of the sea and shore

An ICHTHOS publication

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ICHTHYOLOGY DEPT.

RHODES UNIVERSfr
LIBRARY

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Dangers of the Sea and Shore

Introduction

This booklet, published by ICHTHOS, Newsletter of the Friends of the J.L.B.
Smith Institute of Ichthyology, took as its inspiration and guidance, the popular
publication by Margaret Smith Sea Shore Dangers. Their recognition, avoidance
and treatment, which has long been out of print. This present publication was
compiled with the help of Institute staff (particularly Prof. Mike Bruton and Dr.
Phillip Heemstra) as well as staff from other institutions e.g. Dept, of Ichthyology
& Fisheries Science (Rhodes University), Albany Museum and Two Oceans
Aquarium, Cape Town. We are grateful to them for sharing their knowledge and
experience with us.

Although the treatments advocated in this booklet have been well researched,
the J.L.B. Smith Institute is not responsible for their consequences. Medical
practice and pharmacology are constantly changing fields. The medical informa¬
tion provided here is therefore of a general nature. It is always best to consult your
own doctor or chemist.

As far as people are concerned, stinging and biting mechanisms in marine
animals are usually weapons of self-defence, not attack.

As Margaret Smith wrote, in the epilogue to her Sea and Shore Dangers:
"Treat the sea and its creatures with respect. It is not to frighten anyone
away that I have compiled this booklet. Each human activity has its
dangerous areas and to know them and treat them intelligently means
that you can enjoy what you are doing and avoid accidents. So, know
the dangers, circumvent them and enjoy yourselves. The sea is a
wonderful heritage."

Dangers of the Sea and Shore

Text by Marion Baxter. Illustrations by Dave Voorvelt.

© ICHTHOS, J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology 1995.

Copies obtainable from ICHTHOS, P. Bag 1015, Grahamstown, 6140.
ISSN 1011-7490

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7-0

1

Marine animals that sting or have a venomous bite

The cnidarians which includes the hydroids, jellyfishes, corals and sea anemones,
are simple, many-celled organisms. They all possess tentacles equipped with
nematocysts or microscopic stinging cells. Some coelenterates are capable of
paralyzing their prey, i.e. small fish. The nematocyst consists of a globular oval or
spindle-shaped capsule, which encloses a coiled thread tube. The venom in the
capsule is injected into the victim’s tissue through the tubule. The main toxic
component is a protein. Jellyfishes go through a medusa (free-living phase) during
which they disperse widely into shallow, coastal waters used by man for sport and
recreation.

Bluebottle/Portuguese man-of-war

Physalia utriculus

This animal has a blue-gas-filled transparent
sac which allows it to drift at an angle to the
wind. It floats on the surface of the water and
trails many short, frilled tentacles and a single
long ‘fishing’ tentacle which may extend 10
m or more. It is this long tentacle that causes
the sting and may continue to do so when
dried by the sun. Physalia, which is really a
colony of organisms, is brought onto beaches
en masse by easterly winds.

Symptoms and treatment: Usually local pain varying in intensity, red weals with
an interrupted appearance in single or multiple lines, generalised joint and muscle
pain disappearing after a few hours. Remove the tentacles gently, preferably with
tweezers. Lift upwards without rubbing; or wash off with water. Apply a cold pack
wrapped in a cloth to the stung area for 5 -10 minutes; or use ice in the same way.
DO NOT use vinegar as this has been shown to cause further discharge of the
nematocysts.

Avoidance: Beware of an onshore or easterly
wind. Bluebottles on the beach can still sting.

Jellyfish (Scyphozoa)

The familiar mushroom jellyfish ( Rhizos -
toma sp.) translucent white or blue in colour,
which grows to a size of 30 cm in diameter or
more, and which is sometimes washed up on
the beaches in large numbers to be eaten by
plough snails, has no single mouth and no

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

2

tentacles and lives by filtering tiny prey through its many small pores. Found all
along our coasts, it is harmless to man. The box jellyfish Carybdea alata has
tentacles up to 70 cm long, occurs in swarms, and though not as dangerous as the
deadly sea wasp Chironex fleckeri of Australia, inflicts agonising stings. Painful
encounters between man and jellyfish are usually ‘accidental’ however, since
cubozoans (box-shaped jellyfish) are passive predators that wait for moving prey
to blunder into their trailing tentacles. The night-light jellyfish with its hemispheri¬
cal, warty bell trailing 8 tentacles, occurs in False Bay.

Symptoms & treatment: If badly stung, the victim may become confused or even
lose consciousness and therefore, there is a danger of drowning. Tentacles tend to
cling to the skin with a sticky, jellylike substance, but it is usually safe for
bystanders to attempt to remove them, pulling in one direction only and not
rubbing. Apply ice (if handy) to inactivate unfired nematocysts and stop the venom
from spreading. Apply a local anaesthetic ointment.

Avoidance: Surfers and bathers are most at risk. Wear protective clothing and
swim in enclosed areas.

Anthothoe stimpsoni

Sea anemones (Actinaria)

The mouth of an anemone is ringed with 8 or
more tentacles armed with stinging cells to
capture prey. The toxins are either proteins or
peptides. Solitary sea anemonies are polyp
shaped and generally sedentary though capa¬
ble of moving around the rock to which the
pedal disc attaches. Divers are frequently
stung about the face and neck when diving on
Natal wrecks carpeted with small, white and
brown-tentacled anemonies with orange and grey striped stems, belonging to the
family Sagartiidae, genus Anthothoe. When disturbed, these extrude white string¬
like acontia through the body wall which contain thousands of stinging cells ready
to discharge at the slightest provocation. They are sticky and will cling to gloves
or hands.

Symptoms & treatment: A mild burning sensation at the affected area, weals and
weeping sores if not treated. Use an antibiotic cream as soon as possible.
Avoidance: Avoid touching face and neck with contaminated gloves or hands.
Look out for them attached to hydroids, whip corals, and artificial flat surfaces
such as wrecks and submerged pipelines.

Fire coral Millepora dichotoma

The fire coral is a hydroid similar in appearance to the true reef building corals. It
has a bright yellow-green and brown skeletal covering, pitted by many tiny pores

3

fire coral

through which tentacles with nematocysts project. The toxin is a water soluble,
thermolabile protein.

Symptoms & treatment: More severe pain
than caused by the bluebottle. A burning itch
with pinpoint red lesions around the area of
contact is common, followed by swelling and
weals. Apply a good anaesthetic/hydrocorti¬
sone ointment. Antihistamine creams are not
nearly as effective. An allergic reaction causes
vomiting. Restore body fluids and electrolytes
(eight level teaspoons of sugar and half a level
teaspoon of salt dissolved in a litre of water).

Avoidance: Wear gloves and protective cloth¬
ing when diving and do not handle fire corals.

'Sea Firs'

The fern-like hydroids, toothed-feather hy-
droid Aglaophenia pluma and fire hydroid
Lytocarpus phillipinus are common along our
coasts in warm waters and can cause intense
bums, swellings and painful itches. They are
often found anchored to other marine growths
and are difficult to see, with the result that the
host (e.g. a sponge) is sometimes blamed for
the sting. The fire hydroid forms branching colonies and is pale white in colour,
whilst the feather hydroid has yellow stems with a root-like base.

Symptoms & treatment: Reactions to the sting vary from a mild sensation to
extreme pain which increases over the first ten minutes. The appearance is that of
a patchy area of red skin with raised pinpoint lesions, developing weals within the
first hour. DO NOT use vinegar as it has been shown to activate the discharge
mechanisms of the nematocysts. Douse the stung area of skin with water and apply
an ice pack until the pain subsides. Apply a local anaesthetic ointment.
Avoidance: Do not handle these hydroids.

Sea swallow Claucus atlanticus.

This beautiful animal, about 1-2.5 cm in
length, is a mollusc, usually found in surface
waters, floating ventral surface uppermost
and gulping air bubbles to keep afloat. It is
blue on top and pearly white underneath.

toothed

feather-hydroid

sea swallow

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

4

It feeds on planktonic coelenterates along with their nematocysts which are then
used as a stinging apparatus. If Glaucus has been feeding on bluebottles, the sting
will be of comparable severity. Glaucus lesions are scattered over the areas of
contact and do not follow tentacle lines.

Symptoms & treatment: Usually minor irritation increasing in severity if the
painful area is rubbed. Lesions increase for the first ten minutes and then diminish
during the next hour, along with the pain. The danger is that, since Glaucus occurs
in the shallows, a child’s eye may become affected. In this case, seek medical
assistance. Apply a non-aqueous anaesthetic solution in the form of eye drops.
Avoidance: Beautiful to look at, but do not touch.

Venomous molluscs

Cone shells (Gastropoda)

Being very decorative, cone shells are much val¬
ued by collectors. There are more than 400 species
of cone shells in tropical seas and all of them
contain a highly-developed venom apparatus.

They occur under rocks and coral or are found
crawling along the sand, and are nocturnal in
habit. The following are especially dangerous:
court cone Conus aulicus, geographer cone Conus
geographus , marbled cone Conus marmoreus ,
striated cone Conus striatus, textile cone Conus
textile and tulip cone Conus tulipa.

The cone shell toxin is used for paralyzing and capturing prey. A sting from Conus
sp. is sometimes fatal to man. The feeding habits of each cone shell indicate the
strength of its venom e.g. the fish-eating species (geographer and tulip cones) are
the most dangerous to man.

Symptoms & treatment: Stings produced by Conus are of the puncture wound
variety, the pain varying from mild to excrutiating, aggravated by salt water.
Usually the bite area becomes inflamed and a numbness and tingling sensation
quickly develops around the mouth and lips. The vision becomes blurred. In severe
cases there will be difficulty in swallowing and speech, followed by complete
muscular paralysis.

Apply a firm bandage to the area of the wound with no more tension than is required
for a sprained joint. (The bandage must not become a tourniquet.) Immobilise the
affected limb with a splint if possible, or more bandage to form a sling. Depending
on the severity of the bite, artificial respiration and external cardiac massage may
have to be given until a doctor arrives.

5

Avoidance: Do not handle live animals except when wearing thick, non-porous
gloves, or put a live cone shell in your pocket as its harpoon can penetrate clothing.

Octopus (Cephalapoda)

The bite of some species of octopus can be venomous. The toxin is used to paralyse
prey such as crabs which have first been caught by the tentacles. Octopus bites
usually consist of two small puncture wounds which are produced by the sharp
parrot-like chitinous jaws.

Symptoms & treatment: The first symptom is localised pain which radiates out,
accompanied by profuse bleeding of the wound. Dryness in the mouth and
•difficulty with swallowing may also be experienced.

Wash the wound. Either apply a moist compress as hot as the patient can tolerate,
or apply a very firm bandage to the area of the wound and if the bite is on a limb,
use an immobilizing splint. Do not use a tourniquet as it may block the supply of
oxygen to the muscle tissue and cause great damage to nerves and arteries.
Avoidance: In South Africa, it is usually safe to handle an octopus.

Echinoderms

Sea urchins have long protective spines moved by fine muscles, each attached to
a tubercle on the shell by a ball and socket joint so that it can be swivelled to point
at any threat. Most of the South African sea urchins have solid spines and are
harmless to humans, but a few species
have long, lance-like spines with back¬
ward-pointing serratioins which can
penetrate a victim’s skin quite deeply be¬
fore breaking off in the wound.

Needle urchin Diadema setosum
Occurring from the Transkei coast north¬
wards, these black and blue sea urchins
have very long, needle-sharp spines. They
feed on algae which they ‘graze’ and are
found amongst rocks and coral.

Flower urchin

Toxopneustes pileolus
The most venomous of all sea urchins,
this species has short, thick, white-tipped
spines but the real danger lies in its many
beautiful flower-like pincers armed with lethal poison glands. It is found on
tropical reefs, often disguised with a seaweed roof to shade it from the sun.

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORT

6

Symptoms & treatment: A severe pain at the point of penetration lasting up to 4
hours. The area around the puncture becomes numb and black or violet in colour.
The wound may become infected and slough in a few days. The whole area will
develop a radiating kind of ache. The lymph glands become tender and swollen.
Do not attempt removal of the spines unless this can be done early and without
breaking them. In a severe case, the spines must be removed surgically. If the spine
is deeply embedded it can be crushed by pummelling the area with a fist which will
aid absorption. Bathe the area with hot (but not boiling) water. A local anaesthetic
reduces the pain considerably.

Avoidance: Surfers, anglers and divers
should be wary of these sea urchins.

Crown-of-thorns starfish

Acanthaster planci
Of the class Asteroidea, only the
crown-of-thoms that feeds on corals is
dangerous. It is a large starfish grow¬
ing up to 60 cm in diameter, found in
the Indo-Pacific region. It has 13-16
arms and many short, sharp spines, red¬
dish orange at the tip merging into blue-
grey arms, over the entire outer surface of the body.

Symptoms & treatment: A puncture of the victim’s skin and tissues by the spines
results in an extremely painful wound which quickly swells and turns red. Numb¬
ness and paralysis may follow, and some victims vomit profusely. In people prone
to allergy, contact with the slime covering this starfish may result in a skin disease
(contact dermatitis), since the spines are enveloped in a thin layer of integument
which has glandular cells and which, it is thought, may contain the venom.

Remove any loose spines, pulling them straight out. They are very fragile and
easily break off in the wound so it is important that a doctor check to ensure that
no fragments are left. Bathe the area in hot water; alternatively, ice-cold water may
give some relief. A local antibiotic should be applied to the cleaned wound. In the
case of severe skin irritation without any puncture, hydrocortisone ointment should
be applied.

Avoidance: This species occurs from Natal to Mozambique. Wear shoes if walking
on the coral reef. Wear gloves when handling the crown-of-thoms.

Polychaeta: bristleworms
and musselworms

Fi reworm Eurythoe complanata

Eunice aphroditois
wonder-worm

7

Pseudocnella insolens
red chested sea cucumber

The fireworm occurs from Port St Johns to Mozambique. It has a long, flat body,
is grey-green in colour with tufts of hollow serrated bristles projecting laterally
from each body segment. The bristles sting. The wonder-worm has large jaws.
Symptoms & treatment: Remove bristles with adhesive
tape. Treat stings with alcohol or meat tenderiser.

Musselworm Pseudonereis variegata
South African musselworms, which are popular as bait and
are found along our entire coastline, have conspicuous
shiny, many-coloured iridescent heads and long bodies
with many lateral bristles. They are capable of inflicting a
nasty bite with jaws which emerge from the worm’s throat.

Avoidance: Do not handle with your bare hands.

Sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea)

Sea cucumbers live in a variety of habitats, under rocks and
corals, amongst seaweeds, or on
the open, flat, sandy areas of the
oceans. They have a worm-like or
sausage-shaped body without
free arms but with a circle of ten¬
tacles around the mouth. The
black sea cucumber Pseudoc¬
nella sykion is common on rocky
shores along the South African
coast, whilst the tufted sea cucumber Holothuria cinerascens is harvested for
human consumption and exported to the Far East. A toxic substance is present in
the body surfaces of many species and this may cause irritation to the skin, and
should any come into contact with the victim’s eye, blindness can result.

Fishes that shock

Blackspotted electric ray Torpedo fuscomaculata
Atlantic electric ray Torpedo nobilana
Natal electric ray Heteronarce garmani
Onefin electric ray Narke capensis
Electric rays are found in western Indian
Ocean estuaries and shelf areas. They are
sluggish swimmers, spending most of their
time lying on the bottom partially buried in
the mud or sand, in shallow depths. Outlines

of the large kidney-shaped electric organs are , - . .

Torpedo fuscomaculata

musselworm

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

8

usually visible situated on either side of the front part of the disc. The electric charge
passes between the negatively charged ventral side and the positively charged
dorsal side of the ray. A simple reflex action as a result of tactile stimulation causes
the shock which can exceed 200 volts, enough to knock a man over. After repeated
electrical discharges, there is a period when the shocks lose their power and the ray
is ‘recharging its batteries’. These batteries are used for defence and to stun prey.
The main danger is to children as female rays give birth to their young in shallow
water and a child disturbing one could be severely shocked and may drown as a
consequence.

Symptoms & treatment: After the initial shock, recovery is usually uneventful.
Avoidance: Shuffle the feet along when wading in shallow water and estuaries.

Fishes that bite

Sharks

According to Compagno and Ebert (1989), the pattern of shark attacks off southern
Africa can be positively correlated with sea temperature. This is related to the
greater number of people using the sea for recreation in warm-temperate and
subtropical waters, and also to the diversity and abundance of dangerous sharks in
warmer waters. The greatest risk area is the east coast of southern Africa, off Natal.
Attacks on swimmers, surfers and divers along the west and southern coasts, from
Namibia to Transkei, occur at a lower rate, though there have been recent attacks
off Mossel Bay and East London. Very few attacks have been recorded on the west
coast from Namibia to Cape Town although great white sharks and spotted
sevengill sharks are common in those waters.

Even the most powerfully armed sharks will not automatically attack people
in the water; however, all large sharks, over about 2 m long, must be considered as
potentially dangerous with the exception of a few very large species such as the
basking shark Cetorhinus maximus which feeds on tiny crustaceans and the whale
shark Rhincodon typus, a suction filter-feeder which follows plankton blooms.
The most dangerous sharks may be the opportunistic feeders, a few of the requiem
shades with their blade-like teeth, particularly the huge, striped, blunt-snouted tiger
shark Galeocerdo cuvier, oceanic whiptail shark Carcharhinus longimanus which
often investigates offshore divers, the blue shark Prionace glauca found all along
the South African coast which is a danger to victims of maritime accidents; the

great white shark

blue shark

massive Zambezi shark Carcharhinus leucas, and the great white shark Carcharo-
don carcharias which often investigates divers and boats without attacking.
Symptoms & treatment: The modem view is that it is best to treat casualties of
shark attack on the beach, allowing 30-60 minutes for the victim’s anti-stress
mechanisms to come into play, before moving him/her to hospital. Efficient beach
management is therefore vitally important.

Get the victim ashore as quickly as possible. Move him or her no further up
the beach than is required to avoid wave action. Immediately place the victim in
the head down position using the slope of the beach. Apply a tourniquet to stop
the bleeding, or a clean piece of cloth to the open wound to allow the blood to clot
and leave this dressing undisturbed. Record the time when the tourniquet was first
applied as it must be released for five minutes after an hour, except in cases where
a limb has been amputated.

Do not give the injured person warm drinks or alcohol though sips of water
may be given. Cover him/her with a towel and provide shelter from the sun.
Immediately get someone to call a doctor and ambulance and provide as much
information on the attack and size and site of the wound as possible. Comfort and
reassure the victim and keep a constant check on his/her breathing. Once medical
help arrives, morphine (15 mg) is advocated.

Avoidance: When there is a danger of immediate shark attack, try to remain calm
and create as little disturbance as possible in the water. Make for a life raft or any
other available floating object and climb completely out of the water as soon as
possible. If you are not within reach of a boat or raft, swim steadily towards safety,
keeping the shark continuously in view. A hard blow on the snout may drive the
shark away but use the fist to do so only if nothing else is available as shark skin
is abrasive and may cause bleeding wounds to the hands which will further attract
sharks. There is no evidence that dangerous sharks can be driven away by shouting.

When swimming in areas where shark attacks have previously been recorded
or where sharks are known to occur, observe the following precautions:

> do not swim or dive alone at any time;

> do not swim at night or when the light is poor and never spear fish at night;

> no female should enter the water whilst menstruating;

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

10

> do not enter the water if you have a fresh injury however minor — the sense
of smell in most dangerous sharks is acute and they can detect the presence of
minute quantities of blood from a distance;

> do not dive or swim in discoloured water and note the temperature of the water:
the risk of attack increases in water with a temperature of 20° C or higher;

> do not spear, disturb or interfere with sharks and never spear fish if there are
sharks in the vicinity. To swim with or tow a speared fish is to invite attack;

> do not trail arms or legs from a boat, raft or float.

Barracuda Sphyraena jello

The barracuda is an aggressive carnivorous fish widely distributed in tropical and
sub-tropical waters. It may swim in schools and is attracted to bright coloured
objects, diver’s bubbles and speared fish. However, authenticated reports of attacks
on scuba divers in South Africa are scarce. Live fishes landed on the rocks or in a
boat can inflict painful wounds. (

Symptoms & treatment: As for shark attack, above.

Avoidance: Do not swim or dive in areas where barracuda are prevalent and do not
spear barracuda.

Rockcods (Serranidae) and red steenbras Petrus rupestris
Rockcods, especially the yellowbelly rockcod Epinephelus marginatus are popular
angling fish and much sought after by spearfishermen. Although they have sharp
teeth and enlarged canines, they do not usually present a danger, except when their
territory is invaded. The gills are armed with formidable gill rakers, so it is unwise
to attempt to carry a rockcod by inserting a hand into its mouth or gills.

The red steenbras has been implicated in attacks on men at sea, especially
survivors from shipwrecks. It is easily identified by its dark red fins, a light red to
bronze body colour and outer row of canines. It is not normally dangerous to anglers
or divers, but on no account eat the liver.

Moray eel Gymnothorax undulatus

Moray eels with their long muscular bodies, powerful jaws and strong, knifelike
teeth can inflict painful and dangerous bites which rapidly turn septic. However,
morays are not normally aggressive towards people. The main danger is to divers

11

who reach into a crevice which turns out to be a moray’s ‘den’. Moray eels have
been known to drown divers by grasping a hand or leg and refusing to let go until
either the muscles at the angles of its jaws are cut or it is killed.

Symptoms and treatment: A jagged wound which will become gangrenous if
not properly treated results from a moray bite. Stop the bleeding by applying local
pressure and if necessary, a tourniquet. Call a doctor who may administer
intravenous fluids. A tetanus injection is absolutely necessary.

Avoidance: Moray eels may be poisonous to eat and are best left alone. Be careful
when retrieving speared morays which appear to be dead. Divers should avoid
poking hands into crevices and should always carry a knife.

Venomous fishes: fishes with spines

There are thousands of fishes with fin spines and about 200 species of fishes with
venomous spines. In many cases, the spines are equipped with venom glands from
which toxic fluids are ejected into the victim. Venomous fishes are usually
sedentary bottom dwellers and their spines are defence organs.

Dogfish sharks (Squalidae)

Venomous sharks are limited to those species possessing dorsal fin spines. The
spotted spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias is a common species, easily recognised
by its white spots. It has a sharp strong spine immediately anterior to each dorsal
fin accompanied by a glistening whitish venom gland in a shallow groove behind
the top part of each dorsal spine. The small, shortnose spiny dogfish Squalus
megalops is extremely common and occurs in vast schools, often close inshore.
The shortspine spiny dogfish Squalus mitsukurii is found along the entire South
African coast from Nambia to Natal and is very common offshore.

Symptoms & treatment: Immediate intense, stabbing pain that persists for hours.
Swelling around the wound and tenderness for several days. Dogfish stings have
been known to be fatal to man. Irrigate the wound. Soak the injury in hot (but not
boiling) water for 30 minutes to 1 hour. If the wound is on the face, use hot
compresses.

Avoidance: Dogfish sharks whip their tails back and forth in defence. Stings often
occur from the careless handling of dogfish. Watch out for the dorsal fin spines
when removing these sharks from a spear, hook or net as they have been known
to give a sudden jerk and drive the sting into the angler’s flesh.

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

Stingrays and devil rays

Found in shallow, sandy areas in tropical and
temperate seas, and often caught by anglers,
stingrays represent areal and constant danger,
being the most important single group of ven¬
omous fishes. Most stingrays have one or
more saw-edged spines or stings on the upper
tail. The sting is sheathed with poisonous
tissue and used as a defence weapon. All
stingrays are live-bearing. The common blue
stingray Dasyatis chrysonota which has
bright blue blotches and branching lines on a golden disc is found in the surf zone,
close inshore, often off sheltered sandy beaches and in shallow bays. It moves
inshore off beaches in summer and offshore in winter. The huge honeycomb
stingray Himantura uarnak with its beautiful reticulated pattern is found in tropical
waters (east coast from East London to Natal and Mozambique), inshore in
estuaries and may enter fresh water.

Four species of devilray (Mobulidae) occur in South African waters. These
are large, heavy-bodied rays recognised by the pair of unique, flat head fins, the
large, angular pectoral disc, and tiny teeth. The devilray has a slender, whip-like
tail with a small sting sometimes present just behind the dorsal fin.

The commonest stingray wounds are on the lower part of the leg. Extraction
of the spine results in laceration due to the serrations and the backward-pointing
barbs.

Symptoms and treatment: Stingray wounds are either of the laceration or punc¬
ture type. Large wounds will require surgical closure. The area around the wound
swells, becoming ashy in appearance, then cyanotic (blue-tinged) and finally
reddened. The victim feels a constant pulsating pain increasing in strength for about
30 minutes and decreasing over the next 6-48 hours. The wound may bleed
profusely. Ulceration and secondary infection is common. Other symptoms are a
fall in blood pressure, vomiting, diarrhoea, sweating, rapid heart beat and muscular
paralysis.

Stingray venom depresses respiration. Treatment must be immediate. Lay
the patient down and rest the affected area in an elevated position. Irrigate the area
with salt water, exploring the wound to remove any pieces of the sting’s poisonous
sheath. If this is not done, poisoning will continue. Relief of pain is the most urgent
need. Marine venoms are rapidly denatured by heat, and speedy heat treatment is
therefore the most effective first aid. The wound should be immersed in hot water,
as hot as bearable as tested by the uninjured hand/foot (about 50° C). Be careful of
scalding. Bandaging and ligatures do not help and if used may increase the local

13

tissue damage and pain. Obtain medical assistance. A simple injection of local
anaesthetic solution through the puncture wound will block the pain. (The anaes¬
thetic solution must not contain adrenaline.) Antitetanus agents should be admin¬
istered by a medical doctor and antibiotics will be needed in the case of secondary
infection.

Avoidance: Strong footwear gives protection from submerged rays if accidentally
trodden upon. Shuffle your feet in shallow water. Net fishermen and trawlermen
should be on the lookout for venomous fishes when sorting or handling the catch.

Rabbitfishes (Siganidae)

Rabbitfishes are a group of spiny-
rayed fishes which closely resem¬
ble the surgeonfishes. They are
known from Durban northwards
and are plentiful herbivores of the
tropical Indo-Pacific, highly es¬
teemed as food. They are oval,
moderate sized, apparently
scaleless fishes with 12 to 13 dorsal spines, 7 anal spines and each pelvic fin with
2 spines, all of which have associated venom glands. Usually it is the first dorsal
spine that makes the wound as a sudden movement of the fish drives this spine
forward.

Symptoms & treatment: Severe pain which extends to the regional lymph glands.
Clean the wound. Administer the hot water treatment for marine venom, as
described for stingray wounds above.

Avoidance: Highly esteemed as food, but anglers should be careful when handling
these fish. As a general rule of thumb while diving, do not touch fishes which do
not swim away from you.

Surgeonfish and unicorns (Acanthuridae) Triggerfish (Balistidae)

Surgeonfishes and unicomfishes are herbivores commonly seen swimming around
reefs in tropical waters, typically in shoals, or feeding on algae. The convict
surgeon Acanthurus triostegus has a small tail spine contained in a deep groove in

the peduncle. The bluebanded sur¬
geon has a long tail spine contained
in a deep groove. These fishes can¬
not erect their caudal spines at will.
When the fish is excited its move¬
ments cause the tip of the spine on
the convex side of the body to be¬
come exposed. Should the tip snag

Naso lituratus

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

14

anything moving behind the spine it will become erected and the sharp edge will
cut into that object. Unicom fishes of the sub-family Nasiinae have more than one
spine on each side.

A surgeonfish is capable of inflicting a deep, painful wound. The first dorsal spine
of the boomerang triggerfish Sufflamen bursa can be locked upright by the second
spine. As wounds inflicted by such fishes tend to bleed profusely, there may be
anti-coagulant present in the mucus on the knife.

Symptoms and treatment: Surgeonfishes produce painful puncture wounds or
cuts, but the pain generally subsides after about 12 hours and no further treatment
is necessary.

Avoidance: Spearfishermen should be prepared to be speared themselves. Avoid
these fishes in nets or enclosed waters.

Scorpionfishes (Scorpaenidae)

Scorpionfishes are widely distributed
throughout all tropical and most tem¬
perate seas and 80 members of the
family have been implicated in poi¬
sonings to man. All members of the
family have a bony ridge which ex¬
tends across the cheek from the eye to
the gill cover. Many species are strik¬
ingly coloured, camouflaged to match their surroundings and several are of unusual
shape. Most species have scaly bodies, 3 prominent anal spines, a large pectoral fin
and a head with numerous ridges and spines, often with leaf-like flaps. They are
most often found in or around rocks, coral reefs or kelp beds. Some species bury
themselves in the sand and almost all species have the habit of lying motionless
and partially concealed for long periods of time. This habit makes them dangerous
to man. When scorpionfishes are disturbed, their vertical and pectoral fins are fully
extended. Some scorpionfishes like the jacopever Helicolenus dactylopterus are of
commercial value. The false stonefish Scorpaenopsis diabolus is commonly en¬
countered. Its pectoral fins display a bright red/yellow warning flash.

The venom apparatus consists of 11 to 13 dorsal, 3 anal and 2 pelvic spines. The
venom is produced in glands situated in a groove running up the side of each spine
from the base to tip.

Symptoms & treatment: Usually a single spine penetrates. The victim feels
intense, pulsating pain in the area of the injury, often a finger. The wound has a red
or blue ‘halo’ and surrounding tissues become swollen. The pain soon radiates to
include the whole limb. Nausea, vomiting, weakness, urgency to urinate, conjunc¬
tivitis, increased perspiration and headache many all occur. The victim may thrash

Scorpaenopsis gibbosa

15

about in pain. Pain subsides in 3-8 hours but swelling and tenderness persist.
Usually no lasting after effects.

Lay the victim down with the wounded part of the body elevated above the rest.
Wash the wound, using sea water and remove foreign material if any. The venom
is heat sensitive and the affected part of the body should be placed in or bathed in
very hot water (50°C). Continue this treatment until the pain subsides. Meanwhile,
have someone call a doctor. A local anaesthetic may be given whilst a local
antibiotic will help prevent secondary infection. A tetanus injection should be
administered by the doctor.

Avoidance: Divers should be careful where they put their hands and knees.

Pterois miles

Turkeyfishes and firefishes

There are seven species of firefishes
and turkeyfishes in South African seas,
the commonest, the devil firefish
Pterois miles reaches west of Algoa
Bay. Pterois can be aggressive and are
known to rotate the body with rapid,
darting movements and stab the in¬
truder with their dorsal or pectoral
spines. All the fin-spines are venom¬
ous. The firefish’s brightly coloured
feather-like fin rays are a clear danger
signal.

Symptoms & treatment: No pain at first, followed by extreme torture. Treatment
as for scorpionfishes, above.

Avoidance: Do not touch these fish whether in nets or free swimming, and avoid
cornering them in such a way that they are forced to attack you.

Stonefish Synaceja verrucosa

The stonefish is widely distributed and common on reefs north of Zululand. A

sluggish fish, it lives in rocky or
coral areas and generally resembles
a lump of dead coral or rock so
perfectly that it is very difficult to
see. It frequently lies half buried in
the sand. This is the most venomous
of our fishes. The 13 dorsal, 3 anal
and 2 pelvic spines are sharp, stout
and shorter than those of the scor¬
pionfishes, and have grooves up the

&SITY, i

Synaceja verrucosa

UNP

UBRARW

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

16

sides from near the base of the tip. Spines are covered by a thick, warty skin and
each has 5-10 mg of venom associated with it. The position of the first 3 dorsal
spines is more or less vertical, and should a victim tread on a stonefish, the thick
skin is pressed down onto the venom glands, so forcing the venom into the victim
through the perfect natural syringe needle.

Stonefish venom acts as a myotoxin on various muscles including skeletal, invol¬
untary and cardiac muscle.

Symptoms & treatment: Agonising pain is the usual symptom and may lead to
unconsciousness and drowning. Blanching of the area is followed by cyanosis
(blue-tinge), gross swelling and paralysis extending up the limb. Extensive tissue
damage follows.

If necessary, rescue the victim from the water. Call for a doctor immediately.
Render immediate first aid. There is a danger of respiratory failure and cardiac
arrest. Use the hot water treatment as given for stingray (p. 12). Do not use a
tourniquet unless death is feared. If the patient loses consciousness external cardiac
massage and respiratory resuscitation should be applied and continued until a
doctor arrives. In all cases, seek immediate medical help.

Stonefish antivenom: This antivenom is prepared by hyperimmunizing horses
with the venom of the stonefish Synanceja trachynis. The antivenom should be
given by intramuscular injection, or intravenous infusion by a doctor. The initial
dose depends on the number of punctures, e.g. 1 or 2 punctures, 2000 units (contents
of 1 ampoule). Antivenoms should be protected from light at 2° to 8°C, and not
frozen. The antivenom cannot be given to a victim allergic to equine antiserum.
Avoidance: Wear thick-soled shoes when in areas where these fishes are likely to
occur and be very careful when pulling oneself along or out of rocky areas.

Stargazers (Uranoscopidae) Uranoscopus archionema
These are bottom-dwelling fishes
that have 2 spines projecting back¬
wards from just above the pectoral
fins. The spines are defence weapons
with venom glands attached. Two
types occur in South Africa in depths
of 40 metres and more: stargazer
Uranoscopus archionema from the Cape to Zanzibar and spotted stargazer Pleuro-
scopus pdeudodorsalis from the Cape to Algoa Bay.

Symptoms & treatment: The hot water treatment, as for stingray (p. 12).
Avoidance: Fish handlers, collectors, divers and trawlermen are the most likely
victims. Do not touch stargazers whether they are found in nets, on lines or free
swimming. Take care when handling fishing nets.

17

Sea catfish and eel catfish (Ariidae and Plotsidae)

Three species of sea catfish occur
in South African seas, the tropical
catfish Ariodes dussumieri re¬
corded from the Western Indian
Ocean southwards to Maputo,
and two members of Galeichthys,
the white sea catfish Galeichthys
feliceps found all around the
South African coast, and the
black sea catfish G. ater found
from the south coast to Port Al¬
fred. These fishes frequently oc¬
cur in estuaries and in brackish
water.

The sea catfish has the body
and forked tail of the traditional
fish, unlike the eel catfish which
has a long, tapering eel-like body
with second dorsal and anal fins
joined to the caudal. The two spe¬
cies of eel catfish known from
South Africa are Plotosus nkunga, a solitary species living among plants in cooler
places, and the horizontally striped P. lineatus, a small black-and-white fish often
found in shoals moving as a tightly knit group over areas of level sea-bed or sandy
lagoons. They use their oral barbels to grovel in the sediment and detect food items.
Catfish inflict a sting by means of one of 3 spines: a single dorsal spine, or one of
2 pectoral spines which all have backward-pointing indentations and are venom¬
ous.

Symptoms and treatment: The sting may be lethal. The victim experiences
instantaneous throbbing pain for an hour or so. The puncture wounds may be badly
lacerated when the toothed spine is withdrawn and bleed profusely, the blood
coagulating in lumps of jelly. Wounds are slow to heal and if left untreated by a
doctor, gangrene sets in.

Heat destroys the venom — using the heat treatment as described for stingray
wounds (p. 12) gives immediate relief as does infra red heat from a lamp admin¬
istered for 20 minute sessions. Systemic antibiotics must be used in the case of
secondary infection.

Avoidance: Trawlermen are often victims. Take care when handling fishing nets,
wear shoes when walking through shallow water and shuffle your feet.

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

18

Yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus (Hydrophiidae)

This is a pelagic sea snake that occurs
throughout the Indo-Pacific from False
Bay at the Cape, eastwards to California.

It is the only sea snake reaching Africa and
is sometimes thrown ashore on our south
coast. Identify it by its flattened paddle¬
like tail — boldly barred in orange or
yellow and black — and sharply zoned
body, blue/black on top and yellowish on
the belly. It has adapted to a saline envi¬
ronment by developing saline excreting glands under the tongue. It produces its
young alive at sea. Sharks are the most significant predators of sea snakes.

Although sea snake venom is approximately 2-10 times as toxic as that of the
cobra (one ‘drop’ about 0.03 ml, is enough to kill 3 adults), they have the ability to
withhold their venom when biting and only about one quarter of those bitten by sea
snakes ever show signs of poisoning. The venom is a heat stable, non-enzymatic
protein which blocks neuromuscular transmission, and may cause tubular damage
in the kidneys.

Symptoms and treatment: The victim may be without obvious symptoms at first
but then develops a ‘thick’ tongue, thirst and dry throat. Generalised stiffness and
aching develops, becoming paralysis which affects nearby muscle groups. Lockjaw
and paralysis of the eyelids are characteristic. Respiratory distress and cardiac arrest
may occur.

Remove surface venom but do not cut or suck wounds. Immobilise and calm
the victim. Delay the movement of the venom from the bite by applying a pressure
bandage (but not a tourniquet). Give reassurance and immediately call a doctor.
Mouth-to-mouth respiration may be needed.

There is a sea snake antivenene but it is dangerous to persons who are allergic
to it. It must only be administered by a doctor. Polyvalent land snake antivenene
can be used in an emergency if there is no sea snake antivenene available. Sedatives
are usually given and the victim will have to be hospitalised for at least 24 hours
so that possible damage to the kidneys can be diagnosed in time.

Avoidance: Sea snakes are sometimes found stranded in tidal pools or washed up
on the beach. They are inquisitive and aggressive if handled or trodden upon. They
are attracted by fast-moving objects such as divers who are being towed by a boat,
and are known to congregate and become troublesome. They are also found in
trawling nets. Handle sea snakes with extreme caution.

19

Poisonous to eat — ichthyosarcotoxic poisoning

Ciguatera poisoning

Ciguatera is usually a non-fatal disease caused by eating a variety of fish associated
with coral reefs in tropical and subtropical regions. The term is derived from a
marine snail Cittarium (Livonia) pica called cigua in the Caribbean and was first
used to describe neurological and gastrointestinal disorders resulting from eating
the snail. The principal toxin is ciguatoxin. The toxicity of ciguateric fish shows
great individual, regional and seasonal variation. In general, the viscera are more
poisonous than the flesh and larger fish are more likely to be toxic than smaller
members of the same species. Ciguateric fish in any particular area may change in
toxicity over a period of one to several years. Most commonly implicated are the
twinspot snapper Lutjanus bohar, moray eel, grouper, barracuda and the surgeon-
fishes.

Symptoms and treatment: Symptoms will be noted from 2 to 12 hours after eating
the fish and will include: headache, double vision and dilated pupils, tingling and
numbness on the mouth, red itchy rash on the arms, dull ache in the elbow, sensory
inversion (cold objects feel hot), anorexia, cramping, hair and nail loss, diarrhoea
and muscle pains lasting up to 4 days. Total recovery may take weeks or even
months.

If the victim is conscious induce him/her to vomit by inserting fingers down
the throat. Give reassurance. Urgent hospitilisation is required for treatment of
convulsions and respiratory paralysis.

Avoidance: It has been suggested by the ichthyologist, Jack Randall, that ciguatera
tends to break out in areas of the reef where some form of ecological disturbance
has recently taken place. This is thought to be due to the recolonising activities of
a dinoflagellate which is found living on blue-green algae. Any large fish is a
potential danger, particularly if it inhabits reefs. Pelagic school fishes are least
affected. The viscera — liver and gonads —of tropical marine fishes should never
be eaten. If in doubt, cut the fish into thin fillets and soak them in several changes
of water, but do not use the rinse water for cooking purposes.

Puffer fish poisoning
(family Tetraodontidae)

Puffer or fugu poisoning may occur fol¬
lowing the eating of certain puffers.

Puffers have strong, beak-like jaws con¬
sisting of 4 plates, 2 above and 2 below.

They can inflate their bodies into round,
mostly spiky balls, by swallowing air or

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

20

water. They are amongst the most poisonous of all marine animals, the poison being
concentrated in the gonads (and roe/eggs), liver, intestines and skin. The appear¬
ance and amount of toxin in the fish — the deadly neurotoxin tetrodotoxin — is
related to the reproductive cycle, and appears to be greatest just before spawning.
Arothron hispidus is a predator on the crown-of-thoms starfish Acanthasterplanci,
itself venomous.

In Japan puffer poisoning constitutes a serious problem because there fugu is
a delicacy. The attraction seems to lie in the delicate flavour that traces of
tetrodotoxin impart to food or drink, and to a tingling sensation in toes and fingers
accompanied by feelings of warmth.

Symptoms and treatment: The first sign that something is wrong is a tingling
sensation in the lips, tongue and throat within 10-45 minutes after eating the fish.
More serious symptoms include excessive salivation, extreme weakness, nausea,
vomiting, twitching of the muscles and convulsions. 60% of victims poisoned by
puffers die. Death is usually due to respiratory failure.

Act immediately if puffer poisoning is suspected. Administer an emetic. Induce
vomiting (use mustard in warm water if necessary). Mouth-to-mouth respiration
may be lifesaving. Call a doctor immediately.

Avoidance: AH puffers from around the South African coast should be
regarded as poisonous to eat. Also, do not eat porcupinefishes. When in Japan
eat fugu only if prepared by a licensed ‘puffer cook’. Cooking does not inactivate
the poison but it is partly water soluble and soaking of meat tom into small bits in
water for at least 4 hours may remove it.

Overdose of Vitamin A — Hypervitaminosis A

There are a number of marine fishes, such as red steenbras Petrus rupestris, which
concentrate vitamin A in their livers. The livers of sharks, especially that of the
great white shark, and some of the larger groupers are likely to have high vitamin
A concentrations. The livers of seals, sea lions, porpoises and dolphins are also
poisonous.

Symptoms & treatment: The symptoms are similar to those of arsenic poisoning.
They may occur up to 7 days after a single overdose of Vitamin A and include
drowsiness, headache, malaise and weakness, blurred vision, nausea, vomiting and
abdominal pain. Serious cases will result in epileptic convulsions, a confused state
of mind, gross peeling of the skin on palms and soles, and tender swellings of the
bones. The vitamin is gradually excreted and blood serum concentration eventually
returns to normal over a few days or weeks.

There is little that can be done by way of first aid. Victims should have plenty
of rest and avoid foods with Vitamin A. Medical monitoring is necessary.
Avoidance: Do not eat the livers of these or any unfamiliar species.

21

Paralytic shellfish poison PSP

This type of poisoning results from
eating bivalves e.g. mussels and scal¬
lops, which have become infested with
the dinoflagellates associated with
blooms of red tide, especially Alexan-
drium excavatum. The poison is the
neurotoxin, saxitoxin, which is accu¬
mulated and concentrated by the shell¬
fish as they filter these organisms from
the water. Some species of tropical
crabs belonging to the family Xanthi-
dae, which reaches its greatest diver¬
sity on tropical reefs, may also be
poisonous. A crab’s toxicity is gov¬
erned by its diet. Within an individual
species of crab, toxicity may be seasonal, limited to specific geographical areas or
possibly only involve a few crabs or perhaps a single crab.

Other forms of PSP, also caused by species of single-celled algae are diarrhetic
shellfish poisoning (DSP), amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) and neurotoxic
shellfish poisoning (NSP). They are named after the hallmark symptoms associated
with them.

Symptoms and treatment: There is a latent period which varies from 20 minutes
to many hours. Tingling, then numbness is the first sensation, occurring around the
mouth and hands and spreading over the body, followed by weakness in upper and
lower limbs and a floating sensation. Difficulty in speech, vision, swallowing and
breathing may all occur. Before the victim becomes paralysed in any way it is
essential to make him/her vomit.

If artificial respiration has to be given, be sure that the airway is cleared of
vomitus and that the patient is not allowed to develop a bluish colour. Get
immediate medical assistance.

Avoidance: The unexplained presence of dead sea creatures along the beach is an
indication that something in the sea is poisonous. You can’t see if shellfish are
poisonous by looking at them. Avoid eating the dark meat (digestive organs), gills
or siphons, and the white meat which is generally free of toxin must be well washed.

If in doubt, throw it out! All poisons known from crabs are water soluble and
heat stable so when a crab is cooked, the poison dissolves more readily in the water,
leaving the crab flesh comparatively free of toxin. Most crab poisonings occur
when the crab is eaten as a soup. Take heed of RED TIDE warnings on radio and
television. Take no seafood from rocks and beaches contaminated with red tide.

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

22

Scombroid poisoning

Scombroid and other fishes with dark flesh (tunas, bonitos, mackerels, wahoos),
which are normally safe to eat, become poisonous if handled incorrectly. If left for
several hours at room temperature, or in the sun, the histidine in their muscular
tissues changes by bacterial action into saurine — a histamine-like substance. The
taste of affected fish will be sharp or peppery. Raw fish fillets wrapped in plastic
or similar material that excludes oxygen can also become toxic.

Symptoms & treatment: Nausea and vomiting, severe headache, throbbing of
cranial arteries, palpitations, dry mouth, followed after 2 hours be generalised red
colour, itching and blister formations over the whole body, inflamed eyes and
common cold symptoms. Symptoms disappear within 12-16 hours but severe cases
can last for days.

Get the victim to vomit immediately and treat any other potential victims in
the same way. Antihistamines are of benefit. Ensure fluid and electrolyte replace¬
ment. Calm the victim and call a doctor.

Avoidance: Check that your ‘fresh’ fish is fresh. Tuna that is caught for human
consumption should be immediately stored on ice. For long-term storage, freeze
within 8 hours.

Allergic reaction to shellfish, prawns or crayfish

This is an immedaite hypersensitivity reaction to a protein in the shellfish. The
victim will have been previously exposed to the same or similar protein and
developed an antibody reaction. Symptoms develop after the second and sub¬
sequent exposures. Some people are allergic to crab meat.

Symptoms & treatment: Redness, itching (particularly of ears), rashes, abdominal
cramp, difficulty in breathing, choking. Drink lots of milk and call a doctor.
Avoidance: Never eat any form of seafood again, once you have had an allergic
reaction.

Poisonous to handle — ichthyotoxic fish

Ichthyotoxic fish lack a venom apparatus such as spines or teeth but produce toxins
in secretory cells or glands and discharge them into the water. These toxins are
often called fish mucus toxins and have been detected in the Tetraodontidae
(blaasops, puffers and tobies), Grammistidae (striped rockcods or soapfishes),
Gobiidae (gobies) and Soleidae (soles). Some species of soapfish and a species of
moray eel exude large amounts of mucus that is irritating to human skin. These
toxins are produced for defence.

Fish Handler’s Disease is known throughout the world wherever fish are
handled and is caused by the organism Erysipelothrix insidiosa.

23

Fish skin dermatitis is caused by an irritant found in the skin and flesh of tuna
and mackerel. The irritant is more concentrated in spoiled than in fresh fish and
appears in workers who handle the fish without wearing gloves.

Symptoms & treatment: The skin develops a purplish-red circular area which
spreads outwards with painful swelling. Ulceration and secondary infection may
result. Treatment is with topical steroids and antibiotic ointments.

Avoidance: When handling marine animals, wear thick, tough gloves and treat
even small cuts seriously.

Coral cut

Stony corals belonging to the phylum Coelenteratahave calcareous outer skeletons
and often cause lacerations because of their razor-sharp edges. This can be danger¬
ous because not only is the coral covered by infected slime, but pieces of coral or
other foreign bodies may remain in the wound. Secondary infection is common.
Remember that corals can also sting.

Symptoms & treatment: The main reaction to a coral cut is the appearance of red
welts, lesions and itching around what may appear to be a superficial wound.
(Contact dermatitis can also occur without a person’s having direct contact with
coral, because other organisms which may be armed, e.g. sea slugs who have
ingested nematocysts, may release venom into the aquatic environment.) All cuts
and wounds must be treated vigorously to prevent secondary infection and ulcera¬
tion.

Scrub the lesions with a soft brush or towel using soap and water. All foreign
particles must be removed. Apply isopropyl alcohol and while the wound is still
wet, sprinkle the powder contents of a tetracycline capsule on it. Pat into a paste
with an applicator and allow to dry to form a crust. If this is done, no bandage is
necessary. Alternatively, having thoroughly cleaned the wound with antiseptic
soap, apply Betadene. Do not use mercurochrome as infection can develop under.
Avoidance: When in the vicinity of corals, try to avoid them. Wear gloves,
rubber-soled canvas shoes or a completely-soled flipper and do not handle corals.

At the seaside

Sea Bather's Eruption

This is an allergic reaction caused by the larvae of the sea thimble Linuche
unguiculata , a tiny jellyfish. The sea thimble lives in tropical and subtropical waters
and spawns in spring. Swimmers collect the larvae inside their clothing and are
stung by the nematocysts hours or even days later. Rubbing or exposure to fresh
water triggers the nematocysts to fire. It is not the toxin itself that causes the rash,
but an allergic reation in the individual which can develop with several exposures.

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

24

Symptoms & treatment: A severe rash develops with red bumbs on the body,
particularly on areas covered by clothing — such as swimming costumes and
snorkelling gear — sometimes accompanied by nausea, chills, fever and head¬
aches. Dry off thoroughly and remove your bathing costume before showering.
Treat with calamine lotion.

Swimmer's Itch

This is caused by a larval worm known as a cercaria. The worm may burrow into
human skin after leaving its marine snail host, on its way to its final host, a sea
bird.

Symptoms & treatment: A rash develops on the exposed parts of the body.
Shower with soap and water. If rash persists, consult a chemist.

Marine dermatitis

Dermatitis (skin infections) can also be caused by contact with sponges and
blue-green algae which affects parts of the body covered by bathing suits. Males
are especially affected on the scrotum and females on the breasts.

Symptoms & treatment: A severe rash develops with blisters. Symptoms start
within a few hours after swimming, may persist for a few days and then disappear.
Consult a chemist. A calamine-based lotion may give some relief.

Avoidance: People swimming in algae abundant waters should shower with soap
and water and wash their bathing suits immediately after swimming.

Sandworm

Sandworm is a mite that burrows under the skin (usually the foot) and causes
considerable irritation. It leaves a narrow inflamed raised winding track where the
parasite moves along, just under the skin. Scratching rapidly causes these tracks to
turn septic. The mite occurs in sandy ground above the high tide mark.
Treatment: Ask your chemist for Vermox and apply it regularly to the tracks.

Sunburn

The sun is a real and obvious danger to anglers and beach lovers. Recurrent sunburn
over a number of years results in permanent damage to the skin. However, a
gradually-acquired tan gives the skin a measure of protection against sunburn but
the amount of sun your skin can tolerate before burning depends on your skin type
i.e. a very fair skin will tend to bum immediately. Follow these sensible guidelines
and protect yourself from disfiguring forms of skin cancer:

> When first exposed to the sun (e.g. at the beginning of your holiday) wear a
good sun-filter cream with a Sun Protection Factor of over 17. In South Africa,
the SPF rating has been standardised so that an expensive sunblock advertising
SPF17 will supply the same protection as the No. 17 of a cheaper brand. Apply

25

it half an hour before exposure to the sun. After the initial tanning is safely
completed, you can reduce the SPF in the sunblock you use.

> Protect sensitive areas of the skin such as nose, lips, ears, shoulders, back and
ankles. When going fishing, wear an angler’s cap with long flaps down the
sides, or a wide-brimmed hat. Long-sleeved shirts and sunglasses are also
helpful. Overalls afford excellent protection for anglers.

> Sunbathe only during the cooler part of the day.

It is not advisable to take pure Vitamin A as protection against the sun. Use
Beta-carotene for sunburn prevention as it reduces to retinol in the intestines and
is not toxic. Once sunburn has occurred, treat the affected area with cold water
compresses and apply soothing lotions such as a calamine-based lotion. Avoid
further sun exposure until the skin has healed.

Angling injuries
Accidents whilst
cleaning fish

Frequently while scaling a fish
an incautious movement results
in a dorsal, anal or pelvic spine Thyrsites atun snoek

jabbing the hand. Some ser¬
rated preopercle edges can cut one to the bone. Fishes with strong spiky gillrakers
such as rockcods and the common South African hake cause nasty lacerations
unless handled very carefully. Be extra careful when handling sharks supposed to
be dead. Recently a young boy was seriously injured when his father handed him
a ‘dead’ shark. The teeth of some fishes such as red steenbras and the snoek possess
an anticoagulant and bites bleed profusely.

Treat these wounds immediately. Clean the wound in hot water and apply a local
antiseptic ointment such as Betadene. Deep cuts must be stitched within 12 hours
and precautions against tetanus taken.

Accidents with fish hooks

When a fish hook becomes embedded in the finger, local anaesthesia and minor
surgery may be required. Commercial hook-removing sets are available for sale
in some countries. However, a piece of string 100 cm long will also do the trick.
The method makes the hook retrace its passage through the tissues, by applying
forces which make it go exactly into reverse along its pathway.

Treatment: The piece of string about 100 cm long is looped double, and the ends
are wrapped around the operator’s index finger. The loop, 45 cm long, is dropped
over the shank of the hook. The victim’s impaled finger is placed on a firm surface,
the eye pointing to the operator’s left (if the operator is left-handed, reverse all

/

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

26

directions.) The operator grasps the eye
and shank of the hook betweeen his left
thumb and index finger, and presses it
down. This disengages the barb pain¬
lessly. The loop of string held by the
operator’s right hand is then pulled out
horizontally, in the line of the shank.
This brings the loop to the centre of the
curve of the hook, where it may beheld
by the tip of a finger of the left hand of
the operator. A smart pull with the op¬
erator’s right hand, with a good follow-
through, will remove the hook
painlessly. Larger hooks need a double
loop and longer loop length, but large
snapper hooks will have to be removed
by a doctor.

Avoidance: It is advisable to use a hook
disgorger or pair of pliers to remove the
hook from a fish’s mouth.

Fisherman's litter

Dead carcasses of fish such as
sharks, skates (barbs in the tail)
and sea catfish (sharp spines)
discarded by fishermen can rep¬
resent a hazard to other people,
as well as giving offence.

Fish that are not required
should be returned, alive if possible, to the sea — not killed and thrown aside. To
remove a hook from a catfish, slide the fingers over its forehead so that the
forefinger and middle finger are on either side of the dorsal spine, and hooked just
behind the two lateral spines, and use a hook disgorger.

Small sharks can be held just behind the head from the back and thus subdued
whilst the hook is removed. Be careful of the spines of the elephantfish Callorhyn-
chus capensis. It has a large groove spine on its dorsal fin with 2 serrated ridges
towards the back between which is a venom gland. A stab from this spine is very
painful. To safely retrieve a hook from this slippery fish, grip it with a towel just
behind the mouth on its bottom side, or hold it on its lower jaw with your thumb
in its mouth.

Callorhynchus capensis

27

Fishing from rocks

Do as JLB Smith always did and sit quietly on the rock, watching the water and
noting the wave patterns. Work out an escape route, going with the current, should
you be washed off the rock. Along the south Cape coast where cliffs plunge into
the sea, freak waves can rise up to 15 metres out of an apparently calm sea. If you
can avoid it, don’t turn your back on the sea.

Fishing where there is a NO FISHING signboard

In October 1994, an angler from Port Elizabeth was badly burnt and narrowly
escaped death after his graphite rod touched an overhead railway power line,
triggering a 25 000 volt shock through his body near an off-limits fishing spot. He
had ignored the prominent “No Fishing” signboard erected by the Municipality.
All that remained of the fishing rod were a few bristles and some spatterings of
melted plastic. The moral of this story is obvious!

Swimming, and crossing estuaries

Backwash is a great danger along South African beaches and swimming near a
river mouth is not advisable. Strong backwashes often cut channels at an angle to
the beach. Watch the waves to see the pattern of the backwash. They normally
operate in a semi-circle — so if the current is too strong, don’t panic. Deep water
frequently occurs between the beach and a submerged sandbank. To reach safety,
swim across the current (not against it) at right angles to the beach straight out to
sea, and aim for a sandbank on which to rest.

Never dive headfirst into a pool or from a rock into the waves even if you think
you know the area well. The sand along our beaches is altering all the time. Banks
can build up in a matter of hours and between tides, holes can develop in the sand
over which the waves are sweeping.

When planning to cross an estuary, first consult a tide table. Select the crossing
site with a view to boulder-hopping but beware of slippery rocks and logs. Every
year many people drown in rivers, dams and the sea, often after drinking alcohol.
Don’t drink and swim. Keep a look out for rubber ducks and other motorized craft
and swim in designated swimming areas.

Children and boats

Never let children and young people sit up front on the bow of the boat. Should
the boat dip or lunge suddenly they can be thrown off and seriously injured by the
hard fibreglass or metal hull and the propellor blades as the boat passes over them.
The greatest danger comes from falling off the front of a boat, particularly at high
speed. ‘Lifejackets’ are just that and should be securely fastened. A badly fitting
jacket or one of the wrong size may actually impede swimming. Wear the life jacket
when planing.

DANGERS OF THE SEA & SHORE

28

In the event of a collision, driver and passengers may be flung from the boat
and, if knocked unconscious, will drown without a lifejacket. If the boat is sinking
and you have to jump overboard, discard your shoes, fold your arms in front of
your chest in such a way that one arm will hold the life jacket in place, and block
your nose with the other hand. Survival chances are better if you stay with the boat
instead of swimmimg away from it. Use a lifejacket when paddle skiing up heavy
surf or strong currents.

How to save a person from drowning

Statistics recently published by the SAP show that in 1994,1010 people died from
drowning in South Africa, yet our coastline claims only 15% of these victims. The
statistics further show that lifesavers perform approximately 108 rescues a month,
so it is obvious that without their efforts, the death rate by drowning in the surf
would rapidly escalate. It takes only 15 seconds to drown: if there’s water, there’s
a chance of drowning.

Drowning is the same as suffocating in that death results from lack of oxygen.
When rescuing a drowning person be aware that the victim may panic and clutch
onto you in such a way that swimming is difficult. If this happens, bring a hand up
between the victim’s arms and push his/her head backwards. In difficult cases, flex
your hip and knee and use your lower leg to push against his/her chest until he/she
lets go. If the drowning person is cooperative, tell him/her to place their hands on
your shoulders from behind and hold on. Swim breastroke and tow the victim to
safety. If the victim is unconscious, however, you will have to swim backwards
or sideways with your hands on either side of his/her head to support it. Mouth to
mouth resuscitation must begin as soon as possible, following these steps:

> Clear out the victim’s mouth and throat; lift the chin and tilt the head
backwards so that the throat is in line with the breastbone and the chin is
pointing upwards;

> Close the nose, cover the victim’s mouth with yours and blow in an ordinary
breath until you see his/her chest rise;

> Remove your mouth so that the air can escape from the victim’s mouth, then
blow another breath in through his/her mouth — about 16 breaths a minute.

> Have someone call a doctor — victims of near-drowning incidents often
have delayed reactions though they appear to have recovered.

Basic heart massage

If a drowning victim’s heart has stopped beating, mouth to mouth respiration will
be useless. Call a doctor immediately. If there is no pulse at the wrist, a bluish
colour to the body, and enlarged pupils which do not react to light, then the victim’s
heart has stopped beating.

29

Place the patient on his/her back on a
hard surface. Give the front of the chest
one or two forceful thumps with the side
of a fisted hand to restore normal
rhythm. If there is no response:

> take up a position at the right side of
the chest and place the heel of your
left hand on the patient’s breastbone
with the middle finger across the
chest in line with the nipples;

> place the right hand over the left;

> with arms straight, rock backwards and forwards rhythmically to depress the
breastbone (60 compressions per minute), about 4 - 5 cm in an adult and 2 -
3 cm in a child. If one person is administering both the mouth-to-mouth
respiration and the cardiac massage, give 2-3 breaths to every 15 heartbeats.

Further reading

Highly recommended: Don’t Die in the Bush, P.M. Leary, Struik, Cape Town,
1994. This indispensable little book deals with most outdoor emergencies.
Highly recommended: Two Oceans: A guide to the marine life of Southern Africa,
G. Branch et al., David Philip, Cape Town, 1994.

Recommended for the identification of sharks and rays: Guide to the Sharks and
Rays of Southern Africa, L. Compagno et al., Struik, Cape Town, 1989.
Recommended for young readers: Deadly and Dangerous. Questions & Answers;
Susan Matthews, Struik, Cape Town, 1994.

Recommended: The South African Fisherman, I. Whibley and P. Garratt, Struik
Timmins, Cape Town, 1989. (See: “Angler’s First Aid”)

References

Dangerous Marine Animals, B. Halstead, Cornell Maritime Press, Maryland,
1959.

Poisonous and Venomous Marine Animals of the World, revised edition, B.
Halstead, The Darwin Press, Princeton, 1978.

Poisonous marine animals, Findlay E. Russell, Academic Press, London, 1965.
Marine Toxins and other Bioactive Marine Metabolites , Y. Hashimoto, Japan
Scientific Societies Press, Tokyo, 1979.

Toxic Plants and Animals. A Guide for Australia, ed. J. Covacevich, P. Davie &
J. Peam, Queensland Museum, South Brisbane, 1987.

The Fishes of Australia’s South Coast ed. M. Gomon, J. Glover & R. Kuiter, State
Print, Adelaide, 1994. (See ‘Harmful Fishes” pp 921-932)

30

INDEX

Accidents with boats. 27

Accidents whilst cleaning fish. 25

Accidents with fish hooks . 25

Allergic reaction to seafood. 22

Allergic reaction to seawater. 23

Anemone stings .2

Barracuda . 10/19

Bluebottle stings.1

Boats. 27

Bristleworm stings.6

Ciguatera poisoning . 19

Cone shell stings.4

Coral cut wounds. 23

Crab poisoning. 21

Crown-of-thorns starfish stings.6

Dermatitis - skin rash. 23/24

Devil firefish — poisonous fin-spines. 15

Devilray — sting on the tail. 12

Dogfish sharks — fishes with venomous spines. 11

Drowning — rescue. 28

Eel catfish — venomous spines . 17

Electric rays .7

Elephantfish — dangerous spines. 26

Estuaries—crossing and backwash. 27

Fire coral stings.3

Firefish — dangerous spines. 15

Fire hydroid stings.3

Fireworm — stinging bristles.6

Fish mucus toxins causing skin irritations . 22

Fish hooks embedded in the skin. 25

Food poisoning from eating fish . 19

Grouper poisoning.9

Heart massage. 28

Hydroids — painful stings .3

Jellyfish — painful stings.1

31

Moray eel — dangerous bite/food poisoning.10/19

Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation .28

Musselworm — stinging bristles .7

Octopus bite .5

Paralytic shellfish poisoning.21

Puffer poisoning .19

Rabbitfishes — venomous spines.13

Red steenbras — poisonous liver .10

Red tide.21

References and recommended reading .29

Rockcod — dangerous gill rakers .10

Sandworm itch.24

Scombroid poisoning.22

Scorpionfishes .14

Sea anemone stings.2

Sea bather’s eruption — painful rash.23

Sea catfish — stinging spines .17

Sea cucumber causing skin irritation.7

Sea firs stings.3

Sea snake—dangerous bite.18

Sea swallow stings.3

Sea urchin stings.5

Sharks .8

Spiny sharks, dogfish sharks.11

Starfish — dangerous spines.6

Stargazers — venomous spines.16

Stingrays.12

Stonef ishes.15

Sunburn.24

Surgeonfishes.13/19

Swimming .27

Swimmer’s itch.24

Triggerfishes — dangerous spines.13

Tuna poisoning.22

Turkeyfishes — venomous fin-spines .15

Unicornfishes — dangerous spines .13

Vitamin A poisoning .20

32

An invitation to subscribe to ICHTHOS —

Friends of the J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology

ICHTHOS was founded in 1982 by Prof. Mike Bruton as a society which would,
through the medium of a quarterly newsletter, attempt to bring about a better
understanding and appreciation of fishes and aquatic environments. The name
ICHTHOS is an abbreviation of "The South African Ichthyological Society".
Professor J.L.B. Smith, famous for the discovery of the coelacanth Latimeria
chalumnae (1939), always kept open the lines of communication between ichthy¬
ologists and members of the public interested in fishes and in fish research. He
gave radio talks and published many articles in the popular press. These are still
the guidelines which ICHTHOS follows in its many publications and educational
posters.

Today the aims of ICHTHOS are:

> To encourage easy communication between scientists and interested
members of the public;

> To further the research carried out by the Institute and to keep the
public informed;

> To provide anglers with the opportunity to participate in research on
fishes by reporting unusual catches and donating specimens;

> To play a relevant role in environmental education;

> To encourage angling clubs to support sustainable fishing and
wise conservation measures.

Besides the Newsletter, ICHTHOS offers subscribers discounts on the purchase
of books on fishes and aquatic environments and a variety of ‘fishy’ goods such
as the very popular fish identification posters sponsored by Irvin & Johnson,
T-shirts, videos, stickers and framed prints.

Annual subscription rates are:

Individual..

Family..

Club or Library.

Corporate.

Student.

R25

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R75

R20

For more information or to subscribe write to:

ICHTHOS, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown 6140. Telephone: 0461-27124.

NOTES

NOTES

Date Due