. FAIA aie Mey iis wait oes 4 4
Horseshoeing ign fa 5 Ba ae 15
PeNGH- SOPVICO 6 soe wa eh 10
OSS RSL RMS DR EOE En ca 38
CHILL Dis CAI ai SR Pa a ee ea a 8 8
Threshing . . ane 10 10
Fuel for threshing and silo filing oy 5 5)
Insurance . . : eee 10 10
CESS SS a Dil te aa ea 66 66
$ 634 $ 312
Receipts less expenses . . Perot Seo $1329
Interest on tenant’s capital at 5% Or ant ape. GO
Tenant’s laborincome . . oh. | L060
Landlord’s per cent on investment 8.1
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
1. What are the usual systems of renting in your region?
2. Do the systems of rental encourage the keeping of stock?
Do tenant farms have as much stock as farms operated by owners?
3. Make a list of all the persons you can find who have re-
cently changed from hired man to tenant. On the average how
many years did they spend as hired men?
4. Make a list of as many persons as possible who have changed
from tenant to owner in the past few years. On the average how
many years have they been tenants?
5. Write a lease that seems to you to be fair to both parties and
that gives a reasonable consideration to maintenance of the fertility
of the land.
COLLATERAL READING |
Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 321-329.
Cyclopedia of Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. IV, pp. 170-185.
Farm Leases in Iowa, pees Agricultural Experiment Station,
Bulletin 159.
CHAPTER 12
COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF
MARKETING
G. F. WARREN
Cost oF PRODUCTION
217. Cost of Producing Milk. Reliable figures on the cost
of keeping cows are available for two regions that repre-
sent decidedly different dairy conditions.
Delaware County, near New York City, is a hilly region
where the pasture season is short. Practically all grain is
purchased. Because of the nearness to large cities, hay is
very high in price. In this county the average cost per cattle
unit for over six thousand cows was $99. The year whose
records are here quoted was one of unusually high feed prices
even for the region. In the following year the cost was $88.
-All the costs of keeping the cows and of the calves raised
were charged directly to the cows, raising calves being one
means of offsetting depreciation on cows. How near these
two balance in this region is shown by the fact that the re-
turns from cattle and hides sold were only $1 per cow above
the amounts spent for cattle purchased. This region is fairly
typical for New England and for hilly regions in other states
near the large eastern cities.
Rice County, Minnesota, represents a region of very low-
priced feed. The figures were obtained several years ago
when feed was cheaper than it is to-day. Hay is worth less
246
COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 247
than one-third as much as in regions like Delaware County,
near New York City. Because of the very low price of feed,
the average cost of keeping a cow was only $60.
TABLE 28. — Cost or Propucine MILK ;
eens Rice Co.?
6422 Cows Minn.
Per Cattle Unit Per Cow
Quantities
eoaties fain bod 2 i et ..5) wt ea) Sf 1662 864
Hours human labor ioe ite Pet 130 133
Pounds milk produced percow . . .| 4514 5252
Pounds butter-fat percow ... . 208 188
Costs
1S RE SSS RE et a a $66.60 $27.50
2 ELL TN eg GaSe oR SR oe Bie Se nent, ae a 45 ‘
Buildings . . Basie ust ae 4.41 2.46
Dairy equipment . MGT LAL: Nesta tare 41 08
ICUSTRS © 2 7@ Dg aienah aah tes ce | aaa 2.94 2.300
PPI LAGE te Vo hi a eh nk Oo hs 18.26
eRe LOOP st A ks eee ea ake, .20 18.66
Perrine “HAT OSS eS es ee eh eS 5.01
MMCTISGN OSesrh a ecte. pater cae ot F<. > 2. ck 3 1.98
IME ORION Hie OLN tS, 3 3.19
Miscellaneous. . aya 91 3.28
Less cattle increase and net sales bebe, .92
CRANE COE D1, 02. tot al hae ee te hee GS $98.57 $60.00
It will be observed that the costs other than feed are al-
most exactly the same in the two regions. The average
costs other than feed for keeping cows under farm conditions
vary widely on different farms, but in the great majority of
cases for grade herds are between $30 and $40 per cow. In
1 Report of the Proceedings of the American Farm Management Asso-
ciation, November, 1913.
2 Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 124.
3 This item included elsewhere. 4 Charge for this item not given.
248
DAIRY FARMING
pure-bred herds the costs are usually much more.
feed, labor is the most important cost.
Next to
The importance of
having the farm and buildings so arranged as to facilitate
work is at once apparent.
TaBLE 29. — Cost or Propucinc MiLtkK on New York Farms!
Quantities
Number herds
Number cows i
Number cows per herd.
Number cattle units per
herd . bait
Average value of cows
Pounds milk per cow
Value milk per cow ;
Pounds grain per cattle
Tey eee
Pounds dry “forage per
eattle unit .
Pounds silage per ‘cattle
MOG. Se
Hours man
cattle unit
Costs per cattle unit
Grain
Dry forage
Silage, ete.
Pasture
Bedding Saath Dae
Man ‘labo? > 4 Sao oot
Horse labor .
Equipment labor
Interest :
Buildings .
Breeding fees
Veterinary and medicine
‘Miscellaneous
labor: per
GRADE HERDS
1913
17
297.5
17.5
23.9
$71.10
6185
$99.46
1551
3028
6554
116
$22.71
17.76
12.90
4.96
2.22
19.26
2.64
91
3.09
2.81
.003
20.
2.13
1914
8
189.6
23.7
30.9
$70.31
5584
$86.42
1479
2480
5540
100
$18.99
12.90
11.74
4.43
1.33
16.63
3.77
6
2.95
2.04
06
.09
1.95
PURE-BRED HERDS
1913
5
110.5
22.1
32.8
$215.90
7000
$107.70
2339
3216
6791
161
$34.18
23.00
14.33
4.52
2.59
27.86
3.22
= £4
11.21
2.34
8.21,
05
6.92
1914
$105.10
2295
3200
8980
183
$34.24
16.88
17.47
4.15
2.70
30.78
2.31
a
15.90
3.27
1.76
.O9
10.16
1 New York State Department of Agriculture, Circular 130, p. 82.
COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 249
TaBLe 29.— Cost or Propucinc Mik on New York Farms —
Continued
GRADE HeErRDS ; PURE-BRED HERDS
1913 1914 1913 1914
Summary
MO aida ra e'g Cee a le POS.3S $48.06 | $76.03 | $72.74
aR aon 15.) oe k's 19.26 16.63 27.86 30.78
iL Ce a on esi 14.46 13.25 35.97 37.48
Total $92.05 $77.94 | $139.86 | $141.00
Returns per cattle unit
PUSAN yt eric Fe en) a Lh Rae I $66.24 | $72.61 | $61.73
Increase and net sales. . 18.02 is.o¢ 87.01 90.47
He C11 hae AR AO a a A 10.59 7.87 10.11 10.12
Miscellaneous ..... .39 .06 1.79 1.95
Total $101.81 $87.54 | $171.52 | $164.27
Profit per cattle unit . . . $9.76 $9.60 | $31.66 | $23.27
From these costs the value of the manure should be de-
ducted to find the returns that the average farmer would
have to get in order to make a profit on cows. For Rice
County the value of the calf would also have to be deducted.
This value is included in the Delaware County figures.
Accurate results of cost accounts on a number of New York
farms including 673 cows are given in Table 29. These
farms were not especially selected but are somewhat larger
and better managed than the average farm. Most of them
were located in parts of the state where feed is somewhat
cheaper than in Delaware County. The accounts are with
the entire dairy herd considered as a unit.
For the grade herds there is a surprisingly close agree-
ment with Table 28 as to costs other than feed. The pure-
bred herds cost more in every way, but the returns are more
1 Notice that this is total milk divided by the number of cattle units.
The value of the milk per cow is given above.
250 DAIRY FARMING
than enough to cover the greater cost. The pure-bred herds
on the average pay best. ea
218. Cost of Raising Heifers. The cost of raising heifers
ona Wisconsin farm that raised about twenty a year was kept
for five years. The food costs to raise a heifer to two years of
age varied from $39 to $42. The total costs varied from $60
to $65 in different years. The average cost of raising one
group of about twenty heifers is given in Table 30. To these
costs the value of the heifer at birth should be added and the
value of the manure produced in the barn subtracted. Of
course, the exact figures should not be expected to apply to
another farm, but the comparative costs are worth studying.
TABLE 30. — AVERAGE Cost oF RAISING JERSEY HEIFERS TO Two
Years OLp oN A WISCONSIN Farm }
Pages | Seconp Year | Toran 2 YEARS
Quantities used
Whole milk: db. 3. 342 342
Skmn-patte: Ths Pata 3165 3165
Grain Abi 2-1. ee ei ee ee 547 547
Siaee, [bse aes were 353 3250 3603
Mixed. War, die \Sscer ven es 857 1120 1977
Cora:staver,: lbs. 7 708 & 672 672
Days pashures lA ho 123 171 294
Hours man labor : . . 40 23 63
Costs
Weed cake ee $24.58 $16.11 $40.69
Bedding i040 Pee 1.00 2.00 3.00
Labor 2 “os ate eater a 5.14 2.86 | 8.00
fnterdst: 3 2a eee eee (eg Bites 3.65
Buildings eee tay! 5 2 Loy 81 2.38
Kouipment:')" sera R939) ; .0O
Loss by discarding . . A2 42
Miscellaneous ..... 1.99 1.38 3.08
Total $35.95 | $26.11 $62.06
1U. 8S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 49.
COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 251
The quantities of feed used in growing heifers at the Ohio
Experiment Station and estimated costs are given in Tables
Fig. 77. — The heifers for which the costs of production are here
given in Table 30.
31 and 32. These heifers were fed a little more whole milk
and were fed over twice as much grain as the ones men-
tioned above. The costs were therefore higher.! :
The costs other than feed vary from $21 to $28 in the dif-
ferent results here quoted. The feed costs vary from $41 to
$58. In the States east of Ohio feed is higher in price, so that
this cost is likely to be more. In some irrigated regions where
alfalfa hay is very cheap, the feed cost may be lower.
Where skim-milk is not available the feed cost is somewhat
higher, but need not be prohibitive, as is shown on pages 116
to 118.
1 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 289.
252 DAIRY FARMING
TaBLE 31.— Cost or RaisinG 29 JERSEY HEIFERS AT THE OHIO
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Average weights; at birth 55 lb.; at one year 472 lb.; at 2 years
758 lb.
RaIsING TO
i eres SEcOND YEAR | ToTat 2 YEARS
Quantities used
Whole mille: Ib. o222 SS. 469 469
Skim-milk, Ib. . . . . 2918 87 3005
Rcpretd nn ERTS Fine eee Gare 564 — 785 1349
Nae. ADs ecm eee ae 444 2426 2870
gE ryt | Rana Dine Pe ar bat _767 1038 1805
SiS VGR 1 ate 232 ops ; 37 254 291
Days pasture: of ©. ~ sic 118 159 277
Costs
Magee 350 Sook Sex eee” Ss $27.39 S212 $54.51
Other costs estimated . 12.79 14.89 27.68 .%
Total $40.18 $42.01 $82.19
TaBLE 32.—Cost or Ratsinc 22 HoustTEIn HEIFERS AT THE
Oun10 EXPERIMENT STATION.
Average weights ; at birth 82 lb.; at 1 year 571 lb.; at 2 years —
962 lb. -
RAISING TO
1 Year Oxrp Seconp YEAR | ToraL 2 YEARS
Quantities used | : |
Whole milk,‘ Ibs. 3.2628 445 445
Slim-milk, Th. fais 2661 . 174 ys25 4;
Grain, Ibs. fe eae 647 870 1517
Silage, ibs c- ts eee ee 656 2247 2903 ©
aay: Vb: 35.7 ve ee ee 796. 1419 F215
Stover; Ibo es ee 11 232 243
Days pasture 754s 121 151 272
Costs :
Meee 25° 8 tae cae $28.57 $29.55 — $58.12
Other costs estimated . 12.79 14.89 27.68
Total $41.36 $44.44 $85.80
COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 258
MARKETING DartrRy PRopuctTs
219. Ways of Marketing. The milk supply in many small
towns and cities is retailed by dairymen who produce part
or all of the milk that they sell. There are some oppor-
tunities for retailing milk in regions where dairying is not a
general industry. Such regions are likely to have beef or
dual-purpose cattle, and the farmers are not likely to know
how to care for a dairy animal. One who has good cows and
who knows how to care for them often has a good opportu-
nity in such a town. Every town that is near to farm land
offers an opportunity for some retail dairyman. Some-
times there are too many in the business so that the business
will not pay for the time spent, but retailing frequently offers
a good chance for an energetic man.
_ Many farmers make butter to retail in a near-by town or
to be shipped by parcel post. The prices received are some-
times enough to make this a good method of selling.
The great majority of dairymen have to sell on a general
market at prices fixed by the purchaser. Sometimes the
conditions are such that the selling part of the business calls
for little thought, but often there are some points to study.
Coéperation in-hauling milk is often a great saving of
time. | 3
If the price of milk varies with the fat content, the farmer
should be able to estimate which is the best kind of milk to
produce. If he has more than one market, he should be able
to make similar estimates. In regions where market milk
sells for so much that one cannot afford to sell the product in
any other way, one often sees farmers who persist in selling
butter-fat or butter long after this has ceased to be the best
practice. } |
254 DAIRY FARMING
220. Value of Skim-milk in Cities. When milk is sold to
the creamery, the fat basis is, of course, the proper basis of
payment. Argument is often made that payment for market
milk should be on the same basis. The public is often ac-
cused of ignorance because it refuses to pay for milk in pro-
portion to the fat contained.
For human food, protein is probably the most important
constituent of milk. How much the cities are willing to
pay for skim-milk is shown by the high price that they are
willing to pay for milk when they could get the same butter-
fat in cream at much less cost. If the other constituents
were in proportion to the fat, then the percentage of fat
would be in proportion to the value as human food, but
the richness in protein does not increase so rapidly as
the fat.
Common retail prices in New York City are 9 cents for
milk, 40 cents per quart for 23 per cent cream, and 38 cents
per pound for butter.t!. On the average, milk contains about
3.7 per cent fat. At these prices the butter-fat costs
about $1.13 per pound in milk, 82 cents in .cream, and 44
cents in butter.
Evidently, milk is not purchased merely for its butter-fat,
else butter-fat in cream would sell at the same price that it
does in milk. The value that the public places on fat, as
measured by the price of cream, shows that about 27 per cent
of the amount paid for milk is paid for food that is contained
in the skim-milk. Stated in another way, if the value of the
fat is measured by the price of cream, then the fat in a quart
of milk is worth 6.5 cents, and the skim-milk sells for 2.5
cents. Or, if the fat in milk is considered to have the same
1 Prices furnished by the Borden Company and verified from several
other sources.
COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 255
value as the fat in butter, then the fat in a quart of milk is
worth 3.5 cents, and the skim-milk sells for 5.5 cents.
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
1. For each of the regions given in Tables 28 and 29 find the feed
cost and all other costs and the per cent that the feed cost is of the
total cost. Compare the feed costs in the different regions.
2. At the prices of feeds in this region, find the approximate
value of the feed required to feed a cow, as given in Table 28.
3. What per cent is the feed of the total cost of raising heifers,
as given in Table 30.
4. At prices of feed and milk in this region, find the approxi-
mate value of the feed used to raise a heifer, as given in Table 30.
5. Using the weights given on page 298, how many pounds are
there in one gallon of milk? In one gallon of 35 per cent cream?
How many quarts in 100 pounds of milk? In 100 pounds of 20 per
cent cream ?
6. In what proportion tal milk testing 3.2 per cent fat and
milk testing 4.5 per cent fat be mixed to make milk testing 4 per
cent ?
7. Using figures from page 298, how much dry eters is there in
40 quarts of skim-milk? In 100 pounds?
8. Some animal food is necessary for good success with hens.
Meat scrap is often purchased for this purpose at about $3 per
hundred pounds. It is also fed to hogs. It contains about 90 per
cent dry matter, but the dry matter is not so valuable as that in
skim-milk. If the dry matter in skim-milk is worth the same as
that in meat scrap, what would 100 pounds of skim-milk be worth?
What would it be worth per quart?
9. A farmer is offered 30 cents a pound for butter-fat, or $1.30
per hundred for whole milk. His average test is 3.8 per cent.
Which is the higher price? Would the skim-milk be worth the dif-
ference as feed for hogs or poultry ?
10. What would be received for 100 pounds of 4 per cent milk
when sold at each of the following prices:
a. 3 cents per quart?
'b. $1.50 per 100 pounds?
c. 35 cents per pound for butter-fat?
d. 30 cents per pound for butter? —
256 ; DAIRY FARMING
Considering the value of skim-milk and the labor of making
butter, which would be the best way to sell?
11. The prices paid for milk by the Borden Company from April,
1915, to March, 1916, were as follows, in the region where the freight
to New York is 26 cents per 40-quart can.
BuUTTER-FAT 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
April 1.31 1.46 1.61 1.76 1.91
May. 1.06 i Bed | 1.36 tod: 1.66
June. 1.00 1.15 1.30 1.45 1.60
July . 1.16 1.31 1.46 1.61 1.76
August. 1.32 1.47 1.62 Bye" 1.92
September 1.41 1.56 hd 1.86 2.01
October 1.70 1.85 2.00 2.05 2.30
November . 1.80 1.95 2.10 aan 2.40
December . 1.80 1.95 2.10 2.25 2.40
January 1.70 1.85 2.00 2.16 2.30
February . 1.65 1.80 1.95 2.10 2.25%
March . 1.60 175 1.90 2.05 2.20
The above prices will be paid to dairymen where they maintain,
during this contract, conditions scoring not less than 25 per cent on
equipment and 43 per cent on methods, according to the New York
Department of Health Score Card, as scored by the Company’s rep-
resentatives. Dairymen scoring less than 25 per cent on equip-
ment and 43 per cent on methods, will receive ten cents per 100
pounds less than the above schedule. Milk of intermediate com-
position was paid for at corresponding prices.
Calculate the average price for the year for milk with each
per cent of fat.
What is the average price for fat in 3 per cent milk? What is
paid per pound for the additional fat in 4 per cent milk? In 5 per.
cent milk? What is the price for the additional fat aboye 3 per
cent in all cases?
12. If skim-milk is worth as much as found in problem 8, at what
price would butter have to be sold to bring as much as the average
price paid by the Borden Company for 3 per peak milk? For 5 per
cent milk?
13. Using the average production given on page 42, what would
be the value of the milk for one year for a cow of each breed?
;. COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 257
14. Find the average price paid at retail in a near-by city for
butter, cream with known fat content, and milk. What price is
paid for fat in each form?
COLLATERAL READING
Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 440-493.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 49.
CHAPTER 13
OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN
‘DAIRY FARMING
G. F. WARREN
Ways oF MEASURING PROFITS
221. The Most Important Factors for Success. Ina dairy
region the most important factors have been shown to be
the size of the business, the returns per cow, the crop yields,
and the diversity of the business.1. Many other factors have
to do with financial success, but on careful examination it will
be found that most of them are covered by the above. For
instance, nothing is said about the effective use of labor, but
the most important single factor controlling such use is the
size of the business. The following are some of the many
other factors that cause minor variations in profit on many
farms and that sometimes become the most important factors.
Too much or too little capital may be invested in buildings
or stock. Too many or too few men or horses may be kept.
The region or farm may not be adapted to dairying. The
wrong kind of product for the region may be sold. ‘The
barns and fields may be so arranged as to aid in the work,
or they may cause a loss of time. Other things being
equal, large cows pay better than small ones. |
222. Ways of Measuring Profit. Two things are at work
on a farm — money and men. To be called a financial suc-
1 Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 349.
258
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 259
cess any business should pay a reasonable rate of interest on
the capital invested and, in addition, pay fair wages for the
labor used. The best way to measure profits on a farm is first
to find the difference between the receipts and the business
expenses for a year, including in expenses all labor except
the owner’s. This difference represents the pay for the use
of the capital and for the owner’s time. The interest on
the money invested in the business calculated at 5 per cent,
or at the current rate of interest, should be subtracted from
the income from capital and owner’s labor to get the amount
left to pay for histime. This is called hislabor income. The
following averages from 73 farms in Illinois show the method
of figuring :!
MVELAPO PADIbAL s~ oot ee oe. etn. OL 091
VREARE TeCceIpts Fs oe ee es 5,042
Average farm expenses ; j 1,866
Income from capital and owner’s etbor a 100
Interest on capital at 5 per cent mee ADO
Owner’s labor income .0 6.0... 621
S1zE oF BUSINESS
223. Size of Business. In order to be most economically
maneged, a dairy farm should be large enough to provide
full use for a reasonable equipment of modern machinery.
This does not mean that it should be one of the great costly
and money-losing establishments that are often maintained
by wealthy men. But it does mean that a farm is working at
a disadvantage if it is not large enough to provide work for
two or three persons. Just how many acres this will require
depends on the richness of the land and on what is done with
the milk. A small area of land that will naturally grow two
tons of hay and fifty bushels of corn per acre will represent
1U.S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 41, p. 9.
260 DAIRY FARMING
as large a business as many more acres of poor soil. If milk
is sold at retail, a smaller area and smaller number of cows
may represent an equally large business. But even when milk
is sold at retail, it is very desirable to have 15 to 30 cows.
How important a reasonable area of land is to a dairy
farmer is shown by the results from 1988 farms in New York
as given in Table 30.
TABLE 33. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FarM TO LABOR INCOME. 1988
Farms, TOMPKINS, LIVINGSTON, AND JEFFERSON COUNTIES,
New YorEK
AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE
oan "fans | Aenes roe | ACRES ov | LasoR
30 Gr teas. a 74 22 14 $121
ie ate 7s Maen dae Sue tues 141 44 yas 252
5410 eS ie ee 616 79 40 402
= 8 ee ce 572 126 66 568
8 6 oe eS 304 177 89 776
Over 200 AEM +E 281 281 134 995
These farms are fairly typical of many of the dairy farms
from Dakota to New England. About half the farm is
devoted to hay, corn, small grain, and other farm crops.
The other half is pasture, or woods and waste land. The
farms of less than 100 acres are on the average not paying
the owner more than interest and hired man’s wages. There
are of course some small farms that pay well, but, as a rule,
the larger farms pay better. Similar results have been ob-
tained in many other states. | |
224. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of
Labor. In every region where such studies have been made
the small farms accomplish much less per man than do the
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 261
fair-sized farms. Table 34 gives results for one county.
The average number of men per farm as given in the table
includes all human labor. Work of women and children is
expressed in terms of the number of men that would have
been required to do the same work. On the smallest farms,
very little work was done by any one except the operator.
On the farms of over 200 acres, the hired labor and labor by
members of the family amounted to the time of one and one-
third men, or, counting the time of the farmer, these farms
had the equivalent of 2.35 men.
The farms of less than 30 acres had an average of 3.5 animal
units per farm besides work horses. Those of over 200 acres
had an average of 34.2 animal units besides work: horses.
The producing enterprises on most farms are the acres of
crops grown and the animals other than horses.
TABLE 34. — RELATION OF S1zE OF Farm To EFFICIENCY IN THE
UsrE or Lasor. 670 Farms, JEFFERSON County, NEw YORK
een is
ae AVERAGE | OF A eM, ACRES OF Ue.
AcRES Eourva- | Acres or | Units CROPS EXCEPT
pati Crops EXCEPT | PER MAN HorskEs
WorxK PER Man
HORSES
oOor less ).)¢°.*.. 1.04 14 3.0 13 3
31-50 Gis 1.18 25 7.9 21 7
51-100 Le ete Ye 1.34 40 LSeZ, 30 10
web i eT GD 66 19.4 41 12
151-200 mR a 1.98 89 Zouk 45 13
Over 200... ..°. | 2.35 *},°. 194 34.2 57 15
The acres of crops grown, the yields of these crops, the
number of producing animals, and the production of these
animals are a measure of the amount that is being accom- ~
plished on a farm. The crop yields and the production of
262 DAIRY FARMING
animals are no better on the small farms than on the large
farms, hence the acres of crops and the animals kept are a
fairly accurate measure of the amount accomplished. The
acres of crops raised per man varied from 13 on the small
farms to 57 on the largest farms. The number of animal
units per man varied from 3 on the small farms to 15 on the
largest farms (Table 34).
225. Relation of Size of Farm to Work Done. From cost
accounts and other records, we know approximately how
much time it takes to do each kind of farm work under
normal conditions. The raising of a wheat crop ordinarily
takes 15 to 25 hours of man labor and 20 to 40 hours of horse
labor per acre. With anything like efficient methods of work,
20 hours of man labor and 30 hours of horse labor per acre is:
sufficient. Many farmers do better than this. We may
therefore say that a wheat crop represents two days of man
work and three days of horse work. If much more time than
this is spent, the work is not efficiently done. This may be
because the fields are too small, because of poor machinery,
because the land is unusually hard to work, or for other
reasons. It matters not why time is lost. If it is lost, the
farm is not efficient.
Similarly the average farmer spends about 150 hours of
work per year on a cow. If the barn or pasture is unhandy,
or if he has only a half-dozen cows, more time may be re-
quired. Some farmers who get good returns spend less time.
To care for a cow for a year may be counted as about 15
days’ work (see Table 35).
In order to compare farms, all the productive enterprises
are similarly expressed in work units. The income of the
farm is dependent on the crops raised, the cows and other
productive animals kept, the outside work done for pay.
SAAS
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 263
TasBLE 35. — Units or PropuctiveE Work
Man HoRsE
Work Work
UNITs Units
Timothy, alfalfa, clover, per acre per cutting 1 1
Oats, wheat, barley, rye, buckwheat, per acre . 2 3
Corn husked from standing stalks, per acre . 3 5
Corn husked from shock, per acre . 6 6
Corn for silo, per acre . 5 6
Field beans, per acre 4. 5
Cotton, per acre . 12 6
Tobacco, per acre : 20 vs
Potatoes, cabbage, beets, per acre . 10 10
Peas for canning factory, per acre . 3 5
Hops, per acre : ee: 20 8
Apples, peaches, pears, bearing per AGIO eco 8 15 5
Dairy cow . . sie Shy BEAT an! ays 15 2
10 cattle or colts running loose ; ‘ ; 20 1
10 brood sows, and raising pigs to weaning ; 30 5
50 hogs, not brood sows 25 5)
100 ewes : 50 3
OOhens ~ . 15 2
Raising 200 phicksns 15 2
TaBLE 36. — RELATION OF S1zE OF Farm TO EFFICIENCY IN THE
User or MEN anv Horses. 670 Farms, JEFFERSON COUNTY,
New YorxK
Units oF PRo- Units oF PrRo-
ACRES DUCTIVE WORK DUCTIVE WORK
PER Man PER HORSE
Beirartieas) sc let fe a 102 35
OE ra Magan Beh Fe Noe igen SNES % 154 Al
et IR ns oie LR TL e 205 57
REALM uid een eeNeTe age! es 245 62,
OO AS ASS ae ne ae a aa 253 65
Dias ogi Bea ha ss 294 76
264 DAIRY FARMING
Much other work may be done, such as repairing machinery
and buildings, taking care of work horses, mowing the lawn,
and the like, but it is the productive work that limits the
income. se
On farms in Jefferson County, New York, the average
amount of productive work per man varied from 102 work
units on the small farms to 294 on the largest farms. Each
man on the largest farms is accomplishing nearly three times
as much work as a man on the small farms. It must be
remembered also that the crop yields and the returns per cow
are as good on the larger farms. Each horse on the large
farms is accomplishing twice as much as each horse on the
small farms. The farms of less than 100 acres are very waste-
’ ful of both man and horse labor.
TaBLEeE 37. — RELATION OF Si1zE oF Farm To EFFICIENCY IN THE
Use or Horses. 1248 Farms, JEFFERSON AND LIVINGSTON
‘CCounTIES, NEw YORK
NuMBER | ACRES OF
NuMBER | ACRES OF ae (Sache
ACRES
or FARMS Crops HorsEs_ | PER HORSE
oe OF Tess) Oo nS eas 42 14.2 1.5 9.5
OA DBS bean Te Aas Pee tis ae oN 64 28.4 2.3 12:3
Ns ee 68 Diy tea PD NR air a 315 46.8 3.1 15
TOTS 8 ate ee ae 364 S2ASLS 4.2 17.5
0G ie BOS 8 a ee Se 226. 98.7 5.0 19.7
GV GF 200 fei Sel Peak: 207 152.8 72 21.2
226. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of
Horses. The discussion given above is the best way of com-
paring horse labor. Another comparison is shown in Table
37. On the large farms, twice as many acres of crops are
raised per horse as on the small farms. The average cost of —
keeping a horse, as shown by cost accounts, is about $100 to
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 265
$175 a year in different parts of the United States. This
includes feed, labor, depreciation, and all other costs. From
this the importance of the efficient use of horses is apparent.
227. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of
Machinery. ‘Thesmall farms are very inadequately equipped
with machinery, as is shown in Table 38. Even the
TaBLE 38. — RELATION oF SizE oF Farm TO EFFICIENCY IN THE
UsrE or MAcHINERY. 1248 Farms, LIVINGSTON AND JEFFER-
son CountTiESs, NEw YorK
rm - ee OF
Acres emer) (ay sane Oe eer
or CROPS
BOR TORS ook 8 Sige po He 14.2 $141 $9.93
eM Ge cates ee eR Se 28.4 207 7.29
Us ae i ee Gale ae 46.8 426 9.10
BOPP SR he Gee says ohne (320 497 6.76
eee ae Pa at ea ee 98.7 613 6.21
TE as 0 A IRR NR A A a 152.8 833 5.45
farms of over 200 acres have an investment in machinery of
only $833. This represents machinery of all ages. Prob-
ably the cost when new would be over twice as much, but
even this sum will not provide all the well-established ma-
chines, such as a grain-binder and manure-spreader for each
farm. But, while the small farms are not well equipped,
their machinery cost per acre of crops is almost double that
on the larger farms. ) .
228. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of
Capital. The small farm has relatively much more of its
capital invested in unproductive ways than does the large
farm. No matter how small the farm may be, the owner
desires a respectable house. Table 39 shows that the small-
266 DAIRY FARMING
est farms have 43 per cent of their capital in houses; the
largest farms have somewhat better houses, but have only
9 per cent of their capital thus invested.
TABLE 39. — AREA RELATED TO INVESTMENT IN BurILpINGs. 578
Farms, Livincston County, NEw YorK
PER CENT| VALUE
Per CENT Vv T O
ACRES Bite es re oe ae ia ‘Caprran, Buupinas
ev Houens | Smee |e One | ee
30 orless . . .| $1494 43 $ 655 19 $164
3l1— 50 Eee ted 1000 ae 681 15 95
51-100 2 SEES ee 1236 18 1091 16 87
101—150 eae 1477 14 1408 13 74
151-200 Jee ee 1810 13 1900 3 73
Over 200-5. tee: 2113 9 2352 11 50
The barns on the small farms also take a much larger
proportion of the capital. The smallest farms have 19 per
cent of their capital thus invested, the largest farms have
only 11 per cent thus tied up. A barn for ten head of stock
costs much more than half as much as an equally good barn
for twenty head of stock. The smallest farms have an
investment in barns of $164 per animal unit. The largest
farms have only $50 per animal unit. Yet observations lead
to the conclusion that the stock on the larger places is better
housed. If interest, repairs, depreciation, and insurance on
a building amount ‘to 8 per cent of the value, then the housing
cost per animal unit will vary from $13 per year on the small-
est farms to $4 per year on the largest.
Similar results for the United States are shown in Table
40. These indicate, as for other points in this work, that
the results are of general rather than local application. The
o
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 267
farms of less than 20 acres have 36 per cent of their capital
invested in buildings and machinery. Those of 100 to 174
acres have only 17 per cent of the money thus invested, yet
they have much better buildings and more machinery.
Money thus employed not only is unproductive, but it is a
source of constant cost for repairs. If a farmer had all his
money invested in buildings and machinery, his income
would, of course, be zero. In fact, he would not be a farmer
at all.
TasBLeE 40. — AREA RELATED TO INVESTMENT IN BUILDINGS AND
MAcHINERY, FOR UNITED States, 1909, rRomM THE CENSUS
REPORT
PER CEN
ie Wane oF | om Gane | WauuE or | oF Capi
PER FARM gS ERY MAcuin-
BUILDINGS
ERY
Under 20 LP ie Rae Pek parere Siew. ya 6.855 34 $ 656 Die
Oe tone Otek 474 21 76 2.8
SEP RN atone Oe c5it a We, Pe 848 19 156 ook
0) Be i: SC ee Soe hen 1182 14 241 2.7
eer REP foe 1734 10 390 2.4
SIS ma eR. a ice 2174 8 639 2.4
BO OP OVER. eo e 3330 5 1196 1.0
229. Size of the Herd. In regions where very little ex-
cept dairy products is sold, the number of cows kept is the
best measure of the size of the business. Table 41 gives
results from such a region in Jefferson County, New York,
and shows that farmers who have herds of 20 or more cows
‘are doing very much better than those who have smaller
herds. In fact, the size of the herd is as important as the
quality of the cows. The usual advice to sell the poorest
cows and keep only the best ones should be changed to the
more practical advice to replace the poorest cows by good
268 DAIRY FARMING
ones, rather than leave half of the barn empty. A cow that
is much too poor to keep may yet pay as well as an empty
stanchion. Of course, if the farm has too many cows for its
area, it will pay to sell the poorest ones and decrease the
number. In regions like Jefferson County that are well
adapted to dairying and not adapted to many other things,
herds of 20 to 30 cows when kept on farms that are large
enough for the herd, are usually more profitable than small
herds. Of course the number of cows should not be increased
out of proportion to the farm. On the other hand extremely
large herds are a disadvantage because the farm family is
ordinarily not able to do the work and too much labor must
be hired.
TaBLE 41. — RELATION oF NUMBER OF Cows AND MILK SoLpD ~
PER Cow To Lasor Income. 585 Farms, JEFFERSON
County, New Yor«k
NUMBER OF Cows
Mink Soup PER Cow ;
6-10 11-20 Over 20 ©
Labor Income | Labor Income | Labor Income
Less than: $500.2 @.. 5 2b: $632 $ 481 $1046
TEE ESE Babee ae, ee iii aa 447 | 704 1093
PE esti mat tice ee dn 599 836 1249
Copan BOG Mie an te eee Se es 760 1054 | 1959
230. Summary of Size of Dairy Farms. Unless a dairy
farm keeps four or five horses, it cannot take advantage of
the great economy in human labor that comes from the use
of four-horse machinery. But each horse ought to raise
20 to 30 acres of crops so that this calls for 80 or more
acres of crops. If 25 cows’ and young stock are kept,
there will usually need to be 60 to 100 acres of pasture.
This calls for 140 to 200 acres of land, a very common size
ee Ye eee
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 269
in most of the dairy regions of the United States. Theaver-
age size of farms among subscribers to Hoard’s Dairyman
was reported to be 167 acres. In some of the rich irrigated
valleys the pastures and alfalfa are so productive that a
considerably smaller area provides an equally large business.
In some very fertile regions like Lancaster County, Pennsyl-
vania, where very intensive crops are combined with dairying,
a farm of 60 to 80 acres represents as large a business as two
or three times this area in some regions.
Not every dairyman has money enough to buy a farm of
the best size, but there are other ways of obtaining land.
The usual steps in becoming a farm owner are: first, to work
as a hired man; then to become a tenant; then own a mort-
gaged farm; and finally pay off the mortgage. Only 36 per
cent of the farmers in the United States own free from mort-
gage all the land that they operate. If one who has too
small a farm knows how to farm and how to live economically,
he will often find it profitable to go in debt to buy more
land. A mortgage is not necessarily a bad thing. The im-
portant point to consider is the use to which the borrowed
money is put. It may not be wise to mortgage a farm for
the purpose of buying an automobile, but it may be good
business to mortgage it to buy additional cows or land
that is needed. Another way of enlarging the farm is to
rent additional land. There are half a million farmers in
the United States who own part of the land that they operate,
and who rent additional land.
RETURNS PER Cow
231. Reasons for Poor Returns. No single factor is
more important than the returns per cow (see Table 41).
Low returns may be due to not having a good market for
270 DAIRY FARMING
dairy products, or may be due to selling the wrong kind
of product ; for instance, making butter in a region where
there is a good demand for market milk at much better
prices. Low returns may be due to keeping the wrong
kind of cattle for the region or for the kind of product sold,
or to poor production because of poor care or feed, or to
having cows that are naturally not good ones. Before
one can intelligently change his practice, he must find out
to which of these causes his poor returns are due. The ~
preceding chapters have given attention to feeding and
to determining which are the cows that are naturally
poor, so that nothing more need be said on these most
vital points.
Even in regions unfavorable for dairying there are usually
some persons who make more money by combining dairying
with their other farm work than they would make if they
did not keep cows. Everywhere there must be cows enough
to supply the fresh milk even if butter is shipped in.
But in some regions the prices of products are low com-
pared with feed prices and other costs. In such regions, a
farmer who is only a fair dairyman may find that it pays
best to keep only a few cows or possibly to keep only enough
to supply products for home use. |
In some regions milk is sold by the quart at the same
price regardless of the percentage of butter-fat. In such a
region, herds that give a high test are at so great a disad-
vantage that they cannot often be made to pay.
Those who keep pure-bred cattle sometimes fail to make
a profit because they select a breed that is not desired in the
region. The best market for the surplus stock of the small
breeder is nearly always in his neighborhood. He should
raise the kind that is wanted.
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 21a
232. Costs and Returns must Both be Considered. No
set standard can be given for the receipts that are necessary
in order to make a profit, because the costs of feed and labor
are so variable in different regions and on different farms in
the same region. But many studies of this question have
indicated that it is a fairly easy matter to obtain receipts per
cow of a half more than the average for the region. Usually
the most profitable farms in a region are doing as well as
this. But increased costs must also be considered. It is
not the return per cow, nor the cost, that is of most impor-
tance, but the relation between the two. Sometimes the
better returns are obtained at too great cost. On the other
hand, a dairy herd that produces less than the average some-
times pays, because the farmer has reduced the cost of feed
and labor to a still lower point. |
233. For Good Returns the Poor Producers should be
Promptly Sold. In one county in New York the farmers
who obtained the best production per cow were doing the
most buying and selling of cows. Those who obtained poor
to fair returns were on the average replacing 1 cow in 23 by
5 purchase, but those who obtained the best returns replaced
one-seventh of the herd each year by purchase.
Those who got the lowest production per cow replaced one-
seventh of the herd each year by cows purchased or raised.
Those who obtained good production replaced one-fifth,
and those who got the best production replaced. one-fourth
each year. They disposed of poor cows and milked good
cows whether they were home-raised or purchased. The
essential point is not who raised the cow, but how much
her milk is worth.
234. Size of Cows. As machines for changing feed into
milk, large cows and small cows seem to be about equally
272 DAIRY FARMING
effective. But the milk produced for a given amount of
barn room and labor is also important. Of two animals
that are equally efficient users of food, the larger animal is —
usually much more profitable. Table 42 gives the value
of the milk and value of the feed for 355 cows in
Wisconsin.
TABLE 42.— RELATION OF S1zE OF Cows TO VALUE OF PRODUCT
ABOVE Foop Cost!
Vv ALUE VALUE
7 Newnes PouNpDsS OF
EIGHT OF |AVERAGE on OF VALUE OF | VALUE OF Piso Propucr
Cows WEIGHT Burrer- | Propuct FEED ABOVE
Cows San FOR $1 Iida
IN FEED
Cost
ee eS ee
under |. 847 | 87 | 366.2 |$114.52 | $60.32 | $1.90 | $54.20
901-1000 | 952 | 82 | 417.8 | 131.22] 69.86| 1.88 | 61.36
1001-1100 | 1071 53 | 447.8 | 142.56| 76.28} 1.87 | 66.28
1101-1200 | 1175 | 60 | 477.7 | 155.02} 82.81| 1.87 | 72.21
1201-1300 | 1276 | 31 | 506.2 | 163.52] 91.51] 1.79 | 72.01
1301-1400 | 1379 | 26 | 525.8 | 171.79| 92.15) 1.86 | 79.64
Over 1400 | 1556 16 | 566.6 | 184.61; 96.60} 1.91.| 88.01
It takes very little more barn room and very little more —
labor to care for large cows than it does for small ones.
Medicine, veterinary fees, and many other expenses cost
about the same for large as for small cows. These costs were
found to be $25 per year in Minnesota, and $29 in New
York (page 247). 2
According to the figures in Table 42 a herd of 15 cows av- |
eraging 1276 pounds in weight would make more butter than
20 cows averaging 847 pounds. The saving on labor, barn
room, and other fixed costs, would be about $125 per year
1 Data furnished by F. W. Woll, for cows whose records are reported in
Wisconsin, Bulletin 226.
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 273
by keeping the smaller number of large cows. Where the
land is level, and particularly if hay or other roughage is
abundant, large cows are usually more profitable. Even
if small ones are introduced the farmers usually change
to large ones in time. Where the pastures are on steep,
rocky hillsides small cows are better able to hold ther
place. If pastures are very poor, the large cow is at a
disadvantage. She needs more feed, but she is not able
to walk’ so far as the small one. In the South where
heat and insects are both serious enemies of the dairy
business, nearly all of the cows kept are of the small active
breeds. /
Records of 110 cows kept by the University of Nebraska
showed that cows averaging 801 pounds in weight gave an
_ average of 263 pounds of butter-fat, those weighing 1002
pounds gave 278 pounds of fat, and those averaging 1211
pounds produced 346 pounds of butter-fat. The production
was in proportion to the size.!
Of course the vital point is production per cow. If one is
buying a cow with a known record, it is the record that
should be considered. A large cow that is a failure is a
bigger failure than a small one that is a failure. The best
success comes from keeping large cows that are also good
for their size.
When large numbers are considered, the production and
feed consumption seem to be about in proportion to the size. .
The advantage of having large animals is in the saving of
barn room and labor, just as there is an advantage in using
a six-foot mower rather than a four-foot one.
1 Records of cows reported in Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin 139. Cows sorted by average weights for the years reported, into
three groups, 900 pounds or less, 901-1100 pounds, and over 1100 pounds.
Ak
274 DAIRY FARMING
Crop YIELDS
The returns from crops and costs of these crops have as
much to do with the success of the farm as a whole as do the
returns from the cows. It is not enough that the farmer
be a good dairyman, he should be a good dairy farmer.
Sometimes the farmer raises crops that are good for feed
but cost too much to raise. More frequently the yields are
not good enough to be profitable. _
235. Soils for the Dairy Farm. Only under exceptional
conditions does it pay to choose land that is not naturally
productive. The farmer ordinarily raises all the hay and
part of the grain for the cows. If he buys grain, he ought
_ to have for sale some product other than milk that will more
than pay the feed bill. It is usually difficult for a farmer who
has poor land to succeed in competition with those who have
_ good land. Occasionally, but not usually, the poor land is
enough cheaper to make up for the difference in quality.
The best dairy soils are loams and clay loams that grow
grass well. The great dairy sections of the North are on
soils that grow Kentucky blue-grass and white clover for
pasture, clover or alfalfa hay, and corn. Dairy farms do
not as a rule buy much chemical fertilizer. The farmers
who get better crops than their neighbors are as a rule
receiving greater profits than the average, but as in the
case of good returns per cow, the returns are sometimes —
obtained by methods that are too costly. Sometimes poor
crops are grown by such economical methods that they pay
well. Many successful farmers have crops a fifth better
than their neighbors grow.
236. The Well-balanced Farm. If a good-sized business,
good cows, and good crops are three of the most important
le ll i Si i
sl tiie lal
ete Pa ee
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 275
factors for success, then a farmer who excels in all three
ought to do very well indeed. With rare exceptions this is
the case. Table 43 gives the labor incomes on 585 farms.
TasBLe 43. — RELATION oF S1zE or Farm, RECEIPTS PER Cow,
AND Crop YIELDS, TO LAaBor INCOME ON 585 FARMS WITH
Srx or More Cows, JEFFERSON County, New York
| ACRES
100 or less 101-150 Over 150
Labor Income|Labor Income|Labor Income
Receipts per cow $50 or less
Crop index 85 per cent or less $308 $ 273 $ 331
Crop index 86-115 per cent 381 482 424
Crop index over 115 per cent 158 415 413°
Receipts per cow $51-$75
Crop index 85 per cent or less 304 - §90 669
Crop index 86-115 per cent 437 653 1017
_ Crop index over 115 per cent 537 636 1161
Receipts per cow over $75
Crop index 85 per cent or less 594 935 1233
Crop index 86-115 per cent 641 1038 1148
Crop index over 115 per cent 659 1124 1291
They are grouped as small, medium, and good-sized farms ;
small, medium, and good returns per cow ; and small, medium,
and good crop yields; so that there are 27 different com-
binations (crop index compares the crops with average crops
as 100 per cent). A study of this table indicates that if the
crops are wasted by being fed to cows that give very poor
returns, the final result is poor, even with a good-sized farm
and good crops. Medium cows and medium crops with
a good-sized farm pay very much better than the best cows
and crops on a small farm. Improvement in any one of
the three points helps, but well-balanced improvement in
all is best. A fourth important factor for success in dairy
276 DAIRY FARMING
farming is the diversity of the business. It usually pays
better to have cash crops or other products combined with
the dairy.
DIVERSIFIED AND SPECIALIZED DatrRy FARMS
237. Relation of Cash Crops to Profits. As has previously
been mentioned (page 229), farmers who combine cash crops
or some other product with dairying, usually make more
than do those who sell nothing but dairy products. The
poorer the cows, or the lower the price of dairy products,
the more important it is that crops be sold. But even
with extra good returns-per cow, those who sell some crops
are usually doing better than those who sell no crops,
as is shown in Table 44. The results here given are
for a typical region in New York. In the corn-belt the
most generally profitable type of dairy farming is to raise
corn for sale-or for hog feed in addition to raising feed
for the cows.
TABLE 44. — RELATION OF RECEIPTS PER Cow AND CasH Crops —
To Prorits oN 585 FARMS wITH Six oR More Cows. JEF-
FERSON County, NEw YorK
RECEIPTS PER Cow FROM MILK AND
: Irs Propucts
Per CEentT oF RECEIPTS FROM CROPS
$50 or less $51-$75 Over $75
Labor Income|Labor Income| Labor Income
Noerops ‘sold, “4 is eee $ 56 $ 571 $ 926 ~
1-20 per cent::.2to ee eee ee 311 589 962
ESA ee es etre te ee 426 947 1183
AAO eo Sa ed 554 1366 .
CISELOW oo eee Re eae ee ene 599 I 2
1 Only two farms in this group. 2 No farms in this group.
a ee a ee ee aa ee
- ? ne"
ed Sed, ns
ey Pere
-y
Poy 2
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 277
238. Relation of Capital to Amount of Stock Kept. The
amount of capital must also be considered in determining
how many cows to keep. Farmers who are short of capital
usually keep less stock than do those who have more capital.
TABLE 45. — RELATION OF CAPITAL AND CAsH Crops To PROFITS.
578 Farms, Livincston County, NEw Yor«K
CAPITAL
Per CENT OF RECEIPTS FROM CROPS
$5000 or less nae Over $15,000
=
a Labor Income|Labor Income|Labor Income
20 or less .
Pe An oes ee po Pe | 181 411 1399
Est WAZA ESS CANES Saar ee a a 256 624 1038
OT EOE SEG pees 7 tater es ata eae 424 623 1194
0 TEE pa i reine a ras a 231 _ 497 473
Table 45 shows that with small capital those who depend
largely on cash crops make the most, while with larger
capital those who derive more of their money from live-
stock are doing best. The exact capital groups will vary
with different land values, but the principle is universal, that
one who is short of capital should keep less stock than one
who has more money. This is as one would expect. Live-
stock represents added capital after one has bought and
- equipped his farm. If one is short of money, the absolutely
essential things are land, machinery, and horses. One may
get along without live-stock, but one cannot farm without
land and equipment. The majority of farmers understand
this principle. When they get more money, they increase
the amount and improve the quality of their live-stock.
For the young man with small capital it often pays to
gradually work into pure-bred cattle. One can begin with
278 DAIRY FARMING
a few moderate-priced pure-breds and, with a good bull,
can gradually develop a good herd. Ordinary pure-breds
can be improved just as grade cows can be improved. The
advantage of the pure-breds is that after one has them im-
proved, they are in greater demand for breeding purposes
because they are recorded.
239. Acres per Animal Unit. Another way of comparing
farms is on the basis of the number of acres of crops grown
per animal unit kept. Results for one dairy region in New
York are given in Table 46. The amount of stock that it
pays to keep, of course, depends on the returns that one gets
from it. With very poor returns, very little stock should
be kept. The better the returns, the more heavily the
place should be stocked. With good stock in the region.
here mentioned, it pays best to have an animal unit other
than horses for each 3 to 4 acres of crops. The exact amount
that it pays to keep will of course vary with different regions
and on different farms, but nearly always it is best to have
the place moderately well stocked rather than go to either
extreme.
TasBLe 46. — RELATION oF ACRES OF CROPS PER ANIMAL AND
RECEIPTS PER ANIMAL UNIT To Lasor INcomME. 670° Farms,
JEFFERSON County, NEw YORK ;
RECEIPTS FOR EACH ANIMAL UNIT EX-
CEPT HORSES
ACRES OF Crops PER ANIMAL UNIT
$50 or less $51-$75 Over $75
Labor Income|Labor Income|Labor Income
Ye a | RN cA 9 oe at a 8 $210 $649 $ 895
BO seta os Sep iat tote eae 264 680 971
EO) gi oes en hae et eet epee 314 763 1053
Over AO nian 3, ote tec ee 378 824 914
——
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 279
240. Reasons for Larger Profits on Diversified Farms.
There are many reasons why it does not pay to go to the
extreme either way. Ordinarily a man can raise feed for
more cows than he can milk. If each man milks 10 to 15
Hours
1200
800
= emits All
FW (SS —
0)
“Alfalfa, 1914
I Cabbage
i I }' Poultry
oo Farm
KAN
Cattle
Horses
WG Manure
VIM,
Fic. 78. — Distribution of man labor on a highly successful diversified
dairy farm, that kept 42 cows, 1 bull, 10 heifers, and 9 horses. The crops
raised were potatoes 11 acres, corn for silo 19 acres, oats 44 acres, hay
102 acres, and cabbage 7 acres, besides starting crops for the next year.
The cabbages, potatoes, and some of the hay were sold for more than enough
to pay the entire feed and labor bills.
cows, he can raise the hay and silage for these cows and part
of the grain, and in addition will have time to raise hay, grain,
potatoes, cabbage, or other crops for sale. If the cows are
so poor, or prices of the product so low, that the cows do not
pay a good price for their feed, it is of vital importance that
280 DAIRY FARMING
cash crops be raised. Even if the cows are highly profitable, it
may still pay to raise crops for sale, because these crops can
be raised at very little additional cost. It might be suggested
that more cows be kept to eat the additional crops, but this
calls for more men, who in turn can raise additional crops.
In regions where cash crops are not raised, the women
usually help with the milking because the farmer can raise
feed for more cows than he can milk, and it does not pay to
keep a hired man unless there is full work for him. Women
can milk and do housework between milkings. If the
region is well adapted to crops, it pays better to employ men
and have them do farm work between milkings. Figure 78,
page 279, shows the distribution of labor on a very success-
ful diversified dairy farm. The owners of this farm have_
followed the same system for three generations and have
always been successful.
If a farm is too heavily stocked, much feed will have to be
purchased in a poor year or some of the stock must be sold.
In such years feed is likely to be very high and stock cheap,
so that whatever one does he is likely to lose.
If a farm is too heavily stocked, the returns per ton of
manure used will be low. The value of manure depends on
how heavily it is applied. A light application usually gives
better returns per ton of manure than does a heavy applica-
tion, as shown on page 235.
If one goes to the other extreme and keeps no animals or
too few animals, he will not have a full year’s work. Animals
help to provide winter work, they provide work night and
morning when the days are too short to allow a full day of field.
work. Notice how little winter work there would be for the
farm shown in figure 78 if there were no cows and no manure
hauling. :
/
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 281
Most farms have a considerable amount of low-grade . —
hay, mixed hay, and other products that do not have much
market value or that are too bulky to pay to sell. At least
enough stock should be kept to make use of these low-grade
products. On many farms there is some land that will not
pay for farming, but that will bring some income as pasture.
Farmers who find cash: crops very profitable often tend to
keep too little live-stock.
The more money one has and the more profitable his
animals are, the nearer he should come to exclusive stock
- farming, but it usually pays to sell at least one cash crop.
In the corn-belt, corn marketed through the hog takes the
place of a cash crop. When little money is available and
when stock pays poorly, one should keep fewer animals, but
it usually pays to produce at least one kind of animal or
animal product. It is desirable that a farm have two to
four important products for sale, and usually at least one
should be an animal product, and at least one a cash
crop.
SoME SuccEssFUL Datry FarMs
241. A Successful Dairy and Hog Farm in Iowa. One
can learn much by a study of successful farms, provided he
is sure that the farm he is studying is really successful. A
farm is a financial success when it pays interest on the
capital invested and pays good wages to the operator. Some-
times unimportant peculiarities of the farm are erroneously
considered the cause of success. A systematic study of a
number of farms will help to avoid this error. The record
here given for an Iowa farm shows one of the best types
of dairy farming for the corn-belt. (Data furnished by
Professor H. B. Munger, Iowa State College.)
282 DAIRY FARMING
CapiITtTaAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS
April 1, 1913 | April 1, 1914
160 acres land + 24 %=\ 22345225522 Ae eee $32,000
Machinery and tools --\.2 3.3 A ane t15 764
18 cows, 4 heifers, 2 calves . ... . 2000
bbls PME Re righ fis Sees. PKL! 175 178
17 cows, 2 ficifecs: 11 calves eee sere 2440
S horses; 2 COlts > iv, press Set he ee ae 1340
THGESES, Oo COMES: 8 es eee i ers oe 1360
5 GWOS) , 5.3 i 35
18 brood sows, 26 other hogs and pigs : 630
19 brood sows, 40 other ee and pigs . 715
100 chickens .. . : 50 50
Weed and supplies ©. Sec i eo eae 1079 1047
Cash-to- run tak. 2 Sore a 100 100
$38,124 $38,651
Crops Grown 1913
NT
Crop ACRES Tota YIELD AMOUNT Amou
Soup RECEIVED
learn. She es oy gee. ee 44 1990 bu. 150 $95
Corn for silo’ 2 FF 11 128 tons
Osis ern al oe eee 28 1540 bu. 600 198
ay ee yy anet 0 Foe ats 154 19 tons
In addition, there were 45 acres of rotated pasture and
17 acres of farmstead roads and waste land. Corn is raised
for two years, followed by oats in which grass isseeded. The
hay is left down two years, part for hay and part for pasture.
RECEIPTS
3939 lb. butter-fat @ 33¢, skim-milk returned . . . $1300
12 cattle sold and 6 increase of inventory ... . 7595
ES P27 ar ose SNe 30
85 hogs sold and 15 increase e of inventory tay bee 1645
Horses sold and increase of inventory . .... .- 138
150-bushels corn {ae 5, ee eS ae ee 95 -
600: bushels oats): 02 Sse se ee ee 198
Outside tabor. 300 iF Se ee ea ee ee 9
Machine work Te an a ge ee ie Re 30
$4200
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING
Farm EXPENSES
1 man 12 months .
1 man 1 month ages
Machinery and repairs cost above i increase > value
Grain feed
Horseshoeing
Breeding fees
Veterinary
Seeds
Twine
Threshing :
Machine work hired .
Fuel for farm use .
Insurance
Taxes ;
Sheep sold for less ‘than inventory value
Decrease in feed on hand
SUMMARY
Receipts .
Expenses .
Income from ace me" os S fehor
Interest on average capital $38,388 at 5%
Mean GCL ao To Pree eo ee
EFFICIENCY Factors
Size
Acres 160
Acres crops 98
Number cows 1734
Number brood sows 18}
Number men 25
Number work horses 7}
Number of productive man work units 620
Number of productive horse work units 4385
Production
Corn 45 bushels per acre
Oats 55 bushels per acre
Hay 11 tons per acre
Receipts per cow from butter-fat $74
Receipts per cattle unit $88
Pigs raised per sow 5.4
Diversity
Three main sources of income — milk, cattle, and hogs
283
284 DAIRY FARMING
Efficiency in use of labor
Crop acres per man 47
Crop acres per horse 13
Work units per man 298
Work units per horse 58
Fertility
Acres of crops, including rotated pasture per animal unit 3.6
The farm represents a good-sized business. It provides full
work for two men (one besides the owner) and has enough crops
to justify the use of four-horse teams and good machinery.
The crop yields are excellent. The returns per cow are
very good for milk sold to a creamery. The $74 per cow
represents a production of 225 pounds of butter-fat per cow
in addition to new milk for home use and for calves. The
number of pigs per sow is good.
The farm has three important products, — milk, cattle,
and hogs. The corn raised for hog feed takes the place of
the cash crops that are raised by the farm described on page
285. The farmer has for five years used a pure-bred bull and
now has ten pure-bred cows, so that cattle are a third im-
portant source of income. |
The acres of crops raised per man and work units per man —
are very good. The efficiency in the use of horses is only
fair. It is possible that the farm might pay a little better
if fewer horses were kept.
-In short, the farm is a good-sized business, has good crops,
good cows, good diversity, and uses man labor efficiently, and
the place is carrying enough stock so that there is a good
supply of manure.
The farmer had a common school education. He worked
as a hired man five years, then as tenant five years, after
which he bought this farm and has been operating it four
years. The efficiency factors given above when compared
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 285
with the averages for farms given in preceding tables, show
how well the farm is managed.
242. A Successful Diversified Dairy Farm in New York.
This farm is typical of the best general type of dairy farming
for those portions of the Eastern States where intensive
cash crops combine well with dairying.
CapiTaL INVESTED IN THE Farm BUSINESS
211 acres of land .
Machinery and tools .
31 cows
2 calves
3 calves
1 bull
5 horses E
25 sheep, 38 lambs
28 sheep, 43 lambs
75 chickens .
Feed and supplies .
Cash to run farm .
Crop
Corn for silo .
Wheat .
Oats
Timothy and ¢ clover hay
Potatoes
Apples
Cabbage
BEGINNING OF YEAR| END oF YEAR
$14000 $14000
400 400
2480 2480
20
30
45 80
500 500
365°
411
50 50
350 350
200 | —_—200_
$184.10 $18501
Crops Grown
Acres | Totan YIELD oe ey ale
10 120 tons
a 330 bu. 310 bu. $264
26 1006 bu.
Sar, 83 tons 2 tons k Giacce
12 2400 bu. 2025 bu. 1050
2 40000 Ib. | 36000 lb. 145
1
In addition to the above there were 85 acres of permanent
pasture and 9 acres of woods, farmstead, waste land, ete.
286 DAIRY FARMING
RECEIPTS :
264,837 Ib. milk: #2 Sotees Bey LS vine os ee
Calves sold and increase inventory af an ea a ame 290
Sheep, lambs, and wool: So S452. oie eee 204
Nees os. at SAE ght teh ae Ae a LE ee ee 106
310 bu. wheat 6 a MERE ap See SA cnt ae ae Re 264
2 tons: hayt*:2. 3-2 Ser oe ee ee eee 25
2025. bu. potatoes #2) tee a ey oe
ADDIES Eos a ae oe SO aN alg toy eee ee ee 145
: $5533
Farm EXPENSES
Lahots <2 ne ee Be FAS a ee
Weed toe a tre ee eee eer oa eae eae 511
Fartiliger: 202 Sh ee ne a er see re 100
Seen oe esd ec Se i ia eee Seg ee 53
Otlrer Gapenses «hrs ASS eA tee ose eee ie 260
$2024
SUMMARY
Receipts: a.) SN RE a es
Expenses. . Shy oS
Income from capital and ‘operator’ s labor Sigs RC
Interest on average er $18,455 @ de eae a 923
Labor income .. 0 tie Lae ee
EFFICIENCY FaAcTORS
Size
Acres 211
Acres of crops 117
Number of cows 31
Number of men 33
Number of work horses 5
Number units productive man work 835
Number units productive horse work 431
Production
Corn 12 tons
Potatoes 200 bu.
Oats 41 bu.
Wheat 30 bu.
Milk sold per cow 8543 lb.
Receipt per cow from milk $111
Receipt per cattle unit $112
Lambs raised per ewe 1.5
Receipts per ewe $8.16
FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 287
Diversity
Two main sources of income — milk and potatoes — several
other important things.
Efficiency in use of labor
Dmaerer Wer Mia oo ee ee BB
eepaisercs per horse, 8 sc 8. 8B
Work units per man Rep e WR rk areas 4! dre
NomicmiMiceaper-NOrse: 2° pe ee a 86
Fertility
Acres of crops per animalunit .... . 2.6
Fertilizers produced per acre of crops . . . $.85
Although this farm is a long distance from the preceding
one, its success has been due to the same factors. The farm
is a good-sized business, the cows and crops are good, the
farm combines dairying with cash crops. The only differ-
ence is that the Iowa farm marketed its corn crop through
hogs, while the New York farm raised a human food crop for
direct sale. Instead of keeping hogs to eat up extra grain,
the New York farm depends to a large extent on purchased
grain. Each farm followed the best type of farming for its
conditions. Because of the size and diversity of the business
each man is accomplishing a large amount. The production
per cow on this farm is unusually good. The farmer has been
in the dairy business for many years and now has a herd of
high grade and pure-bred Holsteins. The farmer began as
a tenant and worked this farm many years on shares. Be-
cause of his good-sized diversified business, with good pro-
duction, he was able to save money and buy the farm.
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
1. What is the labor income for a farm on which the expenses
amounted to $1028, the receipts $2524, and on which the capital
was $20,247 ?
2. For a dairy farm in your region find the total area, area in
each crop, number of each kind of animals, and number of men em-
288 DAIRY FARMING
ployed. Calculate the units of productive man and horse work..
Calculate the area of crops and units of productive work per man and
per horse. Compare with farms of the. same area in Tables 33-40.
If each student bases his report on a different farm, the results: may
be compared.
3. To how many animal units is the stock on the above farm
equal? (See p. 218.) How many acres of crops per animal unit?.
About what proportion of the manure is produced in the barn.
How many tons would this probably make per year if it is all saved ?
If the manure is well cared for, and if eight tons are applied per acre,
how many years would it take to cover the entire farm?
4. What is the value of the barns on the above farm? How
much is this per animal unit? Compare with Table 39.
5. Are conditions in your region naturally favorable for large
or for small breeds of dairy cattle?
6. What things aside from dairy products are conse sold
from dairy farms in your region?
7. As an average for the beginning and end of the year, how
many animal units are there on the farm described on page 281?
How many on the farm on page 285?
8. Compare the farms on pages 242 and 244 as to size of business,
erop yields, returns per cow, work units per man and horse, and in
other ways.
9. Compare each of the above farms as to efficiency in the use
of men and horses with farms of the same area in Table 36.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
36. Record of a Year’s Business on a Farm. Arrange with
some dairy farmer to allow the class to go to his farm and study
his methods and obtain a record of his business for the past year,
using Farmer’s Bulletin 661 for taking the record. Later calculate
the labor income and work, the efficiency factors, and compare
with the farms described on pages 281 and 285. What are the
strong points and what are the weak points of the farm?
Each student should make a similar record and study of the farm .
on which he lives.
COLLATERAL READING
A Method of Analyzing the Farm Business, U.'S. Dept. Agr.,
Farmers’ Bulletin 661.
Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 535-565.
APPENDIX
_ADDRESSES OF CATTLE BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS
American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders’ Association, Charles Gray,
See., Chicago, Il.
' Ayrshire Breeders’ Association, C. M. Winslow, Sec., Brandon,
Vt.
Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders’ Association, Ira Inman, Sec.,
- Beloit, Wis.
Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America, E. J. Kirby, See.,
Covert, Mich.
American Galloway Breeders’ Association, R. W. Brown, Sec.,
Carrollton, Mo.
The American Guernsey Cattle Club, William H. Caldwell, Sec.,
Peterboro, N.H.
- American Hereford Cattle Breeders’ Association, R. J. Kinzer
Sec., Kansas City, Mo.
The Holstein-Friesian Association of America, F. L. Houghton,
Sec., Brattleboro, Vt.
The American Jersey Cattle Club, R. M. Gow, Sec., 324 West
: 23d St., New York City.
Red Polled Cattle Club of America, H. A. oe Sec., Gotham,
Wis.
American Shorthorn Breeders’ Association, F. W. Harding, Sec.,
Chicago, Ill.
The Polled Durham Breeders’ Association, J. H. Martz, Sec.,
: _ Greenville, O.
ERT IS
U 289
290 APPENDIX
SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COW
Adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club, 1913
Datry TEMPERAMENT AND CONSTITUTION
Head, 7.
A. Medium size, lean; face dished; broad between eyes;
horns medium size, incurving
B. Eyes full and placid; ears medium size, rae capeied
alert; muzzle broad, with wide open nostrils and
muscular lips, jaw strong .
Neck, 4.
Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to
head and shoulders
Body, 37.
A. Shoulders light, good distance through from point to
point, but thin at withers; chest deep and full be-
tween and just back of fore legs
B. Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving Wwedae
shape, with deep, large abdomen, firmly held up,
with strong muscular development
C. Backstraight and strong, with prominent spinal oe
cesses; loins broad and strong
D. Rump long to tail-setting, and level ina hive bones
to rump bones :
E. Hip-bones high and wide ee
F. Thighs flat and wide apart, giving aaniles room fae
udder
G. Legs jeeeaneaenate te size aa ‘of fine anatiiee all
apart, with good feet, ae not to weave or cross in
walking . Lg ir OE
H. Hide loose and pactiow Serr. e
I. Tail thin, long, with good switch, rest coarse at sottiaee
on
Udder, 26.
A. Large size, flexible, and not fleshy . ;
B.° Broad, level or spherical, not peso eut iste
teats ..
C. Fore udder full anid “gall Suniel anne awa for-
ward of front teats . err pet
Carry forward
APPENDIX 291
Brought forward 68
D. Rear udder well rounded, and well out and up be-
[i LE EES a Ae i Ree eRe 6
Teats, 8.
Of good and uniform length and size, regularly placed . 8
Milk-Veins, 4.
Large, long, tortuous, and elastic, entering large and
meritieemmr Oriiecr. cn ca 2 rn Ae 4
Size, 4. :
Mature cows, S00 to 1000 pounds .. . 2 ew ee 4
General Appearance, 10.
A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a propor-
- tloning of parts to each other, depending on size of animal,
with the general appearance of a high-class animal, with
capacity for food and productiveness at pail RS Segre eet
100
SCALE OF POINTS FOR AYRSHIRE COW
Adopted by Ayrshire Breeders’ Association, 1906
Head, 10.
Forehead — Broad and clearly defined . .... . 1
Horns — Wide set on and inclining upward . . 1
Face — Of medium length, slightly dished, sloneat..
showing veins .. . 2
Muzzle — Broad and Mone Pihowt coarseness, eosirill
large 1
Jaws — Wide ait the oon aul aie sone ies as 1
Eyes — Full and bright with placid expression ees t2 3
Ears — Of medium size and fine, carried alert . 1
Neck, 3.
. Fine (eas throat clean, neatly joined to head and
shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, nearly free
from loose skin, elegant in bearing . .....- - 3
Fore Quarters, 10.
Shoulders — Light, good distance through from point
to point, but sharp at withers, smoothly blending into
body -... 2
Chest — Low, deep, cad full pepwoen end baal a fom
legs Beare, 3 Bes Te EOE i ts: 2G
Carry forward . | 21
292 APPENDIX
Brought forward
Brisket — Light ;
Legs and Feet — Legs piel aga ate gal ‘dpe
shanks fine and smooth, joints firm; feet medium size,
round, solid, and deep
Body, 13.
Back — Strong and straight, chine lean, sharp, and open
. Jointed
Loin — Broad, strong, itl ieoak
Ribs — Long, broad, wide apart, and wall sprung
Abdomen — Capacious, deep, cea held up with strong —
muscular development
Flank — Thin and arching.
Hind Quarters, 11.
Rump — Wide, level, and long from hooks to pin hase
a reasonable pelvic arch allowed . ee
Hooks — Wide apart and not projecting above nels nor
unduly overlaid with fat ‘
Pin Bones — High and wide apart .
Thighs — Thin, long, and wide apart .
Tail — Long, fine, set on a level with the bath’
Legs and Feet — Legs strong, short, straight wie
viewed from behind and set well apart; shanks fine:
and smooth, joints firm; feet medium size, round,
solid, and deep .
Udder, 22.
Long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy;
firmly attached to the body, extending well up behind
and far forward; quarters even; sole nearly level
and not indented between teats, udder veins well
developed and plainly visible .
Teats, 8.
Evenly placed, distance apart from sidé to side equal to
half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal to
one-third the length; length 23 to 33 inches, thickness
in keeping with length, hanging perpendicular, and not
tapering :
Mammary Veins, 5.
-Large, long, tortuous, branching, and entering large
orifices
Carry forward
Wh >
28
APPENDIX 293
Brought forward 82
Escutcheon, 2.
Distinetly defined, “paca es over poe and extending
well upward... .. ; 5. a ec 2 eigen es 2
Color, 2
Red of any shade, brown, or these with white; mahog-
- any and white, or white; each color distinctly defined.
,
(Brindle markings allowed, but not desirable). . . . 2
Covering, 6.
Skin — Of medium thickness, mellow, and elastic 3
Hair — Soft and fine ; 2
Secretions — Oily, of rich ee or Calo alee 1
Style, 4
Alert, vigorous, showing strong character, temperament
inclined to nervousness, but still docile . ... . 4
Weight, 4.
Weight at maturity not less than one thousand pounds — 4
PRT a eR cee ee ET tr) Rg tape wae eae are ee OO
SCALE OF POINTS FOR GUERNSEY COW
Adopted by Guernsey Cattle Club
Dairy Temperament Constitution, 38.
Clean-cut, lean face; strong, sinewy jaw; wide muzzle
with wide-open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet
and gentle expression; forehead long and broad. . . 5
Long, thin neck with strong juncture to head; clean
throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder blades ;
large rugged spinal processes, indicating good devel-
opment.of the spinal cord . ... . ; 5
Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; wile stiduel ieee
ture of spine at setting on of tail. Long, thin tail with
good switch. Thin, incurving thighs . .. . Tend i
Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, Caaat an
open, relaxed conformation; thin arching flanks . . 5
Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and navel
development, indicative of capacity and vitality . . 15
Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, but
(Pe OSES i an cs APR OREO Pp ihs Fey eR AS
Carry forward 38
294 APPENDIX
Brought forward 38
Milking Marks Denoting Quantity of Flow, 10.
Escutcheon wide on thighs; high and broad, with thighs
OV AN 12 Si rete oe 2
Milk veins long, seookod, ee re ce peominene wittl
large ‘or deep wells c¢ .. eo Dee ie ee 8
Udder Formation, 26.
Udder fullinfront ..
Udder full and well up ebiaal
Udder of large size and capacity . pr
Teats well apart, cen placed, and of Lae ant even
size. a ah eke il ee! te Pete
Indicating Color of M ae, 15.
Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of
horns, on udder, teats, and body ee Hoof,
amber-colored . . . chide .. Sa
Milking Marks Denoting Duality af Flow, 6.
H» CO 00
Udder showing plenty of substance, but not too meaty 6
Symmetry and Size, 5.
Color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white markings.
Cream-colored nose. Horns amber-colored, small, curved,
and not coarse . 3
Size for the breed: cide. cows, our cpard old or over
about 1050 pounds ae
100
SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW.
Adopted by Holstein-Friesian Association
Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in contour 2
Forehead — Broad between the eyes; dishing . . . ‘a
Face — Of medium length; clean and trim especially mane the
eyes, showing facial veins; the bridge of the nose straight 2
Muzzle — Broad with strong lips . . . 1
Ears — Of medium size ;- of fine texture ; die ae plentiful aia
soft; the secretion oily and abundant .
Eyes — Large; full; mild; bright ine
Horns — Small; tapering finely towards the fips oe modera-
ately narrow at base; oval; inclining forward; well bent
inward; of fine texture; in appearance waxy
Carry forward
o >= - Ya
ee a ee oe
APPENDIX
Brought forward
Neck — Long; fine and clean at juncture with the head; free
from dewlap; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders
Shoulders — Slightly lower than hips; fine and even over
tops; moderately broad and full at sides :
Chest — Of moderate depth and lowness; smooth and eres
ately full in the brisket, full in the fore flanks es bate
the heart) . emia mg tt gf Bad :
Crops — Moderately full
Chine — Straight; strong; broadly developed, with open -
vertebre
Barrel — Long; of eae ope : well Ponedene ens ey fine
abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age
must be considered)
295
Loin and Hips — Broad; level or nearly level between the —
hook bones; level and strong laterally; spreading from
chine broadly and nearly level; hook bones any promi-
nent... =.
Rump — Long; hink: oe ae sony Beh are saab jest
laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried
out straight to dropping of tail
Thurl — High, broad .
Quarters — Deep; straight behind = fiat filled with qapelop-
ment of udder; wide and moderately full at the sides
Flanks — Deep; comparatively full
Legs — Comparatively short ; clean and nearly sivdichte wide
apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; feet of
medium size, round, solid, and deep
Tail — Large at base, the setting well back ; janetinn finely we
switch; the end of the bone aie to hocks or below;
the switch full :
Hair and Handling — Hair healthful in Seti ai Soi
and furry; the skin of medium thickness and loose;
mellow under the hand; the secretions oily, abundant,
and of a rich brown or yellow color _
Mammary Veins — Very large; very crooked ae Soe is
taken into consideration in judging of size and crooked-
ness); entering very large or numerous orifices; double
extension; with special developments, such as branches,
connections, ete.
Carry forward
OO
296 | APPENDIX
Brought forward 84
Udder and Teats — Very capacious; very flexible; quarters
even; nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist,
extending well forward in front; broad and well held up 12
Teats — Well formed; wide apart, plump, and of convenient
size ‘ weg BS Sh Sea nS De tee 2
Escutcheon — Earns ‘finest oi oe tat, vet ha SNe heeds oe ean 2
100
TasBLE 47.—Imports AND Exports oF Datry Propucts
YEAR ENDING YEAR ENDING YEAR ENDING
JUNE 30, 1912 - JUNE 30, 1913 JUNE 30, 1914
Amount Value Amount Value Amount Value
Imports
Butter, pounds .{ 1,025,668) $237,154! 1,162,253) $304,094) 7,842,022/$1,753,461
Cheese, pounds /46,542,007) 8,807,249 49,387,944) 9,185,184/63,784,313)| 11,010,693
Cream, gallons .| 1,120,427) 923,779] 1,247,083) 1,068,109) 1,773,152] 1,549,549
Mie By) = 2 Fe 61,671 ' 135,724 1,089,440
Ota. Fn a 10,029,853 10,693,107 15,403,143
Exports
Butter, pounds ./ 6,092,235) 1,468,432) 3,585,600} 872,804] 3,693,597) 877,453
Cheese, pounds 6,337,560} 898,035) 2,599,058} 441,186] 2,427,577) 414,124
Condensed milk,
pounds . ... |20,642,738) 1,651,879|16,525,918| 1,432,848|16,209,082| 1,341,140
Other milk and
cream esi 5.5 244,913 LS 474,055 333,217
Sonal oo 48 4,263,259 3,220,893 2,965,934
Notes ror TABLE 48, on Pace 297
1U. 8. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1913, p. 487.
2 No state standards.
3 Federal rulings adopted.
4 Percentage of fat based on total solids.
5 Fat, 7.8 per cent; total solids plus fat, 34.3 per cent.
6 For butter making, 25 per cent fat.
7 This standard for sweetened condensed milk: ‘‘ Evaporated milk,”
solids, 24 per cent; fat, 7.8 per cent.
8 No report; 1910 standard given.
° By weight.
10 Not more than 0.2 per cent “‘ filler.’’
11 Must correspond to 11.5 per cent solids in crude milk.
2 Tf artifically colored.
18 Must correspond to 12 per cent solids in crude milk.
14 23-24 per cent solids, 7.9 per cent fat; 24-25 per cent solids, 7.8 per
cent fat; 25-26 per cent solids, 7.7 per cent fat; 26 per cent solids, 7.6 per
cent fat.
15 In May and June, solids 12 per cent.
16 Fat, 27.5 per cent of total solids.
APPENDIX |
297
TABLE 48.— LeGcat STANDARDS FOR Datry Propvucts!
STATE
Alabama 2.
Arizona 2
Arkansas 3 .
California .
Colorado
Connecticut”
Delaware 2
District of Columbia
Florida 5
Georgia
Hawaii §
Idaho
Illinois .
Indiana .
Iowa
Kansas .
Kentucky
Louisiana .
Maine ..
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi 2
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska :
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico 2
New York
Nevada ; :
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio “ie
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Porto Rico
Rhode Island
South Carolina 2.
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia 2
Wisconsin
Wyoming
MILE fc
a =
2) ¢
%
; nm |o
3
Ss |oe a3
55 S53] 8 |S5| 8
Hm IRS) & |Hm| &
Per |Per|Per|Per| Per
Cent |Cent\Cent|Gent) Cent
11.5 {8.5 -|/3.0 |8.8 |18.0
: 3.0 16.0 &
11.75 |8.5 |3.25 16.0
12.5 {9.0 {3.5 |9.3 |20.0
11.75 |8.5 |3.25/9.25/;18.0
11.75 |8.5 |3.25/9.25)18.0 -
11.5 |8.5 |3.0
11.2 |8.0 |3.2 |9.3 |18.0
11.5 |8.5 |3.0 |9.25/18.0
8.5 |3.25|9.25)18.0
12.0 3.0 16.0
11.75 |8.5 |3.25/9.25/18.0 &
12.5 |8.5 |3.25)9.25/18.0
8.5 |3.5- 18.0 |18.0
11.75 |8.5 |3.25 18.0
12.5 3.5 |9.25}18.0
12.15 3.35/9.3 |15.0
12:5 3.0
13.0 |9.75)3.25 20.0
12.0. |8.75/3.25]9.25/18.C
11.75 18.5 |3.25 20.0
3.0 18.0
12.0 8.5 |18.0
itIAS 3.0 16.0
11.5 3.0 18.0
11.75 |8.5 |38:25/9.25/18.0
11.5 |8.5 |3.25/9.25|18.0
12.0 |9.0 {3.0 15.0
12.0 3.0
12.51 |9.5 |3.0 |. 18.0
9.0 |3.2 20.0
12.0 3.25 18.0
12.0 |9.0 |3.0
12.0 ty
8.5 |3.25/9.25)18.0
8.5 |3.50
8.5 13.25
12.0 |9.0 |3.2 |9.0 |18.0
12.5 159.25
11.75 |8.5 |3.25}9.25}18.0
12.0 |8.75|3.25|9.3 |18.0
8.5 |3.0 |9.0 |18.0
8.5 |3.25/9.25)18.0
2)
Dp
fc : = és
as CONDENSED] = . Z
a ga MILK nee a <
eB | ag OflO8
= re) & io) 5
3 eo} = <>] 4 %
- ma of | Of
mM | BO Reed ASH
— 2
oo) eos be bee
& | & |eol| & | w&| &
Per | Per | Per'| Per | Per | Per
Cent | Cent | Cent | Cent | Cent | Cent
g0.0 | 504/@) | |12
80.0 50 4 14 12
83.0
82.5 50 4 |28.07| 7.77 | 12
82.5 50 4 |28.0 |27.66 4) 14 12
28.0°°| 7.7
82.5 30 (®) (®) 14 12
82.5 504} (°) (5) 8
82.5 50 4 |28.0 |27.54 8
80.09 12
80.0 504} () (5) 14 12
82.5 50 4 28.0 27.66 4) 14 12
(°) (®)
(®) (®) 4 6
12
454] (°) (®) 12
82.5 50 4 |28.0 |7.76 14
82.5 50 4 14
14 12
80.0 14 10
(41) |25.0 4
82.5 50 ¢ |26.5.) 7.8 14
82.5 504 {28.0 {27.54 | 14 12
14
80.0 2 (38) |25.0 4
81.5 14
30 | (14) (14) 12
SP ’ 8 6
80.0 504 /28.0 |27.54 | 14 12
80.0 504} (5) (®) 14 12
82.5 2 ees al 8
30
82.5 50 4 |28.0 8.0 14
82.5 50 4 |28.0 (18) 14 12
298 APPENDIX
TaBLE 49.— AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK AND ITs.
Propwucts
WATER ASH PROTEIN SuGAR Fat
Skim-milk, gravity. .| 89.88 Ey a 3.54 4.91 0.90
Skim-milk, separator . | 90.60 .78 Bays 4.95 0.10
Buttermilk. \2>-54-0 53-01-24 .70 3.50 4.00 0.56
Whey <6. . ; 90.5 20.3 69.4
Dried Distillers’ Grain ; 92.4 | 22.8 88.6
Wet Beet Pulp. . ... 10.2 5 8.2
Dried Beet Pulp .. . 91.6 4.1 69.0
Sugar-beet Molasses . . , 19.2 4.7 58.8
Silage.
OLE 1 DURAN Save ae Sesto oe 26.4 1.4 17.2
RET ee. oes 4 23.9 - 0.1 14.1
He COVER 35 oes ee 28.0 ho 11.8
BOVMea aehe tei vod obs 25.8 PY 15.2
Cowpea. Vine oo wi. 20.7 VS 12.1
302 APPENDIX
TotTaL Dry DIGESTIBLE TorTaL
MATTER PROTEIN NUTRIMENT
Dried Roughage.
Fodder Corn with Ears . 57.8 25 39.8
Corn Stover, Ears removed 59.5 1.4 34.2
PEM OY eee Syekea ee 86.8 2.8 48.1
Orchard Grass: s.-e- 90.1 ‘ 4.9 50.4
Redtop. -.—. Moe 91.1 4.8 - 93.9
Kentucky Bluegrass - tae 86.0 4.4 46.2
Bermuda Grass eae oa 92.9 6.4 54.9
-donnson: Grassy At sole ose 89.8 2.9 50.3
Perla ior eet Been Vine 85.0 ee 51.6
Oat ies pice” reuegh ts 86.0 4.7 45.2
Hungarian Grass PN Pics 86.0 5.0 54.4
Prairie Grass ..-. . 90.8 3.0 49.5
Buftalo Grass" 7. 0 oe 85.0 3.0 48.6
Hay from Legumes and
Mixed Legumes and
Grasses.
Ree Clover...) ood 84.7 7 a | 48.9
Wistke Clover io 22 6 90.3 8.4 50.6
Crimson Clover aise se 90.4 10.5 48.1
Sweet Glover: sc, ts She 92.1 11.9 49.7
OVE Pi. Sg Trad oe ee 88.2 10.6 54.2
Cowpea ~.... = : 89.5 13a 49.1
Alfalfa (western Fig ‘Ss. ) ‘ 93.2 1 eS 51.5
Hairy (winter) Vetch ; 88.7 11.9 56.2
Peanut Vine 5 leg kia 92.4 EZ. 55.6
Oat and Pea : 89.5 7.6 52.4
Mixed Grasses and Clover 87.1 5.8 DUD
Straw and Chaff.
Od eo ot oe ene ee 90.4 8 36.9
Rye pas Altealeah e Ae Lae 92.9 ai 41.2
Oat Me that Ge Cog: 90.8 1:3 42.6
Barley Be ght a Re ae 85.8 9 42.3
Buekwhéat.- ~~ *.--.- 225 90.1 L2 39.7
Fresh Green Roughage.
Green Corn and Sorghum-
forage.
APPENDIX 303
TotTaLt Dry DIGESTIBLE Toran
MATTER PROTEIN NUTRIMENT
Fodder, Corn, all
Mtmieiios= 228 258 20.7 1.0 13.8
Sweet Varieties. . .. 20.9 12 14.7
Fresh Green Grasses . .
Pasture Grass: >. 20. 25 IS a
Kentucky Blue-grass .. 34.9 2.8 24.2
Mamtpiy eek, 38.4 £5 22.7
Orehard Grass...) 27.0 1 2 15:7
Redtop in bloom .. ., 34.7 1.9 24.3
Wheat Forage .... Ae a 17 14.6
Rye Forage . cae 23.4 2.1 eee
Oat Forage, in Milk si SN 37.8 2.5 22.9
Darley Porage= ... . - 21.0 1.9 12.9
Johnson Grass... :. . 25.0 6 147
Bermuda Grass 27 ate 28.3 1.3 15.6
Common Millet hp we 20.0 0.8 1233
Fresh Green Legumes,
Grasses and Legumes
Combined.
mor Clover “5... , 29.2 2.9 19.3
Alsike Clover 4 25 We. 2.6 15.4
Crimson Clover eae 19.1 2.4 12.6
Sweet Clover .... ~ 20.0 2.5 11.8
. Alfalfa ae Sit wigs aa UN 28.2 3.6 16.6
Cowpea Pree we Ma 16.4 1.8 11.0
Soybean . ae 24.9 oo lek
Canada Field-pea = 15.3 1.8 9.4
ion and Tubers.
Potatoes 20.9 LE 17.0
Common Beet Lis 1.2 9.3
Mangel 9.1 1.0 7.0
Sugar Beet :13.5 1.3 11.3
Flat Turnip . 9.9 | 9 7.5
Carrot . 11.4 8 9.2
Rutabaga 11.4 1.0 9.5
Miscellaneous.
Dwarf Essex Rape 14.3 2.0 10.6
Cabbage 10.0 2.3 8.4
Field Pumpkins 9.1 LO 1.0
304 ' APPENDIX
Wina’s Metruop oF BALANCING RATIONS
A short method of balancing rations devised by H. H.
Wing is practical and convenient.
He divides the ordniary grains into three groups: low pro-
tein (less than 12 per cent); medium protein (12 to 25 per
cent); high protein (over 25 per cent). The figures given
in the table are for the total and not the digestible protein.
TaspLE 52.— WinG@’s Metruop or BALANCING RATIONS
Low PROTEIN GROUP MepiumM Protein GROUP HieoH PROTEIN GROUP
Total Protein 12% or less | Total Protein 12% to 25% | Total Protein 25% or more
Gorn (3% 6... Ph) = 10538) | Wheat brant >>. -15:4,)| Malt sprouts: 26.3 *
Oats. ... ..: . 11/4 | Mixed wheat feed . 16.3 | Linseed oil meal - . (33a9
Wheat . . . . . 11.9 | Wheat middlings 16.9 | Cottonseed meal. . . 45.3.
Rye oo. 0.0. 2 3. 11387) Cottonseed feed: 20.0 | Gluten feed eer |
Barley . . . . . 12.0 | Buckwheat feed 18.3 | Brewers’ dried grains 25.0
Buckwheat 10.8 | Pea meal . : 20.2 | Distillers’ dried grains
r (corn): +: 5) 35 ae ee
Hominy chop... 10.5 | Cull beans . 21.6 | Buckwheat middlings . 26.7
Dried beet pulp 8.1
Corn-and-cob meal 8.5
Mixed hay, corn silage, and corn fodder are very similar
in composition as far as the relation between the protein and
carbohydrates is concerned. When roughage of this class
is used, a grain mixture made. by mixing equal parts by
weight of one from each of the three groups will make a well-
balanced ration. A dairy cow in full flow of milk should
receive all the hay and silage she will eat and the grain mix-
ture at the rate of one-pound for each 3 or 3} pounds of
milk that she produces, if this milk be about the average
composition of 4. percent. If the milk contains 3 to 3.5
percent fat, 1 pound grain to 4 pounds of milk is sufficient.
If alfalfa hay is used the high protein feed is not necessary.
APPENDIX 305
TABLE 53. — AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF DIFFERENT F'EEDING-STUFFs !
Penoiva Srurs et age Nr
Sein irad 5 f Pounds Quarts
Pemereirsa ls Ser ee er, | 0.9
1 S10 0 ai ia ae 1.5 0.7
Brewers’ dried grains - . .. . 0.6 7
Gorn-and-cob mesh. 9. os 1.4 0.7
Corp-and-oat-feed 94.0 65... 0.7 1.4
[OSA Li ae a a ee a 0.5 2.0
rea e ee NSE cS yy 1S 0.7
Corn, whole | oor LF 0.6
Cottonseed meal . Le hea ai de a 1.5 0.7
Distillers’ erains, dried» 2°... 0.5-0.7 1.0-1.4
‘Germ oil meal 1.4 0.7
Gluten feed 1h 0.8
Gluten meal Id 0.6
Hominy meal . Let 0.9
Linseed meal, new process 0.9 je
Linseed meal, old process 1.1 0.9
Malt sprouts . 0.6 1 na
Oats, ground . SVU 1.4
Oats, whole 1.0 1.0
Rye bran . 0.6 1.8
Rye meal . 1.5 0.7
Rye, whole iy 0.6
Wheat bran 0.5 2.0
Wheat, ground Ee 0.6
Wheat middlings (flour) set 5 0.8
Wheat middlings EN: 0.8 1.3
Wheat, whole i 2.0 0.5
Ruues FoR MEASURING FEED
Measuring Grain. A bushel of grain contains approxi-
mately 5 cubic feet. To find the capacity of a bin, find the
number of cubic feet and multiply by 4, or multiply by 8
and divide by 10.
Measuring Ear Corn. Two bushels of ears are ordinarily
required to make one bushel of grain. To find the capacity
ot OFS 4 Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bulletin 222. :
=
306 APPENDIX
of a crib, find the number of cubic feet and multiply by 2,0r
multiply by 4 and divide by 10. Seventy pounds of ear
corn is ordinarily called a bushel.
Measuring Straw. Few weights of straw have been re-
ported. The writer measured and weighed two barns full
of settled wheat straw. The mows were 14 feet deep, 1200
cubic feet were required for one ton.
Measuring Hay. Some kinds of hay are heavier than
others. The deeper the mow or stack and the longer it has
stood, the heavier the hay is per cubic foot. Of course the
bottom of a mow is much heavier than the top. Usually
about 500 cubic feet of settled hay are counted as one ton.
A barn 30 X 60 feet and 16 feet from floor to top of the
plate, and having the peak 9 feet above the plate, was filled -
as full as possible with timothy hay and refilled after a few
days. This hay was baled by the writer about five months
later. It weighed 514 tons. On another year it weighed
51 tons.