.AGRIC, DEPT. March 1913. Chemical Series. Vol. II, No. 6. Memoirs of tne Department of Agriculture in India THE DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL HAROLD E.. ANNETT, B.SC, (London), F.C.S., M.S.E.A.O Oific',000 tons. From beet 8,000,000 tons From sugar palm (P. sylvestris) 150,000 tons. From maple 500,000 tons. The author assumes that these figures relate to refined sugar. A careful enquiry2 by the Government of India in 1889 shewed that 168,262 acres were under palms connected with sugar supply. If we take two and a third tons of gur, a safe figure, as the yield of sugar per acre we should get a total yield approaching that of Mr. Noel-Pa ton's estimate. Palm-gur and its products are largely consumed in the dis- tricts in which they are produced and it is very difficult to get an idea of the amount of gur exported to other districts or of the amount which is refined to high grade sugars. According to Aubert3 the palm-sugar producing districts of Upper Burma export annually about 36,500 tons of sugar, pre- sumably as gur. The Indian Agriculturist4 in 1900 stated that the annual value of palm jaggery bought by a single Madras firm for refining was more than 15 lakhs. At Rs. 4 per maund this would be roughly 16,000 tons. In the Imperial Gazetteer5 we find it stated that in Jessore dis- trict alone there were in 1900-1 117 native sugar refineries with an outturn of 235,000 maunds valued at 15' 15 lakhs. This is 6,500 tons and would require 16,250 tons of gur for its production. Most of this sugar refined in Jessore goes to Calcutta and is largely used for the preparation of native sweetmeats. 1 Jour. Ind. & Eng. Chemistry, May 1911, Development of the Sugar Industry. 2 Resolution, dated 20th March 1889. 8 Agric. Jour, of India, Octr., 1911, page 375. * Vol. XXV, 1900, page 116. 6 Vol. XIV, page 96. H. E. ANNETT. 283 Mr. Noel-Paton in his notes on sugar previously referred to puts the annual output of refined commercial palm-sugar in India at 64,230 tons valued at Us. 1,31,02,900 or nearly £ 1,000,000 sterling. Similar figures which he gives for cane sugar are 366,600 tons valued at 7,47,94,600 rupees or £ 5,000,000 sterling. PAET II. HlSTOKICAL AND STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION. Having shown how important an industry the production of palm sugar is, it may be of interest to give a short account of the history of its growth in Bengal. In this chapter the writer does not propose to include other palm sugar producing tracts in India because he has no knowledge of them. Almost all the palm sugar produced in Bengal is made from the wild date (Phoenix sylvestris). In certain parts of the Sunder- bunds a small amount is produced from the palmyra palm (Boras- sus flabelliformis). In Jessore, the most important of the sugar producing districts, the industry is an old one. The Collector of Jessore in 1788 enumerated as one of the losses caused by the cyclone of 1787 the injury to the date trees and the weakening of the sugar produce.1 Later on, in 1792, he wrote that "date sugar is largely manufac- tured and exported," and in a statistical table prepared in 1791 we find it recorded that 20,000 maunds was the annual produce of the sugar cultivation and that about half of this was exported to Calcutta. At that time, however, there was a considerable produc- tion of cane sugar as well. Production2 of date sugar greatly increased in Bengal from 1830 onwards, though not to the extent that it would doubtless have done, had it not been checked by the violent fluctuation in its value, which will be referred to presently. The following brief sketch of its progress is necessarily imperfect from the great want of reliable statistics on which to frame it. Previous to the first inroads on the 1 See report on tho district of Jessore by Westland, 1874. * The date tree, a prize essay on the manufacture of its sugar, S. H. Robinson, 1858. H. E. ANNETT. 285 East India Company's trade monopoly in 1813 it was hardly known as an article of export. It was manufactured only to meet the wants of native consumers in and around the few places of its pro- duction, principally in Jessore and Faridpur districts. It was occasionally transported to the principal markets of the adjacent districts, and especially to Murshidabad and Dacca in the days of their prosperity, when, previous to the British rule, they were the centres of the trade and wealth of Lower Bengal. Imports of East India sugar into Great Britain gradually increased from 6,282 tons in 1816 to 13,453 tons in 1823. Through- out this period onward till 1837 all sugars from India were loaded with an additional duty of 10 shillings per cent, beyond the rate charged on West Indian sugars. The trade fell off and exports from Bengal to Great Britain from 1830-6 averaged below 6,000 tons per annum. There are no data to show what proportion of exports consisted of date sugar, but these figures show that the production of East Indian sugar met with little encouragement. Date sugar, however, has always been a favourite luxury with the native population. Its production is preferred in its own dis- tricts to that of cane sugar, owing to the more expensive and pre- carious cultivation of the sugar-cane. In 1833, Robinson1 estimated the total production of date sugar at 90,000 maunds, and in 1837 at 100,000. These figures relate to refined sugar, and would be equivalent to about 225,000 maunds, or 8,000 tons, and 250,000 maunds, or 9,000 tons of gur respectively. In 1837 the duties on sugar imported from the East and West Indies were equalised. Exports from Calcutta to Great Britain swelled from 13,403 tons in 1836-7 to 63,084 tons in 1840-41. Trade then became steady and onward till 1847-48, the average exports were 60,000 tons. Here again it is difficult to say what was the proportion of date sugar, but in 1848 the total date crop per annum in Bengal was estimated at 15,000 tons of refined sugar 1 Prize essay, page 7. 286 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. or 38,000 tons of gur. Two-thirds of this was estimated by Robin- son to have been exported from Calcutta and the rest consumed locally. Watt1 also quotes 38,000 tons as the production of date sugar in Bengal for 1847-8. Thus the production had quadrupled in ten years. High prices ruled throughout this decade. The first European refinery in Bengal was established in 1829 in the Burdwan district, but owing to the differential duties on sugars exported to Great Britain its operations were restricted to very narrow limits until 1837-38. Encouraged by the equalisation of the duties, competitors then appeared, principally in the vicinity of Calcutta. Their proprietors were not slow to discover the good qualities of date sugar as raw material for refining and they drew largely from the Jessore and Faridpur markets. Supported as they were by English capital they contributed in no small degree to stimulate the cultivation. Under these encouraging circumstances it might have been expected that date sugar production would have increased more than the estimate had made it in 1848. Undoubtedly during the forties many new plantations were set out, but for the first five years no produce is obtained and the tree comes to full bearing only in its eighth year of growth. We next come to the first great check experienced by the cultivators. The principles of free trade were rapidly gaining ascendancy in Great Britain and in 1846 Parliament enacted2 in defiance of and in contradiction to all its previous tendencies for half a century, that in the article of sugar only, slave labour and slave trade should be encouraged. Further that by a scale of duties gradually equalised, the sugar produce of all the world by the end of seven years from that time should be admitted to British consumption on equal terms. As a consequence the English markets were inundated with supplies of foreign sugars and towards the end of 1847 they and our sugar colonies suffered a panic. Many a West India proprietor was l See Diet, of Econ. Prodts., Vol. VI, Part II, page 115. s Robinson Prize Essay, 1858, page 9. H. E. ANNETT. 287 ruined, while in Bengal all sugar fell in value below the cost of production, and large sums of British capital invested in sugar refineries there were annihilated. In 1851 a second glut and panic occurred in the markets of Great Britain and in January and February 1852 sugars in Calcutta were nearly unsaleable. The date crop would have been a large one but for this discouragement and the date cultivators abandoned the trees. The business of date tree cultivation being with two or three isolated exceptions entirely carried out by the impoverished ryot, during these two periods of depression at least, all planting of young trees was suspended and all care of young plantations neglec- ted, but it is probable the checks were lasting in their effects, and that the planting since 1848 did not continue in the same increasing ratio as before that year. Still productions continued to increase and in 1857-58 the annual production of dry sugar was estimated at 35,000 tons equal to 88,000 tons of gur, of which two-thirds were exported to Calcutta. Had the cultivation not received the checks mentioned, there seems no doubt the produce would have again quadrupled during the eight years 1850-58 as it did from 1838-46. Summary of Progress of Cultivation. Refined sugar. Gur equivalent. Tons. Tons. From 1792 to 1813 it averaged 550 1,370 In 1833 it was 3,300 8,200 „ 1837 3,700 9,200 .. 1848 15,000 38,000 From 1854 to 1858 it averaged . . 35,000 88,000 So great and steady an increase in cultivation, in spite of partial checks, is sufficient evidence of its value as a remunerative branch of industry. The slave emancipation measures gradually decreased the supplies of sugar from the West Indies and this partly accounts for the rapid rise in date sugar production in the middle of the last century. 288 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. In 1849, 10,000 tons or 1/5 of the whole annual quantity exported from India to England was date sugar.1 Between 1858 and 1876 the only figures relating to the pro- duction of date sugar which we have been able to find, refer only to the Jhenidah and Magurah sub-divisions of Jessore. These are quite sufficient to show that during that period the industry was growing with great rapidity. The table2 shows the number of native refineries at work in these sub-divisions during the years 1861-73 with their outturn in refined sugar in tons. Number of native refineries at work. Year. Outturn of sugar. Tons. 1 Qf!l O 124 16 — V loDJ ~£t 1862-3 756 15 1863-4 295 19 1864-5 907 24 1865-6 1,111 36 1866-7 1,381 47 1867-8 1,852 55 1868-9 1,581 67 1869-70 1,951 75 1870-1 2,195 85 1871-2 2,506 113 1872-3 3,805 In 1873, the Jhenidah and Magurah sub-divisions of Jessore alone produced 16,000 tons of gur of which 8,000 tons were refined by native methods.3 The reports on the internal trade of Bengal, issued in 1876-77 and 1881-82, give figures showing how rapidly the industry was growing at that time. The table shows the exports of sugar from various districts in 1875-76 and 1876-77 in maunds. Jessore Nuddea 24-Parganas Refined. 1876-7. Unrefined. 18756. 1876-7. 142,300 36,500 150,600 775,000 200,000 275,000 667,800 305,400 274,700 1 Robinson's Prize Essay, page 191. 2 Report on the Agric. Statistics of Jessore, Jhenidah and M-iguraii auo-a- visions, 1872-73, by Babu Ramshunkcr Sen, Calcutta, 1873. 3 Loc. cit. H. E. ANNETT. 289 Assuming that 40 per cent, is the yield of refined sugar from gur, then in 1876-7, 80,000 tons of date sugar reckoned as gur was exported from the above three districts alone. The corresponding report issued for 1881-2 remarked that — " raw date sugar is one of the most important manufactures of Nuddea district and it is said that there are no less than 60 sugar manu- factories in Chooadanga alone. The sugar industry in Jessore is also said to be decidedly on the increase. The total production of raw. sugar in Jessore is reported to be 400,000 maunds (equal to 1 ,000,000 maunds of gur or 37,000 tons) worth Rs. 16,00,000. There is only one establishment in Jessore for the manufacture of sugar after the European method, at Tahirpur, but no statistics of its outturn have been obtained." In 18881 Bengal (presumably including Eastern Bengal) is again said to have produced 743,000 maunds of date gur. This is only about 27,000 tons. The figures seem to show that the sugar traffic had considerably detracted by this time but Watt admits they may have been much underestimated. Turning to more recent figures, in the following table is set out the approximate amount of gur produced from the juice of the date palm in Bengal, from 1902-3 to 1910-11. For these figures we are indebted to the Director of Agriculture, Bengal. They are based on the estimates of the district officers. Year. C ur produced from date palm. Tons. Before the partition of Bengal 1902-3 1903-4 1904-5 143,892 114,616 162,858 1905-6 77,838 1906-7 77,984 1907-8 72,362 1908-9 66,572 1909-10 67,518 1910-11 66,900 1911-12 66,930 1 Statistics of sugar plauts and sugar in 1888. Department of Agriculture, Bengal. 290 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. In Bengal proper about 15 per cent, of the total outturn of gur is said to be date gur. In general it appears that the industry began to assume important proportions from about the middle of last century. During the last twenty years or so it appears to have been declin- ing. It seems probable that the causes for this decline are the same as those which are causing a similar decline in the production of cane sugar in India. A warning might here be added against placing too great reliance on the accuracy of the figures showing the amount of gur produced from the date palm annually. It seems to the author that estimates of production of palm sugar are best based on the number of trees. The Collector of Jessore has very kindly had counted for me the total number of trees in use for sugar production in his district. The counting has been done during the current year (1912) and pains were taken to get as accurate results as possible. The detailed results are here set out as they may be of use for future record. District. Sub-division. Thana. Number of trees. Jessore ;1S& Sadar Kotwali Keshabpur Manirampur Jhikargacha Bagherpara Chaugachha Nowapara 780,440 489,718 808,058 370,494 325,558 208,719 173,051 Total 3,156,038 Bongaon Bongaon Gaighatha Moheshpur Sarsa 253,896 95,501 468,924 218,146 Total 1,036,447 Jhenidah Total 1,640,728 Magurah Magurah Mahamadpur Salikha Sripur 108,608 83,465 127,872 71,115 Total 391,050 H. E. ANNETT. 291 District. Sub-division. Thana. Number of tress. Jessore Narail Narail . . Abhayanagore Kalia . . . Lohagorah Alfadanga 139,107 137,333 152,273 100,834 30,909 Total 560,456 Grand Total 5,143,991 Thus in Jessore district alone there are over five million date palms yielding sugar. This total includes old and young trees, as well as those in full bearing. As we shall see later (p. 351) 21 J Ibs. of gur may be looked upon as an average annual yield per tree. Hence the total annual produc- tion of date palm gur in Jessore district alone must be somewhere about 50,000 tons. This fairly well corresponds to the estimate of 61,500 tons made by N. N. Banerjee.1 I have been able to find some old figures2 shewing the number of date trees used for sugar making, in each of the districts of Bengal in 1848. I am indebted to Mr. S. G. Hart, Director of Agriculture, Eastern Bengal and Assam, for corresponding figures for certain of the same districts in 1911. The figures are given below for comparison. Number of date palms. > . 1848. 1911. Dacca Mymensingh 5,000 250,000 600 Faridpur3 Bakarganj8 Chittagong Tipperah . . 1,501,000 50,000 100,000 805,014 637,550 74,000 88,000 Rangpur . . 20 3,722 Bogra 200 Pabna 14,000 49,100 Total 1,670,020 1,908,186 1 N. N. Banerjee. The Date Sugar Palm — Quarterly Journal, Bengal Agricultural De- partment, January 1908, pp. 161-2. 2 Published by authority of Government. See Bengal Sugar Planter, Robinson, 1849, Appendix A. 8 Only these were actually enumerated for 1911. 292 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. These figures would seem to shew that the industry has not increased very much in the above districts as a whole, since 1848. History of English Sugar Factories in Jessore.1 In the first half of the 19th century, the establishment of European sugar factories gave a considerable impulse to the manu- facture. The first English factory in Lower Bengal was at Dhoba in the Burdwan district and was erected by a Mr. Blake in 1829. When his profits began to decline he formed a company which pur- chased the works from him for 4j lakhs.. The company had factories at Kotechandpur where they set up English machinery and also at Trimohini but failed about 1842. Kotechandpur then passed into the hands of Mr. Newhouse who brought out the first vacuum pan and Trimohini became the property of a Mr. Saints- bury who worked it for three or four years and then closed it. The factory of Chaugachha was established about the same time (1842) by Gladstone, Wyllie & Co. of Calcutta. It was first under the manage- ment of a Mr. Smith and afterwards of Mr. Macleod and it had out factories for purchase at Keshabpur, Trimohini, Jhinger- gachha, Narikelberia and Kotechandpur. It worked at a profit for only a year or two and after that was discontinued. About 1850, Chaugachha and Kotechandpur alone were in working order and they only worked occasionally, while Tahirpur which was built about 1853 by Mr. Newhouse was worked for only two years and was then sold and converted into a rum distillery. On the whole the history of the English sugar refineries is not a record of success. The truth is that after they had given a stimulus to the cultivation of the date palm, the trade which they had created was appropriated by native merchants. The demand for native refined sugar was greater than that for the first rate sugar, manufactured by European means, and the Europeans consequently lost the trade. ' The following few figures may give an idea of the extent of the palm sugar industry in Madras. 1 Taken from the Gazetteer of the J sore District. H. E. ANNETT. 293 In 1848, Madras is said to have produced1 40,000 tons of cane jaggery and 25,000 tons of palm jaggery, but Watt says the palm sugar figures must have been underestimated.2 Year. 1883-84 1884-85 1885-86 Tons of palm jaggery. 87,200 83,700 74,000 The accompanying figures shew the total number of palms of all kinds tapped for sugar making for the past five years in the following Madras districts of Godavari, Kistna (5 taluks), South Canara, Malabar and Tinnevelly. The figures were kindly furnished by the Director of Agriculture, Madras. Year. 1906-07 1907-08 1908-09 1909-10 1910-11 No. of palms. 2,636,655 2,588,410 2,133,139 1,934,820 2,342,446 Messrs. Parry & Co. have kindly sent me the following figures for the last three years shewing the quantity of jaggery bought by themselves or other refiners and distillers in the Madras Presidency. At the same time it must be remembered that a very large quantity passes into direct consumption, Palm jaggery Sugar manufactured 1908-09. 1909-10. 1910-11. Tons. Tons. Tons. 25,400 29,000 26,100 10,800 13,000 13,000 1 Watt's Dictionary of Economic Products, Vol. VI, Part 2, p. 226. 2 Idem« p. 227. PART III. OTHER SUGAR-PRODUCING PALMS. Phoenix sylvestris or the wild date is practically the only palm used for sugar production in Bengal. It is also the commonest one used for this purpose in Mysore but it is very little used elsewhere in India. There are various palms whose juice is used in India for the production of sugar. Borassus flabelliformis. — The fan palm or common toddy palm is the one most used for sugar production in Madras and Burma.1 It is also used to a small extent for this purpose in the Sunderbans. Cocos nucifera. — The coconut palm is used to a large extent in Madras for the manufacture of sugar, though it is not so much used there as the fan palm. Nipa fruticans. — This plant grows in low lying lands by the sea in the Sunderbans, Chittagong, Burma and the Andaman Islands. An alcoholic drink is made from it and I understand a small amount of sugar also. In the Philippine Islands it is used to a considerable extent for sugar making and alcohol2 production. Gary ota Urens, the sago palm of India, is used to a small extent in Madras. It has been credited with enormous yields at Malabar. Arenga saccharifera is not used in India for sugar production but is much used for this purpose in the Dutch East Indies.3 Rob- inson4 remarks that these last two palms merit the attention of the Bengal planters. 1 Agricultural Journal of India, Vol. VI, Part IV, p. 369. * Philippine Jour, of Soi., April 1911, Vol. VI, No. 2, p. 110. 8 Jour. Roy. Soc. of. Arts, April 21st, 1911. » Prise Essay, 1858. M b'D II £S c o 0)««-i S-e l"*" B •3" G3 PART IV. THE AGRICULTURE OF THE DATE PALM. The Date Palm, Phoenix sylvestris, grows well over the greater part of India but it is mainly in Bengal and Mysore that it is cul- tivated for sugar production. Large natural forests occur in Cen- tral India and H. D. Chatterjee1 is experimenting on date sugar production in those tracts. Area. — In Bengal the total area under its cultivation is put at 150 square miles, 30 square miles of this being in the Jessore district alone.2 The industry is chiefly confined to the districts of Jessore, Khulna, Nuddea, Faridpur, Backerganj and 24-Parganas. Soil. — Kanjilal3 says that the wild date prefers humid alluvial soils and a moist climate, and further that it is extremely sensitive to shade and avoids clayey soils and water logging. Cultivation. — The seeds, which are ripe in May, are sown in a nursery in the rains. The young plants are ready for planting out in the following April or May after the first showers of the season have moistened the ground. Kanjilal4 says they are planted nine feet apart each way : that is 543 trees per acre. Robinson5 says ten feet apart which is equivalent to 441 trees per acre. Not much regard however seems to be paid to order or regu- larity of distance apart of the trees. In the writer's observation trees in plantations are set at any thing from 9 to 17 feet apart and 1 Is it an experiment or a natural industry. Haridas Chatterjee. Central India Prers Mhow, 1901. 2 Hunter's Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. VII, p. 187, 8 Indian Forester, December 1892, p. 451. 4 Loc. cit. 6 Prize Essay 1858. 296 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. he would consider 10 feet apart as quite the minimum distance pos- sible. When 4 or 5 years old the green upper leaves are tied up like a bouquet, the lower yellow coloured ones being cut away. At 5 to 6 years old the stem is about 1 J feet high and the tree is ready to be tapped. The spaces between the trees are generally occupied by oil seeds, pulses such as Phaseolus radiatus and Cajanus indiwis or by linseed. Later on even Aus paddy is sometimes grown under the trees. Thus the cost of a native plantation is reduced, whilst the trees benefit by the ploughing, which loosens the earth, and the ground is kept free from weeds. The quality of the cultivation in date gardens varies greatly. Some of the gardens I have seen have been wonderfully clean, whilst others have been almost choked up with jungle growth. PLATE III. APPARATUS USED IN TAPPING. PART V. TAPPING. The usual articles required for this work consist of (1) a rope (dara) 9 ft. long and 1 to 1 J inches thick, which is loosely tied round the operator and the tree, and by means of which a man can climb rapidly and safely ; (2) a plaited palmyra leaf bag (the thungi), about 1 foot deep, in which are carried the daws, spouts and other articles and to which are attached a wooden hook and two loops of string, the loops going round the waist of the man, and being tied in front and the hook suspending an earthen pot; (3) a piece of canvas or goatskin (the Jcolach), 1 ft. wide, which is tied on the man's back to protect him from the rubbing action of the climbing rope, and (4) three daws (bill hooks), one heavy and two lighter ones. All the above are shown in Plate III. The tapping is a delicate operation commenced in October and done in several stages. With the heavy daws, all the old leaves are cut off below the crown, and all the leaves from one side of it leaving only a few at the top, the bases of the petioles and the sheaths being carefully removed (See Plate IV). Then with the lighter daws the outer zone of the loose soft tissue is pared off in long slices leaving only a thin covering of it over the sap-supplying inner zone which corresponds to the woody zone in the older wood of all palms. Very great care must be taken not to expose this inner tissue at this stage ^otherwise the tree is sure to rot and die, as often happens when the operation is entrusted to inexperienced hands. The experts at this work are called Siulis or Gachis. After this first operation the trees are given about 8 days rest, by which time the fine covering of soft tissue gets a little hardened and begins to crack. The second operation consists in removing this covering, great care 2 298 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. being taken not to cut into the inner zone, which is now for the first time simply exposed. Then comes a rest of 12 to 14 days which brings us to the beginning of November. The Gachi as a rule divides his trees into six convenient groups called palas, each contain- ing 50 or 60 trees, the number which he can operate on in one day? 300 to 400 being the total number which one man can manage. Next after midday he cuts two eye-shaped notches 3 — 4 inches long and about J inch deep at the base, their lower sides being straight and converging to a point, below which a split bamboo spout is driven into the tree. About 3 or 4 o'clock in the afternoon an earthenware pot is suspended under the spout and the juice which trickles down is collected. The pots are removed early next morning, at 6 or 7 A.M., before the sun gets on them, and the juice boiled into sugar. On the following night juice is again collected generally without renewing the cut though the surface is as a rule cleaned with the hard stem of a palm-leaf. A much smaller quantity is generally obtained than on the first night. On the third evening also more juice is, as a rule, collected, but it is only small in amount and of very poor quality. Each night's juice has a distinctive name given to it. That of the first night is called Jiran (rest), of the second night DoJcat (second cut) and of the third night Tekat (third cut). On the fourth and fifth nights no juice is collected. After six days the cut is renewed a little, and for three days juice is again obtained, being given the same names as before. The tapping process goes on in this way throughout the season. The first 2 — 3 weeks' supply is very valuable, for the gur produced from it, called Noten-gur, has a very pleasant smell and is much appreciated by the consumers. It fetches a high price. Of course it is not to be supposed that in all cases such a regular system of tapping is carried out. Sometimes the trees are cut for 2 — 3 days in succession, and sometimes they may be cut every fourth day. But such frequent tapping soon destroys the trees. The daws (bill hooks) require much attention. They are daily sharpened on a piece of dry wood sprinkled over with fine sand while PLATE IV. THE gachi (TAPPER) AT WORK. H. E. ANNETT. 299 the daws are new, but with dry potter's clay afterwards. They may even require tempering once or twice in a season. The tip is especially looked to. If too sharp and pointed, it cuts into the trees and injures them, sometimes fatally, and if too blunt, it tears the tissues, whereas a clean cut must be obtained. The following plan illustrates the daily round of work in the garden : — ORDER or TAPPING. Days. Divisions of the garden. Cuts. 1st day 1st portion Jiran or 1st cut. 2nd „ 1st Dokat. 2nd Jiran. 3rd .. 1st Tekat. 2nd Dokat. 3rd Jiran. 4th „ 1st Rest. 2nd Tekat. 3rd Dokat. 4th Jiran. 5th „ 1st Rest 2nd day. 2nd „ 1st n 3rd Tekat. 4th Dokat. 5th Jiran. 6th .. 1st Rest 3rd 2nd „ 2nd ft 3rd „ 1st »» 4th Tekat. 5th Dokat. 6th Jiran. As a rule there is no dokat or tekat juice in November. In December dokat juice as well as jiran is obtained. In January we have jiran, dokat and tekat juices. Towards the end of January and thence till the end of the season, the trees are slightly cut for dokat juice as well as for jiran. That is, they are cut on two successive nights (1) for the jiran, (2) for dokat. Dokat juice yielded from a surface cut afresh is called dokat pocha. A fair amount of juice drops from the cut 300 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. surface during the day. This is collected and is called ' Ola.' It is very poor in quality and is boiled into molasses which is sold for mixing with tobacco at 12 annas per maund (Jcatcha). In normal cases the cut is renewed week after week until about the middle of March, by which time a very deep notch is made into the tree, reaching ^ or at times J through it. Each succeeding cut tends to go slightly higher up than the previous one. The next year's cut is made on the opposite side but at a slightly higher level, the tree having grown in height in the meantime. This continued year after year gives the plant its characteristic zig-zag appearance. It is noticeable that trees are almost always tapped only on the East and West side. The first tapping generally takes place on the East side. The writer has seen trees which have been tapped continuously for almost fifty years. This can be told by the number of notches. The age of a date tree which has been tapped regularly can thus be easily told by adding the number of notches to 6 years, the age at which as a rule, tapping first takes place. The average sap- yielding life of a tree, however, is probably not much more than 25 years. Even then, the old tree is still of some considerable value as fuel. The yield of sap is greatest in mid winter. The sap collected on calm and cloudless nights gives gur of the best quality. Cloudy and foggy nights affect both the quality and quantity of the juice adversely. It is said that in January when the trees are in full in- florescence, the sap becomes very poor in sugar, though profuse in quantity, and as a rule does not produce good crystals. Smoking the Pots. — The earthen pots in which the juice is collected are well smoked every morning as soon as they are emptied. It is noticeable, that after smoking the pots are always kept mouth downward on the ground all day, until they are hung up on the trees again in the afternoon. The smoking is done by putting a number of pots mouth downwards over a heap of rubbish such as leaves, date leaves or lihusa and then firing the rubbish. The H. E. AtfNETt 301 interior of the pots is thus thoroughly smoked. The treatment is over in a few minutes, and is supposed to help to keep the juice from fermentation. Kanjilal l says the smoking gives the pots a glazed surface, and also the alkaline salts of the smoke neutralise acidity, and the heat kills any ferments which may have been produced. From our own observation we consider the heating effect must be almost negligible as the pots seldom become more than just warm. A number of measurements were made of the actual tempera- ture to which the insides of the pots attain. A maximum thermometer was held close to the advancing flame. The highest temperature thus recorded was 53'6° C. The following are the temperatures reached by a number of pots during the smoking. The temperature was determined by removing the pot immediately the flame had passed it, inserting the thermometer and closing the mouth with a duster. Temp. °C. 26-0 7 34-0 8 27-0 9 26-5 10 28'5 11 28-5 12 Temp. °C. 33-0 33-0 29-0 29-5 51-5 51-5 It seems, therefore, uncommon for the temperature to reach much higher than 32° C. Numbers 11 and 12 were exceptionally hot pots and one only occasionally meets with pots which have been so strongly heated. The following experiments were carried out to find the effect of smoking on preserving the juice. In the earlier experiments two pots were attached to the cut surface of the tree. One of the pots was smoked and the other Indian Forester, Dec. 1892, p. 454. DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. unsmoked. Two V shaped grooves were cut in the juice yielding surface instead of the usual one and two pegs inserted, one for each of the two pots. The juice from each pot was analysed next morning. Numerous experiments were carried out on these lines but no definite result was obtained. Sometimes the smoked and sometimes the unsmoked gave the best juice. It was decided that tests carried out in this way are useless because — (1) It is impossible to collect equal amounts of juice in each pot. Indications were obtained that small amounts of juice fermented much more rapidly than large amounts. (2) It is possible that juice yielded from different parts of the same cut surface is not uniform in composition. (3) It has been shewn (pp. 327-328) that juice yielded at different periods during the night varies in composition. Therefore unless the rates of flow of juice into the two pots are relatively the same throughout the night, we shall get variations in composition of the juice due to this cause. It was frequently noticed that the juice in the smoked pots was quite clear, whereas the juice from the unsmoked pots was cloudy. The effect of smoking was finally decided in the following way: Four quite new pots were obtained. Two of them were smoked and two left unsmoked. During the evening a large quantity of juice was collected. This was analysed and measured. It was then divided into four equal portions one of which was put into each of the four pots, which were then hung up on trees near the bungalow during the evening. Next morning the juice was analysed from each of the four pots. The experiment was carried out in an exactly similar way on three successive days. The results obtained are here set out. Jiran juice was used in each case. H. E. ANNEtT. 303 Expt. Date. Time. Volume of juice Treatment. Sucrose gms. per Reducing sugar gms. c.c. 100 c.c. per 100 c.c. I 26-2-11 7-30 P.M. 4,800 Original 15-44 0-57 27-2-11 8 A.M. 1,200 Unsmoked 14-12 1-94 >» • • do. do. do. 13-59 2-43 >» • • do. do. Smoked 14-77 1-47 do. do. do. 14-18 T94 2 27-2-11 9 A.M. 4,800 Original 13-22 0-75 28-2-11 7-30 A.M. 1,200 Unsmoked 9-95 3-74 »« • • do. do. do. 8-96 4-86 do. do. Smoked 10-72 2-87 " do. do. do. 10-80 3-24 3 28-211 8-30 P.M. 5,200 Original 11-75 0-97 1-3-11 8 A.M. 1,300 Unsmoked 6-44 4-86 >» • • do. do. do. 6-33 4-86 »» • • do. do. Smoked 7-48 4-04 do. do. do. 7-02 4-4 A similar experiment was carried out in February 1912. Four new pots were used for collecting juice without previous smoking. The following morning two of these were smoked by the native process. That evening a quantity (900 c.c.) of juice was collected and analysed. 225 c.c. was then put into each of the four pots, and these were hung on trees overnight. The table shows the result : — Date. Time. Volume of juice c.c. Treatment. Sucrose gms. per 100 c.c. Reducing sugar gms. per 100 c.c. 6-2-12 8P.M. 900 Original 13-34 0-62 ; 7-2 12 7-30 A.M. 225 Unsmoked 8-39 4-00 M do. 225 do. 9-48 3-33 » ' • do. 225 Smoked 11-36 2-50 do. 225 do. Spoilt 3-33 All the juices used in February 1911 for this experiment were faintly acid. The juice used in 1912 was distinctly alkaline. In every case we see that the juice kept in the smoked pots has not deteriorated so much as that in the unsmoked ones. We must conclude that smoking has a beneficial effect. £64 t>ATE SUGAR INDUSTRY i& BENGAL. It has been suggested that this beneficial effect is due to the alkalinity of the smoke. Accordingly, to test this point, we burnt quantities of the fuel normally used by the native for smoking the pots and aspirated the smoke through measured amounts of standard acid. As a result of several experiments it was found that the smoke contained no measurable amount of alkaline constituents. It seems possible that the beneficial effects of the smoke may be due to the presence in it of some antiseptic body such as for- maldehyde. It is proposed to make an examination of the smoke constituents in order to test this point. 03 O Ml O u — ^ S— p + t + 1 1 / \ \ 1 ^ , ? 2 , ^ ' n^ A <• -^ --. ^ , ' \ i NI^. . X rJ "•¥ ] i + > • •i- « > ^ / • « i \ t N i / 0 f i C5 /° ' j • i N I . / 4--. __ 1 i •f 4 0) . \ ' -^ ^J \ - --. s .' < E \ l ~ p ) t . ( \ L • e ' > ^ rt i . < s L N, I _ . *•• I ! t j / ' .\ a | .N U ~^S r 1 0 ;> i ' i 0 a \ 1 2 i J _> a ; / -h f r . / \ i 1 • / -^ .j ^ / <* \ -i | j \ X -CM s k k \ ^« ; r ^ — L C ~1 \ o / ; f ! "CVJ A- ) s 4 + Uli / v f 0 £ ( 5 h pi a ' ! I (1 fc r 2 • i CO /M ) p / > ? X \ 5 01 0 «? c^ g -00 V t > 5 X 2 g rr^ I - ;j -t r^ < n D i 0 ! < r c 1 C i r 4 c i a 3 u G / ) M c ) ) 2 0 n D O Z Li U a: h o o o o co r^ CD in O 00 fr* -N 0 P -(0 4 ^ * ^ [ f cr 8 i ( j ^ ^ {! , ' f ^j. 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L u -x 1 d /• L f| j / V 4 f r / •T \ £ /;• \ » <~~ L | ^' \ \ L r V) O 4 . ^- r \ ' N ( 2 F J 1 VJ h ' o oo r ) O O CO 10 t <^ w 1 \i o c U CD lO ^ O 0 C ) PART VI. TOURS. The work is the outcome of two visits to Jessore district. It was first taken up at the end of January 1911 by which time, however, the greater part of the sugar producing season is over. The results obtained on that occasion could hardly be used to judge of the capabilities of the industry, for it is well recognised that towards the end of the season there is a marked falling-ofE in the quality of the produce. Accordingly it was decided to spend the greater part of the cold weather 1911-12 in the date sugar districts. By this means only could reliable information be obtained. In the first place it is of great importance to determine what is the average yield of sugar per tree per season. The estimates of this up to the present have varied within very wide limits. The losses during manufacture had to be investigated and opinion had to be formed whether or no the industry was possible and worthy of improvement. In this case then data had to be obtained in order to show in what directions the industry could be improved. The first visit to Jessore district lasted from January 31st to March 6th, 1911. The second and main tour lasted from November 29th to February 14th, 1912. Thus practically the whole of the date sugar producing season was included. About 2,000 individual measurements of yields of juice per tree were made during this time in different parts of the district. The specific gravity of the juice was taken in each case. During the second tour, a garden was selected near Kotechandpur which was kept under careful observation. In this garden 20 trees were taken at random and 306 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. the juice carefully measured from them throughout the season, and from four of these trees the juice was regularly analysed in order to see how the amount of sugar in the juice varied throughout the season. Various other experiments were carried out, such as the loss of sugar during boiling and so on, and these are all described in the subsequent pages. PAET VII. JUICE. YIELD OP JUICE PER TREE. Our observations show that most of the estimates hitherto made are much too high. Twenty trees of various ages and in various conditions were selected in the same garden and were numbered 1 to 20 and metal labels with the numbers stamped on them were nailed into the trees. Whenever the trees yielded, the juice was, if possible, measured and its specific gravity taken. In the case of trees Nos. 3, 11, 16, 20, the amounts of sucrose and reducing sugar were regularly determined. The data obtained are all entered in the tables. This experiment was carried out in the cold weather 1911-12. Tapping operations commenced very late this season because there was a large area of jute grown in Jessore and the harvesting, retting and marketing of this de- layed the date sugar operations beyond the normal. The above trees in consequence did not yield their first juice till Decem- ber 4th. Moreover it was not possible to always measure the juice. For those days which were missed figures have been inserted in brackets and these have been computed from a consideration of the yields given on the preceding and succeeding occasions. The data for four of the trees have been plotted as curves in Charts Nos. 1—4. 308 DATE StTGAIl ItfDtfSTR? Itf BEtfGAt. Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. Tree No. 1 4th Dec. 1911 .. Jiran GOO 1-058 8 years tapped. 8th „ „ >» • • 1,150 1-056 9th „ „ Dokat 1,000 1-058 16th „ „ Jiran 1,950 1-052 17th „ „ Dokat 1,250 1'050 24th „ „ Jiran 2,150 1-050 25th „ „ Dokat (1,650) 28th „ „ Jiran (2,250) 29th „ „ ..__ Dokat (1,650) .... 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (2,250) .... 3rd „ „ Dokat (1,650) .... 7th „ „ Jiran (3,000) .... 8th „ „ Dokat (2,000) 12th „ „ Jiran 2,350 1-051 13th „ „ Dokat 900 1-053 17th „ „ Jiran 2,200 1-052 19th „ „ • .. Tekat 1,500 1'050 25th „ „ » • • 500 T054 28th „ „ Jiran 2,100 1-054 29th „ „ Dokat 1,650 1-052 30th ,, ,, Tekat 500 1-058 2nd Feb. 1912 . . Jiran (1,700) 3rd „ „ Dokat 1,250 V050 7th „ „ Jiran 1,300 1-052 8th „ „ Dokat 1,750 1'049 Total 40,250 = 42,343 gms. (*) = 93-37 Ibs. * In this and succeeding tables, the weight in grammes of juice was determined by multi- plying t he number of c.c. by the average specific gravity, which was obtained by adding up and averaging all the specific gravity figures. H. E. ANNETT. 309 Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. No. 2 4th Dec. 1911 .. Jiran 200 .... 2 years tapped male tree. 8th „ „ 9th „ „ )5 ' ' Dokat 950 600 1'060 16th „ „ Jiran 1,350 1'049 17th „ „ Dokat 750 1-049 24th „ „ Jiran 2,500 1-043 25th „ „ Dokat (850) 28th „ „ Jiran (1,900) 29th „ „ Dokat (750) 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (1,900) 3rd „ „ Dokat (750) 7th „ „ Jiran (1,900) 8th „ „ Dokat 900 1-050 12th „ „ Jiran 1,250 T049 13th „ „ Dokat 550 1*047 18th „ „ .. Jiran 1,250 1-053 19th „ „ Dokat 600 ro50 23rd „ „ Jiran (1,500) 24th „ „ Dokat (1,050) 28th „ „ Jiran 1,750 1-061 29th „ „ Dokat 1,500 1-042 30th „ „ Tekat 500 i T048 2nd Feb. 1912 . . Jiran 1,250 T051 3rd „ „ Dokat 1,250 1-042 7th „ „ Jiran 750 1*064 8th „ „ Dokat 1,950 1-043 Total 30,450 = 31,792gms. • 70-50 Ibs. 310 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. No. 4 4th Dec. 1911 .. Jiran 500 roeo 15 years tapped. 8th „ „ „ 850 1'054 9th „ „ Dokat 750 T052 16th „ „ Jiran 1,350 1'045 17th „ „ Dokat 750 1'046 24th „ „ Jiran 1,150 T044 25th „ „ Dokat (500) — 28th „ „ Jiran (900) — 29th „ „ Dokat (500) • • • -i 2nd Jan. 1912 .;. . Jiran (900) — 3rd „ „ Dokat (500) .... 7th „ „ Jiran (900) 8th „ „ Dokat 250 T056 12th „ „ Jiran 650 1-050 13th „ „ Dokat 100 .... 18th „ „ Jiran 950 1-051 19th „ „ Dokat 400 T054 23rd „ „ Jiran (950) . • • * 24th „ '„' Dokat (450) • 28th „ „ Jiran 950 V049 29th „ „ Dokat No pot. 2nd Feb. 1912 . . Jiran 900 T046 3rd „ „ Dokat 1,000 T039 7th „ „ Jiran 750 1'043 8th „ „ Dokat (750) Total 17,650 = 18,532 gms. = 4077 Ibs. H. E. ANNETT. 311 Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. No. 5 4th Dec. 1911 .. Jiran 850 T062 10 years tapped. 8th „ „ 55 • • 1,350 roeo 9th ,, „ Dokat 1,000 T062 16th „ „ Jiran 1,850 1-057 17th „ „ Dokat 1,000 T056 24th „ „ Jiran 2,500 T053 25th „ „ Dokat (1,650) .... 28th „ „ Jiran (2,850) 29th „ „ Dokat (2,000) 2nd Jan. 1912 Jiran (3,000) .... 3rd „ „ Dokat (2,150) .... 7th „ ,, Jiran (3,100) .... 8th „ „ Dokat 2,300 1-048 12th „ „ Jiran 3,200 1'046 13th „ „ Dokat 1,350 ro5o 18th „ „ Jiran 3,500 1'053 19th „ „ Dokat 2,450 T047 23rd „ „ Jiran (3,300) .... 24th „ „ Dokat (2,700) .... 25th „ „ Tekat 600 1'056 28th „ „ Jiran 3,050 1'052 29th „ „ Dokat 3,000 T04G 30th ,, ,, Tekat 1,000 1-054 2nd Feb. 1912 . . Jiran 2,750 T052 3rd ,, „ Dokat 1,600 1-047 7th ,, ,, Jiran 1,750 T056 8th „ „ • Dokat 2,500 1-049 58,350 - 61,267 gins. - 13478 Ibs. 312 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Notes on the trees. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c. c. Specific gravity. No. 7 13 years tapped female. 4th Dec. 1911 .. 8th „ „ Jiran ?? • • 900 (1,100) 1-063 9th „ „ Dokat (800) .... 16th „ „ Jiran 1,300 roei 17th „ „ Dokat 800 TOGO 24th „ „ Jiran 2,200 1-069 25th „ „ Dokat (2,000) .... 28th „ „ Jiran (2,300) 29th „ „ Dokat (2,000) .... 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (2,300) 3rd „ „ Dokat (1,800) 7th „ „ Jiran (3,200) 8th „ „ Dokat 2,650 1'050 9th „ „ Tekat 650 1-069 12th „ „ Jiran 3,800 1*069 13th „ „ Dokat 2,000 1*062 17th „ „ Jiran 3,250 1-069 18th „ ,, Dokat 3,850 T048 19th „ „ Tekat 2,100 1*061 23rd „ „ Jiran (3,500) 24th „ „ Dokat (3,500) 25th „ „ Tekat 800 1-067 28th „ „ Jiran 3,750 1-052 29th „ „ Dokat 4,150 1'048 30th „ „ Tekat 1,500 1-053 2nd Feb. 1912 . . Jiran 3,200 1*049 3rd „ „ Dokat 3,400 1-046 7th „ „ Jiran 2,600 T054 8th „ „ Dokat 3,250 1-051 Total 68,650 : 72,285 gms. = 159-03 Ibs. H. E. ANNETT. 313 Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c. c. Specific gravity. No. 8 10 years tapped. 4th Dec. 1911 .. 8th „ „ Jiran 55 • • 1,850 1,500 T054 roso 9th „ „ Dokat 1,050 1-060 16th „ „ Jiran 1,750 1-041 17th „ „ Dokat 600 1-046 24th „ „ .. Jiran 1,750 T039 25th „ „ Dokat (850) .... 28th „ „ .. Jiran (1,700) 29th „ „ Dokat (950) 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (1,700) .... 3rd „ „ .. Dokat (950) 8th „ „ .. Jiran 1,650 1'038 9th „ „ Dokat 1,000 1-038 13th „ „ .. Jiran 1,350 1-035 14th „ „ .. Dokat (1,100) .... 19th „ „ Jiran 1,450 1-039 20th „ „ .. Dokat (1,100) 24th „ „ Jiran (1,400) .... 25th „ „ Dokat 1,250 1-038 26th „ „ Tekat 200 29th „ „ Jiran 1,050 1-038 30th „ „ Dokat 1,050 1*042 3rd Feb. 1912 .. Jiran 1,450 1-040 4th „ „ Dokat (1,450) .... 8th „ „ Jiran 800 1-039 9th „ „ 10th „ „ ] Owing to rain > no juice was 1 collected. .... .... Total 30,150 = 31,356 gms. = 68-98 Ibs. 3H DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. 1o. 9 14 years tapped. 4th Doc. 1911 .. 8th ., „ Jiran >: ' ' 250 750 ro7o 9th „ „ Dokat 700 1-064 16th „ „ Jiran 1,850 1'058 17th „ „ Dokat 900 1'058 24th „ „ Jiran 3,000 1-049 25th „ „ Dokat (2,100) 28th ,, Jiran (3,250) 29th „ „ Dokat (2,300) .... 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (3,250) 3rd „ „ Dokat (2,300) 8th „ „ Jiran 3,500 1-053 9th „ „ Dokat 2,500 T047 13th „ „ Jiran 2,550 T049 Hth „ „ 19th „ „ Dokat Jiran (2,300) 4,000 T050 20th „ „ Dokat (3,250) .... 24th „ „ Jiran (4,000) 25th „ „ Dokat 3,750 1-041 2Cth „ „ Tekat 750 1-056 29th „ „ Jiran 2,900 1-052 30th „ „ Dokat 3,150 1-045 3rd Feb. 1912 .. Jiran 2,850 1-050 4th „ „ Dokat (3,100) 8th „ „ Jiran 4,250 1-041 9th „ „ I Owing to rain .... \ 10th „ „ \ no j uice was collected. Total 63,500 = 66,800 gins - 147-29 Ibs H. E. ANNETT. 315 Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. No. 10 14 years tapped. 4th Dec. 1911 .. 8th „ „ Jiran » • • 300 700 1*052 1*058 9th „ „ Dokat 800 T044 16th „ „ Jiran 1,350 T043 17th „ „ Dokat 950 roil 24th „ „ .. Jiran 1,700 1'041 25th „ „ Dokat (1,000) .... 28th „ „ .. Jiran (1,750) .... 29th „ „ .. Dokat (1,000) .... 2nd Jan. 1912 .. Jiran (1,800) 3rd „ „ Dokat (1,000) .... 8th „ „ Jiran 1,800 1'044 9th „ „ ... Dokat 1,000 1'047 13th „ „ .. Jiran 1,750 1-046 14th „ „ .. Dokat (1,600) .... 19th „ „ .. Jiran 2,000 1-047 20th „ „ Dokat (1,800) .... 24th „ „ Jiran (2,200) .... 25th „ „ .. Dokat 1,900 1*043 26th „ „ .. Tekat 700 1-050 29th „ „ .. Jiran 1,500 1-050 30th „ „ .. Dokat 1,550 1-045 3rd Feb. 1912 .. Jiran 1,000 1-053 4th „ „ Dokat (1,000) .... 8th „ „ Jiran 1,250 1-052 9th „ „ I Owing to rain .... .... 10th „ „ J no juice was collected. Total 33,400 = 35,070 gms. ' 77'32 Ibs, 316 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. No. 12 16 years tapped male tree. 4th Dec, 1911 .. 9th „ „ Jiran )? • • 1,000 1,500 1'060 1*052 16th „ „ )> • • 2,850 1-047 nth „ „ Dokat 1,400 1'048 24th „ . „ Jiran 2,950 1 '043 25th „ „ Dokat (1,350) 28th „ „ Jiran (3,200) 29 rh •WWII •- .. Dokat (1,600) 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (3,300) 3rd „ „ Dokat (1,600) 7th „ „ Jiran (3,300) 8th „ „ Dokat 1,300 1'047 12th „ „ Jiran 3,450 1-042 13th „ „ Dokat 2,650 1-039 17th „ „ Jiran 2,500 1'047 18th „ „ Dokat 2,500 1-042 19th „ „ Tekat 1,450 1-049 23rd „ „ Jiran (2,400) 24th „ „ Dokat (2,200) 25th „ „ Tekat 250 28th „ „ Jiran 2,200 1-050 29th „ „ Dokat 1,900 1-044 30th „ „ Tekat 250 1-054 2nd Feb. 1912 . . Jiran 2,000 1-050 3rd „ „ Dokat 1,850 1-044 7th „ „ Jiran 1,250 1-055 8th „ „ Dokat 1,085 1'043 Total 54,050 = 56,752 gms. = 12513 Ibs. H. E. ANNETT. 317 Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. No. 13 12 years tapped. 4th Dec. 1911 .. 8th „ „ .. Jiran >j • • 100 300 1'070 16th „ „ » • • 1,050 1*061 17th „ „ Dokat 550 1'059 24th „ „ .. Jiran 1,650 1'054 25th „ „ Dokat (1,400) 28th „ „ .. Jiran (2,100) 29th „ M Dokat (1,800) 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (2,300) 3rd „ „ Dokat (2,000) 7th „ „ .. Jiran (2,400) .... 8th „ „ Dokat 2,250 1*048 i2th „ „ ,.; Jiran 2,550 1'053 13th „ „ Dokat 1,000 1'053 17th „ „ .. Jiran 2,250 1-052 18th „ „ Dokat 2,500 1*048 19th „ „ Tekat 1,000 1'053 23rd „ „ Jiran (2,300) — 24th „ „ .. Dokat (2,250) 25th „ „ Tekat 200 — 28th „ „ Jiran 2,400 1-063 29th „ „ Dokat 2,000 1-060 30th „ „ Tekat 500 1-066 2nd Feb. 1912 . . Jiran 2,000 1'052 3rd „ „ Dokat 1,500 row 7th „ „ Jiran 1,300 1-052 Sih ., „ Dokat 2,000 1*061 Total 43,650 = 46,010 arms. = TOl'45 Vbs. 318 1> ATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN feENGAl. Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. No. 14 16 years tapped male tree. 8th Dec. 1911 .. 16th „ „ Jiran :> • • 400 1,250 ro70 T058 17th „ „ Dokat 900 1'054 • 24th „ „ .. Jiran 2,000 T048 25th „ „ Dokat (] ,000) — 28th „ „ Jiran (2,300) — 29th „ „ Dokat (1,100) — 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (2,450) — 3rd „ „ Dokat (1,200) — 7th „ „ Jiran (2,500) — 8th „ „ Dokat 1,150 roso 12th „ ,, Jiran 2,600 T045 13th „ „ Dokat 1,250 1'046 18th „ „ Jiran 2,800 1-048 19th ,, ,, Dokat 1,700 T047 23rd „ „ Jiran (2,300) — 24th „ „ Dokat (1,750) — 25th „ „ Tekat 600 1'052 28th „ „ Jiran 1,950 1-051 29th „ „ Dokat No pot. 30th „ „ Tekat 650 1-052 2nd Feb. 1912 . . Jiran 1,900 1*047 3rd „ „ Dokat 1,800 1'046 7th „ „ Jiran 1,000 T052 8th „ „ Dokat 1,800 1'049 Total 38,350 - 40,310 gms. = 88-86 Ibs. . fi. ANNETt. 319 Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. No. 15 15 years tapped . 1th Dec. 1911 .. 8th „ „ Jiran 5) • • 200 350 1'058 9th „ „ Dokat 16th „ „ Jiran 950 roso 17th „ „ Dokat — 21th „ „ Jiran 1,000 1-045 25th „ „ Dokat (500) — 28th „ „ Jiran (1,050) — 29th „ „ Dokat (600) — 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (1,100) 3rd „ „ Dokat (600) — 8th „ „ Jiran 1,100 T045 Oth „ „ Dokat 500 I'OSO 13th „ „ Jiran 1,000 1-044 14th „ „ Dokat (600) 19th „ „ Jiran 1,150 1-045 20th „ „ Dokat (600) 25th „ „ Jiran 1,150 1'039 26th „ „ Dokat 250 1-047 29th „ „ Jiran 950 1-041 30th „' •„ Dokat (700) 3rd Feb. 1912 .. Jiran 700 1-045 4th „ „ Dokat (600) 8th ,, „ . . Jiran 800 1-046 9th „ „ I Owing to rain .... .... i 10th „ „ J no juice was collected. Total 17,450 18,250 gmsr 40'241bs. 320 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. No. 17 4th Dec. 1911 .. Jiran 250 15 years tapped. 8th „ „ )) • • 750 T058 9th „ „ Dokat 750 T058 16th „ „ Jiran 1,400 T053 17th „ „ Dokat 500 1-056 24th „ „ Jiran 1,750 1'049 25th „ „ Dokat (500) 28th „ „ Jiran (1,800) 29th „ „ ^ Dokat (500) 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (1,800) 3rd „ „ Dokat (500) 7th „ „ Jiran (1,800) 8th „ „ Dokat 550 1'057 12th „ „ Jiran 1,800 1 '050 13th „ „ Dokat 750 1-064 18th „ Jiran 1,350 1-056 19th „ „ Dokat 750 1-066 24th „ „ Jiran (1,550) 25th „ „ Dokat (1,100) 28th „ „ Jiran 1,750 1-051 29th „ „ Dokat 1,500 1-046 2nd Feb. 1912 . . Jiran 2,200 1-044 3rd „ . „ Dokat 1,750 1-044 7th „ ., Jiran 1,000 1'049 8th „ „ Dokat 1,500 1'049 Total 29.850 =31,361 gms. = 65/23 Ibs. H. E. ANNETT. 321 Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. No. 19 4th Dec. 1911 .. Jiran 250 11 years tapped. 8th „ „ )) • • (700) 16th „ „ j> • • 1,150 T047 17th „ „ Dokat 950 1-045 24th „ „ .. Jiran 1,600 1'042 25th „ „ Dokat (1,050) 28th „ „ Jiran (1,650) 29th „ „ Dokat (1,100) .... 2nd Jan. 1912 . . Jiran (1,700) 3rd „ „ Dokat (1,100) .... 7th „ „ Jiran (1,700) 8th „ „ Dokat 1,150 1-046 12th „ „ Jiran 1,750 1'043 13th •„ „ Dokat 750 1-046 18th „ „ Jiran 1,900 1'045 19th „ „ Dokat 1,900 ro4o 23rd „ „ Jiran (1,600) .... 24th „ „ Dokat (1,600) 28th „ „ Jiran 1,250 .1-049 29th „ „ Dokat 1,400 T042 2nd Feb. 1912 .. Jiran 800 1-048 3rd „ „ Dokat 750 1-046 7th „ „ Jiran 500 T052 8th „ „ Dokat Not tapped again till after the 10th. Total 28,300 = 29,563 gms. = 65'261bs. 322 DATE StJGAR INDUSTRY IN Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. Direct reading. Sucrose per cent. Reduc- ing sugar per cent. Total sugar per cent. 4-12-11 Jiran ... 1,150 1-052 46-2 11-44 0-12 11-56 No. 11 8-12-11 Jirnn ... 1,600 1-049 42-8 10-63 0-25 10-88 13 years tapped. 9-12-11 Dokat... 1,350 1-04S 37-6 9-34 0-76 10-10 16-12-11 Jirau ... 2,750 1-044 35-1 8-76 0-70 9-46 17-1211 Dokat... 1,750 1 042 31-9 7-97 1-16 9-13 2412 11 Jiran ... 2,600 1-041 35-0 8-76 0-34 9-10 23-12-11 Dokat... 2,2dO 1-038 111 7-80 0-84 8-64 28-12-11 Jiran ... (3,050) 2912 11 Dokat... 2,000 i-038. 29-6 7:43 l'-25 8:68 30-1211 Tekat ... 650 I-04S 36-5 9-05 1-90 10 9-i 2-1-12 Jiran ... 3,500 1 -038 33-2 8'33 0-46 8-79 3-1-12 Dokat... 2.200 1-044 261 6-53 2-23 8-76 4-1-2 Tekat ... (500) ... 7-1-12 Jiran ... (3,300) 8-1-12 Dokat 2,700 1-035 29;9 7:50 0-58 8:OS 12-1-12 Jiran ... 3,050 1-039 31-4 7-86 0-42 8-28 13-1-12 Dokat... 750 1-045 22-6 s-as 3-80 9-43 18-1-12 Jiran ... 3,850 1 -042 30-7 7-67 094 8-61 19-1-12 Dokat... 2,950 1-036 25-7 6-46 1-00 7-46 23-1-12 Jiran .. (3,300) 24-1-12 Dokat... (2,700) ... 25-1-12 Tekat ... 250 19-8 4:95 4-60 9:55 28-1-12 Jiran ... 2,700 1,044 29-0 7-24 1-50 8-74 29-1-12 Dokat... 2,400 1-038 23-5 5-90 1-62 7-52 30-1-12 Tekat ... 5HO 1-048 23-3 5-79 3-22 9-01 2-2-12 Jiran ... 1,900 1-044 329 8"2l 1-47 9-68 3-2-12 Dokat... 1.600 1-041 27-1 6-78 1-37 8-15 7-2-12 Jiran . . 1,250 1-049 40-0 9-93 0-83 10-76 8-2-12 Dokat ... 1,600 1-042 27-0 6-75 1-74 8-49 Total 64,770 gms. 142-82 Ibs. No. 16 4-12-11 Jiran .. 900 1 -062 1 year tapped. 8-12-11 Jiran .. 1,01)0 1-062 ... 9-12-11 Dokat ... 550 1-062 ••• 16-12-11 Jiran .. 2,000 1-057 46-1 lt;36 087 1223 17-12-11 Dokat ... 1 ,250 1-054 40-0 9-88 1-35 11-23 24-1211 Jiran ... 1,250 1-050 43-7 1084 0-32 11-16 25-12-11 Dokat.. 2,200 1-048 420 10-44 0-54 10-98 29-12-11 Jiran .. 3,000 1-050 42-7 1059 0-64 11-23 30-12-11 Dokat ... 2.750 1 -046 36-8 9-16 1-03 10-19 3-1-12 Jiran ... 3,500 1-048 38-8 9-64 1-14 10-78 4-1-12 Dokat.. (2,400) ,. 8-1-12 Jiran ... 3,550 1-049 38:6 9-59 0-78 10:37 9-1-12 Dokat ... 2,000 1 048 36-3 9-02 083 9-85 13-1-12 Jiran ... 2.4CO 1-043 24-8 6-19 3-80 999 14-1-12 Dokat ... (1,700) ... ... 19- -12 Jiran ... 3,900 1-047 27-6 6-87 2-25 912 20- -12 Dokat ... (3,100) 24- -12 Jiran . . (3,600) 25- -12 Dokat... 3,500 1-044 33-5 8:36 0-94 9'30 26- -12 Tekat ... 2,000 1-047 37-9 9-43 099 10-42 29- -12 Jiran ... 3,250 1-049 41-4 10-28 0-51 10-79 30-1-12 Dokat ... 2,100 1047 34-6 8-61 1-74 10-35 3-2-12 Jiran .. 2,850 1-050 40-3 10-00 0-73 10-73 4-2-12 Dokat ... (2,10d) 8-2-12 Jiran ... 2,650 1-054 43"-0 10:63 0-95 11-58 Total ... 60,000 c.c. 62,922 gins 138-90 Ibs. H. E. ANNETT. 323 Notes on the tree. Date. Jiran, Dokat or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. Direct reading. Sucrose per cent. {educing sugar ?er cent. Total sugar per cent. No. 20 4-12-11 Jiran • 500 1-064 57-0 13-95 0-20 14-15 14 years tapped. 8-12-11 Jiran ... 900 1-05S 51-2 12-60 0-33 1-2-99 912-11 Dokat... 850 1-056 42-4 Ki-46 1-14 11-60 16-12-11 Jiran ... 1,750 1-050 41-3 1024 0-68 10-92 17-12-11 Dokat... 1,050 1-049 37-9 9-41 1-10 1051 24-12-11 Jiran ... 3,500 1-048 420 10-44 022 1066 25-12-11 Dokat . 2,750 1-012 35-7 8-92 060 9-52 28-12-11 Jiran ... (3,400) 29-1211 Dokat... 2,250' 1:043 36-0 8-99 'i-oo 9:99 30-12-11 Tekat ... 750 1 052 435 10-77 1-43 12-20 2-1-12 Jiran ... 3,350 1-045 389 969 066 10-35 3-1-12 Dokat... 2,500 1-019 337 8-37 1-52 9-89 7-1-12 Jiran ... (3,700) | 8-1-12 Dokat... 3,250 1014 360 8:9S 0-58 9-56 9-1-12 Tekat ... 1,000 1054 44-8 11-08 0-74 11-82 12-1-12 Jiran ... 4,000 1-048 39-6 9-84 171 11-55 13-1-12 Dokat... 1,550 1-049 39-8 9-88 171 11-59 17-1-12 Jiran ... 3,100 1-050 43-4 10-76 0-59 11-35 18-1-12 Dokat... 3.700 1-046 34-0 8-47 1-24 9-71 19-1-12 Tekat ... 1,750 1-050 34-6 8-58 188 1046 23 1-12 Jiran ... (3,100) 241-12 Dokat .. (3,000) 25-1-12 Tekat ... 650 'i-054 338 8;35 373 12;08 28-1-12 Jiran ... 3,050 1-052 44-1 10-92 0-48 11-40 291-12 Dokat... 2,300 1-047 35-1 8-73 1-50 10-23 30-1-12 Tekat ... 500 1-057 33-9 8-35 316 11-51 2-2-12 Jiran ... 2,850 1-049 30-6 7-60 3-22 10-82 3-2-12 Dokat... 2,2(10 1-047 33"2 8-26 1-47 973 72-12 Jiran ... 1,600 1052 42-0 10-40 1-19 11-59 8-2-12 Dokat... 2,000 1-049 37-2 924 1-13 10-37 28-1-12 Jiran ... 3,050 1-052 44-1 10-92 0-48 11-40 291-12 Dokat... 2,300 1-047 35-1 8-73 1-50 10-23 30-1-12 Tekat ... 500 1-057 33-9 8-35 316 11-51 2-2-12 Jiran ... 2,850 1-049 30-6 7-60 3-22 10-82 3-2-12 Dokat... 2,2(10 1-047 33"2 8-26 1-47 973 72-12 Jiran ... 1,600 1052 42-0 10-40 M9 11-59 8-2-12 Dokat... 2,000 1-049 37-2 924 1-13 10-37 Total ... 66.850 = 70,190 gms. = 154-77 Ibs. No. 3 4 12-11 Jiran ... 850 i 1-044 3 years tapped. 8-12-11 >» 1,750 1-045 912-11 Dokat ... 1,300 1-046 1612-11 Jiran ,.. 2,050 1-040 33-6 8-48 0-35 8-83 1712-11 Dokat ... 1,600 1-042 29-3 7-32 1-30 8-62 24-12-11 Jiran ... 2,<>00 1-044 39-5 985 037 10-22 2512-11 Dokat ... 1,650 1-043 S6-8 9-19 085 10-04 28-12 11 Jiran ... (2,250) 2912-11 Dokat ... 1,550 1-040 31-0 7:76 i'-io 8:86 30-12 11 Tekat ... 750 1-047 37-0 9-20 1-70 1090 2-1-12 Jiran ... 2,500 1-042 36-6 9-15 052 9-67 31-12 Dokat ... 1,200 1-039 26-5 664 1-90 8-54 7-1-12 Jiran ... (2,350) 8-1-12 Dokat ... 1,450 1-045 34-5 8-60 0-96 9:56 121 12 Jiran ... 2,200 1-044 35-1 8-76 0-64 9-40 13-1-12 Dokat ... 800 1-046 30-8 767 3-04 10-71 17-1-12 Jiran ... 1,750 1-044 380 9-48 0-42 990 18-1-12 Dokat ... 2,250 1-040 27-7 6-91 1-47 8-41 19-1-12 Tekat ... 1,000 1-044 28-9 721 1-88 9-09 22-1-12 Jiran ... (1,750) 23-1-12 Dokat ... (1,000) 24-1 -12 Tekat ... (500) .f 28-1-12 •Jiran ,.. (1,625) 291-12 Dokat ... 1,500 1-039 293 7-35 1:03 8-38 3H-1-12 Tekat ... 70D 1-046 25-7 6-40 3-22 962 2-2-12 Jiran ... 1.500 1-046 38-3 954 0-83 ! 10'37 3-2-12 Dokat ... 1,450 1-04(1 29-5 7-39 (C83 8-22 7-2-12 Jiran . 750 1-050 43-0 10-67 1-05 11-72 8-2-12 Dokat ... 1,350 1-045 32-8 8-18 1-12 9-30 Total ... 44.325 = 46,275 gms. = 102-04 Ibs. 324 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Trees Nos. 6 and 18 are omitted from the tables, as 6 was abandoned early in the season by the tappers, and only so few measurements of No. 18 were made that they could not form a really good guide as to the annual yield of the tree. Of the re- maining 18 trees the average yield of juice per tree comes out at 101-15 Ibs. It must here be remembered that juice was only collected from these trees for the purpose of the experiment from December 4th till February 8th. The normal date sugar season however extends from about the second week in November till the first week in March. In the period under experiment only about 28 collections of juice on an average were taken from each tree. A full tapping period would include about 45 collections of juice per tree. In order to calculate from our figures the yield of juice per tree per season one cannot simply multiply the figure found by 45/28 for the following reasons. In the first place, the yields during Novem- ber and the later part of February are not so high as in December and January. Further, we must allow for rainy or cloudy weather which prevents collection of juice. Allowing for these facts, one may yet safely add 1/3 to the figures obtained above, in order to get the yield of juice per tree per season. In this way we arrive at an average of juice per tree per season of 134'87 Ibs. The garden in which these 20 trees were situated is considered by the author to be distinctly below the average of the gardens in the district. This opinion has been formed as a result of about 2,000 individual measurements of trees throughout the district. Measurements have been made also at Jessore town, Jhenidah, Kaliganj, Chowgachha and Tarpur, and in the villages for some miles around these centres and around Kotechandpur. These occa- sional measurements of individual trees cannot of course be used as a basis for calculating the annual yield of juice per tree. Around Jhenidah, the date cultivation is very poor and yields seem very low. H. E. ANNETT. 325 Near Jessore town the yields are larger than in other places, and in village Khartalar some very fine trees exist. This particular village was visited first on December 26th and 27th. In consequence of the high yields it was thought worth while visiting the garden again in early February. The statement below shows the yields recorded by us in one particularly good plantation in this village in December and again in February. The outstanding features of this garden were -the exceptional thickness of the trees, and the excellent cultivation. It seems that 300 Ibs. of juice per tree per season might be expected in this garden, i.e., 37 J Ibs. of gur. The yields in all the other places mentioned appear to be much about the same. In conclusion, the author considers that 170 Ibs. of juice per tree per season may be taken as a fair average yield throughout the date sugar districts. YIELDS OP DATE JUICE, KHARTALAR VILLAGE, JESSORE TOWN. (Soil clayey and field well tilled. Trees 15' x 15'.) Date. Years tapped. Jiran, Dokat, or Tekat. Volume c.c. Specific gravity. 26th December 1911 . . 6 Jiran 600 1'066 16 4900 1-056 16 2750 ro6i 13 2750 roeo 15 3400 T056 14 4000 1'052 12 5500 1-053 13 1350 1'061 13 3350 1'062 9 2350 1-051 13 1100 1-070 10 3750 1-056 12 5750 1-056 10 2800 1-062 13 3650 1'056 13 2750 1'060 13 2350 T060 14 5200 T056 320 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Date. Years tapped. Jiran, Dokat or Tekat. Volume c. c. Specific gravity. 27th December 1911 .. 4 Dokat 1750 1'042 9 j> 900 T052 7 ?> 2650 1'048 11 ;» 1100 1'067 10 » 2500 I'OSO 12 »> 850 roe? 6 » 450 1'063 14 » 2500 roeo 10 ) 1900 T058 13 > 2250 1-063 13 > 2100 T059 13 > 1950 1'059 15 :» 800 roeo 16 ?> ia5o 1061 13 5» 2200 T057 12 )) 3500 1'055 16 SJ 3250 T054 15 )) 3200 roso 4th February 1912 14 Jiran 4150 1-064 12 > » 4500 1-060 13 » 3350 1-054 15 > > 3000 roso 15 » 2400 1'058 15 5 3750 T046 13 j 2250 roeo 15 » 3100 roso 15 > 2000 T048 5th February 1912 16 , 6300 1.052 10 > 5500 1-054 13 » 6000 roso 10 )5 5250 1-053 13 » 4200 T058 11 J5 3000 roei 12 )) 1950 1'064 7 » 4200 1.054 9 ) 3000 1'054 4 J 1650 - T055 10 ) 2800 1-054 13 ? 4750 1'054 13 , 3500 1'059 15 Dokat 1750 roeo MAXIMUM DAILY YIELD OF JUICE PER TREE. The largest amount of juice observed from a single tree in one night was 6,600 c.c. or 15'25 Ibs. near Kotechandpur. Other large yields were 14'30 Ibs. near Kotechandpur and 14*61 Ibs, at H. E. ANNETT. 327 Jessore. In order to get the total yield of juice in 24 hours one must add the amount of juice flowing during the day Measurements of this were not made, but it would probably be about 30 to 50% of the amount collected at night. VARIATION IN COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF JUICE AT DIFFERENT PERIODS DURING THE We have already seen (p. 298) that jiran juice is of better quality than dokat juice, and further that commonly jiran juice is yielded in larger quantity than dokat. This in turn is better in quality than tekat juice and also its yield is much greater. It seemed of interest to determine if the yield of juice varied in its rate of flow and composition during a single night. Accordingly during February 1911 certain trees were selected and their juice collected at various periods during the night, mea- sured and analysed. No. of trees. Years tapped to date. Jiran, Dokat or tekat. Date of collection. Period of collection. Volume of juice c.c. Sucrose gms. per 100 c.c. Reducing sugars. A 13 Jiran 16th Feb. 1911 5 to 6-15 P.M. 2075 17-75 1-04 f> 16th „ 6-15 to 7-40 „ 2075 13-95 0-65 >? 16th „ 7-40 17th „ 5-30 A.M. Yrao 0-93 B .... »» 16th „ „ 5 to 6-15 P.M. . 15-50 0-53 6-15 to 7-40 „ 3700 13-90 0-34 16th „ 7-40 .... >» 17th „ 5-30 A.M. 11-55 0-53 C 18th „ 5 to 6-20 P.M. "SOO 14-50 1-25 ,, 18th „ 6-20 to 8-10 „ 250 12-65 no » 18th „ 8-10 19th „ 5-20 A.M. 1200 10-80 0-53 n 19th „ 5-20 200 9-20 0-65 • 7 D .... n 18th „ 5 to 6-20 P.M. "f)00 'l3-45 1-05 tl 18th „ 6-20 to 8-10 „ 250 10-55 0-70 >f 18th „ 8-10 M 19th „ 5-20 A.M. '1260 ' 8-75 0-74 »» 19th „ 5-20 to 7 200 7-50 0-63 5 12 Dokat 15th „ 5 to 6-30 P.M. 250 13-90 0-64 H 15th „ „ 6-30 16th „ 5-20 A.M. 'SICK) lV-75 1-04 ?> 16th „ 5-20 7-30 9-20 V-80 6 10 M 15th „ „ 5 to 6-30 P.M. 200 11-63 1-28 15th „ 6-30 .... M 16th „ 5-20 A.M. 2100 ' 8-70 1-73 H 16th „ 5-20 to 7-30 „ 6-12 2-30 328 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. The tables shew that throughout the night there is a regular and rapid fall in the amount of cane-sugar in the juice. The reducing sugar has not shewn a corresponding increase. In fact in trees A, B, C and D yielding jiran juice, the reducing sugar has tended to decrease in proportion with the reduction of cane-sugar. In trees 5 and 6 yielding dokat juice, the amount of reducing sugar has in- creased to some extent with the decreasing content of cane-sugar. It thus seems that the decrease in quality of the juice through- out the night is not entirely due to inversion, but the juice actually gets less and less concentrated. In January and February 1912 the experiment was repeated on a single tree. This tree was in an isolated position being in an open space a good half mile from any other trees tapped for juice. The only other differences between this and the above ex- periments were that in this case the juice was collected in an ena- melled pot and further the tree had only been tapped on two or three occasions this season. The cut surface was very clean in this case, and as will be seen a remarkably good juice was obtained. On the 17th and 18th January the juice collected contained only the merest trace of invert sugar certainly less than 0'05%. Expt. No. Date of collection. Period of collection. Volume of juice c.c. Sucrose gms. per 100 c.c. Reducing sugar. 1 17th January 1912 4-30 to 6-15 P.M. 170 13-99 Trace. 17th 6-30 to 8-15 „ 160 13-86 17th 8-35 to 10-30 „ 175 14-02 18th 10-45 P.M. to 6-30 A.M. 13'31 M 2 6th February 1912 4-50 to 6-15 P.M. 160 13-62 0-50 6th 6-25 to 7-45 „ 190 13-81 0-55 6th 7-55 to 9-30 „ 160 13-60 0-58 This experiment does not show the same steady decline in richness and quality of the juice as the former experiments did. CHART NO. 5. t ( ? LQ -St .b. i a BY L S ? ^ OT "0 T I "T -V} i Q-t. ^ o l~L (/ TT) H b. ^-o OS iL tl V r 1(3 Dr • } c tf it <^ JL C< O /o 1 ^ -X- *\ 7 ^) X • - — .— o l\ ^. L c y C tSL QJ r in ^r- ~ tv N^ C3 Oi P-1 k0 s ^> s v -- — •^— »^ — -~. ^i , X -R e< ic C- t-n 3 4 i> L. % CL ~r ,*- -" ;*X ** 4 1 1- ". 3 1 IT 1 1 -Dee. H. E. ANNETT. 329 COMPOSITION OF THE JUICE. The tables and charts already given shew the analyses of a large number of juices. The connection between the amount of sugar in the juice and the yield of juice has already been referred to. Throughout the season analyses have been made of the juice as it has been collected for the daily boilings. These analyses have been made at various places throughout the Jessore district and are collected together in the following table :— Date. Specific gravity. Sucrose O/ /o- Reducing sugar %. Locality. 4th December 1911 1-056 12-15 0-42 Garden No. 1, Kotechandpur. 5th 1-058 12-17 0-77 „ 1, Gth 1-049 10-50 1-03 „ 2, 7th 1-055 12-22 0-37 „ 1, 7th 1-053 10-38 0-70 „ 2, 8th 1-056 11-62 0-55 „ 1, 9th 1-054 10-85 0-85 „ 1, llth 1-051 10-49 1-04 „ 2, 19th 1-059 11-80 1-55 Chowgachha. 20th 1-060 11-65 1-43 it 22nd 1-053 11-16 0-69 Tarpur. 5th Janu ary 1912 1-048 8-90 1-21 Jhenidah. Gth 1-049 9-87 1-03 Kaliganj. 16th 1-048 9-47 rio Sulemanpur. 16th 1-054 10-28 0-84 f> 17th 1-047 9-96 0-90 Garden 1, Kotechannpur. 19th 1-047 9-06 1-32 >» >» »» 21st 1-051 10-53 1-25 Maladharpur. 22nd 1-051 10-43 1-42 M 23rd 1-048 S-70 1-72 )t 23rd 1-052 9-04 1-88 it 23rd 1-054 9-73 2-50 tt 23rd 1-051 9-91 1-72 24th 1-053 10-51 2-80 Bidyadharpur. 24th 1-047 9-21 3-22 9J 27th 1-054 10-90 1-02 Kotechandpui. 31st 1-047 8-11 1-97 Garden 1, Kotochandpur. 1st February 1-043 7-15 2-54 " " " In garden No. 1 above it will be seen that analyses of the juice have been made at varying intervals throughout the season. In chart No. 5 these data are plotted in curves showing total sugar, sucrose and reducing sugar. These curves illustrate the excellent quality of the juice at the beginning of the season and shew how the glucose ratio rises as the season advances. 330 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. The table shows the results of the analysis of three different date juices side by side with an analysis of juice of red Mauritius cane grown at Pusa and analysed at the same time under the same conditions. Red A I) E Mauritius cane. Sucrose 11-61 10-62 8-41 18-80 Reducing sugar ] 0-83 0-96 3-58 0-26 Ash ! ...» 0-24 0-15 *Albuminoids 0-31 0-30 0'21 0-62 CO2 as NA, CO3 0-14 0-65 o-oo o-oo Water 86-44 87-20 87-12 79-35 Undetermined • 0-67 0-63 0-53 0-97 Tocal 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Specific Gravity * Containing total' N. ; . T0557 O'Oo 1-0524 0'048 1-0523 0-034 1-0880 0-099 The main constituent of the dry matter in date juice, as in the case of cane juice, is sugar. The amount of the nitrogenous con- stituents is smaller than in the cane juice examined, but 0*099% of nitrogen in cane juice is abnormally high. Duplicate determinations, however, were carried out. Geerligs1 gives 0*036% of nitrogen as an average figure for cane juice and says that it varies from 0*018 to 0*062, so that there is not much difference between the nitrogen content of cane juice and date palm juice. Mineral matter in juice.— Leather found for cane juice that the mineral matter varied from 0*25 to 0*49. The ash of the date palm juice seems rather less in amount than this. Pectin bodies.— These were determined by precipitating 50 c.c. of filtered juice with an equal volume of alcohol, filtering off on to a tared filter, and after washing with alcohol, drying to constant weight. \ An analysis carried out in this way gave 0*26% of pectin. This precipitate of course would also include gum present in the juice. 1 Cane sugar and the process of its manufacture in Java. H, C. Prinsen Geerligs, page 1 U 2 Agricultural Ledger, 1896, No. 19, page 17. H. E. ANNETT. 331 Nitrogen in juice. — The following table gives an idea of the form in which the nitrogen occurs in date juice. The figures are ex- pressed as grains nitrogen per 100 c. c. of juice :— JUICE. Total N. N. Pptd. by Cu (OH)2 N as NH3 and amide. N as NH3 A .... 0-050 0-017 0-008 0-002 D 0-051 0-017 0-008 K 0'035 F 0-052 0-017 b-oio 0-662 The proportion of N precipitated by various reagents is noted below, the total nitrogen originally present being expressed as 100. Date palm juice Juice of Red Mauritius cane Parts original Nitrogen. Parts precipitated by basic lead acetate. Precipitated by phosphotungs- tic acid. .. 100 100 10-8 20-0 18 ll-l Lead was removed before precipitation with phosphotungs- tic acid and the liquid concentrated to half its bulk. METHODS OF ANALYSIS. Specific Gravity. — This was determined by means of the Westphal balance at Pusa and by hydrometer in camp. Sucrose. — The juice was first clarified with dry basic lead acetate and the excess of lead removed with sodium phosphate. Readings were then taken in a Schmidt-Haensch ordinary light polariscope before and after inversion. The number of grams sucrose per 100 c.c. was found by the formula :— (a-b) x 26-048 143 2 where a equals direct reading, b ,, invert reading, t „ temperature of the readings in °C, 332 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Invert sugar. — For this the method of Brown, Morris and Miller was followed at Pusa.1 The Cu20 was estimated, however, by solution in a sulphuric acid solution of ferric sulphate. An amount of iron is reduced corresponding to that of the Cu.>0. The amount of ferric reduction was determined by titration with potassium permanganate whose strength was known in terms of CuO. The percentage of invert sugar was then calculated from the tables in the paper quoted. The method was checked by preparing a solution of invert sugar of known strength by inverting pure cane-sugar. The solu- tion, was then diluted to 10 times its bulk and then contained in 10 c.c. 0'0975 gm. invert sugar. The invert sugar was then esti- mated in the solution by the method outlined above. Triplicate determinations were made, using 10 c.c. of the dilute sugar solution. KMn04 used c.c. (1) .. .. .. 23-45 (2) .. .. .. 23-55 (3) .. .. .. 23-50 Average . . . . . . 23 '50 less blank determination 0'55 22-95 1 c.c. KMnO4 was equivalent to 0"01032 gm. CuO. .'. 22*95 „ is „ .. 0-2368 „ By the tables : — 0'2368 gm. CuO equals . . . . "0973 gm. invert sugar, actually present . . . . '0975. The method has frequently been checked, with equally good results. In camp the reducing sugar was determined by direct titration of the juice after clarification, against the copper solution. Total solids. — A platinum basin containing cleaned pieces of pumice was brought to a constant weight, 10 c.c. of the juice was then run in and dried to a constant weight. Total nitrogen.— This was determined by the Kjeldahl method using 25 c.c. of the juice. • J. C. S, Trans. 1897, page 278, et seq. H. E. ANNETT. 333 Ammoniacal nitrogen. — This was determined by the Sachsse- Schloesing-Longi method by distillation of the juice with magnesia at a pressure of 10 — 15 mm. and at a temperature of 35 — ^"C.1 Amide and ammoniacal nitrogen. — For this the juice was heated in the water bath for 6 hours with dilute HC1 to hydrolise the amides. The ammonia was estimated by distillation as in the case of the ammoniacal nitrogen estimation. Albuminoid nitrogen. — This was estimated by Stutzer's method, that is, precipitation with copper hydrate and then estimating the nitrogen in the precipitate by the Kjeldahl method. FACTORS INFLUENCING YIELD AND COMPOSITION OF THE JUICE. The data given in the tables on pages 322-23, have in the case of four trees been plotted in curves (Charts 1 to 4), showing at a glance the yield of juice as the season advances. A reference to the curves brings out the interesting fact that they are of a similar type for all the trees. For each tree the jiran, dokat and tekat yields have been represented by separate curves. In general the yield is smallest at the beginning of the season (Cf. curves, p. 7, Studies of maple sap, by Morse, Bull. No. 32, New Hamps. Coll.). It gradually increases to its maximum at about the third week in January and then falls away again fairly rapidly till the end of the season. Effect of climatic conditions, (a) Humidity. — An attempt was made to see if changes in the amount of moisture in the air affected the yield of juice, but no useful results were obtained. (b) Temperature. — It is agreed throughout the date sugar districts, that the colder the nights, the richer and the more plenti- ful is the juice. Newlands2 records that in the case of the maple tree the best yields of juice are obtained during cold clear nights following bright warm days. 1 Trans. Guinness Research Lab., Vol. 1, Pt. 1 (1903). 2 Handbook for Sugar Planters, Newlands. 334 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. During our experiments careful observation was kept of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures. The records of temperature are unfortunately not complete owing to continual absences on tour from Kotechandpur. The charts shew that the yields are greatest during the coldest months of the year. Sudden changes in temperature seem to have very marked effects on the yield of juice. Thus on January 7th the temperature was very low. The yield of juice immediately after that date rose rapidly, though it is to be noticed that the effect of a cold night is not always seen that same night in an increased yield of juice. This increase comes the following night as a rule. Kise of temperature results in immediately reducing the quantity of juice. This is well seen in the curves. From January 10th to 15th the night temperature rose rapidly. A sudden fall in yield is shewn in all the curves. From January 15th to 17th the night temperatures rapidly decreased. Most of the yield curves shew a corresponding rise in accordance with this. Towards the end of the season the yields of juice are too small to shew any marked variation corresponding to changes in temperature. The writer suggests that during cold weather little growth of new leaves or flowers takes place in the tree and hence the colder the weather the more sap there is available to flow to the cut surface. Directly the temperature rises, growth goes on more rapidly and the supply of sap is diverted from the cut surface to the growing points. With regard to the amount of sugar in the juice the curves give us interesting information. In all of them is to be seen a distinct con- nection between the yield of juice and its sugar content. As a general rule the smallest yields are the richest in sugar. Fischer1 reports that when bleeding is active, the sap becomes gradually poorer and poorer in sugar. 1 Pfeiffer's Physiology of Plants, Ewart, Vol. 1. Since writing this the author finds that a similar phenomenon has been noticed in the case ot the maple tree in America (see Studies of Maple sap by Morse, Bull. No. 32, September 1895, New Hampshire College, Agric. Expt. Statn., page 4). H. E. ANNETT. 335 When, following a cold night a large yield of juice is obtained, there is an accompanying decrease in sugar concentration. As a con- sequence of this we see from the charts that whereas the curve for yield throughout the season is concave with regard to the base line of the chart, the curve for sugar content of the juice is convex. In other words, at the beginning and end of the season we have the lowest yields of juice, but at these times it is most concentrated. In the middle of the season with the highest yields of juice we have the lowest concentrations of sugar. The ' tekat ' curves of trees Nos. 3 and 20 and the dokat curves of No. 11 are particularly good illustrations of this connection between yield of juice and its sugar concentration. Further it is to be noted that tekat. juice is richer than jiran or dokat in sugar, but that its yield is much smaller. (c) Cloudy, rainy or misty weather. — These weather conditions always affect the yield adversely. This is probably due to the fact that in these kinds of weather the night temperature is relatively high, but of course the high humidity might also have an effect in stopping bleeding. From the 12th to the 15th of January and the 31st of January to 8th February the weather was cloudy. From the charts it is seen that these dates correspond to rises in the night temperature. Jiran versus dokat and tekat juices.— It is well recognised that dokat juice is much less in quantity than the corresponding jiran. The yield from tekat juice is much less still. The curves shew up these points very well. Towards the end of the season, however, the yield of dokat juice is frequently seen to surpass the jiran yields. (See charts for trees Nos. 3, 11 and 20.) This is explained by the fact that it is a common practice towards the end of the season to cut the tree both for jiran and dokat. Dokat juice obtained from a freshly cut surface is called dokat-pocha. With regard to the amount of sugar in the juice dokat is supposed to be worse than jiran and tekat, much worse than either of these. Here it is perhaps in place to observe that a high yielding tree need not necessarily give a juice poor in sugar. High yield of juice, rich in 336 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. sugar, is frequently met with, and the trees at Khartalar, Jessore, are good illustrations of this. The trees were very heavy yielders, but the specific gravity shows the juice to be very concentrated. The curves shew that very generally the sugar concentration is much lower in dokat than in jiran juice. The dokat curves for sugar concentration are seen in places to reach above the jiran curves, but wherever this is the case it corresponds to a low yield of juice, and, as we have seen, the amount of sugar in the juice of a particular tree depends largely on the amount of the juice-flow. The tekat curves on the other hand shew that tekat juice is much more concentrated than either jiran or dokat. This is no doubt due to the small yield of juice. At the same time reference to the tables at pp. 322-23 for trees Nos. 3, 11, 16, and 20 shews that though tekat juice is rich in sugar a large proportion of this consists of reducing sugar. This is only natural, as after the juice has flowed from the cut surface for three days this surface has become very dirty and much yeast has grown on it. So that we should expect much fermentation to go on in the tekat juice. Similarly for the same reason the proportion of reducing sugar in dokat juice is much higher than in jiran juice. One can see this on pp. 322-23 where the tables for trees Nos. 3, 1 1, 16 and 20 are given. In our experiments the following are the extremes between which the amounts of sucrose and invert sugar have varied in jiran, dokat and tekat juice : — Jiran Dokat Tekat Sucrose. Invert sugar. 15-31 — 14-01 — 11-08 — 6-19 4-37 4-95 trace — 3 '80 trace — 3'80 0-74 — 4'60 Cultivation. — The best cultivated gardens have generally been observed to give the best yields. The excellent garden at Khartalar (p. 325) is a very well cultivated one. Cultivation encourages a larger and more healthy growth of the tree. • See Table on pages 325-26. PLATE V. Male tree. — The male inflorescence occurs as large loose bunches. The tree above has several such bunches and one is particularly well seen in the photograph. H. E. ANNETT. 337 Thickness of tree. — Careful note has been kept throughout the work of the relation of the yield to the thickness of the stem. It has always been found that thick stemmed plants give the highest yields. Amount of foliage. — No definite relation has been established between this factor and the yield and composition of juice. Indi- cations have been observed which tend to shew that trees with plen- tiful foliage give high yields. This fact is well recognised in the ease of the sugar maple. Excessive stripping of the leaves for fuel and fodder should be discouraged as it is in the leaves that the sugar has its origin. Healthiness of tree. — Trees have frequently been met with whose trunks have almost entirely rotted away near the base leaving simply a thin arch to support the trees. Strange to say these trees seem to give a very satisfactory yield. Effect of soil. — The natives say that in sandy soils the yield and quality of juice are poorer than on heavier soils. This could not be determined by the author as it would require a separate en- quiry of its own. All that can be said is that certain indications have been obtained which support the native saying. In this connection the reader is referred to the statement on p. 325 relating to the yields of juice at Khartalar. It will be seen that on this clay loam heavy yields were obtained of a uniformly rich juice. Effect of flowering. — It has been stated that during flowering the quality of the juice falls off. N. N. Banerjee1 states that the male trees yield sap early in the season and that the female tree yields its sap later on. These phenomena have not been noticed by us, although careful attention was paid to these points. Individuality of the tree. — It has bsen continually observed by us that high yielding capacity of juice is a fairly constant character. This can be well seen by reference to the tables on pp. 308 to 323, A tree which is normally a low yielder such as No. 4 gives low yields 1 Bengal Agri. Dept.'s Quarterly Journal, 1907, page 164. 338 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. throughout the season. Trees Nos. 2, 8, 10, 15, 17 and 19 are also obviously constantly low yielders. On the other hand, trees Nos. 5, 7, 9, 11, 16 and 20 give relatively constantly high yields. Age of tree. — -It is difficult from our figures to trace any direct connection between the age of the tree and the yield or composition of juice. Indeed, several years' work would be necessary in order to decide the question. It is generally stated that trees do not give their full yield until they are about 7 or 8 years old. Thus Robinson writes that if the trees are cut for the first time in their 6th year of growth then the yield of juice per tree is about J the yield of juice of a tree of full maturity. In the 7th year of growth the yield is about fths and in the 8th year of growth the full yield is obtained. In our experiments tree No. 16 which was only in its first year of cutting gave a fairly high yield. Trees which have been tapped for 36 successive years are still giving a good flow of juice. AMOUNT OF INVERSION GOING ON IN THE JUICE DURING THE NIGHT. The collecting pots are attached to the trees at any time after P.M., according to the nature of the weather. They are collected at any time after 6 next morning but many are not collected till 7 or 8 o'clock. So that much of the juice is exposed to the air 12 — 15 hours. In this time a certain amount of inversion might be expected to go on. To get an idea of how great the loss from this source might be the following experiments were made in February 1911. A large quantity of juice was collected in the evening and several pots were about half filled with it and then hung up on trees again, trees of course which were not giving juice. The juice in each pot was analysed over night and again next morning. The results are shewn : — Female tree.— The female inflorescence is slender and close. Careful observation of the photograph shews the tree to be in full flower. The inflorescences appear berry- like among the leaf stalks in the photograph. H. E. ANNETT. 339 Expt. No. Date. Time of collection. Sucrose gms. per 100 c.c. Reducing sugar gms. per 100 c.c. sucrose inverted. Minimum night temper- ature °F. loth February 1911 6 30 p.m. 13-90 0-64 53 J •! 16th „ 5-20 a.m. 11-75 1-04 15-47 .... '. 16th 7-30 „ 9-20 1-80 33-67 ( loth 6-30 p.m. 11-63 1-28 2 1 16th 5-20 a.m. 8-70 1-73 25-20 53 1 16th 7-30 ., 6-12 2-30 47-4 j 17th 7 p.m. 1 T65 1-25 55 1 18th „ „ 7-45 a.m. 6-60 4-86 43-4 •*(') ] 17th 18th 7 p.m. 7 45 a.m. 13-30 7-10 2-20 6-92 46-6 55 30) { 17th 18th 7 p.m. 7-45 a.m. 13-40 7-02 1-19 4-40 47-6 55 6 r 17th 7-45 p.m. 13-95 0-65 I 18th 7 a.m. 12-25 2-87 'l2-2 55 7 ( 17th 7-40 p.m. 13-90 0-34 I 18th 7 a.m. 12-96 1.28 6-7 55 8 { 18th 19th 8 10p.m. 7 a.m. 12-65 6-00 no 5-40 52.6 '06' • 1 18th 10th 8-10 p.m. 7 a.m. 10-55 9-00 0-70 2-87 14*7 56 f 26th 7-30 p.m. 15.44 0.57 10 { 27th 14*77 T47 4-34 \ 27th 8 a.m. 14-18 1-94 8-16 j 27th 9 p.m. 13-22 0-75 11 28th 7-30 a.m. [10-72 2-87 18-91 ' 28th 7-30 a.m. 10-80 3-24 18-31 c 28th 8-30 p.m. 11.75 0-97 12 -\ 1st March 1911 8 a.m. 7-48 4-04 36-4 ' 1st „ 8 a.m. 7-02 4-40 40-2 n ' .19th February 191.1 5-20 a.m. 10-80 0-53 56 1 19th 7 a.m. 10-74 0-57 0-56 j 19th 5-20 a.m. 8-80 0-73 l 19th 7 a.m. 8-70 0-81 V-i 56 j 16th 5-20 a.m. 10-65 1-47 53 16th 7 a.m. 10-36 1-80 2-7 i Mouths of pots covered tightly with cloths and hence juice warm (18° C.) This probably explains high amount of inversion. 310 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. A glance at the figures shews that the amount of inversion going on is large, varying from 0'6 to 53 per cent. Experiments 10, 11 and 12 were duplicated, and it is seen that the duplicates agree very well indeed. A few results are given shewing the amount of inversion going on after 5-30 A.M., as it appeared to the writer that much loss by inversion might be saved if the pots were collected by that hour ; the present practice being to collect the juice much later. Experi- ments Nos. 1 and 2 shew the loss by inversion between 5-30 A.M. and 7 A.M., to be considerable, namely, 18'2 per cent, and 22'2 per cent., respectively. On the other hand, experiments 13, 14 and 15 shew the loss during this period to be almost inappreciable. The difference in these results is explained by the fact that the juice used in experiments 1 and 2 was juice which had been standing in the pot overnight. It was, therefore, in full process of inversion and probably fairly warm. In experiments Nos. 13, 14 and 15 the juice used for the experiment was collecting in the pot from 8-30 P.M. to 5-20 A.M. and, therefore, it was not probably in full process of inversion and also it was probably much colder. This fact also applies to all these experiments on inversion. The figures given shew the maximum inversion which can take place. In practice, the juice is running all night, and of course the later runnings are not exposed in the pot for anything like the length of time that the juice was which was used in these experiments. EFFECT OF PRESERVATIVES ON THE JUICE. A camp laboratory does not afford an opportunity for a very complete examination of date juice. Accordingly some 12 litres of good juice were collected and treated with various preservatives in order to keep them until arrival at Pusa. The following table shews the preservative used, the volume of juice and the direct read- ing of the solution in a Schmidt-Hsensch polariscope from time to time. H. E. ANNETT. 341 No. of Experi- ment. Preservative. Vol. of juice c.c. Date. Direct reading. REMARKS. about I Ether 80 e.c. 2,000 10th Feb. 1912 40-0 Jiran juice. llth „ „ 27-4 12th „ „ 18'0 Liquid still clear , but gaseo us and smelt of alcohol. 11 Formalin 3 c.c. 700 8th Feb. 19 12 47'9 Jiran. of 40 %. llth „ „ 47'9 (Filtered juice). 12th „ „ 47-9 Bottle almost complete- ly filled. 13th ., „ 47-9 17th ,. „ 46'7 20th „ „ 45'5 Free from alcohol. III Formalin 15 c.c. 2,500 llth „ „ 40-3 Jiran (strained through cloth). 20th „ „ 21-4 Free from alcohol. IV „ 10 „ 1,650 12th „ ., 48-75 Jiran (filtered). 20th „ „ 44-00 V „ 10 „ 1,600 13th „ 46-0 Dokat. 17th „ „ 42-3 (Strained through cloth). 20th „ „ 40-3 Free from alcohol. VI ,, 15 „ 2,500 12th „ 44-9 Jiran. 17th „ „ 30-7 .... 20th „ „ 25-5 No alcohol. VII Dry basic lead 2,000 10th „ „ 38-3 Jiran. acetate 4 gms. llth „ „ 35-6 12th „ „ 32-2 Gaseous and some alco- Not enough lead ac etate added hol. VIII Dry basic lead 1,800 llth Feb. 1912 39-0 Jiran. acetate 8 gms. 12th „ „ 39-0 20th „ „ 34-1 • • • • No alcohol produ ced. IX Mercuric chloride 2,000 10th Feb. 1912 38-7 Jiran, 5 gms. llth „ „ 38-7 .... 12th „ „ 38-7 .... 20t}i „ „ 38-4 22nd „ „ 37-8 .... No alcohol prod uced. X Do. 5 gms. 2,200 12th Feb. 1912 49-9 Jiran. 20th „ „ 42-1 As seen above, the juices were mainly collected on the 10th, llth and 12th February and Pusa was reached on the 16th. Work on the juices was started at once so that most of them were in a fit state for further examination. Nos. I and VII were discarded altogether and No. Ill only used for the preparation of ash for analysis. 342 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Formalin. — This seems to be very satisfactory. It was noted that formalin had more marked effects when the juice was first filtered through filter paper, than when it was simply strained through cloth. Thus in No. II the juice kept in a remarkable manner with no sign of change for 12 days and only 3 c.c. of- 40 per cent, formalin were added to 700 c.c. of juice. It might be remarked here that formalin was observed to bleach the faint brownish colouration which a quite fresh date juice has. The other four experiments with formalin did not give as great an effect but the formalin seems to have checked the alcoholic fermentation only allowing the inversion of the sucrose. Dry basic lead acetate in experiment No. VIII seems to have kept juice fairly well for some days ; but we should have doubtless ob- tained much better results had we filtered off the lead precipitate. It was unfortunate that the juice could not be examined for some days after the 12th owing to travelling. Dry basic lead acetate has been previously recommended for use in storing juices. In a series of experiments described by Spencer1 a sample of cane juice preserved with this reagent gave the following percentages of sucrose after successive intervals of 24 hours except where otherwise stated : 16-98, 16'96, 16-98, 16'96, 16'98, 16'98 (interval 48 hours), 16'98 (interval 48 hours), 16*96; after a further interval of 5 days there were indications of fermentation. Our experiments are not so favourable to the use of dry basic lead acetate, but it is possible we did not use a sufficiency of the reagent. It might be of interest here to mention that on several occasions in camp juices which had been clarified with basic lead acetate and analysed one day were found unchanged on analysis the following day. Thus one may take samples of juice in the field and add dry basic lead acetate on the spot and there need be no fear of their undergoing change if one is delayed by an hour or two in carrying out the analysis. » Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers, p. 85, H. E. ANNETT. 343 Mercuric chloride.- — The experiments shew this to be a very effective preservative. By an oversight however much larger amounts of the substance were used than are really required. ACIDS PRESENT IN DATE JUICE. About 6 litres of preserved juice free from fermentation were distilled in steam after acidifying with 0'5 per cent, of sulphuric acid. About 4 litres of distillate were collected. The distillate was practi- cally neutral and was not further examined. The residual liquid in the flask was extracted with ether in a large separating funnel. About 15 c.c. of the liquid was shaken with about 200 c.c. of ether at each extraction until all the liquid had been so treated. The whole process of extraction was gone through in a similar way with a fresh lot of ether. The ether extracts were then combined and the ether distilled off. About one half of a c.c. of a tarry liquid of a very bitter taste was left behind together with 7 or 8 small clusters of crystals. Attempts to purify the crystals failed as they were present in such small quantity — only a few milligrams at the most. They were readily soluble in water and alcohol, and had an acid re- action and a cooling sharp taste. On examination under a micros- cope fitted with a polarising apparatus the crystals were seen to be needle-shaped and gave interference bands on rotating the Nicols; the play of colours being very brilliant. Crystals of malic acid appeared to be of the same crystalline form and behaved in a similar manner under polarised light. Only one form of crystal was observed. On solution in water and addition of neutral lead acetate a curdy precipitate was obtained. Attempts to recover the free acid by decomposition of the lead salt with hydrogen sulphide failed. CAUSE OF ALKALINITY OF THE JUICE. It has already been stated that date palm juices when first drawn from the tree are alkaline to litmus paper. ' The quite fresh 1 The sap of the Buri palm (Corypha elata) has been shewn to be alkaline when freshly drawn. (See Gibbs "The Alcohol Industry," Part I, Philippine Jour, of Science, June 1911, Series A, p. 176.) 314 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. unfermented juices are quite strongly alkaline to litmus and to methyl-orange. A juice tested at Pusa which was still alkaline to litmus and methyl-orange was found to be acid to phenolphtalein, but this was the only juice which we had an opportunity of examining with phenolphtalein. Fresh juices always give a small amount of effervescence on adding acid to them. Some juices were titrated with sulphuric acid using litmus as indicator. The following amounts of alkalinity reckoned as gms. Na2 C03 per 100 c.c. of juice were obtained. Tree in compound . . „ No. 20 ,,,,o Average sample for daily boiling. . 0-092 0-025 0-05 0-012 It seemed probable that the alkalinity of the juices was due to alkaline carbonates. At Pusa some determinations of free and combined C02 in two date juices which were still alkaline were carried out gravimetrically, 50 c.c. of the juice was first boiled and C02 evolved collected in weigh- ed soda lime tubes. Dilute hydrochloric acid was then added and any liberated C(X was collected in weighed soda lime tubes, the liquid being boiled towards the end of the process. The figures below show the amount of (a) free and (6) combined COj present in the juices expressed as grams Na2 C03 per 100 grams of juice. Juice A D Gms. per 100 gms. Free COa calculated as Na2 C03 Combined CO2 calculated as Na2 CO3 0-0019 0-052 0:14 0-047 These amounts are quite sufficient to account for the marked alkalinity of the juice. At the same time it must be remembered H. E. ANNETT. 345 that if basic nitrogenous compounds are present they also would have an alkaline reaction. Juice A was known to be practically free from fermentation and the small amount of free COo proves this. It corresponds to juice IT (see page 341 of this memoir). C02 determinations were carried out on 18th February 1912. when the direct reading shewed but little change. Juice D corresponds to juice V on that page, and it is seen that more change has gone on than in the case of juice A, and hence the amount of carbonate would be expected to be less. The amount of free CO., present points to fermentation. THE SUGARS OF THE PALM. An enquiry into the kinds of sugars in the wild date palm does not appear to have been made. It has been assumed that they are the same as those occurring in the cane. It appeared desirable to make a thorough examination of the sugars present in order to see whether or no this is the case. In the first place, experiments in the field shew that cane sugar is the only sugar normally present in the sap as it runs from the tree. By keeping the surface of a tree specially clean only the merest trace of reducing sugar has been found in the juice certainly less than O'Ol per cent. About 100 gms. of mixed Gnour and Akrah sugars were dissolved in hot 80 per cent, alcohol and filtered. The filtered solution was agitated for about an hour and then allowed to stand. After 2 days numbers of fine crystals had formed, apparently cane sugar. The crystals were dissolved in as small as possible a quantity of distilled water and an excess of absolute alcohol added and again thoroughly shaken for an hour. In a couple of days crystals had again formed. Some cane sugar, Cossipore 2nd white, was once recrystallised by the same method. Both sugars were dried at 100°C and exa- mined as follows : — • 346 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Rotatory power. — 6'512 gms. were dissolved in water and made up to 50 c.c. The solution was then read in a Schmidt and Hsensch Saccharimeter. The following readings were obtained :— = Sucrose. Sugar from date palm .. .. .. 49'9 99'80 Cane sugar . . , . . . . . 49'7 99'60 Theory for pure cane sugar . . . . . . 50'0 lOO'OO The solutions were then inverted by adding 1/10 of their volume of hydrochloric acid and heating to 68° C. in 15 minutes. The invert readings uncorrected for dilution were : — Sugar from date palm .. .. 12'6 (t - 30° C.) Cane sugar .. .. .. 12'6 (t =30' C.) Melting point. — The melting points of the above two sugars and of some Tate's cube sugar were determined under exactly similar conditions. The following results corrected, were obtained :— Sugar from date palm . . . . . . . . 181 ° C. Cane sugar (as above) . . . . . . . . 182° C. Tate's cube sugar . . . . . . . . . . 182C C. It may be mentioned that the melting point of sucrose is given in all text-books as 163 — 161° C. Bailstein also gives 160, but mentions that 180 was found by Peligot. Under no circumstances were we able to get sucrose to melt at 160 — 161°, and this statement of the melting point of sucrose in text-books needs correction. The sugar separated from the date palm is therefore shewn to be sucrose as in the case of cane sugar. Fifty gms. of date gur were dissolved in water. A determin- ation of the amount of reducing sugar present was made, and this amounted to about 7 per cent. To the above a solution of phenyl hydrazin acetate was added containing 12 gms. phenyl hydrazin, 12 gms. of glacial aceiic acid and 30 c.c. of water. The liquid was heated inside a water bath for 2J hours. An osazone began to separate after 25 — 30 minutes. The crystals were filtered off at the pump and washed with water and then alcohol and dried. _The weight of the crude osazone was about 10 gms. H. E. ANNETT. 347 About 5 gms. of the osazone were completely dissolved in as small a quantity of boiling alcohol as possible, filtered through a hot funnel and allowed to crystallise. The crystals were washed with water and alcohol at the pump and dried. The mother liquor was evaporated down, filtered through a hot funnel, allowed to cool and crystallise. The crystals were then washed wibh water and alcohol as before. By repeating this process four crops of crystals ware obtained in all. Each crop was then examined : — (a) for its m3lting paint, (b) microscopically. (a) Mdtinj point corrects!,. — For this determination it is essen- tial that the proscss of heating be carried out very rapidly and exictly in the sam3 manner in each test. In these tests the tempera- ture was raised from 193 to the malting point in 2J-— 3 minutes : — Crop I . . . . . . 206 Crop III 206 „ II .. .. ..206 „ IV 205-5 (b) Microscopic Examination. — This revealed in all cases a nn,33 of nBslh-shipei crystals arrangal in the characteristic bun- dles into which glucosazone collects. Only one form of crystal could be observed. Glucosazone was now prepared by inverting some pure cane sugar and forming the osazone as above. On recrystallisation from alcohol its melting point was found to be 206 (corrected). Its microscopical appearance was exactly like that of the osazone obtained above. Some of the osazone from date gur was next finely ground with the pure glucosazone. The melting point of the mixture corrected was 206. The above experiment on the formation of osazones from date gur was repeated and also carried out with raw date sugars and with some of the juices which had been treated with preservative and brought to Pusa. The osazone obtained always had the same properties. Hence the only osazone formed is glucosazone. 348 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. Glucosazone is formed by glucose, levulose or mannose. Hence the only sugars which can be present in the date juice are cane sugar, glucose, levulose and perhaps mannose. Mannose was tested for in the following1 way : — 10 gms. of Akrah sugar were dissolved in 25 c.c. of water, clari- fied with a pinch of anhydrous basic lead acetate and filtered. The lead was separated by means of sodium phosphate and the solution again filtered. One per cent, of its volume of glacial acetic acid was now added and the volume made up to 75 c.c. ; 5 c.c. of phenyl hydrazin, 5 c.c. of glacial acetic acid, and 12 c.c. of water were now added. The mixture was then well agitated for half an hour and left for 24 hours. Three tests were carried out but in none was the hydrazone of mannose formed. We must conclude then that the sugars normally present in the juice of the date palm are the same as those which occur in the sugar- cane. COMPOSITION OF DATE JUICE ASH. About one gram of ash was prepared by concentrating the juice and igniting the residue. A pure white ash was thus obtained. It had the following composition :— K20 NagO CaO McO Co2 C12 So3 Insol. silica H Soluble silica Per cent. 55-08 7-85 0-48 2-51 13-30 12-89 4'64 T57 0-82 0-80 It is to be noted that the ash is very rich in potash and that it also contains a rather high proportion of chlorine. 1 Bull, de 1'Assoc. des Chim. de Sucrr et de dist., 1901, 18 (10), 758-( I! PART VIII. MANUFACTURE. BOILING. THE boiling apparatus called the bain is prepared in the shade of a tree and commonly surrounded by a fence of date palm leaves. It generally consists of a hole of about 3 ft. in diameter sunk about 2 ft. in the ground over which are supported by mud arches,1 four thin earthen pans of a semi-globular shape (see plate VII) and 18" in diameter. One bain may contain however as many as 16 pans or as few as 2. The hole itself is the furnace and has two apertures on opposite sides for feeding in the fuel and for the escape of the smoke. The juice is poured into the pans and the fire is lit and the boiling continued for 3 — 4 hours until the liquid is of the right density. Small amounts of scum are removed from time to time, but the amount of this is much less than in. cane juice, being almost negligible. Dried date leaves are laid over the surface of the pan to allay the frothing. The bubbles which appear in the pans mark the different stages of boiling, they being styled as spider (makarsha) bubbles, mustard flower (sarsafuli) bubbles, tiger (baghai) bubbles and treacle (guria) bubbles, which last indicate that the process is nearly complete. The liquid is finally of a lovely golden colour and is ladled out into earthen pots or jars varying from 5 — 20 seers in content and allowed to cool to form gur. Before being poured into these pots, however, a handful of gur, called the bichh is added to the contents of each pan and the whole well stirred. The crystals added promote crystallisation in the liquid. This bichh is prepared daily and great attention i The size of the furnace and number of pans depend on the size of the garden of course. The writer has seen as many as 13 pans on one furnace. 350 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. is paid to its preparation. The process of preparing bichh is called bichhmara and is as follows. A small portion of the liquid as its boiling approaches completion is set apart in one of the pans and boiled down rather more rapidly than the liquid in the other pans. Great care is, however, paid to its boiling. When the liquid has reached a certain consistency the pan is removed from the fire. The attendant takes a stick and with it rubs a por- tion of the liquid vigorously up and down in the form of a streak on the inside of the pan. The streak of liquid gets more and more sticky and finally white crystals of sugar may be seen. The operator tells from the ease with which these crystals come whether the day's boiling will be good or not. If the liquid is too thin and crystals cannot readily be obtained the pan is returned to the fire and heating continued until the liquid is of the right consistency. It is then vig- orously stirred after removal from the flame when it becomes a pasty mass. Any excess of this beyond the amount required for bichh is poured out into a flat basket whose surface has been wetted with water to prevent the sugary mass from sticking. A flat mass of sugar which sets to a hard cake is thus obtained. This flat cake is known as Patali and is commonly on sale as a sweetmeat in the date districts at about Es. 2-8-0 to 3-0-0 per katcha maund. The residue in the pans is soft and contains crystals which serve as nuclei for crystallisation when added as bichh to the main bulk of the boiled juice. The fuel mostly employed for the boiling process is Sundri wood (Rentier a littoralis), which forms the principal part of the wild tree vegetation of the Sunderbans. The under leaves stripped from the date trees are also used as fuel as well as the wood of old date trees which have been cut down. Stalks of rahar (Cajanus indicus), which is often grown as an undercrop in date gardens are also com- monly in use as a fuel. In a few places near railway lines coal has been used. The outturn of gur is from -f to -^ the weight of the juice. H. E. ANNETT. 351 For a description of the native methods of refining the gur and of the methods of making the various kinds of native date sugars see page 359. YIELD OF GUR PER TREE. On page 325 it is shown that 170lfes. of juice per tree per season may be taken as a fail average yield. So that the average annual yield of gur per tree is 170/8 or 2r25lfes. Enquiries among intelligent cultivators seem to shew this figure to be reliable. Three instances of these enquiries are given. From 120 trees one man produced 26 maunds of gur (pacca). This is equivalent to just over 17lfos. of gur per tree. To this must be added the amount consumed by him. A second man working with 8D trees reckoned he had produced from them 20 maunds (pacca) of gur. This is equal to 23flb3. gur psr tree. A third man produced Rs. 135 worth of gur from 180 trees. Included in this was gur, etc., to the value of Rs. 35 consumed by his family. Rs. 135 is the equivalent of about 4,320lbs. of gur. Therefore the yield of gur per tree works out at 24ft>3. YIELD OF GUR PER ACRE. Three hundred and fifty trees could conveniently be grown per acre, so that the yield par acre would be 350 x 21 Jibs, equal to 3'3 tons. Actually only 240 trees are usually grown per acre, and this therefore equals 2*3 tons of gur which is still a much higher yield than is obtained from cane in Jessore. It will now be of interest to quote the writings of various other authors on the yield of juice and gur from date trees. Robinson1 in some calculations of yields from date trees takes the first day's yield per tree as 10 seers, that of 2nd day's as 4 seers, and that of 3rd day's as 2 seers. This averages out at 5j seers of juice per collecting day. Robinson moreover states* that his figures are under rather than overestimated. From the preceding figures 1 Bengal Sugar Planter, pagd 51. 2 Loc. cib. 352 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. he calculates1 that the annual produce of a full-grown date planta- tion was 78f bazar maunds2 of gur per Bengal beegah,3 or nearly 19| seers or 39|fbs. from each tree. To arrive at this result he assumes that there are 160 trees per beegah, and that 69 of these trees are cut daily. Sixty-nine trees yield bazar maunds 9, seers 8, daily of juice using his figures. He takes the average productive season at 107 days. Thus the number of productive days per tree in a season is equal to ^\?y x 107 = 46. In this period, however, are included days in which the yield is diminished by rain or by fogs. To allow for this he deducts -1- of the total yield. We then get daily 160 x 9 maunds 8 seers of juice which is equal to bazar maunds 787-20-13, as the produce in juice per season per beegah deducting 1 for bad weather as above. The average produce per tree therefore comes out at maunds 4-36-4 or 392lbs. A correspondent of the Calcutta Agricultural Society in a letter published in the 5th volume of the Society's Transactions and dated Jessore, July 1846,4 gives the average yield from a healthy date tree for the season at 30 seers gur and from an indifferent tree at 10 seers of gur. He thence assumes an average of 15 seers of gur which is equivalent to 3 maunds, 30 seers of juice. Drury5 puts the average yield per tree of juice at 180 pints per year which is equivalent to 22 gallons or about 2 maunds 30 seers. Referring to more recent figures Mr. Kirtane6 in experiments made by him in the Kampura Parganna of the Indore State in 1901-02, found the average yield per day to be 4jfbs. of juice per tree and the maximum daily yield of one tree 14lbs. The juice must have been richer than that of Jessore since 6fbs. of juice yielded one of gur. 1 Bengal Sugar Planter, page 55. 2 One bazar maund equals 801 bs. 3 Roughly J- acre. * Bengal Sugar Planter, page 55. 6 The Useful Plants of India, by Col. Heber Drury, London, 187:5. 8 Files of the Reporter on Economic Products. H. E. ANNETT. 353 In a note on the Administration of Bengal 1901-02 (published 1903), page 2, it is stated that a tree yields on an average 5 seers of juice every day and about 15 seers of gur per season. This is approximately the same figure arrived at by Robinson. N. N. Banerjee1 also quotes 5 seers per day as the average yield of juice per tree. He assumes the number of sap yielding days as 50 and hence arrives at the average annual yield of 250 seers per tree. N. Gr. Mukerji2 quotes this same figure. U. N. Kanjilal3 in a very good account of the industry puts the average yield of juice per tree at 10 seers a day. This is of course quite an impossible amount. Westland4 also quotes 5 seers per night (exclusive of the quiescent nights) as a regular average from a good tree. H. D. Chatterj ee5 as a result of experiments on wild date trees in Khandwa, C. P., puts the average yield of juice per night there (exclusive of quiescent nights) at 3 seers per tree. It might here be mentioned that the maple tree which is tapped for sugar in North America in a somewhat similar way produces on an average 4fbs. of sugar in a season. Its juice contains only 3 per cent, of sugar. > EXPERIMENTS ON LOSSES OF SUGAR DURING BOILING. The following table explains the lines of these experiments. Boiling of the juice commences according to the time of year any time from 7 A.M. up to 9 A.M. It is all collected in the earthen pots placed over the furnace described at p. 349. No clarification of any kind is attempted and there is very little scum, as is seen by the table. A date palm leaf is immersed in the boiling liquid to keep it from froth- ing over. The juice is colourless or faintly brownish when collected 1 Quarterly Journal, Bengal, Vol. I, page 164. 2 Handbook of Indian Agriculture, 2nd Edition, page 329. 3 Indian Forester, December 1892, page 454. * Report on the District of Jessore, Calcutta, 1874, page 164. 6 Is it an experiment or a national industry ? Haridas Chatterji, Central India Press, Mhow, 1901, page 13. 354 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. and during the boiling gradually changes to a golden yellow. The boiling takes 3 to 4 hours and is stopped when the liquid reaches a certain stage of stickiness which is judged by dropping it from the end of a stick. The liquid is then placed in ordinary earthenware ghurras and stored away for 10 to 14 days to crystallise when it is taken to the towns and sold to the refiners or khandsaris. The boiling operation is described in greater detail at page 349 of this memoir. JtlCB. GOR. LOSSES. — |*f • c 0) DATE. ^? b£ **~ . ~* o a, REMARKS. "So at In CC - •£ « a c: '5 bf at 4-- "?* * D. IP i t .~ £ — — © tr* Q) X 6 cj _ 0; ® o O d _ ^j 5 " •5 J- C. t*£ t, a •5 u — r 5 a Q Z -^. 9 - ££ L. •» - r- — * '— lb.s. U.S. Ibs. II*, ll.s. Ibs 4-1-2-11 65-0 7'8» 027 9-:« 14-35 6-44 0-37 17-86 1603 Garden I, two 7-1211 158-15 19 19 0-58 23-19 1466 1762 0-52 891 824 Gaiden I, four pa UN. 7-12-11 158-15 1632 1-08 19-87 12-56 14-8-2 082 10-12 10-11 (>ai7 Tarpiu. 5-1-12 244 9 21-79 29; .{2-68 1334 19 U8 39J 1244 7-19 Jlienidah, four P 'MX. 6-1-12 11563 11-41) 1-19 17-0(1 14-70 1 1 2'' 1 59 1-71 17-1-12 31392 31-31 282 .38-9* 12 4" 29 Ot> 2-11 7-19 8-67 tianlfii I, four pilllH. 21-1-12 227-07 23-93 2-84 32-37 14-26 23-88 2-44 0-21 1-68 i\l ilrt.llinrp u r , four pans. 22-1-12J 54V30 O "plicate 56-30 5H-57 763 73-19 13-42 51-14 5(1- IK 736 7 -"Hi 9 16 11 3d 849 1 10-06 f \hi l;iilli:n pll r , eleven p .n«. 23-1-12 l'M-0 19-12 495 •J7-16 I3:65 1887 4 IU 1-31 4-57 M:i laillni r p U r, four pans. 31-1-12 393-62 48-00 12-19 1 29-39 I -29 18 670 > 670f 824 8-75 Garden I, four pans. 4-2-12 21237 ... 29 50 13-89 19-06 3-62 9-45 7-05 J e s s o r e all jiran. 12- M2 246-4 23-09 190 22-(9 92i 16'JO 1-62 29-84 28-7 \l»st, ly jiran juice 13-2-12 251-9 22-87 5-26 20 31 8-00 12-54 2-60 45-17 46-2 Mostly dokat ami panly t e k a t and jii-Hii. 21-2-12 111-32 12-95 1-52 1325 11-9 934 0-99 •27-88 28-6 Mostly jiran. H. E. ANNETT. 356 The experiments carried out during February 1911 shewed that very great loss of sugar had taken place during the boiling, varying from 28 to 46% of the total sugar. The work of season 1911-12 however shews the loss to be much smaller but very variable. Here the loss of sucrose varies from 0 to 23% and the loss of total sugar from T22 to 22'39. For the 20 experiments the average loss of sucrose works out at 12'5% and of total sugar to 12'2%. When it is remembered that the juice is normally alkaline the loss of sugar during boiling should not be very high. At times how- ever the juice when ready to be boiled is acid owing to fermentation having set in. Thus in the experiments carried out in February 1911 when the losses of sugar were so high all the juices were strongly acid. The earthen pans in which the boiling is performed are never cleaned out. New pans are bought at the beginning of the season and after each day's boiling the syrup is simply drained out and the pans put by till the next day. The same pans are in use daily throughout the season. One may imagine the filthy state to which they attain. Burnt sugar collects in the pans and must contribute largely to the dark colour of the gur. The reason why the pans are not cleaned out is that the people think if water is put into them they will crack when again put over the fire. In order to give an idea of the amount and composition of the scum formed during the boiling the following figures are quoted : — JUICE. SCUM. Total wt. Ibs. Total sucrose Ibs. Reducing sugar Ibs. Total wt. Ibs. Sucrose Ibs. Reducing suifar Ibs. 115-2 10-51 2-02 0-75 0'02 0-06 164-7 15-01 2-57 roe 0-09 0'04 110-8 11-01 1-47 0-94 0-007 0-108 103-7 1-44 0'09 O'OS 147-6 14-92 2-17 1-75 012 o-i i 97-9 9-26 1-39 0-94 009 0-025 356 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. The conclusion is that the amount of sugar lost in the scum is not large, being much less than 1%. The figures in the two preceding tables give an idea of the amount of juice which is usually boiled by a cultivator in the district. In the experiments above recorded the number of trees tapped for a single boiling varied from 20 to 130. It has been suggested that the introduction of iron pans for boiling would be an improvement, but it is a question if they would be worth while for such small amounts of juice. Again the man who only boils the juice from 20 trees daily cannot afford to invest in, say Rs. 20 for an iron pan. Here it will be worth while to insert a few figures shewing the losses of sugar in boiling cane juice. Leather1 found in experiments at Cawnpore and Poona that the total loss of sugar on boiling cane juice into gur by the country open pan method was 9*76 — 13*95%. Clarke2 as a result of 13 experiments in the United Provinces found an average loss of total sugar of 15'7% and of sucrose of 19*7%. Clarke3 has since shewn that about 5% of this loss goes in the scum which is skimmed off during boiling. The author of this paper found as a result of 25 experiments at Partabgarh, United Provinces, in 1909-10 an average loss of sucrose of 18'45% and of the total sugar 14*80%. The three sets of experiments outlined above shew that the average loss of cane sugar during the native process of boiling the juice amounts to not more than 20% and of total sugar 15%. Five per cent, of this loss is accounted for in the scum removed. The average loss of sugar in boiling date juice was shewn by the writer's experiments to be 12*5% of the total sugar and about the same quantity of sucrose. 1 Agricultural Ledger, 1896, No. 10, page 15. 2 Sugarcane at the Partabgarh Experimental Station, 1908, Bull. No. 13 A. R. I., Pusa. 8 " The Efficiency of the Hadi Process of Sugar Manufacture," Agricultural Jour, of India, Vol. V, Part I, page 38. H. E. ANNETT. The fact that the percentage loss of sucrose and total sugar is about the same would appear to indicate that the sugar is actually being burnt up in the case of date juice. In the case of the cane juice a good proportion of the sucrose which disappears has been inverted and not altogether destroyed. It is probable that the total destruction of so much sugar is due to the use of earthenware pans. Owing to the structure of the furnace much of the sugar is cara- melised. The date gurs and mollasses are much darker than the corresponding products from the cane. This is almost certainly largely due to this caramelisation of the sugar. Further, boiling down the juice in earthenware pans requires a much longer time than the same process would in iron pans and hence there is more oppor- tunity for caramelisation to go on. One can see the sudden change in colour which the date juice undergoes on being put into the pans. From a colourless juice it turns brownish at once. QUANTITY OF SUGAR STORED IN THE DATE PALM. A tree which had been tapped at varying intervals during the season was cut down. It was about 30 feet high and had been tap- ped for some 18 years. The tree was sawn into logs at roughly every 5 feet from the base. By this means 6 logs were obtained. Mea- surements of each log were taken and one of them weighed, but un- fortunately a mistake was made in the weighment. However by assuming the weight per cubic foot as 45lbs. an average figure for woods, we can get a very near estimate of the weight of the whole tree. The saw- dust obtained while sawing the tree into logs was col- lected. The head of the tree, that is, the top log containing the tap- ped surface, was sawn longitudinally into two pieces in order to get a sample of the wood as saw-dust. We thus obtained 7 samples of the saw dust. Each of the 7 samples of saw-dust was immediately analysed within ten minutes of being collected. The sucrose and reducing 358 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. sugar were determined in each sample. The table sets out the total sugar per cent, in the tree at various points. No. 1 sample was from the base of the tree and No. 7 was from the top portion1 — No. of sample. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total sugar. Per cent. ro3 T48 3-00 4-40 4-70 4'flO 4-10 It is interesting to note that there was only the slightest indi- cation of bleeding from the stump of the tree. At no portion of the tree was the cut surface notably damp, but the sawn surfaces became gradually damper as one proceeded upwards. The total volume of the tree was 17*65 cub. feet. At 45lbs. per cubic foot the tree would, therefore, weigh 794*5lbs. The ac- companying table sets out the weight of the various logs — with the weight of sugar in each. Log. Total weight. Total sugar. Ibs. Ibs. Top ]og . . 65 2-67 Next lower log 108 5-18 Do. 135 6-21 Do. 153 5'80 Do. 157 2'75 Lowest log 175-5 2-20 793-5 24-81 The tree therefore contains only about 25fos. of sugar altogether. Further there is no special accumulation of sugar at the top of the tree. It has been shewn that an average tree yields about 22lfos. of gur per season. This tree had only been tapped a few times during the current season. Therefore it is reasonable to assume that the sugar is being formed from some other substance, probably starch, during the bleeding process. H. E. ANNETT. 359 With regard to this point Brandis1 says that preparatory to the production of flowers and seed the parenchyma in the trunk of Phcenyx is full of starch which at the time of flowering is trans- formed into sugar. THE NATIVE REFINING PROCESS. The khandsaris (refiners) having purchased the gur from the middlemen, break the pots and scrape out the contents. It is then broken up and placed in big baskets, each of 2J maunds capacity. The baskets, supported by bamboo triangles, are put over earthen- ware pans and left in the open and the molasses allowed to drain for 3 — 4 days. The baskats are next put inside a shed over similar pans and a layer 4 — 5 inches deep of moist pata shyali (Vallisneria spiralis), a water weed, is put on the surface of the sugar. Moisture drains down through the sugar, washing out the molasses. The weed has the property of taking up moisture from the atmosphere and thus keeps more or less damp for some time. It is also credited by the natives with the property of bleaching the sugar. After a week the shyali is removed and a layer of white sugar 3 — 4 inches deep has been formed. This is then cut off by knives, broken up and spread in the sun on grass mats to dry, being pressed with the feet of the coolies from time to time (see Plate I). When dry it is beaten up with wooden mallets to make it look whiter. The water weed is then replaced by fresh weed and after a week 3 — 4 inches more of sugar is removed. The contents of several baskets are then mixed to make up one basket and the process repeated until all is finished. At Kotechandpur sugar prepared in this way is called Akrah. At other places it is called Dulloah or Dollo. The baskets used in the process are boiled in water from time to time to prevent fermentation of the sugar which would otherwise take place. The molasses collected by simple drainage is called Agamata.- That collected under the water weed treatment is called Farasu- 1 Indian Trees, p. 643. 360 DATE SUGAR INDUSTRY IN BENGAL. mata. These two kinds are mixed in equal proportions and boiled down to get second gur by the refiner himself. Each refiner has his own boiling pans in his factory yard. A photo of these boiling pans is shewn in Plate IX. They are also seen in the background in Plate VIII. They consist of generally 4 iron pans each of capacity If bazar maunds of juice. They are arranged regularly around a central chimney stack and each has a furnace under it. Coal is usually burnt. The whole is covered by a roof. When boiling is complete the thick liquid is transferred to a large earthenware pot. A handful of raw sugar crystals is now stirred in to encourage crystallisation, the stirring being continued for some time. The liquid is now transferred to big earthenware pots of the shape shewn almost completely buried in the soil as illustrated in Plate VIII. An earthen pan is placed over the mouth and the pots left for about 3 weeks to crystallise. In Plate VIII these partly buried pots are seen in the foreground with their mouths covered over. The open mouth of one is seen to the right of the picture. Each pot holds about 3 — 4 maunds. Burying the pots in earth prevents the liquid being disturbed, any disturbance being detrimental to the formation of good crystals. Also cooling takes place more slowly and slow cooling encourages large crystal formation. This second gur finally goes through the same processes of drain- ing off molasses in the open and then by the use of water weed, as the gur does. The sugar however is not supposed to be of such good quality. It is called Gnour at Kotechandpur. The final molasses is called Chitu. The following table shews one experiment on the determination of the loss of sugar taking place during the boiling of the first molasses. With the huge fire kept up much of the sugar is burnt and it is surprising the loss is not greater than is shewn in the table. M hH H Kl di H. E. ANNETT. 361 MOLASSES. GUR. LOSSES. ce fc 5 ^; Date. JS bo i o ic ho "Si B be 0 3 i o bo 9 00 3 i 01 3 bo o bo 3 o O bo 5 M 3 0 o bo 3 tc C Q w iS g £j a E a Ml 3 H 0 3 02 0 3 -g 1 02 o 3 3 X e 3 5 3 3d 0 3 3 02 0 • o c T3 •c s a: 01 pa c-i at « 1 0) B f print.) No. 4. First Report on the Fruit Experiments at Pusa, by A. HOWARD, M.A, (Cantab.) A.R.C.S. (Loud.), F.L.S., Imperial Economic Botanist. Price, As. 6 or 6rf. No. 5. Report on Trials of the South African Locust Fungus in India, by E. J. BUTLEE M.B., F.L.S., Imperial Mycologist ; and H. M. LEFROY, M.A., F.E.S., F.Z.S., Imperial Entomologist. Price, As. 2 or 3d. No. 6. The Ticks Infesting Domesticated Animals in India, by C. WAEBCRTOX, M. 4 Zoologist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Price, As. 4 or Qd. No. 7. A Preliminary Account of the Biting Flies of India, by H. M. LEFROY, M.A. F.E S F.Z.S., ImperialEntomologist. Price, Re. 1 or Is. 6rf. (Out of print.) No. 8. Official and Recommended Methods for use in Chemical Laboratories of the Depart- ment of Agriculture in India, by J. WALTER LEATHER, Ph.D., F.I.C., F.C.S. , Imperial Agricultural Chemist. Price, As. 4 or 6d. No. 9. Report on Cpcoanut Palm Disease in Travancore, by E. J. BCTLER, M.B., F.L.S., Imperial Mycologist. Price, As. 6 or 6d. No, 10. 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