties of Durham, Yorkshire,
and Northumberland, especially in the valley of the River Tees.
In this region the breed was improved and developed, and
from here it has spread over almost the entire civilized world.

The exact origin is veiled in obscurity. The Romans,
Saxons, Danes, and Normans brought their cattle in suc-
cession to England and mixed them with the native stock.
After the invasion of the Normans there was little inter-
change of cattle for several centuries, and during this time
the animals in the rich valley of the Tees probably increased
in size, due to the favorable conditions of climate and food.

It is known that a large type of cattle existed in this
region several centuries before the development of the
modern Shorthorn in the eighteenth century. Early in the
eighteenth century there were two general types, known as
the Tees-water and the Holderness. About this time it is
believed by most authorities, but disputed by others, that
bulls were brought from Holland and used in some of the
herds from which descended the improved Shorthorns.

The beginning of the improvement which resulted in the
modern Shorthorn began about 1780, when Robert and
Charles Colling began their breeding operations, which lasted
until 1818. They are often spoken of as the founders of the
modern Shorthorn breed. Shorthorns as bred by the Col-
ling Brothers were generally good milkers, and this was

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 93

considered by them as an important characteristic of the
breed, to be retained as far as possible. At the same time
they were more interested in developing the general sym-
metry and beef-making characteristics. They followed the
methods of Robert Blakewell closely, practicing in-and-in
breeding constantly.

Toward the latter part of the eighteenth century, Thomas
Bates began breeding Shorthorns. He aimed constantly to
develop a superior dairy and beef animal combined, and
succeeded to a marked extent. Most of the best milkers
among the Shorthorns at present are descended from ani-
mals of this breeding.

The Booth family began breeding Shorthorns about 1790.
They have all along emphasized the beef production, and
paid little or no attention to the dairy qualities.

Amos Cruickshank, who began breeding in 1837, developed
the so-called Scotch type of Shorthorns, which are charac-
terized by superior beef qualities and decidedly inferior dairy
qualities.

The original Shorthorns were counted good dairy animals.
Some very creditable reports are given regarding daily or
weekly production of certain cows in the time of the Col-
lings. It would appear, however, that even then the breed
had the characteristics of the Shorthorn of to-day; milking
heavy for a short time, but lacking persistency.

The Shorthorn cows brought to America during the early
importations were usually at least fair, and some were
exceptional milkers. On account of the general use of this
breed for exclusive beef production in America, the dairy
qualities were generally neglected, and most breeders aimed
only at the best beef animal. This condition was further

94 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

strengthened by the importations of the Scotch type. As a
result, the typical pure-bred Shorthorn as found to-day in
America as a rule has no claim whatever to be called a dairy
animal. In a few localities the original dairy qualities have
been preserved, and it is still possible to find first-class dairy
animals in this breed in these localities. Within recent years
there is an apparent revival of interest in the milking qualities
of this breed, and a number of herds of pure-bred Shorthorns
are now to be found where all cows are milked and records of
individual production kept.

Form and Characteristics. — The Shorthorns vary in type
from the extreme beef conformation to the dual-purpose, with
a few of real dairy form. The latter are exceptional, and not
typical of the breed in America. Shorthorn cows of the
milking types weigh usually between 1200 and 1350 when
mature. A typical cow of this type loses considerable flesh
when in milk ; when dry they fatten rapidly, and show much
more of the beef characteristics.

Red, white, and roan are the typical Shorthorn colors.
In disposition they are quiet and gentle. The calves of this
breed weigh from 70 to 90 pounds at birth, and are strong
and vigorous. In size and vigor the calves are exceeded by
the Holstein and Brown Swiss breeds only among those
commonly used for milk.

Dairy Characteristics. — While the Shorthorn breed is not
counted among the dairy breeds, still enormous numbers of
grades of this breed are milked, especially in the butter-pro-
ducing states of the Mississippi Valley.

The available yearly records of pure-bred Shorthorns
owned by American experiment stations show the following
averages : —

FIG. 25. — Pure-bred Shorthorn cow, " Lula." Dairy type,
year, 12,341 pounds milk, 515 pounds fat.

Record for

FIG. 26. — Pure-bred Shorthorn cow, " Lady Stratford."
London Dairy Show.

First prize,

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE

95

Pounds of milk per year . . . 6017

Average per cent of fat . . . 3.63

Pounds fat per year .... 218

Average per cent total solids . 12.85

No. Cows REPRESENTED

37

40

37

3

The above figures are about typical also of those herds in the
hands of private breeders where some attention has been paid
to the selection of the individual animal, and where fairly
good conditions are maintained. It is considerably higher
than the yield realized on the ordinary farm. At the St.
Louis World's Fair in 1904 the Shorthorns competed against
the Jerseys, Holsteins, and Brown Swiss. Twenty-four cows
averaged 4152 pounds of milk and 153.4 pounds of fat in 120
days, and the leading Shorthorn in both milk and fat production
produced 5207 pounds milk and 208.4 pounds fat in 120 days.

Some very creditable records of individual animals have
been made by breeders that pay attention to the dairy quali-
ties. The private records of a herd in Pennsylvania show an
average for 38 cows of 9031 pounds of milk per year and of
8515 pounds of milk for 52 cows and heifers.

The cow Mamie Clay 2d in this herd produced 47,048
pounds of milk with her first four milking periods.

The following are the best records available for pure-bred
animals of this breed in America at present : —

Cow

OWNER

MILK

BUTTER FAT

Rose of Glenside . .

May & Otis

18,075

625

Lula

U. of Missouri

12,341

515

Panama Lady

U. of Missouri

13,789

490

Florence ....

U. of Nebraska

10,438

424

College Moore . .

la. Agric. College

9,896

407

96 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

The milk of the Shorthorn cow contains on the average
about 12.5 per cent of total solids, of which from 3.60 to 4 per
cent are fat. The milk in color and in size of fat globules
ranks next to the Channel Island breeds, and between them
and the Holsteins and Ayrshires.

Shorthorns in England. — The dairy Shorthorn is the prin-
cipal dairy cow of England to-day and the typical Shorthorn
cow of England as well. Professor Long says : " The milk-pro-
ducing farmer has studied how to increase the flow of milk while
maintaining the characteristic feeding qualities of the breed,
and has succeeded. On the other hand, the great pedigree
breeders have subordinated milk to flesh development, form,
quality, and even color. Where sires and dams are of equally
renowned milking character, the Shorthorn is preeminently
the best dairy cow in the best dairy country in the world."

The milking qualities of the English Shorthorn are shown in
a remarkable way by the results of the milk and butter tests
made at the London Dairy Show. In the eleven years from
1894-1904 inclusive, first place in both milk production and
fat production was won in every case by a Shorthorn com-
peting against Jerseys, Guernseys, Ayrshires, Red Polls, and
Crosses. In seven of these tests the winner was a non-pedigreed
Shorthorn, and in four a registered Shorthorn. Two hundred
and thirty-six pedigreed Shorthorns in these eleven tests
averaged 48 pounds milk and 1.82 pounds fat per day, with an
average of 3.88 per cent fat. One hundred and twenty-one
non-pedigreed Shorthorns averaged 51.8 pounds milk and 1.95
pounds fat daily, with an average of 3.79 per cent of fat.

Breed Organizations. — The registration of pure-bred ani-
mals of this breed is in the hands of the American Shorthorn
Breeders' Association, with headquarters in Chicago. There

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 97

is no provision made for making official tests or recording
dairy records of this breed. The Dairy Shorthorn Breeders'
Association was organized in 1910.

RED POLLS

This breed originated in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk,
England. These are adjoining counties in the eastern part of
England. They are low and flat, with some marsh land.
The soil is naturally diversified, although rather poor, but has
been brought to a high state of fertility by good management.
About 80 per cent of the area is tillable. The climate is gener-
ally typical of England, although the rainfall, which averages
twenty-six inches per year, is less thari the average for England.

The origin of this breed, like that of most others, is uncer-
tain. It seems, from the best information obtainable, that
they have been bred up from the cattle which have been na-
tive to these two counties since a time farther back than ac-
curate historical records go. The beginning of improvement
began in the latter part of the eighteenth century as part of
the widespread movement of that time for improved livestock.

Mr. Euren, the first Secretary of the Red Polled Herd
Book, is of the opinion that the original cattle of this type were
brought to England by the Danes who settled in this part of
England in the fifth century. He does not believe there is any
foundation for the statement often made by writers that Gal-
loway blood was introduced from Scotland by bringing Gallo-
way bulls. However, Youatt, the well-known early English
writer on cattle, and Wallace, a recent writer, attribute
the improvement largely to this source.

In 1804 Young wrote an account of the agricultural con-
ditions in Norfolk and Suffolk, in which he describes the cattle

98 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

of Norfolk as a small, red class of cattle, partly polled and
partly horned. They were bred at this time more for beef
than for milk, and made a poor impression on the writer.
Later the horns were bred off by using probably either Suffolk
or Galloway bulls for this purpose. The beef qualities were
considerably developed, according to some authorities, by in-
troducing Devon blood. In 1818 the cattle of Norfolk began
to be known as Norfolk Polled.

The cattle of Suffolk from the earliest records were known as
remarkable milkers. They were rather small in size, red, brin-
dled, dun or mouse colored, and always polled. Young, writing
in 1804, describes them as follows : " A clean throat with little
dewlap, a clean head, thin legs, a very large barrel, ribs
tolerably springing from center of the back, but with a heavy
belly, backbone ridged, chin thin and hollow, loin narrow,
udder large, loose and creased when empty, milk veins re-
markably large. A general habit of leanness, hip bones high
and ill covered with flesh."

According to the same writer yields of five gallons of milk
per day were not uncommon for entire herds while on pasture.
The breed had the reputation of being the heaviest milkers in
England for their size, and of being especially adapted for
poor pastures and unfavorable surroundings. The Suffolk
cattle were always bred mostly for milk. The cattle of this
county became known as Suffolk Polled. The colors other
than red were bred out during the early part of the nineteenth
century.

The cattle of Suffolk and Norfolk were developed along the
same lines, until about 1846 it was generally recognized that the
two types were so near together that they were practically the
same. The division in name continued until 1862, when at

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 99

the Royal Agricultural Society Show they were first classed to-
gether under the name, Norfolk and Suffolk Polled. In 1882
the name was shortened to the present name of Red Polled.

At the present time the breed is found mostly in the two
counties where it originated, and to some extent in Australia
and New Zealand. They are not found on the Continent of
Europe. They are used in England as a dual-purpose cattle,
and rank in that class about with the non-pedigreed Short-
horns.

Importation and Distribution in America. — Cattle from
the home of the Red Polled breed were undoubtedly brought
to America during the colonial days, but were not kept pure.
These early importations are probably responsible for the
muley red native cows often seen, especially in the Eastern
states, some years ago. The first importation of the improved
type was brought to America in 1873 by Gilbert F. Tabor
of Patterson, N.Y., who also made several later importa-
tions. Several importations were made between 1880 and
1890, and from these mentioned are descended most of the
cattle of this breed now in America.

They are now found in all or nearly all the states of the
Union, but are the most numerous in Ohio, Illinois, Michigan,
Iowa, Wisconsin, and Kansas. The English Red Polled Herd
Book was first issued in 1874. The Red Polled Cattle Club
of America organized in 1883 registers the breed for America.
There have been close to 30,000 animals registered up to
1910.

They have won their way entirely upon their merits, and are
increasing rapidly in those states where dual-purpose cattle
are in demand. They are the most typical arid most popular
of the real dual-purpose breeds.

100 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Form and Characteristics. — In size the Red Polls rank
below the Shorthorn and other heavy beef breeds. The cows
weigh between 1200 and 1300 as a rule, but occasionally one
reaches 1500 or more. The bulls range from 1800 to 2200, with
occasional individuals reaching 2500 at maturity.

In color the Red Polls are a deep cherry red. White may
appear on the tip of the tail, the udder may be white, and a few
small white markings are allowed on the belly. White on any
other part of the body disqualifies the animal, as does a black
nose or even abortive horns.

In form the Red Polls are typical dual-purpose cattle.
In general the conformation is about midway between the
dairy and beef types, as is typical of the dual-purpose breeds.
The general form is parallelogrammic. The head and neck
are lean and of dairy type, with the characteristic poll. The
hind quarters are of moderately good beef form. The udder
is usually somewhat pendulous, and the fore quarters are often
deficient and irregular in shape. The udder is seldom meaty
in character, but usually elastic and mellow in quality. The
milk veins and milk wells are usually fairly prominent. The
teats are inclined to be irregular in shape, and usually large.
In some animals the extreme size of the teats is somewhat
objectionable.

There are no generally recognized distinct types of this
breed at present, although different herds vary widely, de-
pending upon the purpose for which they have been bred.
In some cases the breed is bred only for beef production and
the cows are not milked. In other herds the dairy qualities
are given first place. This results in wide variations in form
and capacity for milk production in different herds. The
judging of Red Polls in the show ring has usually been done

DUAL-PURPOS'E CATTLE 101

mostly from the beef standpoint, which tends to develop the
beef qualities at the expense of the milking qualities. The
Red Polled Cattle Club has recently formulated a scale of
points to assist in establishing a more definite type.

Red Polls are fair breeders, ranking about with the Short-
horns in this respect. In regard to early maturing qualities,
they rank probably rather behind the Shorthorns.

As Beef Producers. — This breed ranks well as beef pro-
ducers, but does not win highest honors in competition as beef
animals. The steers are satisfactory feeders, gain rapidly,
and bring a creditable price. The steers are not so blocky
and compact as those of the strictly beef breeds, and usually
are longer legged. The cows fatten rapidly when they are not
producing milk.

Red Polls as Milk Producers. — This breed ranks high in
this respect for a dual-purpose breed. But few records are
available from herds owned by experiment stations. The
following summary includes all available : —

No. OF ANIMALS

REPRESENTED

Pounds milk per year . . .

5906

9

Average per cent fat . . .

4.03

9

Average yield fat per year .

238

9

In yield of milk the Red Polls are excelled by the Holstein
and Ayrshires and in England by the Dairy Shorthorns, while
they probably slightly lead the Jerseys and Guernseys.

As compared with the Shorthorn breed as found in America,
the Red Polls are much superior as milkers on the average,
while as regarding beef production the conditions are re-
versed. The Red Polls are a real dual-purpose breed accord-

102' 'DAIRY' CATTLE ''AND MILK PRODUCTION

ing to the definition given, since they are quite uniform in
their ability to produce a fair amount of milk and are salable
at a creditable price for beef. Their milk is about the proper
composition to make it most suitable for market purposes or
cheese making. In color of milk and butter the Red Poll ranks
about with the Shorthorn, below the Jersey and Guernsey
and above the Holstein and Ayrshire.

At the Pan American Exposition Dairy Test in 1901, cov-
ering six months, five Red Poll cows stood fifth among ten
breeds. The Red Polled cow, Mayflower 2d, stood second,
among the fifty cows taking part in the test.

A system of keeping authentic records of milk and fat pro-
duction was begun in 1908. The highest record for 1909 was
by Gold Drop, 11,298, with a production of 11,889 pounds of
milk and 511 pounds of fat. A herd owned in Minnesota
averaged 6564 pounds of milk and 259 pounds of fat from 10
mature cows, which included all the herd. Other private
records of merit are: Neva N., 12,204 pounds of milk and 469
pounds of fat ; Mayflower 2d, 10,458 pounds of milk and
469 pounds of fat in one year.

SCORE CARD — RED POLLED COW

DISQUALIFICATIONS — Scurs, or any evidence whatever of a horny
growth on the head. Any white spots on body above lower line or
brush of tail.

Color — Any shade of red. The switch of tail and udder may
be white, with some white running forward to the navel.
Nose of a clear flesh color. Interior of ears should be of a

yellowish, waxy color 2

Objections — An extreme dark, or an extreme light red is not
desirable. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots.

Head — Of medium length, wide between the eyes, sloping
gradually from above eyes to poll. ^ The poll well denned and
prominent, with a sharp dip behind it in center of head.
Ears of medium size and well carried. Eyes prominent;
face well dished between the eyes. Muzzle wide with large
nostrils 6

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 103

Objections — A rounding or flat appearance of the poll.
Head too long and narrow.

Neck — Of medium length, clean cut, and straight from head
to top of shoulder, with inclination to arch when fat-
tened, and may show folds of loose skin underneath when
in milking form 3

Shoulder — Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming

up level with line of back 6

Objections — Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance
of weakness in heart girth. Shoulder protruding above
line of back.

Chest — Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket

prominent and coming well forward 10

Back and Ribs — Back medium long, straight and level from
withers to the setting on of tail ; moderately wide, with
spring of ribs starting from the backbone, giving a rounding
appearance, with ribs fiat and fairly wide apart .... 14
Objections — Front ribs too straight, causing depression
back of shoulders. Drop in back or loin below the top line.

Hips — Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered . . 3

Quarters — Of good length, full, rounding, and level ; thighs

wide, roomy, and not too meaty 6

Objections — Prominent hooks, sunken quarters.

Tail — Tail head strong and setting well forward, long and

tapering to a full switch 2

Legs — Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone ... 3
Objections — Hocks crooked, legs placed too close together.

Fore Udder — Full and flexible, reaching well forward, ex-
tending down level with hind udder 10

Hind Udder — Full and well up behind 10

Teats — Well placed, wide apart and of reasonably good size . 4
Objections — Lack of development, especially in forward
udder. Udder too deep, "bottle shaped," and teats too
close together. Teats unevenly placed and either too
large or too small.

Milk Veins — Of medium size, full, flexible, extending well
forward, well retained within the body ; milk wells of me-
dium size 6

Hide — Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thickness, with a

good full coat of soft hair 5

Objections — Thin papery skin, or wiry hair.

Condition — Healthy ; moderate to liberal flesh evenly laid

on ; glossy coat ; animal presented in good bloom ... 10

Total TOO

General Description — Cow medium wedge form, low set, top
and bottom lines straight except at flank, weight 1300 Ib.
to 1500 Ib. when mature and finished.

104 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

POLLED DURHAMS

This breed originated in Ohio, and has the distinction of
having been developed in America. In reality they are
Polled Shorthorns, since Shorthorn blood was used almost
exclusively in their development. A portion of the Polled
Durhams are pure-bred Shorthorns that are descended from
natural polled animals, and this character was fixed by proper
selection and breeding. These are now known as double-
standard animals. The other branch was formed by breed-
ing the " native " or " muley " cows to pure-bred Shorthorn
bulls. Most of the Polled Durhams are descended from herds
formed in this way. They are found most numerously in
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and other Central and Middle Western
states at the present time.

The American Polled Durham Breeders' Association was
formed in 1889, and the first volume of the herd book was pub-
lished in 1894. To be eligible to entry in the herd book the
animals must carry at least 96J per cent Shorthorn blood
and have the color markings and general conformation of the
Shorthorn and be entirely without horns. Some animals of
this breed are now registered in both the Shorthorn Herd
Book and the American Polled Durham Herd Book.

The breeders have given considerable attention to the de-
velopment of the milking qualities, and as a breed, they excel
the Shorthorn in this respect. The description given of the
conformation, size, and characteristics of the Shorthorns will
answer for a description of this breed, as they are essentially
alike, except that the Polled Durham is hornless. The horn-
less feature has won popularity for this breed. A number of
animals of this breed have been exported into South America
and other countries.

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 105

DEVONS

The Devon cattle are commonly classed as dual-purpose
cattle, and are one of the oldest breeds that originated in Great
Britain. Very little is known of the early history of this
breed, but it is generally believed that they are related to the
Hereford and Sussex breeds. Some writers believe that the
above-named breeds descended from the Devons. These
cattle were bred and developed in Devonshire, England, and
are divided into the North and South Devons. The North
Devons more nearly represent the original and true type of
this breed. The Quartly family of North Devon was largely
responsible for the development and improvement made with
the Devons ; Francis Quartly, particularly, took the lead in
the improvement of this breed, which made them popular.

While the breed are classed as dual-purpose animals to-day,
they originally were bred for milk, beef, and draft purposes
in their native country.

The Devons were first imported into America in 1817.
Several importations have been made since this date, and they
are popular in some localities in the United States, especially
where the production of milk is not the sole object for which
the cattle are kept. Representatives of this breed are found
in nearly every state in the Union. The cows average about
1000 pounds in live weight, and are hardy, strong, and active.
In color, the Devon is a deep red. White markings may ap-
pear on the belly and on the udder. The horns are long, and
turn upwards and backwards.

The dairy characteristics of this breed have never been
very highly developed ; like other dual-purpose animals,
they give a large quantity of milk at the beginning of their

106 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

lactation period, but are not persistent milkers. In a report
made by the New York Experiment Station, the average
butter fat test for 72 head of cattle was 4.15 per cent. Yields
of 5000 pounds of milk per year have been reported. The
interests of this breed are looked after in America by the
American Devon Herd Book Association. The first volume
of the Herd Book was published in 1861.

CHAPTER X
STARTING A DAIRY HERD

SELECTION OF BREED — COMMUNITY BREEDING — PRECAU-
TION AGAINST DISEASE

THE first question that arises in starting a dairy herd is the
question of breed. The tendency is to attach too much im-
portance to this matter, as influencing the success of the ven-
ture. As already emphasized, the importance of making
use of a pure breed of some kind is more apt to be under than
overestimated. As a rule a man that will make a success
with one breed will be about equally successful with another.
The characteristics of the several breeds have been discussed
in a previous chapter, and a study of these descriptions will
enable a choice to be made.

Some consideration must be given to the purpose for which
the product is to be used. For example, if milk is to be sold in
a market where richness is not recognized, breeds giving the
larger yield would naturally be the choice. If butter or
cream is the product to be marketed, other factors need to
be considered.

It is impossible to give data that are satisfactory regarding
the relative production of the breeds. The best figures the
author has been able to gather are brought together in the
table which follows. These are yearly records of pure-bred

107

108

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

animals as reported by experiment stations in the United
States for animals owned by them : —

AVERAGE POUNDS MILK PER
YEAR

AVERAGE PER CENT FAT
FOR YEAR

No. Cows

Lb. Milk

No. Cows

Per cent Fat

Holsteins ....

83

8699

83

3.45

Jerseys

153

5508

154

5.14

Shorthorns ....

37

6017

40

3.63

Red Polls

9

5906

9

4.03

Guernseys ....

17

5509

21

4.98

Ayrshires ....

24

6533

24

3.85

It is assumed that the conditions under which these records
are made are fairly comparable, although certainly no more
favorable than are found in good herds owned by individuals.
The Shorthorn records are from cows selected especially for
milking characteristics, and in many cases other cows of this
breed in the same herd are not milked at all.

Hoard's Dairyman during the past eight years has published
statistics regarding the amount of milk and fat sold at cream-
eries and cheese factories in various states, under the title of
" Cow Census." The following compilation of results is made
by the author from these data published. Only records are
included from herds, the animals of which are designated
under a breed name without any qualification. All described
as "grade" or " mixed" are rejected. While these figures
leave much to be desired regarding accuracy, they serve to
give a general idea of the amount of milk and fat actually
marketed per cow by the producer. A portion of the results
are reported for milk yield only and others for fat.

STARTING A DAIRY HERD

109

No. HERDS

No. Cows

AVERAGE
LB. MILK

AVERAGE
LB. FAT

Shorthorns

48

468

3708

JerseyS

115

83

1139
967

3816

146

Holsteins

123
45

1224
647

5294

201

Ayrsliir6S

34
9

434
175

3801

185

Guernseys

5
4

114
55

4961

191

8

102

238

The figures given represent the amount sold, not the amount
produced. Since most of the herds are small, the product
consumed by the family of the producer would add to the
figures. In some cases probably certain herds did not supply
milk to the factory during the entire year. All breeds are on
the same basis, however, and where the number is sufficiently
large, probably give a fair idea of the amount of product sold
per animal by the average producer. This astonishingly low
production is due largely to the lack of a proper selection of
individuals, and partly to improper feeding and management.

Community Breeding. — Before making a choice as to the
breed of cattle to be developed on any farm, it is well to con-
sider the matter from the community standpoint. Instead of
selecting a breed because it is not well represented in the
community, as is sometimes done, it is much better to develop
a herd of the same breed as already predominates in that lo-
cality. The importance of this community breeding is now
•recognized, and systematic efforts are being made in various
states to promote local organizations for the purpose of fur-

110 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

thering the movement. When a large number of well-bred
animals of the same breed is found in one locality, a com-
munity organization is also possible which creates a new inter-
est in the subject of breeding, and stimulates and educates
the members to take advantage of their opportunities.

When official testing is done, the expense is greatly reduced
by several members of the association having the testing
done at the same time and thus dividing the traveling ex-
penses. Many other advantages follow active work by such
an organization, such as buying cattle or feed together when
desirable, advertising the stock for sale, and combating dis-
ease. As a rule, such organizations include only those inter-
ested in a single breed and within a radius where it is possible
for all to cooperate and attend the meetings.

Where one community has a large number of animals of
the same breed, the fact soon becomes widely known, and a
good market for that class of animals is established. Buyers
are always attracted by the possibility of buying a number
of cattle in one neighborhood, and surplus stock can be dis-
posed of much more readily than where the animals are widely
scattered. Certain localities become known as Holstein cen-
ters, others as Jersey, or Guernsey, and buyers from a long
distance visit these localities, knowing they will be able to find
what they wish to purchase.

It is a great advantage also in regard to breeding animals.
By trading bulls it becomes possible to retain the best bulls in
service, and not only reduce the expense for this purpose, but
also to make wide use of a bull that is found to sire especially
valuable animals.

Starting a Dairy Herd. — The general plan to be followed in
building up a dairy herd will naturally depend upon conditions,

STARTING A DAIRY HERD 111

such as purpose in view, knowledge of the business, resources
at hand, etc. As a rule, the production of dairy products and
not of breeding stock should be made the foundation of the
business. There is no objection or reason why the two should
not be combined, but only in exceptional cases can a man ex-
pect to run a herd as a profitable business on the proceeds of
sales of breeding stock alone.

If the object is the sale of dairy products alone, high-grade
animals serve the purpose equally as well as the registered.
Every grade herd, however, should have a registered bull of
good individual merit and backed by good dairy records. The
use of a good bull and careful selection of individual cows by
keeping records will make it possible to build up a high-pro-
ducing herd within a few years.

There are in general two ways of getting a good herd of
dairy cows together. The first is by purchase, the second by
breeding them. The first is the quicker, but can be followed
only by those having ample capital. As a rule, good dairy
cows cannot be had except at high prices. It is always the
poor milkers that are for sale, and not the good ones. To get
a herd of good milkers together by purchase is possible, but ex-
pensive. As a rule, where cows are all purchased and none
bred, the average production is low and it never gets much
better as long as this course is pursued. In addition to the
certain result of finding that many of the purchased cows are
unprofitable, there is great and constant danger of bringing
disease into the herd with purchased cows. Tuberculosis
and contagious abortion are often brought into a herd in this
manner.

For the majority the best plan is to breed most of the cows
to be used in the herd. If the herd must be started with the

112 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

minimum outlay of capital, the best plan is to begin with the
best cows that can be purchased in the locality ; the herd bull
should be selected with great care, and the poorer cows dis-
posed of as soon as discovered, and replaced with heifers from
the best cows. Within a few years a good herd is on hand
with a small investment, and the owner has gained experience
as the herd develops that will enable him to handle a high-pro-
ducing herd when he has one. A man who has had no experi-
ence with cows, or whose experience has been limited to beef
cattle or ordinary cattle of low dairy quality, is almost certain
to make a failure, if placed at once in charge of a herd of dairy
cows of high milk-producing capacity. A combination of the
two plans is also very good. That is to buy most of the herd
of such common cows as have indications of milking qualities,
and to include a few choice cows and save their offspring most
carefully.

The two things to be most emphasized in building up the
herd are the selection of the herd bull and the elimination of
unprofitable cows by keeping records of production by each
individual.

A few with special liking and adaptation for cattle breed-
ing can make a good success breeding registered dairy cattle
for the purpose of selling the surplus as breeders. Unless one
has plenty of financial backing, the sale of breeding stock
had better be made secondary to the sale of dairy products.
To carry on a high-class herd of registered dairy cattle that will
produce offspring salable at good prices for breeding purposes
requires unusual judgment in the selection of breeding animals
and the keeping of records of milk and fat production. In
addition, business ability of a high order is necessary to make
a marked success along this line.

STARTING A DAIRY HERD 113

Crossing Breeds. — Crossing distinct breeds defeats the
very object for which breeds have been developed. Breeds
have been developed and kept pure in order that certain
characters might become fixed so strongly that they will be
transmitted regularly. Crossing breaks the chain of inherit-
ance, and makes it impossible to predict what will be the
outcome. As a rule, little is gained, and the outcome often
is very disastrous. However, it is a very common practice
with many. A farmer having perhaps a good grade herd of
Jerseys observes the much larger yield of milk secured by his
neighbor who breeds Holsteins and decides to make a Hoi-
stein cross, thinking he will combine the quality of the Jersey
with the quantity of the Holstein. Occasionally this end is
partially attained, but just as often the animal inherits the
quantity of the Jersey and the quality of the Holstein.
The next year the farmer possibly decides his animals are too
small, and uses a Shorthorn to increase the size. The result
of such practice is to lose the breed characters, and the occa-
sional good animal that appears from such a mixture does
not transmit any definite characteristics.

It is a well-known fact that as a rule the first cross between
distinct breeds is good, and some animals may have the good
characteristics of both breeds to some extent. Many in-
ferior animals appear in the second generation, making the
results of crossing unsatisfactory. The proper course to pur-
sue is to first select the breed, after due consideration, thatT
seems to meet the requirements or tastes of the breeder, then
select the best individuals and the ones most likely to trans-
mit these characters from this breed, and continue along the
same line unless it is found after sufficient trial that a serious
mistake has been made.

114 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Guarding against Disease. — The only diseases that are
likely to be brought into a herd by the purchase of animals
are tuberculosis and contagious abortion, and these should
be guarded against with the greatest care.

Tuberculosis does not develop spontaneously. It spreads
only by the transmission of the germs which cause it from an
infected animal. A cow may be badly affected with the dis-
ease without showing any evidence of the fact. The placing
of such an animal with a healthy herd may result in the entire
number contracting the disease within a few months. For-
tunately the tuberculin test makes it possible to determine
accurately whether an animal is infected. In starting a dairy
herd every animal should be subjected to the tuberculin test
by a competent person, and rejected unless sound. If this is
done, and every animal that is added to the herd later is tested
before being placed with the others, this dangerous disease
may be excluded indefinitely. Failure to observe this pre-
caution has resulted in many cases in the infection and loss of
valuable herds.

It is a more difficult matter to guard against contagious
abortion, and the financial losses resulting from it are severe.
There is no means of testing a cow to learn if she carries the
disease. All that can be done is to make careful inquiry re-
garding the health of the herd from which it is desired to pur-
chase stock. It should be understood that the bull as well
as the cows may carry the germs of this disease.

As a rule it is much safer to purchase stock from a breeder
than from a dealer, since in the latter case little or no
information is usually available regarding the dairy qualities
of the cows or as to the health conditions in the herds from
which the animals originally came. Further, animals in the

STARTING A DAIRY HERD 115

hands of dealers have greater opportunity to become infected
with disease from contact with others from many herds.
The safest animals to purchase are the surplus from the
herds of reliable breeders or from a good herd that is being
dispersed.

1 CHAPTER XI
SELECTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL COW

BREEDS are of great value as a means of preserving and
transmitting qualities which have already been developed,
and it is highly important to select a breed adapted to the
purpose for which it is to be used. However, the selection of
the individual cow within the breed is of even more impor-
tance as effecting the economic production of milk.

The highly developed dairy cow of to-day is, to a large
extent, artificial. While it cannot be said with certainty
what the conditions were before cattle were domesticated,
there is little doubt, judging from other species of animals still
in the wild condition, that the cows produced only milk
enough to support the calf for a few weeks until it could sub-
sist on other food. There was probably little difference in
the amount of milk produced by different individuals at this
time, and the milking characteristic was undoubtedly trans-
mitted quite uniformly.

After cattle were in a state of domestication and the milk
became an important article of human food, some attention
began to be paid to developing the milking functions.
Through natural variations, certain animals showed more
highly developed milk-producing functions than others, and
by using these for breeding purposes, and through the stimu-
lation of the mammary glands by better feed and regular

116

SELECTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL COW 117

milking, a change was gradually made in the amount of milk
secreted, and probably to some extent in the quality as well.
While the wild cow possibly produced from one to two thou-
sand pounds of milk in a year, a good dairy cow of to-day
may produce more than this in a single month.

It is a well-known fact and one easy to understand that
when any characteristic or function has been developed to a
higher degree in a breed of animals than existed originally,
the acquired characteristics may not be transmitted regularly.
There is a constant tendency for the characteristics of some
of the ancestors to appear. The farther the animal is de-
veloped from the original form, the more difficult, as a rule, is
the fixing of the acquired characteristics. This explains why
there is such a wide variation in the capacity of individual
cows to produce milk. While the wild cows presumably
varied but little in the milk produced, it is not uncommon
under present conditions for one cow to produce four or five
times as much, or even more, than another individual of the
same breed kept under similar conditions in the same herd.
These individual variations must be expected, and the higher
the development of the dairy cow is carried, the more diffi-
culty will be encountered in keeping up to the desired stand-
ard.

The tendency in any race or breed of animals is to transmit
characteristics normal to that breed or race. This explains
the common observation that only a few of the progeny of a
cow of unusual dairy qualities are the equal of the dam, and
her offspring may be only ordinary for the breed.

While the importance of the selection of the individual cow
has been recognized for a long time by those who have given
the subject thought, it is only within recent years that the

118 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

full significance of individual variation has been appreciated
by those who are engaged in dairy farming. One of the weak-
est points in the system of dairy farming as carried on at the
present time is the failure on the part of a large number to ap-
preciate the importance of this factor of individual selection,
or, if it is appreciated, a failure to give this subject the atten-
tion and time its importance justifies. Even where cows are
milked regularly and the selling of dairy products is a regular
business, the yearly butter production seldom exceeds 250
pounds per cow except in the hands of the special dairyman.
Even among those who are making the sale of dairy products
their principal source of income, the average production is
comparatively low.

The Illinois Experiment Station,1 after testing 18 herds, in-
cluding 221 cows through complete milking periods, reported
the average milk production to be 5617 pounds and fat pro-
duction 227 pounds. The best herd averaged 350 pounds, the
poorest 142 pounds of butter fat per cow. The ten best cows
averaged 389 pounds, the ten poorest 142 pounds of butter fat
per cow for the year. Herds which had been graded up by
the use of a pure-bred sire produced 85 pounds of butter fat
more per cow than did those in which no grading had been
done. These herds were in the hands of men who were
making the production of milk their principal business. As a
result of this investigation it was concluded that at least one
third of the cows in the ordinary herds which were being used
for milk production in that state were unprofitable, and that
on nearly every dairy farm a few cows were kept at an
excellent profit, some at a small profit and some at an actual
loss. A summary of these tests is given in Table 1 : —

1 Circular No. 102, 111. Exp. Station.

SELECTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL COW

119

TABLE 1

PRODUCTION OF AVERAGE BEST AND POOREST Cow IN TWENTY-FOUR
ILLINOIS HERDS

No.

POUNDS MILK

PER CENT FAT

LB. BUTTER FAT

HERD

Cows

IN

HERD

Average

Best

Poorest

Aver-
age

Best

Poorest

Aver-
age

Best

Poor-
est

1

11

5753

6099

4391

4.54

5.17

3.91

262

315

172

2

8

7376

8739

4928

3.19

3.81

3.92

268

333

193

3

5

8057

9454

6719

3.42

3.40

3.27

276

324

221

4

11

6220

7445

4091

3.89

4.82

3.83

242

359

157

6

20

7873

9067

5796

3.62

4.41

3.65

285

399

212

7

10

4525

5507

3412

3.76

4.70

3.78

170

264

129

8

10

4486

6647

2691

4.29

3.09

3.61

193

263

97

10

13

5431

7291

3847

4.18

4.31

4.38

227

315

168

11

9

5969

6531

5552

3.43

3.78

3.01

205

247

168

12

13

4504

6429

2090

3.89

3.80

4.83

175

248

101

15

12

5128

6289

3491

4.03

4.74

3.01

207

299

135

16

9

4608

5293

3752

3.98

4.49

3.99

184

238

150

17

7

4355

6115

3710

3.96

3.31

3.33

173

203

124

19

19

5410

6413

4530

4.11

4.57

3.49

243

293

158

20

15

6106

7530

2980

3.84

3.93

4.56

235

296

136

21

15

5971

8882

4025

4.06

3.75

3.55

243

333

143

23

25

3314

4337

1846

4.28

4.96

4.24

142

216

78

24

9

5921

6911

3478

5.91

6.91

4.64

350

477

161

221

5616

6994

3962

4.03

4.55

3.83

226

301

150

Table 2 gives the results of a year's test made by the Kansas
Experiment Station l of a herd of fifteen cows which shows the
same facts in a striking manner. The table is arranged in three
divisions, the records of the best five cows are placed in the
first group, the records of the next best five in the second
group, the records of the poorest five in the third group. The

1 Erf. Report Nat. Creamery Butter Makers' Association, 1906.

120

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

butter fat is counted at the low price of 15 cents a pound,
and the cost of feed is also on a low basis, but this does not
interfere with the comparison.

TABLE 2

YEAR'S RECORD OF A HERD TESTED BY KANSAS
EXPERIMENT STATION

FIRST LOT

Cow No.

LB.

MILK

PER CENT
FAT

LB.
FAT

COST OF
FEED

VALUE
BUTTER

VALUE OF

BUTTERFAT

COST OF
1 LB. OP

FAT

OVER FEED

FAT

1

9.116

4.21

383.7

$32.80

$60.88

$40.37

$0.085

2

7.015

4.43

310.8

30.61

49.26

28.11

0.098

3

8.054

4.13

332.8

35.59

51.92

27.18

0.106

4

6.504

4.59

289.5

29.26

45.90

25.41

0.101

5

6.509

4.27

277.9

29.20

43.89

23.39

0.105

Av.

7.439

4.28

318.9

31.49

50.37

28.89

0.098

SECOND LOT

6

5.742

3.48

199.8

29.55

31.02

9.22

0.147

7

4.772

3.92

187.0

27.25

29.88

8.27

0.145

8

3.475

5.14

178.6

25.24

28.16

7.60

0.141

9

3.913

4.14

161.9

27.27

25.41

3.41

0.168

10

4.200

3.96

166.3

27.69

25.38

3.28

0.166

Av.

4.420

4.04

178.7

27.40

27.81

6.35

0.153

THIRD LOT

11

3.583

3.79

135.7

26.75

21.39

-0.431

0.197

12

2.903

4.13

119.9

22.89

18.11

-0.87

0.190

13

3.730

4.23

157.8

31.22

24.34

-1.86

0.198

14

2.141

4.74

101.5

24.43

15.30

-6.25

0.240

15

3.089

4.06

128.7

26.32

19.78

-2.35

0.204

Av.

3.089

4.19

128.7

26.32

15.98

-2.82

0.206

Value of food over butter fat.

SELECTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL COW 121

It will be noted that the first lot were kept at an excellent
profit, the average return for butter fat in excess of the cost
of feed was $ 28.89 per animal and cost of fat per pound 9.8
cents. The second group were kept at an expense of only
$ 4.09 less than the first group, while the value of their prod-
uct on the average was $22.54 less. Each cow in this group
produced only $6.35 worth of butter fat in excess of the
cost of feed. The third group of five cows were kept at an
expense of $5.17 each less than those in the first group.
They produced such a small amount of fat that it lacked
$2.82 of being equal to the value of the feed consumed. In
this case, one third of the herd were entirely unprofitable.
It is very evident that a larger net profit would have been
made had the third lot been culled from the herd in the
beginning. In addition to a loss of $2.82 each on the feed,
there is to be considered the labor of caring for this third
lot, the interest on the money invested, and the room
occupied in the barn.

Table 3 gives the summary of twelve months' production
for 719 cows owned in the Southern States, based upon records
made by representatives of the Dairy Division, United States
Department of Agriculture.1 These data show the same wide
variation in the cost of production by individual cows as
found in the investigations previously noted. In this case
the best cow produced butter at a cost of 13.4 cents per pound
as compared with 37.1 for the least profitable. The best cow
consumed feed worth $3.00 for each $1.00 expended for the
poorest but at the same time she gave a return of $8.30 for
each $ 1.00 by the inferior animal.

1 Twenty-fifth Annual Report Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Dept.
Agriculture, p. 67.

122

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

TABLE 3

RESULTS OF TWELVE MONTHS' RECORD FOR 719 Cows IN THE

SOUTHERN STATES

AVER-

AVER-

AVER-

AVER-

AVER-

POOR-

AGE OF

AGE OF

AGE OF

AGE OF

ITEMS

AGE OF

BEST

EST

BEST

POOR-

BEST

POOR-

719

Cow

O^T«ra

Cow

10

EST 10

30

EST 30

L/OWS

Cows

Cows

Cows

Cows

Milk produced, pounds . .

4299.40

8325.50

1125.00

8681.90

1577.60

7326.00

2099.60

Butter fat produced, pounds .

216.84

538.79

64.12

459.00

77.21

391.75

100.70

Value of butter fat at 28c a

pound

$60.71

$150.86

$17.95

$128.52

$21.62

$109.69

$28.20

Value of skim milk at 20c a

hundredweight ....

8.17

15.57

2.12

16.45

3.00

13.87

4.00

Total value of products . .

68.88

166.43

20.07

144.97

24.62

123.56

32.20

Cost of feed per cow ....

36.27

72.03

23.80

65.73

24.63

54.83

27.36

Profit per cow

32.61

94.40

— 3.73

79.24

— 0.01

68.73

4.84

Cost of producing 1 Ib.

butter fat, in cents . . .

16.70

13.40

37.10

14.30

31.90

14.00

27.20

Returns for each $ 1 in-

vested in feed

$1.90

$2.31

$0.84

$2.20

$1.00

$2.25

$1.18

Profit on each $1 invested

in feed ....

0.90

1.31

-0.16

1.20

0.00

1.25

0.18

This table shows the best thirty cows produced about three
and one half times as much as the poorest thirty cows. The
former gave a return of $2.25 for each dollar invested in
feed to $1.18 for the latter. The best individual produced
nearly eight times as much as the poorest.

Table 4 gives interesting data from the Storrs Experiment
Station herd covering a period of five years. In this herd
of 40 animals several were below the line of profit the first
year. After the second year as a result of culling, all animals
were kept at a good profit.

SELECTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL COW

123

TABLE 4

COMPARISON OF THE FIVE MOST PROFITABLE AND THE FIVE LEAST
PROFITABLE Cows IN THE STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION HERD
FOR FIVE YEARS 1

YEAR

COST OF FOOD

YIELD OF FAT
IN LB.

PROFIT

1899
Five most profitable cows .
Five least profitable cows .

$56.54
52.02

304.2

188.6

$26.91
-4.09

Difference

1900
Five most profitable cows .
Five least profitable cows .

$4.52

$60.30
45.38

115.6

377.4
164.4

$31.00

$43.27
-JT75

Difference

$ 14 92

213 0

$4902

1901
Five most profitable cows .
Five least profitable cows .

$53.24
43.38

375.3
217.2

$44.25
15.68

Difference ....

$9.86

158.1

$28.57

1902
Five most profitable cows .
Five least profitable cows .

$59.52
51.45

376.2
236.6

$43.71
13.71

Difference

$8.07

139.6

$30.00

1903
Five most profitable cows
Five least profitable cows .

$59.46
56.11

365.5
268.9

$40.23
17.67

Difference

$3.35

96.6

$22.56

Here we find the average cost of feeding the most profitable
cows during five years was $ 8.14 each per year more than the
cost of feeding the five least profitable cows for the same
length of time, while the difference in the production of the

1 Bulletin No. 29.

124

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

two groups averaged 144.5 pounds of fat. In this case the
additional fat produced by the best cows cost only 5.6 cents
a pound.

The best Jersey cow in the University of Missouri herd aver-
aged 9,289 pounds milk and 437 pounds of butter fat for five
years, as compared with an average of 2,503 pounds of milk
and 122 pounds of butter fat for 3 years by the most inferior.
The best Holstein averaged 15,525 pounds of milk for five years,
in contrast to 5,681 pounds for three years by the poorest.

The data below are from the records of the Iowa Experiment

Station.1

TABLE 5

FROM FOUR YEARS' RECORDS OF THE IOWA EXPERIMENT
STATION

DESCRIPTION OF Cow

LB. OP
MILK
PRODUCED
PER YEAR

PER CENT
FAT

LB. BUT-
TER FAT
PRODUCED
PER YEAR

COST OF
FEED

Best Holstein

12,111

3 81

461

$2983

Poorest Holstein ....

6,667

3.16

211

21.71

Difference

5,444

250

$8 12

Best Shorthorn

9,869

4 12

406

$27 38

Poorest Shorthorn . . .

3,059

3.50

107

23.83

Difference

6,810

299

$3 55

Best Red Poll

7,225

429

310

$2532

Poorest Red Poll ....

5,249

3.85

202

25.24

Difference

1,976

108

$0008

Best Jersey

6,523

7.00

456

$2626

Poorest Jersey .

4087

494

202

1854

Difference

2,436

254

$7.72

Data prepared by the writer but not published.

SELECTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL COW 125

The data given include four years, 1897-1900, and the feeds
used were charged at the current market price, which was
very low at that time. The difference in cost of feed between
the best and poorest Holstein was $8.12, while the best cow
produced 250 pounds more fat. The difference in cost of feed
for the best and poorest Shorthorn was $3.55, and one ex-
ceeded the other 299 pounds in butter fat. In the case of the
Jerseys the difference in the cost of feed was $7.72, and in the
amount of fat produced 254 pounds. In the data given from
the Iowa Experiment Station it cost from $ 5 to $ 12
more to feed the cow that produced 300 to 400 pounds of fat
than it did to feed the ones producing 150 to 250 pounds.

At the Storrs Experiment Station the most profitable cows
were fed $8.14 worth of feed in excess of that given the least
profitable. The data given from the Southern States indicate
that the thirty best cows consumed $ 27.47 more feed and
produced 291 pounds more butter fat each than did the
poorest thirty animals. The general conclusion can be
drawn, based upon the above, that it costs from $ 5 to $ 30
more per year to feed a cow, depending upon the price of
feeds, that will produce 300 to 400 pounds of fat, than it does
to feed a cow producing from 100 to 200 pounds of fat.

These figures illustrate very closely the conditions as they
exist in the average herd of cows that are kept for milking
purposes. The farmer too often makes the mistake of think-
ing that a certain number of cows should give a certain
amount of product, and that the sum received from his herd
should be comparable with that received from another herd
of the same size. The point is overlooked that it is not
quantity, either of milk produced or the number of animals
kept, that determines the profit, but the income in excess of

126 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

the cost of production. In any herd of 15 or 20 cows that has
not been carefully culled a greater total profit will be realized
by retaining from one half to two thirds of the herd and dis-
posing of the inferior ones. This is especially true of herds
composed of common grade and dual-purpose animals.

One cow producing 300 pounds of fat in a year makes vastly
more net profit than do two producing 150 pounds each,
although the total production is the same in each case. The
reason can be easily understood when we consider the use
which the animal makes of its feed. The first use to which
the cow puts the feed given her, as is the case with any animal,
is to maintain body, which in this case is keeping the machinery
for milk production. The feed necessary for this purpose is
called the ration of maintenance. With an ordinary cow pro-
ducing 200 pounds of fat in a year, the ration of maintenance
represents from 50 to 60 per cent of the feed she consumes ;
in the case of a better producing cow about from 40 to 50 per
cent of her ration ; while an extraordinary producing cow may
not use over 35 per cent of her ration for this purpose. This
may be looked upon as a fixed charge which has to be made in
case of every animal, and since in any, except especially good
producing herds, at least half of the feed will be used for this
purpose it is clear that keeping two cows to do the work of one
is increasing the total amount of feed used by something like
25 per cent.

Cause of the Variation in Individual Animals. — An ex-
tensive investigation is reported by the Missouri Agricultural
Experiment Station on this point.1 Two registered Jersey
cows were used; the better, known as No. 27, during the first
two lactation periods produced 3.9 pounds of fat and 2.8

1 Research Bulletin No. 2.

SELECTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL COW 127

pounds of milk for each pound produced by No. 62, the in-
ferior cow kept in the same herd. These two cows were bred
so they calved one week apart, and were kept under the fol-
lowing conditions : —

1. Complete record kept of amount and composition of
feeds consumed.

2. Ration fed the two cows of the same composition at all
times, the amount varied to suit the individual.

3. Cows kept at uniform weight.

4. Complete records made of milk produced and of its
composition.

5. Cows kept farrow.

6. Digestion trial conducted when the cows were at their
maximum production.

7. Cows kept on maintenance for four months at the end of
the milking period to determine maintenance. Maintenance
ration of the same composition as that fed when produc-
ing milk to determine maintenance in terms of the ration
fed.

The results were as follows : during the year, No. 27,
the better cow, produced 8522 pounds of milk and 469 pounds
of fat, while No. 62, the inferior cow, produced only 3188
pounds of milk and 169 pounds of fat.

(1) The maintenance requirement was practically the
same for each.

(2) The coefficient of digestion was almost exactly the
same.

In the following tables are given the feed consumed during
the year, the amount of feed required for maintenance,
and the amount available for milk production by the two
cows.

128

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

SHOWING PORTION OF RATION AVAILABLE FOR MILK PRODUCTION

No. 27
IN POUNDS

GRAIN

HAY

SILAGE

GREEN FEED

Consumed during year in milk
Maintenance for year
Available for milk production

3424.0
1200.8
2223.2

2904.0
1204.5
1699.5

8778.0
4818.0
3960.0

4325.0
4325.0

SHOWING PORTION OF RATION AVAILABLE FOR MILK PRODUCTION

No. 62
IN POUNDS

GRAIN

HAY

SILAGE

GREEN FEED

Consumed during year in milk
Maintenance for year
Available for milk production

1907.0
1065.8
841.2

1698.0

1065.8
632.2

5088.0
4292.4
795.6

2102.0

2102.0

Below is given the ratio between the fat produced by the
two cows and the ratio of available feed.

No. 62

No. 27

Available feed

1

264

Fat production

1

277

The interpretation of the above is that after the mainte-
nance is supplied practically the same amount of food was
required by each for a pound of fat. The real difference be-
tween the cows was that with No. 62 the capacity for using

SELECTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL COW 129

food for producing milk was limited to about one third that of
No. 27. That is to say, No. 27 was a more efficient milk-pro-
ducing machine on account of a greater capacity to use food
above maintenance. The food she consumed was not used to
any better advantage than that eaten by the inferior cow.

No. 62 required 55.8 per cent of her ration for maintenance,
and No. 27 only 35 per cent.

The problem may be illustrated graphically by the lines
below : —

No. 27
Ration of maintenance Used for milk production

I 1 1

35 per cent of ration 65 per cent of ration

Ration of
maintenance

No. 62

Used for milk
production

55.8 per cent
of ration

44.2 per cent
of ration

From the standpoint of economical production No. 27 is a
very profitable cow, while No. 62 does not pay for her feed.
In the course of the above investigations the data were com-
pared from two other Jersey cows, and the statements given
found to apply to all.

By the foregoing statement it is not meant that the su-
perior cow had a greater digestive capacity necessarily than
the inferior. The experiment above described explains how
the two animals used the feed given them, but it does not in-
dicate the real reason why the one animal secreted three times

130 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

as much milk as the other. Physiologists have made many
researches with the object of determining what governs the
secretion of milk. The matter is far from being understood
at present. It is probable, however, that a substance is se-
creted in the body somewhere, possibly by some part of the
reproductive organs, that circulates with the blood. This
substance, whatever it may be, stimulates the udder gland to
produce milk. The amount of this substance that a certain
animal will secrete is hereditary, although influenced to some
extent by the feed and other conditions. A good dairy cow is
one that has inherited the power to form a large amount of
this substance. An inferior dairy cow, like No. 62 in the ex-
periment reported, is one that does not produce a sufficient
amount of this stimulating principle. From this viewpoint
the selection of the cow is choosing the one that has a strong
stimulation to produce milk.

Another experiment made by the writer illustrates how
strong this stimulation to produce milk is with a highly de-
veloped dairy cow. A mature Jersey cow was fed a liberal
ration while dry ; she calved in more than moderate flesh. Her
ration was then adjusted to supply only nutrients sufficient
to support the body, leaving nothing for producing milk.
She was compelled either to cease producing milk or to make
it from the reserve on her body. This was continued for 30
days. At the end of this time she was producing only one
pound of milk per day less than in the beginning, but was so
weak she could hardly get up without assistance. During
this time she lost 115 pounds in her weight, and produced over
90 pounds of solids in the milk from her own body.

According to the view expressed the high-producing cow
secretes milk on account of the strong stimulation she has in

SELECTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL COW 131

her body. To replace these nutrients she has a keen appetite,
and consumes a large amount of food. The point is, she
consumes the heavy ration because she produces a large
amount of milk. The consumption of the heavy ration is
the result and not the cause of the heavy milk production.
This subject is further discussed in connection with feeding,
to which it bears an important relation.

CHAPTER XII
HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE

THERE are two means of selecting dairy cows to obtain the
characteristics desired : that is, individuals capable of using
the maximum amount of feed for milk production. The first
of these is by the conformation or type of the animal, and the
second is by keeping records of the production of each individ-
ual animal.

There is no doubt that there is a dairy form or type that
generally goes with large milk and butter production. This
type is sufficient, as a rule, to enable competent judges to se-
lect very good cows from inferior ones, as described previously.
However, dairy type alone cannot be depended upon as a
means of selecting the best dairy animals from among a num-
ber of good ones. As a rule, it is possible to select cows that
are capable of producing from 300 to 350 pounds fat in a year
from those that will produce one half that amount, but it is
practically impossible to select a cow capable of producing 400
to 500 pounds of fat from one producing 300 pounds of fat.
Often even those most familiar with the subject will make
decided errors in selecting animals by this means. Within
the limits given selection by conformation can be made use of
by an intelligent and observing person.

In case an animal is to be purchased for which no records
of production have been kept, the buyer must depend mostly

132

FIG. 29. — "Bessie Bates," a pure-bred Jersey ; bred by the University
of Missouri. Record, 13,885 pounds milk, 680 pounds fat. A good
type and a great producer.

FIG. 30. — An example of the difficulty in selecting by type,
dairy type, but a very inferior dairy cow.

Of fair

HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE 133

upon the evidences of dairy characteristics as shown by the
animal, and it will be well to depend upon these rather than
to attempt to select by weighing and testing the milk for a
single milking, or even an entire day. As a rule, in such a
case the conformation of the animals should be depended upon
as an indication of dairy quality rather than statements re-
garding the production of the animal, unless such statements
are based upon actual weights and tests taken.

Selection of Cows by Test. — The only satisfactory way
to select the profitable from the unprofitable in a herd of dairy
cows is by keeping records of the amount of milk produced and
testing for butter fat at regular intervals. While it is only oc-
casionally that cows may be purchased at the present time
that have records of milk production, there is no excuse when
the animals are once in the herd for not keeping records in or-
der that the unprofitable ones may be rejected from the herd
as soon as possible. In making such records it will depend
upon the use made of the milk as to what records are made.
If milk is sold by measure or by weight regardless of the fat
content, the producer is interested in the amount of milk pro-
duced; while if butter fat is sold, or if the- price of the milk is
based upon the butter fat, then the quantity of milk and the
per cent of fat both need to be considered.

Overrating the Importance of Rich Milk. — A common
mistake made in judging of the value of cows is attaching
undue importance to the richness of the milk. The cow that
gives the richest milk does not necessarily produce the largest
quantity and is not necessarily any better or even as profit-
able as the cow yielding milk with a smaller per cent of fat.
It is the total fat production that counts. The fallacy
of depending upon the per cent of fat in the milk as an

134 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

index of the value of the cow is shown clearly by com-
paring the records of the best Holstein cow and the best Jersey
cow as given in Table 5 from the records of the Iowa Ex-
periment Station. There will be noticed that in this case the
per cent of fat in the milk of the best Jersey was 7 per cent,
while that of the Holstein was 3.81 per cent. Judging by the
per cent of fat alone, the Jersey would have been counted a
much better animal, while the total fat production for the year
was 5 pounds less with the 7 per cent of fat than with the com-
paratively low per cent of fat of the Holstein. In this case, if
the animals had been judged by the amount of milk produced,
the best Holstein would have been counted much better than
the best Jersey, as she produced nearly double the amount of
milk.

Table 6 is compiled from the records of the University of
Missouri herd. The milk, per cent of fat, and total fat
production for a year is given for some of the best and some of
the poorest in each breed.

These figures show that high fat production is not neces-
sarily connected with a high average per cent of fat. In fact,
as a rule the highest production of fat is accompanied with a
per cent of fat average for the breed or lower. No general
rule can be drawn on this point. In many cases the cows hav-
ing the lowest fat production in the herd have the highest fat
percentage, while in other cases the fat content of their milk
is also low. The point to be kept in mind is that cows vary
far more in total milk production than they do in the fat con-
tent.

In the figures given, one Jersey produced over five times as
much milk as another, and this is not unusual with any breed.
It might be possible to find one cow that would show an aver-

HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE

135

age fat content double that of another in the same breed, but
such extremes would be very exceptional. In a pure-bred
herd the average per cent of fat seldom varies more than one
fourth from the lowest to the highest. The fat content of the
milk of each individual cow becomes of more importance when
herds of mixed breeds are used than is the case where the blood
of one breed predominates in all. This comes about on ac-
count of the wide variation in fat content between breeds ; and
in animals of mixed breeding it is impossible to tell without
testing what characteristic has been inherited regarding the
fat content of the milk.

TABLE 6

RELATION OF PER CENT OF FAT TO TOTAL FAT PRODUCTION
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI HERD

BREED

HERD No.

YIELD MILK
PER YEAR

TOTAL FAT
YIELD

AVERAGE
PER CENT
FAT

Jersey

1

13,895

681

4.90

Jersey

16

12,729

634

498

Jersey

124

13 322

625

469

Jersey

62

3,188

169

5.31

Jersey

5

2 797

176

620

Jersey

45

2,849

126

4.60

Holstein

204

18,405

618

3.41

Holstein

211

17 692

519

2.93

Holstein.

214

5,436

212

3.92

Holstein

205

6,387

208

3.20

Shorthorn ....
Shorthorn ....
Shorthorn ....

403
401
400

13,789
12,341
4,543

490
515
195

3.55
4.17
4.20

In communities where milk is sold to factories on the butter-
fat basis certain herds are often considered the best in the

136

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

community simply because the per cent of fat from these herds
is the highest ; but this should not be taken as evidence that
these are the most profitable herds.

There are three things that should be known in order that
the relative profits may be known from the individual animals.
These are the amount of milk produced, the per cent of fat,
and the amount of feed consumed. In regard to variations
between individual animals, these three factors stand in the
order named.

Keeping Complete Milk Records. — The only plan of
keeping milk records which is entirely satisfactory is that of

keeping complete daily

(js^t (f~\ records of each individual

animal. This appears to
be a very large undertak-
ing to the dairyman who
has never followed such a
plan, but it does not re-
quire as much work as is
usually anticipated, and
the advantages which
follow are sufficient to
justify the expense of
labor required. A pair
of spring balances should

be provided and hung at a point convenient for the milkers
and a suitable milk sheet placed on the wall beside the
scales. One of the advantages of keeping complete daily
records of milk production is that it makes possible the
feeding of the individual cows with the greatest economy.
It is impossible to feed economically unless the amount

FIG. 31. — Scales for weighing milk.

HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE 137

of milk produced by the individual is taken into account;
and unless a daily record is at hand, there is no basis upon
which to estimate the amount of feed each individual
requires. Daily records also enable the herdsman to de-
tect sickness quicker than would otherwise be the case. If
there is a noticeable decline in the amount of milk produced,
with no apparent cause, it is certain the animal is not in the?
right condition and will probably show a more marked case of
sickness very soon, if not properly treated. When such a
sudden decline occurs, the herdsman, by adjusting the ration
and giving the cow some special attention, will be able in
many cases to prevent the development of what might be a
serious case of sickness.

Again daily weighing makes it possible to judge of the work
done by different milkers. It is a well-known fact that some
milkers are able to secure much more milk from the same
cows than are others. This difference may be as much as 25
per cent, or even more. Especially where there are several
milkers in the same herd, it is impossible to form a fair estimate
of their work unless each man milks the same animals regu-
larly and each lot of milk is weighed and recorded.

Without records certain cows often become favorites of the
milkers for some reason, either on account of the disposition
of the animal or the easy milking; and these favorites are
held to be the best cows by the milker; and often the truth
regarding their value cannot be told except from the records.
It is the experience of all who have adopted the plan that the
advantages above enumerated more than pay for the extra
time required. The greatest advantage, of course, is making
it possible to know the profitable cow and dispose of the in-
ferior animals.

138

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

._A NAHE AND NUflBER OF ANIMAL

^

.

•

• ATI

1 Pn

2 An

3m

4p°n

t- AH
0 Prl

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p.n

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27p^

28^

29^

30^;"

3 1™

H3 COIT. FAT

FIG. 32. — Milk sheet. A form for keeping daily records of 18 cows
for one month.

HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE

139

When complete milk records are kept, as is recommended, it
is sufficient to take a sample covering from three to five days
each month for the butter-fat test. The best plan is to take a
mixed or composite sample, as it is called, for three days in the
middle of the month. This is tested for butter fat, and the
result counted as the average for the month.

Monthly Tests. — Another plan of keeping records of in-
dividual cows, which is well adapted for use by those who feel
they cannot spend the time necessary to take daily milk

Qo w

N a-

u

Co v^

rs a

C o w
NA

Cow

M °-

4

Co vv

N -

Cow

N£.

®

C o vv
fs/«-

7

4 AH

14 Pn

tsAn
5pn.

A.M

16 PH

TOTflL

PER DAY

TOTAL
\

nonTH

%FAT

TOTAL
FttT

FIG. 33. — Form for keeping milk records, weighing three days per month.

140 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

records, is to weigh the milk and make tests for per cent fat at
monthly intervals. In carrying out this method, the best
arrangement is to weigh the milk from each individual cow
for three days about the middle of the month. A composite
or average sample of the milk is also taken during the same
time, which is tested for per cent of fat. The average milk
and fat produced for the three days is taken as the average for
that month. This should be carried out regularly each month
during the year. The total production of each cow as shown
by such tests is close enough to the actual for all practical pur-
poses. The objections to this plan are that the owner often
forgets to take samples when it is not done regularly. The
^advantages of having daily milk records as guides for
feeding and for checking up milkers should be taken into
account.

Fig. 33 shows a suitable form for keeping the weights for
the three days. The totals for the month can be kept in the
form illustrated in Fig. 34.

Testing at Intervals of Three Months. — Another method
which has less value than either of the foregoing, but is better
than no testing at all, is to make the weights of the milk
produced by each animal and a sample covering seven days'
time at intervals of three months, then from this week's
average calculate the production for three months, of which
this is the middle week.

Method of Taking and Testing Samples. — Where many
samples are to be taken, the most convenient and accurate
method is with a sampling tube which can be purchased from
a dairy supply company. In taking a sample with this
arrangement, the sampler, which is a brass or copper tube,
is lowered in the pail of milk and then closed. The milk

HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE 141

remaining in the tube is placed in a pint glass jar bearing the
name or number of the cow. These jars must be kept covered
tightly to prevent evaporation. If a sampling tube is not
at hand, a fairly accurate sample may be prepared by taking
equal quantities of the milk from each milking with a very
small dipper and placing in a jar provided for that purpose.
Some preservative is used to prevent the souring of the milk
before the time for testing. For this purpose formaline,
which may be purchased from any drug store, is one of the
best agents. Ten drops of this substance will be sufficient
to preserve half a pint of milk for several days. A small
amount of corrosive sublimate serves the same purpose.
This substance is a strong poison, and for this reason milk con-
taining it must be handled very carefully. A quantity as
large as a grain of wheat is ample to preserve a sample for
testing. It is well to use prepared tablets containing a color-
ing matter, or to add some common dye to prevent the milk
from being used for food by mistake.

The samples when complete are to be tested by the Bab-
cock test. The reading of the test is per cent butter fat,
or pounds of pure fat per 100 pounds of milk. The total
yield of milk multiplied by the per cent of fat gives the total
fat yield. If the cream from this milk should be separated
and churned into butter, a larger quantity of butter would be
obtained than there was of butter fat. This results from the
incorporation of some curd, considerable water, and a small
amount of salt with the fat, the mixture being ordinary
butter. If proper methods are followed, the yield of butter
will exceed that of fat by about one sixth, which is known as
the overrun. In estimating the amount of butter from the
butter fat it is customary to add one sixth to the butter fat.

142 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

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INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE

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144 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

In examining records of dairy cows, care should be observed
to distinguish between butter fat and butter records.

Form of Keeping Record. — In keeping records of the pro-
duction of individual animals one of the first essentials is to
arrange a system to be followed. In many cases those who
have undertaken to keep records of milk and fat production
have not carried out their intentions long, for the reason that
they started without any carefully prepared plan and with no
convenient way to keep their records. Figure 32 shows a
convenient form of arrangement for recording the daily milk
yield for a month. As a rule, only the totals by months are
used for references later. A permanent book should be pro-
vided for preserving these totals in a convenient form. Figure
34 illustrates a satisfactory plan used by the University of
Missouri since 1892.

This form of record is especially valuable when the herd
consists of pure-bred animals. A book is ruled or purchased,
having the two pages, as illustrated in Fig. 34, opposite each
other. On the left page are recorded the pedigree of the animal
and the record of calves. On the right-hand page are recorded
the yield of milk by months, the per cent of fat, and the total
fat yield. It will be noted that the months of the year are
arranged in order, 24 months being found in each column.
In entering a year's record of a cow, the first month's record
is entered opposite that month the first time it appears,
beginning at the top of the column. It leaves room in every
case for at least 13 months' record.

At the end of the milking period the record is added and
the total inserted. In finding the average per cent of fat,
the total fat yield should be divided by the total milk to give
the true average per cent of fat. An average found by add-

HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE 145

„,!•.«•

From view of Frame (Complete}

u

|«Mltudinal Sec iii
<hr«vjh (enter

Cross Section Threujh
Upper Half

FIG. 35. — Frame for holding milk record sheets.

146

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

ing the monthly tests, and dividing by the number made,
does not give a true average, but usually a figure somewhat
too high, since the amount of milk usually is small when the
per cent of fat runs the highest.

Danish Test Associations. — So far the American farmer
has been slow to carry out the details of keeping records of
individual cows in his herds, even when he is convinced that
it should be done. In Denmark, where the same necessity
for selecting individual cows was recognized earlier and was
even more important than here on account of the higher
priced land and more expensive feeds, a system of cooperative
test associations has been adopted, which seems to solve the
difficult problem of getting this work done. The first cow-
testing association was established at Askov, Denmark, in
1895.1 The plan was at once successful, and spread rapidly
over Denmark and into other nations as well. The following
data2 give the number organized up to 1904.

DENMARK

SWEDEN

NORWAY

GERMANY

FINLAND

1895

2

1896

13

1897

15

1

1898

58

1

1

1

1899

82

7

5

1

1

1900

49

20

13

1

1901

41

42

46 ^

5

1

1902

47

66

42

9

3

1903

55

51

30

11

5

1904

28

86

23

34

10

Total ....

390

273

160

62

21

1 Buer, Die danischen Kontrollvereine.

* Bui. 137, Michigan Dairy and Food Department, 1907.

HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE

147

The organizations are cooperative in nature, but receive
a subsidy of about $ 60 per year from the government. The
organization is formed by the farmers of a neighborhood
owning from 300 to 1000 cows. A man is employed, usually
a student from an agricultural school, to do the testing. The
tester, or Control Assistant, as he is called, is also expected
to be able to advise the farmers regarding the feeding and
breeding of the dairy cattle. Each herd is visited in turn, the
frequency depending upon the number; the milk is weighed
for one day, the fat content determined by the Gerber
method, and a record of the feed consumed by each animal
is taken. All records are kept for the owner by the tester.

The Danish system of expressing cost of production in feed
units is followed, and the records show the amount of milk
and fat produced by each cow, the amount of feed required,
and the results per 100 feed units.

The following data illustrate the remarkable results that
have been obtained in certain herds.

HERD B., OWNED BY AUG. KINCK, BELTABERGA, SWEDEN J

TESTING

Av. No.

Av. FEED
UNITS

Av. No.
LB.

Av.

Av. LB.

FAT

100 FEED
UNITS GAVE

PERIOD
365 DAYS

OF

Cows

PER

Cow

PER

Cow

TEST

PER

Cow

Lb.

Milk

Lb.
Butter

1899-1900 .

70

2421

7,320

3.05

223

302

10.1

1900-1901 .

28

2695

7,905

3.13

247

272

10.1

1901-1902 .

46

2566

9,003

3.20

288

350

12.3

1902-1903 .

55

2507

9,984

3.18

318

398

13.9

1903-1904 .

61

2587

10,584

3.22

341

407

14.5

1904-1905 .

64

2743

11,236

3.22

362

409

14.5

1905-1906 .

71

3035

11,333

3.21

364

372

13.2

Increase .

614

4,013

141

70

3.1

Data from H. Rabild, Dairy Division, U. S. Dept. Agric.

148 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Such remarkable results are made possible by the farmer
knowing exactly what profit each animal has made; and
naturally the unprofitable ones are disposed of as soon as
possible. As a result, the average production of milk for
the entire country of Denmark has increased surprisingly
within a few years. It is safe to say the improvement in
production has been faster in Denmark during the last 15
years than in any other part of the world. The cost of the
Test Association per cow in Denmark varies from 30 to 45
cents in addition to the board of the tester. The tester, or
Control Assistant, receives from $ 100 to $ 150 per year in
addition to his board, which is supplied by the farmer for
whom he is testing. The positions are much sought after,
on account of the excellent opportunity to gain good practical
experience.

The first cooperative Cow Test Association in America
was established at Fremont, Newaygo Co., Mich., in 1905.
Up to the present time a number of such associations have
been formed and are meeting with a fair amount of suc-
cess. The plan followed is patterned after the Danish, but
the cost per cow is higher on account of the higher scale
of wages. The total cost need not exceed $1 to $1.50 per
cow annually in addition to the board of the tester.

INFLUENCE OF THE AGE OF THE COW ON THE YIELD AND
RICHNESS OF MILK

One question of considerable importance that arises in
connection with the selection of the individual cow is the
influence of the age of the animal on the richness and yield
of milk. The dairyman finds a certain heifer, for example,
to have an unusually high or low per cent of fat or yield of

HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE

149

milk, and the question at once arises as to what she can be
expected to do when mature. The following data and dis-
cussion are based upon a study made by the author of the
complete records of a Jersey herd covering 15 years, and of
a Holstein herd for 10 years. To this is added a table com-
piled from the published official records of the four leading
dairy breeds.

It must be understood first of all that the figures given are
averages, and that some individual animals will vary widely
from the average. The data will, however, give a fairly
good index of what may be expected, as it may be reasonably
assumed that the majority will follow near the average.

Table 7 is compiled from the records of the herd owned
by the University of Missouri. These figures are nearly
all from Jersey cows. It has been the custom in this herd

TABLE 7

EFFECT OF AGE ON THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF MILK.
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI HERD

41 Cows

28 Cows

21 Cows

16 Cows

10 Cows

1 LACTATION
PERIOD No.

HAVING

3 PERIODS

HAVING

4 PERIODS

HAVING

5 PERIODS

HAVING

6 PERIODS

HAVING

7 PERIODS

Av.
Lb.
Milk

Av.
PerCt.
Fat

Av
Lb.
Milk

Av.
Per Ct.
Fat

Av.

Lb.
Milk

Av.
Per Ct.
Fat.

Av.
Lb.

Milk

Av.
Per Ct.
Fat

Av.
Lb.
Milk

Av.
PerCt.
Fat.

4912

4.87

4957

4.90

4755

4.95

4711

4.90

4754

4.85

2

5716

4.87

5597

4.98

5477

5.00

5239

5.05

5060

5.10

3

6601

4.90

6139

4.95

5887

5.00

5707

5.00

5648

5.09

4

6262

4.81

6318

4.80

6266

4.77

6575

4.82

5

6159

4.88

6169

4.76

6341

4.68

6

6511

4.60

6339

4.59

7

6282

4.57

150

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

to have heifers drop their first calf when from 24 to 27 months
of age, so "Lactation Period No. 1 " as given in the table
is the two-year-old record.

The " lactation period " as used here is the entire milking
period, if it be less than 12 months ; if the milking period ex-
tended beyond a year, the figures used are for the first 12
months only. The amount of milk is the total from weights
taken of each milking separately. The per cent of fat was
taken each month from a composite sample covering ten milk-
ings in the middle of the month.

In Table 7 the records are first given of the yield of milk
and per cent of fat by lactation periods for 41 cows, of which
records are at hand for the first three milking periods. Then
follow the records of 28 cows for the first four periods, 21
cows for five periods, etc.

Table 8 gives the data for the Jersey herd, regarding the
fat yield in another form. Here the highest yield of fat is

TABLE 8
JERSEY HERD

UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI

FAT PRODUCTION BY YEARS EXPRESSED IN PER CENT

NUMBER MILK PERIOD

NUMBER Cows

FAT YIELD IN PER CENT

1

37

71

2

37

84

3

37

93

4

26

100

5

20

98

6

15

98

7

10

95

HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE

151

expressed by 100, and the yield for other periods of lactation
expressed by per cents. For example, in Period 1, at the
age of two years, 37 cows averaged 71 pounds of fat for each
100 they produced in the fourth milking period; and in the
seventh period 10 cows averaged 98 pounds of fat for each
100 the same cows produced in the fourth period.

Table 9 is compiled from the Records of Official Testing
by the four leading dairy breeds. The Holstein figures rep-
resent the seven-day tests recorded for the year ending June,
1909. The figures for the other breeds include all yearly
records available to the writer at the time the compilation
was made.

This table gives the number of cows of each age included,
the fat record expressed in per cent, counting that produced
at five years or above as 100, and the requirements for entry
to the various Advanced Registries at different ages expressed
in per cents, with the requirement for full age as 100.

TABLE 9

OFFICIAL TESTS

YIELD FAT EXPRESSED IN PER CENTS, COMPARISON WITH RULES

AGE
YRS.

HOLSTEIN

JERSEY

AYRSHIRE

GUERNSEY

No.
Cows

Fat
Yield
in
Per
Cent

Rules

No.

Cows

Fat
Yield
in
Per
Cent

Rules

No.
Cows

Fat
Yield
in
Per
Cent

Rules

No.
Cows

Fat
Yield
in
Per
Cent

Rules

2

630

65

60

55

68

65

39

70

66

232

77

70

3

246

82

75

43

78

75

16

85

73

88

83

80

4

200

91

86

16

84

87

10

97

87

70

91

90

5

684

100

100

97

100

100

51

100

100

311

100

100

152 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

The Yield of Milk. — It will be seen from Table 7 that in
the University of Missouri herd the highest yield of milk was
in the fourth milking period, which corresponds closest to the
sixth year. The two-year-old heifers on the average yielded
71 pounds of fat for each 100 when mature ; the three-year-
olds 84 pounds, and the four-year-olds 93 pounds.

From Table 9 we see that with the Ayrshires the two-year-
old cows produced 70 per cent, the Holsteins 65 per cent,
the Jerseys 68 per cent, and the Guernseys 77 per cent of the
average production for the mature cows. In each case it
might well be observed that the two-year-old animals produced
more in proportion to the mature cows than required by the
rules of the breed association under which the tests were
made. The chances are evidently better for a cow to enter
any of the Advanced Registries as a two-year-old than when
mature.

The decline in milk production with age is difficult to rep-
resent, since it varies widely. In the table given from the
university herd up to the seventh period, the decline on the
average was slight. Many of the cows whose records are
used did their best year's work in the seventh period or
later. Since the number having more than seven periods in
our herd is limited, the figures are not given beyond that
point.

Probably the majority of dairy cattle are rejected from the
herd on account of failure to breed, or from udder trouble,
before the effect of advancing years can be observed to any
marked extent. It is a fact often observed that a cow may
make her best record when 10 or 11 years old, although as
a rule she does her best rather earlier. If a dairy cow con-
tinues to breed, she usually shows no marked decline until

HOW INDIVIDUAL SELECTION IS MADE 153

at least 12 years old. Occasionally a cow continues to breed
until she is 16 or 18 years old.

The Per Cent of Fat. — Table 7 gives the average per cent
of fat by lactation periods. This average is the true average
found by dividing the total fat by the total milk produced.
It will be noted that there is little change during the first three
milking periods; but from that time on there is a slow but
slight decline with advancing years. This agrees with the
results found by Hills.1 There are several conditions that
may bring about considerable of a variation from the average
with an individual, but these variations are naturally much
less than is the case with the milk yield. While the daily
variations in the per cent of fat in the milk of all cows are
constant and striking, the average for the entire milking
period varies but little from year to year. While it is not
entirely safe to judge the future milk production of a cow
from her two-year-old record, it is reasonably safe to judge
the richness of her milk.

The whole subject may be summed up as follows : —

A dairy cow on the average as a two-year-old may be ex-
pected to produce about 70 per cent; as a three-year-old
around 80 per cent ; and as a four-year-old about 90 per cent
of the milk and butter fat she will produce under the same
treatment when mature.

The richness of milk remains practically constant from
year to year, except that after the third milking period there is
a slow, gradual decline with advancing years.

1 20th Annual Report, Vermont Exp. Sta.

CHAPTER XIII
SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL

CARE AND MANAGEMENT

IT has long been an axiom of the breeder that the sire is
half the herd, and it is generally accepted as a fit expression
of an important rule. The skillful breeder of any kind of
stock does not need to have it pointed out to him how im-
portant it is that the sire be properly selected. If he is a
skillful breeder, it is largely because he realizes the import-
ance of the sire and knows how to select him. While the
skilled breeder realizes the importance of this in breeding,
the average dairyman does not give the question of the
selection of the sire one tenth the attention the importance
of the question demands. Thousands of men make use of
a scrub or grade sire on account of mistaken economy in cost,
rather than pay a few dollars more for an animal that is
almost certain to transmit desirable qualities.

First of all, the bull selected should be a pure-bred of the
breed to which the cows belong, or, in case grading up is to
be done, of the breed selected as best suiting the purpose.
It is easily understood that a bull whose ancestors have been
bred for many generations for one purpose is more certain
to transmit that character than one whose ancestry is mixed.
As already pointed out, the dairy cow of to-day has been

154

SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL 155

developed until she produces many times the product of her
ancestors, and is really abnormal in this respect. This power
of producing enormous quantities of milk, being an acquired
characteristic, is easily lost; and in the case of cows many
revert to the older type, and are the unprofitable producers
that have to be culled constantly from any herd.

Since the producing of large quantities of milk is not natural,
but acquired, it is only by constant selection that this char-
acteristic can be retained. Unless selection is made, not
only will no progress be made, but the tendency will be back-
ward . To even retain the milking qualities of a good grade herd
at a uniform level, it is necessary to use a bull better bred
than are the cows. This makes it imperative, in all
herds where any attempt is made to advance, or even retain
a high dairy quality, that the sire be selected with great care,
especially regarding the dairy qualities of his nearest female
ancestors.

Almost any pure-bred bull with good milking ancestry
will improve a mixed herd or one of poor dairy quality; but
for the highly developed herd it is a much more serious mat-
ter to select the proper bull. The breeder of high-class pure-
bred animals recognizes the highly important fact that a bull
may not transmit the desirable qualities of his ancestors to
the full degree. This class of breeders are always anxious
to make use of an animal known to transmit the qualities
desired. An animal that transmits characteristics with uni-
formity to its offspring is said to be prepotent.

The remarkable variation in the transmission of dairy
qualities by different bulls is shown by the results from the
University of Missouri Jersey herd. In 1884 this institution
purchased four registered Jersey cows, and the entire herd on

156 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

hand at the time this compilation was made (1910) was de-
scended from these cows. Herd bulls were of course pur-
chased from other herds, but no females. Since 1892 com-
plete milk and fat records have been kept of every cow. Up
to 1901 practically every female was retained in the herd,
regardless of her dairy qualities. While the conditions under
which the herd was kept were not entirely uniform, still no
more variation occurred than would be the case in a private
herd. A comparison is made of the records of the daughters
of each bull, compared with the production of their dams.
In most cases the figures given represent the whole lifetime
of both. In case only a limited number of records are avail-
able, these are compared with the corresponding ones of the
dam. When a lactation period extends beyond a year, only
the first twelve months' record is used. The low average
production is accounted for by the fact stated that for the
greater part of the time all females were retained, and by the
records of inferior cows sold while young.

The first bull used was Missouri Rioter, a son of Bachelor
of St. Lambert. There is no record indicating the dairy
quality of his dam. His sire is the only animal in his pedigree
known to be a strong breeder. This bull left four daughters
in the herd that have a total of 26 lactation periods, from
dams with 23 periods on record. Below is given a summary
of the records of these daughters and their dams.

DAMS

DAUGHTERS

Average milk yield
Average per cent fat

5380
435

4381
4 93

Average yield of fat

234

216

SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL 157

The average production of the daughters was 1009 pounds
of milk and 18 pounds of fat per year below that of their dams.
In every case the daughter was inferior to the dam. While
the number of daughters is too few to make the data con-
clusive, it is certain this bull did not transmit the qualities
wanted. The same results in a herd having thirty of his
daughters would mean over 30,000 pounds of milk and 540
pounds of fat per year less than the dams. If each daugh-
ter was milked six years, it would mean over 6000 pounds
of milk less for each during her lifetime than her dam. pro-
duced. In other words, it would take over six years for the
daughters to produce as much as the dams would in five
years.

The next bull was Hugorotus, a cheap bull without any
high-class animals in his pedigree. This bull had eleven
daughters, with a total of 50 lactation periods from dams
with 62 lactation periods on record. The comparison below
shows the results.

DAMS

DAUGHTERS

Average yield of milk . . .

4969

4576

Average per cent fat . . .

4.66

5.49

Average yield of fat ...

231

245

The eleven daughters average 393 pounds of milk below
their dams, but on account of a marked increase in the rich-
ness of the milk, gain 14 pounds in fat per year. Six out of the
eleven daughters were decidedly inferior to their dams. The
general results of using this bull were disastrous. In fact,
the poorest animals ever in the herd were his offspring.
The averages are made as good as they are only by two full

158 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

sisters sired by this bull that through some "nick " proved
first-class animals. When the herd was culled on milk records
alone, nine out of the eleven daughters were sold. As long
as this bull was at the head of the herd, the tendency was
backward.

The next bull used was Lome of Meridale. This bull had
a splendid pedigree from the standpoint of records of pro-
duction, and his offspring show the result. He had twelve
daughters in the herd, with a total of 67 lactation periods,
from dams with 66 lactation periods on record. Below is a
summary : —

DAMS

DAUGHTEBS

Average yield of milk . .

4559

5969

Average per cent fat . . .

4.85

4.81

Average yield fat ....

221

287

His daughters show the remarkable increase of 1410 pounds
of milk and 66 pounds of fat per year over the dams. In only
two cases out of the eleven did the daughters fall below the
dams, and in one of these only slightly. In five cases the
increase was over 2000 pounds per year. If thirty daughters
of this bull had been milked six years, their total milk product
would exceed that of their dams by over 250,000 pounds,
worth $ 3750 at $ 1.50 per hundredweight. An equal number
of daughters of Missouri Rioter would have fallen 180,000
pounds behind their dams in the same time. Counting the
milk at $1.50 per hundredweight, the income from thirty
daughters of Lome of Meridale would exceed that from the
same number of daughters of Missouri Rioter $ 6467 in six
years.

SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL 159

The next bull was Missouri Rioter 3d, a son of Missouri
Rioter, and was the only valuable offspring the latter left in
the herd. His mother was the best cow in the herd up to
that time. Missouri Rioter has only three daughters with
records of 15 lactation periods. Records are available for
14 lactation periods by the dams. The results are as follows :

DAMS

DAUGHTERS

Average yield of milk . .

4775

8005

Average per cent fat .

4.97

4.80

Average yield of fat ...

238

384

The daughters produced on the average 3230 pounds of
milk and 146 pounds of fat per year more than the dams.
The number is of course rather small to admit general con-
clusions to be drawn with safety.

The least increase made by his daughters over the dams'
records was an average of 1481 pounds of milk, and all three
were of such outstanding quality that it is certain this bull
was a remarkable breeder. Had the value of this bull been
known, he could have made a fortune and a reputation for any
breeder. He was raised on the college farm, and as his value
was not recognized until too late, as has been the case with
many of the greatest breeding animals, he was disposed of,
and no record even kept as to what became of him.

Minette's Pedro was the next bull at the head of this
herd. He was an animal of fine breeding, with many high-
producing animals in his ancestry. This animal has had
twenty daughters in the herd, with a total of 66 lactation
periods.

160

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

DAMS

DAUGHTERS

Average pounds of milk . .

5321

5376

Average per cent fat . . .

5.04

5.04

Average yield fat ....

268

271

Ten daughters fall below their dams, and ten make some
gain. On the whole the daughters are practically on a par
with the dams, gaining only 55 pounds of milk and 4 pounds
of fat per lactation period. It should be pointed out that
the average of the dams is considerably higher than with
the first bulls used, which sets a higher standard for compari-
son. On the whole, the herd was just holding its own with
this bull at the head, and no general improvement was made.
Some of the best as well as some of the poorest animals in the
herd were daughters of this bull. Their dairy quality seemed
to follow the dams in most cases, while with Missouri Rioter
3d and Lome of Meridale the daughters were good regardless
of the dams.

The last bull in the herd with daughters old enough to ad-
mit of a comparison of any value is Brown Bessie's Registrar.
This bull has five daughters, with eight lactation periods.
The comparison is made with the corresponding periods of
the dams.

DAMS

DAUGHTERS

Average pounds of milk . .

6029

4295

Average per cent fat .

4.86

5.05

Average yield fat ....

293

217

The data are too limited to mean much as yet, but it is cer-
tain his daughters are decidedly inferior compared with the

SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL 161

dams. The herd was deteriorating rapidly as long as he
stood at the head.

These results show the immense difference in the way dairy
qualities are transmitted, even where both sire and dam are
pure-bred animals, and how serious a problem is the selection
of a herd bull for the man who is trying to further improve
a herd of pure-bred animals already well developed.

Cause of the Variation in Transmission of Dairy Qualities.
— One of the chief difficulties in regard to selecting the bull
is that practically nothing can be predicted from the looks of
the animal as to how he will transmit dairy qualities. The
man who will discover some means of so selecting the bull
will confer a benefit on breeders that can scarcely be esti-
mated.

There are two principles that are especially concerned
with breeding, which should be kept in mind. The first is
that "like produces like," and the second is the law of
"natural variations."

The cow, in the condition nature made her, undoubtedly
produced only milk enough to feed the calf a few months until
it could subsist on other foods. This milking characteristic
was transmitted quite regularly. It was a case where like
generally produced like; but some cows even then were un-
doubtedly better milkers than others, due to the law of natural
variation. The principle of selection did not come in to
retain these variations, and no improvement in this char-
acteristic was made.

After cattle were domesticated, the same conditions ex-
isted, but finally man began taking advantage of the natural
variations, and saving breeding stock from those having the
characteristics, such as great milk production, which were

162 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

found to be valuable. An animal which is different from
others of its kind by natural variation will in some cases trans-
mit the new characteristic to its descendants regularly.
Such an individual is called a mutant, and is recognized as
of the greatest importance in breeding operations. Other
individuals may have desirable characters not common to
their kind, but do not transmit these characteristics. In
every breed animals have been found that transmitted
characters in a remarkable manner. Some noted herds have
been developed mostly from the progeny of a single animal.
Among dairy cattle Stoke Pogis 3d and Hengerveld DeKol
are good examples.

The breeder in selecting a bull for breeding purposes wants
the animal that will transmit certain characters, and the
question is how to select such an animal. What has been
said explains the fact often learned by experience that in many
cases the dairy qualities of a remarkable cow are not in-
herited by her offspring. The chances that the characters will
be transmitted are greatly increased if found in the ancestry
of both parents. This makes it important to select both
parents carefully.

The rule of " like produces like" is only true to a limited
extent; and the farther we get away from the original type,
the smaller the proportion of cases where it holds good. This
accounts for the fact often observed that the offspring of a
phenomenal cow may be very ordinary. However, it will
be found that on the average there will be more good animals
among the offspring of such a cow than among those from a
cow of moderate or low dairy capacity. We must always
expect to find inferior animals appearing frequently in all
herds. No breeder can prevent it; but no good breeder fails

SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL 163

to reject the inferior ones promptly when discovered. The
higher developed we get our cows, the more difficulty we must
expect in keeping them all up to the standard.

Methods of selecting a Bull. — There are two courses open
in selecting a herd bull. One is to buy a young bull on the
strength of the records of his ancestors, and trust to luck to
a certain extent that he will be one that will transmit the
desirable characteristics of his ancestors to a high degree.
As a rule, such a bull will do fairly well at least in trans-
mitting these characteristics. For the owner of grade cattle
or herds of low dairy capacity, this method of selection is
reasonably satisfactory.

In selecting a young bull, the pedigree including the rec-
ords of ancestors is of more importance than the individ-
uality of the animal. The things to be looked for in the
pedigree are first of all records of production by the female
ancestors, especially the dam of the animal, and indications
that the ancestors have transmitted the characteristics
wanted.

There are some who refuse to have a bull from the phenom-
enal record-making cows for fear the vitality of the calf will
be weakened. The majority of breeders, however, want the
dam to have the highest record possible, other things being
equal. We cannot expect more than a few of her close de-
scendants will inherit this high quality but the chances are
better for them to average up well than they would be from
a cow of lower productive capacity.

There is a general belief among breeders that the character-
istics of the dam of the sire are transmitted stronger to his
daughters than are the characteristics of any other female
ancestor. This view has not been demonstrated by conclu-

164 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

sive evidence. Next in importance to the dam's record come
the records of the sire's daughters. If this bull has sired
many high-testing daughters, the chances are his sons will also
transmit these characters.

Each animal inherits 50 per cent of its blood from its
parents, 25 per cent from its grandparents, and 12J per cent
from the third generation back. The relative value of the
ancestors should be ranked according, and the common mis-
take avoided of attaching too much importance to an ancestor
found in the third or fourth generation.

In studying records of production in the pedigree of a dairy
animal, care should be taken to make certain what the records
really mean. Official records mean more than private records,
especially if the latter be churn records of butter produced.
If butter records are given based upon a Babcock fat test, it
should be noted what factor is used to make such estimate.
The standard method of estimating butter from butter fat
is by the addition of one sixth to the fat to represent the
" overrun," that is the curd, salt, and water found with the
fat in commercial butter. In some cases the butter produc-
tion is expressed by adding one fourth to the fat, which gives
a figure which is really too high. The most satisfactory
method is to give pounds of milk and of fat. Records cover-
ing an entire year should receive much more attention than
those covering only seven days. When the record covers
only seven days and the fat test is abnormally high for the
breed it is not safe to assume that this is a fair index of the
richness of normal milk from the cow in question. The
following is an example of the method of tabulating a pedi-
gree. The records of production are usually written in
red.

SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL

165

Ida's Stoke Pogis
13658

Oonan's Pogis
17162

Hood Farm Pogis
40684

Sire of : —

Oonan 7th of H.F.
586 Ib. butter

Oonan 17th of H.F.
592 Ib. butter

Winnie of H. F.
661 Ib. butter

5 others in Register
of Merit with
year's test. 7
with 7-day tests

Hood Farm Pogis 9th
55552

Born, July 9, 1898

Sire of : —

Figgis 28th of H. F.
602 Ib. butter

Figgis 20th of H. F.
557 Ib. butter

Figgis 3d of H. F.
546 Ib. butter

Pogis Tweedledee
512 Ib. butter
and 20 others in
Register of Merit

Sire of 11 tested
cows

Sire of 30 tested
cows

Oonan 1485

22 Ib. butter, 7 days
Dam of 6 tested
cows

Ida's Landseer
17745

Kathletta's Fancy
60738

17 Ib. butter in 7
days. Dam of 3
in Register of
Merit

Sire of
cows

13 tested

Kathletta 19567

22 Ib. butter, 7 days

Tormentor 3533

Sophie's Tormentor
20883

( Sire of 24 tested
cows

1 above 700 Ib.

2 above 600 Ib.

3 above 500 Ib.

I Figgis 76106

Grand Champion

World's Fair, St.

Louis, 1904
19£ Ib. butter, 7

days
547 Ib. butter, 1\

months

Sire of 39 tested

Baron's Sophie
17615

17 Ib. butter, 7 days

Pedro of the Valley
8750

Birdsey's Surprise
48326

14 Ib. 2 oz. butter.
7 days

Sire of 7
cows

tested

Flashy Jessie 2d
23332

Dam of 1 tested
cow

TABULATED PEDIGREE OF THE JERSEY BULL, HOOD FARM POGIS OTH

166 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

The best means of becoming familiar with the leading lines
of breeding in any breed is by reading the breed papers and
studying sale catalogues and advertisements.

In buying a bull of any age, it should be required that he
have a good conformation, strong vitality and constitution,
and good breed characteristics. In buying a young bull the
choice should fall upon one from a cow medium to large for
the breed. She should be a regular breeder, and a cow of
strong constitution and vitality. She should have a well-
developed, symmetrical udder and teats, and a large year's
milk and butter test, preferably official. While most dairy-
men favor the selection of a young bull as a herd bull, there
always is the uncertainty about how he will transmit the
dairy characteristics as pointed out.

A Tested Bull. — By all means the best plan of selecting
a bull is to get one that has sired daughters of merit and
showed himself to be the exceptional animal wanted by every
breeder. The most skilled breeders are always on the out-
look for such animals; but many are never discovered, and
many others only after it is too late. Whenever possible, it
is always advisable to retain an old bull until the results of his
breeding can be ascertained. Then, if not satisfactory, the
sooner he is gone the better; but there is always a chance of
finding a bull like Missouri Rioter 3d, previously mentioned.

The wonderful prepotency of Stoke Pogis 3d was not recog-
nized until after he had been sold for beef. Hengerveld De
Kol, a well-known Holstein bull, on the other hand, was
retained until it was discovered he was one of the great bulls
of the breed, and continued in service until at present he stands
first in the breed as the sire of tested daughters.

It is probable that in the future it will be more and more

SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL 167

common for the leading breeders to use a young bull in a
limited way, then loan him or lease him to the owner of some
grade herd until the results of his breeding can be ascer-
tained. In this way the exceptional bulls that transmit the
qualities desired can be found before it is too late. On the
other hand, a valuable herd will not be damaged by the use of
an animal that sires inferior animals. Essentially the above
plan is now followed by the author with the University of
Missouri Herd.

One of the unnecessary losses among dairymen is the
constant sacrifice of bulls when mature and at their best.
The average dairyman buys a young bull, uses him two years,
and offers him for sale without waiting to learn of the quality
of his daughters. His neighbor, instead of buying the old
bull, buys a young one, and the older one that may be worth
a fortune to the community is sold for beef while the neighbor
is experimenting with the young one.

Age of Bull to Select. — It is an unsettled question whether
an old bull is any more prepotent than a young. This claim
is made by many, but with no real evidence upon which to
base the claim. In Holland a breeding bull is seldom kept
past three or four years of age. In this country a young bull
is generally preferred by the average dairyman, mostly
because a young one is easier handled and shipped than an
aged one, and perhaps because on account of improper care
the aged animal often is an uncertain breeder.

There is one danger connected with the aged bull that
should be understood and guarded against. This is the pos-
sible introduction of contagious abortion into the herd. The
greatest precautions should be taken on this point, and unless
the buyer is satisfied the bull has not been contaminated with

168 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

this disease, a young calf should be selected which is free from
abortion, even if coming from a herd where the trouble exists.
Effect of Age of Dam upon Prepotency of the Bull. — The
question of whether a bull which is the first calf of a heifer
is as likely to transmit dairy qualities to the same degree as a
son of the same cow after she is mature and has made large
milk records, is one of importance that remains to be settled.
It is believed by breeders of race horses that the racing qual-
ities are transmitted better by mature and trained racing
parents. At any rate, it is not wise to select the first calf of a
heifer for a herd bull unless the calf is old enough so the
heifer has had opportunity to demonstrate her dairy qualities.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE BULL

The bull calf designed for breeding purposes should be well
fed from birth to maturity. The object in view in making
such a recommendation is to allow the animal to develop
to its limit. An underfed animal remains undersized, and
while his progeny will not necessarily be smaller on account
of a characteristic caused in this way, it is impossible to know
whether his undersize has been caused by inheritance or under-
feeding. For this reason a male breeding animal that is
small and undeveloped for his age and breed is always looked
upon unfavorably. Every male breeding animal should be
handled in such a manner that it is certain he reaches full
natural development.

A bull calf of a dairy breed is usually raised on skim milk,
as the results are equally as good or better than those obtained
when whole milk is used. A rather liberal grain ration should
be fed. While there is no advantage in getting the bull fat

SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL 169

while young, on the other hand, there is no special harm done
if he appears a little smooth and beefy in form at this age,
since this tendency will disappear later. The ration should
be such that a good growth will be encouraged. As a winter
ration, clover, alfalfa, or other leguminous hay is best adapted,
while for grain a mixture of corn, with oats or bran or oil
meal gives good results. Some breeders continue the feeding
of skim milk until the animal is eight months or even a year
in age, in order to insure rapid growth. The bull calf should
be separated from the heifers at least by the time he is six
months old, as he soon begins to annoy the heifers, and is
better confined alone or with other bulls of his age.

Most bulls are sufficiently mature for light service at ten
or eleven months of age. It is not advisable to breed one
to over five or six cows before he is one year of age. From
12 to 15 months, not over one or two cows per week should be
bred. As the animal becomes better developed, the amount
of service may be increased. A well-fed, mature bull might
serve 200 cows in a year, if distributed throughout the twelve
months; but since the greater number usually are to be bred
within a much shorter time, one bull is not usually expected
to serve for more than a herd of fifty cows.

When the bull is about one year of age a ring should be
placed in his nose as a convenience in handling. It also serves
as something of a protection in case the animal becomes
vicious and attacks the herdsman. In ringing a bull the
animal should be tied securely. A bull punch sold by dealers
in such supplies may be used for making the opening. The
ring is slipped through as the punch is withdrawn. A trocar
is equally satisfactory. In using it the instrument is forced
through the cartilage division between the nostrils and with-

170 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

drawn, leaving the cannula in the opening. One end of the
opened ring is then passed through the opening, as the can-
nula is withdrawn. In case neither of the above instruments
are on hand, an opening may be made with a sharp-pointed
knife or with a 32-caliber wad cutter, an implement used in
refilling gun cartridges. In using this a block of wood is
placed on one side of the cartilage to be cut, and the hole cut
by striking the cutter with a hammer. The ring should be
filed or sandpapered smooth after it is closed, as rough edges
often are formed by opening the ring or by tightening the
screw.

The bull should not be allowed to run loose in the pasture
with the herd. In the first place, it is a dangerous custom,
as it gives abundant opportunity for the bull to attack a
person unawares or where escape is difficult. Further, a
record of the date of breeding of the cows cannot be kept, and
no dairy herd can be handled to the best advantage without
such records. Cows are often served younger or sooner after
calving than the owner intends. The bull running with the
herd exhausts himself until he becomes an uncertain breeder
sooner than should be the case.

While nearly all successful breeders keep the bull confined,
there is great need of an improvement in the way the bull
is handled when confined. Too often he is confined in a
dark, dirty stall without exercise from the time he is a calf.
Such treatment is certain to result in weakening of the breed-
ing powers, and often the animal becomes entirely impotent
while scarcely more than mature. As a result of such treat-
ment, by the time the sire is old enough to have daughters in
milk so his value as a sire may be judged, he is too often value-
less for breeding purposes. The main points to be observed

SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL 171

in keeping a bull in good condition so as to retain his breeding
powers are to avoid excessive use when young and to give
plenty of exercise and a moderate ration when mature.

A box stall 10 by 12 feet with a ground floor is as suitable
as any for such an animal, when he is to be kept in the barn.
A strong paddock outside should be provided, with a door
from the box stall. In all except severe climates the bull is
best housed in a shed built in the paddock. All the protec-
tion necessary is a good roof and tight walls to serve as a
windbreak. Exposure to any but severe weather is beneficial
rather than injurious to the breeding bull. Such open-air
treatment, with the precaution that the animal gets plenty of
exercise, will keep the bull in the best breeding condition, and
he will be as sure a breeder at eight or nine years as at two.
This open-air treatment causes the animal to look somewhat
rough, and for this reason does not find favor with those who
make a business of selling breeding stock, since the appearance
of the herd bull is of importance in making sales.

For those who prefer the herd bull to make the best appear-
ance at all times, the best plan is to use a box stall in the barn,
and see that the animal is outside only on fair days. Special
attention should be given to exercising the bull under these
conditions.

Where more than one bull is used, they may be kept together
with advantage in a suitable paddock. There is no trouble
or danger in keeping two or more bulls of any age together, if
they be dehorned. One of the chief advantages is that they
take more exercise than when confined alone.

One of the most common plans of exercising the bull when
kept closely confined is by the use of a tread power. In
some cases he operates the cream separator regularly, and

172 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

occasionally other machinery. The power is adjusted to
keep the bull walking at rather a slow pace as long as is
wished. Another plan is to arrange a long sweep on a post
and tie the bull at the end, and allow him to revolve the sweep
by walking. Another plan followed is to arrange an over-
head cable upon which a ring is placed from which a chain
hangs. The bull is tied to this chain, and can walk the length
of the cable.

There is some difference of opinion regarding the dehorning
of the bull. Some breeders do not practice it, on account of a
belief that the dehorned bull is less prepotent as a breeder.
Another reason for not dehorning is that it injures the chances
of the animal in the show ring. There seems to be no evi-
dence, however, that dehorning does have the slightest effect
on the prepotency of the animal. A bull is dangerous at all
times, but more so with horns ; and for this reason it is to be
recommended that the horns be removed.

The bull of a dairy breed is more liable to be vicious than
one of a beef, since the former are more active and have more
nervous energy than the sluggish beef animals. In handling
bulls it should always be taken for granted that they are
dangerous. It is never safe to trust them, and it is usually
one that has always been considered perfectly safe that injures
some one.

A bull should be treated kindly, but never petted even when
a calf, and anything even bordering on teasing must be pro-
hibited. The bull is best let strictly alone except when it is
necessary to handle him. He must always be handled in a
firm manner and made to understand that a man has power to
control him and must be respected. The man handling a
bull must not show fear of the animal, and must take care that

SELECTION OF THE HERD BULL 173

the bull does not gain the upper hand. The animal should be
thoroughly trained to being tied and led when a calf. If
this is done, he never forgets it, and may be tied or led at any
time later, even if handled only at long intervals.

A plenty of exercise is one of the most important factors
in preventing a bull from becoming vicious. It is also well
to have his stall or paddock so located and constructed that
he can see the other cattle and the attendants. Solitary
confinement in an isolated box stall is not conducive toward
the development of a quiet disposition in a bull.

Care should be taken that the bull never has a chance to
learn to use his really enormous strength in breaking fences,
gates, tie straps, etc. Keeping everything strong and in
good repair will do much toward keeping the bull in sub-
jection.

In leading a bull a staff should be used. In case he is
regularly tied in the barn, a large, strong halter may be used,
or a special bull stanchion, as preferred.

CHAPTER XIV

CALF RAISING

IMPORTANCE, RAISING ON SKIM MILK

Birth Weight of Calves. — The following table gives data
compiled from the records of the University of Missouri
dairy herd. The calves were weighed within 24 hours after
birth, while the weights of the cows are the average of three
days' weights, taken immediately following calving.

BIRTH WEIGHT OF CALVES

BREEDS

MALES

FEMALES

TOTAL FOR BOTH SEXES

No.

Av.
Wt.

No.

Av.
Wt.

No.

Av.
Wt.

Av.
Wt.
Dam

Per
Cent
Wt. of
Calf
to Dam

Jerseys

35
14

56
93

29

15

46

85

62
29

7
8

53
89
64

76

864

1127
949
1249

6.24

7.87
6.71
6.05

Holstein

Ayrshire

Dairy Shorthorn . .

This table shows the males average heavier than the
females at birth. Of the four breeds represented the Hol-
stein calves are the largest at birth, and are also heavier in
proportion to the weight of their dams.

More than three out of four calves come within 10 per

174

CALF RAISING

175

cent of the average weight. Breed is the largest factor influ-
encing the size. The maturity of the cow also has some effect,
as shown below. In this case cows are classed as immature
with their first and second calves, and those that had given
birth to three or more considered mature.

INFLUENCE OF MATURITY OF DAM UPON BIRTH WEIGHT OP
CALVES

JERSEYS

No. OF
CALVES

Av. WT.
DAMS

Av. WT.
CALVES

Immature dams

23

791

50

Mature dams

39

906

55

HOLSTEINS

No. OF
CALVES

Av. WT.
DAMS

Av. WT.
CALVES

Immature dams

17

1004

82

Mature dams

12

1295

97

The size and vigor of a calf at birth is not influenced as
much as might be expected by the previous feeding and con-
dition of the dam. The reproductive function is so strong
that in case of insufficient feed the fetus draws on the
mother's body, and it is the mother that suffers mostly from the
deficiency in nourishment. On the other hand, when a cow
is excessively fat, the calf in many cases is somewhat under-
sized.

Importance of Raising Calves. — The success of the dairy
farmer depends to no slight extent upon the careful rearing of

176 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

the calves. The careful dairyman sees in every heifer calf
the possibility of a cow that will not only replace a discarded
member of his herd, but help to raise the average production.
By proper care in the choice of the sire, and by careful atten-
tion to the rearing of the calves, the dairyman who is com-
pelled to start with a herd of ordinary quality may, within
a few years, raise the average of production of his herd to a
marked extent. On the other hand, carelessness in breeding
and in calf raising is bound to result disastrously to a herd,
or at least to keep it at a standstill, as far as improvement
is concerned.

One of the common mistakes made in the localities where
whole milk is sold for market purposes or to condenseries or
cheese factories is the failure to raise any calves. In this
case the milk producer depends upon buying cows to replace
those discarded from his herd. The excuse for this practice
is that the cost of raising the cows is too great . Under such a
system a dairyman will almost invariably produce milk year
after year without improving the standard of his herd in the
least. When more cows are required, they are purchased from
a shipper or dealer, and without any information available
regarding the merits of the animals beyond what can be
determined from appearance. The dairy cows placed on the
market through such channels are almost certain to be of
very ordinary grade, since a cow whose value as a milk pro-
ducer is known is not offered for sale at the market price.

In a few localities the practice is even worse, inasmuch as
the cows are purchased when about to calve, and are milked
but a single milking period, and are then fattened when the
milk flow slackens, and sold for beef. In this way the
general average of production is exceedingly low, and the

CALF RAISING 177

occasional good cow is not even saved for future usefulness.
The only means by which the average quality of dairy herds
in the hands cf practical dairymen can be materially improved
is by the raising of their own cows by using a pure-bred sire
and saving the heifers from the best cows.

Raising Calves by Hand. — The dairy calf is almost always
reared by hand, although a small portion of the milk that
goes to make the total production of the country is from
cows whose calves are allowed to take a portion of the milk
from their mothers. As a rule, the milk of the dairy cow is
worth so much more than the calf that it receives the first
consideration. A discussion of calf raising is naturally
divided into two parts. One deals with calf raising where
skim milk is available, as is generally the case when cream or
butter is sold. The second part is concerned with methods
of raising the calf where the whole milk is sold for market
purposes or to a condensery or cheese factory. In this case
no skim milk is usually on hand, and the calf must be fed
whole milk, which makes an expensive ration, or be given
some substitute for milk.

Raising Calves on Skim Milk. — It is a well-established
fact that a calf can be raised on skim milk that is equally
as good as one nursed by its mother. In localities familiar
with dairying this is well understood, but in other places is
virtually unknown. Some have seen unhealthy and under-
sized calves that have been fed skim milk, and have con-
sidered them as the necessary result of feeding skim milk.
Such calves are the unfortunate victims of their owners'
ignorance or carelessness. The skim milk calf raised accord-
ing to modern methods differs little, if any, in size, quality,
and thrift and value from the same animal when raised by

178

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

the cow. The poor results which have so often followed the
feeding of skim milk have been due to the faulty methods,
and not to the fact that the cream which has been taken out
is absolutely indispensable to the normal development of the
calf.

The following table shows the average composition of whole
milk and separator skim milk : —

WHOLE MILK

SKIM MTLK

Water

87.10

9050

Fat

3 90

10

Proteids

340

3 57

Sugar .

4.75

495

Ash .

75

78

It will be observed that the skim milk differs from the whole
milk only in having most of the fat removed. The other con-
stituents are slightly increased. The butter fat or cream is
by no means the most valuable part of the milk for the calf.
The fat does not go to form growth in a young animal, but
to keep up the heat of the body and to supply fat for body
tissue. The same material can be supplied much cheaper
in the form of corn meal or other grain. The raising of the
calf on skim milk is economical, because it is possible to make
this substitution of a comparatively cheap grain for butter
fat which has a commercial value for human food out of pro-
portion to its food value for a calf. The parts of the milk
which furnish the growth-making material are the casein
and albumin, the former of which is seen as a white curd when
milk is soured. From this material is made the muscles and

CALF RAISING

179

bone, nerves, hair and hoofs, and this remains in the skim
milk. The calf fed on skim milk is not generally so fat dur-
ing the first six months of its life as the one nursed by the
cow. It often has, however, rather a better development
of bone and muscle, and the difference between the two can-
not be seen two weeks after weaning time. The following
suggestive figures from Storrs l Experiment Station show
the results of feeding milk rich in fat as compared with milk
having less fat.

SOLIDS FOR ONE POUND OF GAIN WITH CALVES

MILK POOR IN FAT
3.27%

MILK RICH IN FAT
5.1%, 4.6%

Calf No. 1

Calf No. 2

Calf No. 3

Calf No. 4

Weight of calves at beginning of
trial
Weight of calves at end of trial
Total gain of calves

66.5
133.5
67.0
63.0
1.06
697.0
777.9
1.16

45.0
79.0
34.0
30.0
1.13
277.0
30.9
.91

67.0
126.0
59.0
53.0
1.11
562.0
78.4
1.33

58.5
94.0
35.5
30.0
1.18
267.0
35.6
1.03

Number of days fed
Gain of calf per day

Pounds of milk consumed . . .
Pounds of milk solids consumed .
Solids for one pound of gain . .

Solids for 1 pound gain, average
each pair, pounds ....

1.03

1.18

The table shows that the milk containing the lower per
cent of fat gave a larger gain per day and required a less
amount of solids.

1 Bulletin No. 31.

180 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

FEED REQUIRED FOR A SKIM MILK CALF THE FIRST 180 DAYS

• STORKS l

MISSOURI 2

No. animals . .

9

8

2

2

3

Spring

Spring

Fall

Calves

Calves

Calves

Length of period

180 days

180 days

180 days

180 days

180 days

Dairy

Dairy

Breed ....

Breeds

Breeds

Jerseys

Holsteins

Jerseys

Weight at be-

ginning . .

59

65

53

94

51

Pounds whole

milk . . .

90

220

334

400

367

Pounds skim

milk . . .

3001

2908

2422

3660

2331

Pounds hay

337

618

46

115

275

Pounds grain .

127

111

69

159

Pasture . . .

90 days

90 days

Weight at end .

284

315

268

390

250

Average gain per

day pounds .

1.25

1.31

1.19

1.64

1.10

The above table shows that the calf can get along with as
little as 90 pounds of whole milk, although more is generally
fed. The skim milk fed varies as a rule between 2300 and
3000 pounds, and, while calves can be reared without grain
when skim milk is fed, it is customary to feed up to 150
pounds per animal during the first six months.

Fall calves need from 300 to 600 pounds of hay the first six
months, depending upon how much other feed is given.
Spring calves may be put on pasture and given no hay, or
they grow equally as well if kept confined the first three or
four months and fed hay.

1 Annual Report Storrs Experiment Station, 1903. 2 Unpublished data.

CALF RAISING

181

In the figures given the Jersey spring calves averaged
268 pounds at six months, while the fall calves averaged 250.
The records for the same calves show that at one year of age
the spring calves averaged 360 pounds, while the fall calves
reached 440.

Comparison of Whole Milk and Skim Milk Calves. — The
following table from the Kansas Experiment Station l gives
the comparative gains made by three lots of ten calves each,
fed on skim milk, on whole milk, and nursed by the dam.

AVERAGE

DAILY

COST

EXPERIMENT

HER OF

CALVES

DAYS

FED

GAIN

PER

HEAD

GAIN

PER

HEAD

PER 100

POUNDS
GAIN

Skim milk

10

154

233

1 51

,152 26

Whole milk

10

154

287

1 86

706

Running with dams . . .

22

140

248

1.77

4.41

The calves nursed by the dams and those fed whole milk
made a slightly better gain than those fed skim milk, but it
was at a much greater expense, as shown in the table. The
skim milk calves consumed 122 pounds of grain per 100 pounds
gain, while the whole milk calves consumed 58 pounds grain
and 31.8 pounds of fat in the milk. At this rate 100 pounds
of grain was equivalent in feeding value to 48 pounds of fat.
The economy of substituting the butter fat by grain is appar-
ent, since the market value of butter fat is usually from
twenty to thirty times that of corn meal fed to supplement
skim milk. In the experiment quoted the calves which were
steers were later put in the feed lot, and all fed for seven
months. The best gains made were made by the skim milk

1 Bulletin No. 126.

182 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

lot, followed by the whole milk lot, while the lot raised by the
dams stood last.

Taking the Calf from its Mother. — There is some differ-
ence in practice regarding the time of beginning hand feeding.
Some take the calf away from its mother at once without
allowing it to nurse at all. Others prefer to let it nurse once ;
and some allow it to remain with the cow three or four days,
or until the fever is out of the udder and the milk is fit for
use in the dairy. It probably makes very little difference
as to this point, but it is a fact easily established that the
earlier the calf is taken from the cow, the easier it will be to
teach it to drink. One that has never nursed is easily taught
to take the milk from a pail, while one a week or a month
old is often a difficult subject to teach. If the cow's udder
is in good condition when the calf is dropped, it will generally
be more satisfactory to take the calf away early. When the
udder is caked, it is best to leave the calf with her until this
condition is removed. One point that must be kept in mind
is that at first the milk from the mother should always be
given the calf, and not milk from some other cow. The first
milk, or colostrum, given by a cow is especially suited to the
requirements of a young calf, as it has the property of acting
as a physic and stimulating the digestive organs.

Amount of Milk to Feed. — Under natural conditions the
calf takes its milk frequently and in small quantities. The
calf's stomach at this time is not suited for holding a large
amount, and an excessive amount always results in indiges-
tion and scours. For the first two weeks five or six quarts, or
about ten or twelve pounds per day, is all the largest calf
should be allowed to take. A small calf, as a Jersey, does not
need over eight or ten pounds per day on the start. This

CALF RAISING 183

may be fed in two feeds per day, or better, in three for two or
three weeks. As the calf grows older, somewhat more milk
can be used, but at no time does it need over sixteen or eight-
een pounds or eight or nine quarts per day ; but it is safe and
economical to feed as high as twenty pounds to a large calf,
if skim milk is plentiful. Overfeeding is undoubtedly one
of the most common causes of inferior calves. It is a mistake
to think that because the cream has been removed, the calf
needs more of the skim milk, or that because the calf is not
doing well it is not getting enough milk, and to allow it to
gorge itself, which it will readily do, if given an opportunity.
A good rule is to alwaj^s keep the calf a little hungry. Some
provision must be made for making certain that each animal
gets its share and no more. Some drink twice as fast as others ;
and if fed together, one will be overfed and the other starved.
The plan sometimes used of feeding a bunch of calves together
in a long trough is very unsatisfactory for this reason, and
should never be followed.

Temperature of the Milk. — Another precaution that must
be taken is to have the milk warm and sweet when fed.
Nature furnishes the milk to the calf in this condition, and
we must carefully imitate her here. The digestion of a calf
is quickly upset by feeding warm milk at one feed and cold
milk at another. For the first few weeks the calf is especially
sensitive to the temperature of its feed. After it is three
months or more old, the milk may be fed somewhat cooler,
if care be taken to have it at the same temperature all the
time. Even then, however, the best results are secured when
the milk is fed warm. The temperature of the milk should
be that of the blood, or approximately 100° F. In this
matter the feeder should exercise great care and not go

184 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

by guess or by the feeling of the milk, but should actually
use a thermometer often enough to know what blood heat
feels like. If a hand separator is used, the milk may possibly
be fed while still warm enough if used immediately after
separation, but it will usually be necessary to heat it some
artificially, if used for young calves during cold weather.

Changing to Skim Milk. — For the first two or three weeks
the calf should be fed part of its mother's milk. However,
in raising calves of those breeds producing a very rich milk,
the calf will thrive better if the whole milk given during the
first two or three weeks be diluted some with skim milk.
Then the ration may be gradually changed to a skim milk
ration by putting in a small amount of skim milk at first, and
gradually increasing the amount day by day until at the end
of a week all of the whole milk has been eliminated.

Supplements to Skim Milk. — The calf should be taught
to eat grain as soon as it will take it. This it will generally
do by the time it is three weeks, or, at most, a month old.
The grain is best fed dry after feeding the milk. If the calf
is with others, it will generally learn from them to eat when
large enough. When the calf does not begin to grain as early
as it should, it can be taught by putting a little grain in its
mouth after the milk is drunk. In a few days it will
begin to look for the meal, and will eat it, if offered in a box
within reach. When once it begins eating grain, the calf is
well started toward a good growth.

For the first few days grain should be kept before the calf.
After that the ration given should be such that it will be eaten
up clean each time. By the time the calf is six weeks old it
usually will eat about one half pound of grain per day; at
the end of two months one pound per day, and a month later

CALF RAISING

185

two pounds per day. At no time up to six months is it neces-
sary to feed more than this amount, although, if it is desired
to push the calves along rapidly, they may be given more,
up to the limit of their appetite.

There has been considerable investigation regarding the
best supplement for skim milk. Since skim milk lacks in
fat, it has generally been assumed that the supplement is
especially to replace this fat.

The most extensive investigation along this line has been
made by the Iowa Experiment Station. The following
summary shows the results : —

GRAIN FOR CALVES WITH SKIM MILK
EXPERIMENT WITH SIXTEEN CALVES

LOT III

LOT I

LOT II

FOUR FED

LOT IV

FOUR FED

FOUR FED

CORN MEAL

FOUR FED

OIL MEAL

OATMEAL

AND

CORN MEAL

FLAXSEED

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

Milk

3760

3752

3760

3759

Hay

1478

1481

1478

1484

Oil meal ....

429

Oatmeal

605

Corn meal

538

601

Flaxseed

59

Gain in 74 days

483

498

489

509

Average daily gain per head

1.63

1.68

1.65

1.72

Dry matter per pound of gain

4.13

4.31

4.32

4.16

Cost of feed per pound of gain

2.4^

2.4^

2?

1.8?

This experiment shows that satisfactory gains were made
by using any of the rations fed, but that slightly the largest

186 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

gains were made by using corn meal, while the dry matter per
pound of gain was the lowest with oil meal. On account of
the lower market value of corn, it made the cheapest gains.
The conclusion from this experiment is that several of the
common feeds may be used with success to supplement
skim milk, and the one to be used will depend upon what is
available, and the market value.

In the corn belt, where an abundance of corn is always
available and usually cheaper than the other grains, it will
be the most satisfactory to use, and it will be unnecessary to
buy feeds not grown on the farm.

It was found by the Kansas Experiment Station that
shelled corn gives equal, if not better, results than corn
meal, after the calves are well started eating grain. As the
calves approach weaning time, if corn is the grain ration fed,
a change can be made with advantage to part oats, bran, or
oil meal. Otherwise the ration may become too wide, and not
contain sufficient amounts of growth-making nutrients.

Feeding Hay and Pasturing. — Calves will begin to eat
hay, if it is put before them, about as soon as they will eat
grain. For young calves timothy h&y is often preferred to
clover or alfalfa, as the young calf may eat more than it can
properly digest of these palatable feeds. Further, they are
rather too laxative, and help to produce scours, the most
common difficulty in calf raising. When turned out to grass,
the calves are as well supplied as can be with rough feed, but
care should be taken to get them on grass gradually, so they
will not get off their feed.

Importance of Sweet Milk. — In order to make a success
of raising the calf on skim milk, the condition of the milk
must be uniformly sweet. Probably nothing can be done

CALF RAISING 187

that will produce indigestion and scours with more certainty
than to feed sweet milk one day and sour the next. The
younger the calf, the more sensitive it is on this point. After
a calf is well started, it is possible to raise it on sour milk,
provided the milk is fed in the same condition every day,
but the results are not as satisfactory as with sweet milk.
The Kansas Experiment Station l compared buttermilk
with sweet milk by feeding ten calves on each. Those having
skim milk gained an average of 2.02 pounds per day for 126
days, while the group fed buttermilk averaged 1.79 pounds per
day. The latter group had less trouble from indigestion
than those fed sweet milk.

The Creamery and the Skim Milk Calf. — The whole milk
creamery has been the cause of much trouble in calf raising,
on account of sour milk. Where the milk is hauled several
miles in the hot sun, warmed to the proper temperature for
separating, and then sent home at just the right temperature
to sour most rapidly, it results in the milk being sour much
of the time when received by the owners, especially during
the hot weather. This has often been one common reason for
poor success in raising calves, even where the creamery system
is fairly well developed. Fortunately, a means has been
devised to remedy this trouble to a great extent. Within
recent years most of the creameries sterilize the skim milk —
as the process is generally called, although it does not really
sterilize the milk — before sending it back from the factory.
This consists in heating it to at least 180° F., by using
steam in most cases from the engine exhaust. The hot milk
is put into cans, and taken home without cooling. This
scalding checks the scouring, and such milk should remain

1 Bulletin No. 126.

188 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

sweet until the following day, and if thoroughly cooled can be
kept over Sunday. In this way the calf can be fed on sweet
milk, and good results had with creamery skim milk. The
Kansas Experiment Station raised calves on such milk that
gained just as much and did as well as others fed milk sep-
arated with a hand separator and fed at once. When steri-
lized milk is first given to calves, they are apt to object some-
what; but in a few days they take it readily and do well.
The general experience seems to show it is less apt to produce
scours than is unheated milk. Every farmer who is patron-
izing a creamery and raising calves should insist that the skim
milk returned to him be sterilized. The creameries find it of
benefit to themselves and to their patrons to do this. Cans
are found to be much easier kept clean when the skim milk
is heated, and the condition of the milk when received at the
factory is considerably improved on this account.

The Farm Separator and the Skim Milk Calf. — The rapid
introduction of the hand separator is the feature of the times
in the dairy industry. It has largely solved the question of
getting good skim milk for calf raising, as well as having
several other important advantages. Warm, sweet skim
milk, separated within a few minutes after being drawn from
the cow, is in the best possible condition for the calf, and by
observing the points already mentioned and as practiced by
the most successful dairymen, little trouble will be had in
raising as good calves as are raised in any way. The majority
of those producing cream or butter for sale insist on some
means of raising the calf satisfactorily, and the hand separa-
tor seems to fill the want better than any other system.

Importance of keeping Pails Clean. — One common cause
of sickness in hand-raised calves is feeding from dirty pails or

CALF RAISING 189

cans. Every utensil which comes in contact with milk to be
used for feeding should be kept clean and scalded as thor-
oughly as though the food were to be used for the owner's
family. A good rule is to keep the calf pails as clean as the
milk pails. In feeding grain, no more should be fed than will
be eaten up clean. If grain is allowed to remain in a trough,
it often becomes damp and partly decayed, and may cause
sickness, just as dirty pails will often do.

Clean Pans and Barns a Necessity. — Another point to be
kept in mind is that the young calf must be kept in a clean,
well-bedded stall while in the barn. Experience has taught
many men that a calf will not do well in a damp, dirty pen or
stall. The calf needs all the sunlight it can get, and the well-
lighted stall is always best. In arranging a barn the sunniest
part should be reserved for the calf pens. In the summer the
calf should have access to a small pasture with plenty of
shade.

Plenty of Water Needed. — An abundance of clean water
should be accessible at all times or at frequent intervals, as
the calf is not satisfied with milk alone as a drink, and wants
to drink a little water at a time, quite often during the day.
This thirst for water is often overlooked when calves are raised
by hand, and as a result the calf is thirsty as well as hungry,
and gorges itself with milk when it has a chance. Salt should
also be within reach when the calf is old enough to eat grain
and hay.

Fall or Spring Calves. — There are a number of advantages
in having calves to be raised by hand dropped in the fall.
The calf can be kept growing nicely on skim milk until the
grass comes, then weaned and turned out to pasture without
checking its growth in the least. The disadvantages of winter

190 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

feeding and cold weather are more than offset by the hot
weather and annoyances from flies experienced by the spring
calf. For the calf under six months it does not make much
difference whether the roughness be grass or hay. Some
prefer the latter, but for the second six months grass gives
much better results. In the winter season the young calf
is also more apt to get the careful attention it needs than it
is during the busy summer season. As most heifers come
into milk at about two years of age, a fall-dropped heifer is
ready to begin milk at the season when the results are the
most satisfactory.

CHAPTER XV
CALF RAISING

WITHOUT SKIM MILK, FEEDING WHEY, CALF MEALS, CALF
FEEDERS, CALF SCOURS, VEAL PRODUCTION

Raising Calves without Skim Milk. — Where the whole
milk is sold as market milk, or to a cheese factory or con-
densery, the problem of raising the calf is, how to do it with-
out the feed costing more than the value of the animal raised.
A calf needs about two gallons of milk per day in order to
make good gains. This means 480 pounds per month, or
2400 pounds for five months. At the low price of SI per
hundredweight this would mean $4.80 per month, or $24 for
five months, for milk alone to raise a calf under the best con-
ditions. This excessive cost results in many cases in the
dairyman adopting the plan of buying cows as needed and
raising no calves. As already pointed out, this policy is
certain to be disastrous.

Where calves are raised under these conditions, the plan
most commonly adopted is to use the minimum amount of
milk, using grain or some other substitute as far as possible.
Some prefer to use cows that for some reason it is not desir-
able to milk, to raise the heifer calves. In this case it is
usually possible for each cow to nurse at least two calves.
Another plan is to feed the fresh milk rather freely for two
or three months to start the calf growing, then remove the

191

192 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

milk gradually and substitute something else, usually a grain
mixture that supplies the nutrients needed in proportion
somewhat similar to milk.

A variety of substances and mixtures have been tried
for this purpose with more or less success. Grain mixtures
in which oil meal arid wheat middlings or flour constitute
the major portion are most common. Calf meals prepared
and sold under certain proprietary names are also used to
some extent in this country, and quite generally in England.

The Pennsylvania Experiment Station 1 reports trials of
two substitutes for milk prepared by them. The first con-
sisted of : —

LB.

Wheat flour 30

Cocoanut meal 25

Nutrium 20

Oil meal 10

Dried blood 2

The second mixture consisted of : —

LB.

Corn 13

Nutrium 20

Flaxseed 1.5

Dried blood 2

Flour 30

Coeoanut meal ..... 6

Oat chop 6

The best results were obtained with the first given.

The nutrium used in these mixtures was a soluble skim
milk powder. In feeding the milk substitute it was mixed
with warm water at the rate of one pound for six pounds
of water, and fed from a bucket or calf feeder. The calves

1 Bulletin No. 60.

CALF RAISING 193

were given their mothers' milk for from five to seven days,
then the milk substitute gradually replaced the milk, until
at the end of from ten days to two weeks no milk was given.
For the first five or six weeks the calves were given about two
pounds of the mixture per day; after that time two pounds
and a half until weaning time. At the age of about 100
days the feeding of the substitutes was stopped, and these
calves were put on a grain and hay ration. The thirteen
calves raised on this ration consumed an average of 121
pounds of milk and 186 pounds of meal in 83 days, and the
results, while not equal to those when milk was used, were
satisfactory, and good dairy heifers were raised in this way at
a low feed expense.

The ration used in this experiment was tried by the
Massachusetts Experiment Station l in comparison with a
commercial calf meal. Those fed the former gained 1.25
pounds per day up to six months of age, while those fed on
the calf meal gained 1.15 pounds per day.

Whey as a Feed for Calves. — Where milk is used for
cheese making, it is usual for the whey to belong to the milk
producer, and it is used to a small extent as a calf feed. As
a rule, the whey is fermented to such an extent before it
reaches the farm that its use as a calf feed is out of the
question. Where the cheese is made on the farm, or the
whey is sterilized at the factory, it may be possible to secure
it in a sweet, unfermented condition. Under the best con-
ditions, it does not give results as a calf food that warrant
it being recommended for this purpose. The average com-
position of whey, as compared with skim milk, is shown
below : —

1 Report Massachusetts Experiment Station, 1903.
o

194

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

SKIM MILK

WHEY

Water

90.50

93.07

Fat

10

34

Proteids

3.57

.93

Sugar

4.95

5.00

Ash

.75

.60

It will be observed that the whey contains a little more fat,
but only about one fourth as much proteids as skim milk.
The sugar is a trifle higher. The removal of the greater part
of the casein into the cheese takes out the most valuable
portion of the milk from a food standpoint. If whey is
used for calf raising, a grain ration should be selected that
replaces as far as possible the constituents removed in the
cheese. Corn is used with skim milk, since the latter is
strong in proteids; but with whey conditions are different,
and the proteids must be supplied. Oil meal is generally
preferred for this purpose. About one half pound of oil
meal is mixed thoroughly in a gallon of the sweet, warm
whey, and fed as skim milk. If it is desirable to raise the
calf on whey, it should be given its mother's milk for at least
six weeks, and then can be changed to the whey. Some
prefer to feed the grain dry. The other details of feeding
and care are the same as given in regard to feeding skim
milk.

Calf Meals. — A number of mixtures prepared and sold
under proprietary names are on the market designed to take
the place of milk in raising calves. These are usually a
mixture of several ingredients, among which oil meal or
ground flaxseed usually holds a prominent place.

CALF RAISING 195

According to the New Jersey Experiment Station * one
of the most widely used calf meals is a complex mixture of
oil-cake meal, bean meal, wheat middlings, cottonseed meal,
carol beans, and fenugreek. The average composition of this
meal, which seems to be quite uniform, as found from analyses
made by nine experiment stations, is: protein, 25.2 per
cent ; fat, 4.90 per cent. Calf meals have been tested by a
number of experiment stations. At the Ontario Agricul-
tural College 2 it was found that calves fed calf meal as a sub-
stitute for milk in comparison with a ration of skim milk
did better on the latter ration. Another calf meal was
compared with ground oats and bran as a supplement to
skim milk, but the best results were secured from the grain
feeding.

Another milk substitute sold widely in Europe was tried
in comparison with whole milk and skim milk by Moser
and Kappele.3 The mixture, which consisted mostly of oil-
cake meal, bean meal, and corn, was found to cost one half
as much as whole milk, and contained only one third the
nutrients. Calves fed this ration gained .6 pounds per day,
against 1.1 pound per day on whole milk. As a supplement
for skim milk, the results were fairly satisfactory.

On the whole, the calf meals that are on the market give
fair satisfaction as supplements to skim milk, but no better
than grain mixtures that can be fed at much less expense.
It is possible to use them as substitutes for milk in raising
calves after they are two or three months old; but equally
good results are found by feeding mixtures of grain pre-

1 Bulletin No. 160.

2 Ontario Agricultural College, Reports, 1900, 1905.
8 Landw. Jahrbuch d. Schweiz, 1903.

196 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

pared by the feeder at less expense. The most satisfactory
of the prepared calf meals seem to be those that contain a
certain amount of dried skim milk.

Calf Feeders. — Several calf feeders have been devised
and used in a small way. They are mostly made on the
plan of having a rubber nipple for the calf to suck, and a
tube of some kind to draw the milk from the pail. The
claim is made that it is better for the calf to drink the milk
slowly and mix the saliva with the milk which is done when
the calf takes the milk from the rubber nipple. In practice
it is found difficult to keep the tubes clean, and it is more
work to feed the calf in this way than by teaching it to
drink from the bucket. As to the injurious effects of rapid
eating, there are no data at hand on the ground either way;
but it is doubtful if it is of any special importance. Saliva
probably has very little to do with the digestion of the
milk, since the principal office of saliva in digestion is to
moisten food and convert the starches into soluble sugars,
and there is no starch in milk.

Ties for Calves. — Where valuable calves are raised, and
it is desired to take every precaution to keep them in good
condition, it is advisable to arrange a series of small pens so
each animal may be kept by itself. This not only allows each
animal to get the proper amount of feed, but enables the
feeder to observe the individual more readily and detect
any unusual conditions. A case of sickness may often be
stopped by decreasing the feed of a certain calf after observ-
ing an abnormal condition of the manure so slight that it
would not be possible to locate the affected animal in a group.

The next best arrangement, and the most commonly used,
is stanchions. Where a group of calves run together, some

CALF RAISING 197

means should be taken to tie them during eating. It is not
only a great labor-saving device, but allows each calf to get
its share of milk and grain. Calves should never be fed in
a trough, as some will drink faster than others and be overfed,
while others will be underfed. The same rule applies to the
feeding of grain.

Stanchions for calves are made like ordinary rigid stan-
chions for cows, but smaller. A feed trough is put in front,
with divisions to keep the feed of each calf separate. The
pail of milk is set in the trough for the calf to drink. After
drinking the milk, the proper amount of grain is put in the
trough, and the calves left tied for some time to eat their
portion. This usually prevents them from forming the
habit of sucking each other, which is a point of some im-
portance. If the calves are in the pasture, a convenient way
is to fasten the stanchions on the fence.

Calf stanchions are usually made from thirty-six to forty-
four inches high and twenty-eight inches from center to
center, with a space of about four and one half inches for the
neck. The feed trough should not be too wide ; about four-
teen inches is ample, with a depth of four inches where the
stanchions are in the pasture and the calves are not to be
fed hay. In the barn provision should be made for holding
a sufficient supply of hay.

Scours in Calves. — The most common trouble in raising
calves by hand is indigestion, or scours, as it is generally
known. The chief causes of this common trouble, as already
pointed out, are : overfeeding, sour or old milk, feeding
cold milk, dirty pails, troughs, or stalls. The main thing to
do is to prevent these troubles by keeping the conditions
right all the time.

198 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

In considering scours, care should be taken first of all to
distinguish between common scours, due to indigestion, and
scours caused by navel infection.

White Scours, or Calf Cholera. — This trouble is quite
common with calves. It usually appears within one or two
days after birth. The calf is very sick from the beginning;
the eyes become sunken, and a common symptom, although
not always shown, is the passage of white, foul-smelling dung.
The calf usually dies within a short time. This is a con-
tagious germ disease, which gains access to the calf s body
through the navel soon after birth. The freshly broken
navel cord offers easy access to the system for the germs
responsible for the disease. An animal once affected rarely
recovers. If a calf has been affected with this disease in a
herd, the chance of other cases developing is much greater.
Often several cases occur in succession in a stall used for
calving purposes. The trouble may be avoided by making
sure that the calf is dropped in a clean stall, and that it is not
allowed to come in contact with dirt or manure, until the
cord is dry. If the herd is on pasture, it is best to allow
the cow to remain there until the calf is born. Infection
rarely occurs in the pasture. If the calf is born in the barn,
the only safe plan is to tie up the cord at birth, and to
apply a mild disinfectant, as a weak solution of creoline or
zenoleum.

Scours from Indigestion. — This is often a serious matter
in raising calves, as a bad case gives the calf a setback from
which it recovers very slowly. Each animal should be
watched closely for signs of indigestion. Often the first
sign is foul-smelling dung. On the first indications of dis-
order the ration should be cut down to one half the usual

CALF RAISING 199

amount. It is well to add one teaspoonful per pint of milk
fed of a mixture of one half ounce of formaline in 15|- ounces
of water. After two or three feeding periods, the milk given
may again be increased to the usual quantity. The for-
maline should be given for two or three days at least.

When a severe case of scours appears, the feed should be
at once reduced. A drench of three ounces of castor oil in a
pint of milk may be then given with advantage. This may
be followed by a teaspoonful of a mixture of one part salol
and two parts subnitrate of bismuth three times daily two or
three days until the condition of the animal improves. It
is well to give the formaline mixture for several days while
recovering from a severe attack.

Veal Production. — The production of veal is a question
of minor importance at present, as far as American condi-
tions are concerned. The veal supply of the American
markets, as a rule, is irregular and inferior in quality. It is
produced mostly as incidental to milk production, and not
as a specialty, as is the case to a considerable extent in
Europe. The chief supply for the city markets comes from
the same herds that furnish the city with milk. When the
whole milk is sold, most of the male calves, and too often
the heifers, are sold for veal or disposed of in some way, and
not raised.

The abundance and cheapness of other meats has resulted
in a comparatively small demand for veal. As a result, the
price has been low and the quality as a rule unsatisfactory.
The dairyman selling market milk rightfully raises the
question if he can afford to supply the milk necessary to
feed the calf until it is of suitable age for veal. When
cream or butter is sold, the margin is somewhat wider.

200 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Feeding for Veal. — The calf designed for veal should be
given all it will take of fresh whole milk if a first-class
animal is to be produced. The calf is generally taught to
drink from a pail, if it is to be kept very long. From eight to
twelve pounds of milk at a feed twice a day is usually suffi-
cient. To produce the finest quality of veal, the calf should
not be allowed any feed other than whole milk. The veal is
at its best at the age of two months. One put on the mar-
ket under the legal limit is known as a "bob" veal, while one
too old for good quality of veal is called a " heretic." The
regulation of the United States government requires ani-
mals sold for veal to be not less than three weeks old. Many
cities, and some states also, have regulations regarding the
age or weight of calves that may be slaughtered. The age
specified varies from three to six weeks. Where such regu-
lations are not enforced, the tendency is to market the calves
much younger than this, since where milk is high-priced, the
younger the calf is sold the greater the profit.

Whether the calf can be raised for veal profitably or not
depends largely upon the value of milk. It is often found
that it costs more to feed calves, especially of the smaller
breeds, than is received when the calf is sold, and for this
reason many do not attempt to do so, but destroy all calves
not needed for breeders at birth. Where a number of cows
freshen at intervals, some of the calves are often raised that
otherwise would not be by feeding the milk of the fresh
cows up to the time it is fit for market.

The following data indicate what may be expected along
this line : Hay ward l fed six calves, weighing from 59 to 85
pounds at the beginning for 30 days. Average daily gain

1 Annual Report, Pennsylvania Experiment Station, 1899.

CALF RAISING

201

,was from 1.3 to 2.2 pounds. The calves consumed 393
pounds of milk on the average, containing 17.5 pounds of
fat; and at prices then ranging were worth $4.73 each, an
equivalent of $1.20 per hundred for the milk fed. A second
test was made with eight calves, weighing from 58 to 80
pounds in the beginning. With a feeding period of a little
over six weeks, these calves sold for a sum equivalent to
95.7 cents per hundred for milk; 9.8 pounds of milk testing
4.2 per cent fat were required per pound of gain.

The following data are presented from the Missouri Ex-
periment Station : —

FEED CONSUMED AND GAIN FIRST 30 DAYS

No.

CALVES

AVERAGE
BIRTH
WEIGHT

WEIGHT
AT END OF
30 DATS

AVERAGE
DAILY
GAIN

LB. MILK
PER LB.
GAIN

Jerseys ....
Holsteins . . .

10

8

49
83

88.9
127.0

1.30

1.46

9.42

10.02

Ayrshires . . .

2

70

107.0

1.23

9.31

These calves were fed whole milk, but were not fed to the
limit, as might have been done had the production of veal
been the object in view.

It will be observed from the data given that on the aver-
age one pound of gain on the young calf requires about 10
pounds of milk. When heavy feeding is practiced, this
ratio seems to remain about the same.

If an abundance of skim milk is on hand, it may pay to
feed calves for meat production to an older age before put-
ting on the market and in this manner utilize the skim
milk. Some dairymen using the dairy breeds find this fairly

202 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

satisfactory, selling the calves at an age of from eight to ten
months. However, the dairymen as a rule will find it more
profitable to utilize the skim milk by feeding to growing
pigs or laying hens than to raise this quality of meat. ^.

Veal Production in Europe. — The farmers of Europe* are
in the lead in this line of meat production. There veal con-
stitutes an important part of the meat supply, and the qual-
ity is excellent. The prices realized are sufficient to justify
paying close attention to this line; and in some countries,
especially Holland and Germany, it has become something
of a specialty. In these countries where the finest quality
of veal is produced, each calf is confined in a small pen, in a
dark but comfortable stall, and is fed all the whole milk it
will consume three times per day. They are put on the
market between ^two and three months of age. The calves
are said to consume about ten pounds of milk per pound
of gain in live weight.

The following facts were given the writer by the manager
of an estate in Denmark. The calves are fed whole milk
for about two weeks, then gradually changed to a ration of
20 pounds daily of skim milk and one fourth pound sun-
flower seed cake. The last two weeks about one half whole
milk is again fed, and the animals sold at an age of about
twelve weeks at an average price of from $ 12 to $ 15 each.

CHAPTER XVI

x

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAIRY HEIFER

FEED AND CARE AFTER WEANING. INFLUENCE OF FEED
AND AGE OF BREEDING ON SIZE, CONFORMATION, AND

DAIRY QUALITIES

\

Feed and Care of the Heifer after Weaning. — No diffi-
culties are encountered in raising calves from the time of
weaning until ready to come into milk. If 'the young ani-
mals are on pastures, no further attention is necessary, since
grass furnishes the best and usually the cheapest growth. ;..

The winter ration should consist of all the roughness the
animals will consume, and a small amount of grain in addi-
tion. The object should be to keep the young animals in a
thrifty growing condition without becoming unnecessarily
fat. The liberal use of roughness is desirable, since it is
usually the cheapest feed at hand, and further it is generally
believed by experienced breeders that the consumption of
large amounts of roughness when young helps to develop
the organs of digestion to the maximum which is desirable
when the cow comes into milk.

The roughness should by all means consist mostly of
some legume, as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay, on account of
the palatability and high protein and ash content of this
class. Corn silage is also well adapted for part of the ration,
but should always be combined with some leguminous hay

203

204 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

or with a ration of grain that supplies ample material for
growth, such as wheat, bran, or oats.

Age to Breed. — The age at which cows should come into
milk depends somewhat on the breed and the maturity of
the animal. The larger breeds, as the Holstein and Brown
Swiss, as a rule should not calve much before thirty months.
The more rapidly developing Jersey is, as a rule, sufficiently
mature at two years. Other breeds rank in between these
extremes. The proper age to breed depends somewhat on
the size and development of the heifer. Heavy feeding of
grain results in an animal large for its age and early sexual
maturity.

Some breeders prefer to have the first calf dropped at
rather a young age, claiming in this way to fix a habit of
milk production in the young animal, and at the same time
securing financial returns as early as possible. A common
practice among these breeders is to allow about eighteen or
twenty months between the first and second calves. In
this way a long milking period is developed, and the cow
has time to grow before the birth of the second calf.

It is a severe strain on the heifer to develop the fetus.
Our investigations show that during the last three months
of pregnancy a heifer, even when fed a liberal ration, does
not add to her own body. The increase in weight shown is
all found to be in the fetus. After the calf is born, the
heifer weighs, as a rule, no more than she did three months
previously.

Breeding too young undoubtedly results in small cows.
It is impossible for a young cow to digest and assimilate a
sufficient amount of feed to produce milk and growth at
the same time. The production of milk, on account of its

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAIRY HEIFER 205

relation to reproduction, is a dominant function, and will
not be materially checked to allow growth to continue.
For this reason it can hardly be expected that a heifer
calving young and immature in size will develop into a cow
of normal size if she calves regularly each year afterwards.

The cow that has calved early as a rule shows a more
pronounced feminine characteristic, and is finer in the bone,
than the one that has calved at a later age.

The Development of the Dairy Heifer. — As already
pointed out, one of the most important factors influencing
economical milk production is the individuality of the cows
used. It has been suggested that this probably is depend-
ent mostly upon inheritance. Still the question arises, and
is one of great importance as to the effect of the manner of
raising the heifer upon the dairy characteristic when mature.
In other words, is a superior or inferior cow born or made?

In 1906, with the view of getting data upon which to plan
an investigation along this line, the Missouri Experiment
Station sent a list of questions to the leading breeders of
dairy cattle in the United States, to learn their opinion upon
these factors that may influence the development of dairy
heifers. Replies were received from 301 breeders, repre-
senting an experience of breeding 150,000 animals. The
widest possible divergence of opinion was found respecting
some of the points covered. A series of investigations was
then undertaken to gather more accurate data under ex-
perimental conditions. According to the plan, one group,
numbering 20 animals, was to be fed on whole milk, and to
receive all the grain they would consume from birth until
they came in milk. Another 20 were to be raised on skim
milk and alfalfa or clover hay without receiving any grain

206 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

until they came into milk. It was planned to have one half
of each of these groups calve at 20 to 24 months of age, and
the other half at 32 to 36 months. The conditions are ex-
treme in both directions, in order to give some definite results
in regard to the influence of the ration fed and of the age
of calving. While this investigation is not yet completed,
sufficient data are at hand to enable some conclusions to be
drawn.

In discussing this subject, certain of the questions sent to
the breeders will be given, followed by a summary of their
opinions and a discussion based upon our experimental results.

Influence of Overfeeding when Young. — Question 2. Do
you believe from your experience that a dairy cow may. be
injured by being allowed to become overfat when young?

Of 281 breeders replying to this question 76 per cent reply
in the affirmative and 24 per cent in the negative. It has
been believed for a long time by many breeders that it is
injurious to the milking qualities of a dairy cow to become
fat when young. This has been thought to develop a tend-
ency toward using feed for body fat that will persist when
the animal is mature and in milk. This supposition is based
upon observations which may easily be erroneous. When a
cow of a dairy breed lacks dairy qualities and shows a beef
tendency in conformation, it is easy to attribute it to im-
proper feeding when young. In many cases the same ani-
mal did show a beef tendency when young, but not from
overfeeding, but as an inherited characteristic. So far in
our investigations no injurious effect on the milk-producing
function has been found from heavy feeding when young.
Some of our best cows have been in one group, and some in
the other. Those heifers which have been kept fat from

Holstein heifer, light fed, age 1 year, weight 396 pounds, height at withers
42.3 inches.

Holstein heifer, heavy fed, age 1 year, weight 730 pounds, height at withers

48.2 inches.

FIG. 39. — Influence of feed upon size and conformation.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAIRY HEIFER 207

birth until coming in milk lose the surplus body fat within
a short time after calving, and show no more tendency to
fatten later while in milk than do those raised on the light
ration. The most marked effect of the heavy grain ration,
as found so far, is a much more rapid growth and a quicker
maturity as compared with light-fed animals. However,
the results show a heavy grain ration for dairy heifers is
entirely too expensive as compared with a ration made up
mostly of good roughness. From an economical standpoint
the feeding of a heavy grain ration cannot be practiced.

Corn in the Heifer's Ration. — Question 3. Are there any
feeds that should be especially avoided in raising dairy heifers ?

Of 301 breeders answering this question 10 per cent
answer in the negative; 48 per cent mention corn as a
feed to be avoided; 10 per cent more avoid "fatty foods,"
most of these probably having feeds rich in carbohydrates,
such as corn, in mind; 10 per cent also avoid cottonseed
meal. Our investigations do not give any data on this
question, except in so far that we have had splendid dairy
cows that were fed excessively on a grain ration consisting of
two thirds corn continuously up to the time of calving.
It seems, however, that there is a widespread belief that
corn is detrimental to the development of a dairy heifer.

Forbes 1 found experimentally that an exclusive corn
ration for young swine caused a retarded development of
proteid and bony tissues and overdevelopment of fat tissue.
It resulted in fine-boned, poorly muscled, undersized, over-
fat animals, with impaired powers for breeding. It is reason-
able to expect somewhat similar results would follow exces-
sive feeding of corn to a growing heifer. However, this must

1 Bulletin 213, Ohio Experiment Station, p. 302.

208 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

not be interpreted to mean corn is not a safe food. There
is no time in the life of a dairy cow where it cannot be fed,
if used with moderation and in combination with other
suitable foods.

Factors Influencing the Size. — Question 5. How would
you proceed if you wished to develop especially large animals ?

Under this head we found 18 per cent of the breeders
mentioned the selection of large parents, 82 per cent liberal
feeding, and 17 per cent late calving as the factors to be
taken into account. Our investigation so far bears out the
breeders' opinions. We find liberal feeding of grain when
young not only causes a much more rapid growth and
development, but makes a somewhat larger animal in the
end. The growing period of the light-fed heifer is longer,
and if .they do not come into milk until three years of age,
they are not undersized. However, if they calve at 20 to
24 months, and thereafter at intervals of twelve months, they
remain somewhat undersized. We find the character of the
ration fed and the age of calving both to be factors influenc-
ing the size of the animal when mature. Continued selection
of large parents would unquestionably tend to increase the
size. However, according to the principles of heredity as
now understood, parents made larger or smaller than normal
by the food received will not transmit this characteristic to
their young. If a cow or bull is undersized by inheritance,
however, it is probable the offspring will inherit the same
tendency.

Bulky Rations as Influencing Digestive Capacity. — Ques-
tion 7. Does your observation indicate that the liberal
feeding of roughness while young helps to develop a strong
digestion?

Jersey heifer, light fed, age 4 years, calved at 22 months, weight 701 pounds,
height at withers 47 inches.

Jersey heifer, light fed, age 4 years, calved at 35 months, weight 816 pounds,
height at withers 49.1 inches.

FIG. 40. — Influence of age at first calving upon size.

Jersey heifer, light fed, calved at 23 months, age 3 years, weight 622 pounds,
height at withers 46.1 inches.

Jersey heifer, heavy fed, late calving, calved at 37 months, age 3 years,
weight 1194 pounds, height at withers 53.1 inches.

FIG. 41. — Light fed early calving compared with heavy fed late calving.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAIRY HEIFER 209

Of 287 breeders replying to this question, 75 per
cent answered in the affirmative. This indicates a wide-
spread belief in the favorable influence of a bulky ration
while young upon the digestion of the mature animal. Our
investigations give no positive data along this line. It has
been observed, however, that a heifer that has been receiv-
ing a heavy grain ration up to calving time will consume,
when first put upon a typical dairy ration, only about one
half as much roughness as a heifer that has been raised
upon roughness. However, this marked difference soon
disappears. After about two months on the same ration,
we have been unable to observe any difference in the power
of digestion. However, more accurate means must be em-
ployed to determine this point definitely. The digestive
apparatus has great powers of adapting itself to the char-
acter of the food consumed, and for this reason it is probable
that the effects of the ration fed during the period of growth
are not permanent.

Age at first Bulling. — Question 12. At what age, on the
average, do the heifers first come in heat?

The influence of breed counts for considerable in this
connection. The average age given for Jerseys was 8
months, Guernseys 11 months, Holsteins 11.4 months, and
Ayrshires 12.8 months. Our investigation has shown a wide
variation in this respect due to the ration fed. As might
reasonably be expected, the animals receiving a liberal grain
ration reach sexual maturity sooner than those on a ration
with no grain. Our data show an average difference for
the two groups of 65 days for the Jerseys, 126 days for the
Holsteins, 100 days for the Ayrshires ; an average of 92 days
for the 32 animals included.

CHAPTER XVII
MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE

Dehorning. — For the ordinary business herd there is
every reason why the animals should be dehorned. Before
domestication horns were useful as a protection against
other wild animals, but horns on a dairy cow of to-day serve
no useful purpose, and are the source of much annoyance.
They are responsible for frequent injuries, often serious, and
especially to the udder. Dehorned cattle may be housed in
a much smaller space; and when they are fed and watered
together in the ordinary manner, there is a material saving
in labor. Horns on a bull are extremely dangerous. The
only case where it is advisable not to remove the horns is
with high-class animals that are likely to be used for show
purposes. While the scale of points for the various breeds
allow only one or two points for horns, a dehorned animal
loses much more than that score card indicates when in the
show ring. Dehorned animals are occasionally found in the
show ring, but the leading show animals are practically all
horned.

Dehorning may be done on the grown animal by the use
of the saw or clipper, or on the calf with caustic potash.
When using the saw or clippers, the animal should be at
least one year of age, and preferably two, or there is danger
that scurs will later develop. This will always happen when

210

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 211

a young animal is dehorned unless the horns are properly
removed; that is, cut sufficiently close to the head. The
horns should be cut from a quarter to one half inch below
where the skin joins the horns, leaving a rim of the skin on
the horn removed.

The best method of dehorning is to use caustic potash on
the young calf. To use this successfully it must be done be-
fore the calf is more than three days old. The hair is clipped
away from the small buttons which may be felt, and which are
the future horns. A stick of caustic potash is then moistened
a trifle and rubbed on the spot until the skin bleeds slightly.
Care must be taken to avoid getting too much water on the
animal, or it may run down the head, taking off the hair, and
even getting into the eyes, with serious results. If sufficient
caustic potash has been applied, a dent will be felt in the skull
after a few days, and no horns will ever develop.

Dehorning of grown animals is best done in cool weather
of spring or autumn. If done in hot weather, means must be
taken to keep flies out of the wound. In raising pure-bred
animals for sale it is advisable to leave the horns on, as they
can be removed, if the buyer wishes.

Directions regarding methods of tying animals for dehorn-
ing with the saw or clippers and details about the work may
be found in Farmers' Bulletin, No. 350, and in the 24th Annual
Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture.

Marking Cattle. — In breeding pure-bred cattle it is very
essential that some practical system of marking the individ-
uals be adopted. Even if a breeder feels that he can de-
pend upon memory alone, it is not advisable to do so. The
records of some valuable herds have been lost through the

212 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

death of the owner, who was the only one who knew the indi-
vidual animals.

The common practice of taking dairy-bred calves away from
the dams soon after birth to be raised by hand makes it much
more uncertain to depend upon memory to identify these ani-
mals, than is the case with beef-bred cows where the calf is
raised by the mother in the natural way and the owner has
several months' time to learn the individuals.

When a buyer visits a herd, a much better impression is
made if every animal bears a tag. Every calf should be
tagged in some manner within a few days after birth, and a
record made in the herd book to identify the animal. It is
important, even in grade herds, especially when large, to have
a permanent mark of some kind that may be used as a means
of identification if question of ownership should arise.

There are several methods in more or less general use for
this purpose. A common plan is the use of ear tags of various
forms, bearing numbers, and, if desired, the name and address
of the owner. Some of the forms in use are shown in Fig. 42.
The chief objection to these is that they are frequently torn
from the ear by being caught in a fence or branch of a tree,
and in this way not only is the mark lost, but the animal dis-
figured as well. An advantage of this type is that it may
be removed and another substituted if desired. In inserting
these tags care should be taken not to close them too tightly
on the ear, as a soreness may result which leads the animal to
rub the ear and tear out the tag.

Various systems of notching the ear to indicate numbers
are also in use. These are satisfactory, except that the ani-
mal is disfigured, and the system must be known to read the
number. Another method in use is to burn the number on the

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE

213

horn or hoof. A mark on the hoof must be renewed at inter-
vals, and one on the horn is occasionally lost by the horn being
broken off, as well as being impractical in many herds on
account of the practice of dehorning. The young calf can-
not be marked in this manner. Some breeders mark the ani-
mals by placing a brass tag bearing a number on a strap about
the neck. This is especially well adapted for calves.

/ ^

(

)

20

U OF

DAIRY

8

DEPT.

(

)

V

J

|

u n 125

FIG. 42. — Devices for marking cattle, o, brass tag to go on strap;
6, c, ear tags; d, tattoo marker.

For use with all breeds having light-colored skin in the ears
the tattoo mark is/the most satisfactory of all. This consists
in printing the numbers or letters as desired in the skin of the
ear with india ink. The instrument for making the punctures
is arranged so any combination of letters or figures may be
used. In using this the skin of the ear should be thoroughly
cleaned of grease by washing with soap or gasoline. The
puncture is then made, and the tattoo oil thoroughly rubbed

214 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

in. The figures show clearly after a few days, when the
wound is healed, and remain permanently.

The plan adopted by the author is to mark every calf be-
fore being taken from its mother. Each animal is given a
permanent herd number, which is recorded, and a strap placed
around its neck bearing this number on a brass tag. This
tag is worn until the animal is nearly mature and familiar to
the attendants. The tattoo mark is put in the ear at the age
of about one year, and while not suitable for identification at
a distance, makes it possible at any time to positively identify
the animal.

PROTECTION FROM FLIES IN SUMMER

Decline in Milk Production in Midsummer. — In the latter
part of the summer the production of milk by the average
dairy herd falls off rapidly. At the same time, the animals
are annoyed greatly by the flies, and in the popular mind they
are looked upon as the chief cause of this decline. The rapid
falling off in milk production is illustrated by a compilation
made by the author.

Sixty farmers supplying milk to the college creamery at
Ames, Iowa, sold only 46 pounds on August 1 for each 100
pounds delivered by the same parties on June 1, a decline of
54 per cent. At the same time, for every 100 pounds
produced by the college herd on June 1, 68 pounds were
produced on August 1. The actual difference was really
greater than these figures indicate, since some fresh cows were
added during the period to the farmers' herds, while the
figures from the college herd represent only those animals
that remained in milk during this time.

The large decline in production with the farmers' cows

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 215

is typical for the summer season under conditions where the
dairy cow is made secondary to other lines of farming. Where
dairy farming as a specialty is practiced, such great declines
in production do not ordinarily occur, on account of better
management. The much smaller decline with the college herd
was the result of supplementing the pasture with green feed.

Flies that trouble Cows. — Cattle in this country are
troubled mostly by two varieties of flies, known as the stable
fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, and the horn fly, Hcematobia serrata.
The stable fly resembles the ordinary house fly in appearance;
but while the house fly does not bite, the stable fly has mouth
parts that enable it to pierce the skin and suck the blood of
animals. The eggs are laid mostly in manure, horse manure
preferably, but also in cow manure. The period for develop-
ment is about fifteen days from egg to adult fly.

The horn fly was introduced into America about 1886.
It is considerably smaller than the house fly, and gets its name
from the characteristic of gathering about the base of the
horns. It is also recognized by the habit of feeding with
the wings spread, and usually goes in swarms. Its bite is
very irritating, and causes a congestion resembling the bite of
a mosquito. The eggs are laid in fresh manure, and require
about ten days to develop adult flies. These flies remain with
the cattle constantly, roosting largely on the horns.

Since the flies that annoy cattle are hatched in manure, the
first precaution to be observed in reducing the numbers to the
minimum is to avoid an accumulation of manure where it
will remain moist, and especially near the barn. Since horse
manure seems to be preferred by these pests, special care
should be taken not to allow it to remain in heaps near the
barn. Where a small amount of manure accumulates, it is

216 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

sometimes kept in a screened inclosure. When the weather
is damp so the manure dropped in the field remains moist a
sufficient length of time, the flies hatch freely wherever drop-
pings are found. In dry seasons this opportunity does not
occur, and the number of flies is usually much smaller.

The popular idea of the great injury done by flies has re-
sulted in many proprietary mixtures being put on the market
designed for the purpose of keeping off the flies. The com-
pounds are usually composed chiefly of some coal tar product
with the addition of fish oil, resin, or pine tar. These are ap-
plied to the animal with a hand spray pump. Great claims
are made by the manufacturers regarding the injury done by
flies and the profit resulting from using these repellents. In-
vestigations made by at least three experiment stations have
failed to show any advantages from their use.

Lindsay l reports trials with ten brands of fly removers.
Four of these he found were efficient in keeping off the flies,
the others were not. He did not determine the effect on the
milk and butter production of the cows.

Beach and Clark 2 report an extensive trial to determine
the effect of applying one of these preparations on the milk
and butter fat yield of cows. The trial covered two summers.
They concluded that while the preparation they used pro-
tected the cows fairly well against the flies, the milk and fat
production was not increased when the cows were sprayed.
Their investigation indicates that the annoyance of cows by
flies is overestimated.

The author3 carried on a similar trial during the summers of

1 Fifteenth Annual Report, Mass. Experiment Station.
1 Bulletin 32, Storrs Experiment Station, Storrs, Conn.
8 Bulletin 68, Missouri Experiment Station.

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 217

1903 and 1904. The first year sixteen and the second year
twenty-one cows were used. The fly season was divided into
periods of two weeks, and the entire herd sprayed each morning
on alternate periods. When the fly repellent was applied
each morning, the cows were fairly well protected during the
day. The only advantage found was that the cows were less
restless during milking. No effect could be detected upon
the yield either of the milk or of the fat.

The plan has been recommended by some of housing the
cows during the day in a darkened barn to avoid annoyance
from flies, letting them out at night to graze. The objection
to this is the difficulty of keeping the stable dark and at the
same time cool and comfortable. Again, the extra expense of
labor in cleaning the stable and supplying bedding makes it
impracticable in most cases.

The main cause for the marked falling off in milk during
the summer is to be attributed to the failure on the part of
the cows to eat a sufficient amount of food. The excessive
heat in a warm climate has more to do with this than the flies,
although the latter may contribute somewhat to the general
effect.

The pastures are often short also at this time, making it
more difficult for the animals to gather sufficient feed for the
heaviest production. It will be observed that during hot
weather the cows will graze but little during the day, and
come to the barn at night evidently hungry. While the in-
fluence of these conditions cannot be entirely removed, they
may be improved. The first thing is to make certain the cows
do not lack for food. They should be in the pasture during
the night if possible, and at least during the coolest part of the
day, during early morning and late evening. The feeding of

218 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

silage at this season is also to be recommended to supplement
the pastures.

Sheltering. — The housing of the dairy cow naturally de-
pends upon the climatic conditions. She should not be ex-
posed to severe weather, while cold rains and snowstorms are
especially to be avoided. The most favorable temperature
has not as yet been determined experimentally, but observa-
tion indicates that a barn temperature of between 40° and
50° F. is as favorable as any. During the winter season
the cow should remain in the barn, except for a few hours in the
middle of the day when the weather is mild. On stormy
days or during periods of excessively cold weather she will do
better if kept inside constantly. It is well to provide an
arrangement to supply water to the animals in the barn in cold
climates.

An abundance of fresh air is as necessary for the health
of the cow as of any other animal, and should be provided
without fail. However, it should be supplied by proper ven-
tilation, and not through the walls of poorly constructed barns.
Excessively warm weather is far more injurious to the dairy
cow than cold, and there is no practical means of making the
animal comfortable under such conditions. For this reason
hot weather and warm climates are not conducive to a high
production of milk. This is especially the case where high
temperature is combined with a high humidity of the atmos-
phere.

MILKING

Milking the Heifer. — If the heifer is properly handled
before she has her first calf, there is little difficulty in teaching
her to be milked. If the heifer has been tied while being fed
as a calf, there will be no further trouble about tying her at

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 219

any time. The heifer should be accustomed to the stable
where she is to be tied for some time before she calves. It is
best to tie her for a month or more before she freshens in the
stall she is to occupy when in milk, and to make a point of
handling her daily. A careful man should have the milking of
her at first, and must go about it carefully and without exciting
her. Very little trouble will ever be experienced under such
conditions. The men who care for cows should always
move about among them gently and not startle them by
sudden movements or loud talking.

Methods of Milking. — Milking is generally considered
such a simple operation that any common laborer is supposed
to be able to milk. However, there is an immense difference
in milkers, and one of the most difficult parts of carrying on
dairy farming is securing competent men to do this work.
One milker may be able to get 20 per cent more milk than an-
other, one may dry the cow within a few months, while another
may keep her in milk the entire year. The milker should not
be allowed to excite or worry the cows by loud talking or cru-
elty or abuse of any kind.

The secretion of milk is involuntary, but may be affected
indirectly by excitement of any kind. Even the presence of a
stranger or a dog at milking time is sufficient to affect the
milk yield of many cows. The changing of milkers results in
some loss for a few milkings, unless the new milker is better
than the former.

A cow should be milked quietly and quickly. A cow is
largely a creature of habit. If usually fed at the time of
milking, she cannot be milked satisfactorily until she has her
feed. Special care should be taken to secure all of the strip-
pings. The first milk drawn may contain as little as 1 per cent

220

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

of fat, while the last drawn runs from 6 to 10 per cent. In
milking the whole hand should be used, closing first that part
next to the udder; then the milk is forced past the sphincter
muscle by closing the remainder of the hand. The milking
should not be done by using the thumb and forefinger alone,

FIG. 43. — Correct position of the hands when milking (Grotenfelt).

neither should the thumb be inclosed within the palm, as is
sometimes done. The cow's teats should always be dry when
milking. Wetting the teats not only is a dirty, filthy practice,
but it also allows the teats to chap and become sore in cold
weather. If there is difficulty in milking dry, a small amount
of vaseline may be rubbed on the hands. This serves the

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 221

same purpose as wetting the teats, and is beneficial rather than
harmful, both in a sanitary way and as it affects the cow's
teats.

Effect of Period between Milkings. — If a cow is milked
twice a day at twelve-hour intervals, there is as a rule little
difference between night's and morning's yield or richness.
If the period is unequal, the larger amount of milk and the
lowest quality usually follows the longer period.

Milking three times per day is practiced with heavy-pro-
ducing cows, and with all cows that are being crowded for the
largest records, especially if it be for short periods. Few
cows can produce over 60 pounds of milk per day with two
milkings, and when 75 to 80 pounds are reached, the production
will seldom go higher unless the cow is milked four times each
24 hours. When the udder becomes congested to a certain
point, no further secretion takes place until this congestion is
removed by milking. With heavy-producing cows it will pay
in a practical way to milk three times daily. With cows of
anything like ordinary productive capacity, the increase is not
sufficient to pay for the extra labor involved. The richness
of the milk is also somewhat increased with heavy milkers
by milking more than twice per day.

Stoppage of the Teats. — It occasionally happens that the
opening in the teats is apparently closed up when the cow be-
gins to produce milk. Something must be done to open it, or
that portion of the udder will be spoiled. This may often be
done with a common silver milk tube or with a teat expander.
Small, hard lumps form occasionally at the base of the teat, and
should be treated with the bistoury.

The Milking Machine. — A satisfactory milking machine
has long been the greatest need of the dairy farmer. While

222 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

still in the experimental stage, the milking machine is at present
sufficiently well developed to be a commercial success in the
hands of some operators. It is thoroughly demonstrated that
it will milk cows, and that by its use a skillful operator can do
as good work as the average milker. It seems, however, that
it is not yet equal to a good milker in the amount of milk that
will be secured. The cow is not inj ured in the least, and in fact
prefers machine to hand milking. Most users have found it
more difficult to hold up the yield of milk with the machine
through the entire lactation period than when hand milking
is practiced. If the machine is properly cleaned and used, the
sanitary condition of the milk is much improved over any
ordinary conditions ; but with careless handling the quality of
the milk may be even worse than hand milking. So far it is
only practical for herds of 30 cows or more.

The Hegelund Manipulation. — This system of manipula-
tion was originated by Dr. J. Hegelund, a teacher in a Danish
agricultural school in 1900. It was brought to the attention
of dairymen in this country by Professor Woll of Wisconsin.
It is really a manipulation of the udder made by the milker as
soon as the regular flow of milk has ceased, in order to secure
all the milk secreted by the cow. This manipulation serves
the same purpose as ordinary stripping, but is claimed to be
more efficient. The system has been tested by Woll l and by
Wing and Foord.2 The manipulations, three in number, are
described as follows by Woll.

Description of the Hegelund Manipulation. — First Manip-
ulation. — The right quarters of the udder are pressed against
each other (if the udder is very large, only one quarter at a

1 Bulletin 96, Wisconsin Experiment Station.

2 Bulletin 213, Cornell Experiment Station.

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 223

time is taken) , with the left hand on the hind quarter and the
right hand in front on the fore quarter, the thumbs being
placed on the outside of the udder and the four fingers pressed
toward each other and at the same time lifted toward the
body of the cow. This pressing and lifting is repeated three
times, the milk collected in the milk cistern is then milked
out, and the manipulation repeated until no more milk is ob-
tained in this way, when the left quarters are treated in the
same manner.

Second Manipulation. — The glands are pressed together
from the side. The fore quarters are milked each by itself by
placing one hand, with fingers spread, on the outside of the
quarter and the other hand in the division between the right
and left fore quarters; the hands are pressed against each
other and the teat then milked. When no more milk is
obtained by this manipulation, the hind quarters are milked
by placing a hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise
with fingers spread and turned upward, but with the thumb
just in front of the hind quarter. The hands are lifted, and
grasp into the gland from behind and from the side, after which
they are lowered to draw the milk. The manipulation is re-
peated until no more milk is obtained.

Third Manipulation. — The fore teats are grasped with
partly closed hands and lifted with a push toward the body of
the cow, both at the same time, by which method the glands
are pressed between the hands and the body; the milk is
drawn after each three pushes. When the fore teats are emp-
tied, the hind teats are milked in the same manner.

Wing and Foord found that from 3 to 13 pounds, and an
averajge of 8.75 pounds, of milk containing .63 pound of fat
were secured per week from each cow by following the Hege-

224 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

lund Manipulation. It also appeared that this milk was in
addition to the amount secured when the manipulation was
not practiced. This would indicate the amount of this resid-
ual milk is all gain.

They further compared the Hegelund Manipulation with
ordinary stripping. They conclude that, while the Hegelund
Method is effective as a means of securing all the milk possible,
practically as good results are obtained by ordinary strip-
ping when properly carried out. These results are in accord
with those found by Woll.

In one of their tests two milkers were leaving 20 cents worth
of fat each 'every milking, that could be removed by proper
methods. In another herd 8 per cent of the fat and 16.9
per cent of the fat was lost by failure to milk out all secreted.
These investigations showed clearly the necessity of careful
work in milking; otherwise heavy financial loss will occur.
All the milk secreted by the cow should be removed, as that left
in the udder by a careless milker is lost.

Hard-Milking Cows. — Some cows are considerable of an
annoyance to the milker on account of milking unusually
hard. This is generally caused by a strong sphincter muscle,
which closes the teat opening tighter than it should. This
condition may be remedied by proper treatment. For most
cases the use of teat plugs is sufficient. These plugs, which are
made of lead or hard rubber, are placed in the teat duct, and
a tape tied around the teat through the eyehole in the plug.
The animal wears the plug from one milking to another.
This is continued until the muscles are somewhat relaxed and
the opening remains larger. In some cases this treatment is
not sufficient to cause a permanent enlarging of the opening.
In other cases the difficulty in milking is caused by a hard

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 225

lump in the upper part of the teat, which seems to drop down
into the opening when drawing the milk. In this latter case,
or when the use of an ordinary dilating plug is not sufficient, the
bistoury should be employed. This is an instrument that is
passed into the teat opening, and then by means of a screw
a small knife edge is projected on one side at the upper end,
and the instrument is then withdrawn. The knife blade cuts
the side of the teat duct and the surrounding muscles. An or-

FIG. 44. — Instruments for treatment of udder troubles, a, b, milk tubes;
c, lead teat plug; d, teat expander; e, teat opener; /, teat slitter or
bistoury.

dinary teat plug is then kept in the opening, except at time of
milking, until the cut heals. This leaves the opening enlarged
permanently.

Sterilizing Instruments. — Before a milk tube, a teat plug,
the bistoury, or any instrument is inserted in the opening of a
cow's teat, it must be thoroughly disinfected. If this is not
done, germs will gain access to the udder, which will cause in-
flammation that may ruin the animal. Instruments should
Q

226 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

first be thoroughly cleaned in warm water, and preferably
boiled. Before being inserted into the teat, they should be
placed in a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, or in a rather
strong solution of creolin, and should be inserted while wet
with this solution and without being touched with the hand
on the portion that enters the duct.

Cows with Leaking Teats. — Some cows lose a portion of
their milk by leaking from the udder between milkings, on
account of the sphincter muscle having a weak contraction.
No practical remedy has been devised for this trouble. Under
conditions that warrant the small amount of trouble involved,
the teat opening may be closed after each milking with col-
lodion.

Bloody Milk. — Blood in milk is more common than is
generally understood. It may be often noticed in separator
slime when its presence was not suspected in the milk. It is
not an indication of disease or any unhealthy condition in the
cow. It is caused by the rupture of a small blood vessel that
allows blood to escape into the milk cistern or the milk ducts.
In some instances certain cows have it at intervals for a num-
ber of months, but more often it appears but once or twice.
It cannot be prevented or stopped, and the only thing to do
is to reject the milk affected.

Chapped Teats. — Sore teats maybe caused by cold weather,
milking with wet hands, or other causes of local irritation.
When so affected the cow does not stand quietly for milking
on account of the pain. The trouble may be easily remedied.
The application of vaseline for a few times on the first ap-
pearance of the trouble will usually check and cure it. If
severe the teats should be thoroughly washed and softened
with warm water, after which glycerite of tannin may be

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 227

applied. An application of equal parts of spermaceti and oil
of sweet almonds is also recommended.

Warts on the Teats. — These are often troublesome. They
often disappear or are greatly benefited by applying vaseline
or olive oil. If large, they may be cut off with a sharp pair
of scissors and the spot touched with a stick of caustic potash.

Bitter Milk. — It is not uncommon for the milk of certain
cows to have an abnormal taste and smell when far along in
the lactation period. This trouble is usually experienced, or
at least most often attracts attention, where one or two
cows are kept as a family milk supply. As far as the author
has observed, this abnormal condition of the milk occurs only
after the cow has been in milk seven months or more, and usu-
ally when she is far advanced in pregnancy. It only rarely
occurs when the cow is receiving green food. The milk has a
peculiar taste, described by some as salty, but more often as
bitter. The author has observed that the abnormal taste is
present in the fresh milk, but rapidly grows worse for 24 hours,
regardless of the temperature at which it is kept, indicating that
the growth of bacteria cannot be the cause. In most cases
the animal was fat and receiving more feed than necessary
when the trouble occurred. Reducing the grain ration to the
amount actually needed by the cow, and giving two or three
doses of Epsom salts, 1 to 1^ pounds at a dose, at intervals of
three days removed the abnormal condition in some cases.
Cream from milk in this condition churns with great difficulty,
and sometimes cannot be churned by any method that can be
devised.

Kicking Cows. — Cows are given to few vices, and those are
mainly due to faulty management. The most common is
kicking when milked. The cows always kick at first, either

228 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

from pain or fear. If not handled properly, it may grow into a
habit. Under no circumstances should a man strike a cow
that kicks. It does no good, and always makes them worse.
Gentle measures, however, will not work with all cows, and some
old cows that have been taught to kick by mismanagement
cannot be cured by the best of care. Such animals should al-
ways be tied during the milking. This is best done by taking
a rather heavy strap with a strong loop. The strap is put
around one leg above the hock, and the end drawn through the
loop. The strap is then put around the other leg and buckled,
so the two legs are held close together. The cow may struggle
a little at first, but soon learns to stand quietly as long as the
strap is in place.

Self-Sucking Cows. — This vice is not very common, but
annoying when begun, and difficult to stop. If an ordinary
cow contracts the habit, the best advice is to sell her at once.
The most effective method of treatment seems to be to put a
bull ring in the cow's nose and hang a second ring from the
first. This method was suggested by the Wisconsin Experi-
ment Station, and has been tried by the author with good
success.

CHAPTER XVIII
MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE (Continued)

Shall the Cow be given a Rest ? — In practically every large
dairy herd the common practice is to have all cows dry for a
short period before calving. Others, more especially less
experienced dairymen, make a practice of milking their cows
continuously. The objection to this practice is that the cow
needs a period in which to recuperate. The production of a
liberal amount of milk is as much of a tax on the cow as
heavy work is on a horse. The cow will produce more milk
if dry six weeks than she will if milked continuously. It is
often expected that milking up to the birth of the calf will
result in the calf being weak and small from lack of proper
nourishment. The author's observations do not bear out
this statement. The mother and not the fetus seems to suffer
most in case of insufficient feed.

A cow that is not given a rest before calving will begin at a
much lower level of production than will be the case when she
has had opportunity to recuperate, and this means a lower
level throughout the lactation period. Under ordinary condi-
tions the cow should be dry six weeks ; and if she is in a thin
condition, it is better to make it two months.

Drying up. the Cow. — Where certain cows are milked con-
tinuously, it is sometimes claimed they cannot be dried up.
There is little difficulty about this if properly handled. The
common method of drying a cow is to lengthen the interval

229

230 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

between milking by omitting one milking each day. After
a few days the milk is drawn only once in two days, until se-
cretion is completely stopped. This may require two weeks
or more. There is far less danger of injuring the cow's udder
in drying her up than is generally believed. If a cow is
producing as little as 10 pounds per day milking can be
stopped at any time, and no harm will result. The udder
should not be milked out at all. It will fill up for a few days,
and then the milk contained is gradually reabsorbed, and no
harm will result in any case. If a cow is producing more
than this amount of milk, it is advisable to first cut down her
feed. The grain ration should be all removed, and if the cow
is producing as much as 14 or 15 pounds per day, feed her only
on timothy hay for a few days until the production of milk
begins to decline, then stop the milking. The author has
practiced this method for several years with high-producing
cows, with no injurious results.

An example will show how it works in practice. In 1907
the Jersey cow, Bessie Bates, under the charge of the author,
was producing 19 pounds of milk per day, testing 5.5 per cent
of fat, and it was desired to dry her on account of approaching
calving. Her grain ration was first of all entirely taken away,
and she was given timothy hay only. After six days her pro-
duction had declined to 14.1 pounds of milk per day, and at
this point milking ceased entirely. Her udder filled rather full ;
but after three or four days it began to soften, and within a
week was perfectly normal. In her next milking period of
365 days she produced 13,895 pounds of milk and 680 pounds
of butter fat.

Management of the Cow when Dry. — The cow should be in
good flesh at the time of calving, as discussed in other places.

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 231

This is important in order to start the cow at a high level of
milk production. Further, far less trouble is experienced in
parturition when the animal is in good order, and there is less
trouble from retention of the afterbirth.

The feeding of the cow while dry will depend upon her con-
dition of flesh when milking ceases. If she is in good order,
that is, somewhat more than moderate in flesh, a little more
than a good maintenance ration will be needed while dry.
There is no more suitable ration for such a cow than good
pasture or clover hay and corn silage. If she is thin, the ration
should be sufficient to get her into proper condition at calving
time.

The amount of nutrients needed for developing the fetus
has not been determined, but must be taken into account. A
calf usually weighs from 50 to 90 pounds at birth, depending
upon the breed. No analysis of newborn calves is available,
but it is probable they contain at least 60 per cent of water.
On this basis a calf weighing 60 pounds would contain 36
pounds of dry matter. It would require 300 pounds of ordi-
nary milk containing 12 per cent of solids to equal the dry
matter in a calf of this size. On this basis it would require 12
days for a cow producing 25 pounds of milk per day to pro-
duce as much dry matter in the milk as is contained in a calf
at birth. We cannot assume, however, that the tax on the
animal would be the same in both cases.

At this time the cow should have exercise, and nothing is
better in this respect than freedom in a smooth pasture. She
should not be chased by dogs or driven through narrow gates.
As parturition approaches, she should be put on a laxative ra-
tion if during the period of winter feeding; if on pasture no
special attention need be given to the feed. She should not

232 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

be tied in a barn where the platform inclines toward the rear.
The average length of pregnancy is 285 days. The males are
carried a little longer on the average than the females.

Should Cow be milked before Calving. — It is the practice
of some to milk out heavy milkers several times before the
birth of the calf, for fear the udder may be injured. It is also
claimed by some that this helps to prevent milk fever. Others
never milk a cow until the calf is dropped. If milking is begun
it must be continued regularly. Milking before calving is ad-
visable only with the heaviest milkers, when they are evidently
suffering greatly from the distention of the udder.

Developing Long Milking Period. — While persistency in
milking is mostly a breed and individual character, it is gener-
ally believed it is possible to influence the length of time a cow
will give milk each period during her life by the length of the
first milking period. For this reason it is best to milk a heifer
in her first lactation period as long as she should be milked when
mature, even if the milk produced does not justify the time, in
order to establish the habit.

Care of the Cow at Calving Time. — If the cow has been dry
for six weeks and received sufficient feed so that she is in good
condition at calving time, there seldom will any complica-
tions arise. If the cow is on pasture, she should be allowed to
remain there, but looked after at least twice per day when
about to calve. If not on pasture, the cow should be turned
loose several days before she is expected to calve in a box stall
of sufficient size. Special attention must be given to avoid
infecting the navel of the calf and bringing on contagious
or white scours (p. 198). As the time of parturition ap-
proaches, the udder becomes distended and hard, and filled
with the colostrum milk. When the tendons and muscles

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 233

relax on either side of the rump, leaving a hollow appearance
on either side of the tail head, parturition may be expected
within 24 hours, or three or four days at the longest.

The cow should be left strictly alone at time of calving,
unless some assistance is evidently necessary. As a rule the
calf will be born within half an hour. If the calf is not ex-
pelled after an hour or two, an examination should be made.
The normal position of the calf at the time of delivery is fore-
feet first with the front of the hoofs and knees upward while
the nose lies between the knees. If the condition of the calf
is normal, the cow may be assisted by pulling on a rope at-
tached to the forefeet of the calf. This must be done carefully,
and only when the cow strains. If the position of the calf is
abnormal, the services of a qualified veterinarian should be
secured if possible, unless the person in charge has had con-
siderable experience. No attempt will be made here to de-
scribe abnormal presentations of the calf and how they are to
be handled. The reader is referred to veterinary textbooks,
and to the book entitled " Diseases of Cattle," issued by the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, for full details on this
subject.

The cow is especially subject to retention of the afterbirth,
and special attention must always be given that it comes
away. When the cow is in good condition, the afterbirth is
usually expelled within a few hours after the calf, often al-
most immediately. Cows far along in years or in low condi-
tion of health are especially subject to this trouble. The
giving of cold water soon after calving may cause it to be re-
tained. All water given within the first 24 hours should be
warmed, and cold feed should also be avoided. The after-
birth when expelled should be removed, to prevent the cow

234 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

from following her instinct and eating it, which may result in
disorders in the alimentary canal. If the afterbirth is not ex-
pelled, a serious condition of the cow is brought about by the
decomposition of the tissues within the body and the ab-
sorption of the poisons. A cow in such condition becomes
emaciated and produces but little milk, and that is not in fit
condition for food. This condition is easily known by the
fetid products that escape, and the offensive odors that may
penetrate the entire barn.

The cow should be so handled that retention of the after-
birth will be prevented as far as possible. However, it will
occur frequently in all herds. If it does not come away within
24 hours, it should be removed by the hand. There is no drug
that can be used for the purpose. If taken in time, a weight of
one or two pounds tied to the protruding membrane may by its
dragging effect pull the membranes and stimulate the uterus
to contraction. The only treatment that can be relied upon is
to remove it by the hand. For the inexperienced the service
of the veterinarian should be secured. Every man having
the responsibility of caring for many cows should acquire the
experience necessary to do this successfully himself. The
following description of the method is given by Dr. Law.1

" The operation should be undertaken within twenty-four
hours after calving, since later the mouth of the womb may
be so closed that it becomes difficult to introduce the hand.
The operator should smear his arms with carbolized lard or
vaseline to protect them against infection, and particularly
in delayed cases with putrid membranes. An assistant
holds the tail to one side, while the operator seizes the hanging
afterbirth with the left hand, while he introduces the right

1 Diseases of Cattle, p. 218. Published by U. S. Dept. Agric.

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 235

along the right side of the vagina and womb, letting the
membranes slide through his palm until he reaches the first
cotyledon to which they remain adherent. In case no such
connection is within reach, gentle traction is made on the mem-
branes with the left hand until the deeper parts of the womb
are brought within reach and the attachments to the cotyle-
dons can be reached. Then the soft projection of the mem-
brane, which is attached to the firm, fungus-shaped cotyledon
on the inner surface of the womb, is seized by the little finger,
and the other fingers and thumb are closed on it so as to tear
it out from its connections. To explain this it is only neces-
sary to say that the projection from the membrane is covered
by soft conical processes, which are received into cavities
of a corresponding size on the summit of the firm mushroom-
shaped cotyledon growing from the inner surface of the womb.
To draw upon the former, therefore, is to extract its soft vil-
lous processes from within the follicles or cavities of the other.
If it is at times difficult to start this extraction, it maybe neces-
sary to get the fingernail inserted between the two, and once
started the finger may be pushed on, lifting all the villi in turn
out of their cavities. This process of separating the cotyle-
dons must be carefully conducted, one after another, until the
last has been detached and the afterbirth comes freely out of
the passages."

Care of Cow after Calving. — It should be borne in mind
that the vitality of the cow is low following parturition, and
she should be treated accordingly. She should be protected
from cold drafts, and in case of severe cold weather it is well
to cover her with a light blanket for a day or two. The
water given should be warmed for two or three days. The
ration for the first few days should be light in character and

236 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

not very abundant. A bran mash made by moistening bran
with warm water is well adapted for the grain portion. With
this can be given such amount of hay as will be readily eaten.
If the udder is swollen and hard, the grain ration should
be increased very slowly until this condition disappears,
when more feed can be added, using as a rule two weeks
at least, and with a heavy milker still longer, to get her
on to full feed. No alarm need be felt if the udder remains
inflamed and somewhat hard for a number of days, provided
milk can be drawn from each quarter. The calf may be
left with the cow for two or three days, or removed earlier,
as desired. In either, the cow should be milked at least
three times daily, or oftener, until the inflammation leaves
the udder.

Milk Fever. — Until recent years the owner of high-produc-
ing cows always had to face the danger of losing the most valu-
able cows by this common and usually fatal disease. One of
the most important discoveries of recent years for the dairy
cow owner is the discovery of the air treatment, which is so
simple any one of intelligence can apply it, and with almost
certain success.

Milk fever occurs only with high-producing dairy cows.
It never occurs with the first calf of a heifer, and seldom
with the second. It affects mature cows, and especially the
heaviest milkers. The well-nourished cow is more subject
to it than the underfed, which was the reason for the
practice, common before the present treatment was dis-
covered, of withholding feed for several days before parturi-
tion. The great advance made in recent years in the
records of milk production is to be attributed to a con-
siderable extent to the air treatment, making it possible to

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE

237

have cows in a high state of flesh at calving without loss
from milk fever.

The disease is so typical it is easily recognized. It occurs
in nearly every case within 48 hours after calving, and usually
only after normal parturition. Every cow liable to be affected
should be watched carefully for symptoms until the danger
is past. The first indications are restlessness and excite-
ment on the part of the cow. Within a short time paralysis
of the hind legs begins, resulting in a staggering gait. The
animal soon falls and is unable to rise. From this time on the
cow becomes unconscious, and remains so until death occurs
in from 18 to 48 hours unless treated. The cow assumes a
characteristic position, which is of great value in diagnosing
the case. The head is turned to one side, and rests on the
chest with the muzzle pointing toward the flank. The entire
body is paralyzed, making it impossible to give medicine; but
fortunately none is required.

The first effective treatment was discovered by Schmidt of
Denmark, who injected a solution of iodide of potash into the
udder. Later
Anderson, also of
Denmark, found
that the injec-
tion of ordinary
air is far superior
to the first treat-
ment. This is T-, .„ ,

FIG. 45. — Apparatus for treating milk fever.

the method now

universally used. Every dairyman should be provided with
a suitable milk fever outfit to treat cases promptly as they
appear. The apparatus used may be of various forms.

238

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

The most approved is shown in Fig. 45. The essential
parts are a milk tube, to which is attached a rubber tube,
a receptacle of some kind in which clean cotton is placed to
catch the dust in the air as it is pumped through it, and a

FIG. 46. — Improvised apparatus for treating milk fever, a, bicycle pump;
6, bottle containing cotton; c. rubber tubing with milk tube at end.

rubber bulb or a pump of some kind. In case an approved
form of apparatus cannot be secured, an apparatus can be
improvised that will serve the purpose. Fig. 46 shows
an apparatus used for several years by the author, which

MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 239

can be put together in almost any drug store. The author
has known cases where a common bicycle pump with a quill for
a milk tube was used to save the life of a cow where no better
appliances could be had.

However, while it is possible to stop the milk fever by any
means that makes it possible to pump the udder full of air,
there is great danger of introducing infection at the same time
that will cause inflammation and possibly result in the loss
of the cow's udder.

Use of the Apparatus. — In using the milk fever apparatus
the operator should first thoroughly clean his hands, likewise
the cow's udder and teats, with warm water and soap, followed
by a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid or creolin. That por-
tion of the apparatus which holds the cotton, the rubber tube
leading to the milk tube, likewise the latter, must be clean, and
preferably boiled 15 minutes before using, then disinfected
by the use of the carbolic acid or creolin. The receptacle
for holding the cotton is filled with ordinary cotton, or,
better still, absorbent cotton, which may be purchased from
most drug stores. The milk tube is then inserted into one
of the teat openings without drawing what milk is con-
tained, and air is pumped through the cotton into the udder.
This is continued until the quarter is well distended with air,
when the tube is carefully withdrawn and a tape tied around
the teat tight enough to prevent the escape of the air. The
same treatment is applied to each quarter. The teats are
allowed to remain tied. Ordinarily within two or three
hours the cow will regain consciousness and be able to stand
on her feet. If the air is absorbed or escapes, so the udder is
not tightly distended, the tape should be removed and another
injection of air made as before. Usually two injections are all

240 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

that are required. The udder should remain full of air 24
hours at least, and longer if any sign of the trouble remains.
The calf of course is not allowed to suck during this time.
If inflammation of the udder follows, it shows sufficient care
was not taken in disinfecting the apparatus used.

CHAPTER XIX

WATER AND SALT REQUIREMENTS

Water for Cows. — Cows that are producing milk require
a much larger quantity of water than is necessary for grow-
ing animals or maintenance animals. This is caused by the
necessity of providing water to be used in the milk itself and
for the digestion and assimilation of a larger quantity of feed,
much of which is roughness. The following table shows the
average amount of water consumed per day for ten days by
two Jersey cows three months in milk, and by the same ani-
mals when dry and on maintenance.

WATER CONSUMED BY Cows IN MILK AND ON MAINTENANCE

IN MILK

ON MAINTENANCE

Cow No.

Lb. Milk
per Day

Lb. Fat
per Day

Lb.
Water per
Day

Lb. Dry
Matter
fed per
Day

Lb.
Water per
Day

Lb. Dry
Matter
fed per
Day

27

26.8

1.39

77.3

28.3

14.7

9.7

62

13.3

.69

40.3

18.'2

11.6

8.6

The first half of the table gives the production of milk and
fat per day, the pounds of water consumed, and the amount
of dry matter in the feed. The second part gives the data
regarding feed and water when the two cows were dry and
farrow. The cow producing 26.8 pounds of milk per day used
R 241

242

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

77.3 pounds of water, while the one producing one half that
amount of milk consumed 40.3 pounds of water. The con-
sumption of water was in practically the same ratio as the
production of milk. The ration consisted of grain, alfalfa
hay, and corn silage, fed in the ratio of 1 : 1 : 4, and was identi-
cal for the two animals, except it varied in quantity to meet
their individual needs. The temperature of the barn and of
the water used varied from 45° to 55° F.

The table below shows the enormous quantity of water
consumed by a cow producing over 100 pounds of milk per
day. This animal was fed a ration of alfalfa hay and grain
with a small feed of silage. The water was given three times
daily at a temperature of about 80° F.

WATER CONSUMED BY MISSOURI CHIEF JOSEPHINE

RATION

DAYS

LB.

LB.

AFTEB

MILK

WATER

CALVING

PRODUCED

DRUNK

Alfalfa
Hay

Silage

Grain

Lb. Dry

Matter fed

28

102.7

230

20

7

16

34.19

29

97.1

225

18

10

16

32.98

30

106.5

216

17

10

14

30.26

31

106.1

270

18

10

20

36.58

32

103.3

307

18

10

20

36.58

33

103.8

244

18

10

20

36.58

34

100.8

260

18

10

20

36.58

This cow produced approximately 4 pounds of milk to 1 by
No. 27 as given in the preceding table, and the consumption of
water was in about the same ratio. When cow No. 27 was
producing milk, the consumption of water was 77.3 pounds per
day, while on maintenance she consumed only 14.7 pounds.

,

WATER AND SALT REQUIREMENTS 243

The ration given while on maintenance was exactly the same
as fed when in milk, except in regard to quantity. The large
water requirement by the cow in milk, as shown in these tables,
suggests, as has been found by practical experience, that it is
exceedingly important to supply an abundance of good water
to cows producing milk. It is evidently much more impor-
tant that an abundance of water close at hand, and not too
cold, be supplied to heavy milking cows than is the case when
the animals are on maintenance only. Cows that are not
producing milk do not need to be watered more than once a
day in the winter time, and at this season they do not seem to
care for it oftener than this. In the summer the consumption
of water by cattle on maintenance is greater on account of the
greater evaporation from the skin ; and while cattle will thrive
when watered once per day, they relish it oftener and will
do better if supplied twice per day. Cows on heavy feed,
producing large quantities of milk, should always have access
to good water at least twice per day at all seasons. For the
best results with dairy cows, water of good quality should be
supplied close at hand, since if they be required to walk a long
distance in cold weather, on account of the discomforts of ex-
posure, they will not drink a sufficient amount to supply the
demands of the body and will give a less amount of milk than
they otherwise would, on account of not having consumed a
sufficient quantity of water. In other words, the cow may
suffer for lack of suitable water just as easily as for lack of
feed.

The best source of supply for drinking purposes for dairy
cattle is deep well water pumped into a tank or a cement
trough. Next to this is running streams or springs. The
use of ponds as a means of supplying water is not objection-

244 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

able if they are so placed that there is no drainage from barn-
yards or about dwellings, and if the animals are not allowed
to wade into the water. Ponds which are filled with contami-
nated drainage water or in which stock of any kind are allowed
to wade and to pollute with their own excrement, are entirely
unsuitable as a source of water supply. Not only should the
use of such water be avoided for sanitary reasons, but the
amount of water consumed under these conditions is liable to
be below the real requirement of the body.

In climates where the temperature remains below freezing
for long periods in the winter season, it is profitable to use
some means of warming the water. It is cheaper to warm
water with a tank heater constructed for the purpose by burn-
ing coal or wood than it is to supply the same amount of heat
by allowing the animal to burn high-priced feed in its body.
Counting the fuel value of a pound of corn, according to
Armsby, at 1308 calories, one pound of corn would contain
sufficient heat, if it be possible for the body to utilize all it
contains, to warm 75 pounds of water from freezing to body
temperature. A cow producing about 25 pounds of milk per
day would require one pound of corn per day to warm the
water she consumes, if it be given her at freezing tempera-
ture. Larger producers would require a correspondingly
larger amount. However, there are even more important
reasons for supplying warm water to heavy-producing cows
than that of economy in feed. As already stated, the heavy-
milking cow will not consume a sufficient quantity of cold
water to make possible the maximum production of milk.
When a cow takes 30 to 40 pounds of ice water into her stom-
ach, it chills her so thoroughly that the functions of digestion
and milk secretion seem to stop almost completely for a while.

WATER AND SALT REQUIREMENTS 245

If this amount or more of cold water is consumed twice
daily, as would be necessary with a heavy milker, a consider-
able proportion of her milk secretion is necessarily lost. It
is always economy to warm the water to a temperature of at
least 60° when drunk by the animal.

King 1 at the Wisconsin Experiment Station found that
cows given water at 70° F. drank 10 pounds more each per
day than those having ice water. The actual consumption
of food per pound of milk was also a trifle less on the warm
than on the cold water. He shows that the heat in one pound
of beef fat would be required every 3.8 days to warm the
water to body temperature when the cold water is used, while
the same amount of fat would heat the warmed water (70°
F.) drunk, to body temperature for 7.4 days. While this loss
of feed necessary to heat this water to body temperature is
considerable and should be avoided, the other reasons given
are still stronger.

There is some difference of opinion in regard to the advis-
ability of having arrangement for watering cattle in the barn.
In climates where the temperature is such in the winter that
the animals are confined most of the time, it is a great con-
venience to have an arrangement whereby the animals may be
watered in their stalls during the days when weather con-
ditions are such that it is not desirable to turn them outside.
A number of devices have been put on the market for this
purpose. The main point to be considered in selecting such
a device is the possibility of keeping the water free from con-
tamination. If the arrangement is such that the water
stands exposed to the air in the stable all the time, it soon be-
comes foul from absorption from the air and more especially

1 King, Wis. Exp. Station, Bulletin No. 21.

246 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

from the cow dropping particles of food into the basin. If
some arrangement is provided whereby the basins can be filled
at intervals when the animals need water, and then drained
out, this objection may be largely overcome. One of the
most satisfactory provisions for watering cows in the stable is
the use of a continuous cement manger. By this means the
objections above mentioned are overcome. The manger is
swept free of feed when it is desired to water the animals, and
the water remaining after the animals have drunk is drawn out
through a drain arranged for the purpose.

Salt Requirements. — All animals that consume large
quantities of vegetable food require salt. Carnivorous ani-
mals do not have this craving, neither do human beings that
live mostly upon meat. According to Bunge l the cause of
this salt requirement by herbivorous animals is the large quan-
tity of potassium which they consume with the plant food.
The potassium is excreted through the kidneys, but while in
the body a reaction takes place between the potassium and
the sodium chloride or common salt, and the resulting com-
pounds are excreted from the body. This leaves the body
short in the amount of sodium chloride needed, and results in
the well-known craving for common salt, or sodium chloride.
Common salt is needed, according to this view, to help expel
the excess of potash taken in with the vegetable food.

Babcock's Investigations. — Babcock 2 has reported ex-
tensive investigations on this subject. He kept cows in milk
without salt for periods up to one year. The composition and
quantity of the milk produced was not affected by withhold-
ing salt for short periods. Cows without salt showed a strong

1 Bunge, Lectures on Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
'Babcock, 22d Annual Report Wisconsin Experiment Station, p. 123.

WATER AND SALT REQUIREMENTS 247

craving for it after two or three weeks, then quieted down and
gradually changed into a condition of low vitality, rough coat,
and emaciated condition, which resulted finally in a complete
breakdown. In most cases the cows recovered their normal
condition when given an abundance of salt. He found
that cows consume about one ounce per day when allowed
to eat as their appetite demands. He concluded that f
ounce per day per 1000 pounds live weight is sufficient,
with TQ- ounce in addition for each 20 pounds of milk
produced. Babcock's investigations indicate that the chlo-
rine is the essential element supplied by salt.

Feeding of Salt. — Practical observations and scientific in-
vestigations agree that salt is an essential part of the ration
for the dairy cow. Salt may be supplied by mixing the proper
amount regularly with the feed, or it may be placed where the
animal can consume such amount as the appetite demands.
From one to three ounces per day is needed, depending upon
the amount of milk produced. Some feeders prefer rock salt,
in which case a lump is placed where it can be licked by the
animals as their appetite calls for it. The common plan of
salting the cattle only at intervals of one or two weeks is not
to be recommended.

CHAPTER XX
THE SOILING SYSTEM

SOILING means growing green forage, cutting it, and bringing
it to the stock, in place of allowing them to eat the green feed
where it grows. This system is one that as a rule goes with
intensive farming and high-priced lands. It is also practiced
in some other regions, on account of the conditions being such
that good pasture cannot be had. In many parts of the world,
for example, the greater part of Germany, cattle are never
grazed. The system is also followed to some extent in the
Eastern States.

When green feeds are used only to supplement pastures
for part of the season, it is spoken of as partial soiling. When
the animals are sustained entirely on green feed, cut and
hauled to them, the plan is called complete soiling. It is not
implied in either case that the animals do not receive any feed,
such as grain, other than the green feed given, but that green
feed constitutes the main part of the ration. On account of
the comparative cheapness of land over the greater part of
the United States, the system is not as yet practiced only in
isolated localities. Its advantages are : —

1. Saving of land.

2. Saving of fencing.

3. Better use of the manure.

4. Animals are kept in better condition.

248

THE SOILING SYSTEM 249

Saving of Land. — The greatest advantage that can be
urged for soiling is the much greater returns in the way of feed
that it is possible to secure from a given area. This saving of
land comes about in three ways especially. The most im-
portant is that the crops are allowed to become more mature
before being used. When pasture grass is eaten in an imma-
ture form, it is not given opportunity to utilize its leaves and
roots to the best advantage to build up the plant. It is a
demonstrated fact, for example, that the corn plant gathers
the greater part of its nutrients after the plant is fully grown.
If the growth should be cut off as soon as it reached the height
of a few inches, the yield of feed per acre would be very small.
The same is true, to a less degree, however, with grasses. For-
age crops used for soiling are cut when nearly mature, but be-
fore they have become woody and unpalatable.

The second reason why pasturing does not yield as much
feed as soiling crops is that in the former the plants are injured
by the treading of the feet and the soiling of the grass with
manure.

A third reason to be taken into account is the injury done
to the land by the trampling of the stock, especially during
wet weather.

By following the soiling system, Detrick,1 whose remarkable
results have been widely quoted, was able to raise all the
roughness needed for thirty head of stock, of which seventeen
were cows in milk, on seventeen acres. The land on which
these results were obtained was in the beginning so run down
that it would hardly support three animals. The fertility
was built up by barnyard manure until two crops per year, to-
gether equal to about 6.7 tons of hay per acre, were produced.

1 Farmers' Bulletin No. 242, U. S. Dept. of Agric.

250

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

At the Wisconsin Experiment Station three cows were
maintained on 1.5 acres of soiling crops. Three other cows
on pasture required 3.7 acres. The conclusion was drawn
from this work that one acre of soiling crops equals 2.5 acres
of pasture.

The Connecticut Experiment Station maintained four cows
from June 1 to November 1 on 2.5 acres of soiling crops. The
Kansas Experiment Station 1 reports the following results in a
year of more than average good pastures. Ten cows were
used.

CROP

DAYS FED

YIELD PER ACHE
LB.

VALUE PER
ACRE

Alfalfa

14

77 145

$25 26

Oats

9

12,325

681

Corn

31

38 695

22 79

Sorghum
Kaffir corn

15
14

22,370
17 550

15.60

13 83

The average consumption was 116 pounds per head daily,
and .71 acre fed one cow 144 days. The financial returns are
based upon the creamery price for butter fat. On the same
basis the pasture yielded $4.23 per acre.

Taking all the data reported into account, it seems conserv-
ative to say that when following the soiling system one acre
will produce at least twice as much, and often three times as
much food as an acre of pasture.

The second advantage of the soiling system is the saving
of fencing. Fences are an item of large expense on any stock
farm, especially when it is necessary to divide the land into

1 Kansas Exp. Station, Bulletin No. 119.

THE SOILING SYSTEM 251

small areas in order to utilize it to the best advantage. The
initial cost of fences is considerable, and in addition they re-
quire almost continual repairs. In addition, the land near the
fence cannot be utilized, and it is only by additional labor
that unsightly weeds may be prevented from growing in this
strip. This expense for fences is largely eliminated by the
soiling system. In Germany, where the soiling system is al-
most universal, no fences at all are in use. Practically no
fences are used in Denmark, where the cows are not turned
loose on pasture, but are tethered out constantly.

The third advantage is the better saving of the manure.
The value of barnyard manure to the fertility of the farm is
recognized in every successful farming region where anything
like a permanent system of agriculture has been established.
The actual value of the excreta passed by a cow in a year for
fertilizing purposes is about $30, if all is preserved. If the
animals are on pasture, nearly half of this will be dropped in
the pasture. In most cases a much greater value would be
realized from applying this fertilizer to other parts of the
farm more in need of improvement. When the cattle are kept
housed, as is usually done in soiling, the manure may be pre-
served and applied when most needed. On some farms this
is a point of great importance.

Animals are kept in better condition, as a rule, where the
soiling system is followed than when they are pastured. This
results from a more regular feed supply, ample at all times to
allow of profitable production. The serious decline in milk
production, for example, experienced in midsummer by most
cow owners following the pasturing plan, is almost entirely
avoided. At the same time, the labor and expense of getting
these additional results must be taken into consideration.

252 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Objections to the Soiling System. — There are two objec-
tions to the soiling system which prevent its wider adoption.

(1) The labor problem.

(2) Difficulty of providing a suitable series of crops and
adjusting the amounts of each.

The Labor Problem. — First of all the soiling system in-
volves a much greater expense for labor than when the pastur-
ing system is used. The green feed must be cut each day, or
at the outside every second day. The common practice is to
cut it daily, except Sunday, when the animals are fed from a
larger amount prepared the previous day. Since the amount
required per day is around 100 pounds per cow. the weight
to be handled is considerable, making the labor heavy.

A further difficulty about the labor feature is the regularity
required of attendants, which is difficult to secure. In addi-
tion to preparing the green food, the labor of handling the
manure and caring for the animals from day to day must be
considered. The difficulty of securing a suitable succession of
crops in about the right quantity requires careful planning
when complete soiling is practiced. There must be a succes-
sion ready to use all the time, and in about the proper
quantities. A surplus may usually be made into hay, but this
is not always convenient.

Crops for Soiling. — The crops to be grown for soiling
purposes depend naturally upon the local conditions, and no
general statement can be made to cover all conditions. In-
formation regarding the best crops for the purpose can be
had from the nearest experiment station. Shaw 1 gives the
following list of suitable crops.

For Canada and the Eastern States north of the Ohio River,

1 Soiling Crops and the Silo. Orange Judd Co.

THE SOILING SYSTEM

253

winter rye, alfalfa, medium clover, mammoth clover, peas and
oats, corn, sorghum, millet, and field roots.

For the northern part of the Mississippi valley the same,
except alfalfa is omitted.

For the Southern States winter rye, winter oats, crimson
clover, corn, sorghum, cowpeas, and rape are suggested.
In sections where alfalfa can be grown it should be included
by all means. In the southwestern part of the United States
more attention should be given to alfalfa, soybeans, and Kaffir
corn. The Pennsylvania Experiment Station l recommends
the following succession of crops and acreage for ten cows
where alfalfa can be grown.

CROP

AREA

WHEN TO BE FED

Rye .

£ acre

May 15-June 12

Alfalfa

2 acres

June 1-June 12

Clover and timothy

| acre

June 12- June 24

Peas and oats

1 acre

June 24- July 15

Alfalfa (2d crop)

2 acres

July 15-Aug. 1

Sorghum and cowpeas (after rye) .
Cowpeas (after peas and oats) . .

2 acre
1 acre

Aug. 11-Aug. 28
Aug. 28-Sept. 30

1 Bulletin No. 75.

CHAPTER XXI
FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION1

THERE are two factors which largely control the economical
production of milk. One is the adaptability of the cow used
for this purpose, and depends upon her individual and breed
characteristics. The other is the amount and kind of food
eaten. The problem confronting the dairyman is the pro-
duction of the largest amount of milk and butter at the least
expense. In order that this may be realized, both the impor-
tant factors mentioned must receive careful attention.

In most cases the largest direct expense is for feed. Every
one familiar with the prevailing conditions knows a large
amount of feed is used without producing the returns it should.
It would be safe to say that the average yearly milk produc-
tion per cow could be increased one half or three fourths by
following better methods of feeding.

Turning on Pasture in the Spring. — Every owner of a cow
welcomes the time when the animal can be turned out to pas-
ture. Not only is the labor and expense connected with
winter feeding done away with, but each cow is expected to
the best results of the year on grass. In changing from

1 The author does not attempt to give more than a brief outline of this
subject, and that mostly from the standpoint of practical feeding. The
reader is referred to Feeds and Feeding, by Henry; The Feeding of Farm
Animals, by Jordan ; The Principles of Animal Nutrition, by Armsby ; and
the Ernahrung der Landwirtschaftlichen Nutzthiere, by Kellner, for more ex-
tended discussions of the subject.

254

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 255

dry feed to grass, it is best to go somewhat slowly, especially
with heavy-milking cows. The young, immature grass, such
as we have in early spring, contains a large amount of water
and a small amount of dry matter, and it is almost impossible
for a heavy-milking cow to eat enough of such feed to supply
the necessary amount of nutrients. Wheat and rye pastures
are of the same nature. Another reason for putting cattle on
pasture gradually rather than suddenly is the effect on the
taste of milk. When a cow is changed at once from a grain
ration to grass, a very marked taste is developed in the milk,
while if this change in feed is made gradually and not sud-
denly, the change in the taste of the milk is scarcely noticed.

Grain Feeding while on Pasture. — There is some differ-
ence of opinion on this question from the standpoint of econ-
omy. There is no question but that a cow will produce
more milk if fed grain while on pasture, and if a large yield is of
more importance than economy of production, grain should
certainly be fed. The cow that gives a small average quan-
tity of milk will produce but little more, if fed grain while on
pasture. However, with the heavy-producing cow the case
is quite different, and it is necessary that she be fed grain, or
she will not continue on the high level of production long.
The necessity of feeding grain to the high-producing cow
arises from the fact that she cannot secure a sufficient amount
of nutrients from the grass alone, and must have some
concentrated feed in the form of grain in order to continue to
produce large quantities of milk.

Experiments made by the Cornell Experiment Station,
covering four years, showed that, while an increase in milk
yield was secured from grain feeding, it was not economical
to produce it in this way. In their tests only about an addi-

256 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

tional pound of milk was secured for each pound of grain fed.
In these experiments the pastures produced an abundance of
nutritious grasses. It was observed, however, that the cows
fed grain during the summer gave better results after the graz-
ing period was over than those not having received grain.
This is also a matter of common observation, and should be
taken into account in considering the advisability of feeding
grain. The point is that the cows fed grain stored a con-
siderable quantity of surplus nutrients on their body, which
were afterwards available for the production of milk. A Jer-
sey cow that is giving as much as 20 pounds or 10 quarts per
day, or a Holstein or Shorthorn giving 25 pounds or more
daily, should be given some grain. The practice of the author
in regard to feeding on pasture is about as follows : —
Jersey or Guernsey cow producing : —

20 Ib. milk daily 3 Ib. grain

25 Ib. milk daily 4 Ib. grain

30 Ib. milk daily 5i Ib. grain

35 Ib. milk daily 7 Ib. grain

40 Ib. milk daily 8 Ib. grain

Holstein, Shorthorn, or Ayrshire producing : —

25 Ib. milk daily 3 Ib. grain

30 Ib. milk daily 4 Ib. grain

35 Ib. milk daily 5^ Ib. grain

40 Ib. milk daily 7 Ib. grain

50 Ib. milk daily 9 Ib. grain

It must be kept in mind that this applies only when pastures
are abundant. Where a small amount of grain is fed to a cow
on pasture, corn is as well adapted as anything else where it is
cheaper than other feeds, since, on account of the comparative
narrow nutritive value of the grass, the corn does not unbal-

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 257

ance the ration. However, in case of feeding large quantities
of grain, for example, 5 pounds per day, or above, other feeds,
containing more protein, should be used in part, such as :
bran, gluten meal, oats, or cottonseed meal.

Summer Conditions to be Maintained as near as Possible
throughout the Year. — Soon after the cows are on pasture,
usually in the latter part of May or the first part of June, they
usually reach the maximum production of milk for the year.
This suggests that what the dairyman must do in order that
the production of milk may be the largest is to imitate these
early summer conditions as far as possible throughout the
remainder of the year. This is what the careful dairyman
and skilled feeder does, and the results correspond closely to
the success with which these summer conditions are main-
tained. The summer conditions which bring about the max-
imum production, and which are to be maintained as far as
possible through the year, are described in the following state-
ments : —

1. An abundance of palatable food.

2. A balanced ration.

3. Succulent feed.

4. Moderate temperature.

5. Comfortable surroundings.

Providing for Periods of Short Pasture. — As long as fresh
pasture grasses are abundant, the ordinary cow is about as
well provided for as she can be to produce milk economically.
Unfortunately the season of abundant pasturage is often
short. In many localities a dry period, often of several
weeks, occurs during the middle or latter part of the summer,
and the pastures become short and insufficient to maintain

258 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

a full flow of milk. This season is often the critical time
of the year for the dairy cow. It is probable that as much
loss occurs one year with another by lack of feed at this
time as occurs from improper feeding during the winter
season. When the season of dry feeding arrives, the farmer
expects to feed his stock, and is prepared for it. On the other
hand, as long as the cattle are on pasture and the field work
is pressing, the tendency is to let the cows get along the best
way they can.

On a large proportion of the farms, the cows are fresh in
the spring, give a good flow of milk while the pastures are
good, but when hot weather and short pastures come, the
flow drops one half or two thirds, and the cows are producing
but a small amount in the winter when the price is the highest.
It is almost impossible to restore the flow of milk to the orig-
inal amount after it is once allowed to run down from lack of
feed. To make large returns from the cow a large yearly pro-
duction must be had ; and to do this, the flow of milk must be
kept up ten or eleven months in the year.

It is possible to hold up the milk flow by heavy grain feed-
ing, but this is unnecessarily expensive. Provision should
always be made to have green crops on hand that may be cut
and fed when needed, or to have silage available. It is the
nature of blue grass to grow freely in early summer, then to
rest until fall. This leaves a period in the summer where blue
grass is depended upon for pasture from about the middle of
July to the middle of September, when the pasture is apt to be
short.

Corn is in many ways the best crop for summer soiling.
The main difficulty is, it does not come on early enough.
Even the early varieties are hardly mature enough to feed

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 2§9

before August 1, and something is often needed earlier.
Sweet corn is a good feed, but does not yield heavily. Second-
growth clover, millet, or alfalfa can be used if available.
After August 1, in the corn belt, corn and sorghum are the best
crops for supplementing pastures.

Sorghum yields immense crops, and if a surplus is on hand
it may be made into hay profitably. A yield of from 15 to 25
tons of green sorghum per acre is not unusual on good
land.

Green crops fed as a supplement to pasture may be fed in
the pasture or in the barn lot, but as a rule are fed most eco-
nomically in the barn. The cows remain inside long enough
at milking time to eat their portions.

As a rule the most economical method of supplying feed to
help out the short pastures of midsummer and fall is to feed
corn silage. Silage will keep in good condition for summer
feeding, with no loss except on the surface. If it is not needed
during the summer, it may be covered with the new silage and
kept until wanted. Corn furnishes a larger yield of dry mat-
ter per acre than any crop that can be ordinarily grown for
summer feeding, and has the further advantage of being on
hand as early as wanted when in the form of silage.

It is handled more economically also than soiling crops,
since it is cut all at once, and not everyday, as is necessary with
soiling crops.

The great problem in winter feeding, as already stated, is,
in general, to maintain the conditions of early summer. It is
entirely feasible to maintain practically these summer con-
ditions throughout the entire winter on any farm when the
subject is properly understood and the necessary arrange-
ments made.

260 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Amount of Feed. — The first condition given as typical of
the summer feeding is an abundance of palatable food, and on
this point is made one of the most common mistakes in feeding
cows. In producing milk, the cow may be looked upon in a
way as a milk-producing machine which we supply with a cer-
tain amount of raw material in the form of feed, and this raw
material is manufactured into milk. The same rule holds as in
the running of any other manufacturing plant ; it is run most
economically near its full capacity. Every one who feeds
animals should thoroughly comprehend that, first of all, the
animal must use a certain proportion of its food to maintain
the body. This is the first requirement of the animal, and it
is the first use to which it puts its food. This is called the
ration of maintenance, and it is practically a fixed charge.
That is, it is practically the same whether the animal is being
utilized for maximum production, or is merely kept without
producing any milk at all.

In the case of an ordinary dairy cow' this ration of mainte-
nance amounts to from 50 to 60 per cent of all she can consume.
In the case of a heavier producing animal, for example, one
producing from 1 to If pounds of butter fat per day, this ra-
tion of maintenance amounts to from 40 to 50 per cent of the
total feed of the animal. It should be clear that, after going
to the expense of giving the animal the necessary amount
to keep her alive, it is the poorest economy to refuse to furnish
the other 40 to 60 per cent, which she would utilize exclusively
for milk production. On the average farm this is one of the
most common mistakes made. The importance of liberal
feeding for economical production can be easily understood
from the following illustration.

The first illustrates the proper feeding of a heavy-produc-

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 261

ing cow, which is the one usually underfed. The line a to c
represents the total capacity of the animal for food, or a full
ration. The first half, from a to 6, represents the amount of
food required to maintain the animal's body, or the ration
of maintenance. The second half, that portion from b to c,
represents the proportion of the food used for the production
of milk. In this case there is no fat being produced on
the animal's body, and the cow is supposed to be of such
dairy quality that all the feed she can eat in excess of that
required for maintenance is used for milk production.

Foil RATION
Ration of Maintenance. Used for MilK bred action

Ration of Maintenance. **i/H Pr°* *"•*'*£
^^^^^^

WAlP R/tf lOfl

The line below represents what would happen if the feed
of this animal is reduced one fourth. The ration of main-
tenance remains practically the same as in the first case.
The amount represented by the line d to e is the amount
required to maintain the animal's body, which is the 'same
quantity as in the first case ; however, the cut of one fourth
in the ration will be seen to come entirely on that available
for milk production, and reduces that amount one half.

Suppose that the ration of such a cow be still further re-
duced to one half of the full ration, or that required for main-
tenance alone, as represented by the third line. In this case

262 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

the cutting down of the ration one half would remove all
available feed for milk production. However, the animal
would not cease producing milk at once. This is a point of
great importance in feeding cows, and a lack of such knowl-
edge leads to serious errors in feeding. The milk-producing
function is so strong that the cow will continue to produce
milk for some time, even when the feed is insufficient, utilizing
the reserve material which has been accumulated in the body
in the past. This always happens in the case of a heavy-
milking cow during the first few weeks after the birth of the
calf. At this time, it is not generally possible, and not desir-
able on account of the condition of the animal, to feed her
a sufficient quantity of feed to supply the nutrients necessary
to produce the milk; and even if the feed was offered, the
appetite is not usually strong enough to cause the necessary
amount of feed to be taken to prevent loss in weight. As
a rule, all heavy-milking cows decline in weight for the first
two or three weeks, and occasionally for ten weeks, after
calving, which means that milk production has been in excess
of the feed supplied for that purpose. The same thing
happens in the case of the cow that is not fed a sufficient
ration for the amount of milk that she is producing. She
may continue to produce considerable milk for a while by
drawing on the reserve material of the body, but as soon as
this -is exhausted, the production of milk must come down
to the amount available for this purpose, above the ration
of maintenance. When the feed is in excess, the cow begins
to store reserve material on her body. If the amount of
milk produced by a cow varied directly with the feed, and
she did not store up nutrients at one time and draw on reserve
material at another, it would simplify the problem of feeding

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 263

very much, and result in more economical feeding at all
times.

How to avoid Overfeeding. — While the statement and
illustration given apply to one class of dairy cows, there is
another class to which it does not apply, and with which it
would lead to a serious mistake in feeding from an economical
standpoint. This group includes those of lower productive
capacity, which are liable to be overfed, especially when they
are in the herds of dairymen, who realize the necessity of
liberal feeding. The proper feeding of this group of animals
can be made clearer by the following illustration : —

FULL RATION
/Pa tion of Ma mtena. ncs fviK~prc>~ciuctitri •&°djz £<

used for Used for

Productien Bo

ECONOMICAL RATION

Used, for
Ration of Maintenance M//K Product/on

The line a to d represents the amount of feed that an ani-
mal of this class will consume ; a to 6 represents the ration of
maintenance, as before. In this case, however, the capacity
for making milk is not equal to the capacity of the animal for
utilizing feed in excess of that required to maintain the body.
The amount which the animal is capable of utilizing for milk
production is represented by that portion of the line b to c,
while the animal's appetite is equal to the total line ad. This
gives a surplus, c to d, which is not utilized for milk pro-
duction, but which will be used for storing fat on the animal's
body; and we will have the cow gaining in weight while she is
producing milk. This gain in weight will be of no service
as far as milk production is concerned, except that it is of

264 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

some value as a reserve material to be drawn upon at some
other time when feed is not supplied in sufficient amounts;
but it is not economical nor desirable to fatten dairy animals
with the expensive feeds which are fed cows in milk. That
portion of the feed represented by the line cd should be
taken from the ration. This means reducing her feed to take
off the amount used for storing fat on the body; in other
words, to feed her only what she will utilize for milk pro-
duction. This means feeding enough to maintain a practi-
cally uniform body weight. In every large herd where the
amount fed is not carefully regulated, we find errors made in
both these classes. We find the heavy-producing cows being
underfed, and we find the light-producing cows being over-
fed and allowed to accumulate fat.

Relation of Live Weight to Proper Feeding. — The live
weight of a cow is one good index of whether the cow is being
fed a proper amount or not; but good judgment must be used
in regulating the ration by observing this condition. We
must expect that a cow will lose weight in the first few weeks
of her milking period ; but after this period is past, there is no
reason why she need to change much in weight for several
months, and this is the period when the greater part of the
milk production is secured. It will not mean, of course, that
the animal should not be allowed to gain in weight during
the latter end of the milking period. This is necessary on
account of the development of the fetus, and since it is
natural for the animal to carry some fat on her body at
calving time.

It does mean, however, that in order to feed a herd of cows
economically it will not to do feed them all the same quantity
of grain whether they are giving a gallon of milk a day or

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 265

whether they are giving four gallons, and it means that when
a cow in the middle of her lactation period is putting on weight
she is being fed more than she needs and will give just as
much milk, if the feed is cut down somewhat. It also means
that if a certain animal is losing in weight sufficient feed is
not being given, and if the deficiency is not supplied it will
not be long before the milk production will come down to
correspond with the amount of feed available.

Feeding as Individuals. — In connection with the discus-
sion of the amount to feed, it needs to be pointed out that it
is only possible to feed a bunch of cows economically when
they are fed as individuals, and not as a herd. A too common
practice, even in otherwise well-managed herds, is for all
animals to be fed the same amount of grain, regardless of the
time they have been in milk or the quantity of milk individ-
ual cows are producing. Such feeding always lacks economy,
as the high-producing cow does not get enough, and while
she may milk very well for a short time, she soon comes down
to a lower level, while the lighter producing cow usually
gets too much and accumulates fat. The production of many
herds could be increased to a large extent without any in-
crease in the amount of feed used by distributing it properly
among the individuals. 1^ requires some attention to adjust
the ration to each individual, but the time spent in this
direction gives good returns.

Amount of Grain and Roughness to Feed. — The cow,
being adapted by nature for consuming bulky feeds, does not
feel satisfied unless there is sufficient bulk to the ration given
at all times. An animal that is fed too much grain in pro-
portion to the amount of roughness may seem hungry, while
she really has a sufficient amount of nutrients, but so con-

266 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

centrated that it does not have sufficient bulk. The cow
should be fed practically all the roughness she will eat up
clean, at all times, and the difference in rations fed to cows pro-
ducing different quantities of milk should be in the grain ration.

A cow on a good ration of roughness will maintain herself
and produce a certain amount of milk. If she be a cow of
much dairy capacity, she will not produce milk to anything
like her maximum without having a portion of her ration in
the form of concentrates. The point is, the milk-producing
function has been developed to such an extent that it is im-
possible for the digestive apparatus of the cow, efficient as
it is, to extract sufficient nutrients from coarse feeds to supply
the enormous drain upon the body resulting from the secre-
tion of large quantities of milk.

The mistake is at times made of assuming that cows all
receive the same ration when a uniform grain ration is fed.
The difference in the amount of roughness consumed is
generally overlooked in these cases, since the animals can
eat at will. If a grain ration be increased which is already
ample the animal consumes less roughness and may not con-
sume any more nutrients than before, although usually such
is the case on account of the greater palatability of the con-
centrates. In herds where all cows receive the same grain
ration, close observation will show that the light milkers are
consuming less forage than the heavier milk producers. Since
roughness is usually a cheaper source of nutrients than grains,
it is desirable to have a liberal amount of this class consumed.
The amount can be regulated by giving the animal all she
will consume of the roughness, and in addition concentrates
to supply the nutrients necessary for the amount of milk
she is producing.

FEEDING FOE MILK PRODUCTION 267

The most accurate means of determining the ration needed
is by calculation based upon the feeding standards. How-
ever, the following rules are of service as a general guide for
practical feeding : —

1. Feed all the roughness the cows will eat up clean at all
times.

2. Feed one pound of grain per day for each pound butter
fat produced per week, or one pound grain daily for each
three pounds of milk.

3. Feed all the cows will take without gaining in weight.
The rule regarding the amount of grain to feed per day to

each cow applies only when good roughness, such as corn
silage and clover, cowpeas, or alfalfa hay is used. The second
part of the rule, in regard to feeding one pound of grain for
three pounds of milk, will not work out in all cases. For a
heavy-milking Hoist ein cow, for example, this gives a little
too large a quantity of grain, and with a cow giving very
rich milk it is a little too low. It applies best to cows pro-
ducing milk of about average composition.

The rule based upon the butter fat produced per week is
the best, as it applies to any breed. If the roughness be
timothy hay or corn fodder, considerable more grain must be
fed in proportion to the amount of milk produced.

Home-Grown Balanced Rations. — One reason why the
average farmer makes a mistake of feeding his cows rations
that are not properly balanced is that it is easier, or he
thinks it is, to grow feeds that are excessively rich in carbo-
hydrates and lacking in protein. This comes about prin-
cipally by the large amount of corn and timothy hay grown
and used. It is impossible from these feeds to make a ration
that supplies the necessary nutrients to produce much milk.

268 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

It is possible to make a fairly good ration, using these feeds
for roughness ; but it is only possible to do so by feeding large
quantities of mill feeds that are rich in protein. The thing
for the farmer to do is to raise the feeds he requires on his
own farm, as far as possible; and it is possible in many
localities to produce practically all that is needed to make
a balanced ration. The place to begin in considering the
feeding of an animal always is with the roughness, since
the character of the roughness determines to a large extent
the kind of grain it is advisable to feed.

The cheapest source of protein usually is leguminous hays,
including clover, alfalfa, and cowpea hay. If an abundance
of any one of these hays can be grown, the problem of making
an economical balanced ration is very much simplified. Corn
is a staple crop in most parts of this country where many
dairy cows are kept. Corn silage, a legume hay, and corn
for grain make a ration that can be grown in most localities.
These alone make a satisfactory ration for ordinary pro-
ducing cows. The addition of a small quantity of a con-
centrate rich in protein, like bran or cottonseed meal, makes
a ration adapted to heavier producers of milk.

Succulent Feeds. — Another reason why cows do well on
good pasture is the character of the ration given. Green
feeds have that property called succulence. Such feed has
a value outside of the actual nutrients it contains, on account
of the favorable effect upon the digestion of the animal.
In the corn belt corn silage furnishes the best means of supply-
ing this class of food. In some sections, especially north
of the corn belt, the growing of root crops is widely practiced,
and supplies this desirable addition to the ration in an en-
tirely satisfactory form.

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 269

The Balanced Ration. — A ration is said to be balanced
when the two classes of nutrients are present in the right
proportions. The cow produces milk abundantly when on
fresh pasture grasses. One reason for this is that growing
grasses constitute a balanced ration. The winter ration is
liable to have the nutrients out of proportion. In the corn
belt the lack of protein is the most common deficiency in the
ration, brought about by the large use made of corn and corn
fodder. The wide use of timothy hay is also responsible for
many rations lacking in protein. A cow secreting milk
must use a certain amount of protein to form the curd or
nitrogenous part of the milk. No other material can take the
place of protein for this purpose. A careful study of the
composition of feeds and the method of computing rations
aids the feeder to prepare the ration to the best advantage.

Milk Secretion due to Stimulation. — The cow is too often
fed with the idea in mind that the production of milk is
directly dependent upon the food consumed and that the
more feed that can be gotten into her, the more milk there
will be produced. According to this view, the main question
is one of providing the proper amounts of suitable feeds.
The correct way to look upon the cow is from an entirely
different point of view. According to the view of the author,
as already [expressed, the production of milk is dependent
upon some stimulating principle that is formed in the body
and which acts upon the udder gland. A good dairy cow
is one that has the stimulation to produce large quantities
of milk. Any animal after violent exercise, for example, the
dog after a hard day's hunting, is exceedingly hungry, and con-
sumes a correspondingly large amount of food. The dairy
cow is a parallel case. A high-class dairy cow produces a

270 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

large amount of milk on account of having a strong stimu-
lation applied to her udder. This removes a large amount
of nutrients from the body; as a result, like the animal that has
had violent exercise, she has a strong appetite and consumes
a large quantity of food. This capacity is inherited, and can-
not be put into a cow by feeding. The keen appetite and
strong digestion of the good dairy cow do not cause the
heavy milk production, but are a result of it. The feeder's
business is to make the best use of what capacity for produc-
ing milk the cow inherits, and supply all the nutrients neces-
sary to use this milk-making capacity to the limit. If the
animal is not given sufficient feed, the reserve material is
drawn upon for a certain length of time, after which the
stimulation to produce milk gradually declines. After the milk
flow has declined, it is usually found impossible to bring it
back to the former higher level.

Condition of the Cow at Calving. — One of the most im-
portant factors in obtaining a large production of milk is to
have the animal in a good condition when fresh. The fat
and other reserve material that are accumulated in the body
act as a reserve, which is drawn upon during the first few
weeks especially. Liberal feeding before and good con-
dition at calving also start the animal at a higher level of
milk production than is the case when the animal is not in
proper condition, and mean larger possibilities for produc-
tion throughout the year. When the cow is in moderate
flesh, or a little more than moderate, and has had from four
to six weeks' rest before calving, the amount of milk she will
be giving at the end of two or three weeks after calving is
dependent only in part upon the manner of feeding at that
time. It is far more under the control of the natural stimu-

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 271

lation of the animal, and the problem for the feeder is to first
get the animal in this condition, observe what she produces
at her maximum, then adjust the ration to the amount pro-
duced and maintain the milk flow at a high level as long
as possible. However, if she does decline in milk when
receiving a sufficient ration, it is useless to further increase
the feed and expect to restore the milk flow. On the con-
trary, if it is certain that the ration has been ample or
more, it is economy to reduce the ration in about the same
proportion.

Some Suitable Rations. — The following rations are sug-
gestions for the beginner rather than for the expert dairyman.
They supply the necessary material to produce milk economi-
cally. If the cow will not give a good flow of milk in the
early part of the milking period and when fed a liberal amount
of one of these rations, it indicates that she is not adapted by
nature to be used as a dairy cow and should be disposed of.
The amounts given are about right for the cow giving from
20 to 25 pounds of average milk per day. For heavy-milk-
ing cows these rations would have to be increased, especially
in the grain, and for light-milking cows the grain should be
decreased. In making up these rations it is designed that
the cow be given all the roughness she will eat, and a sufficient
amount of grain to furnish all the proper amount of digestible
material. It is not designed that these rations should be
sufficient or the best adapted for cows of unusual dairy ca-
pacity, and certainly not for cows that are being fed for
making records where a maximum production is desired.

The figures given are per day. It is expected that the grain
ration will be mixed in quantities and the animals fed from
the mixture.

272 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

SOME GOOD DAIRY RATIONS

RATION 1

LB.

Corn silage 25

Clover hay 10

Corn 4

Wheat bran 4

RATION 2

Corn silage 30

Alfalfa or cowpea hay 10

Corn 6

Wheat bran 2

RATION 3

Clover hay 20

Corn 4-5

Wheat bran or oats 2-4

«
RATION 4

Clover hay 20

Corn and cob meal 6

Gluten or cottonseed meal 2

RATION 5

Alfalfa or cowpea hay 10

Corn fodder 10

Corn 6

Wheat bran . 2

RATION 6

Alfalfa or cowpea hay 15-20

Corn 8-10

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 273

RATION 7

LB.

Mangels or sugar beets 25

Corn stover 10

Clover hay 6

Corn meal 3

Wheat bran 2

Brewer's grains 2

Gluten meal 1

RATION 8

Corn silage or roots 30

Clover hay 12

Oats or wheat bran 4

Ground peas or gluten meal .... 3

Brewer's grains 2

CHAPTER XXII
FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION (Continued)

THE CALCULATION OF RATIONS, FEEDING HIGH-PRODUCING
COWS, DISCUSSION OF COMMON FEEDS

A dairy cow uses feed for the following purposes : —

1. For maintaining the body.

• 2. To supply the material for milk.

3. For development of the fetus.

4. For growth in case the animal is immature.

5. At times to produce gain in weight.

For each of these purposes three general classes of food
material are required.

1. Protein or nitrogenous material.

2. Carbohydrates and fat to supply the heat and energy.

3. Ash or mineral matter.

The main problem of feeding is to supply the proper amount
of the food material of the three classes in the least expensive
form. It is evident that the first step is to know what the
animal requires for food and how to prepare a ration that will
meet this demand.

How a Chemist divides Feed. — When a chemist makes
an analysis of any foodstuff, clover hay, for example, he
determines the amount of water, protein, ash, crude fiber,
nitrogen free extract, and fat the substance contains.

274

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 275

Water. — All feeds, even those apparently dry, like corn or
hay, contain a portion of water varying from 10 to 15 per cent
with this class. Roots, such as beets and turnips, contain
around 90 per cent of water. The water in the feed eaten
serves the same purpose as ordinary water consumed by the
animals.

Ash. — This is the mineral part of the plant substance
remaining after the material is burned. It makes up the
greater part of the bones, and is a necessary part of all lean
meat.

Protein. — This important constituent is known by the
fact that it contains nitrogen. It serves the purpose of
building up tissue in the body, such as muscle, skin, etc., and
constitutes the curd of milk. Lean meat and the white of
an egg are familiar examples of nearly pure protein. All
feeds contain more or less protein. Among hays, clover,
alfalfa, cowpea, or soy bean contain the largest amount.
Among the common concentrates linseed meal, cotton-
seed meal, and wheat bran contain relatively large quan-
tities. A certain amount of protein is indispensable in
a ration, as nothing else can be substituted for it by the
animal.

Crude Fiber. — This is the woody part of the plant, which
is the least digestible. The amount of this constituent in-
creases with the age of the plant, and is large in feeds like
hays and corn stover, and small in concentrates like corn and
linseed meal.

Nitrogen Kree Extract. — This is a term given to a class of
substances much like the crude fiber in composition, but which
are much more easily digestible. The greater part of this
group* is composed of starch.

276 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Fat or Ether Extract. — That part of the foodstuff that
will dissolve out in ether is called ether extract. It consists
mostly of fats, but sufficient other products to make it some-
what inaccurate to call this group fat, although this term is
often used.

The crude fiber, nitrogen free extract, and fat all serve
much the same purpose in the body. They supply heat to
keep the body warm, material to be built into fat and to be
burned or oxidized in the body to furnish energy. All feed
stuffs contain these same constituents, but in widely varying
quantities.

Digestibility. — However, the animal is not able to digest
all of the substances in any foodstuff. The proportion of the
protein, for example, that may be used depends largely upon
the nature of the feed under consideration, the grains being
more thoroughly digested than the hays. The amount of
each of the substances given that can be digested from any
feed stuff by the animal is determined by what are termed
digestion trials. The chemist makes such a trial by analyz-
ing the food consumed during a certain period by an animal,
and at the same time collecting all the dung excreted and
analyzing that to find out how much passes through the ali-
mentary canal. The difference between the amount con-
sumed and the amount voided is called digestible. Such
tests have been made of all common feeding stuffs, so the
practical feeder has data at hand regarding both the com-
position of feeds and their digestibility to serve as a guide in
preparing suitable ration.

The Feeding Standard. — The many analyses which have
been made enable us to know how much of each of the several
constituents is contained in all common feeds on the average.

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 277

It is also known that the cow needs all of these constituents.
The next question is as to how much of each constituent is
needed to supply what the cow must have to enable her to
produce the maximum amount of milk. This problem has
been worked on for many years by able investigators, and a
fairly accurate knowledge of the subject has resulted. A
statement of the food requirements of the animal is known
as a feeding standard.

The feeding standard prepared by Wolff, and known in the
revised form as the Wolff-Lehmann standard, has been the
most widely used. The standard of Haecker has also been
widely used in this country, and is an improvement over the
first mentioned, in so far that a provision for maintenance is
first made, then an allowance added according to the amount
of milk produced. In using these feeding standards it was
assumed that a pound of digestible protein in one feed stuff
is equal to that amount in every other. For example, a
pound of protein in clover hay is considered equal in feeding
value to the same amount of protein in oil meal. More recent
work by Kellner and Armsby has shown that this is erro-
neous and that a pound of digestible nutrients in a concentrate
like corn or oil meal is more valuable than the same amount
in a coarse food like ha^. This difference in value is due to
the increased expenditure of energy consumed in digesting
the coarser feeds. The latter authorities also consider that
a portion of the protein which is in the form known as amids
cannot be used by the animal. Table 10 gives the digestible
protein and energy value of common feeding stuffs according
to Armsby.1

Armsby has also prepared a tentative feeding standard for

1 Farmers' Bulletin 346, U. S. Dept. of Agric.

278

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

TABLE 10

DRY MATTER, DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN, AND ENERGY VALUES PER 100

POUNDS

FEEDING STUFF

TOTAL DRY
MATTER

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

ENERGY
VALUE

Green fodder and silage : —
Alfalfa . •

Pounds
28.2

Pounds
2.50

Therms
12 45

Clover — crimson
Clover — red . ...

19.1
29.2

2.19
2.21

11.30
16 17

Corn fodder — green ....
Corn silage

20.7
25.6

.41

.88

12.44
16.56

Hungarian grass
Rape
Rye
Timothy .

28.9
14.3
23.4
38.4

1.33
2.16
1.44
1.04

14.76
11.43
11.63
19.08

Hay and dry coarse fodders : —
Alfalfa hay

91.6

6.93

34.41

Clover hay — red
Corn forage, field cured .
Corn stover
Cowpea hay .

84.7
57.8
59.5

89 3 '

5.41
2.13
1.80

8.57

34.74
30.53
26.53
42.76

Hungarian hay

Oat hay . ...

92.3
840

3.00
2.59

44.03
36.97

Soy bean hay

88 7

7 68

3865

Timothy hay

86.8

2.05

33.56

Straws : —
Oat straw

908

1.09

21.21

Rye straw

92 9

.63

2087

Wheat straw

90.4

.37

16.56

Roots and tubers : —
Carrots
Mangel-wurzels

11.4
9 1

.37
.14

7.82
4.62

Potatoes . .

21 1

45

1805

Rutabagas

11 4

88

800

Turnips

9.4

.22

5.74

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION

279

FEEDING STUFF

TOTAL DRY
MATTER

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN

ENERGY

VALUE

Grains * —
Barley .

Pounds
89 1

Pounds
c 07

Therms

Qf) JK.

Corn

89 1

6 79

CQ 84

Corn-and-cob meal ....
Oats

84.9
89 0

4.53

8 36

72.05

66 27

Pea meal

89 5

i A 77

71 7^

Rye.

884

8 12

81 72

Wheat

89 5

8 90

82 63

By-products : —
Brewers' grains — dried . . .
Brewers' grains — wet
Buckwheat middlings ....
Cottonseed meal

92.0
24.3

88.2
91 8

19.04
3.81
22.34
35 15

60.01
14.82
75.92
8420

Distillers' grains — dried :
Principally corn ....

93 0

21 93

7923

Principally rye

93 2

10 38

60 93

Gluten feed — dry
Gluten meal — Buffalo . . .
Gluten meal — Chicago . . .
Linseed meal — old process . .
Linseed meal — new process .
Malt sprouts

91.9
91.8
90.5
90.8
90.1
89.8

19.95
21.56
33.09
27.54
29.26
12.36

79.32
88.80
78.49
78.92
74.67
4633

Rye bran .

882

11 35

5665

Sugar-beet pulp — fresh . .
Sugar-beet pulp — dried . .
Wheat bran .

10.1
93.6
88 1

.63
6.80
10 21

7.77
60.10
4823

Wheat middlings

84.0

12.79

7.75

dairy cows, based upon the most recent investigations re-
garding nutrition. He bases this standard upon the amount
of digestible protein (amid free) and the energy value, which
represents the carbohydrates and fat together. He uses the
term " therm " to represent an energy value of 1000 calories.
He first estimates the protein and energy value required for

280 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

maintenance, and to this adds the amount of each necessary
to supply what is needed for the milk. The maintenance
requirements are as follows : —

LIVE WEIGHT

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN
POUNDS

ENERGY VALUE
THERMS

500

.30

3.80

750

.40

4.95

1000

.50

6.00

1250

.60

7.00

1500

.65

7.90

The maintenance requirement naturally increases with the
size of the animal, but not in direct proportion.

Armsby suggests .3 therm in energy value and .05 pound
of digestible protein for each pound of milk. This standard
for milk production is based upon milk containing about 4
per cent of fat and 13 per cent of total solids. However, no
one figure given could be accurate for milk of all degrees of
richness.

Calculating a Ration. — Let it be assumed that it is desir-
able to calculate the ration for a 1150-pound cow producing
30 pounds of milk per day. According to the preceding
table, there would be required approximately the following
for maintenance: —

Digestible Protein 55 Ib.

Energy 6.50 therms

For the production of 30 pounds of average milk there
would be needed: —

Digestible Protein (30 x .05) . . 1.50 Ib.
Energy (30 X. 3) 9.00 therms

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 281

The total requirements then are as follows : —

For maintenance ....
For milk production . . .

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN

ENERGY VALUE

.55
1.50

6.50
9.00

2.05

15.50

The problem is to find a ration that contains this amount
of digestible protein and has this energy value. Other prob-
lems also enter into the question, such as bulk and the com-
parative cost of several feeds available. In calculating a
ration we always begin with the roughness, since this class
usually furnishes the nutrients cheaper than the concentrated
feeds such as grain and mill products. Further, on most
farms considerable roughness is on hand that must be used
to the best advantage, and as already pointed out, the cow is
adapted for consuming roughness and must have a certain
bulk to her ration at all times. We will assume that on the
farm where the foregoing ration is to be fed corn silage, clover
hay, and corn are on hand, and wheat bran and cottonseed meal
may be purchased if necessary to provide the proper ration.

A good ration of roughness in quantity would be corn
silage 35 pounds and clover hay 9 pounds. Using Table 10,
this would give the following : —

35 Ib. silage . . .
9 Ib. clover hay . .

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN
POUNDS

ENERGY VALUE

(.35 X .88) .31
(.09x5.41) .48

(.35X16.56) 5.79
(.09 X 34.74) 3.12

.79

8.91

282

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

This leaves 1.26 pounds of digestible protein and 6.59
therms of energy to be supplied by the grain. Since corn is
grown on the farm, we will use it as far as possible in making
up the grain ration. The amounts to be used can only be
found by trial. We will start with the following : Corn 6
pounds, bran 3 pounds, cottonseed meal 1 pound. This
would give us the following amount of protein and energy
values : —

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN

ENERGY VALUE

35 Ib. corn silage
9 Ib clover hay

.31

.48

5.79
3.12

6 Ib corn

.40

5.33

3 ib bran

.30

1.44

1 Ib. cottonseed meal . . .

.35

.84

Reauired

1.84
2.05

16.52
15.50

This gives too much energy value and is a little low in the
protein. Since cottonseed meal is the highest in protein, we
will cut out the bran and increase the cottonseed meal by the
addition of another pound. We would then have the fol-
lowing : —

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN

ENERGY VALUE

35 Ib corn silage

31

5 79

9 Ib clover hay

48

3 12

6 Ib. corn

.40

5.33

2 Ib. cottonseed meal . . .

.70

1.68

1.89

15.92

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION

283

This is still a little high in energy and low in protein. It can
be made nearer the standard by replacing one pound of the
corn with bran : —

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN

ENERGY VALUE

35 Ib. corn silage

.31

5.79

9 Ib clover nay ....

.48

3.12

5 Ib corn

33

444

2 Ib. cottonseed meal . . .
1 Ib. bran

.70

.10

1.68

48

1.92

15.51

This ration approaches the standard close enough for practical
purposes, although still a little low in protein.

The ration must be modified to meet the requirements of
individual animals to some extent, especially regarding the
richness of milk produced. The standard as stated is based
upon the requirements for average milk. A cow of the
Channel Island breeds will presumably require a somewhat
higher allowance for the milk, while one of the Holstein breed
may use rather less. An exact agreement with the require-
ments is not essential, even when the milk produced is of
average composition, since the composition of the feeds varies
to some extent, and the individual requirements of the ani-
mals are also subject to some variations.

The Cost of the Ration. — In the foregoing no attention
has been given to the relative cost of the feeds used in making
up the ration. This question is one of great importance, and
must always be taken into account. In general the tendency
is for the mill products, such as bran, oil meal, cottonseed meal,
and the great variety of others on the market to be sold

284 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

according to their comparative protein content. In preparing
the ration the cost should be calculated at the same time, and
the various combinations tried that offer to reduce the cost.

Palatability of the Ration. — It is of considerable im-
portance to take into account the palatability of the ration
as well as its composition. An animal will give better results
if it relishes its food. Sometimes, on account of a lack of
palatability, the cow may not consume as much as she really
could use. Hay and other coarse feeds show the most varia-
tion in palatability depending upon how they are cured and
the stage of ripeness at cutting. It is advisable 'to have the
grain ration composed of a mixture of feed stuffs, as this adds
to the relish with which it is eaten. The roughness should
consist of at least two varieties. Succulent feed, such as
silage and roots, is especially palatable, and aids digestion by
keeping the cow in good physical condition. When a good
ration is once selected, there is no advantage in making a
change for the sake of variety. It has been claimed by some
practical feeders that a change in ration is beneficial, but most
of the most successful herdsmen of dairy cattle select the
ration carefully, then make as few changes as possible.

Order of Feeding. — Regularity in time and manner of
feeding is of more importance than any definite order of feed-
ing. As a rule about half of both concentrates and rough-
ness should be fed at night and the remainder in the morn-
ing. The grain is usually fed first and the hay feeding
reserved until after the milking is completed, to avoid filling
the air with dust, which serves to contaminate the milk.
Silage should be fed immediately after milking, to prevent the
odor from gaining access to the milk. The cow is a creature of
habit, and the same routine should be followed. She may

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 285

be taught to demand her grain ration when milking, but will
milk just as well if always fed either before or after milking,
and will not look for it at the time of milking.

FEEDING HIGH-PRODUCING COWS FOR THE MAXIMUM PRO-
DUCTION

The maximum production is secured from high-producing
cows only by a combination of the expert herdsman and the
best possible ration and conditions. Such cows cannot be
fed entirely by any rule, nor their ration calculated by a for-
mula. The individual animal and her characteristics must
be taken into account as well. One of the essential things
is having the animal in the proper condition of flesh at calv-
ing. She should be dry for two months or more for the best
results, and well fed during this period. Some form of succu-
lence is absolutely necessary as a part of the ration. Roots,
such as common beets, sugar beets, or mangels are even better
than silage for this purpose, and may be fed up to 50 pounds
or more per day.

The cow must be brought up to the full ration carefully
after calving, using at least three weeks for this purpose.
The grain ration should consist of a mixture of several con-
centrates all of which are palatable. As long as the animal
remains in normal condition, no change in the grain ration is
necessary. Special attention must be given to the physical
condition of the cow. In this connection the careful herds-
man always observes closely the character of the dung ex-
creted, and learns to judge in this way when the digestion is
normal. At the first indication of the lack of a keen appetite
the ration is cut down until the animal is in a condition to
again utilize the full amount. If the digestion shows in-

286 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

dication of even slight disorder, a purgative, such as Epsom
salts 1 to 1-j- pounds at a dose should be administered at once.
The grain should always be eaten with a relish, and the
animal should show a disposition to want a little more than
she receives.

A ration for a very heavy-milking cow must be rich in
protein. Much more grain will also be fed in proportion to
the roughness than with an ordinary producer. In fact, for
the maximum production of a great producer, the nutrients
will need to be largely supplied by the concentrates.

The following ration was fed to Bessie Bates, a Jersey cow
owned by the University of Missouri. Her production at the
time this ration was given was 40 pounds of milk and 2 pounds
of fat per day. Her weight was about 900 pounds, and the
total product for the year 13,895 pounds of milk and 680
pounds of fat. The same mixture of concentrates was fed
during the greater part of her lactation period.

RATION

LB.

Corn silage

15

Alfalfa hay . .

15

Corn meal

3.5

Bran . .

3.5

Oats .

3.5

Oil meal

1.5

Total roughness per day

30

Total grain per day

12

Missouri Chief Josephine, a Holstein cow weighing 1350
pounds, received the following when producing an average of
100 pounds of milk per day: —

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION

287

RATION

LB.

Corn silage . ...

15

Alfalfa hay

20

Dried beet pulp ...

4

Corn, meal

6.1

Bran

6.1

Oats . . .

6.1

Gluten feed

1 9

Linseed meal .

1 9

Cottonseed meal

1 9

Total pounds roughness

35

Total pounds concentrates

28

The grain ration was prepared by mixing 100 pounds each
of the corn, bran, and oats, and 30 pounds each of the last
three named. The cow was fed four times during the twenty-
four hours. One pound of dried beet pulp was added to six
pounds of the grain mixture, and the entire mass moistened
with water some time before feeding.

DISCUSSION OF COMMON FEED STUFFS

No particular food or combination of feeds is alone essen-
tial to the most economical production of milk. The first
consideration is to grow the most suitable crops on the farm
in order that the amount purchased may be as small as pos-
sible without reducing the efficiency of the ration. In the
brief discussion which follows, only the most common feed
stuffs are considered.

Timothy Hay. — The value of this hay is often greatly
overestimated as a feed for dairy cows. It is unpalatable
except when cut early, and will not be consumed in sufficient
quantities. The most serious objection is the low protein

288 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

content, making it necessary to feed large quantities of con-
centrates rich in this expensive nutrient when timothy hay
is fed.

Corn Stover. — This forage may be utilized to a small
extent. It has the same characteristics and objections as
timothy hay, and cannot be depended upon for more than a
part of the roughness.

Hay from Legumes. — Hay of this class is especially val-
uable for the dairy cow. It includes the common clovers,
alfalfa, the cowpea, the soy bean, the field pea, and other less
commonly used legumes, such as vetch and crimson clover.
Forage from this class of plants when properly cured is highly
palatable, and contains a relatively large amount of protein.
It is for this reason especially that a legume hay should by
all means be grown by the farmer in the corn belt. The ash
content is also large, which is of importance, especially when
fed with corn products that are low in this class of sub-
stances.

Silage. — The importance of supplying a succulent food
to the cow at all times has been discussed elsewhere. In
feeding corn silage it should be kept in mind that it is not of
itself a complete ration for the cow in milk, since it is relatively
high in carbohydrates and low in protein. It is not advis-
able, either, to feed it as the only roughness. Some hay should
be given as well, and for this purpose the legumes are the best
adapted, on account of their high protein and ash content.
It is not advisable to feed over about 35 pounds to a small
cow and 40 to 45 to a large animal.

Corn. — Over the greater part of America corn is the most
common and cheapest grain. In the corn belt this valuable
grain is often fed to excess. On the other hand, some dairy-

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 289

men avoid the feeding it altogether, on account of the
erroneous idea that it is not suited to a cow producing milk.
Corn may be fed in reasonable quantities to any class of ani-
mals on the farm. It is especially palatable for the cow in
milk. However, it must not be the exclusive grain ration for
good results. The protein content of corn is low, likewise the
ash. If combined with corn stover or corn silage for rough-
ness, the protein content is entirely too low for a dairy ration.
Corn silage and ground corn combined with clover or alfalfa
hay and bran, however, makes a good ration for general feed-
ing. It should not be used in excess for the growing or preg-
nant animal.

Wheat Bran. — Next to corn wheat bran is the most
important cow feed of this country. Its great value as a
food for growing animals and cows in milk comes from the
high ash and protein content. Its light, loose character also
makes it a valuable addition to a heavy ration in the way of
lightening up the mass so it is easier acted upon by the diges-
tive juices. This is of special importance in connection with
such feeds as cottonseed meal that have a tendency to form
a pasty mass in the stomach which is difficult to digest.

Wheat middlings or shorts are valuable feeds for the cow,
but more like corn meal in composition and properties than
like bran. As a rule it is wiser to make use of the bran rather
than shorts for the cow in milk.

Oats and Oat Products. — Oats are a splendid feed for
cows and growing animals when the cost is not prohibitive.
Woll found oats to be about 10 per cent more valuable pound
per pound than bran when fed to cows. In general, it may be
said that oats are themselves an excellent ration, but do not
contain sufficient protein to be as effective in supplying a

290 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

deficiency in that respect as are others with a high protein
content. The valuable by-products of oats are mainly from
oatmeal mills, and consist of oats shorts and finely divided
parts of the grain sifted out. In addition, a much larger
quantity of hulls must be disposed of by these mills. Hulls
are mostly crude fiber and are hardly equal to the same weight
of timothy hay in feeding value. The by-products of the
oatmeal mills are therefore valuable, to the extent that they
contain the parts of the grains. Oat hulls are used largely
to form a portion of various mixed feeds that are put upon the
market.

Cottonseed Meal. — This by-product is the residue left
after the oil is extracted from the cottonseed. It contains
the highest amount of protein of any feed used for cows
ordinarily found upon the market. For this reason it is
especially valuable as a means of balancing up rations defi-
cient in protein, where corn and corn products form a large
proportion of the ration. It should not be fed to excess at
any time. As a rule from two to four pounds per day are
to be considered the maximum to be used. However, in the
South, where it is abundant, it is fed in much larger quantities
with good results.

Linseed Meal. — This valuable feed is the residue after
the linseed oil is extracted from flaxseed. It ranks next to
cottonseed meal in protein, but on the market usually sells a
little higher. It seems to exert a specially favorable effect
upon animals of all kinds to which it is fed. Like cottonseed
meal, it is especially valuable as a means of supplying the
protein liable to be lacking in the farm-grown ration.

Gluten Feed. — This is a by-product from starch and glu-
cose factories. It consists of the corn grain after the starch

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 291

is extracted. In protein content it ranks about midway
between bran and oil meal, and is a palatable and valuable
feed.

Beet Pulp and Molasses. — Since the beet sugar industry
has become of some importance in the United States, the by-
products are found on the market for cattle feed. The beet
pulp from the factory contains only about 10 per cent of dry
matter. On account of its bulk it cannot be transported any
distance, and is fed only in the immediate neighborhood of
the factory. More recently the dried pulp has been placed
on the market and is meeting with favor as a feed. In com-
position it is high in carbohydrates in proportion to the pro-
tein, ranking in this respect below corn. In feeding it should
be combined with other feeds "richer in protein. It swells
when moistened, and cannot be pressed into a compact mass.
For this reason it is easy of digestion and valuable to lighten up
a grain ration that otherwise would form a mass in the stom-
ach not easily penetrated by the digestive juices.

Another refuse or by-product of the cane and beet sugar
factories is low-grade molasses. This substance is sold now
in combination with a variety of other feeds, such as beet
pulp, alfalfa hay, and sometimes with worthless material, such
as peanut hulls, weed seeds, or cocoa wastes. Molasses serves
a useful purpose as a means of making unpalatable feeds more
readily consumed. Unfortunately it is too often used to
cover up inferior quality or to disguise material that is of
little or no feeding value. The general advice regarding feeds
of this class is to purchase them only on the advice of the
experiment station in the state where the product is sold.

Brewer's Grains. — Fresh brewer's grains are fed in large
quantities, where they may be hauled directly from the brew-

292 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

ery. Considerable objection has been raised by city health
authorities in many places to the use of this feed. If fed
in moderate amounts under proper sanitary conditions, they
are not objectionable. However, the use of them is so often
abused that some officials have found it easier to prohibit
their use than to regulate it. The objection comes from
feeding them exclusively, from allowing decomposition to
begin before feeding, and from the very objectionable sanitary
condition that exists if special care is not taken to keep the
feed boxes, feeding troughs, and, in fact, the entire stable,
clean.

This feed should not be used to exceed twenty pounds per
day, and should be supplemented with hay and some other
grain, such as corn. The greater part of the brewer's grains
now produced are dried, and in this form may be transported
long distances. They are rich in protein, and four or five
pounds may be used in the ration with advantage. At present
the larger part of this by-product finds a market in Europe.

Mixed Feeds. — No small proportion of the grain supplied
the dairy cows of the United States is in the form of mixed
feeds. As a class any mixed feed is to be looked upon with
suspicion. Where the unmixed grains and by-products are
to be had on the market, it is always safer to purchase them
and make such mixtures as may be advisable for the purpose
in view. The main purpose in view by the manufacturers
or dealers in preparing feed mixtures is to sell material of
inferior quality or some by-product of little or no value. One
of the most common ingredients of mixed feeds is oat hulls,
from oatmeal factories. In many cases the hulls are ground
fine to escape detection, while the claim may be made that
ground oats is a part of the mixture. A careful examination

FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 293

will usually indicate if oat hulls have been added. Wheat
bran is occasionally mixed with ground corn cobs or corn
bran.

A cottonseed feed is also found upon the market which is
a mixture of cottonseed hulls and cottonseed meal. The
only object in making such a mixture is to sell as much cotton-
seed hulls as possible at a good price. Alfalfa hay of doubtful
quality is mixed with sugar refuse, and by liberal advertising
sold at a price above its real value.

Nearly all states where large quantities of feed are pur-
chased by the farmers now have some law in force regarding
the sale of feeding stuffs. These laws, however, do not take
the place of intelligence on the part of feed users. Such a
law generally requires the proper branding of each sack and
labeling to indicate the chemical composition. It should be
remembered that the label gives the total amount of protein
and other constituents, and not the amount of each that is
digestible, which will be decidedly lower. Every feed buyer
should patronize only reliable dealers, and buy feeds that are
labeled and guaranteed. There are no mixtures better than
the buyer can make himself, and there is no special feed or
mixture having any remarkable properties not possessed by
familiar feeds. The buyer of mill feeds should make a point
of keeping in touch with the experiment station of his state,
and if the feed control is vested in some other body or official,
with them as well, and make use of the information they
will be able to furnish regarding the feeds on the market.

CHAPTER XXIII
STABLES FOR COWS

THE dairy cow, unlike the fattening steer that is protected
by layers of fat, needs to be comfortably housed to do good
work. The loss from exposure to cold, and especially cold
rains, results in much larger losses than the actual amount of
feed required to maintain the animal heat under the unfavor-
able conditions. The importance of housing is generally
understood and practiced in the colder climates. As a rule
more losses from exposure occur in thoss regions where, from
the usual mildness of the climate, sufficient provision is not
made for the severe weather that occurs only at intervals.

Where the importance of proper stabling is recognized, the
conditions existing are, on the average, far from what they
should be. No part of the present system of handling cows
is more in need of improvement at present. It must be recog-
nized that the stable is a place in which human food is pro-
duced, and further that the health and even the lives of the
children of the country depend to a large extent upon the
conditions existing in the stables where the milk, which serves
as their main food, is produced. There is a strong and grow-
ing demand on the part of milk consumers and officials having
to do with the health conditions of the cities for better sani-
tation in the barns and dairies. Laws and regulations regard-

294

STABLES FOR COWS 295

ing this matter are becoming more stringent, and it is safe to
say that an immense improvement will be brought about
within the next few years.

Better Barns mean Cheaper Production. — There is an-
other phase of the subject that must be emphasized as well.
There is no doubt it pays as a financial proposition to have
well-arranged, sanitary barns making the cow more produc-
tive by being more comfortable ; labor more efficient on
account of being better satisfied; and the expense of labor
less on account of convenience in arrangement. A sanitary
barn is not necessarily an expensive one. Many an inexpen-
sive structure is or may be more sanitary than some ill-ar-
ranged, badly kept, but expensive barn.

In considering the matter of barns, it is well to study care-
fully how closely the conditions of early summer may be
maintained throughout the year. The dairy cow does her
best in the early part of the summer when on a good pasture.
The maximum production reached at this season is possibly
largely on account of the excellence of the food, but at the
same time the animal enjoys a moderate temperature and
clean, comfortable surroundings. There is an abundance of
fresh air and sunlight, and the cow has perfect freedom of
movement. Keep these conditions as near as possible in the
barn, and good results will follow. A cow kept in a dark base-
ment barn, surrounded by foul air, with her head fast in a
rigid stanchion and her body more or less filthy, is as far from
summer conditions as is her milk production below that of
early summer.

Types of Barns. — There are a variety of barns, but they
may be divided into a few rather distinct types, while many
are intermediate.

296

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

1. The basement barn.

2. The two-story or loft barn.

3. One-story or shed barn.

4. The round barn.

5. The covered barnyard or double stabling system.

/

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

/

\

\

/

r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

-\

I, ••••" "-""•• I

x"'

FIG. 47. — Plan of a two-story or loft barn. (U. S. Dept. Agric.)

The Basement Barn. — This is a favorite type in the north-
ern part of the United States, especially in the Eastern States.
It cannot, by any means, be recommended as an ideal dairy

STABLES FOR COWS 297

barn. It is built by excavating into the side of a hill, suffi-
ciently to bring the top of the first story on one side, and
usually on two sides, at the level of the ground outside, the
south and east sides commonly being full height above ground.
This type of barn is warm, but usually very unsanitary, on ac-
count of having practically no light and no ventilation. It can
be ventilated, but rarely is this done. Space for storage is usu-
ally provided above the animals.

Two-Story or Loft Barn. — This style of barn allows for
the stabling of the stock on the first floor, with a second story
for storage above. The walls of the first story may be of
stone or wood, but are all above ground. This style is well
adapted to the general farm, where considerable room is
required to store the loose hay and other feeds grown on the
farm for winter use. Storage room is secured more cheaply
in this manner than by building a one-story cow barn and a
separate storage barn. This style may be entirely sanitary
in its construction if properly arranged. It should have
plenty of light and a good ventilating system. The ceiling
above the cows should be tight, to prevent dust from falling,
which would contaminate the milk, and to avoid the odor
from the stable and the breath of the animals from injuring
the palatability of the feed above.

The One-Story or Shed Barn. — This is one of the best
types of barn from the standpoint of sanitation and conven-
ience. It usually is built wide enough for two rows of cows.
This plan is especially adapted for use where it is not neces-
sary to have any large amount of storage room for unbaled
hay or bedding. It is often used, however, where ample
storage room must be provided, and in such cases a portion of
the barn is usually built two stories high, and serves for stor-

298 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

age and general purposes, while one or more single-storied
wings are provided to house the cattle. Single-storied barns
usually have a tight ceiling, although some are open to the
roof and have a monitor top to admit light from above.
The objection to having the space open to the roof is that in
cold climates this space is so great that the barn is too cold
in winter.

The advantages of the one-story barn are that it may be
well lighted and ventilated and the construction made sani-
tary in every way. Additional room can be easily had by
extending the wings at any time.

The Round Barn. — The economy of construction in the
round barn was first called to attention by King.1 Accord-
ing to this author, a round barn requires about 25 per cent
less wall to inclose it than does an ordinary rectangular
type.

According to Frazer,2 a round barn with room for 40 cows
requires 22 per cent less walls and from 34 to 58 per cent less
material than a rectangular building with accommodations
for the same number of animals. The silo is built in the
center, and the cows are usually arranged in a single row
around the barn, headed toward the center, except where the
barn is too large, when a double row is used.

The Covered Yard or Double System of Housing. — This
plan was first called to the attention of the public by Pro-
fessor Roberts 3 of Cornell University, who used it for many
years with the station herd of dairy cows. The plan consists
in having a large shed or covered yard, into which the cattle

1 Physics of Agriculture, p. 366.

2 Bulletin No. 143, Illinois Experiment Station.

8 Bulletin No. 13, Cornell University Experiment Station.

FIG. 49. — A good example of a round barn.
University of Illinois.

Built at the

FIG. 50. — Interior arrangement of a good barn.

STABLES FOR COWS 299

are turned loose except at milking time. The roughness is
usually fed in racks to be consumed at will, while the grain is
fed when the cows are taken to the milking stable at milking
time. The milking stable need not be elaborate, but sanitary.
The cows are tied while they eat their grain and are milked.
This system gives the cows a maximum amount of freedom,
but requires an abundance of straw for bedding, and is more
expensive if a new and sanitary plant is built. At times an
old barn may be utilized in this manner economically.

Location of the Barn. — The barn should be located where
there is good drainage, making it possible to keep the yards
in good condition. Convenience in location as well as in
planning should receive careful consideration, since the ex-
pense for labor depends to no small degree upon proper
location and internal arrangements.

A rectangular barn should stand preferably north and south,
making it possible to get sunlight on both sides at some time
during the day.

Lighting. — One of the most serious defects in most barns,
especially the older ones, is a lack of sufficient light. Win-
dows cost but little, if any, more than other wall space, and
cannot be objected to on this account. Plenty of light is
one of the most essential things about a good barn. It is
necessary to keep the animals in a healthful condition, and is
of the greatest importance in a sanitary way. Not only does
sunlight destroy germs, but by having plenty of light uncleanly
conditions are easily seen and corrected. A dark barn is
almost always a dirty barn. There should be at least 4
square feet of glass to each animal. The bottom of the
windows should be 4 or 4^ feet from the floor. If lower, the
animals are liable to break the glass. The window should

300 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

extend nearly to the ceiling in order to allow the sunlight
to reach as much of the floor as possible. The windows
should be set flush with the inside wall to avoid making a
ledge for the accumulation of dust. In a one-story barn the
windows should be hinged. In a two-story barn, which gives
ample room above, the sash had better slide upward. This
arrangement is much more convenient than having one sash
slide past the other in the ordinary manner.

FLOOR CONSTRUCTION

One of the most important points to be considered in plan-
ning a barn is the material to be used for floors. Material
for a floor should have the following characteristics : —

1. Impervious to moisture.

2. Sanitary and easily cleaned.

3. Comfortable for the cows.

4. First cost not too great.

5. Durable.

The floors in common use are as follows : —

Dirt with wood or cement gutters.

Wood.

Brick.

Cement or granitoid.

Dirt Floors. — A floor of dirt in a dairy barn is only excus-
able under primitive conditions. This material provides
comfort for the animal, and is cheap in construction. The
objection is, of course, that it cannot be kept clean. The
most objectionable condition is where the cows stand on a
level dirt floor without any gutter. A fairly good floor for
ordinary purposes may be made by building a gutter of

FIG. 51. — Arrangement and
plan of a one-story barn.
(U. S. Dept. Agric.)

302 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

cement or wood, and extending this forward far enough to
catch the urine. The space under the cows is then filled with
clay packed solidly. When sufficient bedding is used, such a
floor will answer in a cheap barn, but under no circumstances
could such a barn be called sanitary.

Wood for Floors. — A tight wooden floor is comfortable
for the animals, and may be kept in good condition regarding
cleanliness, although it can hardly be considered first class from
a sanitary standpoint. The first cost is also excessive, con-
sidered in connection with the short time it remains in serv-
ice. Wooden floors last the longest either laid in contact
with earth so moisture is retained constantly, or laid with
sufficient air space below to admit of free circulation of air.
Under the most favorable conditions a wooden floor may
last as long as from six to ten years. The most rapid decay
occurs when the floor is laid far enough above the soil and with
no circulation of air underneath, so only a small amount of
moisture is present. Under such conditions the floor may not
last over three to five years.

Wooden floors are made water-tight by using coal tar
between the planks. The most serious objection to the
wooden floor is its short period of service. Another objec-
tion of considerable weight in many cases is the sanitary
question. On account of the difficulty of cleaning a wooden
floor, it is not used where the greatest attention is paid to
sanitation.

Brick for Floors. — If good vitrified brick can be bought
cheaper than cement, this material may be used with advan-
tage. A brick floor has the same advantages and objections
as discussed in connection with cement. The bricks must be
put on on a good foundation, and are set in cement.

STABLES FOR COWS

303

304 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Cement Floors. — Cement or concrete floors have more
of the requirements for a good floor than any other material
in general use. This material is impervious to moisture,
very durable, and the most sanitary and easily cleaned of
all. The first cost is but little more than wood in most
localities, and its lasting properties make it much cheaper,
considering a term of years. The one serious objection to
cement is in regard to the comfort -of the animal. A cement
floor is cold, that is to say, it is a good conductor of heat, and
for this reason seems cold. It is believed by many of the
most experienced dairymen that udder troubles are brought
on from cows lying on cement floors. This difficulty may be
lessened by having the floor 6 to 9 l inches higher than
the surface of the ground on the outside to prevent water
flowing under the cement. The floor should be thoroughly
insulated with a layer of cinders 6 to 9^ inches deep under
the cement. Such arrangement, together with a liberal use
of bedding, will obviate most of the danger from the coldness
of the cement. Another arrangement which has much to
recommend it is placing a wooden platform over the cement
where the cows stand. This platform may be made of planks
imbedded in coal tar, or in the form of a loose frame that may
be removed for cleaning.

Another serious objection to cement is the slipping of the
animals as they come through the passageways. A cement
floor should never be trowled to a smooth finish, but left with
the surface rough as finished with a board. In some barns
sand is sprinkled on the floor daily to prevent the animals
from slipping. Another trouble that often occurs is injury
to the knees of the cows. In reaching in the manger for food

1 Erf., 15th Annual Report Ohio State Dairy Association, 1909.

STABLES FOR COWS 305

their forefeet slip and they drop on their knees, resulting after
a time in enlarged joints. This trouble is avoided in a large
measure by making a depression of an inch where the fore-
feet stand.

Probably the best plan is to construct the entire floor of
the barn, including stalls, passageways and mangers, of
cement, then to cover the platform where the cows stand, as
suggested, with wood.

Arrangement of Cattle in Barn. — The best and most com-
mon plan is to stand the cattle in a double row. This makes
it possible to light the entire stable readily and to feed and
remove the manure conveniently. There is much discussion
as to the comparative advantages of placing the cows with
their heads together or with heads outward. There are some
advantages in favor of each. When facing the center, both
rows may be fed by making one trip down the passageway
with the feed truck, distributing the feed on both sides. The
removal of the manure is most convenient when the animals
are headed out, since by driving through with the manure
spreader and loading directly from the trenches, considerable
labor is saved, or if a track carrier is used, it may be loaded
readily from both gutters. The cows present a better appear-
ance to visitors when headed out. The walls of the barn do
not become splashed with manure with this arrangement.
In regard to ventilation, there is some advantage in having the
heads outward, since the fresh air usually enters along the
outside wall. The greatest difficulty that is usually expe-
rienced in heading the animals outward is constructing the
barn without the use of center posts that are in the way and
obstruct the passageway behind the animals. When the
cows are headed toward the center, the posts for support are
x

306

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

made part of the stanchion
manger supports, and are not
in the way. It is possible,
however, with more expense,
to support the longer span
required with trusses when
the cows are headed out-
ward. Figure 53 shows cross
sections of barns conveniently
arranged. The width of the
barn is 36 feet. It will be
observed that the cement
comes up on the wall 3 feet,
and is made with a rounded
corner to prevent accumula-
tion of dirt. The passage-
ways should be of ample
width to facilitate feeding
and cleaning out.

Gutters. — The gutter is
highly important in connec-
tion with keeping the cow
clean. It should be of ample
depth, as otherwise cows are
apt to stand with the hind
feet in the gutter. The
depth should not be less than
8 inches, while 10 or 12 inches
is better. The proper width
is not less than 16 inches.
The danger from deep gutters

STABLES FOR COWS

307

S

308 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

is that the cows will slip and injure themselves. This may
be largely eliminated by lowering the passageway behind,
making this side of the gutter only 6 inches deep.

Mangers. — There are numerous types of mangers. From
a sanitary standpoint cement is the best material for con-
struction. All corners should be rounded to facilitate clean-
ing. The most common type is the continuous manger, which
is built in the form of a long trough before the cows. Some
objections are raised to this construction, on account of the
chance it affords for one cow to rob another of her feed. In
case of contagious diseases like tuberculosis, there is also much
more danger of communication from one animal to another in
such a manger. Partitions of sheet iron are sometimes used.
The special advantage of the continuous manger is the ease of
cleaning by sweeping out refuse feed. It may also be used
as a means of watering the cows in the barn with advantage.

Fig. 54 shows some of the best types of cement mangers.
The width should be not less than 2 feet, and preferably
2 feet 6 inches. The bottom of the manger should be 1
or 2 inches higher than the platform where the cows stand.
The partition next to the platform on which the cows stand
should be 6 or 8 inches above the level of the bottom of the
manger.

The comfort of the cows and the success in keeping them
clean depends largely upon the construction of the platform.
It is highly important that it be of proper length and of suitable
material.

The construction to be recommended most highly is of
cement covered with a wooden platform. A cement plat-
form should have a depression one inch deep and 14 inches
wide next to the tie. The surface of this depression should

STABLES FOR COWS

309

.y«c...

I "-

I

I

•f-'-

v?1^

310 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

be slightly fluted. The object in this is to prevent the cows
from slipping and falling on their knees when reaching for
feed. It also allows the cow to stand on the level, since the
platform slopes one inch from the rear of this depression to the
front edge of the gutter. The success of keeping the cow
clean depends largely upon having a platform of proper
length. The length to be used varies from 4 feet 6 inches to
5 feet, depending upon the size of the cows. The former is
the proper length for Jerseys, and the latter for cows of the
size of Holsteins. Some provision should be made to accom-
modate cows of different size, since they vary in any herd with
age. One plan often followed is to make the platform 4
inches longer at one end than at the other, with a gradual
slant between. The cows are then arranged according to
size. Another arrangement having much to recommend it
is an adjustable stanchion so made that it may be set back
3 or 4 inches from the support, or set ahead the same distance
for long cows.

Ties. — There are a great variety of ties in use. The
most objectionable way to tie a cow is to fasten her to a man-
ger where she must back up to lie down. This is bound to
result in filthy animals, since they are compelled to lie in
their droppings. The cow should be so fastened that she
lies down exactly where she stands, or a little forward if pos-
sible, and the platform should be the proper length so the
manure drops in the gutter.

The most common ties in use are various forms of stan-
chions. There is no kind of tie that keeps the cows cleaner
than the rigid stanchion, provided the platform and gutter
are properly made. The rigid stanchion, however, is not
well suited for a tie, as the cow has no freedom of movement

STABLES FOR COWS

311

n

iM
1 1

1! il

y

Pt

a.

C3

0

! i i;

II «

i

— j

!, . ,-/

FIG. 55. — Stall constructed of
iron piping.

and cannot lie in a natural position. Many other forms of
stanchions are in use that are quite satisfactory. One is
hung on pegs at top and bottom, allowing a movement side-
ways. Another is hung on chains at top and bottom, which
gives more freedom. For gen-
eral use these improved forms
of the stanchion find the most
favor. Stanchions may be
made of iron pipe or wood, but
the former is the more sanitary
and more durable, and equally
comfortable for the animal.

The double-post slip chain
tie is equally comfortable for
the animal, but not quite so
convenient for use.

Stanchion or chain ties may be attached to either iron or
wooden framework as supports. The iron is most sanitary,
and has the additional advantage of being more sightly.
An iron pipe partition made of gas pipe, with the bottom set
in the cement floor, is to be recommended.

VENTILATION

An abundance of pure air for animals of all kinds is
scarcely less important than are proper methods of feeding.
It is only within recent years that the full significance of an
abundant supply of oxygen to animal life has been com-
prehended. While there may be some excuse at times for
insufficient or improper feeding of animals, there is none for
failure to supply plenty of air.

Good ventilation for dairy barns is not only necessary

312 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

from the standpoint of the health of the animals, but it is
necessary for the most economical production of milk.
Dairymen are largely indebted to Professor King for infor-
mation on this subject, as well as for the best practical system
of applying this knowledge.

The cow gives off carbon dioxide, moisture, ammonia,
marsh gas, and some other organic matter from the lungs.
A candle will be extinguished if placed in a jar containing
the air exhaled from the cow's lungs. A cow weighing 1000
pounds inhales 224 pounds of air in 24 hours, or about double
the amount by weight of her food and drink. This is at the
rate of 3542 cubic feet per hour. To supply this amount of
air for 20 cows will require a ventilating flue 2 by 2 feet, in
which the air moves at a velocity of 295 feet per minute.
In providing pure air for stables the cubic space per animal
has little significance. The important question is the amount
of fresh air provided.

Forces producing Ventilation. — There are three main
forces that cause movement of air in a stable.

1. The wind pressure against the side of the building,
which tends to force air into the building and out on the
opposite side or upward through the ventilators.

2. The wind in blowing across the top of a ventilating
flue produces an outward suction.

3. The difference in temperature between the air in the
barn and that on the outside. This causes an upward move-
ment in a ventilating shaft by a force equal to the difference
in weight of the air outside and within.

The King System. — This is the system in general use in
modern dairy barns. The main features consist of a large
flue opening near the floor and extending above the roof of

STABLES FOR COWS

313

314 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

the stable for the escape of the air. A series of smaller
openings are arranged on either side for the air to enter.

The object in taking the air from near the floor rather
than at the ceiling is to remove the coldest air and the most
impure. The warmest and the purest air is found at the
ceiling. The ventilating flue should be smooth inside, prac-
tically air-tight, and, for good results, with no turns. The
flue must have ample cross section. If too small, the friction
is sufficient to prevent free movement of the air. In many
cases poor results in using this system are to be credited to a
ventilating flue of too small size. None should be built less
than 2 by 2 feet.

The ventilator flue should have an opening near the ceil-
ing that may be opened when it is desired to increase the
draft, and in warmer weather when there is no reason for
conserving the heat of the stable. This opening should be
regulated with a register.

Entrance for Fresh Air. — Provision must be made for the
entrance of outside air. This is taken in at the ceiling, and
mixes with the warm air. The intakes should extend down-
ward in the wall, with the opening to the outside three feet
or more lower than the opening in the barn. This is to pre-
vent the warm air in the stable from flowing out. These
intakes should be on all sides of the barn, to take advantage
of all wind pressure. They should not be over 4 or 5 by 16
inches in size, and provided with registers to regulate the air
passage.

The King system works only while the stable is closed.
At such time as it is not desirable to close the barn, the air
should be allowed to enter the ventilating flue through the
opening near the ceiling. The King system cannot be ex-

STABLES FOR COWS 315

pected to work in a barn not tightly constructed so the air
finds entrance or exit at other places. Where properly in-
stalled, this system gives excellent results. A barn filled with
animals will show no barn odor in the morning after being
closed over night where this system is used.

Window Ventilation. — Some well-constructed barns de-
pend upon hinged windows for ventilation. These are
usually hinged at the bottom, so the top may be tilted inward
to the desired extent. By careful constant attention this
plan may give fair results. The movement of air in this
case is dependent upon wind pressure and further the warmest
and not the coldest air is removed.

CHAPTER XXIV
HANDLING MANURE; MATERIAL FOR BEDDING

Composition and Value of Manure. — In all countries
where agriculture has been highly developed, the value of
barnyard manure is fully appreciated. It is saved with
great care, and applied to the soil under the best conditions
possible. In purchasing feeds, the probable fertilizing value
is taken into account, as well as the feeding value.

Experiments at the New Jersey and Pennsylvania Ex-
periment stations have shown that on the average per 1000
pounds live weight, the cow excretes 46 pounds of dung
and 27 pounds of urine, a total of approximately 70 pounds
per day, exclusive of bedding. This amounts to over 12
tons per year without bedding, and from 14 to 15 tons with
bedding.

According to Professor Snyder of the Minnesota Experi-
ment Station, barnyard manure gives a return of from $2 to
$ 3 per ton when applied to the soil, the latter amount being
realized when manure is applied to a soil reduced to a low
state of fertility. This value is computed by actual increase
in crops produced in five years' time in tests made by the
Minnesota Experiment Station. At this rate the manure
from a single cow would be worth from $ 25 to $ 30 per year.
This value is practically the same as the estimate made
by the Cornell Experiment Station, based upon the analysis
of barnyard manure as given in the following table : —

316

HANDLING MANURE; MATERIAL FOR BEDDING 317

AMOUNT AND VALUE OF MANURE PRODUCED PER 1000 POUNDS OP
LIVE WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS

AMOUNT PER
DAY

VALUE PER
DAY

VALUE PER
YEAR

Lb.

34.1

Ct.

7.2

$

20.00

67.8

6.7

24.45

83.6

16.7

60.88

74.1

8.0

29.27

Horses

48.8

7.6

27.74

The distribution of the fertilizing elements, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potash, contained in the ration-fed dairy
cows was found by the Pennsylvania Experiment Station to
be as follows : —

NITROGEN

PHOSPHORIC
ACID

POTASH

Per Cent of
Total Excretion

Per Cent of
Total Excretion

Per Cent of
Total Excretion

Dung

31.14
52.33
16.53

75.55
1.42
. 23.03

15.58
74.56
9.86

Milk

Total . ...

100.00

100.00

100.00

Roughly speaking, the feces contained one third of the
nitrogen and three fourths of the phosphoric acid excreted,
while the urine contained one half of the nitrogen and three
fourths of the potash.

It will be seen that the milk contained a total of 16.5 per
cent of the fertilizing value of the food. The remainder of
the plant food under proper conditions finds its way back to

318 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

the soil. If butter or cream is sold, and the skim milk retained
on the farm, practically no fertilizing material is removed
from the farm, since butter fat has no manurial value.

It is a fact often lost sight of in practice that the urine of
animals contains by far the most valuable fertilizing con-
stituents of the excreta. In the investigations of the Penn-
sylvania Experiment Station, to which reference has been
made, it was found that more than one half of the manurial
value of the food and a total of 63 per cent of the manurial
value of the excreta was in the urine. If it is allowed to
run to waste, as is often done, the larger proportion of this
plant food is lost. Practical means of handling and pre-
serving the urine is one of the difficult problems connected
with the management of a dairy barn. Another point that
comes into any general consideration of the subject is the
proper management of the manure and the losses that occur
from leaching and fermentation. The New Jersey Experi-
ment Station found that when solid cow manure was exposed
to ordinary leaching for 109 days, it lost 37.6 per cent of its
nitrogen, 51.9 per cent of its phosphoric acid, and 47.1 per
cent of its potash. Mixed dung and urine lost in the same
time 51 per cent of its nitrogen, 51.1 per cent of its phosphoric
acid, and 61 per cent of its potash. Over one half of the
total value was lost in less than four months' exposure to
ordinary weather. The loss in fertility from one cow by
the leaching of the manure would amount to $ 12.50 per year.
It would add 25 cents per 100 pounds to the cost of milk
from cows producing 5000 pounds per year. These losses,
especially of nitrogen, are partly accounted for by fermenta-
tions which set the ammonia free and make the other con-
stituents more soluble.

HANDLING MANURE; MATERIAL FOR BEDDING 319

Preservation of Manure. — The fermentations in manure
are checked by using plenty of litter to absorb the liquid
manure. A small amount of gypsum may be sprinkled on
the moist manure as a means of helping to fix the ammonia.
The most important things to be done to preserve the
manure are to use sufficient litter for absorbents and where
it is necessary to store the manure some time before appli-
cation to the soil, to keep it compact, moist, and protected
from leaching. In the Eastern States it is a common prac-
tice to use a manure cellar under the barn. The manure is
usually dropped through trap doors from above. Large
doors are arranged so wagons can be backed or driven into
the manure cellar for loading. Land plaster is generally
used to keep down the odors. The manure is hauled out to
the field in the spring or summer. This method preserves
the manure fairly well, especially when it is kept compact.
The chief objection to this plan is its unsanitary features.

Another provision made for protecting manure is an open
shed. In some cases this is in the form of a lean-to along
the side of the barn, and the manure is thrown out of the
windows under this shed. A much better plan is to build
a shed over a shallow pit some distance from the barn, and
haul the manure into it by wheelbarrow or carrier. With
this plan the urine is generally drained into the pit which
contains the manure, a concrete bottom and sides pre-
venting escape into the ground.

There is considerable question whether it pays to provide
a roof for the protection of manure or not. It is believed by
some authorities that if an impervious floor is provided, slop-
ing toward the center or built in the form of a pit with
sides, the rain is beneficial rather than harmful, since

320 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

leaching cannot occur, and the necessary moisture to help
prevent the escape of ammonia is provided. The throwing
of manure out under the eaves of the barn results necessarily
in the loss of much of its value by excessive leaching, and at
the same time it is very objectionable in a sanitary way to
have a large accumulation of manure through which cows
must wade and in which flies will breed. A barnyard can-
not be kept in good condition unless such accumulation of
manure is avoided.

Handling Manure. — One of the most difficult problems
in disposing of manure is handling the urine. As already
pointed out, it is the most valuable part of the manure, but
is often allowed to go to waste. There are two systems in
common use for handling urine. One is an underground
cistern into which the urine goes through suitable drains
from the gutters. This accumulated urine is at intervals
pumped into a tank wagon and distributed over the fields
from a sprinkler, or a portion is pumped over the solid manure
on the spreader before it is taken to the field. The other
plan is to use sufficient bedding to absorb the urine and dis-
tribute it with the dung. Where sufficient bedding can be
had without too much expense, this system is the most
economical of labor, and therefore the most satisfactory.

The method of handling manure which has met with the
greatest favor among dairymen in recent years is loading it
directly from the barn into a manure spreader. The barn is
arranged so the spreader may be driven through the barn
and loaded from the gutters, or an overhead carrier is used,
with the track extending into the yard, so arranged that the
load may be dumped into the spreader.

When a load has accumulated, it is hauled to the field and

HANDLING MANURE ;. MATERIAL FOR BEDDING 321

scattered. One objection to this plan is that in freezing
weather the manure must be unloaded daily to prevent
freezing. At times the ground is soft, so it is not desirable
to drive over it with a load. It often happens that the
ground where it is intended to apply the manure is not
ready for the application. There is also some difference of
opinion regarding the extent to which losses occur from the
washing of recently spread manure when snow melts or
rain falls on frozen ground. Analyses made by the Ohio
Experiment Station1 show that manure handled in the usual
manner by piling in the barnyard lost over one third of its
value by exposure to three months of winter and spring
weather. Manure applied directly to a field from the stall
showed a value of $2.96 per ton measured increase in crops
grown, while manure taken from the yard after three months'
exposure showed a value of $2.15, a loss in value of 27 per
cent.

Taking everything into account, the plan of spreading the
manure directly from the stable is to be recommended, but
it may be impossible or impractical to do this at all times.
The overhead track carrier is one of the conveniences of the
modern barn. The advantages are that the carrier is easily
loaded and moved, and it is possible to haul the manure as
far from the barn as it is wished or to place the spreader on
a lower level and dump into it directly.

Material for Bedding. — It is often a serious problem to
supply the dairy farm with sufficient bedding. So far no
satisfactory arrangement has been provided to do away with
bedding of some kind.

Bedding is used primarily to keep animals clean, and the

1 Bulletin No. 183, Ohio Experiment Station.

T

322

DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

material that will do this most satisfactorily must be counted
the best. Another purpose, and almost as important as the
first, is as an absorbent for the urine. Good material for
bedding should also be itself clean, which means primarily
free from dust.

The following table gives data regarding the absorptive
powers of common bedding material as found by trial by
Doane at the Maryland Experiment Station.

LB. OF BED-

WATER

DING REQUIRED

LB. OF BED-

MATERIAL

ABSORBED
PER POUND OF

TO ABSORB
LIQUID MANURE

DING REQUIRED
TO ABSORB

BEDDING

FROM 1 Cow

FOR 24 HOURS

16 HOURS

2.5

2.8

4.0

Cut wheat straw ....

2.0

3.3

5.0

Uncut wheat straw . . .

2.0

3.3

5.0

Sawdust . . ...

0.8

8.3

12.5

Shavings

2.2

3.0

4.4

As a result of these trials, Doane states that the amount of
the common bedding material needed per day per cow is as
follows : —

Cut wheat straw . 2.9 Ib.

Whole wheat straw 2.3 Ib.

Cut corn stover 3.2 Ib.

Sawdust 11.0 Ib.

Shavings 2.7 Ib.

From a sanitary standpoint sawdust stands first, followed
by shavings. These materials are free from the large num-
ber of bacteria and molds that often accompany straw.
The bedding to be used in any particular locality will de-
pend upon what is available and the comparative cost.

HANDLING MANURE; MATERIAL FOR BEDDING 323

Some objections have been raised to the use of sawdust and
shavings as bedding material. Sawdust makes manure so
light that loss of ammonia and sometimes loss from fire
fanging occurs. Applied in large quantities to the soil, it
may be injurious from the effect of the acids set free, par-
ticularly tannic acid in the case of oak sawdust. The reason-
able use of sawdust on most soils, however, is not injurious,
and may be very beneficial.

CHAPTER XXV
COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

THIS book makes no pretense of giving directions for the
treatment of such accidents and diseases as call for the
services of the competent veterinarian. A brief discussion
is made of the most common ailments of cattle that the cow
owner should undertake to treat without extensive experi-
ence. The discussion of tuberculosis and contagious abor-
tion is in the nature of advice for the owner of dairy stock,
and is not expected to take the place of expert advice by the
veterinarian.

Instruments and Medicine Needed. — Every manager of
a herd of dairy cattle should be prepared for the ordinary
emergencies that are certain to come. If a competent
veterinarian is not readily accessible, it is all the more im-
portant. The following instruments are the most often
needed, and it is advisable to have them on hand : —

Milk fever outfit

2 milk tubes of different sizes

3 teat plugs of different sizes
Trocar

Syringe
Drenching bottle

For those with some experience, a teat bistoury, and possibly
an outfit for making the tuberculin test, should be added.
A liberal amount of a good disinfectant should always be

324

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 325

on hand, as almost constant use will be found for it. For
this purpose some of the common coal tar preparations are
suitable, or crude carbolic acid, which can be prepared in a
2 per cent solution, when applied to the animal's body, or a
5 per cent solution in disinfecting other objects, such as the
floor of the barn or instruments. An abundant supply of
Epsom salts should also be on hand, as occasion for using
them will come often. In most herds entirely too little use
is made of this important medicine. A dose of 1 to 1^
pounds of salts for the grown animal should be the first
treatment in nearly all cases of sickness. In every case
when an animal shows loss of appetite or sickness the cause
of which is not known, a physic should be given at once and
the feed reduced. A second dose after three or four days is
often beneficial. If the appetite of the animal has returned,
the ration can again be increased to the normal.

Drenching a Cow. — The common method of administer-
ing medicine to a cow is to mix with water and give from a
bottle. This is known as a "drench." When giving a
drench, the head of the animal should be elevated by tying
or held by an assistant. The operator stands on the left
side, and grasps the nose with the thumb and fingers in the
nostrils. The bottle used should be adapted for the pur-
pose, having a long, strong neck, such as a wine bottle. The
mouth of the bottle should be inserted in front of the back
teeth with the mouth on the tongue as far back as the middle.
If the animal coughs, the head should be at once lowered to
allow the liquid to escape from the windpipe. If this is not
done, the medicine may pass down into the lungs, and cause
pneumonia. Unless there is some special reason for doing
so, it is not customary to give over 1 to 2 quarts at a time.

326 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

Unless the herdsman is thoroughly informed regarding the
treatment of cattle ailments, he will seldom have occasion
to administer medicine other than Epsom or Glauber salts
except under the direction of a veterinarian.

Tuberculosis. — This insidious disease is of the greatest
importance to dairy cattle owners as well as to milk con-
sumers. Since the discovery by Koch in 1882 that tuber-
culosis is caused by a certain bacteria, our knowledge of the
subject has so broadened that were it possible to apply at
once what is now known regarding the disease, it could be
entirely eradicated within a few years. The well-established
fact that the disease may be communicated from the cow to
the human family through the milk of an affected animal
makes it necessary to give this source of infection the most
careful consideration.

This disease is caused by a specific agent, an organism
too small to be seen by the naked eye, but easily seen under
a powerful microscope. It cannot develop in an animal from
methods of handling or from the surroundings but must be
communicated in some way from one animal to another. It
is not inherited. The germs that cause the disease escape
from the affected animal with slobber from the mouth, with
the dung, and in badly affected animals with the milk.
The disease spreads to the healthy cow mostly from eating
or drinking out of troughs that are infected from the affected
animals. Hogs following tuberculosis cattle are readily
affected from the manure. If a diseased animal is placed in a
healthy herd, other cases are sure to follow soon. It is
believed now by the best authorities that the most dangerous
animal from the standpoint of human health is often the one
that may appear perfectly healthy, but which passes the

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 327

germs of the disease with the manure. From this source
some of the germs may find their way into the milk, making
it possible for the milk to be infected even when no germs
come through the udder.

Tuberculosis in a cow may run its course quickly, result-
ing in the death of the animal, but this seldom occurs. As a
rule, it progresses slowly and the animal may have it for
years without any indication of ill health. All this time the
animal is a menace to the health of the people. The dis-
ease may attack any part of the animal's body, but is most
common, as with persons, in the lungs.

It should be thoroughly understood that it is impossible
to judge from external appearances, except in extreme cases,
whether the animal is affected or not. Neither can any
examination of the milk that can be made be depended
upon as a reliable test of the presence of the disease. For-
tunately we have in the substance known as tuberculin an
almost infallible agent for determining the presence of the
disease even in the smallest degree. Before many years it
will unquestionably be required by law that every cow sup-
plying milk for human food be tested with tuberculin and
found free from tuberculosis, as is now done by a few cities.
Even leaving the question of human health out of considera-
tion, the dairy cow owner should have his animals tested
and keep his herd free from this disease for pecuniary reasons.
The breeder of pure-bred stock who can guarantee his ani-
mals to be free from tuberculosis finds it a valuable recom-
mendation. The breeder in starting a herd should by all
means start with clean animals ; then if every one added to
the herd later be tested, it is an easy matter to keep the
disease out. It is advisable, however, to have the entire

328 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

herd tested once per year to make certain the disease has
not gained access.

The question is often raised as to the accuracy of the
tuberculin test. It has been thoroughly demonstrated that
this method seldom if ever fails in the hands of a person
who understands its use. Authorities on the subject state
that 97 per cent of animals reacting to the test have shown
lesions on diagnosis. The test is made by first taking the
temperature of each animal three or four times at intervals
of two hours. Tuberculin is then injected beneath the skin
with a hypodermic needle. After about 9 hours the tem-
perature reading is again taken, and repeated every two hours
until three or more readings have been made. A dairyman
accustomed to the use of such instruments can conduct the
test himself, if he wishes, after having first assisted some
competent operator to carry out the test. However, it is
always safer to have the work done by a trained veterinarian,
in order that no mistakes may be made and that the test
will be recognized by health officials and by prospective
buyers. When the testing is done by the owner himself, he
should consult with the State Veterinarian or Live Stock
Board that has the matter in hand for his state.

Abortion. — This term is used by cattlemen to indicate
the expulsion of the fetus at any time before completion of
pregnancy. Abortion may be contagious or non-contagious.
The non-contagious cases may occur as the result of injury,
as a fall, or from the kick of a horse, or by being crowded in
a doorway. Poor feed, especially that deficient in protein
or mineral matter, sudden change of feed, severe cases of
indigestion, such as bloating, may also be the cause. It is
also claimed that offensive odors may bring about the same

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 329

result. It is also well known that ergot may cause wide-
spread abortion in cows. This fungus is seen as black, hard,
spurlike growths that protrude from the seeds of grasses
at the time of ripening. Rye grass is especially subject to
ergot, and it is common in blue grass, especially in low wet
places.

When a single case of abortion occurs in a herd, it is to
be attributed to some accidental cause. If a number occur
near together, the cause is occasionally to be looked for in
ergot in the feed. More often it is due to the presence of
the contagious disease.

Contagious Abortion. — This disease causes more loss
financially to the dairyman of the country than any other to
which cattle are subject. Investigations show that this trouble
is brought about by the presence of living germs, in the
genital organs of the cow, which bring about a condition that
causes the premature expulsion of the calf. That it is con-
tagious is shown by the spread through a herd from an
infected animal that has been brought in, and by experi-
mental inoculation. From 50 to 75 per cent of the cows in
a herd usually are affected. The remainder seem to be
naturally immune. The fetus is usually expelled at the
sixth or seventh month. As a rule, no marked disturbance
of the animal's health occurs. In most cases the usual
signs of normal parturition appear, as enlargement of the
udder and vulva. When the cow is already in milk, no
symptoms may be noticed. After having once aborted, a
certain proportion of the cows will abort a second time,
usually carrying the calf a little longer than the first time, and
after this seem to become immune and do not again abort.
Others, as a result of abortion, become sterile or shy breeders.

330 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

The spread of the disease is probably due in most cases
to infection from the male. If one infected cow is brought
into a herd, she may contaminate the male, who in turn in-
fects the other cows. It is also considered possible for the
infection to gain entrance to the genital tract by close con-
tact with infected cows, such as lying upon soiled bedding,
or by the infected excretions being carried from one animal
to another by the nose of a third.

Prevention and Treatment. — Every precaution should
be taken to prevent the introduction of the disease into
the herd. In buying an aged bull or pregnant cows, the
greatest care should be exercised to make certain the dis-
ease is not prevalent in the herd from which the animals are
brought. There is no means of judging from an examina-
tion of the animals whether they carry the disease or not.

If an abortion occurs, the fetus and afterbirth should be
burned or buried. The aborting animal should be isolated,
and the stall where she stood disinfected with a 5 per cent
solution of carbolic acid. The uterus of the animal that has
aborted should be washed out with two gallons or more of
a disinfectant solution, such as a 2 per cent solution of creo-
lin or a permanganate of potash solution made by dissolving
a teaspoonful in 3 gallons of water. This is done by insert-
ing one end of a piece of rubber hose into the womb, in the
outer end of which is placed a funnel. The solution is
poured into the funnel at about blood heat. The tail, vulva,
and rear parts of the animal are also washed with the dis-
infectant. The washing should be repeated in two or three
days, and thereafter once per week as long as any discharge
appears.

It is recommended that two bulls be kept in an aborting

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 331

herd. The heifers that are bred for the first time and have
no chance to be infected with the germs of abortion should be
bred to a bull that is never allowed to serve a cow that has
aborted. In addition to the above, all the cows should
receive hypodermic injections of a 2 per cent solution of
carbolic acid in doses of 25 to 50 cubic centimeters as often
as every two weeks, beginning at about the fourth month of
pregnancy. In case there is special reason for fearing abor-
tion with certain animals, it is recommended that the injec-
tion of carbolic acid is increased until the pupil of the eye
is seen to dilate.

The above recommendations regarding the treatment of
contagious abortion is that taught by the best veterinarians.
It has been followed by many breeders with good success,
while others have not been able to check the progress of
the disease. It is probable that in the latter cases the
treatment was not thorough in some particulars. Halfway
measures are of no value in a case of this kind.

Where only one herd bull is used in a herd when signs of
abortion occurs, or in case the bull is a valuable animal and
has been exposed to abortion, care should be taken to dis-
infect the sheath before and after serving any of the cows
in the herd. This can best be done by irrigating the sheath
with any of the solutions mentioned above by using a large
syringe. It is also recommended to give the bull hypo-
dermic injections of carbolic acid and keep him isolated
from the herd.

Udder Troubles. — One of the most common troubles
with dairy cows, especially among highly developed milk pro-
ducers, is inflammation of the udder. It varies in severity
from a mild case, when the milk is slightly stringy for a few

332 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

days or a slight swelling is found in the udder, to severe
cases where the udder becomes so swollen that no milk can
be drawn, and which may end with the permanent loss of the
udder.

Congestion of the Udder. — With heavy milkers as a rule
the udder is enlarged and more or less hot and tender just
after calving. This swelling may extend forward to some
extent on the abdomen. This condition is to be expected,
and need not cause any anxiety. It is more pronounced when
the animal has been well fed and is in good flesh. When this
condition exists, the animal should not receive much grain
until the udder softens. The ration should be laxative in
nature, and of a light character. Bran is especially adapted
for feeding at this time. The milk should be drawn several
times during the day, followed by active rubbing or kneading
of the udder. The cow should be kept from exposure to cold
weather and to cold drafts, and off cold, wet floors, until the
swelling leaves the udder.

Inflammation of the Udder. — This common trouble is also
known as mammitis or as garget. It varies greatly in severity.
Many times the symptoms observed are swellings in the udder
that do not even interfere with the milk secretion beyond
causing a tenderness of the udder for a few days. Or the milk
may be lumpy and full of threads, with no noticeable hardness
in the udder. The milker should observe the condition of
every cow carefully when milking, and report any abnormal
condition noticed at once to the herdsman or take such action
as seems necessary. Prompt action is always advisable, lest
the conditions become severe. Such light attacks probably
come from a variety of causes. It is generally believed that
certain bacteria of the streptococcus group are responsible

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 333

for udder troubles, but if the animal is in good condition it will
resist such an attack. Any condition of the animal that less-
ens the power of resistance makes it possible for the trouble to
start. Such a condition of the animal may be brought about
by exposure to severe weather, lying with the udder on a cold
floor, from injury to the udder by bruises, or by improper or
too heavy grain feeding. In many cases, however, no special
cause can be assigned. Mild cases, as above described, usually
respond to treatment if taken in time. The grain ration
should always be reduced to one third the usual amount or
less at once when any inflammation appears, and kept there
until the condition disappears. A physic should also be
given at once, and care taken not to expose the cow to cold
weather or cold drafts. An ounce of saltpeter per day for two
or three days is generally beneficial after the purgative has
begun to work. The cow should be milked with great gentle-
ness, and preferably three or four times per day. If the udder
is extremely sensitive, a milking tube should be used for a few
days.

Severe Cases of Inflammation. — Occasionally severe
attacks come on, and usually suddenly. These most often
affect heavy milkers. The first symptom is a shivering of the
animal, with cold ears and horns, followed in a short time by a
fever. One or more quarters of the udder swell and become
very hard, which is most often the first symptom seen, while
the whole gland is decidedly hot and tender, and no milk can
be drawn. Usually a small amount of yellowish watery fluid
containing clots of casein replaces the milk. If the inflamma-
tion cannot be reduced within a short time, that quarter of the
udder will not secrete any milk during that milking period,
and perhaps will be permanently lost. In some cases the

i

334 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

quarter will again secrete milk. In others a fibrous mass may
develop following such an attack, or an abscess may result,
which fills the udder with pus and finally discharges either
through the teat or through an opening in the side of the
udder.

Treatment of such severe cases must be prompt and thorough,
or permanent injury, as described, will result. The cow suffers
great pain from the weight of the udder. A special udder
support should be on hand, or a sheet passed around the body
to support the weight of the udder. Under this support next
to the udder may be packed soft rags, which are kept as hot
as the animal will endure by pouring on hot water every few
minutes for an hour or two. At the end of this time the udder
may be dried and thoroughly rubbed and kneaded for some
time. At this stage an application of antiphlogistine can be
made with advantage. This material is warmed until soft by
placing the can in warm water. It is then applied in a layer
about one fourth inch thick, with the teats protruding so the
milk may be drawn. A layer of cotton is then applied over
the antiphlogistine, and the udder support put in place. In
about twenty-four hours the material loosens and may be re-
moved. If the inflammation is still present, a second applica-
tion should be made.

If it is impossible to apply antiphlogistine, the udder may
be packed in ice, which is replenished as fast as it melts and
allowed to remain several hours. In the beginning of any
treatment for a severe attack of inflammation of the udder a
drench should be given containing 1 to 1^ pounds of Epsom
salts. One ounce of saltpeter (potassium nitrate) is also
given to stimulate the action of the kidneys, and may be con-
tinued for several days.

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 335

Lice. — During the winter season especially, cattle are
often affected with lice. Calves and young cattle are most
often affected, but older cattle are not exempt, and when in an
unthrifty condition may suffer badly from this pest. There
are three kinds of lice that affect cattle. The species gen-
erally known as the blue louse, which sucks the blood, is the
most common and most injurious. This species is found most
numerous upon the neck and shoulders. The eggs are at-
tached to the hair, and are known as nits. The red louse,
which is less common, may be found on any part of the body,
but most numerous on the neck and at the root of the tail.

The presence of lice may be suspected from the rubbing of
the neck and shoulders on trees, posts, etc., and when badly
infected the hair usually begins to come out in spots. Several
substances may be used to kill the lice. The several coal tar
dips and compounds on the market may be employed with
success. The most satisfactory treatment will be found to be
the use of kerosene emulsion. To make this dissolve one half
pound of hard soap in one gallon of boiling soft water. As
soon as the soap is dissolved, add two gallons of kerosene, mix
by pumping with a spray pump or by other means until a
thick creamy emulsion is formed from which the oil does not
readily separate. Before use add this mixture to 19 gallons
of water. The emulsion may be applied with a spray pump,
or with a brush, wetting the entire animal thoroughly.

Pink Eye. — This is a contagious inflammation of the eyes,
common in many herds. It usually occurs during the latter
part of the summer. It is known by a discharge from the eyes,
accompanied by an intense inflammation of the mucous mem-
brane. The eyelids swell, and the eye becomes opaque.
The eyes are kept shut, and the animal is often blind for several

336 DAIRY CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION

days. In some cases the animal soon recovers without injury,
while in others loss of the eyesight may result if not properly
treated.

The affected animal should be kept in a dark, cool stable,
and supplied with easily digested food and plenty of water.
The eyes should be washed twice daily at least with a strong
solution of boracic acid (1 dram dissolved in 4 ounces of water).
This wash should be applied directly to the eyeballs, and is
conveniently done by the use of a syringe. The animal will
usually recover within a few days.

Foot Rot. — This is the name applied to a common inflam-
mation that occurs between the toes and may extend above
the hoof. It is attributed to the irritation of stable manure,
or some foreign substance such as a stone or cinder becoming
wedged between the toes. It commonly affects sheep and
cattle.

Animals running in stony lots or pastures become affected
with foot rot quite often. It occurs, however, at times un-
der conditions that leave no doubt that it is -contagious. It is
recognized by a limping gait and a swelling above and between
the claws. The odor of the affected part is very offensive.
If neglected, a serious condition may develop; but if treat-
ment is given during the early stages, it is easily remedied.
The most simple method of treatment is to clean the affected
parts by means of passing a small rope between the claws and
drawing it back and forth in a sawlike motion, and then ap-
plying some good disinfectant to the affected parts. Sev-
eral applications of some of the coal tar disinfectants is usu-
ally sufficient to heal it up. These are best applied in their
pure form. A solution of carbolic acid, 1 ounce to a pint, of
water or a saturated solution of blue vitriol (copper sulf ate) will

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 337

also give good results. In advanced cases where the foot has
swelled to any extent the application of fiaxseed poultice is to
be recommended.

Bloat. — This trouble comes from the formation of an ex-
cessive amount of gas in the paunch. It often results from
pasturing on clover, but may occur with any kind of feeding.
It is known by the excessive swelling of the left flank. If relief

is not obtained in time, the animal >.____— \

dies from suffocation due to the ' —^ /

great pressure on the lungs. In FlG- 57. — Trocar used for
• • • bloat.

mild cases driving the animal at a

rapid gait for some distance may be sufficient. Cold water
thrown in quantities upon the cow's sides may reduce the
pressure. In very severe cases the gas must be removed
without delay. This is best done by the use of a trocar.
In using this instrument a spot is selected equally distant
from the last rib, the hip bone, and the backbone. The
skin is cut for about an inch, then the trocar is thrust into
the paunch. The sheath of the trocar is allowed to remain in
the opening as long as any gas escapes, which may be several
hours. It is generally advisable to give a dose of 1 to 1£
pounds of salts after a case of bloating.

INDEX

Abortion, guarding against in buy-
ing, 114; cause of, 328; treat-
ment for, 330.

Ash in feeds, 275.

Ayrshire, Advanced Register for, 69 ;
birth weight of calves, 174 ; char-
acteristics of, 66, 68 ; origin of, 63 ;
records of, 68, 70 ; scale of points
for, 70, 72 ; types of, 67.

Barns, arrangement of cattle in, 305 ;
basement type of, 296 ; covered
yard system of, 298 ; floors for,
300; gutters for, 306; location
of, 299 ; lighting of, 299 ; mangers
for, 308 ; one story or shed, 297 ;
types of, 295 ; round type, 298.

Bedding, material for, 321 ; amount
required of, 322 ; sawdust and
shaving for, 322.

Beet pulp, composition of, 278 ; use
as feed, 291.

Bistoury or teat slitter, 225.

Bloat, 337.

Bos primigenius, 11, 12.

Bos sondaicus, 10.

Bran, composition of, 278 ; char-
acteristics as a feed, 289.

Breeding registered herds, 112.

Breeds, classification of, 14 ; crossing
of, 113; origin of, 12.

Brewers' grains, composition of, 278 ;
use as feed, 291.

Brown Swiss Cattle, characteristics
of, 76, 78 ; conditions in native
home of, 75 ; origin of, 74 ; records
of, 78, 79.

Bull, age for service, 169 ; age to
select, 167 ; dehorning of, 172 ;
feed and management of, 168-
173; results at University of

Missouri, 155 ; selection of, 154,
168 ; influence of age of dam
upon, 168 ; variation in trans-
mission of dairy qualities by, 156,
161 ; stalls and shed for, 170.

Calves, calf raising, 174 ; amount of
milk to feed, 182 ; birth weights
of, 174 ; cholera in, 198 ; feed
required to raise, 179, 180 ; grain
for, 180, 185 ; hay for, 186 ; milk
substitutes for, 192 ; prepared
meals for, 194 ; navel infection in,
198 ; supplements to skim milk,
184 ; temperature of milk for, 183 ;
scours in, 197, 198; spring vs.
f all" ~ calvesTTg9T ties for, 196;
veal feeding for, 199 ; whey as feed
for, 193.

Cattle, Dairy, classification of, 16 ;
origin of, 9 ; marking, 211 ; pro-
tecting from flies, 214.

Cement floors, 304.

Channel Island breeds. See Jersey
and Guernsey.

Community breeding, 109.

Corn, composition of, 278 ; char-
acteristics of, 288 ; for growing
animals, 207; stover, 288.

Cottonseed meal, composition of,
278 ; characteristics as feed, 290.

Covered Yard System of housing,
298.

Cow census, summary of, 109.

Cows, Dairy, age as influencing yield
of milk, 148 ; age and per cent of
fat, 151 ; comparison with steer in
economy of production, 5 ; condi-
tion at calving as influencing milk
secretion, 270 ; fat content influ-
enced by condition at calving, 37 ;

339

340

INDEX

care at calving time^ 232; after
calving," 235; drying up, 229;
developing long milking period,
233 ; human food produced by, 6 ;
kicking, 227 ; management when
dry, 230; marking, 211; number
of, in United States, 2 ; selection
of, 116, 132; results from Illinois
Experiment Station, 119; results
from Kansas Experiment Station,
120 ; results from Southern States,
122 ; results from Storrs Experi-
ment Station, 123 ; results from
Iowa Experiment Station, 124;
retention of after-birth in, 234 ; self-
sucking, treatment for, 228 ; selec-
tion by type, 21, 132 ; ties for, 310 ;
cause of variation in production,
117, 126; investigation at Missouri
Experiment Station, 127.

Cow Test Association in Denmark,
146 ; in America, 148.

Crude fiber, 275.

Dairy farming, relation to fertility
of the soil, 2 ; high-priced lands
and, 5 ; advantages of, 2-8.

Dairy herd, starting a, 110; keep-
ing free from disease, 114.

Dairy type, 17, 26.

Dehorning, advantages of, 210 ;
dehorning bulls, 172 ; use of caustic
potash on calves, 211.

Devons, 105.

Disease, prevention of, in starting
a herd, 114.

Diseases of cattle, bloat, 337 ; con-
tagious abortion, 329 ; congestion
or inflammation of the udder, 331 ;
treatment for, 332; drenching a
cow, 325 ; foot rot, 336 ; pink eye,
335; tuberculosis, 326; garget,
331 ; instruments and medicines
needed for, 324.

Drying up a cow, should it be done,
229; methods of, 229.

Dual-purpose cattle, definition of,
87; adaptations of, 88, 90.

Dutch Belted, characteristics of, 83 ;
origin of, 81.

Ether extract, 276.

Feeding, amount to feed, 260 ; bal-
anced rations, 267, 269 ; neces-
sity for feeding as individuals, 265 ;
overfeeding and how recognized,
263, 264; rules for amount to
feed, 267 ; relation to live weight,
264 ; succulent feeds, 268 ; under-
feeding and how detected, 261,
264.

Feeding Standard, Wolff's, 277;
Armsby's, 280.

Feeding stuffs, composition of, 274,
278 ; fertilizing constituents of
feeds, 3.

Feeds, constituents of, 274 ; fer-
tilizing value of, 3 ; table of com-
position, 278.

Flies, protection from, 214 ; species
of, on cattle, 215.

Floor, material for barn, 300.

Foot Rot, 336.

French-Canadian Cattle, 83.

Gluten Feed, composition of, 278;
characteristics as feed, 290.

Granitoid for barn floor, 304.

Guernsey cattle, Advanced Register
for, 59 ; conditions in native home
of, 56 ; form and characteristics
of, 57, 58 ; origin of, 55 ; records
of, 58, 60; scale of points for, 61.

Gutters for barns, 306.

Hay, composition of various kinds,
278 ; characteristics of legume hay
as feed, 288 ; for calves, 186.

Heifers, age at first bulling, 209 ;
age to breed, 204 ; corn in ration
for, 207 ; development of the dairy,
203; milking the, 218; factors
influencing the size of, 208 ; in-
fluence of overfeeding when
young, 206.

Holsteins, Advanced Register for,
35 ; characteristics of, 30 ; families
of, 35 ; origin of, 27 ; records of,
33, 38 ; scale of points for, 38, 39 ;
seven-day records, 37.

INDEX

341

Jersey Cattle, characteristics of, 46,
49 ; conditions in native home of,
43 ; families of, 52 ; importations
of, 45 ; origin of, 42 : records,
49, 53; Register of Merit for, 51,
52 ; scale of points for, 54 ; regis-
tration on Jersey Island, 44 ;
types of, 47, 48.

Jerseys, Polled, 84.

Kerry Cattle, 85.

Lice on cattle, 335.
Linseed meal, composition, 278 ;
characteristics as feed, 290.

Maintenance ration, Armsby's Stand-
ard, 280.

Mangers for barns, 308.

Manure, amount voided, 4, 316 ;
composition from different animals,
317 ; distribution of fertilizing
constituents in, 317 ; handling
of, 320; preservation of, 319;
value of, 4, 316.

Marking systems for cattle, 211.

Milk, cause of secretion, 130 ; bitter,
227; bloody, 226; fat content
influenced by condition of cow, 37 ;
importance of rich, 133 ; skim
milk, composition of, 178 ; yield
and richness as influenced by age
of cow, 148.

Milk fever, air treatment for, 236;
apparatus for treating, 237; how
recognized, 236.

Milking, before calving, 233 ; influ-
ence of period between milktngs,
221 ; Hegelund manipulation in,
222 ; hard-milking cows, treat-
ment for, 224; methods of, 219;
the heifer, 218.

Milking machine, 221.

Milk sheets, 138.

Milk solids, amount produced by
cow in year, 6, 7 ; per cent in
different breeds, 33, 49, 58, 68,
95, 101.

Milk tubes, 221, 225.

Milk veins, 23.

Milk wells, 23.

Molasses feeds, use of, 291.

Nitrogen free extract, 275.

Oat and oat products, composition
of, 278 ; characteristics as a feed,
289.

Pasture, turning on in spring, 254 ;

feeding grain on, 255 ; provision

for periods of short, 257.
Pink eye, 335.
Polled Durham Cattle, 104.
Polled Jersey Cattle, 84.
Protein, 275.

Rations, calculation of, 274, 280;
palatability of, 284 ; order of
feeding, 284 ; for high-producing
cows, 285.

Rations, suitable for feeding, 271 ;
calculation of, 280.

Records, summary of Experiment
Station records, 108 ; form for
daily, 138 ; for yearly, 143 ;
methods of keeping, 136-146.

Red Polled Cattle, 97; characteris-
tics, 100 ; origin of, 98 ; records
for, 101, 102 ; score card for, 102.

Salt, amount needed, 247 ; necessity
for, 246.

Sampling milk for testing, 140.

Score Card, 26; Ayrshire, 70;
Guernsey, 61 ; Holstein, 38 ; Jer-
sey, 54; Red Polled, 102.

Selection of cows, 116 ; by type, 21 ;
importance of rich milk in, 133 ;
by test, 133.

Self-sucking cows, 228.

Shorthorns, characteristics of, 94 ;
dairy records of, 95 ; in England,
96 ; origin of, 92.

Silage, composition of, 278 ; for
summer feeding, 259 ; value of, in
ration, 268 ; characteristics as a
feed, 288.

Soiling system, advantages of, 248 ;
crops for soiling, 252 ; increased

342

INDEX

returns from, 250; objections to
the soiling, 252.

Teats, chapped, 226 ; stoppage of,

221 ; leaking, 226.
Teat slitter or bistoury, 225.
Test Associations, 146.
Timothy hay, composition of, 278 ;

characteristics as a feed, 287.
Tuberculin Test, 388, 114.
Tuberculosis, 326.

Udder, 24; defective udders, 25;

good types of, 25 ; importance of,

24.
Udder troubles, garget or inflamma-

tion, 332; bloody milk, 226;
chapped teats, 226 ; instruments
for treating, 225, 324; leaking
teats, 226 ; warts on teats, 227.

Veal, 199 ; age requirements for,
200 ; feeding for, 200 ; production
in Europe, 202.

Ventilation, 311; forces causing
ventilation, 312 ; King System,
312 ; necessity for ventilation, 311 ;
window, 315.

Warts, on teats, 227.
Water, amount required for cows,
241 ; warming water for, 244.

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