ity Petar ae ou enl MEA YPHT inhi d DRA tt Ayo eleoee tay mn 19 LER Ma al cneypit Hrs het fhe tty, 1143 0 tw oe DI c Oust Bo 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1126-1150. Food products, fumigation, absorption of hydrocyanic acid, bulletin by E. L. Griffin, I. E. Neifert, N. Perrine, and Bulletin No. Page. Freezing— points, GEtcraenatIGN, studies of fruits, vegetables, and temperatures of fruits, vegetables, and cut flowers, bulletin by R. C. Wright and George F. Taylor_______ *Rrogs,’”? fran: ‘use of term! 8 fC 0 ONG) a iepree Be Frost— injury to tree growth, literature review and list______- Tate. ny tiny pO ;COMMers, SbUGIeS =... semen one eee nee rings— SieyORMI Cal SULUCUULe] ae een = een ne ern tS eres formation and pathological anatomy in conifers, bulletin«by Aes. hhoads. eee eee ee ee Fruit, drying— community plant, requirements_._____--.______-___- MaGuUstEyextent and Characters =. - — sae ae ee ee Fruits— ATIC Claws es oh. si4o PO ek ee ee drying— buildings and equipment-=-— 2 = 2 ee eee plant, location, arrangement and floor plans _______ principles and factors of success__-_______-_----_- evaporation, bulletin by Joseph S. Caldwell__________-_ freezing temperatures, (with vegetables and flowers,) bulletin by R. C. Wright and George F. Taylor____- fumigation, absorption, and retention of hydrocyanic ee a een I ne ee ce SI ge ce ee Fumigation, hydrocyanic-acid— absorption and retention by food products, bulletin by E. L. Griffin, I. E. Neifert, N. Perrine and A. B. Deke Gi me gs oy. Rens _ ere». 2 ee aT eles lad hate Fungi— source of discolorations in airplane woods____--__---- wood-staining, injury to airplane woods___-_-_--__--- Fungicides, combinations with arsenicals, experiments __--_-_- Fungus— ring-scale, source of decay in softwoods__------------ sulphur, source of decay in softwoods__-------------- velvet-top, source of decay in softwoods_____---------- Fusarium roseum, source of discoloration of wood_____---- Gadwalls, migration records from birds banded in Utah_---- Georgia, road-building rock, tests, results___.------------ Gipsy-moth tree-banding material, composition and nature_ Gooseberries freezing. pots ..--=-. = -- sees Sees ee = Grapefruit, freezing, pomnts22 - See So 2 ee Grapes— effect iofjcopper sprays... 2 -- 22... - age ee freezing points. 24h bee aes haps: Ft Se bys Iny ny: DeeRUIMIC AVION. oe = eee Grasshoppers, control with arsenicals, experiments -_--_----- Great Plains, water storage in soil and utilization by spring wheat, bulletin by O. R. Mathews and E. C. Chilcott____- ; GRIFFIN, E. L., I. E. Nerrert, N. Perrine and A. B. DuckErT, bulletin on hydrocyanic acid, ‘Absorption and retention of hydrocyanic acid by fumigated food prgducts”’ Gum, red, susceptibility to sap-stains_____._-_----------- 1149 1-16 1127 5-6 1133 2-3 1133 128 1141 51 1131. "255, 15 1131 2-16. 1131 8-13. 1131 1-16 1141 7-8 1141 1-4 1141 62 1141 8-35 1141 14-17 1141 a 1141 1-64 1133 1-8 1149 3, 5-10 1141 54-56 1149 1-16 1149 1-4 1128 24-40 1128 24—40- 13-18, 1147{ 33-36, 51 1128 34 1128 35 1128 35 1128 29° 1145 5 1132 7-10,51 1142 1-12 1133 5,8 1333 5, 8. 1146 4,21 1933) aie Ons 1149 ~ 740 1147, 27-2830 1139 1-28 1149 1-16 1128 29° INDEX, Hairs, wheat, occurrence in flour, significance, bulletin by Georzewiiemeenan. 1) ts ebeourioe wen yl UV Le ARN iy ty EN aye Haiti, road-building rock, tests, results___.--------------- Heart rots, hardwood trees, description and cause__-------- Heart-rot, honeycomb, cause and appearance in oak_-_-_--- i MeagusTOxucneep, and hog, food values=--2---— 2 Hemiocwunjuny by irost, studies..- 2222 eis Herons, migration record from birds banded in Utah_ -- --- Hessian fly, wheat infestation, symptoms_-_--_---,-------- Hrekonewusemor airplane skids... 0°. 2252-222 5-5..---- HoaGcuanpD, Raupu, bulletin on “ Vitamin B in the edible tissues ofpthie) ox, sheep, and hog’’-.-22) 2 sa4eee 2s Hog, muscle and viscera, vitamin content, studies__-_-__-- Hogs— Tmetite crops, dry-land, at Huntley, Montana, bulletin DyAACeMOeCAMANS. Wo ye vege ET eb asturing on dry-land crops, experiments and results, TAG) STGP Ts a ede ay A A LW ee ge viscera edible, and blood, average yield of vitamin B-_- IROTME RNTUTHGINIERS = Secure 4 Lela ey RATA tery hake EfonGunmasiriceyGescriptions = fumiiiio din ey NEN es oe tHioneycomibing wood, in kiln dryingicie lis) we eee Humidity, kiln measurement and control________________- Hydrocyanic acid, absorption by food products in fumiga- tion, bulletin by E. L. Griffin, I. E. Neifert, N. Perrine, andwAMmbamDucKketh 02 2 oe ee ae Ibis, migration record from birds banded in Utah________- Idaho, road-building rock, tests, results_-____-_-__2------ Illinois, road building rock, tests, results___________-__--- Inbreeding, cotton, relation to fertility__________________- Indian paint fungus, source of decay in firs and hemlocks__ Indiana, road-building rock, tests, results_____________--- Insecticides, arsenical, investigations and experiments_-_~_-- Insects— carriers of pollen in cotton fertilization in Arizona___-_- control with arsenical sprays, experiments____________ Injuries’ to wheat, by seasons_/~{-__ 221 lL ie eee. wheat injury, comparison with rosette injury, bulletin by Harold H. McKinney and Walter H. Larrimer___ Iowa, road-building rock, tests, results__.__._.___._____-__-_- ‘‘Japan rice,” description and characteristics_________.__- JENKINS, J. MiTcHELL, and CHarues E. CHAMBLIss, bulletin onyrice; come new varieties of rice’ 2 ~ 22-27 72 ee Kafir, malt, diastatic power, comparison with barley malt__ Kansas, road-building rock, tests, results________________- Kearney, THomas H., bulletin on ‘‘Self-fertilization and Cross-teruilization im Pima cotton 722 _ 22 er ae Kernan, Georce L., bulletin on “Significance of wheat hairs in microscopical examination of flour’?____________ Kentucky, road-building rock, tests, results______________ _ Kernels, milo and feterita, physical and chemical study, bulletin by George L. Bidwell, Leslie E. Bopst, and John JD)S" SB Kop gilt 5" JS at AD RNP a GL Ua gD Kerosene emulsion, mixture with arsenicals, composition PITS HOTU RR TH ea gaa a lg) a Se Ay Kidneys, ox, sheep, and hog, food value___-____--________ Kiln— drying, handbook, bulletin by Rolf Thelen_-_________- Cyvaporator fordnyine fruitsee 2 2 ee ee ee lUemmperatune comurolWs 2 aeQue see ee bal Sa es See Bulletin No. 1130 1132 1128 1128 1138] 1131 1145 1137 1128 o 27-29, 32-35, 45 1-16 34-38, 64 24-50 ] 1-8 12, 47, 51 15 1-18 7 12-13, 51 1-68 1-8 13, 47, 51 128 17218051 29-35, 45 1-64 8-17 10-13 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1126-1150. Kilns— Bulletin No. Page. drying schedules for hardwoods and softwoods, ete___- 1136 31-45 humidity measurement, And-control_ 2a: ees Lae 1136 14-20 lumber— air circulation, smpORtumad management, ete_____ 1136 20-23: air circulation, measurement and testing_—_____-_- 1136 21-23 Gescription 22 U2 Nee ae ET SET - CSE Ewes kee 1136 45-53 hebeme Methods=\s 252 e595. . 5555 ee bUae dett 1136 6-9 instruments, calibration and adjustment, list, ete__ 1136 57-60, 68 operation detalles vs. 222. 2 ob ee ee ee 1136 56-63 TECOTOSWRECDING Gee Sa fos kw, gee Sl ee eee 1136 61-638 Klamath Forest Protective Association, insect control work 1140 2 Knots, wood) loosening in drying .2._.» s.22 Bellew. wel 1136 25 Mohierabisiineezims poms: Lewes oe ae eae 1133 6,7,8 Labor, milk production, requirements and cost____________ 1144 10-12 Larch inyinyy by, LrOSt gS uuClese emus: _ aeuueeen nie ey to ea 1131 2,4, 6-7 LARRIMER, WALTER H., and Haroutp H. McKinney, bulletin n ‘‘Symptoms of wheat rosette compared with those pro- diced byiceriain: Wisetts; Saeko. aes eee eee 1137 1-8 SWS CTIe Get Tee 2 ott eee IE ae ea co linia c= he ee 1141 62 4-7, 10 Lead arsenates, composition, mixtures, and toxicity, studies_ 1r| 12, 18-23, —48, 51 emions) imeczing pointes” eek sis. ae Oe ee ee 1133 5,8 Lenzites sepiaria, injury to conifers_--__--_-_--__--_______ 1128 39 Dettuce; freezing points: ee aie | ee ee ee 1133 6, 7,8 Lightning, injury to trees, effect on grain and color of wood__ 1128 17-19 Lightning-rings, occurrence in airplane woods____________- 1128 17-19 Lily, Easter, freezing point of cut flowers-_-—.=2__-____-_- 1133 7,8 Lime sulphur, mixture with arsenicals, composition and ass, 1147 { 14-16, ISSIR a eee oe A Ee Se eR INA AMM Ne Sh aly Mneey Sell 33-36, 51 Livestock— cooperative marketing, development_______________-- 1150 1 grading and prorating in shipping associations__-____-- 1150 33-47 importance in dry Jandfanming a. ;. eee te ea 1143 1-2 marketing, methods of selling, prorating, ete_________- 1150 30-47 production on grain farms, advantages______________- 1143 1-2 shipping— and marketing, detail records, forms______--_---_- 1150 3-23 associations, accounting records and business meth- ods, bulletin by Frank Robotka_..___...__-_.- 1150 1-52 associations, business standing, information_______ 1150 16-18 bookkeepers’ entries, illustrative transactions_-__-_- 1150 47-51 Hivers}iox, sheep, and hos food'value- =e suas Abs eae 1138 Bh nae Logan blackberry, evaporation, details_______________---- 1141 56 London purple} composition... 2. ..2u 2 2 ieee bas setts 1147 10, 11 Lone Star cotton, spinning(tests22 ui.) ee sess2) Fees 1148 2-6 Louisiana— : Crowley, rice experiment station, work, ete____-_----- 1127 1-18 road-building rock, tests, results_-__-= 22-12-22 2u- 1132 14 Lumber— Air-dnvine sSUCCESHONS anomie — Mee eee pee ee 1136 63-64 casehardening, description of process__--.----------- 1136 24-25 dnyStresses,, ANG KeMmedles*= = wes: ae ee ee eee 1136 26-30 kiln drying handbook bulletin by Rolf Thelen_-----~_- 1136 1-64 Kiin-dried. StordgGs! wee ee eee ee ee 1136 45 piling for— : AlN SCSSONING, CINECUIONS 2 = 4_- = See ee eee 1136 63-64 inidirvine at amd iverticala: . “mae see ete =e es 1136 53-56 Lumbering, methods for airplane woods____-_------------ 1128 2-3 Tangs, ox. and lamb, food wale: 2 See ess SSeS 1138 37-39 Lye, use in prune evaporation, process.__._._-------------- 1141 51 INDEX, Maggot, wheat stem, injury, comparison with yosette injury- Magnesium iarsenates, composition--_-.-------e.-.2----+ Mahogany— IAG IGAMIMCLE Cay; TOC e vhs IN ili aay uals | ise gy evap pal ia es nseionainplane propellers. 4222 Mea Sale Se ye apes Maine road-building rock tests, results*2-°i 24522 2== 2 2 Mallards, migration records from birds banded in Utah__-- ~~ Malts, barley, and grain sorghums, diastatic power, com- TO REN EIISKONAVS. 3 10 US ATES ep pee atin eee EGE cos A PnP Oyen SPOR Manifest, form for live-stock marketing associations_-____-_- Manure, cow, value and credit to milk cost, discussion_-__-_- Maple, shoe-last blocks, drying schedule________..------- Marketing, live stock, methods of selling, prorating, etc_.__ Markets, terminal, live stock handling methods____-___--_- Maryland, road-building rock, tests. results-~__.___-__---- Massachusetts, road-building rock tests, results________---- Maruews, O. R., and E. C. Cuitcort, belletin on “Storage of water in soil and its utilization by spring wheat”’______- McInpoo, N. E., and F. C. Cook, bulletin on ‘‘Chemical, physical, and insecticidal properties of arsenicals’’_ _-~__-_- McKinney, Haroup H., and Waiter H. Larrimer, bul- letin on ‘‘Symptoms of wheat rosette compared with Hthoseyproducediby certain insects’. =. e2/t ees Sy ae eS Meapows, WILLIAM R., and WiLiiam G. Buarr, bulletins on cotton— “Comparative spinning tests of cotton’”’__--_________- “Spinning tests of cotton compressed to different GEIST Sip PNPM IAN 924. glob il oi ipyalba aad da eae, LLM es Meats— antineuritic properties, experiments and studies_______-_ dried, comparison with fresh in vitamin content_______ foodkusewunportanceand+datase “aww ae vitamin B content, comparison of ox, sheep, and hog_-_-_-_ Menpum, S. W., bulletin on “Cost of milk production on LOGty-cianbaWiSCOUsiMifarms 2°. (eas oe a te Wienmbiislocmnans rimijuny, tO WOOL 2 3h. 2 hve ol) Se Mexican; Big Boll cotton, spinning tests2! 12) ov) eh Michigan, road-building rock, tests, results___._.__________- Migration— birds, banded in Utah, records, bulletin by Alexander DV Ze errr ore tate res Nols Sea nize 20 Nee 0s. MM ige Marg | Ege wild ducks and other birds, banded in Utah, records, bulletin by Alexander Wetmore________--i2.i-.---= -Milk— prices in Wisconsin, markets, condenseries, creameries, production— cost on Wisconsin farms, bulletin by S. W. Men- CSTD. RO ONE CAE NA OAC Og a a ee Nee _Milo— kernels, physicai and chemical study, bulletin by George L. Bidwell, Leslie L. Bopst and John D. Bowling_ - - _- malt, diastatic power, comparison with barley malt____-_ Minnesota, road-building rock, tests, results____.__________- Mississippi, road-building rock, tests, results______________ Missouri, road-building rock, tests, results________________ Montana— Huntley, dry-land pasture crops for hogs, bulletin by ee HS SCAMADS 2% fore ce vey yeh lhe baee je epryt baled AO od oe road-building rock, tests, results______-.__._____.___-_ ~“‘Moon rings,’ meaning of expression See also Frost rings. Bulletin No. 1137 1147 1128 1128 1132/ 1145 1129 1138 1138 1138 1138 1144 1128 1148 1152 1145 1145 1144 1144 1144 1129 1129 1132 © 1132 1132 1143 1132 1131 41, 43 30-47 30-33 15-16, 47, 51 16-19, 48, 51 1-28 2-20 8-20, 26-44 2 1-48 1-23 39 2-6 19, 48, 51 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1126-1150. Moth— gipsy, control, barrier factors in tree-banding material, Bulletin No. Page. bulletinby,.Mi 2. Smulyanes.. 26-20 Pees es 1142 1-16 nun, control on trees by raupenleim, note___________- 1142 iy? Muscle, voluntary, of ox, sheep, and hog, source of vitamin B 11388 2-20 Mutton, antineuritic value in diet, experiments__________- Nebraska, road-building rock, tests, results_____________-- Nerrert, I.E., E.L. Grirrin, N.PERRINE and A.B. Duckert, bulletin on ‘Absorption and retention of hydrocyanic acid by fumigated food products’”’__.......--.------.-- New Hampshire, road-building rock, tests, results________- New Jersey, road-building rock, tests, results_____________ New Mexico, road-building rock, tests, results____________ New York, road-building rock, tests, results_____________- Nicotine, sulphate solution, mixture with arsenicals, com- POSUDIODSAN CE LONI CLE Ye meen 2 a1 ee gg aE North Carolina, road-building rock, tests, results__________ Nun moth, control on trees by Raupenleim, notes________- Oak— fungus, cause of heart-rot of oaks and poplars_______- wheel stock, drying, schedulelieel) Jes eoge eee Oaks, heart-rots caused by fungi, description. ___________- Ohio, road-building rock, tests, results______.______------ Oklahoma, road-building rock, tests, results__________-_-- Onionstiree zing polite asa ae eas 2 MO ee We Re Oranges; freezing points 2 OR! Dee Blige Oregon, road-building rock, tests, results_______________-- Oryza sativa. See Rice. Ovens, drying, for lumber, description_____________------ Ox, muscle and viscera, vitamin content studies__._____--_- Pancreas, vitamin B content, feeding tests__.___.____---- Paring, fruit, for evaporation, directions___.____.-___---- Paris green, composition and toxicity, tests_._._._._.__---- Peaches— dried production in’ Califormiaue 3) 2 sees ee evaporation— details? SRO eo eid. sy. D2 A BI “Pee of peeled fruit;iobjections.— =--=--224e 22% seuss PLECZINORPOUIUSS so ere ee ee ers La ee Vanities suitabletomdmryane es 112 Res ae ee Pears— dried production Cahforiges 2.22 ee eee eVEPorabion, Getallse te oar 208 ites 9! LE Sees Oe freezing* points: 22 S255 23255240. ess esse Peas— freezing PoOINntse. te ee ee ae. ESS le pasturing with hogs, experiments_-__/_-_------------- Pencillium spp., source of discoloration of wood___-------- Pennsylvania, road-building rock, tests, results__-_--.----- Peony, freezing point of cut flowers___---..-------------- PreRRINE, N., E. L. Grirrin, I. E. Nerrert, and A. B. DvckKETT, bulletin on “Absorption and retention of hydro- eyanic acid by fumigated food products” --_----------- Persimmons, Japanese, freezing points_____-------------- 1138 12-14 1132 21, 52 1149 1-16 1132 21, 48, 52 1132 22, 52 1132 22, 52 1132 23, 48, 52 1147 19-20, 51 24-26, 1142 1,2 1128 38 1128 38-39 1136 4 il; 11384 23-25, 27, 29-44, 45 1138 38-39 1141 37, 47, 49 859: 10, 7} 17, 22, 26, 1147) °" 97° 39’ 36-48, 51 1141 2, 46 1141 45-48 1141 47 1133 3,4,5,8 1141 46, 48 1141 2 1141 49 1133 5,8 1133 5,6,7)8 Sk 5, 7, 1143? 10, 12, 14) 16, 18 1128 29 30-31, 1132 49, 58 1133 7,8 1149 1-16 1133 5,8 INDEX. Pigs, pasturing on dry-land crops, ogee nee IN and results, TIMI GS aal GPU MSA a LT ae ON Pima cotton, self-fertilization and Crate treater ioe bulle- tin by Thomas H. Kearney. 5.5. Mnam eh ays edi oly Leeper ho ty wy Pine, timber, deterioration after felling, causes and progress _ Pines— felledstecauses of deterioration i222 222 04 2 ea eae LMU AVRO PELOSLW SCUGICS sh ka kil Se ee See species susceptible to sap-stain-.._.-__...---------+-- Pintail, migration records from birds banded in Utah__-- “Pinw orms,.’ injury to wood, and prevention__-_-___----_ Piricularia oryzae, cause of rotten neck of rice, note______ Pitch-pockets, description and cause___.-___-224-2-.2-L+- Pith-rayatlecks, in lumber; description. .-+---___-----__- Bim swiiree ze pW Oimits Hy aye ayia pagrus CYTE ie Spay Ge Oe Pollen, deposition, relation of place to fertilization________~ Pollination, cotton flower, study of Pima variety, bulletin Dyavbhomashrl Kearney! Seyi ui Wee le Vat eo Polyporus spp., source of decay in woods2_---2-2---__-=- Polystictus versicolor, injury to hardwoods_______---_-_-_- Pork, antineuritic value in diet, experiments______________ Potassium/\arsenate, ¢omposition Wi) 220.2 shite ta. Potatoes— composition of tubers sprayed and unsprayed with Coppensprayet datas |=). Yoel. Sei enh aetiee Lge ie Dy STV RCSXEY AINA? OCW ATRESIA tay whet ay Ra ag na Te ATMO MO ORAR MET GUZEN Swe sd jah 2 UN a yield and composition effect of copper sprays, bulletin Loa PAO COO kus oy eo A hh i ee ee tha he iRowders\arsenical, properties. 90 eee Propellers, airplane, woods used for, and substitutes _______ Prunes— description, varieties, and value for drying___________ onedproduction imy California... Suk en One drying in. tunnel evaporator, process_________________ evaporationndetailse a cq5lat Seat sed italic’ oy iy VATLetIeSMOrieVapOration 2). kk a itay ise nyse Plywood); panels, drying directions. .020) — 2 Sua isciiesy Quinine fungus, chalky, source of decay in softwoods______ Raspberries— blackwevaporation, directions!) so 09 GUTS Geto: EES ZUMOR OMS EL CT EN Ly Oe Raupenleim, use against gipsy moth____________________ . Redheads, migration records from birds banded in Utah___ Redwoodtibrown rotsidescriptions! O08 MO fo tGn ODOT 42 Rep, F. R., J. J. Skinner, and B. E. Brown, bulletin on “Effect of borax on erowth and yield‘of crops??2 vii. vik ou Ruoaps, ARTHUR 58., bulletin on ‘‘ The formation and Ge logical anatomy of frost rings in conifers injured by late PEOS US (eemmonn. Wythe Oa. WG: OR N'A ORR OS EY CRE migde Island, road-building rock, tests, results___________ ice— agronomic data of seven new varieties_______________ cooking properties of new varieties__________________ Plant Adescrip biome WON Ee Ch EUR LSU URES UNE AL polished, lack of vitamin B, experiments____________- rotten-neck disease, cause, and susceptibility of varie- GTO SUM MURS Ea Re al a bl are re AAG RAI shattering. suggestionsusa.= 5 bia. Shee TO straighthead, varieties immune to_________._________ Bulletin No. Page. 1143 Bf 1134 1-68 1140 4-6 1140 4-6 : 2,6, 7 11; J Dd Ne) FL 3 Oy 1128 28 1145 9-11 1128 OT 1127 15 1128 12 1128 20-23 1133. 3, 4,5,8 1134 27-34 oer 1-68 35-36, 1128) 38, 40 1128 40 1138 14-20 1147 10-11 1146 7-16 1133, 12) 5,658 4,9 1126; 10, 19-22 25-26 1146 1-97, 1147 23 1128 4, 42 1141 50 1141 2 1141 27-29 1141 51-54 1141 50 1136 41-42 1128 35 1141 54-56 1133 4,5,8 1142 122 1145 11-13 1128 36 1126 1731 1131 1-16 1132 31, 50, 52 1127 16-17 27 17 1127 3-5 1127 6-19 11:27 15 1127 15-16 1127 15 12 Rice—Continued. varieties— descriptions) jaeeiess Pek snr tire cet ee bi grain, size and yields, comparison_--___u_-.L___.. new, bulletin by Charles E. Chambliss and J. Matchellienkins 244: ace a ee news comparisons. =... 42... 23. neta Roads, rock for building, tests by Roads Bureau, 1916-1921 _ Rogporka, FRANK, bulletin on “Accounting records and busi- ness methods for livestock shipping associations_________ Rock— crushing Strengthytests:—= softies bie Don ee a road-building, tests by Bureau of Roads, 1916-1921___ Rose, freezing point of cut flowers__-_..-22u ben pee SLuLe Rosette, wheat— comparison of symptoms with insect injuries, bulletin by Harold H. McKinney and Walter H. Larrimer__- ; description and symptoms, by seasons_______________ ots— wood eremarks: 7 abe ered a pegs Rotten-neck, rice, cause, and susceptibility of varieties_____ ROW deUCOULOn Spinmine VeStSm et a We yee Rye, pasturing with hogs, experiments_______________-u- Nalypuseewaescripplome- ag Sap— forms, nature and determination in woods____________ FOUR, DOeled spimek Mg theo. ee Saip-rots tumepus, In hand\woodses =.=. Samual 2) pai aaaee Sap-stain, lumiber, causes andicontrole 92 262) Yosu s eos _ Sapsucker, injuries to lumber, description_______________-_ Seamans, A. E., bulletin on ‘‘ Dry-land pasture for hogs’ at HuntleyseVlontana eae ie _ LO ate Seasoning— lumber, kiln-drying, bulletin by Rolf Thelen_________~_ wood fon airplane construiction= = ase a aes Seeds cottons | purity importance. 2282!) Sanaa nae Seeds, fumigation, absorption of hydrocyanic acid________- Shakes, wood, description and cause_____.___-_____--_+-- Sheep— musele and viscera, vitamin content, studies___.______ viscera edible, and blood, average yield___________-_- Shinmikamicendescripulonmier sae. Bak pie. ee ed ou Shipments, livestock, record forms for cooperative associa- TLONS2h. Se ek eR yh cor yee SN OT! Sapa pony eee nel Shipping, associations for livestock, accounting records and business methods, bulletin by Frank Robotka________-_- Shoveler, migration records from birds banded in Utah___~- Shrinkage, wood, in kiln-drying, and defects caused by__-_-- Silkworms, poisoning with arsenic, tests__..___.____-_-_--_- Skinner, J. J.. B. E. Brown, and F. R. Rem, bulletin on “Effect of borax on growth and yield of erops”’___-_----- Smuxtyan, M. T., bulletin on “ Barrier factors in gipsy-moth tree-banding material?’ 2h. Re | eee eh Sodium— ATSenate* COMPOSIbION= =e NL ee. a ee a A salts, use in treating lumber for sap stain_____-------- moftwoods,dnying, schedule? 2 2... ee ep ena DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1126-1150. Bulletin No. Page. 1127 5-15 1127 15-17 1127 1-18 1127 15-17 1132 1-52 1150 1-52 1132 46-52 1132 1—52 1133 7,8 1137 1-8 1137 2-4 1140 2, 5-6 1128 34-37 1128 38, 39, 40 1127 15 1135 8-12 1148 2-6 Tf 3, 5, 7, 1143) 10, 12, 14, 1 ] 1127 11 1136 23 1140 5-6 1128 40 1128 25-29 1128 20 1143 1-24 1136 1-64 1128 10 1148 1 1149. 10-14 1128 12 12-14, 1138! 25-27, 28) 35-38 1138 22 1127 .haskdai5 1150 7-10 1150 1-52 1145 8 1136 «23-26 27-33, 35- 11474 41, 44-47 1126 1-31 1142 1-16 1147 eei¢ 10) 11 1128 Q7 1136: ).. 34-88 INDEX, Soil— moisture studies, sources of information._.,_ - water storage, and utilization by spring wheat, bulletin by O. R. Mathews and E. C. Chilcott..--.--.--_-~ Soils— effect of borax fertilizers__-._...--_- Raed OP CNN A Ve MB a moisture— CONLEMEMTAMIG esr li ly Le te Bela aioe oie ee eS ERED determination, methods in Great Plains. --______- South— Carolina, road-building rock, tests, results___._.___--- Dakota, road-building rock, tests, results_____.___----- Spinning tests of cotton— compressed to different densities, bulletin by William Re Vicadows and William Ge Blain seo. 2 grown under boll-weevil conditions, 1921, bulletin by William R. Meadows and William G. Blair.________ Spleen antineuritic value, feeding tests. ~~ 2-200 Lee Spoonbill, migration records from birds banded in Utah___- Sprays— arsemicaly, testing, On various Insects Uso tO a ay copper, effect on— POLAINUS Re MLN VIS SULA GLO TS pase mwah ie ara p lee Sete yield and composition of Irish potato tubers, bul- Hetirag oy he Cs "COOK RS AME AM Nw oye Da ee ses at Spruce— LINN OAR ROST SUUGLCS Oa tenia Teel abel lly use in aircraft construction, importance______________ Stains anu cOmoume Luray er ek Uae LM ek Re Rial a WM Steam, superheated, use in kiln drying__________________- Stem maggot, wheat injury, comparison with rosette injury __ Stereum subpileatum, cause of decay in wood__________-__- StomachwnocOodivalue sn 20k ee Ne Storage— airplanes, suggestions for prevention of decay_________ Konioy OIE, GE WSR aT Nayhro ite puny idee eae Lal LOR ee Straighthead, rice, varieties immune to__________-______- Strawberries tmeezing points 22004. ie 2 a Sater teeta Strawworm, wheat infestation, symptoms__________-_._=- Sweet potatoessefreezing points! 2-0-6 Os). sel Sweevonerd moodnvalwe s | ei Wen egal ile i ee Take-all, wheat disease. See Rosette. Tayior; |Grorcr F., and R. C.. Wriecut, bulletin on “Freezing temperature of some fruits, vegetables, and GUE ROW ERSH Ao. Go 2 Mek Wes erences med eat eeleher Were. Deal cinnamon, migration records, from birds banded in Oi inane aire nbs ia Se rll eg UE a green winged, migration records from birds banded in UC ea A UT SE pe oe iemipenatunetiailmncontrol: — 22 Teepe. Stontereayen Hap Tennessee, road-building rock, tests, results_______________ Mlestssoroad-puilding rock, 1916-1921 Umi ins Wee ee Mexas, road-bwilding rock, tests; results == 32222 2 ese THELEN, Rour, bulletin on lumber. ‘Kiln drying hand- Thermometers, lumber-kiln, types and use_______________ Mbwmus cali food: value: 02 2) oY bik wit peaeehid Ya ie Timber, pine, deterioration after felling, causes and progress_ fhingerminous eta lse. Injury tO binch yaw. a ee HobaccommmyunyabiyabOTax tertilizerss | seis =e) eee eee MokalonenicewGescripilone nu ate wee uM TU ee ae: Momlatoes\ ireezing Points. cies Hels pey raphe As cb eee eine Trametes pint, cause of decay in airplane lumber_________- raps; steam ine¢drying kilns, description_......._.-.-___= 1139 co =< HOD OT ae ————“— 14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1126-1150. Tree-banding material— barrier factors against gipsy moth, bulletin by M. T. Bulletin No. Page. Smiulyan 2 he eh ctl ary Sep yee eek eet 1142 1-16 composition, nature, and use against gipsy moth_____-_ 1142 1-15 FOP TUISEISLAIDAUISI PSY nO Una a | RRR ees “Sel 1142 1-2 testing as repellent of gipsy moth_____________-u-2L_ 1142 4-14 SE TIPC; TOO Guava ie ese mee al Sa De SS a ee 1138 41-42 Tubers, potato. See Potatoes. Tunnel evaporator, for prune drying, description and 0 OY =) e211) LOY & ete RN SL A pelt Spee ealneaeyee S| a, POP PE 1141 24-35 | Turnip; Imeering POMts. ees eyt a d 1133 6, 7,8 Utah— birds, migration records, bulletin by Alexander Wet- moves OE a ee 2. eS 1145 1-16 road-building rock, tests, results_...._._._____________ 1132 34, 52 Vegetables— freezing temperatures (with fruits and flowers), bulletin by R. C. Wright and George F. Taylor-——_2c_--_-- 1133 1-8 fumigation, absorption and retention of hydrocyanic persia: ee eee ee SUL CIR SB 2 a ee a ee 1149 5-10 InjuUDyA DY, LuMigations A) 2s ee ee eee 1149 10 Vermont, road-building rock, tests, results___________-___- ve B32 ODDO) D2 Vicinism, cotton, experiments in Arizona___-------------- 1134 24-11 Wantula rice Gescription=s aoe issn eae te ee eee 1127 10 Virginia, road-building rock, tests, results__________--___- 1132{ Bra ie Viscera, edible, of ox, sheep, and hog, vitamin B content____ 1138 21-46 Vitamin B— ya TUO MAILE \yzVhbXes hal WK a a ee 1138 6-46 presence in edible tissues of ox, sheep, and hog, bulletin Dyakalpheboadg] anda nese sae ti: = eee ee ee 1138 1-48 Vitamins, studies, feeding experiments with pigeons___-_--- 1138{ salad Walnut— Funsiocksaryinsischeduless= 22s" -_- See eee 1136 41, 43 semorairplane propellers2 22 2222-20 a Oe 1128 4,42 Warping, wood ain kiln dryngeo 2... Soe 2. See ee 1136 25 Washington, road-building rock, tests, results______-_----- 1132 41, 52 Wasps, cotton pollinators; in Arizonas=—-___--..__----__= 1134 37 Waste, cotton in spinning, tests from bales of different TY DCS ee ete ae Shep AUS RS py ES) i RO a 1135 5, 9, 12, 15 Wataribune rice descriptions esse mee sei OE ee a 1127 12-13 Water, storage in soil, and utilization by spring wheat, bulletin by O. R. Mathews and E. C. Chilcott___---_--_- 1139 1-28 Waterfowl, migration records of birds banded in Utah, bulletin by Alexander Wetmore______-___-_----------- 1145 1-16 Webber cotton; spinning tests 990 _2eso_ fio le eae. Boe 1135 ae Webworms, poisoning with arsenicals, tests____._--------- us| 35-39, 44-46, 48 West Virginia, road-building rock, tests, results____-_----- 1132{ a 7 WermoreE, ALEXANDER, bulletin on ‘Migration records from wild ducks and other birds banded in the Salt Lake SEM ihe rote j ae Rone ect SE SO) UR 3 ER se ee eee et 1145 1-16 Wheat— fumigated, absorption of hydrocyanic acid_____-_----- 1149 13 hairs, occurrence in flour, significance, bulletin by Georges, (Keenan. oh. 2 1130 1-8 injury by— Doraxuentilizersiis ss Cooly aoe coli eaa e 1126 24-26 rosette and insects, comparison of symptoms, bul- : letin by Harold H. McKinney and Walter H. bartmer. 2 ed 2 Oe 1137 1-8 INDEX, Wheat—Continued. Spring— MS utilization of soil water, bulletin by O. R. Mathews Same CHinCOtG see UNS aa ee oe yield and water utilization on Great Plains___----- Wisconsin— milk, production, cost on farms, bulletin by S. W. Miley aaah AD Aa Ue LoOAd-ouldinge rock, tests, results! 22s 20u tue e oles Wood— COMPBCSSIOMMMALNITES Ass eerste ey eM a TL durabilityetactors affecting {2022 eae le oo kiln-drying, handbook, bulletin by Rolf Thelen_ --_---_- moisture, forms, nature and determination methods - - - shrinkage in kiln drying, and defects caused by------- specific gravity, relation to strength_________---__-_- steaming and bending, precautions_________________- summer growth and spring growth, relation to strength_ Woods— airplane— decays and discolorations, bulletin by J. 8S. Boyce_ defectsiand color changest). Salas aM yn Eien discolorations) caused by fungi. = Wks eee discolorations, causes and importance in airplane Jina Ly Tg Soap gaa i A RI SIE ML SC varieties used in airplane construction_____________-- WOLM-NOlesums Insects causing. | a. so Ns Wricut, R. C., and Grorce F. Taytor, bulletin on “Freezing temperatures of some fruits, vegetables and CUILPTL ONE TS peed ime nuns i eb UR i i Yarns— breaking strength from cotton of different densities____ cotton, breaking strength and irregularity______ AR es News pinjunybyitrost, studies. _2._ 22022 220022 ll. Zincrarsenite,;composition, study. 2-8) ete ee ee Zythia rosinae, source of discoloration of wood____._------ O 15 Bulletin No. Page. 1139 1-28 1139 9-13 1144 1-23 1132 44, 51, 52 1128 11 1128 31 1136 _ 1-64 1136 1-3 1136 23-26 1128 6-9 1128 9-10 1128 6-9 1128 1-52 1128 5-17 1128 24-40 1128 14-40 1128 3-5 1128 12-13 1133 18 7-8,10-11, 11S 5 nets a5! 17-18 1148 4-5, 6 1131 8 1147 10 1128 29 Bs Sat og via’ ager ; ? im Tryeryee bs i ; as me aa. Mir sale ‘WLU Sheet = ga mi oe ae a) ee te Beal May t diab Papen by. rat dak af ae Lh pity bh re i) w Riu dew Sas ‘bona 2a aaa ge a tte ae tras ah Anas a © ee tee Bo ans ieee ame Dag yr ie a al "pela ose dis tis ioodha a preseroen ois an Yat bug sau jaa ann aes Oe Peattas 3 Sha" mei ali Sa that en RR o> APRA 4 A ago Sy at thei Set dial dP ee Theli r Wot, athe bia a f . 4 ONS Se a my. ie mae: . = Palsce 42 76 8.1] 21:8 44 76 6.8 | 21.0 | 46 5 pounds 77 7.0 | 27.5 45 71 US ECE 46 72 6.8 | 25.1] 43 10 pounds 85 6.8 | 21.6 48 42 6.7 | 16.9 37 63 Grom p232 20) 41 INone= 52.2 82 9:04 18:8 46 75 Ort |: 2258 49 70 | 8.8} 23:5 40 20 pounds 65 6.9 | 19.7 39 48 6.1 | 20.8 35 41 | Den lo 1539} | 38 30 pounds... 77 6.2 | 19.8 31 32 5.2 |} 12.0 31 63 5.6 | 19.2 | 45 50 pounds... 74 5.2 | 19.0 34 19 | BMOe |= 10950 21 39 Sib She 38 None S22 e.8 83 9.3 | 19-9.) 46 73 | 8.1] 16.5 42 83 8.7 | 17.8 | 45 100 pounds. - 48 | 2:6 5.2: | 15 to eae ae | 256 15 Ties | eee 3.5 | 15 200 pounds. . Sila 4.8 16 CTU ny le jo) 22.4 10 Til cer leOusta| 0 400 pounds. . A lSeabsse5 0 0 5 [stresses Oem 0 Ee sooe leaned 0 1 ' ' i J Where the fertilizer was applied in the drill, the borax in as small quantities as 1, 2, 3, and 4 pounds per acre had a retarding effect on the early growth of the beans, and 10 pounds of borax markedly stunted the plants. There was not much noticeable depression of growth by borax in quantities under 4 pounds, and when the bean vines reached maturity they had outgrown all injury. In section 1, 20 pounds of borax decreased the growth of vines, but the production of beans was not influenced by quantities under 100 pounds per acre. In section 2, 10 pounds per acre caused marked depression in the final yield of both vines and beans. In the broad- casted section 20 pounds per acre depressed the production of beans, but vine growth was not influenced by quantities smaller than 50 pounds. There was some stimulation in all sections by the smaller applications. EFFECT OF BORAX ON SNAP BEANS. The experiment with snap beans was similar in all details to that of the Lima beans. The seeds were planted on May 26, somewhat thick in the row and thinned to 125 per plat on June 15. They had matured by August 13, on which date the experiment was terminated. The beans were picked weekly, and the record is given in pounds of green beans produced. The snap beans proved to be very sensitive to borax. During the first month the plants where 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 pounds of borax were applied in section 2 showed a slightly lighter color of foliage than the no-borax plat, although there was no distinct bleaching. There was a distinct and marked bleaching of leaves with 10 pounds and upward. This effect was distinguished by a curled leaf having yellow and brown 8 BULLETIN 1126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tips, and often the entire leaf was affected. This characteristic be- came severe where 20 pounds were used. These same effects were noticeable in sections 1 and 3, but relatively large quantities were required to produce the symptoms. In section 1 there was no apparent change in color of foliage with quantities under 5 pounds per acre. The complete data are given in Table 2. TABLE 2.—Effect of various quantities of borax on snap beans in field plats on silty clay loam at Arlington, Va., in 1920. Sec. 1.—Fertilizer applied in | Sec. 2.—Fertilizer applied in Sec. 3.—Fertilizer applied drill 7 days before planting. drill at time of planting. broadcast at time ofalbatine. Borax per Plantsup |Yieldperplat| Plantsup | Yieldperplat; Plantsup | Yield per plat acre. June 15. (pounds). | June 15. (pounds). | June 15. (eoneas): | Num- |Height, lisa Num- |Height . Num- |Height ; rm ber. |inches’| Beans| Vines.| “Yor \inefes? | Beans. Vines.| “Vor inches’ | Beans.| Vines. | ee None: oso 210; 6.2| 27.8| 37.0] 162 7.6 | 24.7] 34.0 132 | %9} 25.5 30.0 1 pound..... 180 6.6 | 29.6 | 34.0 154 6.8 | 26.0, 32.0) 149 6.5 | 23.8 29.0 2 pounds 208 | 4.8} 26.7) 345 93 6.7 | 22.6| 29.0 129 6.7] 20.5 29.0 3 pounds 213 | 5.5 | 26.7| 345 91 6.4 | 20.0) 27.0 125 7.0) 19.1 26.0 ON@s- sa2.ce> 203 5.9 | 24.8) 33.0 109 7.0} 21.6| 31.0 139 | 7.8; 20.8 28.5 4 pounds 180 | 5.2] 21.0) 32.0 113 5.5} 20.8/| 27.0) 150) 6.6} 19.2 24.5 5 pounds. 224) 4.2) 19.6) 25.5 84; 6.0] 17.5] 21.0 42 5.8 | 21.2 28.0 10 pounds 208 4,8 | 19.5 | 25.5 63 4.6 | 12.6| 16.0 80 4.6) 16.7 21.0 None. .2\: 22. 190 6.4) 24.7! 33.0 94 6.0} 22.4] 25.0 128 7.9 | 20.0 25.0 20 pounds 223 4.1] 10.8] 15.0 62 3.6 9,2} 10.5 103 5.5 | 12.2 15.5 30 pounds 210 4 1255 1720 55 ANON ed |. 1950 83 4.4) 8.4 11.5 50 pounds 142 4.0) 10.4) 15.0 20 Bates 4s | 2:0 68 3.6 7.5 7.5 None..... 231 5.8 | 24.3] 33.5 115 6.5 | 21.8) 27.0 128 | 7.5 | 20.6 24.0 100 pounds 119 3.0 3.6] 5.0 27), | soxioneee ier glo 2.0 28'|-22eheue M1 1.5 200 pounds O8t Eman ck cia 0 0 15} Soene ee | 0 a oe eee 0 0 400 pounds (A 0 0 TO pester ests eo oe aa ON cence 0 0 None... 203 5.9 | 23.8) 33.5 114 6.5) 21.4) 25.5 130 | 7.1/ 16.8 23.5 Table 2 shows that borax in small quantities materially affected germination, especially in section 2, and that there was considerable retardation in growth in the early life of the plant. The effect on germination and growth is shown in Plate I, Figure 1. The plants shown were dug from the various plats in section 2 on June 15, each being a representative plant from the plat on which it grew. Where 200 and 400 pounds of borax were used, the seeds germinated, but the sprout withered and died without pushing through the soil. The plants from the 50 and 100 pound borax plats were abnormal, weak, and very badly bleached. The weights of beans and vines tell the story of the final influence of borax on the production of this crop. In sections 1 and 2 its harm- ful effect is first noticeable with 5 pounds per acre, which increases in degree as the quantity added increases. In the broadcasted sec- tion there is not shown much influence from quantities under 10 pounds per acre. Plates II and III show the Lima and snap beans which were hotographed on July 17. In Plate II, Figures 1, 2, and 3 show the fale and snap beans grown on the no-borax, 5-pound, and 10- pound borax plats, respectively. In Plate III, Figures 1, 2, and 3 show the beans in the 20, 50, and 100 pound borax plats. Figure 3 also shows the plats having 200 and 400 pounds of borax. Here it is seen that these higher borax plats have supported no vegetation whatever. The effect of the varying quantities of borax is apparent and does not call for further comment. Bul. 1126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fig. |1.—SNAP BEANS DUG FROM FIELD PLATS TREATED WITH VARIOUS QUANTITIES OF BORAX. Seeds planted May 26; plants removed from the soil and photographed June 15. FIGs. 2 AND 3.—CORN PLANTS DUG FROM FIELD PLATS TREATED WITH VARIOUS QUANTITIES OF BORAX. Seeds planted May 3; plants dug from the soil and photographed May 28. EFFECT OF BORAX ON PLANTS IN THEIR EARLY STAGES OF GROWTH. The figures shown in connection With the plants indicate the number of pounds of borax applied per acre in the fertilizer used. Bul. 1126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ’ PLATE Il. Fic. 1.—No BORAX APPLIED. FIG. 3.—APPLICATION OF 10 POUNDS OF BORAX PER ACRE. EFFECT OF BORAX ON BEANS AT ARLINGTON, VA.-—I. Seeds planted on silty clay loam May 26, using a 4-8-4 fertilizer with and without borax: Snap beans at left, Lima beans at right; plants photographed July 17. (Compare with Pl. III.) Bul. 1126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. FIG. |.—APPLICATION OF 20 POUNDS OF BORAX PER ACRE: SNAP BEANS AT LEFT, LIMA BEANS AT RIGHT. FIG. 2.—APPLICATION OF 50 POUNDS OF BORAX PER ACRE: SNAP BEANS AT LEFT, LIMA BEANS AT RIGHT. FIG. 3.—APPLICATION OF 100 POUNDS OF BORAX PER ACRE ON RIGHT, 200 POUNDS IN CENTER, AND 400 POUNDS ON LEFT. EFFECT OF BORAX ON BEANS AT ARLINGTON, VA.—II. Seeds planted May 26 on silty clay loam, using a 4-S-4 fertilizer with and without borax; plants photographed July 17. (Compare with Pl. II.) PLATE IV. 1126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. oul} 18 [Ip oy) Uj—z ‘00g *AoAtoadsou ‘o19B Jad xBI0q JO Sai OOF pue vA NOLONITWYY LV SYSZINILYS4 NI ¢ ‘ane 022/T ‘syetd [Ty “Sumuryd Jo our) 4B ysvopRoiq WMOS—"ge ‘dog “SsuTZURTC Jo “Sunurd podvpep [IIA Tp oy UT—'T “0g :spoyjour yuoreytp Aq porydde o1oe ied xeioq Jo spunod way, ‘9 002 ‘O01 ‘0G ‘xBI0oqON ‘gq *AyeAtoodsod ‘e198 rod xB10q Jo spunod og pure ‘oz ‘OT ‘¢ ‘xB10q ON SV xXxvuOqg SAO SHILILNYND SNOIYVA HLIM GANIVLEO SSOLVLOd AO SGISZIA EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS. 3) EFFECT OF BORAX ON POTATOES, The potatoes grown in the experiment were McCormicks and were hlaated on July 1 and dug on October 26. Hach of the three sec- tions was planted with 40 seed pieces. The record of the number of pieces that germinated in each plat is given, and it is seen here that the yield is coordinated to a certain extent with the percentage of germination. The rainfall in the first 7 days of July was approxi- mately 2 inches, which was sufficient to thoroughly wet the surface soil a few inches, and the fertilizers doubtless were well diffused in section 1 before the seeds were planted. During July there were 4.97 inches of rainfall and in August 4.91 inches, fairly well distributed, which made conditions ideal for potato growing during the first two months of this experiment. The yields and the germination records obtained in the experiment are given in Table 3. TABLE 3.—EHffect of various quantities of borax on potatoes in field plats on silty clay loam at Arlington, Va., in 1920. : | Sec. 1.—Fertilizer ap- aa ave ; an : “oa 3 F Sec. 2.—Fertilizer applied in drill; Sec. 3.—Fertilizer applied broad- pee oisaiitis days at time of planting. cast at time of planting. Borax PEC er Yrole per plat (pounds). | Yield per plat (pounds). | plants | Yield per plat (pounds).| Plants up | u | July July Primes.} Culls. | Total. |Primes.|} Culls. | Total. 30. | Primes.| Culls. Total. 30. iINone= 322. 34 1 35 39 2} 41 40 | 43 2 45 42 1 pound. 38 2 40 45 1} 46 43 46 2 48 43 2 pounds 38 1 39 38 2 40 41 | 50 3 53 44 3 pounds 40 3 43 40 2 | 42 44 49 4 53 ai INTO) S455 4: 37 3 40 39 2 41 40 | 42 3 45 44 4 pounds 40 4 44 54 1} 55 44 | 42 1 43 42 5 pounds 39 1 40 33 1 34 39 | 45 1 46 at 10 pounds 36 3 39 39 1 | 40 38 | 49 1 50 42 6.3.10) 31 5 36 35 1 36 42} 51 1 52 44 20 pounds 32 2 34 30 2 | 32 35 | 45 1 46 43 30 pounds 24 2 26 25 1} 26 28 | 45 1 46 44 50 pounds 22 3 25 23 1| 24 20 | 35 1 36 40 None:.. 22.2 30 3 33 33 2 35 39 55 1 56 43 100 pounds... 14 2 16 14 1 15 9 24 0 24 24 200 pounds. - 2 2 4 0 0 | 0 2 0 0 0 4 400 pounds... 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 3 Nonees ise: 39 2 41 44 2 46 41 | 42 2 44 43 In section 1, where the fertilizer was put in the furrow and the planting of potatoes delayed, there was a slight stimulation with the smaller quantities of borax. The yield was depressed by 30 pounds per acre; quantities larger than this proved still more haxinful In section 2, where the potatoes were planted immediately (PI. IV, Figs. 1 and 2), the germination was affected, and there was a depression of yield with 20 pounds of borax per acre, while 30 pounds were more harmful. Where 200 and 400 pounds of borax were used there was no germination. In section 3, 50 pounds of borax was the smallest quantity which proved harmful and 100 pounds were decidedly injurious, reducing germination and yield approximately 50 per cent. In Plate IV, Figure 3 shows the effect of 10 pounds of borax per acre in the three sections with different methods of fertilizer application. 9094—22——2 10 BULLETIN 1126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The following conclusions can be drawn from the potato experi- ment: Borax in quantities of 4 pase per acre and less was stimu- lating, in harmony with the effect of small quantities of poisons generally; the 5 and 10 pound applications showed no unusual effects; the application of 20 pounds per acre affected germination and reduced the yield when the fertilizer was applied in the drill and the potatoes planted immediately; 30 pounds decreased the growth where the fertilizer was applied in the drill and the planting delayed; and 50 pounds were injurious to germination and depressed the yield where the fertilizer was sown broadcast. EFFECT OF BORAX ON CORN. The experiment with corn differed from that with beans and pota- toes in that each plat was three rows instead of one, which made the area for each treatment one-ninetieth of an acre instead of one two-hundred-and-seventieth. The fertilizer was applied on May 3, and the seed planted in sections 2 and 3 on that date, while planting in section 1 was delayed until May 12. The corn was planted thick, using approximately the same number of grains in each plat, afterwards thinning to a stand of 105 plants per section. Before thinning, a record was made of the number of plants which had come up in each plat and the average height of the plants was taken on that date. Notes made 25 days after the seeds were planted (on May 28) showed that in section 2 there was a decided difference in the color of the young plants where 2 and 3 pounds per acre of borax were used. here 5 pounds were used they were badly discolored and the leaves were slightly curled. In the 10- pound plat the leaves were badly bleached. In section 3, where the ertilizer was sown broadcast, there was no leaf discoloration or bleach- ing with any quantity under 10 pounds per acre. This characteristic effect was very marked where 20 pounds were used. A representative plant from each plat in section 2 is shown in Plate I, Figures 2 and 38. Here the characteristic effect of borax is shown. The records showing its effect on germination and on the plant in the early stages of growth, together with the final yields of stover and corn, are given in Table 4. Borax in quantities as low as 4 pounds per acre slightly depressed the yield of both stover and corn when the fertilizer was applied in the drill. Quantities larger than this decreased the yield con- siderably more. The use of 20 pounds was very detrimental, and there was an utter failure where 100 pounds were applied. In the section sown broadcast 20 pounds per acre caused some decrease in yield; the 50-pound application was very harmful; and there was no growth at all where 200 and 400 pounds were used. Plates V sti VI show the corn in section 2 photographed on July 9. The corn in the 3-pound borax plat had not made as much growth as in the no-borax plat, and the corn in the 10-pound plat was a great deal smaller at this stage of its growth than the corn in the no-borax pat On the 36'notiHe borax plat shown in Plate VI, Figure 2, the roken stand and uneven growth of the corn is quite striking. An inspection made on July 9 showed that the corn on the no-borax and on the 4-pound borax plats in the broadcasted section of the experi- ment had made practically the same growth. Bul. 1126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fic. |.—PLAT TO WHICH No BoRAX WAS APPLIED. FIG. 2.—PLAT RECEIVING 3 POUNDS OF BORAX PER ACRE. EFFECT OF BORAX ON CORN AT ARLINGTON, VA—I. Fertilizers applied in the drill; seed planted May 7 on silty clay loam; photographed July 9 Compare with Pl. VI.) Bul. 1126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. Fic. |.—PLAT RECEIVING I0 POUNDS OF BORAX PER ACRE. FIG. 2.—PLAT RECEIVING 30 POUNDS OF BORAX PER ACRE. EFFECT OF BORAX ON CORN AT ARLINGTON, VA.—II. Seed planted May 7 on silty clay loam; fertilizers applied in the drill; photographed Jaly 2 (Compare with Pl. V.) EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS. 11 ‘TABLE 4.—Effect of various quantities of borax om carn in field plats on silty clay loam at Arlington, Va., 1m 1920. See. 1.—Fertilizer applied in | Sec. 2.—Fertilizer appliedin | Sec. 3.—Fertilizer applied drill 7 days before planting. drill at time of planting. broadcast at time of planting. Borax per Plantsup |Yieldperplat,| Plantsup {Yieldperplat,) Plantsup {Yield per plat, acre. June 8. pounds. May 28. pounds. May 28. pounds. ioe UAL epee ee us Nas Beene, Stover.| Ears. aoe Dpes: Stover.| Ears. piers Height, /stover | Ears. Tr, : ; ? | ’ | | AR | None....--.- 207 8.6 153 106 214 6.5 136 91 |} 237 6.0; 120 | 96 pOUndeeees 177 8.1 147 81 221 5.2 118 88 | 244 5-5 | 113 | 91 2 pounds.... 167 4.7 .\0) 136 96 191 4.5.) 113 89 | 206 4.8 123 | 81 3 pounds 194 8.0} 147| 93.) 209 Bue ie 15 80 | 208 472) ) 1) -92 | 84 ONGs ac ters 170 8.6 | 156 94 210 6.5 | 132 87 202 5.6 122 | 90 4 pounds 162 7.9 | 120 87 179 4.2) .128 72 156 | ATOM ee Louy| 84 5 pounds. 145 700 131 86 168 AVN Ss 75 4) 84456 131 | 97 10 pounds 153 5.9 | 114 89 | 111 Bey ee Tu) 72 |. 180 4.3] 131 | 92 NIGH HS Sec ers 170 8.5 146 94 225, 5.5 140 97 229 5.4 | © 148 | 96 20 pounds 127 Sa 129 87 76 elk 107 71 175 4.0 | 142 | 85 30 pounds 74 BAe 90 66 70 3.4 90 60 187 3.9 | 140 | 4 50 pounds 51 4.9 75 44 PY es Se Wak 82 59 ALI Sh | = 72 | 56 None...:-.-- aif, 8.7 157 105 211 95) e156 109 182 5:6 | (133 | 100 100 pounds. . 26 3.5 50 33 Oia ee crass fe 17 9 | Tila tao 74 | 64 200 pounds. - 6 3.4 16 13 eles ee ae vats 10 | a Geeee | 0 | 0 400 pounds. - 0 0 0 0 Oia ualaes 2 | 0 | 0 | gel srs aspeer 0 | 0 Nome Lee ./Si-/5/- 189 8.4 135 96 133 Dee dod, | 99 82 | 4.3) 115 | 86 | | { | | In section 1, as far as concerns the 200 and 400 pound plats, nothing crew. Where borax was sown broadcast over the entire area and mixed with the soil the growth of either grass or weeds was pre- vented throughout the entire summer. In section 2 these same plats allowed only a few plants to mature, and these were outside the drill rows. From the data presented in the foregoing pages it is apparent that borax is injurious to plant growth. The degree of harmfulness seems to vary considerably with the crop grown and the method of applying the fertilizer. It is apparent from the data presented in this bulletin and from the work of others previously cited that borax is much less harmful when sown broadcast than when concentrated in the drill. Weather conditions following the time of applying the fertilizer and during the early life of the crop are an important factor which influences the action of the borax, as was pointed out in con- sidering the work already reported. INFLUENCE OF RAINFALL ON THE EFFECT OF BORAX. A daily record of the rainfall at Arlington was kept, which affords an opportunity to study its influence on the effect of borax on the various crops. The daily rainfal! for May, June, July, August, and September is given in Table 5. Considering first the weather conditions connected with the plant- ing of beans on May 26, it is seen from a study of the rainfall record that there was no precipitation for 10 days preceding the application of the fertilizer and none for 10 days following the inauguration of the experiment. The first rainfall occurred on June 5, amounting to 1.19 inches. The rainfall for the remainder of the month was well distributed and was sufficient to keep the soil in good moist condition. _ At the time of planting the beans and for 10 days following the soil 12 BULLETIN 1126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was dry. This period was followed by two weeks of optimum soil- moisture conditions. The effect of the borax in retarding the ger- mination of the beans and stunting the growth of the young plants was probably more pronounced than if there had been heavy rainfall for this period. TABLE 5.—Record of daily rainfall at Arlington, Va., for the five-month period from May to September, inclusive, in 1920. (Data in inches.] Date. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Date. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | | ae ae eet BAS SKS PO 0.38) 0 0 Oh 0 Lees & 0 0.21} 0.07) 0.18 0 PCr OA Ori Oneeniy 54 9 Ole hy lieamee ee 0 ws . 08 .16 0 Banc ae 0 Oo] O64 0 0. deere 0 0 0 17 0 ees: 0 0-7. Ne Die ais 0 Of i Dapeenes | Oo 0 .89 . 80 0 eked 0 £519 WO eel OF | Pie | 0 1.25| 0 1.00 0 eRe. 0 S844 Oy wil, aOG Hs, 8) || DIE eee 0 -15| 0 0 0 Eee 0 Os ver OMS OL SPO MDa 8! 0 0 08 ll 0 See SALES OE SM NGA ocO MUA] Oia Th Daze ts ie 20 .04]} 0 0 0 Seaueapee 0 0 O,Riad Onn Sapa ee se 0 24 .80| 0 . 03 | es 0 O04 0 ee 08 1.090) 260.2... | 0 0 0 0 0 Tien 0 OF BOR eek HO DI ae a) 0 0 0 0 BeBe 5 0 25h 0 0 Ose WORE ones baw 0 0 .18 .07 is eae 76st caOjel ll ty On eal eer MOM POE Sacks 4 0 0 0 0 . 02 1 eaueee i) pes ees (is Medea. Alen OnstalBOYEES 0 0 0 ul 1.34 Tore A ROSH endo arated yO Ove iene Of IB Aa Oo aes IGE ee 0 SDD: |e e102) 20 SG 0 The weather conditions at the time of planting the potatoes on July 1 were somewhat different. For 10 days preceding the in- auguration of the experiment about 1 inch of rain had fallen, and the soil was sufficiently moist to cause germination and to support normal growth. On July 3, two days after the fertilizer was applied and the seed planted in sections 2 and 3, there was a rainfall of 1.96 inches. While this depth of rainfall would not be likely to cause any considerable quantity of borax to be leached, it probably would be sufficient to dissolve the borax. By the natal movement of the soil moisture the borax would be well diffused in the soul. The borax in section 1, where the delayed planting was made, was probably ‘well distributed before planting was done. Occasional rains during July kept the soil well supplied with moisture except in the last of the month, when a period of about a week without rainfall occurred. The rainfall in August was favorable, so that the potatoes germinated and grew under rather favorable moisture conditions, and only slight borax injury was experienced. It required relatively large quantities to produce a pronounced injury. The corn which was planted early in May started its growth under somewhat different weather conditions than did the beans and potatoes. When planted on May 3 the soil was in a good moist con- dition and during the following 12 days there was a well-distributed rainfall of 1.22 inches, which was during the germination stage. The rainfall was sufficient to keep the surface soil in a moist condition, and at no time during the 12-day germinating period did the surface become dry. The following 3 weeks, which was the period when the young plants were beginning their growth, were without rainfall, As was pointed out earlier, there was considerable injury to the young corn by small quantities of borax, except possibly in the 3 plats of section 1 which received 1, 2, and 3 pounds of borax per acre. EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS. 13 It would seem that weather conditions at the time of planting exerted considerable influence on the effect of borax on the crops in the Arlington work. As this was apparent early in the investigation, experiments with corn and cotton were planned and inaugurated early in June to determine especially the effect of rainfall and weather conditions on the action of borax. Experiments with these two crops were begun on June 2 and repeated at intervals of about one week for a number of weeks. PERIODIC PLANTING OF CORN AND COTTON. CORN. The experiments planned especially to study the effect of borax under different weather conditions were similar in design to the former experiments described as far as the method of applying the fertilizer is concerned. Only two quantities of borax were used, however, namely 5 and 10 pounds per acre, and these are compared with a fertilizer containing no borax. Each treatment comprised one row 44 feet long, which is one two-hundred-and-seventieth of an acre. The outline of the experiments with dates on which each was in- augurated is given in Table 6, together with the data obtained. TaBLE 6.—Influence of weather conditions on the action of borax on corn at Arlington, Va., in 1920. Yield per plat. Sec. 1.—Fertilizer applied Sec.2.—Fertilizer applied | Sec. 3.—Fertilizer applied Experiment, date in drill 7 days before | indrillattimeofplant-| broadcast at time of ? started, and borax planting. ing. planting. per acre. = In- In- In- | In- In- | In- Sto- | crease erease| Sto- | crease | crease | Sto- |crease |erease ver. | or de- | 2+) or de- | ver. | or de- | ©"S-| or de- | ver. | or de- | 24S or de- crease. crease. crease.) crease. crease crease. | | | | | | Series A, June 2: ah EeetCEes|Z0Se iP. Cl. | 0S Neb aCbe-| 0S) aces INometee ie ck igectoes: Vfare 2a Saree Feces Ss Bile iee see 5 pounds........-- +37.5 33 |+37.5 41 |4 24,2 36 |+16.1 10 pounds..-....... +21.9 34 |+41.7 34 |+ 3 32 |+ 3.2 Series B, June 9: ONC cws SUSE Se Sace| Min BE) ameter lope + Sal eae etal Lord 00/7 fener eal seeesaa| Ge oles Sena Beda putea TP POUNASHee sess ee —29. 8 28 |—28. 2 46 |—13.2 33 |—13.1 10; pounds-:-2.2..: —25.4 33 |—15.4 | 58 |4+ 9.4 46 |+21 Series C, July 7 | One Sse teat HERES D aS are SP ee rape tas koe SO See eke | hares NEL Seeks SE )e Bea seea| ease cose 5 pounds.......... Sie eee seals seks 143 |— 6.5 |.....- ee istepaie 10 pounds.......-.! OO sea meatee seas 126 |—17.6 |-.-..- eeehoe Series D, July 15: | | ae Seeeen nalts WemeG Su leestee cc cee cal cat amie Toe Pasta ee a 1 db eg : DIPOUNGS! a5 sees |—10.6 |. 117 |— 5.6 |. LOjpoOuUNdSs-e Snes! i—20: 5 |. 127 |+ 2.4 |. Series E, August 3: | | INoneS PEE toes 2 0. Sloot hoarse elects ce OH et eal Ee eee OHV oii seh epee ears 5 pounds........-. S82) l-fell. 23 | ae aces see one (Oxo a eecad leaceae MOU 1G6F 5) ecmace fees 10 pounds......... (Gh | SIGE Ay Ses sa aiana lees Ge Ne) easel beoe use Filial == 2D yes eee Wetadely In the first experiments of the series, A, the fertilizers were applied on June 2, and the seeds were planted on that date in sections 2 and 3 and on June 9 in section 1. There was an increased yield of both stover and corn in the 5 and 10 pound borax plats in each section over the no-borax plat. There was a marked stimulation apparently due to borax, which was as much as 50 per cent in stover in one case 14 BULLETIN 1126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and 37.5 per cent in ear production in another case. The third day after the fertilizers were applied there was a rainfall of 1.19 inches and the fourth day 0.83 inch. This depth of moisture falling in 2 days undoubtedly diffused the borax in the soil. At any rate the borax in the quantities applied, 5 and 10 pounds per acre, under these weather conditions had no harmful action. In series B, which was started on June 9, the borax caused some de- crease in both stover and corn. This decrease was most severe in section 2, where the yield of stover was decreased nearly 30 per cent and of ears 28.2 per cent by 5 pounds of borax. The yield of stover was decreased 25.4 per cent and that of ears 15.4 per cent by 10 pounds of borax. At the time of applying fertilizers and planting the soil was moist, but there had been no rain for several days. The light showers which fell within the 10 days following the planting were not more than would moisten the surface inch of soil. Series C was not planted until July 7, and no yield of ear corn was produced by this and the subsequent planting, as the planting was made too late in the season to mature. The yield of stover, however, is given. The effect of the borax in this funding was to cause no decrease with 5 pounds in section 1, and only slight decreases in sec- tions 2 and 3. ‘The decrease with 10 pounds was more marked in sec- tions 1 and 3 and especially in section 2, where it was as much as 30 percent. The soil was moist at planting time, and there was-0.62 of an inch precipitation the next day, after which there was no precipi- tation for a week. The second week after planting there were light showers daily which were sufficient to keep the surface moist. Series D was planted on July 15, and the action of the borax was somewhat more severe than in series C. A slightly decreased yield in each section was caused by 5 pounds of borax. The use of 10 ounds of borax caused a considerable decrease in sections 1 and 2, ut a slight increase in section 3. The first 10 days after this experi- ment was begun the soil was rather moist. There were light showers for the 4 days following the planting, amounting in all to 0.48 of-an inch rainfall, and on the sixth day, July 20, there was 0.89 inch precipitation. The last planting was made on August 3, and series E in Table 6 shows that the borax was harmful to growth in sections 2 and 3 with 5 pounds per acre, and its harmful effects were very marked in each section where 10 pounds were used, amounting to a decrease of 36.2 per cent in growth in section 2. The rainfall in'the 10-day period following the planting was moderate, amounting to 0.69 of an inch, which was well distributed. In the second 10-day period, 3.38 inches precipitation occurred, but this, too, was well distributed, and there were no heavy rains during the 20-day period. In each of these series, excepting A, the borax had a harmful action. However, the degree of harmfulness in the several series varied, and in series C it was very mild. The experiments generally were made under favorable moisture conditions, the depth of rainfall which oc- curred shortly after the fertilizer was applied in each test did not vary greatly, except in series A, where there was a precipitation of 2.02 inches in the four days following the fertilizer application, and in series C, where the planting was followed on the second day by a rainfall of 0.62 of an inch. EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF GROPS. V5 COTTON, Experiments with the Cleveland Big Boll variety of cotton similar to those with corn just described were also made and some interestin results obtained. Cotton planted as late as June at Arlington avila not mature. The effects of borax, however, were noted on ger- mination, growth, and boll formation. In these tests each treatment occupied one row or an area of one two-hundred-and-seventieth of an acre. The 4—S8—4 fertilizer was used at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre. The cotton was planted thick and thinned to 45 hills per plat, with 2 plants to each hill. The complete data are given in Table 7. Taste 7.—Lffect of various quantities of borax on the growth and fruiting of cotton on silty clay loam at Arlington, Va., in 1920. (The measurements of height of plants were made in experiment series A and B, for sections 2 and 3, on July 27; for section 1, on August 3; those for experiment series C, sections 2 and 3, on August 3, and for section 1, on August 10.] Yield per plat. Sec. 1.—Fertilizer appliedin| Sec. 2.—¥ertilizer applied | Sec.3.—Fertilizer applied A i F 3 19) copariaga} drill 7 days before planting. | in drill at time of planting. |broadcast at time ofplanting. date started, a oS re poorer Plants, |S. jq |o.,| Plantss|S | 4:.|S.,| Plants,|S | 4 (8 Se lee lee Si a oe Se ei ee > 2 > o ° ~ = os] 23 128) 28/4 eel 28) 28/23 | = eo] 8s) 28) 3s op [HO] C5 | at!) VPS] mH [RO] SS lH! 2S] ew (OO) PS) Hs| 2G 3 [S21 5 rs) “3 SEIS Odie 3 oe 3) Syed bcs) Bie alka | Gorm Me fe a) Vm oben 8 Series A, June 2: | Ins.|Lbs.| P.ct.| No. | P.ct.| Ins.|Lbs.| P.ct.| No. | P.ct.| Ins.|Lbs.| P.ct.| No. |P.ct. None essen GSO Gli swe IR GS8O RSLS. | TOE 60 |e: IN csaeic 1438) 73/2222 - - 1, 435)-..... 5 pounds 12.4) 56/— 8.2) 1,295,—22.9) 11.6, 59/— 1.7) 1,000)—43.7| 14.1) 80/+ 9.6} 1,252)/—12.7 2 10 pounds 11.2) 58)— 5 | 1,315)—21.7| 10.1) 61/4 1.7) 967/—45.6) 11.0) 55)—24.7) 901/—37.2 eries B, June 9 | None.......- SS GTlee RATS pages TPES a7 oleee ce iI Se 135 0|e272|\heeee 1,525|.2--.- 5 pounds 8.1} 69)+ 3 | 1,400|\— 5.3) 7.3) 62,—14 1,305) — 9.4; 10.0! 79+ 9.7) 1,503'— 1.4 10 pounds 6.9) 67) O | 1,3802,\—-11.9) 6.5) 58/—19.5) 1,361/— 5.6} 8.8 68/—-5.6] 1,600/+ 5 Series C, June 18 | | GTO eck ShGteG2| fo. 22 1500285. 10.2} 69|...... TOOTIE. fe: 1OS7|) G8/EL 2 =< 1,692|.....- 5pounds....| 7.0) 62) 0 |1,590+ 6 | 9.6) 70|+ 1.4) 1,750+ 3.1) 9.1) 71/+ 4.4] 1,800/+ 6.4 10 pounds 6.7| 57;\— 8 | 1,490— .7| 8.7| 72/+ 4.4) 1,505 —11.3) 7.8) 64/— 5.9) 1,613/— 4.7 20 ound 6.5] 56/— 9.7| 1,380 — 8 6.8) 49)—29 | 1,480,—12.8| 7.2) 53)—22 | 1,520)—10.2 Series y7 Gneeet 3 AOlie let Ta Ui ee kee ee abl Ed es 18530| ee CE leo. Bayes ce | 1,610} case. 5 pounds. .-..|---.- 37/— 7.5) 1,000)— 9.1)-...- 49|+ 8.9) 1,392)— 9. 5)....- 51/— 5.6) 1,630/4+ 1.2 10 pounds. ..|--..- 29|—27.7! 760/—30.9]..... 33/—26. 7) 1,050|—31. 7}....- 41|—24, 2) 1, 210/—24.8 5 20 puns alse 21)—47.5) 597/—45.7)..... 29)/—35. 5} = 930/—39. 5|..... 35|—35. 2) 1, 030|—36 eries H, July 15 None! Sorte kos Passe Bases 622\eeoeselesnns 28 | Ease 823 (Sse sacs BOs eee L146) 5} Ne OUI Cl Seeger leroy 26 0 680\-+-.9 |... 24|—14.3) 822;)— .1}..... 36)/— 2.9) 1,137|— 0.8 10 pounds. . -|-.-.- 21/—19.2} 585)— 6 |....- 23/—18 718)}—12. 7|...-- 33|/— 5.8) 1,005|—12.3 4 20 Gunds Bees 21/—19.2) 560/—10 |.....| 18)—36 434|—47.2)..... 30|/—14. 3) 1,020)/—11 eries ugust5: None ter hea: YO). iuer2 () peas ence! a geass iefes eva ea Azer ee Ree 8 DePOUNAS! ees | nace. 10! 0 Olas eae 11/—15. 4 Olessses |b iese 14;\—17.6 USE S55 10 pounds... .|...-- 8|—20 OSS Sage neers 12;\— 7.7 Oe nsdeolleeecs 14;\—17.6 Ol Seret 20 pounds. . s)---- 9;\—10 (issencr 8|— 38. 4 Olea lcesss 13) —23.5 Ojeeaers= — | J An examination of the data given in Table 7 shows generally that the growth was checked and the fruiting decreased by the borax. A record of the height of the plants, made when the crop was young, shows that the growth was checked in the very beginning by the borax. The degree of injury, however, varies with the different plantings and with the different methods of applying the fertilizers. ‘The germina- tion was rather irregular where 20 pounds of borax were applied, and in spots the young cotton died. The use of 10 pounds of borax had a decided effect on the color of the foliage in each experiment, 16 BULLETIN 1126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as the foliage was much lighter where the borax was applied. The 5-pound application of borax produced the least injury. ths section 3, where 5 pounds of borax per acre were applied, no injury was observed in series A, B, and C, and the reduction noted in the fruiting of the plants in series A and B was not serious. With 10 pounds of borax there was a further decrease in growth and, in general, in the number of bolls formed. Where 20 pounds of borax were used there was a decided harmful effect. In series C, D, E, and F there was a reduction in growth of 22, 35.2, 14.3, and 23.5 per cent respectively; and in series C, D, and Ei a reduction in boll formation of 10.2, 36, and 11 per cent, respectively. In section 2, where the fertilizer was applied in the drill and the seed planted immediately, the harmfulness of borax with 10 and 20 pounds per acre was quite marked, especially in series D, H, and F, and the fruiting in series A was adversely affected. The growth was checked more in this section than where the fertilizer was sown broad- cast. The use of 5 pounds per acre reduced growth to a much less extent than the 10 or 20 pound applications. : In section 1, where the planting was not made until after the fer- tilizer was applied, the harmfulness of the borax was on the whole less than in sections 2 and 8, except in series D and HE, which is prob- ably due to drier soil conditions. In connection with the rainfall record, it was stated that the moisture condition of the soil was about optimum at the time and after the plantings were made in series A, B, and C. The rainfall was, however, very light during the weeks of July 4 and July 11 and was again light the weeks of July 25 and August 3. The effect of the borax in series D and E, which were planted in the period of dry weather, was more severe than in the experiments which were planted when the moisture was more nearly normal. Jor example, in section 1, 20 pounds of borax per acre reduced the growth 9.7 per cent in series C, 47.5 per cent in series D, and 19.2 per cent in series EK. In section 2 the growth was reduced 29 per cent in series C, 35.5 per cent in series D, and 36 per cent in series I. In section 3 growth was reduced 22 per cent in series C, 35.2 per cent in series D, and 14.3 per cent in series H. The formation of, bolls was also reduced more in series D and EH thaninC. A few days after the plantings were made in series D, E, and F, a light rain fell, which was followed by a dry period. While the plants were young in the earlier experiments there were occasional heavy rains, and at no time did the soil become very dry. It is not probalils that a rainfall of 1 to 1.7 inches m one week distributed over a period of several days would wash very much borax out of reach of the roots of the cotton. However, it would result in the diffusion of the borax through the soil, and this diffusion might easily account for the lesser extent of injury in series A, B, and C. Under the rainfall conditions of series D and E the borax was concentrated in locations surrounding the roots of the young plants and would naturally cause a more severe injury and a greater retardation of growth. The data in general show that the action of borax on cotton under the weather conditions prevailing at the time of this test was decid- edly harmful when 20 pounds per acre were applied in the drill or sown broadcast. This quantity showed havnt effects whether the seed was planted immediately after the fertilizers were applied or EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS, 17 ‘whether they were planted after the intervening of a light rain. The use of 10 pounds per acre decidedly checked growth when applied in the drill, but was only slightly harmful when sown broadcast. FIELD EXPERIMENTS USING FERTILIZERS WITH AND WITHOUT BORAX. A COMPARISON OF TWO GRADES OF SEARLES LAKE POTASH IN THE FIELD. In connection with certain studies in commercial fields to deter- mine the comparative effectiveness of different potash carriers on the potato, a test of two grades of muriate of potash from Searles Lake was included. The two grades differed in that one, the so-called 1919 grade, contained 6.25 per cent of borax, while the other grade, designated 1920, contained practically none. The tests were conducted cooperatively in Virginia, New Jersey, and Maine, as follows: At Cape Charles, Va., in cooperation with the Virginia Truck Experiment Station; on Sassafras sandy loam; fertilizer application, 1,800 pounds per acre; average con- trol, 7-8-0; variety grown, Irish Cobbler; yield, 161.7 bushels per acre. At Norfolk, Va., in cooperation with the Virginia Truck Experiment Station; on Norfolk sandy loam; fertilizer application, 1,800 pounds per acre; average control, 7-7-0; variety grown, Irish Cobbler; yield, 221.3 bushels per acre. At Holmdel, N. J., in cooperation with the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station; on Sassafras loam; fertilizer application, 1,500 pounds per acre; average control, 4-10-0; variety erown, Amevican Giant; yield, 246 bushels per acre. At Presque Isle, Me., in cooperation with the Maine Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion; on Caribou loam; fertilizer application, 1,800 pounds per acre; average control, 5-10-0; variety grown, Irish Cobbler; yield, 243.7 bushels per acre. The detailed results are shown in Table 8. The data in Table 8 disclose the fact that in most of the tests, especially as the quantity of borax was increased, the yields were reduced. At two of the stations the fertilizer mixtures containing the 1919 potash salt (6.25 per cent borax) were applied in two ways: (1) by means of the planter which applies the fertilizer in. a furrow made by the planter plow and (2) by means of a fertilizer distributer which gives a somewhat greater spread to the application. It will be noted that the former method, which presumably afforded a greater concentration of the fertilizer-borax mixtures near the potato seed pieces, gave the poorer results. The fertilizer mixtures con- taining the so-called 1920 grade of potash salt (practically free from borax) gave excellent returns, comparing very fosotable with other potash carriers.* In the experiment at Holmdel, N. J., it will be observed that the fertilizer-borax mixtures gave better results than the no-borax mixtures when applied with the distributer. The chief explanation for this lies perhaps in the heavy rainfall following plant- ing which undoubtedly was sufficient to reduce the concentration of the borax to a point whereby stimulation, rather than injury, may have resulted to the extent of increasing the yields. When applied with the pees in the drill row, as is ordinarily done by the potato rower, the degree of injury was considerable, as is shown in the first gure column of Table 8. It is well to state in this connection that the results obtained during the same season at New Brunswick, N. J. (2), tend to support the foregoing explanation. At New Bruns- 4 A report on the effect of various potash salts upon crop yields on prominent soil types is in course of preparation. 18 BULLETIN 1126, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. wick it was found that a fairly high concentration of borax was required to produce injury, and it is significant, moreover, that the rainfall there, which would be approximately the same as at Holmdel, was quite heavy. TABLE 8.—Total yields of potatoes grown on different types of soil treated with fertilizers of stated composition, applied at ages of borax, tests of 1920. Application of muriate of given rates per acre, and containing varying percent- Composition of fertilizer With Items of comparison. \planter in drill row, } 1919 grade. At Cape Charles, Va., on Sassafras sandy loam: | Potash (20) per acre...........-. PoundsE sss o-5- nade Borax (Na2B4O7) per acre........-..--- Gotha sate fue Wieldiper acres vse esse Ss: bushels!t| Se a8 Potash (ix2O) per acre.........--.- POUNAS sss ee Borax (Na2B4O7) per acre.........-..- dos et eee Wicldmperiacre ees a eetoee bushels. See. eee. | Potash (20) per acre. ........-... poundssa|ssee ees Borax (Na2B407) per acre...........-- D2 schace taco Mielaspenacre. mucl-aseeeeseeoueee pushels!2|F.2seeaeoe -At Norfolk, Va., on Norfolk sandy loam: Potash (7x20) BRBCIDS-ceseea cnt pounds! =|=-+ ene Borax (Na9B407) per acre......-...-.- GOs Aes ee Wield per'acres. .fS2-2 2 Sieh ins bushels: |i 2 ees Potash (sO) per acre--...--.--.-- POUNGS24)s sees eee Borax (NasB407) per acre. -....-...-.- doy). Kare Wa G Wate a aan s-saese sages ee bushels#<}-272 2. c-o= Potash (iO) per acre............. pounds. Lat oe ai Borax (NaeB407) per acre.....-..----- COREE an eee ts Wield pertacres’: tie 22g eee bushelsif{. 52. - le. At Holmdel, N. J., on Sassafras loam: Potash (-<2O) per acre. ....-.-----: pounds 45 Borax (Na2B407) per acre............. doss = feed) Wieldipériacre- 9p Sass ss Sr sete os bushels..; 262 Potash (iX2O) per acre...........-.- pounds. . 75 Borax (NazB407) per acre......-..---- do....| 12,5 AGIA MELIACIOL-o <= ossece nese te eee bushels..| 256.0 Potash (X20) per acre..........-.. pounds.., 105 Borax (NazB407) per acre.........---- do.... 17.5 Wield perneresss yb ce ketenes bushels... 226.0 At Presque Isle, Me., on Caribou loam: Potash (30) POL ACre se Posse wince pounds. . St Borax (Na2B,407) per acre............- do... .| 8. 85 MICLUIDED ACEO ss 5.5. Sees a/Se a as bushels... 331.4 Potash (J%20) per acre.........-..-. pounds. . 90 Borax (Na2B,07) per acre...........-- dosas, 14. 75 Mield: periacre). Wselo. tieti tis a bushels..| 301.5 Potash (~<20)/per acre 92.05 3.22. pounds... 126 Borax (Na2B407) per acre:. 22..2-2-2-- do.... 20. 65 MLGH -DEIACKO. Soe. 2 eee 3 bushels..| 232.1 potash. (per cent). RES 7 With distributer. | NHs. | P2O;. | i.20. 1919 1920 | grade. grade. ————— —$_ | —_—_ 54 54 Stal Pats Aeneas 7 § | 3 178.1 203. 6 90 90 | LAO choise tsiata he 7 8 | 7) 161.9 199.7 126 126 ADA Rec ai Ae 7 8 | rf 127.4 228.9 4 Fl 54) S85 [be he 7 | 7 | 3 274 eal 245.9 90 90 La WOW Safe lech: 7 7 | oi) 231.8 232.5 126 126 PDybol ec. eee i 7 | 7 193.6 229.8 | | 45 45 | TID vl oro spn Sister! 4 1G | 3 284 278 75 75 1250) We Soc eRER ce 4 10 3 292. 6 285. 3 105 | 105 ily oem) Pe ae eee 4 10 7 293.3 276.0 | 54 5A Sr Bbi]. 22542 he 5 19 5 355. 5 | 340, 2 | 90 90 | 1470 ec wes 5) 10) 5 346.0 358. 0 | 126 126 ZONGS)| eae LEE 5 10 7 311.7 405.9 EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS, 19 At the other stations the fertilizer-borgx mixtures were injurious and when applied in the drill caused lower yields than when applied with a fertilizer distributer. The illustrations shown in Plate VII, Figures 1 and 2, and Plate VIII, Figures 1 and 2, will give some idea of the effect of borax in fertilizer upon the yield of potatoes on two soil types. _ What is brought out here as well as in other parts of this bulletin is convincing proof that borax caused injury. Kven were the rainfall heavy in one section, thereby mitigating the injury, it does not follow that the same weather conditions would prevail elsewhere or in another season, and since it has been definitely brought out herein that borax is quite apt to be harmful, it should be practically eliminated from fertilizer salts. Fortunately, this is already fully recognized. The fact is further brought out from the field tests on several soil types that practically borax-free potash salts give good results. FURTHER RESULTS WITH POTATOES AND CORN. Results obtained with potatoes and corn at New Brunswick, N. J. (2), and with potatoes at Presque Isle, Me.,° are again referred to here, with certain tabular presentations of yields and rainfall data, in order that the results may be assembled in their entirety, the details having been presented elsewhere. The plan of the experiments in New Jersey and in Maine was similar to that at Arlington, Va., particularly as applies to the quan- tity of borax used. In New Jersey, fertilizer at the rate of 1,500 pounds per acre was applied to potatoes and at the rate of 400 pounds to corn; and in Maine, at the rate of 2,000 pounds to potatoes. The results are presented in Tables 9, 10, and 12. TABLE 9.—E fect of various quantities of borax on potatoes in plats on Sassafras loam at New Brunswick, N. J., in 1920. {Fertilizer application, 1,500 pounds per acre; variety grown, Irish Cobbler.] Yield per plat (pounds). Sec. 1.—Fertilizer applied Heys F “1: : Borax per acre. : A A Sec. 2. Fertilizer applied | Sec. 3.—Fertilizer applied a Ser Pre- | in drill at time of planting. |broadcast at timeofplanting. Primes. |Seconds.| Total. | Primes. |Seconds.| Total. | Primes. |Seconds.| Total. None (check 1)-.... 78. 25 7. 50 85. 75 75. 50 5. 50 81. 00 58. 25 7. 50 65.75 [QDI A Cone Sa 64. 20 5. 75 69. 95 56. 30 6.85 63.15 41, 40 5. 00 46. 40 ZiPOUNGS eer sccee HOnod: 4.65 80. 20 72. 50 9. 00 81. 50 58. 05 5. 80 63.85 pPOUNGS SS Ee oes. 75. 65 6.65 82, 30 65.60 | 9.10 74.70 60. 15 5. 75 65. 90 None (check 2)..... 79.75 7.70 87. 45 62. 95 10. 35 73. 30 65. 70 4.45 70.15 4pounds:.. 2.202 88. 35 6. 40 94. 75 69. 55 7.60 77.15 66. 35 4.95 71.30 DIPOUNAS se 2: oe ee 85. 20 6. 00 91. 20 Us15. 4,65 81. 80 62. 20 8. 00 70. 20 10 pounds...-... ree 88. 60 5. 90 94. 50 64. 55 6. 45 71. 00 60. 80 5.10 65. 90 None (check 3).--.. 86. 90 DED 92.65 67.75 8. 60 76.35 65. 80 4.10 69. 90 20 pounds 3.75 89. 45 68. 75 6.90 75. 65 79. 00 3. 00 82. 00 30 pounds 3.09 79. 95 55.00 | 3.85 58. 85 74. 00 3.55 | 77.59 50 pounds 3. 55 71. 50 25585)4|. LAO, 26.75 45.70 2.00 | 47.70 None (check 4)..-... bi 7.65 72. 80 60. 35 6.00 66.35 66. 85 6.55 | 73. 40 100 pounds...-...... 43.75 3. 00 46.75 2.00} 1.00 3.00 1,25 - 50 1.75 200 pounds......... 22. 50. 1,25 23.75 | None. ~ 125 .125 | None. | None. None. 400 pounds...-...... 4,00 50 4,50 | None.| None. | None. | None. | None. None. ’ Brown B. E. Effect of borax in fertilizer on the growth and yield of potatoes. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 998, 8 p., i fig., 4 pl. 1922, eee 20 3ULLETIN 1126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In section 1 of Table 9 it is shown that the yields of potatoes were not greatly influenced by the borax until large quantities were applied. In this section the fertilizer-borax mixtures were applied some time before planting, and during this period the rainfall was at times quite heavy. In section 1 an application of 100 pounds was required before any marked depression in the yield took place. In section 2, where the fertilizer-borax mixtures were applied and planting done immediately, the first obvious depression in yield took place with the 30-pound application of borax. In section 3, where the fertilizer-borax mixtures were sown broad- cast as much as practicable, no distinct depression in yield can be attributed to concentrations of borax under 50 pounds. TaBLeE 10.—Lffect of various quantities of borax on corn in plats on Sassafras loam at New Brunswick, N. J., in 1920. < [Yields stated in pounds, air-dry basis; fertilizer application, 400 pounds per acre.] Grain. Cobs. Stalks. Borax per acre. ; Sa aa mae See. 1a! Sec. 2.0 | Sec. 3.¢| See. 1.a | Sec. 2.0 | Sec. 3.¢} Sec. 1.¢| Sec. 2.0 | Sec. 3.¢ 11.30 | 19.88 19. 59 2. 43 | 4,32 4,33 24. 25 22. 00 21.40 7.96 16. 79 17.39 1.63 | 3.73 3. 44 25. 00 26.95 18. 90 8.87 | 14.93 20. 53 1.81 3.18 4.33 23.00 25.75 23. 60 14. 30 13. 36 16. 79 3. 05 2.69 3. 44 21.15 ny 18. 20 20. 80 13. 47 13.00 13. 91 2. 81 2.35 2. 82 19. 30 18. 55 20. 20 9. 82 12. 00 11. 97 2.07 2.50 2. 36 14. 60 17. 50 17.05 8.79 8.60 9, 97 2.00 1.65 2. 04 14. 20 12. 55 13. 80 10. 85 9. 47 11.73 2.30 1.97 2.61 14. 85 15. 90 16. 70 7.95 11.68 15. 90 1, 83 2.44 3.16 18. 70 16, 52 19. 85 8. 64 9. 24 13. 90 1.93 1.78 2. 84 18. 10 15.13 21.05 11.77 7.57 12. 63 2.67 1.99 2.88 22. 95 16. 70 | 21.70 11.08 | 3.41 6.7 2.62 . 92 1. 66 18.75 | 7.30 | 15.65 10. 55 19, 12 20. 90 2. 23 4,27 4,90 22.50 | 24.35 31. 50 6. 44 . 62 2. 82 1. 76 .19 . 86 20. 90 1.70 9. 46 1, 23 0 32 0 0 2.60 0 0 40 | 0 0 ali) 0 0 2.70 0 0 t 1 i a Fertilizer applied in drill some time previous to planting. b Fertilizer applied in drill at time of planting. c Fertilizer applied broadcast at time of planting. In the corn experiment (Table 10) the normal fertilizer and fertilizer- borax mixtures were applied at the rate of 400 pounds per acre; the quantity of borax, however, was the same as that applied to the potatoes. In section 1 very little depression in yield, if any, occurred below the 50-pound application, but with quantities in excess of 50 pounds the injury was quite severe. In section 2 the yields are somewhat confusing, but there was some indication that, beginning with the 5-pound application, some injury ensued, although it will be noted that with applications of 10 and 20 pounds per acre the yields were approximately the same as with the 5-pound application. In section 3 some evidence is shown that, under the seasonal con- ditions prevailing, fairly high concentrations of borax were required to produce serious injury. t will be noted (Table 11), as previously brought out, that the rainfall at New Brunswick during the growing season of 1920 was unusually heavy, which probably reduced the concentration of borax through solution and diffusion into the soil mass. At other stations Bul. 1126, U- S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. FIG. |.—COMPARISON OF PLATS 43 AND 46. FiG. 2.—COMPARISON OF PLATS 45, 46, AND 47. EFFECT OF BORAX ON POTATOES AT CAPE CHARLES, VA. Quantities of borax applied per acre: Plat 43, none; plat 45, 8.85 pounds; plat 46, 14.75 pounds plat 47, 20.65 pounds. Soil, Sassafras sandy loam; area of each plat, one-fortieth acre. Bul. 1126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. Fic. |.—EFFECT OF BORAX ON POTATOES AT NORFOLK, VA. Quantities of borax applied per acre: Plat 45 (at left), 8.85 pounds; plat 46 (in center), 14.75 pounds; plat 47 (at right), 20.65 pounds Soil, Norfolk sandy loam; area of each plat, one- fortieth acre. Fic. 2.—EFFECT OF BORAX ON POTATOES AT PRESQUE ISLE, ME. Quantities of borax per acre applied with fertilizer: Plat 44 (at left), none; plat 47 (in center, applied with distributer), 20.65 pounds; plat 50 (at right, applied in the furrow with planter), 20.65 pounds, Soil, Caribou loam; area of each plat, one-fortieth acre. a *Apoatpoodsai ‘9.108 19d xv1oq Jo spunod ooF pur ‘00% ‘OOT ‘Oe ‘x ‘AJoATJoodseu ‘o1ov Jod xe10q Jo spunod og pure ‘Oz ‘or ‘e ‘xeloq ON ‘p :surjuryd jo oun) 4 pordde szoz1TyI10,, + “weOoT Noqiiey uO “SYSZITILYSS NI XVYOG JO SFILILNVNO SNOIYVA HLIM Ay0Vy 002/I WOYS SHOLVLOd AO SATAIA PLATE IX. Bul. 1126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS df where the rainfall was not so heavy and.was more uniformly distrib- uted the injurious action of borax was much greater. TasiE 11.—Record of rainfall at New Brunswick, N. J., during the growing season, in 1920. [Data in inches.] Items of comparison. Table 12 shows the results obtained with potatoes in Maine. Taste 12.—H fect of various quantities of borax on potatoes in plats on Caribou loam, at Presque Isle, Me., in 1920. [Yields in bushels per acre; variety grown, Irish Cobbler; fertilizer application, 2,000 pounds per acre.] | Borax per acre. Sec.1.a| Sec. 2.5) Sec. 3.¢ Borax per acre. | Sec. 1.a | Sec. 2.0 | Sec. 3.¢, | None (check 1)........... 362.7 | 326.6 337.3 || 20 pounds............ sass | 201.3 | 150.7 200. 0 MePOUMC Se 8: J IASSS sane = 370.0 | 349.3 318.17 oO OUTS! LEEKS TE eee es | 118.7) 52.0) | 81.3 MOUNAS a5 400 6 esi de see 381.3 | 362.7 B245 0m M50 MOUNGSE Seat eee awe sce | 88.0] 26.7 56.7 RMOUMGS cee cess oe eis 390.7 | 305.3 304.0 || None (check 4)........... | 888.0 294.7 | 3207 None (check 2)........... 342.7 | 376.0 Solfo || LOOounds!. Js 22222... eee 9.3 Dou A 10.7 PANMOUNGS eos So isniccse 341.3 | 330.3 328.0 |) 200 pounds.............-.| 4.0 1.3 | 2.7 BPPGUNASE Mees EST} 328.7 | 302.7 329.3 ||| 400 pounds.:-...........- | 1.3 67 | 1.3 BORO OUMOS Seok eee): | 293.3 | 228.0 264.0 || None (check 5)........-.. 309.3 | 316.0 237.3 None (check 3)........... 348.0 | 350.7 313.3 | 1 } a Fertilizer applied in drill some time previous to planting. > Fertilizer applied in drill at time of planting. c Fertilizer applied broadcast at time of planting. In section 1, where borax was applied in the furrow, injury defi- nitely occurred in the case of the 10-pound application of borax and became progressively worse. It will be noted, however, that the degree of injury was less than in section 2, where the borax was ap- plied in the furrow and planting done immediately. The applica- tion of 1, 2, and 3 pounds of borax per acre apparently atitnilsted plant growth. In section 2, the borax showed injury with the 5-pound application, and the injury with 10 pounds and larger quantities was great. The yields obtained from the plats receiving the large applications of borax, namely, 50, 100, 200, and 400 pounds per acre, are shown in Plate IX. In section 3, the general trend of the results is fairly similar to that in sections 1 and 2, the first sign of injury occurring in the case of the 10-pound application of borax. In this section the method of apply- ing the fertilizer-borax mixture in the case of the 400-pound applica- tion apparently depressed the yield of the last check. The record for Presque Isle, Me. (Table 13), indicates that the rain which fell during June, subsequent to planting on June 5, was fairly well distributed. It would seem that there was hardly enough rain- fall to cause the borax to be leached to any marked extent; m fact, only sufficient to keep the soil in good condition and the borax con- centrated at the seed piece. The relation of the rainfall to the degree of injury sustained by the plants during the period is emphasized at this point, owing to the fact that the first three or four weeks after planting embraces germination and the early life of the plant. 22 BULLETIN 1126, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 13.—Record of rainfall at Presque Isle, Me., for June, July, and August, 1920. (Data in inches.]} | | | Date. | June.| July.) Aug. || Date. Weer July.) Aug. || Date. | June.| July.) Aug. | i} | 1 | hb | } > ee. % rf | \| i = t ee je ety RS [0.45 | O07 Mee. Feats Fg oe ka 0464 22" i ieeor | eBeeliecn-e 0.28 7b Aare a See Sk eee Weekes: [ete eos ae Sao: eS Eee 123-2 2oneeee 1.02 | 0.06 | 1.32 1 RSFSR eS ra S37 tas | edhe seeosesy Bassas) boss: 2017)" 24o =~ ene imc Ue foot 3 he Pate Be ore ods tk Ge aS 43 acest A a5 eee A eee) SRS Pat) TR | be ee ok DINE et Ps Pa Tage > Ac Geers re ee [LOH cescee Lips Re a poe | 0.04} .09|....... "26. ce coctences See tee eee 01 [Pe pitata eres HB rel Me Oe bel mom scr ee oS cmos leecass fret OBE| = mors cay 4 Pe SOS ely cuit ae Pe POO ua Sis aes Ree S20itece S20 ec eeee || 20: eter 1300 eee oe 1A Yee ey Ser he 2) Rd eat 53) 4) 0rd hes Sea See | sabe at ae terete 1302. 1.01} .08 . 08 1b Gg ut aap PAU aoe see LOM Usilece ome a | Sih ie Sen epee eS emcee | ert yey obser 15 EFFECT OF BORAX ON COTTON AT MUSCLE SHOALS, ALA. PLANTINGS ON COLBERT SILT LOAM. An experiment with cotton similar in plan to that at Arlington and at other locations with potatoes and corn was made on Colbert silt loam at Muscle Shoals, Ala. It included the application of fertilizer in the row as well as broadcast and also the immediate and delayed planting of seed after applying fertilizer. The quantity of borax oes varied from 1 to 400 pounds per acre, and two rows each 70 feet long were used for each treatment. The fertilizers were applied on May 10. The rainfall for the month prior to starting the experiment and for a like period afterwards was exceedingly heavy. The soil became very compact from the excessive rains, and a very poor stand over the entire area was secured. ‘The experiment was continued, however, in order to observe the effects of the borax, but a renee was not made, as the broken stand appeared to make it useless. TABLE 14.—Efect of various quantities of borax on the growth of cotton on Colbert silt loam, at Muscle Shoals, Ala., in 1920. Fertilizer applied in the row. Borax per Fertilizer applied broadcast acre. at time of planting. At time of planting. Planted 10 days later. NONE’. << oct 2aplices «ass Saegdch pam se ep iy wet omop mde de acepicm dace oe Pt ee pOUnC aan 2 pounds 3 pounds None. 2. o 222. 4 pounds...... 5 pounds...... 10 pounds : IGP). oe S85) EOE Sais Sol ce oe RAR seis 55 ss soseceons a : 20 pounds Slight retarding............. Slight retarding. 30 pounds...-.| Plants small; many dying..| Somewhat stunted.......... Slightly retarded . 50 pounds..... Germination low; plants} Germination low; plants | Somewhat stunted. dying. show yellowing. Ly CO eee ee e| Bee eee aot mere es Cease Sethe Sy 18 Wests sat sok Seseedees Be 100 pounds....| Only an occasional seed ger- | Germination about 50 per | Germination decreased and minated: plants dying. cent; plants dying. plants dying. 200 pounds....| 7 seeds germinated; plants | Only an occasional seed ger- | Germination decreased about about dead. minated; plants about 70 Ber cent; most plants dead. dead. ; 400 pounds....| No germination............. No germination...........-- 12 seeds germinated, and a - } plants died. Wowie. co... be es iaiSoverd g's erwin aw ciao Meare aise | ay ale Serine meine ener ae eee re 6 The immediate supervision of this experiment was under the direction of Dr. F. E. Allison, of the Fixed- Nitrogen Research Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture. EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS. 23 Borax caused the greatest injury to cotton in the early stages, either preventing germination or in lesser amounts merely retarding - growth and preventing chlorophyll formation. A record of observa- tions three weeks after planting is given in Table 14. The quantity of borax required to produce a noticeable injury to cotton receiving fertilizer in the row was 20 pounds. Fifty pounds were necessary to appreciably lower germination and cause the death of any very large percentage of the plants. Where the fertilizer was used in the row and planting delayed for 10 days the injury seemed to be decreased about 50 to 75 per cent. Distributing the fertilizer broadcast decreased the injurious effects as much or possibly slightly more than delaying planting. Itis shown that any method employed which decreased the concentration of the borax around the plant roots markedly decreased the injury. During the 10 days preceding planting, May 1 to 10, 2.06 inches of rain fell, and for the 10-day period following planting. 3.34 inches of rain fell. The second day after planting 1.6 inches precipitation occurred, which was followed by light showers for several days. The seventh day after planting there was a rainfall of 1.56 inches. The total rainfall for the month was 5.70 inches. _ Even with this great depth of rainfall there was unquestionable injury from the borax with 30 pounds per acre. With 50 pounds per acre germination was low, and many of the plants died after germi- nating when the fertilizer was put in the drill and seed planted imme- diately. When the borax was sown broadcast the plants were stunted. With 100 pounds of borax per acre and over there was practically no germination. PLANTINGS ON CLARKSVILLE SILT LOAM. An experiment at Muscle Shoals, Ala., was also made on Clarks- ville silt loam located on a gentle slope and well drained. The soil is fairly retentive of moisture and does not become compact. The lan of the experiment differed somewhat from that at Arlington, a., with cotton in that the fertilizer was applied only in the drill and the seed planted immediately, as in section 2 of the Arlington test (see Table 7). The 4-8-4 fertilizer was used at the same rate of application per acre, namely, 1,000 pounds, and borax applied at 5, 10, and 20 pounds per acre. The test was repeated six times; the , first test was started on June 12, and the others followed at intervals of about one week. The separate plats are designated as series A, B, C, D, E, and F. The Cleveland Big-Boll variety was used. Table 15 shows the results for this set of plats, including the height of the cotton plants at intervals during growth, the number of bolls which formed, and the green and dry weights-of the plants, including the roots. Table 16 shows the weekly record of rainfall, so that the relation of the rainfall to the degree of harmfulness of borax in the different series can be compared. The effects of borax on germina- tion, growth, and boll formation are noted. The cotton did not mature, so no yield records were obtained. 24 BULLETIN 1126, U., S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 15.—Hffect of various quantities of borax on the growth of cotton on Clarksville silt loam at Muscle Shoals, Ala., in 1920. Average height of Green weight plants (inches). of plants. eee eee Dr . | | Bolls welght Experiment, date started, and borax per acre. Oct. 26 Increase} 0 July | Aug. | Oct ra or de- | plants 98 20. 16. Pounds.) crease | (Ibs.). 1 Ws i | i (per | cent) Series A, June 12: | | ONG Pree. Sache ences creas. Say ot 3s gece 12.9 25.3 45.5 667 UI Bees & 5 36.0 OWDOMNOS ss cen oclos. s eeltnenakee cba en eon 9.6 21.8} 44.4 583 86.0 | —7.5 33.5 ROMOUMGSE§SITTLSC Ne Ce ee reel 17.3.| 42.1 456 85.0} —8.6 32.0 DY MOUNGSE ote. cae soc comer een cakes ae 4.9 13.2". 82.6 242 44.0 | —52.7 15.0 Series B, June 19 | Nonbsirs Rk Cp eed. hosee bas exe 12.0 28.6 50. 0 716, |) 1040) |: - es ener | 40.0 MPDOUNOSE sag oacces steno ce ckies Met dee teee 10.5 JJ aya7 fa ee: Sate 563; ~ 84.0 | —19.2 34.5 FOMOTNOS O25 tc. SEE EE Ee eee 8.0 24.1 43.0 576 78.0 | —25, 31.5 PATI RS ARGS So ARdigode babe ser ceiscecreas | 6.9 15.6 89.1 383 63.0 | —39. 4 25.0 Series C, June 26: ONG .gtss $b cet sora. HALE athas sete yee 9.4 18.1 45.2 337 ORG eee 34.0 POUNDS Ete =:8s soc aoa hone weeE emi ae 6.3 15.1 40.5 220 78.0) — 9 28.5 LO pounds ssi 4sc5 Ty SS 6.9 12.9 | 39.9 224 75.0 | —12.8 26.0 AO DOUDOS -eiac a Marne cae SE. cease Aes 5.0 9.6) 31.5 97 43.0 | —50 15.0 Series D, July 3 | OHO s-e yetermccrir ook ten ieee che LE ee 6.2 16.1 | 42.2 112 63:08 Sera core) 25.5 DPOMNAS hc sears oe argc cools ccncees DEY) 15.1) 41.6 | 94 62.0 | — 1.6 24.0 10mOMNOS ey I FLT Y. es 4.1 12.0 32.9 92 59.0 | — 6.3 23.0 AU OTINS Baro ee a ae es tae) ae 3.2 Ths? 29.3 53 39.0 | —38.1 13.0 Series E, July 11: } None Fs o.8 Se tee bilan eee ce bbe Fo oc S: geer. 2 12.3.) 36.8 45 bo: Olin oeeee ae 17.5 DIVOUTOS he apes «jist GR cleleniclee easels oe Bee 11.5 33.7 | 48 56.5 | + 2.7 20.0 AUDOUNGS FH. Gee Ses BOREL. eS 9.9) 31.3 46 50.5 | — 82 20.0 PLAST Of Oy FROG bole Clee Va INE et ee sea ni Lem ES 84] 26.1 14 38.0 | —30.9 11.0 Series F, July 20: UNG Geeteteace ccise = eancece eto a ancien eee nl aoeaeoee 10.0 28. 2 5 4Gnbilecde sca 15.0 TP OLLTIGS he eh yaa ee wis SS ee eee Shey eee 8.9) 29.1 | Tlie eteO a] ear 15.0 NOMOUNGS eee sence once wet sees Gl eee 8.7 20.7 4;} 41.0} —11.8 11.0 20pounds *% -2 fos.. SSS eee Ie ase ot as eee 7.6:| 922.4 1 35.0 | —24.8 8.0 ] TaBLe 16.—Temperature and rainfall at Florence, Ala. (near Muscle Shoals), in June and July, 1920. Temperature Temperature Rain- CE): Rain- (F.). Week of— fall fiygest yb > ‘| Week of— fall as (inches). | (inches). Max. | Min. Max. | Min. | Junb 6 ito W225 Sf 234 0 97 | 53)), Aug. stove. stars. ootse 0 94 60 13 to 19.. 52 98 | 63 SOAR ea 5.10 90 66 200! 262. 20 oe .58 92 | 56 VSG ease Secs 4.46 91 64 20 COS WAY Os- = x). ei . 08 93 | 61 Ze sUOS aa vee ES cicle/< .59 91 56 Hilvestollscwecsecese 76 | 94 | 62 | 29 to Sept. 4...... 42 96 61 IV to 17-2: RG HEE 2 - 98 93 | BU Sept atondel. Fs. ft 2.17)". 93 55 1S to\24242 550542 6. 1.50 98 | 63 d2'TOMS: shoe ce ee . 32 93 55 ADCO OLS se a wai esse te 06 | 95 57 LOTTO 25.2.2 5. SRA 54 92 55 2HtOOet. 2.2m se 0 92 37 The relation of rainfall to the degree of harmfulness of borax to cotton is apparent from a study of Tables 15 and 16, and this has been tonsidered in detail in an earlier paper.” From the results of the experiment as a whole it will be observed that 5 pounds of borax per acre produced some injury to cotton when applied in the rows, and larger quantities showed even greater toxic effects. The results are in harmony with those obtained at Arlington, Va., showing that 7 Skinner, J. J.,and Allison, F.E. Theinfluence of fertilizerscontaining borax on the growth and fruiting of cotton. Unpublished manuscript. EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS. 25 borax in small amounts is harmful to cotton and that its effect is influenced to a certain degree by weather conditions. Wherever light rains occurred soon after planting, followed by a dry spell, the effect was severest. If heavy rains followed periodically after plant- ing the effect was less severe. THE RESIDUAL EFFECT OF BORAX. In order to determine whether there was any residual effect of borax on the succeeding crop, the field which was used for beans, potatoes, and corn in the experiments at Arlington, Va., was planted to wheat in October, 1920, following the harvesting of summer crops. The soil was disked and harrowed and the seed drilled over the entire field. As the wheat pushed through the soil, the plants in the drill rows immediately over the area where the borax fertilizer had been applied in quantities of 50, 100, 200, and 400 pounds per acre showed a bleached appearance, and the stand on the 200 and 400 pound plats was poor. Plants taken from the fertilizer drill rows are shown in Plate X. These plants weakened as the winter came on, and by early spring the stand was not more than 25 per cent on the plats with the 200 and 400 pound applications. At harvest time in June, 1921, the single drill rows immediately over the original fertilizer-borax drill row were cut separately and the weight of straw and grain is given in Table 17. TaBLeE 17.—Effect of borax on wheat planted after potatoes and corn which had received fertilizer containing borax in various quantities, at Arlington, Va., in 1920. Yield of wheat per plat (pounds). | Yield of wheat per plat (pounds). | Borax per acre. | Potato section.| Corn section. | Borax per acre. | Potato section. | Corn section. | Straw. | Grain.| Straw.| Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. 4 | Be i | POIs: ae ee ae 21.0 1.75 21 3.0 20 pounds....... 210) eee | 18 | 17s 2 pounds......... 14.5 2.0 21 2.25 || 30 pounds....... 20.0 Peo) | 19 | 2.0 epguids eictaee beatae 12.0 1.5 19 3.2 50 pounds....... 18.0 1.0 17 | 1.6 OMe eee ss esse 21.0 1.75 20 PES || MINOR Ssasosoous 23.0 2.25 21 | 3.0 4pounds......... 16.5 1.5 19 2.7 100 pounds.....- 10.0 hOEs 19 | 1.25 5 pounds......... 14.5 1.2 18 2.6 || 200 pounds.....-. 8.0 275 12 | 1.0 10 pounds........ 17.0 1.2 17 2.75 || 400 pounds..-...-. 4.0 6 6 - 715 INOMe e635 85 oo 5 26.0 2.0 18 22250 |PINONe eee eace eas 19.0 1.6 18 2.0 The yield of straw and grain from each drill row in the potato section varies considerably among the checks. While the growth was less in the rows where the smaller quantities of borax were used, it was as great as in the rows which had received 20 and 30 pound applications, so it would be presumed that these decreases may be due to causes other than borax. The yield from the 50-pound plat is slightly under the no-borax plat, and where larger quantities of borax were used the yield is cut more than 50 per cent. A somewhat similar effect is noted in the corn section. It is apparent that the borax, when used in the higher quantities, still remained of sufficient concentration in the soil to exert a harmful residual effect on’ the succeeding crop. It should be remembered, however, that the soil was disked and not plowed in the preparation for the wheat, so there 26 BULLETIN 1126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was very little mixing of the soil. The only plants which were damaged were those in the seed drill row immediately over the old fertilizer-borax drill row. An interesting case was encountered where cotton in a commer- cial field was damaged by Searles Lake potash in 1919. This field was again planted to cotton in 1921. The growing crops for both seasons on the same field are shown in Plate XI. In Figure 1 of Plate XI (photographed August 27) is shown the cotton in 1919 which had been fertilized with a mixture analyzing 3 per cent NH,, 8 per cent P,O;, and 3 per cent K,O at the rate of 800 pounds per acre and in addition had received 100 pounds of Searles Lake potash containing 12 per cent of borax. This is a 12-acre field.and yielded that year between 3 and 4 bales of cotton. The soil is the Norfolk sandy loam and is well suited for cotton production. In Figure 2 of Plate XI (photographed August 22) the field of cotton is shown as it appeared in 1921 after being fertilized with a similar mixture containing no borax, and it was estimated that the 12 acres would yield about 12 bales of cotton. From this it is apparent that all effects of the borax applied in 1919 had disappeared. SYMPTOMS OF BORAX-AFFECTED PLANTS. The descriptions of borax-affected plants as observed by the various investigators are here given in order that the reader ma recognize the abnormal characteristics produced by this chemical, eeperaly if compared with the photographs shown in this and the other papers cited. These characteristics are as follows: Potatoes.—Potato plants affected by borax present rather striking characteristics, as noted in the field experiments reported. The seed piece often fails entirely to germinate, or it may be delayed in germination. When germination has failed, there was an abundance of decay in the seed piece even after the lapse of considerable time. In cases where germination is not seriously affected, the young sprouts are often killed. There is an absence of roots at the seed piece, but root development often occurs above the seed piece in the upper layers of soil. The small plants always have a poor root development. The stalks of affected plants are not as thick as those of normal plants and are very spindling, the leaves are small and narrowed, light in color, and bleached, or at least there is a marginal yellowing of the leaflet. This is prominent on the more severely injured and dwarfed plants. The yellowing is of a bright golden color and not the pale yellowing usually present in plants that are normally or prematurely ripening. In milder cases the abnormal color is restricted to the extreme edges of the leaves, particularly the lower ones. While the lower leaf was badly affected, young shoots formed on its axis would appear entirely healthy only to suffer the same difficulty in their later development. The dead tissues suggest more of an olive color than a green and resemble most closely a potato leaf which had been rapidly killed and quickly dried with little yellowing. The marginal injury appeared to be caused by an accumulation of borax. In severe cases the leaves at the top of the plant are noted as folded upward on the midrib. Commercial fields where borax caused injury presented a broken appearance in stand, with plants of irregular size, often very weak and spindling. Corn.—The toxic action of borax on corn may result in the prevention or delay of germination and in distorted and bleached plants. In severe cases following germination the seedling has not sufficient vitality to push through the soil, and in such cases it withers and dies. The stalk frequently fails to develop its leaves after having pushed through the soil. With as small a quantity as 5 pounds per acre, borax was observed to produce a slight bleaching when the plant was 2 to 3 weeks old. Badly bleached and distorted plants resulted where larger quantities were present. The injury by borax is always at germination and during early growth, for if the stalks were not killed they finally produced good ears of corn. Young plants injured by borax tend to be lighter in color and in some cases are bleached entirely white. This prevention of chlorophyll formation may be due to an interference with the : | United States Department of Agriculture, Depart- ment Bulletin No. 1126, “The Effect of Borax on the Growth-and Yield of Crops." The following error crept in during the print- ing of the above bulletin and should be corrected in the copy sent you: Page 26, line 29, "abundance" should be "absence." ‘ Dials vakiis r adi ak an ei a " 5 PC PeLSeeAley heey he igen é a, r ] viel bi ' mae o) aa Ly a tat edt gatieh ce to tor aitott “Beteers09 os bivone bin kSo0.tu ovoda OY trea ve 4 ~s 5 eC. COTS 0 i j ahr i ii REE ane oe aaa ata’ ie WD ie > Li x ‘ , ‘ste Gabel. i ial é “ri, Ata mou aL i le ny ibs _ . i) reno y iia uate CLAM TUG. | uy dst, ett ch, ay nore , Aes ON eae? ella Dan tae — a i) hy co i i" e , r j f : PP YR Ih Oe ‘ween pi gl ‘Os va wv . vis CAL aoe y ‘ iy" aint j | Ma, ” LU Ge pe OF, ‘ait “uf mt acs Salty, ae ‘ me ere a ie Ay Mir ri es on ave maar yt AY Rak vi YMRS KC SiN LS, NTRP M4 rye. yee Peto m” : Li” + Cem S cea IGEN | phate Sate aCe eS ND Bul. 1126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. poy ? yy ’ p ~ ¢ % {\ f i\\ yp - 1 SS AY { ae { AHoen 2d Co Baltimore 0 10 20 50 100 200 EFFECT OF BORAX ON WHEAT PLANTED IN THE FALL FOLLOWING THE APPLICATION OF BORAX TO CROPS IN THE SPRING. Injury to the wheat was shown only in the drill rows. The plants shown were taken from the ertilized drill rows of the previous crop: No borax, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 200 pounds of borax per acre, respectively. ° Bul. 1126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Xl. Fic. |.—FIELD OF COTTON IN I9IQ. Fertilized with 800 pounds ofa 3-8-3 mixture plus 100 pounds of potash containing 12 per cent borax. Fic. 2..—COTTON ON THE SAME FIELD IN 1921. Fertilized with a similar mixture containing no borax. It is apparent that all effects of the borax applied in 1919 had disappeared. ' ' i EFFECT OF BORAX ON COTTON GROWN ON NORFOLK SANDY LOAM. ee | aes, D) atiak 0 ie | a) M4 ye } + ' wo " ‘ ve : yer Te 8] i a* P ) r t 4 7 2 5 b » t j ‘ i. ~ 5 ‘ f ¢ piorny - ’ EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS, 27 assimilation of iron, similar to the action of an excess of calcium, or, as observed, with an excess of manganese compounds. Injurious quantities of borax cause tipburn; in still stronger concentrations wilting ensues, first of the older leaves and then of the entire plant. Borax toxicity is also evidenced in the foliage by a banded bleaching of the chlorophyll of the leaves especially marked at the margins. The extreme tips are often killed, but not the margins. When the injury is less severe the leaves are at first streaked with pale green and may later regain their normal color. Beans.—Borax is especially injurious to beans and is harmful at germination and retards development in the early stages of growth. The injury first appears on the margins of the first leaves which unfold, especially the tips. Where injury is severe, the entire leaf soon turns yellow, then white, which is followed by a killing of the tissues, working from the margin inward. It has been observed that the taproot of the bean plant was the most injured portion in the poisoned seedling. The root nodules were markedly reduced in size and number. In all cases of borax injury to beans, a dwarfed plant resulted with a final reduction of both vines and fruit. Cotton.—Cotton plants affected by borax both in pots and under field conditions are weak, slender, and frequently die after having made a growth of an inch or two. At the time when the first pair of true leaves should appear, the seedlings show no apparent growth for several weeks, dead sections appearing along the margins of the seed leaves which eventually become dry, and the plant dies. Where injury is less, the piant shows a stunted growth and early maturity. The foliage shows a yellowed effect, and the leaves become dish shaped. The resultant effect is a broken stand, aa er in the field of the same age vary greatly in size. The yield is greatly reduced. Tobacco.—Plummer and Wolf (11) describe the effects of borax on tobacco as fol- lows: The roots of borax-affected plants are severely stunted, tend to be densely clustered near the end of the main root, and are all short and fibrous. The lower leaves are pale green, thicker, and less broad. The tissues most distant from the principal veins are palest and may become dead and dry. The leaf margins and tips are rolled downward and become rimbound. The root development of plants which made considerable growth is near the surface of the soil and near the tip of the main root, with few or no roots between these two groups. The stand in borax-treated fields is broken, and the plants lack uniformity in size. It would appear from the symptoms described for the various crops that the main characteristics of borax-affected plants are (1) retarded germination; (2) general dwarfing of the plant including both roots and tops; (3) absence of normal color, which may be characterized by bleached and yellowed foliage, especially leaf tips and margins; and (4) reduced growth and yield. SUMMARY. The results presented herein show that borax proved to be harmful to plant growth. The experimental work was designed in order to pre- clude any other possible harmful factors. For one thing, practically ure borax was employed to mix with the fertilizers. The fertilizer itself was made from practically borax-free nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash salts. Varying quantities of borax, ranging from 1 to 400 pounds per acre were mixed with fertilizer and applied to the soil in three different ways. In order to properly compare the effect of the borax, one application of borax-free fertilizer was made in the same way and applied in the same quantity. Finally it was decided essential to carry on the experimental work on a number of soil types and with different crop plants as indicators of borax injury. The results show that the potato can tolerate a greater quantity of borax than plants like corn or beans, which were injured by com- paratively small quantities of borax. The degree of injury, however, was modified considerably according to the rainfall. Apparently the depth and distribution of rainfall is the most prominent factor con- cerned. Heavy rainfall in one section caused the borax to leach 28 BULLETIN 1126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. or diffuse into the soil mass, thereby enabling plants to withs and reater applications of it than in other sections where less rainfall ad occurred and where only light applications were necessary to produce injury. The way in which the fertilizer was applied exerted considerable influence, and in practically every case the fertilizer-borax mixtures drilled in the furrow, followed by immediate planting, produced much worse injury and with lower concentrations than by applying the fertilizer-borax mixtures some time before planting or by broadcasting and planting immediately. The effect of borax on the germination and yield of Lima beans at Arlington, Va., was most noticed where the fertilizer-borax mixtures were applied in the furrow and planting done at once. Less than 50 per cent germinated with an application of 10 pounds of borax per acre, and with even less quantities the effect was marked. The 236 application of borax caused marked depression in the final yield of both vines and beans. In the section where the mixtures were sown broadcast, it required 20 pounds to produce injury, while in the section where the fertilizer-borax mixtures were applied in the drill some time before planting, 20 pounds also were required to produce injury. The effect of borax on snap beans at Arlington, Va., was quite marked, injury being noticeable with small quantities of borax, and the yield was curtailed with an application of 5 pounds of borax per acre, and with quantities below 5 pounds the vines showed a color lighter than the no-borax plats. The effect of borax on potatoes at Arlington, Va., when used in uantities less than 5 pounds per acre was one of stimulation. Where the borax application immediately preceded Dea 20 pounds of borax produced injury and a depression in yield. With the other methods of applying the borax mixtures the potato withstood greater concentration of borax. Corn displayed a marked reaction to borax. In the case of immediate planting, where the fertilizer was drilled in the furrow, only 2 or 3 pounds of borax were rogue to produce lighter colored lants, and with 5 pounds marked discoloration ensued. When the ertilizer was sown broadcast no discoloration took place until 10 pounds or more of borax per acre had been applied. Four pounds of borax in the drill depressed the yield of both stover and corn. When sown broadcast, 20 pounds were required to depress the yield. Practically no plant growth took place where the application exceeded 50 pounds of borax per acre. The effect of borax on cotton in experiments conducted at Arling- ton, Va., and Muscle Shoals, Ala., was to severely injure the plants with 20 pounds of borax per acre and to slightly injure the plants with 10 pounds per acre. With high rainfall the degree of injury was slight, and with low rainfall the injury was more severe. In experimental work in Virginia, New Jersey, and Maine the effect of borax was more marked on sandy soils than on the heavier soil types, and the effect of the borax was modified by rainfall. _ Experimental work conducted at New Brunswick, N. J., with corn and potatoes on Sassafras loam showed strikingly the influence of rainfall, for it required comparatively high initial applications of borax to produce the degree of injury noted elsewhere. EFFECT OF BORAX ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS. 29 The experiments on Caribou loam in Maine showed that 5 pounds of borax applied in the drill at the time of planting produced definite injury, but the methods of applying the fertilizer-borax mixtures, such as early application before planting and broadcasting, tended to reduce the degree of injury at the lower concentrations. While there was evidence of borax remaining in the soil for a period of some months even with considerable rainfall, the injury was practically confined to the drill rows with high initial application of borax. In a commercial field under observation no injury could be observed the second year after the failure of the cotton crop caused by borax in the fertilizer used. In all of the work where comparisons were made, it was shown that the potash salt from Searles Lake, Calif., when practically een borax, gave satisfactory results as measured by actual yields. LITERATURE CITED. (1) Birackwe t, C. P., and CouuNnes, GILBEART H. 1920. Trona potash: A progress report. S.C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 202, 24 p. (2) Buarr, A. W., and Brown, B. E. 1921. The influence of fertilizers containing borax on the yield of potatoes and corn. Season 1920. Jn Soil Sci., v. 11, no. 5, p. 369-383, 4 pl. (in text). References, p. 376. (3) Conner, S. D. 1918. The injurious effect of borax in fertilizers on corn. Jn Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1917, p. 195-199, 2 fig. (4) and Frereus, E. N. 1920. Borax in fertilizers. Ind. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 239, 15 p., 4 fig. (5) Coox, F. C. 1916. Boron: Its absorption and distribution in plants and its effect on growth. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 5, no. 19, p. 877-890. Literature cited, p. 889-890. and Witson, J. B. 1917. Effect of three annual applications of boron on wheat. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 10, no. 12, p. 591-597. Literature cited, p. 597. (7) 1918. Boron: Its effect on crops and its distribution in plants and soil in different parts of the United States. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 13, no. 9, p. 451-470. Literature cited, p. 470. (8) Lreman, Jaco, G. : 1911. Relations of lime to ammonification in soils. Jn N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta., 3lst Ann. Rpt., [1909]/1910, p. 114-117. (9) Morsg, W. J. 1920. Some observations upon the effect of borax in fertilizers. Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 288, p. 89-120, fig. 14-17 (in text and on pl.). (10) Neuer, J. R., and Morss, W. J. 1921. Effects upon the growth of potatoes, corn, and beans.resulting from the addition of borax to the fertilizer used. Jn Soil Sci., v. 12, no. 2, p. 79-182, 13 pl. (in text). References, p. 104-105. (11) Prummer, J. K., and Wotr, F. A. 1920. Injury to crops by borax. Bul. N. C. Dept. Agr., v. 41, no 15 (whole no. 275), 20 p., 8 fig. References, p. 20. (12) ScHREINER, OswaLD, Brown, B. E., Sxrnner, J. J., and SHapovaov, M. 1920. ce injury by borax in fertilizers. U.S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 84, 35 p-, 25. fig. (6) 30 ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SATAY Off AG MOULUT SSE eae ee R aaa Henry C. WALLACE. ASSIA SACRA SS Or ene C. W. PuGsLey. Mirector op scentyfic Work...0.0......----- BD Bai: Director of Regulatory Work. ........-.-.-- [VAC OG PT URAL e CHARLES F. Marvin, Chie/. Bureau of Agricultural Economics......... Henry C. Taytor, Chief. mumeaujopaAnimaldndustry: 220.8622. - oes Joun R. Mouier, Chie/. iBimcaopliant Industry. - 5.0.06. 03 522. Witiram A. Tayior, Chief. MORE EDS CRUICE MEE ee oa Seeks ce les eae W. B. GREELEY, Chief. Bureau of Chemistry....-....---.---------- WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. PIMC MOP SOUSH sss ca. - sae sees. ..... MILTON, WHITNEY, Chief. sMneOn Oj FNLOMOLOGY 0-2-2 eee ene se L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey........-------- E. W. Netson, Chief. RCA WO; EDI ROCKS ee coe Tomas H. MacDonatp, Chief. Fized-Nitrogen Research Laboratory........ F. G. Corrreiy, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements. .... A. Zarrone, Chief. Wiaision ofekwblacations.-2-5 5.22. 52--..-2: Joun L. Cosas, Jr., Chief. LLAUDTAIIPY) ok SNS Os OE oS ea CLARIBEL R. Barnert, Librarian. Siiates vhelations Service... 22...22..2.0...2.. A. ©. TRun, Director. Federal Horticultural Board..........-..--.- C. L. Marzarr, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board...........-- J. K. Haywoop, Chairman. Packers and Stockyards Administration... - ee Morri11, Assistant to the Sec- Grain Future Trading Act Administration. .) retary. Office of the Solicitor....................... R. W. Wiuutas, Solicitor. This bulletin is a contribution from the— uncowofaniant Industry. 2. 0.2... s- 0 -.5-----~+s--- WILLIAM A. Taytor, Chief. Office of Soil-Fertility Investigations. OSwaLD SCHREINER, Biochemist in Charge. 31 ADDITIONAL* COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 aN aR oilearg ent: ne Ne eer alias obs BS ye ut Gea; a sa &. aeert e: a oi eA A DY aa a ee Pat mall et ate ¢ od hae" Ree rte agitegich bch ty eaten. Be ROME AE pas eh ee hy SAR ipl atoee: A ol Legs Digan 9 Shige, hs Be yc RO) RORAT VA ALIEN. OONSU cats oe set ot A AEE, he athe Moo et te bP ihe : bia ) yk st aa Sh marbaWiect bis ye ae ae Saha W wana so 4 oa es pet i Am eee Ol, OnAb os | Net Y Tact Rae LE EL: Ne ce "it HORL dee’ aw gabon | Prue cons ary Pe ane ie 2 is NS: FOES AS WE pile a ab ho) i | a) Rai “reba Radars to . Cas oy | tastes aed Agape &: genie Te Bhar og MSgeRy OA care get Aaa ape tcrte ie Veen OHM 2 pps ies 5 Ue me ie Been. Fait “oui s3..conurtalt.. wb ie ‘sax piety nti yi i et ta sah. «4 Fielinreds fame ATA! Dias. Lamgearangn Macc erie es a Lan ie aborts death tiearian ebereirni oii AR TRE 4 Be tac a 4 ¢ , a , H 4 ie wel Rite rot Neal ea " wae : Meda | ¥ AS ate ey a ’ ; ¥ ‘I fa ‘ads, aan epstae ibn. B yet, niteltod st aah poceatriks wae a, NER noe ly on 7p, Spree hy HORAN). MP, elias hi wistiounieanase RES rev, nz i 8 ie ss very was Ds! eae ak ph pent 1S Fe ny Ce aT i RR ani OSH ke hile labacmbena ation HENS SRE pgeimrenen: Mont aieoog 9 Tue mae ee ei ap STRAT Ate ea 2 MES ee ae YIO9 Ager anna af 6 tine tlhe lair Sto ware Ho, Ass OR MEK EAN ye Pea ae TAM TRA Sa" Pe scpa adit Pore bad a In Cooperation with the Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 1127 Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 12, 1923 SOME NEW VARIETIES OF RICE. By CHARLES H. CHAMBLISS, Agrononist in Charge of Rice Investigations, Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, and J. MircHeLtLt JEen- KINS, Superintendent, Rice Hxperiment Station, Crowley, La., and Assistant Agronomist, Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page age Imtroductione em as NS ee 1 Descriptions of the varieties—Contd. Conditions under which the rice va- Hyan'selinen ee ess 2 eae rieties described were grown_-_~--~— 1 \Wohat nel oie ee eee ees ae re ee eee 10 Description of the rice plant____-~~ 3 Davie aes eae bees aie are ne ee li Descriptions of the varieties___-__~ 5 VOM GUT Alsip ete eee nee Sey 11 “Sod ANOEULU a a ee 5 Wiataribun clearer ea 12, NCA Ci aeee See rive pe AS Ae 2h 6 BIUECER OSCE eee 13 IOS Se ee eee 7 SHinti ki] sive aed ea 14 MRO KA OMEN tee te key ys a 8 Comparison of varieties ___________ 15 INTRODUCTION. This bulletin includes a description of the rice plant and a botanical and agronomic description of seven new varieties that have been developed in the course of cooperative experiments at the Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., and of four varieties now widely grown in this country. The agronomic performance and adaptation of each variety, including a full description of the conditions under which the experiments were conducted, are discussed in detail. The commercial value of the milled rice of the new varieties from a culi- nary standpoint is indicated. CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THE RICE VARIETIES DESCRIBED WERE GROWN. The seven new varieties of rice herein described were developed from pure-line selections at the Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., and grown under the same conditions as the four long- established varieties which also are described in this bulletin. The station is operated by the Louisiana Agricultural Experi- ment Station in cooperation with the Office of Cereal Investiga- tions of the Bureau of Plant Industry. It is located 1 mile west of Crowley and is within a few miles of the eastern border of the 1O062°=—28 1 2 BULLETIN 1127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. prairie region of southwestern Louisiana, where rice is the im- portant money crop. The soil of the experiment station is the Crowley silt loam. It is the typical rice soil of the prairies in this section of the State and contains approximately 4 per cent of very fine sand, 69 per cent of silt, and 23 per cent of clay. It is of a brown or ash-gray color and rather compact in structure, with a tendency to puddle when plowed in a wet state. The subsoil, which lies at an average depth of 16 inches, is a mottled blue and yellow clay which is so impervious that there is no vertical seepage through it. Levees that contain much of this clay are practically water tight. The varietal experiments were made on tenth-acre plats, measur- ing 2 rods wide and 8 rods long. They were arranged side by side in series, each plat being separated from that on either side by a 5-foot alley. The series were inclosed by levees in which were located gates that could be operated to discharge water into or from the plats whenever it was desired. The irrigation water was ob- tained from a deep well and conveyed to the series through ditches. These ditches also served for drainage purposes. The land used in testing these “varieties was plowed in late autumn or early winter to the depth of 5 to 7 inches and well drained during the winter. Under these conditions, the necessary field op- erations for making a good seed bed in spring consisted usually of one double disking and one harrowing before seeding. A float al- ways was used after disking. As a rule, this preparation left the surface soil loose and finely divided to a depth of several inches and made a seed bed which retained moisture so well that irrigation was seldom used to promote germination. The varieties were grown each year on land that grew soy beans in the previous year. The beans were sown at the rate of 30 pounds per acre in rows 44 feet apart and were cultivated. The seed was har- vested and the stems and leaves plowed under. The vegetable matter thus added to the soil greatly improved its physical condition. The frequent cultivations of the soy beans served to control weeds, espe- cially red rice. By the use of this leoume, plant food in the form of nitrogen was stored in the soil. No commercial fertilizers were applied to the plats. The rice seed was sown with a drill to a depth of 2 inches during the first week of May at the rate of 80 pounds per acre. The irrigation water was applied to the plats approximately 30 days after the rice plants emerged. At this time the average height of the plants of the different varieties ranged from 8 to 13 inches. Throughout the remainder of the growing season an average depth of 5 inches of water was maintained. Fresh water was admitted to the plats when needed to equal the losses from seepage, evaporation, and transpiration. The plats were drained when the panicles were well turned down. The grain was harvested with a hand hook and put in large shocks, where it remained for weeks before it was thrashed. The shocks were strongly built to withstand the wind and so capped that the erain was protected from rain as well as sun. SOME NEW VARIETIES OF RICE. 3 DESCRIPTION OF THE OS PLANT. Most of the varieties of rice cultiv ated| in this country belong to the species Oryza sativa L. They are annual grasses with fibrous roots extending outward and downward in all “lirections from the erown, which is located about 1$ inches above the lower end of the culm. The distribution of the roots usually is outward and very near the surface of the soil. | Under normal conditions most of the roots do not extend to a greater depth than 8 to 5 inches. When grown “without irrigation ha before the irrigation water 1s applied when irrigated, the roots penetrate the soil more deeply than when the soil is submerged. Adventitious roots (Tig. 1, 6) arise from the first, second, and third nodes. They are more conspicuous in some varieties than in others and often are produced under irrigation when the water level is suddenly lowered or raised. The culms of the rice plant are erect, cylindrical, and hollow, with solid nodes. They vary in length from approximately 2 to 6 feet, depending largely upon the variety, but to a certain extent upon the soil and probably other factors. The number of culms to a plant varies greatly, usually ranging from 3 to 12. The wall of the culm in’ the lower internodes is thick. That of the peduncle, below the panicle, is much thinner but still strong. In color the internodes are heht green to yellowish green. They are sometimes streaked with brown or purple. ‘The nodes usually are darker green or brown. The leaves vary in number from five to eight. As arule, there are six, including two basal leaves, one of which may wither and become detached before the plant matures. The sheath nodes, or swollen bases of the leaf sheaths (Fig. 1, iby are conspicuous and usually a light oreen. The sheaths (Fig. 1, (), which are open in part, are much shorter than the blades. They are green Fic. 1.—A part of the two lower in- and occasionally marked with purple on ‘their inner surface near the base. The auricles are hairy and prominent (Fig. 2, 6), and may be hght yellow or green, cartilaginous or membra- nous. The ligules (Fig. 2. A) are prominent, light yellow or sometimes light green, acute or obtuse, and often split for their entire length. The blades (Fig. 2, D) vary in width from a little ternodes of a culm of rice, showing sheath node (A), adventitious roots (B), and leaf sheath (C). The leaf sheath has been removed to ex- pose the adventi- tious roots. (Nat- ural size.) less than half an caval to 1 inch and in length from 16 to 20 inches. They are erect. or ascending, usually the latter, veined. times rough, particularly toward the apex. acuminate. varieties of rice. and prominently Their surfaces are glabrous or puberulent, though some- The apex is acute or “Narrow blades are characteristic of the short-grain 6 BULLETIN 1127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was increased from nursery to plat paeees in 1915. The plat yields are given in Table 2. The variet y was distributed in south- western Louisiana for commercial growing in 1918. Enough seed of Fortuna (C. I. No. 1844) was grown in 1921 to sow approximately 100,000 acres in 1922. The stout green culms of the Fortuna variety are striped with purple and usually number five to the plant. Their average height, including the panicles, is 51 inches. The nodes are brown, marked on their lower margin with green. The sheath nodes are light green and marked on their upper margin with purple. The outer surface of the leaf sheaths is green, streaked with purple, and their inner surface is purple, especially toward the base. The auricles are mem- branous and persistent. The ligules average five-eighths of an inch in length. The leaf blades are broad, averaging five- eighths of an inch in width. The panicles have an average leneth of 114 inches, and each bears on an average 187 seeds. Before maturity the glumes are dark purplish brown, and the distal end of the spikelets is purple. The stigmas are dark purple. The seeds (kernel plus hull; Pl. I, D and /£) average 10.1 milli- meters in length and 3.1 millimeters in thickness. The glumes are light brown and distinctly notched on the margins. The hull (lemma and palea) is pale yellow, medium in thickness, and thinly covered with short white hairs. The apex of the hull terminates in two dark-brown conical teeth, located on the meson, and unequal in length. The conical lateral teeth usually are absent and when pres- ent are inconspicuous. The kernels (Pl. I, / and G@) average in length 7.7 millimeters, in width (lateral diameter ) 1.8 millimeters, and in thickness (dorsi- ventral diameter ) 2.5 millimeters. Viewed laterally, the dorsal and ventral margins are unequally convex, the ventral being the less so. The distal end is obtuse. The opaque area when present is narrow and located near the center of the kernel. This variety matures in approximately 142 days and has produced an average yield of 2.530 pounds of paddy and 2910 pounds of straw per acre. On the lighter Soil of southwestern Louisiana it produced 2.199 pounds of paddy per acre. Acre yields of 2,775 pounds of paddy have been obtained from it on old prairie land which had been rested and closely pastured for two years. On new land in the NGge i River section of Louisiana near Carville this variety has produced 5,366 pounds of excellent grain per acre. It produces good yields on poor soil. When grown on very rich soil it shows a tendency to lodge. Its grain is likely to shatter if harvest is de- layed too long after maturity. ACADIA. The Acadia variety is a pure-line selection from the Omachi variety. which was imported from Japan in 1910 by a rice farmer of Crowley, La. This selection was made at the Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., by the writers in 1911. The name Acadia is the name of the parish in which the station is located and was applied to this selection in 1917. The selection was increased from nursery to plat experi- ments in 1916. The plat yields are given in Table 2. The variety Bul. 1127, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. SPIKELET, SEEDS, AND KERNELS OF RICE. A, Spikelet; B, seed; C, kernel. Fortuna and Acadia varicties: D, F, H, J, Seeds: F, J, kernels; G, K, transverse sections of kernels. (Figures D and H, natural size; all others, X 4.) PLATE II. F EVANGELINE | SEEDS AND KERNELS OF RICE OF THE DELITUS, TOKALON, AND EVANGELINE VARIETIES. ), F, I, J, Seeds; C, G, K, kernels; D, H, L, transverse sections ofkernels. (Figures A, FP, and J, natural size; all others, x 4.) SOME NEW VARIETIES OF RICE. a was distributed in southwestern Louisiana for commercial growing in 1918. Enough seed of Acadia (C. I. No. 1988) was grown in 1921 to sow at least 40,000 acres in 1922. The slender culms of the Acadia variety are light green and usually number 10 to the plant. The average height, including the panicle, is 50 inches. The culm and sheath nodes are dark ereen. The auricles are deciduous. The ligules average half an inch in length. The leaf blades are narrow, averaging ‘three- eighths of an inch in width. The panicles have an average length of 9 inches, and each bears on an average 132 seeds. The seeds (Pl. I, Z and /) average 7.2 millimeters in length and 3.7 millimeters in thickness. The olumes are very pale yellow and have entire margins. The hull loosely incloses the kernel and is of medium thickness and yellow. Its surface has a burlaplike ap- pearance and is thinly covered with white hairs, which are long and conspicuous toward the apex. The apex of the hull terminates in four conical yellow teeth. The two that are prominent are lo- cated on the meson and are of equal length. The other two are lateral, very short, and inconspicuous. The kernels (Pi. I, J and A’) average in length 5.7 millimeters, in width 2.1 millimeters, and in thickness 3.2 millimeters. Viewed laterally, the dorsal and ventral margins are equally convex, and their distal end is broadly obtuse. The opaque area, when present, usually is small and located on the dorsal margin. This variety matures in approximately 139 days, It produced an average yield of 2,884 pounds: of paddy and 2,020 pounds of straw per acre. It has produced 4,702 pounds of paddy per acre on old rice land in the Mississippi River section of Louisiana and as much as 5,155 pounds on new land in the same locality. On the prairies of southwestern Louisiana yields of 3,800 pounds per acre have been obtained. DELITUS. The Delitus variety is a pure-line selection from the Bertone variety, which was obtained by the Uniced States Department of Agriculture in 1904 from Vilmorin, Andrieux & Co., Paris, France. The selection was made at the Rice Experiment. Station, Cr owley, La., by the writers in 1911. The name Delitus is an abbreviation of the Latin word meaning delicate and was chosen also on account of its similarity in sound to the words ‘ ‘delight us.” It was applied to this selection in 1917. This selection was increased from nursery to plat experiments in 1914. The plat yields are given in Table 2. The variety was distributed in southwestern Louisiana for commer- cial growing in 1918. The acreage of Delitus (C. I. No. 1206) is small, as at present it is grown only for home use. The culms of the Delitus var iety are medium in size, brown, shghtly flexed at, the fourth node, and usually number seven to the plant. Their average height, including the panicles, is 53 inches. The nodes are dark brown and the sheath nodes light green. The inner surface of the lower part of the sheaths and the outer surface of the sheaths near the base are purple. The auricles are not promi- nent, but are persistent. The heules average five-eighths of an inch in length. The leaf blades are broad, averaging five-eighths of an inch in width. The panicles have an average length of 8 BULLETIN 1127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 9% inches, and each bears on an average 122 seeds. Before maturity the glumes and the distal end of the spikelets are purplish brown. The ‘stigmas are bnged with purple. The seeds (Pl. II, A and ZB) average 8.9 millimeters in length and 2.9 millimeters in thickness. The glumes are light brown and plainly notched on the margins. The thin hull, w hich loosely incloses the kernel, is he@ht brown and sparingly cov ered with short white hairs, which are more numerous toward the apex. The apex of the hull terminates in two conical dark-brown teeth, located on the meson, which are unequal in length and slightly bent ventrad. The conical lateral teeth usually are absent and when present are very incon- spicuous. The kernels (Pl. Il, C and /) average in length 7.1 millimeters, in width 1.6 millimeters, and in thickness 2.4 millimeters. Viewed laterally, the dorsal and ventral margins are unequally convex, the ventral being the less so. Their distal end is more or less obtuse. The opaque area is seldom present. This variety matures in approximately 131 days and produces an average yield of 1,862 pounds of paddy and 1,350 pounds of straw per acre. Although its yielding capacity is not large, this rice is worthy of cultivation on account of the distinct flavor of its kernels, resem- bling that of pop corn. This character is not possessed by any other rice except Salvo grown in the United States. TOKALON. The Tokalon variety is a pure-line selection from the Carangiang variety, which was obtained in 1904 by the United States Department of Agriculture from the rice exhibit of the Philippine Islands at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. The selection was made at the Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., by the writers in 1911. The name Tokalon is derived from the Greek, meaning the beautiful, and was applied to this variety in 1917. The selection was incr eased from nursery to plat experiments in 1915. The plat yields are given in Table 2. The variety was dis- tributed in southwestern Louisiana for commercial growing in 1918. Enough seed of Tokalon (C. I. No. 51) was grown in 1921 to sow 6,000 acres in 1922. The thick culms of the Tokalon variety are green and usually num- ber six to the plant. Their average height, including the panicles, is 50 inches. The culm nodes are brown; the sheath nodes green. The inner surface of the leaf sheaths is lieht purple. The auricles are deciduous. The ligules average five-eighths of an inch in length. The leaf blades are broad, measuring five-eighths of an inch in width. The panicles have an average length of 104 inches, and each bears on an average 152 seeds. Before maturity the distal end of the spike- lets is reddish brown. The seeds (Pl. 12, # and F) average 9.3 millimeters in length and 2.9 millimeters in thickness. The “elumes are pale yellow and have smooth margins. ‘he huil firmly incloses the kernel. It is light yellow, medium in thickness, and thinly covered with short white hairs. The apex of the hull terminates in four conical brown teeth. The two located on the meson are prominent, unequal in length, and bent ventrad. The other two are lateral and very short. SOME NEW VARIETIES OF RICE, 9 The kernels (Pl. Il, G and //) average in length 7.5 millimeters, in width 1,8 millimeters, and in thickness 2.4 millimeters. Viewed laterally, the dorsal and ventral margins are equally convex, and their distal end is obtuse. The opaque area when present is narrow and located near the center of the kernel. This variety matures in approximately 148 days and has produced an average acre yield of 2,443 pounds of paddy and 2,310 pounds of straw. It seems well adapted to southwestern Louisiana, pro- ducing larger yields on the clay soils of the prairies than on the alluvial Delta lands. This rice shows a strong tendency to shatter when it matures in late autumn. This loss may be prevented by early seeding. Production on poor soils is greater from this var iety than from any of the varieties now grown on the Coastal Plain in the Louisiana-Texas rice belt. On account of the white thin bran of the kernel it might be used to meet the increasing demand for “brown” or “natural” rice. EVANGELINE. The Evangeline is a pure-line selection from an unnamed variety which was obtained by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1904 from the rice exhibit of Guatemala at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. The selection was made at the Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., by the writers in 1911. The name Evangeline is taken from Longfellow’s poem of the same name and was applied to this selection in 1917. It was increased from nursery to plat eX- periments in 1914. The plat yields are given in Table 2. The variety was distributed in southwestern Louisiana for commercial ere in 1918. No accurate estimate of the acreage of Evangeline (Cl No. 1162) can be made at present. It pr obably will be grown more ‘extensively on the Delta lands than in the prairie sections of Louisiana. The stout green culms of the Evangeline variety are sgbele flexed at the second node and usually number six to the plant. Their average height, including the panicles, is 45 inches. The culm nodes are dark green; sheath nodes light green. The auricles are prominent and persistent. The ligules average three-fourths of an inch in length. The leaf blades are broad, averaging three-fourths of an inch in width. The panicles have an average length of 84 inches, and each bears on an average 140 seeds. The seeds (Pl. Ii, 7 and /) average 9 millimeters in length and 3.1 millimeters in thickness. The glumes are pale yellow and have smooth margins. The hull tightly incloses the kernel, is ight yellow, medium in thickness, and thinly covered with very short white hairs. The apex of the hull terminates in two conical light-yellow teeth. These are located on the meson, are unequal in length, and distinctly bent ventrad. The conical lateral teeth are usually absent and when present are inconspicuous. The kernels (Pl. II, H and Z) average in length 7 millimeters, in width 1.8 millimeters, and in thickness 2.6 millimeters. Viewed later- ally, the dorsal and ventral margins are equally convex, and their distal end is obtuse. The opaque area often extends from the dorsal margin to the center. 10062°—22—_2 10 BULLETIN 1127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This variety matures in approximately 122 days and has produced an average acre yield of 2,027 pounds of paddy and 1,191 pounds of straw. On the ordinary prairie lands of southwestern Louisiana it produced 1,850 pounds of paddy per acre. It grows on very rich land without showing a tendency to lodge and has produced acre yields under these conditions as high as 3,420 pounds of grain. The production of 2,500 pounds of paddy per acre has been reported from the Delta lands of the Mississippi River section of Louisiana. VINTULA. The Vintula variety is a pure-line selection from an unnamed variety from Ceylon which was obtained by the United States De- partment of Agriculture from the Botanical Gardens, Georgetown, British Guiana, where it had been grown experimentally for several years. The selection was made at the Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., by the writers in 1911. The name Vintula, composed of the first four letters of Vinton, the name of a town in southwestern Louisiana, and the abbreviation of Louisiana, with the letter u in- serted for euphony, was applied to this selection in 1917. This selec- tion was increased from nursery to plat experiments in 1914. The plat yields are given in Table 2. The variety was distributed in southwestern Louisiana for commercial growing in 1918. Enough seed of Vintula (C. I. No. 1241) was grown in 1921 to sow approxi- mately 10,000 acres. The culms of the Vintula variety are medium in size, green, and usually number seven to the plant. Their average height, including the panicles, is 51 inches. The culm and sheath nodes are green. The - auricles are conspicuous and deciduous. The ligules average five- eighths of an inch in Jength. The leaf blades are broad, averaging half an inch in width. The panicles, which are more or less open, have an average length of 10 inches, and each bears on an average 145 seeds. The seeds (PI. III, A and /) average 9.6 millimeters in length and 3.1 millimeters in thickness. The glumes are pale yellow and have smooth margins. The hull loosely incloses the kernel, is thin, and sparingly covered with short white hairs. The apex of the hull terminates in two conical light-yellow teeth. These are located on the meson, are unequal in length, and slightly bent ventrad. The conical lateral teeth usually are absent and when present are inconspicuous. The kernels (Pl. III, C and 7?) average in length 7.2 millimeters, in width 1.8 millimeters, and in thickness 2.6 millimeters. Viewed laterally, their dorsal and ventral margins are unequally convex, the ventral being the less so. Their distal ends are obtuse, but sharply curved toward the ventral margin. The opaque area is never prominent and when present is narrow and located on or near the dorsal margin. This variety matures in approximately 123 days and has pro- duced an average acre yield of 2,086 pounds of paddy and 1,149 pounds of straw. It has yielded slightly over 2,000 pounds of grain per acre on the lighter prairie soils of southwestern Louisiana and has averaged about 4,000 pounds per acre on the Delta lands of the Mississippi River section of the State. SOME NEW VARIETIES OF RICE. abil SALVO. The Salvo is a pure-line selection from the Djember variety, which was obtained by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1904 from Charles A. Franc, Soerabaya, Java. The selection was made at the Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., by the writers in.1911. The name Salvo is derived from the Latin, meaning safe, and was applied to this selection in 1917. The selection was increased from nursery to plat experiments in 1914. The plat yields are given in Table 2. The variety was distributed in southwestern Louisiana for commercial growing in 1918. The acre- age of Salvo (C. I. No. 1297) is not definitely known, as at present it is grown only for home use. The stout culms of this variety are green and usually number six: to the plant. Their average height, including the panicles, is 51 inches. The culm nodes are green, marked with brown; the sheath nodes are light green. The auricles are conspicuous and persistent. The ligules average three-fourths of an inch in length. The leaf blades are broad, averaging three-fourths of an inch in width. The panicles have an average length of 103 inches, and each bears on an average 143 seeds. ~The seeds (PI. III, # and /) average 10.3 millimeters in length and 3.1 millimeter in thickness. The glumes are brown and have smooth margins. The hull, which loosely incloses the kernel, is light yellow and medium in thickness. Its surface is thickly covered with short white hairs, which obscure in part its burlaplike appear- ance. The apex of the hull terminates in two conical purple teeth, which are located on the meson. These are unequal in length and bent ventrad. The conical lateral teeth are usually absent and when present are very inconspicuous. The kernels (Pl. III, G and //) average in length 7.7 millimeters, im width 1.9 millimeters, and in thickness 2.4 millimeters. Viewed laterally, the dorsal and ventral margins are unequally convex, the ventral margin being the less so. The distal end is obtuse and shghtly curved toward the ventral margin. The opaque area is narrow and located near the center. This variety matures in approximately 144 days and has produced an average acre yield of 1,774 pounds of paddy and 1,790 pounds of straw. It seems to be well adapted to the lhghter soils of south- western Louisiana. Salvo, like Delitus, has a pop-cornlike flavor. HONDURAS. The name Honduras was applied to a long-grain rice that was imported from Honduras into Louisiana through commercial sources, probably as early as 1890. On account of its productiveness it soon supplanted the Carolina varieties on the Delta lands of the State and later was introduced into southwestern Louisiana, where it was the leading variety as long as new land was available for rice culture. It probably is a strain of the Creole variety, which is extensively grown in Morelos, Mexico. The very stout green culms of the Honduras variety usually num- ber five to the plant. Their average height, including the panicles, is 54 inches. The culm nodes are dark green; sheath nodes light green. The auricles are deciduous. The ligules are three-fourths of 12 BULLETIN 1127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. an inch long. The leaf blades are broad, averaging five-eighths of an inch in width. The panicles (Fig. 3) have an average length of 9? inches, and each bears on an average 157 seeds. The seeds (Pl. II], / and /) average 10 millimeters in length and 3.4 millimeters in thickness. The glumes are pale yellow and have smooth margins. The hull loosely incloses the kernel, is light yellow, and medium in thickness. Its surface has a burlaplike appearance and is thinly and evenly covered with white hairs. The apex of the hull terminates in four conical light-yellow teeth. The two that are prominent are located on the meson, the dorsal one being the longer and sometimes spinelike. This conical tooth may develop into an awn when the variety is grown on very rich soil. The other two are _ lateral and small. The kernels (Pl. III, A and Z) average in length 8 millimeters, in width 1.9 millimeters, and in thickness 2.8 millimeters. Viewed laterally, the dorsal and ventral margins are equally convex, and the distal end is obtuse. The opaque area, when present, is usually located on or near the dorsal margin. This variety matures in approximately 123 days and has produced an average acre yield of 1,884 pounds of paddy and 2,363 pounds of straw. It is the principal long-grain rice grown in Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. It has yielded at the rate of 1 914 pounds of paddy per acre on the Delta lands of the Mississippi River in Louisiana and as high as 2,045 pounds of paddy on new prairie lands in Arkansas. When grown on land that has been cropped too heavily to rice, it produces low yields of paddy, often too in- ferior in quality to make a good milled product. Because of its lack of productiveness on the poorer lands, the acreage of Hon- duras rice has been greatly reduced in southwestern Louisiana. In the Mississippi and Teche River sections of Louisiana this vari- ety produces its maximum yields and should be grown there on a larger acreage. The milled product of this rice always has a ready market. Its popularity is due to the fact that the kernels do not form a paste- like mass when boiled. These properties are highly valued by those who eat rice regularly. This class of consumers also uses the broken as well as the whole kernels of this variety, which indicates rather strongly that something more is necessary than a whole kernel (head rice) to make an attractive and palatable dish of rice. WATARIBUNE. The Wataribune variety was grown for the first time in this country at Webster, Tex.. in 1908, by S. Sabaira, a Japanese farmer, who imported the seed from Japan. The seed from this crop was sold by J. A. Lambert, Houston, Tex., under the name “ Watari.” Although a rice of high-yielding capacity and excellent quality, it has never been grown extensively in Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. Wataribune ‘and selections from it are the principal varieties culti- vated in California. The rather thick culms of this variety are light green, streaked with dark green, and usually number eight to the plant. Their average height, including the panicles, is 43 inches. The culm nodes Bul. 1127, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. VINTULA SEEDS AND KERNELS OF RICE OF THE VINTULA, SALVO, AND HONDURAS VARIETIES. A,B, E, F, 1, J, Seeds; C, G, K, kernels; D, H, L, transverse sections ofkernels. (Figures 4, £, and J, natural size; all others, X 4), PLATE IV. BLUE ROSE 1) SHINRIKI SEEDS AND KERNELS OF RICE OF THE WATARIBUNE, BLUE ROSE, AND SHINRIKI VARIETIES. A, B, FE, F, I, J, Seeds; C, G, K, kernels; D, H, I., transverse sections ofkernels. (Figures A, EF, and J, natural size; all others, x 4.) SOME NEW VARIETIES OF RICE. 13 are dark green streaked with light gréen, the sheath nodes light green. The auricles are persistent. The ligules are five-eighths of an inch in length. The leaf blades are narrow, averaging three- eighths of an inch in width. The panicles have an average length ot 8% inches, and each bears on an average 137 seeds. The seeds (PI. IV, A and &) average 7.4 millimeters in length and 3.7 millimeters in thickness. The elumes are pale yellow and have smooth margins. The hull, which loosely incloses the kernel, is light yellow and medium in thickness. Its surface has a burla plike appear- ance and is thinly covered with white hairs. These hairs are longer and more conspicuous toward the apex and are usually prominent on the veins. A light-yellow awn with a very short conical yellow tooth at its base on each side is characteristic of the variety. The awn varies in length from 10 to 26 millimeters, is deciduous, and sometimes not present on all spikelets of the panicle. When the awn is absent, the apex of the hull terminates in four conical yellow teeth. The two that are prominent are located on the meson and are unequal in length, the longer one lying dorsally. The other two are lateral and rather short. The kernels (Pl. 1V, C and ) average in length 5.5 millimeters, in width 2.1 millimeters, and in thickness 3.2 millimeters. Viewed later- ally, their dorsal and ventral margins are equally convex, and their distal end is broadly obtuse. The opaque area when present is small and is located on or near the dorsal margin. This variety matures in approximately 137 days and has produced an average acre yield of 2,727 pounds of paddy and 1,777 pounds of straw. It may be grown on the poorer prairie lands of Louisiana and Texas with more profit than may be obtained from Blue Rose, which has a longer period of growth and requires richer soil for high pro- duction. Wataribune rice should not be sown on very rich soil, for under such conditions it shows a tendency to lodge. BLUE ROSE. The Blue Rose variety is the result of a selection made by Sol. Bens of Crowley, La., from an unknown variety which was found by J. F. Shoemaker, also of Crowley, La., in 1907, in a field of a J ee rice that he was growing east of Jennings, La., near the Mermentau River. Many plants of this unknown ‘variety were cut at maturity by Mr. Shoemaker and given by him to Mr. Wright, who asulated a ein which he later offered for sale under the name Blue ose. The stout light-green culms of this variety are striped with dark green and usually number seven to the plant. Their average height, including the panicles, is 44 inches. The culm nodes are dark green: sheath nodes light green. The auricles are deciduous.. The ligules are half an inch long. The leaf blades are broad, averaging five-eighths of an inch in width. The panicles have an average length of 84 inches, and each bears, on an average, 144 seeds. The seeds (PI. IV, # and “F) average 8.7 millimeters in length and 3.4 millimeters in thickness. ‘The elumes are pale yellow and have smooth margins. The hull loosely incloses the kernel and is yellow and thick. Its surface has a burlaplike appearance and is thinly 14 BULLETIN 1127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. covered with long white hairs which are longer and mere numerous toward the apex. The apex of the hull terminates in four conical pale-yellow teeth. The two prominent ones are located on the meson, are unequal in length, and are slightly bent ventrad. The other two are lateral and very short. The kernels (Pl. IV, G and fT) average in length 6.6 millimeters, in width 1.9 millimeters, and in thickness 2.8 millimeters. Viewed laterally, the dorsal and ventral margins are equally convex, and the distal end is obtuse. The opaque area when present is small and located on or near the dorsal margin. This variety matures in approximately 148 days and has produced an average acre yield of 2.086 pounds of paddy ‘and 2.520 pounds of straw. Although it has the longest growing period of any of the varieties cultivated in this country, Blue Rose is preferred in the Southern States to the more productive Japanese varieties because of the general similarity of its kernels to those of the Honduras variety, which is so widely known and valued as a rice of excellent cooking quality. It lacks, however, the culinary properties of Hon- duras rice, but it produces a larger yield of head rice, upon which, unfortunately, the miller has placed too high a premium. Large mill yields are important, and varieties that can produce them are desirable, but a rice must also possess certain qualities for table use before it can become a highly marketable product for the occasional as well as the daily consumer. SHINRIKI. The principal introduction of the Shinriki variety was made from Japan in 1902 by Dr. S. A. Knapp, then an agricultural explorer of the United States Department of Agriculture. Prior to 1910 Shin- riki was probably the best known of the J apanese varieties grown in Louisiana and Texas. The slender wiry culms of this variety are light green and usually number 13 to the plant. Their average height, including the panicles, is 87 inches. The culm and sheath nodes are light green. The auricles are deciduous. The ligules are half an inch long. The leaf blades are very narrow, averaging three-eighths of an inch in width. The panicles have an average length of 8 “inches, and each bears on an average 105 seeds. The seeds (Pl. IV, 7 and J) average 7.3 millimeters in length and 3.6 millimeters in thickness. The olumes are pale yellow and have smooth margins. The hull, which loosely incloses the kernel, is light yellow and medium in thickness. Its surface has a burlaplike ap- pearance and is thinly covered with short white hairs, which are longer and more conspicuous toward the apex. The apex of the hull terminates in four conical light-green teeth. The two prominent ones are located on the meson and are unequal in length. The other two are lateral and very short. The kernels (Pl. IV, A and Z) average in length 5.4 millimeters, in width 2.1 millimeters, and in thickness 3.1 millimeters. Viewed laterally. the dorsal and ventral margins are equally convex, and the distal end is broadly obtuse. The opaque area is seldom conspicu- ous and when present is located on the dorsal margin. SOME NEW VARIETIES OF RICE. a5 This variety matures in approximately 143 days and has produced an average acre yield of 2,500 pounds of paddy and 1,734 pounds of straw. It is not grown on a large acreage in the United States mainly because its culms are too short to be cut with a binder with: out the loss of some grain, even when the plants produce a normal yield. This loss, of course, does not occur in Japan, where the variety is extensively grown, because the crop is cut with hand hooks. The Shinriki and Wataribune varieties are usually quoted as “Japan rice” in the southern rice markets of the United States, COMPARISON OF VARIETIES. The stems and foliage of the varieties described, except Delitus, Evangeline, Vintula, and Honduras, retain their oreen color after the grain ripens. Usually the entire plant of these four varieties matures rapidly, the leaves turning yellow as the grain ripens. Uniformity in the size of the seed is strikingly “characteristic of the Fortuna, Acadia, Delitus, Tokalon, Wataribune, and Shinriki varieties. The seeds on the lower part of the panicles of Evangeline and Honduras often vary in size. When grown on poor soil, Evan- geline, Honduras, and Blue Rose often produce stunted panicles, bearing imperfect seeds. The dimensions of the seeds of all varieties are shown in Table 1. None of these varieties shows complete resistance to the fungous disease (rotten-neck) caused by Piricularia oryzae Br. and Cay. Honduras 1s very susceptible, and all of them may be seriously af- fected by this disease if they are left uncut too long after maturity. The conditions which produce the straighthead disease have no ef- fect upon Fortuna and Vintula, as so far ‘observed. TasBLE 1.—Average dimensions of seeds and kernels of seven new and four long- established varieties of rice grown at the Rice Hxaperiment Station, Crowley, La. [Thickness=dorsiventral diameter; width=lateral diameter.] Dimensions (millimeters). Class and variety. GE No. Seeds (spikelets). Ixernels. Thick- | ,,;; Thick- | ,,-. Length. ESS. Width.|Length. GE: Width. Long-grain varieties: WORDING) < cag ESE s SS Aaa ae ae ae es 1344 10.1 3.1 2.1 Tent 2.5 15S} IDEAS « ccesou bob Sete cose eae ee ene 1206 8.9 2.9 2.0 Gail 2.4 1.6 MOKa OMe sere as aaah icsae te Slee! 51 9.3 2.9 2.1 (68) 2.4 1.8 WEAVAINS LUM CBee sino ein ae oes Ose 1162 9.0 3.1 2.1 7.0 2. 6 1.8 Witt Rbls55 Saad ed Slee oe oem eee Loe 1241 9.6 3.1 2.0 7.2 2.6 1.8 Sally Ser meres cA Sere San 1297 10.3 3.1 2.1 tot 2.4 1.9 FEV OMNGUIE ASE ee ane ete Lets see eee ae 1643 10.0 3.4 2.3 8.0 2.8 1.9 Medium-grain variety: IBIN® IRCIOs se Sedo gde See e cae e ae Raeeres 1962 8.7 3.4 2.1 6.6 2.8 | 1.9 Short-grain varicties: AGONY. Soe GaEe OGRE R aE ae eee ee 1988 7.2 3.7 2.5 ONG 3.2 2s \WW@iimiml Wines] =26 Renee eae anos eee peer 1561 7.4 3.0 2.5 555) Sue 200 Slawiaenital ¢ 5 56.3 9 eee ee eae eee te er eer ee 1642 7.3 3.6 223} 5. 4 | 3.1 2.1 i} | i Losses from shattering may be greatly lessened by the prompt har- vesting of varieties that are known to thrash easily and by the early 16 BULLETIN 1127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seeding of varieties which have a long growing period. The long- erain varieties, which are late in maturing, show a greater tendency to shatter their grain than the short-grain rices that ripen at the same time. The early-maturing varieties, which as a rule have long grains, seldom shatter unless left standing too long after the irriga- tion water has been drained from the field. When maturity occurs in late autumn there always is greater shattering, regardless of the variety of rice. The agronomic characters, including yield, of the 11 varieties here described are given in Table 2. TABLE 2.—Average agronomic data and annual and average yields of seven new and four long-established varieties of rice grown on tenth-acre plats at the rice Bxrperiment Station, Crowley, La., during periods of varying length in the 9-year period from 1913 to 1921, inclusive. AVERAGE AGRONOMIC DATA. Time to | Date of— maturity (days) from— Pays of | Class and variety. C.I. No. | Bub; Seed- | Emer- | SUb- i et Matur- | Seed- MH ust CERCe ing.» |, gences.| eo |) OBOr) | ity leet ieee gence. | ing 7 ing. | zone varieties: May May | June Aug. | Sept. OFtuna se eee seen ee ee 1344 2 17 | 17 20 21 142 32) | 96 Delitisss eke ae e206 4 19 15 7 12 131 36 89 Dokslone ase Aee a ee 51 3 17 | 17 23 | 23 143 31 98 Evangeline.-........--- 1162 3 17 18 3 | 2 122 30 76 Vintulasssece | ae sed 1241 2 17 15 3 | 2 123 | 30 | 79 SalVOlec eee eee CEP 1297 3 18 17 21 | 24 144 34 | 99 Honduras= see ses eae 1643 3 17 16 3 3 123 31 | 79 Medium-grain variety: | BineiRosesae eee tee | 1962 | 1 19 | 19 26 26 148 31 | 99 Short-grain varieties: | | | | ; | ACAdia wi set es eco: | 1988 | 3 lyf 18 16 | 19 139 34 93 Wrataribunesser ses ee | 1561 3 18 | 16 14 17 137 | 34 93 Shinrikiess gees ae 1642 3 20 | 17 19 23 143 34 | 98 | | | | Dimensions (inches). | Weight of product (pounds). | | | Height of | | ac Culms plant at— | peeds eye. Hulls Class and variety. er Pp in t. |= | Weength |) Pan. |e plan of pan- | icle. Per 100 Date of i & 5 bushel. pours sub- | Matu- 4 Grain. | Straw | mer- | rity.1 2 ; Pan | gence. | | Long-grain varieties: Porting 3.25 eee ee 5 | 13.4 51 | 11.50 187 | 2,530 | 2,210 43 21.0 DWeliGUSs 2c 3e ss eee eee LE eah ator 53 9. 70 122 1 862 | 1,350 43 22.0 Tokalony.: <6 h-- Fe sa ees | 6} 143 | 50) 10.35 152 | 2 443 | 2,310 44 18.2 Ievangeline.............. Gf 18h} | 45 | 8.50 140 | 2)027 | 1,191 A 21.6 Wintila: Sess. cee ee sce on | 7} 12.9 51 10. 00 145 | 9 O86 | 1,149 42 20. 6 Salvo ss se: See 6| 11.9 | 51 | 10.50 143 | 1,774 | 1,790 41 22.0 leVele(hoip je 5 EE ee 5} 15.5 | 54 9. 75 157 | 1,834) 2,363 41 20. 6 Medium-grain variety: | | BluesRioses. sees eee 7 14.5 |} 44 8. 50 144 | 2,086 | 2,520 44 | 20.6 Short-grain varieties: ACACIA picccac censor ee 10 | 12.3 50 8. 98 132 | 2,884 2,020 44 17.2 Wratarntbunes.. 2s. sess | 8 10.6 | 43 8. 65 137 25 12K Nl eetae, At 18.0 Shinticiee ts ake 13} 88 | 37 | 8.00 105 | 2,500) 1,734 | 46 19.0 1 Including panicle SOME NEW VARIETIES OF RICE. Kv ANNUAL AND AVERAGE YIELDS. Yields per acre, pounds.] Annual. Class and variety. 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 192] Long-grain varietics: IO GUULM eres ea ie | os piske 1,590 | 2,73 3,420 | 3,020] 2,750} 1,900) 2,300 Delittisnmcmmas asset eee 2,100 | 1,980] 2,010 | 1,255) 1,840! 1,710 | 1,220 | 2,780 NORGICIM «5 st bocoRdons edad Apeee sae) MaseRere 2,555 | 2,350 | 2,870} 2,550 | 2,680) 2,050 2,050 Biveneelineuees ete eee es|b ee = ce 1,660 | 2,650} 1,890) 1,798] 2,010) 2,530) 1,430 2, 250 Walia? bee coc seca sodas Seeee eee 2,800 | 2,240} 2,085} 1,457} 2,070] 2,140 , 310 2,590 SEO) os oe hae tere ey Muse eee 2,610 | 1,500} 2,130] 1,760) 2,060] 1,590] 1,150] 1,390 Hondtirase 2212.52 )2: ....| 1,850] 1,500] 1,900] 2,230] 1,920] 2,000] 1,470] 1,900} 1,740 Medium-grain variety: TSIRIG) ROSS salsa cones eeel Go eeeee eee TIES Recednee 3,130 | 2,770 | 1,690 | 1,290 1,750 Short-grain varieties: JAGAGHE) 2 O38 Sg deaae sd doec eae Seas ee EEoCeees GEeoneee 3,665 | 3,610} 2,910] 2,620} 2,170 2,330 Wataribune............. 2,570 | 2,180 | 2,833 | 3,530] 1,894] 3,390] 3,080] 3,240] 1/830 Sinn ieee nee 2,700 | 2,180) 2,500] 2,590] 2,362] 2,980] 1,900] 2,960] 2,330 Average for years stated, dates inclusive. 5 years, 6 years, inet 7 years, | 8 years, | 9 years, 1917 to | 1916 to 1917 to | 1915.to | 1914 to | 1913 to Class and variety. 1921. 1921. 1991. 1921. 1921. 1921. Long-grain varietics: Jon uuimey semen er teeta ern 2,678 2, 687 2,497 QU 30} Me ceaieentd [bei arta ID) CliG Seat ee eT MIE 1,761 1, 803 1,798 1,828 TE S62) | ese Mokaloneess=- soe. BE SAM ete ce ne 2,440 2,425 2,459 PELE" BE SBN ise aaeeeec Miyanpeliae teers ese ees 2; 004 1,985 2,111 2,080 250274 eee Varta aww ERR N Tere Rieke 1,913 1,942 1,968 1,985 25056) | saeeeeaeas Caliy OMmmpee ence a 1,590 1,680 1,575 1, 654 TSH egeadnasen (EVON GUTS eee ee Sek 1, 806 1,877 1, 822 1,880 1, 833 1, 834 Medium-grain variety: E : ISTE MVOSC ere ee Sem ein tee nine ah DUIZGs I Neen er 250863 Pace earns eae en scecs |tece eases Short-grain varieties: INGa i aM eerste ice a Me Se ations eve 2,728 DEGRA Ie eee eer aay es [Se meine! ste Sce\s.e sisieer Wrataribumesteaziac.t 3220 Sd 2,687 2,827 2,711 2, 828 2,747 2,727 Slnitiil a ccsceuqoneeEen Se aaee ee eN eee 2,506 2,520 2,505 2,517 2,475 2,500 The grain of the Acadia, Wataribune, Blue Rose, and Shinriki varieties is not easily removed from the straw. Unless the separator is fed very slowly when these varieties are thrashed, there is con- siderable loss of grain. Similar care must be exercised for another reason in thrashing Honduras and Evangeline. Their straw becomes very brittle after drying in the shock and is not easily separated from the grain when the thrasher is fed too rapidly. The culinary properties of the new varieties described in this bulletin have a commercial value, and if properly exploited by the trade they should greatly increase the demand for rice as a daily article of food. The rice-eating people of this country, like the orientals, eat this cereal mainly in the boiled state and show a prefer- ence for those varieties whose kernels retain their general shape and remain separate when prepared in this way. These varieties possess this characteristic and for this reason should be more marketable than those which form a pastelike mass when boiled. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. secretary of Agmeulture._——— es HENRY C. WALLACE, A'SSISTONUE SCCRCUQNY ee ee ee SECS Now Piogefsieiaie Director of Scientific Work. 22222 DD. BALL. Director of Regulatory Work _____- es Weathen Bureaus 222s) a ee ee ee Cr sRinS I) MARVIN GieTr Bureau of Agricultural EHeonomics__—_____- Grnry C. Taytor, Chicf. Bureau of Animal Industry___—____- __._ JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief. LEORAM Oyp. JK TE DOME aa ee -WiLLiAM A. Taytor, Chief. UOT. CSUROS CLLEGE a eee ee a re a ee W. B. GREELEY, Chief. LESOURARON Of KOUMEQUSUPU a es WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chicf. BUrReaU (OF US OUS= = ee ee DO a MILTON WHITNEY, Chicf. Bureau of Entomology. 222 es ___L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey__—__--- _---— HB), W. NELSON, Chief. IS0UKED Off LPOOIG 1ROOGS pe THomMaAs H. MAcDoNnALp, Chief. Pixed-Nitrogen Research Laboratory______ FI. G. Corrrety, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements_.A. ZAPPONE, Chief. Division of Pubtications22==— ee JoHN L. Copss, Jr., Chief. EO GOT eee eee eee ee Perea CLARIBEL R. Barnett, Librarian. States Relations Service= =s2 == ese A. C. Trur, Director. Federal Horticultural Board 2 --- C. L. MarLattr, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board_________- J. IX. Haywoop, Chairman. Packers and Stockyards Administration_) CHESTER MorRRILL, Grain Future-Trading Act Fe at Assistant to the Secretary. Office opie: Socio Se Rh. W. WILiiAMs, Solicitor. This bulletin is a contribution from— Bureauof Piontiindustiy 2S Wir11aAmM A. Taytor, Chief ; Office of Cereal Investigations________ CARLETON R. BArt, Cerealist in Charge. 18 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1922 ——— UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 20, 1923 DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. By i S. Boycr, Pathologist, Ojice of Investigations in Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page. : Page MIETOGCUCTION aaa ae ee 1 | Discolorations caused by fungi _—--~-~- 24 General considerations _____--__-__ 2 SAEs tabi ae rea ONS EIS Nee 25 Woods used for airplane construction_ 8 Brown-oak discolorations ___-__ 29 General defects of airplane woods___ 5 Decay discolorations|=-——-=——_~_— 30 Solomscomparisons=o—=-——-—-———_ = 14 | Decay in finished airplanes _-______ 40 Discolorations caused by wounds__~ AA | aS UT a ye ee ee 42 imechtinine: wounds=2-. 222-25 Ui olterature cited sa ee ee eee 45 Sapsucker wounds ——-__--_____ . 20 | Defects of wood referred to in this Pith-rayetlecksiee sae 20 bulletin, arranged by species____ 50 Chemical discolorations ___________ 23 INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this bulletin is to enumerate and describe the more important decays and discolorations to which woods used in air- craft construction are subject and the conditions under which they occur. Itis well known that the initial or incipient stages of decay— that is, the first steps in weakening wood—are indicated by discolora- tions, but wood is subject to many color variations from the normal not caused by wood-destroying fungi. The value of recognizing the true nature of any given discolora- tion or other abnormality is immediately apparent, since such knowl- edge will permit the free use of wood which, though seriously reduced in value from an esthetic standpoint by a disagreeable discoloration, is not mechanically weakened, while at the same time dangerous color variations can be detected. In the airplane industry, where the very finest quality of high-grade wood is demanded, and in which there is a maximum of unavoidable waste in the remanufacture of the lum- “ber, it is imperative that no suitable material be wasted or diverted to another purpose, while at the same time it is equally important that all weakened material be excluded. This bulletin first considers certain defects in airplane woods not due to decay, but which must be readily recognized in order to avoid 9997-231 1 2 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. confusion. Next are described the various discolorations in airplane woods caused by mechanical injuries to the living trees, chemical reactions, harmless fungi, and decay-inducing fungi in relation to their actual effect on the strength of wood. In the case of those defects and properties which it is not within the province of this bulletin to discuss in detail, references to available literature are given. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. There are certain basic principles in the manufacture of high- grade lumber which should be most rigidly adhered to in the case of stock for airplanes. The purchaser should be certain that the manu- facturer supplying his requirements is both willing and able to fulfill oie cual so that defects very difficult to detect are not intro- duced. When trees are felled the logs should be removed from the woods with reasonable promptness, because as soon as the timber is down it becomes subject to decay, sap-stain, checking, and the attacks of wood-boring insects. Leaving logs in the woods over winter is par- ticularly poor practice. If the logs must be stored for any consider- able length of time they should be kept in the pond, where the defects mentioned will be largely prevented. After the logs are sawed the lumber should be carefully inspected and those pieces unsuitable for use in airplanes diverted to other uses. Next comes seasoning. Drying with artificial heat in dry kilns is preferable. The kilns should be of proper construction, so that the temperature and relative humidity can be completely controlled and the lumber brought to an average final moisture content of about 8 per cent, within the limits of 5 to 10 per cent (based on oven-dry weight), without checking or other injury. If it is necessary to store the dry lumber at the mill it should be placed in a dry shed, com- pletely protected from the weather. The shed should have a board floor. Concrete, particularly if new, or dirt floors may give off con- siderable moisture. The stock should be shipped in box cars com- pletely protected from moisture. When it reaches the factory the lumber should be shop seasoned; that is, placed in a room under uniform shop conditions, for about two weeks. During the entire process of manufacture the stock should be carefully protected from the absorption of moisture. Piling lumber or partly fabricated parts on damp floors or under the drip from steam or water pipes are two not uncommon offenses. In case it is impossible to kiln-dry the stock, air drying must be resorted to. As a rule it is not possible to get the moisture content below 11 per cent by this process, except in arid regions. When the lumber comes from the saw it may be necessary to dip it in a chemical solution to prevent sap-stain in regions where lumber is especially subject to this discoloration; but under any conditions the stock should be carefully open-piled on elevated foundations to assure a circulation of air throughout and only sound, bright, thoroughly seasoned stickers used between courses. The piles should be properly slanted and roofed, so that rain will run off and not soak the lumber. To pile lumber closely, without proper circulation of air throughout the piles, results in.some cases in warping, sap-stain, DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 3) and, ultimately, decay. Then, too, it is almost impossible for the stock in the center of the pile ever to become properly dry. At best, however, air drying is a matter of months, even with soft- woods, while proper kiln drying can be accomplished within one to three weeks or so, depending on the thickness of the stock. As a rule, hardwoods both kiln-dry and air-dry more slowly. Air-dried stock should be shipped in the same manner as kiln- dried and handled in the same way at the factory, except that it must be kiln-dried to the proper moisture content before it is condi- tioned in the shop. The principles given briefly in the foregoing paragraphs, together with their application and underlying reasons, are brought out in detail in the following pages. WOODS USED FOR AIRPLANE CONSTRUCTION. The most important wood for aircraft construction is spruce, including red, white, and Sitka spruce (Picea rubens Sarg., P. cana- densis (Mill.) B. S. P., and P. sitchensis (Bong.) Trautv. and Mayer), but of these Sitka spruce, on account of its much larger size and the consequently greater quantity of clear lumber that can be obtained, is paramount. By far the greatest proportion of the lumber entering into the construction of most present-day airplanes is spruce or one of its substitutes. The combination of strength properties with light weight found in spruce is not duplicated in any other wood. Most of the beams in the directing surfaces are prefer- ably of spruce or a soft wood, as are many of the struts, and these parts account for the bulk of the timber in an airplane. An excellent substitute for spruce is Port Orford cedar (Cham- aecyparis lawsoniana (Murr.) Parl.), which is slightly heavier. Unfortunately the supply of this splendid wood is decidedly lim- ited. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lam.) Br.), though much heavier than spruce, is an extensively used substitute. Other woods which can play some part in this way or may be used for special purposes where a softwood is needed are western white pine (Pinws monticola Dougl.), sugar pine (P. lambertiana Dougl.), western hemlock (Z'suga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.), white fir (Abdes con- color (Gord.) Parry), amabilis fir (A. amabilis (Loud.) Forbes), noble fir (A. nobilis Lindl.), yellow or tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera Linn.), basswood (Y%lia americana Linn.), incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens Torr.), and western red cedar (Thuja plicata Don.). Certain parts of an airplane frame as a rule are made from hardwoods. In such parts great strength and toughness are re- quisite. Here, commercial white ash? stands supreme. For ex- ample, it is unsurpassed for longerons:in those fuselages not con- structed wholly or mostly of veneer. Black ash (fvawxinus nigra Marsh), which does not possess sufficient stiffness for use in highly stressed parts, can be distinguished from white ash (2; 30, p. 47; 68. p. 62).2, White oak,? hard maple (Acer saccharwm Marsh), and 1 Commercial white ash includes white ash (Frazinus americana Linn.), green ash (F. Ben Borkh.), blue ash (F. quadrangulata Michx.), and Biltmore ash ( F. biltmoreana eadle). 4 Peal numbers (italic) in parentheses refer to ‘‘ Literature cited ’’ at the end of this ulletin. * White oak as used here includes white oak (Quercus alba Linn.), bur oak (Q. macro- ecarpa Michx.), cow oak (Q. michauzii Nutt.), and post oak (Q. minor (Marsh) Sarg.). 4 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rock elm‘ are sometimes used instead of white ash. Hickory,® so far, has been principally used for tail skids. The two finest woods for. propellers are black walnut (Juglans nigra Linn.) and true mahogany (Swietenta mahagont Jacq.), also known as Centrai American mahogany. Other species commonly used are yellow birch (Betula lutea Michx. f.), sweet birch (B. lenta Linn.), Afri-— can mahogany (A‘haya senegalensis A. Juss.), black cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.), hard maple, white oak, and yellow poplar. How- ever, a number of other woods are occasionally utilized, and in the future a wide variety of species will probably be admitted. Euro- pean designers even now are less exacting in this respect, sometimes using two species of wood in the same propeller, which on the whole is considered poor practice in this country. TABLE 1.—Distribution of wood in airplanes, showing the service requirements and the adaptation thereto of the different grades of the several species. Species of wood and quality designation (grade). |. 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Tadeo apeamobdes oscasa) BaleBal) BalaBe| 1B 132 eBE ess sem eee ee SAH Gils pes se 57g cus Seo adewooe secre Sbci8 1B 3)08 9B) BBB BB aes eee eee seed Lae Cleatsi esse ece ee ape ac eee eee eee bone aend|aabe segeiococ |~sca a) tose RO CC Cie Marrinp/Strips=s-oe sae ee ee ee Sem ae Bo BBB 1B) 8) Bee eerste ee Pe Floor and seat boards.-.-:.2.22.2-25-0-2-2: PaO FeCopslh (OI ECo rim OM IECOMICCIIE(G! flocs o-llso5 5 ogee RE Cradlo slats 352. hee seco ep ca eh ene eee C | Gy C } CO 6Ci) CC i Cece eee tates STE ape Seek Roe nego cScbs ee Ssesbo pe jJATA)T ATA AALS Arar Soo pace, dice | es FAL DOSbetois s35 - = eee eee eee eee ae: JAC] PAs gh HAC Eales eal ae |= eye eA eA AG Ere sa 1's fs a a ey oe as Lo Le tee pani seal IS at a DOV A A PACS a Landing chassis: / | | Strutsterer ko 6-5-6 e ene See yeas AC AL CAC eel | sco | eporel econe a ees AG I Sele Bireamilining is 26). cee case ane comma GC] CG) ce} CG} Ce} CG] Cj eee eects ‘Rock elm includes rock elm (Ulmus racemosa Thomas) and the more dense stock of both white elm (U. americana Linn.) and slippery elm (U. pubescens Walt.). ®The true hickories include mockernut hickory (Hicoria alba (Linn.) Br.), slellbark hickory (H. laciniosa (Michx. f.) Sarg.), pignut hickory (H. glabra (Mill.) Br.), and shag- bark hickory (H. ovata (Mill.) Br.). DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 5 Table 1, which is an adaptation of specification 15037-B of the Bureau of Aircraft Production, shows where the various woods may be used in an airplane and the quality desired. The symbol A indicates a grade of wood of the very highest quality and free from all injurious defects; grade G demands a quality of wood similar to gerade A in all respects except that a little tolerance is allowed in regard to straightness of grain and specific gravity; wood of grade C is used in parts where little strength is needed and may contain various defects, provided the piece is strong enough for the purpose intended. These woods are not the only ones used for airplanes, but they are the most important. Others are mentioned here and there in this bulletin. It can be predicted that, with a growing scarcity of the more desirable species and an increase in our knowledge of the prop- erties of other species, woods little or not at all used at present will become of importance. For a full discussion of this entire subject, the reader is referred to other sources (60; 69, p. 34-40). GENERAL DEFECTS OF AIRPLANE WOODS. Tt is impossible to thoroughly understand wood without a work- ing knowledge of its structure and mechanical properties. This is more difficult to attain than with most other materials of construc- tion, for wood, instead of being a relatively simple and more or less homogeneous compound, is a highly complex organic structure whose chemical. composition is even now none too well understood. The discussion in the following pages will be much clearer to the reader provided he has such knowledge. There are a number of valuable publications which may be referred to in this connection (30, 45, 47, 48, 68, 69). Besides decay, there are other defects which reduce the strength of timber, and these must be given due consideration. Wood may be inherently weak because of its structure, it may be injured by Some process of manufacture, or the trouble may be due to faulty design or assembly. Such defects in relation to airplane woods have been discussed in various publications (42; 46; 68, p. 15-20; 69, p. 11-22), but a review of the more important of these is essential here, since by the uninitiated some of them are confused with decay. GRAIN. One of the most common defects in airplane woods is an exces- sive slope of diagonal or spiral grain. Since any deviation from straight grain is accompanied by a reduction in strength, the re- quirements in this respect are very exacting, a deviation from straight grain of more than 1 inch in 20 inches rarely being allowed for any highly stressed portion of an airplane, although this may be reduced to 1 inch in 12 in portions of less severe stress. A dis- cussion of the methods to be employed in detecting this defect, to- gether with its effect on strength, may be found in several publica- tions (31, 42, p. 8-14; 68, p. 15-16; 69, p. 11-20). SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Brashness or brittleness in wood is another common defect. These Synonymous terms denote a lack of toughness in wood to which they are applied. Brash wood is usually low in strength, and when 6 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tested by bending fails with a short break instead of a splintering fracture. This is one indication of decay, but not all wood show- ing such defect is decayed. Too often when wood appears to be somewhat brash and develops less than the normal strength, instead of making a serious attempt to determine the real source of the diffi- culty the cabalistic term “dry-rot” is uttered, and the case is set- tled, often resulting in the loss of good material, while the trouble goes on unchecked. Even if the wood be decayed, it most probably is not dry-rot, which term to the pathologist embraces a definite type of decay caused by a certain fungus. Let us consider a few of the more important causes of brashness, aside from decay, in aircraft woods. The primary requisite of wood for use in airplanes is that it must be of specific gravity high enough to give the necessary strength. It has long been known that an increase in strength of any species of wood goes with an increase in specific gravity, and it has finally become possible accurately to express this relation for the various strength properties, so that if the specific gravity of a given piece of wood is known it is possible quite accurately to derive its strength under various stresses (4/). No matter how perfect a piece may be in other respects and free from all other defects, if it is below the minimum specific gravity it should not be used. These minimum figures have been carefully worked out for the more im- portant airplane woods (68, p. 21; 69, p. 26). Wood of low specific gravity is naturally somewhat brittle, and for this reason is often erroneously considered as slightly decayed. While the actual spe- cific gravity of the wood substance in various species is practically the same (/3), having a value of 1.54, the porous nature of the wood is such that most commercial species range from 0.3 to 0.6. In other words, only one-fifth to three-fifths of a unit volume of wood is oc- cupied by wood substance; the remainder is air. It is self-evident that a density or specific gravity determination of every individual piece of wood to be used for a primary member in an airplane is out of the question. Neither is it necessary. The most reliable index of specific gravity, without making an actual test, is the ratio of spring wood to summer wood per annual ring. ‘This is best seen on the cross or end section after it has been smoothed off with a sharp knife or a high-speed miter saw. In the softwoods the summer wood is the darker of the two bands composing each annual ring, as is shown in Figure 1, which illustrates cross sections from two wing beams of Douglas fir, one of average and the other of low specific gravity. In the ring-porous hardwoods (ash, for example) the summer wood appears more solid and very much less porous than the spring wood, but in the diffuse-porous hardwoods (such as birch) this is often very difficult to determine. For Douglas fir a minimum specific gravity of 0.47 has been established for high- stressed members, but this can probably be reduced to 0.45 with per- fect safety when used as a substitute for spruce. As a rule, wood of this species with less than 6 or more than 30 annual rings per inch, measured radially on the cross section, falls below the minimum specific gravity. The former usually comes from the center of the tree, where the wood is rapid growing and brash, while the latter is the slow-grown soft “ yellow fir” so characteristic of the outer layers DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 7 of very old trees. If each annual ring is composed of approximately one-third or more of summer wood the piece possesses the necessary strength. In those pieces with very narrow annual rings, in which the summer wood is indicated by a mere dark line at the outer edge of each annual ring, the wood is very soft and weak, often having a specific gravity as low as 0.384 (Fig. 1). Sometimes the proportion of material of low specific gravity in Douglas fir airplane lumber is exceedingly high. The writer has seen several consecutive carload lots of selected wing-beam stock at one factory in which from 25 to 50 per cent of the pieces in each car were below the minimum specific gravity. The stock was cut from old Fic. 1.—Cross sections of wing beams of Douglas fir of average and low specific gravity. The large proportion of summer wood, indicated by the dark bands, in the piece of good Specific gravity (on the right) in comparison with that in the piece with low specific gravity (on the left) is plainly shown. slow-grown trees, which yield the “ yellow fir” so much preferred by the trade, but which invariably contain a large percentage of material of low specific gravity not suitable for aircraft or any other type of construction where high strength is requisite. The same general relations hold good in Sitka spruce. Here, again, if the annual rings are too few or too many per inch, they in- dicate wood of low density. The minimum specific gravity for this species is established at 0.36. - ° It is often difficult to approximate the specific gravity by visual examination of the proportion of summer wood per annual ring in the case of those pieces close to the minimum density permitted in softwoods. There is considerable chance for error even with Douglas fir, but with spruce this is increased, owing to the fact 8 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that the summer wood and spring wood merge into each other, not being sharply delimited as in Douglas fir. With experience it is quite feasible to judge with accuracy the relative specific gravity of many of the pieces, leaving the doubtful ones for an actual test or to be worked up along with those below the minimum into parts © less highly stressed. In making tests to determine the specific gravity it is not necessary to use the time-consuming immersion method. The pieces can be cut fairly regularly, oven dried, and the volume ascertained by measuring to the nearest half millimeter or to the nearest sixty-fourth of an inch. The weight should be ob- tained as usual. The writer has tested this method extensively and found the limit of error rarely over 0.01. In most cases the result will not vary from that obtained by the immersion method. This. method can not be used on irregularly shaped pieces, however. In the ring-porous hardwoods, such as ash, it is very easy to determine the relative proportions of spring and summer wood in each annual ring. Here the condition is the reverse of that found in the softwoods. About three-fifths or more summer wood per annual ring in the case of white ash is necessary to give the strength required by the minimum specific gravity of 0.56. Wood with few annual rings to the inch in white ash has a high specific gravity, and this, as a rule, decreases as the number of rings per inch ~ increases. Wood with 20 to 25 annual rings or more to the inch is usually worthless if strength is a requisite. The relations just dis- cussed are fairly constant throughout the ring-porous hardwoods, such as white oak, rock elm, and hickory. A large proportion of summer wood is not always an indica- tion of strength in white ash. The notable exception to this rule is pumpkin ash, so called by the trade. This ash has remarkably broad bands of summer wood in the annual rings. These rings are — often half an inch broad and contain only one or two narrow lines of pores in the spring wood, but the specific gravity of the wood is low, and when tested in static or impact bending it breaks with a brash, brittle failure under a light load. It can readily be detected by cut- ting with a knife, yielding softly without the resistance offered by good ash. When finished it has a waxy white, cream, or light-brown color in tangential section and can be readily dented with any hard blunt instrument. In cross section the pores in the summer wood sometimes appear as small brown, rather indistinct spots. Pieces may be found with almost the same appearance as pumpkin ash which when tested with a knife prove to be hard and tough, with a good specific gravity; or, again, both hard and soft wood may be found in the same board. As nearly as can be ascertained from hearsay evidence, this pump- kin ash is not confined to a particular tree species, but may be found in any of the white-ash group when grown under swampy conditions in the southern part of the range. It does not necessarily occur, but when it does the central portion of the butt logs or even the entire trunk may be composed of such wood.. Pumpkin ash has been as- signed by botanists as the common name for one definite tree species (Frazxinus profunda Bush), but the name as applied in the lumber trade denotes white-ash wood having the characteristics above de- scribed without regard to species. DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 8) It is quite difficult to judge the specific, gravity of diffuse porous hardwoods by visual examination except in those pieces patently very low or very high. Actual specific-gravity determinations will have to be used to a greater extent when handling this class of woods. In examining a piece of wood of any considerable length to deter- mine its specific gravity, care must be used to examine it throughout. Pieces in which the grain is not perfectly straight may have high specific gravity in one portion and a low density in another, as at- tested by the percentage of summer wood. This is due to the fact that trees may not develop wood of the same or nearly the same spe- cific gravity throughout their life. Such a condition is not at all uncommon in white-ash longerons, and it must be remembered that any given piece of wood is no stronger than its weakest portion. As a general rule, airplane timber should be purchased under speci- fications so worded in regard to the ratio of spring wood and summer wood per annual ring and number of annual rings per inch of radius as to reject at the source of supply most of the stock of low specific gravity. COMPRESSION WOOD. Occasional pieces of wood of unusual growth are encountered. ‘The annual rings are very broad, with an abnormally large proportion of summer wood per annual ring, and there is little contrast between the spring wood and the summer wood. The specific gravity is very much higher than that of normal material. The abnormal growth is supposed to be due to the fact that the tree or portion of the tree from which the piece came had been under some long-continued un- usual stress or had been in an unusual position. The term “com- pression wood” is usually applied to material of this nature. The writer remembers particularly a spruce wing beam with six annual rings per inch of radius, 75 per cent or more of summer wood per annual ring, and a specific gravity of 0.85. Since the usual specific gravity of spruce used is about 0.40, it can readily be seen that the weight of this wing beam was more than double the normal. Com- pression wood is not confined to spruce, but may be found in other soft woods. This type of wood is not desirable. Its strength proper- ties are uncertain, and its shrinkage does not correspond to that of normal wood, the longitudinal shrinkage being several times as great, while the radial and tangential shrinkage is very much less. The excessive weight is also a factor that must be considered in a deli- eately balanced machine. STEAMING AND BENDING. Wood may be rendered brittle or otherwise injured by steam bend- ing if this is not properly done. It is necessary to bend certain parts of an airplane frame in this way in order to obviate the ini- tial stresses which would result if these members were simply sprung into place. This should not be attempted on thoroughly air-dry or kiln-dry material, because wood once dried is weaker when brought back to a higher moisture content, and in addition such material has a tendency to spring back after the clamps are removed if it was not thoroughly resoaked. Asarule, wood with less than 18 per cent a moisture based on oven-dry weight should not be steamed and ent. 9997—22——2 10 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ‘Yoo high temperatures in the steam box will make wood brittle, seriously weakening it. Steaming should be accomplished at atmos- pheric pressure and for a period not to exceed six hours. Higher pressure means higher temperatures and weakened wood. Most hardwoods are more or less discolored by this process, assuming a dead-gray color, but this does not indicate injury. White oak may change to a blackish brown. White ash becomes a dead-gray color, on which a bluish gray discoloration may appear. Elm also takes on this gray shade to some extent. The change in color is very much less noticeable in the soft woods. Soft woods should not be steamed and bent, because they are very susceptible to injury by this process. When tested, the bent portion will be very weak and brash. A close examination will reveal numer- ous slight compression failures on the inner curve of the bend. Spruce is particularly subject to this type of injury. SEASONING. It is well established that a decrease in the moisture content of wood after the fiber saturation point is reached results in marked progressive increase in the strength of wood, accompanied by a de- cided shrinkage (63). The fiber saturation point is the condition at which the cell walls are completely saturated, or, in other words, have absorbed the maximum percentage of water which they can hold, but the cell cavities are empty. For two reasons, then, to in- crease the strength and to prevent subsequent shrinkage when the pieces have been worked to size or even assembled, it is essential that airplane timber be dried or, as it is commonly termed, seasoned. This may be done by air drying, that is, natural seasoning in the air, or by kiln drying, that is, seasoning with artificial heat (4, 72, 64, 65, 66,70). As a result of improper seasoning, particularly that which occurs unevenly or too rapidly, checks, which are small longitudinal splits, may occur in the wood. Almost invariably these are on the tangen- tial face, since wood as a rule shrinks about twice as much in the direction of the annual rings as it does radially or across them. The longitudinal shrinkage (with the grain) is so slight that it usually has no effect. Checks are decidedly weakening, but fortunately are easy to recognize. Airplane wood is usually kiln dried, because the seasoning process can be better controlled than in air drying; it is more rapid, a lower moisture content can be attained, and there is less tendency for kiln- dried wood to shrink and swell with subsequent changes in the humid- ity of the air. Extensive tests have been made on the effect of arti- ficial seasoning (73). Kiln drying when not properly done is a source of serious injury. Temperatures that are too high or proper temperatures that are combined with humidity that is too low may markedly weaken a charge of lumber, particularly if these conditions are maintained for some time. The detection of such injury, when not severe, is very difficult. Hence, it is highly important that self- recording instruments showing temperatures and relative humidities at all times be properly installed in the kilns and that these be calli- brated from time to time. In pronounced cases the lumber will readily reveal its brittle nature when picked with a knife blade. eee ee DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. aT In all cases where it can not be determined satisfactorily by other ethods, representative pieces should be selected for impact bending. This test above all others most readily reveals brittleness in wood. ut the test must be made, or at least the results and breaks reviewed, y some one experienced in this method of testing and thoroughly onversant with the mechanical properties of wood. COMPRESSION FAILURES. Compression failures may be due to abnormal stresses on the stand- ing tree (from a wind of unusual velocity, for example), to shocks in felling the trees, or to injury during the process of manufacture. Figure 2 shows a compression failure, probably caused when the tree was felled, in a section from an unfinished wing beam of Sitka spruce. As an example of injury during the course of manufacture, it might be mentioned that when a large number of wing beams, improperly piled, are transported on a car or wagon the weight and jar some- times cause such fail- ures in beams near the bottom of the pile. The smaller com- pression failures are not easy to detect. They appear as small whitish wrinkles or irregular lines across the face of the piece, at right angles to the grain. A hand mag- nifier is often neces- Fic. 2.—Section from an unfinished wing beam, showing : a compression failure in Sitka spruce which probably sary to bring out the occurred when the tree was felled. finer failures dis- tinctly. The more pronounced failures appear as rather rounded ridges resulting from the “ buckling ” of the wood fibers under stress. Compression failures are quite detrimental to the strength of — wood, particularly as regards bending strength and shock-resisting ability. Material showing compression failures must not be used in parts where strength is required. One visible small compression failure usually indicates the presence of others. Members with a small cross section are sometimes subjected to a rough test which makes the wood appear to be brash. It is well known that beams when placed in static bending characteristically fail first in compression, that is, in the fibers between the center (neutral plane) and the top of the beam. Hence, when a spruce longeron, for example, is supported at both ends and a load applied in the center, slight and practically invisible compression failures may result. Such failures appear as tiny whitish lines or wrinkles on the surface of the wood. If the member is then turned over and the load again applied until failure occurs, the break will be sharp and straight across with no splintering, typical of a compression break. This test should not be applied to softwood longerons, par- ticularly spruce, since the resulting breaks will nearly always be 12 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. short and sharp and may be confused with breaks in brash wood. By turning the member over after the first weight is applied, the compression side, already partially failed, becomes the tension side under the new load; and when the new compression side fails, the tension ‘side, already fractured squarely across, fails with it. To test the resiliency of such members, apply the load on one side only, — and do so with moderation. SHAKES. Shakes are long tangential cracks or separations in the wood fiber. © They are the result of an actual rupture of the wood due to wind, » felling stresses, or other causes and are exceedingly detrimental to— strength. Old shakes which have occurred while the tree was still ” standing are often stained and readily visible to the naked eye. This is also true where lumber has been exposed to the weather and dirt has filtered into the cracks. But where they are neither dis- colored nor opened up the rupture is not so easily detected. PITCH POCKETS. Pitch seams or pockets are lens-shaped cavities or openings be- tween the annual rings. They contain resin or pitch either in solid or liquid form; hence the name. These defects result from injury to the living tree, but the cause of injury is as yet unknown. Pitch pockets may indicate more serious wounds. They are very common in Douglas fir, but may be found in other resin-producing softwoods, including spruce. | While pitch pockets reduce the strength of wood, the reduction is not as serious as is generally supposed. General specifications re- garding the presence of these defects have been worked out for wing beams of spruce and Douglas fir (69, p. 21). WORM HOLES. Worm holes are caused by the larve of three main types of wood- boring insects. The powdery or granular matter, the excrement or frass of either the adults or the “ worms,” or larvee, with which these galleries or burrows are usually filled, need not be confounded with decay, since there is no difficulty in separating the two defects. In decay the transition from the soft, spongy, or friable wood to the ‘normal hard material is gradual, while in the worm holes, usually circular or somewhat flattened when seen in cross section, the line between the firm wood and the frass or finely excreted wood is very sharp. (1) Ambrosia beetles or “ pinworms.” The small adult beetle bores into the green saw log or green lumber and deposits its eggs. The larve hatching from these eggs extend other burrows at an angle from the parent galleries. Mois- ture is necessary for this type of insect. There may be a blackish discoloration extending around the galleries, particularly those in the sapwood. This is the result of the activity of a wood-staining fungus which does not cause decay in the wood and therefore need not be considered as weakening the material. (2) Borers. The adults of borers, as a rule, require bark under which to lay their eggs. The larve hatching from these eggs burrow under the bark through the sapwood and sometimes into the heartwood; the holes are often large. (3) Powder-post beetles. Powder-post beetles cause the most dangerous type of defect, and their presence may be detected by fine, powdery droppings com- ing from the wood. The eggs are laid either in the pores of the wood or under the bark, depending upon the type of insect causing powder post. DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 13 Worm holes not only weaken the wood, but the presence of the larve of powder-post beetles in the wood may render it unsafe. Ambrosia beetles or borers already in the wood can be killed by the ordinary dry-kiln process, but certain types of powder-post beetles require higher temperatures. It is much simpler to prevent attack, and this can be done by slight modifications in business management. Full information on these and other insect defects can be obtained from the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture. CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIES. Different woods have certain inherent qualities which must be recognized. Douglas fir has a decided tendency to splinter. The separation usually occurs along the annual rings in the spring wood adjacent to the summer wood. It is quite probable that this char- acteristic can be accentuated by excessive steaming with high tem- peratures during kiln drying, since it has been shown (6/) that certain softwoods in which the spring wood is sharply differ- entiated from the summer wood, in which category Douglas fir belongs, have the spring wood weakened more easily than the sum- mer wood by prolonged boiling. On account of this tendency of Douglas fir to splinter, aside from other reasons, Sitka spruce and Port Orford cedar are more desirable. White elm can be readily steamed and bent, but it usually warps and twists badly in drying. Douglas fir is very subject to splitting when nailed, while basswood is one of the least troublesome species in this respect. Black ash is low in stiffness. Other examples might be cited, but these are sufficient to show that the failure of a wood to meet certain requirements may be unavoidable. FAULTY DESIGN AND ASSEMBLY. As an example of faulty design the following instance may be cited. In one of the types of combat planes constructed in the air- eraft factories of this country two horizontal bolts were placed directly through the neutral plane in each upper front longeron of Douglas fir. while in some the change -is negligible. In such ee ca spruce species as redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (Lam.) caused by an ex- indl.), incense cedar, Douglas fir, Juniper (Juni- ing of the ten- perus), white ash, true mahogany, and white oak somiauees im Me there is a decided contrast between the light-colored sapwood and the dark heartwood, while in spruce, fir, western hemlock, and yellow buckeye (Aesculus octandra Marsh) the heartwood more nearly approaches the sapwood in color, and in some cases it is difficult to distinguish between the two. Color is not always uniform in the heartwood. It is necessary to be thoroughly acquainted with woods to be able to recognize normal color variations at a glance. Color should always be observed on a freshly cut surface and the surface (whether radial, tangential, or cross) recorded when making permanent observations. All woods change color on exposure to light and air (54), the most noticeable change occurring in the lighter colored woods, particularly of the conifers. The first change is a yellowing, then a graying, and finally in some conifers a decided browning. These color changes have no weakening effect on the me- chanical properties of wood, since the discolored portion is a very thin surface layer and microorganisms play no role in this change DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 1) of color. Light is necessary. Ordinarily these color changes are deepened by direct sunlight, which has a greater influence on the color changes than diffused light. Green wood usually differs in color somewhat from air-dry mate- rial of the same species, even on a freshly cut surface. There is a tendency for the more delicate tints to be obscured by drying. A system of color standards is at present sadly needed in describing colors of wood (53). Furthermore, the condition of the wood, that is, whether green, partly air dry, or fully air dry, invariably should be given consideration. The heartwood of sugar-pine, eastern white-pine (Pinus strobus Linn.), and western white-pine lumber often becomes a pink, light- red, or vinous-red color upon air drying. This color is not confined to the surface layer, but is usually uniform throughout. No reduc- tion in strength results. Wood of this kind is very pleasing to the eye, so it is often desired by pattern makers. This discoloration need not be confused with an incipient decay, since it is so uniform throughout. Furthermore, it terminates abruptly in a horizontal direction and does not shade off gradually into the normal light- brown or cream-colored wood. Color is considered an index of strength properties (74, p. 359-360) in certain cases. The French marine department distinguishes two classes of European oak (Quercus robur L.), inferior wood (bois maigre) and good wood (bois gras). The former, which is straw yellow in color on a fresh cut, is much more subject to atmospheric influences; that is, it shrinks, swells, warps, twists, and splits more readily than the latter, which is pale brown to red brown in color. This is taken into account in specifying in what part of the con- struction the two types of wood shall be used. The Danish-Prussian marine specifications distinguish three colors of green oak wood, whitish yellow, brownish yellow, and reddish yellow, all three fre- quently with a tinge of gray. The first color on drying becomes straw-colored or sand gray, the second greenish brown, and the third reddish yellow or a dirty or dusty yellow-brown. It is considered that the unseasoned or fresh wood with any brownish color is de- cidedly poor in quality. The foregoing seems to be somewhat contradictory. In the opin- ion of the writer, trusting to the vagaries of color is an exceedingly uncertain method by which to judge the strength properties of wood within a species or group and has nothing to recommend it as com- pared to the reliable index of the ratio of summer wood to spring wood per annual ring, which is particularly easy to judge in ring- porous woods like oak. There is a widespread opinion in regard to southern bald cypress (Taxodiwm distichum (Linn.) Rich.) that the darker the heartwood the more durable it is, but in reality the color of the heartwood makes no difference. Most woods when dried after a prolonged immersion in water reveal a grayish, lusterless color, much like that caused by steaming (see p. 10). Oak changes to a blue-black or a gray-black color after such treatment. Wood becomes a dirty gray to gray-black color after long exposure to the elements. This is well illustrated by unpainted poles, fence rails, posts, and shingles. The color change is caused by a number 16 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of factors (52), but most important is a chemical reaction in which iron plays an important part. Timber is not weakened by this discol-_ oration, since the action is confined to the surface. In boards cut from red cedar (Juniperus virginiana Linn.) white streaks are frequently found mingling with the normal red heart- wood. Such streaks are the white sapwood, the mingling being due to the irregular outline of the stem to which the heartwood con- forms or to layers which never change to heartwood. In Sitka spruce the heartwood has a light reddish tinge, slightly distinguishing it from the sapwood. Some trees of Sitka spruce, however, have a pronounced reddish or brownish pink heartwood, which is quite uniform throughout. The color difference is striking in a planed board or timber containing both heartwood of this kind and characteristic white sapwood. The same phenomenon undoubt- edly occurs, in red and white spruce, where it would be even more noticeable, since the heartwood in these species is normally as light colored as the sapwood. This reddish heartwood is just as strong as wood of the usual color and can be safely utilized. The same condi- tion is reported as being quite common in the Himalayan spruce (Picea morinda Link) in India (16, 29). The brown heartwood of incense cedar (8, p. 22-24) and western red cedar often has a reddish to purplish tinge, varying in intensity even in the same piece, while in other trees it may be completely lack- ing. It is entirely without significance in relation to the strength of wood so affected. In certain softwoods color variations may be connected with changes in the rate of growth. In the heartwood of Douglas fir, which has a distinct reddish or orange-reddish hue, the reddish color may be strongly intensified in long regular bands, A careful exami- nation will show that this color change is confined to a definite group of annual rings, narrower than those on both sides or containing a greater proportion of summer wood. The brown heartwood of the cedars also varies in this way. The so-called “yellow fir,” from the slowly grown, exceedingly narrow ringed outer layers of the old coast Douglas firs, is another example. The origin of such variations can be readily recognized, since the color is confined to a definite group of annual rings. Occasionally an apparent discoloration in heartwood may be due to the failure of the wood to change color uniformly during the transition from sapwood to heartwood. This has been noticed in white ash, Douglas fir, western red cedar, western larch (Larix oc- cidentalis Nutt.), and other woods. The sapwood of white ash is white or straw colored, while the heartwood is grayish brown, some- times with a reddish tinge. Hence, when the condition above men- tioned is found, the grayish brown heartwood will contain sharply delimited straw-yellow areas of various sizes and shapes. The wood is not weakened. How to avoid confusing this condition with the initial stages of white-rot will be considered later. Discoloration may be caused by dirt or dust. Surfaced or sanded white pine or sugar pine is sometimes found covered with tiny little grayish black streaks following the grain of the wood. A close ex- amination will show that this is due to deposition of dust in the numerous resin ducts. This is especially apparent against the almost DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 17 white wood of these species, whereas in darker woods the streaks would pass unnoticed. Burns or scorches in wood may occur from the use of high-speed saws if the saws are not set properly to provide sufficient clearance. Improperly set planing knives will produce the same effect. Usu- ally such burns, appearing on the face of the piece as dark-brown to blackish blotches, are very superficial and can be planed off. The injurious effect is negligible. Deep burns, extending through a piece one-eighth or even one-fourth of an inch in thickness are rarely encountered and are usually confined to particularly susceptible woods, such as the white pines.. These may result when a high-speed sander stops suddenly. The wood is injured and can not be used for highly stressed parts. Burns usually occur in the remanufac- ture of dry lumber and not on green lumber in the mills. DISCOLORATIONS CAUSED BY WOUNDS. The term “wounds” as applied to trees includes not only those scars by which the bark is removed from living trees, exposing the sapwood or heartwood with the death of the cambium over the ex- posed surface, but also those injuries by which the cambium is temporarily damaged but not killed. The cambium, which is very susceptible to injury, is the very narrow layer of delicate growing tissue of:a tree situated at the junction of the living bark and sap- wood. When this tissue is injured or killed, a healing or callusing process immediately begins which causes a dip or wave in the grain. Consequently, irregularity of grain in a timber often indicates prox- imity to a wound. : Wounds in living trees result from a variety of causes, among which may be mentioned fire, lightning, insects, birds, and man. All such injuries are usually accompanied by a discoloration of the wood, particularly the sapwood. Such discolorations are most intense in the hardwoods, especially in the sapwood of such species as white ash, hickory, maple, birch, and tulip poplar. When the wood of a living tree is exposed to the air it dries out and changes color. In softwoods the change is to a grayish brown or dead-gray color, while in hardwoods the change ranges from a deep brown to almost black, most noticeable in the sapwood. ‘This color change is an oxidation process. Although the wood is not weakened by this change, wound wood of this type should be avoided, owing to the fact that during its exposure to the air it often becomes infected by wood-destroying fungi and may be weak- ened by incipient decay. LIGHTNING WOUNDS. The general appearance of lightning injury is readily recognized. Spike tops and stag heads, together with the spiral wounds exist- ing for many feet along the trunks of the trees, are unmistakable. Besides such wounds, the cambium is very susceptible to electrical discharge and may be affected for some distance down the tree with- out any outward visible indications. This irritation to the cambium results in the formation of a layer of cells changed in both shape and structure from the normal. Often in the conifers an unusually large number of resin cells or resin ducts are formed within this injured 9997—23, 3 18 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. portion. In a short time the cell formation returns to normal. Ulti- . mately, as the growth of the tree proceeds, these lightning rings, always following one definite annual ring, are deep within the wood, extending completely or partially around the circumference over a varying distance. When the tree is worked up for lumber certain of the’ boards may have such lightning rings extending completely through, both in width and leneth. Such a board then consists of two lay ers of wood held together by a zone of abnormal structure forming a plane of cleavage. Checking often occurs along this line, since the continuity of the ‘medullary rays may be interrupted. Such checks are striking, since they invariably are tangential, following an annual ring on end section or radial face but not visible on the tangential face. This is not at all an un- common defect in air- plane timber. An ab- normal number of resinducts may be found in the annual ring following many types of mechanical injury, but for prac- tical purposes there is no difference between such so-called trau- matic resin ducts and the abnormal ducts formed as a result of lightning injury. It is self-evident that wood with these hghtning rings must be used with discre- tion. Eventhough the lightning ring does not check on dry- ing, when a mem- Section from a finished interplane strut, showing ber with this defect 1S a small lightning injury in Sitka spruce. p ut under severe strain and stress a serious check may develop. Of course, every member showing a lightning ring need not be considered valueless. Such a defect in the stream line of a strut, for example, would be trifling, while a much shorter ring in the butt or inner bay of a wing beam, particu- larly if in the same plane as the bolts, would. be serious. The same ring in the tip of such a beam could be overlooked. The detection of lightning rings in rough lumber is exceedingly difficult, unless accompanied by small wounds, which is sometimes the case. Then such wounds ‘must be scrutinized closely for the presence of a lightning ring. Two or more of these wounds, which resemble sapsucker w rounds, occurring on the same annual ring and connected by a lightning ring, are sometimes found. Figure 4 shows one of these wounds on an interplane strut, in this case not of Fic. 4. DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 19 any importance, since the injury occurred alone with only a very short lightning ring and on the stream lining where high strength is not requisite. Lightning rings are more readily detected on a member before it is sanded. In some cases the seriousness of the defect can be determined after planing but before the piece is shaped. This is usually possible when the defect runs entirely through the piece. In white fir the lightning rings are easily detected both on cross section or on the radial face. ‘The normal color of the summer wood is a light brown, while the lightning ring is a pronounced brown or purplish brown, which stands out strongly against the whitish sapwood or heartwood. Abundant resin ducts occur in these rings. Lightning rings in incense cedar are dark brown in color, standing out plainly in the white sapwood, but are not so apparent, although still recognizable, against the reddish brown heartwood. Resin ducts do not ac- company lightning rings in cedar. Sitka spruce wood is rather susceptible to the effects of elec- tricity. Lhe light- ning rings appear as hight to dark brown lines in the pale pink- ish heartwood or white Fre. 5.—Cross section from an unfinished elevator beam, ETM cdeemipe\ ate © seen duct, extending eniirely across the section can De found which appear seen in the summer wood of the fifth annual ring from ee the bottom. The defect ran the entire length of the to be chiefly composed _ beam. of resin ducts; in fact, when viewed on the end section, it is seen that the resin ducts are so numerous that they almost coalesce. This condition is illustrated in Figure 5. Furthermore, spruce wood is peculiarly susceptible to dis- coloration by lightning injury. Often in connection with a lightning ring a reddish brown discoloration is found, somewhat tinged with purple. This discoloration rarely extends radially more than 3 or 4 inches from the lightning ring toward the pith, but may extend 2 feet beyond the limits of the ring in a vertical direction. Wood so dis- colored is not weakened. Furthermore, the color is not sufficiently intense to detract from its value for any purpose, particularly since the discoloration when varnished appears merely as a darker tone of the normal heartwood. The lightning rings found in Douglas fir are red-brown in color, darker than the summer wood and consequently are quite apparent in the white sapwood and orange-red or yellowish heartwood. ‘These rings are practically composed of resin ducts. The ducts are smaller than in Sitka spruce. The reader must not get the impression from what has been written that lightning rings are a feature of every piece of wood, but they do occur and must be taken into account. 20 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SAPSUCKER WOUNDS. Sapsuckers are a group of woodpeckers which extract the sap from the inner bark and sapwood of living trees and eat the cambium. The final result after the wound has healed or callused over is the so-called bird pecks (15, 35). This injury is often accompanied by extensive staining, particularly in the hardwoods. On the ends of logs or boards the healed wounds appear as stained areas of varying size, each containing a more or less open, short, radial check in con- nection with distorted grain. The general appearance is a T-shaped or triangular mark or check surrounded by a stain varying from brown to almost black. More than one usually occurs in the same annual ring. On the edge-grain or slash-grain faces of sawed lumber these injuries usually appear as small knots or distortions in the grain, surrounded by more or less stain which is usually localized, but the stain may be accompanied by a bleaching which extends for some distance. ‘The stain is always adjacent to the distorted grain, and the more distorted the grain the greater the extent of the stain. The stain appears to be the most injurious of the two, but in reality the distorted grain is the only cause of weakening in the wood. The strength of the wood is not much affected, so that wood with bird pecks in most cases can be safely utilized. Figure 6 shows a sec- tion from a white-ash longeron with a minor injury of this kind which does not impair the usefulness of the member. Pieces are some- Fic. 6.—Section from a times unsuitable for handles, owing to the Ear RaPeuceoR sues, tendency of the grain to roughen up at these or bird peck in white places when’ planed. If the pecks are nu- merous in one annual ring it is best not to use the piece, for although it has not been determined by comparative tests it is quite probable that such material is reduced in strength. Checks or wind-shakes are very prone to occur along an annual ring containing numerous sapsucker wounds or even at individual in- juries. These often prove to be serious in thin veneer, since pieces of the distorted grain are likely to fall out. Sapsuckers are responsible for much of the curly grain and bird’s-eye found in tulip poplar. Both stain and bird’s-eye in this species are shown in Figure 7. Practically all tree species, both softwoods and hardwoods, are subject to this type of injury, but hard maple, soft maple (Acer sac- charinum Linn.), tulip poplar, and hickory in particular stain badly. The bird pecks are common in white ash, but the accompanying stain is generally closely localized. PITH-RAY FLECKS. Pith-ray flecks, which are also termed medullary spots and pith flecks. are caused by the larve or grubs of certain insects living in the cambium of living trees during the growing season (10, 17, 20, 21, 44, 67). These insects comprise several species of the genus Agromyza belonging to the order Diptera. On the end section of logs or lumber the flecks appear as small brown crescent or half-moon DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 21 shaped areas, which on the tangential or slash-grain face and the radial or edge-grain face of a board appear as brown streaks, usually ‘running in a vertical direction. (Figs. 8 and 9.) The wood for a little distance around a pith-ray fleck may be darker than normai. This ig particularly so in poplars or cottonwoods (Populus spp.). On the whole, the injuries are not at all serious, having no noticeable effect on the strength of the wood unless the flecks are exceedingly Fic. 7,—Slash-grain or tangential surface of a tulip-poplar board, showing stain and bird’s-eye caused by sapsuckers. One-third natural size. (Courtesy of the U. S. Biological Survey.) numerous. Only in the cherries (Prunus spp.) may a weakening be expected, for there the affected wood tissues are broken down, while in the other woods they are but little distorted. Furthermore, the presence of pith-ray flecks is usually hard to detect in the heart- wood of cherries. The color of the heartwood differs but little from the color of the pith-ray flecks. Pith-ray flecks are found in all the common poplars or cotton- woods, birches, maples, cherries, basswood, and many others, but there is considerable variation in their abundance on different closely related species. For example, these flecks are very common in soft maple, while they are rather infrequent in hard maple. In river, gray, and paper birch (Betula nigra Linn., B. populifolia Marsh, and B. papyrifera Marsh) they are found in abundance, but are 22 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. somewhat uncommon in yellow birch, although the writer has found them from time to time in propeller stock of this species. Softwoods Fic. 8.—Transverse section of a branch of river birch, showing pith-ray flecks. Natural size. Tic. 9.—Tangential section of the trunk of a tree of silver maple, showing pith-ray flecks. Natural size. DECAYS ANU DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE Woops. - 23 are not subject to these pith-ray flecks, but a somewhat similar injury in western hemlock known as black check results from the work ot a different insect (77). CHEMICAL DISCOLORATIONS. The sapwood of many species of wood is subject to discolorations. varying widely in appearance but fundamentally the same, which are the result of chemical action (3). Sapwood is rich in organic com- pounds and also contains certain soluble ferments which facilitate the oxidation of such compounds. Under favorable temperature con- ditions, for example, when green sapwood is exposed to the oxygen of the air, these ferments, known as oxidizing enzyms, act on the organic compounds in the sapwood. The result of their action, which is an oxidation process, is a discoloration of the sapwood, with the colored substance most noticeable upon microscopic examination in those cells mainly concerned in the storage and transportation of food. Hot, humid weather is most favorable for this staining. Cool, dry weather retards it or prevents it entirely. Logs immersed in water are not affected. Light is not necessary for this reaction, as it takes place just as readily in darkness. The stain is confined to the im- mediate surface layer, and the wood is not weakened. The most practical method of prevention, if this is considered necessary, is by dipping the green sap boards into boiling water for a few minutes as they come from the saw. HARDWOODS. Birch, maple, and cherry stain a reddish yellow or rusty color. The wood of alder becomes very intensely red or red-brown on freshly cut surfaces, often within an hour or so after the surface is exposed (40). In the case of red alder (Alnus oregona Nutt.), if the wood dries and remains white, the red color will appear upon the addition of water in the presence of air, provided the temperature is favor- able. A bluish stain often occurs in red gum (Liquidamber styraci- jlua Linn.). The European linden (7%lia europaea, Linn.) is subject to a strik- ing discoloration (39), which probably also occurs on basswood in this country. When freshly sawed boards are so closely piled that they dry slowly, a more or less apparent dirty green color ap- pears in from 8 to 10 days. Under very favorable conditions the color is exceedingly bright and intense. The color varies between wide limits, from yellow-green or brown-green through all possible gradations to the purest moss green. Only the outer layers of the wood are colored. Usually the stain extends to a depth of one thirty-second of an inch or rarely to a depth of one-eighth of an inch. The staining, although it is the result of a chemical reaction (an iron- tannin reaction), is not dependent on temperature, since it occurs just as readily in winter as in summer. Too much moisture hinders the reaction, but a certain degree of moisture is essential. If the boards are dried quickly no staining results. SOFTWOODS. Coniferous woods are not so commonly subject to this type of dis- coloration, but there are a few examples. The ends of incense-cedar 24 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. logs sometimes have a decided brownish red stain on the sapwood. This is of no importance, because it does not occur on sawed lumber except so faintly as to be almost invisible. A very unsightly discoloration known as brown-stain (43, p. 305-307), which, however, does not weaken the wood, often occurs on sugar pine, but is frequently not noticeable until the lumber has been finished. This appears in the sapwood as a streaky, dirty, light to dark brown or brownish black discoloration, and may be super- ficial or very deep. It is quite striking against the faint yellowish white sapwood in finished lumber. The discoloration occurs on green sap lumber upon exposure to the air and may appear during air drying or kiln drying. In the last instance it is known as kiln burn, but it does not differ from the brown-stain and is probably sometimes due to defective circulation in the kiln. Brown-stain is particularly bad in lumber cut in early spring. Hot, humid weather and poor circulation of air in the lumber piles favor the staining, while cool, dry weather and proper piling tend to prevent it. This brown stain is an oxidation process similar to the others, but whether it can be prevented by the hot-water treatment is doubtful, since the discoloration often extends deeply into the lumber. The woed of sugar pine in dead trees, standing or down, may be affected by a very brilliant orange stain which occurs in spots or as a solid color, but more often is seen as narrow to broad streaks parallel to the grain of the wood. It is found in both heartwood and sapwood. ‘The exact cause of this discoloration is unknown, but it is probably the result of chemical reaction, since no fungous mycelium has been found associated with it. While the wood is apparently not weakened, the presence of this stain indicates that the lumber came from dead trees, and it should be closely watched for signs of decay and insect borings. DISCOLORATIONS CAUSED BY FUNGI. From an economic standpoint by far the most important discolora- tions in wood are caused by fungi. Fungi are very simple plants which can not live on the simple food elements of the soil and air and build up complex organic matter, as is done by the green plants with which we are familiar, but must have organic matter already prepared in order to sustain life. This they find in the material uilt up by green plants; hence they may attack living plants, or dead portions of such plants, or any dead vegetable matter. Some live on animal matter, but these do not concern us. The develop- ment of fungi is dependent upon a supply of oxygen, of which there is always sufficient in the air, a certain degree of moisture, a suit- able range of temperature, and the necessary food substances. The maximum and minimum of these requirements vary widely with different fungi. The fungous plant consists of very fine threads (hyphz), which are invisible to the naked eye unless they occur in mass. Individual hyphe require magnification by a compound microscope. Collec- tively, the hyphe are termed mycelium. The hyphe usually live in the tissues of the substance on which the fungus is growing. The fruiting bodies or sporophores, which vary in size from those so small as to be invisible to the naked eye except in a mass to others quite DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 25 large and conspicuous, appear on the surface after the hyphe have developed vigorously. The fruiting bodies bear the spores, which are microscopically small reproductive bodies of relatively simple structure. The spores, being very light, are borne about by air currents. If they alight in a suitable place under proper conditions, germination takes place and hyphe develop. __ Fungi growing on wood may be roughly divided into two groups, depending on the habit of growth of hyphe. In the first group are placed those fungi whose hyphe live on the substances contained in the various cells of the wood, while to the second group belong those whose hyphe attack the actual wood substance of the cell walls and destroy it. The first group is principally represented by the sap- staining or discoloring fungi, so called because they produce various discolorations which are confined to the sapwood. To the second group belong the wood-destroying fungi. SAP-STAIN. DESCRIPTION. Sap-stain, which has been extensively studied (23, 27, 38, 50, 51), even though it may render wood very unsightly does not reduce its strength for practical purposes. The discoloration is normally limited to the green sapwood, because as a rule there is neither sufficient food material nor moisture in the dry dead heartwood for the development of the fungus. The discoloration is usually most intense in the medullary rays, since in these tissues the bulk of the food material is found. The stain is produced in two ways, either by a reflection of the color of the hyphe through the cell walls of the wood or by an actual color solution excreted by the hyphe, which stains the wood itself. These stains vary in color from blue or blackish to reddish, the former being the most common. © Since these fungi do not attack the cell walls in which the strength of the wood reposes, except to a negligible extent, discolored wood is not appreciably weakened. This has been determined by comparative mechanical tests on stained and unstained wood (4/,; 56, p. 13-14; LED )ie JSURer a the strength of the wood fibers is not impaired by such stains, the wood is objectionable in places where color is a factor. In a highly varnished interplane strut, for example, a stained streak is unpleasant to the eye. Furthermore, it may lead to a strong prejudice against the airplane having such a member, be- cause while by the uninitiated a dangerous defect not readily ap- parent is passed unnoticed, an unsightly though harmless discolora- tion is considered to indicate a serious weakness. Where the dis- coloration is to be covered up or painted there is no reason to ex- clude it. It must be remembered that the conditions which promote the development of the fungus discoloration are highly favorable to the development of true wood-destroying fungi. These conditions are a comparatively high humidity and warm weather. Sap-stain is at its worst during warm wet weather, when the humidity of the air is relatively high and lumber dries slowly. It is at such periods that the most severe staining may occur if the lumber is not properly handled. The climate of the Pacific Northwest is usually exceed- Ii 26 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ingly favorable for the development of wood-staining and wood- destroying fungi during the spring and summer months. It is from this region that the three most important airplane woods—Sitka spruce, “Douglas fir, and Port Orford cedar—are obtained. Wood containing very severe sap-stain therefore should be care- fully examined for the presence of wood-destroying fungi. If de- cayed, the wood will be brash and may be softer and less tough when the fibers are picked with a knife. If any doubt exists after an imspection, the decision should be based on a microscopical ex- amination or a mechanical test by a qualified expert. The most important of these stains from an economic standpoint is blue-stain, caused by various species of Ceratostomella, which may be found on almost any hardwood or softwood. Softwoods are more commonly affected, and certain species are particularly sus- ceptible. This is due both to the character of the wood and to the climatic conditions of the region where the species occurs. The discoloration may be more or Tess superficial, occurring as spots or streaks. If the staining is severe, however, the entire sapwood will be affected, so that it can not be surfaced off. The fungi causing these stains are not readily seen, but sometimes if a deeply stained, almost black piece is inspected with a hand magnifying glass, in- numerable bristles with a bulbous base will be observed. ‘These are the fruiting bodies, containing an enormous number of spores, which are exuded and are carried about by air currents. Falling on green sap lumber they sprout, the hyphe develop, and more blue-stain re- sults. Under favorable conditions blue-stain may develop with sur- prising rapidity, appearing on lumber within a day after sawing. Other colors, such as black, brown, gray, red, pink, and violet, are caused by species of Hormodendron, Hormiscium, Graphium, Pen- ‘icilhum, and Fusarium. These discolorations are not nearly so common as blue-stain. Certain other discolorations of sapwood are produced by fungi be- longing to the molds, of which the green mold on fruits or in certain cheeses is an example. Usually such stains are superficial and readily surface off. They occur on both hardwoods and softwoods. The bluish or blackish stains are difficult to separate by visual inspec- tion from the true blue-stain. CONTROL, Considerable study has been devoted to the development of methods of prevention and control of sap stains caused by fungi (7, 25, 72). Naturally most of this work has been concentrated on blue-stain, and the following paragraphs are most directly applicable to it, but will probably also apply fairly well to the others. Blue-stain may be checked after it has started, but the stain can not be eradicated unless it is so superficial that it can be planed off. Therefore, the keynote of all treatments must be prevention. Unfortunately, there is no one principle that. can be applied to the prevention of this discoloration. Staining may take place at any time after the trees are felled or, in the case of dead timber, while they are still standing. Hence, in logging operations in regions where blue-stain is of importance, the logs should be removed from the woods as soon as possible after the trees are felled and bucked DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 27 (cut up into log lengths). ‘The practice-of leaving logs lying in the woods for months can not be too str ongly condemne 1, as this not only eauses blue-stain but also promotes the growth of wood-destroying fungi. Furthermore, the inevitable attacks of wood- boring insects assist greatly in the spread of blue-stain and decay. When the trees are bucked the narrow space left by the saw kerf between the logs as they are lying end to end affords an ideal situation for the develop- ment of the blue-stain fungi. Such logs often stain deeply, while those with the ends fully exposed remain entir ely free from discolora- tion. As soon as the logs are in the mill pond danger from staining is over for the time being, since the oxygen supply is so reduced that the fungi can not develop. The greatest danger of all is encountered during the process of drying the rough lumber as it comes from the saw. ‘The best method of preventing blue-stain is by kiln drying. If the stock checks easily, so that low temperature and high humidities must be maintained over a considerable period; some of the other staining fungi such as molds, may develop. But these can be checked by raising the tem- perature in the kiln to about 160° I*. or slightly more for an hour by turning live steam into the kiln. When this is done, care must be taken to keep the air saturated while steaming and to reduce the humidity gradually after steaming. When the stock has once been dried properly the moisture content has been so reduced that there is no more danger from staining, provided it is kept dry. A dispute that arose over the efficiency of a dry kiln was immediately settled by the fact that the blue-stain fungi had resumed vigorous growth the day after the stock was removed from the kiln. This could not have occurred if the lumber had been properly dried. All airplane lumber should be kiln-dried immediately, since this not only prevents blue-stain, but also stops the growth of wood-de- stroying fungi, prevents future checking, and greatly reduces weight without in any way injuring the lumber, provided temperatures that are too high are avoided. In case kiln drying is impossible, treatment with antiseptic solu- tions is of considerable value. As it comes from the saws the green lumber is dipped into a hot or cold chemical solution. The solutions most commonly employed are sodium carbonate or sodium bicar- bonate in water. Neither is 100 per cent effective under optimum conditions for staining, but they aid materially in checking discolora- tion. These two chemicals, however, color the treated wood a decided yellow or brownish. Sodium fluorid, although it does not stain the lumber and is slightly better for blue-stain, is not so effec- tive against certain molds as the two solutions first mentioned. This chemical is seldom used. It must be remembered that the strength of the solutions must necessarily vary with the conditions. The more favorable tne conditions for blue-stain, the stronger the solutions should be. After being dipped in any of these solutions the lumber must be carefully open. piled, that is, with spaces between the boards to insure good ventilation. Narrow cross strips or “stickers” chemically treated should be used, to prevent staining at the points where the boards and cross strips meet. Detailed instructions-as to the proper methods of piling lumber may be consulted elsewhere (4 p. 17-21). 28 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Salt is of little or no value in preventing blue-stain in comparison with the other chemicals. The application of salt after blue-staining has well started is almost a waste of money. In fact, the application of wet salt or a strong salt solution may prove detrimental in the long run, for-if the lumber is dried after such treatment the affinity of the salt for water may cause the moisture content to remain much higher than normal. Mercurie chlorid in a 0.1 per cent solution is exceedingly effective against blue-stain, but on account of its highly poisonous nature and extremely corrosive action when in contact with many metals. it is little used. Shipping green stock closely piled in closed box cars during the spring and summer months is almost certain to result in severe stain- ing. Indeed, the writer has seen some stock handled in this way which stained even in winter. On the other hand, any measures: taken to prevent staining, such as open piling in gondolas or on flat cars, will almost certainly result in severe checking. Of the two evils, checking is by far the most serious in airplane stock, since checked lumber is greatly reduced in strength, while the stained lumber is only somewhat unsightly. Shipping green lumber in the close hold of a vessel, particularly if tropical seas are to be traversed, is an invitation to swift and sure disaster as far as sap staining is concerned. It is doubtful whether dipping in any chemical solu- tion now used, except possibly mercuric chlorid, would be effective under such severe conditions. But, to repeat, the most effective measure to employ against blue- stain is speed in drying the wood. Get the logs from the woods to the saw with the greatest rapidity and the lumber from the saw di- rectly into the dry kiln. SAP-STAIN ON SOFTWOODS. Certain species are peculiarly susceptible to sap-stain. This is due both to the character of the wood and to the climatic conditions of the region where the species grows. Western white pine, spruce, and southern yellow pine, the last-named wood including longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.), shortleaf pine (P. echinata Mill.), and loblolly pine (P. taeda Linn.), are very subject to sap-stain, especially blue-stain, while true fir and cedar are not so easily affected. Douglas fir occupies an intermediate position. Besides blue-stain, a red stain has been very commonly found on Sitka spruce airplane lumber. It occurred abundantly in the East on stock in cars just arrived from the Pacific coast and also developed on material along the Atlantic coast which had arrived unstained at the port of embarkation but was held over awaiting shipment. The stain appeared as terra-cotta or brick-red spots on the rough lumber, varying from very faint to a pronounced color. In the stock worked up in the factories in this country it was found that the stain was superficial, usually surfacing out during remanufacture; but reports from abroad indicate that the fungus developed very intensively by the time the lumber reached European ports, and the discoloration penetrated deeply into the sapwood. The appearance of the wood is not marred to the same extent that it is by blue- DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 29 stain, and as far as is known no reduction in strength results. The fungus causing the discoloration is as yet unknown. Blue-stain is very severe on the white pines and is particularly noticeable because of their white wood. Plate I, left part, shows a section from a sugar-pine rib web in which the sapwood is stained to some extent. The small, darker, bluish black spots are the ends of the medullary rays, in which, as before stated, the fungous myce- lium is most abundant. The longer streaks are the resin ducts. Certain fungi (Penicillium spp.), stain the sapwood of the pines an orange-red to a crimson-red color. Another fungus (/usariwm roseum Link) is responsible for a pink to lilac color in the same woods. The color is produced by means of a pigment secreted by the hyphee, which actually dyes the wood. A wood-staining fungus (Zythia resinae (Fr.) Karst.) has been reported in Europe (9) as working on finished pine lumber after the wood has been oiled. The discoloration was characterized by violet to dirty red or even dark grayish brown flecks beneath the oiled surface of the wood. The spots were covered with minute pustules varying from violet, orange, and brown to black. These constitute the spore-producing bodies. The discolored areas ex- tend within the wood as streaks closely associated with the medul- lary rays and resin ducts. The report does not state whether the discoloration was confined to sapwood. Apparently the wood was not reduced in streneth. As far as is known, this stain has not yet been found in the United States. SAP-STAIN ON HARDWOODS. Hardwoods are not as subject to the stains caused by fungi as are softwoods. In hardwoods, when sap-stain does occur, the discolora- tion is most intense in the medullary rays and large pores or vessels. In a wood such as yellow birch, in which these vessels are not too closely crowded, the stain, if not too severe, appears in longitudinal section as very narrow bluish black lines or streaks following the erain of the wood. This stain will not necessarily be confined to the surface layers, but may extend entirely through the sapwood. Of all the hardwoods, however, red gum seems to be the most susceptible to stains caused by fungi. BROWN-OAK DISCOLORATIONS. A somewhat different discoloration than those previously de- scribed, in that it is confined to heartwood only, is the “ brown oak” (78, 79) found in Great Britain. This is also known as “red oak” and “ foxiness,” but the name first given is most commonly accepted. Instead of the normal heartwood, certain trees of the common Euro- pean oak have a dull-brown to rusty brown or even rust color in the heartwood. In some cases the color is uniform, while again longi- tudinal streaks of normal-colored heartwood may alternate with those of the brown color. When these brown streaks contain black patches this type of wood is known as “tortoise-shell” oak. This discoloration originates in the heartwood of living trees, the normal heartwood changing first to a faint yellow color, which continues to deepen until the brown stage is attained. The color change is caused by a fungus, but so far as known the infected wood is not weakened. 30 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The hyphe attack the cell walls very slightly, presumably living on the tannin, of which oak wood contains a high percentage. The value of the wocd for veneers is very much enhanced. The writer has no-record of this discoloration being found on oaks in this country. ; DECAY DISCOLORATIONS. The hyphe of wood-destroying fungi living within the wood feed on the various substances composing the cell walls. They use certain constituents of the cell walls, neglecting others, with the result that these walls are broken down, the wood ‘being thus greatly weakened and more or less destroyed. It is the br eaking down of the wood and the change in its physical and chemical qualities that is termed decay. The degree of decay is determined by the energy of growth of the fungus, the length of time it has-been at work, and the. type of wood it attacks. Some fungi attack many different kinds of wood, while others are limited in their choice. Owing to their less exacting moist- ure requirements, wood-destroying fungi are able to live on heartwood as well as sapwood. The fruiting bodies, usually quite large, are found on the surface in the form of brackets, crusts, or mushrooms or toadstools. They are not developed until the hyphe have been at work for some time; consequently, the presence of fruiting bodies indicates serious decay. Two types of wood-destroying fungi may be recognized, (1) those mainly attacking the heartwood, rarely the sapwood, of standing living trees, and (2) those principally confining their activities to the manufactured product, such as sawed lumber, crossties, and poles. The former type may continue their work of destruction after the tree has been cut down and worked up into lumber. The latter, attacking the manufactured product, usually invade the sapwood first, since it is far richer in stored food, generally has a higher moisture content than the heartwood, and is not so inherently re- sistant to decay. Fungi causing this type of decay are often very abundant in yards where the lumber is closely piled on damp earth, with little or no aeration under the piles, and much accumulated wood débris scattered throughout the yard. Unfortunately, such conditions are all too prevalent in mill yards. Sanitary yards both at the mills and the factories are badly needed. Humphrey (28) gives a complete account of the life history and habits of these fungi, the damage caused by then:, and methods for their control. CONDITIONS AFFECTING DECAY. All conditions which favor sap stains are equally favorable to wood-destroying fungi. Furthermore, the latter can attack wood with a lower moisture content, so the fact that wood does not sap- stain is no indication that fungi causing decay may not be present. The discolorations caused by the latter in sapwood are not so pro- nounced as sap-stain; consequently, they are much harder to detect. Moisture in wood. —Dry lumber will not decay. The most efficient method to prevent decay is to air-dry or kiln-dry lumber immediately and then keep it dry by proper methods of storage. Placing dry lumber in the open, exposed to rain, or in damp sheds can not be too strongly condemned. If the lumber becomes moist again, it is just DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. bl as liable to decay as before. ‘To be sure, kiln drying is much better an air drying, since the high temperatures employed in the former th d (ox the high t tu ployed in the f process are probably fatal to the hyphw of some decay-producing fungi, while under the latter conditions the fungi may merely re- main dormant until suitable moisture conditions are again restored. However, since wood-destroying fungi are common around and in ards and wood-working factories, the chances are that kiln-dried umber will be reinfected, and if it becomes moist again decay will begin. SInppane green or even partially air-dried lumber on long voy- ages through tropical seas in the hold of a vessel offers a chance for a heavy loss through decay. The close humid air of the ship’s hold becomes a perfect forcing chamber for wood-destroying fungi when warm latitudes are reached. Shipments of Douglas fir leay- ing the Pacific coast perfectly sound have contained a considerable percentage of decayed lumber when unloaded at a South African port (36, p. 36). Indirect reports indicate that the same condition resulted during the World War in some shipments of Sitka spruce eae to Europe through the Panama Canal and the Mediterranean ea Durability of wood—Resistance to decay, or as it is termed “durability,” is a factor that should no longer be neglected in selecting woods for airplane construction. Airplanes are being more and more exposed to unfavorable weather conditions as their use extends, conditions which in some instances are highly favorable to decay. Furthermore, certain conditions created by the construc- tion of an airplane promote decay. For example, in the interior of the wings the relative humidity may be much higher than that of the surrounding air, and there is often considerable condensation of moisture. In addition, the temperature is slightly higher. All ee factors are favorable to the development of wood- destroy’ ing ungl. Within any species durability increases with the increase in specific gravity. Consequently, the fact that only wood with high specific gravity is used for aircraft not only increases strength but serves to increase durability. However, it is well known that differ- ent species vary widely in their durability. Unfortunately, spruce is not at all durable. Neither are basswood and birch. Douglas fir is fairly durable, as is also white oak. But the cedars are remarkable for their inherent durability, and among these Port Orford cedar compares favorably with spruce in all its strength properties and is only slightly heavier. Consequently, this wood can not be too highly recommended for use in aircraft where resistance to decay must be considered. Sapwood must not be used under such cir- cumstances, for no matter what the species is it decays easily. Contrary to existing belief, the resin content of wood is of slight importance in relation to durability (74, p. 158-154; 75, p. 66-68). Resin itself has no poisonous effect, on the sori “ot fungous hyphee, and its only beneficial effect. in increasing durability is its waterproofing action on wood. This is so slight, however, if the normal resin content of softwoods is considered, as to be pri actically negligible. If wood is rendered more durable through a sufficient increase in its resin content to have a decided waterproofing effect. oo BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it is usually completely resin soaked or contains pitch streaks which make it unsuitable for painting or contact with fabric coverings. INCIPIENT DECAY, It is a simple matter to recognize well-advanced rot or typical decay. Here the changes in the wood structure due to the longer action of the wood-destroying fungus are so profound as to be very plainly apparent, but the earlier stages of decay, termed incipient decay, immature decay, or advance rot, are often far from easy to detect (6,7). In some cases detection is practically impossible with- out a microscopical examination of the wood. Specific gravity is not a reliable index of decay. It has been sug- gested that decay in any piece of wood will be immediately reflected in a lowering of the specific gravity. But this can not be detected unless the specific gravity of the piece was known before decay com- menced, a manifest impossibility in most cases. Incipient decay does not cause a sufficient reduction in the specific gravity to bring the heavier pieces of wood below the minimum set for the species. The writer has tested pieces of yellow birch, white ash, and Douglas fir with conspicuous incipient decay and found the specific gravity of the affected pieces to be-from 0.05 to 0.2 higher than the minimum per- missible. The same condition will exist in all species. Douglas fir with pronounced white cellulose pockets characteristic of the final stage of red-rot or conk-rot has been found in some cases to have a higher specific gravity than the minimum of 0.45. Of course, when sound such wood had a high specific gravity. Wood is weakened by incipient decay, the degree depending on the stage of the decay and somewhat on the species of fungus at work. Furthermore, if infected material is merely air dried the hyphe may remain dormant, ready to continue their work of destruction again if suitable conditions arise. The chalky quinine fungus (Yomes laricis (Jacq.) Murr.), which normally causes decay in the heartwood of various coniferous trees, either living or dead, has been found causing decay in the roof timbers of cotton weave sheds (5). Un- doubtedly this originated from timbers containing incipient decay of this species placed in the roofs at the time they were built, where the high temperature and humidity which prevails in such sheds soon resulted in renewed activity of the fungous hyphe and their spread to adjoining sound timbers. The rose-colored Fomes (fomes roseus (Alb. and Schw.) Cke.), which is common on dead trees and is some- times found on living trees in the coniferous forests of the Pacific Northwest, has been found to be very destructive to timbers in base- ments with high humidity and poor ventilation in the Northeastern States (26, p. 28). As a general rule, infected wood must not be used. It is extremely doubtful whether incipient decay in one of the laminations of ply wood can be considered an important defect. In the first place, the reduction in strength would be negligible. Furthermore, there would be but little danger of the fungus ever resuming its activities, because the high degree of heat and humidity to which the ply wood is subjected during various stages of its manu- facture must kill the vegetating hyphz. However, this does not prevent reinfection and subsequent damage if conditions for decay DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 33 again become suitable. Laminations with incipient decay should not be used in propellers. In this place the reduction in strength ‘need not be so carefully considered as the variation from the normal shrinking and swelling that would result. Unequal and particularly unusual strains and stresses must be avoided above all things in propellers. Incipient decay usually appears as a discoloration, in some cases pronounced, in others so faint as to be practically invisible. Most of this decay in airplane lumber was actually in the tree when it was cut or in the logs when they left the woods. It is rare that any serious effort is made in the woods or at the mills to cut out incipient decay. When the logs are bucked and sawed the typical decay is usually trimmed off, leaving the less apparent incipient decay in the lumber. After sawing, the upper grades of lumber, which include airplane stock, are usually handled carefully enough at the larger mills to prevent further damage. When decay commences in a living tree, it spreads upward in the heartwood if the infection entered at the butt, or in both directions if it occurred higher on the trunk. Very rarely do the decays in the heartwood of living trees attack the sapwood. Beyond the typical decay, that is, where the wood is decidedly rotted, extend the incipi- ent stages of decay, which become less and less apparent as the dis- tance from the typical decay increases. Finally, the incipient decay ends entirely. The wood beyond is then sound. The incipient decay rarely ends abruptly or evenly, but usually fades out in one or more irregular streaks, which may be short or long. It usually extends only 3 or 4 feet longitudinally beyond the typical decay, but with certain wood-destroying fungi on some hosts the incipient decay may extend 15 feet or more in advance of the typical decay. Fur- thermore, the latter is always bounded radially by incipient decay, and this boundary is often irregular. Boards sawed from diseased trees may contain all stages of decay or incipient decay, occupying part or all of the board. The fact that the fungi causing decay in standing trees may continue their work of destruction in logs in the woods, or even in sawed lumber if conditions are favorable, indicates the necessity for having logs removed from the woods, sawed, and the lumber dried with reasonable promptness. When lumber is green the discolorations indicating incipient decay are more intense than when the wood has seasoned for some time. During the drying process the discolorations fade in varying de- grees. Furthermore, if a new discoloration appears within one or two weeks after the lumber comes from the saw it is practically certain that it is not caused by one of the wood-destroying fungi attacking the piled lumber, since the latter work more slowly. A sap-staining fungus or a chemical reaction is the most likely agent in such a case. Incipient decay should be detected and eliminated before the lumber is worked into individual parts. If the entire piece is not defective the sound portion can be sawed out and utilized. In marking a piece for cutting, however, it must be remembered that decay extends more rapidly with the grain in a tree or piece of wood than it does across the grain; thus, to be perfectly safe, an allow- ance of 2 feet should be made in the direction of the grain beyond 34 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the last visible evidence of incipient decay, while across the grain an allowance of 2 to 3 inches will suflice. TYPES OF DECAY IN LIVING SOFTWOOD TREES. One of the most common decays in airplane lumber is that caused by the ring-scale fungus (Z’rametes pind (Brot.) Fr.) in the heart- wood of living trees. It may occur in practically any species of soft- wood, but is very common in Douglas fir, spruce, and pine. The de- cay, known under various common names, such as red-rot, red-heart. conk-rot, white honeycomb rot, pecky wood-rot, and ring-scale rot, is readily recognizable in its typical stage by the fact that the heart- wood is honeycombed with small white pits in which the wood is reduced to a soft fibrous mass of cellulose (in a chemical sense cotton is practically pure cellulose), these pits being separated by firm and apparently sound wood. Plate IT shows typical decay in Douglas fir. While the typical decay is closely similar in appearance in various species of wood, there is considerable difference in the incipient de- cay. In Douglas fir as a general rule it appears as a pronounced reddish purple or olive-purple discoloration, gradually tapering and becoming fainter until it is lost entirely. The color is often most pronounced in the outermost heartwood just where it joins the sap- wood. In some cases it appears brownish against the red or yellow heartwood. At the lower lhmits of the incipient decay, where it be- gins to merge into typical decay, a close scrutiny will usually reveal faint indications of the cellulose pits. Vertically the discoloration may extend 10 feet or more in advance of the cellulose pits, but radially this is limited to 2 or 3 inches. The discolorations described are often bounded by a narrow zone of pronounced red color. Plate IIT shows discoloration in Douglas fir with the formation of cellu- lose pits beginning. Inrare instances the first indication of the decay may be the tiny golden white spots or streaks which indicate the initial stage in the formation of cellulose pits. In this case the discoloration is probably too faint to be recognized, and material of this kind is quite easily overlooked. In white and red spruce (55, p. 32) this incipient decay first ap- pears as a change in color from the pale yellowish or reddish brown of the normal heartwood to a light purplish gray, which deepens to a reddish brown, with the gray forming the outer boundary of the reddish brown discolored portions. Next, the cellulose pits ap- pear, visible at first as very tiny black lines following the grain of the wood, but soon revealing their true nature. The discoloration is not. so pronounced as in Douglas fir. In Sitka spruce the tiny black lines preceding the cellulose pits are not found. The yellow pines first show the decay by a pronounced pink color which rapidly gives way to a red-brown; hence the names red-rot and red-heart. “During this stage the wood is hard and firm. Then the white pits develop, although in some cases they appear so spar- ingly that they are readily overlooked. Tn certain woods there is little or no discoloration with this incipi- ent decay. This is true with incense cedar, Port Orford cedar, and western red cedar, and is probably the same with other cedars. The first indication of the diseased condition of the wood is the appear- DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 30 ance of cellulose pits. Hence, the purplish red color commonly found in the heartwood of incense cedar (see p. 16) and western red cedar need not be mistaken for decay. As yet very little is known in regard to the reduction in strength due to incipient decay caused by the ring-scale fungus. However, it seems probable that such reduction is slight until the : appearance of the white cellulose pits; but it is to be remembered that pieces with discoloration contain hyphe which may again attack the wood, if suitable conditions arise. Consequently, stock with any stage of this decay should not be used. The chalky quinine fungus causes a pronounced decay in the heart- wood of many softwoods. The typical decay is a brownish red friable crumbly mass, often with conspicuous mycelium felts filling the cracks. This is shown in Plate IV. The incipient decay is very difficult to detect, as a rule. Even when the wood has been severely weakened the extremely faint brownish discoloration is not discern- ible to any but the most expert eye. However, the incipient stage of this decay in western yellow pine appears as a red-brown or pro- nounced brown discoloration in the pale-lemon to light orange- brown heartwood. The discoloration is not uniform over the evitire affected portion, but may occur on the radial or tangential face in broad bands of varying intensity or even intermingled with narrow bands of the normal light-colored heartwood. In cross section the infected wood presents a mottled appearance. The horizontal limits of the discoloration are bounded by a narrow band of pronounced pink or red. At the upper limits of the incipient decay the discolora- tion becomes fainter until it finally disappears. 'The discolored wood seems to be hard, firm, and strong, but in reality it 1s seriously weak- ened. Plate V illustrates this condition. The typical decay caused by the sulphur fungus (Polyporus sul- fureus (Bul.) Fr.) is very similar to the foregoing. However, it is not confined to softwoods. It is common only in the true firs among the softwoods, but is very prevalent among the hardwoods, particu- larly the oaks. The heartwood of living and dead trees is affected. The incipient decay is difficult to detect, being first indicated by a faint brownish discoloration. The velvet-top fungus (Polyporus schweinitzii Fr.) also causes a reddish brown friable 1 rot, which is, however, confined to the butt and roots of the tree. The mycelium felts are very fine and inconspicuous. Only softwoods are affected. Normally the incipient decay is very difficult to detect. It first becomes evident in Sitka spruce® as pale- yellow to lemon-yellow streaks or spires extending longitudinally beyond the light yellowish to reddish brown discoloration which characterizes the more visible incipient decay. In the latter stage a softening of the wood is apparent. In Douglas fir the incipient decay is first evident as a faint yellowing or browning of the normal heart- wood. This or an exactly similar decay in western red cedar is first indicated by a decided deepening in the color of the normal br ownish heartwood. The discolored zone often extends horizontally for sev- eral inches around the typical decay and for a foot or more in ad- vance of it. The discoloration may be confused with the normal ®The description of the decay in this species caused by olypor us schweinitzii is based on notes furnished to the writer through the courtesy of E. E. Hubert. 36 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. darker colored bands of heartwood which are found in some trees, but such bands are confined to a definite group of annual rings. Redwood is subject to a brown friable decay which is not con-— fined to the butt of the tree. The fungus causing this is unknown (57). The first indication of the incipient decay is a very faint light brownish discoloration on the light-cherry to deep reddish brown heartwood. This is most readily detected on the tangential face in the summer wood. When the brownish discoloration is plainly apparent, the decay has progressed so far that the affected wood feels softer than the normal to the thumb-nail. The typical decay is dark brown in color, very soft, and easily crumbled. Thin crustlike mycelium felts occur along the sides of the cracks. These reddish brown or brown friable decays which are so difficult to detect in their incipient stages, particularly in woods with a pro- nounced reddish or brownish heartwood, reduce the strength of the wood far more seriously than incipient decays of the red-rot type; in fact, the wood may be weakened before the incipient decay is visible. Consequently, in cutting out such decays from lumber it is advisable to leave a margin of safety of at least 2 feet in a longi- tudinal direction beyond the last visible evidence of the incipient stage. Incense cedar is very commonly decayed by the incense-cedar dry- rot fungus (Polyporus amarus Hedge.). ‘The typical decay con- sists of vertically elongated pockets, varying in length from half an inch to about a foot, which are filled with a brown friable mass, and the line of demarcation between the sound and decayed wood is very sharp. In some of these pockets small cobweblike or feltlike masses of white mycelium occur. The pockets are separated from each other by what appears to be sound wood, although in some cases streaks of straw-colored or brownish wood may extend verti- cally between two pockets. This is especially noticeable between young pockets. The pockets of incipient decay are at first firm and very faintly yellowish brown. This color deepens slightly, and the wood becomes somewhat soft. The incipient decay extends but a short distance vertically in advance of the typical decay, and a distance of 2 feet beyond the last visible evidence will usually exclude all decay. ‘The incipient decay is only faintly apparent, occurring as it does in pockets with the color in the very earliest stages differ- ing but slightly, when at all, from the normal wood. The fact that an occasional pocket may be found several feet in advance of the main body of decay makes this decay an exceedingly dangerous one. The wood, even in an incipient pocket is decidely weakened (al- though the intervening wood is apparently not affected), and this makes a weak spot that is hard to detect. Such cases are fortunately not common, and the fact that most incense-cedar stands are so badly decayed will probably preclude this species from any extensive use for airplane construction. Other woods are subject to similar decays. That found occasionally in western red cedar may be caused by the same fungus, while “peckiness” of bald cypress (Zaxodiwm dis- tichum (Linn.) Rich.) results (33) from the work of a different organism (Yomes geotropus Cke.). One of the most striking discolorations indicating decay and at the same time one of the most serious incipient decays is that caused - DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS: 37 by the Indian paint fungus (Lchinodontium tinctorium E. and E.). This is found on the true firs in the western United States, being especially prevalent and severe on white fir (37). It is also exceed- ingly serious on western hemlock (77). In white fir the first indications of this decay on a radial or tangen- tial section are light-brown or golden tan spots or larger areas of dis- coloration in the light-colored Hanviwood, which may be accompanied by small but clearly distinct radial burrows, resembling somewhat very shallow insect burrows without the deposit of excrement. These burrows are not easily detected in cross section. Next, rusty red- dish streaks appear following the grain. Throughout this stage the wood appears firm and strong, but in reality is so greatly weak- ened that boards may separate along the annual rings when dried. The discoloration intensifies, the wood becomes soft, showing a de- cided tendency to separate along the spring wood in the annual rings, and finally the typical stage is reached, in which the wood is brown, with pronounced rusty, reddish streaks and becomes fibrous and stringy. Hence, the name stringy brown-rot is applied to the decay. The incipient decay usually extends from 2 to 6 feet beyond the typical decay. Plate VI shows the incipient decay. In western hemlock the incipient decay is much harder to detect, because the initial discoloration above described so closely approxi- mates the pale-brown, slightly tinged with red, color of the normal heartwood. The wood first assumes a faint yellowish color, which is sometimes intensified by the presence of small, hardly discernible brownish areas. These areas later develop into the typical decay. The extension of the incipient decay beyond the typical decay varies from 1 to 5 feet. For the sake of safety 2 feet should be added be- yond the last recognizable yellowish discoloration in order to elimi- nate all incipient decay. TYPES OF DECAY IN LIVING HARDWOOD TREES. Hardwood trees are subject to very serious decays. One of the most important from our standpoint is the white heartwood rot (58) so commonly found in commercial] white-ash stock, caused by the ash Fomes (fomes fraxinophilus (Pk.) Sacc.). This fungus attacks the heartwood of living trees and produces a very characteristic rot. On cross section the first indication of the decay is a light brownish discoloration, often difficult to distinguish from the normal grayish brown or reddish brown heartwood. This discoloration is most ap- parent in the broad bands of summer wood. Next, there is a bleach- ing of the spring wood, during which it turns to a straw color, and then small white spots or specks appear. On the radial (edge- grain) and tangential (slash-grain) faces these appear as small whit- ish spots, streaks, or blotches, usually following the grain, but some may be at right angles to it if the decay follows a medullary ray. The whitish color becomes more marked, until the entire spring wood is affected and appears disintegrated. Then the fibers fall apart. The summer wood passes through the same process, but much more slowly, thus during the earlier stages of the typical decay causing @ banded appearance. The completely rotted wood is whitish or straw colored, very soft, and spongy, readily absorbing water. A section 38 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from a white-ash longeron with this incipient decay is illustrated in Plate I, right side. Appar ently mycelium does not occur in the brown discolored wood in advance of the white spots. It would seem that the wood is not weakened until the white spots are found, and the wood with the brown discoloration alone need not be rejected. It is an excellent hint for close scrutiny of an affected piece, however. The incipient decay is somewhat obscured in rough lumber, but is usually readily apparent on smooth surfaces. This stage does not extend many feet beyond the typical decay, and on long boards the latter will most likely also occur. Once the presence of the typical decay is ascer- tained it is a relatively simple matter to determine the limits of the incipient stage. Areas in which the wood failed to change color upon transition from heartwood to sapwood (see p. 16) can be differentiated from the initial stages of white-rot by their larger size, by the straw-yel- low color as opposed to the whitish of the decay, by the sharp line between the two colors, and by the fact that the spots are much larger, without becoming soft and spongy, than would be the case with the decay. Sweet birch and yellow birch are subject to a white heart-rot (32) which, although very-similar to the foregoing, is caused by a dif- ferent fungus, the false tinder fungus (Yomes igniarius (.) Gill.). The first indication of the incipient decay is a brown discoloration, not very apparent against the reddish brown heartwood. Next, faintly paler streaks or, spots appear, which finally become a yel- lowish white, strikingly apparent against the dark background. This stage is illustrated by Plate VII. In the center of these streaks small spots are found in which the yellowish white wood appears to have collapsed. Usually the long axis of these spots is parallel to the grain, but in some it may be at ‘right angles to it. The wood up to this time appears firm and hard. “Next the white streaks merge, the wood becomes soft, and finally the entire affected portion of the heartwood is reduced to a yellowish white fibrous mass composed principally of cellulose, the result of the delignification by the fun- gous hyphe. As in the white-rot of ash, hyphe are not found in the brown discoloration. Hence, no reduction in the strength of the wood may be expected until the very first indications of the whitish streaks or spot, which may be found as much as 8 feet in advance of the typical decay. One of the most common decays (24) on oaks and also on cer- tain poplars (Populus) is the heart-rot caused by the oak fungus (Polyporus dryophilus Berk.). The incipient decay of this whitish piped rot in white oak has a water-soaked appearance in the unsea- soned wood, but when dry the discoloration becomes hazel to tawny in color. The discoloration may extend from 1 to 10 feet in advance of any other indication of the decay. The next stage of the decay, which is best seen on a radial face, is characterized by whitish spots or streaks, usually following the medullary rays, which produce a mottled appearance of the wood. This mottling is the result of a delignification process; that is, the lignin is removed from the wood, leaving only the cellulose. In the final stages the decayed wood is firm, with a white, stringy appearance, and the delignification is practically complete. DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 39 A somewhat similar rot in oaks (24) is the honeycomb heart-rot (Stereum subpileatum B. and C.). As in the whitish piped rot, the first indication of this decay in white oak is a slight water-soaked appearance of the fresh heartwood, and when dry this “soak” be- comes a tawny color. Next, light-colored isolated areas appear in the tawny discolored wood, and pronounced delignification occurs. This is indicated by the appearance of very small irregular whitish patches in the light-colored areas. These patches develop into small pits with their long axes parallel to the grain of the wood, and they Increase in number until the affected wood is completely occupied. The pits are from one thirty-second to one-fourth of an inch wide by one-fourth to five-eighths of an inch long, and lined with cellulose fibers. At this stage the appearance of the decay is similar to the red-rot in softwoods previously described. Later the cellulose lining may disappear. The wood is probably not weakened by this decay until the light-colored areas appear in the tawny discoloration. An incipient decay is sometimes encountered in African mahog- any, the cause of which is unknown to the writer. This decay ap- pears as light-yellow, brown, or merely lighter brown closely crowded spots or flecks on the reddish-brown heartwood. These flecks vary from one-sixteenth to one-quarter of an inch long and are several times longer than broad, the long axis corresponding with the direc- tion of the grain in the wood. Such wood is weakened. TYPES OF DECAY IN LOGS AND LUMBER. In addition to the wood-destroying fungi which normally attack living trees, and which may continue to decay the wood after the tree is cut, there are fungi which grow only or principally on wood in the form of logs or lumber. Owing to their destructiveness, some of these deserve more than passing mention. Although it is true that damage caused by such fungi is due to improper handling of the timber during the course of manufacture and utilization, unfor- tunately such improper handling does occur and must be reckoned with. Softwood logs and lumber.—One of the most important of these fungi is that which causes dry-rot in stored logs or lumber and in timber in structures (22). The term “dry-rot” is loosely apphed to cover almost any type of decay, but it is correctly applicable only to the work of the dry-rot fungus (Merulius lacrymans (Wulf.) Fr.). This decay is more common on coniferous woods than on hardwoods. The incipient decay appears as a yellow-brown dis- coloration not easy to detect. Wood with typical decay is yellow to brown in color, much shrunken and cracked, and is so badly disin- tegrated that it can be easily crushed to a powder. Both sapwood and heartwood are attacked. Another common decay on logs and sawed lumber, particularly on railroad ties, is the brown-rot (62) caused by the brown Lenzites (Lenzites sepiaria (Wulf.) Fr.), which is practically confined to coniferous wood. The typical decay is brown, friable, and easily reducible to a powder. In the early stages of decay infected wood is darker in color than the normal. Sometimes the early spring wood of the annual rings may be completely decayed, while the 40 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. summer wood is scarcely affected. In this condition the wood sep- arates readily along the annual rings. Hardwood logs and lwmber—Certain fungi (Polystictus versi- color (L.) Fr., Stereum hirsutum (Willd.) Pers., and others) cause a sap rot very difficult of detection in its incipient stage. The typical decay is very light in weight, white in color, rather soft, and easily broken in the hands. But since the first indication of this decay is a taint whitening of the diseased wood and white is the normal color of most sapwoods, it is apparent that the initial stages may be readily overlooked. At the same time the wood is decidedly re- duced in strength. The decay is most common on hardwoods, but also occurs to some extent on softwoods. Fortunately none of the fungi causing this white sap-rot attack living trees of the species which furnish airplane timber. Red-gum logs when left in the woods for any considerable time are subject to a very serious sap-rot (59) caused by the smoky Poly- porus (Polyporus adustus (Willd.) Fr.). The heartwood is com- paratively durable. Boards cut from diseased logs are very char- acteristic and striking in appearance. Normally, red-gum sapwood is a light yellowish white, commonly with a reddish tinge. The sap- wood in a decayed board has a number of various-colored streaks or lines irregularly distributed from the end of the board toward the middle. These streaks are light orange at first, but in the more ad- vanced decay are a very light straw color (in fact, almost white) and are intermingled with lines and patches of bluish gray and the nor- mal-colored sapwood. Black zigzag lines may extend from the ends of the board for a distance of 2 inches or more parallel to the grain. The general consistency of sapwood with this incipient decay, which may extend 2 or 3 feet in advance of the typical decay, is firm and solid. Sapwood with the typical decay is badly broken down, being soft and pulpy and without firmness. This and other sap rots may be prevented by shortening the dry- ing period in the woods. Coating the ends with hot coal-tar creosote immediately after the logs are cut is also effective. Where possible, all freshly cut logs, particularly those cut during the spring and summer, when the rot develops best, should be peeled. Sap rots simi- lar to those found in the red gum are found in tupelo gum (Vyssa © sylvatica Marsh) and in maple. DECAY IN FINISHED AIRPLANES. Little information about decay in finished airplanes is available. In the past there has been very small chance for airplanes to decay, because the completed machines rarely ever were stored, and their life in use was a relatively brief one; but since the conclusion of the World War immense quantities of airplane material have been placed in storage, and the average life of the machines has been materially increased by changes in construction. Under average conditions there should be practically no damage to finished airplanes by decay. When in use there is little danger from this source, owing to the fact that when not actually in flight the machines are properly housed. The wooden parts in the interior of the wings and around the en- gine are most susceptible. In these places there is an increased tem- perature and relative humidity. Keeping the machines in a dry DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 41 place when not in use will suffice in most climates. ‘There is more danger in humid tropical or semitropical regions, particularly to seaplanes. Serious loss can easily result to machines through improper han- dling while being stored or shipped. Airplanes are usually knocked down for storing and shipping; that is, the machine is taken apart, and the individual assemblies, such as the wings, tail surfaces, and fuselage, are handled separately. When shipped, these parts are carefully wrapped in heavy paper and packed in solid crates. If these crates are left out in the air, cracks open up between the boards, water may get in, and then the trouble commences. Once damp, it is almost impossible for the mass of paper wrappings to dry out un- less the crate is completely unpacked. Varnish or dope does not prevent the taking up of moisture, so that the wood soon attains a moisture content sufficient for the growth of molds and wood-destroy- ing fungi, while the other conditions within the crate, such as lack of air circulation with the resulting high humidity and the higher temperatures, are ideal for the development of these organisms. Even before the wood is decayed the elements of the ply wood are very likely to separate, owing to the action of moisture and molds on the glue. Even water-resistant glues can not permanently withstand such conditions. There is no cure for decay, once it has started. The damaged part can be replaced and further destruction. prevented, but the con- stant aim should be not to let decay begin. Material should not be kept in packing cases any longer than is necessary. The practice of leaving packing cases containing airplanes or spare parts in the open for several months can not be too severely condemned. When put in storage, the parts should be removed from the cases and placed on racks, so that a complete circulation of air is possible around each unit or piece. The storage houses should be equipped with a forced-ventilation system, so that air of the proper humidity can be constantly circulated through the piles of material. The relative humidity should be maintained at 60 which will keep the wood at a moisture content of about 11 per cent, low enough to pre- vent decay, mold, or sap-stain. Circumstances will arise where planes are in use or while being shipped when it will be impossible to maintain proper conditions to prevent deterioration. In the warm climate and high humidity of tropical or semitropical regions in particular this will be true. It is advisable to have planes for use under such conditions constructed from a durable wood such as Port Orford cedar. Where this can not be done, methods should be employed to make the other species more durable. Wood may be moisture-proofed by the application of aluminum leaf. This not only prevents decay, since the wood is kept dry, but protects the glue joints from the action of moisture and mold. As a last resort, the wood could be treated with preservatives to prevent decay. These liquids are most effective when forced into the wood under pressure. Consequently the completed individual wood parts would have to be treated before assembly. Sodium fluorid could be used on parts to be glued, while coal-tar creosote could be applied to the others. The most highly efficient of all, 42 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mercuric chlorid, is unfortunately a deadly poison, corrodes metal, and is very difficult to handle. The subject of preservative treat- ment is one about which little is known as applied to airplanes. Little information is available as to what fungi actually cause decay in’finished airplanes or as to the types of decay found. Un- doubtedly the fungi most concerned are those commonly attacking the manufactured product, such as the dry-rot fungus, the brown - Lenzites, or the rose-colored Fomes. Fungi decaying the heartwood of living trees are not commonly found. When they do appear, this is practically proof positive that the manufacturer used wood with incipient decay in the fabrication of the wooden parts. SUMMARY. Among the softwoods or conifers the most valuable for airplane construction are red, white, and Sitka spruce, the last being most important on account of its large size and the consequently greater proportion of clear lumber that can be obtained. A. splendid substi- tute for spruce, and its superior where durability must be consid- ered, is Port Orford cedar. However, the supply of this wood is limited. Douglas fir, which is much heavier than spruce and there- fore not so desirable, is also extensively used. In those parts of an airplane frame requiring great strength and toughness, hardwoods are used. White ash is best, but white oak, hard maple, and rock elm may be substituted. Hickory is principally used for tail skids. Black walnut and true mahogany are unsurpassed for propellers, but yellow birch, sweet birch, African mahogany, black cherry, hard maple, and white oak are acceptable substitutes. As the supply of timber diminishes in the future, a wider variety of woods will be acceptable for airplane construction. All wood is subject to defects, of which one of the most serious is decay; but other defects which reduce the strength of timber must be recognized. Among these can be mentioned spiral and diagonal grain, specific gravity that is too low or too high, brashness caused by excessive temperatures during steaming or kiln drying, com- pression failures, shakes, pitch pockets, and insect. galleries. Decay in its incipient stage is often not readily recognized; but wood with incipient decay must not be used in airplane construction, since infected wood may be reduced in strength. Furthermore, the decay may continue if suitable conditions arise. The first indi- cation of decay is usually a discoloration of the infected wood, but not all discolorations result from decay. Marked discoloration of the wood, particularly the sapwood, usually accompanies pith-ray flecks and wounds made by lightning and sapsuckers. Conditions favorable for decay also promote sap stains. These discolorations of the green sapwood of various softwoods and hardwoods occur in two ways: (1) By an oxidation of the organic compounds in the cells of the sapwood when exposed to the air and (2) by the attack of sap-staining fungi, the hyphe of which feed on the organic com- pounds in the cells of the sapwood without attacking the cell walls except to a negligible extent. The discolorations are confined to the sapwood as a rule, but occasionally the sap-staining fungi, may dis- color the heartwood slightly. For practical purposes wood so dis- colored is not reduced in strength. DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 43 The discolorations resulting from incipient decay may be found in the sapwood or heartwood. Incipient decay extends for varying distances beyond the typical decay. In cutting out this defect it is advisable to leave a margin of safety of at least 2 feet in a longi- tudinal direction beyond the last visible evidences of the incipient decay, in order to remove all infected wood. This margin of safety is particularly important with brown or red-brown friable decays, since infected wood may be dangerously weakened by them while the incipient stage is still practically invisible. Many decays other than those described in this paper are found in living trees, in logs, and in manufactured timber, but the examples cited include both the most important decays and the principal types. For most purposes it is sufficient to recognize incipient decay as distinguished from other discolorations or defects without deter- mining the causal fungus. io a - we a eee ; eittaibareat np mbna e - Wii icin 1 Fiyit Me Te tthe 1) 2 ad sf Se hehe f pete | Abe oe cee Cink ba vin o7it: aed y Z daa thy ASS: \ 3 Nt -} Rs, 0] be ey ‘nan 7 ce ao a thats on tey aE : eye he 1 . i wat: an detyi* nA reaitha Be eT. tae chelsea sks Brae bat: larly was tater ws ET ellepeaie iat PORTE CYS AIRS 1 GFA OF PN VER at og ent res hy ywewetht Fe LPR Soop be tra hts F SP eT Aa ee ets PTEL EASE Peis ‘ }s i Lk Te hie Maul? SERRATE Foy ae j P spaying! 7 F get t ae Mi Tart? Me alk 4 el , TO aaa LR are We emotes ery ean ae fo angi 4 } ns . Va i Mh PLATE |. Bul. 1128, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. a yeve Seer et on. ese SHOWING BLUE-STAIN IN SUGAR PINE. FiG. 1.—SECTION FROM a RIB Wes, The dark-blue specks are the ends of the medullary rays. The pale orange colored wood at the right is unstained heartwood. FiG. 2.—SECTION FROM A WHITE-ASH LONGERON. The brownish discoloration with the small white streaks indicates t white A.HOEN & CO. BALTO.- incipien heartwood rot. PLATE Il. Bul. 1128, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. a 8 — ee Se OF THE HEARTWOOD OF DOUGLAS FIR. ECTION Cc 0 The light-colored na s a) ‘S) =} Sm os z98 ak too pay Hr oS =} ~~ 9 _ a ee re) ro ot oD oO Wert oH x oO os 13 Here) oS c E'S 56° at nm o =) ) a ical oe 3) ® ; oS o el f=") toa) ~~ o a a —_— Bul. 1128, U. S. Dept. of Agricu INCIPIENT DECAY IN DOUGLAS FIR CAUSED BY THE RING-SCALE f The white spots < the beginning of the formation of cellulose pits in the central scolored zone, indicating d: Bul, 1128, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. DECAY COMMON IN THE HEARTWOOD OF PINE, LARCH, AND DOUGLAS FIR. This typical decay, with the characteristic conspicuous white mycelium felts, is caused by the chalky quinine fungus. PLATE V. Iture. icu Bul. 1128, U. S. Dept. of Agr ul iS ao = e) oul) J oa) > Zz a lu ke 72) 2 ie e) (a) Oo [e) a= | a ea oO uu a kr Zz pl ia iS) zs g ° Ss 2 A) Ko) o et & ine fungus, in d heartwood Is soun ration indicates the presence of decay caused by the chalky qu The pale orange colored wood at the right Q, EN & GO_ BAL ie) A. Tu PLATE VI, Bul, 1128, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. peas ih iA etl ee se mck Pe mea aga ba ages rayon te i ap SN ee Nt Ee eg e ae Lae ae Fee poe ek auth St ae hg ee eS ee a ee INCIPIENT DECAY IN THE HEARTWOOD OF WHITE Fir. This golden brown discoloration indicates decay caused by the Indian-paint fungus. Note the contrast in color with the normal white wood, . ( 7 © ‘ 4 7 ’ i" . Y ¢ i en Ne H ’ ' ‘ i y . f . 1 f } i) r ; Bul. 1128, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. SECTION The incipient d (1) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) LITERATURE CITED. ANONYMOUS. 1919. Dipping treatment for prevention of sap stain. Jn Timberman, VarcOnno.its Ds.oo, illus: 1919. How to distinguish black ash from commercial white ash lum- ber. Jn Tech. Notes (U. S. Forest Serv., Forest Products Lab.) No. D-11. BAILEy, IRvinec W. 1910. Oxidizing enzymes and their relation to “sap stain’ in lumber. In Bot. Gaz., v. 50, p. 142-147. BETTS, HAROLD S. 1917. The seasoning of wood. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 552, 28 p., 18 fig., 8 pl. Buarr, R. J. 1919. Fungi which decay weaveshed roofs. (Abstract.) In Phyto- pathology, v. 9, p. 54-55. Boyce, J. S. 1918. Advance rot and latent defects in aeroplane timber. Jn Aerial Age Weekly, v. 7, p. 674-675, 691. Bibliography, p. 691. 1918. Detection of decays, advance rots and other defects in wood. In Bur. Aircraft Production, Inspection Manual, QT-—16, 6 p. 1920. The dry-rot of incense cedar. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 871, 58-p.. 3 fig., 3 pl. Literature cited, p. 57-58. Brick, C. 1911. Zythia resinae (Fr.) Karst. als unangenehmer Bauholzpilz. In Jahresber. Angew. Bot-, Jahrg. 8, 1910, p. 164-170. Biblio- graphical footnotes. Brown, H. P. 1918. Pith-ray flecks in wood. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv. Cire. 215, 15 p., 6 pl. References, p. 14-15. BurKkE, H. BH. 1905. Black check in western hemlock. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent. Cire. 61, 10 p., 5 fig. DUNLAP, FREDERICK. 1906. Kiln-drying hardwood lumber. U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv. Cire. 48, 19 p., 4 fig. 1914. Density of wood substance and porosity of wood. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 2, p. 423-428. EXNER, WILHELM FRANZ. 1912. Die technischen Higenschaften der Hélzer. Jn Handbuch der Forstw. Aufl. 3, Bd. 2, p. 342-442, 3 fig. Tiibingen. Biblio- graphical footnotes. FUCHS, GILBERT. 1905. Uber das Ringeln der Spechte und ihr Verhalten gegen die kleineren Forstschidlinge. In Natiirw. Ztschr. Land-u. Forstw., Jahrg. 3, p. 317-341, 7 fig., pl. 7. Bibliographical footnotes, GLOVER, H. M. 1919. Spruce red wood. Jn Indian Forester, vy. 45, p. 248-245. 45 (24) (33) (34) BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GREENE, CHARLES T. 1914. The cambium miner in river birch. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 1, p. 471-474, pl. 60-61. GROOM, PERCY. 1915. ‘“ Brown oak” and its origin. Jn Ann. Bot., vy. 29, p. 393-408. ‘1920. Brown oak. Jn Quart. Jour. Forestry, v. 14, p. 108-109. GROSSENBACHER, J. G. 1910. Medullary spots: A contribution to the life history of some cambium miners. N. Y. Agr. Hxp. Sta. (Geneva) Tech. Bul. 15, p. 49-65, 5 pl. Bibliographical footnotes. 1915. Medullary spots and their cause. Jn Bul. Torrey Bot. Club, vy. 42, p. 227-239, pl. 10-11. HARrTIG, ROBERT. 1902. Der echte Hausschwamm ... Aufl. 2. vii, 105 p., 33 fig. (partly col.). Berlin. Hepecock, GEORGE GRANT. 1906. Studies upon some chromogenic fungi which discolor wood. In Mo. Bot. Gard. 17th Ann. Rpt., p. 59-114, illus., pl. 3-12. Bibliographical footnotes. and Lone, W. H. 1914. Heart-rot of oaks and poplars caused by Polyporus dryophilus. In Jour. Agr. Research, vy. 3, p. 65-78, pl. 8-10. Literature cited, p. 77 Howanp, N. O. 1922, The control of sap-stain, mold, and incipient decay in green wood, with special reference to vehicle stock. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 1087, 55 p., 26 fig., 2 pl. Literature cited, p. 52-55. 18 {oats 15 de 1915. Dry-rot in factory timbers. 107 p., 70 fig. Boston. HUBERT, ERNEST HL. 1921. Notes on sap-stain fungi. Jn Phytopathology, v. 11, p. 214-224, 4 fig., pl. 7. Literature cited, p. 223-224. HUMPHREY, C. J. 1917. Timber storage conditions in the Eastern and Southern States with reference to decay problems. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 510, 43 p., 41 fig., 10 pl. Bibliographical footnotes. KHAN, A. HAFiz. 1919. Red wood of Himalayan spruce (Piced morinda Link). In Indian Forester, v. 45, p. 496-498. IXOEHLER, ARTHUR. 1917. Guidebook for the identification of woods used for ties and timbers. U.S. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv., 79 p., 8 fig., 31 pl., 11 maps. 1918. The “ grain” of wood with special reference to the direction of the fibers. Jn Bur. Aircraft Production, Inspection Manual, QT-138, 8 p., 12 fig. LINDROTH, J. IVAR. 1904. Beitriige zur Ienntnis der Zer setzungserscheinungen des Birken- holzes. Jn Naturw. Ztschr. Land-u. Forstw,, Jahrg. 2, p. 393- 406, 7 fig. Bibliographical footnotes. Lone, WILLIAM H. 1914. A preliminary note on the cause of “pecky” cypress. (Ab- stract.) Jn Phytopathology, v. 4, p. 39. * 1915. A honeycomb heart-rot of oaks caused by Stereum subpileatum. In Jour, Agr. Research, y. 5, p. 421-428, pl. 41. Bibliographi- cal footnotes. : (35) (36) (37) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42) (43) (44) (45) (46) (47) (48) (49) (50) (51) DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 47 McAter, W. L. } 1911. Woodpeckers in relation to trees and wood products. U. S. Dept. Agr., Biol. Survey Bul. 39, 99 p., 44 fig., 12 pl. Bibliog- raphy, p. 55-56. MacMirian, H. R. 1916. Timber trade of South Africa. Jn Timberman, v. 17, no. 8, p. 34-39. MEINECKE, EH. P. 1916. Forest pathology in forest regulation. U.S. Dept. Agr: Bul. 275, 63 p. Bibliographical footnotes. MuncuH, Ernsv. 1905-1906. Die Blaufiiule des Nadelholzes, In Naturw. Ztsechr. Land- u. Forstw., Jahrg. 5, p. 581-573; Jahrg. 6, p. 32-47, 297-323, 33 fig. Bibliographical footnotes. Nrcer, I. W. 1910. Die Vergrtinung des frischen Lindenholzes. Jn Natiirw. Ztschr. Yorst u. Landw., Jahrg. 8, p. 305-313, 2 fig. 1911. Die Rédtung des frischen Erlenholzes. Jn Natiirw. Ztschr. Forst- u. Landw., Jahrg. 9, p. 96-105, 2 fig. NEwtLtn, J. A., and WILSson, T. R. C. 1919. The relation of the shrinkage and strength properties of wood to its specific gravity. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 676, 35 p., 9 fig. (partly. fold.). OAKLEaF, H. B. (revised by Boycs, J. S.). 1918. Important defects in wood. Jn Bur. Aircraft Production, In- spection Manual, QT-10a, 18 p., 10 figs. PRATT, MERRITT B. 1915. The deterioration of lumber. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 252, p. 301-320, S fig. RECORD, SAMUEL J. 191J. Pith flecks or medullary spots in wood. Jn Forestry Quart., v. 9, p. 244-252, illus. References cited, p. 251-252. 1914. The mechanical properties of wood = 2 Hide: Nel sel OD se see fig., front. New York. Bibliography, p. 145-160. 1918. Defects in airplane woods. In Sci. Amer., v. 119, p. 212, 218- 219, illus. 1919. Identification of the economic woods of the United States . Wid. 2.. ix, 157 p., 15 fig., 6 pl. New York. MReferences, p. 109-117. Bibliography, p. 119-125. RotH, HILBERT. 1895. .Timber: An elementary discussion of the characteristics and properties of wood. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Forestry Bul. 10, 88 p., 49 fig. RuDELorr, M. 1897-1899. Untersuchung iiber den Hinfluss des Blauwerdens auf die Festigkeit von- Kiefernholz. Sonderabdruck aus den Mitt. K. technischen Versuchsanstalten, 1897, p. 1-46, 55 fig.; 1899, p. 209-239, 9 fig. RUMBOLD, CAROLINE. 1911. Blue stain on lumber. Jn Science, n. s. v. 34, p. 94-96. 1911. Uber die Winwirkung des Saiure- und Alkaligehaltes des Nihr- bodens auf das Wachstum der holzzersetzenden und holzver- farbenden Pilze; mit einer Eroértung tiber die systematischen Beziehungen zwischen Ceratostomella und Graphium. IJ/n Naturw. Ztschr. Forst- u. Landw., Jahrg. 9, p. 429-466, 22 fig. on 8 pl. 48 BULLETIN 1128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (52) ScHRAMM, W. H. | 1906. Zum Vergrauen der Holzer. In Jahresber. Angew. Bot., Jahrg. 4, 1906, p. 140-158. Bibliographical footnotes. (53) 1907. Zu den Farbenangaben bei H6élzern. Jn Jahresber. Angew. Bot., Jahrg. 4, 1906, p. 154-163. Bibliographical footnotes. (54) 1907. Zur Holzvergilbung. Jn Jahresber. Angew. Bot., Jahrg. 4, 1906, p. 116-1389. Bibliographical footnotes. (55) ScHRENK, HERMANN VON. 1900. Some diseases of New England conifers. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Veg. Phys. and Path. Bul. 25, 56 p., 3 fig., 15 pl. Bibliographi- ; cal footnotes. (56) 1905. The “bluing” and the “red rot” of the western yellow pine, ; with special reference to the Black Hills Forest Reserve. — U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind. Bul. 36, 40 p., 14 pl. (partly ~ col.). (57) 1903. The brown-rot disease of the redwood. Jn U. S. Dept. Agr., Bury. For. Bul. 38, p. 29-31, pl. 10-11. (58) 1908. A disease of the white ash caused by Polyporus fraxinophilus. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind. Bul. 32, 20 p., 1 fig., 5 pl. (59) 1907. Sap-rot and other diseases of the red gum. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind. Bul. 114, 87 p., 8 pl. (60) SPARHAWK, W. N. i919. Supplies and production .of aircraft woods. National Advisory Commit. for Aeronautics Rpt. No. 67, 62 p., 23 maps. (Pre- print from 5th Ann, Rpt.) (61) SPAULDING, PERLEY. 1906. Studies on the lignin and cellulose of wood. In Mo. Bot. Gard. 17th Ann. Rpt., p. 41-58, pl. 1-2 (col.). Bibliographical footnotes. (62) 1911. The timber rot caused by Lenzites sepiaria. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind. Bul. 214, 46 p., 3 fig., 4 pl. Bibliography, p. 31-37. (63) TreEMANN, HARrRy DONALD. 1907. The strength of wood as eneneed by moisture. U. S .Dept. er., Forest Sery. Cire. 108, 42 p., 6 fig. Bibliographical foot- noice: (64) 1912. Principles of drying lumber at atmospheric pressure and humid- ity diagram. U.S. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv. Bul. 104, 19 p., 2 fig. (1 fold.). (65) [1917]. The Kiln Drying of Lumber ... xi, 316 p., 54 fig. in text and on pl., 8 pl. (1 fold.). Philadelphia, London. (66) 1917. The theory of drying and its application to the new humidity- regulated and recirculating dry kiln. U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 509, 28 p., 3 fig. (67) TuBrur, C. von. 1897. Die Zellgiinge der Birke und anderer Laubhdlzer. Jn Forstl. Naturw. Ztschr., Jahrg. 6, p. 314-819, 3 fig. (68) U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Products Laboratory. 1918. Information for inspectors of airplane wood. Bur. Aircraft Production, Inspection Dept., 72 p., 52 fig., 2 pl. Washington, DAC; (69) 1919. Wood in aircraft construction. Reprinted from Aircraft De- sign Data, Bur. Construction and Repair, Navy Dept., 149 p., 82 fig. Washington, D. C. (70) WAGNER, JOSEPH B. 1917. Seasoning of Wood... xiii, 274 p., 101 fig. (1 fold.). New York. Bibliography, p. 251. DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. 49 4 (71) Werr, James R., and Husert, Wrnest LE. 1918. A study of heart-rot in western hemlock. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 722, 39 p., 13 fig. Bibliographical footnotes. (72) Weiss, HowArp F., and BArRNUM, CHARLES T.. 1911. The prevention of sap stain in lumber. U.S. Dept. Agr., Forest Sery. Cire. 192, 19 p., 4 fig. (73) Witson, T. R. C. 1920. The effect of kiln drying on the strength of airplane woods. National Advisory Commit. for Aeronautics Rpt. No. 68, 69 p., 22 fig., 9 pl., 27 tables. (Preprint from 5th Ann. Rpt.) (74) Zeuter, SANrORD M. 1917. Studies in the physiology of the fungi.—III, Physical proper- ties of wood in relation to decay induced by Lenzites saep- iaria Fries. Jn Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard., v. 4, p. 93-164, 1 fig., 11 charts (partly double), pl. 9-18. Bibliography, p. 154-155. (75) 1920. Humidity in relation to moisture imbibition by wood and to spore germination on wood. Jn Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard., vy. 7, p. 51-74, 5 fig., pl. 1. Literature cited, p. 72-73. DEFECTS OF WOOD REFERRED TO IN THIS BULLETIN, ARRANGED > BY SPECIES. HARDWOODS. . Page. Page. Poplar: Brown spots, pith-ra POGOe ECC GS tain eee eee 23 flecks______ e | ane 21 Ash, ae at Sue Soe 3,13 Whitish rot, heartwood____ 38 white: ack spots or Poplar $e WTS blotches, | sapsucker ppiaty Cube Rag Se ee =a 5 : Curly. 21a 20 wounds_——~--------- 20 Sapsucker wounds 20 Bluish gray stain, PE OR aa aa D Cea Gn sl a SOFT WOODS. Sa ay ello heart- 16.99 | Cedar: Blue-stain, sapwood_____ 28 White-rot, heartwood __ 37 RAS heartwood ca Tes 34 3asswood: Brown spots, pith- Cedar, incense: Brownish red PAV ECS suk Meee ts ta Pat a) 23 @reensstain. 0. a ER 99 Brown-rot pockets, heart- Birch: Pith-ray flecks__________ 21 ‘00 a 36 Reddish yellow stain_______ 23 Lightning rings———_________ 19 Birch, sweet: White-rot, heart- Purplish heartwood________ 16, 35 07,1401 010 bein A RRR ie Tate ee 38 Red-rot, heartwood Sse SSS 34 yellow: Blue-stain, sap- Cedar, Port Orford: Red-rot, KOO Gee ens ek 29 heartwood 222 eee 34 Brown spots, pith-ray > | Cedar, red: White streaks in NEO ee 22 Heartwood 2. 23) == 16 Decay ~----__--__----- 3 Cedar, western red: Brown-rot White-rot, heartwood__ 38 ‘pockets heakesoad 36 Pasa aie Spots, pith-ray 24 Purplish heartwood________ 16, 35 Reddish yellow stain______ 23 ReneS Ry ee -Elm: Gray color, steaming_____ 10 «ga 39 eee een Gum, red: Bluish stain________ Pate REO 5 ASIN oa =- = ee Orange to straw-colored rot, Cypress, southern bald: Pecki- Sap WOOd a eee ee ooh AO ness of heartwood___________ 36 Sap stains, susceptibility __ 29 | Douglas fir: Blue-stain, sap- Gum, tupelo: Orange to straw- wood 2225 es Sea 28 colored rot, sapwood_________ 40 Color variations in heart- Hickory: Sapsucker wounds____ 20 wood due to growth______ 16 Linden, European: Green-stain_ 23 Decay 2 eee 32 Mahogany, African: Yellow- Decay during shipment____ 31 brown rot, heartwood_______— 39 ich tiineer Sa 19 Maple: Brown spots, pith-ray Pitch pockets= === 12 fess res: Bete Tine 21 Reddish brown rot, heart- Reddish yellow stain_______ 23 W000) 22)... 2a eee 35 Maple, hard: Black-stain, sap- Red-rot, heartwood________ 34 SUCKERS yaa 20 Splintering tendency_______ 3 Brown spots, pith-ray flecks. . 21 “Yellow fir’: 2s ee 16 Maple, soft: Black-stain, sap- Fir: Blue-stain, sapwood_______ 28 SUCKCI SU) Une 20 Brown discoloration, heart- Brown spots, pith-ray flecks_ 21 wood, stringy brown-rot__ 87 Oak, European: Brown heart- 3rown-rot, heartwood______ 35 WOO Gi == Bek Ae ee 29 : : ; : Bs oraty aay F ~ | Fir, white: Brown discoloration, white: Blackish brown stain, heartwood, stringy brown- Steal === ae 10 nati 37 ee ea eee oe Lightning ringss eee 19 BE Dee ONG Siren tea 45 | Hemlock, western: Black check. 28 Brown-rot, heartwood__ 35 Brown discoloration, heart- Honeycomb, heart-rot__ 39 wood, stringy brown-rot__ 37 Tawny color, heart- Pine: Orange-red stain, sap- WOO ems ee 38, 39 W000) 22 2) eee 29 Whitish piped rot, heart- Pink color, sapwood —_______ 29 WOO Gree crm 38 Violet Stain... aa 29 50 DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS. southern yellow: Blue- Stain, Sapwood___________ sugar: Blue-stain, sapwood_ Brown-stain, sapwood__ Dirtistreakses ss 22 IX, |OUR TA Pink heartwood —-.---~ Orange-red stain_______ western white: Blue-stain__ western yellow: Red-brown rot, heartwood___-___ Red-rot, heartwood ____ white: Blue-stain, sapwood_ Brown to black blotches, TOOMMDULNS as Ses Pine, SV) 0.0 Cl pea ESERIES Spruce: Compression failure caused by— Faulty assembly___________ TEN tyes aly shes ieee Page. 18 | Spruce, ’ Spruce: Compression failure caused by—Continued. Steam) bending)=-= see oe. f AGS BL eet eae ee ee Spruce: Compression wood____~ Bitch apOCKeC lS ae eres Spruce, Himalayan: Red heart- NiVCO(O(G [eens ee eae eae ee Spruce, red: Red-rot, heart- AO LOKG eel eae Pe Lee Lie ee Spruce, Sitka: Blue-stain, sap- WOO Sete a ae ee Decay during shipment_____ Reddish brown-purple color, Jhrgedaneyay ti a\ene es cE Reddish brown rot, heart- WO O Gita eee CN Bing es! Red heartwood____________ Red-rot, heartwood________ Red-stain, sapwood ________ white: Red-rot, heart- BVO 0) Gh ee ie Ln asda eer 51 Page. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Secretary: of Agriculture... ee Henry C. WALLACE. Aeststant” SECrelanys= ee eee C. W. PUGSLEY. Director of Scientific Work____-________. HE. D. Batt. Director of Regulatory Work____-_______- WVeQULeTeB UNCON o> men Ole RE Ae ee eee CHARLES W. MArvin, Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Economics________ Henry C. Taytor, Chief. Bureau of Animal Industry_________-____. JOHN R. MouHtEr, Chief. Bureau of Plant. Industry. ee WitiiAm A. TaAytor, Chief. TOTES US CMI Ce ee be Mikel era b e W. B. GREELEY, Chief. SUR COALOT AC ILENUUSET Y= ee ee WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. BULCOIMO Tas OL Sa ee nes ee ae Minton Wauirney, Chief. Burenvof pntomoigy L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey _______-_-_-_=. EK. W. NEtson, Chief. LESVIRGTE Oj f TEDADAKO. [ROU ae Se THomAS H. MAcDOoNALD, Chief. Fizred-Nitrogen Research Laboratory_____- FE. G. Cottretr, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements__. A. ZAPPONE, Chief. | Division of Publications_________________. JouN L. Cozss, Jr., Chief. ; AD Tigi] ee ee ae RO ce re.. g CLARIBEL R, BARNETT, Librarian. | States: Relations Sermice.= = A. C. True, Director. Federal Horticultural Board _________ C. L. MArrattr, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board_________- J. K. Haywoop, Chairman. Packers and Stockyards a ee ioe a Morriwz, Asistant to the : Grain Future-Trading Act Administration_- Secretary. Oifice of ihe Solicitor. 2 = R. W. WILLIAMS, Solicitor. | . This bulletin is a contribution from— 7 Bureau of Plant Industry Witti1amM A. Taytor, Chief. Office of Investigations in Forest Pa- HavEN Mercatr, Pathologist in — thology. Charge. : 52 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 20 CENTS PER COPY PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT’ OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. vV November 27, 1922 A PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL STUDY OF MILO AND FETERITA KERNELS. By GEORGE L. Biwwet.., Leste E. Borst, and Joun D. Bowtina, Cattle Food and Grain Investigation Laboratory, Miscellaneous Division, Bureau of Chemistry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Purpose of investigation.........-.-------.-- 1 | Malting of kafir, milo, and feterita......__.. 5 Physical properties of kernels..........----- 2) SSUMMALY, ae eden ister dais Mee erect aera 7 Chemical composition of kernels.........---- Soi ibliopraphyee acne scare sneer aise eeeeeer 7 PURPOSE OF INVESTIGATION. The grain sorghums are a comparatively new crop in the United States, where they have been grown for only 25 or 30 years (2).'. At first their use was largely restricted to the feeding of farm animals. These grains, however, are now being used in increasing quantities for human food and various industrial purposes, and are receiving attention from manufacturers of alcohol and starch. Feterita and milo, which contain on an average 65 per cent of starch, seem to be especially suitable as raw material for the manufacture of high-grade starch by commercial processes. As a basis for a process utilizing nonsaccharine sorghums in the manufacture of starch and feeding stuffs, and to provide data for engineers who may be called upon to design machinery for their treatment, the Bureau of Chemistry has conducted a study on the physical characteristics and the chemical composition of milo and feterita kernels and the various parts into which they might be separated by milling. This study is a continuation of similar work done on the kafir kernel, the results of which are published in United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 634. Milo and feterita have the same botanical characteristics and the kernels very much the same structure as the kafir kernel (Fig. 1). The data on corn and kafir herein reported are taken from Bulletin 634. 1 The numbers in parentheses throughout this bulletin refer to the bibliography on page 8. 12343°—22 2 BULLETIN 1129, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF KERNELS. Fifty kernels of milo and 50 kernels of feterita were measured with a micrometer in three directions.? As the kernels lay on a flat surface; the vertical diameter was called the thickness, the distance from the hilum to the opposite end the length, and the dimension at right angles to these the width. The maximum; minimum, and average dimensions are given in Tables 1 and 2. TaBLE 1.— Measurements of 50 kernels of dwarf milo. a Mini- | Aver- Dimensions. mum. mum, age. Milli- Milli- Milli- meters, sag he meters. 2: TRANSVERSE LONGITUOINAL Fig. 1.—Sections of kafir kernels showing (A) germ, (B) starchy endosperm, (C ) horny endosperm. One thousand kernels of milo weighed 33.9 grams. Therefore, one kernel weighs on an average 0.0339 gram. Calculated from the measurements recorded in Table 1, the average volume of these kernels is 29.8 cubic millimeters and the surface of such a kernel is 48.3 square millimeters. TABLE 2.— Measurements of 50 kernels of dwarf feterita. Maxi- Mini- Aver- Dimensions. mum. | mum. age. Milli- Milli- Milli- meters. meters. meters. PTI CE TOSS: 25 bop beie cg Care tee eee caer CES «2 SE Eds cca EI 3.12 2.28 2.76 Wil S £8 2 SPD PA es aie Peele Nees eRe ee eee re): bese 4.82 3.83 4.18 1H i141 ee Seine RP ent OEIC. AR Oe Sala ee aie 4.85 3.76 4.39 One thousand kernels of feterita weighed 32.7 grams. Therefore, one kernel weighs on an average 0.0327 gram. Calculated from the measurements recorded in Table 2, the average volume of these 2 The feterita and milo used in this work were obtained from the Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of . Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and were identified under the following numbers: Dwarf Milo C. I. 332 and Feterita C. I. 182. MILO AND FETERITA KERNELS, 3 kernels is 25.5 cubic millimeters and the surface of such a kernel is 44.9 square millimeters. Table 3 gives the proportions of the component parts of the kernel. TaBLE 3.—Proportion of component parts of kernels. Bran. Germ. Endosperm. Average Average Average Kernels. Erop ae volume TEODOR volume EE ae on volume eral in kernel warciol in kernel array in kernel (calcu- (caleu- (calcu- separated.! fated). |Separated.! fated), |Separated.) fated.) Cubic mil- Cubic mil- Cubic mil- Per cent. | limeters. | Per cent.| limeters. | Per cent.| limeters. Conn eee See cae ers RE CN OAL. flo ale (eat Sele DHE be Seceuase 81h ee Gti: see aes CRRA Pt Se ed oe ee 6.1 1.02 10. 0 1.68 83.9 14.10 J Ce 25 Oke eee BS SA RSE pees See eae RO) 1.63 ii eal 3. 30 83. 4 24. 80 IOC CEI Caen emcee aioe ee iniaote ciclcic cisiviaiejwiceiwe 6.6 1.68 7.3 1. 86 86. 1 21. 93 The calculations in Table 3 are based on the assumption that the . different parts of the kernel have the same specific gravity. On this assumption the thickness of the milo bran would average 0.033 milli- meter, while that of the feterita bran would be 0.037 millimeter. It is realized that there are differences in the specific gravity of these tissues, but they are too small to affect the conclusions here drawn. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF KERNELS. Table 4 gives a comparison of the composition of the whole kernels of the kafir, milo, and feterita, on a water-free basis. TaBLE 4.—Comparison of composition of kafir, milo, and feterita kernels on a water- free basis. | Propor- Eth Card Nitrogen- | Kernels. tion of | Ash. et | protein.| Crd | treeex- | Starch. | Pento- kernel. extract. fiber. tract. SELES. 2 Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. GAT Re ear eHenmre & 100 1.80 4.10 12.70 1. 80 79. 60 61. 90 3. 30 Milo ware Se. 2 5255.2: | 100 1. 89 3. 47 13. 99 1.93 78. 72 68. 52 3. 95 Beterita:. 3) 9522. 100 1.79 3. 06 16. 69 2. 22 76. 24 64. 16 3. 33 In these comparisons the greatest differences are observed in the protein and starch content. The other results show little variation. In Tables 5, 6, 7, and 8 comparisons are made between the parts of the corn and kafir kernel and the corresponding parts of the milo and feterita kernel. TABLE 5.—Comparison of corn hulls and kafir bran with milo and feterita brans. Propor- E 4 : ther : Crude |Carbohy- Pento- Material. vance extract. | Protein. | fber. | drates. | St@fB- | sans. Per cent . | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. Cormbulls: 22-2522 5 52 7.4 : 0. 89 35:96) | Sseascoues 043.36 |o-3.-5--:-aleess Sees Kafir branes esse. 6.1 7 6. 80 4.80 16. 20 (ON20 Sake es oes 18. 40 Milo bran Sab SCRE 5) b 4. 33 7. 08 15. 36 70.16 1.60 21. 35 Feterita bran......... 6.6 5. 74 6. 85 13. 56 70. 90 3. 89 15. 79 -f BULLETIN 1129, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In studying these results it will be noted that the amount of ash and ether extract in the corn hulls is decidedly lower than that in the bran of kafir, milo, or feterita. These determinations in the kafir, milo, and feterita appear to resemble one another fairly closely. TABLE 6.—Comparison of corn and kafir horny endosperm with milo and feterita horny endosperm. Propor- B ek F ether P Crude |Carbohy- Pento- Horny endosperm. plea ait Ash ectratt, Protein. Aber dvatas: Starch. Ek . | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 0. 44 1.15 Ub eS) | aS scooses SO Piss asos3244 bsSss0ades - 30 - 70 14. 50 0. 70 83. 80 68. 80 0.70 - 56 -15 15. 11 - 69 83. 49 72. 24 - 69 -71 -33 19. 75 2.12 77. 09 60. 36 2.12 The most noticeable differences among these results are in the -comparatively high fat content of the corn and the comparatively high protein content of feterita. TABLE 7.—Comparison of corn and kafir starchy endosperm with milo and feterita starchy endosperm. Propor- u F Ether : Crude | Carbohy- Pento- Starchy endosperm. dn @ Ash. extract. | Proteim-| ‘Aber. arated Starch. EWES Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.} Per cent. Comin seat nce eecsee 20. 5 0. 26 0. 24 Ustet: S| Rw StHe SA SIN66)|Peoseen-ecltek cscscse Kia fire eee eee ae 35. 0 . 30 - 80 11. 66 0. 80 86. 44 70. 40 1. 90 Miloie esos ease 28. 7 Si -28 8.91 81 89. 29 82. 50 4. 35 Weteritan ooo ee 20. 1 - 96 . 64 10. 61 2. 38 85. 41 75, 84 4, 66 These results show a marked similarity, the protem content being slightly higher in the kafir than in the other grains. TABLE 8.—Comparison of the corn and kafir germ with the milo and feterita germ. Propor- F Ether P Crude | Carbohy- Pento- Germ. iio, ef Ash. extract. Protein. bat Gites: Starch. Sania Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. COT ee see sce 11.5 9.90 34, 84 LO SO) || Pee sees py eis Soocieg se cacsaess Kin firer as 5318.62 See yon 10. 0 13. 20 31. 50 19. 30 3. 80 32,20 feo peehoe 6.10 LST ees sae Rd eae aL 9. 46 19, 92 20. 84 O15 40, 67 1.53 8. 57 Meterita: [3523...0235 7.3 11. 35 25. 45 21. 70 8. 54 32. 96 2.16 6.95 In Table 8 notice is immediately taken of the low ether extract of the milo germ. The other results show a great similarity. A general consideration of all the tables shows that the protein content of the feterita is higher than that of the other grains. The horny endosperm in each case has more protein than the starchy endosperm. The germs of these sorghums are very similar in com- position. MILO AND FETERITA KERNELS. 5 MALTING OF KAFIR, MILO, AND FETERITA. While the work just reported was in progress the question of the diastatic power of malts made from these sorghums arose. For some time little attention has been paid to grains other than barley for malting purposes, as this grain has served the brewing industry satisfactorily. However, it was thought that a comparison of the diastatic power of barley with that of the sorghums, kafir, milo, and feterita might be of value. MALTING PROCESS (5). The grain was washed free from chaff, weed seeds, and other foreign material, covered with clean, fresh water, and allowed to stand for 12 hours, the water being replaced once or twice during this period. The water was then removed and the grain was allowed to stand for an additional 12 hours. This entire operation was repeated for such a time as was required to bring about complete steeping. The grain was considered thoroughly steeped when it could be crushed between the thumb and fingers and the inside was not hard or glassy, but soft and chalklike. SPROUTING. After the water had been removed the steeped grain was allowed to. germinate at a temperature of 15.5° C. In about six days the sprouts which had been developing inside the seed coat forced their way out at the end of the grain opposite the rootlet. The germi- nation was continued for from 8 to 14 days, or until the sprouts were about three or four times the length of the grain. DRYING. All moisture possible was expelled, at first at room temperature and finally at 40° C. It was found especially advantageous to observe the following precautions (4). To prevent molding as much as possible, the grain after being washed and soaked for one hour in water was allowed to stand for one-half hour in 0.24 per cent solution . of formaldehyde, after which the steeping in water already described was continued. The grain was germinated between approximately sterile damp towels to prevent molding and drying, the towels being replaced every other day. COMPARISON OF TEMPERATURE, TIME OF STEEPING, AND TIME OF GERMINATION OF GRAIN SORGHUMS. A comparison of the temperature, time of steeping, and time of germination of the grain sorghums investigated is shown in Table 9. 6 BULLETIN 1129, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURB. TABLE 9.—Cor parison of temperature, time of steeping, and time of germination of grain sorghums. Time of Malt. steeping. ara The difference in the time of steeping shown in Table 9 is due to the capacity of the various grains to absorb water, this capacity being governed principally by the hardness and compactness of the grain. The interior starchy portion of the kafir and milo kernels is harder and more glassy than that of the feterita, and consequently requires a longer time for the complete absorption of water. The time of germination varies in each case, but is governed to a large’ extent by the temperature. The grain required a shorter time for germination in cases where the temperature was higher. DIASTATIC POWER OF MALTED GRAIN SORGHUMS. After the malting was completed the finished malt was analyzed by the following methods: Preparation of sample.—After the malt had been thoroughly mixed and a uniform sample taken, it was ground to pass a 20-mesh sieve. Moisture —Two grams of the ground malt was accurately weighed in a covered weighing dish and dried at 60° C. in a vacuum to con- stant weight. Diastatic power (3).—Twenty-five grams of ground malt was extracted with 500 cubic centimeters of distilled water (free from ammonia, nitrates, etc.) for 3 hours at 21° C. and filtered. The first 100 cubic centimeters of the filtrate was rejected. Then 100 cubic centimeters of a 2 per cent starch solution (soluble starch prepared according to Lintner) was treated with 1 cubic centimeter of the malt extract of diastase solution for 1 hour at 21° C., 50 cubic centi- meters of Fehling solution was added, and the whole was heated rapidly to 98°C. It was next placed in a boiling water bath for seven minutes, and, without being diluted, the cuprous oxid was filtered immediately, dried, and weighed. The weight of cuprous oxid was calculated to copper by the following factor: Co, = 0.8882. The 2 weight of copper found minus the weight of copper reduced by 100 cubic centimeters of the 2 per cent starch solution (determined by a blank on this amount carried through the regular procedure) was divided by 0.441 (gram of copper in 50 cubic centimeters of Fehling solution), and this result, multiplied by 100, gave the Lintner value. MILO AND FETERITA KERNELS. G Acidity — Fifty grams of ground malt was digested with 300 cubic centimeters of distilled water at 15.5° C. for three hours. The acidity of the filtered extract was measured by titrating against N/20 sodium hydroxid and calculated to percentage of lactic acid. A comparison of the diastatic power of some of the malted grain sorghums with that of a barley is shown in Table 10. TapBpe 10.—Comparison of the diastatic powers of barley, kafir, feterita, and milo malts. Diastatic power. sige lactic Malt. Moisture. Moisture Dry Moisture Dry basis. basis. basis. basis. Per cent. | Degrees. | Degrees. | Per cent.| Per cent. 6.7 162. 174.1 0.176 1 RADI Dy Ss eee ase cece eee AEE So EA bea oh 8 0.189 RTT Meee eee eR mae ol eo ks ce ee Se | 6.88 9.5 10. 2 -221 BPP HELCHUR Sart ee Peed cist tees ce cost Eee ke SS 5. 22 35.0 CTS B IS Liar & Ae eviee Seer YE ea i Sk te SoS cies Srey es a Se ps 5.97 35.3 860) AES enen) Rem aEbneee *The sample of barley malt shown in Table 10 is of exceptionally high diastatic power, being much higher in diastase than the ordinary dried brewing malts, which range between 20° and 40° Lintner, and therefore can not be taken as an average representative of that type. From the standpoint of the brewer, the color, flavor, and percentage of soluble material play a very important part, and the diastatic power is sacrificed to some extent to bring about these factors through the action of heat during drying. The grain sorghums shown in Table 10 were malted under conditions that would give the highest possible diastatic power, the other requirements of a good brewing malt being sacrificed to obtain this property. The acidity of the kafir malt was determined as a check on the malting process for the purpose of showing that the acidity was not high enough to have any effect upon the diastatic power. The results obtained show conclusively that the sorghums investi- gated do not meet the requirements of a green malt. The diastatic power of these sorghums, with the exception of kafir, is comparable with that of dried malts, when malted under conditions that would give the highest possible diastatic power. When subjected to tem- peratures that would give the color and flavor required in a dried malt, however, this diastatic power would be too low for all practical brewing purposes. SUMMARY. On the whole, the kafir, corn, milo, and feterita resemble one another in composition and appearance. The proximate constituents of the kernels of these four sorghums indicate their value as food for man and domestic animals, and show the possibility of their being used as raw products in certain important commercial operations having for their purpose the manufacture of starch, sirup, alcohol, 8 BULLETIN 1129, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and oil, when proper machinery and processes have been devised. It has been found, however, that it would probably be impracticable to use them commercially for malting purposes. BIBLIOGRAPHY. - (1) Bripwett, G. L. A physical and chemical study of the kafir kernel. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 634, 6-pp. 1918. (2) CuurcHitt, O. O., and Wricut, A. H. The grain sorghims. Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 102, 68 pp. 1914. (3) SHerman, H. C., Kenpatt, E. C., and Crarx, E. D. Studies on amylases. J. An examination of methods for the deter- mination of diastatic power. Jn J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1910), 32: 1076. (4) Srewart, Rospert, and StepHens, Joun. The effect of formalin on the vitality of seed grain. Utah Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 108, Opps) 1910: (5) Wente, A. O., and Torman, L. M. Potato culls as a source of industrial alcohol. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 410, ‘p. 10-20.) VOLO: This bulletin is a contribution from— BUTEA OFs 0 ROMVISECY y= hes coat EI a Soe oe WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. Miscellaneous Division.........--------- J. K. Haywoop, Chief. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv Washington, D. C. v January 26, 1923 SIGNIFICANCE OF WHEAT HAIRS IN MICROSCOPI- CAL EXAMINATION OF FLOUR. By Greorce L. Keenan, Microanalyst, Microchemical Laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry. CONTENTS. Page. | Page. PUN POSELO lemme thodmemreeree sees as cece -ccee = 1 | Examination of commercial flours ...... ...- WIGWNOD) = 6 cogco cso ooRds Ons eqaO Ren BABBenene 1 | Examination of experimental series of flour. - 6 Examination of mill stocks................-- 21 SUTIN BY eee Sasays oes nce eee eee ee Tee 7 PURPOSE OF METHOD. Since the publication of United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 839, “The Microscopical Examination of Flour,” further study has suggested that the number of wheat hairs present in a weighed portion of the sample might be of value in classifying it. Heretofore the grading of a fear by the original method has depended upon a count of the bran particles and hairs in a weighed portion of the sample. In practice, however, the identification of bran particles appears to be a more difficult task for the untrained eye than the recognition of wheat hairs or fragments of hairs. The bran particles occur in the flour in such a variety of forms that an analyst unaccustomed to the differentiation of histological sections under the microscope may encounter difficulties in obtaining con- sistent bran-particle counts. The wheat hairs and hair fragments, on the other hand, are readily identified and the quantity present in a sample has been found to be indicative of the flour grade.* METHOD. The method employed, which is similar to the one described in Department Bulletin 839, with some modifications, is as follows: Carefully weigh out upon an accurate balance a 5-milligram portion of flour and transfer the weighed portion to the center of a microscope slide the surface of which has been ruled with lines running lengthwise and 1 millimeter apart. The flour having been transferred to the slide, mix about 4 drops of chloral hydrate solution (1:1) with the flour by means of a preparation needle. After making a uniform mixture of the flour and the chloral hydrate solution, apply a cover- glass 22 millimeters square and gently warm thr slide on the hot 1 The term ‘‘ grade”’ is here used in a general way, to classify the assembled types of flour. 16243—23 * 2 BULLETIN 11380, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plate until the preparation is properly cleared. The clearing is com- plete when the preparation becomes transparent. Then transfer the < ide to the stage of the microscope and allow it tc remain until no movement 1s evident in the mouue when viewed under the micro- scope. .Count the hairs and hair fragments. The magnification giving approximately 180 diameters here employed was obtained by the use of compensating ocular 12 * and 16-millimeter apochromatic objective. If apochromatic objectives are not available, an achro- matic objective with an ordinary eyepiece giving the same magnifica- tion is satisfactory. COUNTING THE HAIRS. The counting of a slide consists in the methodical enumeration of all the hairs and hair fragments in the mount (Fig. 1). By means Fic. 1.—Wheat hairs (180). of the mechanical stage on the microscope, no difficulty is encoun- tered in thoroughly and accurately covering the entire mount. Each hair and hair fragment is given a value of 1, the final number being taken as the value for the flour in question. SOURCES OF VARIATION IN METHOD. Department Bulletin 839 contains a full discussion of tests con-— ducted to determine the sources of variation in such a method. It is evident that the variation in the counts made by two analysts is greater in the case of bran particles than in the case of hairs. ,EXAMINATION OF MILL STOCKS. Modern milling processes consist essentially in releasing the floury endosperm from the wheat grain, purifying it of bran substance, and eventually reducing it to what is known as flour. Any manipula- MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF FLOUR. 3 tion in the various steps of milling leading to the removal’of an insuf- ficient quantity of the bran material will-eventually reveal itself in the Gnished flour. The method already described has been devised to detect such irregularities. ele The break rolls in a mill are designed to crush the wheat kernel so that the inclosed endosperm may be released and later reduced to the fineness of flour on the smoother rolls. The general practice in milling is to make as little break flour as possible. When made to any extent, break flour invariably contains a large quantity of offal, consisting of hairs, hair fragments, and bran particles. The middlings 90 180 770 o 9 ~ N $s Gj 9 8 9 See N NaS “A(R COUNT PER SWC. OF FLOUR o.-8 2 ye © 3 Z JO a oe oe ie ae J OR Ree ee ee ee SOD OCs NS 22 0, 3D ML, 400, nN Nn YS) 8 ©) (10) (10) (7) C9) 070) C12) (179 C10) €9) (8A) C3BI C7) Fig. 2.—Average hair counts on 35 break flours and 74 middlings flours. 4 BULLETIN 1130, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (granular particles of endosperm), on the contrary, are relatively free from hairs and bran particles after proper purification. To illustrate these differences in Breaks stocks and middlings stocks, a composite chart (Fig. 2) has been constructed. It is based on data obtained from 35 break flours and 74 middlings flours, the hair count being the average on all samples examined for each grade. The break flours in each instance show a much higher hair count than any of the middlings stocks. The hair count of the middlings stock begins to increase with the fifth middlings, indicating that the first four middlings are much cleaner than the succeeding ones in the series. EXAMINATION OF COMMERCIAL FLOURS. Commercial grades of flour generally fall into four more or less sharply defined classes known as “patents,” “straights,” “clears,” and “‘low grades.” As a rule the so-called patent flours are limited to those which are composed of the first-class flour streams, most often those ground from purified middlings stocks. However, stocks othe than first-class middlings are often passed into patent flours. When this is the case the proportion of offal in the flour increases. In Figure 3 the hair count of patent flours made from middlings stocks only is compared with that of patent flours containing lower-grade stocks in addi- tion to middlings stocks. The average hair count on 13 samples of patent flours made from middlings only is 13; the average hair count on 13 samples of patent flours made from lower-grade stocks in addi- tion to middlings is 28. When only one grade of flour is manufactured in the mill, it is commercially designated as a straight flour. It usually consists of all the flour that can be obtained from the wheat grain with the exception of some low-grade flour. Such a flour naturally contains more offal than a patent flour. The so-called clear flours usually contain the lower grades of middlings and break flours, although they may contain the purer mid- dlings from the tail of the mill. Naturally, the a) offal content of such flour is higher than that of Fic. 3.—Average hair counts on patent and straight flours. patent flours made from mid- 5 dlings only and on thosemade = The low-grade flour is made from low-grade Tonle stacks, va) Middiines Stocks, the better stocks in the mill having been only; ddlingsandlower already diverted into the higher grades. Table 1 shows the hair counts obtained on — the samples of commercial flours examined. As might be expected, — there is a variation in the counts for the different classes, doubtless due to the lack of uniformity in milling procedure. Figure 4 illustrates the differences between the four so-called com- mercial grades of flour, based on the average hair count obtained for 3 ~ 9 MWAIR COUNT PER § 11G,0F FLOOR MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF FLOUR. 5 all samples examined under each grade. According to the manu- facturers, these flours had been milled from hard, blended, and soft wheats, respectively, and the results obtained have been classified under these three general classes of wheat. TasBiE 1.—Hair counts obtained on commercial samples of flour. } Patent flours. Straight flours. Clear flours. Low-grade flours. Sample No. ie Hard | Blend) sot, | Hard |PleOt) sort | ward [P24 sort | Hard | Blend! sort wheat.| heat. wheat.) wheat.) 1 oa4,| Wheat.) wheat.) 7 a4.) Wheat.| wheat.) 7 444 | wheat. 34 17 10 34 26 40 45 61 72 91 132 27 9 21 25 55 22 31 147 65 68 129 131 257 15 40 11 45 28 38 114 73 32 131 94 145 23 27 32 33 18 58 133 40 39 112) 183 261 12 19 1 25 36 26 43 96 40 ys az 219 30 13 34 39 40 60 178 45 44 88 76 | 139 10 37 17 31 31 70 49 49 143 301 | 61 124 16 25 12 51 38 54 57 47 167 335 59 80 19 15 22 61 47 27 71 142 30 26455 See oaloos oer 9 18 29 87 30 71 93 | 98 66 LOS HI Fe ees. [Er iercterete 28 13 19 65 28 81 71 44 99 Pts sto ctl lOGOBGeo 31 13 26 19 29 40 102 67 1G Ol eer ocaesa SeSecee 28 al hchayeincve 30 26 26 22 204 s\ cress M5 Sina eyrsctterall Pee Ses |eie = lei AR Be Aa oe bk: 47 37 34 TE aS ae eiceesc Eapesoos| Sococcal heecic Ge 18} aes 3 || see See 61 45 39 OG ersten | cya eresell isis See orall sites eete | Serare clove Bho Fea aoeesre sta | ee aera 17 47 34 LDA il lance rail ayes citoe| esti reforal|| See SS Me sinew SG [scene es ek 22 58 38 Cy A Ee Ege i Uae amare ep ee IN Re eee PO oogand| AECeBae) Soe eeee BY clsese cae (he Sasa ee ISebeeea lInscoaon beaocss asacnes Bb) acvede a|Geeeeens Eon med iment lemme oD eet ere pss S e eoey ase cetera ate ve [ epee iio 2} 2 Sepa ol | SSO e S| Sor cee Cemerte al es Seren VQ ee ce cele ia crertons| Se ccrsratevallls aererete [emer ciate BO lo soda ol HE SARS SecHGoe Hemera Seeasee IBSS Saeeeue Beeeaan Meeroee |jasseceellooocece UPA | apes ee PS eas] VE 2 gk 62h Beysaiccrasrstnoell See OA ce ens) Intern ate bole Coon | GBA eS ee es See lsat eseses SA ceees S| Be Sane ere ee ee ee THO) Ae tl See te bee ec eee TOP JARS Bate ees eae Enea el [3 a Ne JSe8oel See ceee Beooses GoBSes ssl emaae aes 975 SS ES ae ween EEO SeS Uosicomaltcareos 1123 Ile Webel Gee es BE oeoe See sel eect 10a Baa) eessene eceeod EEEeaas os SSene DY lls cone cl Gee eae Geese ne Pee os) Eee Cif eee a bosenes Sesanes Papaeee eoaeeac Iie stags S| \Gbasece Seas0es lboeep oe lesoaces it o}8] Sees eatin paeTeee| Coto nae teomaoe 92))|| soe cl SSUR SSE Soaeese BBpsice aaseaes BO il eave. |setoceice Bele aaa oats comeree PAN) Se 2 | eel (ees reer S| aes ee ES Sa aha oe Bae ee Saollassosecd Popabed re seas By s engi ol ese eee ees eR es cid ro eae FASS | Re eet ee| ase | ee sy | e a ae aN Pe TSE RT SE hE RS tN TN See ood ava ieee coarse aaANIE le vcyswcet | iat sy onerar| eestoepates AS Pepeerr espe tS ch ET Rah SAI AN et Sie (ae | eI SE ete Sera cre tyere o/s | ete atet ate VS} |) SSR SE | GEESE ERE aes col PEAS sence Fes rs ere ke crams Zen eal [ee eae] (cae et RA eked be 119}: 5 Seas | BeSeeee eoce ae) Soecboa qeeeorta scone as Eaborad Saoeeee Seoaeee padeted cacene 41. dSsooo| | SO GReBal SSS HCas Seb octs Se tose tosercal SSecstel Sotaree ecient Srescoe) ie aes _ Average.. 18 21 20 42 34 44 110 68 86 182 109 156 1 As the flours examined were milled under different conditions the counts vary with the milling practices at the various mills. The average hair count on all patent flours examined was 19; on all straight flours, 40; on all clear flours, 88; and on all low-grade flours, 149. The average hair count obtained for each grade shows how distinctive the classification of these flours can be made by the method here described. With the exception of the hard-wheat clear flour and the soft-wheat low-grade flour, there is no indication that one grade overlaps another. The exception noted emphasizes the fact that grading practices in various mills lack uniformity. In other words, the same grade of flour from two mills might show a variation in the hair count as a result of the variations in the com- position of the finished flour. 6 BULLETIN 1130, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, EXAMINATION OF EXPERIMENTAL SERIES OF FLOUR. A study was also made of samples of flour whose composition, in so far as the mill streams entering into them is concerned, was definitely known. Table 2 shows the hair counts obtained on these samples. These counts are more uniform and consistent than those for the commercial flours examined (Table 1). The results have been plotted in Figure 5. An examination of the results obtained on the experimental series of flours, as compared with those obtained on the commercial flours, justifies the statement previously made that but little uniformity exists in grading finished flours in different mills. In other words, there is less overlapping between grades in the experimental flours than there is in commercial flours. HAIR COUNT PER 5 MG.O0F FLOUR Pcie es ae tee ee SS Seana re iS ea es |e hee es ta | ce dh eel HAS. = Bowe S 8 ey es he oe eae “PATENTS” "STRAIGHTS "CLEARS" Z0W GRADE" Fia 4.—Average hair count on 61 patent, 56 clear, 52 straight, and 16 low-grade flours. MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF FLOUR, i TaBLE 2.—Hair counts obtained on experemental samples of flour. ' Types of flour. Sample No. | 97.5 per | 90 per | 27.5 per! 2.5 per cent. | cent. cent. cent. 28 26 45 129 29 22 49 131 26 28 47 112 39 31 Cou Peeters > 29 28 1 eee 30 | 34 AI tees whee 30 | 28 49 124 Average 1 As these flours were made under the supervision of the Bureau of Chemistry, their constituent streams wereknown. A description of thestreams composing them is given in Department of Agriculture Bulletin 839. SUMMARY. Experimental data secured by the Bureau of Chemistry have shown in a general way the existence of a significant relationship between the wheat-hair count and the flour classified according to milling practices. Reliable informa- tion on the quality of the mill streams composing any finished flour was avail- able only in the case of the experimental samples of flour. Consequently, any suggestion as to the tolerance to be applied in a method of this kind would be justified only when definite infor- mation concerning the milling process, such as the streams employed in com- posing a flour and the cleaning of the wheat, is at hand. The data obtained on the exper- imental samples of flour, however, in- dicate the possibility of making an in- teresting classification based on the hair count alone. It is possible, of course, that the number of hairs or hair fragments from the brush of the wheat grain might differ materially, ac- cording to the variety of wheat used _and the milling operations employed. Nevertheless, an examination of a large number of samples representing a great variety of milling practices indicates that flours made from purified mid- te. 5—Average hair count ona 70 per cent dlings material show a low hair count, 373 "Sar cent clean ana. pet cont ee while flours containing lower-grade mil] grade flour. $ stocks show a higher hair count. HAIR COUNT PER S 26. OF FLOUR ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pecretary Of Agricwliure: eee 2 ones - a Henry ©, WALLACE. PAA SSUSLOTLG HS COT ELUT eee een ee. ee) ee C. W. Puestey. Director Of Scventijie Work... 22 sees... Were - E. D, Bat. Director, of Regulatory Work. ....2:..-..-See.--- Weather Burnes sue ce esis. - - eee -% CHARLES F. Marvin, Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Economics......-.------.- Henry C. Taytor, Chief. Burcau,ofaAnimal Industry. ca. -- =~ - Meee an - Joun R. Monter, Chief. Bureau of Plant Industry: 22. 222s eee= eee ... Wi11am A. Taytor, Chief. HI OTEST USEING ot ye Cea ee ee. I oe W. B. Greeey, Chief. Buycou opGhemisiry <3. WS eettes S250) Bee Pe WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. Rureawiof Sovsls s2:\54 se Be See 65 re RS Mitton Wuitney, Chief. Bureau of Eniomalogyas.-= yess... 422 L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau.of Biological Survey. ...--.--..225-42---- E. W. Netson, Chief. Bureau of PubhieRoads.2 2.2... = 32. aio. eens Tuomas H. MacDonaxp, Chief. Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory......-.------- F. G. Cotrretu, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements.......-.- / A. ZAPPONE, Chief. DiMSONIO fA Ub liCAONssm- bere fee ~ eee Joun L. Cosas, Jr., Chief. IS AUR TS HS CORI SE SOS ST Oe SERRE | NOOR so ciee CLARIBEL R, Barnert, Librarian. Wiates) Relaiions Serve asa saa ae eee eee A. C. True, Director. Hederal Horticuliuial Boards. -se=- a26= = ss C. L. Martarr, Chairman, Insecticide and Fungicide Board.......-....-..--- J. K. Haywoop, Chairman. Packers and Stockyards Administration........-.. CHESTER Morritu, Assistant to the Grain Future Trading Act Administration..-...-- Secretary. OPE OF ME SOUCiGr=- 20-8 ee tee eee: ee R. W. Wiru1aMs, Solicitor. This bulletin is a contribution from— Bupeaw of Chemistryes. = 5.2 Se. See. ae WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. Microchemical. Laboratory. .:22-....2.2-.-.e-- B. J. Howarp, in Charge. 8 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1923 A Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 13, 1923 THE FORMATION AND PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF FROST RINGS IN ! CONIFERS INJURED BY LATE FROSTS. By ArtTHur S. RuHoaps, formerly Assistant in Forest Pathology, Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Introductions 2s seers et eee 1 | Anatomical structure of the frost Review of the literature_____-___--_ 2 TSU TN eh a a oN General symptoms and macroscopic SUM Mary ee SS gare 13 appearance a aes SS ee Fri iteracures cited sewers swe nite INTRODUCTION. Various writers have shown that an abnormal or pathologic © parenchyma tissue may occur as an interruption of the normal course of the wood elements in the growth rings of coniferous trees, result- ing from a variety of widely different causes, which may either directly or indirectly influence the growth of the cambium. Among these causes may be enumerated mechanical injuries of any kind; attacks by various cryptogamic and phanerogamic parasites which stimulate the woody tissue to an abnormal development; abnormal physiological conditions of growth and nutrition which per se pro- duce a like effect; premature defoliation; and injuries resulting from such meteorological causes as lightning, frost, and drought. The last-mentioned.+’ee forms of injury have rather distinctive anatomi- cal characteris -s which are scarcely recognized in this country and additional knowledge of these is highly desirable. Owing to its close resemblance to the disturbances in the wood caused by certain forms of lightning injury which he was studying, the writer was impelled to investigate also the pathological anatomy of late-frost injury. The present bulletin is therefore designed as a contribution to our knowledge of the pathological anatomy of late- frost injury in the conifers. The material used as a basis of this study was collected by the writer in connection with his field work in various parts of northern Idaho, northeastern Washington, and northwestern Montana and was supplemented by material collected later in the District of Columbia and in Missouri. The photomicrographs were made by the writer from his own sectional preparations. | 18168—22——1 2 BULLETIN 11381, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. Despite the great mass of literature on the subject of frost injury, there are but * few descriptions of the pathological effect of the injury on the structure of the wood. In fact, the effect on forest growth of temperatures below the freezing point, or frost, is seldom considered, except in so far as it causes injuries the external mani- festations of which are readily apparent. The so-called frost rings, or “ moon rings,” as they sometimes are called when extending only a part of the way around the stem, occurring in young trees as a result of the action of frost, have been mentioned by various European writers, but it is only rarely that their structure and origin have been studied from the stand- point of their pathological anatomy, and illustrations of this abnor- mality are rare. Mayr (4, p. 36)* states that the stimulating action of a mild late frost on the annual ring already in a state of cambial activity exerts itself in such a way that in place of the elongated tracheids a short- celled parenchyma arises. According to Mayr (4, p. 387), this abnormal wood may occur either on only one side of the stem or extend entirely around it, depending upon the way in which the cold air strikes the plant. In either case internal healing ensues, pro- ceeding from the parenchyma cells of the wood, which fill up pos- sible cavities with wound parenchyma, while a new cambium is developed in the bark from the bast parenchyma remaining alive. In addition, Mayr states that if the frost has killed the bast together with the cambial layer, then the entire plant part dies. - Hartig (2) investigated the action of a May frost on the shoots of young trees of Pinus sylvestris. He describes in detail the for- mation of zones of parenchyma tissue, which constitute the so-called frost ring, in the growth ring developing during the year of the injury. He likewise describes the peculiar permanent distortion of the injured young shoots, a circumstance occasioned by their loss of turgor and consequent drooping after the freezing, followed by an effort to redirect their shoots upward. In many cases, however, the whorls of shoots were killed outright. Hartig also investigated the formation of similar frost rings in young trees of Picea “excels Lariz europaea, and Chamaecyparis Zawsoniana, but he illustrates their formation only in Pinus syl- vestris and Picea excelsa. He states that frost-ring .ormation was so frequent in a spruce 2 meters high that he counted 10 frost rings in a section about 15 years old, so that 25 rings were to be counted in a casual macroscopic examination. The frost- -ring formation ex- tended down into the stem parts, which were 10 to 12 years old. In the larch the frost rings occurred only in its youth, as in the spruce, and were found only in the youngest to the 4-year-old axes; in the Lawson cypress, however, frost rings still occurred in the older axial parts, and such ring formation was noted also in the interior of the phloem. Hartig gives the same account later in his textbook of plant diseases (3). : ge! numbers (italic) in parentheses refer to ‘“‘ Literature cited ”’ at the end of this ulletin. FORMATION OF FROST RINGS IN CONIFERS. 3 Petersen (9) describes and illustrates the zone of parenchyma tissue or frost ring which resulted in a double-ring formation in beech trees which had suffered from frost on May 17 and 18 in Holland. Tubeuf (74, pl. 31, fig. 1), in an article upon the pathological anatomy of spruce trees that were dying back from the top in consequence of drought injury, evidently for the sake of compari- son, illustrates a portion of a frost ring in a small tree of Picea excelsa. However, he makes no allusion in the text to frost injury, which would seem to be due to his apparent failure to publish the concluding part of the article. Sorauer, who was able to add the action of frost to the causes which bring about the formation of false annual rings (72, p. 320), later gives the details of an extensive study to determine the effects of early and late frosts on the mature and immature wood of a large number of fruit and forest trees (12). He found that erup- tions in the vascular cylinder are generally manifested either in radial clefts within the medullary rays or in tangential cracks within the cambial region. In addition, many cavities appear in the pith and the bark parenchyma. The separated tissue within the cambium region gradually heals over, after presenting the ap- pearance of a ring growth of two years. Sorauer discusses the for- mation of double rings from the activity of frost and gives the same account of this in the last edition of his manual of plant diseases (72) as well as a detailed account of the injurious action of frost injury in general upon plant tissue. Here (p. 577) he describes the brown circular zones, or “ frost lines,” frequently occurring in fruit trees after spring frosts and composed of collapsed, misshapen cells. The occurrence of this phenomenon was also investigated experimentally in artificial freezing experiments. Graebner (7), who investigated the action of late frosts on oak, beech, spruce, and fir, makes no mention of frost-ring formation as such, but does mention a wound-parenchyma formation that can be followed back into the 2-year-old and 3-year-old wood. Neger (7) investigated a tip bight of Picea excelsa with which two ascomycetous fungi were associated; however, they were found only on shoots that had been injured by frost. Sections of the stems, taken both through the dead tips and through the still living stems, showed a more or less broad zone of parenchyma wood or frost ring occurring in the beginning. of the 1913 growth ring. Since this parenchyma zone followed immediately upon the summer wood of the 1912 growth ring and was not preceded by normal spring-wood tracheids, it was assumed that a late frost was not in- volved, but rather an early frost occurring in the fall of 1912. While she frost of 1912 did not come particularly early, relatively low tem- deratures occurred in comparison with other years, following upon 1 cold wet summer, which greatly retarded the maturation of the ixial growth of that year. This injury therefore was considered to ye more nearly due to the action of the winter frost upon immature wood. Tubeuf (75) had previously briefly described and illustrated i tip blight of Pzcea excelsa due to the same causes, but he does 10t go into the pathological anatomy of the injured shoots. Accord- ng to Neger, the frost injury had the effect of suspending or at least 4 BULLETIN 1131, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. reducing the bark pressure, with the result that a zone of paren- chyma wood was developed as the first growth in the following spring instead of the normal tracheidal wood, in so far as the stem had remained living and continued its annual ring formation. In his textbook, which appeared later, Neger (8) briefly describes frost pee and reproduces an illustration of one caused by this winter rost. Somerville (17) describes an abnormal zone of parenchyma tissue that is very closely related to frost rings, if not actually identical with them. ‘This abnormal zone occurred in the early-spring wood of a large percentage of young conifers whose wood he had occa- sion toexamine. All of the species examined, including Larix lepto- lepis, Pseudotsuga douglasi (=P. taxifolia), Tsuga albertiana (=f. mertensiana), Cedrus deodara, Thuja plicata, and Picea sitchensis, exhibited more or less of the injury. Somerville describes the abnormal wood formation only for Larix leptolepis. He says that the abnormal wood formed in the early part of 1912 is easily distinguished by the naked eye. On a cross section it appears as a narrow brown ring, while on a radial section it forms a thin brown streak. A microscopic examination shows that the medullary rays are seen to pursue a most irregular course and to consist of much elongated and swollen cells. The rays fre- quently are discontinuous with those of the previous ring. The in- tervening cells, many of which have walls much thickened, instead of getting smaller as one proceeds outward, have a tendency to be- come larger. A radial section along the junction of the normal summer wood and the abnormal spring wood of 1912 shows that the abnormal zone of tissue is largely composed of irregularly shaped parenchymatous cells with simple pits and rectangular trans- verse walls. It will thus be seen that the foregoing description of Somerville’s abnormal wood formation agrees closely with Neger’s description of frost rings, especially since they occur following im- mediately upon the summer wood of the preceding growth ring. Somerville, however, states that the cause would appear to be the excessive heat and drought of the summer and fall of 1911, which seriously affected the growth of many trees, notably the Japanese larch. He says: This climatic condition evidently so upset the normal function of the cam- bium that when the wood of 1912 came to be formed it was found to deviate greatly from the usual type. However, from a consideration of Somerville’s description and illustrations of the injury, together with the fact that it occurred also in the spring wood of other years, the writer is inclined to re- gard this injury as the result of frost rather than of drought. This view appears to gain credence when it is considered that, inasmuch as the drought occurred during the summer of 1911, it would seem likely that the injury to the cambium must have occurred in ample time to have registered in the latter part of the 1911 ring, whereas it did not register until the beginning of the growth ring of the following year. Mix (6) describes and illustrates the formation of a zone of pul chyma wood in apple trees varying in age from 2 to 8 years, follow- ing an injury to the cambium due to freezing while in the dormant FORMATION OF FROST RINGS IN CONIFERS. 5 condition. Macroscopically the injury appeared as a brown line between two annual rings. A microscopic examination showed that the wood first formed in the spring following the injury was a com- paratively narrow zone of parenchyma wood, that the normal xylem was soon laid down outside of this zone, and that the remainder of the growth ring was normal. The medullary rays, which had be- come enlarged and spread out tangentially, could be traced into this parenchyma zone. Mention is made of a yellowish brown amorphous substance occurring in the intercellular spaces. While Mix was un- able to definitely determine the exact nature of this substance, the writer, from his investigation of this group of substances (10), would regard the brown color as a sign of humification and the brown substance itself as a huminlike compound originating as a de- composition product of the cell contents of the cells killed by frost. The type of frost injury which Mix described is closely related to that described by Neger (7) in Picea excelsa. GENERAL SYMPTOMS AND MACROSCOPIC APPEARANCE. During the field season of 1921 the writer repeatedly observed in frost localities on cut-over lands in Washington, Idaho, and Mon- tana areas of coniferous reproduction on which a large percentage of the young trees showed the effect of repeated late frosts, both -externally and internally. In unusually severe cases the young growth had been killed back until the trees had developed an abnormally compact bushy form.’ Such a growth form, which was by no means common in such native trees as Thuja plicata, Tsuga heterophylla, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Larix occidentalis, Picea engelmanni, Abies lasiocarpa, and 7'suga. mertensiana, was rarely observed in Pinus contorta, P. ponderosa, and P. albicaulis.2 It was extremely common, however, in Abies grandis (Pl. I, A). The greater tendency of young trees of Abzes grandis to assume this compact bushy form after injury by late frost is due to the great readiness with which this species develops com- pensatory shoots. Since the recovery of any given species from frost injury depends largely upon its ability to retain dormant buds which give rise to such compensatory shoots, it should rank very high in both Abzes grandis and.A. concolor. In the cases of less severe injury the trees did not develop any particularly compact bushy form and often did not appear unusual in any way, yet the same frost rings occurred in the wood, although less frequently and perhaps only in the wood increment of but a ‘single year. Where such frost rings occurred, however, it could be detected upon close examination in practically all cases investigated by the writer that the original terminal shoot of the stem in ques- tion had been killed back by frost after the initiation of its growth, and that in some cases the same had happened one or more times to the volunteer shoots. In this connection the writer wishes to state that he has never observed in any of the coniferous species studied 2The writer wishes to make it clear that he does not consider all cases of the broom- ing of young conifers to be due to late-frost injury, since this abnormal form of growth may be induced by parasitic fungi alone. In the latter case, however, the formation of frost rings does not occur within the zones of annual increment. 3 Host names for American species follow the usage in the publications of George B. Sudworth, of the United States Forest Service. 6 BULLETIN 1131, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by him any pronounced permanent distortion of the living shoots which would indicate injury by late frost, except in the case of Pinus densiflora Sieb. and Zuce., a Japanese species which will be considered later, In every case where the terminal growth had been killed, a narrow brownish zone of abnormal tissue, or frost ring, could be traced from the base of the dead shoot down the stem for a distance of several inches, or often for several feet in the case of saplings. This zone of abnormal tissue, which has the appearance of a brownish stripe in sections of the stem, usually occurred in the immediate beginning of the growth ring or else a short distance beyond the outer limit of the growth ring of the preceding year. In the latter case it gave the ap- pearance of a double ring formation, especially when the growth rings were rather narrow. As a rule, the action of late frost manifests itself in a closed ring, although occasionally the zone of injury ap- pears only on one side of the stem. In no case of late-frost injury observed by the writer was any external sign of mechanical injury to the bark visible. Measurements of the linear extent of the frost rings were made in only a few instances where larger trees were involved, since this point was not deemed of any particular importance. In general, it may be said that in the smaller trees they usually extend down to or nearly to the ground line. In the larger trees, however, they terminate rather abruptly as the older and therefore better protected portion of the stem is reached. While the writer has observed the occurrence of frost rings in the outer growth rings of saplings of Larix occidentalis and Pseudotsuga taxifolia 2 inches in diameter, he has not observed their occurrence in coniferous stems of larger size at the time of the injury. Frost-ring formation, however, often occurs in larger stems of fruit trees that are subject to various forms of frost injury. The latter in general, however, perhaps due in part to the cultural practices employed, are more susceptible to frost injury than the coniferous trees. Detailed stem-analysis data are recorded for four saplings of Larix occidentalis from an area in which frost rings were found to be especially numerous, as mentioned below. Stem ANALYSIS OF LARIX OCCIDENTALIS SAPLINGS WITH Frost Rines, Cur at JonE, WASH., AUGUST 24, 1920. Tree No. 1—The tip of the original leader formed in 1918 had been killed and was dead down to an elevation of 223 centimeters above the ground, at which point a 2-year-old volunteer had developed subsequent to the injury, giving the sapling a total height of 278 centimeters. A conspicuous brownish zone of parenchyma wood, located in the 1919 growth ring and developed very soon after the initiation of the growth of that year (PI. II, C), could be traced down the stem to an elevation of 65 centimeters above the ground, at which point it was no longer apparent under a hand lens. A section of the wood at this point showed under the microscope practically no distortion of the wood elements. Tree No. 2—Another sapling, with a height of 365 centimeters and with no evidence of any external injury or dead terminal shoot, showed upon dissection a similar brownish zone of parenchyma formed shortly after the beginning of the 1919 growth ring. This line of parenchyma could be traced from the apex of the 1918 growth, at an elevation of 300 centimeters, down the stem to an elevation of 175 centimeters, below which point it was no longer in evidence. Tree No. 3—In this case the original leader had been killed, and a volunteer leader 2 years old had been put out at a height of 158 centimeters, just below the dead tip of the 1918 growth. A brownish zone of parenchyma, formed shortly after the beginning of the 1919 growth ring, was traceable down the stem FORMATION OF FROST RINGS IN CONIFERS. 7 directly from the base of the volunteer leadex, at an elevation of 15S centi- meters to an elevation of 30 centimeters above the ground. In these first three trees there was no evidence of any frost injury in the growth rings of any year other than those enumerated. Tree No. 4.—The original leader of this sapling had been killed, and a 2-year- old volunteer had been established at a height of 237 centimeters just below the dead tip of the 1918 growth, giving the tree a height of 300 centimeters. es" 5 Or 4 o ee ; pes x - ; ; oz; 7 Gat Ms Sal « ‘eee aeons @a6>~ Tis geet* | 2 OB < * i 25 saat @' ? ee a oo ~@ PAC FROST INJURY TO PINUS MONTICOLA AND PINUS ALBICAULIS. A .—Transverse section through a stem of Pinus monticola, showing the termination of the pre- ceding annual ring (at the outer margin of the resin canal at bottom of picture) and three frost rings occurring in the early portion of the succeeding growthring. (X135.) B.—Transverse section through a frost ring in Pinus albicaulis, showing the crumpling of the wood cells that were but slightly lignified at the time of freezing and the formation of a radial cleft (at the left) which has become filled by large-celled parenchyma. (X135.) Bul. 1131, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. ¢ oa =a. rg 7 gd ege or 1s 6466 Ott FROST INJURY TO TSUGA MERTENSIANA, CHAMAECYPARIS LAWSONIANA, AND SEQUOIA WASHINGTONIANA. A —Transverse section through frost ring in Tsuga mertensiana, showing the outer face of a pre- ceding growth ring at bottom and a large number of well-lignified tracheids developed before the freezing; also a radial cleft (at upper left-hand corner) filled up with large-celled parenchyma. (135.) B—Transverse section through a frost ring occupying a median position in a growth ring of Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, showing an unusually broad zone of dark-brown parenchyma and radial clefts also filled up with large-celled parenchyma. ( 135.) CW—Frost ring occurring at the outer limit of a summer-wood formation in Sequoia washingloniana, showing a series of radial clefts subsequently filled up with large-celled parenchyma. (135.) FORMATION OF FROST RINGS IN CONIFERS. ) The already thick-walled but still unlignified cells collapse also, their walls presenting a crumpled appearance (Pl. II, 4; Pl. V, B). After the thawing, the cell tissue that has been compressed ‘does not expand to its previous form and size, but remains permanently distorted. In the cases of the more severe injury there begins at the periphery of the wood formed before the injury a more or less broad zone of large-celled parenchyma, which is distinguished by its greatly thickened simple-pitted walls and by the dark-brown color of the walls and the cell contents. This zone of parenchyma tissue quickly passes over into tracheidal tissue, which at first is usually somewhat larger celled than that developed before the frost injury, but which quickly becomes typical. In this manner the frost injury results in the formation of a false ring, especially if it occurs after the development of several spring-wood tracheids (Pl. IV, B; Pl. V, AY PIVi,'A and 2). ‘As may ‘be seen from the accompanying reproductions of photo- micrographs, the frost rings exhibit great dissimilarity in structure, according to the degree of intensity of the frost action and the sus- ceptibility of the wood tissue at the time of its occurrence. The medullary rays, which extend through the frost ring and stretch in accordance with the stress exerted upon them, naturally suffer most from the displacement of the tissue. Their deformation varies according to the severity of the injury, but in general is very characteristic. On the inner side of the frost ring the rays widen out abruptly, often becoming 2-seriate or 3-seriate ‘instead of uniseriate (Pl. IV, B; Pl. II, 8B). The rays apparently are stimu- lated to lateral broadening by the diminution of the pressure nor- mally exerted by the adjoining wood elements, caused by the crush- ing together of the young wood elements. This broadening ensues | immediately in the region of the frozen young wood and reaches its greatest extent within the region which, in the frozen condition, was filled by ice. In addition to broadening out laterally, the rays usually are also more or less sharply displaced, often undergoing a knee-shaped bending (Pl. Il, A and (). Within any one stem the medullary rays are usually, although by no means always, dis- placed uniformly either to the one side or to the other. As the wood ring enlarges after the thawing, the medullary rays are brought into an oblique position and later grow out again in their original direction, continuing in equal number in the newly formed wood and causing the wood tissue to appear as though a fault had oc- curred in it. The lateral displacement of the medullary rays appar- ently depends upon the circumstance that their stretching during the ice formation remains preserved after the thawing. This later al expansion and displacement of the medullary rays is by far the most conspicuous and characteristic feature of late-frost injury and is a constant feature of all injuries to wood by late frost. In at least the more severe cases of injury the frost ring is further accentu- ated by a more or less broad zone of brownish parenchyma tissue. There also may arise after the thawing a series of radial gaps or clefts, occurring with variable frequency and conspicuousness within the tracheidal tissue, where it had been stretched apart pre- viously by the excessive tangential contraction. With subsequent growth, these tissue gaps become filled with lar ge-celled parenchyma 10 BULLETIN 1131, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. derived from the new cambial formation (Pl. V, B; Pl. VI, 2 and (’.) An unusually striking example of this radial cleft formation occurred in the frost rings observed in stems of Sequoia washing- toniana, where clefts were present not only in the early formed portion of the growth ring but also at the outer limit of the summer- wood formation (Pl. VI, @). In the latter case the frost rings ap- peared to lie between the summer wood of one growth ring and the spring wood of the next, so that there- was no sharp demarcation between the two annual rings except where the frost ring did not extend completely around the stem. Still other stents ‘from the same material, which had been injured by frost near the close of the growing season and had died without sulieeqenn growth, ex- hibited the same radial clefts at the periphery of the xylem, but in this case the clefts were still open and free from any occlusion by parenchyma cells. Such tissue disturbances result in a very pro- nounced false ring formation. A large part of the phenomena which come to light in frost injuries to young stems, however they may vary, can be traced to simple mechanical processes. Sorauer (12) has ‘proved exper imentally that processes of loosening are initiated in the cell membranes by the action of frost; and this explains the formation of this parenchyma zone instead of the normal wood elements as the result of a weaken- ing of the compressing influence exerted by the bark girdle on the youngest tissue, that is, the cambium. According to “Sorauer, the frost, without necessarily forming ice crystals in the intercellular spaces, contracts the tissue in direct proportion to the thinness of the walls of the tissue. The bark suffers considerably more than the wood, which, reached later, cools down less easily and contracts less. The tangential contraction is greater than the radial. As Sorauer states, “this difference acts like a one-sided strain and exerts itself in the direction of the circumference of the trunk, to which the different layers of the bark will respond to a different degree when the bark as a whole is very young. Consequently, with “the action of the frost there must take place everywhere within a woody axis a preponderance of tangential strain over radial contraction, and under certain circumstances this must increase to a radial split- ting of the tissue. With an equal degree of contraction at all points in the bark, the cells lying nearest the periphery and most elongated in the direction of the circumference of the trunk will be the most displaced. As Sorauer also states, if one considers that the outer cells of the primary bark, because of the greater coarseness of their walls, are not as elastic as the underlying thinner walled ones, it is clear that when the strain ceases in them the permanent stretching, caused by the incomplete elasticity, will be the greatest there. After the action of the frost, which continues but a short time in late frosts, has stopped, the tissue that has become stretched is not sufliciently elastic to contract again to its original volume, and the cells retain their distended and distorted form. In this way each frost action leaves behind an excessive lengthening of the peripheral tissue layers in proportion to the adjacent layers which lie more toward the inside. The bark body as a whole is therefore larger and either does not have room enough on the wood cylinder, so that in places it is raised up from it, or it at least decreases its constricting influence on the FORMATION OF FROST RINGS IN CONIFERS. 11 cambial elements of the wood cylinder. The cambial zone responds to this with the formation of parenchyma wood, as may be seen in every wound in which the bark is raised. If the bark girdle closes together again into a connected layer the cambial cylinder by growth in thickness must again resist the constricting effect of the bark and on this account again forms normal wood elements. In sections containing frost rings that when viewed macroscopi- cally appear to be only one-sided, it can be recognized in a microscopic examination that, as a rule, a lesser disturbance has occurred on the other side of the stem (PI. II, B). However, a disturbance of the wood tissue by no means always extends entirely around the stem, the same often being purely local and_consisting of numerous isolated groups of parenchyma elements. The frost rings occasioned by late frost vary greatly in their position within the growth ring, but usu- ally occur early in the spring wood, either in the immediate beginning or after the formation of a few normal tracheids. On the other hand, they may not be formed until late in the growth ring when the frost must necessarily occur during the summer. Frost rings in the latter position are comparatively rare, however. More than one frost ring may occur within the wood of any one growth ring, depending upon whether or not the frost occurs more than once after the spring growth has been initiated. Two frost rings within one annual ring are fairly common, and the writer has observed the occurrence of three frost rings in the spring-wood zone of an annual ring in Pinus monticola (Pl. V, A) and in Picea engelmann. Frost-ring formation may occur in the wood from the action of either late or early frosts during the course of the growing season or from the freezing of the cambium during the winter when the tree is dormant. The frost rings, therefore, may register at any point within the growth ring, the relative position of the frost ring within the growth ring signifying the time at which the injury occurred. According to Hartig (2, p. 4); frost rings arise through late-frost injury only when the cambial activity has already commenced and at least some few cells have been cut off toward the interior, if, there- fore, the annual ring formation has been initiated. It has been the writer’s experience with late-frost injury that, while the number of spring-wood tracheids that intervene between the outer limit of the summer wood of the preceding annual ring and the frost ring is usually fairly uniform on any radius, the frost rings sometimes ap- pear to abut directly on the summer wood of the preceding growth ring, although groups of normal spring-wood tracheids usually in- tervene in places. The formation of at least some normal spring- wood elements would therefore appear to be a diagnostic feature of late-frost injury. In the case of late frost occurring unusually late in the season, the frost rings may register in the median or outer portion of the growth ring (Pl. VI, B). In the case of early frosts occurring late in the season, at a time when the annual accretion of wood has not matured, or in the case of frost injury occurring during the dormant period of the year, the resulting frost ring registers in the immediate begin- ning of the next growth ring, often tending to obscure the normally sharp demarcation between the two rings (Pl. VI, @). 12 BULLETIN 1131, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In general, it appears that frost injury occurring shortly after the initiation of active growth causes a greater distortion of the wood elements than that occurring when the growth ring is practically mature or when the tree is dormant. Frost rings are often confusing to those who have occasion to engage in age determinations or stem analyses of trees. The frost- ring formation, however, usually occurs within such close limits of the beginning of the annual ring formation that, macroscopically at least, the parenchyma zone appears to coincide more or less closely with the outer limit of the preceding growth ring. Frost-ring formation should prove confusing in age counts only when it occurs late in the season after a considerable portion of the growth ring has been formed. Moreover, since only the younger stems appear to be susceptible to frost-ring formation, it is believed that in coni- fers at least, false ring formation from this source need be expected ae see! only in the first several growth rings formed in the life of the tree. As may be expected from their structure, frost rings constitute a plane of weakness in the wood, since there is no strong bond be- tween the wood formed before the injury and the parenchyma wood formed immediately after it. In chopping off a face on stems con- taining one or more frost rings in order to follow their linear extent, the wood frequently splits peripherally along the plane of these zones of abnormal wood. In future years it seems likely, as Somerville (71) states for the abnormality which he describes, that they may lead to the formation of ring shakes within the trees. The writer’s investigation of the pathological anatomy of late- frost injury confirms those of Mayr, Hartig, and Sorauer in all par- ticulars except the occurrence of the chains of pathologic resin canals, which Mayr (4) suggests may be caused by frost and which Hartig (2) found sometimes associated with the frost rings. Mayr (4, p. 29), in a discussion of the chains of abnormal or pathologic resin canals sometimes found in the wood of Abies firma and Tsuga, suggests that they may be caused by late frost, which, he states, is of fairly common occurrence. However, he observed that such chains of resin canals may also be found in the hard summer- wood zone of the annual ring, where late frost is excluded, as a cause. Although not considered by Mayr, a number of other types of injury could easily have been responsible for this pathologic resin-canal formation. Hartig (2, p. 7) states that he has repeatedly found that the wound parenchyma developing in the frost ring contained resin canals, so that a more or less complete ring of them was recognizable in the frost zone. Despite the writer’s particular consideration of this — point and his extensive investigations on pathologic resin-canal formation in general, which will appear shortly, he has never ob- served the formation of chains of pathologic resin canals as the result of frost injury. While zones of pathologic resin canals do occasionally coincide with the frost rings in a stem, the writer has always traced their origin to some mechanical wound. It is by no means impossible, however, for such zones of pathologic resin canals to arise schizogenously within the broad aggregates of parenchyma wood comprising the frost ring. FORMATION OF FROST RINGS IN CONIFERS. 13 Hartig (2, p. 7) likewise mentions the occurrence of chains of abnormal resin canals, which he regards as due to the action of late frost, throughout the entire circumference of the phloem of stems of Vhamaecyparis lawsoniana 2 centimeters thick, at a slight distance from the cambial layer. He states that these arise by the medullary rays stretching and becoming broadened laterally through cell divi- sion and that between each two rays the delicate-walled tissue com- posed of sieve tubes and parenchyma was crowded apart. He as- sumes that here also the tissue gaps are not closed after the thawing »f the ice, and finds that the surrounding living cells become en- arged more or less into these gaps and become converted into resin- secreting cells, pouring large quantities of resin into them. As a result of this formation a festoon of large resin beads appears from she bark on the ends of cut-off shoots. The writer, however, did 10t observe any formation of chains of pathologic resin canals in she phloem of the frost-injured material of Chamaecyparis law- omana studied by him. SUMMARY. ‘The pathological anatomy of late-frost injury has been studied in letail by the writer in Pinus albicaulis, P. contorta, P. densiftora, P. ambertiana, P. monticola, P. ponderosa, Picea engelmanni, Laria vecidentalis, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Abies grandis, A. lasiocarpa, "suga heterophylla, T. mertensiana, Thuja plicata, Chamaecyparis awsoniana, Sequoia washingtoniana, and Taxus baccata; also in pple and pear trees. The young shoots injured by late frost may either wilt through oss of turgor and after again directing their points upward usually yecome permanently distorted, or, as generally happens, they may be cilled outright and replaced by one or more volunteer shoots. The . tructural disturbance initiated by the action of late-frost injury is 10t confined to the shoots then developing, but extends down the tem for distances varying from several inches to several feet below he base of the injured shoots, or as far as the cambium has been in- ured by the freezing without entailing the death of the stem. The 1ealing proceeds internally and results in the formation of a brown- sh zone of parenchyma wood, or frost ring, within the growth ring, leveloping at the time of the injury. Late-frost injury results in very characteristic disturbances in the issue of the growth ring forming at the time of the injury. The bnormal tissue of the frost ring varies greatly, according to the everity of the injury, and may be characterized by various combi- vations of such features as the crumpling of the wood cells that were yut slightly lignified at the time of the injury, a marked broadening r proliferation of the medullary rays, a strong lateral displacement f the medullary rays together with a marked broadening or pro- iferation, the presence of radial clefts subsequently filled up by arge-celled parenchyma, and more or less broad zones of wound yarenchyma. The displacement of the medullary rays is occasioned yy their stretching and lack of elasticity; the radial clefts, to the pre- yonderance of the tangential contraction over the radial contraction ; nd the interpolated zone of parenchyma wood, to a transitory weak- ning of the compressing influence exerted by the bark girdle on the ambium, due to the disrupting action caused by the fréezing. 14 BULLETIN 1131, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Frost-ring formation may occur in the wood from the action of either late or early frost during the course of the growing season or from the freezing of the cambium during the winter when the tree is dormant. The frost rings, therefore, may register at any point within the growth ring, the relative position of the frost ring within the growth ring signifying the time at which the injury occurred. Frost rings arise through late frost only when the cambial ac- tivity has already commenced and some new xylem cells have been differentiated. As a rule, there is a definite zone of spring-wood tracheids intervening between the outer limit of the summer wood of the preceding annual ring and the frost ring. In the case of early frosts the frost ring may either register late in the summer wood of the growth ring or not until the immediate beginning of the ensuing growth ring. Frost injury occurring during the dor- mant period likewise is recorded as a frost ring in the immediate beginning of the ensuing growth ring. Young trees injured by repeated frosts often develop an abnor- mally compact and bushy form, especially in Abies grandis and other species, which readily form compensatory shoots. Frost in- jury that results in the killing of the young shoots often detracts greatly from the straight axial growth of the trees and, where fre- quently repeated, may render the tree absolutely valueless for com- mercial purposes. In addition, late-frost injury may render young conifers more susceptible to weakly parasitic fungi than they would be otherwise. Late-frost injury, when occurring late in the season after any considerable portion of the growth ring has been formed, results in a false or double ring formation, which is often confusing in age determinations. Frost-ring formation from late-frost imjury has not been observed by the writer in coniferous stems larger than 2 inches in diameter, although it often occurs in larger stems of fruit trees that are subject to various forms of frost injury. As may be expected from their structure, frost rings constitute a plane of weakness in the wood, which may not only predispose to the formation of circular shake in the standing tree, but may require the manufactured wood to be discriminated against for use in small pieces where great strength is required. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (15) LITERATURE CITED. GRAEBNER, PAUL. 1909. Beitriige zur Kenntnis nichtparasitirer Pflanzenkrankheiten an forstlichen Gewiichsen. 3. Wirkung von ITrésten wihrend der Vegetationsperiode. Jn Ztschr. Forst. u. Jagdw., Jahrg. 41, Heft 7, p. 421-431, 5 fig. HAnrtTIGc, ROBERT. 1895. Doppelringe als Folge von Spatfrost. Im Forstl. Naturw. Ztschr., Jahrg. 4, Heft 1, p. 1-8, 6 fig., pl. 1. ‘ 1900. Lehrbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten ... Aufl. 3, ix, 324 p., 280 fig. Berlin. Mayr, HEINRICH. 1890. Monographie der Abietineen des Japanischen Reiches . viii, 104 p., 7 col. pl. Mitinchen. 1894. Das Harz der Nadelhélzer, seine Entstehung, Vertheilung, Be- deutung und Gewinnung. 96 p., 4 fig., 2 col. pl. Berlin. Mix, A. J. 1916. The formation of parenchyma wood following winter injury to the cambium. Jn Phytopathology, v. 6, no. 3, p. 279-283, 3 fig. NecrEr, F. W. 1916. Ueber eine durch Friihfrost an Nectria cucurbitula Fr. und Dermatea eucrita (Karst.) verursachte Gipfeldtirre der Fichte. In Naturw. Ztschr. Forst. u. Landw., Jahrg. 14, Heft 3/4, p. 121- 127, 4 fig. 1919. Die Krankheiten unserer Waldbiiume und wichtigsten Gar- tengehédlze ... viii, 286 p., 234 fig. Stuttgart. PETERSEN, O. G. 1905. Nattefrostens Virkning paa Bggens Ved. Jn Denmark. YForst- lige Fors¢gsvaesen, Bd. 1, p. 49-68, 12 fig. RHOADS, ARTHUR S. 1917. The black zones formed by wood-destroying fungi. Tech. Pub. 8 (v. 17, no. 28), N. Y. State Coll. Forestry, 61 p. incl. 6 pl. Lit- erature cited, p. 46-49. SOMERVILLE, WILLIAM. 1916. Abnormal wood in conifers. Jn Quart. Jour, Forestry, v. 10, no. 2, p. 1382-186, 10 fig. on 3 pl. SoRAUER, Paur. 1886-1909. Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten. Theil 1, Die nicht- parasitairen Krankheiten. Aufl. 2, xvi, 920 p., 61 fig., 19 pl. Ber- lin. 1886. Aufl. 8, xvi, 891 p., 208 fig. Berlin. 1909. Biblio- graphical footnotes. 1906. Experimentelle Studien tiber die mechanischen Wirkungen des Frostes bei Obst- und Waldbiumen. Jn Landw. Jahrb., Jahrg. 35, Heft 4, p. 469-526, pl. 9-138 (partly col.). TUBEUF, CARL VON. 1906. Pathologische Hrscheinungen beim Absterben der Fichten im Sommer 1904. In Naturw. Ztschr. Land. u. Forstw., Jahrg. 4, Heft 11, p. 449-466, 6 fig., pl. 26-382; Heft 12, p. 511-512. 1918. Absterben der Gipfeltriebe an Fichten. In Naturw. Ztschr. Forst. u. Landw., Jahrg. 11, Heft 8, p. 396-399, 1 fig. 15 ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Necnetory Of Agricuitures2oo = 2 HENRY C. WALLACE. AS8iStON TAS CGRELOTY 226 =k See eee C. W. PUGSLEY. Durector of Stientific Worki2— 28 2 ef se ee BE. D. BALL. Directon of Reguiatony Works222 282.223 COLETTE BUT CGAL ae Ue Ee ee CHARLES I’. MARVIN, Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Hconomics__________- HEnrky C. Taytor, Chief. Bureau of Animal Industry__=----=----- = + -- JOHN R. Monter, Chief. Bireniiof Blant Industries = ee Wiii1Am A. Taytor, Chief. HOFEST AS CTUICE M2 F341 SEATS A ge eect eine TLE Ey W. B. GREELEY, Chief. Bureau of Chenisinyesi 22s = wae AL hes WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. BUPea of SOvUss tet ae RE TE EG MILTON WHITNEY, Chief. UNC OAL O fae PEON OLO Oi) ee L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey_____--________-: E. W. NELSON, Chief. BUEOURO |e LOLLC MEL O 0 Se eee es eee THomMAS H. MACDONALD, Chief. Fized-Nitrogen Research Laboratory_____-____ F. G. Corrrety, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements____. A. ZAPPONE, Chief. Dison Of PUOUCAtiOng= 2a ee els ee JOHN L. Cosss, Jr., Chief. TOT OTe es RI oe AO ge CLARIBEL R, BARNETT, Librarian. States, Relations Service... Le A. C. TRUE, Director. Federal Horticultural Board_- 2... ©. L. MARLATT, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board____________- J. KX. Haywoop, Chairman. Packers and Stockyards Administration__—-- \ CHESTER MORRILL, Assistant Grain Future Trading Act Administration__ to the Secretary. Office: Ofath CASOUCH OTS a eee R. W. Witri1aMs, Solicitor. This bulletin is a contribution from the— Bureau of Piant Industry== = WILLIAM A, 4 _ LOR, Chief. Investigations in Forest Pathology------ HAVEN Merc... -; Pathologist iw Charge. 16 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 Vv Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 21, 1923 THE RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK FROM 1916 TO 1921, INCLUSIVE. Prepared in the Bureau of Public Roads. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Pn inoduchionmep eee setae te -episic'sis niacin nase = 1 | Table 3.—General limiting test values for Table 1.—Results of physical tests of road- rokenstone soos ecw onion cee eee tee building rock from 1916 to 1921, inclusive. - 2 | Table 4.—Geographical distribution of rock Crushing strength or compression test....-- 46 samples tested from January 1, 1916, to Interpretation of results of physical tests... .. 46 VANUWaTryalsel 922 cee seme acter seco teas 52 Table 2.—Results of compression tests of rock made prior to January 1, 1916.............- INTRODUCTION. This bulletin gives the results of tests of all rock made by the Bureau of Public Roads from January 1, 1916, to January 1, 1922, classified alphabetically according to location. It supplements United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 370, “ Results of Physical Tests of Pe oalebaildine Rock,” and replaces United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 670, “Results of Tests of Road- Buuding Rock in 1916 and 1917.” The results of tests of approxi- mately 5,300 samples are now avilable in the two bulletins, and these tests represent road-building material from practically ali parts of the United States and some parts of Canada, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Porto Rico. Reference to Table 1, in which the results of tests made subsequent to January 1, 1916, are tabulated, will show that a test of crushing strength has been made on a number of samples, and a column of test results not found in Bulletin No. 370 is added thereby. Tests of crushing strength made prior to 1916 are recorded in Table 2. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CRUSHING STRENGTH OR COMPRESSION TEST. This test is made upon a cylindrical test specimen 2 inches in diameter and 2 inches high. Both ends of the specimen, which have been sawed at right angles to the axis of the cylinder, are carefully ground to plane surfaces. The cylinder then is crushed in a 200,000-pound Universal testing machine at a speed of 0.1 inch per minute. A small 2-inch spherical bearing block is placed between the moving head of the machine and the specimen. The average of at least two determinations is reported as the crushing strength, calculated in pounds per square inch. Crushing strength tests are made only when specifically requested. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS. To interpret the results of the physical tests of road-buildin rock, the Bureau of Public Roads has adopted a table of genera limiting test values for broken stone for the various types of road construction. For general reference, these limiting values, together with comments upon limits shown, are given in Table 3. By com- aring the results of tests on a sample of rock with the limits shown in the table a general idea of the types of road construction for which it is best suited may be obtained. It must be emphasized, however, that these values represent average conditions only. For any given material a number of factors such as type of stone, character and volume of traffic, and the character of available material will influence the interpretation to be given the results of the tests. Table 4 contains the total number of rock samples received from the various States which have been tested between January 1, 1916, and December 31, 1921. TABLE 2.—Results of compression tests of rock, made prior to Jan. 1, 1916. ARKANSAS. | usb Serial F strongt Na Locality. County. Name. pounds per squareinch = é 6331 | Bald Knob........... | White’. 324 wae Sandstone !.}_2 occ = eee eee 19, 86( CONNECTICUT. G7915|* Oneed $24. ssoee scene | Wisidham). 2). of s.. Biotiteipranitas.< soccceecesesceee | 16, 638 ILLINOIS. 4422 | Embarras........-.--. “COGSB AE - Bee =e se TLAMCSCONCS ta 4 -1a ae see eres 17, 306 5509 | Thornton........----- Cooks 5.250 sees Dolomite: 222 625 o eas gee eee 23, 060 6053 |....- dot. icc 2hs- 1 ee Hove eae acs GOs. 35.4 .de as See 16, 88¢ S71 UT WHNSids 2. 25. ee ele Ose Se eee Argillaceous dolomite..........-.- 15, 730 4660 | Tunnel Hill.......-..- POWMSON S.-J Syncee eae Sardstonet):. 4243 Be eee 19, 150 7509 | Reevesville.......----|----- Oe S58 et BASES Argillaceous limestone. ......-.--- 25, 780 7510) \52-- = Gol... ceosenee teers Obes tees een acne do! 2255 Bags see 28, 400 4764 | Kankakee.........-.. Kankakee: . 20. .J...2- Dolomite. 3 > Sas See eae ages , O10 5550 |....- GOb tek Ce eoee rien MOE E citan stemne sh] talc GOs es. 2. noe epee ae esaese 17,710 6088 |..... doko Sena Abie 2. ees | Argillaceous dolomite. .......-...- 20, 830 G165she oe doh). eee ere M0. +20. 2pee Dolomite. ote see ee eeeeeee 11, 660 6865 |..... il a Df coe Oe. . Sec cmemeneen| == =a OPES tee iee 5 ie epeeee oe 13, 500 1298)|5. 53 “7 (1) PR pera acest HO eceneeaeedee ee Argillaceous dolomite. .....-....-- 25, 850 7299 |... CO SEES) a ES oe or eS A al aa COn nw cncus cheese cee 20, 000 7300 = PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK, 47 TaBLe 2.—Results of compression tests of rock, made prior to Jan. 1, 1916—Continued. ILLINOIS—Continued. Crushing Seria! . strength, No. Locality. County. Name. pounds per Hf squareinch. Argillaceous dolomite......-...... 19, 700 D OlOMILE raed: =, selec cecioue ea Dae 17, 050 Argillaceous dolomite.......-...-- 16, 700 ATMOS GONG apap oi a he a eB 15, 100 Argillaceous dolomite..........--- 18, 640 apy DOs eeitle tec nee sco e seeds 18, 180 Iimestonezye chose. ons eee 19,510 f INDIANA. 5534 | Logansport ..........- CaSSee ce iaetiences aoe WIM StONGeccise cece sole ee eee 20, 350 4655 | Greensburg.......-.-. Wecaune eee ae eee eee Dolomite eee ene ee dee 17,960 AGS | Sipe ible Bc Aenea eee GO sis Saas es eee Limestone 18, 400 4690 | Westport..........---].---- CO Koy 38 BS ua aera Dolomitic limestone......-.-.---.-- 20, 000 BerdooOn Ste Pauls ee cce se oles. Opies ae eants Sass ols aan CKO SPSS rice Meet E Ee eee 20, 510 5088 |..--- CORR eee eke coalek oa GO ee se TEAM eSEOME settee ee oe ae ae os 19, 800 4197 | Mitchell..........---- Lawrence ..22s 52m ni: Argillaceous dolomite.......------ 12, 250 5027: nBediordes 5 2s. - 252 -|-2 228 GO BRR Uae Ib iMeESbON es? Ae) sao asisnts we soe 6, 900 5029 |.2-.. CO ate Senate arate Gos aes ees (eee WO ee ae ee ioe Serre meee 6, 450 _ 3368 | Greencastle..........- IU ROEAONS HAGE eee a eel ehaee Om yeti Ao eS Roa 16, 000 e131) | hOSSO0G acces esac es se RID Le yee aio s saeacn een (Gaye ae elias Ce cep 14, 470 _ 4657 | Wabash.........-..-- Wabash. ...... somes | Dolomitic limestone. ......------- 18, 790 IOWA. 5525 | Cedar Rapids. .-....-.- Ligkalal Ae eee ee | Dolomite limestone.............-.- 19, 950 5526 | La Grande.......-.---.- Marshallese = te ceal eee CORE ey Se Se myn ae aes ean ans aa 14, 850 | KENTUCKY. ‘ 5552 | Princeton..........--.- Caldwell... i:-2:22::: Dolomitic limestone... ....-.----- i 23, 860 7688 | Cedar Bluff.......-.-.|----- COM aky een hae tince ae Argillaceous limestone.........-.- 25, 720 5921 | Limestone......--.--. Canter eases eae euMmestone assess ace Mose S SMES 14, 900 5922) Cartereeos tthe 2822 ss fsce Cas eae Sleeeaesses Siliceous limestone...........-..-- 13, 400 MAINE _ 7438 | Swans Island.......... 18, 400 - 8745 | Vinal Haven........-. Kn 20, 020 - 8768 | St. George........- do asa55 22, 800 © 8769 Vinal Haven..........]...-- Se Be nae 20, 930 8781 | St. George...-..-...---|----- Perea eee ee 18, 780 9865 |... - GO senso caeeeeu nee epee 17, 150 9996 | Long Cove......-.---.]----- 17, 540 > 9445 | Vinal Haven.-.....--..J...-- 21, 220 i 10366 | St. George..-..-......-|-...- d 27,050 _ 7439 | Frankford............. 20, 600 e MARYLAND. ‘5611 Mount Savage Junc- | Alleghany............. Siliceous limestone. -.............. 34, 930 - ion. 4884 | Frederick............- Frederick. ...25..-2--2- Thimestone se Sess 255 ses isthe 17,580 _ 5694 | Havre de Grace. ....-. Harfords sees ses Gneissoid granite...-.......-.----- 34, 410 me 9695 |..... OBE eas meee Hao (Cho). Seo oebasneaen es Sericiteieneissh es see ees 20, 090 me 60696 |.-.-. OSE Ss ss a 8 cea CONS seth Sikes Gneissoid granite...........--..--- 21, 670 Bee 5697 |..... GQreseer a eae eeu cere dO Best iciseis a2! Amp HipOliber. sila memes cea bad 34, 380 me 9098 |... GOs rena eee COS Rey Paseo Ss Gneissoid granite...-.....-----2-.- 35, 210 mr) 5699.) 22... Gomes oe eee eee dowmeiss Sere eee Coser. hi Janet eke 22, 190 : 48 BULLETIN 1132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 2.—Results of compression tests of rock, made prior to Jan. 1, 1916—Continued, #1 MASSACHUSETTS. 4 Serial | srenea i eria stren ; No. Locality. County. Name. poun per | squareinch. 6891 | Rockport... ...2./222:2 SSO). csossoges- mei PTanite so2s5 cc ienee eeeeeee 22,370 6892 |..... Ocsefesssacecsteccheiewee GON ssceescdelej.. dO Rea sean en eaeenteee 23, 610 6893 |....- dO.. ssa3s ese ie sie Gort SS a5 ssactees learn 0 a se ene ia tddadecedcecesceeee 22, 670 6894 |..... GOrss eS ssbseeesss|be see oe Suwanee |eeee s GOs e2. nso asae ese eee eee i 8796 |....- Code: 3555 eee dost ces O..oi et set aps eee 23, 8309 5671 | Westfield.............-| Hampden..........-..- Altered diabase.-.........-...-.. 32, 850 8862 | Westford.............-. Middlesex............. Granite? li 2. csscicstcsdeceasawenes 13, 980) 8874 |..... GO ease eas ees OS asset bor ace sli Sas CO... 3) inden nena eee 17,000) 8875 |..... GO sees sneer cal nase (OV ERAR Boot sec sec cneene GO. 20cccnceee pune Spas eee 16, 250 5988 | West Auburn......... Worcester. <2 72235 eee Mica eneiss ion scpeee ses seeeeeseen 21, 950 MICHIGAN 3 9593 | @alcites.: 2.7) .. -aneise Presque Isle.......--.. Limestone. = 52:-2--2+++..q-4aetbee | 10, 300) _ MINNESOTA 5524 | Stoekton= sss sassen ss | Winona ss. ss sateen Argillaceous dolomite.........-... | 16, 000) MISSOURI 6375 | Rochefort.........,--. BOOHOE. 2S 5.25. Serene Limestone: * ... stb Soe eee 13, 6377 | Sweeney.........-.-.- Cooper. - $5: 2852058 Argillaceous limestone............. 14, NEW YORK. GAS TAL) hese Sones hee eae Glinton:::2 4 2eeeenee Plagioclase gneiss: (sone sean eee 18, 50 GOS a (Aye ek ee sees ce ele oaen (5 Co eee Are seen PYTOXCNC| SNCISS-- pee eee e nena een eee 20, 5008 ROUTH AE) Ree ee ee eee Diurtchess: ie jesse ee Dolomite: 4 Alo eee le eee 34, 456 Boda Camelo: occ c- wccmenenalhacpe C3 (Cae ees eee Cs Lo AE Meri 3 Sa5S5 siete wees 29, 05 5872 | Akron Junction....... ATIC yas to eee Cherty limestone.................. 16, 70 6056 |..... (eae ners) Fai SY MOresshre ducoceeeee | cnc ee 0.5. <= = fo cee see ae eee Eee 31, 180 8577 | Gloversville........... MUIORE sas deceeeene Biotite gneiss ?st: Sete eceee ees 14, 582 4157 | Alexandria Bay....... Jefferson-~-. 22:43 33 Granite «ics. 2. 324 Sock aeeenee sees 21, 6009 _ 8833 |..-.- Ct Oo eee eee) rel ttt Gores si eee ee 7 Co OEE ee SII Oe ie 26, 18( 8992 |..... OMe csetee|s ne ca Ce ygr an G4 | 2 eee dow... 2... Soe ae eeeneees 14, 150) (1) 04), Me COMFIe seh nsec dca| sens GOs. 235 eoseeeeen seek GO. 25. onc coeete ee eee ee cee 14, 3909 G1) | ee ae Ome ee nee ce na| coe ae Stes oteaeeeene Gneissoid granite.............--..- 17, 6009 W437) (523. Coe eee esd is olteeeedoliectm fee Granite =..o9.) ss. pe esau et eee 27, 2008) TUPAC) See eee iiockland 8 ot PR aa Gabbroitic diabase..........--...- 31, 300 8013 3 Saabs Pee eee cual cwes Ore See eeer eee Siliceous dolomite. ...............- 22, 200 NEW HAMPSHIRE RSTn MeOMOTd sass tenes sens AS HOLO eee Granite) 2.5.22 ae 15, 05( 9010 |..... Ove ete ee ae eS Opes Se AR See Bie pranite:. .2.2..2 32 eee 16. 64( 9011 |..-.- dD Jo chante oe tees ener DO ee aaa ane Oe ci a 14. 87( HOL2)| S282 GOs cs e sack eee tees COs. ct ae = AG. conoid v cde Se eeee ee eee eee 18, 23( S031) | Concord: |. 2s 255- so. ss. Merrimack........-..- pole oo ne sede his See Eee Eero 16, 600 9036 |.-.-- Oe ione dome cree soe GE Sess e oso 4 PEEL OMEROAMR SESS Co SGmDccUsosadeoce S087 3| Sieee (Oh orceese sono cba: (Cl peeranos=nceacno Beate te Foe Jain o tee eee eee 13, 906 8870 |....- Ose So vees ce cameo ae Ol aryo SeO Ce oad Poroe GO pis sip s'n'd:sneie oaeeniaeee eee 15, 1 NORTH CAROLINA. BB0Go| MES aeecte uke cae Rorsythevit. 2 sfol.s25. ae biel saio does ee ae oe 13, 14( BOT Cee ote cme eRe oe GIO. Seo saeco ersthene gabbro. ........--.-- 11, 8682 | Spencer Mountain..... Gastonty: 55252 ees Tel pathic quartzite.......-2.... 31, 5: S880 '|\Gastonia 2 22826 sc aie 0 Rene cnicbomes Quartzite! 529.520 see eee eee 17, ] 8576 | Mooresville..........-. redell: 3252. fetes Biotite eranites. ee eeeeeeee eee 26, 7 SIN CS eee ee Sra McDowello. css 220:.- Sanstsones. 2s. Ve ccce seers 22, 1 Exact locality not known. PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 49 Tasue 2.—Results of compression tests of rock, made prior to Jan. 1, 1916—Continued. NORTH CAROLINA—Continued. Crysping i Z strength cone Locality. County. Name. edn Bt ser squareinch. 9038 | Wilson...........-...-- Wilson a5 eres GATS P ele = Pyatatnorataratarclopae ceetal 16, 070 DIDO) | OTACOY ce ctcemie since ee clo Rockingham ........-. Granite gneiss.....------.--------- 23, 220) 5496 | Sansbury.....------.- TROWAnE ase bare Granite ears oe icine rareroraia te ciety eae 33, 750 BO Mle BOSUICI oN) cence enna Rutherford..........-- Biotite gneiss. ......22-.2 2202-2022 16, 100 5497 | Mount Airy....-..----. SULLY React a seleretarararerats Granitetys seo cece rere a ase 18,400 ABS |e ee LO este iapel betaine OSE Das hadk eweniseleindsis GOLGR i aaz ten cute cieen eaten 15, 200 8901 }..-.- Gly 4 ae ee ee bee Oe seein e eal GOs ee eee een eae ee 5, 100 9048 |...-- Oe aeeetisrillaine ce C6 (0) i Sal C0 (op ae eee een ea a Sere ete 16, 440 8419 | Granita (near). .....-- Waker issu sete cee Biotite granite Ba ecco tRe e Ree 14, 160 B80 7 WWASCe erect aan i IWarr eres ee oe scree Granites (hook: 2S ee 18, 240 M808) oc Oe Naess | LU GOW Siecle eas oass GOs Niece careless 18, 560 CTH (CL) Mee EC ame Kie Yanceyius 54s Quarbziter seeks ee tees 12, 900 OHIO 4694 | Osborne......--.---.-- Dolomitic limestone..-....----.--- 8, 690 4695 | Springfield............ DoOlOMITOSS eee eae eset 18, 960 9282 | Cleveland.....-.....-- Granites oe ois See la vetere 31, 790 9283 |... .- Go. ¢ Ao S255 55k soe ea seeC ese ee ee ewer rose eoeee COR essa b w acre mises oerets 27, 900 9284 |..... OWee EAE EO alka ccion so ueu|otees LOS Se ma ie St let etn 24,790 9285 |...-- GK es Sede socddasdad PESGEe ON pHa sehanecoesel beens 000s aA aR HAN Racer ecpacanessae 26, 990 9459 |....- Gee FEES BEM URNIES Fe (a) as) «Renee ean taal LC dosages toes o rie aes ee ey 24, 900 4378 | Sandusky...-..-.--.-. LimestOne@.)-23s22ce. set s- ese see 19, 400 5554 |... 6 Os sob seedan ge abel Beane sas sea peseeecal Banee Oe eee ee eee ate 21, 850 DiOot CaStallan. ems =. 05 2. Dolomitic limestone........--.---- 18, 580 6055 |...-- Glo) Ie yaa gon TEATIVEST OT Ge eee NEE Se eer 20, 810 aoODAleManblelCliftcs. eee. os biranidlan! 222 heer On ee Bisa SO I ane aS 16, 750 5060 seas LO eee One ceca tecissis staal alerts WO ee a ecsete onsale memes e 12, 359 5630 | Columbus.-......--.-- Ferrugineous sandstone...2-2..;--4 21, 800 4693 | Patterson.....-...-.-- Dolomite eet owe essai e 11, 360 ENS) || 1D Yommleavel eS Le Aes a a 6 Loe Saat Ree | ed Cosas ue ee PEG a Eo aes 26, 200 AT0¢, | eallsboros-- co. =... 2 i Cherty limestone. .....---.-----.-- 15, 590 8347 | Clarksfield......-....- Calcareous sandstone..-......------ 9, 490 4656 | Big Springs. Le Argillaceous limestone. - --. neh 16, 380 Siliceous limestone... -.- din 25, 480 Argillaceous limestone. - 3 19, 480 8402 | Toledo, 10 miles west of.! Dolomites eae nee eee eee 11, 600 Ose I] ANA alte IR Vole es seal MOUUEN IT ae Beaman ae enmey eect (0 Ko ea Bos areata esto noes 16, 620 5556 | Bloomyille..........-- AMES TONS Ss seen aee eee ees 290, 250 5555 | Middleport........-.-- Dolomiter eso... 2222 ses s2 ee 25, 200 OKLAHOMA 3388) Granite... 22-2... 2... . Greerien ea eaee neem Granite: -s2s2buPs eee ras ae u 18, 600 PENNSYLVANIA. 5602 Impure limestone. -...--..-.....-- 24,150 5603 Siliceous limestone. .............-. 21, 860 5632 Witered:diabases#-- 222 .s-cn 2552 39, 215 8724 Argillaceous limestone... ...-...-. 15, 480 Sion le memereree ments ccccleate COG. 2 ais oS Se ON ae see ue ae eee 20, 880 8625 Blast-furmace slag: ........---...-- 35 7973 iPyrOXene Quantaitescaecs pose ae 31, 800 7978 Mica SChIstoassseec ceo eoesee ee 23, 500 COR neersereme asec stool ee Osama Neue fogcclen tee Oper e dee tesa Sete a 23, 900 5578 Argillaceous limestone - = 18,710 7844 Siliceous limestone. -.....- Drei 26, 500 8306 Limestone. .....-.-: SEO a ee 8,510 CHEE WU). o 8 2s Sse eae IERIE CT OIAIAIEK® KO SERIE ACORN ae ees Lele GOs aera accor stones See oa 19, 250 8465 Siliceous dolomite................. 9, 640 8049 Ferruginous sandstone. -.....-..... 14, 150 5771 | Indian Creek Station... IRV CCLOR eee eee nies Calcareous sandstone. ...........-. 37, 740 BeGOgi | 1G wellscsessosshs 282 see ce GOSeRe So eenes crass InTMESLOUEs sccm oes cee nee ence 13, 450 - 1Bxact locality not known. he 50 BULLETIN 1132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE 2.—Results of compression tests of rock, made prior to Jan. 1, 1916—Continued, . PENNSYLVANIA—Continued. Serial | ne e ; stren No Locality. County. Name pounds per squareinch, | 9347 | Connellsville.......... Bedtond ees. Lean Impure limestone............-25se 26, 050 5604 | Water Street.......... Huntingdon.........-. Feldspathic sandstone............ 22, 330 Donita Wallond: oe ose LaWwrenCewei 2-2 ne escn Limestone: ici: -} cnieerecnes saaeee 27,500 6153 | Porter Township...... LY COMM Ps. 25 beeen Argillaceous limestone..-......... 28, 580 6154 |..... DO ry eee ener (6 (Ee ee ee ate (eee dO, pareseig -. eas Feldspathic sandstone... ».....--.. 26,340 5605 | Blairsville intersection | Westmoreland... ....-.| Siliceous limestone..........------ 32, 560 7428 OLR COCR Ee ee eeee MOP Ears cece es esas eae Dolomitie marble. ............-... 27, 400 RHODE ISLAND B867 | Westerly... --2...----- Wrashinpions: 2. eee Granite:S o.. -2-cen ee eeeee eee 11, 740 8868 |....- (a Lo BA ee eee (See Co Loe See eee Ow csht.. \s cstbeceeiseate epee 20, 300 8869 |....- GOs sees ee eee eee MO ewe foi. ccecel sabes do... 93 .le5 chee eee 20, 750 SOUTH CAROLINA 8389 | Williamstown........- AHOCISON =) 7. -+=ce-5ee Granite. -. cs sce eee 12, 990 5568 | Rion:::22:22:+22:22252 airfield. 2. tis eeeen aes dos eS eee eee 29, 180 5586a |..--- GOba a Ssei seas eat! Ol) Sse Seodicdoubed) ho sec Cl Es emcosponsattneectocs 25,790 5586b |..... donee anne bee pares Gi wybbaseucossdos| > ohe Ghai oecio- Sdsesce sec dsc oes 19, 240 5586¢ |...-- GOnsos yee eae: Da HSER BH SG) i55 I CO ene Cee ee eee 33, 880 TENNESSEE boOTal MOUSIDY. sacar osc 5. eae Carterseentiits thee hcke Timestone=i:2-2.5 3. -e eee ees 22,750 5502 | Straw Plains.......-.. Vetersones = ty ees mee (il PORES SEE eRe sessGosce sees 21, 730 5504 |..--. e ssotyassiages See c GaSe Oster. ceceeerntaaece (6 Vu peices eseuprning Geos is iC Sm tre 340 Ope nan One ara oss eine ee (6 (oR ES ec leimS Be Dolomite: J. eee eee 38, 070 6533 hoxville Be eae Reed S28 KOK Seeeeh oes cece eee Marble. 22... 20.2 Seana pecans 17,970 VERMONT 5543 | East Wallingford......| Rutland.............- 16, 800 SRA AEB Are vx cnt oattiaielrioe eee Washington... . 19, 560 VIRGINIA. SS APAIDPILY ns. cose es Granite. gneiss... fc ccecdese sees 13, 820 EO BB Ss ee ean seas 9 Granité: 220-54. slceoeeeeeee eee 13, 150 4900A | Broad Run...........- QUATIZi oe. cc. doe oo eee 28, 400 4900B |..... a Ui Sameer eerste 2 [ph tas Epidosite.-'. soc cones ene eeeenaee 28, 000 5923 | Strathmore..........-. Chlorite epidote schist............. 13,210 5678 | Eggleston (near)... -. DolOMILG 2 ce ns ce tee ee eee eee 45, 690 5924 | Boscobel's. 292-222: 2--- Granite gneiss. 3223222822 fie 13, 550 6615 | Korah Station. ......-. Biotite granite... 22... .2 22-22. -56-- 20, 300 5925 | Greenway-.-.......--.- ve Feldspathic quartzite............. 16, 500 | 5492 | Nokesville......-..-.- Prince William........| Ferruginous sandstone...........-. 17,780 5920 | Greenlee........-....- Rockbridge Dolomitic marble..........--..... 36, 900 5382 | Bluff Water Station...| Rockingham imiestone-’- 7. 2. Se oo sca see eae 21, 450 5385 |----- Oe sas cis: essoat te: oe rein cs See penee leases GOe a Se eee ee eee 40, 850 63751 Bis ales. c tees es} SR USSAU Ss So os |S ee do.: 4..2.. Soret eee 17, 600 7217 | Burkes Garden... Dolomitic sandstone.............. 21, 500 1 Exact locality not known. PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 51 ‘Tasie 2.—Results of compression tests of rock, made prior to Jan. 1, 1916—Continued. WEST VIRGINIA. eae Z Seria’ . strength, a Locality. County. Name. pounds per squareinch. Berkeley..........---- Berkeley..-.......---- uimestoner Umar. eee ere san cee 23, 350 Reni C Keisha teite saa = = Greenbrier <2 ose a. Crystalline limestone..........-..-- 21,300 Mrazieryeve danse qseccleetee COs eee Wimestone scene eos ie eee 17, 450 Snow Flace.......-.-.|..--- OAR UE ELE (CGAL Cl an BAR ee aa eee ee es 13, 550 Green Spring (east of).| Hampshire...........- Siliceous limestone............---- 34, 400 ere GORA ase esses see Oe se Quartzten cost oct sole gol iol shee 15, 050 Spring Eee ao Kanawha............. Sandstonewss hese See EAS See ie Ae ean 12, 400 Mairmont sas5 4. < 2 Marion's: Seie scm e ce 2h. 40 COs see eee R ST A Se ee ee 5, 420 Beye G1) 5 oe EGE STOSEBEOS NAL LO MOS IEC Re ena pereese [Um anno Kearney i Oo ae ne yap oS 5,720 Eee COM saree tose tere QO eetine eek cee Soe GOn es ete. ein Oe Ee oe eels 6, 080 Sturgisson........-..- Monongalia.-.....-... Siliceous limestone...........--.-- 22, 440 Bie GORE tase bese es hell Iuimestonen sir. o ato ro tools ae. 17,910 py eis OMe eae eee cle -odOsencccce suse ces| Arelllaceousimestones 46 secs. rc 14, 300 eae ael COs steer iees EGOn cult os el Calcareous Sandstones.scas-e seine 29, 840 pear CORRS r ene eianc| bee COM sen aerate enon impure limestone... -.o2 ossrise cee 19,650 5616 |..... GOs esse ee GO se essse ee Argillaceous limestone. -...-.----- 24, 850 8447 | Parkersburg .....--.-- WiOOd se ste a ae Feldspathic sandstone. -..-..---.- 11,910 WISCONSIN. Mo23ul Pebblesaas.\2- 22-25-02 Fond du Lac...:-...2- Dolomiterssss aaa eee 32, 600 443) PATMDOL Es soc ee ol Marinette...-......-.. Biotite sranitet sso. see eee ee: 20, 000 8656 | Lannon......-..-..--- Waukeshaie sos. soe Molomitenss ses Se a ee 23, 020 TABLE 3.—General limiting test values. French Type of construction. coefficient | Toughness. of wear. Water-bound macadam....-. NAOL-OVET=)2 | Hoses acess Bituminous macadam.......-| 7 or over. .|...--..--- Bituminous concrete.......-- 8 or over..| 8 or over. Cement concrete. .......-..-- WOT) ON CT aco aso se eis Water-bound base course.....} 5 or over-.|..--..-.-- Granites, gneisses, schists, sandstones, and quartzites should not, in general, be used in the wearing course of water-bound macadam roads. Shales and slates should never be used in this connection. _ For further details and explanation of results in this table and also for tests on all materials to January 1, 1916, see U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture Bulletin 370. TABLE 4.—Geographical distribution of samples tested from January 1, 1916, to January 1, % 192 i | & Number Number 4 State. of sam- State. of sam- 1) ples ples — | Mlabama.... ASE oe SIG THIN OISeeE Ss esate eaes eee cae sese sce 21 | | Arizona... LOS ka Te a See ee Se 8 ea ieee lek See 45 | | Atkansas Gal | (lok eshte res see en Mee a co ate SS 6 , || 2alifornia Sy lgiktam ase ese say Sea BE Me eels 27 | 2olorado. GY le KeemtU Cheyziecee san sae see eee ae seee 23 ; | onnecticut . 21 || Louisiana 3 Jelaware..... 9 eines 46 "District of Columbia 2i|| Marylandes ce) ce aie. 44 2) |) CE eae 12 || Massachusetts.......... 127 FOOT PIA... 2.2... 1316] |EMichipan: meceewcccuasnacece sn ecseene cee 21 acts s cccicnauccsans Diilk Minn egotavccccccesccscgussncscosenccest 8 4 - 52 Tasie 4.—Geographical distribution of samples tested from January 1, 1916, to Januan 1, 1922—Continued. * Number State. of sam- ples. MMESSISSIN DNS: opis seein sacle ain aman 6 Missouri, aan Sout arse edese ieee eee 16 MOnTAn a ae eet dt onse oecwewneee pee 9 INGHTASKS fre te Satta sess eee eS oe 8 Newehampshines.: 22 tse ce. cemes oem 19 NIP Wr OIsOVies sc eetee eee tee soe aecee s 21 IN BIS OXICK Et saan S45 ao Ses SAS ee 7 RNOUEN OLE pie sa se cee s Cee e etc ere came 43 North Carolina.............. SaaS Sane 93 Ores ae bases she es ees Be 123 WIRHOMA sete sheesh ts f 33 Oreron. cess sseesee a 2 Pennsylvania... -. a 75 Rode Island s2s2 ¢s222 02222. 6 SoOwte Caroling sass isos hee tes a8 eee 19 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 A BULLETIN 1132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. State. Virginia. «if 2isnb enna eee eee Washington. Fe -.. 0 sanuee ee eee pene West Virginia. ---.0 222. anne eee o Wisconsin: S036 spacer eee Canada: ceaskbeck coaadeeanaoe Dominican Republic. ....... Siti, aoe ce. Sees UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE if) DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 1133 2 v February 28, 1923 Washington, D. C. THE FREEZING TEMPERATURES OF SOME FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND CUT FLOWERS. By R. C. Wriaut, Physiologist, and GEorcE F. Taytor, Associate Physicist, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page Page. PTUERO MU CELOTIG ee ey ene leclereepe elie e 18 aye ema We ° 1 | Freezing points of cut flowers..........-..-.- Freezing points of fruits.............-.---.-- Oi LRCCADILWIALLOMe ese eer memes mice eeieieme 7 Freezing points of vegetables............--.- 5 INTRODUCTION. There is an ever-increasing demand from those interested in the growing, shipping, and handling of produce for exact data on the gains points, or the temperatures at which various products reeze. The extent of damage due to the freezing of produce in transit naturally varies from year to year, but it is usually very heavy, ageregating frequently several hundreds of thousands of dollars during a year. ‘This in general applies not only to such products as apples and potatoes, most of which are grown in the North and har- vested and shipped in the late fall and winter, but to products which are grown in the South and Southwest during the winter and shipped to the northern markets. This latter group includes citrus fruits, strawberries, tomatoes, lettuce, string beans, cabbage, cauliflower, egeplant, etc. Cars of these food products often leave the shipping point under refrigeration and in 24 to 36 hours may pass into a zone of freezing temperatures. As they approach the more northern markets they may be exposed to temperatures ranging several degrees below zero. Under some conditions when harvested in warm weather some of these products may be precooled—that is, rapidly cooled to a refrigerating temperature, either immediately before or directly after they are placed in the car for shipment, in order to delay maturity and consequent deterioration. Where precooling is practiced, it is, of course, very important to know the temperatures to which the ' product can be lowered with absolute safety. Note.—This bulletin gives the results of a poriaon of the work carried on under the projects ‘‘ Factors affecting the storage life of vegetables”’ and ‘‘ Factors affecting the storage life of fruits.’ 21854—23 2 BULLETIN 1133, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Knowledge of the exact freezing points of fruits and vegetables is of importance also to the commercial cold-storage man. In most cases fruits and vegetables other than dried or prepared products when placed in cold storage are alive, and the problem is to keep them alive and healthy throughout their storage period. Since various fruits and vegetables freeze at different temperatures, there is more or less doubt in the minds of those interested as to the proper and safe temperatures at which to hold these various products in storage. One of the problems in the storage of many of these products is to hold them at a temperature low enough to slow down the living processes in order to prolong their storage life and yet not allow them to be damaged by actual freezing. Of course, some products, such as berries, may be purposely kept at a freezing temperature and used at once on thawing out, but this subject comes under the head of freezing storage and will not be discussed here. It is therefore essential in commercial work of this kind that accurate data be at hand on the temperatures to which these products can be exposed without injuring their keeping qualities or market value. It should be borne in mind, however, that freezing or freezing injury does not always occur when fruit or vegetable products are exposed to temperatures at or below their true freezing points. This is shown in the studies on Irish potatoes reported in a previous publication,' where tubers were cooled as much as 10° F. below their freezing points and again warmed without apparent injury. The commonly known fact that some kinds of products may be actually frozen and then thawed out under certain conditions with no apparent injurious effects constitutes further evidence on this point. On the other hand, some commodities are injured if stored at temperatures well above their actual freezing points. It is evident, therefore, that tempera- tures just above the freezing point can not be regarded as safe for all types or varieties of fruits and vegetables. It is also noticeable that there are some variations in the freezing points of fruits or vegetables of the same variety and from the same lot, as is shown in the tables that follow. Furthermore, it is quite probable that different individuals of the same variety and strain when grown under different conditions will have somewhat different average freezing points. Attention is therefore called to the fact that the freezing points given in the following tables should be considered as danger points; that is, at ornear these temperatures, either above or below them, there is a possibility that the product will be in danger of injury by freezing if exposed for a sufficient length of time. These are temperatures at which it is unsafe to hold produce which is to be used for food if it is desired to maintain it for any length of time in a living condition. The determinations of the freezing points of a number of fruits and vegetables have been made by the Bureau of Plant Industry in connection with its cold-storage investigations. By freezing point is meant the temperature at which ice crystals begin to form within the product, either fruit or vegetable. Some 10,000 of these determinations have already been made on many varieties of commercially grown fruits and vegetables, and 1 Wright, R. C., and Taylor, George F. Freezing injury to potatoes when undercooled. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 916, 15 p., 1 fig., 1 pl. 1921. Literature cited, p. 15. FREEZING TEMPERATURES OF FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND FLOWERS. 3 work is being continued. It has been found in some cases that the freezing points of some varieties are liable to slight variations from year to year, even though the same strain grown in the same locality is used. These variations, however, are probably of more importance in the study of the exact causes and results of freezing injury than from the point of view of the commercial cold-storage and produce man, for the variation of a fraction of a degree hardly warrants any change in the treatment of the produce. It therefore seems advisable to publish the results of these investigations from time to time as obtained, because of the need for such information and because there is no comprehensive publication on the subject. The method of determining freezing points has been described in former papers,? and a repetition of this description is not required here. FREEZING POINTS OF FRUITS. Where several varieties of one kind of fruit were investigated the results are given separately to allow comparisons to be made. All temperatures are expressed in degrees Fahrenheit. Apples.—Freezing-point determinations were made for a number of authentic varieties of summer or early apples and of fall and winter varieties, most of which were grown on the Arlington Experi- ment Farm. The tabulated results given by varieties are shown in Table 1. These results show considerable varietal differences among both summer and winter apples. The average of all summer varieties is practically the same as that of winter varieties, the former being 28.44° ¥'. while the latter is 28.51° F. These results show very little difference between the freezing points of eastern- erown and western-grown fruit. Cherries.—¥reezing-point determinations were made for seven varieties of cherries grown on the Arlington Experiment Farm. The average of all varieties was 27.81° F. (Table 1.) Grapes.—Results were obtained from the freezing of seven varieties of grapes, all of which were grown on the Arlington Experiment Farm. The average freezing point of all the varieties was 28.16° F. (Table 1.) Oranges.—The average freezing point of the six varieties of oranges studied was 28.03° F. (Table 1.) Peaches.—Freezing-point determinations were made for 11 va- rieties of peaches grown near Leesburg, Va.,in the Loudoun orchard of the American Fruit Growers (Inc.). Peaches in the hard-ripe stage were utilized for these tests. The average freezing point of all varieties when hard ripe was found to be 29.41° F. (Table 1.) Plums.—Freezing points were obtained for four varieties of plums that were grown in California and purchased on the market and for one variety (Red June) grown at the Arlington Experiment Farm. The variety with the lowest freezing point is Tragedy, with a freezing temperature of 27.21° Ff. The average freezing point of all varieties is 28.53° KF. (Table 1.) 2 Taylor, George F. Some improvements on the needle type thermocoupie for low-temperature work. In Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., v. 12, p. 797-798, 1 fig. 1920. Wright, R. C., and Harvey, R. B. The ireezing point of potatoes as determined by the thermoelectric method. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 895,7p., 1 fig. 1921. Bibliographical footnotes. Wright, R. C., and Taylor, George F. Freezing injury to potatoes when undercooled. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 916,15 p.,1fig.,1 pl. 1921. Literature cited, p. 15. t BULLETIN 1133, U. S. DEPARTME NT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 1.—Average and extreme freezing points of fruits. Fruit and varieties. Apples, summer varieties: Yellow Transparent.. Red Astrachan....... Early Ripe:.---....-..- Red sie). SRE! Benoni Be receseniocentcs Average (not in- cluding the crab apple) Apples, fall and winter varieties, eastern grown: Baldwin. 42) 2e et Ben Davis:....!..... PYBUCIOUS== sree eet Stayman Winesap... Winesap Yellow Newtown..... York Imperial.....--. FANVOPAP Oboe. cae cints ae Apples, fall and winter varieties, western grown: Delicious 22.225 $2.25 Rome Beauty Esopus (SoiiZqnpete) Winesap.. AVELAPO! 2. aja- c= Cherries: Early Richmond..... Montmorency......-- St. Medard........... | Bigarreau (unknown | variety). 2222.2 S22 AVETARC. aoe eee s| Grapes: ew Concord......-.| ASN DrOsIa Es Aes sake | Moores Early Captivator..........- | Campbell (black)..... Mericadel Templeszcsuees 2:5) 3: Pineapp Temperatures (° F.) Fruit and varieties. Extremes. Aver = age. | Mini- | Maxi- mum. | mum. PHIM PAN © PAZ) 28. 16 28.58 | 28.25 28. 70 29.18 | 28.82] 29.47 29.59 | 29.29] 29.71 27.38 | 27.32] 27.41 28. 46 27. 93 28. 03 28. 83 28. 49 29. 00 27. 81 27. 60 28. 49 26. 70 26. 62 26. 76 28.44 | 28,12] 28.62 29. 04 28. 84 29. 43 28. 61 28, 21 28. 96 28. 48 28. 16 29.10 28. 97 28. 82 29.05 28, 22 27.79 28. 69 28. 50 28. 45 28. 55 28. 55 28. 34 28. 90 28. 51 28. 02 28. 91 28. 23 27. 93 28. 72 28. 00 27. 80 28, 20 28. 34 28.10 28. 50 28. 49 28. 22 28. 82 28. 36 27.98 28. 86 28.60 | 28 26 28.35 | 28.02| 28.72 28,92 | 28.72| 29.38 28.69 | 28.26 | 29.05 98.24] 27.93] 28.35 98.53 | 28.20| 28.92 27.91 | 27.60] 2835 28.10] 27.79| 28.58 28.09 | 27.60] 28.58 28.16 | 27.95 | 28.50 97.65 | 27.37| 28.21 26.88 | 26.76 | 27.69 97.83 | 27.83 27.83 97.81 | 27.56! 28.25 28.39 | 27.93) 28.68 28.21 | 27.83| 28.63 27.88 | 27.77 28.10 98,28] 28.15! 28,62 27.86 | 27.14| 28.05 27.96 | 27.77! 28.00 28.54] 28.40 | 28.54 28.16 | 27.85| 28.37 28.64 | 28.34) 28.82 27.72 | 27.60) 27.83 28.20 | 28.10 28.43 | Oranges—Continued. Washington Navel... Valencia (California) - Satsuma (Owari va- riety) fit Tee mibete Stevens. ... Traged ya =\- as -cee Red June Average: .:.2...3.2- Strawberries: American 2-2 Sees Big Gate co. as saeeee Bip JOCr is 21. see Brandywine. ........ Chesapeake.......... Dunla xcelSion- =e seeseses Early Ozark. .......-. art Jersey Giant... Howard 17 (Premier). us tlere eee ee Klondike 2: soeteee Kellog ( Kello te Pride) Late Jersey Giant.... Wid MO)al = se sece Sis: Afbbrel ofoye oe Se Bee Eldorado..... Crystal Whit Logan (Loganberry) - - Raspberries: auere (St. Regis, Columbia (black). ... Cranberries: Searlits sv use eee Gebhart Beauty....- Mammoth. 9: 2. 0h2pe Temperatures (° F.). Extremes. 1 NN 42) ly besceraa=are eae ee age. | Mini- | Maxi- mum. | mxm. 28.42 | 28.30 28. 68 27. 01 26. 90 27. 60 28.18 | 27.93 28. 68 28.03 | 27.86 28. 34 30.28 30.00 28.90 29.50 30.00 28.96 29.57 29.80 30.24 29.95 29.95 29.74 : 29.80 ; 29.75 26.76 27.41 27.79 28.44 28.53 28.20 28.8. 29.70 | 29.66 29.75 30.03 | 29 25 30.05 29.98 29.78 30.19 29.96 | 29.85 30 36 30.29 | 29 94 30 32 29.82 | 29 24 29.99 29.94 | 29.28 30 04 29.82 | 29 66 30.13 29.82 | 29.43 30 22 29 24} 28.85 29.55 30.08 | 29.53 30 16 30.23 | 29.58 30.38 30.48 | 30.41 30.60 29.59 | 29 28 29 90 30 18 29.78 30.48 30.25 | 30.13 30.26 28 84 | 28.82 29.10 30 05 | 30.03 30.13 30.18 | 29.37 30. 42 30.38 | 29.63 30.48 30.46 | 29.85 30. 81 29.22 28.96 29.53 29.93 | 29.56 30.13 29.09 | 28.71 29. 30 29.21 | 28.76 29. 54 28.40 | 28.12 28. 63 29. 51 29. 32 29.75 30.41 | 30.12 30. 5C 28.76 | 28, 24 28. 79 28.20 | 27.93 28. 44 26.30 | 26.00 26. 60 26.70 | 26.40 25. 90 25.60 | 24.8 25. 80 Metallieh 22... 4603 FREEZING TEMPERATURES OF FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND FLOWERS. oO TasLe 1.—Average and extreme freezing points of fruits—Continued. SUMMARY OF AVERAGES. Temperatures (°F .) Temperatures (°F.). Fruit and varieties. Extremes. Fruit and varieties. Extremes. aN) os RAID SANT LLL Usted UR VAST ODay (! ahtta ke SE WEE age. age. Mini- | Maxi- Mini- | Maxi- mum. | mum. mum. | mum. Apples: Grapeinuitysay ess yee 28.36 | 28.00 28. 50 Summer varieties....| 28.44 | 28,12 295.62))) | UCM ONS = eyo steve sete erie ite 28.14 | 27.89 28. 47 Falland winter...... 28. 51 28, 21 28287 | Orangese seen c/s oak 2. 28. 03 27. 86 28. 34 Bananas (Jamaica): Peaches (hard ripe)....-- 29.41 | 29.09 29. 74 Green (Reel. Gen 29.84 | 29.76 29.92 || Pears (Bartlett): 7S) Ve oD hoy py teas 30.22 | 30.10 30, 58 Hard)ripe seen 2 see. 28. 46 28. 06 28. 70 Ripe Beel e202: 29. 36 29.15 29. 53 Soft Tipe ye. hes coe 27. 83 27. 20 28. 00 [Shehaci ulp wesc 26.00 | 25.45 26.50 || Pears (unknown Japan- Blackberries: ese variety)..-......-.- 29.39 | 29.34 29. 53 Black varieties......- 29.15 |. 28.73 29.42 || Japanesepersimmons White varieties... ... 28.40 | 28.12 28. 63 (Tanenashi)............ 28.33 ) 28.07 28. 63 Logan (Loganberry)..| 29.51 | 29.32 ZOOM PIN Se ae cee ey a rata 28.53 | 28.20 28, 85 Cherries! see gae ese ee 27.81.) 27.56 28. 25 || Raspberries: Cranberries.............. 26.70 | 26.28 26. 93 Red varieties......... 30.41 | 30.12 30. 50 @uppants eee ease. 30.21 | 30.18 30. 25 Black varieties....... 28.76 | 28.24 28. 79 Gooseberries. ...........- 28.91 | 28.70 29.18 |) Strawberries............. 29.93 | 29.56 30. 13 Grapes (eastern). .-.-.... 28.16 | 27.85 28. 37 Strawberries.—Freezing-point determinations were obtained for 22 authentic varieties of strawberries grown at the Maryland Agri- cultural Experiment Station. The greatest difference was found between the Lupton, which froze at 28.84° F., and the Hustler, at 30.48° F. The average for all varieties was 29.93° F. (Table 1.) Blackberries, raspberries, and cranberries.—Three varieties of blackberries were frozen, viz, Jumbo, Eldorado, and Crystal White. The two black varieties froze at 29.09° and 29.21° F., respectively, while the white variety froze at 28.4° F. Logan blackberries (eastern grown), froze at 29.51° F. One variety each of red and black raspberries was frozen. The Ranere (St. Regis) froze at 30.41° F., while the Columbia froze at 28.76°. Four varieties of cranberries were frozen. Considerable differences were found in the freezing points of some of these varieties. While the Searl variety froze at 28.2° F., the Metallic froze at 25.6°. The results for Gebhart Beauty and Mammoth are intermediate, being 26.3° and 26.7 F., respectively. Miscellaneous fruits —A number of other fruits and berries were investigated, but only one variety was available in each case. The results are therefore not given separately, but are included in the summary of Table 1 covering the average freezing points of all the fruits studied. FREEZING POINTS OF VEGETABLES. While several different kinds of vegetables have been used in the freezing-point determinations, those on which the most extensive variety studies have been centered are Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, and tomatoes. Potatoes.—¥reezing-point determinations were made on 18 dif- ferent authentic varieties of potatoes. Bulletins 895 and 916 of the United States Department of Agriculture give the results of this study in detail, so they will not be discussed here. The average freezing points of all varieties was 28.92° F. (Table 2.) 6 BULLETIN TABLE 2.—Average say. ae S and other 2 vegetables. Temperatures (° F.). = <= | DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and extreme freezing points of potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, Temperatures (° F.). Kind and variety. €xtremes. Kind and variety. Extremes. Aver- Aver- |— age. | Mini- | Maxi- | age. | Mini- | Maxi- mum. | mum. mum. | mum. |___}|__—|— ——)--—- Potatoes: Tomatoes (ripe)—Contd. aint puets cee 29.20 | 29.00 29. 33 | Greater Baltimore....| 30.62 | 30.20 30. 81 Early Prospect.......| 28.80 | 28.72 29. 30 Golumpbiah, 22 seees 30.31 | 30.29 30. 77 Irish Cobbler..-...... 29.67 | 29.60 29. 72 Delaware Beauty...-.| 30.02 | 29.95 30. 33 First Early. . 22.22... 29.00 | 28.88 29.00 Livingston’s Globe...| 30.58 | 30.32 30. 88 New Early Standard.| 28.97 | 28.74 29.12 | Livingston’s Acme...| 30.46 | 30.41 30. 74 TO eae es ee 29.17 | 29.01 29. 30 Greenhouse varieties— Spaulding No. 4...... 29.33 | 29.21 29. 32 Carter’s Sunrise..| 30.58 | 30.06 30. 85 Green Mountain......| 28.50 | 28.38 28. 55 Stirling Castle...) 30.54 | 30.41 30. 60 Coldi Cone ee 28.63 | 28.40 28. 70 Rural New Yorker...| 28.70 | 28.45 | 28.75 Average........ 30.38 | 30.20] 30.67 Russet Rural. .-.....| 28.32) 28.30 28.48 | : U. S. Seedling No. || Tomatoes (green): | By (a ee eae 28.77 | 28.65 | 28.83 | Bonny Best........-. 30.57 | 30.38 | 30.83 Up-to-date. ......1... 29.10 | 29.10 29. 10 Harliana 5.1 eee 30.24 | 29.77 30. 58 PLOGUCHE a eae 28.70 | 28.73 28. 79 Johny Baer. ose. oe | 30.53 | 30.48 30. 58 Oregon White Rose..| 28.71 | 28.60 28. 80 Early Michigan...... | 30.70 | 30.53 30. 77 British Queen........ 29.27 | 29.22 29. 30 RedsRockts 1 VA ree es | 30.58} 30.34 30. 67 Garnet Chile. ........ 28.16 | 28.00 28. 28 Stones che. sh ae 30.15 | 30.10 30. 38 American Giant...... 29.64 | 29.48 29. 68 Greenhouse varieties—, Carter’s Sunrise..| 30.29 | 30.20 30. 59 FAV OUAP Ort eas Serer 28.92 | 28.80 29. 02 Stirling Castle....| 30.11 | 29.90 30. 15 Sweet potatoes: Average.......- ; 80.40 | 30.21 30. 57 Bip(Stenaht as ew 28.05 | 27.48 28.72 | Dooleyznt4 he a 28.46 | 27.93 28.91 |) Sweet corn: Early Carolina....... 28.59 | 28.40] 28.96 Grosbye er -ceceaseeee | 29.07; 28.82] 29.43 Georgia eesee fo 28.05 | 27.79 28.58 Country Gentlemen..!| 29.11 | 28.63 29. 43, Goldysiare sees 98.47 | 28.21 | 28.63 Howling Mob.......- | 28.00 | 27.89 | 28.16 Improved Big Stem..| 28.76 | 28.26 29. 00 Golden Bantam.....- 29.61 | 29.25 29. 85 MOSHE. fei Priel oF 28.34 | 28.16 28. 54 Nancyi Halles soos 28.10 | 27.54 28. 35 ANVETAPes.|. coisas 28.95 | 28.65 29. 22 Muli han ee 258. 27.64 | 27.46 27. 93 ——— Pierson. eli es 28.68 | 28.02 28.72 || Onions: | IPOLLOMRICOme saaeia ee 28.34 | 27.87 28. 68 Yellow Danvers...... 30.10 | 29.61 30. 17 Umpkines Llane ee | 28.98 | 28.68 29. 09 White Globe......... 30.20 | 29.75 30. 41 Leirelisyevalle Se 8 TE 28.40 | 28.30 28. 63 Texas Bermuda...... 29.96 | 29.71 30. 13 Red Bermuda........ 28.17 | 27.98 28. 63 medi ershy.o ee) a. 28.52 | 28.30 28.77 Average... 25. - sca 30. 09 | 29. 69 30. 24 Southern Queen...... 28. 56 28, 25 28. 82 - (Priamph s2e 9 ye 28.43 | 28.26 28.72 || Lettuce: Yellow Belmont... .. 28.57 | 28. 49 28.82 | May Queen. =. -c. 2. 30. 49 l 30. 38 30. 60 Yellow Jersey. ....... | 28.97 | 28.26 29.05 | Way Ahead.....-...- 31.54 | 31.25 31.77 Yellow Strasburg....| 28.72 | 28.30] 29.00 || Prize ieeads reas 31.57 | 31.45 | 31.77 Average.........--- | 28.44 | 28.10 | 28.72 | Average..s...2022.- 31.20 | 31.03 | 31.38 Tomatoes (ripe): | '| Carrots: Bonny, Bestias oso see 30.60 | 30.48 30. 68 i TWD SHWersh.... oe ees 29.61 | 29.43 29. 68 Olney Special... -.-- | 30.59} 30.34] 30.67 || Chauntenay......-... 29,53 | 29.42 | 29.70 Harliana............. | 30.52} 30.43 | 30.77 || — = John Baer: a2 eens 30.57 | 30. 24 30. 90 ANVOLAPG 22. ne eee | 99.57 29.42 29. 68 Landreth............} 30.45 | 30.34 30.72 |} = — Early Michigan. ..... 30.67 | 30.19 | 30.85 || Peas: j Marvels eae seem 30.03 | 29.90} 30.38 | Warly Alaska...-..-.- | 28.93 . 28.26 29. 19 Bloomdalevves. a0 one 29.99 | 29.90 30. 53 | Hosford’s Market i Red OCk aes tas 30.55 | 30.48 | 30.62 | Garden! 2.220 Wa 0a 30.93 30.73 30. 99 Trucker’s Favorite...) 30,06 |: -/.222..!---.2-.- Ht Laxtonian .......2... | 30.23 30.03 30. 56 New Glory........... 29.78 | 29.63 | 30. 38 | aa EE Btone ese te teen 30.31 | 30.10 | 30.58 | AVerage:2). sat | 30.03 29.67 | 30.25 | SUMMARY OF AVERAGES, Beans:(snay)): eater ase 29.74 | 29.65} 30.06 |) Lettuce-................- 31.20 | 31.03 | 31. 38 Cabbage (Karly He Onions:( dry): oscn-eeceieee 30.09 | 29.69) 30.24 Waketteld,) seo corse - 31.18 | 31.06 | 31.34 | Pessi(ereen) coe Jes oes 30.03 | 29. 67 30. 25 Carrotsi ts wit es cee. Af 29.57 | 29.42 29.68 ihseOtaioes SP Heiss Ae 28.92 | 28.80 29. 02 Cauliflower: 2c 52). J... 0- | 30.08 | 29.95 | 30.15 || Potatoes, sweet.......... 28.44 | 28.10 28. 72 Corn, sweet.........-.- 27) 98,95 | 28:65 | 29.22 | Tomatoes (ripe)........-- 30,38 | 30.20) 30.67 Begrplants-—. A Bos 30.41 | 30.17 80569 IPPs jay. - Geass asa 30.23 | 30.16 30. 48 ROhabion coe ee 30,02 | 29,74 | 30.22 |) | FREEZING TEMPERATURES OF FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND FLOWERS. {h Sweet potatoes.—The results of freezing 20 more or less common varieties of sweet potatoes are presented in Table 2. The varieties with the lowest freezing points are Big Stem and Georgia, both of which froze at. 28.05° F. The highest freezing points were found with Pumpkin and Yellow Jersey varieties, which froze at 28.98° and 28.97° F., respectively. The average of all varieties was 28.44° F. Tomatoes.—The freezing temperatures of 19 commercially grown varieties of tomatoes were determined and are presented in Table 2. These tomatoes were all grown under the same conditions at the Arlington Experiment Farm. Determinations were made on both ripe and practically full-grown green specimens, such as are usually icked for shipment from the Southern States to the northern markets. With the ripe tomatoes the lowest freezing point (29.78° F.) was found in connection with the New Glory variety. The Harly Michigan variety froze at 30.67° F., which represents the highest freezing point of all the varieties studied. There was no appreciable difference in the average freezing points of ripe and green tomatoes, the averages being 30.38° and 30.40° F., respectively. Sweet corn.—The freezing point of sweet corn varied considerably with the age of the product. ‘There was also considerable variation between varieties. Hour varieties were studied. (See Table 2.) Miscellaneous vegetables.—The freezing points of three varieties of onions, three varieties of lettuce, two varieties of carrots, and three varieties of peas, and of at least one variety each of beans, cabbage, cauliflower, eggplant, kohl-rabi, and turnips are also presented in the body or in the summary of Table 2. FREEZING POINTS OF CUT FLOWERS. Requests have been received for information on the freezing points of such cut flowers as are commonly held in cold storage or shipped in quantities. Determinations were made for peonies, roses, and Waster hhies, and these are presented in Table 3. Results are shown for both petals and leaves. With peonies and roses the petals freeze at temperatures higher than do the leaves. Rose petals froze at 30.04° F., while peony petals did not freeze until a temperature of 29.05° was reached. In the case of Waster lilies the leaves froze before the petals, the latter not succumbing until the temperature reached 27.50° F. TABLE 3.—Average freezing points of the petals and leaves of cut flowers. Peony. Rose. Easter lily. Scope of inquiry. | | Petals. | Leaves. | Petals. | Leaves. | Petals. | Leaves. Number of determinations..............-- 12 8 6 Cd Ea Rea aS eae ee HLCEZIMOPOINUacissas eee e ewes sees rap 29. 05 28. 39 30. 04 28. 27 27. 50 29. 20 RECAPITULATION. Freezing or freezing injury does not always occur when fruit or vegetable products are exposed to temperatures at or below their actual freezing points. Under certain conditions many of these puede can be undercooled; that is, cooled to a point below the true reezing temperature of each and again warmed up without freezing and without apparent injury. Certain products under certain con- 8 BULLETIN 1133, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ditions may be actually frozen and then thawed out without apparent injury, while, on the other hand, some products are injured if stored at temperatures well above their actual freezing points. KHvidence seems to show that different individuals of the same variety and strain when grown under different conditions will have somewhat different freezing points, and that there are also some variations in the freezing points of products of the same variety and from the same lot. In view of these facts the freezing points given in this bulletin should be considered only as danger points at or near which, either above or below, there is a possibility of freezing injury if exposed for a sufficient length of time. These are temperatures at which it is unsafe to hold produce for any length of time, as serious danger of frost injury exists. Fruits —The average of the freezing points of 9 varieties of sum- mer apples was found to be 28. 44° F’., while the average for 14 varieties of fall and winter apples was 28.49° and 28.53° F. for eastern-grown and western-grown fruit, respectively, showing very little difference between the results for apples of the same varieties. The freezing points of 7 varieties of cherries averaged 27.81° F.; 7 varieties of grapes, 28.16°; 6 varieties of oranges, 28.03°; 11 varieties of peaches, 29.41°; 4 varieties of plums, 28.53°; 22 varieties of straw- berries, 29.93°; blackberries, 29.15°; white blackberries, 28.4°; Logan blackberries, 29.51°; red raspberries, 30.41°; black raspberries, 28.76°; cranberries, 26.7°; green bananas, peel 29.84°, pulp 30.22°; ripe bananas, peel 29.36°, pulp 26°; currants, 30.21°; gooseberries, 28.91°; grapefruit, 28.36; hard-ripe Bartlett pears, 28.46°; soft-ripe Bartlett pears, 27.83°; Japanese pears (unknown variety), 29.39°; and Japanese persimmons (Tanenashi), 28.33°. Fruits freezing above 30° F. are green bananas (pulp), currants, and red raspberries. Those freezing between 29° and 30° F. are green bananas (peel), ripe bananas (peel), blackberries, Logan blackberries, peaches, Japanese pears, and strawberries. Those freezing between 28° and 29° F. are apples, blackberries (white), gooseberries, grapes, grapefruit, lemons, oranges, Bartlett pears (hard ripe), Japanese per- simmons (Tanenashi), plums, and raspberries (black). Those freezing between 27° and 28° F. are cherries and Bartlett pears (soft ripe). Cranberries and ripe bananas (pulp) freeze between 26° and 27° F Vegetables —The average freezing point of 18 varieties of potatoes was 28.92° F.; for 20 varieties of sweet potatoes, 28.44°; and for 19 varieties of tomatoes (ripe), 30.38°. The freezing points of other vege- tables investigated were beans (snap), 29,74°; cabbage, 31.18°; carrots, 29.57°; cauliflower, 30.08°; sweet corn, 28.95°; eggplant, 30.41°; kohl- rabi, 30.02; lettuce, 31.2°; onions (dry), 30.09°; peas (green), 30.03°; and turnips, 30.23°. Two vegetables froze above 31° F., viz, cabbage and lettuce. Those freezing between 30° and 31° F. were cauliflower, eggplant, kohl-rabi, onions, peas, tomatoes, and turnips. Those freezing between 29° and 30° F. were beans and carrots. Sweet corn, potatoes, and sweet potatoes froze between 28° and 29° F. Out flowers.—Determinations of the freezing points of the petals and leaves of Easter lilies, peonies, and roses show that Waster lily etals freeze between 27° and 28° F.; rose leaves and peony leaves, etween 28° and 29°; peony petals and Easter lily leaves, between 29° and 30°; and rose petals, between 30° and 31°. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1923 ars eesets UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 1134 Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 26, 1923 SELF-FERTILIZATION AND CROSS-FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. By THomas H. Kearney, Physiologist in Charge of Alkali and Drought Re- sistant Plant Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Rntroductioniss ws — eee) ar 1 | Relative compatibility of like and of Vicinism, or natural hybridization, unlike pollens. S222 = we ers: 38 HMPHCOELON ot cece es A Re 2 | Pollen competition as a factor in Structure of the flower in relation self-fertilization and cross-fertili- TOM POLINA MON se a 12 VN i Cy 0 i sale ge es nee Ca ee 42 Ontogeny of the flower in relation Relative completeness of insect polli- tompollination=s 22% eos 78 8 ee 16 nation at different localities_____ 49 Locus of pollen deposition in rela- Seasonal variations in relative com- tion to self-fertilization and cross- pleteness of fertilization _____-__ 51 fensilizavion] 2. eo ee 27 | The inferior fertilization of bagged Relative earliness of arrival of self- How ers i524) Ps Ree eek be 53 ; deposited and of insect-carried ® Boll shedding in relation to pollina- OT eT ee ee eae ee a ee 31 tion and fertilization___________ 55 Deposition of self pollen and of for- - Inbreeding in relation to fertility__ 56 eign pollen by insects___________ Sao SUTIN Te yea ast ee ee a a 61 Pollen-carrying insects at Sacaton__ 367 | Literature: citedi 2 {Psa oes 66 INTRODUCTION. The three principal types of cotton grown in the United States— upland (Gossypiwm hirsutum), sea island (G. barbadense) and Egyptian ’—hybridize freely among themselves when opportunity is afforded for cross-pollination. The first or conjugate generation of the hybrid between any two of these types is extremely fertile and vigorous, but in hybrids of upland with sea-island or with Egyptian cotton degenerate and more or less sterile forms occur in large numbers in the later generations (29).2_ On the other hand, So far as is known, the perjugate generations of crosses between varieties of the same type are little, if any, inferior in fertility to the parents. The high degree of compatibility between types so dis- tinct as Egyptian and upland makes the frequency of natural cross- fertilization under given conditions a problem of much importance in breeding work with this plant and in maintaining supplies of pure seed of the agricultural varieties. 1The Egyptian type of cotton as it now exists appears to constitute a distinct botanical species, although it is supposed to have originated through hybridization (27, p. 289). Rah aaah AGE ae (italic) in parentheses refer to ‘‘ Literature cited’’ at the end of 8 bulletin. 22421—23——_1 2 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Evidence is presented in this bulletin that although the cotton flower is admirably adapted to cross-pollination most of the ovules usa are self-fertilized. The percentage of vicinists, or natural hybrids, produced when two distinct varieties or types are grown side by side ordinarily is not large, although the occurrence of only a small initial percentage may, of course, seriously impair the purity of the stock. In the Egyptian type of cotton, particularly, self-fer- tilization has been found to predominate greatly over cross-fertiliza- tion. Investigations of the structure and later ontogeny of the flower, of the deposition of self pollen and of foreign ee upon the stigmas, and of the competition of like and unlike pollens, here described, contribute to an explanation of the predominance of self-fertilization. Other aspects of the subject treated are the local and seasonal differences in the relative completeness of fertiliza- tion and the effect upon fertility of continued self-fertilization. Most of the data and conclusions relate to the Pima variety of the Egyptian type of cotton, but comparison with upland cotton has been made in numerous instances. With very few exceptions the experiments were performed at Sacaton at the pie Indian Agency in southern Arizona during the eight-year period from 1914 to 1921. eAcknowledgment is made of the cordial cooperation of S. H. Hastings, formerly superintendent of the Cooperative Testing Garden at Sacaton, and of é. J. King, the present superintendent. Many of the experiments from 1914 to 1919,-inclusive, were per- formed by Walton G. Wells, during that period assistant cotton breeder in the Office of Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant Investi- gations, Bureau of Plant Industry. Walter F. Gilpin, assistant cotton breeder in the same office, who assisted in the work during 1917 and 1919, performed many of the experiments during the years 1920 and 1921. Others who have aided in the investigations are H. G. McKeever, Rolla B. Wade, Harvey Thackery, F. Ben Clark, Roy W. Nixon, George C. Powell, George J. Harrison, Robert D. Martin, C. J. King, W. W. Ballard, Max Willett, R. H. Manthey, R. H. Peebles, and C. A. Bewick. Plates I, II, III, 1V, and V are from photographs by W. F. Gilpin. Plates VI and VII are from photographs by Harold F. Loomis, of the Office of Crop Acclimatization and Adaptation Investigations. Bureau of Plant Industry. VICINISM, OR NATURAL HYBRIDIZATION, IN COTTON. In considering the evidence regarding the occurrence of vicinists, or natural hybrids, the published results of other investigators will be reviewed, and the data of experiments performed in Arizona will be presented. DATA ON VICINISM IN LITERATURE. Webber, as the result of his experience in South Carolina and other Southeastern States, observes (48, p. 370) : In several instances varieties have been grown in single rows with other varieties all around them of such a kind that crossing where it occurred could be easily detected in the progeny. Plants grown from seed matured under *The accounts of experiments concerning vicinism in cotton rarely state whether or not the rows were thinned; and, if so, whether the removal of the extra plants was manag s0 as to avoid discrimination in favor of the more vigorous hybrid individuals, FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 3 such circumstances show but few crosses, indicating that the majority must have been self-fertilized. Judging from the observations thus far made, it would seem that ordinarily only from 5 to 10 per cent of the seeds are nor- mally cross-fecundated. Balls, on the basis of his investigations in Egypt, states (6, p. 27) : The vast majority of individuals in any cotton crop yet studied are hetero- zygous in several characters, and the amount of crossing which takes place between cotton plants growing in a field So producing this heterozygous condi- tion ranges from 5 to 25 per cent, by experimental evidence. The same investigator, in a later publication (7, p. 222), remarks: “In 1905 we found that some 6 to 10 per cent of the ovules in a field of Egyptian cotton were cross-fertilized instead of being selfed ;” and he points out that in general culture the apparent per- centage of vicinists is usually larger than the actual percentage, ow- ing to the stronger hybrid plants being retained when the fields are thinned. Certain progenies are mentioned (8, p. 119) in which the percentages of natural hybrids ranged from 25 to 35. Allard (2) planted easily distinguishable varieties of upland cotton (Keenan, Okra Leaf, Red Leaf) in alternate rows in northern Georgia and found that progenies grown from at least 20 per cent of the bolls borne by plants of the Keenan variety contained one or more hybrids. Some of the bolls yielded only hybrids, indicating that the flowers from which these bolls developed had produced only abortive or self-sterile pollen. Shoemaker (43), working in north-central Texas, found that when plants of the Triumph variety of upland cotton were scattered through a plat of an “okra-leaf” upland strain, so that each Triumph plant was entirely surrounded by plants of the other type, 47 per cent of the Triumph bolls, seed from which was planted the following year, yielded hybrids, although these in no case amounted to as much as 50 per cent of the entire progeny of the boll. The proportion of hybrids in the entire population grown from bolls collected on the Triumph plants was 10.9 per cent. No correlation could be observed between the position of the boll on the plant and the extent of the cross-fertilization observed, from which this in- vestigator concluded that “‘the insects which did the crossing must have worked regularly through the season.” McLendon (39, pp. 162-167), in Georgia, grew Willett’s Red Lea2 and Hastings Big-Boll (a green-leafed variety of upland cotton) in alternate rows and planted seed from the Hastings plants. In a resulting population of 4,467, 87 (1.9 per cent) of the individuals proved to be vicinists. Ricks and Brown (1, pp. 4, 15, 17), in Mississippi, found that when green-leafed varieties of upland cotton were grown in rows alternating with rows of Willett’s Red Leaf, the percentages of natural hybrids produced by the resulting seed ranged from 4.9 to 11.1. From table 9 of the publication cited (p. 17) it may be deduced that of the bolls borne on plants of Lone Star and of Trice 36 and 44 per cent, respectively, gave progenies which contained one or more hybrids with Red Leaf. In regard to the prevalence in India.of natural cross-fertilization of cotton, Gammie (19, pp. 2, 3), from observations at Poona, con- cluded that it is a very rare occurrence. Evidence to the contrary +4 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, is given by Leake (35), by Kottur (34), and by Thadani (46). Kottur states that at Dharwar when two pure strains, one having a long leaf and the other a short leaf, were grown side by side, 6 per cent of vicinists occurred in the progeny of the short-leaf strain. The distance to which pollen may be carried under natural con- ditions is a subject of much practical importance. Shoemaker (43) observed that where Triumph and Okra Leaf cottons were grown 2 rods apart,‘ a planting from the seed of the former yielded about 1 per cent of hybrids. This would indicate that a relatively slight distance affords a fair degree of protection against cross-pollination. Balls (8, pp. 19, 123), in Egypt, found that whereas under or- dinary field conditions the number of vicinists ranged from 5 to 10 per cent, in his breeding plat, where numerous different types of cotton were grown in close proximity, the percentage rose to as high as 50 or even 100. He observed that hybrids were occasionally produced with Willett’s Red Leaf when the plants of the latter were 50 meters distant from the plants which produced the hybrid- ized seed, with dozens of other cotton plants intervening. Ricks and Brown (/), in Mississippi, found that seed gathered from plants of the Cleveland variety of upland cotton which were situated in the middle of a 4-row plat of this Mee the plat bein separated by 10 rows of corn from a row of Willett’s Red Lea cotton, produced 0.8 per cent of Cleveland x Red Leaf hybrids, as compared with 4.9 per cent where the two varieties were grown in adjacent rows and 18.5 per cent where they were grown in alternate hills. EXPERIMENTS IN ARIZONA. VICINISM BETWEEN VERY DISTINCT TYPES. A plat of cotton of the Egyptian type was grown by the writer at Yuma, Ariz., in 1907 in close proximity to a plat of upland cot- ton. Seed from the open-pollinated flowers of the Egyptian plants was planted in 1908, and of the resulting population of approxi- mately 3,000 individuals 8.2 per cent were hybrid. Under the direction of O. F. Cook, Egyptian and Kekchi (upland) cottons were planted in alternate rows by Argyle McLachlan near Yuma in 1909. The population grown in 1910 from the seed pro- duced by the Kekchi plants contained 5 per cent of hybrids.® Open-pollinated bolls were collected at Sacaton in 1919 from three adjacent rows of cotton, there having been a row of Pima (Egyptian), bordered on one side by a row of the Lone Star (up- land) variety and on the other by a row of the Holdon (upland) variety. The seed obtained from each row was planted in 1920, and the percentages of first-generation hybrids were determined, as given in Table 1. * Although the point is not mentioned in the work cited, Dr. Shoemaker has informed the writer that to the best of his recollection there were several rows of Triumph cotton between the plants of that variety from which seed was gathered and the row of Okra cotton. 5’ Argyle McLachlan in letter to O. F. Cook, July 9, 1910. FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. Z TABLE 1.—Hybrids in populations from open-pollinated seed produced by adja- cent rows of Hgoyptian and upland varieties of cotton at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1920. ¥ hybrids. Variety from which seed was obtained. Plants. Number. | Per cent, | SINE CEO Pay) ULATID parte yaa cieeiere cieiain biel -heisleisials alelula)aislere aa bie dalctele (a slale\a erelafee)elaialaya 585 17 | 2.940.5 BAOMO MS CAL CUD LAM) crema ernieielarelale| nie raisiatelb/slalela Cinidle\s& «/ale\m o/ainlole nals ofe/asielatela(b «i a'e/e 448 23 | 5.14 .7 EVOLG ON (UPIEN Gd) Meese ttecisiciio cei c tb -dess once aitslet = Beh a Le 437 49 | 11.241.0 That these percentages of hybrids correspond closély to the actual percentages of ovules which were cross-fertilized by pollen of the other type is indicated by the following facts: The seeds were planted four to the hill and no thinning was done. Comparison of the per- centages of hybrids in the hills containing one, two, three, and four plants, respectively, showed that while each successive increase in the number of plants was accompanied by a decrease in the percentage of hybrids, the differences were not significant, even as between hills containing one plant and hills containing four plants. Hence, it may -be concluded that little, if any, natural selection in favor of the hybrid plants had taken place during germination and the seedling stage of growth.® The difference in the percentages of hybrids between the progenies of the Pima and of the Lone Star plants is apparently not significant, but the percentage of hybrids in the progeny of Holdon is nearly four times as great as in the progeny of Pima, and the difference is 74 times its probable error. So far as this evidence goes, it would seem that when Egyptian and upland cottons are grown in close proximity, the former yields a smaller percentage of vicinists than the latter. It should be noted, however, that during the latter half of the summer the upland plants showed a much greater decline in the rate of flowering than did the Pima plants, and this would favor the production of a higher percentage of upland x Pima than of Pima X< upland hybrids. The extent of vicinism occurring when upland plants are located in the midst of a field of Egyptian cotton is indicated by the results of an experiment performed at Sacaton in 1920 and 1921. Fifty plants of Acala (upland) cotton were grown in 1920 in the middle sec- tion of the central row of a 7-row plat of Pima cotton. Adjacent to this plat, on both sides, were several other plats which contained only Pima cotton. The rows contained about 400 plants each, so that the upland cotton was completely surrounded by the Egyptian. The arrangement of the planting is shown in Figure 1. 6 Data given elsewhere in this bulletin indicate that seeds produced by Pima flowers which had been cross-pollinated with upland pollen germinate somewhat better than Pima X Pima seeds, although the difference in the germination did not exceed 4.1+1 per cent and was therefore too small to affect materially the percentage of hybrids yielded by seed from naturally pollinated flowers on the Pima plants. To illustrate: If the proportion of germination of the seeds resulting from cross-fertilization of Pima ovules with upland pollen was only 4 oe cent higher than that of seeds from Pima ovules fertilized with Pima pollen and if the population grown from seed produced by naturally pollinated Pima flowers contained 10 per cent of hybrids, the actual percentage of ybridized (Pima Xupland) ovules would have been 9.6 per cent. ° 6 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bolls were gathered in the fall from all 50 of the Acala (upland) plants and from each of the 50 plants, opposite to these, in Pima rows 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, and 20, on the west and rows 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’, 6’, 8’, 10’, 15’, and 20’ on the east of the upland. Each lot of seed was thoroughly mixed, and a representative sample was planted in Ned | | fe ae el | bee | es bea ' pA alae ie lady Meal ad joa si Far Un ead Pe) | rp H | E i j | t rae | | | | | 20 ped TODO. OF OZLLIOELZS SO: OW, 15 20 Fic. 1.—Planting plan of an experiment to determine the extent of vicinism resulting when plants of the Acala variety of upland cotton were located in the midst of a field of the Pima variety of Egyptian cotton. The middle section of the central row (row O), indicated by the dotted portion of the line, contained the upland plants, the remainder of this row and the rest of the field having been planted to Pima. Hori- zontal lines inclose the portions of the Pima rows from which seed was harvested for determination of the percentage of vicinists. 1921 in order to determine the percentages of vicinists. No thinning was done, all seeds which germinated having been allowed to de- velop. The results are stated in Table 2, in which the populations grown from each pair of Pima rows having the same cardinal num- ber and its prime, both east and west of the Acala section, are com- bined as one array. FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. ff TABLE 2.—Vicinists yielded in 1921 by seed from plants of Acala cotton located im the midst of a field of Pima cotton and by seed from those portions of suc- cessive Pima rows which were opposite to and on both sides of the section of Acala cotton, at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1920. : F; hybrids. F, hybrids. Variety from which Variety from which Se seed was obtained. Plants. Num- Porlcont: seed was obtained. Plants. Num- | Per cent ber. ber | é | | ee ab 22 sis. —|-_—— 671 93 | 13.940.9 || Pima (Egyptian)—Con. ae row 0.. { (714)| (136)|(19. 1) Rows 6 and 6/...... 619 1 0.2 a (i ian): Ows 8 and 8’...... 56 0 | RoW ariel RE SEe 635 9/ 1.44 .3 Rows 10and10’...; 27600 0 0 Rows 2 and 2’...... 615 2 .3 Rows 15and 15’...| 12600 0 0 ee 3 aud 3’ st Pea 685 4 -6 Rows 20 and 20’...| 2600 0 0 Ows 4 and 4’...... 609 0° -0 1 Through an oversight, the seed from the Acala plants was planted in a plat in which upland cotton had been grown in 1920. There were numerous volunteer plants, many of them first-generation upland X Egyptian hybrids which could not be cise uished from the hybrids belonging to this experiment unless they occurred outside the rows and hills of the 1921 planting. Consequently, it was deemed best to count as vicinists belonging to this experiment only F; plants which grew in hills with plants of Acala, exclud- ing such F; plants as occurred singly in a hill, even though their alignment and spacing distance con- formed to that of the 1921 experiment. The figures obtained by including such plants are, however, given in parentheses. It is probable that the first percentage given in the table is lower and the second higher a he true, percentage of vicinists yielded in this experiment. stimated. The percentage of vicinists yielded by the section of Acala plants was at least ten times greater than that yielded by the Pima plants which grew on either side of them (rows 1 and 1’). A considerably higher percentage in the former case would be expected (1) because the Acala was surrounded on all sides by Pima and (2) because dur- ing the latter part of the season the Pima plants were flowering more profusely than the Acala. But these factors alone do not seem ade- quate to explain the much greater proportion of vicinism in the case of the upland. It will be noted that no vicinism was detected in the ee cotton situated farther away from the Acala than rows 6 and 6’. A 7-row plat of Pima cotton was grown at Sacaton in 1920 ad- jacent to a 7-row plat of Durango (upland). Each row of each variety was harvested separately. Each resulting lot of seed was thoroughly mixed, and a portion of each lot was planted in 1921 in order to determine the percentages of vicinists. No thinning was done, all plants which germinated having been allowed to develop. The results are stated in Table 3. TABLE 3.—Vicinists yielded in 1921 by plantings of seed from successive rows m adjacent plats of Pima and Durango cottons grown at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1920. [No. 1 designates the adjacent row of each of the two varieties and No. 7 the row of each variety which was most remote.] Plantings of seed from Pima | Plantings of seed from (Egyptian) rows. Durango (upland) rows. Ov F, hybrids. F hybrids. Plants. Plants. Number.| Percent. Number. | Per cent. 270 9 | 3.340.7 255 6| 2.4+0.6 386 | 8 | 2.14 .4 313 10} 3.24 .7 346 10 | 2.94 .6 288 2 w+ .3 252 | 4) 1.64 .5 313 2 64 .2 365 | 2| .54 .2)} 233 7| 3.0+ .8 355 | 3] .8+ .3 286 2 7+ .3 361 | 5 | 14+ .4 288 4] 1.44 .5 2,335 41} 1.84 .2 1,976 33 | 1.74 .2 8 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The results of this experiment are exceptional, practically the same total percentage of vicinists having been yielded by seed from the Egyptian and from the upland plants, and the percentage yielded by seed from the row of each variety which was most distant from the plat of the other type (row 7) having been not significantly lower than that yielded by the row that was nearest (row 1). Seed was gathered in 1920 from each of a number of rows in a field of Pima Meyptian) cotton at Buckeye, Ariz., which was sepa- rated from a field of upland cotton by a rather wide road bordered by a row of trees. Each lot of seed was thoroughly mixed, and a portion of that from each row was planted in 1921 in order to deter- mine the percentages of vicinists. No thinning was done, all seeds which germinated haying been allowed to develop. The results are stated in Table 4. TABLE 4.—Vicinists yielded in 1921 by plantings of seed collected in 1920 from several rows of Pima cotton situated in close proximity to a field of upland cotton at Buckeye, Ariz. [No. 1 designates the outside row, nearest the upland field.) F, hybrids. Fy hybrids. Row. |ePlants: Ween ee kaa Row. ‘| Plants. vee Per cent. . pig Per cent. ING lee ee oe 284 6 Qt || NDE 20s sie ce weeks he 143 1 0.7 ING So ice ctter ec ccesceee 314 2 Or ||MNOsGUcccee ee aech ses cece 138 1 ai} NOgSsss- Husk - 44 - 305 af oO HGNO; 40553 cb ea Be 136 3 2.2 INO MD noses ee catcceeu 287 4 De OS a oes Se eS aS - 285 5 1.8 Novo; Shed 55. BIE 291 0 0 en ee NO STR os Ae nakn fete 189 0 0 Potala ck ftoses 2,372 23 1.0 It is interesting to note that the most distant row (No. 50) yielded a percentage of vicinists not materially lower than that yielded by’row No. 1, which was nearest the field of upland cotton. It seems, however, that pollinating insects which had left one field and crossed a wide road bordered by trees would be as likely to alight at a con- siderable distance within the second field as at the edge of it. VICINISM BETWEEN VARIETIES OF THE SAME TYPE, The cases of vicinism in Arizona thus far discussed have been between widely different types of cotton. It will be interesting to consider a case involving two related varieties belonging to the same general type but sufficiently uniform and sufficiently distinct to make the recognition of accidental hybrids between them fairly certain. A row of Pima cotton was grown side by side with a row of Gila cotton, both varieties belonging to the Egyptian type,’ at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1916. In this case there was no appreciable difference in the height of the plants and the duration of the flower- ing period. Seed from the open-pollinated Pima flowers was planted in 1917. The hills were thinned to one plant, the thinning having been done in such manner as to avoid selection. The total number of plants after thinning was 302, of which 5 were certainly and 2 more were doubtful first-generation Pima < Gila hybrids. The 7These varieties are described by Kearney (27), and the characters of hybrids be- tween them are discussed by Kearney and Wells (30). FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 9 indicated maximum proportion of hybrids was therefore 2.3 per cent. Taken in connection with the low percentages of hybrids pro- duced by seed from open-pollinated flowers of Pima cotton grown adjacent to upland cottons (Tables 1, 2, and 3) these data indicate a strong tendency to self-fertilization in the Pima variety. VICINISM NOT A COMPLETE MEASURE OF CROSS-FERTILIZATION. The percentage of recognizable vicinists does not afford an ade- quate expression of the relative frequency of cross-fertilization as compared with self-fertilization, for the plants produced by ovules which have been fertilized with pollen from other plants of the same variety are usually not distinguishable from the plants resulting from self-fertilization. In order to determine the actual percentage of ovules which have been cross-fertilized, a single indi- vidual of one variety should be isolated among plants of another and readily distinguishable variety, allowing only one flower to open daily on the isolated mother plant. In such case only recog- nizable hybrids would be produced by all seeds from ovules not fertilized with pollen of the same flower. _ The conditions outlined in the preceding paragraph were met in an experiment begun at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1920. In.the central row of a 7-row plat of Acala (upland) cotton 8 plants of Pima (Egyp- tian) were so located that from 5 to 10 Acala plants intervened be- tween each 2 Pima plants. Eight plants of Acala cotton were simi- larly located in a plat of Pima. Only one flower was allowed to open daily on each of the isolated plants, any additional flower buds due to open on the same day having been removed before the corolla expanded. It is believed that under these conditions all or very nearly all of the ovules were either strictly self-fertilized or were cross-fertilized by pollen of the other type. Consequently, the total cross-fertilization which took place should be indicated by the per- centages of first-generation hybrids in the progenies of these plants. The seed produced by each of the isolated individuals was planted in 1921. No thinning was done, all seeds which germinated having been allowed to develop. The percentages of hybrids were deter- ‘mined after the plants had developed sufficiently to make identifica- tion certain. The results are stated in Table 5. TABLE 5.—First-generation hybrids in the progenies of Pima and of Acala plants whieh had been grown isolated in a plat of the other variety and on which only one flower had been allowed to open daily, at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1920. Pima (Egyptian) plants. | Acala (upland) plants. uh ay i ' Progeny. | F hybrids. Progeny. F, hybrids. Number. Number. Number.| Per cent. Number.| Per cent. ING Mg ASA oS 263 4 H.SEON5 NOEs be. 2 219 | 64 29. 242.1 1G ee Graph ae 340 | 26 Gets Qi EN Qusmrets Sine Bape woe | 283, 98 34.641.9 INGAOSdpes Se GSES 211 733 ly LonGshilod NaNOsioccst este cte sce | 197 66 33. 5+2.3 ING. 422e. 0549-8 259 | 30 D642 TF 3a ONO. Ars - S55 2. Hea. | 225 | 48 21.341.8 BNO OLR trees S 157 | 47 29594255) | MNO NON eee ee cee. 285 | 64 22.441.7 ING ORS See ees 234 | 28 12.0+1.4 | No. 6...2...2...00. 223 75 33. 642.1 Wire Aes eee . 212 11 LOST) TAN ay iy Gt ee ee 260. 73 28.1+1.9 MO eee re ss 242 52 215 OnteN On Georerie. eae 123 18. 14.64+2.1 Total....... 1, 918 231 | 1204.5 Totals... 5.2.|\* 1,815 | 506 | 27.9 .7 | Saat 22421—23, 2 10 BULLETIN 1134, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There was much more variation in the percentage of hybrids among the progenies of the Pima plants than among the Acala prog- enies, one of the Pima progenies having yielded a somewhat higher percentage than most of the Acala progenies. If the eight prog- enies of each variety are taken as a single population, however, it is seen that the percentage of cross-fertilized ovules -was more than twice as great in the upland variety as in the Egyptian variety. The results of this experiment indicate that on the average 88 per cent of the ovules in Pima (Egyptian) cotton and 72 per cent in Acala (upland) cotton were autogamically fertilized. These types of cotton differ less in height of plant and rate of flowering in early summer than later in the season, when the Pima plants become much taller than the Acala and produce relatively a greater number of flowers. In order to determine whether these Bocce are reflected in different degrees of cross-fertilization of the early and late flowers, dated tags were attached to all flowers which opened on the isolated plants. The progeny of each indi- vidual was planted in three sections, representing as many periods during which the flowers had opened—July 1 to 21, July 22 to August 11, and August 12 to September 3. The number and per- centage of F, hybrids from seed produced by flowers which opened | during each period were determined for each variety, these data being presented in Table 6. TABLE 6.—First-generation hybrids yielded in 1921 by seed representing different flowering periods which was produced by the isolated plants of Pima and of Acala cotton, at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1920. Progenies of 8 Pima (Egyptian) | Progenies of 8 Acala (upland) plants. plants. Period. F, hybrids. F hybrids. Number. | 3353 NO ee eee Number.}| Per cent. Number.| Per cent. Jply dito Qe so. edad pedo tases os 311 63 | 20.24+1.5 646 166 25.741.2 JULY, 22 CO ANPUSU IL. occ. st cccce cee nc 793 136 | 17.24 .9 462 120 26.0+1.4 August 12 to September 3............. 815 32 3.94 .6 706 220 31. 241.2 The difference between the two varieties in the percentage of hy- brids from seed produced by flowers of the first period probably was not significant, but flowers of the second and third periods yielded significantly greater percentages of hybrids in the case of Acala than ‘ in the case of Pima plants. The very marked decline during the last period (August 12 to September 3) in the relative cross-fertilization of the flowers borne by the isolated Pima plants is probably to be attributed to a diminished flower production of the Acala plants which surrounded them. The isolated Acala plants, on the other hand, showed a slight increase in the percentage of cross-fertiliza- tion during the same period, indicating that no corresponding reduc- _ tion had taken place in the rate of flowering of the Pima plants by which they were surrounded. ety The fact that the Pima and the Acala flowers which opened during the period from July 1 to 21, when both types of cotton were in full FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 11 blossom, yielded approximately equal percentages of hybrids points to the conclusion that the higher percentages of vicinists usually obtained from seeds produced by upland plants than from seeds _ produced by Egyptian plants when the two types are grown side by side is due partly to the earlier slowing down of the rate of flowering in the case of upland cotton. Evidence presented in another part of this bulletin indicates, however, that there may be an intrinsic differ- ence in the liability to cross-fertilization of the two types. CONCLUSIONS REGARDING THE PREPONDERANCE OF SELF-FERTILIZATION. There is much variation in the percentages of vicinists, or natural hybrids, formed when two distinct types of cotton are grown in prox- imity, as is shown by the results obtained by other investigators and by the writer. This is to be expected in view of the many variable factors involved, such as local differences in the number and kind of pollinating insects and differences in the habit of growth and period of flowering of the varieties. The proportion of vicinists rarely ex- ceeds 20 per cent, however, and is usually much smaller. The avail- able information in regard to vicinism therefore points strongly to the conclusion that in cotton self-fertilization greatly predominates over cross-fertilization. It should not be inferred, however, that because most of the ovules normally are self-fertilized, such cross- fertilization as occurs is negligible in its effect upon the uniformity of a variety. As a rule, the percentage of vicinists decreases rapidly as the distance between the seed-bearing and the pollen-bearing parents increases, but the data at hand do not permit a conclusion to be drawn as to the degree of isolation necessary to eliminate the danger of eross-pollination. ‘This is doubtless affected by the nature of the varieties grown, by local and seasonal variations in the insect popu- lation and in the flowering of other plants, and by topography, weather, and other factors. The percentage of recognizable vicinists produced under natural conditions does not measure the proportion of cross-fertilization occurring, for the reason that many of the ovules are cross-fertilized by pollen from other plants of the same variety. An experiment was performed at Sacaton, Ariz., in which this source of error was eliminated by growing scattered plants of one type in a field of an- other type and allowing only one flower to open daily on each of the isolated plants, seed from which was planted the following season. Plants thus treated yielded 12 per cent of hybrids in the case of Pima (Egyptian) and 28 per cent in the case of Acala (upland). It is believed that these percentages correspond very closely to the percentages of cross-fertilized ovules. The results of this experiment indicated that in Pima 88 per cent and in Acala 72 per cent of the ovules were self-fertilized. Other evidence has been obtained at Sacaton that upland * Egyptian are more numerous than Egyptian upland vicinists. That this is _ due partly to an earlier decline in the flowering rate of upland as compared with Egyptian cotton is suggested by the fact that seeds produced by flowers of Pima and of Acala cotton which opened during a period when both types were blossoming freely yielded approximately the same percentage of vicinists. 12 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER IN RELATION TO POLLINATION. The large and showy cotton flower with its reproductive organs so placed as to be readily accessible to all kinds of insects (Pls. I and II) wotld seem to be admirably adapted to cross pollination, espe- cially as the abundant secretion of nectar attracts large numbers of pollen-carrying insects. The transfer of pollen is favored by the fact that even during the height of the blossoming period the num- ber of flowers opening daily on the individual plant rarely exceeds three and is usually only one.’ Yet the evidence presented in the preceding pages indicates a strong preponderance of self-fertiliza- tion. In seeking an explanation of this apparent anomaly the structure and the later ontogeny of the flower will be considered. The description which follows is based upon the Pima variety, but applies in all essential particulars to other varieties of the Egyptian type. The points of structure relative to pollination in which the flower of upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutwm) differs from that of Egyptian cotton will be mentioned for comparison. POSITIONAL RELATIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. Egyptian cotton, like other members of the genus Gossypium, has the ovary and style inclosed in a sheath or tube formed by the coalescent bases of the filaments of the stamens, and the pistil pro- jects above the summit of this so-called staminal column (PI. I, Fig. 1; Pl. Il, Fig. 1). There is no sharp differentiation between stigmas and style, the latter beginning to increase in diameter and to become pubescent below the summit of the staminal column, but under normal conditions pollen is deposited in quantity only on the exserted portion of the pistil, and for convenience the term “ stig- mas” will be used in referring to this portion only. The erect and usually somewhat spirally twisted stigmas (Pl. I, Fig. 1) are coherent except very near the apex and are slightly enlarged upward. The stigmatic surface is not viscid but is densely pubescent, and this to- poner with the spiny surface of the pollen grains secures their ad- esion to the stigmas. Unlike the condition in many of the Mal- vacesw, the stigmas do not become spreading or reflexed after the flower opens’but remain erect. There is no evidence that the flower is protandrous, as is the case in most of the Malvacex.® The stigmas from the apex to a little below the point where they emerge from the staminal column are homogeneous in texture and pubescence, and pollen grains adhere to and doubtless germinate upon all parts of their surface. Reference to Plate I, Figure 1, and to Plate II, Figure 1, shows that in Pima cotton the stigmas project far beyond the summit of the staminal sheath, averaging in length, at 8 a. m., or about 14 hours after the corolla has begun to open, 10 millimeters, or one- * Darwin (JJ, p. 389), evidently having in mind plants on which numerous flowers are in anthesis at the same time, states “Insects usually search a large number of flowers on the same plant before they fly to another, and this is opposed to cross-fertilization.” : ppnuh (33, p. 206). According to K. Schumann (42, p. 32) all Malvacew are pro- androus. ATOATI BOI 94 aya jo uoMaod PLATE iculture. of Agr Bul. 1134, U. S. Dept $s ‘uldyry “WM Aq poydeasojoyg vi “SUOUILYS OY} AG PouddIOS A[asoTo SvUIST]S OY} JO UOTIIOd OU SulAvy Aq pues sedins Ajoreq YOTYAt SvUIsT]s Aq pozuopovrvyo “AjoUvA Bay ‘U0}}00 purldQ—zZ ‘DI “SuoUreys SOUL [wseq OY) SUTALY AG PUB SUBTILIS JOYS ATOAVIOI oY} Ssedins ATvoIS YOTYM seuss Aq poztopriey SNAWVLS GNV SVWDILG AHL 4O SNOILISOd FHL DSNIMOHS ‘NOILOSS AVOILYSA NI udULe 4S SUOT roddn oy} Aq poudetos ATOSoTo SvUIsTyS ) ‘SJOMIBA BUILT SYSMO14 d ‘u0}}00 ue NOLLOO das Ch Te ol PLATE II. Bul. 1134, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. JosU0] ‘uldyiy “WT AA Aq poydeasojoyg ‘suourtys soddn oy4 Aq oseq oY} 7B poudalIOS AJasuop SsoyT pue O18 SELUST}S OY} 1GY} JdooNxo ‘BU JO OSOY} OF ALITULIS SULTIO OATJON POAC. OY} JO SA0}JOBABY!D BULMOYS ‘U0}}O9 PURIST VAg—Z “D1 *NOILOAS IWOILYSAA NI SYHSMOT14 NOLLOD u0}}09 uRIdAS gy JO AJOWBA RVULTG— | *OLT FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 13 third of the total length of the pistil exclusive of the ovary.2° At the same hour the short uppermost stamens are found to extend on the average 2.5 millimeters above the summit of the staminal sheath. Consequently, at the time of opening of the corolla, approximately one-fourth of the total length of the stigmas is surrounded by the uppermost stamens. Owing to the density of the mass of surround- ing stamens, this part of the stigmas probably is screened effectively | against the access of foreign pollen. The erect or semierect position of the filaments of the upper stamens brings their anthers into close contact with the base of the stigmas, and automatic self-pollination is thus effected. Trelease (47, p. 322), whose observations doubtless were made upon upland cottons, states: The reproductive organs are so placed that on the expansion of the corolla pollen has usually been deposited on the stigmas, self-fertilization being thus secured. Robson (47) observes that “ fertilization in the majority of cotton flowers is effected from the section of the stigma nearest the ovary.” The adaptation of the cotton flower both to self-fertilization and to cross-fertilization is described as follows by Kottur (34, pp. 52, 53) : The entire surface of the style that projects beyond the staminal column is stigmatic; and this has been proved by cutting the stigma and fertilizing it only at the base, Again, in the majority of flowers the filaments of the upper anthers are sufficiently long to touch the base of the stigma. All these condi- tions are quite favorable for self-fertilization. The anthers are in contact with the stigma and they shed their pollen as soon as the flower opens. But, on the other hand, we have in most cottons a very attractive corolla. The quan- tity of honey and pollen in the flower is profuse and invites the insects that roam in search of them. All these favor natural crossings. We have thus one set of conditions favoring self-fertilization and another set favoring cross- fertilization ; but the former occurs as a rule and the latter as an exception in all varieties of Indian cotton under observation at Dharwar. The stamens of Pima cotton change their position very slightly, if at all, during the day. Observation as late as 3 p. m., when the corolla was beginning to wilt, showed the filaments of the uppermost stamens to be still erect and the anthers as though glued to the stigmas by the masses of extruded pollen. In sea-island cotton (Gossypium barbadense) the positional rela- tions of the reproductive organs (PI. II, Fig. 2) are much the same as in Egyptian cotton, but the anthers do not form as dense a girdle around the base of the stigmas, which 1s probably somewhat more accessible to foreign pollen. Most varieties of upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) are char- acterized by much shorter stigmas. and by longer filaments of the stamens than in Egyptian cotton (PI.I, Fig.2). Measurements made in 1918 upon fully open flowers of the Pima (Egyptian) and Holdon (upland) varieties gave the means stated in Table 7, which show that in a typical upland cotton the stamens are much longer and the stigmas are much shorter, both absolutely and relatively, than in the Egyptian type as represented by the Pima variety. 10 Measurement of 100 Pima cotton flowers at 8 a. m. showed the mean length of the pistil from the summit of the ovary to be 30.5+0.338 millimeters and the mean length of the stigmas (portion outside the staminal sheath) to be 10.2+0.35 millimeters. The mean projection of the stamens above the summit of the sheath in the same flowers was 2.5+0.16 millimeters. 14 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 7.—Measurements of the reproductive organs in Pima and Holdon cottons. Mean length of parts (millim ls SiN PENDS BA MeN Ce on which | Number || length of | of flowers stigmas Variety. Rowers meas- (percentage nen ured. | Stamens. | Pistil.t Stigmas. | of pistil ivedt’ length). * Ae ee eT ee ef | ee Pima (Egyptian)................-. 21 | 83 | 5,040.01 | 36.340.29 | 9.840.21 | 27.040.45 Holdon (upland)................-. 19 | 84 | 8.04 .03 | 26.54 .14|] 3.14 .08 | 11.74 .48 be SSS SSS Sie IDLE Ssh eS Sed gine Sul bseosesese|AScostease 3.0+ .03 | 9.84 .32 |] 6.74 .22) 15.34 .65 1 Measured from the base of the filament to the apex of the anther. The average length of 10 stamens per flower was taken as the unit in computing these means. Stamens from near the middle of the staminal column were measured. The uppermost stamens are much shorter. Measurement in 1921 of 5 upper and 5 middle stamens per flower in 5 flowers, each from a different plant of Pima cotton, gave the following means: Uppermost stamens, 2.4+0.04 millimeters; middle stamens, 4.3+0.05 millimeters. Acree tbe from the bottom of the corolla (hence somewhat below the summit of the ovary) to the apex of the stigmas. Examination in 1920 of the flowers of 20 varieties of upland cotton growing at Sacaton, Ariz., showed that, shortly after the corolla begins to open, the upper stamens are erect. In 16 varieties they were from slightly shorter than to slightly longer than the stigmas, while in 4 varieties the stigmas exceeded the stamens by lengths not greater than 5 millimeters.!_ In most of the upland varieties, there- fore, the whole or the greater part of the length of the stigmas is surrounded by the stamens, and the erect position of the latter during the first hour or so after the opening of the flower brings the anthers into contact with the stigmatic surface. Unlike the condition in Egyptian cotton, there is a limited power of movement, for later in the day the filaments become more nearly horizontal. It was ob- served in 1921 that in the Acala variety at 3 p. m. most of the upper- most filaments diverged at angles of 20° to 45°, although even at this hour occasional anthers remained in contact with the stigmas. The entire length of the stigmas in upland cottons is at all times, how- ever, much more accessible to foreign pollen than is the interstamen section of the Egyptian stigmas. : If one overlooks the receptive character of the entire surface of the pistil outside the staminal sheath and the possibility of a high degree of fertilization by self-pollen automatically discharged upon the basal portion of the stigfnas, the assumption is likely to be made that varieties of cotton having long stigmas are not well adapted to self-fertilization. Meade (40) drew this conclusion from the results of an experiment with upland cottons performed by him at San Antonio, Tex., in which flowers of a short-style variety (Acala) and of a longer styled variety (Durango) were artificially pollinated, the stigmas having been thoroughly smeared with their own pollen. Comparing these artificially pollinated flowers with naturally pol- linated flowers of the same varieties in respect to the percentages of bolls set, the variety having long stigmas showed a mean increase of 11.0+2.2 per cent from artificial pollination, as compared with an increase of only 5.32.4 per cent in the variety having short stigmas, uJIt is possible that the stigmas were abnormally short in some of the upland cottons grown at Sacaton in 1920, among which were several of the long-staple varieties. Accord- ing to Meade (40) in many of the long-staple upland varieties the stigmas often exceed the anthers by 15 millimeters, FERTILIZATION IN PIMA, COTTON. 15 but the difference between the increases in the two cases was less than twice its probable error. The converse proposition, that the ovules of flowers with short stigmas are less likely to be cross-fertilized than those of flowers having long stigmas, would seem to be self-evident. It was not borne out, however, by the results of an experiment performed by Balls (8, pp. 118, 119) who compared two strains derived from an Egyp- tian-upland cross, one of which had the stigmas so short as to be surpassed by the uppermost anthers, while the other had stigmas which greatly surpassed the anthers. No difference was found be- tween the two strains in the percentage of hybrids resulting from natural cross-pollination. Apparently in this case short stigmas offered no effective obstacle to the access of foreign pollen. It is of interest in this connection to note that the Lone Star variety of upland cotton, in which the stigmas normally are exceeded by the upper stamens, produced at Sacaton, Ariz., 5 per cent of vicinists when grown in a row adjacent to a row of Pima (see Table 1, p. 5). The probable explanation is that both in the hybrids compared by Balls and in the Lone Star variety the density of the screen formed by the stamens was not sufficient to protect the short stigmas from access of foreign pollen. FLOWER STRUCTURE IN RELATION TO CROSS-FERTILIZATION. In Pima cotton the deposition of foreign pollen upon the basal portion of the stigmas presumably is prevented by the density of the surrounding girdle of stamens (PI. 1, Fig. 1; Pl. I, Fig.1). An ex- periment was performed in 1919 with the object of determining the effectiveness of this protection. The material consisted of a row of Pima plants having on one side a row of the Holdon variety and on the other side a row of the Lone Star variety, the populations being the same as in the vicinism experiment (Table 1). Flower buds of all three varieties were opened before anthesis, and the extra- staminal portion of the stigmas, if any, was excised, after which the flowers were left exposed to the visits of insects. In the Lone Star variety the stigmas usually are exceeded by the stamens; hence little or no excision was necessary in this case. In the Holdon variety the portion excised was much shorter than in the case of Pima. The seed produced by the treated flowers of the three varieties was planted in 1920. The population from seed borne by the Pima plants was much larger than the upland populations, for the reason that the proportion of the treated flowers which failed to set bolls was much larger in the upland cottons” than in Pima, and the quan- tity of seed produced was consequently much greater in the latter ease. Early in July, when the plants were well enough developed to show their characters clearly, counts were made of the number of hybrids in the three populations. ‘The rows were not thinned, so that all plants which survived the germination and seedling stages were counted.1* The results are given in Table 8. 2 This does not indicate that the excision of the extrastaminal part of the stigmas had been more injurious to the upland than to the Egyptian flowers, as the rate of boll ppenaine at Sacaton, Ariz., is always much higher with upland than with Egyptian cotton. 18 Data given on page 5 indicate that there had been no natural selection in the earlier stages of growth which would affect the percentages of hybrids. 16 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 8.—First-generation hybrids in progenies grown at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1920, from seed produced by flowers the stigmas of which. had been excised in the bud at the level of the uppermost stamens. : F, hybrids. Variety of which seed was produced by excised flowers. Ries wae Number.| Per cent. ATE PUMA cores eee Ce ach wos acme cpsrcs sees ane aaae | 172 0 0 Tame Star Caplaad). . 690503. Geb Shrine... SIGIR . Teche sae | 19 , og tes FT OIGONNI DIAN) oa BS Re: pee Ep Shot ee) eee Reference to Table 1 shows that a population grown from seeds produced by unmutilated naturally pollinated flowers of the Pima plants used in the present experiment contained approximately 2 per cent of hybrids, while the data given in Table 8 show that excision of the extrastaminal portion of the stigmas had prevented cross- fertilization of the Pima flowers. This might have been explained on the ground that the removal of a portion of the corolla in the process of excising the stigmas had rendered the flowers unattractive to insects, were it not for the fact that cross-fertilization occurred in similarly treated flowers of the two upland varieties. It seems probable, therefore, that in Pima cotton the basal portion of the stigmas is effectively screened by the surrounding stamens against the access of foreign pollen, whereas in upland cottons no portion of the stigmas is inaccessible to such pollen. An anomalous result of the experiment is the much higher per- centage of hybrids in the population derived from treated flowers of the Lone Star variety than in the corresponding Holdon popu- lation, whereas in the vicinism experiment, involving untreated naturally pollinated flowers on the same plants (Table 1), Holdon yielded more than twice as high a percentage of hybrids as Lone Star, and the difference was five times its probable error. ONTOGENY OF THE FLOWER IN RELATION TO POLLINATION. Only the last stages in the ontogeny of the flower are of importance in relation to pollination. The time and rate of opening of corolla and anthers, the condition of the pollen from shortly before the flower opens until it has begun to wilt, and the duration of recep- tivity of the stigmas will be considered in this connection. “The final stages in the development of the flower are illustrated in Plate ITT. OPENING OF THE COROLLA. The bud remains tightly closed during the night preceding anthe- sis, the petals beginning to separate at the apex usually about an hour after sunrise. During the next hour or so the opening of the corolla proceeds slowly, but thereafter the aperture widens rapidly, with a slowing down in the rate shortly before the maximum diameter is attained. Accurate data as to the rate of opening were obtained from an experiment performed in 1919. During three periods of five days each (July 29 to August 2, August 18 to August 22, and September 11 to September 15) 20 flowers were tagged daily, and the aperture of the corolla was measured at half-hour intervals. The mean diameter of the aperture for each half hour is stated in Table PLATE III. Bul. 1134, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘mId{iyn “wm Aq poydeasojoyg ‘uodo opIa sioyjue oy} pur popurdxo AT[NJ Jsou[R vTJOIOo oy} SuLMOYS “UL “ve OSG IV—'e ‘DI ‘uodo Apaed SIOYJUB dy] PUB UOISUBdXd JO O8RYS ATIGO UB UL BI[O1OD OY} SUTMOYS ‘sIsoyyUB JO AVp oy} JO UR OeL TV—Z "DIA poutsojaod st uolepnoseuro ourTy oY} 7B SpNq JOMOY YY} JO UOTJIPUOD oY STSTY, “Posoyo ALIYST) TVS sioy{ue pue vyPO109 oyy SuTMOYS ‘sisoyyue surposoad Avp oyy jo ‘utd 6 y—] “Ol “LNAWdOTAAAG SAO SADVLS ALV] NI NOLLOO VWId AO SYSMO14 c Bul. 1134, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. FLOWER BUDS OF PIMA COTTON. The successive stages of the process of emasculation during the evening preceding anthesis: Intact buds (bottom); bud with corolla removed, showing the tightly closed anthers (middle); anthers removed, flower ready for pollination (top). Photographed by W. F. Gilpin. a See SS SSS SS : ATEAN LAWAETER OF COROLLA APERTURE ODLLIIETLAS) FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 7 _ 9, the probable error having been computed from the depgrturew af the daily means of 20 flowers from the mean of the daily means. _ The half-hour means for the day when the opening was most rapid oer I2 GO 630 TOO 7.30 E0O 830 200 230 4000 1030 TIIIES OF OBSERVATION (A./4) _ Fic. 2.—Average, maximum, and minimum rates of expansion of the corolla of Pima cotton, as indicated by the mean aperture of the corolla at half-hour intervals during the morning, this having been determined by measurement of 20 flowers on each of 15 days during the period from July 29 to September 15, 1919. The mean hour of sunrise during this period was 5.26. The dotted and broken lines indicate the rates on the days when expansion was most rapid and least rapid, respectively, and the solid line indicates the average rate of expansion for all 15 days. and for the day when it was least rapid are also given in the table. The average, maximum, and minimum rates of expansion are shown graphically in Figure 2. 22421 23-3 18 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 9.—Measurements of the aperture of the corolla of Pima cotton at suc- cessive half-hour intervals during three periods of five days each in 1919. Daily mean diameter (millimeters). Daily mean diameter (millimeters). Hour of For the day when the Hour of For the day when the measure- rate of opening was— measure- rate of opening was— ment. A-verage for a6 Wao abc et ment. Average for " the 15 days. ; the 15 days. Most rapid | Least rapid Most pee Least rapid (Aug. 18).1} (Aug. 2).2 (Aug. 18).1) (Aug. 2. 6.30 a.m.....| 0.640.038 | 1,340.13 0.440. 04 9.00 a. m..... 27.340.60 | 28.740.58 | 23.340. 66 7.00 a. m....- 164 .18| 6.64 .48 -7+ .12 9.30 a.m.....} 30.74 .40 | 31.24 .53 | 26.74 .63 7.30 & M..... 4.74 .39 | 11.74 .42 2.24 .38 || 10.00 a. m.....| 32.94 .47 | 33.24 .55 | 28.84 .55 8.00 a. m.....| 10.64 .69 | 21.04 .67 7.64 .75 || 10.30 a.m....:| 33.74 .43 | 33.24 .55 | 30.34 .65 8.30 a. m..... 19.64 90 | 26.34 -56 | 14.34 .85 |} 11.00a.m..... (8) 33.24 .55 | 31.54 .71 1 Sky clear at and after sunrise. 2 Sky partly cloudy at and after sunrise. * Omitted in the general average because not determined on several days. The time of sunrise in Arizona in 1919 was 5.11 on July 29 and 5.42 on September 15, the mean for the period having been 5.26. The data given in Table 9 show that as a rule expansion of the corolla had barely commenced at 6.30, or about one hour after sun- rise. It is evident that in general the opening of the corolla pro- ceeded most rapidly during the hour 8 to 9, the average increase in aperture during this hour having amounted to one-half of the mean diameter when the corolla ceased to open farther. As the period during which the measurements were made comprised 48 days and as the time of sunrise was 31 minutes later at the end than at the begin- ning of this period, a progressive retardation of the opening of the corolla might have been expected. In fact, however, the average rate of opening was practically the same during each of the five-day periods. Records were kept for each morning of the experiment of the shade temperature, relative humidity, and degree of cloudiness at hourly intervals beginning at 6.30 a. m., the object having been to ascertain whether differences in the rate of opening of the corolla on different days bore any relation to these meteorological factors. No evidence of a general correlation was detected, except that on cloudy mornings the rate of opening was somewhat slower and more gradual, the curve showing a less abrupt rise between the hours 7 to 9 than on mornings of full sunshine. Simultaneous observations of the rate of opening of the corolla in the Pima variety of Egyptian cotton and in the Acala variety of upland cotton on several mornings in July and August, 1920, indi- cated that as a rule the opening begins a few minutes earlier and proceeds somewhat more rapidly in Acala- than in Pima, notwith- standing the fact that the Pima flowers, which are borne on longer fruiting branches, are more exposed than the Acala flowers to the early rays of the sun. Observations made in 1921 afforded data as to the relative earli- ness of opening of the corollas of Pima and of upland varieties, the first appearance of an aperture having been taken as the criterion. On August 11, 50 flowers of Pima and 24 flowers of King (upland) were examined. Of these flowers 60 per cent showed an aperture as early as 6.30 in the case of King, but not until 7.15 in the case of s FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 19 Pima; 90 per cent showed an aperture at 7.05 in the case of King, but not until 8.05 in the case of Pima. Similar observations on August 12 on 50 flowers each of Pima and of the Durango, Acala, and Lone Star varieties of upland cotton indicated, on the contrary, the _ more rapid appearance of an aperture in Pima than in the upland varieties. The hours at which an aperture had appeared in 50 and in 90 per cent of the flowers examined are shown in Table 10, TaBLe 10.—First appearance of an aperture in the corollas of 50 flowers of each of four varieties of cotton grown at Sacaton, Ariz., as observed on August 12, 1921. Time of opening (a. m.). Aperture present— Upland varieties. Pima 3 BA Ae. (Egyptian). Durango. Acala. | Lone star. min 50 per cent of the flowers. - 22... c ec eee c ee cee alo 7. 40 We BOW: Sees See _ In 90 per cent of the flowers.......-.-..---------+------ 7.50 8.10 8. 25 | 8. 55 While the several observations gave contradictory results as to the relative earliness of the first appearance of an aperture in Pima and in upland varieties, it appears that the further expansion of the corolla proceeds more rapidly in upland than in Pima. Comparing _ the Pima and Acala varieties it was observed that in the former expansion begins with a very minute aperture at the apex of the bud, which enlarges gradually, whereas in Acala the initial aperture is larger and the petals separate much more rapidly. The greater length of the Pima petals and the fact that they are more tightly wrapped in the bud probably explain this difference. : The flower of both Egyptian and upland cottons is of brief dura- tion. On sunny days in July and August the corolla begins to wilt and change color by midafternoon, and before sunset the wilting has proceeded so far that the corolla is closed or nearly so and the _ pistil is becoming flaccid. Abscission of the style in the Pima _ variety normally takes place within 36 hours after the beginning of anthesis. Observations on 50 Pima flowers in 1922 showed that in _ every case the style had separated from the ovary by 2 p. m. of the day following anthesis, or 31 hours after the commencement of anthesis. The mean number of hours from the commencement of : anthesis to the abscission of the style was 290.08. OPENING OF THE ANTHERS AND DISCHARGE OF POLLEN. _ Examination of flower buds of Pima cotton late in the afternoon preceding the opening of the corolla (PI. III, Fig. 1) shows, as a rule, the anthers tightly closed and the pistil free from pollen grains. _ At this stage the pollen can not be extracted easily from the anthers. - Occasional flowers have been observed in which a few of the anthers _ were open sufficiently in the evening to show the pollen grains, but Es in none of these cases was pollen found upon the stigmas under ' conditions making it certain that the discharge had not taken place as a result of rupturing the anthers in the process of cutting away _ the corolla. In the early morning, however, when the corolla is 20 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. still closed or is open at the apex to the extent of not more than 1 or 2 millimeters, as is usually the case in July and August up to about 7 a. m., the anthers are found to be partly open, so as to expose the pollen. The rapidity with which both corolla and anthers open depends to some extent upon the position of the flower on the plant, which determines how early it is exposed to the rays of the sun. The condition of the sky also is doubtless a factor in the earliness of opening. On July 25, 1920, during the half hour from 5.30 to 6 a. m. 25 Pima flowers which had the corolla still closed, although in some cases the petals were beginning to loosen at the tip, showed the anthers to be partly open in all of the flowers. Pollen grains in greater or less number were already present on the interstamen region of the stigmas in all but one flower, but some of this pollen may have been deposited in the act of opening the bud. That this was probably the case is indicated by further observations during the same summer, in which extreme care was taken to avoid the dis- charge of pollen upon the stigmas while opening the bud. Ten flowers were examined at about 7 a. m. on each of six days during the period from August 3 to August 14. At the time of observation the corolla was closed or was open to an extent of not more than 1 or 2 millimeters, while the anthers were at least half open and were extruding pollen. Pollen was found upon the interstamen region of the stigmas in about half of the flowers, but the number of grains there present was very small, frequently not exceeding one or two. When the natural opening of the corolla is delayed the discharge of pollen also is retarded.** On July 25, 1917, 10 closed or nearly closed flowers were examined. at 8 a. m. (hence nearly three hours after sunrise), and four of these had no pollen on the stigmas, even on the portion surrounded by the uppermost anthers. Examina- tion, on July 30, 1920, of a few buds which were still closed at 8 a. m. showed that self pollen was just beginning to be deposited upon the stigmas in appreciable quantity. On August 19, 1921, fully 90 per cent of the flowers were open sufficiently between 7.30 and 8 a. m. to admit insects. Of the belated buds, which were either tightly closed or were just beginning to loosen at the tip, 20 were opened during this half hour, taking every precaution to avoid further discharge of pollen, and the number of grains present on the stigmas was determined as accurately as could be done without touch- ing the anthers. The counts showed numbers of grains present on the lower half of the stigmas as follows: In 8 flowers, 6 grains or fewer; in 5 flowers, 6 to 12 grains; in 7 flowers, more than 12 grains. Of the buds examined 65 per cent had no more than a dozen grains of pollen present on the stigmas. In upland cottons the opening of the anthers may or may not precede that of the corolla. Five flowers each of some 20 upland varieties were examined at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1920. In six varieties some of the flowers had the anthers still closed after the corolla had begun to expand. In the other varieties the opening of the anthers was keeping pace with the expansion of the corolla in most of the flowers. Examination of 10 closed or barely opening flower buds 144 Cook (11, p. 204) states that “in cool moist weather the anthers sometimes fail to open, so that no pollen is available.”” An instance of complete failure to set bolls from this cause was observed in Guatemala. FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. bid of the Acala variety of upland cotton, on each of six dates from August 3 to August 14, 1920, showed that at about 7 a. m. dis- charge of pollen had begun in only one-third of the flowers. A com- parison was made of the relative rates of opening of the corolla and anthers in Pima and Acala cottons on August 9, 1920. It was ob- served at 7 a. m. that in Pima the corollas were open only 1 or 2 millimeters, but the anthers were well open; while on near-by Acala plants the corollas were open from 5 to 10 millimeters, but the anthers were still closed or were just beginning to split. Further observations were made at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1921. At _ 7.30 to 8 o’clock on the cool, cloudy morning of July 27, upland flowers of which the corollas were already open to an extent of 5 to 10 millimeters had the anthers in most cases either still closed or split only sufficiently to disclose but not to discharge the pollen grains. Only one of the eight varieties examined showed the dis- charge of pollen in some of the flowers before the corolla had com- menced to expand, while in all closed buds of Pima cotton, which were examined at the same time, the anthers were wide open, and in many of them the discharge of pollen upon the stigmas had begun. On the other hand, on August 12 at 7.30 to 7.45 a. m. examination of closed buds of the Acala variety showed that the anthers were partly open in all cases and that a few pollen grains were present on the stigmas in 7 of the 10 buds examined. Observations upon upland cotton have shown that dehiscence of the anthers and discharge of pollen before the petals have begun to unfold are more likely to occur in belated flowers than in flowers which have not been retarded in their opening. Thus, on August 9, 1921, a warm, sunny morning, when most of the flowers of upland _ varieties were already open at 8.15 o’clock, approximately two- thirds of the buds which still remained closed had the anthers partly open. In many of these buds a few grains of self pollen were already present on the stigmas. Closed buds of Pima cotton examined during the same half hour had the anthers much more fully open than in the upland varieties, and in nearly every case the stigmas had received self pollen in greater or less quantity. On the following morning, with similar weather conditions, observations were made on the Lone ‘Star and Acala varieties of upland cotton and on Pima cotton during the half hour from 8.10 to 8.40, when most of the flowers of the three varieties were partly open. Of the still closed buds of Lone Star, 20 were opened carefully, and 9 of these were found to have the anthers partly open and a few grains of pollen on the stigmas. In the remaining 11 buds the anthers were still closed or were beginning to split but were not yet dis- charging pollen. Of six closed flowers of the Acala variety, four had the anthers partly open and a few grains of pollen present on the stigmas. Ten unexpanded Pima flowers had the anthers much wider open than in the upland varieties, and in most but not all of these a little pollen was present on the stigmas. It may be concluded from these observations on the comparative rate of opening of the corolla and anthers in Pima and upland cot- tons that in Pima the opening of the anthers and the discharge of pollen somewhat precede the expansion of the corolla, while in upland as a rule the corolla and anthers begin to open almost simultaneously. In case the opening of the upland corolla has been retarded, how- 22 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ever, the anthers often begin to open and to discharge pollen before the petals commence to unfold. It seems clear that even in Pima cot- ton no considerable quantity of pollen ordinarily is deposited upon the stigmas before the expansion of the corolla has begun. Other investigators have noted that different species of Gossypium differ in the rate of opening of the anthers. A statement by Fyson (78, p. 5) imphes that in India the anthers of American upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) open and discharge their pollen earlier than do anthers of Asiatic species (G. herbacewm, ete.). Smith (44), in the West Indies, observed that sea-island cotton (G@. bar- badense) opens its anthers earlier in the day than does a native cotton of the American upland type. VIABILITY OF THE POLLEN IN DIFFERENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. The viability of the pollen during the hours immediately pre- ceding and following the opening of the corolla is of interest in relation to the phenomena of pollination. The rapidity and com- pleteness with which the pollen grains eject their contents at different stages in the ontogeny of the flower were tested by immersing them in a 5 per cent aqueous solution of cane sugar, although apparently ejection takes place with equal readiness in water. The discharge of protoplasm by the pollen grain in these media takes place in the manner described as “ pseudogermination” by Andronescu (4), the contents being ejected with explosive sudden- ness in a very long slender thread, which immediately becomes twisted into a tangled spiral. Andronescu’s illustration of the process in Zea (4, pl. 2) represents very well the phenomenon as it occurs in Gossypium. It is uncertain in what degree the rate of pseudogermination at different hours of the day is correlated with that of normal germination upon the stigmas. It will be shown, however, that in cotton little or no pseudogermination takes place in the evening preceding the opening of the corolla and that it in- creases in rapidity and completeness during the following morning, reaching a maximum intensity at noon and then gradually declining to a very low minimum long before sunset. It seems at least prob- able that normal germination follows a similar course and that the vigor of pseudogermination is indicative of the viability of the pollen (4, p. 16). The phenomenon will be referred to in this bul- letin as “ejection,” thus avoiding the cumbersome term “ pseudo- germination.” . Observations were made with a binocular microscope. The pollen was immersed in the sugar solution as soon .as possible after de- taching the flower from the plant. The criteria of. viability used were (1) the number of seconds after immersion until active ejection ceased and (2) the percentage of the total number of grains in the field of the microscope which discharged their protoplasm during the period of active ejection. An “index of viability,” which inte- grates rapidity and completeness of ejection at different hours, was obtained by dividing the percentage of the total grains ejected by the number of seconds required to complete active ejection and multi- plying the quotient by 100. The condition of the pollen on the day preceding anthesis will be considered first. Pollen from Pima buds was collected on several FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON, 23 occasions at from 3 to 6 p. m., and its reaction in a solution of cane sugar was observed. After immersion during one to five minutes a small percentage of the grains ruptured and their contents oozed out slowly, the phenomenon having been very different from the ex- plosive ejection of a long thread which was observed in pollen grains collected in the morning from open flowers. The viability of the pollen of Pima cotton during the day of an- thesis was tested on July 26, 1917, and on July 25 and August 5, 1919. As the results show close agreement, only those of August 5 will be considered in detail, parallel tests with the Durango va- riety of upland cotton having been made on that date. Pollen of each variety was collected at half-hour intervals from 6 a. m. (hence before the corollas had opened) until 10.30 a. m. and at intervals of one hour thereafter until 3.30 p. m., with a final col- lection at 5.80 p. m. Shortly before the first collection was made the sky was cloudy, but during the remainder of the day there was WIA BILITY /INOEX S Ot——— ee Brinn etary Lai talent FETAL mali Gr REA : THAE OF DETERMINATION Fie. 3.—Indexes of viability of the pollen of Pima (Egyptian) and of Durango (upland) cotton at successive time intervals during the day of anthesis. The curve for Pima is indicated by a solid line and that for Durango by a dotted line. Both curves show a low viability early in the morning, a rapid increase beginning at 8.30 or 9 o’clock, and a gradual decline after midday. full sunshine. The tests were made upon one flower of each variety up to 10.30 a. m. and thereafter on two flowers of each variety, the average of the viability indexes of the two flowers having been used in plotting the curves. Endeavor was made to select only flowers which were so located on the plant as to have been exposed to full sunlight up to the time of collection. This object was realized in the case of Pima but not in the case of Durango, owing to the limited number of flowers available. However, no flowers of Durango were taken later in the day which had not been so exposed during several hours, and the earliest flowers in the most exposed situations were selected. The Durango anthers tended to become exhausted of pollen earlier in the day than the Pima anthers, probably because the shallow, flar- ing corolla of upland cotton attracts more of the large pollen-carry- ing insects. The indexes of viability of the two varieties at different hours are shown by curves in Figure 3. The percentage of grains ejected, one 24 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, of the factors in computing the index, was merely estimated, except in a few cases when the total number of pollen grains in the field of the microscope was small. The more rapid decline in viability during the afternoon shown by the Pima pollen was probably caused by the fact, already noted, that the flowers of this variety were more ex- posed to the direct rays of the sun than the Durango flowers. Pollen has been found to retain its viability much longer in flow- ers which have been inclosed in paper bags to prevent cross-pollina- tion than in open flowers. On July 26, 1917, buds due to open that morning were bagged at 6 a. m., and the viability of the pollen was tested in sugar solution at 6 p. m. of the same day and at 6 a. m. of the day following. The results are given in Table 11. TABLE 11.—Prolongation of the viability of the pollen in cotton flowers bagged at 6a. m. July 26. . © . After immersion | Number | until ejection— stl at Hour of testing. Of | nated index y flowers. | Geasea ejection. : Began. | actively. | | Seconds. | Seconds. | Per cent. Gipsy Tuy 208 ee eee 5 SoC 2 | 37 105 75 71 7) Tighe T Jet A P-7/ a ehh am nA la a AS rR 1 35 270 40 15 Whereas in the case of unbagged flowers the proportional ejec- tion of pollen at 6 p. m. of the day of anthesis was estimated at only 3 or 4 per cent, pollen from bagged flowers at the same hour aecied with great vigor, and the percentage of grains ejected was almost as high as in the case of pollen from uninclosed flowers shortly before noon of the day of anthesis. At 6 a.m. of the day following anthesis the Pollen from bagged flowers ejected more slowly and less completely. It seems probable, therefore, that even in bagged flowers the pollen loses its viability during the day following anthesis.?® It may be deduced from the curves shown in Figure 3, which are based upon an index integrating the percentage of pollen grains which eject their contents and the rapidity with which ejection is completed, that under conditions at Sacaton, Ariz., the viability of the pollen of Pima (Egyptian) and of Durango (upland) cotton is low during the early morning hours, begins to increase rapidly at about 9 o’clock, and begins to decline at or shortly after midday. If the index of viability based upon the rapidity and completeness of ejection in a sugar solution indicates the capacity for normal germi- nation, it would be concluded that pollen which reaches the stigmas before 8 or 9 a. m. will germinate more slowly and less completely than pollen which arrives later in the morning. It should be noted, however, that while at earlier hours a much longer time was re- quired for the ejection to take place, the percentages of the total number of grains which finally ejected their contents were in some cases relatively high. Thus, in the case of Pima cotton, ejection 25 Pollen longevity in the snapdragon and in maize is the subject of a recent publication H. E. Knowlton (82), who summarizes (p. 755-759) the results of other investigators with various plants and points out (p. 786) that pollen may retain its capacity to germi- nate when no longer able to effect fertilization. FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 25 finally took place in about 70 per cent of the grains collected at 6.30 a. m. on July 26, 1917, and in about 65 per cent of those col- lected at 6 a. m. on July 25, 1919. A test of’ Durango pollen on August 5, 1919, showed ejection at 6.30 a. m. in about 75 per cent of the total number of grains. It also seems probable that pollen discharged at an early hour may continue to mature after it has reached the stigmas. DEGREE OF MATURITY OF POLLEN AS AFFECTING FERTILIZATION. An experiment was performed in 1921 to ascertain whether fer- tilization can be effected by immature pollen placed upon the stig- mas many hours in advance of the time of anthesis. Pima flower buds were emasculated in the evening, pollen squeezed from the an- thers of the same flower was placed upon the stigmas, and the flowers were kept inclosed in bags until the stigmas had withered and there was no longer danger of accidental cross-fertilization. Only 1 of 25 flowers thus treated produced a boll which reached maturity. This _ boll contained five ripe seeds. A second boll was retained longer than 10 days but finally dropped, the exact date not having been ascertained. The remaining 23 flowers shed their undeveloped bolls within 10 days of the date of pollination, this being apparently the average number of days from anthesis to shedding for Pima cotton in Arizona (37), p. 15). The results of this experiment are of prac- tical interest as showing that when flowers are emasculated the even- ing before anthesis for the purpose of making hybrids, every precau- tion should be used to prevent self pollen from reaching the stigmas, fertilization with such pollen being possible, although evidently not frequent. The methods used in emasculating and bagging flowers in this and in experiments subsequently described are illustrated in Plates IV and V. In-order to ascertain whether fertilization is affected by deferring pollination several hours after it would take place normally, 240 Pima fiower buds were emasculated late in the afternoon preceding anthesis during the period from July 22 to August 2, 1921, 20 buds having been treated on each day of the experiment. Other flower buds were bagged at the same time to supply the pollen required. Half of the flowers were pollinated at 8 o’clock the following morn- ing and the others at about 5 p. m. In open flowers the anthers would have been practically empty of pollen, and the stigmas would have been losing their turgidity at the latter hour, but it has been shown that bagging tends to prolong the freshness of the flower. The number of bolls which matured and the number of seeds in each boll were determined, and from these data were computed the percentage of bolls matured and the mean number of seeds per boll, as stated in Table 12. The difference in the percentage of bolls matured was in favor of the deferred pollination, but was less than three times the probable error. On the other hand, early pollination yielded a somewhat higher mean number of seeds per boll, and this difference was approximately three times its probable error. It may be concluded that in bagged flowers the pollen retains its ability to effect fertilization practically unimpaired up to 5 p. m. of the day of anthesis. 22421—23-—__4 26 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 12.—Comparison of morning and evening pollination of cotton flowers, showing the percentage of bolls matured and the mean number of seeds per boll. Percentage| _ Mean Flowers number of Time of pollination. of bolls treated. matured nape r oc Flowers pollinate at, 8 ay. -dssaoetiscerass = inp sce & Vouk ees 6 120 | 89.24+1.93 | 14,540.23 Hlowers pollinhted at-o pran seconasacenoe = 6 teen cee ha cotaee a wade oe 120 | 95.041.35 | 13.44 .26 Difference: grips. ad... LORS eee eee 2 5.842. 35 1.14 .35 Another experiment was performed in 1921 with the object of ascertaining whether the pollen in bagged flowers remains viable as long as 26 hours after anthesis Foul’ have begun under normal conditions. Pima flower buds were emasculated in the évening of August 5 and pollinated on August 6. Of the 100 buds emasculated 50 were pollinated at 1 p. m. with pollen from flowers which had been bagged on August 5 at the time the emasculation was done. The other 50 were pollinated at 9 a. m. with pollen from flowers bagged in the bud on August 4 which at the time of pollination were about 26 hours past the normal time of the beginning of anthesis. In these old flowers when collected for use in pollination, the petals were wilted and the pollen was very loose in the anthers. The relative fertilization obtained from the two pollinations, as shown in Table 13, indicates that although the flowers had been protected by in- closure in bags, much of the pollen had lost its ability to effect fer- tilization 26 hours after the normal time of the beginning of anthesis. TABLE 13.—Results obtained by pollination with old and with fresh pollen, showing the percentage of bolls matured and the mean number of seeds per boll. . ; : | Percentage Mean Pollination with pollen from flowersin which anthesis normally would | Flowers of bolls number of have begun— treated. maton on er oll. 85.748.44 | 12.6+0,41 38.044. 63 6.44 .58 6 hours previously, (fresh:pollen) - bs sceies. sabe es cond- enews tens )... | Percentage| Mean num-| yy, Percentage | Mean num- Hour excised. | lination | Mowers | of bolls | ber of seeds | pers of bolls | berofseeds | (hours.) | > * | matured. per boll. * | matured. | per boll. = eal eae Shs re ken eee ats 7 | 45) 0 lo ccetiaaietaee & ABTS) OA. ARPA te TaeMie eek... S95. LT 16 | 45 | 66.744.7 | 11.430. 49 | 45 | 46.7+5.0 8.140. 63 (tS sade seek 18 | 45 | 77.844.2 | 14.74 .34 45 | 46.7+5.0 |) 12.84 .45 iit ee eae ee ae 20 | 45 | 80.0+4.0 | 16.94 .23 | 45 | 68.944.7 | 12,74 .31 WA 979s by depgas 2 ft siteges 22 | 45 | 82.143.9 | 16.54 .19 | 45 | 84.443.6 | 13.64 .28 DW grs once oreeros.2 24 37 40 | 87.643. 15.14 .13 \ §3.8+4.1 | 16.84 .18 Fertilization did not occur in either the apically or the basally pollinated flowers of which the pistils were excised at 8 p. m. on the day of pollination. It is therefore evident that in this case more than « Heribert-Nilsson (22) deseribes results obtained by this method of excising the style in computing the rate of pollen-tube development in Oenothera, which he found to average 4.5 millimeters per hour in mid-July. Fertilization did not occur in flowers of which the styles were excised earlier than 19 hours after pollination. This investigator also obtained evidence ‘“‘ that the pollen tubes of O. gigas grew slower in the styles of 0. lamarckiana than O. lamarckiana’s own pollen tubes.” FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 29 7 hours were required for penetration of the ovary by the pollen tubes.* Considering for the moment only the apically pollinated flowers, it is shown that at 5 a. m., or 16 hours after the pollen was deposited, the tubes had reached the ovaries of two-thirds of the flowers in number sufficient to fertilize on the average more than half of the mean number of ovules, which is 21. A slower rate of develop- ment of some of the tubes is indicated by the much more nearly com- plete fertilization of flowers in which the pistils were not excised until 9 a. m. Some of the tubes doubtless had penetrated the ovary earlier than 5 a. m., but in estimating the mean rate of growth it may be assumed that the period of 16 hours represents the average length of time required. The further assumption is made, although proof is lack- ing, that germination began as soon as the pollen reached the stigmas. In the case of pollen applied at or near the apex of the stigmas, which average in Pima cotton one-third the length of the pistil ex- clusive of the ovary, it may be assumed that most of the grains germinated within 2 millimeters of the apex of the stigmas, or 28 millimeters above the base of the style, the average total length of stigmas and style being 30 millimeters. A growth of 28 millimeters in 16 hours indicates a mean rate of 1.75 millimeters per hour.? Self pollen automatically deposited at or near the base of the stigmas would be located on the average about 6 millimeters nearer the ovary, and tubes starting from this locus might be expected to penetrate the ovary 34 hours in advance of the tubes from grains of foreign pollen starting near the apex of the stigmas. This would seem to give self pollen a decided advantage over foreign pollen, provided the conditions at both loci are equally favorable for the germination and development of the pollen. Comparison of the rates of fertilization by apically and by basally deposited pollen, as stated in Table 15, indicates, however, that the base of the stigmas affords less favorable conditions for pollen de- velopment than the apex. For each interval after pollination, fertilization, as measured by the mean number of seeds per boll, was significantly less complete in the basally than in the apically pollinated flowers, and in the flowers excised at the latest hour, 1 p- m., the mean difference in favor of apical pollination amounted to 1.70.22. The mean number of seeds per boll from basally pollinated flowers which had the pistils excised at 1 p. m. (24 hours after the pollen was deposited) was not significantly greater than the mean number from apically pollinated flowers which had the pistils a at 7 a. m. (only 18 hours after the pollen was de- posited). Another experiment performed in 1921 yielded additional indica- tions that pollen germinates and develops under relatively unfavor- able conditions when deposited at the base of the stigmas. Pima *In a similar experiment performed in 1920, however (see Table 24), a few bolls ma- tured from Pima flowers of which the stigmas and style were excised 7% hours after pollination, and these bolls contained relatively large numbers of seeds. Additional experiments performed in 1922, the complete data of which were not available in time for inclusion in this paper, gave convincing evidence that in Pima cotton within 8 hours after deposition of pollen on the stigmas the tubes can penetrate the ovary in number sufficient to fertilize more than half of the ovules. >The fact that, in experiments performed in 1922, a few but comparatively well- fertilized bolls developed from apically pollinated flowers of Pima cotton of which the stigmas and style had been excised 8 hours after deposition of the pollen, indicates that in exceptional cases the average hourly growth rate may attain 3.5 millimeters. 30 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. flower buds were emasculated the evening before anthesis, other buds having been bagged at the same time to supply pollen. On the fol- lowing morning approximately equal numbers of the emasculated flowers were pollinated (1) near the apex of the stigmas, (2) near the base, and (3) on the whole stigmatic surface. Record was kept of the number of bolls which matured from the several treatments and of the number of seeds in each boll, from which were computed the data given in Table 16. TABLE 16.—Degrees of fertilization in Pima cotton resulting from pollination of the apical and of the basal portion of the stigmas and of the whole stigmatic surface. Mean Percentage Flowers number of Locus of pollination. treated. Pir seeds 5 Per : oll. Near the apex of the stigmas. . -..... 22.20.22. e cee e eee ee een cence 94 | 80.842.73 | 14.740.28 Wearjthe base onthe stigmas. o.oo Sse ee + sees debe = opine ie peammicewne 98 | 89.842. 04 9.74 .29 Upon the whole length of the stigmas. .............--.....--..------- 100 | 98.04 .94 | 14.14 .22 A higher percentage of bolls matured from flowers pollinated near the base of the stigmas than from flowers pollinated near the apex, but the difference is not significant. On the other hand, the mean number of seeds per boll resulting from basal pollination was much smaller than that resulting from apical pollination, the difference having been 5.0+0.40 (more than 12 times its probable error). Pollination of the whole stigmatic surface yielded a significantly higher percentage of bolls matured than did either partial pollina- tion, but did not show a significant difference in the mean number of seeds per boll as compared with pollination of the apical portion only. It may be inferred from this fact that a difference between the two halves of the stigmas is responsible for the inferior fertiliza- tion from basally deposited pollen, the extent of the area receiving pollen having been approximately the same in the apical and basal pollinations. The data given in Tables 15 and 16 indicate 1” that when flowers of Pima cotton are emasculated and are pollinated artificially the basal region of the stigmas is a less favorable medium for the germination er development of pollen than is the apical region.*® Care was taken in these experiments to apply as nearly as practicable equal quan- tities of pollen at both loci, but it was noted that the pollen adhered more closely to the stigmatic surface when apically deposited than when basally deposited. This was probably a factor in the superior fertilization from apical pollination. It is doubtful, however, whether this factor is operative in equal degree under natural con- ditions, for, with the stamens present, the close contact of the upper Additional and conclusive evidence thet when emasculated flowers of Vima cotton are pollinated artificially better fertilization results with apical than with basal deposi- tion of the pollen was obtained from two experiments in 1922, the complete data of which were not available in time to be included in this bulletin. 18 Meade (40, p. 282) concluded from the results of his investigation of pollination in upland cottons, referred to under the heading ‘‘ Structure of the flower in relation to pollination,” that “ most of the flowers with long stigmas projecting above the stamens do not become completely self-fertilized, as the anthers and stigmas are too widely separated.”’ If limitation of pollen deposition to the basal region, as would be the case in flowers haying long stigmas when pollinating insects are scarce, results generally in inferior fertilization, Meade’s conclusion is probably well founded. FERTILIZATION IN PIMA GOTTON. 31 anthers with the base of the stigmas would favor the retention there of a greater number of pollen grains than in the case of emasculated flowers. Nevertheless, in experiments which afforded a comparison of the fertilization resulting from (a) automatic self-pollination in flowers that were not emasculated but in which the pollen was con- fined to the lower halves of the stigmas and (6) artificial pollination of emasculated flowers in which the bulk of the pollen was deposited on the upper halves of the stigmas, the latter treatment gave sig- nificantly better fertilization in six out of seven comparisons. On the other hand, data given in Table 16, which were fully confirmed by the results of an experiment performed in 1922, indicate that flowers receiving pollen on the upper halves of the stigmas only are fully as well fertilized as flowers receiving pollen on the whole stig- matic surface. It is probable, therefore, that apart from conditions affecting the adhesion of the pollen, there is a qualitative difference between different parts of the stigmas and that penetration of th tissues is effected more readily at the apex than at the base. If in Pima cotton under natural conditions the pollen germinates and develops better at the apex of the stigmas than at the base, this robably more than offsets any advantage which the automatically nepocied self pollen might derive from its nearness to the ovary. The structure of the flower in other types of cotton in which self-fertiliza- tion predominates increases the probability that the locus of pollen deposition is not a factor of much importance in determining the pre- dominance of self-fertilization. In many varieties of upland cotton the uppermost stamens equal or even surpass the stigmas, so that the entire length of the latter is accessible to automatically dis- charged self pollen. The whole stigmatic surface is also accessible to insect-carried foreign pollen, no part of it being screened by a dense mass of stamens, as in the Egyptian cottons. Examination of open flowers of upland cotton when growing in close proximity to Pima shows the yellow pollen grains of the latter to be scattered over the whole surface of the stigmas, although usually most abundant near the apex. RELATIVE EARLINESS OF ARRIVAL OF SELF-DEPOSITED AND OF INSECT-CARRIED POLLEN. Especial interest in connection with the problem of the relative frequency of self-fertilization and of cross-fertilization attaches to the question whether there is an appreciable interval of time be- tween the first arrival upon the stigmas of self pollen and of foreign pollen. There can be little doubt that if the stigmas greatly exceed the stamens, as is the case in Pima cotton, all pollen present upon the upper halves of the stigmas has been conveyed there by insects. When the pollen present on the stigmas is all of the same type it is impossible to determine what part of it has originated in the same flower and what part has been conveyed from other flowers by insects, but examination of flowers exposed to cross-pollination by a differ- ent type of cotton having readily distinguishable pollen showed that foreign pollen was being conveyed to the stigmas of most of the flowers. It may be assumed, therefore, that when pollen is present on ne upper halves of the stigmas some of it has originated in other owers. . 32 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OBSERVATIONS ON PIMA COTTON. Examination in 1916 of numerous flowers, the corollas of which were open only 1 or 2 millimeters, showed none of them to have pollen present on the upper half of the stigmas. Flowers were ex- amined in 1919 at intervals on July 27, beginning about two hours after sunrise, and on August 3, beginning about an hour after sun- rise. Ten flowers were inspected at each interval on both dates. An endeavor was made to select in all cases flowers which had been fully exposed to the direct rays of the sun at and after sunrise and which should therefore have been favorably situated for the earliest pos- sible opening of the corolla. Table 17 shows for each interval the percentage of the total number of flowers (10 in each case) in which an appreciable quantity of pollen was found upon the stigmas at a height sufficient to justify the conclusion that it must have been con- veyed by insects. TABLE 17.—Rate of deposition of pollen on the upper portion of the stigmas in open-pollinated flowers of Pima cotton in 1919. Flowers having the Flowers having the upper portion of upper portion of the stigmas pol- the stigmas pol- Hour of observation. linated (per cent). | Hour of observation. linated(per cent). July 27. | Aug. 3. : July 27. | Aug. 3. 690i. m2 «5.0.31 9-471 4|-Rameess 0; || 10:30) a; ms6-.cc7qbengke dele ges 4 50 Da sea sca se oe cane ce. 0 Ot) 12-00 M255... e's glue ce woneine [Cees aaa 40 Slam sss ssssi Kf Uc eS TOOphmz2CNe cite aes 50 BOA mie a cee ma 50 20.1), 2,00 pom as O83. oo | mee 70 SLL ep Ag a oe a 60 HOM) S.00 pn FOF. So Se ae | eee eee 90 10.008). Thiers Pesos sve. es cet Oss 70) essa. ee On both dates, at the earliest hour of observation, the anthers of the flowers were discharging pollen, some of which presumably was reaching the lower half of the stigmas. Reference to Table 9 (p. 18) shows that at 8 a. m., the earliest hour when pollen was found in appreciable quantity upon the upper half of the stigmas, the av- erage aperture of the corolla in Pima cotton is about 10 millimeters. A difference in the rapidity of pollination of the upper half of the stigmas on the two dates is indicated by the data in Table 17. Cross- pollination of 70 per cent of the flowers had taken place at 10 a. m. on July 27, and not until 2 p. m. on August 3. Yet the conditions would seem to have been more favorable to early pollination by in- sects on August 3, a clear sunny day, than on July 27 when the sky was overcast during the morning. The probable explanation is that on August 3 there was a marked scarcity of bees and other active pollen carriers in the cotton field. Observations in 1920 indicated an earlier arrival of insect-carried pollen. On July 25, at 7.40 a. m., Pima flowers which were open about 10 millimeters were found to have numerous grains of pollen on the upper half of the stigmas, and in one flower, which had a corolla aperture of only 2:5 millimeters, much upland pollen was present. Most of the flowers examined on July 30, 1920, between (45 and 8 a. m. were already open from 5 to 20 millimeters and had numerous pollen grains on the upper half of the stigma, while in FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 33 the few flowers which were still closed at this time, self pollen was just beginning to be deposited in the interstamen region. Most of the flowers examined on August 8 at 7.30 a. m. were open from 5 to 10 millimeters and had pollen present on the upper half of the stigmas. Of 10 closed buds which were examined at the same hour, 7 had a very few grains of self pollen on the interstamen section of the stigmas. On August 21 the opening of the corolla had been re- tarded by the coolness of the early morning (minimum temperature 62° F.), but at 8.40 a. m., of 30 flowers which were open from 5 to 10 millimeters, only 3 or 4 had the upper half of the stigmas free from pollen. Many flowers which were open only about 5 millimeters had the stigmas well pollinated at this hour. Observations in 1921 indicated that bees sometimes enter Pima flowers and deposit pollen upon the stigmas when the orifice of the corolla is still minute and that they occasionally do so. by pushing aside the loosened petals before any orifice has formed. It was noted, however, on August 16 that most of the flowers had not been entered until the orifice had reached a diameter of 2 or 8 millimeters, in which stage most of the flowers had pollen present upon the upper half of the stigmas. The readiness with which insects enter unopen corollas seems to be controlled in some degree by the weather, for on the cloudy morning of August 18, when as late as 8 a. m. many of the buds showed no distinct orifice, although the petals were well loosened at the apex, most of the flowers in this stage of anthesis had more or less pollen upon the upper half of the stigmas. It is evident that at the same locality there is considerable varia- tion on different days in the earliness of the arrival of insect-conveyed pollen in the flowers of Pima ‘cotton. This is doubtless to be ac- counted for by variations in the weather and in the number, kind, and habits of the pollinating insects. The conclusion seems warranted, however, that as a rule many of the flowers are entered by pollen- conveying insects soon after the expansion of the corolla has begun. Evidence has already been, presented that the automatic deposition of self pollen upon the stigmas does not commence much in advance of the time when the petals begin to unfold and that the quantity deposited before the corolla has developed an orifice is usually very small. It is probable that as a rule the interval of time between the first arrival of self pollen and of foreign pollen does not exceed half an hour and that frequently foreign pollen begins to arrive before any considerable quantity of self pollen has been deposited upon the interstamen region of the stigmas. OBSERVATIONS ON UPLAND COTTON. It has been pointed out that when the two types are growing under similar conditions the corollas of upland varieties open somewhat more rapidly than those of Pima cotton. On the other hand, while in Pima the opening of the anthers always precedes that of the corolla, the anthers of upland varieties frequently do not begin to open until the expansion of the corolla has begun, while in some upland varie- ties the anthers are often still closed when the corolla is partly open. In the Cleveland and Dixie Triumph varieties on July 27, 1920, the anthers were observed to be still closed in flowers which had opened sufficiently to allow the stigmas to become well covered with foreign 22421—23—_5 34 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, pollen. In most of the 20 upland varieties upon which observations were made in 1920, it appeared, however, that the first arrival upon the pistil of self pollen and of foreign pollen was virtually simultaneous. In 1921 several instances were recorded of the occurrence of for- eion pollen upon the stigmas of partly open upland flowers in which self-pollination had not yet taken place, the anthers being still closed. The presence of foreign pollen upon the stigmas was readily deter- mined in these cases, as the upland varieties in 1920 and 1921 were grown in close proximity to Pima cotton, the bright-yellow pollen grains of which are easily distinguished from the whitish grains of the upland pollen. It may be concluded, therefore, that in upland cottons the interval between the beginning of automatic self-pollina- tion and that of pollination by insects is at most a very brief one and that not infrequently foreign pollen reaches the stigmas in ad- vance of self pollen. DEPOSITION OF SELF POLLEN AND OF FOREIGN POLLEN BY INSECTS. Evidence of the degree in which cross-pollination occurs in the two types of cotton was afforded in 1920 by examination of flowers borne by isolated plants of Pima (Egyptian) cotton distributed through a plat of Acala (upland) and of flowers borne by isolated Acala plants distributed through a plat of Pima in an experiment described on a preceding page, the object of which was to determine the percentages of natural hybrids or vicinists which would be produced under these conditions (Table 5). The isolated plants were separated from each other by several plants of the other variety, and only one flower was allowed to open daily on each isolated plant. It is therefore certain that most, if not all, of the pollen from other flowers which reached the stigmas of these plants was of the other type; hence, readily dis- tinguishable from the self pollen. Observations on several days (July 30 to August 3) during a period when both types were pro- ducing flowers in approximately equal numbers gave the results stated in Table 18. TABLE 18—Relative proportions of self pollen and of foreign pollen present on the upper portion of the stigmas of Pima and of Acala plants isolated among plants of the other type. [The figures indicate the number of flowers belonging to each category.] On the stigmas of— Nature of the pollen present. ; Pima Acala (Egyptian).| (upland)- SOLD I OLLIE ONY, = testes ei etn ae tes ois dinnc = mie epee spa eete mee nse ie ei ail rma 6 i Selfipollen predominating-< 2228 bo 2. Oe GI sass Joe eee 19 il Approximately half-and-half 2... oo ob ne ce eh oe nin ome eninnin toes 5 9 Woreipi Pollen Pred OMIA so sec es sd se eth sate clemerae om ce we See Ss meats 4 4 Koneien pollen ‘only... doy see Bee ee beet yo ~ ri Sek eis see fo eees taseb hae 0 9 Total) Howers'examined 7h Bis). LVS VK. Lee hs dekre6 2 ee bias - oe ate 34 20 Since in Pima cotton the pollination of the upper portion of the stigmas is effected by insects, the data in Table 18 point strongly FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 35 to the conclusion that much of the pollen conveyed to the stigmas by this agency originates in the same flower and that the prepon- derance of self-pollination is an important factor in the preponder- ance of self-fertilization in cotton. It would appear also that under like conditions as to climate and insect fauna upland cotton is more subject than Egyptian to cross-pollination, self pollen having predominated in 73 per cent of the Egyptian flowers and in only 48 per cent of the upland flowers. The latter conclusion is sup- ported by the results of an examination at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1920, of flowers of Pima and of upland cotton which were growing in adjacent rows. There was much more Pima pollen on the stigmas of the upland flowers than of upland pollen on the Pima stigmas. Further observations were made in 1921. The flowers examined were taken from adjacent rows of Pima and of upland, in every case from the side of the plant which faced a plant of the other type. They were collected: in pairs, one flower of each type from opposite or nearly opposite plants. Pima flowers were preferred which were borne at approximately the same height above the ground as the upland flowers. The Pima plants were flowering somewhat more freely than the upland, but the difference in this respect was not, great. The results are stated in Table 19. Taster 19.—Flowers of Pima and of upland cottons having different quantities of pollen of the other type present on the stigmas. [The figures indicate the number of flowers belonging to each category.] Pollen of other type on stigmas. | i Ten or ee ewer more alf or Type of cotton. re eeES than 10 | grains, more Sn ae grains. | but less | than half <2; than half| of total of total | pollen pollen | present. present. RiImMan (Hey PUA) ensssoes Secs e coos ck cts cok eee 100 31 57 11 1 \Wjcib Wah Sees ska 5 ee Oils tk Bie era pee ee geese 100 10 | 47 43 0 Of the total number of Pima flowers examined 31 per cent had no upland pollen present on the stigmas and 88 per cent had fewer than 10 grains of upland pollen. Of the total number of upland flowers only 10 per cent had no Pima pollen on the stigmas and only 57 per cent had fewer than 10 grains of Pima pollen. These percentages do not, however, fully indicate the difference between the two types, for of the flowers which were classed as having fewer than 10 grains of pollen of the other type on the stigmas, the number which had received very few grains (1 to 3) was much greater in the case of Pima than in the case of upland. There can be no doubt, there- fore, that when both types of cotton are growing side by side and are flowering at approximately the same rate Pima pollen is conveyed to the upland stigmas in greater quantity than upland pollen to the Pima stigmas. This must be a very important factor in the observed greater prevalence of cross-fertilization in upland than in Pima cotton. 36 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. An answer to the question why Egyptian pollen is conveyed to the stigmas of upland cottons in greater quantity than upland pollen to the Egyptian stigmas is to be sought in a consideration of the habits of the pollen-carrying insects in relation to the ontogeny of the flower. At Sacaton, Ariz., the honeybee and at times wild bees of the genus Melissodes are the insects which enter most frequently the corollas of Pima cotton. It has been observed that many of the flowers are first entered when the petals are just beginning to unfold, occasionally even before there is an actual aperture at the apex of the corolla, under which conditions the bees almost invari- ably come into contact with the reproductive organs, taking up and depositing pollen. When the Pima corollas are in this early stage of expansion the anthers of upland cotton frequently are still closed or are just beginning to split, so that little, if any, pollen of this type is available for transfer to the Pima stigmas. On the other hand, many of the upland corollas at this time are quite as accessible as those of Pima to entry by the insects, and this accounts for the frequent deposition of Pima pollen upon the upland stigmas before any self pollen has reached the latter. By the time the upland anthers have begun to discharge pollen freely most of the Pima corollas have opened to a degree which allows honeybees to reach the nectaries by crawling down the inside of the petals without touching the reproductive organs and to make their exit in the same manner. It is a relatively infrequent occur- rence for the honeybees to touch stigmas or stamens in entering or leaving a well-opened Pima flower. On the other hand, the wild bees (Mfelissodes spp.) apparently do so regularly. It would be interesting to ascertain whether foreign pollen is conveyed in greater quantity to the Pima flowers during periods when Melissodes are visiting them in large numbers than when honeybees are the pre- dominant visitors. POLLEN-CARRYING INSECTS AT SACATON. There is little doubt that natural cross-pollination in cotton is effected almost solely by the agency of insects. The nature of the ~ pollen grains of Gossypium is unfavorable to their transportation by currents of air. Allard (2, p. 256), however, found that glass plates smeared with vaseline and exposed in cotton fields in northern Georgia collected considerable quantities of cotton pollen. On the other hand, Balls (8, p. 117), using the same method for the detec- tion of wind-disseminated pollen in Egypt, obtained negative re- sults. No systematic study of the insects which visit cotton flowers has been attempted in connection with these investigations, but nu- merous specimens have been collected at Sacaton, Ariz., and notes have been made upon the efficiency as pollinators of those which most frequently enter the flowers. The writer is indebted for the identification of the specimens to Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agricuiture.” The several groups were identified by the following specialists: Hymenoptera, by S. A. Rohwer; Coleoptera, by B. A. Schwarz; Hemiptera, by Miss EB. A. Wells and W. L. eS eae by A. N. Caudell; Lepidoptera, by H. C. Dyar; and Diptera, by . M. rich, FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 37 Various Hymenoptera are the most efficient carriers of cotton pollen at Sacaton, Ariz.,?° as is probably the case wherever cotton is grown. The honeybee and wild bees (Melissodes spp.) are the most important cotton pollinators in this locality. The honeybee (Apis mellifica L.) is very assiduous in its visits to cotton flowers, although sometimes preferring the extrafloral nectaries to those within the flower.* Nevertheless, this inseet prob- ably holds first rank at Sacaton, Ariz., as a conveyor of cotton pollen, especially among Pima flowers. As was noted on a preceding page, honeybees entering and emerging from the flowers when the petals are just beginning to unfold almost invariably come in contact with the reproductive organs. Later in the morning, when 2a. sufficient aperture has developed, the bees usually crawl down the inside of the petals without touching the stigmas or stamens and make their exit in the same manner.”? Occasionally, however, the honeybee touches the staminal column and stigmas even when the corolla is fully open, this being especially likely to happen when the insect is confused by the entrance of another individual. At times wild bees of the genus Melissodes (M/. agilis agilis Cress., M. agilis aurigenia Cress., M. tristis Ckll.) are even more efficient pollinators than honeybees. It was observed at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1921 that Melissodes were much more numerous in the cotton fields toward the close of the season than was the case earlier in the sum- mer and that, unlike the honeybee they commonly crawl over the stigmas and staminal column of open flowers in order to reach the nectaries at the base of the corolla. Another bee, Megachile parallela Smith, is remarkable for the quantity of pollen it carries but is apparently a much less frequent visitor. Large wasps of the genus Campsomeris, especially C. dives Prov., also frequent the cotton flowers. They apparently prefer upland varieties, which have a shallow, widely flaring corolla, to the Egyptian cotton with its deep and relatively narrow corolla. These insects carry much pollen from flower to flower. Their habits of grasping the stamens with their legs when entering and leaving the flower and of pressing the stamens against the stigmas while drinking from the intrafloral nectaries doubtless also contribute materially to self-pollination. Other Hymenoptera which have been observed to carry cotton pollen at Sacaton, Ariz., are Cerceris sp., Dasymutilla ursula Cress., and the carpenter bees (Xylocopa arizonensis Cress. and X. vari- puncta Patt.)?* A species of Pepsis seems to be more efficient in dis- tributing pollen within the flower than in transferring pollen from one flower to another. . 20 Allard states (2, p. 254) that in northern Georgia Melissodes bimaculata Le P. and the honeybee are “‘ the most abundant and constant visitors of cotton.’ Allard gives a list of insects observed to visit cotton flowers in that region, with interesting notes on the itineraries of honeybees and bumblebees among the cotton plants. In a later paper by the same author it is stated (3, p. 680) that of 129 observed entrances of insects into cotton flowers in the Georgia locality, 45 were by species of Melissodes and 45 by honey- bees. It was noted that the wild bees were much the most frequent visitors when the observations began, while later the honeybees increased the frequency of their visits. _ 4 Seasonal variations in the habit of the honeybee in this respect were noted by Allard in Georgia (2, pp. 256, 257). 2The same habit was observed at Palestine, Tex., by Shoemaker (43). _™ According to Shoemaker (43) bumblebees were the most active pollinators at Pales- tine, Tex., in September, but seemed to be more efficient in insuring thorough self-polli- nation than in effecting cross-pollination. 38 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Species of Coleoptera which have been observed to visit cotton flowers and to carry more or less pollen on their bodies, but which are probably of minor importance as pollinators, are Megilla macu- lata fuscilabris Mulsant, Diabrotica 12-punctata Fabr., D. balteata Leconte, D. trivittata Mannerheim, Collops vittatus Say, Phalacrus penicellatus Say, and the fruit beetle (Allorhina nitida L.). The same remarks apply also to certain Hemiptera (Zelus renardi Kol.. Congus sp., Corizus hyalinus Uhler, and Apiomerus spissipes Say) and to Nemotelus trinotatus Mel., of the order Diptera. A small and very slender black beetle Conotelus stenoides Murray, which is extremely abundant at Sacaton, Ariz., sometimes effects its entrance to the flower as a result of an abnormal separation of the bases of the petals while the tip of the bud is tightly closed and occasionally makes its way into flowers which have been bagged to prevent cross-pollination. The small size and the smoothness of the body of this insect make it unlikely that it has any importance as a carrier of pollen from flower to flower. Another small beetle occasionally found in bagged fiowers is NVotoxwus calcaratus Horn, and one of these insects having a single grain of pollen attached to its head was found in a flower thus inclosed. It is unlikely, how- ever, that an appreciable quantity of pollen is transferred from flower to flower under these circumstances.*+ The method of inclosing the flower in.a paper bag, illustrated in Plate V, has proved very efficacious as a means of preventing cross- pollination. Many thousands of flowers have been “ selfed ” in this manner at Sacaton during the past eight years and none of the re- sulting progenies have given clear evidence of contamination from the access of foreign pollen. The efficacy of this method of ex- cluding pollen transfer was tested by an experiment performed in 1915, in which 40 flower buds of Pima cotton were carefully emascu- lated and bagged in the ordinary manner the evening before the corolla was due to open. No artificial pollination was done, and none of the flowers developed a boll. The experiment was repeated in 1920, using 100 flowers, not one of which developed a boll. RELATIVE COMPATIBILITY OF LIKE AND OF UNLIKE POLLEN. The possibility suggests itself that pollen of another variety may be less compatible than self pollen or pollen of the same variety and that this, in addition to the preponderance of self-pollination, may be a factor in the greater prevalence of self-fertilization. To test this possibility, comparison was made of the degrees of fertilization attained when pollens of different degrees of relationship were applied separately to the Pima stigmas. COMPARISON OF SELF-POLLINATION AND OF CROSS-POLLINATION WITHIN THE ; VARIETY. An experiment was performed in 1921 in which some flowers were self-pollinated and others cross-pollinated on the same plants. Two Pima populations, the continuously open-pollinated stock and a *% Robson (41) observed in the West Indies that thrips enter the corolla before it has developed an orifice and concluded that cross-pollination may be effected by the agency of this in ¥ERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 39 family which has been strictly inbred (selfed) during seven genera- tions, were used in this experiment. The treatments were as follows: (A) Flower emasculated and bagged the evening before anthesis and pollinated the following morning with pollen from another flower on the same plant. (B) Treatment similar to the above except that pollen from other plants of the same variety was used, these having been of the open-pollinated stock, not of the inbred family. The use in treatment A of pollen from another flower on the same plant insured self-fertilization unless somatic variation had occurred, and of this there was no indication.”> The possibility that the pollina- tion might have been less thorough in the self-pollinated than in the cross-pollinated flowers also was eliminated by this method. In addi- tion to the percentages of bolls matured and the mean numbers of seeds per boll, determinations were made of the mean weights and the germination percentages of the seeds resulting from the two treatments. The data of this experiment are given in Table 20. TABLE 20.—Comparison of the results of self-pollination and of cross-pollina- tion within the variety in an open-pollinated stock of Pima cotton and in a family which had been closely inbred during seven generations. [All flowers emasculated. ] j iF | Mean Mean Percentage | 5 Percentage Population. Pollina- | Flowers |“ oF polls | number weight of germi- tion. | treated. | otured, | ofseeds of 1009 (10 nation: 4 * | per boll. seeds. 2 Open-pollinated.................-- Self..... 165 | 91.041.5 | 17,040.17 | 12,840.04; 90.840.9 DOSS Serene cnet s meee ee Cross... 162 | 85.8+1.8 | 16.74 .18 | 12.64 .08 | 88.2+1.0 IDTHERENCA Sess sotto ccs womee cglese deece 5,242.3 | -ot 625 | 2+ .09 2,641.3 Aa) Sis SUE ARS ea eS ee Be Self..... | 155 | 92.941.3 | 17.2+ .16-) 18.54 .05 86. 841.0 DD Yo eae eae ae eee Cross... .| 151 | 86.341.7 | 17.54 .18 | 1264 -08 89.7+ .9 Differences. bso. e eo sa|S se ese sees eepeceas eet 6.6421) .34.24) 194.09) 29413 The data given in Table 20 show little difference in the results of the two treatments in either population. The only differences that appear to be significant occurred in the inbred population in re- spect to the percentage of bolls matured and the mean weight of seeds, self-pollination having given the higher value in both cases. In the mean number of seeds, the real criterion of the relative com- pleteness of fertilization, neither population showed a significant dif- ference. The outcome of this experiment warrants the conclusion that within the Pima variety there is practically no difference in compatibility between self pollen and pollen from other plants. *> Hmoto (16) tested species of Primula, Brassica, Hyacinthus, Freesia, ete., as to the comparative effects of autogamy (fertilization by pollen of the same flower), geitonogamy {fertilization by pollen from another flower of the same plant). and xenogamy (fertili- zation by pollen from another plant). ‘Che criteria used were fruitfulness, length, and width of the capsules, number of seeds per capsule, weight of seeds, and germination of seeds. This author concluded that geitonogamy was superior to autogamy in very few cases. Darwin (13, p. 329) _concluded from the results of his experiments with plants fee ping EO Families mae i an very ew cases did crossing different flowers of sam compared wi se a flower with i i in- crease the number of seeds produced.” ae Cee ee ae Ce 40 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, COMPARISON OF CROSS-POLLINATION WITH RELATED AND WITH UNRELATED POLLEN. Flower buds on several Pima cotton plants in 1914 were emascu- lated and bagged in the evening and were pollinated the following morning, some with pollen from other plants of the same variety and others with pollen of the Gila variety of Egyptian cotton. The results, which show no significant difference in fertilization from the two pollinations, are given in Table 21. Taste 21.—Fertilization of emasculated Pima flowers resulting from cross- pollination with pollen of the same variety and with pollen of the Gila variety of Egyptian cotton. Number of} _ Mean Cross-pollination with— bolls number of seeds per ' matured. boll. Pima (ley ptian) pollen... a. .5 sec aspen oe ee naietena aj hae ciate ate ea mice ee 69 | 15.84+0.48 GitstGrryntian) pollens wes. sha te eee eh ee ea ce eee Ae ee: Socee ener nee ae 157 | 15.64 .36 Differences uss. 2s LE. ahs. Sent ges le ceititce esa. deb. obra een) eee «2+ .60 A similar experiment was performed in 1917 on plants of a Pima family which had been strictly inbred during three successive gen- erations. The cross-pollinations of emasculated flowers were made with pollen from (1) sister plants of the same inbred family, (2) plants of the continuously open-pollinated stock of the Pima yariety, and (3) plants of the Gila variety. Table 22 gives the results of this experiment, which show that while a greater number of seeds per boll resulted from the application of pollen of another variety of the Egyptian type as compared with that from pollen of related and of unrelated plants of the same variety, the differences were not significant. It may be concluded, therefore, that within the limits of the Egyptian type there is no important difference in the compati- bility of pollen derived from sister plants of a presumably homo- zygous strain, from unrelated plants of the same variety, and from another variety. TaBLe 22.—fertilization of emasculated Pima flowers resulting from crogs- pollination with pollen from sister plants and from unrelated plants of the same variety and with pollen of the Gila variety. - Percent- Mean ‘ f F Cross-pollination with pollen from— ne ata Bipot matured. | per boll. Sister plants of the Pima varicty...... AEE OOO OCT TG orate 61 9841.2) 15.940.29 Unrelated plus Ofithaibimawawiety esse: < ic katt ead enteete dee 90 994+ .7| 16.34 .19 Plants of t 6, Gils (WM eyp tian) VATICL Yi.» ranideisie omek cde baentdsamet= aap 31 9742.1 | 17.14 .36 Experiments will be described next in which cross-pollination within the Pima variety was compared with cross-pollination with a wholly different type, the Acala variety of upland cotton. The re- sults of such an experiment, performed in 1920, are presented in Table 23 (upper part) and indicate that the mean number of seeds per boll and the germination percentage of the seeds were signifi- cantly higher from flowers which had received pollen of the other FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 41 type, the differences having been, respectively, six and four times the probable error. This outcome being somewhat unexpected the experiment was repeated in 1921. Five plants of an inbred (seven generations selfed) Pima family were used as mothers. Flowers were emasculated before anthesis and were cross-pollinated the following day, some with pollen from plants of the bulk Pima stock, others with pollen of Acala (upland). The flowers which received both pollinations were borne on the same plants. The results of this ex- periment are also presented in Table 23 (lower part). TABLE 23.—Fertilization of emasculated Pima flowers, some of which were cross-pollinated with pollen of the same variety and others with pollen of the Acala variety of upland cotton in 1920 and 1921. ‘a Bereea eeu io . Ferree owers age 0 number weight o age O: Season and character of pollination. treated. bolls | ofseeds | 100seeds | germina- matured. | pef boll. | (grams). tion, Season of 1920: Bima pollenecee re ver eccedceses eeeeese 45} 80.0+4.0 | 12.940.45 | 12.5+0. 26 92.5+0.9 Acala (upland) pollen .....-.........-.-- . 48 | 79.24+3.9 | 16.24 .29 | 12.64 .08 96.64 .5 WD ITEreMGGreaseseu see... Closes Uoaaeclel semen ee OOM -8+5.6 | 3.34 .53 -It .27 4.141.0 Season of 1921: 4 PimapGientec eetaee ee. S68 ok ea ee 175 |} 86.34+1.7 | 17.54 .18 | 12.64 .08 89.74 .9 Acala (upland) pollen. ................-- 176 | 93.141.3 | 17.64 .16 | 13.04 .10 93.04 .8 Difference......... Sees § 20 nace seth sie Stags 6.8+2.1 -14 .24 44 .13 3.34+1.2 In 1921 application of pollen of a different type, Acala, resulted in a slight but possibly significant increase in the percentage of bolls matured, but did not effect more nearly complete fertilization, the mean number of seeds per boll having been practically the same as that obtained by cross-pollination within the variety. There were indications that fertilization by the more foreign pollen slightly increased the weight and percentage germination of the seeds, although the differences were scarcely significant.? Considering the whole series of experiments in which pollens of different degrees of foreignness were compared as to their relative efficiency in fertilizing Pima flowers, it may be concluded that fer- tilization by the more foreign pollen is consistently neither better nor poorer than that effected by the more nearly related pollen. The conclusion holds good whether comparison 1s made (1) between pollen of the same plant or of a sister plant of an inbred family and pollen of unrelated plants of the same variety, or (2) between pollen of the same variety and pollen of another variety of the same type of cotton (Gila, Egyptian). On the other hand, comparison «Two experiments performed in 1922, the detailed results of which were not available in time to be included in this bulletin, showed that bolls from Pima flowers pollinated with upland pollen (Lone Star variety) as compared with bolls from Pima flowers pollinated with Pima pollen, contained significantly greater mean numbers of seeds, the increases ftom extra-varietal pollination, in the two experiments, respectively, having been, 9 and 15 per cent and having been 4.5 and 4.4 times the probable error of the difference. The reciprotal pollinations on Lone Star (upland), on the contrary, gave in both experiments a greater mean number of seeds per boll from the flowers pollinated with Lone Star pollen than from the flowers pollinated with Pima pollen, the decreases from extra-varietal pollination of Lone Star in the two experiments having been, re- spectively, 19.3 and 5.4 per cent, although the decrease was barely significant in the first experiment (difference 3.2 times its probable error) and was not significant in the second experiment. These results might be taken as indicating superior vigor of the Lone Star pollen but, when the two pollens were tested in sugar solution, the Pima pollen ejected somewhat more rapidly and completely than the Lone Star pollen. 42 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, of the fertilization of Pima flowers by Pima pollen and by pollen of a very different but still compatible type of cotton (upland), shows that in several cases somewhat better fertilization resulted from the foreign pollen. This is of especial interest in view of the fact that the pistils of the upland varieties used in these experiments (Acala and Lone Star) are much shorter than the Pima pistils. RAPIDITY OF GERMINATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT POLLENS. Comparison of like and unlike pollens in respect to the rapidity of development of the tubes was the object of an experiment per- formed in 1920. Pima flower buds were emasculated in the evenin and were thoroughly cross-pollinated the following day, some wit pollen from other Pima plants, others with pollen of Acala (up- land). The pistils were then excised at the summit of the ovary at successive intervals of time. TABLE 24.—Comparison of the rapidity of germination and development of dif- ferent pollens, as shown by Pima flowers with pistils excised at successive intervals of time after pollination. | . a ~ : : - | Pollination with Pima Pollination with Acala Pistil excision. | (Egyptian) pollen. (upland) pollen. aa 7 F exoonte | Moen ple Yee aise Pe pollina- owers age 0 number o owers age o number of Hour excised. tion | treated. bolls seeds per | treated. bolls seeds per (hours). matured. boll. | matured. boll. te tineboeethatoodongos ve} 7.642.8 | 18.741.4 GBDING . Base Juice oe Se eieise 164 39 | 61.545.2 | 11.54 .6 35 | 45.745.7 13.740.8 LOCATE SRR ake 184 35 | 63.0+5.5 | 13.54 .6 35} 51.545.7 14.541.0 Gata. SCs Vhs + 36 | 91.843.0| 15.74 .6 34 | 73.545.1 6 1b bf: 1 Sent 22% 35 | 80.044.6 | 15.64 .5 39 | 95.0+2.4 15.04 .4 epee eee ieee 244 26 | 92.343.5 |) 14.44 .5) 25 | 84.0449 14.54 .7 The data of this experiment, as given in Table 24, indicate that the Pima and the upland pollen were equally efficient in fertilizing the Pima flowers. There was also no important difference between the two pollens in the rate of growth of the tubes, as indicated by the degrees of fertilization at successive intervals after pollination, except that of the flowers excised 74 hours after pollination, three which had been pollinated with Pima pollen set bolls, while no bolls developed from flowers pollinated with Acala pollen which had been excised at this early hour. POLLEN COMPETITION AS A FACTOR IN SELF-FERTILIZATION AND CROSS-FERTILIZATION. Evidence was given on a preceding page that when the several pollens were applied separately to the Pima stigmas, approximately equal compatibility of self pollen, pollen from other plants of the same variety, pollen of another Egyptian variety, and pollen of an- other type of cotton (upland) was shown by the degree of fertiliza- tion effected. Fairly satisfactory evidence also was presented that the tubes of Pima and of upland pollen grow with approximately equal rapidity when these pollens are applied separately. It remains to consider whether, when different pollens are in competition on the stigmas of the same flower, selective fertilization occurs. FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. - 43 RESULTS OF OTHER INVESTIGATORS. Balls (7, pp. 222, 223; 8, pp. 122-125), using “a method of mixed pollination, whereby the stigma of a flower received equal quantities of (1) self pollen from its own anthers and (2) pollen from an- other plant,” found that the seed produced by Egyptian flowers re- ceiving both self pollen and upland pollen yielded 10 hybrids out of 330 plants, or somewhat less than 3 per cent. The percentage was about the same with the reciprocal cross-pollination upland self + Egyptian. On the other hand, when stigmas of Egyptian or of upland cotton were pollinated simultaneously with approximately equal quantities of self pollen and of pollen from Egyptian & upland F, plants, the resulting percentages of hybrids were 20 and 28, re- spectively. These results seem to indicate that pollen of the conju- ' gate generation of a hybrid between very different types of cotton, when applied to the stigmas of one of the parent types, is better able to compete with the self pollen than is the pollen of the other parental type. Balls does not describe in detail the method used in this experiment; but if automatic self-pollination of the base of the stigmas was not prevented, this would account in part for the very low percentages of hybrids when pollen of the other type, in addi- tion to self pollen, was applied. Longfield Smith (44) performed experiments the object of which was to produce the largest possible number of F, hybrids with the least expenditure of labor. To this end the stigmas of unemasculated flowers of sea-island cotton and of cotton of an up- land type, said to be native in St. Croix, were smeared at 7.30 to 8 a.m. with pollen of the other species. Sea island & St. Croix yielded from 30 to 40 per cent of hybrids, while the reciprocal cross-pollina- tion yielded.70 per cent. The much greater percentage of hybrids obtained from the reciprocal was attributed by this experimenter to the earlier opening of the anthers in the sea-island than in the St. Croix flowers, which allowed automatic self-pollination to begin earlier in the former than in the latter. The very high percentages of hybrids obtained from unemasculated flowers of the St. Croix cotton in this experiment seem to indicate a decided “ prepotency ” of the foreign pollen. The hitherto unpublished data of an experiment conducted by Argyle McLachlan, under the direction of O. F. Cook, at Yuma, Ariz., in 1910 and 1911 are also of interest in this connection. Flow- ers of Egyptian cotton (Yuma variety) were pollinated with pollen of the same variety and with upland pollen, and flowers of upland cotton (Triumph and Durango varieties) were pollinated with pollen of the same variety and with Egyptian pollen. The flowers to be pollinated were emasculated before their anthers had opened and were then inclosed in bags. The flowers which were to furnish the pollen were bagged before their corollas had opened. Pollination was done as soon as the anthers opened.?* In some cases the two kinds of pollen were applied simultaneously, in other cases the sec- ond kind was applied after intervals of 15, 30, and 60 minutes, using 26 The original records of this experiment apparently have been lost, but the results are stated in a memorandum prepared by Mr. McLachlan on August 9, 1911, from which Table 25 has been compiled. Further details in regard to the procedure followed were supplied from memory by Mr. McLachlan in a letter to the writer dated December 44 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for the first pollination in some cases pollen of the same variety, in other cases pollen of the other type. Progenies from the resulting bolls were grown in 1911. The percentages of hybrids obtained from the various pollinations are shown in Table 25. _ TABLE 25.—Hybrids resulting in 1911 from double pollinations of Egyptian and upland cotton flowers at Yuma, Ariz,, in 1910. Egyptian as the Upland as the female parent. female parent. Method of pollination. Plants| Pereent- | pants} Pereent- e of e of grown.) hybrids, | StOWn- hybrids. Both pollens applied simultaneously.........-.....---..-----]| 164] 18 42.0 168{( 962 A4:255 — Egyptian pollen applied first, upland pollen 15 minutes later... 184 8 +1.3 142 56 +2.8 Egyptian pollen applied first, upland pollen 30 minutes later... 146 | 14 41.9 160 24 42.3 Egyptian pollen applied first, upland pollen 60 minutes later... 151 | 13 41.8 121 59 +3.0 Average for the Egyptian followed by upland pollination.|........ LY. GENO | sic ete 46.341.6 Upland pollen applied first, Egyptian pollen 15 minutes later. - 118 5 +14 107 5L +3.3 Upland pollen applied first, Egyptian pollen 30 minutes later - - 123 | 10 41.8 93 36 +3.4 Upland pollen applied first, Egyptian pollen 60 minutes later. - 166 7 +1.3 107 47 +3.3 Average for the upland followed by Egyptian pollination..|........ 7. 3F BSCE Fe | 44.73:1.9 Totals for the two types....-.--2 2626.2 eeeeseeesesesseee] 1,052 | 10.84 .6 888 | 42.341.1 The data given in Table 25 show no consistent differences in the percentages of hybrids depending upon whether pollen of the same or of the other variety was applied first or upon the length of the interval between the application of one and the other pollen. When _ Egyptian cotton was used as the female parent, deferring the appli- cation of the upland pollen until one hour after the Egyptian pollen was applied resulted in an apparent reduction in the percentage of hybrids as compared with that resulting from simultaneous applica- tion of the two pollens, but the difference was not significant. On the other hand, deferring the application of the Egyptian pollen until an hour after the upland pollen was applied, so far from increasing the percentage of hybrids, resulted in an apparently significant de- crease as compared with the percentage from simultaneous applica- tion. With upland cotton as the female parent the percentage of hybrids when application of the Egyptian pollen was deferred one hour was significantly greater than in the case of simultaneous ap- plication of the two pollens, but a much greater and more significant increase in the percentage of hybrids resulted-from deferring appli- cation of the apis pollen until one hour after the Egyptian pollen was applied. These results are inconsistent and seem inexplicable, but at any rate they increase the probability that the slight differ- ences, under natural conditions, in the time of the arrival of self poben and of foreign pollen, as noted on a preceding page, are of ittle consequence in determining the relative degree of self-fertiliza- tion and of cross-fertilization. The total number (1,052) of Egyptian flowers which were double pollinated in the McLachlan experiment yielded 10.80.6 per cent of hybrids, and the total number (888) of upland flowers yielded 42.3+1.1 per cent of hybrids, the latter figure representing only a FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 45 small departure from the 50 per cent to be expected if the two pollens compete upon equal terms. It would therefore seem that while Egyptian pollen is very strongly prepotent over upland pollen on the Egyptian stigmas, there is no corresponding prepotency of upland pollen on the upland stigmas. EXPERIMENTS AT SACATON, ARIZ. DEPOSITION OF THE TWO POLLENS NOT SIMULTANEOUS. An experiment was performed in 1916 with the object of determin- ing in what degree pollen of a distinct but related variety may com- pete with automatically deposited self pollen. Flower buds on sev- eral plants of Pima cotton were bagged early in the morning but were not emasculated. At about 10.30 o’clock the stigmas were thoroughly smeared with pollen of the Gila variety, which is also of the Egyptian type, and the bags were replaced. Seed from the resulting bolls was planted in 1917 and the plants were thinned in such manner as to avoid any selection. Of the 240 plants which re- mained after thinning 34, or 14.2+1.5 per cent, were classed ‘as hybrids (Pima X Gila F,) and the remainder as pure Pima. We may therefore conclude that 86 per cent of the ovules had been self- fertilized in flowers which had received an abundance of foreign pollen. In order to ascertain whether pollen of a very different type may compete better with self pollen than pollen of a related variety, an experiment was performed in 1919. Two flowers each on a number of plants of Pima (Egyptian) cotton were bagged in the evening, but were not emasculated, thus permitting automatic self-pollination to proceed in the normal manner. At about noon of the following day the stigmas of one flower on each plant were smeared with pollen of the Gila variety of Egyptian cotton, and the stigmas of the other flower were smeared with pollen of the Acala variety of upland cot- ton. In 1920, populations were grown from the seed resulting from each self -++ cross-pollination, all plants which developed having been left in place until the percentages of first-generation hybrids (Pima Gila and Pima x Acala, respectively) had been determined. The re- sults are stated in Table 26 (upper part). TABLE 26.—Hybrids resulting from seed produced by flowers of Pima cotton which, in addition to having been automatically self-pollinated, had been cross-pollinated with pollen of Gila and of Acala cotton, respectively, im * 1919 and with pollen of Acala in 1920. | | F, hyorids. Season and character of pollination. Plants. Number.| Per cent. Season of 1919: | GiaGbeyptianys. tes. Seer ake eh SSR EEE oe tgs ey Ne Ske 206 | 74 35.942.3 PACHA (IPIAN eee Aue eet trays ete ee ene img ARETE I So 287 | 96 33.4+1.9 { ————————EEEEes Mifference foxes eee Fee EOS ee te ere ef See. owe gyary oa She (A eyrceds <4 Hees S669 30e 2.543.0 Season of 1920: ANCEV EN (Quip) bey oVo Dy i isis Sa Ras SS 5 ire ee ie ac Sepa at mn rN 479 143 | 29.841.4 46 BULLETIN 1134, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The difference in the percentage of hybrids produced in 1919 by the two foreign pollens was not significant, and it is clear that pollen of another variety of the same species (Egyptian cotton) was not better able than pollen of a different species (upland cotton) to compete with the self pollen. The percentage of hybrids in both cases is very high in comparison with that of the 1916 experi- ment with Gila pollen. In a similar experiment in 1920 a number of Pima flower buds were bagged but were not emasculated, so that automatic self- pollination was not interfered with. Early in the afternoon of the day of anthesis abundant pollen of the Acala variety of upland cotton was applied to the stigmas. The resulting seed was planted in 1921. No thinning was done, all seeds which germinated having been allowed to develop. The resulting percentage of F, hybrids, as also stated in Table 26, did not differ significantly from that yielded by seed resulting from the corresponding self + cross- pollination in the experiment of 1919. The percentage of cross-fertilization in all three of these experi- ments was considerable, notwithstanding that both in time of arrival upon the stigmas and in nearness to the ovary the automatically deposited self pollen would seem to have had a marked advantage. The results therefore tend to confirm the evidence given on pre- ceding pages that conditions at the base of the stigmas are rela- tively unfavorable for the germination of the pollen or penetration of the tubes. DEPOSITION OF THE TWO POLLENS SIMULTANEOUS. An experiment performed in 1919 was designed to determine what percentages of the ovules are fertilized by pollen of the same and of another variety when both sorts of pollen are applied as nearly as possible simultaneously and in as nearly as possible equal quan- tity. For this purpose a number of Pima cotton flowers were emasculated and bagged in the evening. During the .following morning the stigmas were smeared with pollen of the same variety and with pollen of Acala (upland) cotton. Half of the flowers on each date received the upland pollen first, and the other half received the Pima pollen first, but the interval of time between the applica- tions of the two lots of pollen was negligible. This method of apply- ing the two pollens was adopted because of the impracticability of mixing them in approximately equal quantity. The comparative viability of the pollens used in this experiment was not determined, but pollen of Pima and of Acala from plants growing in the same field had been tested in a sugar solution three weeks previously and had shown no appreciable difference in viability. The seeds obtained from each pollination were planted in 1920, four seeds to the hill, and the rows were not thinned. The number of first-generation Egyptian upland hybrids in each lot was determined early in July, with the results given in Table 27. Com- parison of the percentages of hybrids in hills containing, respec- tively, one, two, three, and four plants, showed no significant differ- ences. This would indicate that the heterozygotes, in spite of the larger size which they soon attained, had had no special advantage during the germinating and seedling stages (see p. 5). FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 47 TABLE 27.—Hybrids from seeds produced by emasculated flowers of Pima cotton when pollinated first with upland cotton and then with Pima pollen and vice versa. { F, hybrids. Pollination. WP layvts. a ee | Number. Per cent. PUMA ANGI AR UAB arlotg ee aisles tims ele\ cle bo pime pie cine = upland than in the cross Pima & Gila. Furthermore, McLachlan’s results (Table 25) indicate that on the stigmas of upland cottons FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 49 pollen of a very different type (Egyptian) competes on nearly equal terms with pollen of the same variety.” RELATIVE COMPLETENESS OF INSECT POLLINATION AT DIFFERENT LOCALITIES. Observation in Arizona has shown that the number of efficient pollinating insects differs greatly in different localities.** Bees and other active pollinators are normally abundant among the cotton flowers at Sacaton throughout the summer, and the entire surface of the stigmas is almost invariably well covered with pollen soon after the corolla -has opened. On the other hand, observations in the Salt River Valley, at distances of 25 to 40 miles from Sacaton, have shown that insect pollination of cotton there is often much less rapid and complete. The probable explanation is that in recent years an extensive and almost continuous acreage has been planted to cotton, and the insect population is not large enough to insure thorough pollination of all the flowers. Thus, on July 18, 1919, in a field situated near Tempe in the heart of the cotton-growing district, no pollen grains were observed upon the extrastaminal portion of the stigmas.at 9 a. m. and very few at 10 a. m. Late in the afternoon of July 20, 1920, inspection of the same field showed the extrastaminal portion of the stigmas to be free from pollen in most of the flowers, while the remainder bore only a few insect-transported grains. None of the flowers examined showed thorough pollination of the whole stigmatic surface. Two other centrally located fields, one at Phoenix and one near Tempe, which were examined at 5 p. m. on August 5 and at 4 p. m. on August 6, showed similarly deficient pollination. On the other hand, in fields situated on the outskirts of the valley, at Litchfield and at Goodyear, which were examined at noon on the same days, bees and other pollinators were abundant, and the stigmas of the cotton flowers were found to be well covered with pollen. Experiments were made in 1920 with the object of comparing the relative degree of fertilization by natural pollination in fields where observation had shown, on the one hand, thorough pollination of the entire stigmatic surface and, on the other hand, a deficiency of pollen on the upper portion of the stigmas. It was sought also to ascertain whether in the latter case artificial pollination would in- crease the degree of fertilization, as compared with that of naturally pollinated flowers. At weekly intervals during the month of August the stigmas of approximately 100 flowers were smeared with pollen from other Pima plants, and an approximately equal number of flowers were tagged and left to natural pollination. The only difference between the two treatments was the thorough cross-pollination of the entire stigmatic surface of the artificially pollinated flowers, neither lot 7 Attempts made at Sacaton, Ariz., to determine whether selective fertilization occurs in upland cotton have been unsuccessful, owing to the loss by shedding of nearly all of the bolls from the treated flowers. : ae 8A pronounced difference in the abundance of pollinating insects at different localities in Arizona was noted by Cook, McLachlan, and Meade (12, p. 34): “At the time of our visits to the fields at Yuma and Sacaton there was a notable difference in the activity of the insects at the two places. Several species of large wild bees that were industri- ously visiting the flowers at Yuma in September were not seen at all at Sacaton.” 50 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. having been bagged. These experiments were performed at Sacaton, Ariz., and in a field near Phoenix where observation had shown that even late in the afternoon the upper portion of the stigmas remained relatively. free from pollen. The percentages of bolls matured from each lot of flowers and the mean numbers of seeds per boll are stated in Table 28. The data are given for each day separately and for all four dates as one array. TABLE 28.—Results of natural and artificial pollination of unbagged flowers of Pima cotton at Phoenix and at Sacaton, Ariz., in 1920. Naturally pollinated flowers. Artificially pollinated flowers. | = Mean number of | Mean number of | 32 seeds per— = seeds per— Locality and | 5 | eke ; | ~ date | B | g oy ; z Zig] ey ; om s - 3 aes 12g =I 3 : 3 5 o5 5 ong 8 | of on, Peta | ae iE BSB | 5 2) 33 3 ES 2 2 8 2 = 3 = | & |.4 g =| = 2 C) i og =| be - $s Sah E} 3 4 s ES ae | 3 2 ene tye o ° S BS} o | & 3 or | & | A 9 = & | A Q = —< << _/ ____ | —_—_ . | | . Sacaton, Ariz.: Aug. 6.... 95) 88; 92.741.8] 15.140. 21) 1,400+33) 94) 82) 87.2+2.3) 15.1+0.24) 1,3164.40: Aug. 13... 96) = 91) 94.841.5) 14.64 .19) 1,385228 91 88) 96.7+1.3) 14.64 .24) 1,411+30: Aug. 20... 91; 88) 96.741.3) 16.14 .21) 1,5564+29 89 87) 97.841.1) 16.34 .18} 1,595425. Aug. 26...) 95) 93) 97.941.0) 17.74 .15] 1,734423} 87/ 83} 95.441.5] 17.74 .15) 1,689430. All dates..) 377) 360) 95.614 .7) 15.94 .11/ 1,520415| 361} 340) 94.24 .8) 15.94 .11| 1,496+16. Phoenix, Ariz.:) Ate Os secs OL 80) 87.942.3) 11.14 .34) 975439 98 93) 94.9+1.5) 15.84 .23) 1,500432 . Aug.13...; 92 66) 71.843.2) 12.34 .44) 883450 89 85) 95.54+1.5] 17.34 .23) 1,651434 Aug. 20...) 72 62) 86.142.8] 15.34 .29) 1,317+50 95 72| 75.8+3.0} 16.74 .22) 1,266+53 Aug. 26...| 89 76) 85.44+2.5) 17.64 .23) 1,501+48 94 90) 95.8+1.4) 17.94 .17) 1,716+30 All dates,. 344) 284) 82.641.4) 14.04 .20) 1,157426/ 376) 340) 90.341.0/ 16.94 .10) 1,526419 e 1 The probable error of this value was computed by the formula -/(Ab)?+(Ba)?, A+a being the per- centage of bolls matured and B+b being the mean number of seeds per boll. Considering the combined results for the four dates, it appears that the fertilization of the naturally pollinated flowers at Phoenix was significantly inferior to that at Sacaton, the difference in the percentage of bolls matured having been 13-++1.6 and the difference in the mean number of seeds per boll having been 1.90.23. At Sacaton it is evident that artificial pollination did not result in more nearly complete fertilization than was attained by natural pollina- tion, neither the percentage of bolls matured nor the mean number of seeds per boll having differed significantly in the two lots of flowers. Artificial pollination at Phoenix, on the contrary, signifi- cantly increased the degree of fertilization, the increases over the results from naturally pollinated flowers having been for the entire period 7.71.7 in the percentage of bolls matured and 2.9+22 in the mean number of seeds per boll. In the mean number of seeds per 100 flowers, a value which integrates the percentage of bolls matured and the mean number of seeds per boll, the increase due to artificial pollination amounted to 32 per cent, indicating that a substantially greater crop both of seed and of fiber* might be expected if bees were abundant in the Salt River Valley cotton fields during the blossoming period. 2 Byidence that the weight of fiber per boll is correlated with the number of seeds hag: been presented elsewhere (28). FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 51 SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE RELATIVE COMPLETENESS OF FERTILIZATION. Comparison of the fertilization attained in different seasons can be made most effectively on the basis of the mean number of seeds per boll expressed as a percentage of the mean number of ovules. Counts made in 1921 on 250 3-celled and on 25 4-celled ovaries of Pima cotton showed the mean numbers of ovules to be 20.6++0.09 and 25.80.84, respectively. Since at Sacaton approximately 5 per cent of the Pima ovaries are 4-celled and practically all the others are 3-celled, the mean number of ovules in a random sample of ovaries should be 20.8. The frequency distributions for the number of ovules in the 3-celled and the 4-celled ovaries are given in Table 29. TARLE 29.—Frequency distributions of the number of ovules in 3-celled and in 4-celled ovaries of Pima cotton. Number of ovules. Ovaries. | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 10 a0 | 2 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 Bolls from various lots of naturally pollinated flowers at Sacaton have been found to contain mean numbers of developed seeds as given in Table 30, which also states the mean numbers of seeds as per- centages of the mean number of ovules when taken as 21. TaBLeE 30.—Mean numbers of seeds per boll from different lots of naturally pollinated flowers of Pima cotton at Sacaton, Ariz. — [The mean numbers of seeds are stated also as percentages of the mean number of ovules.] ian number of seeds. - As percent- Year. Plants. | Bolls. age of the Actual. | mean num- ber of ovules. N915 ee SSE. Fi RA ee a Be SERIO. Cad eve be te poe eS a8 53 530 | 16.040.12 76 TTR CC SUC SE BGS NESSIE ICES TSE Oa Ia Aer a a 81 810 | 16.9+ .08 80 TEE soo 6 SRS COO SS AUS SOS SCE CIEE ee ere ee a 82 820 | 17.74 .07 84 TOE 2 GG SE DOH Hoc 2 BEARS A EIST ean Re i Senne Stn Smile re ae eae 85 850 | 16.5 .07 78 OL GRRE mee rs Gag sre etch SS Tes Puts oot. eas er Fos a8 200 16.5+ .13 78 LOZ Masa ca ence se te OG SER? SIAL AS A ERS SOs. 95 | 14.24 .21 67 BOZO Wee ee ste eine cokers o chard ate siticimee be o Stoke co dupe china weed | ou ticlskan 91 | 15.0+ .20 71 TMPAD s Gia wo eh eB on ea aed cali fe viene inte cee Dei oS, ct) Sl aaa een 360 | 15.94 .11 75 TEEN ee Cah ES oes Bare Pe ran ied gr eee 94 a Baie pe ai 100 1100 | 18.64 .13 89 OZ Teta nne re ce eye ice es ORR LG Se er a eet eno Le Sha 30 560 | 17.384 .09 82 1 3-locked bolls only. The mean percentage of ovules fertilized, as stated in Table 30, varied from 67 to 89. The fact that both lots of flowers in 1921 gave a significantly higher mean number of seeds than any of the three lots in 1920 indicates that there is considerable variation from year to year in the conditions for fertilization. Reference to Table 28 shows that the conditions vary also during the same season. Con- 52 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, sidering only the naturafly pollinated flowers, the mean numbers of seeds per boll and per 100 flowers were significantly greater during the second half of August, 1920, than during the first half. Whether the difference, which was much more pronounced at Phoenix than at Sacaton, was caused by more favorable weather or by an increase in the number of pollinating insects is uncertain. The bolls upon which were computed the mean numbers of seeds given in Table 50, with the single exception noted, were taken at random, without reference to the number of locks. It has been determined by a number of counts which have given practically the same result, that at Sacaton the proportion of 4-locked bolls in Pima cotton slightly exceeds 5 per cent,’ practically all the others being NUMBER OF BOLLS be or eaten <0 diedeslorss Sh skirt [aedln tad Sala VI AEE AF AE MOS FAC V9 2O'AE2. 23 CER TIEM AG NUMBER OF SEEDS PER BOLL Fic. 4.—Frequency distributions of the number of seeds in one hundred 3-locked and 4-- locked bolls on well-grown plants of Pima cotton at Sacaton, Ariz.; in 1921. The bolls were collected in pairs, a 3-locked and a 4-locked boll from each plant. The mean numbers of seeds were 18.6+0.13 for the 38-locked bolls and 21.7+0.19 for the 4-locked bolls. The frequency distribution for the 3-locked bolls, shown by the solid line, is much more regular than that for the 4-locked bolls, shown by the dotted line. 3-locked, the number of bolls having two and five locks being negli- gible. It was found at Sacaton in 1921 by counts on 100 bolls of each Jock number taken from as many plants that the average number of seeds per boll was 18.60.13 for the 3-locked bolls, and 21.70.19 for the 4-locked bolls.** The frequency distributions for the number of seeds in the 3-locked and in the 4-locked bolls are shown in Figure 4. ign higher peg es have been recorded at other localities. Counts made by G. Marshall an B. Camp on 40 plants in a field of Pima cotton near Bakersfield, Calit., in 1917, showed that in a total of 2,486 bolls 21.3 per cent were 4-locked. O. Cook in 1920 counted bolls on 5 plants taken at random in a field near Porterville, Cui and found that in a total of 62 bolls, 20 (or 32.3 per cent) were 4-locked. %1A greater difference in sea- -island cotton in the mean numbers of seeds in 3-locked and 4-locked bolls is indicated by data given by Harland (21, Table II, p. 152), which show that the means for 3-locked and 4-locked bolls were 17.4 and 23.2, respectively. FERTILIZATION IN PIMA GOTTON. 53 THE INFERIOR FERTILIZATION OF BAGGED FLOWERS. Bolls from flowers which have been inclosed in paper bags in order to prevent cross-pollination and which have not been pollinated by hand nearly always contain fewer seeds than bolls from open- pollinated flowers. For example, in 1915, the mean number of seeds er boll in 678 bolls from bagged flowers was’ found to be only 13.60.34, as compared with a mean of 160.12 in 530 bolls from open-pollinated flowers. In Table 31 are assembled the data from a number of experiments which afforded a close comparison of the relative fertilization of bagged and of open-pollinated flowers, both lots of flowers having opened during the same period and either on the same or on neighboring plants. TABLE 31.—Relative completeness of fertilization in bagged and in open- pollinated flowers of Pima cotton. Num- | Mean num- | Num- | Mean nuri- Year and treatment of flower. | ber of | ber ofseeds || Year and treatment of flower. | ber of | ber ofseeds bolls. per boll. |) | bolls. per boll. ; | Season of 1916: Season of 1920: Bpbed ta figses eke So oi -i5- 743 | 10,940.14 Basted: teed wseeeciet ses 80 | 10.740.36 Open pollinated.........- 707 | 15.34 .12 || Open pollinated.......... 95 | 14.24 .21 ——$ ——— |] | ——————— Difference ste sees cee eel ee 4.44 .18 Dierence rss baleen alma oe | 3.54,.42 Season of 1919: IBageéd we becca: } -9684'| 11.54-.13 Ea ble eee Sires niet 168 } 13.94 .23 Open pollinated.......... 360 | 15.94 .1L Open pollinated.....-.... 174 | 16.64 .25 ee ee |—____—. || Difference...-........-. Reames 4.44 .17 Miflerenceese kas. awe iste slosee cee 2.74 .34 | SSS SS —=——>=— || Season of 1921: LB ah edeg es | RR 62 | 16.54 .25 Bagged tack nae. Ba eees 129 | 15.44 .30 Open pollinated.......... 58 | 18.24 .22 Open pollinated. .-....... | 560 | 17.34 .09 Witterence ls seers secno|=.-52- 17+ .33 || Differencess=s teens Eien 1.94 .31 \ s | | The data in Table 31 indicate in every case very significant in- feriority of the bagged flowers in relative completeness of fertiliza- tion. In seeking an explanation of this difference the following factors are to be considered : (1) Exclusive self-pollination of the bagged flowers. (2) Special environment created by inclosure of the flowers in paper bags. (3) Pollination of only the lower half of the stigmatic surface in the bagged flowers. Evidence was given on a preceding page that in Pima cotton self- pollination as compared with cross-pollination does not result in an inferior degree of fertilization. That inclosure of the flowers is not an important factor is indicated by the results of an experiment in 1921. On the same Pima plants a number of flowers were bagged be- fore opening, and others were left unbagged. Neither lot was emas- culated, and both were pollinated during the morning of the day of anthesis with pollen from other plants of the same variety, the whole stigmatic surface having been thoroughly covered with pollen. Pres- ence or absence of the bags was therefore the only variable. The data given in Table 32 show that the bagged flowers were as well fertilized as those which were not inclosed. 54 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 32.—Fertilization of unemasculated Pima flowers of which the upper por- tion of the stigmas was thoroughly pollinated with pollen of the same variety, some of.the flowers having been inclosed in paper bags and others having been uninclosed. Percentage | Mean num- Treatment. cite of bolle ber of seeds * | matured. | per boll. BSP POD o cee chic ng Soe in Pah ee ce he onc ht hp aes =< Bee atone eee oe 170 | 88.341.7 | 17,240.16 Notibagged.: £20 .ccn2 22 SIE et A ee RU Al a es 170 | 89.441.6) 17.04 .19. DIME ECO sone eee eaters Eee ates rte ee eae eal oe ates 1.142.3 ~24 .25 Since the absence of cross-pollination and the environment created by inclosure in bags do not seem to be responsible for the inferior fertilization of the bagged flowers, the third variable, locus of pollen deposition, remains to be considered. Table 33 gives the data of several experiments in which the results of pollinating only the lower halves of the stigmas, as in the case when the flower is bagged and left to automatic self-deposition, are compared with the results of polli- nating the whole stigmatic surface. In all of these experiments the area of pollen deposition was the only variable, all flowers having been inclosed in bags but not emasculated, and the artificial pollina- tion of the upper portion of the stigmas having been done either with pollen from the anthers of the same flower (experiments of 1916, 1917, and 1920) or with pollen from another flower on the same plant (experiment. of 1921). Taste 33.—Relative completeness of fertilization of Pima flowers in which pollen was confined to the lower halves of the stigmas and of flowers which received pollen on the whole stigmatic surface. |Flow- Flow- Year and area pol | ers | ouniage | Netw num | Year and area pol-| ers |S eeiage | Dt ceeds : a tured. per boll. : cd. | tured. per boll. Season of 1916: | Season of 1920: Lower........-- 1,143 | 35.541.0| 10.840. 21 Lower. ....:.-.. 95 | 84.242.5) 10.740.36 — Whole......... 1,100 | 45.941.0| 12.54 .18 Winoles ioe. aees 97] 86.642.3 | 11.24 .32 Difference....|.....- 10.4+1.4 1.74 .28 | Difference....|...... 2,443.4 -o+ 48 Season of 1917: || Season of 1921: OWL. s:sceeese 78 | 90.0+2.3 | 16.74 .40 Lower..........| 137 | 94.24+1.4| 15.44 .30 Whole} .25...2 86 | 74.0+3.2 | 17.54 .39 | Wholes..t sites 176 | 90.441.5 |; 17.54 .17 Difference....'...... | 16.043.9 -84 .56 Difference....|...... 3.842.0 214 .34 The data in Table 33 show that there was in every case a higher mean number of seeds per boll from flowers of which the whole stigmatic surface was pollinated, although the differences were sig- nificant only in the experiments of 1916 and 1921. These data alone do not make it clear whether the inferior fertilization when pollen is confined to the lower half of the stigmas is due to the smaller size of the area pollinated or to less favorable conditions for pollen development in the basal region of the stigmas. Reference to Table 16 shows, however, that confining pollen to half of the stigmatic area when this was the apical half, did not result in diminished fertiliza- tion as indicated by the mean number of seeds per boll. It may be concluded, therefore, that the inferior fertilization of bagged flow- — FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 55 ers which receive pollen only on the lower half of the stigmas is due primarily to this region being relatively unfavorable to the germina- tion or development of the pollen. BOLL SHEDDING IN RELATION TO POLLINATION AND vs FERTILIZATION. A general discussion of the phenomenon of boll shedding would be out of place in this bulletin. The physiological aspects of the sub- ject have been treated by Balls (8, pp. 65-75), Lloyd (37 and 38), wing (17, pp. 21-37), and King (31, pp. 11-21). It may be well, however, to consider briefly such data as have been obtained at Sacaton, Ariz., concerning the relation between the shedding of bolls and fertilization. The observed percentages of boll shedding in Pima cotton at Sacaton, as recorded in Table 34, are in most cases much lower than have been reported by investigators of sea-island and upland cottons at other localities (20, p. 195; 17, p. 21; 40). In Pima cotton grown at Phoenix, Ariz., 40 miles distant from Sacaton, King (37, p. 19) recorded instances of bolls shed in 1919 ranging from 16.7 to 26.5 per cent. Taste 34.—Boll shedding from flowers of Pima cotton naturally pollinated in different years at Sacaton, Ariz. Flowers Flowers Fl f iets Fl failed t owers ailed to owers ailed to Year of experiment. recorded.| develop Year of experiment. recorded.| develop bolls (per bolls (per cent). f | cent). UY) MRR eae d Sean eae 200 1350321635 /191920 seas te eee Satis oe | 377 4,440.7 OIG Reet Am ee Ore eS Ao. 69 VOSO430% |) TOQPI SSE ee ae } 999 10.34 .6 GPE OE Sas oF? 4S ee eee 98 Sh0 1 25 A192 ieee SORT Se eS 14,931 25.14 .4 HO ee att | 99} 8,141.8 | \ | 1 Flowers tagged daily during the period from July 11 to September 15. It is unlikely that deficient pollination is a frequent cause of boll shedding in Pima cotton. Meade (40), working with upland varieties, found that “bolls failed to set unless at least 25 grains of pollen were applied to the stigmas; even with this number only one or two seeds matured in each lock.” The records for flowers of Pima cotton which have been bagged to prevent cross-pollination show that the quantity of self pollen deposited automatically upon the basal portion of the stigmas is sufficient to insure, as a rule, the re- tention and maturation of 80 to 90 per cent of the bolls. In flowers naturally open pollinated at Sacaton, additional large quantities of pollen are conveyed to the stigmas by insects. It is probable that only in rare instances is the number of pollen grains which reach the stigmas fewer than 10 times the number of ovules (Pl. VII). Even where insect pollination is deficient, as in the field at Phoenix where the experiment in artificial pollination was performed, the data given in Table 28 show that the additional pollen applied by hand to the stigmas increased the proportion of bolls retained and matured by only about 9 per cent, while increasing the mean number of seeds per boll by 21 per cent. Evidence also has been obtained that it is not requisite that many eT 5 RN SINGS ERY ne oe Bi OEE: [eae tk peer [een ae oy Jen ean Jy fy |r en NE ey eRe pane | 56 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, matured. Thus, in 1917, among 71 bolls which matured from a lot of bagged flowers, 8 contained only 2 seeds, 6 contained only 3 seeds, 3 contained only 4 seeds, and 5 contained only 5 seeds. Hence, in 17 bolls (or 24 per cent of the number which reached maturity) fewer than one-fourth of the mean number of ovules had been. fertilized. Counts were made of the number of seeds in 633 bolls which matured from bagged flowers in 1920, and of these 2 contained only 1 seed, 7 contained only 2 seeds, and 14 contained only 3 seeds. Few of the bolls which mature from flowers naturally open pollinated show fertilization of less than half of the average number of ovules, Of 447 such bolls in 1920 only 22 (or 4.9 per cent) contained fewer than 10 seeds. On the other hand, of 633 bolls which matured from bagged flowers during approximately the same period 201 (or 31.7 per cent) contained fewer than 10 seeds. It has been shown on preceding pages that the pollen of Pima cot- ton is highly viable and perfectly self-compatible. Evidence has been presented, also, that the number of pollen grains normally reaching the stigmas vastly exceeds the number of ovules and that fertilization of only a few of the ovules is necessary in order to in- sure retention and maturation of the boll. It may be concluded, therefore, that with this variety, under the conditions existing at Sacaton, deficient pollination and fertilization are not important factors in the shedding of bolls. INBREEDING IN RELATION TO FERTILITY. The effect upon cotton of continuous and strictly controlled self- fertilization appears to have been little investigated. Leake and Prasad (36, pp. 39-45), working in India with cottons of the Asiatic type, obtained indications that partial sterility, as expressed by the percentage of bolls retained, occurred in the first and later inbred generations and that this tendency could be overcome by sub- sequent cross-pollination. Different types apparently differed in their tendency to sterility. One type showed a marked tendency to imperfect development of the anthers in the second inbred genera- tion which, however, disappeared in the third generation. In one strain self-pollination with pollen from another flower on the same plant resulted in the retention of a much smaller percentage of bolls than did cross-pollination with pollen from a sister plant; but in another strain of the same type no such difference was observed. The numbers of flowers dealt with in these experiments were too small to afford conclusive results. A different conclusion was reached by Kottur (34), who also worked with the Asiatic type of cotton, in India. He found that sterile anthers, containing no pollen, are of common occurrence. In an unselected open-pollinated stock of the Kumpta variety, of which 500 flowers were examined, sterile anthers were found in all but 128, the proportion of empty anthers having been as high as 43 per cent of the total number in some of the flowers. Con- trolled self-fertilization during six successive generations did not increase this form of sterility. In fact, it is shown by Kottur’s data that in the continuously self-fertilized strain the proportion of the flowers having more than 10 sterile anthers was only 13.6 per cent, as compared with 35.9 per cent in the open-pollinated stock. Kottur also observed that the rate of boll shedding was lower and that the FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. iat percentage of ovules which failed ta) develop into seeds was no greater in the continuously self-fertilized than in the continuously open-pollinated population. Kottur states further that, continuous self-fertilization in the Asiatic cottons (Gossypium herbaceum and G. neglectum) and in American upland cotton (Gi. hirsutum) did not induce sterility. The effects of inbreeding in Pima cotton have been the subject of investigation at Sacaton, Ariz., the following criteria of fertility hay- ing been considered : Viability of the pollen. Number of ovules. Rate of flowering. Boll-shedding percentage. Size of the boll, Weight of seed cotton per boll. Number of seeds per boll. Weight of seeds. Viability of the seeds (germination percentage). Lint index (weight of fiber per 100 seeds). Comparison with random samples of the continuously open-polli- nated (hence, more or less cross- pollinated) stock has been used neces- sarily as the measure of fertility in the inbred populations, although it is realized that inbreeding may have been accompanied by segre- gation, plus or minus, in respect to some or all of these values. There was, however, no intentional selection in the development of the inbred families here dealt with. POLLEN VIABILITY OF AN INBRED POPULATION. A family resulting from strict self-fertilization during five suc- cessive generations was compared in 1919 with a continuously open- -pollinated stock in regard to the viability of the pollen as measured by the rate of ejection of the contents of the grains and by the percentage of the total number ejected in a 5 per cent solution of cane sugar (see p. 22). Flowers were collected at 11 a. m., one from each of five plants in each population, and flowers of the inbred and of the open-pollinated stock were alternated in making the tests. The results, as given in Table 35, show no difference in the average viability of the pollen. TABLE 35.—Viability of the pollen from plants of a family of Pima cotton inbred during five generations compared with that from pleats of a continuously open-pollinated stock of this variety. | Inbred family. tere tee Open-pollinated stock. $ | After immersion Afterimmersion Plant and flower. until ejection— S untilejection— | P | Esti- Esti- | as ana ted | usted | Ceased | election. | Ceased | election. | Began. | actively. Began. | actively. | | | ema | | " | Seconds. | Seconds. | Per cent.| Seconds. | Seconds. | Per cent. ING ERTS SS 2 a Ge Ree rrse koe ene na 70 170 95 60 170 | 95 BPO. eee ng VIEILLE AB I 65 110 100 60 170 | 100 Mees erent opechk yb lays. fe opens 70 180 | 100 70 135 | 95 Cah, Ce esses Se SIRS EAST Se Se eae $5 | 155 93 65 | 120 100 Dera Fenty saorrda se | 55 | 120 | 100 65 | 140 100 58 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It was observed that in three of the five flowers of the inbred population a few of the pollen grains were very small and did not eject their contents during the period of observation, which was ui ie two and one-half minutes. Only one of the five flowers of the open-pollinated stock had an appreciable number of abnormally small grains, although in this case the proportion of such grains was fully as great as in any of the flowers of the inbred family. Further observations were therefore made upon the occurrence of sterile pol- len grains in the inbred and in the continuously open-pollinated population. Examination of a number of flowers of the continuously open-pollinated stock showed that in most cases from 2 to 5 per cent of the pollen grains were very small and presumably sterile, 20 per cent of the pollen in one flower having been of this character. Counts made on pollen from five plants of each population, with the results given in Table 36, afforded no evidence of an increase in the proportion of sterile pollen grains having resulted from con- tinuous self-fertilization. TaBLe 36.—Flowers of a family of Pima cotton inbred during five generations compared with those of a continuously open-pollinated stock of this variety, showing the percentage of abnormally small and presumably sterile pollen grains. Inbred family. Open-pollinated stock. Plant and Flower. Se eee Per cent- Digested Percent- age of age of sterde* |————— | aca bverilo Total. Sterile. | 2iNS- | ota. | sterile, | Stains. NO en sae eters ones eee be wosee ? 0 0 26 1 3.8 NOs 25 ee een heh . eh ee vert Agee 56 ul 1.8 2) 0 0 IN O3 Oe tsiraae ac oe o becca oon wae tapctiotte | ? | 0 0 30 | 2) 6.7 INOS 4.263 CEL SOLES BS .3se ec 14 2 14.3 36 | 1 2.8 INO De tee Some cacao cea aueck conc oeane ? 0 25 | 3 12.0 1 The total number of grains in the field of the microscope was not determined if no abnormally small grains were present. It would be expected that if continued inbreeding had impaired the viability of the pollen, fertilization in the inbred strain would be more nearly complete when the flowers are cross-pollinated than when they are self-pollinated. The data given in Table 20 show, however, that in a family which had been inbred during seven successive gen- erations there was not a significant difference in the mean number of seeds per boll from the cross-pollinated and from the self-pollinated flowers and that a somewhat higher percentage of bolls matured from the self-pollinated than from the cross-pollinated flowers. NUMBER OF OVULES IN AN INBRED POPULATION. Counts were made in 1919 of the ovules in 20 ovaries of a family which had been strictly inbred by controlled self-fertilization during five generations and in 30 ovaries of a continuously open-pollinated stock, each ovary having been taken from a different plant. The. counts were made upon 3-celled ovaries and yielded the mean and extreme numbers given in Table 37. It is obvious that controlled FERTILIZATION IN PIMA COTTON. 59 self-fertilization during five successive generations, as compared with continuous open pollination, had resulted in no reduction of the number of ovules. TABLE 87.—Count of the ovules in the 3-celled ovaries of a family of Pima cotton inbred during five generations compared with those of a continuously open-pollinated stock of this variety. Stocks compared. Mean. /| Maximum.) Minimum, InbredidurinetiverseneratiOnS- 6... Jaci geanetinw cee ceccccicccleccinnas cis 21. 0+0, 33 | Br 14 4 15 Continuously open pollinated.........2.....-- 202. eee eee eee ee en eee 20.8+ .27 RATE OF FLOWERING, PERCENTAGE OF BOLL SHEDDING, SIZE OF BOLLS, AND NUMBER, WEIGHT, AND VIABILITY OF THE SEEDS IN AN INBRED POPULATION. A family which had resulted from controlled self-fertilization dur- ing seven successive generations was compared in 1921 with a random sample of the continuously open-pollinated commercial stock of the Pima variety, the two populations having been grown in adjacent rows. A record was kept for 88 days of the number of flowers open- ing daily on every plant of both populations, and from these data were compiled the means given in Table 38, which indicate that there was no significant difference in the potential productiveness of the two populations. TABLE 38.—Daily mean number of flowers per plant in a Pima family strictly inbred during seven generations compared with that in a random sample of the continuously open-pollinated stock of this variety. i Mean Number | number of of plants. | flowers per | Plant,daily Population. TEP RSLS os So I RS Vane ae eS pe 78 | 1.0140.02 84.974 .02 | VD SSAT EY GST a Ors ih I a a A SSN pa ae eee Gn | Wes ee caes | 04+. 08 The percentages of bolls shed, the mean numbers of seeds per ma- tured boll, the mean weights of seeds, and the germination percent- ages of the seeds were determined on 15 plants of each population, well-grown individuals which occupied opposite or nearly opposite positions in the two rows having been selected for comparison. Nat- urally pollinated flowers which had opened on the same days on both sets of plants furnished the material. This procedure elimi- nated sources of error which might have arisen from soil heterogeneity ov from differences in the weather during the period of development _ of the flowers and bolls. The data, as given in Table 39 (upper part), » show no significant differences between the two populations except in the mean weight of seeds, in which case the difference was in favor of the inbred population. 60 BULLETIN 1134, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 39.—Pima cotton strictly inbred during seven successive generations compared with a random sample of the continuously open-pollinated com- mercial stock of this variety. Mean x Mean Percentage Population Hleyrae s |? on bolle Peete weaht of af germina ; agged. seeds on of the shed. biti (grams). seeds.! be) tot Se Pe een alee Bas meen eo ie ee 296 | 11.841.3 | 17.240.12 | 13.640. 04 90.8+0.8 Openipollinated:..~ etd wios Sane eee dt 367 8.441.0 | 17.14 .12 | 13.44 .03 90.2+ .9 Difference. Coon EODeBOSe nae 2. 50 2. 40 2.35 2. 50 SWNCe DUDS MME tem nie cal tae ee ca weie es teaeecieeies td 14 . 05 05 05 Motalevisiblessewmenscssdsleeecce cae se 5. 26 5. 04 4.90 5. 10 iVASI DL OMM ee et nce sce see see cts .18 3.58 3.10 3,32 Total visible and invisible 5. 39 4. 46 4. 80 4.78 PICKERS AND CARDS.1 (a oa PROLAaSlOLC PEA ANAS Sots OSA eis co ciete wc ccelsietiome cicis coerce 6. 96 6. 49 6. 46 6. 51 Rat aleiriwaSilol Cmeye eine iss oa = rele mieicicin et eset ctleaskl ciel se emsincis - 98 3.11 .67 3.17 Motalavisibleranduinmvilsbles 222. cee see ee cee cee cece ss 7.94 6.38 Tells} 6. 34 1 Based upon net weight fed to bale-breaker. 2 Based upon net weight fed to cards. 2 Gain. Referring to Table 5 and comparing the percentages of waste obtained from the different types of bales, it is seen that there is practically no difference between the amount of visible waste dis- carded, the figures being: Per cent. TRAE LOMO SS Se eS aE at eer 6. 96 Standard or railroad compressed bale....................-.------ 6.49 non CemsiinyO alee teem tama ki UE ee ele lal Ase meat ele aes 6. 46 TROUT! [ONS sas a ey eA IES CG kes TNs SA a ee Lele ae aa os 6.51 MOISTURE CONDITIONS. Table 6 gives the average temperatures and relative humidities under which each type of bale was tested. TABLE 6, —Average temperatures and relative humidities during the testing of Rowden cotton of 1-inch staple. Type of bale. ...............- Flat. Standard. High density. Round. Relative Relative Relative ‘Relative Temper) humid- | {°™Pe™) humid- | T°™Pe™) humid- | Te™Pe) humid ature ity. ature. ity. ature. ity. ature. ity. STAGE. Oe Per cent SPE} Per cent Cod Per cent °F. |Per cent Wihenlopened eee ssesececees 67 49 71 50 71 53 70 42 Finisher picker.............. 76 51 73 54 72 41 74 61 Candee eee er Soo 73 58 73 61 71 58 74 59 Drawing frames: 53 grain Sliver............ 12 58 73 60 72 59 75 59 73 grain Sliver..........-- 74 59 74 61 72 60 74. 58 Roving frames: 4.00 hank fine............ 73 59 73 59 73 59 73 59 4.40 hank fine. .-......... 73 59 73 59 73 59 73 60 5.60 hank fine............ 73 59 72 59 73 59 73 60 7.23 hank fine. ........... 73 60 73 59 73 60 73 60 Spinningframe NGIShyareee see ee ese aes 79 73 74 73 79 73 81 71 D2ISVALIer ne ee st cose 77 72 75 71 77 72 73 72 PES yes SCs le a ate tea ee 73 70 75 71 73 70 72 69 SOIR ARM is sian sea oes 81 73 78 70 81 73 76 71 23243°—23—Bull. 11835-——2 10 BULLETIN 1135, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 7 gives the percentage of moisture regain of the cotton at the various stages of the manufacturing process. TABLE 7.—Percentage of moisture regain in the Rowden cotton at the different stages of the manufacturing process. onoerot bale. 65-24 sed eos e cee sah cate eee ack ances oe edeeee Flat. ee janes Round. SHES ENE) (ONE) (ST Mattie Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. Kromibalov: 2: se oe es ie eens Sete eee cae noeach eeeee 5. 76 5. 43 5. 63 4,42 Wrom.balo-breaken ves. 2.0 ese eeemata - eciateee eck cen ee eere 5. O4 5. 26 5. 55 4. 60 Finisher pickenlap =o) ccsese eee esac tan ae Sees Sener 5. 57 5.65 5. 26 5. 26 Finisher picker lap during carding. ..-...............-..------- 5.19 5. 57 4.90 5. 50 Gardislivensec S64 a- Net becca cat aeterine = con seecnebiecciseee semen 5. 32 5.57 4.95 5. 82 53 prain finisher (drawing -.2eses-.ccese one ee ees cet ee ccc amas 5. 65 * §.85 4.79 6.04 Ta grain tinisher( Gra wing. ics stessacews xs obese nenetices -wemoeee 5. 82 5. 87 5.45 5.79 Roving frames: 4.00 hank, fine...... Pee te smaeeioe ats on specie aeeceik eesaek 5.76 5. 81 5. 09 5. 54 4:4) hank: fines 2 os oe we on ae a's wee nee eene Semen es 6. 10 6.10 6. 43 6. 38 S60 anki see ce ose ale a cino |e eRe ee coe e eer 6. 43 6. 49 6.49 5. 76 Mazo DANK ANG ses! Cs Pee oes was ome eee ere en aoarameee 5. 93 6.15 5. 09 6.10 Spinning frame: BGSvaIM eee ie soe cos soe oon se en tee eae wees ceases 6. 49 5. 59 6.78 6.49 JINR EG ISS ar Sr Sens R EC eSAn Hee mn UR ee tise aaDeoncodencsenoe 7.35 7.18 7.70 7.06 OS VAT ee ee ee ree Be rane Ue ae eee ee ae 6. 66 6. 89 6. 84 5. 54 BOISKV ALI cate Sek ee ae ace a See ete Ieee a ee nena eta 6.72 6. 38 6. 72 6. 72 BREAKING STRENGTH OF YARNS. The cotton of each compression was spun into 16’s, 22’s, 28’s, and 36’s yarn with twists equal to 4.25, 4.50, and 4.75 times the square root of the number spun. The average breaking strengths of these yarns are shown in Table 8. TABLE 8.—Breaking strength, in pounds, per skein of 120 yards of yarn spun from Rowden cotton, 1 inch staple. 4 x Type of bale. New . Twist No. of yarn. Draper aaatie standard. Hh High Flat. |Standard. density. Round. Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 4,25 140. 8 141.3 141.9 132.4 Li} f Pee SR ie da oe ee 120322222 4. 50 133. 8 142.8 137.7 131.1 4.75 128.7 137.0 137.8 129.6 Average. . 134. 4 14). 4 139. 1 131.0 4,25 92.0 99. 4 94.9 87.3 22S SPIRE. eos se dctuwecteeceek eames: Siceaeee } 4. 50 92.7 97.5 94,1 89.3 4.75 89.9 | 94.9 95.7 87.3 Average. . 91.5 97.3 94.9 §8. 0 4, 25 68. 0 73.0 70. 3 63.3 ya fase bee Sy Se Dene ee Oe OPE 69a 4. 50 67.4 72.9 71.3 64.4 4.75 65. 7 70.8 68. 0 63.7 Average... 67.0 72. 2 69.9 63.8 | 4, 25 48. 3 51.0| 50.6 44.2 BES oe tel A. ete he es ie St 4. 50 47.6 50. 9 50. 5 46.2 4.75 47.0 50. 7 49.5 45.7 Average. .| 47.6 50.9 50. 2 45. 4 SPINNING TESTS OF COTTON. 1] Referring to Table 8 and comparing the breaking strength of the yarn spun from the cotton of the different types of bales, it is seen that the strongest results were obtained from the standard bale, followed in order by the high density bale, flat bale, and round bale. All the 16’s and 22’s yarn broke stronger than the new Draper standard. All the 28’s yarn, with the exception of that spun from the round bale, broke practically as strong as the standard strength for this number. The 36’s yarn spun from all the types of bales was weaker than the standard ah for this number. On an average, the yarns spun from the round bale were about 7 per cent weaker than the yarns spun from the other types. IRREGULARITY OF YARNS. The following figures give the irregularity of the sizings and break- ing strengths of the yarns from the different types of bales: Sizing Break (per cent). (per cent). letvtlemer eet wise fs SRE Aer ae es eae 1. 98 4.15 Standard or railroad compressed bale...........------- 1. 93 3. 87 Eishedensity bales: sees kes ol iionas Shei carte tas se 1. 91 3. 97 1 ROH | OPIS Ne Maco MS ie la a eee Arne a ant 2.22 4. 66 These figures indicate that there is practically no difference in the irregularity of the sizings or strengths of the yarn spun from the first three types of bales but the yarn from the round bale was shghtly more uneven. The results of the calculations of the irregularity of the yarns are verified by tests on the Moscrop single-strand tester. Figure 2 is a photograph of a chart made by this tester when _break- ing 22’s yarn spun from the Rowden cotton compressed to different densities. Sin Roe Smoere Wo Botan x9 — SrnmeRd No. CREESE ROMS OMOU OOM pag OO eo cae eee en a ys tai | Fa 2 Saas | fen eifea [ea] GEaaan sei fa a = Py UO OOOO Bag OO OTIC | SOUS DOSER TEES) | BERR Sea eSaeRwee 2 = ah taa| 2 TT a Lo Clee Foe a CEEOL HOSQoaae ER BBSReee ol 20 os peer be a Pepe Tt hel ee | RELDUPESRBaw seeeeeee fas) fea] i{-t ieese + eae rH T - BEER EERE EE ECE PP « Eee Fic. 2.—Irregularity of 22’s yarn spun from Rowden 1’ cotton compressed to different densities. Each dot of figure 2 represents the breaking strength of a single strand of yarn 12 inches long. The greater the distance these dots are from a horizontal line, the more irregular the yarn. Plate IV, Figure 2, is from a photograph of 22’s yarn spun from the Rowden cotton which shows practically no difference in the quality of the yarn spun from the different types of bales. : : 12 BULLETIN 1135, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MANUFACTURING PROPERTIES. There was no noticeable difference in running the rectangular bales. A mill attempting to run round bales continuously must use special opening equipment. . SUMMARY OF TESTS. The results of this test show that compressing cotton does not affect the amount of waste discarded in the manufacturing process. On an average, the yarn spun from the round bale was about 7 per cent weaker than that spun from the other types of bales. SPINNING TESTS OF DELTA COTTON OF 1 1-8 INCH STAPLE. The Delta cotton was compressed into three types of bales: A flat bale, a standard or railroad compressed bale, and a high-density bale. PERCENTAGE OF WASTE. Table 9 gives the perconviee of visible, invisible, and total waste obtained from the different types of bales. TasLE 9.—Percentage of waste from Delta cotton of 14 inch staple; grade, Middling. : , High Type Ofibalet aso soe sc Sats eee a oe ee ee oe ceo on pee ope Soe aecees see Flat. |Standard. density. PICKER WASTE. Q Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. @pener-breakermiotes and: fiyen ce gee csee serie Seer s eeecne em aeetsece sees 1.00 0.95 0. 86 Intermediate; motes and flys. : 22% sees su ees eee et Pe ee .93 i ty 1.16 inishermotesiand. flys iee e5 oe } thy { , ¥:- be EO ; 5 ‘ 3 plevr' ~ “Coryell ats. SA. att r int Lt oo is i A FF» - j 5 3 aay; ET iM eye) i . ‘* : he we. 1 4 AM - Washington, D. C. | v May 12, 1923 KILN DRYING HANDBOOK. By Roir THELEN, In Charge, Section of Timber Physics, Forest Products Labo- ratory, Forest Service. CONTENTS. Page. Page. HATO O So mre eet eee nee Fe ey alt Drying and drying stresses________ 23 Moisture in wood _--_____________ ft Drying, schedules: «22252 Sst es 31 General principles of drying wood__ 5 IG nye Ly pests ies es Ba To ee 45 Cate ber Kalmneetees ee oe 6 Piling Jumber for kiln drying______ 53 HUMICiby nine the) kiln S208 eeu 14 Details of kiln operation__________ 56 Air circulation in the kiln_________ 20 Ain {seasoning WSF te) Saeed SE ee 63 PURPOSE. The principal purpose of this bulletin is to present to the dry-kiln operator, in condensed and convenient form, the fundamental facts about the drying of wood which he must know in order to get the most satisfactory results with his kiln. The major portion of the bulletin deals with the kiln drying of lumber, but there are also in- cluded specific suggestions concerning the drying of other forms of wood. The general information is applicable to all kinds of drying. : No attempt has been made to present detaiied data in substantia- tion of the information given. The conclusions are for the most part based on extensive investigations and experiments by the For- est Products Laboratory of the Forest Service, Department of Agri- culture, Madison, Wis., tested out in commercial practice. MOISTURE IN WOOD. The purpose of drying or seasoning wood is to remove a certain amount of the moisture which is naturally present in it, and which if allowed to remain would interfere with its use for most construc- tion purposes. The exact amount of moisture to be removed de- _Norr.—Acknowledgement is made by the author to the members of the Section of Timber Physics, both past and present, who are largely responsible for the development of the practical technique of kiln drying described in this bulletin. 23241°—23 1 i 2 BULLETIN 1136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, pends upon the quantity present and the purpose for which the wood is to be used. Rarely, except for test pieces, is if necessary or desirable to remove all the moisture, producing an oven-dry or bone-dry condition. Moisture in wood is commonly called sap. There is no uni- versally accepted definition of this word “sap,” and its use causes much confusion. The moisture, or sap, in both sapwood and heartwood consists almost entirely of water. It does contain, however, small percentages of organic and mineral matter. In the sapwood these substances are principally sugars of various kinds, and in the heartwood they include tannins, coloring matter, and various other chemicals. For the purposes of this bulletin, sap will be considered to be water only. WP ater occurs in wood in two distinct forms, spoken of as “ free” water and “imbibed” water. The free water exists in the ceil cavities and the imbibed water in the cell walls. Imagine each cell of the wood to be a small bucket of some porous or absorbent material. If this bucket is filled with water, a certain amount will be absorbed by the sides and bottom, in addition to the “ pail- ful” inside the bucket. This pailful is free water, that absorbed by the walls is imbibed water, and the sum of the two represents all the water the bucket, or the cell, can hold. A portion or all of the free water can be removed from the cell without changing the amount of imbibed water in the walls; but when the bucket is empty further drying removes water from the walls themselves and they begin to dry out. This point at which the bucket becomes empty is called the “fiber-saturation point.” It has a very im- portant bearing upon the process of drying and will be discussed more fully later. In most living trees there is some free water in both heartwood and sapwood. The amount varies considerably depending on a num- ber of factors. Thus, sapwood almost always contains more mois- ture than heartwood. The butt may contain much more than the top, as is evidenced by the sinker stock of redwood and sugar pine. The season of year in which the trees are felled may have some influ- ence upon the moisture in the sapwood, but this influence is not very important. There are a number of instances on record in which there was more mofsture present in the sapwood in winter than in summer. ‘The common conception is that the reverse is true. Species and locality of growth have an important bearing upon the amount of moisture im the living tree. Spectes growing in swampy regions are apt to contain much more moisture and to be harder to dry than similar upland species. The oaks are an excellent illustration of this fact. On the other hand, certain species contain comparatively large amounts of water, even though growing under reasonably dry conditions. All of these variations must be taken into consideration in the drafting of drying schedules and in the actual drying operation. MOISTURE DETERMINATION. To dry stock successfully and to know when it has reached the proper dryness, it is essential that the operator be able to determine the amount of moisture in wood at any time. There are several KILN DRYING HANDBOOK, 3 nethods by which the moisture content of wood may be determined, mit the following is the one commonly used for moisture determina- ions on lumber. Crosscut the board or stock at least 2 feet from one end, to avoid he effect of end drying, and then again about three-fourths inch rom the first cut, thus securing a section as wide and thick as the riginal board and three-fourths inch long with the grain. Re- nove all loose splinters from the section and weigh it immediately on sensitive scale. Record the weight, called “original weicht.” lace the section in a drying oven kept at a temperature of about 12° F., leaving it there until it no longer loses weight. This re- uires from 12 to 24 hours, sometimes longer. Leaving the sec- ions in the oven longer than the required time produces an ap- reciable error in the result. Remove the section from the oven nd again weigh it. This will be the “oven-dry” weight, the ac- ual weight of the wood. The difference between the original and ven-dry weights is the weight of water originally in the section, nd the moisture percentage is readily calculated. Divide the difference between the two weights by the oven-dry yveight, and to reduce to per cent multiply by 100. The formula is: Original weight—oven-dry weight oven-dry weight Thus, if the green weight is 180 and the oven-dry weight 150, a x 100=moisture content in per cent. Sy lifference of 30, the moisture percentage will be 27x 100=20 per ent. The moisture content so determined is based on the oven-dry veight of the wood. It is, however, possible to base it upon the riginal weight. This system is occasionally used for moisture de- erminations by those who are accustomed to use it for other pur- oses. Its use is not recommended for wood sections, but it is occa- ionally necessary to convert moistures from one system to the other. The calculating and conversion formulas are given. foisture content based on original original weight—oven-dry weight weight, in per cent ay original weight In this system the original weight equals 100 per cent, whereas in he other the oven-dry weight equals 100 per cent. To convert moistures from one system to the other, use the follow- ng formula: x 100. moisture based on original weight I1—moisture based on original weight Moisture based on oven-dry weight= BALANCES. Any system of weights may be used, but the metric system is more onvenient than the others and is preferred for this reason. The init of this system is the gram, and weights are expressed as grams nd decimal fractions thereof. The choice of balance is a matter of personal preference and of irst cost. For general use the balance should have a capacity of kilogram (1,000 grams) and be sensitive to 0.1 gram. These re- fuirements are met by the ordinary analytical type of balance in vhich the two pans are suspended from an overhead beam. Other 4 BULLETIN 1136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, types are the Harvard trip, which has the beam located under the pans and is provided with a scale beam and rider sensitive to 0.1 gram, and with a 10-gram capacity; the torsion balance, with beams below the pans; and the multiple-beam balance, with only one pan suspended from the beam, which is provided with sliding weights. DRYING OVENS. Several makes of drying ovens can be bought. All of these are electrically heated and provided with thermostatic control, which keeps the temperature accurately at the desired point. Steam- heated ovens are convenient and free from trouble and will be found excellent where high-pressure steam is continuously available. Ovens of this kind are usually homemade. The walls and doors can be of galvanized iron, made hollow with a 14-inch space filled with mineral wool, and the heating element can be conveniently made of 1-inch or 1}-inch pipe. Ventilators should be fitted to the top, and provision made under the steam pipes for the entrance of fresh air. The temperature is usually regulated by means of a reducing valve on the steam line and dampers on the ventilators. For each cubic foot of volume above the heating coils in the oven there should be at least 14 square feet of heating surface and six square inches of ventilator area. Shelves should be provided for the moisture sections. Plate I illustrates one of the steam drying ovens used by the Forest Products Laboratory. . There are available various kinds of hot plates used in place of ovens for drying out moisture sections. It is customary to use very thin sections with these hot plates and to leave them on only a short time—15 to 45 minutes. These hot plates fill a need in that they are cheap and used by those who do not care to buy a regular oven, and in the hands of a skillful operator can be made to yield good results. They can not be recommended except as makeshifts. It is very helpful, except in the simplest kinds of drying, to know how the moisture is distributed throughout the cross section of the board or stick, and for this purpose “moisture distributions” are made. The moisture section is cut in the usual manner, but instead of weighing it as a whole, it is cut or split so as to separate the core or center from the shell or outside, and separate moisture determina- tions are made on the core and shell. The latter will usually be in two or four pieces, which can be most conveniently weighed as a single unit. For thick stock it may be desirable to divide the sec- tions into three units, a shell, an intermediate zone, and the core. The procedure is precisely the same as before, the pieces of the inter- mediate zone being weighed as a unit just as are those of the shell. To secure satisfactory results, these “moisture distributions” must be made accurately, and an analytical or torsion balance sensitive to 0.01 gram should be used. The capacity of this balance need not be over 100 grams. A larger balance should also be available for the heavier work of weighing regular moisture sections. Figure 1 illustrates the method of cutting the moisture and dis- tribution sections. While it is the usual practice to cut a full section and a distribution section whenever a distribution test is to be made, it is not absolutely necessary, since the average moisture content may PLATE I griculture. isGyUreS Dept. of /A Bul. “SNOILOAS N3dO0 SHL NI N3RS 3G NVO STIOO YNILVAH AHL AO NOILYOd W ONV ‘SSHATSHS ‘YSALSWOWYAH_L SHEL “SNOILOSS SYNILSIOI) ONIAYG YOS AYNOLVHYOaV] SLONGOYd LSAYO4 AHL LV GASM NAAO WVaLS PLATE II. i ee ER A Fic. 1.—|HEATER UNIT FOR EXTERNAL BLOWER. Fic. 2.—Two-PEN EXTENSION TUBE RECORDING THERMOME- TER SECTIONED AND WITH CHART REMOVED. The bulbs B are connected to the instrument through the armored tubing T entering at the top of the case. The pens P and pen arms are slightly to the left of the center. KILN DRYING HANDBOOK. 5 be secured with reasonable accuracy from the distribution section alone by assuming the original weights of all the pieces to be the original weight of the section, and similarly with the dry weight. The entire calculation will be as follows: Shell. Core. Section. Original weight —60 Original weight =100 Original weight =160 Oven-dry weight=50 Oven-dry weight= 80 Oven-dry weight=130 Moi ___ 10100 Moist __ 20100 vee __ 80100 ] oisture=~ = 5 Moisture=~“99 Moisture=~“7a9 _ =20 per cent =25 per cent = 23.1 per cent GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DRYING WOOD. The drying of wood is a very complex process, concerning many phases of which we are still uninformed. However, it is not essential that the operator understand all of the details of the movement of a a MOISTURE I. he SECTION SHELL ANDO CORE SHELL, COPE, AND QWASTTHBYTION SECTION SNVTERMEDIATE ZONE LYISTTAGUTION SECTION Fig. 1.—Method of cutting sections from board or plank for making moisture distribution determinations. the moisture through the wood, and ail of the attendant phenomena. Let him take it for granted, for the time being, that the moisture tends to distribute itself evenly through the wood, moving from the more moist regions to the drier ones. This movement of moisture within the wood is affected by three controllable external factors—heat, humidity, and circulation. A constant application of these factors in proper proportion is essen- tial to the successful drying of lumber to the moisture content re- quired for a specific use. The regulation of the heat, humidity, and proulation is, in fact, the main problem in the successful operation of kilns. 6 BULLETIN 1136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HEAT IN THE KILN. Heat is used in a kiln to produce rapid evaporation and to hasten the transfusion of moisture from the interior to the surface of the wood. The correct temperature to use is determined by the char- acter of the wood and varies widely with different kinds of stock. Commercial kiln temperatures range from 100° to 250° F. The use of temperatures above that of the surrounding atmosphere introduces a problem in the heating of buildings, and imposes an added burden upon the heating system, namely, to keep the kiln building hot and to replace the heat lost through the walls of the kiln. The higher the kiln temperature, the greater will be these heat losses. The amount of heat actually used in the evaporation of the moisture is only a small part of the total heat supphed; it is seldom over 40 per cent and frequently as low as 5 per cent, depending upon the kind of drying being done. SOURCES OF HEAT. Many methods have been used to heat kilns, and although most of them are obsolete or impractical, brief mention will be made of the principal ones. Direct furnace heat.—Smoke and other products of combustion are led direct from an ordinary furnace into the kiln, from which they are exhausted by chimney or other suitable means. Kilns of this type are known as “smoke kilns.” At one time it was thought that lumber dried in them was superior to steam-dried stock, but their use has been largely abandoned. Indirect furnace heat—As in an ordinary hot-air furnace, the air passes around the fire pot and radiators on its way to the kiln, and the products of combustion pass directly up the chimney instead of through the kiln. Gas.—Oceasionally natural or artificial gas is used to heat small dry kilns, the burners being arranged much as in an ordinary house- hold gas oven. Electricity —Electric heat can be used in small kilns, although the cost of current is prohibitive, except possibly for experimental units. Hot water.—Hot-water heat can readily be adapted to the heating of kilns which do not demand too high a temperature. A suitable hot-water supply would rarely be available, however, in the absence of steam, Steam.—At present steam is almost universally used for heating dry kilns of all types, and a knowledge of its use is essential to intelligent kiln operation. It may be either high pressure, above 10 pounds per square inch, or low pressure, below 10 pounds. High- pressure steam is almost invariably live steam—that is, steam direct from the boilers; low-pressure steam is frequently exhaust steam, or that which has passed through engine, pump, or turbine on its way from the boilers to the kilns. High-pressure steam is much drier, as a rule, than low-pressure steam, principally because exhaust steam generally carries with it much water condensed in its passage through the engine or other unit in which it has done work. As the steam circulates through the kiln radiators the kiln air is heated and the contained lumber is dried accordingly. * KILN DRYING HANDBOOK, 7 PIPE COILS AND RADIATORS. The form, construction, and arrangement of the kiln radiators is of importance. Those constructed of pipe coils are in most common use. Pipe coils are made of ordinary merchant pipe, extra heavy pipe of various kinds, and wrought-iron pipe, the last being par- ticularly suitable for severe drying schedules. Among the advan- tages of pipe-coil radiators are low first cost, ease of manufacture and installation, ready adaptability to a great range of shapes and sizes, and ease of repair by the shop mechanic or millwright. There are several essentials which a good pipe coil must possess: First, it must be of such size and shape and so located that it can properly heat the air in the kiln; second, it must be mechanically strong and durable and provided with means for permitting the expansion and contraction of the individual pipes in the coil; third, it must pro- vide for the ready escape of air and water of condensation from the entire system ; fourth, it must provide for adjustment in the amount of heating surface to be used by cutting certain pipes in or out. As it is difficult to combine all these essentials in the highest degree in any one type of coil, different ones have been found best adapted for various special conditions. A large portion of all pipe coils used for dry-kiln heating are located in the kiln proper, between or under the rails. These fall into two general classes, known as header and return-bend coils. In the former, a number of pipes spring from the same supply pipe or header and return to a similar drip pipe or header, usually but not always, located at the other end of the kin. In the return-bend type, however, the pipes of each group are connected end to end by means of return bends or double-elbow fittings; steam enters at the front of the first or top pipe, and condensation, is removed from the end of the last or bottom pipe. Figure 2 illustrates various types of header and return-bend coils. PLAIN HEADER COIL. The action of the two types of coils is quite different, especially when operated with a thermostat. When steam is turned on ina plain header coil with a header at each end of the kiln that end of the kiln nearest the supply header will heat up first; the other end will not heat until the front end has become hot and ali the air has been exhausted from the coil. This uneven heating takes place each time the thermostat opens. If the heating surface is unduly large, as it may be when low temperatures are used, the thermostat will operate often, and there will be a marked difference in temperature between the two ends of the kiln. Another characteristic of the header system is that the large heating surface of the headers themselves causes an uneven distribution of heat by causing a “hot spot” at each header. RETURN-BEND COIL. In the return-bend type the top pipes in each group become hot first, since the steam must pass through them before reaching the ‘lower ones. Each pipe runs the full length of the kiln, and heating will be practically uniform from end to end. The return-bend type also has disadvantages, among which are the first cost and the amount 8 BULLETIN 11386, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DAD wer her ho) aw FETURN BEND COLL HEADEP? Coll. VATICAL PETURN BEND HEADER COlL GLIUAN BEND /IEADEL? COlL Fic. 2.—Pipe coils used for heating dry kilns. These are designed to provide for the expansion and contraction of the individual pipes and for the free flow of the con- panned pipam to the drain end, The wall coil may also be used as a horizontal coil, called ““Z”’ coil. Bul, 1136, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. |.—A PISTON TYPE OF BALANCED REDUCING VALVE ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO SERVICE IN WHICH THE FLOW OF STEAM IS CONTINUOUS. The low-pressure steam acts on the piston P in the cylinder and tends to close the valve V. Loose weights hung on the horizontal lever counteract this tendency. The dashpot D steadies the motion of the piston and valve, preventing bouncing. Fig. 2.—A REDUCING VALVE USED FOR A WIDE RANGE OF PRESSURES. The reduced pressure operates the diaphragm A under the main adjusting spring B, thus opening and closing a small pilot valve C concealed in the plug under the diaphragm. The pilot valve controls the admission of high-pressure steam to the space D between the two pistons # in the bottom of the body; this steam forces the pistons # up and so opens the main valve F. When the pilot valve closes, the high-pressure steam on the main valve F’, the low-pressure steam on the larger piston, and the valve spring all act to close the main valve. Bul. 1136, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Bare = A pe here I ee oe : & ' es t ee ‘ 4 A REDUCING VALVE WITH A METAL BELLOWS (A) AND AN ADJUSTING SPRING IN PLACE OF RUBBER DIAPHRAGM AND WEIGHTS. THE LOW-PRESSURE STEAM ENTERS THE BELLOWS AT THE TOP. THE DESIRED PRESSURE IS SECURED BY TURNING THE ADJUSTING NuT (B). x KILN DRYING HANDBOOK, 9 of headroom which the vertical arrangement of the groups of pipe demands. This headroom must be sufficient not only for the pipes and the return bends, but also for at least 0.1 inch of the downward pitch per foot from the supply to the discharge end of each group. This pitch causes adjacent pipes to form a V with each other, and the headroom required for the pipes increases rapidly with the length of the kiln. For short kilns requiring accurate temperature control and even heat distribution the return-bend coil is specially adapted. RETURN-BEND HEADER COIL. Various modifications of the two types have been introduced, re- taining the advantages of both and eliminating the disadvantages. Among these are the return-bend header coil, with horizontal headers and two or more layers of pipe connected with return bends; and the vertical header coil, with both headers at one end of the kiln and return bends or double elbows with a short run of pipe at the other end. These compromise types have merit and will operate advan- tageously under conditions to which they are adapted. WALL COILS. Several types of kiln use pipe-eoil radiators on the side walls. These radiators do not need to differ materially from those located under the lumber, and the great amount of headroom available makes it a simple matter to get rid of the water of condensatien from almost any type of coil. It also permits the use of return-bend coils in long kilns without the sacrifice of the pitch required for proper drainage. Cast-iron radiators of various kinds have recently been introduced for use in dry kilns. They can be had in a wide range of sizes and shapes adapted to practically any space or heating requirement. This type of radiation is higher in first cost than some other types, but great durability is claimed for it on account of the resistance of cast iron to rust. Blower kilns of several types have the heating units located outside of the kiln as shown in Plate II, Figure 1. These units are usually of the standard types used in blower systems for heating buildings. Practically all of these consist of compactly arranged groups of pipes or pipe coils made up into cast headers, which form the base of the heater. Sometimes special forms of cast-iron radiators are used. It is good practice to equip the heater with valves, so that various por- tions of it may be used as desired. Such heaters give little trouble, since their design permits unusually easy removal of air and water and the short pipes are free from difficulties caused by uneven expan- sion and contraction. In addition to the heating equipment described, some kilns are equipped with ceiling coils. These usually consist of a few runs of pipe spaced a foot or more apart and hung a few inches below the ceiling. They are connected independently and are used most or all of the time. Their function is to replace the heat lost through the ceiling and so prevent the latter from acting as a condenser. During cold weather especiaily, and when high humidities are used, the ceiling is likely to accumulate a great deal of condensation, which ‘drips down upon the lumber and prevents humidity control. 10 BULLETIN 1136, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CONTROL OF KILN TEMPERATURE. The proper measurement of the temperature in the kiln is essential to proper.control and deserves much more time and attention than it usually receives. Temperature-measuring instruments or thermom- eters may be grouped in two classes, indicators and recorders. Indi- cating glass-stem thermometers for kiln work are almost invariably of the mercury-filled type, though sometimes alcohol-filled ones are used, INDICATING THERMOMETERS. There are many kinds of mercury thermometers available, and care must be used to select reliable instruments. The very cheap ones, with separate scales stamped on metal and attached to the case, are not accurate enough for kiln work and should be avoided. | BAFFLE ak Oe Fag : 1D | bed causa RO See ss : STLAM JET Fic. 7.—Cross section of ventilated compartment kiln. and the fresh air is usually brought in at the bottom and distributed throughout the en of the kiln by means of ducts under the lum- ber. Ventilating flues are usually provided along the length of the kiln on both sides, and outlets to these made at various heights and in various manners, in accordance with the ideas of the individual manufacturer. The entire possible range of locations for these out- lets is represented in commercial practice, at least one manufacturer < * i KILN DRYING HANDBOOK. 49 lrawing the air from under the lumber on the floor of the kiln, and mother having the vents located in the roof. Almost as wide a range s to be found in the location of the inlet openings in the kiln; al- hough the air may be brought into the kiln in ducts running along he floor, several kiln designers carry it up in risers at various points long the length of the kiln and deliver it at convenient heights above he rails. While it is usual to provide considerable outlet flue area, here is a wide difference in the amount of inlet area. One maker orovides none at all, another allows about a square foot for a kiln (0 feet long, and a third insists upon at least 4 or 5 square feet for ) similar kiln only 40 feet long. The cross circulation in most ventilated compartment kilns depends argely on the draft of the chimneys or vents. It may be assisted by team jets placed in air intakes or outlets, and even by the steam used n the kiln for humidification. If the circulation caused by the cool- ng of the air as moisture is evaporated from the wood can be made o augment the draft of the chimneys, the maximum circulation and he most satisfactory drying will be secured. Figure 7 shows the reneral construction of a ventilated compartment kiln. This figure S a composite representing no particular make of dry kiln. While t is not offered as a scale drawing for an ideal kiln, very good results ‘an be obtained from kilns built upon the principles illustrated. The principles of the kiln can best be understood by following the rrows which indicate the air flow. The air enters through the inlet Juct, which has suitable openings along its length. The steam jet ocated in the inlet duct where it enters the kiln increases the rate of? Jow. The air from the duct passes over the heating coils and into he chimney or fiue in the center of the lumber pile, thence outward und downward. Some is exhausted through the flue outlets and some returns past the steam-spray line and the baffles to the heating coils ind around again. The downward-pointing steam sprays are always used for steaming and high-humidity treatments, and may be used co assist the steam jet or to act in its place during the drying period. Vhe baffles prevent the air from rising in any passages except the chimney, thus assisting materially in producing and maintaining the lesired air flow. They also prevent the steam from spraying against che lumber or the heating pipes. The floor boards under the lumber pile protect the lower layers from direct radiation and pyevent the short-circuiting of the air through them. — WATER SPRAY AND CONDENSER KILNS. The water-spray kiln was invented and developed at the Forest Products Laboratory. As ordinarily designed it embodies the prin- ciples of the condenser kiln, and the two may be described together. Figure 8 is a cross section of a typical water-spray kiln. The cir- culation is similar to that in Figure 7, although there are no intakes or outlets. The bafiles at the bottom of the spray chambers prevent spray or mist from passing along with the air and thus increasing the humidity beyond the desired poimt. The condensers and the water sprays are located close together, and both serve to regulate the humidity and increase the circulation. The sprays and con- densers are usually used for high and low humidity, respectively. When the sprays are in use the air is cooled to the dew point each 23241 °—23——_+4 50 BULLETIN 1136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF. AGRICULTURE. time it passes through the circuit; but with the condensers no attempt is made to do this, and condenser water just sufficient to keep the humidity down to the desired point is used. A kiln designed for the use of condensers only, need have neither sprays nor bailies, and the height of the condensers may be varied to meet individual require- ments. Water-spray and condenser kilns require a supply of cold fl pf ZN EO BEA ES SS a | a | | | PET iT Tf ft Tf ba $a a a Be 2% CS | | es | | OS | aes | a | | | Pe eS 000000000000 CONGENSE?? COLL CONDEWSLE/? COLL. 000000000000 ‘. STLAM JET LINE fo) hs ge ce | y A is Beall os Weed nas a \ oe “ | Tek | + le 0, HEATING COIS 5° “Ay Qf: Om ° \o° Poh ie Ri aie) ® |x “ “al Qe Ger 405 = Rf * S | Fic, 8.—Cross section of water-spray compartment kiln, water in addition to the steam or other source of heat. In the con- denser kiln the water is ordinarily run out as waste after passing through the coils, but in the water-spray kiln it is usually returned from the spray chambers and recirculated by means of pumps, enough cold water being added to bring the temperature down to the desired point. The humidity in the water-spray kiln, when using the sprays, is controlled by regulating the water temperature; and _ KILN DRYING HANDBOOK. 51 since the air leaving the sprays and passing through the bafiles is at its dew point, a recording thermometer is usally placed in the bafiles. This thermometer shows the dew point rather than the wet-bulb temperature, and for convenient use in water-spray kilns, the drying schedules should be modified to show the dew-point temperature ag well as the wet-bulb temperature. (— LH I\CAMVAS CURTAIN CANVAS CURTAIN | fh ERS PUMA EIR A ERT BB 5 7! DN | || SS | EEC | EET CRS SR Mt Gia tent waa gedit ds eo i a. Ie geen Cee a ie as Fae a tL. I t Tt LL i ess a EE | | ae | | | ZC CE | | | | | 1S | | | A 200 a 1 i. i | | | | | | F= 18 |S ee ae a ees foes | | | sa ee ST i Re Di jee | | a | iss 7s! ne a a ee M1 lt Td FS 4 eas ACES se gee | BAL SER BE | | | aS ae = BORSA ASSP ESTES LTURN DUCT SST: FETURN ODUCT} SSS YD ee aE See EATER 8 yo Fig. 9.—Cross section of blower compartment kiln. BLOWER KILNS. _ Hans or blowers are used in several types of kilns for forcing the circulation. Blower kilns for drying lumber are, almost without ex- ception, of the recirculating compartment type, and those in commer- cial use are mostly of the external-blower type. Figure 9 is a dia- grammatical cross section of a blower kiln and illustrates the path of 52 BULLETIN 1136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the air through the system. The blower is usually placed outside the kiln in an operating room at one end, discharging and returning through ducts running the full length of the kiln. ‘The heating units may be in a box located at the blower, or they may be arranged in almost any desired form in the kiln proper. Humidity may be in- creased by means of a steam jet located in the return duct and de- creased by opening a fresh-air intake also in the return duct. One manufacturer prefers to decrease the humidity in his blower kilns by using canvas curtains to form the outer walis of the fiues. Be- tween these curtains and the side walls of the kiln are ventilated pas- sages about a foot wide. Moisture transfuses through the curtains from the inside out, and is carried away on the ventilating current of air. This air may be drawn from the operating room and exhausted through a chimney. The rate of circulation in blower kilns may be increased indefi- nitely, but beyond a certain point it is difficult to maintain unformity. A few forced-circulation kilns in which the circulation is produced by fans located in the kiln itself have been used for the drying of lumber and veneer; and several such types of kilns are being de- veloped at the Forest Products Laboratory. Jn one of these the fans are all mcunted on a single shaft running lengthwise of the kiln and driven by a motor located outside. Office fans and other self-con- tained motor-driven fans have also been used with considerable suc- cess. ‘There are several points of special interest in this type of forced circulation, of which ease of installation and reversal of cir- culation are foremost. Periodical reversal of the circulation pro- duces faster and more uniform drying. Humidity in these kilns may be controlled by any one of several methods, but usually steam alone is sufficient, as leakage keeps the humidity sufficiently low. Figure 10 is a diagrammatical cross section of an internal-fan kiln of the compartment type, arranged for flat-end piling. The double- pointed arrows illustrate the path of the air through the lumber; the direction of air travel may be reversed at will by reversing the direction of rotation of the fan shaft. This shaft extends the length of the kiln and has fans mounted upon it at intervals of about 7 feet. These fans are so housed that when the direction of rotation is such that the air movement is upward through the central flue and downward along the side walls, the air enters the fans through suit- able openings in the side walls of the housings and is deflected upward after passing through the fans. The double distributors serve to distribute the air uniformly along the width and length of the central fiue, reducing the velocity appreciably at the same time. Recent tests have shown that a very uniform, fast circulation of air may be obtained in this type of kiln with a surprisingly small power consumption. SUPERHEATED-STEAM KILNS. The superheated-steam kiln is comparatively simple in construc- tion and operation. Provision must be made for high-pressure steam for heating coils and jets; the circulation must be reversed periodically; and the kiln must be designed for short travel of the steam through the lumber. One type of superheated-steam kiln was_ - ] KILN DRYING HANDBOOK. 53 invented and developed at the Forest Products Laboratory. Figure 11 illustrates in a general way the principles of construction. The heat- ing coils are conveniently mounted on the side walls, and a steam-jet line runs along the top and bottom of each wall. The two Jeft lines operate simultaneously, and likewise the two right lines. The arrows indicate the direction of the circulation when the left lines are open. With the right lines open the circulation will be reversed. zs CANVAS CURTAIN CANVAS CURTAIN RSS I ly w = S [IESE yi > I al q < eee eee ee ‘ 7 : > Paes GROROROMG YSTRIBUTORS GEGEORORS > = OF OL. O20 0 OMOROWOnO iy Q eo0o0000 (aEg) 00000 if hy K Lyk 00000 00000 « 5 Bibel < 72 sees | Be ae! ©0000 = PRUE: ©0000 ©) 00000 a Vie ©0000 00000 bs DISC FANS WSTLAIM SPRAY LINE Fie. 10.—Cross section of internal-fan kiln. A number of disk fans are mounted at intervals upon a shaft extending the full length of the kiln. PILING LUMBER FOR KILN DRYING. Lumber to be kiln dried is usually piled in layers with strips or stickers between each two layers. Sometimes short stock, like spoke billets, handles, and shoe-last blocks, is simply dumped into the kiln without any attempt at orderly arrangement. This method is apt to produce irregular drying unless only small amounts are dried at a time. The piling and sticking of the lumber should provide suitable air passage between the boards in each layer and between layers, and 54 BULLETIN 1136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, furnish support to the lumber during drying so that it will be as straight as possible when dry. For drying in a progressive kiln, the lumber is always loaded on trucks or bunks and run through the kiln on rails, which are usually pitched down toward the dry end, so that gravity will assist in mov- ing the trucks. Large compartment kilns are usually provided Sa — | ieee okie —_—_— _ _. O== STEAM JET LINE ete = PEO HOY IEA MOLTEN PSIG 622: IRE SS EE PS PE eS ee ye Bc! i ° iW UUs Le a i ee ay ee 25S EG ER ER PO Os ESI PERS REESE Beis Oe ce ee ee ee pagar | teal Peed aes Pa ait Boake 152d OE AD CE CI UR we M7 Wa ieee ES ES SE ee ee ee. (ea Bias bos oe i [Bn ECS BS es Eels 75, VD OU Me Ee 127 RO ED FO Pa (EI (OE PB ae eee de ES ee "yes Com Dies beaen allt ET MD es res aie eas 7 (CD LA WS CE CD a 2 oe EE Oe a ee cs He BS a Pe ee ee oo ES TES OG, a PD SS ae (Ses A, FSS NE NOS FRI TEs ree. (actos Se Ee Be > Sh eve ie le aa (7, SN OS PE DE DPA aA EID ELEY REALS “d00(% 000/00 WIEATING COL HEATING COlL 009/0009/00 00009000 (Vom ene) fae He SE SS er re ee a ee bi fon fe, EE A EE eee ee eS ewreg. rp! Ceate ale -¢ a +] WY ie) Note the dwarf and leafy appearance of the diseased plants in the lower right-hand portion of the picture as compared with the surrounding tall, healthy plants. A typical spot in a field caused by the rosette of wheat. Bul, 1137, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE {| * PLANTS OF WINTER WHEAT SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF ATTACKS OF THE ROSETTE AND THE HESSIAN FLY, RESPECTIVELY, COMPARED WITH HEALTHY PLANTS. A, Healthy plant. in the spring; B and C, plants of the same age as 4, showing early and advanced stages, respectively, of the rosette; D, healthy plant as it appears in-the late autumn ; 2, plant of the same age as D, infested by the Hessian fiy.-_ Note the similarities in color but the differences in the extent of tillering in plants affected by the two maiadies compared with the corresponding healthy plants. b ‘| eins) lad y « | ’ ' ve ; " ma i A is ; : rt a! -_ . ¢ " ip ae i . } } : 4 ‘ ‘ Tt ' * Bul. 1137, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ve PLATE III. WHEAT PLANTS INFESTED BY THE HESSIAN FLY COMPARED WITH AN UNINFESTED PLANT. A, B, and’*C, Spring-wheat plants infested by the Hessian fly; D, healthy plant of the same age for comparison. The infested plants are much dwarfed and show the same dark-green color in comparison with the healthy plant as is shown in Plate II, D and Z. £, Winter- wheat plants infested by the Hessian fiy, showing larvee (1) and puparia (2) (flaxseeds) of the insect. The leaf sheaths have been stripped away. PLATE IV. Bul, 1137, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “(YOU DUDRIULD VZ2UWOLJY ) JOSSVUL UW19}S LOY OY} JO (T) BAI] OY} JO SyoRz1B oy AQ poT[Ly ‘Burds aq} Ul A[ivo JuRd JRO AM-IOJUIM pojsoJul Uy ‘YF “TIL pajsojul oy} UL (g) AJLAR OY} PUR (Z) FuJoMs oyI[qQ[N ‘poyesuoyo Joy RI oy) AON “(AOIy sipunsb POUL ADFT ) ULIOMAMVIYS JOYA OY} JO (T) BAIB[ oY} SULMOYS ‘Buds oy} ut Aprvo FULT JOY M-10JULM PoSojul Uy ‘PY “LOSOSVIN) WSLS LYVSHM AHL GNV WYHOMMVYELS LVAHMA SHL Ad GSLSSAN| LVSHAMA YSLNIM SO SLNVId SYMPTOMS OF WHEAT ROSETTE. 5 rapidly decays, leaving the flaxseeds: more or. less free in or on the surface of the soil. This condition persists until the emergence of the principal spring brood of the fly. SPRING PERIOD. Field symptoms.—tin the case of extremely heavy infestation the previous fall, practically all the plants may be killed. Varying de- grees of infestation give the field a more or less ragged, bunchy ap- pearance, and numerous blank spaces or areas may be evident. As the principal spring generation begins to get in its work, the general color of the field becomes a dark green, and growth is retarded in accordance with the severity of the infestation. Plant symptoms.—The effect of infestation on small plants in the spring is practically the same as in the fall, and larvee and flaxseeds are located at relatively the same place on the culms. On larger plants the larvee or the flaxseeds may be found higher up on the stem, but they may easily be found by stripping down the leaf sheath. -The culm may be killed or not, depending on its size and the number of larve or flaxseeds present. SUMMER PERIOD. Field symptoms.—A thin stand with fallen straw, depending on the severity of the infestation, usually marks an infested field in summer. A light infestation may escapé notice. Plant symptoms.—Culms that have become weakened at the loca- tion of the flaxseeds usually fall over before harvest. Culms that were heavily infested may have been killed or prevented from pro- ducing a head, but in any case the flaxseeds may be found as the cause. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SYMPTOMS OF WHEAT ROSETTE AND THOSE CAUSED BY THE HESSIAN FLY. Since rosette is not apparent in the autumn and since it becomes evident in the spring before the emergence of the adult Hessian fly, there is very little chance to confuse the two maladies during these “periods. In the late spring there is a possibility of confusion, especially if plants affected by rosette show, in addition, the spring infestation of the Hessian fly. _ In the latter part of the spring, fields affected by rosette sometimes show blank areas caused by the diseased plants being washed out of the soil by unusually heavy rains. Such fields are practically indis- tinguishable from those suffering from a severe attack of the fly, when the infestation of either is general over the field. Owing to the fact, however, that spring fly infestation has never been noted to occur in localized areas or spots in the field, as is commonly the case with wheat rosette, such field spotting observed at any time during the growing season practically precludes fly injury as the sole cause, even though all the affected plants may have been washed away. In the case of plant symptoms, fly infestation causes a reduction rather than an increased number of tillers, as is the case in plants aifected by rosette. While plants affected by the latter malady often show fly infestation, it will usually be found that many near-by plants aiiected by rosette show no evidence of such infestation. In the case of plants suffering from fly injury, the larva or flaxseed of the insect 6 BULLETIN 1137, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, or the empty flaxseeds will be found at the base of the plant, usually under the first leaf sheath. SYMPTOMS PRODUCED BY THE WHEAT STRAWWORM. FALL PERIOD. The wheat strawworm passes the fall and winter in the old stubble or straw, so of course it has no effect upon the fall growth of winter wheat. SPRING PERIOD. Field symptoms.—Almost invariably the infestation by the wheat strawworm occurs in a field bordering on old stubble or in a field which the previous year was in wheat the stubble of which was poorly plowed. In the first case the stand is thinner and plants shorter next to the old stubble field, and this difference gradually shades off to normal] as the distance from the edge of the field in- creases. This is due to the inability of the wingless form of the insect to travel far, and for this reason most of the infestation occurs within a strip 30 yards wide bordering on the old stubble. Plant symptoms.—Plants infested by the strawworm resemble those infested by the Hessian fly except that in the former case tillering up to this time has been normal. The larvee develop at the base of the plant, cavising a bulblike swelling to appear at that point. The infested culms are always killed, and frequently all the culms are infested. The swelling usually serves to identify the injury caused by this insect, and of course the larve or pupz of the insect itself (Pl. IV, A) are inside the stem, while in the case of the Hessian fly the larva or flaxseed is merely under the leaf sheath. SUMMER PERIOD. Field symptoms.—The thin stand along the old stubble field is all that serves to mark an infested field in summer. The second generation of the insect has enabled it to spread throughout the whole field. Plant symptoms.—The decaying remains of tillers infested earher in the season are about all that marks the plants which have been — infested. The larval form of the second generation in the straw ~ at this time is difficult to locate except by splitting the infested — straw. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SYMPTOMS OF WHEAT ROSETTE AND THOSE CAUSED BY THE WHEAT STRAWWORM. a ee ee Wheat rosette is not confined to the vicinity of old wheat stubble fields, as is the case with the strawworm infestation. If the former — malady occurs near such a stubble field its presence can be dis- tinguished by means of the bulblike swelling on plants infested with the insect; also the latter plants develop the normal number of tillers in contrast with the excessive tillering caused by rosette. The dead and decayed culms in late spring or autumn killed by the first generation of the strawworm will still be recognizable by their bulbous growth containing the refuse left by the larvee of this generation. SYMPTOMS OF WHEAT ROSETTE. SYMPTOMS CAUSED BY THE WHEAT STEM MAGGOT. FALL PERIOD. Field symptoms.—asA field infested by the wheat stem maggot has very much the same appearance as if infested by the Hessian fly. The stem maggot is not usually so prevalent as the fly, and in- stances of extreme infestation are more rare. The color of an in- fested field is a darker green than normal, and when severely in- fested the ragged, sickly appearance comes on earlier than if in- fested by the a fly. Plant symptoms.—An infested plant has the center shoot dis- colored or dead and the other leaves broader and darker green than normal. The larva, difficult to find when small, occurs at the base of the stem, where it lacerates the tender tissues with its mouth hooks and feeds upon the juices. SPRING PERIOD. Field symptoms.—Depending upon the severity of the infestation, gaps in the drill row caused by the dead plants mark a field infested by the wheat stem maggot in spring; but there are so many other causes of this same appearance that it can not be taken as charac- teristic of this insect. Plant symptoms.—The infested culms, and frequently the entire plant, if able to withstand the injury during the fall, usually die during the winter. Therefore, in the spring these dead and more or less disintegrated plants contain the full-grown larve or pupe of the insect (PI. IV, B). COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SYMPTOMS OF WHEAT ROSETTE AND THOSE CAUSED BY THE WHEAT STEM MAGGOT. As in the case of the fall infestation of the Hessian fly, the symp- toms produced by an infestation of wheat stem maggot in the autumn will not Jead-to confusion with rosette, even though the plants affected by the two maladies resemble each other in certain respects. There is practically no chance for confusing the troubles in the spring, because the spring infestation of the maggot does not cause symptoms which resemble the fall symptoms in any way. CONCLUSIONS. The insect injuries described in this bulletin may usually be diagnosed with certainty, on account of the presence in some stage of the insect on the affected plant. However, in the late stages of these disorders it is sometimes difficult to find any trace of the insect, and in such cases the infested fields and affected plants are difficult or impossible to distinguish from fields and plants affected by rosette. The symptoms of rosette can not be distinguished with certainty after the spring period, and it is safer not to diagnose the disease positively after early spring, especially if heavy rains have washed out many diseased plants. In the early spring the disease manifests itself by a retarded development of the plants, followed by excessive tillering and a dark blue-green coloration, the leaves being broad and stiff and the whole plant having a bunchy rosette appearance. At this time, when the disease is not complicated with insect infestations the drill rows do not have any blank spaces. 8 BULLETIN 1137, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, LITERATURE CITED. (1) McKinney, H. H. 1928. Investigations on the rosette disease of wheat and its control. In Jour. Agy. Itesearch, vy. 28, no. 10. [In press.] (2) Ossporn, HERBERT. 1898. The Hessian fly in the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div.. Ent. Bul. 16, n. s., 58 p., 8 fig., front., 2 pl. Bibliography, p. 48—57.. (3) PHitiires, W. J. 1920. Studies on the life history and habits of the jointworm flies of the genus Harmolita (Isosoma), with recommendations for control. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 808, 27 p., § fig., 6 pl. (4) Wesster, F. M. 1903. Some insects attacking the stems of growing wheat, rye, barley,. and oats. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent. Bul. 42, 62 p., 15 fig. (5) 1920. The Hessian fly and how to prevent losses from it. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 1083, 16 p., 13 fig. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Secretary of Agriculture 222 Sr ee Henry C. WALLACE. ASSistant SeCrelany a= as ae ee es C. W. PUGSLEY. Director of Scientific Work.__-____________ BE. D. Batt. Director of Reguiatory Work = Weather \Bureduetbi.. SW Oe Gs CHARLES F. Marvin, Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Economics___------- Henry C. Taytor, Chief. Bureau of Ammal Industry___=-—-_______--_ JOHN R. MOHtER, Chief. Bureawof Llantindustrys—2o* sees ee WitrraAm A. Taytor, Chief. Forest: Serviceus}s Be Seep re ee areas AE See W. B. GREELEY, Chief. UCM OG OTUETUUS GIA se ee eee eee ne WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. Buea, ofS ois? a 2tpseit atl} ct grarteios MILTON WHITNEY, Chief. Buredi, Of cENtomology > 45 Fe hee ee L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey__-_--------=-- E. W. NEtson, Chief. BULCLUAO TAL LUG LOLOS a= 2 ke eee eee THoMAS H, MacDonatxp, Chief. Fired Nitrogen Research Laboratory_____-— I’. G. Corrretyt, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements____ A. ZApPponn, Chief. Divi sionaO LALO COLORS= - te JOHN L. Copss, Jr., Chief. DS DT TY] ee ee be ae Ua ae Le hee OxLariper. R. Barnetr, Librarian, States Relations’ SemAce 2 en ee ee A. C. True, Director. Hederal Horticuutung Boake 22 we ee GC. L. MArtarr, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board_____-______ J. KK. Haywoop, Chairman. Packers and Stockyards TELM SN i Un NTH Morritz, Assistant to the Grain Future Trading Act Adnvinistration__ Secretary. Office-oPine Solicitor Sa ee Be ee R. W. WrirrAMs, Solicitor. This bulletin is a contribution from the— Buneaujof Plantundustry cs it28) a aes WiLtiAM A. TaAytor, Chief. 3 Office of Cereal Investigations__________ CarRLeTON R, Baty, Cerealist im_ Charge. A BImen OF -ENVOMmology, se ee ee L. O. Howarp, Chicf. Office of Cereal and Forage Insect In- Y vestigation’. fast) othe) eee Ape W. R. Watton, Pntomologist in_ Charge. ; ie f &. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1923, Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 10, 1923 VITAMIN B IN THE EDIBLE TISSUES OF THE OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. I. VITAMIN B IN THE VOLUNTARY MUSCLE. II. VITAMIN B IN THE EDIBLE VISCERA. By Ratpx Hoacriann, Senior Biochemist, Biochemic Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. BreminvBunitheGlete. — 1-2. f62-----csece ae 1 | IL. Vitamin B in the edible viscera-......... 21 I. Vitamin B in the voluntary muscle.....-. 2 Importance of edible viscera as food.... 21 Importance of meat as a food..-.--..-.- 2 Previous investigations with edible Previous investigations with meat. .... 2 VISCELALC eer eee cot ne aacceic naenienae 23 Bxperimental work. - 2) -..-..---------- 4 Hxperimentalworke-<- 2 sce sseee ss cece 23 Discussion of results...............-.--- 19 Summarycoh Partjblesseeee 52 sens seme 44 Summ anysOmbartelee sm asces-ciece occ 20} aConclusionstsea22eetceter sehen = ssn eon eeeee 46 References toliteraturess-.....2......-2.2--- 46 VITAMIN B IN THE DIET. Vitamin B, also known as the antineuritic vitamin, is one of those chemically unidentified substances which are absolutely neces- sary for the growth and maintenance of man and animals. The disease known as beriberi, formerly rather common among the rice-eating people of the East, is due to the consumption of a diet made up very largely of polished rice, which is very deficient in this vitamin. On the other hand, natives who subsist largely on the unpolished cereal do not contract beriberi, and the disease may be cured simply by substituting unpolished for polished rice in the diet. A less-marked deficiency of vitamin B in the diet results in retarded growth and other disorders. Birds fed a diet very \ deficient in vitamin B lose weight rapidly and develop polyneutritis, while young rats make but slight, if any, growth on such a diet. Since the chemical identity of vitamin B or of any of the other ‘vitamins is not known, the only reliable method for the estimation ‘of the vitamin content of a foodstuff is by animal experimentation. / This method has its limitations, but when feeding tests are carried on with the greatest care and the results are interpreted with caution, ‘fairly accurate, relative vitamin values may be assigned to the ‘foods tested. | Considering the fact that practically all our Knowledge con- cerning vitamins has been acquired only during the last decade, we have a very considerable amount of information regarding the 23833231 2 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. values of the important foodstuffs in terms of vitamins A, B, and C. The data are far from sufficient, however, for the purpose of assigning other than tentative values to many of our staple food products. Meat, for example, one of our most important food- stuffs, has been assigned a rather low value as a source of the three vitamins; but a careful review of the literature indicates that only a limited number of investigations have been carried on to determine the vitamin content of this food, and that practically all the work has been done with beef and horse meat. The validity of the work which has been done is not questioned, but it is too limited in amount to justify the statement that meat in general is poor in vitamins. Certain animal organs, on the other hand, particularly the heart, liver, and kidney, have been found to be relatively rich in the three vitamins. Additional information regarding the vitamin content of meat, which should include not only beef, but veal, mutton and lamb, and pork as well, is much to be desired, as well as data concerning the vitamin content of the edible organs and other tissues of the meat food animals. It is the purpose of this bulletin to report the results of investigations that have been carried on to determine the vitamin-B content of the voluntary muscle and the edible organs of the ox, sheep, and hog. I. VITAMIN B IN THE VOLUNTARY MUSCLE OF THE OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. IMPORTANCE OF MEAT AS A FOOD. Meat long has been and still is one of the most important articles of food in the dietary of the American people. In pounds, its per capita consumption for the year 1922 (/) 1 was as follows: Beef, 57.7; veal, 8.3; mutton and lamb, 6.1; and pork, excluding lard, 72.8; a total of 144.9 pounds per year, or 0.4 pound per day. Ac- cording to Langworthy and Hunt, (2) (1910) meat forms, together with poultry, 16 per cent of the aggregate American dietary as compared with 18 per cent for dairy products, 25 per cent for fruits and vegetables, and 31 per cent for cereals and their products. Meat also furnishes 30 per cent of the protein and 59 per cent of the fat in the dietary. Even more striking is the relatively large ex- penditure for meat as compared with other classes of foods. Sherman (3) (1918) states that as a result of .a dietary study of 2,567 working- men’s families, the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics found that the average expenditure for meat, poultry, and fish amounted to 33.8 per cent of the total sum expended for foods. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS WITH MEAT. Eykman (4) (1906) reports that he cured polyneuritic fowls with raw meat, but the kind and quantity fed are not stated. Watson and Hunter (5) (1906) carried on feeding tests with rats to ascertain the effect of exclusive horseflesh and ox-flesh diets, re- spectively, upon very young and mature animals. When horse- flesh was fed to very young rats the result was invariably fatal. Young rats 2 to 3 months old did somewhat better on the diet, but 1 Italic figures in parentheses refer to Literature cited, p. 46. VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 3 part of them died early in the test, while the others did fairly well, though their growth was retarded. Ox flesh gave rather better results. A part of the very young rats died early, while the remainder grew fairly well but did not attain normal weight. Young rats 2 to 3 months old did well on the diet, reaching greater weights than the controls. Cooper (6) (1912) appears to have been the first to study syste- matically the antineuritic properties of muscle (beef). Five lots of igeons of five birds each were fed polished rice, and in addition the ards in the several pens were fed daily 2, 4, 6, 10, and 20 grams each, respectively, of fresh beef. The results of this test indicate that the daily addition of 20 grams of fresh beef to the rice diet was necessary in order to prevent the development of polyneuritis in pigeons during a period of 50 days. The average weight of the pigeons receiving 20 grams each of beef daily was slightly greater at the close of the test than at the start; but the addition of less than 20 grams of beef daily to the diet was only sufficient either to delay the occurrence of the symptoms of the disease or to reduce their severity. Osborne and Mendel (7) (1917) found that a diet containing 20 per cent of dried ox muscle as the sole source of vitamins and protein, and otherwise adequate, did not induce growth in young rats. The addition of butterfat to the ration did not improve its quality; but when dried yeast was added, normal growth took place. A ration containing 5 per cent of water-soluble solids of fresh beef, which would correspond to 28.9 per cent of dried muscle, did not induce normal erowth in rats, although somewhat better results were obtained than with the ration that contained 20 per cent of dried muscle. Cole (8) (1917) fed a dried-meat powder prepared from the lean meat of South American cattle to young rats, the meat amounting to 26.8 per cent of the ration. The meat was the sole source of pro- tein and vitamins. The rats made satisfactory growth during a 14- day period and the author concludes that the product contains a good supply of the accessory food factors. Voegtlin and Lake (9) (1919) studied the antineuritic properties of beef when fed to dogs, cats, and rats. Two cats were maintained for 180 days in perfect health on an exclusive diet of beef that had been heated for 3 hours at 120°C. Two pregnant cats fed the same ration developed polyneuritis in 45 and 110 days respectively. The authors call attention to the great difference in the susceptibility of dogs, cats, and rats to polyneuritis when fed the same ration. When fed exclusively on beef that had been heated for 3 hours at 120° C. in the presence of sodium carbonate, cats developed polyneuritis as early as the eighteenth day, dogs at a month to 6 weeks, and rats lived for at least 110 days without showing symptoms of the disease. ~ McCollum, Simmonds, and Parsons (10) (1921) investigated the nutritive value of ox muscle when fed to white rats. Two lots of rats were fed rations in which the vitamins were furnished exclusively in 25 per cent of dried raw and 25 per cent of dried cooked muscle, respectively. In both lots growth ceased at the end of about four weeks. Five per cent of butterfat was then added to each of the tations and there was a marked response in growth. In another test, rats fed a ration contaming 20 per cent of ox muscle and vita- min A in the form of 3 per cent butterfat made fair but not normal growth. Another lot of rats fed exclusively on ox muscle made little 4 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. growth, had no young, and died early. Rats fed a ration consisting of ox muscle, calcium carbonate, sodium chlorid and 3 per cent butterfat grew at practically the normal rate and appeared healthy. When rats were fed a ration containing 50 per cent ox muscle and 3 per cent butterfat, they made normal growth. Rats were raised to the third generation on this diet with reasonable success. Another lot of rats, fed for a period exclusively on ox muscle, made but little growth. The addition of sodium chlorid and calcium carbonate to the diet was followed by a slight response in growth. Rats fed a ration containing 50 per cent ox muscle, sodium and potassium chlorids, calcium carbonate, dextrin, and butterfat made normal growth and the second and third generations were raised successfully on this diet. EXPERIMENTAL WORK. METHODS EMPLOYED. The purpose of the experiments reported in Part I of this paper was to ascertain the antineuritic properties of the voluntary muscle of the ox, sheep, and hog when fed to pigeons in connection with polished rice. The pigeons used were of the homer type, healthy, mature birds weighing between 300 and 400 grams being selected. Four or five birds were fed each ration at the start, but occasionally a bird would have to be removed during the test on account of an injury. Fic. 1.—Method of feeding the pigeons. The pigeons were weighed individually before feeding on the first day of the test and at approximately weekly intervals thereafter, always before feeding. Each bird was fed daily, except Sunday, a ration amounting to 5 per cent by weight of the initial weight of the igeon. Forced feeding was practiced throughout the experiments. he ration was fed into the crop of the pigeon through a Gooch funnel having a bowl 14 inches in diameter and a stem 3 inches long with an inside diameter of } inch, a glass rod being used as a plunger. VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 5 When proper care is used, very few birds‘are injured by this method of feeding. The method is illustrated in Figure 1. The meat used in these tests was of the best quality. It was pur- chased in the local market and no information was available regard- ing the feeding of the animals from which the meat had been derived. The muscle tissue was trimmed as free as practicable from fat and connective tissue, ground fine, and mixed with water and toluol to form a semifluid mass which was spread out in a thin layer on shallow trays and dried in a forced current of air at a maximum temperature @ | Fic. 2.—Pigeon with acute polyneuritis, showing lack of control of muscles in the wings, legs, and neck. Fic. 3.—The same pigeon as in Fig. 2, 24 hours later, after having been fed 15 grams of dried smoked ham. The bird1sa little unsteady on its feet but shows no acute symptoms of the disease. of 60° C. Drying was carried on in a simple oven designed by the writer, its capacity being 5 ke. of fresh tissue to air dryness in 24 hours. The dried tissue was ground fine and stored in stoppered bottles until needed. The moisture content of the dry tissue ranged from 4 to 8 per cent. The rice used was the ordinary polished rice of commerce. It was nd medium fine and, unless otherwise stated, was heated two ours in an autoclave at 130° C. before being used. The term “survival period” as used in this paper denotes the period between the start of the experiment and (1) the development 6 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of positive symptoms of polyneuritis, (2) death due apparently to polyneuritis, or (3) the close of the test. It is not necessary to describe the symptoms of polyneuritis in pigeons, as they have been fully stated by other writers. The symp- toms of acute polyneuritis are unmistakable. However, even on a polished-rice diet, not all birds develop this type of the disease, but some may exhibit a chronic form, usually first indicated by the regurgitation of food, later by inability to empty the crop, weakness in the legs, ete., followed by general prostration, partial paralysis, dificult breathing, collapse, and death. As a rule, polyneuritic pigeons were promptly fed dried yeast, to which treatment most, but not all, cases responded favorably. Usually birds with the acute type of the disease yielded to treatment more readily than those with the chronic form. TESTS WITH POLISHED RICE. Feeding tests were carried on with three pens of pigeons on an exclusive rice diet in order to establish a basis for comparison with pigeons fed on rations containing various proportions of muscle in addition to rice. The results of these tests are shown in Table 1. TaBLE 1.—Results of feeding polished rice to pigeons. ! c Pigeon | Survival |Change in| rm Ration. No. period. | weight. | Result. PEN 1. | Days. | Per cent. Ricenopheajied sass scene eee 73 19 —20.7 | Polyneuritis. DON 52. ee ea Aaa ae 70 21 —15.9 | Do. DOr ase ee ee ere 72 35 —17.8 | Very thin, weak, end of test. D032: 02> Ae ee | 74 35 —31.7 | Do. AVe@rage.. 53520 e ses eee eee 27.5 —21.3 PEN 2. | Rice heated 2 hours at 130° C......- 79 17 —20.0 | Polyneuritis. OU esate oo See eee ee ee Hil 21 —23.3 Do. DO ee Ue SCR ans anes 76 30 | —39.3 Do. DOls pleas Pare eeeemein aces | 78 | 35 | —836.9 | Very thin, weak, end of test. AV eCLaGe: 2 sete, ee eee eee [Beer = eee 25.6 —29.9 PEN 3. | | Rice heated 2 hours at 130° C....... 66 9 —5.8 | Polyneuritis. OPES. in 3 SAREE ee a ee te 38 11 | —13.0 0. DO. 6 2. se eee eae 64 | —23.3 Do. DO csi6 23 5 eee ee 67 | 18'| —19.9 | Do. DOr ey os. cote oe ee 69 21 —22.4 | Do. AVerage.-:- JOe meee teen [serene | 15.4} —16.9 | Average, Pens 2,andd--2-- 22] o-oo see 20.5 | —23.4 | Average, pens 1, 2, and 3..... ray = See 5 22.8 —22.7 The data presented in Table 1 do not require a detailed discussion. Attention is called to the difference in the survival period of birds in a single pen on the same ration. The average survival period of the birds in pens 2 and 3, getting heated rice, is seven days less than that of the pigeons in pen 1 on the unheated-rice ration; but the loss in weight is about the same. The survival period of the birds in pen 3 is 12 days less than that of pen 1. In addition to these results, the writer has found that when an animal tissue, like liver, normally a VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 7 of high antineuritic value is heated in an autoclave for two hours at 130° C. its protective properties are practically destroyed. For these reasons all the polished rice which was used in subsequent experi- ments as a base in the rations with muscle, was heated two hours at 130° C. in an autoclave. The change in weight of the pigeons in pens 1, 2, and 3 is shown graphically in Figure 4, at the end of this paper. The marked and rapid decrease in the weights of the birds is at once apparent. 7 Lah Vee LPN gen KA GE SIEGE OW CE ILLS TI LEP 2 HOURS /N <2 HOURS /N PEN / PIOTOCLAVE 797) APUTOCLAUWE 777" OUNTREATED RICE | | | | se EE ee | 1 {ea il LVICH HIORIZONTAL SFLICE REPRESENTS /C DAYS Fia. 4.—Variations in weight of pigeons resulting from feeding polished rice. The numbers opposite beginnings of lines refer to Pigeon Nos. of tables. The graphs presented in Figures 4 to 45, inclusive, are based upon the weights of the pigeons recorded at approximately weekly intervals during the experiments, except that the weight of any bird suffering from a congestion of food in its crop, an early symptom of poly- neuritis, was not recorded. Since most pigeons that develop poly- neuritis suffer from this condition of the crop, it was found to be inadvisable to weigh each bird at the time it developed polyneuritis. For this reason, then, the graph of a pigeon usually indicates a shorter period than the survival period for the same bird recorded in the table. Occasionally a graph may indicate a slightly longer period than the survival period shown in the table. In such cases the crop of the bird was normal and the last weighing was made a few days ‘after the development of the disease. The percentage change in weight of each pigeon, as indicated in the tables, is based upon the initial weight and upon the last normal weight as shown in the graph for the same bird. The graphs are presented distinctly for the pur- pose of showing at a glance the rate and extent of the change in weights of the pigeons during the experiments, and not for the pur- pose of indicating the survival periods of the birds. TESTS WITH OX MUSCLE. The results of the feeding tests with ox muscle are shown in Tables 2, 3, and 4, and the changes in the weights of the birds are shown graphically in Figures 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. Pens 4 and 5 (Table 2) were fed rations containing 25 and 15 per cent, respectively, of muscle derived from the round of the carcass of a single fat steer. The slight difference in the average survival periods of the two pens of birds is not material. There was prac- 8° BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tically no difference in the average loss in weight of the two pens of birds. By referring to Table 1 it will be noted that the average survival period of fhe birds in pens 2 and 3, which were fed auto- claved rice alone, was 20.5 days, or practically the same as that of pens 4 and 5 on the ox-muscle rations. TaBLeE 2.—Experimental feeding of dried ox muscle and polished rice. . a Change Meat ration. Pigeon porvival in Result. Ties I * | weight. PEN 4. | Days Per cent. 25 per cent round No. 553..........- 80 14 —12.0 | Polyneuritis. 1D Tree Sas is ake a ee ee ee Toul 17 —15.4 Do. OU eee ee Comes oie as 68 19 —18.0 Do. ee eee ane eo A igen 85 | 20 —24.7 Do 1D een aes Se se Sees ae 90 24 —8.4 Do ASVOFAPOr ne eee eee a cas =| Doe ee 18.8 —15.7 = | PEN 5. 12 —4.1 Do. ! 14 —5.5 Do. 17 —16.3 Do. 19 —10.9 | Do. 45 —35.0 | Died, inanition 21.4 | 14.4 | PEN 6. 25 per cent chuck No. 568.........-. 8 | 13 5. Polyneuritis. 1D) OMe eis cence 10 24 —11.4 | Do. DOR SM nae eee ee ece ecitisee 9 26 Do. 1D) SP eee see eee 7 37 Do. BAA lic: 1) SE ay So 25 PEN 7. | 25 per cent sirloin No. 569.........- | 13 20 —2.5 Do. Dingess eg ee eee 11 23 —11.6 | Do. \ 1D (ny an ok ee eee 12 | 25 —16.0 | Do. ; 1 BY arity sched) a ye ae ae | 14 5d —25.5 | Alive, very thin, end of experiment. AIMEL APC EM ase 8: oo cee <3: | alee ees 30.8 =i8Y) PEN 8. F 25 per cent round No. 589 dried at 32 13 | —10.4 ) Polyneuritis. room temperature. i DRE ES ae ae ler 9 nen 33 24 | —22.4 Do. DDO eae ee be Saptan «2 bo peiovi 31 255 j\, Be==9G Do. LDA Sa cease ness see eee 35 55 | —386.0 | Alive, very thin, end of test. a PACT ROO 5 es otis ey act eee ae 29.2 | —19.6 | Pen 6 was fed a ration containing 25 per cent of muscle taken from the shoulder of another fat carcass of beef. The slightly longer sur-. vival period and smaller loss in weight indicate a somewhat higher peer aian value for this sample of muscle than for that fed to pens 4 and 5. Pen 7 was fed a ration which contained 25 per cent of muscle taken from the loin of another fat carcass of beef. The survival period of this pen of birds was slightly longer than that of pen 6 getting 25 per cent of muscle from the round, but this difference is due to the sur- vival of pigeon 14 in pen 7 at the end of the test, although it was in very poor condition at that time. The three other birds in this pen developed polyneuritis on the twentieth, twenty-third, and twenty- fth days. In reality, there was probably no material difference in VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. g the antineuritic value of the muscle from the loin as compared with that of the muscle from the shoulder. The muscle fed to pen 8 was taken from the round of another fat carcass of beef and dried at room temperature (25° to 30° C.). The result obtained with this pen is very similar to that described for pen 7. On the other hand, pen 4, fed a ration containing 25 per cent of muscle from the round of another carcass, the tissue being dried PEN # xl Dy ao FER CENT ROUND 42 FER CEWT ROWNO (a a 380 360 340 y 320 ¥ 300 \ 280 § 260 . 240\— ~ aa es 220 ics i 200 ; Ep EACH HORIZONTAL SPACE REPRESENTS /0 DAYS Fic. 5.—Dried ox muscle; changes in weights of pigeons fed. PEN 6 PEN 7 25 PER CENT 2S PEP CENT CHUCK S/RLO/N 220 | | | 200 FaCH HORIZONIVIL SFAICE REPRESENT S (0 LIX SS Fic. 6.—Dried ox muscle; changes in weights of pigeons fed. PEN 8 Sent Le GLI 7 ROUND DRIED AAT ROOLAT TEMPERATURE SS) LACT? HORIZONTAL SPICE REPRESENTS 1/0 DS Fig. 7.—Dried ox muscle; changes in weights of pigeons fed. at 60° C., had a much shorter survival period, 18.8 days as compared with 29.2 days for pen 8. This difference is probably due to the fact that pen 8 contained one very resistant bird, No. 35, while in pen 4 all the birds developed polyneuritis by the twenty-fourth day. The three other birds in pen 8 developed polyneuritis by the twenty- fifth day. Apparently the muscle dried at room temperature had no greater antineuritic value than that dried at 60° C. 23833—23——2 10 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Pens 9 and 10 were fed rations containing 15 and 25 per cent, respectively, of ox tongue. Approximately a dozen tongues were used in preparing this lot of dried tissue. The results are similiar to those obtained with pens 7 and 8. Pen 9 contained one of the very resistant types of birds, No. 79, which materially lengthened the survival period of the pen to 32 days, that of the three other birds in the pen being 24 days. If allowance is made for this bird, it appears that there was no material difference in the antineuritic values of the rations containing 15 and 25 per cent, respectively, of ox tongue. The details are shown in Table 3 and Figure 8. TABLE 3.—Ezxperimental feeding of dried ox tongue and polished rice. Pigeon | Survival = 0 \Change in Meat ration. No. period. | weight. Result. x -| | =e PEN 9. Days. | Per cent. 15 per cent ox tongue No. 611-...-..-.- 77 18 —3.3 | Polyneuritis. Ream aes, 2 a eee ees 78 25 —21.3 Do. DO isciciva teeitoescaeeeee stocae 76 30 | —9.6 Do. TD) Oo See One hace ements e ence Saree 79 55 —34.2 | Very thin, weak, end of test. ASVeT ages ooo occu cece asind ac exe | olen 32 | —17.2 PEN 10. | 25 per cent ox tongue No. 611......- 73 21 | +5.9 | Polyneuritis. DOES a sieht cee ae aaa eee ene | 74 21 +10.6 Do. Dos -ct eevee eee ee | 75 25| —5.7 Do. DOR Se oe ene eee ae 72 497) Se LON Do. IANVEra pO a eee ee tee (Tce 29) eee | PEN 2 PEN /O AD A aS (PANG PERT VATS (QAM OX TONGUE OX TONGUE FZO F4OO 380} 3EO ) 940 320 Y JOO § 23SO 2060 2FO 220 200; (80 Each HORIZONTAL SPICE REPRESENTS 10 DAYS Fic. 8.— Dried ox tongue; changes in weights of pigeons fed. Pens 11 to 14, inclusive, were fed muscle tissue derived from veal calves. The hind quarters from two carcasses of the best grade of medium-weight veal were used. The results from these tests are very similar to those obtained in feeding the same percentages of muscle from the mature ox. The average survival period of all the igeons fed calf muscle was 27.9 days, while that of the birds recety- ing muscle from the mature ox was 26.6 days. The slight difference is not material. The results are shown in Table 4 and Figures 9 and 10. ‘ VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. Taste 4.—Hxperimental feeding of dried calf muscle and polished rice. | AEE 4 Pigeon | Survival |Change in . Meat ration. Nia. period. | weight. | Result. PEN 11. Days. | Per cent. 15 per cent calf muscle No. 667. 18 19 —18.0 | Polyneuritis. IDO) Seo dab on coe ee one nea Soe 19 19 —10.9 Do. 1D) One eee ante sesae 17 20 —12.2 | Died. MB) OS Sere omen ote ees ieidieie Sinai ci 20 21 —18.3 | Polyneuritis. BAN CLA C Oye eet a rane cle eo ees 19.8 —14.9 PEN 12 25 per cent calf muscle No. 667... .-. 23 18 —10.7 | Polyneuritis. IDO) ep Raoe utc ho ta dene eee 63 19 —20.8 Do. IDYO as pono ae BOOS an Ce eee 22 26 —26.8 | Died. DOM eee eerie emia etic inisis == 24 55 —20.3 | Very thin, active, end of test. ASV vn SaGe RES BRC EEA e | MEER eeee 29.5 =i0),7/ PEN 13. 15 per cent calf muscle No. 725. 98 23 —21.7 | Polyneuritis (D) ON saree trerineines atihees:< 203 24 —20.0 Do. IWS Seqecee ba aae cee eee 204 30. —30.2 Do. IDO. G cendedbccsecsSooee ee SeeEes 56 47 —26.5 Do. IMNCTNE Snes ba Se Ge DOS Ce Ree Een RECT Eee 31 —24.6 PEN 14 25 per cent calf muscle No. 725. 248 17 —2.7 | Polyneuritis. BD) Oe ae eee Seat: 282 28 +1.4 Do. ID) ORE ese meas c's 5. 270 32 —18.3 Do. WOME rene cee tae cinecias ses 274 49 —15.8 | Severe keratomalacia. ASV Cr ao Oke Baan ees cninc as c[nemoseices 31.5 —8.9 PEW // PEN /2 45 PER CENT CALF PIUSCLE NO. CO7 SORE KACEIN Ts COILS PIUVECLE NO. CO7 220'— 1 1 soil LACH HORIZONTAL SPACE REPRESENTS /0 DAYS Fic. 9.—Dried calf muscle; changes in weights of pigeons fed. FEN TS. 4G PLR CLIN Ty, CALF MIUSCLE LI —$———————<=" FEN 14 LOK AC LIN Ta CALF MUSCLE | == | | | | | AE ICO X s20}4 v 16 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PEW 23 PEN 24 SP FNC CLAY F5 = tah Le SRESt 1717707 FRES/ 117917 I BRS AR SACRE): I weeEeL esis: nna Eee] el eee X 380 a S 360 <8O LATCH SIGOKIZONIAIL SPICE REPRESENTS 10 LAYS Fic. 15.—Dried hog muscle; changes in weights of pigeons fed. PEN 25 PEN 26 45 PER CENT 2S PER CENT TENDERLO/IV TENDERLO/V WO. Z7O2 Wo. 7OZ 42O . FOO x 380 oxo) UY 340 % 320 FOO | —SO t + ay | ahi ed eet i | | | ail —_oo i — FAO HORIZONTAL SPICE REPRESENTS (0 O7¥S Fic. 16.—Dried hog muscle; changes in weights of pigeons fed. RESULTS WITH UNCOOKED CURED, AND SMOKED MUSCLE. Since most hams are not sold fresh, but are cured and smoked and sold as smoked hams, a feeding test was carried on with this class of hams in order to ascertain the effect of curmg and smoking upon the antineuritic value of the product. Pens 27 and 28 were fed rations containing 15 and 25 per cent of muscle from two mild-cured smoked hams. Each and every bird in the two pens was in fine condition at the close of the test and had gained in weight; the gain for pen 27 was 6.3 per cent; that for pen 28 was 9.7 per cent. By referring to Table 6, pens 23 and 24, and to Table 7, pens 27 and 28, it will be noted that the antineuritic properties of the muscle from the fresh hams are very similar to those of the smoked hams. The birds getting the fresh-ham muscle made rather larger gains in weight, which indicates a slight advantage for the fresh hams. Pens 29 and 30 were fed rations containing 15 and 25 per cent of muscle from hog tongues. The lot of muscle used represents approxi- mately 50 hogs. One bird was removed from pen 29 early in the test on account of an injury to its neck; the three other birds were in good condition at the close of the test. The pen suffered a loss of 4.7 per cent in weight. The birds in pen 30 were all in fine con- dition at the close of the test and the average gain in weight was 9.6 per cent. The results of this series are seen in Table 7, and the change in weights of the pigeons in pens 27 to 30, inclusive, is shown in Figures 17 and 18. VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 17 , TaBLE 7.—Experimental feeding of dried, uncooked hog muscle and polished rice. { ‘ Pigeo Survival |Change in, ; Meat ration. No. | period. | weight. | Result. a ae tue Al PEN 27. Days. | Per cent. | 15 per cent smoked ham.........-.. 59 | 55 +5.3 | Fine condition at close of test. Tote be keene cube ete nero eae 45 | 55 +8.3 Do. IDO Ke CaNSSd Gece s OeGE Ea Beers Tae 58 55 +10.6 Do. IDO GaSe r Bese GS RCe Rea eae 88 55 +0.9 Do. VAN CLAS Bereta teres te ak cicie ail slays sisierg wisi 55 +6.3 PEN 28. 25 per cent smoked ham........... 515 55 +12.4 | Fine condition at close of test. MORAG Etre sem ecceite cece Nee 130 55 +5.7 Do. IDO eae sade a CueN at Coes eee 56 55 +8.0 | Do. IDO Sasa sees R Cee se eaters ee 176 55 +12.7 Do. BAW OLAS Cer martes Nae says oe Seed ioc ieee Bolas 55 +9.7 PEN 29. 15 per cent hog tongue.-........... 84 55 —1.7 | Good condition at close of test. ID Os cabtccr ake Conse eee armor : 86 55 +0.6 Do. IDO Ree a gec Seon eee eee ene 87 55 —12.9 | Do. PAN. CLAP Ones een ck tinea ee ok 55 geal PEN 30. | 20 per cent.hog tongue.-...-.-..-.- 80 55 +12.3 | Fine condition at close of test. LD) Oe eee neta is 81 55 +17.3 | Do. AD) Oe i ae rae R ih 82 55 +10.1 Do. Dont eiaeer ss ere ate 20: 83 55 —1.3 Do. FAV CLAS Ome E rere eames Ne ook oe 55 +9.6 | FALE, 2% PEN 28 4& PER CENT 2S PER CENT SMOKED S177 SMOKED 1177174 LAICY) HORIZONTVIL SFYICE REPRESENTS /0 2X8 Fig. 17.—Dried smoked ham; changes in weights of pigeons fed. PEN 29 - PEN 30 LS PER. CENT 25. PER CENT HOG TONGUE HOG TONGUE 460 = a = 440}+ : [ ABO ——+44 is Leer c — LAC HORIZONTAL SIYICEL REPRESENTS /O CAYS To 280 Fia. 18.—Dried hog tongue; changes in weights of pigeons fed. 23833—23——3 18 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE EFFECT OF COOKING UPON THE ANTINEURITIC PROPERTIES OF HOG MUSCLE. Since but very little pork is eaten in raw condition in this country, it is important to know the effect of cooking upon the antineuritic properties of hog muscle. Two experiments were carried on, one with tenderlom, the other with ham. The pork tenderloins, which weighed about one-fourth pound each, were baked 40 minutes at 200° C. in an oven. The meat was cooked just right for serving and then ground and dried in the usual manner. The cooked ham used in the feeding tests was the boneless, pressed ham of the kind which is sold sliced in retail markets. The method followed in cooking this type of hams is as follows: The cured hams are boned out, trimmed free of excess fat, and placed in metal containers in which they are pressed into the degted’ shape by means of a hydraulic press. The TaBLe 8.—LHxperimental feeding of dried cooked hog muscle and polished rice. : | Pigeon | Survival |Change in Meat ration. he Ni period. | weight. | Result. PEN 31, Days. | Per cent. | 15 per cent baked tenderloin No. 722.| 145 | 42 +7.1 | Fine condition at end of test. DO ase ocak downs 51 55 +15.0 Do. DO foe eee Sotteeccstect | 59 | 55 +13.2 Do. DO. ch esteem sees PSaclodsGes | 188 55 +4.1 Do. AV Ela ee lees doce cise loss cscs. | Slee seeee 55 +9.9 PEN 32 25 per cent baked tenderloin No. 722. 15 55 +14.1 Do Ontemes ee reeee reek os cewaenenes 30 55 +11.0 Do DOP: s,s geeon eras ooo ike Te 56 55 +11.8 Do DOR ee eee ne eee aces ae 176 55 +14.5 Do (Aiverage. es cone ee ey oe ASS occa 55 +12.9 PEN 33. | 35 +8.8 | Removed, account injury. 55 +1.0 Fine condition at close of test. 55 +4.5 | Do. 55 —1.0 Do. 55 +1.5 55 +10.5 Do 55 +6.1 Do 55 | +.3 Do. 55 +5.6 1 This pigeon substituted for an injured bird on thirteenth day. 2 Data for this bird excluded from average. hams, still in the containers, are then deposited in a cabinet-shaped steam cooker, where they are cooked for from 7 to 84 hours by means of steam at a temperature of approximately 150° F., never higher than 160° F. At the end of the period the hams are chilled in a spray of cold water. The results of feeding the cooked muscle are shown in Table 8, and the change in weight of the birds in Figures 19 and 20. Pens 31 and 32 were fed rations containing 15 and 25 per cent of cooked tenderloin. At the end of the test not a bird in either pen had developed polyneuritis and all had gained in weight and were in better bee ii than at the start. These results are equally as > VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 19 favorable as those secured in feeding the two lots of uncooked tender- loin, as shown in Table 6. Pens 33 and 34 were fed rations containing 15 and 25 per cent of cooked ham. One bird, No. 58, in pen 33 was removed on the thirty-fifth day on account of an injury, but it had gained 8.8 per cent in weight at the time. The other birds were in fine condition at the end of the test. The average gain in weight was 1.5 per cent. The birds in pen 34 were in fine condition at the close of the test and the average gain in weight was 5.6 per cent. By referring to Table 6, it will be noted that the average gains in weight of pens 23 and 24, respectively, getting raw ham, were somewhat higher than those of pens 33 and 34 which were fed corresponding percentages of cooked ham. This indicates a slightly lower anti- neuritic value for the cooked ham. PEN 3/ PEN 32 CIF LSE Gla Va oO al OLIN TA BYIKED TE/NVOCERLO//V BAKED TENDERLO/IV 440 = FLO Sat Wy 4OO0—>- + ‘ SEBO) ses \ CNG! ar oe § 320 32015 A — GOO 4 <3O EAC" HORIZONTAL SPACE REPRESENTS 1/0 DAYS Fic. 19.—Dried hog muscle, cooked; changes in weights of pigeons fed. PEW 2S PEN SF MNS AL ANNAN FRET) AR GIQANE COOKED HAM COOKED Sr7M Re xd lt LAICY HORIZONTAL SIVICE REF RESEIVTS 1/0 L2YIYXS ‘Oo Fig, 20.—Dried ham, cooked; changes in weights of pigeons fed. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. Since the identity of the antineuritic vitamin and the B-growth vitamin, though highly probable, is not yet proved, information on the subject is of interest. In the experiments which are reported in this paper it has been noted that, as a rule, though with a few excep- . tions, a marked decline in weight precedes the development of poly- neuritis. Occasionally, however, a pigeon will lose over a third of its initial weight without developing the disease; on the other hand, if a bird maintains its weight, it is only rarely that it develops po neuritis. These relations may be clearly seen by comparing the charts and tables in Part I of this paper. These facts are simply another indication of the close relationship that is known to exist between the antineuritic and the B-growth vitamins. The wide difference which was found in the antineuritic properties of the ox and sheep muscle on the one hand and the hog muscle on the 20 BULLETIN 11388, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. other is surprising. ‘The most reasonable explanation is that this variation is due to a difference in the antineuritic properties of the rations fed to the animals. This view is supported by the work of various investigators who have studied the effect of the character of the ration upon the vitamin content of milk—Dutcher and associ- ates (11) (1920); Drummond and associates (12) (13) (1920) (1921); and Kennedy and Dutcher (1/4) (1922). Unfortunately we have no data as to the effect of the character of the feed consumed upon the antineuritic properties of the muscle of either the ox, sheep, or hog. It is possible, also, that the hog may have the peculiar function of storing up a larger proportion of the vitamin in its tissues than do the other animals named. It is hardly necessary to state that, while the experiments which have been reported in this paper indicate that ox muscle has a much lower antineuritic value than hog muscle, it, of course, does not follow that beef has a low nutritive value. Rather, meat has a high nutri- tive value regardless of its vitamin content, and the presence of one or more of the vitamins in considerable quantities simply enhances the value of meat as a food. Naturally, if meat were the sole source of vitamin B in the diet, or even the most important source, then pork would be preferred to beef; on the other hand, if an ample sup- ply of the B vitamin is furnished by other foods, then the relative antineuritic properties of beef, pork, and mutton become a matter of minor importance. | SUMMARY OF PART I. The results of experiments to determine the antineuritic values of ox, hog, and sheep muscle when fed to pigeons may be summarized as follows: 1. Ox muscle (mature ox).—The samples of ox muscle examined had relatively low antineuritic values when used in rations to the extent of 25 per cent. This percentage would correspond to 3.75 grams of the dried tissue in the daily ration of a pigeon weighing 300 grams. 2. Ox muscle (calf).—The average antineuritic value of the samples tested was practically the same as the average value of the samples from the mature ox. 3. Sheep muscle (lamb).—Two samples of muscle had relatively low antineuritic values; one had a fair value (tongue); and the fourt had a reasonably high value, 25 per cent of the dried muscle in the ration protecting a pen of pigeons against polyneuritis and loss in weight during a period of 32 days. . 4. Hog muscle.—The antineuritic values of the samples of uncooked hog muscle tested were very much higher than those of the ox or sheep muscle. Fifteen per cent of each of the samples tested was sufficient in a ration to protect a pen of pigeons against polyneuritis for a period of 55 days, and in only one instance did a pen of the birds lose shghtly in weight, the other pens gaining from 3.1 to 16.8 per cent. 5. Effect of cooking upon the antineuritic value of hog muscle.—Baked tenderloin had practically the same value as the uncooked muscle, but cooked ham had a slightly lower value than the raw product. However, 15 per cent of cooked ham in a ration protected a pen of pigeons against polyneuritis and loss in weight during a period of 55 days. VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 2] II. VITAMIN B IN THE EDIBLE VISCERA OF THE OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. IMPORTANCE OF EDIBLE VISCERA AS FOOD. In the commercial slaughter of cattle, sheep, and hogs in this country, ee eeny every edible part of the animal for which there is a market is saved for food purposes. The dressed carcass, of course, represents the largest proportion of the total food value of the animal; but the edible by-produéts, in packing-house parlance called ‘edible offal,” are an important source of food. The edible viscera, or internal organs, make up the bulk of the edible by-products. In addition to their other nutritive properties, it has been observed that several of the internal organs are rich in vitamins. In Tables 9 to 12, inclusive, which follow, are shown the yields of blood and edible viscera obtained in the commercial slaughter of several grades of cattle, sheep, and hogs.! Potentially, all the prod- ucts named are available as food, but in practice some of them are saved only in limited quantities on account of the restricted demand for the same, or because it is not profitable to save them. Also there must be deducted from the total yields of the products named those products which have been condemned as unfit for food in accordance with the meat-inspection law. However, even after such corrections have been made, the quantity of edible viscera and blood saved for food purposes represents a very material percentage of the®dressed weight of the ox, the sheep, and the hog. TABLE 9.—Average yield of edible viscera and blood from cattle. ] | | Canner cows, 128 | Medium steers, 71 | Prime steers, 65 head. ead. emer: head. Item. : Per cent Percent | 4— Per cent aye Re of dressed | ange of dressed ge of dressed gil. | weight. o-" | weight. eats | weight. : I Pounds. | Per cent.| Pounds. | Per cent. Pounds. Per cent. ANVeraseHlivieyWweloNtee =o. ees. e set come ce | S05505| See eeecee fas AY EO) he Goookoota Bey Ais WN eSoececsoS Average dressed weight (chilled).......... SEP Olsessogdoue GAOT 0} | Beene ees | SOON eeaseees ILO OC Eee ere ee esses ee toa cee 30.0 7.85 55.0 8.59 80.0 9.99 LINGPs5 Sous 008 e HSS CEC EE ENR S eee | 9.0 2.35 10.0 1.56 14.3 1.7 IBIGE THESE ONES eS ESOS OSS eae eee 2.8 73 3.8 .59 4.4 | +00 ILD: SS 2 Ss Sa oR are eee 6.0 IS EY (| 6.7 1.05 7.0 | . 87 SIDIGDM a5 Sag sastoS bea Goes o ne ee eens 2.0 52 2.2 84 2.2 27 SITIO YS alesis eee ms sui Siecescese esse sue 2.0 52, 2.3 - 36 2.5 31 suomach (edible part). 22.2. 22.022 52122). 15. 5 4.06 | 19.0 2.97 | 19.0 2.37 IIENNG S245 o30/5e aCe G BEE OBE eee eee .8 21 | 1.0 .16 1.0 | 12 onetie (trimmed) =... 22 eo esis 3.4 89 | 4.5 .70 5.8 72 FEEVERCHE AS ere Rect eine dies is cieeew ole pacacoRt a Beeoeaceas | 1.2 19 | 1.3 | 16 SREVATIUS eee repeat eee a eee TS leenobatecd Mmeasoones | .3 05 | +3) 04 Total viscera and blood--.-.-....... U5) 18.70 | 106.0 16.56 | 137.8 17.19 | ' The data from which these tables have been prepared were kindly furnished by one of the large meat- packing establishments located in Chicago. 20 | Item. Average live weight Average dressed weight TABLE 10.—Average yield of edible viscera and blood from calves. BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 1 lot of 33 calves. | Per cent Average weight. Oana Pounds. | Per cent. 37.00 137. 00.42 eee 95. D012c- seeeeeee 5.50 | 5.79 2.70 2. 84 1.00 1.05 2.00 | 2.10 .50 153 60 | 63 3.00 3.15 .50 153 1.10 1.16 ~50 | .. 58 ~05 | 05 17.45 18.36 1 lot of 20 calves. _ Per cent Average | : of dressed weight. | “weight. Pounds. | Per cent. A000 Sea cece WEST A Ss as 6. 60 4, 26 3.60- 2. 32 1.30 . 83 2.90 1. 87 .70 45 1. 20 iis 6. 60 4, 26 . 60 39 1.70 1.10 . 60 39 . 06 . 04 25. 86 16.68 TABLE 11.—Average yreld of edible viscera and blood from sheep. 1 lot of 20 sheep. 1 lot of 20 sheep. Tike Average | Percent | average | ved cans Be weight. — penent a weight. oaEEE | Pounds. | Per cent. | Pounds. | Per cent. Average live weight...........2........ 25} (01) | aes 99:00)|.5-. 23555 Average dressed weight..............-. 3):5/1)) | ssBeeeaesse LALO Ne eee 3.20 | 8. 40 3. 80°) 7.29 1.30 | 3. 41 1.40 2.69 -40— 1.05 - 40 siltt 1.10. 2.89 1.20 | 2.30 20 | ~ 53 20 | -38 . 20 - 53 - 20 | -38 3.50 | 9.19 3.90 | 7.48 - 20 | .53 20 | sae ~40 | 1.05 -50 | - 96 | -06 | -16 07 | 13 10. 56 | 27.74 1187S Soe ! | 1 lot of 20 sheep. f | Per cent Average - of dressed weight. | Weight. | | Pounds. Per cent. 00 TABLE 12.—Average yield of edible viscera and blood from hogs. Average of several | tests. Item. Per cent | Weight. | dressed weight. see sirei i a Pounds. | Per cent. Average live weight...........-.-....----. Wie 20,0) Eee Average dressed weight. .-.-..-...-.-...-. Peg JEBSID Sateen ss 6.0 4.05 2.8 1.89 6 41 2 13 4 oat 1.1 . 74 -3 . 20 8 . 54 Total viscera and blood............. IPP) 8. 23 Average of several tests. Per cent Weight. | grcked weight Pounds. | Per cent 30050) oc Sess 228.0) acco = eens 7.9| 3.46 3.5 1, 53 if .3l oe .22 5 .22 1.3 or -3 13 1.0 ~ 44 15.7 | 6. 88 DUT SOO ME ere niose cso S00) Peeee- sso 4.50 | 7.89 1. 80 | 3.16 . 50 88 1.10 1.93 -20 | 230 20 +30 4,50 | 7.89 - 30 | 703 - 50 . 88 13.60 23. 86 Average of several tests. Per cent Weight. | groded weight. Pounds. | Per cent ANOION Cocce coca BUA) | EAR e Race 10.0 3.25 4.0 1.30 .8 «26 A) yy 8 . 26 1.8 - 58 03 -10 1.3 42 19.5 6.34 VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 23 PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS WITH EDIBLE VISCERA. Cooper (6) (15), (1912) (1914) studied the antineuritic properties of a number of animal tissues in feeding tests with pigeons. Ox liver had the highest value, the daily addition of 0.9 grams of the dry tissue to the ration of pigeons being sufficient to protect them against polyneuritis for 50 days. The following quantities of each of the other tissues tested had like values: Ox heart, 1.7 grams; ox cere- brum, 1.2 grams; ox cerebellum, 2.4 grams; and sheep cerebrum, 1.6 to 3 grams. McCollum and Davis (16) (1915) report that the addition of dried pig heart or kidney to the “fat-free diet”’ of rats that were declining in weight greatly stimulated growth, the kidney having greater value than the heart. Eddy (17) (1916) found that the water-soluble portion of an alco- holic extract of sheep pancreas was capable of inducing marked growth in rats that. had previously been fed a vitamin-free diet. Osborne and Mendel (/8) (1918) studied the value of dried pig heart, liver, kidney, and brain in the diets of young rats as a source of vitamins A and B, as well as of protein. They found that 19 per cent of pig heart in the ration as the sole source of protein and vitamins A and B induced normal growth in rats. Similar results were obtained with a ration containing 22 per cent of pig kidney. Rats made normal growth on a ration that contained 32.5 per cent of pig brain as a source of vitamin B, vitamin A being supplied in the form of butterfat. Ten per cent of pig brain did not supply sufficient vitamin B for growth. Seven per cent of pig liver, in an - otherwise adequate diet, did not furnish sufficient vitamin B for growth; but when 10 per cent of liver was added, satisfactory growth took place. McCollum, Simmonds, and Parsons (10) (1921) found that 25 per cent of dried ox liver or of ox kidney in a ration furnished an ample supply of vitamins A and B for growth and reproduction in white rats. Rats receiving 20 per cent-of ox kidney in the ration also grew and reproduced normally, but those getting 20 per cent of ox liver did not do so well. One lot of rats that was fed solely on dried ox blood declined rapidly in weight and at the end of two weeks the ration was changed to contain 50 per cent of dried ox muscle. The rats then grew at about half the normal rate. EXPERIMENTAL WORK. The method of procedure followed in these experiments was prac- tically the same as that employed in the tests with muscle tissue described in Part I. The various tissues studied were obtained in fresh conditions from local meat-packing establishments and were dried in the manner previously described. The dry tissue was used in all tests and the polished rice was first ground and then heated four hours at 120° C. in an autoclave before being used in the rations. TESTS WITH OX LIVER. The results of the feeding tests with ox liver are presented in Table 13. Three pens of pigeons were fed rations which contained 5, 15, and 30 per cent, respectively, of ox liver. By comparing the survival 24 BULLETIN 11388, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. periods and the changes in weight of the three pens of pigeons, it is apparent that neither 5 nor 15 per cent of ox liver in the ration was sufficient to protect the birds against polyneuritis for any considerable time, but that 30 per cent of ox liver was sufficient to protect three pigeons for at least 105 days. Each of the three pigeons had gained in weight and was in fine condition at the close of the test, but the fourth bird getting the same ration developed polyneuritis on the ninety-third day. The changes in weight of the pigeons are shown in Figure 21. TABLE 13.—Experimental feeding of dried ox liver and polished rice. Shi Sent Pigeon Survival Change in) Liver ration. Avot period. | weight. Result. PEN 30. Days. | Per cent. | SpPencenwoxIlLvertsceaecen: eh as eee 110 44 —15.3 | Polyneuritis. DD) ORE eR See ee ce os a ee | 114 39 —28, 2 | Do. DOMES Eee DURES Ea | 115 45 —17.0 Do. DDT EO Oey See Fe Oi Rae BOR Se ee | 117 40)| 92/9 Do. PASVOTBPOR 2 - Ses ces cesnsste west cee Sleeper. « 42 —20.9 PEN 36. R 1S MP EdNT CORINA 5 a45seseedsedeesee bos) 116 55 | —14.8 | Fair condition at end of test. DEN Pe ER er? Bete Sa a | 118 | 40 —10.8 | Polyneuritis. 1) CS Pe Sree Pye ek IA Jean oA } 119 37 —1.8 | Do. YOR a pen orn AD RI ED lee | 121 45 —10.0 Do. ASV OVERS anlontelaeae sciseis = bis =o Sad Josie oa Dee = eth |e a= (eth PEN 37. 30 PEMCenbiOxMllVeRyes) sce ees ous Gosek ee 120 105 +19.3 | Fine condition at end of test. (CSS AS ERE SS. 2 SSeS eerie 123 105 + 9.9 Do. 1D) ORS sae anaes aac k Nags Soak SE SS 124 105 + 2.4 0. iD) OR een ea erate ee: ees Sie 214 93 — 1.3 | Polyneuritis. PANVOTA PO Soares eee aoe trae eoes oe 102 + 7.6 ' PEN 36 - PEW SS PEN F7 COLI LL ep TEE 30 PER CENT LWER LAICH HORIZONTAL SFYICE REPRESENTS 10 277YS Fic. 21.—Dried ox liver; changes in weights of pigeons fed. TESTS WITH CALF LIVER. The results of the feeding tests with calf liver are shown in Table 14. Three pens of pigeons. were fed rations which contained 5, 15, and 30 Be cent, respectively, of calf liver. On taking into consideration oth the survival periods of the pigeons and their changes in weights, it is evident that the ration which contained 5 per cent calf liver had the lowest antineuritic value, followed in turn by those containing 15 and 30 per cent of the tissue. The changes in the weights of the birds are seen in Figure 22. VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 25 Taste 14.—Experimental feeding of dried calf liver and polished rice. Abe ‘6 Pigeon | Survival |Change in : Liver ration. onNr Ee period. | weight. Result. PEN 38. Days. | Percent. AY S)percent calf livepy..-....-.--..--+-----2-- 46 19 —28.1 | Polyneuritis. IDO doacaaieeah s tacqeaosee esas Eanes 52 50 | —389.2 | Very thin, end of test. Do Nes aR eN Bee emery OSU | 57 50 —41.5 Do. INGORE ds S ca pS COC SSE DSR HE CRE Ee GEES eC oeee 39.7 | —36.3 | PEN 39. ADM M COMM CALI VETs jokes alelel=jstaiciet-(= ale le/e)-1=i2'e ctmr= 138 28 —7.8 | Polyneuritis. IDOSsoee Bee a ateteos Ne envelope bicparavee Bisie 140 74 —23.6 Do. DOs ccctaceedesconeneelt ate oeeae eee 141 65 —28.3 Do. :; IDO) popaoSeosSen ans a nSS Tee eaeaaeeeee 1 143 48 —28.8 | Died, pneumonia. PAW CLAD OMe Nene [kos need Be awellay Shield eiets | 55.7 —19.9 PEN 40. BOMPeLcenticaliviversee-ss---d22ce2ssae-0--- | 62 55 —13.7 | Polyneuritis. OME eee staat snaeeeta tes 65 55 +16.0 Do. IDO) sa poososasbobe te Ren Eee SOO acl s tee 13 65 —4,4 Do. 1D) OMB e eas is geSueea cc clea 145 89 —2.5 Do. SAV OTS CMap ee ts ein ome pris mac oie See) ace lleisinelels 66 —1.2 1 Data for this pigeon excluded from average. PEN 78 PEN 322 PEN FO SPER CENT LIVER 48 PER CENT LIVER 3O PER CENT LIVER | == =: + dj | lata i | “a { |p ce [Epa | | [seas ia AN a (ei EACH HORIZONTAL SPACE REPRESENTS /O DAYS Fic. 22.—Dried calf liver; changes in weights of pigeons fed. TESTS WITH LAMB LIVER AND HOG LIVER. In Table 15 are presented the results of the feeding tests with lamb liver and hog liver. The ration contaiming 15 per cent of lamb liver had a very low antineuritic value, the average survival period of the pen of birds being only 21 days and the loss in weight 11.4 per cent. The ration which contained 25 per cent of lamb liver had a considerably higher antineuritic value, the survival period for the pen being 62 days out of a possible 70 days. One pigeon developed polyneuritis on the thirty-eighth day, one died from an injury on the sixty-eighth day, and the three other birds completed the test. The results of the tests with hog liver were more favorable than those with lamb liver. The pen of pigeons getting 15 per cent of hog liver in their feed showed a survival period of 62 days out of a possible 70. One bird developed polyneuritis on the thirty-seventh 26 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. day, but the three others finished the test either in good or in fine condition. The pen showed a gain in weight of 4 per cent. The pigeons that were fed 25 per cent of hog ‘liver in their ration all completed the 70-day test in fine condition with an average gain in weight of 12.1 per cent. Figures 23 and 24 show the changes in weights of the pigeons on the lamb-liver and hog-liver diets. TABLE 15.—Experimental feeding of dried lamb and hog liver with polished rice. Nl . . Pigeon | Survival Change in Liver ration. i period. weight. Result. PEN 41. Days. | Per cent. 15 per cent lamb liver--........ =. -:-=-=4.26 164 20, —14.3 | Polyneuritis. DO Seer ee eee rs ee ees vadee 165 22 —12.9 Do. DO ee eit ERE oh Sic noe Annee eee 166 16) —9.9 Do. UD easels seo SaGnOS ano See en ree 167 24 —10.2 Do. DO See eee memes torce eae one 168 24 | —9.7 Do. PAVBTAR OF aon SESE ee GEL eae | Dia sated PEN 42. 25 ee centilamb divers s.-- =~ once d-cus-ccece 159 70 | —2.3 | Fine condition end of test. SOP mem Seem oe naieae ees cis od cece 160 | 38 | —12.8 | Polyneuritis. Do Sapsctisss 2sisscss0saonsesesese Bie) 5< 161 70 | -+18.3 | Fine condition end of test. DYES Se a SoS B 55 Sree te Cee em he 5 162 70 —15.6 | Fair condition end of test. IDEAS Cue eas Sa Soe Ge eRe ats <= 1163 | 68) —7.4 | Died, injury. ASV CLA LC se ieetare eae tne na boas a eet 62 | ea PEN 43 | Abipercentimovelivers-s-fo--o.. se cence 155 | 37 —3.6 | Polyneuritis. BD Ye Fes Se Te 2 ee Pa ea a eae 156 | 70 | —1.6 Guodi condition end of test. WD OSs oe ee eer bie ee i. heey See 157 | 70 | +9.8 | Fine condition end of test. ED) OB ee een eer et eee Eien ee 158 | 70 +11.3 Do. PRY Xo ae eS SSE REE | 5 62 +4.0 PEN 44. 25 se centihogiliver: 2... 2:22: sense 149 | 70 +16. 2 Do ae an an anon oie eae eae 150 | 70 +8.4 Do De BS a OSG SECU SES Ie ea ity 151 70 +14.8 Do 1D Yes Peo 5 Sed ey AR eS 308 | 70 +8.8 Do VAG ETA GEE aE ee Oo rene one Sch ee | 70 SU} il 1 Data for this pigeon excluded aa average. PEN F/ PEN 42 LEELA GLEIN TIGA Ee CF FZ CLAN Tamed ee FSO FOO 440 4Z2O : 400 ‘ 360 \Y 360 ) 340 320 JOO <80 200 LACH HORIZONTAL SKYICE REPRESENTS 1/0 DAYS Fic. 23.—Dried lamb liver; changes in weights of pigeons fed. fines nec VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 27 PEN FB fies PEN #2 4S- PER CENT LIVER 25 PER CENT LIVER | at aor, HIORIZONTAIL SKAICLE REPRESENTS /0 DFS Fic. 24.—Dried hog liver; changes in weights of pigeons fed. TESTS WITH OX HEART AND HOG HEART. Four pens of pigeons of four birds each were fed rations containing 15 and 25 per cent of ox heart and of hog heart, respectively, during a period of 55 days. There was not a * single case of polyneuritis and every bird had gained in weight, the percentages ranging from 2.7 to 21.1. The average gains for the pens of birds ranged from 6.9 to 14.3 per cent, the | pigeons getting the ox-heart rations making slightly larger gains than the others. ‘The high antimeuritic value of ox heart and hog heart is evident. Figures 25 and 26 show the changes in the weights of the pigeons fed ox heart and hog heart. TaBLE 16.—Experimental feeding of dried ox heart and hog heart with polished rice. j | . . : “ | Pigeon | Survival Change in| Gare ration. No. period. | weight. | Result. PEN 45. Per cent. ‘ +12.3 | Fine condition end of test. +21.1 Do. +15.0 Do. +5.5 | Good condition end of test. | +13.5 | fe UE er PEN 46. | | 25 per cent ox heart....-.. Bd Sao Pee ee 15 55 +12.1 | Fine condition end of test. ID@sccaoon co cto aeeR eee 16 55 +16.7 Do. IDO SHnaea Doce GheaOROe Tae Ree, 17 55 +19.1 Do. ED) OWS ee ae ese ee tak ae eed toe 18 55 +9.2 Do. BAWVIET AP Oscreperetnt ys mers in B Panera ay neat Red eee ie 55 +14.3 PEN 47 | 15 Bete Centyhorshearteeresea seen es 2 55 +4.6 Do SSG od ORO SECC BESSA See tee a aNeeees ae 28 55 +10.3 Do Do Re Edoc eo es BOSE BOR C EEO Bee Hoe aeeee 29 55 +9.8 Do aD) OMe ose EN a Ore 30 55 42.7 Do ASTOR aso BSE BE ees er D 55 +6.9 PEN 48. Bamponcentihoguhneartectn..- os eases Unt 23 55 +15.0 Do Uscacksdeeusd Seen CBOE OE Ee nE eee res 24 55 +9.8 Do DDO oe Sa aR CSE Re ee Tes Seema 25 55 +12. 2 Do WORM eee ase sR ee an 26 55 +12.5 Do PANU OTELD @ meres ops food ntee setulae SOR RD 55 +12.4 28 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PEW Fol PEN F6 48 PER CENT HEART OS FEE IGEINW TRISTE Ta 260 LACH HORIZONTAL SFACE REPRESENTS 10 27S Fig. 25.—Dried ox heart; changes in weights of pigeons fed. PEN 47 PEN FS SPELL OLIN Ta IDA ee a2 FER CLNITASIELTSE LATCH HORIZONTAL. SYVICE RLEFRESEIV7S /O L277 Fic. 26.—Dried hog heart; changes in weights of pigeons fed. TESTS WITH LAMB HEART. The results of the tests with lamb heart are presented in Table 17. None of the birds fed the ration which contamed 15 per cent lamb heart developed polyneuritis during the test period of 63 days; one bird lost 7.4 per cent in weight, while the two others gained 3.7 and 2.7 per cent, respectively. Three pigeons were fed a ration con- taining 25 per cent lamb heart; one developed polyneuritis on the thirty-fourt day, even though it had gained 8.5 per cent in weight; the two other birds-were in fine condition at the close of the test on the sixty-third day. Figure 27 shows the changes in weight of pigeons that were fed lamb heart. TABLE 17. gee ee EY of dried lamb heart and polished rice. | : : Pigeon | supieal| Change | Heart ration. No. period. jin weight. Result. roan tT) Weal r PEN 49. | | Days. | Percent. | : 15 was contilamb: hesrissosa ce sec seh ote 2 63 +3.7 Fine condition end of test. DO: ee ses ee ee eS 2b 134 63 —7.4 | Do. DOE 2 roe oaes Uae cae cor oe pee 176 63 +2.7 | Do. AVersgels: ices AAS ea es oa se eee 63 —0.3 PEN 50. | | 25 a ve lamb Neat. -- cosas sees 82 | 63 | +17.5 Do. ic et Senet eee oy Eaten 2 838 63 +10. 5 | Done De Eee OEE ee pas Sees 284 34 +8.5 | Polyneuritis. VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 29 : PEN 50 NT 25 PER CENT HEART 48 PER CENT HEART <—3O 260 EACH HORIZONTAL. SPACE REPRESENTS /O DAYS Fic. 27.—Dried lamb heart; changes in weights of pigeons fed. TESTS WITH OX KIDNEY AND HOG KIDNEY. The results of the feeding experiments with ox kidney and hog kidney are presented in Tabie 18. Fifteen per cent of ox kidney in a ration was sufficient to protect three pigeons against polyneuritis for a period of 63 days, and all the birds were in good condition at the close of the test. The average change in weight of the birds on this ration was a loss of 4 per cent. The ration containing 25 per cent of ox kidney also protected three pigeons against polyneuritis during a period of 63 days and the birds were in good condition at the close of the test. The average change in weight of the birds was a gain of 6.3 per cent. A fourth pigeon in the pen died on the fifty- first day from an unknown cause. It apparently was in normal condition on the previous day. TaBLE 18.—Experimental feeding of dried ox and hog kidney with polished rice. | : ; F Change ats : Pigeon | Survival qeane) Kidney ration. N F in Result. No. | period. weight PN el Days Per cent. HaericentOoxiadneyrst sc. S20 esses 28 63 —6.6 | Good condition end of test. IDO), SUS SE A SOS Ie aE eR rae 29 63 —0.9 | Do. IDO ean Gdseaseud Come A taba S Hep Marae 35 63 —4.5 Do. BN VICTAS Chae atte as thal > Jae eS Orcas 63 —4.0 PEN 52. | ZopeU COMbOXekKIGNe yess ees ease 24 63 +4.5 Do. 2 IDDsGosoeUcosus Gee BESS EON ee SES ape eeeebed 25 63 +7.6 | Do. BD) rae more eS AAS ik Pale Sa 26 63 +5.8 Do IDX) oe Heh ces lees Sets A I eae ee 197 51 +1.0 |) Died INNA RNEOLS Se eral ey ee ee eae ens Ue Pea eR Sea 63 +6.3 | PEN 53. | lppericentihomkidney.---. 24:5. ....0----5- 65 | 63 | —8.6 | Good condition end of test. ID OSES GE SOD ASE SSSA ESS eee eee ee 66 63 —3.5 Do. DOS wee os 5 Scag AERA ae aa 67 63 | +7.2 Do. ASTOR R056 55 SERS ee | ee ee 63 | +0.03 PEN 54. BOMerCent Mog Kidney... 2-0-2... eee 37 63 +7.8 Do. IDO eee ESS SEA SERS ERIE TRO ian aU he 61 63 | +11.5 | Do. TD ans ci ee ee Ray Ie 62 | 63 | +2.6 | Do. TDG; sees Sue Sea Mi eed ci 63 63} +13.6 Do. ING ORNS: ioe TSE ee aes (aloe Seeares Tn 63 | +8.9 = 1 Data for this pigeon excluded from average. 30 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The rations containing 15 and 25 per cent, respectively, of hog kidney, each protected pigeons against polyneuritis for a period o 63 days and all the birds were in good condition at the end of the test. The birds getting the ration that contained 15 per cent hog kidney maintained their weight, and those getting 25 per cent hog kidney in their feed gained an average of 8.9 per cent. On comparing the results of the tests with ox kidney and hog kidney it appears that they have practically the same antineuritic value. Figures 28 and 29 show the changes in the weights of the pigeons fed the ox- and hog-kidney rations. Pall on TANS ae 42 FER CENT KIDNEY 2S FER CENIMTIEAN Ee FOO ( laalael ial =. lane pall F830} : = t nie | y 260 | AN eee , ie N SFO laity | a ies t VU 520) eS K/ + & 300} 1M A SP aN | [al Gu 280 — : a 1 LACH HORIZONTAL SFYICE REPRESENTS /0 29775 Fic. 28.—Dried ox kidney; changes in weights of pigeons fed. FHI OD: DI er 4S PER CENT KIDNEY 25 FLEE CANTEAAWON Aa lia ie ed LICH HORIZONTAL SPLICE REPRESENTS (0 DAYS Fic. 29.—Dried hog kidney; changes in weights of pigeons fed. TESTS WITH OX SPLEEN AND HOG SPLEEN. In Table 19 are presented the results of the feeding tests with ox spleen and hog spleen. Fifteen per cent of ox spleen in a ration was sufficient to protect three out of four pigeons against poly- neuritis during a test period of 57 days, but the fourth bird devel- oped the disease on the fifty-second day. The average loss in weight of the birds was 13 per cent. Twenty-five per cent of ox spleen protected four pigeons for 57 days and the average loss in weight was 15.6 per cent. The feeding tests with hog spleen yielded results very similar to those obtained with ox spleen. Fifteen per cent of hog spleen pro- tected three pigeons against polyneuritis for 57 days, but one bird developed the disease on the forty-ninth day. Twenty-five per cent of hog spleen protected three pigeons for 57 days, but one bird, No. 67, was greatly emaciated at the close of the test. Another bird, No. 83, died on the forty-fourth day without havmg shown any characteristic symptoms of polyneuritis. Every pen of pigeons on the ox-spleen and hog-spleen diets lost considerably in weight, the percentages ranging from 13 to 20.4. Figures 30 and 31 show the changes in the weights of the pigeons fed the ox- and hog-spleen rations. — VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 31 Tasie 19.—Experimental feeding of dried ox spleen and hog spleen with polished rice. 5 | Change : é Pigeon | Survival | | 2 Spleen ration. | Result. Pp No. | period. i weight. | Lae cee | : oe PEN 55. De | Per cent. —23.4 | Fair condition end of test. HH —5.0 | Good condition end of test. 52 —0.4 | Polyneuritis. 57 | —23.0 | Fair condition end of test. 56 | _ —13.0 | | 57 —6.3 | Fair condition end of test. 57 | —12.8 Do. 57 | —24.6 Do. 57 —18.7 | Do. 57 —15.6 | PEN 57. 15 per Cenighogispleenteene-acaseno ce oe. <= | 65 49 —12.0 | Polyneuritis. SER GCORO SCAB BRO in earl aeaens | 66 57 —14.5 Fair condition end of test. De BAe orarrs ecm ona LEMUELG -3 Sette ae. A | 68 57 —28.0 | Poor condition end of test MB) eee ae iseiole oj thee eta ete band | 71 | 51 —6.2 | Fair condition end of test. PAW CLAP Cree eecinele ie Saisie Se Se cia s Re eee ee 55 —15.2 | PEN 58 | | 25 perc centghopispleemeeccs =< sce costes 29 57 —0.6 | Good condition end of test. GSD Cn Oe SOD S ROSE Ee HEE e er eee 35 57 —12.6 | Fair condition end of test. Do Ee ae ote aniste ae eiceiciiscic + wine 67 57 | —47.9 | Very poor condition end of | test. I@oasscocsoocbacnt € oes eeEE HEE aE Ooee 183 | 44 —17.0 | Died. SAV. CLAS Oba ae ene ee asian ee Seo ok sul Pe | 57 —20. 4 1 Data for this bird excluded from average. Felt SS PEN 450 TDi lel EIR CLIN TS SIPLEEIN ao PLN CEN In SELEEN, EVICH HORIZONTAIL SIFAFCE REPRESENTS (0 DAYS Fig. 30.—Dried ox spleen; changes in weights of pigeons fed. PEN $7 45 PER CENT SPLEEN FEN 2S 2S PER CENT SFPLELIV N Q Q 12 s ale LAICH PIORIZONTAIL SPICE REPRESENTS /O PAYS Fia. 31.—Dried hog spleen; changes in weights of pigeons fed. 32 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT %F AGRICULTURE. THE EFFECT OF HEATING UPON THE ANTINEURITIC VALUE OF OX LIVER, HEART, AND KIDNEY. Since liver, heart, and kidney are, of course, not used in a raw condition. as human food, it is important to know the effect of cooking upon the antineuritic value of these tissues. In Table 20 are pre- sented the results of feeding experiments with pigeons to test the effects of heating upon the antineuritic properties of ox liver. The changes in weight are shown in Figures 32 and 33. TaBLe 20.—Effect of heating ox liver on its antineuritte value. | Pigeon | Survivab/Change in| Result Liver ration. No. period. | weight. PEN 59. d Days. | Per cent. 30 per cent ox liver heated 2 hours at 100° C.. - 91 18 —18.5 | Polyneuritis. TDL Se aat saat We hone ee ee a eiONE D 92 20 —6.0 | Died. 1D Ya TRS ORs OFS Brees! Lee ea ee © 93 20 —18.0 | Polyneuritis. ID ee ee aa sob nc SU SSS EEA ABE AABBe Ss SES inate OH) —17.9 | Thin, active, end of test. IAVOLASC. saa ctefeiseiss = Meiclslc siclecvte «is cc tate eee pay) Sane PEN 60. 30 per cent ox liver heated 2 hours at 124° CNinvautoclaves: tens ere ec necro tee 86 25 —16.8 | Polyneuritis. DO soe cas ce ee eee enc c Ses ore oe 88 23 —13.9 Do. DO a re eens Saat eee cae 89 17 —17.6 Do. DO ee ee ene ene nigh eicnisicccnegiemienne 556 24 —23.7 Do. IAM OTA PO ca tecce ke no sak haloes oe soos Ole eee 22 —18.0 | PEN 61 30 per cent ox liver heated 2 hours at 130° | | CeinvautodlavGsen ca soseeacaesacic anecee ct } 81 25 —24.3 Do. DO 2 Pee ec ee oe te as eee oe eee 82 32 —34.7 Do. D072 Sr ccc te ee ee eich cans aesge 83 30 —44.9 Do. DO ss So: an ee oes i= esas Sees we 84 | 35 —27.7 | Fair condition end of test. INGUIN hoon ae Ge CCE SEE RE on eee Beamer tae | 31 | —32.9 | toi 169 70 —4,2 Do. Bal 170 | 43 —9.8 | Polyneuritis. 171 65 —25.4 Do. 172 48 —2.9 Do. 173 | 7 —1.5 | Fair condition end of test. pSeP ey oes scented eee one | 59| —11.0 PEN 63. | | 25 per cent ox liver baked 30 minutes at 186° | Cle. Se EAs cece inns Ase he eae ihta| le we 4 42 —12.1 | Polyneuritis. DO.-5 -achesewsumeet yosteeeteseessocee 5 | 55 +3.7 | Fine condition end of test. D0 Bete Dae seer ee. eee. Ee 6 55 +1.6 Do. PRY OT Cea Asis SEC IOS Se CIOS SBE AB AS BSCR OODCE 51 —2.3 Pen 59 was fed a ration which contained 30 per cent of liver that had been heated two hours in live steam at 100° C. The liver was first dried in the usual way and then spread out in a thin layer in pans and heated in an Arnold sterilizer for two hours and again dried. The result of the feeding test with the ration containing 30 per cent of this lot of liver indicates that the antimeuritic value of the tissue had been largely destroyed. One pigeon developed poly- neuritis on the eighteenth day, another on the twentieth day, a third died on the same day without positive symptoms of polyneuritis, while the fourth bird was in fair condition on the thirty-fifth day when the test was concluded. VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 38 Pen 60 was fed a ration containing 30 per cent of ox liver that had been heated two hours in an autoclave at 124° C. The previously dried liver was spread out in a thin layer in pans and heated in an autoclave under the conditions stated, and then dried in the usual way. The result of the feeding test with this lot of liver indicated that the antineuritic properties of the tissue had been practically destroyed. The four pigeons on this ration developed polyneuritis on the seventeenth, twenty-third, twenty-fourth, and twenty-fifth days, respectively. The average survival period was 22 days, and the average loss in weight was 18 per cent. EN OO PEN 67 IO PER CENT LIVER JO PER CENT LIVER JO PER CENT COOKED 2 HOURS 777 COOKED 2 OURS OX LWVER COOKED 2 400 DEGREES C/N 797 124 DECKLLS C = HOURS 797 430 DECRLES STEAT “NAAN TOCLAWE CIN AN AYTOCLAVE F2O (Poe —— a , LACK HORIZONTAL SFHICE REPRESENTS /O DAYS - Fig. 32.—Cooked ox liver; changes in weights of pigeons fed. : FLW OS PEN 62 3BZO N 300 § <3O 260 240 220 200 E407 HORIZONTAL SPACE REPRESENTS 10 DAKS 4'1G. 35—Dried ox brains; changes in weights of pigeons fed. PEN OF PEN 7O 45 PER CENT BRAINS 2S FER CENT BRAINS F2O; FO bh 280: N 3260} Y IFO § 320 JOO; —SO} na } OO oe FORIZONTAL 3 SHAICE PEPRESENTS 10 29° S Fic. 36—Dried lamb brains; changes in weights of pigeons fed. iat aire nite i ceie': VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 37 TESTS WITH OX LUNGS AND LAMB LUNGS. In Table 23 are presented the results of the feeding tests with ox lungs and lamb lungs. The ox lungs appeared to have a fair - antineuritic value. Two of the pigeons which were fed the ration containing 15 per cent of ox lungs were in good condition at the close of the test; one bird developed polyneuritis on the forty-second day; and the other died at the same time. The ration containing 25 per cent of ox lungs had a somewhat higher antineuritic value. Two of the pigeons were in good condition and two were in fair condition at the close of the test. TaBLe 23.—Experimental feeding of dried ox lungs and lamb lungs with polished rice. c Pigeon | Survival) Change Lung ration. No. period. in weight. Result. | PEN 71. Days. | Per cent. Homer COM Ox MUMeSE he sees sc ene wlafeeiens - 6 55 —5.9 | Good condition end of test. 1S) Oe re ree Sora er Rpm io ie ic Mi eonenal scoreless 22 ‘42 -—13.1 | Polyneuritis. IDO). Sse so Se oadacd SaSROE GSE EGRET aE aa 34 55 | —9.0 | Good condition end of test. TDG). seqcbosde asc ccusee eee eee 72 42 |. —17.4 | Died. ASTRO abo SoS SAS SSSR SEI aD Gon ceo ee eee AQ e114 PEN 72. | | OMDEICENLORIUN SS ee ses cee yeeinie wae ceieiataie 21 55 —15.1 | Good condition end of test. 1D) OS ee eee ee ab aieieiee 6 85 55 | —26.4 | Fair condition end of test. IDOE SJu SO SSE CASO CREE eer ae ore aera nes 92 55 —16.3 | Good condition end of test. IDYO SEU Sie eC i ee ans 95 | 55 —18.8 | Fair condition end of test. ACV OLA gO a es Meee an cei te vosise sacs ce [Secrets 55 —19.2 PEN 73. Wonpercentilambilungsiee ss sa oes ssn =i 50 33 | —18.3 | Polyneuritis. ID) Oe ee es ace ee Sisters wsicimieictaieies 51 55 | —20.9 | Very thin end of test. IDO sebor bh Sane Sos SHS be eae a eae 57 21 | —2.6 | Removed account extreme weakness. 1D) Sao Gat SRO Ed SSS ROO SnCu SE ae ereraee 59 21 —6.3 | Polyneuritis. PACNGTELE © water me pers in farete | Siayiayaatavaisieatsaicieii| nissan 33 —12.0 PEN 74. Zompericentlamblunes: s42s22- 22+. --saee- = 52 50 —27.2 | Died. 1D) ao ribea Abe Seale Hae ee ee eee 54 55 —12.0 | Poor condition end of test. IDO Sastoseoesoaebb cue eset ee 55 55) —14.6 Do. IDYO a Soe GGUS UE ae tne) Bk Re 100 45 | —31.3 | Died. PASVICTAE Caine tiet yay pee eeu See Se zd Ra DE re RE 51 —21.3 Lamb lungs appeared to have a rather lower antineuritic value than the ox lungs tested. The ration containing 15 per cent of lamb lungs protected four pigeons against polyneuritis for an average period of only 33 days, and the ration which contained 25 per cent of the tissue protected four birds for an average period of 51 days. Two birds getting the latter ration died of inanition on the forty-fifth and fiftieth days, respectively, after having suffered severe losses in weight, but without showing any characteristic symptoms of poly- neuritis. The two surviving birds were in poor condition at the close of the test. The changes in the weights of the pigeons during the test are shown in Figures 37 and 388. 38 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FEIN AE PEN 72 45 PER CENT LUNGS Wate tie S$ 370155 ——+t a irs {320 \ al Pan 300} YE A Ap ~ | M Pape O) | } 240 \-+ + t Ga, - | — 1 | 1 = =! =a EACH HORIZON TAIL SFVICE REPRESENTS 10 DAYS Fic. 37—Dried ox lungs; changes in weights of pigeons fed. AUN. PRES PEN 74 45 PER CENT LUNGS 25 PER CENT LUNGS /8O Fic. 38—Dried lamb lungs; changes in weights of pigeons fed. TESTS WITH CALF PANCREAS AND HOG PANCREAS. In Table 24 are presented the results of the feeding tests with calf pancreas and hog pancreas. Calf pancreas appears to have a rather low antineuritic value. The rations contaiming 15 and 25 per cent, respectively, of the tissue had practically the same value, the average survival period and the loss in weight being practically the same for the two pens of pigeons getting these rations. Hog pancreas appears to have a slightly higher antimeuritic value than calf pancreas. The pigeons that were fed the ration containing 15 per cent of hog pancreas showed an average survival period of 29 days and a loss in weight of 23.2 per cent; while the birds that received 25 per cent of hog pancreas in their food showed an average survival period of 41 days and a loss in weight of only 9.6 per cent. Two birds receiving this ration were in good condition at the close of the test on the fifty-fifth day. The changes in the weights of the pigeons during the test are shown in Figures 39 and 40. VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 989 Tain 24.—LExperimental feeding of dried calf pancreas and hog pancreas with polished rice. : : ‘ Change j Pigeon | Survival : Pancreas ration. se in Result. No. period. weight. PEN 75. Days. | Per cent. 15 per cent calf pancreas.......-.----------- 73 37 —34.9 | Died, inanition. 1DYG),+ Khicceadaos So dcedel en iadope Seco aeparadS 75 47 —38.3 | Polyneuritis. IDM) sj yoduaoouoGoUsoMSOURDEdeEEeOnboape 69 35 —11.3 Do. IDY)s cogucopoucccoancobRSbEsepoSusoedoee 86 24 —44.3 | Died, inanition. INS/CTER 32.5 Soe codes by Sen Ses USE eee eden pareor acces 36 —32. 2 PEN 76 25 per cent calf pancreas......-.-.---------- 8 32 —32.3 | Polyneuritis. IDO)secaboanadabsebods dobeGbabodetancetoas 81 55 —42.9 | Very thin, weak, end of test. IDO US bo EG UEs Se cee ae eS Het a aaa 89 25 —24.5 | Polyneuritis. Dk sen soadse so boeor seqee Seon eee eacae 96 30 —36.8 | Died. INO PES sd oboe cusdgee qpeeegal be beUP eos adeopooleG 36 —34. 1 PEN 77 15 per cent hog pancreas..-...-.------------ 26 17 —11.6 | Polyneuritis. IDOsao be acoso hose dasBAGare Se beeBSUSrnor 79 52 —50.3 | Died, inanition. IDOs4 sek edooossdcadoougBeboeeeeesnesEasEE 82 10 —5.1 | Polyneuritis. IDO CS oe a AUS USE EE RBC OORO ACE aan Sae BEE 4 87 35 —25.9 Do. INP TYZO 330 oo-das chaepadcoousscapestouo|sccosecsoc 29 —23. 2 PEN 78 25 per cent hog pancreas.........-..-------- 80 17 —6.2 Do. IDO asco dcdudecdobnsosese base uncousance 98 55 —10.1 | Good condition end of test. IDOL ee Osea ue amet Bae eee esas cavers IO 181 55 —1.9 Do. SD) OR See seiay aeons eraisy-te asiciie ic Sie 192 38 —20.3 | Died. JMWGIE G55 Sooonc cana ne eanebeSsesbuEss|seooueocor 41 —9.6 PEN 75 PEN 7O 48 PER CENT 2S FER CENTE PPINCRE/SIS PYPINCRESIS I8BO 360 IFO % 320 x 300 N 280 § 260 2FO 220 200 /80 IL LACH HORIZONTAL SPICE REPRESENTS 10 Q4YS” Fig. 39.—Dried calf pancreas; changes in weights of pigeons fed. PEN 77 PEN 783 4S. PER CENT 25 PER CENT PANCREAS PANCREAS LA a IL SO LIHH HIORIZONTAIL. SPICE REPRESENTS /O DAYS F rg. 40.—Dried hog pancreas; changes in weights of pigeons fed. 40 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TESTS WITH CALF THYMUS AND HOG CHITTERLINGS. The thymus gland of the calf is the true sweetbread. Chitterlings are that part of the intestinal tract of the hog used as food; and the product used in these tests was cooked chitterlings. In Table 25 are reported the results of the feeding tests with the above-named tissues. The ration containing 15 per cent of calf thymus had a low antineuritic value, the average survival period being only 23 days, and the ration which contained 25 per cent of the tissue had aay a fair value, the average survival period of the birds being 34 ays. The chitterlings tested had a fair antineuritic value. All the pigeons which were fed the ration containing 15 per cent of the chitterlings developed polyneuritis by the thirty-ninth day, and the three birds that received 25 per cent. of the tissue in their feed all developed polyneuritis by the fifty-second day. The fourth bird in this pen ed a few days after the start of the test from an unknown cause. It appears that the calf thymus and hog chitterlings tested had sacroatly the same antineuritic value. The changes in the weights of the pigeons during the test are shown in Figures 41 and 42. TABLE 25.—Experimental feeding of dried calf thymus and hog chitterlings with polished rice. Thymus and chitterlings rations. Hifeon ee eeaee Result. PEN 79. | | Days. | Per cent. | 15ipericenticalithymus-s..-- eee sen ec neers 92 | 15 —7.3 | Polyneuritis. DO Oe a eck eect ond eee 93 35| 24.4) Died. DO wa 2b. sacs ceaces cee aes oreo eevee 94 26 —19.6 | Polyneuritis. TD Oe ele se a eee | 95 | 14s ee Do. AV Crapo tn. fee see oye a ee 23 —16.4 PEN 80. | 25 per cent calf thymus......... Be ese 88 25 —14.2 | Removed account badly in- fected eyes. DO ncss octitiiwaccts akepetecc scenes ee 89 55 | —24.5 | Fair condition end of test. ADT eA Bae ee pete athe P| 90 35 +.7 | Polyneuritis. DOM Rese SE i a | 91 22 +6.6 Do. ASV OLAS Cs. oe Foes fois cae so ce eee eee noe cease 34 —7.9 PEN 81 15;per'centehitterlingss<- an. -p.--- eo eee 9 19 | —10.3 | Polyneuritis. DONE a. Se Sa eros Goce eons cam cae 10 15 | —.7 Do. Dose SS Aa SE ease coc claude os Senne 11 39 —34.3 Do. DOSS eee. Re oN ee SACRE err BOF 70 19 —15.4 Do. AVP ASO! ais crits tole eles xine SIS soe SI cic oe eS me 23 —16.7 PEN 82 7 “ELE 25 pericentichitterlingseeressse- esses seer ees 13 17 | —.6 | Polyneuritis. LO aaa canmigtincS’ oste5saeae0nr SOGESr 15 46 | —22.4 Do. Dare ee Ce ence onan aces 16 52) —148 Do. AV eTAGC! So Sonne peel pee nen eb cisc monte seeker 38 | —12.6 VITAMIN B IN EDIBLE TISSUES OF OX, SHEEP, AND HOG. 41 PEN 72 aaa SU UiO 45 PER CENT THYMUS 25 PER CENT THYMUS FAO f-— ual So ao (oa to = a ‘ca Sm] (ee aa = T 4—_} 954 —s —|—_+ f— + —+—4+ 4-44 a i i i a als ieee = ee i | _— LACH HORIZONTAL SFAICE REPRESENTS /O DAYS Fia. 41.—Dried calf thymus; changes in weights of pigeons fed. FEW G/ ELEN BZ, YE ADS SANE aS FLEK CENT CVI TTERLINGS CAUITTERLINGS a SS 200 29077 HORIZONTAL SPACE REPRESENTS /0 DFS Fig. 42.—Dried hog chitterlings; changes in weights of pigeons fed. TESTS WITH TRIPE AND HOG STOMACH. Tripe is prepared from the walls of the first and second stomachs of the ox. It is partially cooked during preparation for food purposes. Hog stomachs are commonly used either as containers for certain sausage products or in the preparation of sausage. Both the tripe and the hog stomachs used in these tests had been cooked according to the resular commercial practice. The results of the feeding tests with tripe and hog stomach are presented in Table 26. From a glance at this table it is at once apparent that each of the products has a very low antineuritic value. It is of interest to note that of the 16 pigeons that were fed the rations containing tripe and hog stomach, 14 devel- oped polyneuritis by the twenty-ninth day of the test, one on the forty-second day, and one died on the twentieth day without showing positive symptoms of polyneuritis. It may be noted also that the average loss in weight of each of the several pens of pigeons was large, ranging from 16.9 to 21.8 per cent. The changes in the weights of the pigeons during the tests arefshown in Figures 43 and 44. 42 BULLETIN 1138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 26.—Experimental feeding of dried cooked tripe and hog stomach with polished rice Tripe and stomach rations. Pigeon ete as bs woh Result. N 83 | ig es | Per cent. 15 ee ee NUCH Pee eee ce eee } 2 —24.5 Payne aw tee a eae eae ae ae be oe 2 “i —13.1 P Do Sete he aie cee ee ee ce ce ae 3 29 —28.8 Do. OS ease Reet Soe he ee RR 4 19 —11.9 Do. Average!2 ttn ae ot 23°'| —19.6 PEN S84 25 Bet Cent tripess-seeet aes ee ose oes 2 oe 86 13 —11.7 ‘ Bee (RSS SG SER are asta au oSe GaSe 6 20 —20. ied. IDS cot onemosemos SBA SOODD AR OOCE OSE EEA) 7 17 ah Polyaeutie | oS Sepa 7s, ol, , Se ee eae ih | 8 19 —24, 2 Do. PCC Be aaa SURES Ee Ree ee coe oo ae 77 |) 3.9 PEN 85d. F 15 Beneent HORSTOMACH ees ee eee nee 25 42 —30. 2 Ae De: easy ter Ce Sota se lo anne ID) OSS a RR Sine lt ahs dhe 28 20 —12.0 Do AN CLAS Orca doe ok oes Sane |. Pfr eee = 28 —17.8 PEN S6 25 per centhog stomach 455.2 .¢- 25622 ee | 29 28 Spal / ae SRS Oa s COE Ose Oso OSES eEeaLes 30 17 —24.2 te) Deo She ROR a Bie, et ies ce RR RI ais | 31 DF) SG Do d Be prea ymca ee eee ce | 32 | 28 —29.6 | Do ASVerapetsere aces aa. corse see e Hal bees -oae 25 —21.8 | | } PEN BF PEN OF 45 FER CENT TRIPE SS PLR CLT TRIPE FOO eas aay tt} 2 mee, eal 'o eee 4 340 ¥ 320 x JOO § 250 P= oO) 2azO <2O 200 Bap HORIZONTAL SPACE REPRESENTS 10 LIE Fic. 43.—Dried cooked tripe; changes in weights of pigeons fed. FLW BSi FEN GE - 48 PER CENT ST O/U9FCH 2S FER CLIT STOMAICTT FOO _ SSS S WATER UTILIZATION BY SPRING WHEAT. 19 ference between plats A and B in water stored. Plat C or D has always stored considerably more water than the other two plats. AVERAGE OF RESULTS FOR ALL STATIONS. The data from the individual stations demonstrate that the storage and use of water by the wheat crop are somewhat different at the individual stations. There are, however, enough points in common between the different stations to permit general deductions to be made from the data as a whole. For this purpose the water content and use at all stations, as in- dicated by the symbols, are brought together in a composite table. It must be recognized that this composite table shows a greater per- centage of water use in the lower depths than actually exists. The data on the fifth and sixth foot sections of soil are largely from stations where water has been used to that depth. The inclusion of the lower depths at stations like Edgeley, Belle Fourche, Huntley, and Scottsbluff would greatly increase the number of cases where no water was used in these foot sections, the soil being either wet or dry. Tho data from the individual foot sections of soil at the different stations are grouped together in Table 2. In the upper part of the table the data are presented by cases, the figures under each symbol indicating the number of times that symbol was used in Table 1 for the purpose of indicating the water relations of that plat at the depth indicated. In the lower part of the table these figures are reduced to percentages in order to make the different foot sections of soil more directly comparable. For example, plat A has 135 determinations of the first foot and only 72 of the sixth foot. A comparison of the two sections in regard to the proportion of the time a particular symbol has been used is more readily made when they are expressed as percentages. TABLE 2.—Recapitulation of Table 1, showing the number of times each symbol was used in describing the use of water in each foot section of each plat. (The first part of the table records the number of cases studied; in the second part these are expressed as percentages of the totals.] Instances of the use of each symbol as indicating the water relations on plats A, B, and C or D. Symbol useat depth indicated (foot sec- F. PW. PD. OW. OD. Total. tions of soil). Cor Cor Cor C or Cor Cor A. | B.| "| A-| Be) "| 4- | Be |p. | A: |B: |p| A. | Be [7] A. | Be ISP Times used: 1..| 101 | 98 | 107 | 14] 14] 15 | 19 | 22 | 10 1 1 1 0 0 0 | 135 | 135 | 133 Zale Osa or | LOM se) Ad lal Si S2aN 47. 8 1 0 0} 10] 14] Of 135 | 135 | 133 Section Bel 4 Bere 90 8 8 | 11 | 39 | 45) 14 0 0 1 | 45} 42 3 | 122 } 122 | 120 ectlon-----\4 | 5) 9] 45] 11] 7] 18] 28] 26| 29} 3) 3} 2) 56] 57 | 11] 103 | 102 | 105 oon 0 3 11 i) 3 | 28) 14] 11] 18 6} 13 | 13 | 56} 52] 16 81 82 86 (56 0 1 1 4 YT} 21 5 5 | 10 | 14 | 17 | 23 | 49 | 48 | 27 72 72 82 Relation to total, per cent: 1 Moule 80} 10} 10} 11 | 14} 16 8 1 1 il 0 0 OFWs |e 2 ASS WAD ae SO et ONlalse| lanl So) oon es On eset a|s XO Onl daeON| eO) feeeeet ese Settion 3 DAW) 220A Oat Cale Oa occa | donieO |eOlPetulote tod! oulseees| sees nord He ® 43] 11 CNM |) 20 a\ 25) | 28 3 3 2 |e | OO nl ed Ont aeee |eee ee 5 0; 4 13 6 4) 32] 17] 13 | 21 ol GRA Ly OO GS LO Sean ee ee 6 On |epel 1 6 26) 7 ela 19) | 24a 28) 168: | Otel ceaneeersa| see = 1 20 BULLETIN 1139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The differences in the number of cases in the different foot sec- tions are in a large measure the result of the limitation of sampling due to the limitation of depth of feeding in certain soils. If the samples had all been taken to a depth great enough to make the table entirely symmetrical, the condition of the sixth foot would have been expressed by the symbols OW or OD in nearly all of the 63 cases when determinations were made in the first foot section but not in the sixth. Consideration of the table will be confined largely to the portion where the results are expressed as percentages. The most striking feature of the table is the closeness with which plats A and B ap- proximate each other. In the first foot of soil both were filled to capacity, and all of the water was used about three-fourths of the time. About 10 per cent of the time the soil was not entirely filled with water at any time during the growing season, but all available water was used. In only 1 per cent of the time, which represents the year 1915 at North Platte, was the soil filled with water at harvest. There has never been a case where no available water was present in the first foot during the growing season. In one year, 1911, at Belle Fourche, very little available moisture was present in the first foot of plats A and B. This year was necessarily omitted in Table 1, as the soil was so dry that the wheat did not come up. Summing up the results for the first foot, it is found by adding the percentages under the symbol PD to those under the symbol F that the available water in both plats A and B was entirely depleted at harvest in 89 per cent of the cases studied; the water content was reduced but not entirely exhausted (the condition represented by the symbol PW) in 10 per cent of the cases; and the soil was still full of water at harvest time (classed as the condition OW) in 1 per cent of the cases. The second foot section of plats A and B, when compared with the first, shows a sharp reduction in the number of times full use of water was made (F). This is accounted for by the great increase in the percentage of cases when the soil was only partly filled with moisture and all of it used (PD) and in the appearance of a few cases where the soil was dry all the season (OD). The proportion of the time that moisture present in the soil was only partly used (PW) remains nearly constant. Summing up the results for the second foot section, it is found that it was dry at harvest 89 per cent of the time on plat A and 87 per cent of the time on plat B. This is the sum of the percentages under symbols F, PD, and OD. The moisture content was reduced but not exhausted in 10 per cent of the cases on plat A and in 13 per cent of the cases on plat B. This condition is represented by the symbol PW. There was only 1 per cent of the time on plat A when the moisture content of the soil was not reduced when available moisture was present. This is the condition shown by the symbol OW. All of the available water in the second foot of the two plats was removed practically the same proportion of the time as in the first foot. The aggregate quantity of water obtained by the wheat crop from the second foot must have been considerably less than that obtained from the first foot, as it has been filled with water less frequently. WATER UTILIZATION BY SPRING WHEAT. 21 The third foot section of soil, when compared with the second, shows a material reduction in the full use of water on plats A and B. In this section the soil has been filled to capacity and all the water used (I) only about 25 per cent of the time. This is ac- counted for by a marked increase in the proportion of cases when no available water was present (OD). There is a slight reduction in the percentage of time the available water was only partly used (PW). Little change is shown in the percentage of cases when the soil was only partly filled with water and all available water used (PD). The reduction in the number of times the soil moisture was reduced but not exhausted (PW) probably represents the fewer num- ber of times that rains near harvest affected the water content of the soil to this depth. Summing up the results for this foot section, the soil was dry at harvest (F, PD, and OD) 93 per cent of the time on both plats A and B. In the remaining 7 per cent of the cases the water content of the soil was reduced but not exhausted (PW). Thus, it is found that there is no great difference in the first 3 feet of soil in the per- centage of the time that harvest finds them without available water, but that the actual use of water is progressively less as the distance from the surface increases, because of the limitation in the extent to which the soil is filled with moisture. In the fourth foot section of plats A and B the soil has been filled with water and all the water used (F) less than 10 per cent of the time, partly filled with water and all used ie in about 25 per cent of the cases, and it has been dry all the season (OD) about 55 per cent of the time. There is little change in the proportion of cases where the moisture has been reduced but not exhausted (PW). A few cases appear on each plat where available water was not reduced (OW). The percentage of the time when no water was available at harvest remains nearly as high as in the upper 3 feet of soil. But the great proportion of the time that this foot section has been dry or only partly filled with water makes it far less valuable than the third section in supplying moisture to the wheat crop. Below the fourth foot available water has been present in the soil of these plats in only one-third of the cases. Full use practically ceases, and the number of times the soil has been partly filled with water and all of it used is reduced. On the other hand, the propor- tion of the time no use is made of available water rises. Considering the fact that the soil at depths below 4 feet has been moist only infrequently, that the quantity of moisture held when the soil is filled to capacity is not great, and that the wheat crop has been able to use all the available water present only about half the time in the fifth foot and one-third of the time in the sixth foot the conclu- sion must be drawn that the fifth and sixth foot sections of soil on land continuously cropped to wheat are generally without value so far as crop production is concerned. In plats A and B it was found that the limitation of the depth to which water was used in the upper sections at least depended so much upon the depth to which moisture was present in the soil that other factors were obscured. In the C or D plat the soil has been wet to a ereater depth, as a rule, and it has been possible to compare the indi- 22 BULLETIN 1139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. vidual sections of soil in their water relations without lack of mois- ture being the determining factor. In the first foot plat, C or D closely approaches the other plats in its moisture relations. The chief difference has been a slightly greater number of cases where the soil was filled with moisture and all avail- able moisture used (I*), and a correspondingly lesser number of cases where the soil was only partly filled with water and all the water used (PD). The soil was dry at harvest practically the same propor- tion of the time as on the other plats. The data for the second foot of plat C or D almost duplicate those from the first foot. This seems to indicate that the second foot of soil is normally filled with roots when moisture is present and that water is used as freely from this section as from the soil above it. The difference shown between the second foot of plat C or D and that of the other two plats appears to be solely due to the quantity of moisture present in the soil. The third foot of soil evidently differs but little from the first and second in regard to the demands which the wheat crop has made upon it for moisture and the extent to which it has respond- ed. It is only slightly lower in the proportion of time that the soil has been filled with water and the water all removed by harvest. This decrease is accounted for by the fact that the soil has not always been moist to a depth of 3 feet even in fallow. The same decrease in the proportion of the time the available water has not all been used is found in this plat as in plats A and B. In the fourth foot full use of water has taken place only 43 per cent of the time. That thisis due to lack of penetration of water rather than to other factors is indicated by the greater percentage of cases, as compared with the upper sections, when the soil was dry or partly dry. There is, however, a small increase in the number of times the available moisture has been only partly exhausted (PW) and a corresponding decrease in the percentage of the time all available moisture has been removed from the soil before harvest. In the fifth and sixth foot sections full use of the soil is not fre- quent. There is a marked increase in the proportion of the time the available water has been only partly used (PW) and in the number of times no use has been made of available moisture (OW). There are, too, an increasing number of cases where no available moisture has been present (OD). In the fifth foot sections available water has been present in the soil 81 per cent of the time. In 47 of this 81 per cent the water has been unused or only partly used before harvest. In the sixth foot section available moisture has been present 67 per cent of the time. Only 13 of this 67 per cent represent cases where all available moisture was removed from the soil. The remainder of the time the available water was only partly removed or not used at all. As a whole, there is a greater use of water in the lower depths of plat C or D than in the other two plats. This is largely due to the fact that water has been present in the fifth and sixth foot sections more frequently. The quantity of water used by the crop from these depths in an average year must be small, since full use of water is so infrequent. WATER UTILIZATION BY SPRING WHEAT. »93 COMPARISON OF CULTURAL METHODS. The conservation and use of moisture in plats on which different cultural practices have been employed, are sufficiently comparable at the different stations to allow definite deductions to be made. For the average of all stations, plats A and B show no notable differences in the quantity of moisture conserved. The differences at individual stations are only minor. In the northern section of the Great Plains the advantage of one or the other at the stations where one is superior favors plat A. This is without doubt due to the fact that in most years there is a better opportunity to obtain moisture by holding the winter snow than by conserving the moisture that falls after harvest. The soil at harvest has been shown to be dry approxi- mately 90 per cent of the time; therefore, cultivation at that time usually conserves no moisture, ‘because none is present. By pre- venting weed growth, fall plowing is better able than spring plowing to conserve the moisture that falls between harvest and winter. How- ever, the moisture that falls after harvest is not usually all used up on land not fall cultivated. The season between harvest and freezing is not long, and the demand of plants for moisture at that time is not high. Where there is sufficient precipitation after harvest to induce weed growth, there is usually enough so that the moisture supply is not exhausted by the time freezing kills the weeds. In years with a heavy precipitation after harvest, plat B usually conserves more moisture than plat A. The greater number of times that plat A possesses the higher moisture content in the spring shows the superiority of catching snow over retaining fall precipitation in conserving moisture at the northern stations. At the southern stations the difference between the two methods in conserving moisture when a difference exists has been in favor of plat B. In this region there is little snow; consequently, the superi- ority of plat A in catching snow is of little importance. There is also an earlier harvest and a jater fall than at the northern stations. This gives plat B a longer period for moisture storage and also gives the weeds on plat A a greater chance to remove the moisture that falls after harvest. Ih spite of this, the difference between the two plats in the quantity of moisture stored has generally been small. That the greater depth of plowing practiced on plat B has not increased the roct development of this plat over that of plat A is indicated by the fact that the two plats have been practically dupli- eates in the utilization of the moisture present. Unfortunately, the slight superiority of one plat over the other in moisture storage in different sections of the Great Plains is such that it is not possible to benefit greatly from it in farm practice. The southern stations, where plat B has conserved more moisture than plat A, are particularly subject to soil blowing during the winter months. This operates against the use of fall cultivation on an ex- tended scale. At the northern stations, where plat A has been slightly superior to plat B, there is a practical limit to the spring work that can be done without unduly delaying seeding. In that region the earlier seeding that may be practiced on fail plowing frequently more than makes up for any superiority of spring plowing in the quantity of moisture conserved. 94 BULLETIN 1139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Certainly the greater quantity of moisture stored by either method in any section is not enough to counterbalance other factors such as timeliness of work, control of weeds, and prevention of soil blowing. Plat C or D has been markedly superior to the other two plats in moisture storage at all stations except those with a limited water- storage capicity. At Edgeley, it will be remembered, the soil is so shallow that practically all of it has been filled to capacity for all methods of cultivation each year between harvest and seeding; con- sequently, little difference between methods has existed. At some other stations, such as Archer and Ardmore, the difference in favor of plat C or D has been small. The superiority of C or D over A and B in individual years has depended upon the quantity of rainfall as well as the character of the soil. The demand of the wheat crop for moisture differs in the several portions of the Plains,’ and a given quantity of stored water may be of more value at one station than another. When translated into bushels of yield 4 inches of water stored at Assinniboine would probably be much more valuable than the same quantity of water at Amarillo. The superiority of plat C or D over the other plats in conserving moisture must be con- sidered in terms of increase in bushels per acre to determine the value of fallowing as a farm practice. Alternate cropping and summer fallowing practiced in these experiments has in all but the driest years stored moisture in the entire zone of natural development of the roots of the wheat crop. It is evident from this that any extension of the fallow period for the purpose of increasing the quantity of moisture stored would not often be effective in increasing the yields of wheat. The more likely result in most years would be the storage of moisture at a depth where its recovery by the wheat crop would be extremely doubtful. The three plats taken together indicate that moisture is the con- trolling factor in crop production in the Great Plains and that differ- ences in yield generally are due to differences in the water supply. Plats A and B have produced yields almost or quite equal to those on plat C or D in years when they have contained the same quantity of water. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. Under dry-farming conditions there is present in the soil no ground water or other source of free water. Below the zone of a few feet near the surface, which the present study shows may be wetted and dried during the cycle from harvest to harvest, the soil is either dry or does not contain water above its field carrying capacity. Under these conditions no water moves upward through appreciable distances to replace the water removed by the roots. Water is supplied to the roots only by such part of the soil as they occupy, and only that part of the soil suffers exhaustion or reduction of its water content. The development of the roots of the wheat plant is indicated by the depth and extent to which the soil water is used. The usual depth of development is indicated by the results given in detail in Table 1 and summarized in Table 2. It appears that at stations — 7 Cole, John S., and Mathews, O. R. Use eiovater by spring wheat on the Great Plains. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 1004, 34 p., 10 fig. 4 WATER UTILIZATION BY SPRING WHEAT. 25 where the character of the soil permits easy penetration of water and plant roots, the natural zone of development of wheat roots is the first 4 feet of soil. Im many years, particularly on plats A and B, lack of moisture prohibits root growth to that depth, but where moisture 1s present in the first 4 feet of soil the evidence at hand points to a nearly uniform utilization of moisture within these 4 feet. The use of water below the fourth foot section of soil depends primarily upon the character of the season. In years when moisture is present in all 6 feet of soil, little or no use of water below the fourth foot is shown if there is at all times a supply of available moisture present in the first 4 feet. Development of any consider- able number of roots in the fifth and sixth foot sections of soil seems to be made only under stress of a shortage of moisture, either temporary or continued. The extent to which the moisture in these depths is used depends largely upon the length of time that the crop suffers for moisture without drying up or ripening prematurely. The complete utilization of water at these depths seems to require a fair growth of crop and an extended period of time when the crop needs water but does not actually die or come to a forced maturity. The quantity of available moisture held in - the fifth and sixth foot sections of soil is usually small, and its complete or nearly complete utilization necessitates conditions so severe that the yield of the crop is almost always seriously com- promised. So far as actual benefit to the crop in ordinary years 1s concerned, the moisture held in the soil below the fourth foot is of no importance. In a few years the moisture at these lower depths has maintained life in a crop and has enabled it to take advantage of favorable conditions later in the season. In exceptionally severe years, such as 1911 at Belle Fourche and North Platte, the demands for moisture by the wheat crop have been so excessive that the plants dried up without feeding deeply because the roots could not extend themselves rapidly enough to obtain a supply of moisture sufficient to maintain life. The limitation of root develop- ment was caused not by lack of water or by lack of demand for water, but by a demand for water so great that it could not be met. This condition is rare, but an approximation of it late in the life of the crop has often been responsible for a forced ripening without the roots reaching their fullest development. The fact that moisture is normally exhausted in the first 4 feet of soil does not indicate that the moisture is exhausted simultaneously in the different foot sections. In general, the several! foot sections are reduced to the minimum point successively in the order of their -distance from the surface. There is very little margin between the first and second foot sections of soil in the time at which they be- come dry. The principal reason for this is doubtless that the roots become well disseminated through at least this much soil before the wheat reaches a stage of growth where its demands for moisture become heavy. There is, in addition, the fact that the exhaustion of the moisture content of the first foot of soil is frequently delayed by ec pation. Reduction of soil moisture in the third and fourth oot sections commences before the moisture in the first 2 feet of soil is exhausted. However, the minimum point is reached distinctly later in the third foot section than in the second and distinctly later in the fourth than in the third. 26 BULLETIN 1139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The fact that all the available moisture present is utilized about the same proportion of the time in each of the first 4 feet of soil indicates that, when water is present the roots of the wheat crop usually completely occupy the soil to about that depth before the plants reach maturity. , - This does not indicate that water held at lower depths is not usually valuable. In most years all available moisture within reach of the roots of grain crops is needed, and the plat that carries the greater quantity of moisture in the zone of normal development of roots generally makes the higher yield. The value of moisture-storage capacity in a soil depends largely upon the precipitation. Thus, at Williston, where the soil is of sufficient depth to permit the storage of moisture to a depth of 6 feet, plats A and B have only occasionally been filled with moisture to a depth of 3 feet, and in some years the second foot of soil has not been filled to its carrying capacity. In spite of its greater moisture-storage capacity, it is doubtful whether, in the aggregate, more moisture has been stored in these plats than in the corresponding plats at Edgeley, where the shallow soil has been filled to capacity each year. Stations like Dickinson, that combine a high storage capacity with a rela- tively large precipitation, are able to utilize moisture to a greater extent. Another evident fact is that the utilization of a large soil mass is not essential to a high yield. The yield depends more upon the main- tenance of a constant supply of available moisture at a depth where it can be easily absorbed by the roots than it does upon the mass of soil involved. The highest yields recorded at any station were pro- duced at Belle Fourche in 1915, when the soil was at no time wet to a depth greater than 2 feet. At the same station in 1920, when all the soil was filled to capacity with moisture and the crop prospects were even better than in 1915, the yield was reduced below that of 1915 because the available moisture was exhausted too long a time before harvest. Yields of wheat on the shallow soil at Edgeley under favor- able conditions have been as high or higher than at stations where a much greater soil mass has been occupied by the roots. SUMMARY. With knowledge of the field carrying capacity and the minimum point of exhaustion of each soil unit the soil-moisture data have been utilized to classify into five groups the extent to which each foot section of soil has functioned each year in the production of spring wheat by three distinct cultural methods at 17 field stations on the Great Plains. On land producing a crop each year differences in cultural methods are not sufficient to cause major differences in the depth to which water is stored and from which it is recovered. Alternate fallowing and cropping results, on the average, in the utilization of a somewhat greater volume of soil. The depth to which available water is stored may be limited by the shallowness of the soil. When not limited by soil character the surface 6 feet of soil may function in the growth of spring wheat. Except on soils of limited storage capacity, the depth to which water is stored in the Great Plains is more often determined by the WATER UTILIZATION BY SPRING WHEAT. DAT quantity and character of the precipitdtion than by the storage capacity of the soil. Available water, when present in the soil, is removed with about the same degree of frequency from each of the first 4 feet. The aggregate quantity of water contributed by each foot section be- comes progressively less with increasing distance from the surface, both because each successive foot section is less frequently filled with water and because the quantity of available water that may be held in each successive unit is less. The fifth and sixth foot sections hold still less available water, and the full use of their limited capacity is not frequent. They contribute very little to the total quantity of water used by the crop, but under certain conditions this contribution may be important. In about 90 per cent of the years covered by these investigations the soil within the zone of normal root development was dry at harvest time. The utilization of a large soil mass is not essential to a high yield. The yield depends more upon the maintenance of a constant supply of available moisture to the depth at which it can be easily obtained than upon the mass of soil involved. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Secretary of Agrictivure 13s. ae ee HENRY C. WALLACE. Assistant Secretary___-.--0-_ 2 C. W. PuGstey. IDUTECLOT” OF SCLENTUTLC’ W ON eae 2) VANES TS SAIL ENEN E. D. BALL. Director of Regulatory. Workek 2. ee ee IWeCthers BU Clap ama oe Re LE ee ee CHARLES F.. Marvin, Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Economics__——----------- Henry C. Taytor, Chief. Bureat of Anumateindustry a ee JoHN R, Mouter, Chief. BUreOis0f PLONESTNOUSET Yee es RE eae WiitiAM A. Taytor, Chief. HIGTESTINCNULCE =e ee RA EPA SAL Ee W. B. Greetry, Chief. BUCO OTA ONEMISUlY a een es _ WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. IBUTECOlFOfaSOUlsse 2. - SAR ee eR Mitton WHiItTney, Chief. BUnCORL Of PE NLOMOLOGY — ae ae ee oe ee L. O. Howarp, Chief. Buredw of Biological Surveya= 2222 ee E. W. Netson, Chief. BUreOnOfeeouc hoads. =e eS eee _. THomas H. MacDonaxp, Chief. Fired Nitrogen Research Laboratory______--___. F. G. Corrrety, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements________. A. ZAPPONE, Chief. DUAVSON OF LU OUCOION SS Sea a JoHN L. Copss, Jr., Chief. EROT ONY ee NS 5 eS Os See CLARIBEL R. Barnett, Libra- rian. SLQLES ICCLOUITOT SES C701 C C= ae ee ee ee ee ee ee A. C. True, Director. PedeT aL HOnticuuuural Bodin === ee C. L. Martatr, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board____------_----- J. K. Haywoop, Chairman, Packers and Stockyards Administration_____-__- CHESTER Morritt, Assistant Grain Future Trading Act Administration_______ ! to the Secretary. Oficerojthe Noucil0T = ee ee R. W. WILLIAMS, Solicitor. This bulletin is a contribution from the— BUCA Of LLQUe UNWUS thy ee ee eee Wr11AMm A. Tayror, Chief. Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations. BE. C. Cuiicorr, Agriculturist in Charge. 28 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY ll, 1922 Vv ee eae STATES DEPARTMENT OF ‘tae delle Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 29, 1923 THE DETERIORATION OF FELLED WESTERN YELLOW PINE ON INSECT-CONTROL PROJECTS.’ By J. S. Boycr, Pathologist, Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Introduction] Kaew by ees Ee 1} Causes of deterioration___________ 4 Method of collecting data__--__-_ ZilmConclusions»=o2.s. 2 Sars eee 6 Rate of deterioration____~-______ 2 INTRODUCTION. During the past 15 years extensive insect-control measures have become necessary in various localities in the western United States in order to check epidemics of the western pine beetle (Dendvoctonus brevicomis Lec.) and the mountain-pine beetle (Dendroctonus mon- -ticolae Hopk.) on western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws.), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Loud.), western white pine (Pinus monticola Dougl.), and sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana Dougl.). Briefly, control ¢ consists in felling and barking the infested trees (or burning the bark in the case of Dendroctonus brevicomis), in order to destroy the overwintering stages of the beetles. The trees usually are limbed well into the top but are not cut into log lengths. The attacks of the western pine beetle on western yellow pine have been widespread, and consequently the most extensive control projects have been concentrated on this tree species. At present control work is under way in the yellow-pine regions of British Columbia and central California, while a large project was begun in the spring of 1922 in the Klamath Lake region of southern Or egon. The southern Oregon-nort thern California project begun in the spring of 1922 necessitated the felling of about 16,000 merchantable western yellow pines, with an occasional sugar pine, comprising ap- 1This study was made in cooperation with the Klamath Forest Protective Association at Klamath Falls, Oreg. Without the yearly records of the association giving the loca- tion of felled trees, the study would have been impossible. The writer is indebted to LSet imball, secretary- treasurer, and to H. H. Ogle, of the same association, for valuable assistance in obtaining the field data. 25322—23 1 2 BULLETIN 1140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. proximately 16,000,000 feet board measure, over an area roughly of 200,000 acres. Further work in the next three or four years will probably involve cutting an additional 20,000,000 feet of merchant- able timber on adjoining areas. These trees must be left on the ground until such time as they can be reached by logging operations. The rate of deterioration of this felled timber then becomes of para- mount importance. It is in connection with this project that the study reported here was made. METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA. Local control work has been carried on in this region for some years by the Klamath Forest Protective Association, and records of this association were available, giving the general location of trees felled yearly since 1915. From these records, felled trees were relocated and examined during November, 1921. Each tree was opened up sufficiently with ax and saw to permit sealing in 16-foot logs with the Scribner decimal C scale, according to standard commercial practice. Logs two-thirds or more unmer- chantable by volume were culled. Diameter measurements were taken to the nearest inch, and length measurements to the nearest tenth of a foot. The gross scale where given is the actual merchant- able volume in the trees at the time of felling, determined when this study was made. In making the measurements of decay, the subse- quent advance of decay present in the living tree at the time of fell- ing was disregarded. In the region in which the trees were stud- ied the decays in living yellow pine seem to advance very slowly or not at all after an infected tree is felled. Characteristically, west- ern yellow pine is a sound species, and the normal loss through decay in stands of living trees does not exceed 2.5 per cent and may be much less. The only two kinds of decay found in the trees ex- amined which were there at the time of felling were rots caused by the ring-scale fungus (Z’rametes pint (Thore) Fr.) and brown cu- bical butt-rot caused by the velvet-top fungus (Polyporus schwei- nitzii Fr.). Two trees had been infected with the first-named rot, with a slight loss resulting. Brown cubical butt-rot had also been present in two trees, but there was little indication left of the decayed wood, which had been almost completely destroyed by fire when the bark removed from the trees was burned. Data were obtained on a total of 100 trees, all western yellow pine, near Bly, Klamath Falls, and Keno, in Klamath County, Oreg., at elevations around 6,000 feet above sea level. The site conditions were essentially the same for all the localities. These trees varied from 16 inches to 43 inches in diameter outside bark at stump height, and the usual stump height ranged from 24 to 3 feet. RATE OF DETERIORATION. These felled trees deteriorate with extreme rapidity, far more rapidly than the casual observer is led to believe. The heat from burning the bark and from the sun’s rays results in a pronounced drying of the outer sapwood to depths averaging one-half inch. This outer layer, being too dry to decay, remains hard and sound for several years, and if tested superficially leads to the belief that DETERIORATION OF WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 3 the tree is sound throughout, when as a matter of fact it may be commercially a complete loss through decay. Table 1 shows the rate of deterioration. TABLE 1.—Rate of deterioration of felled western yellow-pine trees in Klamath County, Oreg. | Trees with | | | | Volume (board feet). | merchantable | Average | Serene Por. | volume. diameter, Num- When cut. ofexet = S eentagel= side» beros posure. | of cull. | Per- | stump | (b Nae - p | (basis). Gross, Cull. Net. La centage (nelies);| * | oftotal. | 1 rj 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | | April, 1921............ 1} 6,400 810 | 5,590 13 6 100 24 6 December, 1920....... 1/ 11,350 2,060 9,290 18 12 100 23 | 12 February, 1920....... 2, 11,610 7,360 | 4,250 | 63 | 11 79 23 | 14 November, 1919...... 2) 8,080 6,120 1, 960 76 | 6 75 21 | 8 Spring of 1919........ 3 15,870 12,900 2,970 81 | 10 62 | 24 | 16 Spring of 1918........ 4 u 1,790 68 3 23 3 Aprils 19172sccce cee s ee 5 | 35,510| 28,960 6, 550 82 | 7 31 | 16 Spring of 1916........ 6| 13,270| 12,060| 1,210 91 | 2 14 23 14 Spring of 1915........ 7 | 11,470 | 10,710, 760 | 93 1 9 | 25 | 11 | | | } | In Table 1 the expression “seasons of exposure” means the num- ber of growing seasons that have elapsed since the trees were felled. It is, of course, during the growing season that the greatest deteriora- tion occurs, although loss continues throughout the year. This is shown by the fact that the trees cut in April, 1921, and exposed for one season show a loss of 13 per cent, while those cut in December, 1920, also exposed for one season but with four additional months in winter and early spring, show a loss of 18 per cent. The same relation holds for the trees exposed for two seasons but cut at dif- ferent times. The important feature of Table 1 is the enormous increase in the cull percentage after the first season. This increase is from 13 and 18 per cent for the first season to 63 and 76 per cent for the second season and is so great that from an economic standpoint felled trees must be utilized before they pass into the second season of exposure. This means that the bulk of the trees cut on a control project must be regarded as a loss, since it is at present commercially impossible so to adjust logging operations that trees scattered over a large area can be picked up in a single season. After the second season deterioration increases steadily, until by the end of the seventh season there is little merchantable volume to be obtained, and this only in an occasional tree much larger than the average or with some other abnormal condition. For example, the merchantable volume in the trees cut in 1916 came from two trees only, as is shown in column 7 of Table 1. One of these was a large tree with a diameter inside bark at stump height of 37 inches, while the other, though 11 inches smaller in the same dimension, had an unusually resinous butt log. The 760 feet board measure in the 1915 trees came from the first three logs in a 43-inch tree. The criticism may be made that Table 1 is based on insufficient data. An examination of the table will show that the trees are well 4 BULLETIN 1140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. distributed by seasons of exposure except in the case of those cut in 1918, of which there are only three, all that could be obtained. The basis for this class is insufficient. The cull percentage shows a steady increase and the percentage of total trees with merchantable volume a steady decrease except in the 1918 trees. This points to a sufficient basis for the other classes. Then, too, during the course of the fiéld work the similarity in condition between trees exposed for the same number of seasons was quite apparent. Figure 1, which is a diagrammatic smoothed curve based on Table 1, illustrates the rate of deterioration of the down timber. FLFCENM TAGE OF CULL F; SELASONS OF EXPOSURE Fic. 1.—Diagrammatie smoothed curye, illustrating the rate of deterioration of felled western yellow pine. CAUSES OF DETERIORATION. In ‘Table 1 sap-stain is not considered a defect. While this dis- coloration does degrade the lumber, discolored wood can still be used for a variety of purposes. In this region blue-stain caused by the fungus Ceratostomella sp. is most common, while a brown stain, of which the causal fungus is probably Alternaria sp.2 is sometimes found. Staining is practically confined to the sapwood, rarely pene- trating the heartwood. The extent of the stain in a tree is easily misjudged. As previously pointed out, there is a very dry outside layer of sapwood, too dry to stain, and a hasty examination may show bright wood, but deeper chopping will reveal the stain. By the end of the first season all the sapwood with the exception of the outer layer was heavily stained in the trees examined. In the upper por- tions of the trees, where the bark had been left on, this outer layer, since it had been kept moist, was also stained. The discoloration ?Hubert, Ernest E. Some wood stains and their causes. Jn Hardwood Rec., y. 52, no. 11, p. 17-19, illus. 1922. ~ DETERIORATION OF WESTERN YELLOW PINE, 9) first began along the checks and then spread over the entire sap- wood. If stained sapwood is considered a defect the loss for Table 1 after one season of exposure would amount to 78 per cent in the trees cut in April, 1921, and 67 per cent in the trees felled in December, 1920. ‘This difference may be mere chance or it may indicate that the winter-felled trees for some unknown reason were less susceptible to discoloration by the time that climatic conditions in spring or sum- mer favorable for staining arrived. Observations made on wind- thrown yellow pine in this region showed that heavy staining began in July. To avoid sap-stain as much as possible trees should be logged before that time. That the principal causes of deterioration were relatively few and well defined is shown in Table 2. The most important cause of cull in the trees exposed for one season was checks. Checks were confined mostly to the sapwood but in some cases extended deep into the heartwood. Taste 2.—Causes of deterioration of felled yellow-pine trees in Klamath County, Oreg. Cull (percentage of gross volume.) Seasons |_ cee bees oe When cut. of Ea | s Siti exposure. ‘ “ eart- | Broken | Checks. | Sap-rot. rot. in felling. Burned. ; Borers. ee it 2 Ey sat | I | | 1 2 3 4 | 5 | 6 7 8 ie Boe! puis | | | SAtpril 1921-7 ee teee hs op nee: 1 13 517/3 | Sek aa aa ee See GIRS SSSI. owes December, 1920.........-..2.--- 1 16.2 Wn Oelehecse seas 0.2 | OlSR Rees. coos MO DIUALY oO 20s see cece cece. 2 16.9 246i FEE coh as Be QUOTE aes November, 1919........-....--- 2 11.5 5eed) |nieinistercictesis| 3.7 Seid) lsceecbelcas SPL CL OMlO1Oseeemenecneccics see Be bese 59. 4 | 9.6 | 1.2 Ds lal bees ome Springvor 191s ess fe 2s 2 hfe Cra ae 5 5k oeee 63.4 | CEP BSebCB bus a nSse0eseCr sas acnG0uer SATIS IOT 2 aee sca sene ose cisicisce- 5 1.4 53.2 | 15.0 5 9.6 | 1.9 Spring of 1916......-..........-. 6 3.9 63.7 | 14.1 8 es Fe Spring Of 1915522 sodas. cee e- -- 7 3 | 57.0 | SONSH lest Saccee | 5aSplesese ees Checking usually began and was most severe on the side of the trunk exposed to the direct rays of the sun. Exceptions to this rule were found where particularly intense heat had caused severe check- ing when the bark was burned. Normally the loss through checking in any one tree resulted from several or numerous checks, but in a very spiral grained tree a single deep check twisting around the tree sometimes caused all the loss. Considering column 3 of Table 2 it would seem that the loss through checking decreases with the length of exposure after the second season, while it is self-evident that this loss should increase slightly or remain about the same. The explana- tion is that as sap-rot becomes more severe the checks become obscure or disappear completely, and in scaling the loss from this source is then difficult to separate from that caused by sap-rot. There was little sap-rot during the first season. In fact, the en- tire 170 board feet given in Table 2 were obtained from a single tree. But by the end of the second season the loss from this cause was heavy and continued so. After that time sap-rot was the most im- portant factor in deterioration. In poles and young thrifty stand- ards with wide sapwood, sap-rot by amounting to two-thirds or more of the gross volume often caused the loss of the entire tree. It fol- 6 BULLETIN 1140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lowed then that poles and young thrifty standards were subject to much more rapid deterioration than large trees, in which the ratio of sapwood to heartwood is inverted, The upper side of the trunk decayed most rapidly, and the under side, the portion resting on the ground, much more slowly. This is probably explained by the retarding effect on the development of wood-destroying fungi from the excessive moisture content, lessened oxygen supply, and lower temperature of the wood of the under side as compared with the upper side. Decay first appeared along the checks, but avoided the dried outer layer of sapwood. Tongues of decay extended down from the ends of the checks. The decay then spread from the checks, finally involving the entire sapwood with the exception of the outer layer. Where the bark was left on in the top, the outer layer also decayed. Barking the tree somewhat retards decay, but not enough to be of practical importance, while on the other hand it promotes checking. Generally it was impossible to determine the exact kind of decay in the different trees. but where this was done it was found that a white cellulose pocket rot * caused by Polyporus anceps Pk. was most common, while a brown friable rot caused by the brown Lenzites (Lenzites sepiaria (Wulf.) Fr.) and a yellow-brown friable rot caused by Homes pinicola (Fr.) Cke. occasionally occurred. Heart-rot was not found in the trees until the third season of exposure. Decay first appeared as tongues running in from the sapwood or following in along deep checks. The white cellulose pocket rot was most common. A negligible amount of loss resulted from breaks, usually in the top, when the trees were felled. A more important source of cull was fire at the time the trees were felled and bucked. This sometimes did considerable damage. When the bark was burned, trees with open wounds were very likely to burn out along the scar and for some distance in advance. Fire scars, particularly in pitchy butts, were common starting points for destructive burns. Felling trees across one another or leaving limbs resting on the trunk resulted in additional loss from fire. The ‘loss caused by wood-boring insects was negligible. Ambrosia beetles did not attack the trunk from which the bark had been re- moved, while the round-headed and flat-headed borers did not attack the trees until sap-rot was well started. From the foregoing discussion of Table 2 it is apparent that while checks caused some loss (and in a lesser degree so did fire), decay, particularly the very rapid decay of the sapwood, is responsible for most of the deterioration in these trees. CONCLUSIONS. The facts brought out in this bulletin should not be considered as of value for local application only. The climatic conditions of the Klamath Lake region, characterized by a small yearly precipita- tion, with a long summer drought, often beginning in the late spring and extending well into the fall, and low winter temperatures, are ®This decay has -also been called western red-rot. According to Dr. J. R. Weir, Polyporus ellisianus Murr. as known in the West is the same as P. anceps Pk. DETERIORATION OF WESTERN YELLOW PINE. ff exactly similar to those of a great part’ of the yellow-pine belt of eastern California, Oregon, and Washington, and not markedly at variance with conditions in other western yellow-pine regions in North America. These results should prove generally applicable, with minor varia- tions, on control projects in western yellow pine. ‘Timber averaging smaller than that studied here will deteriorate more rapidly, while the deterioration in larger timber will, of course, be slower. The felled and barked trees were completely sap-stained by the end of the first season of exposure. If sap-stain is considered a ‘defect serious enough to make discolored wood worthless for lumber, there is such a large loss the first season that utilization by mid- summer is imperative. However, as a rule, stained lumber is only degraded and not culled. Deterioration is very rapid and is chiefly caused by decay, par- ticularly the very rapid decay of the sapwood, followed more slowly by the breaking down of the heartwood. The resulting loss is so high by the end of the second season that felled trees must be utilized by the beginning of the second season, or else the volume of mer- chantable wood obtained is so small as to be of little commercial importance. Consequently, the timber in most of the trees cut on a control project becomes a complete loss, since under present economic conditions it is usually not possible: to utilize scattered trees over a Jarge area within such a limited period of time. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. secretary of Agriculture 2 Ee. See Henry C. WALLACE, Assistant ‘Sé€crerary s+ = | EE C. W. PUGSLEY. Director of Scientific Works. E. D. BALL. Director of Regulatory Work---_—-__--_...—._ WCOLNeT DUC aa ene. Tees CHARLES F, Marvin, Chief.. Bureau of Agricultural Economics_______-_____- Henry C. Taytor, Chief. Bureau of Animal Industry. =~ ea JoHN R. Mouter, Chief. Buren, of (Plantindustryee 2 See: WiLriAmM A. Taytor, Chief... Parest + SemyiGe.-- == 2... t Se Pe eee W. B. Greetey, Chief. Burcu of.Ghenmisthyss. --t 2 ee WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. (BUT COAUSOT ESOT = te 2 Ek Re ee: te Mitton WHITNEY, Chief. Bureau of Entomology______---__._.__ = any = TE, L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureat of, Biological Survey2l—_ rs E. W. NEtson, Chief. Bureau of Public Roads_—_ 2225 — Fe Tuomas H. MacDonaxp, Chief. Fired Nitrogen Research Laboratory_________-_ F. G. Cotrrety, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements______- A. ZAPPONE, Chief. DUAtSON Of LUUNCUMNONS= 22 eae eee JOHN L. Coss, Jr., Chief. BOT Tt fe oreo re ew ON AT) A ee A CLARIBEL R. BARNETT, Libra- rian. States RelatiOie SCrUtCE = ee a Lae re ee A. C. True, Director. BederaHnorncln a. Board ees C. L. MArLatTr, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board_____________- J. K. HAywoop, Chairman. Packers and Stockyards Administration_______ CHESTER Morrity, Assistant to Grain Future Trading Act Administration_____ | the Secretary. OiCErOf TILEUS OMLCILOT, =~ = a ee ee R. W. WirriAMs, Solicitor. This bulletin is a contribution from the— Bureau, of Plant Industry eee Wm. A. Taytor, Chief. Investigations in Forest Pathology________ HAveN Metcatr, Pathologist im Charge. 8 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. May, 1923 EVAPORATION OF FRUITS.’ By JoserpH S. Carpwett, Plant Physiologist, Office of Horticultural and Pomo- logical Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS: . Page. Page. Extent and character of the fruit- Treatment of the various fruits—Con, % Guyane) indus try= 2 I 1 PGniches ie = stb ae es Le ee 45 Principles involved in drying fruits_ 4 NDTICOLS mann aurea ag Bee ee 49 Community drying plants__-__-_-__ 7 Dears see a ee oe eee 49 Buildings and equipment for drying_ 8 Cherries 2 2or one eee 50 The kiln ev DOM CO Ig eee 8 Prunes ss Se 3 ee eS eee 50 The individual, kKilnt:_=2 7ies ee 9 Smallttruitsies 22 es eee 54 Rhepgkiimednyan'sspland 2200. ee 15_-| Storing the dried. products___----~-_ aT The apple- drying workroom and Preparing evaporated fruits for USPC QU MA eM as SA ee 17 INA KEELE 2 eee ae Sea ee 58 The prune tunnel evaporator___ 24 Packing evaporated apples—---~ 58 The operation of the tunnel Packing peaches, apricots, and CVADOLAUOER eee eo Le 27 PeaTSh a= an Meee ees 59 Small driers or evaporators___ 5 iPackine=prules S22 a2 a 61 Treatment of the various fruits____ 35 Laws relating to evaporated and ENDL CS =e nee ween | ee 35 (les eyo (ieee eb eee es ree ee 62 EXTENT AND CHARACTER OF THE FRUIT-DRYING INDUSTRY. HE TERMS “dried fruit” and “evaporated fruit” are popu- larly used to designate all fruits preserved by reduction of their moisture content to such a point that spoilage does not occur. In the trade the term “ dried fruit ” is applied to any product in which mois- ture reduction has been brought about by exposure of the fresh mate- rial to the heat of the sun, while products made by driving off the surplus moisture by the use of artificial heat are known as “ evapo- rated ” fruits, less frequently as dehydrated or desiccated fruits. While the processes of sun drying and drying with artificial heat in evaporating devices are widely different, the differences in the 1 This bulletin is of interest to fruit growers who have such quantities of surplus fruit as to require the employment of large-scale factory methods for its utilization. It is intended to serve as a rather complete nontechnical handbook of information in regard to methods of evaporating fruits w hich are applicable to farm conditions. This bulletin supersedes Farmers’ Bulletin 903, ‘* Commercial Evaporation aud Drying of Fruits,’ by James H. Beattie and H. P. Gould. Much of the material in that publica- tion is reproduced, with revision, in this bulletin. New sections dealing in considerable detail with the construction of the driers, the arrangement of the equipment, the practical details of handling the various fruits, and the choice of fruits to be used for evaporating purposes have been ¢ddcd. 25497°—23 1 2 BULLETIN 1141, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, quality of the products obtained are relatively slight, it is possible to apply both processes to any of the fruits ordinarily dried, and the extent to which one or the other method is employed in preserving any given fruit is determined by the climatic conditions prevailing during the period in which the drying must be done. By reason of the pos- session of an exceedingly favorable combination of dry atmosphere, continuous sunshine, and practical absence of rain or dew during the drying season, California has developed sun drying on a large scale and is the only State which has done so. The fruits which are dried in commercial quantities in the United States are prunes, raisins, apricots, apples, peaches, pears, black- berries, Logan blackberries, and raspberries, with very small quanti- ties of figs and cherries. Among these, prunes rank first in point of average annual production, which approximates 400,000,000 pounds. Of this total, sun-dried prunes, made only in California, make up almost or quite 50 per cent; the remainder are evaporated prunes produced by the States of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, which rank in the order given in the quantities produced. Commercial dry- ing of peaches, apricots, pears, and figs is practically wholly con- fined to Calfornia, and the method employed is exclusively sun drying, the average annual production approximating 62,000,000 pounds of peaches, 30,000,000 pounds of apricots, 19,000,000 pounds of figs, and 6,900,000 pounds of pears for the five-year period from 1915 to 1919, inclusive. Raisin making is likewise an industry pecu- liar to California, and the use of other methods than sun drying has been practically unknown up to a very recent period. The annual production of raisins in California has increased from 125,000,000 pounds in 1910 to 395,000,000 pounds in 1919, with an average pro- duction for the 10 years, 1910 to 1919, inclusive, of 225,400,000 pounds. Practically all the dry berries coming into the market are machine evaporated, raspberries being produced in New York and Oregon, while evaporated Logan blackberries were formerly produced in considerable quantities in Oregon. The increasing popularity of the Logan blackberry for canning and juice-making purposes has oper- ated alike to extend commercial plantings and to reduce the quanti- ties dried. By reason of the late maturity of the varieties used for the purpose, the commercial production of dried apples is carried on exclusively in evaporators. Trustworthy figures as to annual production since the year 1909, in which the total was 44,568,000 pounds, are not available, but the average probably does not greatly exceed 50,000,000 pounds. This total is made up of contributions from a much wider area than is the case with any other fruit. Approximately 70 per cent of the total production comes from western New York. Cali- fornia has recently considerably increased her production, which has risen from an average of 6,800,000 pounds for the years 1910 to 1916 toa maximum of 25,000,000 pounds for 1919. By far the greater part of this total originates in the Pajaro district of Sonoma and Santa Cruz Counties. Oregon ranks next in point of production. Washington has only recently become a producer, but is at the present time very rapidly increasing her annual output, as is like- wise the case in lesser degree with Idaho. Missouri, Arkansas, Penn- sylvania, Illinois, North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia also produce variable quantities of evaporated apples, their average com- | EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 3 bined production being somewhat less than that of California. In so far as available figures enable a conclusion to be reached, it would appear that the evaporated- apple industry is growing in importance in the States of the Pacific Northwest, less rapidly i in Arkansas and the Virginias, little if at all in New Yor k, and is decreasing in quan- tity of output in the other producing States. As a commercial practice sun drying no longer exists outside of California, but has there attained the rank of a primary industry, practically all the fruit used for the purpose being grown spe- cifically for drying and without intention to offer it for sale in the fresh condition. As a consequence, varieties specially suited to drying purposes have been developed or selected and are planted to the exclusion of others. While a portion of the prune crop of the Pacific Northwest is sold fresh or evaporated according as market conditions may determine, by far the greater portion is erown spe- cifically for drying, individual growers or groups of growers con- structing such drying equipment as their acreage may require. With this exception evaporation is at the present time distinctly an industry developed by fruit growers as an adjunct to their chief business of producing fruit for market, and its relation to that busi- ness is that of a stabilizer or safety valve. In direct proportion as it has been developed in any given territory it serves to increase orchard returns by converting low-grade and unmarketable por- tions of the crop into salable products and to maintain fresh-fruit prices by absorbing a portion of the marketable grades in years of overproduction. As a consequence of this safety-valve relation to the fresh-fruit industry, the material coming into the evaporators has not been grown with reference to its special fitness for drying purposes, but varies widely from year to year in character and quality as well as in total volume. For these reasons the drying industry, unlike that of canning, in only a few exceptional cases has been engaged in by large commercial concerns making it their sole business and having definite acreages of material of specified varieties grown under contract. forthe purpose. The product of such plants constitutes only a very small percentage of the total output. The drying of fruits as practiced at the present time is therefore peculiarly a farm industry, carried on by fruit growers themselves as a part of the routine of harvesting and disposing of the crop. The plants in which the work is done are mainly small, their size being most frequently determined by the size of the owner’s orchard, and there is great diversity in the drying’ appa- ratus, the accessory equipment, ‘and the details of the drying meth- ods employed, with a consequent absence of definite standardization of the product. This would be expected in view of the fact that ae farms reported the production of dried fuits in the census of 1919. It is the purpose of this bulletin to describe in detail the types of artificially heated evaporators found by the test of actual use to be best suited to specific purposes, to describe model installations of labor-saving machinery, and to give somewhat full discussion of im- proved methods of handling the various fruits in preparation for drying as well as during the drying process. The drying installa- tions described are of the most modern character, but are of such moderate size and cost as to be suited to the means and needs of the 4 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. largest possible number of fruit growers. They are purposely so planned as to be capable of enlargement or alteration to meet the needs of a particular case. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN DRYING FRUITS. The purpose in view in drying any food material is to reduce its moisture content to such a point that the growth of organisms therein will no longer be possible, and to do this with a minimum of altera- tion in the food value, appearance, and palatability of the product. The necessity for avoiding changes in physical appearance and chem- ical composition, other than actual loss of water, puts very definite limitations upon the means which may be employed to bring about drying and makes an understanding of certain principles a pre- requisite to successful work. _ It is obviously of advantage that drying be brought about as rap- idly as possible, since rapid drying minimizes opportunity for the growth of organisms and for the spontaneous chemical changes which set in as soon as the interior of the fruit is exposed to the air and since a short drying period increases the working capacity of the drying apparatus. There are three possible ways in which drying may be accelerated, namely, by passing currents of air over the material, thus giving a large volume of air for absorbing and carry- ing away moisture, by raising the temperature and consequently the moisture-absorbing capacity of the air, and by employing air which has previously had all moisture removed from it by passing through an air-drying apparatus. A theoretically perfect method of drying would, of course, combine all three means of hastening the process, and while such methods are in use in certain industries, they are im- practicable for drying fruit because of their high cost. Consequently, practical drying methods rely upon the use of heated air, with some means of maintaining the air in circulation over and through the product. The moisture-carrying capacity of the air is a function of its tem- perature, and is practically doubled by every increase of 27 degrees in temperature. Consequently, the application of a relatively mod- erate degree of heat brings about a very great increase in its capacity to absorb moisture. This is evident from a consideration of the fact that raising the temperature of a quantity of air 108 degrees, from 60° to 168° F., for example, results in a sixteenfold increase in its mois- ture-carrying capacity. The temperature employed is consequently the most significant factor in determining the drying rate, and it is advisable to employ the highest temperature which can be used with- out injury to the material. But the use of extreme temperatures in drying fruits is impossible for three reasons, The various fruits contain 65 to 88 per cent of water when prepared for drying. If such water-filled material were suddenly exposed to dry air having a temperature approaching that of boiling water, the rapid expansion of the fluids of the tissues would burst the cell membranes, thus per- mitting the loss of many of the soluble constituents of the fruit by dripping. Some decomposition of the sugars of the fruit would also occur at such temperatures, and the caramel formed would injure both the flavor and the appearance of the dry product. Furthermore, _ the very rapid drying of a thin layer at the surface of the material _ EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 5 would occur, and this dry layer would retard the movement of water outward to the surface from the interior of the material, thus slow- ing down the drying process. The maximum temperature which can be employed without producing these injurious effects varies con- siderably with the different fruits, since it depends in every case upon the physical | structure and chemical composition of the particular fruit, but it is in all cases very considerably below the boiling point of water. There must also be a careful adjustment between the amount of heat applied and the volume of air passing through the apparatus. The heat required to convert the water evaporated from the liquid condition to vapor is very considerable; the evaporation of 1 pound of water absorbs a quantity of heat which would reduce the tem- perature of 65,000 cubic feet of air by 1° F., or 1,000 cubic feet by 65° F. It would seem at first glance that the greatest efficiency in a drying apparatus would be effected by allowing the heated air to expend most of its heat in vaporizing water and to permit it to be- come saturated before allowing it to escape from the drier. This is not the case, for several reasons. Air at any given temperature. takes up water vapor quite rapidly until it has absorbed about half the quantity it is capable of carrying at that temperature, after which absorption goes on at a rapidly diminishing rate. At the same time the air is losing heat through the vaporization of water, every reduction of 27° F. resulting in the loss of half its moisture- carrying capacity, this loss also operating to reduce the rate of absorption of moisture. Consequently, it is not practicable to secure saturation of the air before allowing it to escape, as this would make the drying exceedingly slow. The “best practice aims at permitting the air to vaporize and absorb such an amount of moisture as will reduce its temperature by not more than 25° to 35° F. during its pas- sage through the apparatus, thus effecting rapid drying at the ex- pense of the loss of about half of the theoretical drying efficiency, of the heat used. As a matter of fact this heat is not wholly lost, since the expansion and resulting buoyancy of the warm air main- tains a current through the apparatus, if provision for its escape at the highest part of the drier is made. Without such provision, the air can not escape and will quickly become saturated, with the result that the escape of water vapor from the material is stopped and the fruit is cooked in its own juices. In most evaporators in common use the construction is of such a type that the air is ad- mitted at the lowest portion of the apparatus and is allowed to escape at the highest point, the arrangement of material in the interior being such as to offer a minimum of obstruction to its flow upward. In other types, the air movement is made independent of gravity by placing fans in the air inlets or outlets or in both. Some driers of this type have the defect that the air movement is so rapid that the air can take up only a portion of the moisture it is capable of carrying, thus giving a low return for the fuel employed. Other driers. obtain greater efficiency from the heat used by the employ- ment of devices for the recirculation of the air, which is forced to pass repeatedly over the material before being discharged from the apparatus. As contrasted with driers in which the circulation is wholly dependent upon the buoyancy of the warm air, driers of this type gain somewhat in capacity as a result of the shorter time et eles 6 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. required for drying a given quantity of material, but are more ex- pensive to construct and operate, are dependent for successful opera- tion upon a source of power for driving the fans, and require a higher class of labor because of their more complicated character. In practice their efficiency is often lowered by reason of the fact that the rate of air movement is excessive, causing rapid drying of the sur- face of the material and thus retarding the ese: ape of moisture from the interior of the product. Whatever the type of drier employed may be, it is essential to success that drying be continuous and that the temperature be main- iained fairly uniform throughout the process. The flesh of the various fruits i is an excellent medium for the growth of a great variety of microorganisms, including both bacteria “and fungi. As soon as the material is opened up to the air it becomes subject to attack by these organisms, which are present in great numbers in the form of spores upon the skins of fruit and in the dust of the workroom, with the result that considerable numbers become scattered over the sur- faces of the prepared fruits. As long as the temperature of the material is maintained fairly high and the escape of moisture from the surface goes on uninterruptedly, the conditions are unfavorable for the growth and multiplication of these organisms, but if the temperature is permitted to drop and moisture accumulates upon the surface of the material, the spores germinate, the organisms mul- tiply rapidly, and fermentation or souring of the material begins. For this reason material should never be ‘prepared and allowed to stand before being placed in the drier, and the drying should be completed without interruption. Other conditions prerequisite to success in drying have to do with the selection and preparatory treatment of the material to be dried, and these determine the quality of the product to an even greater degree than does the type and manner of operation of the drier. Drying will not make an inferior article better, nor does it ever pro- duce products indistinguishable from fresh. When conducted with the greatest care and the employment of the best methods known, dried products undergo perceptible modifications which do not affect their food value, but, “nevertheless, make it easy to distinguish them. In order that these alterations, which affect texture and flavor in some degree, may be at a minimum, the materials used should be in prime condition, fully ripe, free from dec ay, and should be handled throughout their preparation with scrupulous regard for cleanliness. With most of the fruits usually dried, chemical changes which modity the color and appearance of the fruit set in as soon as the flesh is exposed by peeling and slicing. The application of such a degree of heat as can be used without i injury to the material does not arrest these changes, but, on the contrary, it causes them to go on at a much more rapid rate than would be the case at ordinary air temperature until most of the water of the fruit has been driven off. This is particularly true of the oxidation of pigments and the changes in tannin occurring in such fruits as the apple, pear, apricot, and peach, which are responsible for the appearance of brownish discoloration of the flesh of these fruits when peeled. While such discoloration does not injuriously affect the palatability or the food value of the fruits in which it occurs, the purchasing public has learned to dis- criminate against such fr uit, and the existing grades for commercial EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 1 dried fruits consider color as being as important as any other single character in determining the market value. Consequently, the maker who desires to command for his product a ready market at top prices must employ suitable means for preserving the color of his fruit. These methods are considered in connection with the preparatory treatment recommended for the various fruits. Success in drying, therefore, depends upon the employment of sound, ripe fruit of unimpaired table quality, the use of suitable means for preventing oxidation and other chemical changes in the material during the drying process, the employment of a drying temperature so regulated that the material may not be injured by excessive heating and so maintained that opportunity for fermenta- tion and spoilage is avoided, and the provision of an adequate circu- lation of air to carry away the escaping moisture. Failure to give proper attention to any one of these factors will result in the pro- duction of an inferior grade of product or in the total loss of the material used. COMMUNITY DRYING PLANTS. In many communities in which the growing of fruit is not a pri- mary. industry, the aggregate quantity of unmarketable fruit may be such as to make advisable the construction of a community drying plant to which every grower in the vicinity may bring his surplus to be worked up. A number of considerations, which should be kept clearly in mind when the project of a community or cooperative evap- orator is under discussion, may be briefly mentioned. tt must first be definitely ascertained whether the quantity of un- used fruit is actually such as will justify the necessary expenditure. This information can only be obtained by a careful canvass of the district and a tabulation of the results. The making of such a canvass is a task calling for conservatism and the exercise of good judgment, for the reason that unintentional but gross overstatement of the un- marketed and unused portion of the fruit crop which could be used as evaporator stock is the rule rather than the exception. It must be borne in mind that in the case of apples, only mature, reasonably sound fruit of fair size will make a marketable dry product and that estimates which include premature drops, specked and decayed fruit, and small-sized cider apples are worse than useless because misleading. The canvass should take into account all fruits grown in the district, and should secure such detailed information as will give a clear idea not only of the total quantities of the various fruits grown, but also of the sequence in which they must be handled at the drier, the length of time over which the ripening of each will extend, the maximum quantity per day which the plant will be required to accommodate, and the extent of plantings not yet in bearing which will contribute to the stock of raw material when fruiting begins, if such plantings exist. The distribution of the material over the district should also be studied, in order that the drier may be located with reference to the sources of heaviest supply. With this data in hand it is possible to determine the size and type of evaporator needed to care for the materials to be dried. As these will in most cases be rather varied, the evaporator must be of a gen- eral-purpose type; that is, its construction must be such that materials 8 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. such as apples, peaches, plums and prunes, berries, sweet corn, and beans may be dried with equal satisfaction. Such a general-purpose evaporator must necessarily be one of the types employing trays. While a very considerable number of patented evaporators are to be found on the markets, the cash investment necessary to secure such machines is such as to be prohibitive in the case of many communities in which fruit growing is not a primary business. Consequently, there is very great need for simple, inexpensive drying equipment which can be constructed by an ordinary workman at the place where needed and will give satisfactory results when operated by intelligent amateurs. Of such driers as meet this requirement, the tunnel evapo- rator, described in a subsequent section, is in many respects the most satisfactory. For this reason, the construction of an evaporator of this type, and the nature and amount of equipment which will be required for handling the various fruits, are discussed with special fullness in the section on “ The prune tunnel evaporator,” page 24. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR DRYING. The evaporator buildings and accessory equipment described in the following pages are of two types. The kiln evaporator is de- signed specially for the handling of apples in large quantities, and is more widely used for that purpose than all others combined, but it is not well adapted to the drying of other fruits. For this reason, the building of a kiln evaporator in a district which is devoted to general fruit growing would be ill advised. The prune tunnel evaporator, on the other hand, is a general-purpose evaporator which may be employed for drying other materials as well as apples and is consequently better fitted to the needs of a farm or com- munity which may have occasion to dry peaches, prunes, berries, or other fruits. For this and a number of other reasons, which will be pointed out in a subsequent section, a tunnel or modified tunnel drier should be built wherever a community drying plant is needed. THE KILN EVAPORATOR. The driers used in the farm apple-drying industry of the United States are at the present time almost exclusively of the kiln type. This type of drier first came into use for the drying of fruits in the eastern portion of the United States about 30 years ago, having been derived with some modification from a type of drier long in use in the British Empire and subsequently in the United States for the drying of hops. Its use was at first confined to the drying of raspberries, the drying of apples being at that time conducted in cabinet evaporators. This type was rather rapidly displaced by the kiln drier in that portion of western New York which produces the larger part of the commercial output, and from that territory its use has gradually extended until it is now almost exclusively employed in all districts in which evaporated apples are commercially yroduced, with the exception of the Pacific Coast States. In Vashington, Oregon, and Idaho driers primarily intended for use with prunes are used to some extent in drying apples, although kilns are employed where apples are the chief fruit to be dried. In California, local conditions, such as an ample supply of Asiatic EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 9 labor, have resulted in the retention of driers of the cabinet, or stack, type even when apples are the only fruit dried. The wide- spread and increasing use of the kiln drier has been brought about by the low first cost of the kilns, the relatively large capacity, the large extent to which labor-saving machinery may be made to re- place handwork, and to a certain degree because their construction and operation are well understood by fruit growers and by the labor available in the apple-growing districts. A kiln evaporator plant consists of a two-story building divided into two portions, one of which contains workrooms in which the fruit is received and prepared for drying, with storage rooms for fresh and dry fruit, the other containing the kilns or drying rooms. The individual kiln is the unit of structure, and plants of any desired capacity are obtained by constructing a series of such units. THE INDIVIDUAL KILN. The individual kiln consists of a structure two stories in height, the first, or ground, floor being occupied by a furnace inclosed in a concrete or masonry room for distributing the heat, as shown in Figure 1, and the second floor, which is of slat construction, serving as the drying floor. The walls extend above the drying floor far enough to give sufficient headroom for working in the kiln and sup- port the roof, which is fitted with ventilators for removing the moisture-laden air as it rises from the material being dried. The ground plan and cross section of a typical kiln are illustrated in Figure 1. It will be noted that the kiln is 20 by 20 feet, the standard dimensions of a kiln of this type. The distance from the furnace floor to the drying floor is usually 16 feet and should never be less than 14 feet, as uniform distribution of heat to the drying floor can not be obtained with a height less than this. In order to give sufficient headroom for the storage room or workroom on the second floor along the side of the kiln, the roof on one side is not as steep as on the other side. The roof is so constructed that the ridge is in the middle of the kiln, with the ventilators along the ridge. Foundation—The foundation walls for the kiln may consist of any suitable material, their depth being determined by the nature of the subsoil and the character of the building material to be used for the superstructure. Concrete is the best foundation material, as, when once properly set, it is impossible for water to get under it and cause damage by freezing. Whatever the material used, the foundation walls should be of sufficient size to support the building without settling, as even slight settling throws the machinery out of alignment and causes leaks in the heating apparatus and in the hopper. If the walls of the kiln are to be of frame construction, the foundation is usually 2} feet above the surface of the ground, in order to make room for the air vents, to have the floors of the preparation room sufficiently high to prevent decay, and to give ample room for the circulation of air beneath it, as part of the air supply for the kiln must pass under this floor. When the walls of the kiln are of stone, brick, or masonry of any sort, the founda- tion is carried up only to the surface of the ground or far enough above to make it level, and the walls are started directly on this. The air ducts, described later, are placed in the walls below the level 25497 °—23 2 10 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the workroom floor. If the ground upon which the building stands is firm and dry the earth “itself may form the floor of the furnace room. If the location or soil is such that trouble from seepage is to be expected, the furnace room should be floored with a layer of concrete resting upon broken stone. Walls—The walls of most of the dry kilns are constructed of wood. Concrete, concrete blocks, hollow tile, brick, or stone makes a more durable structure, but the first cost’ is considerably higher. Wood kilns demand frequent repairs, are short lived, and take a higher rate of insurance than kilns made of other material. The most economical material to use must be determined by local condi- muuUU noe STYLE AND SPACING OF KILN SLATS Use Basswood or Whitewood - 18" SPACING BUGS. iS I SS en eee SS Ge Cee eee IF eet 6’ | BEAMS 10 PIPES METAL LATH COVER | ED WITH % CEMEN PLASTER Fic. 1.—Cross section and ground plan of a kiln. When the kilns are built in rows the furnace rooms are not separated, but the furnaces have separate inclosures and hoppers for distributing the heat. The drying floors are separated by walls. tions; if concrete is cheap in a particular locality, that may be the best material. The details of the construction of the kiln must be determined by the material used for the walls, but the interior di- mensions remain the same irrespective of the kind of material se- lected. In the usual type of wood construction, the walls are made by setting 2 by 6 inch studding 16 inches apart, measured center to center. On the outside of the ‘studding a layer ‘of sheathing boards is placed diagonally. g 3s NS N23 PIPING SYSTEM 2 is more efficient and the one most The products of combustion pass through 1O" PIPES 7o Chirmney System No. 1 is in frequent use, but No. N°2 PIPING SYTEM is the most efficient, it is rather expensive to install and to maintain. the piping system and finally to the chimney. ? > showing three different methods of piping kiln driers. While system No, : N° 1 PIPING SYSTEM 8.—Diagrams frequently used. ria. EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 1 to keep free from soot. In the Pacific Coast States and in parts of the South the absence of supplies of hard coal makes the use of other fuel necessary. Wood is generally used. The furnaces employed are usually heavy stoves of the box type, fitted with special linings, although brick or stone furnaces lined with fire brick and covered with heavy sheet-iron tops are also successfully used. When wood is the fuel used, especial care must be taken to keep all joints of piping and furnace tight, as the volatile resins of the wood may other- wise impart a disagreeable flavor to the fruit. It is impracticable to use soft coal, on account of the soot and smoke. Chimneys.—As it is the practice to build the kilns in rows, it is the usual custom to build a 2-flue chimney in the wall between two kilns to serve both furnaces. The chimneys have two 8 by 10 inch flues and must be carried above the highest part of the building, so there will be a good draft. Near-by trees which are higher than the build- ing may cause much difficulty in securing a good draft, and this point should be borne in mind in determining the location of the plant. Distributing hopper and air ducts—Drying in these kilns depends on passing heated air through the material which is spread on the drying floor. It is necessary to have suitable openings, so that cold: air can be admitted at the bottom of the kiln, be heated by being passed over the furnace and its piping, and, after passing through the material to be dried, discharged through the ventilators at the top of the building. The sizes and location of the ducts for the inlet of the air are shown in Figure 1. ‘These ducts are 13 feet high by 5 feet long, and are four in number, two on each side of the kilns. When the kilns are built in rows, two air ducts are placed in each side wall and the partition walls between the furnace rooms of the individual kilns are omitted. This is brought out in Figure 4. To give more uniform results, the furnace is set in a square concrete or masonry inclosure. ‘This is a comparatively recent improvement in kiln con- struction. It consists of a concrete inclosure 9 feet square and 44 feet. high directly in the middle of the furnace room. This has three openings, each 18 inches by 4 feet, on three sides of the inclosure, and the fourth side has a portion 4 feet wide cut away to serve as a fire door. The upper portion of this opening is covered with a sheet-iron door. On top of this wall a hopperlike structure is built, the bottom corresponding to the top of the concrete inclosure and the top meeting the side walls of the kiln at a point 3 feet below the drying floor and 13 feet from the ground. The frame of this hopper is of 2 by 4 inch scantling, covered on the inside with metal laths and three-eighths of an inch of cement plaster. ‘The sides of the hopper are made per- fectly tight, so that no air can reach the drying floor without entering. the bottom of the hopper through the air ducts. This prevents un- equal drying on the sides of the kiln as a result of wind, and at the same time the hopper prevents loss of heat by radiation through the side walls. Many operators believe that properly constructed hop- pers reduce the fuel consumption by at least 15 to 20 per cent. The details of construction are shown in Figure 1. The drying floor.—The drying floor carries considerable weight and must be strong. The usual type of construction is to have two wood or steel beams set into the side walls of the kiln and spaced evenly. The joists are placed at right angles to these girders and are set back BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 14 ‘und S,ABP B AOJ JIMA JUSLOWNS SaLojs 10J Wood SB [BA SB ‘svvAO[duiad JO OSI 9t[} 1OJ SAOWVOL LOJ PUG dO UB AOJ VoUdS v[dWB SeplAotd DOOAYIOM OY, .“}URTd SuljRi0dvas u[ly-f B JO uvd .oog-punotyg9—F “YIyT ESI SSO7TDLZX2/- & IAWH SMOUNM 77V _ fp e:e=|-<0.9—|—.218 0 Se aid WOOYTHIOM YOLVAITT FLSYM YOLVAFIFI AVAIL TLS OL LIVHS NIVW SINIHDWW 21 HOS FIGLHLHYOM NUH SFNTS 2IKE—* ~ M/ OFI¢aS | 7TIFTLS OML . La ONNOYID WOYS LIFTS & #24,8/ FLNHD 7VO2 2O-$ x.9-—/ SON/INISO HY TIOD SS SSS SS SS |e eas = | | | 0; E760 Itt O-F Se, «0°f5 0,8 02 ——_——_—— > SO 22 —$S———————————_—>— 79708 0-08 O08 } } EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 15 into the wall at either end. The salts that make the drying floor proper are of whitewood or basswood, 1$ inches thick, 14 inches wide on the upper side, and three-fourths of an inch on the side next the joist. In cross section they are keystone shaped. They are placed one-fourth of an inch apart with the narrow side down, in order that the openings between them may not be clogged with material lodging in them. The floor strips should run at right angles to the side of the kiln containing the door, so that it will be easy to handle the product with shovels. Basswood or whitewood is used for making kiln slats, for the reason that these woods do not warp or split under heat and are free from resins or other constituents which could give foreign odors or tastes to the product. After the floor is in place it is oiled three times at intervals of a week with lard oul, paraffin oil, or a mixture of equal parts tallow and boiled linseed oil, applied very hot, in order thoroughly to impregnate the slats. This prevents stick- ing of the fruit. After the kiln is in use, a few oilings each season will keep it in good condition, but it should be thoroughly scrubbed with strong hot soapsuds twice a week during the season. THE KILN-DRYING PLANT. Several individual kilns constitute a drying plant. As it is neces- sary to have enough drying capacity to keep the machinery and help employed, the number of kilns in a plant varies, but economic con- siderations would generally forbid the construction of a plant having less than four kilns, since installations of power-driven equipment in a smaller plant would be almost as expensive as in a four-kiln plant. A plant of this size is large enough to keep the operators busy, and plants larger than this increase the fire risk without adding much to the economy. A plan sometimes followed when a larger capacity than is offered by the four-kiln plant is desired is to erect two sets, separated by a apace of 75 to 100 feet, with an overhead bridge con- necting them. One set of machinery and one workroom serve for both, yet the fire risk is considerably reduced. Location of the plant.—The drying plant is, of course, located near extensive orchards. Each 20 by 20 foot kiln will evaporate from 100 to 150 bushels of apples every 24 hours, a four-kiln plant operated continuously for a working season of 60 days evaporating 20,000 or 25,000 bushels of apples if peels and cores are also dried, or a some- what larger quantity if these are disposed of in other ways. If the venture is to be profitable, sufficient fruit must be available to keep the plant busy for the maximum period. Arrangement of the plant—When a four-kiln unit is used the kilns are usually arranged in a row with the work and storage rooms along one side. The first-floor plan of such a plant is shown in Figure 4. The structure is 80 feet long and the kiln portion 20 feet wide. ‘The workroom portion is 174 feet wide and 80 feet long. The furnace floor is dirt at the ground level, while the workroom floor is on top of the foundation. Air inlets in the outer wall permit the air to pass freely beneath the workroom floor to the air inlets of the furnace rooms. Steps lead down from the workroom to the furnace room. Usually one end of the workroom is partitioned off and used as an office, for supplies, or sometimes as bins. Frequently the bins 16 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are built outside the kiln in a row along the main building, as shown in Figure 5. In other cases the bins are covered, as shown in Figure 6, Fig. 5.—A large drying plant with the storage bins located along the side of the workroom, Both these illustrations show typical drying plants. Figure 5 is one of all-wood construction, and Figure 6 is one with stone walls up to the drying floor and the remainder of wood. Fic. 6.—A drying plant with the storage bins under cover. The building is of frame construction with the exception of the walls of the kiln up to the drying floor, which are of, stone. This plant has a eapacity of 400 to 600 bushels of fresh fruit during each 24 hours. The workroom on the second floor is taken up with the bleacher, the slicer, and a space for conditioning the evaporated material. It may also have bins where fruit is stored and delivered by gravity to EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 17 the worktable below. The bleacher is swung from the rafters 6} feet above the floor, so that there is headroom to enter the kilns. It discharges fruit directly into the hopper of the slicer which stands immediately beneath the end of the bleacher. The plan of the second floor and the location and size of the bleacher are shown in Figure 7. The floor of the conditioning room is level with the drying floors of the kilns, in order to facilitate handling the material. The floors of the workrooms should be made of a good quality of dressed, matched flooring, carefully laid to facilitate cleaning. As they are required to bear considerable weight, they may well be double. A stairway is provided between the first and second floors. The loca- Ss ONE SASH 2X2" UP TO THE PLATE CHIMNEY @xX12FLUES CHIMNEY 6x12" FLUES FFFOOT BLEACHER SLICER CONDITIONING AND STORAGE ROOM 72-6> 36-0- Fic. 7.—Second-floor plan of a 4-kiln drying plant. The drying floor and workroom are on the same level. The bleacher is hung from the rafters with sufficient headroom for passing into the kiln. tion of the windows and doors and the size of the various openings are Shown in Figures 4 and 7 THE APPLE-DRYING WORKROOM AND ITS EQUIPMENT. Equipment necessary in the workroom.—The essential equipment of the workroom of an apple-drying plant includes a washing tank with an adequate supply of fresh water, a grader, a worktable equipped with belt conveyors for carrying pared apples and waste, peeling machines, elevators for carrying pared apples and waste to the second floor, elevated bins with gravity chutes for supplying unpared apples to ‘the worktable, the bleacher (a closed box with a slat-and-chain conveyor and a stove for burning sulphur), the slicer, a chopper for working up apples too small or ‘soft to be profit- ably made into pared stock, shafting, belting, pulleys, and an electric motor or a gasoline engine to operate the machinery, low, broad- wheeled hand trucks for moving prepared fruit from the slicer to the kilns and from kilns to the conditioning room, a conditioning room screened to exclude insects and provided with partitions or bins for keeping the various grades of stock separate, baskets, trim- ming knives, wooden shovels, tools for adjusting and repairing ma- chines, and a supply of spare parts of such equipment as is subject 25497 °—23 3 r= 18 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to wear or breakage (pulleys, link chain, paring-machine gears, knives, and coring spoons), a supply of reliable thermometers read- ing to 212° F., a box press for use in packing the dried fruit, a box- nailing machine, a supply of box shook, mops, pails, and brooms, and means for heating water for cleaning. The arrangement of the equipment of the workroom is exceed- ingly important. The drying plant is a factory having a relatively short working season and handling bulky, highly perishable ma- terial upon which there is a relatively narrow margin of profit. Successful operation demands that the plant shall run at full ca- pacity throughout the working season and that a high degree of efficiency of the labor employed be obtained by substituting auto- matic power-operated conveyors and elevators for hand labor in moving the bulky material from place to place in the plant and by assigning every employee a definite task which will keep him fully employed without wasted effort and without necessity for constant supervision. This can not be accomplished if the arrangement of the equipment is haphazard, as the unnecessary labor and the mutual interference of employees with one another which is unavoidable in badly planned workrooms results in a reduction of 10 to 30 per cent in the output of the plant or in a corresponding increase in the cost of production. The arrangement of the workrooms and their equipment here de- scribed is the result of a study of a considerable number of evapora- tors, and it combines the best features and the most efficient labor- saving devices found in the course of that study with the results of experience in planning and equipping a number of plants. A number of evaporators equipped in this manner have been in suc- cessful operation for several seasons, and all the recommendations made have been subjected to the test of actual use. The primary purpose in view has been to make such an arrangement of the equipment as will carry the raw material through the plant along the shortest possible route and secure its rapid, uninterrupted pas- sage through the various stages of preparation. Power-operated labor-saving devices have been employed wherever possible, for the reason that these are coming into practically universal use in the newer plants, and any drier which does not employ them will find that its higher costs of production constitute a very heavy handicap. As the reasons for the arrangement of the various portions of the equipment will be most easily grasped by following the course of the fruit through the processes. of preparation, they are described in that order. veceiving, washing, and grading the fruit—Whether fruit is stored in bins or received directly from wagons, a means of washing and grading the fruit is necessary. Washing is a prerequisite to the making of clean, high-grade stock, and the rapid wear of machines by sand and grit carried on unwashed stock is a consideration not to be forgotten by any operator to whom cleanliness does not make a sufficiently strong appeal. A grader which will separate fruit into several sizes is also essential, as paring machines, while capable of adjustment to peel apples of almost any size, must be adjusted to fruit of definite size if they are to do their best work. Some means EVAPORATION QF FRUITS. 19 of keeping the operators of paring machines supplied with fruit at all times is also a necessity. The washing tank should be located outside and at one end of the building, at a distance of 10 to 12 feet. It should be so placed that fruit may be unloaded directly into it and should be sufficiently large to receive an ordinary wagonload at one time. A length of 6 feet, ‘with a breadth and depth ‘each of 4 feet, is a good size. The tank should be placed with the end, rather than the side, toward the build- ing. It should be provided with a faucet for supplying water, and a large plug should be placed near the bottom to facilitate draining and cleaning. From the washing tank the apples should be carried by a power- driven bucket-and-chain conv eyor to the grader on the second floor of the building. This conveyor, like all others used in apple-drying plants, is made of a standard separable-link chain obtainable in a great variety of sizes and styles of links suited to various purposes. For making conveyors to carry materials in a horizontal plane, the type of link employed is one to which a hardwood slat is attached, the slats forming a flexible belt. For lifting materials vertically, or up an incline, the belt is made up of slats, as in the first case, but at in- tervals of 12 to 18 inches there are inserted special links to which “buckets” made of two wooden pieces of suitable width, nailed together to form an L-shaped trough, are attached. Link-belt chain of suitable sizes is carried by pr actically all the larger supply houses, and the wooden parts are readily made and attached by an ordinary workman. The conveyor runs in a flat trough 10 or 12 inches wide _and 4 or 5 inches deep, supported by a trestle, and the belt returns beneath the trough. The upper end of the conveyor passes through the wall of the building at a point 8 to 10 feet above the second-floor level and delivers directly into the hopper of the grader. The lower end extends almost to the bottom of the tank, thus enabling the con- veyor to remove practically all apples from the tank without atten- tion, while at the same time acting as a stirrer to assist the washing. The inclination of the conveyor to ‘the building prevents the dropping of fruit, while the open construction of the buckets allows the fruit to drain thor oughly before entering the building. All that is necessary by way of grading is that the fruit be sepa- rated into sizes, each of which shall contain fruits varying not more than one-half inch in diameter, as paring machines are so constructed that they may be adjusted to handle fruit with this amount of varia- tion in size. “A good plan is to adjust the grader to separate into five sizes, the first of these consisting of fruits measuring 34 inches or more in diameter, the second of those measuring 3 to 34 inches, the third of 24 to 3 inches, the fourth of 24 to 24 inches, and the fifth including all fruits measuring less than 24 inches. These last are run into a separate bin to be pressed for juice or made into chops, as they are too small to be profitably worked up into white stock. The other sizes should be kept separate, so that each size may be delivered to machines adjusted for peeling that particular size. This may be accomplished by placing the storage bin in the corner of the second- floor workroom and placing the orader directly over it, so that the fruit of each size drops into a separate compartment, or by placing the grader at one side of the bin and arranging chutes through which 20 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fruit may roll into the various compartments. The bin should be large enough to contain stock for a day’s run; dimensions of 20 by 8 feet with a height of 6 feet will permit this, yet give suflicient room for placing the grader above it. A very simple device serves to deliver fruit automatically from the bin to the paring machines. Each compartment of the bin is provided with a false flooring inclined from all sides of the compart- ment to the center, thus forming a flattened hopper. From the center of each hopper a wooden chute 10 inches square passes through the floor, runs with a downward inclination of 1 or 2 inches per foot of length across the ceiling of the first-floor workroom to a point above the paring table, and descends vertically to end in a box placed beside the paring machine. A sliding door near the lower end of the chute enables the operator of the machine to fill the box as it becomes empty. If desired, the main chute may be divided, so as to Fic. 8.—Sectional side view of an apple evaporator, showing a belt conveyor from the grader to the storage bin and chutes from the bin to the paring table. A, Apple bin with elevated floor and sliding door delivering into B, the washing tank; C, conveyor lifting apples from the washing tank into the hopper of D, the grader; H#, a second conveyor receiving apples from the grader and carrying them to fF’, the apple bin on second floor; G, chutes from the second-floor bin to the paring table; H, parers. supply two or more machines from one compartment. As the chutes are near the ceiling and over the worktable, they are out of the way. This arrangement has the obvious advantages that there need be no stoppage of machines because the-supply of fruit is exhausted, the workroom is not obstructed by boxes of fruit waiting to be worked up, and the time of two or more men which would otherwise be spent in getting fruit ready for paring and distributing it by hand to the paring table is saved. The only expenditure of power is that neces- sary for running the elevator and grader. The entire arrangement is made clear by Figure 8. The worktable-—The table at which the peeling and trimming are done is located in the first-floor workroom in the position indicated in Figure 4. It is placed 6 feet from the wall separating the work- room from the furnace rooms, thus giving ample room for passage behind it without interference with those working at the table. Ina 4-kiln plant the table should be 54 feet long, thus allowing 43 feet EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 21 of space for each of 12 paring valelnnes: This number of machines is larger than is necessary to keep the plant running at capacity, but it is advisable to provide at least 2 machines for use when others are temporarily stopped for repairs, while the additional table space will be extremely useful as a workbench for repair work. The par- ing table should be 43 feet wide. Many operators employ 4-foot tables, but the additional width is of advantage in various ways. The fr aming of the table should be of 2 by 4 inch st tuff, substantially braced, and the supporting legs of 4 by 4 inch material, Spaced 44 feet apart, so as not to be in the way of operators at the eee and spiked to the floor. The table should be 42 inches high at the inner and 35 inches high at the opposite or outer side, w vhere the trimmers work. This gives the table top, which is made of 2-inch boards, an inclination of 2 inches per foot of width toward the side at which the trimmers work, in order that peeled apples dropping from the forks of the paring machines may roll across the table to the trimmers’ side, where a 4-inch strip nailed to the edge of the table and projecting 2, inches above it serves to arrest them. The height of the table is such that both parers and trimmers may stand at their work or sit on stools, as they may prefer. The paring machines are placed along the higher side of the table, each machine being given a total working space of 44 feet. Each machine is leveled and raised a few inches above the surface of the table by placing wooden blocks of suitable thickness solidly fastened to the table, beneath each leg, thus giving additional clearance for waste under the machine. It is also a good plan to place a short bit of board under each machine in such position as to form a sharply inclined plane upon which apples drop as they are pared, as the addi- tional impetus thus given will aid materially in carrying them across the table. The chutes for delivering apples from the bin above are so placed that each delivers into a box placed at the left and about 12 inches from the machine it supphes. The main power shaft is suspended from the joists directly above the paring table and each machine is driven directly from it. The table is supplied with two conveyors running throughout its length—one beneath it for removing peels and cores, the other, which is raised 6 inches above it, for carrying pared and trimmed fruit. Each conveyor consists of a- wooden trough 8 inches wide and 5 inches deep, with a chain-and-slat belt of the type already described. In some plants successful use is made of belts of water and oil proof material supplied at intervals of 12 or 18 inches with cross cleats of some nonresinous hardwood, but such belts usually give more or less trouble through their tendency to slip, and their use is not recommended. At either end of the table the conveyors run over pulleys supplied with take-ups for adjusting the tension and return beneath the table. The conveyor for waste is placed 12 inches below the table, beneath and a little toward the inner side of the paring machines, and an opening 8 inches square is cut in the top of the table under each machine, permitting peels and cores to drop directly upon the belt beneath. A similar opening is cut on the opposite side of the table between each pair of trimmers. An inch strip nailed along the upper edge of this opening keeps apples from rolling into it, and a short inclined tr ough carries trimmings, 22 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which are pushed into it occasionally as they accumulate, into the waste conveyor. The conveyor for pared and trimmed apples occupies the center of the table. and is raised on posts, so that there is a clearance of 6 inches between its bottom and the top of the table. Pared apples drop from the machines and roll down the incline beneath the con- veyor to the opposite side, where they are arrested by the edging strip. The trimmers then remove any bits of peel or other im- perfections and toss the trimmed apples upon the conveyor. The elevation of the conveyor above the table keeps peels and waste out of it and also permits ready inspection and easy detection of care- less work on the part of any trimmer. Details of construction of the table and arrangement of its equipment will be clear from an inspection of Fig- ure 9. At the end of the paring table the conveyors for apples and waste deliver into paral- lel elevators which carry them to the second floor.- These elevators are inclined 15 or 20 degrees from the ver- tical and are of the link-belt slat -and - bucket type already described. The conveyor for pared apples extends through the floor and nearly to the ceil- ing of the second story, where it delivers the fruit into a hop- per from which it drops into the bleacher; that for peels and cores extends only far enough Fic. 9.—A section through the worktable. above the floor level to deliver the waste into a large box mounted on a hand truck, on which it is rolled into the kilns. In case peels and cores are not dried, but are pressed for cider or otherwise disposed of, the elevator to the second floor is not constructed, and the waste is taken directly from the end of the paring-table conveyor to be pressed or discarded as the case may be. The bleacher—The purpose of treatment of the fruit with the fumes of sulphur is primarily to prevent discoloration by oxida- tion in the air and also to bleach or remove such discoloration as has already occurred prior to the treatment. For this latter purpose sulphuring is not wholly effective, and for this reason it is imperative that fruit reach the bleacher in the shortest possible time after paring. For the further reason that contact of iron with the pared flesh greatly accelerates the rate at which discolora- tion occurs and also makes it impossible to remove it, the conveyors, elevators, and even the bleacher itself are so constructed that metal does not come in contact with the pared fruit. Bleaching was at one time carried out in sulphuring cabinets or boxes, in which the pared or sliced fruit was exposed in trays or shallow boxes to the action of EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. Ve fumes. This method was laborious; a longer time elapsed and as a result considerable discoloration occurred after paring and slicing and before exposure to the fumes, while it was difficult or impossible to secure uniform, penetration of the fumes into the compact layers of slices. In consequence, all modern evaporators employ power- driven bleachers of the type here described. A power bleacher is essentially a long, tightly constructed wooden box, 2 to 3 feet in width, 3 feet in height, and of a length proportional to the size of the plant, 5 feet of length being commonly provided for each 100 bushels of apples to be handled in an 8-hour or 9-hour work- ing day, so that a plant of 600 bushels maximum daily capacity will require a 30-foot bleacher. Operators usually purchase the metal parts only from supply houses, which can furnish them for bleachers of any desired capacity, and build the box and wooden parts at the plant. The bleacher is suspended by hangers from the ceiling of the second-floor workroom, near the walls of the kilns, and high enough to be out of the way of workmen. Pared and trimmed apples are brought up by the elevator from the paring table and delivered into a hopper at one end of the bleacher, from which they drop to an endless belt. conveyor, made of two lengths of link chain carrying hardwood slats, which occupies the bottom of the box and extends through its length, moving over a series of steel rollersi placed 12 to-18 inches apart, to distribute the load and prevent sagging. By means of a worm gear this belt is made to move very slowly, so that 30 to 40 minutes are required for fruit to pass through the bleacher. The bleached fruit drops through a short chute directly into the hopper of the slicer, which is placed beneath the outlet end of the bleacher. Sulphur is burned in a heavy iron pan placed in a chamber provided for it at the apple-inlet. end, or less commonly in a special sulphur stove placed on a wall bracket or suspended beneath the bleacher, the sulphur fumes being led into the bleacher by a short length of terra- cotta or heavy cast-iron pipe. Provision is made for their escape at the opposite end of the bleacher by a flue of terra-cotta pipe heavily cemented at the joints and extending well above the roof. The apple inlet and outlet are provided with curtains of heavy canvas, weighted to keep them in place and prevent the escape of the intensely irritating fumes into the room. For the same reason the box is built of well- seasoned matched lumber and all cracks are carefully filled with white lead, as are the joints about the pipe connections. The top of the bleacher is provided with hinged doors near either end to permit access to the interior, and these should be made to fit tightly. Figure 10 gives a clear idea of the construction of the bleacher, portions of the side wall and end being represented as cut away in order to show the interior construction. The slicer—Several power slicers, differing rather widely in con- struction, but alike in that they are durable and do satisfactory work, are on the market. The essential features are that the machine be strongly constructed, that it will not readily get out of order, that it has a daily capacity equal to or greater than the expected maximum demand upon it, and that it be capable of delivering a high per- centage of perfect rings when operating at full capacity. The slicer should be placed at the outlet end of the bleacher, so that the sulphured apples may drop directly into it. Both bleacher 24 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and slicer are driven by belts from a short countershaft placed above the inlet end of the bleacher and driven by a belt from the main drive shaft on the first floor. The machine should be raised suffi- ciently above the floor to permit a broad-wheeled hand truck, carry- ing a box 12 or 15 inches deep and having one side hinged so as to drop down, to be placed directly beneath the chute down which the slices pass. When the box becomes filled the truck is replaced by another, and the loaded truck is rolled into the kiln, the side dropped, and the contents spread upon the kiln floor. The lowered side of the box forms an incline down which the fruit runs without injury, which is an advantage, as the freshly sliced rings are easily broken, and unnecessary or rough handling at this time lowers the grade of the fruit by increasing the percentage of broken pieces. The loading of the kiln floor is begun at the corner farthest from the door, each truck load being spread as uniformly as possible to a depth of 5 or 6 inches by means of a broad-bladed wooden shovel and a wooden rake. LY VY * pare L_'§ "ez, bio) Gy LENGTH OF BLEACHER 3 \aeee To MAI SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN & PER Power A TON OF DAILY CAPACITY, Fic. 10.—An apple bleacher. In this arrangement of equipment the fruit passes rapidly through the various stages of preparation, a given apple reaching the bleacher within 14 to 2 minutes after it is placed upon the paring machine, thus eliminating the discoloration resulting from standing in the air. All transfers of the bulky material from floor to floor or about the build- ing are accomplished by automatic power conveyors or by gravity, the hand labor involved being reduced to the actual operations of feeding peeling machines, trimming, and spreading the sliced fruit on the kiln floor. This work does not require great physical strength and is almost universally performed by women and girls. THE PRUNE TUNNEL EVAPORATOR. The term “tunnel evaporator,” or “prune tunnel,’ as employed throughout the Pacific Northwest, designates a drying apparatus of a definite type, universally employed in the prune-growing districts of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho for the curing of that fruit. As it exists to-day it is the sole survivor from the early years of the prune industry of at least a score of devices for drying prunes, most of which were patented, as was the earliest form of the tunnel drier. It EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 25 owes its survival and present popularity to the fact that it originally embodied two or three principles essential to the successful drying of prunes, and the expiration of the patents has resulted in gradual modifications and improvements at the hands of users.” In contrast with the kiln, which is intended for use with apples and is not well adapted to the drying of most other fruits, the tunnel evaporator is an excellent gener al -purpose drier. The distinctive features of its operation which adapt it to the drying of prunes make it equally well suited to the handling of peaches, apricots, berries, apples, and pears, and it is quite eenerally employed for drying these fruits wherever they are commercially dried in prune-growing terri- tory. That it has not come into use in districts in which apples alone are dried is due to the larger expenditure of labor involved in drying apples on trays. In its essential features the drying chamber of the tunnel evapo- rator consists of a long, narrow compartment, with the floor and ceil- ing inclined uniformly. from end to end, with a furnace placed below the floor at the lower end. ‘The room is cut into a series of narrow chambers, the “ tunnels,” by parallel partitions extending from floor to ceiling. Warm air is admitted to each tunnel through an opening in the floor at the lower end and escapes through a ventilating shaft at the opposite end. The two ends of the tunnel have doors opening the full width and height. The material to be dried is spread on trays which are inserted on parallel runways at the upper end of the tunnel, pushed gradually along as the drying proceeds, and removed dry at the lower end. ‘The inclination of the tunnel, aided by an arrangement of the trays to be presently described, facilitates uniform flow of air over the trays in all parts of the tunnel. DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE TUNNELS. Tunnels are generally built in groups of three, heated by a single furnace. The prevailing size of the individual tunnel has been 20 feet in length by 63 in height and 3 in width. For reasons which will be stated in considering the operation of the tunnel evaporator, it is strongly recommended that the length be increased to 23 feet, leaving the other dimensions unchanged. The floor and ceiling are inclined, as already stated, the inclination that gives the best results being one of 2 inches per foot of length. Walls and ceilings are of wood or galvanized iron, and the floor should be of ealvanized i iron, in order to reduce the fire risk. At the lower end of the tunnel an opening in the floor 3 by 3 feet in size admits heated air from the furnace room beneath. This opening is provided with a sliding door of sheet 1ron which can be closed when ashes are being removed from the furnace, in order to keep dust from rising into the tunnel. The ventilating shaft is located at the opposite higher end of the tunnel, extends entirely across the series of tunnels, and is 2 feet in width. A ventilator of the type already described in the section on the kiln evaporator, page 11, is very effective. The ventilating shaft should extend 6 or 8 feet above the roof of the building, and the 2 The tunnel evaporator in one of its earlier forms came into somewhat general use in France under the name of the American, or Ryder, evaporator about 1890, and a some- what improved form was patented in France under the name of the Tritschler evaporator prior to 1893. (Nanot, Jules, and Tritschler, L. Traité Pratique du Séchage des Fruits et des Légumes, p, 83-91, fig. 12-13. Paris, 1893. 25497 °—23; 4 26 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. partitions between individual tunnels should extend upward 3 or 4 feet into it, in order that winds may not interfere with the air move- ment through a part of the group of tunnels. The doors are made to fit accurately and are supplied with latches which close them tightly to prevent air leakage. Their height and width are equal to the inside dimensions of the tunnel, and they must swing back far enough to clear the opening completely. In most tunnel evaporators the trays are supported by wooden: runways made of strips 1 inch square, nailed to the partitions paral- lel with the floor of the tunnel, and extending from one end of it to the other. The strips are placed 34 inches apart from center to center, and the upper edges are planed smooth and carefully lined up with a straightedge in order that trays may be pushed along the runways with a minimum of effort. The lowest runways are placed 4 inches above the floor, while the last pair is 6 inches below the ceiling. This arrangement gives 18 tiers of trays. Each tier will accommodate 5 trays, each 3 by 4 feet in size, or a total of 90 trays, with a drying surface of 1,080 square feet for each tunnel. When properly spread, each tray will accommodate about 25 pounds of fresh apples or prunes, 16 to 20 pounds of berries, or 12 to 15 pounds of peaches or apricots. The capacity of a tunnel, therefore, ranges trom approximately 2,250 pounds of prepared apple slices to about half this weight of prepared apricots or peaches at a single charge. In a number of large plants the labor involved in handling trays is somewhat reduced by substituting trucks with a skeleton frame upon which trays are loaded for the runways just described. The trucks are made of such height as just to clear the tunnel ceiling and are provided with low wheels which run upon light iron tracks. They have not come into very general use for the reason that it is difficult to construct a truck which permits the trays to be “banked ” or “offset” in the manner described in the section on the operation of the tunnel evaporator, while it is impossible to secure uniformity of drying at different levels of the truck unless this ar- rangement can be made. THE CONSTRUCTION OF TRAYS. The best type of tray is one made of wire netting and 3 by 4 feet in size, as larger trays can not be conveniently handled when loaded. The wire netting should be the best grade of galvanized screening obtainable, with meshes one-fourth inch square; a screen with one-fifth inch meshes is preferable if berries are to be handled. The frame should be made of wooden strips 1 inch square and should be double, that is, four strips should be nailed together to form a rectangular frame; a strip of metal box strapping or a piece of heavy wire should then be drawn tightly across the frame at the middle and nailed in place, and the wire netting is then nailed to the frame. A second strip of box strapping is then nailed in place over the first, and the edges of the netting are folded back and hammered down so that they do not project beyond the frame. A second set of wooden strips are now nailed to the first, thus giving a tray which can be used either side up. The box strapping re- inforces the middle of the tray and prevents sagging of the wire, * EVAPORATION -OF FRUITS. yATI while there are no projecting ends of wire to injure the hands of workmen or cause difficulty in moving the trays along the runways. The number of trays provided should be 40 or 50 per cent greater that the capacity of the tunnels. This will enable the day force to spread a sufficient number of trays of fruit to keep the tunnels filled during the night. The night attendant can keep the fires going, remove trays as the fruit becomes dry, and keep the tunnels filled, but he should not be expected to perform these tasks properly if no surplus trays are provided and his time is largely occupied with un- loading and reloading trays. THE OPERATION OF THE TUNNEL EVAPORATOR. The construction of the tunnel gives it several features to which it owes its superiority over other commonly used types. Fruit is exposed in thin layers to fairly rapid air currents which flow freely over both upper and lower surfaces of the layers, instead of being forced to pass through a single thick layer of fruit, as is the case in the kiln, or through many superposed trays, as is the case in cabinet driers. Fruit is exposed at the beginning of the drying process to air of relatively low temperature and high humidity, thus avoiding injury from overheating, but is automatically transferred without rehandling into air of lower moisture content and higher temperature as the drying proceeds. The operation of loading the drier is continuous, since trays which have become dry are constantly being removed, thus permitting insertion of fresh material as rapidly as it is prepared and keeping the apparatus working at capacity. This is accomplished by an arrangement of the trays upon the runways. which the following description will assist in making clear. Freshly prepared fruit is introduced only at the higher end of the tunnel. In charging the tunnel with fruit for the first time a rather moderate fire is started in the furnace, and trays are inserted one after another on the lowest runway and pushed down until the front edge of the foremost tray is just flush with the air inlet in © the tunnel floor. If the tunnel is 23 feet in length as recommended in an earlier paragraph, the runways will hold five 4 by 3 foot trays. leaving the 3-foot opening of the air inlet unobstructed. The second runway is next loaded with five trays, but these are pushed down until the edge of the foremost tray projects 2 inches beyond that of the one on the first runway. The other runways are loaded in similar fashion, each tier of trays being made to project at its lower end 2 inches beyond that just beneath it? and consequently leaving a corresponding free space at the upper end of the runways. When the tunnel is filled the edges of the tiers of trays project over the warm-air inlet, thus forming a series of baffle plates which break up the ascending column of warm air and force it to enter the spaces between the trays. Since the successive trays with their loads of ma- terial form partitions through which the air can not readily pass, it necessarily flows between the trays, thus coming into contact with the fruit above and below until it reaches the upper end of the tunnel, where its free escape into the ventilator is facilitated by the fact that the edge of each tray projects 2 inches beyond its neighbor next above. The movement of the warm air is also aided by the upward 2 As a matter of convenience a diagonal line should be drawn or marked with paint on the side walls at either end of the tunnel, to indicate the proper position of the trays. 28 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. inclination of the trays. In consequence there is a rapid and un- impeded air movement throughout the whole apparatus. The temperature of the air falls rapidly as it passes through the tunnel, as a result of the heat expenditure in vaporizing water, - while the amount of water vapor carried by it of course increases. The difference in temperature at opposite ends of the tunnel is usually from 25° to 30° F. In consequence, the fruit at the lower end of the tunnel dries rapidly, while the rate of drying decreases steadily with decrease in air temperature toward the upper end. When the tunnel is first charged with fruit the trays nearest the air inlet become dry, while those next them still contain much moisture, and those at the upper end are scarcely well started to dry. While. this delays start- ing, it is of advantage once operation is well under way. The dry AWAWR RANA LVUNR RRR AR REE RUR RARER RS /8Trays 3st ow Cenren AALAWEA AL SSOteeneeecsn cs oss Soomrsss Z A Z a: i: a x 5 z . 3g Zz Z 3 3 H Five Gecan 5 H Owe Nearer Sraves vr Cl booty 3 DO Jiennecs Hear. Y; Coto Arm Openines Y Vy NV ocagron OW or Coro Ara Fie. 11.—A section through the tunnel drier. trays are removed at the lower end, the whole series moved down the length of one tray, and trays of fresh fruit inserted in the spaces thus made at the upper end. The heat supplied is now increased until the temperature at the lower end of the tunnel becomes as high as is safe to employ in completing the drying, since the fruit nearest the air inlet has lost the greater part of its moisture. The operation now becomes continuous; an exposure of one to three hours to the maximum temperature completes the drying of the fruit on the trays directly exposed to it, and as they are removed the whole series is moved down by the insertion of fresh trays at the upper end. For maximum efficiency, it is essential that the baftie- platelike ar- rangement of the trays over the air inlet, termed by operators “ bank- ing” or “offsetting.” be carefully maintained and that the trays on each runway be pushed closely together, so that the air is forced to move between successive tiers of trays. By so doing a uniform dis- tribution of air movement through all parts of the drier, with a cor- responding uniformity of the rate of drying, is effected. Until the device of banking came into use, the runways were completely filled from top to bottom, with the result that entrance and exit of air were greatly hindered, air movement was mainly through, rather EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 29 than over, the trays, and great differences in temperature and in the drying rate between the upper and the lower portions of the tunnel existed, with the result that it was necessary to shift the trays from the upper runways to lower positions in order to hasten the drying. These defects of the older tunnel driers are entirely remedied by the expedient of giving the tunnel 3 feet of additional length and off- setting, or banking, the trays. THE FURNACE ROOM. For a group of three tunnels heated by a single furnace, as is the prevailing practice, the furnace room has a width equal to that of 5 aera IN S| oe — I PaRED APPLES fill 70 BLEACHER 1 i] i} | I Srorh iN ' FLATFO ve Arse Bin ConmVvEVER i] pene aAajmnmen| = ALCO: ACLINES 173 Upree l Stse1Hé 9022) 79g OPENING ArPLeé Fil t < Gravee\ TM \ R 1 \ ve ee AMP Fig. 12.—First-floor plan of the tunnel drier. the group of tunnels and a length 2 feet greater. This additional 2 feet of length is given at the lower end of the tunnels and permits the furnace to be placed directly beneath the opening in the floor of the central tunnel, as shown in Figures 11 and 12. The height to the 30 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. floor at this point should be 8 feet ; as the ceiling of the furnace room is formed by the tunnel floors, which are inclined 2 inches per foot of length, the height of the ceiling at the opposite end of the room is 11 feet 10 inches. The walls of the furnace room may be of stone, brick, concrete, or metal lath and plaster; they should not be of wood, by reason of the nearness of the side walls to the furnace and the conse- quent danger of fire. Two air inlets 4 feet in length and 12 inches in height are provided in each of the side walls just above the ground level, with single inlets of the same size in the end walls and beneath the door of the furnace room. The furnace is placed immediately beneath the floor opening of the central tunnel. The prevailing type of furnace in use in prune- growing districts where wood is the only available fuel is a large box stove, known as a hop-kiln furnace, equipped with heavy linings and of such size as to take 4-foot lengths of cordwood. Brick furnaces lined with fire brick are also used to some extent, and hard-coal fur- naces of the type used in apple kilns may be employed where coal is available. Whatever the type of furnace, it is fitted with a length of heavy 10-inch or 12-inch pipe which rises to within about 4 feet of the floor level immediately beneath the center of the floor opening of the middle tunnel. It is fitted with a tee to which two lines of pipe are attached. These are utilized for heating the two lateral tunnels. Each line is carried from the tee to the center of the opening of the tunnel, where a drum 18 or 24 inches in diameter is sometimes used to give increased radiating surface. From this point the line of pipes is carried parallel with the side wall of the furnace room and beneath the floor of the tunnel to the opposite end of the room, where the two lines may be brought together before entering the chimney. The pipe is given an upward inclination toward the flue equal to that of the floor, and it is usually placed 18 to 20 inches below the sheet-iron floor. This arrangement of the pipes makes them effective in heating the side tunnels. A MODIFIED TUNNEL EVAPORATOR.. A modified form of the tunnel evaporator which has been developed at the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station* has, it is claimed, a considerable advantage over the ordinary form in point of economy of fuel and increase in capacity for a plant of a given size. Its dis- tinctive feature is an arrangement whereby the air is repeatedly re- heated and recirculated over the fruit. This is accomplished by cut- ting an opening 2 feet square in the floor of each tunnel at its upper end and building a duct leading from this opening to a housing sur- rounding a fan, which is so placed in front of the furnace that it forces a current of air over the furnace and piping and into the air inlets at the lower ends of the tunnels. The air intakes in the walls of the furnace room and the ventilator at the upper end of the tunnels are provided with trapdoors, which may be closed or opened to any desired degree at will, and similar provision is made for admitting fresh air into the housing surrounding the fan. The furnace and piping are examined and made tight by cementing or stripping the joints. When the fan is started the trapdoors in the ventilator are ‘Weigand, Ernest H. Improved Oregon tunnel drier. Jn Better Fruit, v. 17, no. 7, p. T—8, illus. 1923. EVAPORATION OF FRUITS. 31 closed, and air which has passed through the tunnels is consequently forced to return through the ducts to the fan, whence it passes over the furnace, to be again heated and driven over the fruit. As the temperature and humidity of the returning air rises, the fresh-air inlet into the housing of the fan and the outlet to the ventilator are partially opened, so that some fresh air is continually entering, while a portion of the moist heated air is allowed to escape. With proper attention to the adjustment of these openings, the temperature in the apparatus may be kept quite constant. It should not be allowed to exceed 160° F. The additional cost of the fan and power for operating this form of tunnel evaporator is more than offset by the reduction in fuel con- sumption and the increased capacity of the plant. In drying prunes with air recirculation there is a rather serious disadvantage in that the fresh fruit at the upper end of the tunnels becomes overheated and consequently cracks and drips unless the temperature is kept at or below 150° F. This may easily be done either by moderating the firing or increasing the quantity of fresh air admitted to the system. THE TUNNEL-EVAPORATOR WORKROOM AND ITS EQUIPMENT. The size of the building necessary and the nature and amount of equipment needed in a tunnel evaporator depends primarily upon the nature of the fresh material to be handled. If apples are to be dried in considerable quantities, the workrooms must contain the equipment for handling, paring, bleaching, and slicing the fruit described in the section on the workroom of the kiln evaporator, page 17. To this must be added the apparatus necessary for pre- paring prunes, apricots, berries, and such other materials as it may be proposed to dry. If the plant is solely for the drying of prunes, or of prunes with the small fruits just named, as will be the case in districts in which apples are not grown, the equipment will, of course, be restricted to that required for handling these fruits. In the de- scriptions and plans which follow, complete equipment for prepar- ing apphes as well as other materials has been included; omission - of apple-handling equipment in any particular case gives additional storage space and involves no rearrangement of the other equip- ment. The number of tunnels to be constructed must, of course, be deter- mined by the volume of fruit to be handled. By reason of the smaller floor space required by tunnels as compared with kilns, a plant con- taining 9 tunnels can be installed in a building 594 by 424 feet in size. Figures 11, 12, and 13 give plans for such a plant. Asa single tunnel will accommodate approximately 2,000 to 2,500 pounds of fresh prunes or an equal weight of prepared apple slices (equivalent to 3,500 pounds of apples) at one loading, the capacity of a 9-tunnel drier is 9 to 11 tons of fresh prunes or 12 to 15 tons of apples at a charge. The plans presented may be modified to give the plant larger or smaller capacity, as desired, without alteration of the workroom arrangement. On the first floor of the building the workroom contains the par- ing and trimming table, as indicated in Figure 12. The remaining space is in part occupied by the furnace rooms of the tunnels and in part by storage space. The furnace rooms are equal in width to 32 BULLETIN 1141, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the group of tunnels which they heat, but have 2 feet additional leneth, in order to permit the furnace to stand immediately beneath the low er end of the tunnel. | ' I Jn TUNNELS eR REALE! By 78 7RAVS HtGH => t ' ' -—=— 1 ae TUNNELS tl 26 (8 7TRAKS HIGH The hopper type of inclosure about the —- A EY RE ns TUNMELS 48 TRAYS AGH ~™ 1S TUNNELS jas | cents eS — ae ca | XN Bureau of Entomology_____-----_---- L. O. Howarp, Chief. Gipsy Moth and Brown-Tail Moth In- LESUQANONS ===. eee ee A. F. Burerss, Entomologist in Charge. 16 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 V Washington, D. C. April 10, 1923 DRY-LAND PASTURE CROPS FOR HOGS AT HUNTLEY, MONT. By A. E. Szamans, Assistant Agronomist, Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page. | Page MntRodine tometer: eee elacjariceccicic cle vc cisieies Ts)| Restttstim LOL Quran eee esrcrataa ate Scie = ois 12 Purpose and outline of the experiments...... Zia MEVESTILGS piel O20 era eects taeeciem ne cee manatome oc 14 IEVESTIMES HILO Mette orcpuraleleteinie cisicisjaleieisin'nye ciejejs Sie |EVeSUITTS TEL OZ leva arenes ee hye eee aaa 16 RESalisiimy O16 eee es eee dees 5 | Study of the results with different crops..... 17 VESTS MIL Olas tema veicteniciee icici wicin cies nisis e'sicic U3 MC ONCIUSIONS setae pices ste sais cisicnisice sesso neeeae 23 RGsuHeGRMIGIS ee SN EIT 10 | INTRODUCTION. The transition from cattle-range conditions to grain farming has been comparatively rapid in the Plains area of Montana. Relatively high yields of wheat from low-priced land during the first few years when this change was taking place were a mighty stimulant toward the rather general adoption af this one-crop system of agriculture. The experience of the older agricultural States has shown that a combination of live stock and crop farming formed the basis of a more permanent agriculture than where either grain or live stock was produced singly. Diversified farming as opposed to single-crop farming has frequently been demonstrated as a superior system of agriculture for the semiarid as weli as for the humid sections of the country. There is ample reason to suppose that, in general, the dry-farming districts of Montana will prove to be no exception to this experience; and, furthermore, there have been numerous in- stances where the grain and forage returns from dry farms have been profitably marketed through live stock. Live-stock production to a greater or less degree in connection with grain farming not only affords the dry-land farmer another direct source of income, but enables him to utilize profitably grain 1 The results reported in this bulletin are from experiments conducted under a cooperative arrangement between the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station, the Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture and the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, and the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, The following men from the Animal Husbandry Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry have been in charge of the animal-husbandry work at this station and have had the actual care of the hogs during the years specilied: C. V. Singleton, 1917-1918; R. E. Gongwer, 1919-1920: and R. E. Hutton, 192i. George W. Morgao,who was in charge of the dry-land work at the Huntley, Mont., Experiment Farm from 1913 to 1915, outlined and conducted the experiments here reported during the season of 1915. 26063—23——-1 2 BULLETIN 1143, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, and forage crops which of themselves are of secondary importance but which fit in well with approved crop rotations and agricultural systems. Jor example: Experiments have shown, and_ practical farmers have found, that in many parts of the dry-land sections of the State-the yields of small grains grown after corn are almost as large as on summer fallow, and the net returns are corr eee ape when the corn crop can be profitably used. Corn generally as a greater value when fed to live stock than when harvested and sold as grain. The return of fertility to the land through the medium of manure is recognized as a factor in establishing a system of perma- nent agriculture. ; Where animals are produced, raised, and prepared for market on the farm it is generally essential that some sort of pasture be a part of the scheme. The open range or other native-grass pasture answers this purpose in many cases for cattle and sheep. In the more thickly settled communities pasture will often have to be confined to culti- vated crops. Where this is the case, hogs will more often be used than any of the other meat-producing animals. With this phase of dry-land farming in mind, a series of hog- penne experiments was outlined and begun at the Huntley, ont., Experiment Farm in 1915. PURPOSE AND OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTS. The principal purpose of the experiments was not so much to determine the value of the several crops pastured from the standpoint of profit in pork production as to collect agronomic data bearing on the following points: (1) The seasons at which the different crops become available for grazing by hogs and the length of time each crop will furnish palatable forage. ® The carrying capacity or number of hogs per acre these crops will support. (3) The possibility of fitting together or matching up these oe by means of a rotation or otherwise, so that their respective pasture periods will form continuous grazing over a considerable season. (4) The agronomic effect of manure, the result of pasturing, on the yield of crops. (5) The economic merits of pasturing these crops as contrasted with the usual methods of harvesting them. While these five points are of primary importance in this work, the behavior of the animals themselves in point of gain or loss in weight is important as an indicator of the palatability and the quantity of forage produced. For this reason the results of pasturing are Pasieuiet in pounds of gain. The plats used in the pasturing experiments were 1 acre in area. They were 620 feet long and 70.3 Feat wide. A 7-foot alley separated the plats on their long sides, and a 20-foot road bounded es on the ends. Suitable fencing, shelter, and water facilities were provided for the animals on each plat. Pigs of the Duroc-Jersey breed were used in this work whenever obtainable, and the animals were placed on the pasture as soon as the forage was ready. Individual hog weights were taken frequently enough during the pasture season to compare the conditions of the animals with the depletion of the forage and to form a basis from which to calculate the grain supplements to be fed. These weighings usually took plite at intervals of 10 to 14 days or oftener as conditions demanded. he initial and final weights used were generally the average of weighings made on three consecutive days. DRY-LAND PASTURE CROPS FOR HOGS. 8 The annual crops used were arranged in the form of a rotation and rown as follows: Winter rye seeded in disked pea stubble, followed by corn on spring plowing, followed by beardless barley (Success variety) on disked corn ground, followed by peas on fall-plowed barley stubble. To obtain estimates of yield and for the ultimate determination of the effect of pasturing on yield this rotation was duplicated. The crops in the duplicate rotation were grown by the same cultural methods but allowed to mature and were harvested by machinery in the ordinary manner. In this rotation pasturing began with the winter rye. Usually 10 fall pigs were ued on this pasture. They were placed on the rye in the spring at as early a date as the conditions of season and pasture would permit. This was usually early in May when the rye was from 5 to 8 inches high. The crop was pastured until it was either exhausted, had become unpalatable, or had to be abandoned in order that the pigs could be turned into the acre of peas at a time when they might receive the greatest benefit from this crop. While on the ‘rye plat the hogs were fed once daily a ration of corn equal to 2 per cent of the live weight of the animals. The plat of peas was grazed off in the same manner as the rye. Theoretically, peas are a grain crop, and pigs should require no corn supplement, but under conditions as actually experienced in the field it seemed advisable for one reason or another to continue the 2 per cent corn ration. From the plat of peas the hogs were moved to the plat of Success barley. This crop was usually headed out and the grain either matured or approaching maturity. The barley is supposed to con- - stitute a straight grain ration, on which hogs should approach a finished condition. A small lot of spring pigs was used to harvest the standing corn on the fourth plat in the rotation. Sieg The perennial crops pastured were alfalfa and brome-grass. Two 1-acre plats of each crop were grazed off in these experiments. On one plat of each crop the forage was grown in rows 2 feet apart, while in the second plat the forage was sown broadcast. With the excep- tion of brome-grass m rows each of the perennial pasture plats was duplicated by plats from which the crop was harvested as hay by machinery. Plats of sweet clover for pasture and harvest were seeded in 1916 and 1919, but on account of dry seasons there was no stand, and con- sequently this crop has not been used as pasture. The perennial pastures were seeded in 1916, and pasturing began in 1917. The first year both fall and spring pigs were used to harvest these crops, but since then the grazing has been done by fall pigs only. These were placed on the fields as early in the spring as prac- ticable and maintained there as long as the conditions of the forage and animals would permit. While on pasture the hogs were fed a 2 per cent supplementary ration of corn and were weighed about every two weeks. At the end of the pasture period they were removed to the feed lot for fattening. RESULTS IN 1915. Seasonal conditions affect dry-land crop production so profoundly as to materially affect both the conduct of the experiment and its 4 BULLETIN 1148, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. results. It therefore seems best to present the details of the experi- ment year by year. This allows opportunity for brief discussions of the seasons and explanation of apparent deviations or omissions from the outlined program. The pasturing work in 1915 was of a preliminary character and was confined to the rotation of annual crops. The land used was broken from native sod the previous fall and all the crops were planted in the spring. This being the case, White Smyrna barley, a bearded variety, was used in place of winter rye. The season was cool, the fainifalh was abnormally heavy, and all crops made yields considerably above the average. The hogs used were fall pigs of the Duroc-Jersey and Poland China breeds and were borrowed from neighboring farmers for the work. Nine hogs, totaling 1,366 pounds, were placed on July 14 on the plat of White Smyrna barley, where they remained until July 30, a period of 16 days. At the time the pasturing began the barley was in the soft-dough stage. From the actions of the animals and the small gains made it was readily seen that the crop was unpalatable’ because of its beards, and the hogs were removed to the plat of Success barley. While on the White Smyrna barley a total gain of only 40 pounds for the lot was made. The check plat of this crop yielded 43.8 bushels of thrashed grain per acre. Seven fall pigs having a combined weight of 986 pounds were put on the plat of. peas on July 17, when the grain was in the dough stage, and remained on it nab August 3. During this period of 17 days the lot made a total gain of 280 pounds, or about 2.4 pounds per pig per day. The check Ane yielded 8.4 bushels of thrashed peas per acre, but as much of the grain was lost by shelling out durmg harvest the actual yield was somewhat higher. No supplementary ration was fed with the peas. The plat of Success barley was stocked on July 17 with eight pigs weighing 1,224 pounds. On July 30 the nine pigs from the ite Smyrna barley plat were added. At this time these pigs weighed 1,406 pounds. The total lot of 17 pigs was removed from the Success barley plat on August 11. Thus, the crop carried eight pigs for a period of 25 days and nine pigs for a period of 12 days. The first lot of eight pigs made a total gain of 129 pounds, or an average daily increase of 0.65 of a pound each. The lot of nine pigs added on July 30 made a total gain of 90 pounds, or 0.83 of a pound per pig per day. The harvested plat yielded 33.2 bushels of grain per acre. The plat of corn was harvested by 10 spring pigs weighing 1,115 pounds. This lot was placed on the corn on September 29 and remained there until October 24. A total gain of 480 pounds was made in the 25-day period. ‘This is 1.92 pounds a day for each pig. One of the animals suffered from rheumatism toward the last of the season and did not gain as rapidly as the others. The plat of corn husked out by hand yielded 33 bushels of grain per acre. The experience of 1915 was valuable in working out the relationship these crops have to one another in regard to cultural methods, growth, season of pasture, and palatability. Methods of handling the hogs and the technic in regard to taking the individual weights were also developed. DRY-LAND PASTURE CROPS FOR HOGS. 5 RESULTS IN _ 1916. RYE. The first season when the pasturing work was conducted according to the outlined program was in 1916. Some difficulty in procuring suitable hogs was experienced. Ten Duroc-Jersey pigs having a total weight of 1,171 pounds * were purchased locally by the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station and placed on the plat of rye on May 6. At this date the rye was jointing and was generally some- what farther advanced than was considered most desirable for pas- turage. The crop grew too fast to be held in check by the pigs, and by May 21 they were confining their grazing to small areas where the rye had been closely pastured and new growth was continually appearing. The unpastured rye was clipped with a mower to induce new growth over the whole plat. Timely showers started this growth, which was pastured until June 30, when the hogs were transferred to the plat of peas. A total gain of 339 pounds was made by the hogs during the 55 days on rye pasture. While on the rye pasture a ration of corn weighing 2 pounds for each 100 pounds of ee was fed. The total was 1,480 pounds of corn, or 4.37 pounds of corn for every pound of gain in weight of the animals. The average daily gain per pig was 0.62 of a pound. The check plat of rye thrashed out 19.2 bushels of grain per acre. The results of the rye pasturing for the season indicated that the forage is much more palatable while young. When the crop begins to head the pigs will not eat it but will confine their grazing to areas that have been kept pastured closely and where a new growth of rye is continually appearing. If sufficient moisture is available, a new ao of forage may be induced by mowing the rye when it gets eyond the palatable stage. There seems to be little doubt that the pigs were held on the rye pasture too long for the best results. A 2 per cent ration of corn proved to be about right as a grain supple- ment for the rye pasturage. PEAS. _ From the rye pasture the pigs were moved directly to the acre of field peas. The crop at this time was well advanced toward maturity, the grain being in the hard-dough stage. As the crop appeared to be insufficient to carry the hogs until the barley was ripe, fie 2 per cent ration of corn was continued. ‘The peas with corn supplement carried the 10 pigs for a period of 20 days, the lot being removed on July 20. During this time a total gain of 270 pounds was made, and 636 pounds of corn were fed as a supplement. This feeding ratio is 2.36 pounds of corn for each pound of gain, while each animal made an average daily increase of 1.35 pounds in weight. The plat was completely bare of vegetation when the animals were removed. Peas on the check plat yielded 10.9 bushels per acre of grain of poor quality. he experience of this year indicated that an acreage of peas double that of rye could be used satisfactorily. This would permit ’ After the grazing was well under way at was found that one of the animals had been bred before she was purchased. The actual weights of this animal while on rye, peas, and barley pastures have not been used in the calculations, but a weight equal to that of the average of the other nine pigs has been substituted for the actual weights of this animal. 6 BULLETIN 1143, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. leaving the rye at an earlier stage of its growth and pasturing the peas when they were not so mature, and the increased acreage would more completely fill the gap between rye and barley. With more forage containing an increased total weight of grain, it is possible the corn ration could be dispensed with. Peas appear to be very palatable, both grain and vines being consumed. BARLEY. The 10 pigs were moved on July 20 from the plat of peas to the plat of Success barley where they remained until August 7, a period of 18 days. At the beginning of the period the barley was in the hard- dough stage, but many of the plants along the edge of the plat were stillcomparativelygreen. Itwas observed that these green plants were consumed by the pigs before grazing the mature barley. During the first 10 days of the period a total gain of 42 pounds was made, but during the last 8 days the animals lost in weight to such an extent that the returns for the entire period on barley showed a loss of 14 pounds for the lot. Though the barley was all eaten, it was clearly evident that much of it was not digested by the animals and therefore not assimilated. The crop on the acre check plat yielded 9.7 bushels of thrashed grain er acre. There seems to be ample evidence that the barley was too mature to be of the greatest benefit to the hogs. This crop approximated a full grain ration, and it is possible that some roughage, such as alfalfa hay, should be fed along with the barley pasturage when the crop is so far advanced. If hogged-off when in a greener stage, theré would probably be no need for a supplement. The total increase in weight of the 10 pigs for the rye, peas, and barley pastures was 595 pounds during the 92-day period, and the corn fed totaled 2,116 pounds. At the end of the period the hogs were not in a finished condition, but they had developed large frames and fattened readily in the feed pens. CORN. A lot of four spring-farrowed pigs weighing 435 pounds was placed on the acre of corn on September 30. At this time the corn was nearly ripe, and the pigs consumed it readily. When the animals were removed at the end of a 9-day period, the corn was well cleaned up, and he pigs had made a gain of 71 pounds, or 1.97 pounds per pig er day. s The wes check plat husked out 16.5 bushels of corn of poor quality. The ratio of corn consumed (using the yield of the check plat as the basis for figuring the yield of the pastured plat) was 13 pounds of corn to a pound of gain. As the corn eobalgtnd of a very large percentage of small ears, or nubbins, distributed throughout the entire plat, con- siderable energy had to be expended to find them. There seems to be little doubt that more satisfactory gains would have been obtained if the animals had been removed from the corn at an earlier date rather than left on the plat until all the corn had been found. A small quantity of alfalfa hay was given the hogs while on the corn pasture, but they apparentiy ate very little of it. ‘DRY-LAND PASTURE CROPS FOR HOGS. 7 RESULTS IN 1917. RYE. — In 1917 a scarcity of suitable hogs for this pasturing work allowed but six Duroc-Jersey fall pigs to be used on the rye plat.* These began the grazing period on May 11 at an initial weight of 499 pounds. At this date the rye was about 6 to 7 inches high and well tillered. The forage appeared to be very palatable and was eaten readily by the animals during the early part of the season. The small number of pigs to the acre was not sufficient to keep the pasturage grazed down. By June 19 a large part of it had become too coarse to be palatable and the animals were confining their feeding to small areas where the rye had been kept short and new growth was appear- ing. The coarse forage was clipped, and a new growth came on immediately. This was consumed, but the gains made from it did not equal those made earlier in the season. The animals were removed on July 17. A total weight of 762 pounds was recorded on this date, showing a gain of 263 pounds for the 67-day period, or an average of 0.65 of a pound per pig perday. The corn fed totaled ve pounds for the period, or a ratio of 3.46 pounds of corn per pound of gain. e poor growth of the rye toward the end of the period would have justified removing the hogs at least 10 days earlier. Rye on the check plat yielded 10.4 bushels per acre. PEAS. The crop of peas was seriously affected by a cold wet spring, which so reduced germination that the stand was estimated at about 30 per cent. The forage was further reduced by a hailstorm on July 4, that stripped pods and leaves from the vines and beat them into the ground. The pigs were held on the rye pasture longer than the forage war- ranted in order to give the peas a chance to recover. On July 17 the plat was stocked with six pigs from the plat’of rye. At this date the few peas remaining on the vines were in the-green-pea stage and therefore younger than was the case in 1916. The per- centage of grain to vines was very small, and the 2 per cent ration of corn was again deemed advisable to supplement the pasturage. The six pigs harvested the plat in 22 days and were immediately removed to the acre of beardless barley. A total gain of 174 pounds was made. This was at the rate of 1.32 pounds per pig each day and was made on a corn ratio of 1 pound of gain for each 2.06 pounds ‘ of corn fed. The acre check plat returned 2.3 bushels of thrashed peas. An estimate made at the time of harvest was to the effect that about 50 per cent of the peas had been beaten from the vines and could not be gathered for thrashing. In spite of the hailstorm and other factors the 1 acre of peas with the corn supplement furnished continuous grazing for six pigs for the 22 days between the rye and barley pastures. 2 One of these animals was found to be with pig after the experiment started and was removed from the plat at the end of 61 days. A weight equal to the average of the other five hogs is used fer this animal in all calculations made for rye. This hog was replaced by another on the pea and barley pastures. This substitution accounts for the discrepancy of 21 pounds in the weight of the lot at the end of the rye and the beginning of the pea pasture. 8 BULLETIN 1143, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BARLEY. The barley plats were somewhat affected by the hailstorm but recovered more completely than did the peas. The lot of hogs from the peas weighed 915 pounds when placed on the barley plat on August 8. The grain was well filled at this time, but the crop was not nearly as mature asin 1916. That it was more palatable than during the previous year was evidenced by the way the animals consumed the entire plants, rather than limiting them- selves to the grain. There were not enough pigs to harvest the whole acre while it was in this stage, so the forage was rather well matured by the end of the season. Though the hogs were kept on the plat until all the grain was consumed, it was apparent that they were getting little benefit from the matured barley and they were removed on August 22. A total gain of 60 pounds was made during the 14-day pasture period. This was an average daily gain of 0.71 of a pound per pig. The check plat yielded 16.2 bushels of mature grain per acre. Using this yield as an estimate of the grain consumed it appears that 12.95 pounds of barley were required for 1 pound increase in weight. Rye, peas, and barley pastures returned a combined total of 497 pounds gain in weight for six pigs in a period of 103 days. A total of 1,268 pounds of corn was fed as a supplement to the rye and pea tape Ne As was the case in 1916, the animals were not in a ished condition at the end of this season but had made a good growth and fattened readily in the dry lot. . CORN. Six spring pigs, totaling 442 pounds, were placed on the acre of corn on September 28. The corn was well ripened and was of a better quality than in 1916, though the yield was somewhat less. It required 17 days to hog-off the corn, and the animals were removed on October 15. During this period the total increase in the weight of the lot was 103 inde or 1.01 pounds per day for each pig. The acre check plat yielded 9.6 bushels of corn of good quality. Using this yield as a basis of calculation the gains were made at the rate of 5.22 pounds of corn per pound of gain. The corn crop was not large enough to finish the animals to a marketable size and condition. ALFALFA AND BROME-GRASS. The alfalfa and brome-grass crops were seeded in 1916 in l-acre plats. One plat of each was planted in rows 2 feet apart and one with rows 6 inches apart. In this bulletin the first is referred to as the row plat and the second as the broadcast plat. Good stands were obtained, and excellent pasturage was available in the spring of 1917. A sufficient number of fall pigs was not available for grazing off these plats efficiently, but five pigs having a total weight of 438 pounds were given access to the 2 acres of alfalfa on May 16. On the same date five similar pigs, totaling 427 pounds, were placed on the 2 acres of brome-grass. A 2 per cent ration of corn was fed each lot daily. Both lots were carried on their respective pastures for a period of 56 days, being removed on July 11. The forage on each plat having _ made more growth during this period than the small number of pigs could consume, all plats except the brome-grass in rows were mowed. The 2 acres of alfalfa yielded 1,632 pounds of fair quality hay. The acre of broadcast brome-grass appeared to be more unpalatable DRY-LAND PASTURE OROPS FOR HOGS. 9 than the row plat and was harvested at the same time as the alfalfa lats. This brome-grass plat yielded 1,880 pounds of good quality nee The row plat of brome-grass, though much of the forage grew tall and was not eaten, seemed to furnish a greater AURA of acceptable grazing around the crowns of the plants, and the hogs confined themselves to this plat almost exclusively after the first two weeks of the season. The gain of the fall pigs on alfalfa amounted to 232 pounds, or 0.83 of a pound per pig per day. The brome-grass pigs gained 190 pounds for the same period, or 0.68 of a pound per pig per day. The alfalfa pigs made their increase at the rate of 2.78 pounds of corn per pound of gain, while the brome-grass pigs required 3.2 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. The comparison seemed to favor the alfalfa pasture, though actually most of the brome-grass grazing was done on the 1 acre of brome-grass in rows. The check plat of alfalfa seeded broadcast was cut on June 29 and Sees 1,850 pounds of hay per acre, while the broadcast plat of rome-erass returned 2,560 pounds of hay per acre. No check plats of these crops in rows were available. After removing the fall pigs from the pastures on July 11 the plats were restocked with spring pigs. Ten pigs were placed on each of the crops. The total hog weight for the 2 acres of alfalfa was 356 pounds cand for the 2 acres of brome-grass 357 pounds. As but little growth was made on the broadcast alfalfa plat after it was mowed, the spring pigs confined themselves to the row plat entirely. The dry season enabled the animals to: keep the new growth grazed off fairly close over the whole acre, but the tendency to continually pasture certain areas was the same as that experienced with the rye pasture. On August 8 one pig was removed from the experiment because of sickness, and from that time until the experi- ment closed on September 28 nine pigs were used. During the 79-day period a total of 249 pounds of gain was made. This averaged about 0.34 of a pound per day for each animal. The corn consumed was 767 pounds, or 3.09 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. For the greatest and most economical gains the pasture season should have closed about three weeks earlier. As was the case with the alfalfa, the row plat of brome-grass was pastured by the spring pigs in preference to the broadcast plat. The row plat of brome-grass was mowed on July 24 and yielded 44 pounds of coarse hay. The subsequent new growth was pastured close by the 10 pigs for a period of 25 pe when they were removed. A gain of 32 pounds was made, or an average daily gain of 0.13 of a pound per pig. Shelled corn weighing 231 pounds was fed during this time, or a ratio of 7.22 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. A greater income from the pasture would have been secured if the hogs had been removed a week earlier. The season’s observations on alfalfa and brome-grass as hog pas- tures indicated that both crops were very palatable. It seems reason- able to suppose that placing a larger number of pigs on these crops early in the season would bring more profitable returns than the sum- mer pasturing and also leave the pastures themselves in better shape. The row plats of each crop furnished a more continuous growth of palatable forage than the broadcast plats. 26063—23 9 7a 10 BULLETIN 1148, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RESULTS IN 1918. RYE. On May 7, 1918, 10 pure-bred Duroc-Jersey fall pigs, having a combined weight of 964 pounds, were turned on the rye pasture. The forage averaged about 6 inches in height on this date, and it was in good condition for grazing. June 5 found the animals confining their pasturing to the more closely grazed areas, while rye on the neglected areas grew tall and coarse. This was cut with a mower as it was beginning to head out. Though some new growth was induced from the clipped plants, the season was such that this growth was smaller than in former years, and the animals had little difficulty in keeping the whole acre pastured close. The hogs were removed from the plat on June 25. The total gain made during the 49-day period was 227 pounds, or an average daily increase of 0.46 of a pound per hog. The corn fed was 1,078 pounds, or 4.75 pounds of corn for each pound of gain in hog weight. The check plat of rye made 10.1 bushels per acre. PEAS. The hogs from the rye plat were moved to the plat of peas on June 25. On this date a light hailstorm did some damage to the peas by stripping the young pods from the vines. The total weight of the animals when the pea pasturing was started was 1,191 pounds. As the forage was green and succulent, the corn ration was continued? At the end of a 14-day period the peas had been entirely cleaned up, and the hogs were placed on the acre of barley. A gain of 229 pounds was made by the 10 pigs on peas. ‘This is at the rate of 1.64 pounds per day for each pig. The total corn fed was 364 pounds, or a ratio of 1.59 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. ~ Peas which were harvested and thrashed yielded 5.6 bushels for the acre. It was estimated that about 50 per cent of the grain from this plat was lost because of the hailstorm. A greater acreage of peas could have been used to advantage in 1918, as in former years. BARLEY. The barley crop had begun to dry een it was stocked by the 10 pigs from the pea plat on July 9. The lot at this time weighed 1,420 pounds. At the end of the first 14-day period it was obvious that the pigs would not make satisfactory gains on the crop, and they were removed. In addition to the grain being of poor quality, the crop had become badly mixed with bearded varieties of barley which the pigs refused to eat. The maturity of the barley made it seem advisable to supply a roughage ration with the pasturage, so alfalfa hay was fed in racks. A total of 52 pounds of hay was consumed during the 14 days. When the pigs were’ removed from the barley on July 23 they weighed ae pounds, which was the same as their initial weight on this lat. The check plat of barley made 3 bushels per acre of poor-quality grain. ~ The continuous pasture of rye, peas, and barley made a total gain of 456 pounds. A total of 1,442 pounds of corn was fed while the animals were on the rye and pea pastures. DRY-LAND PASTURE CROPS FOR HOGS. EF CORN. _ The quality of ‘corn pastured was rather poor, and the yield was small. Six spring pigs weighing 442 pounds were placed on the plat of corn on September 6. ‘T'welve days were required to complete the harvesting of the crop. The total gain made was only 54 pounds, or 0.75 of a pound per Pig as day. During this experiment the hogs were supplied with alfalfa hay, but consumed only 8 pounds during the 12 days. The check plat of corn yielded 8 bushels per acre. Using this yield as a basis for estimating the grain produced on the pastured plat, it required 8.3 pounds of corn to make a pound of gain. ALFALFA. A scarcity of fall pigs did not permit pasturing the entire acre plats of alfalfa to the best advantage, so the plats were divided and only half an acre was used in each case. For comparison the returns are reduced to an acre basis. The broadcast plat was stocked at the rate of eight pigs to the acre and the row plat at the rate of six pigs per acre. This difference seemed advisable, as the longer grazing period given the row plat in 1917 resulted in the killing out or damaging of the forage to a greater degree than was experienced on the broadcast plat. This damage seemed to be confined entirely to the continuously grazed areas of the year before. The alfalfa was about 7 inches high when the grazing began, and it seemed to be making a good growth. The initial weight of the six hogs on the row plat was at the rate of 532 pounds per acre, and the eight hogs on the broadcast plat had an acre weight of 702 pounds. ‘The animals remained on both plats until the forage became unpalatable, owing to the coarseness of the growth and tite drought which hindered new growth. Both lots were removed on July 9, after a pasture period of 63 days. The lot on the row plat made an increase of 296 pounds per acre, or 0.78 of a pound per day per pig, while the lot on the broadcast plat gained an acre total of 348 pounds, or an average daily gain of 0.69 of a pound per pig. The ratio of corn fed to gain was 3.01 pounds of corn to 1 pound of gain on the row plat, and 3.3 pounds of corn to 1 pound of gain on the broadcast plat. The row plat made a greater daily gain per pig and did this on a lower corn ratio than the broad- cast plat, but the latter made the greater gain per acre. Contrary to expectations, however, the forage on the row plat seemed to suffer more from drought than did that on the broadcast plat. The ground between the rows of alfalfa was packed hard by tramping, and in many places the soil was deeply cracked. This condition was absent on the broadcast plat. The unpastured halves of each plat were cut for hay and yielded 1,224 pounds per acre for the row plat and 1,800 pounds per acre for the broadcast plat. The acre check plat seeded broadcast made 1,254 pounds per acre. BROME-GRASS. Owing to the small number of hogs available for the work, the brome-grass pastures were reduced to half an acre each, as had been done with the alfalfa plats. Hach half acre of brome-grass was sup- plied with four fall pigs on April 30. This was a week earlier than 12 BULLETIN 1143, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the alfalfa pastures were stocked, but was warranted by the earlier and more rapid spring growth made by the brome-grass. On this date the grass was § inches high. Hogs on the row plat weighed 764 ponds per acre, while those on the broadcast plat had an acre weight of 778 pounds. The forage carried each lot until July 9, a period of 70 days. At this time the pasturage was so coarse and unpalatable that satisfactory gains were not being made. The grass on the row plat was tall and coarse, while that on the broadcast plat was short and dry. Pigs on the row plat returned an acre gain of 350 pounds, or a daily gain of 0.63 of a pound per pig. The broadcast plat yielded 374 pounds of gain per acre, or a daily average of 0.67 of a pound per pig. The corn consumed on each plat was 1,344 pounds. This was a ratio of 3.84 pounds of corn per pound of gain for the row plat and 3.59 pounds of corn per pound of gain for the broadcast plat. The results were somewhat in favor of the broadcast brome-grass. The unpastured halves of each plat were cut for hay on June 15. From the row plat 1,392 pounds of hay per acre were obtained, while the broadcast plat yielded 720 pounds of hay per acre. The check plat of brome-grass sown broadcast yielded 664 pounds of hay. RESULTS IN 1919. RYE. Conditions in 1919 were favorable for starting the pasture work about two weeks earlier than heretofore. Ten fall pigs with a total weight of 1,103 pounds were placed on the acre of rye on April 25, when the crop was about 7 inches high. The animals took to the forage readily and during the early part of the period made good gains. The season was very dry, and the growth of rye was checked to such an extent that the 10 pigs were able to keep the whole plat eaten off uniformly. This was the first year the plat did not need to be clipped to prevent the unpastured plants from maturing. At the end of 56 days the hogs were removed and placed on the plat of peas. The gains made amounted to 287 pounds, which was an average daily increase of 0.51 of a pound for each animal. The corn fed was 1,403 pounds, or a ratio of 4.89 pounds of grain per pound of gain. The check plat made 3.6 bushels per acre. PEAS. The crop of peas was severely damaged by drought, and but little forage was produced. The 10 pigs were placed on the plat on June 20 when they weighed 1,390 pounds. The peas were in the green- pea stage and were readily eaten. The small crop cut the pasture period to seven days, the pigs being removed on June 27. A gain of 77 pounds was made by the lot during this period. The average daily increase was 1.1 pounds per day per pig and was made with the aid of 207 pounds of corn SUPP euEeE the forage, a ratio of 1 pound of gain to 2.69 pounds of corn. The check plat of peas dried up before harvest, and no yield was obtained. A total gain of 364 pounds was made on the rye and pea plats during the combined periods amounting to 63 days. A total of 1,610 pounds of corn was consumed. ° DRY-LAND PASTURE CROPS FOR HOGS. 13 BARLEY AND CORN. The barley and corn plats dried up before making grain, and neither of these crops was grazed. No yields were obtained on the check plats. ALFALFA. As the effects of overpasturing in 1917 were still in evidence, the acre of alfalfa in rows was stocked on May 9 with only four fall pigs. These pigs had a total weight of 318 pounds. On the same date seven fall pigs weighing 530 pounds were placed on the broadcast plat of alfalfa. The forage on both plats was about 6 inches high at this time. Both lots made good gains during the first half of the season, but drought and hot weather reduced the average, as the growth of alfalfa was checked. The pigs were removed from both pastures on June 27. The gain made on the row plat amounted to 130 pounds, or 0.66 of a pound per pig for each day of the 49-day period. On the broadcast plat the pigs increased in weight 188 pounds. This was an average daily gain of 0.55 of a pound for each animal. The pigs on the row plat ‘received 376 pounds of corn, or 2.89 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. The pigs on the broadcast plat made 1 pound of gain on 3.21 pounds of corn, a total of 604 pounds of corn being fed. While the row plat by reason of the poor stand supported a smaller number of pigs and made a smaller gain per acre than the broadcast plat, each pig in it made a greater daily gain on a lower ratio of corn. Alfalfa on the check plat was too small to be harvested, and so no yield was obtained. : BROME-GRASS. Six fall pigs were put on each acre of brome-grass on April 25. The grass at this time was 7 inches high and was readily eaten by the animals. The pigs on the row plat had a combined weight of 582 pounds, while these on the broadcast plat totaled 579 pounds. Drought during the latter part of the grazing season curtailed the growth of forage and reduced the gains made by the hogs. Both lots were removed on June 14, after having been on the pastures 50 days. During this period the lot on the row plat gained 144 net while that on the broadcast plat gained 191 pounds. The ormer averaged 0.48 of a pound daily for each animal, while the latter averaged 0.64 of a pound per day. ‘The hogs on the row plat consumed 653 pounds of corn, or 4.53 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. The lot on the broadcast plat received the same weight of corn and made gains at the ratio of 1 pound to each 3.42 pounds of corn fed. Both plats were grazed off close at the end of the season, and the severe drought prevented the forage making any growth after the pigs were removed. During the season there appeared to be no difference in drought resistance between the two Ble: The check plat of brome-grass dried up before the crop was tall enough to mow, so no yields were obtained. Acre plats of alfalfa, brome-grass, and sweet clover seeded in rows and broadcasted were planted on April10. These plats were intended to be used to replace the present pastures the next season. The young plants on these plats were completely killed by drought. 14 BULLETIN 1143, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RESULTS IN 1920. RYE. A late spring in 1920 delayed opening the pasture season on rye until May 28. The rye at this time averaged about 12 inches in height and was well jointed. Because of the advanced stage of the crop and the late season 15 fall pigs were used instead of 10. These pigs weighed 1,627 pounds when placed on the pasture. he forage grew too fast to be controlled by grazing, and by June 11 the hogs had confined their feeding to small closely pastured areas, and the rest of the crop was heading. After clippmg with a mower on June 11 sufficient moisture was available to send out a new growth of rye. Some of this grew to a height of 4 inches before the entire plat was cleaned up. When the stock was removed on July 9 no forage remained. During the 42-day period a gain of 270 pounds was made by the pigs. The gain per animal averaged 0.43 of a pound per day. The corn ration fed totaled 1,512 pounds, which was at the rate of 5.6 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. fs Rye on the check plat was somewhat damaged by a hailstorm on * July 4, and when thrashed on August 23 it yielded but 14.1 bushels of grain per acre. PEAS. When placed on the acre of peas on July 9 the 15 pigs from the rye plat weighed 1,897 pounds. The hailstorm which damaged the check plat of rye on July 4 reduced a very promising pea crop by at least one-half. Practically all the peas were stripped from the vines and many of the vines themselves killed. ' During the first two weeks of the pasture period a total gain of 158 pounds was made, but during the last 7 days a loss of 11 pounds was recorded for the lot. The 21-day period, therefore, showed a gain of only 147 pounds, or 0.47 of a pound per pig per day. Corn weighing 800 pounds was consumed, or 5.44 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. This was practically double the corn ratio and about half the average daily gain recorded for the plat in previous years and shows to some extent the value the seed in the peas may have as a part of the pea pasture. The acre check plat of peas yielded 2.2 bushels of grain. A large percentage of this yield was made up from second-growth pods, the first pods haying been destroyed by hail. BARLEY. New barley seed of the Success variety was secured for the pastur- ing work in 1920. The resulting crop was very satisfactory, no bearded barley whatever appearing in the stand. The 15 hogs from the pea plat were moved to the plat of barley on July 30. The crop was in the soft-dough stage and just beginning to turn. The forage appeared to be very palatable and was readily eaten. During the first few days the animals seemed to find the leaves and straw satisfactory grazing. By August 10 the barley had been consumed and the pigs were removed. A total gain of 135 pounds was made during the 11 days, or an average daily gain of 0.82 of a pound per pig. The acre check DRY-LAND PASTURE CROPS FOR HOGS. 15 plat yielded 5.7 bushels of thrashed, grain. Taking this yield as representative of that on the pastured plat, it required 2.01 pounds of barley to produce a pound of gain. The yield of both barley plats was somewhat reduced by the hail- storm of July 4. It appeared that the pastured plat was not as severely damaged as the harvested one. The three crops added 552 pounds of gain to the initial weight of the 15 pigs in a period of 74 days. Corn fed during the periods on rye and peas totaled 2,312 pounds. CORN. A comparatively large yield of corn was available for hogging-down in 1920. The grain was nearly mature when six spring pigs were given access to the plat on September 18. The pigs weighed 387 pounds on this date and were in good condition to make rapid gains. A pasture period of 41 days was required to harvest the corn. During this time the pigs put on a total of 248 pounds, an individual gain of 1.01 pounds daily. As a supplement to the corn fed, the hogs consumed 79 pounds of alfalfa Be fed in racks. The check plat of corn yielded 14.4 bushels of grain to the acre. Assuming this yield to be representative of that on the pastured ee each pound of gain required 3.25 pounds of corn. When the ogs were removed from the plat on October 29 they were not in a finished condition. ALFALFA. Stands on both the row and broadcast seeded alfalfa plats had been considerably reduced by the drought and pasturing of 1919. The late spring did not permit turning the hogs into the alfalfa fields until May 28. At this time the alfalfa on each plat was about 10 inches hich. Though somewhat higher than usual for pasturing, the alfalfa having had plenty of moisture was very succulent and readily eaten by the pigs. The stand on the row plat appeared to be less than on the broad- cast plat. The row alfalfa was therefore allotted four animals while the broadcast plat received six. ; As the season advanced the areas where the alfalfa had died out became very weedy, and the plats had to be mowed to keep the weeds from maturing. The pigs were removed on July 9, as it was evident that further grazing would be injurious to the pasture and produce expensive gains in weight. A total gain of 105 pounds was made by the four pigs on the row alfalfa plat during the 42-day period. This averaged a daily gain of 0.63 of a pound for each animal. The lot of six pigs on the broadcast _ plat made a gain of 142. pounds, or 0.56 of a pound aday each. Corn totaling 302 pounds was fed to the pigs on the row plat, and 450 pounds of corn were consumed by the animals on the broadcast plat. Gains were produced on the row plat at the rate of 2.88 pounds of corn per pound of gain, while on the broadcast plat 3.17 pounds of corn were required to produce a pound of gain. An acre of row alfalfa seeded in 1918 and cut for hay this season yielded 2,260 pounds. The acre check plat of broadcast alfalfa cut for hay yielded 1,146 pounds. BROME-GRASS. The brome-grass pastures suffered more severely during 1919 than did the alfalfa. An estimate of the stand of each plat made previous to starting the grazing season indicated a stand survival of but 60 per 16 BULLETIN 1143, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cent on each plat. The spring growth of grass was also considerably behind the alfalfa, being, on ‘\ ay 28, only 8 inches high and very sickly looking. On this date two grade Poland China pigs were placed on each brome-grass plat: ‘This breed was used in place of Duroc-Jersey because of the scarcity of fall pigs of the latter breed. The number of animals used was not sufficient to keep down the growth of vegetation, and both plats were soon covered with a rank growth of weeds. Both plats were mowed to control the weeds. The pigs were removed from both pastures on July 9. The hogs on the row plat, starting with an initial weight of 170 pounds, gained 50 pounds during the 42 days on pasture, an average of 0.6 of a pound each per day. They received 166 pounds of corn, or 3.32 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. The lot on the broadcast plat weighed 169 pounds to start with and gained 76 pounds, or 0.9 of a pound a day for each animal. Durin the 42 days on pasture 169 pounds of corn were fed. This was equa to 2.22 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. The check plat of broadcasted brome-grass yielded 568 pounds of weedy hay. RESULTS IN 1921. RYE. Winter rye in the pasture experiment did not come up until April 20 and was not ready for grazing untilJune 9. The forage was about 10 inches high and thinly scattered over the plat. The estimated stand was 50 per cent. Ten pigs having a weight of 1,262 pounds were placed on the plat on June 9 and remained there until July 14, a period of 35 days. Owing to the thin stand of rye and the droughty conditions during the season, the 10 pigs had little difficulty in controlling the forage over the entire acre. A gain of 286 pounds was recorded for the lot, or a daily gain of 0.82 of a pound per pig. The corn fed totaled 984 pounds, or 3.44 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. The yield of the check plat of rye was somewhat reduced by a hailstorm on May 31, but it yielded 5 bushels per acre when thrashed. PEAS. The crop of peas was destroyed by hail on May 31, and no results were obtained either by pasturing or by harvesting with machinery. BARLEY. The lateness of the rye-pasturing season and the loss of the pea crop necessitated moving the 10 pigs directly from the rye to the barley plat. The barley had been somewhat injured by hail on May 31, but the crop had made considerable growth before the pigs were turned onto it on July 14. The grain was in the soft-dough stage and because of drought was maturing rapidly. Though the pigs consumed all the grain on-the plat with apparent relish, the light yield and poor quality resulted in only small gains. The pigs were removed on July 28, after a pasture period of 14 days. A gain of 21 pounds was made by the lot, each pig averaging only 0.15 of a pound per day. The check ai of barley yielded 6.4 bushels per acre of thrashed grain of poor quality. a DRY-LAND PASTURE CBOPS FOR HOGS, 17 CORN. The corn on both the pasture rotation and the harvest rotation died of drought before making grain, and no yields were obtained. ALFALFA. A scarcity of fall pigs and the poor condition of the alfalfa pastures necessitated using half-acre areas. The areas having the best stand of alfalfa were fenced off and used for grazing. Both the broadcast and row plats were stocked on May 19 at the rate of six pigs per acre. The lot placed on the row plat totaled 772 pounds per acre, while that on the broadcast plat weighed 728 pounds per acre. The alfalfa on each plat, though somewhat thinner as to stand than desirable, was about 6 inches high and seemed to be making a good srowth. Though the season was dry, the crop made continuous grazing for a period of 70 days. The pigs were removed on July 28. The pigs on the row plat increased 436 pounds per acre, or at the rate of 1.04 pounds per day each and at the ratio of 1 pound of gain to 3.04 pounds of corn. The pigs on the broadcast plat made a total gain of 402 pounds per acre, which averaged 0.96 of a pound per pi per day. This lot had a ratio of 3.3 pounds of corn fed for eac pound of gain. No alfalfa was obtained from the check plats because of drought BROME-GRASS. . In order to use areas having fairly uniform stands of brome-grass for pasturing, one-half acre of the row plat was used and one-fourth acre of the broadcast plat. When the pigs were placed on these plats on May 19, the brome-grass averaged 6 inches in height. The stand on each plat was thinner than was desirable. The row plat was stocked at the rate of six pigs per acre, with an initial weight of 732 pounds. The lot on the bron cast plat was at the rate of eight pigs per acre, totaling 1,012 pounds. The row plat produced continuous grazing for a period of 70 days, but on the broad- cast plat the hogs had to be removed at the end of 62 days. A gain of 0.74 of a pound per day for each animal, or 310 pounds per acre for the lot, was made on the row plat, while the individual daily average of the pigs on the broadcast plat was 0.9 of a pound, or a total of 436 pounds per acre. Corn fed to the row-plat hogs totaled 1,246 pounds to the acre, or 4.02 pounds of corn for a pound of gain. The pigs on the broadcast plat received an acre total of 1,412 pounds of corn, or 3.24 pounds of grain for each pound of gain. No yields were obtaimable from the check plat of brome-grass because of the drought. The duplicate perennial pastures seeded in 1919 and fallowed in 1920 were reseeded in the spring of 1921. STUDY OF THE RESULTS WITH DIFFERENT CROPS.‘ The data on pasturing the four crops, rye, peas, barley, and corn, in the 4-year rotation for the years from 1916 to 1921, inclusive, are assembled in four tables, one for each crop. The averages at the bottom of each table were determined for the number of years the crops were actually pastured, exclusive of 1915. 4 For information on the pasturing of irrigated crops with hogs and the feeding of hogs while on pasture and in the feed lot, see the published reports of the work of the Huntley experiment farm, Bureau of Plant Industry, for the years 1913 to 1921, inclusive, by Dan Hansen, Farm Superintendent. 18 BULLETIN 1143, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rye has been pastured every year since 1915. The detailed results are given in Table 1. The average pasture period was from May 14 to July 4, a period of 51 days, for an average of 10.2 pigs per acre. These pigs with an average initial weight of 1,104 pounds gained an average of 279 pounds, or 0.58 of a pound a day for each animal. Corn averaging 1,228 pounds was fed to supplement the pasture. This averaged 4.42 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. TABLE 1.—Results obtained by peaterng 1 acre of winter rye with fall pigs at Huntley, Mont., each year from 1916 to 1921, inclusive. Weights of animals and feed (pounds). Pasture period. Hog weights. pakke Yield of . ec Year. a oo Sa es = r plat Daily Per |(bushels). Date on. | Date off. [Days.| Initial. Final. | Gain.| 52? | Total. | pound niet | of gain 14) 1 eer Seas 6} June 307° 55 )- tir 1,510 | 339 0.62 | 1,480 4.37 19.2 TOR SEG 11 | July 17}; 67 499 762 | 263 65 910) 3.46 10.4 1918. 7 | June 25 49 964 | 1,191 | 227 -46/} 1,078 | 4.75 10.1 1919. . 25 | June 20 56 | 1,103} 1,390] 287 51 1,403 4.89 3.6 1020 2h see 28; July 9 42 | 1,627] 1,897 | 270 43 | 1,512 5.60 14.1 Ltt 7 1 Be ee 9| July 14 35 | 1,262) 1,548 | 286 . 82 984 3. 44 5.0 Average, 5 “6 years.| 10.2 14|/July 4/ 51/| 1,104] 1,383 | 279 .58| 1,228| 4.42 10.4 1 One of these pigs was pregnant during the pasture season. A weight equal to the average of the other nine is taken for this animal in the above calculations. 2 At the end of 61 days one pig was removed because of pregnancy. A weight equal to the average of the other five is used for the removed animal in these calculations. The average yield of rye on the check plat was 10.4 bushels per acre. Peas were pastured every year since the experiments were started except in 1921, in which-year the crop was destroyed by hail. As the work in 1915 was of a preliminary nature and the pasture was not continuous with the other crops in the rotation, the results for that ie are not considered in the assembled data, which are given in able 2. TABLE 2.—Results obtained by pasturing 1 acre of peas with fall pigs at Huntley, Mont., each year from 1916 to 1920, inclusive. Weights of animals and feed (pounds). | | Pasture period. | |Num- | Hog weights. peer Yield of Y ber | | . check Etat bot bie tleye || ee igs. | ' | | gabe] ushels). pigs | Daily 2M ( ) | Date on. | Date off. |Days.| Initial.| Final. |Gain.) ®&#" | Total. | pound Poo of gain | | | } pig. | § pa Se ——| ge ee SS eee Glia ay 2 : vs 1916 aes 110 | June 30 | July 20 20 | 1,510] 1,780} 270} 1.35 636 2. 36 10.9 IDES. Leo 26 | July 17; Aug. 8 22 | 74L 915 174} 1.32 | 358 2. 06 2.3 19S a2 es 10 | June 25 | July 9 14 1,191 1,420 | 229 1. 64 | 364 1.59 5.6 1919: 23% 10 | June 20 | June 27 7| 1,390| 1,467] 77| 1.10 207 | 2.69 0 19207 Se 2 15 | July 9) July 30 21 | 1,897 | 2,044) 147 47 | 800 5. 44 2.2 Average, | . 5 years.| 10.2 | July 2) July 19 17 | 1,346 | 1,525 179 1,18 473 2. 83 4.3 | | 1 One sow was with pig. Weight for this animal was calculated as in the rye pasture (Table 1), 2 Five pigs from the rye plat and one from the brome-grass plat. DRY-LAND PASTURE CROPS FOR HOGS. 19 The average for the five years from 1916 to 1920, inclusive, was 10.2 hogs per acre on peas from July 2 to July 19, a total of 17 days. At _ the beginning of this period the total weight averaged 1,346 pounds. An average increase in weight of 179 pounds was obtained. This was at the rate of 1.18 pounds per day for each pig. The supple- mentary corn ration averaged 473 pounds, or 2.83 pounds of corn for a pound of gain. The check plat of peas yielded nothing in 1919, because of drought, and the crop was killed out by hailin 1921. The average yield of the ioe from 1916 to 1920, including the zero yield of 1919, was 4.2 ushels per acre. At no time did the 1 acre of peas furnish sufficient forage to carry Ne 10 pigs from the period of best grazing on the rye to that on arley. Melediess barley (Success variety) has been pastured every year since 1916 with the exception of 1919, when the crop was killed by drought. The results are presented in Table 3. TaBLE 3.—Results obtained by pasturing 1 acre of barley with fall pigs at Huntley, Mont., each year from 1916 to 1921, exclusive of 1919. Weights of animals and feed (pounds). Pasture period. na Num- Hog weights. aeOY, COLE vaeldiot Year ber sumed.t check Glee bushel pigs Daily P (bushels). Date on. | Date off. |Days.| Initial.| Final. | Gain. ea Total. aie. | pig. AGIGU eS 2 210 | July 20| Aug. 7| 18! 1,780| 1,766] —14| —0.08} 462 ]........ 9.7 US I cies Bee 6 | Aug. 8 | Aug. 22 14 915 5 60 71 777 | 12.95 16.2 78 Bee siete 10} July 9} July 23 14} 1,420} 1,420 0 Ol Satis 1420 eee 3.0 Beer ee ng2NSine bE 15 | July 30] Aug. 10| ii} 2,044] 2,179| 135 82 272| 2.01 5.7 1921 4.0.1... 10 | July 14| July 28| 14] 1,548| 1,569| 21 15 305 | 14.52 6.4 Average, 5 years.| 10.2 | July 22| Aug. 5| 14] 1,541] 1,582) 40 £35 302) nue 8.2 1 Weight of grain from the check plat. 2 The weight of one of these pigs was calculated as was done for the rye pasture (Table 1). 3 The crop dried up before the pasture season, and no hogs were put on the plat. 4 Hogs were moved from the rye plat directly to the barley plat because of the destruction of the pea plat by hail. The pasture period averaged from July 22 to August 5, a total of 14 days, for an average of 10.2 pigs. The average initial weight of these pigs was 1,541 pounds, and the gains made averaged 40 pounds. The daily gain per pig each year averaged 0.35 pound. The low gains were due chiefly to low yields of grain and the un- palatability of the forage. : Barley on the check plat averaged 8.2 bushels per acre for the five years when a crop was produced. Using the yield of barley that might have been harvested as a basis of calculation, it required from 2.01 pounds of barley in 1920 to 14.5 pounds in 1921 to make a pound of gain. In 1916 there was a loss in weight on the barley pasture, and m 1918 no gains were made. No corn was produced in either 1919 or 1921. With these excep- tions corn has been pastured each year. For reasons stated above, the returns for 1915 have not been included in the assembled data - 20 BULLETIN 1143, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (Table 4). An average of 5.5 spring pigs has been used. It took these pigs an average period of 20 days, extending from September 20 to October 10, to harvest the acre. The average total weight of these piss was 426 pounds at the beginning of the period, and they ained an average of 119 pounds. The average daily gain per pig or the four years was 1.19 pounds per day. TABLE 4.—Results obtained by pasturing 1 acre of corn with spring pigs at Huntley, Mont., in 1916, 1917, 1918, and 1920. Weights of animals and feed (pounds). Pasture period. Num- Hog weights. Corn cans «+ melas Year ber is check : 1 a . Recs pigs Daily ai (bushels). Date on. | Date off. |Days.| Initial.| Final. | Gain.) ®°!? | Total. | pound is of gain. pig. SIGE cate: 4} Sept. 30} Oct. 9 9 435 506 71 1.97 924 | 13.00 16.5 Ub} i (ae oo 3 6 | Sept. 28 | Oct. 15 17 442 545 | 103 1.01 538 5. 22 9.6 THis Axacaa+ 6 | Sept. 6} Sept. 18 12 442 496 54 75 448 8. 30 8.0 Ce aS ie 0 Bae 6 | Sept. 18| Oct. 29) 41 | 387] 635 | 248] 1.01; 806] 8.45 14.4 —— ant ———_ Average, 4 years.| 5.5 | Sept. 20 | Oct. 10 20 426 545 | 119 1.19 679 7.44 12.1 | 1 Yield of check plat. 2 Corn dried up before making grain. The average yield of the check plat was 12.1 bushels per acre. With this yield as a basis, the pigs averaged 1 pound of gain for each 7.44 pounds of corn eaten. An average of 57 pounds of alfalfa hay was fed with the corn. APF. MAY JUNE SULLY AUG. SEPT. OCT. 1915 ie 600 v ty eis g 20 400 si Se ” 200 8 1920 /92/ bie ere a GeBE AYE EZBBPEAS C_IBARLEY CORN Fie. 1.—Diagram showing hically the period in each year during which pigs were pastured on rye, k peas, barley, and corn and the gain made while on each crop and between each weighing, arranged to show the combined gain on rye, peas, and barley. Figure 1 presents graphically the data obtained from this rotation each year. The base line of each figure represents the initial weight of the hogs. The increase in height of the figure represents the increase in weight of the hogs as the season progresses. In other words, the uM DRY-LAND PASTURE CROPS FOR HOGS. 21 gain in height of the figure represents the gain in hog weights above the first weight of the season. Thus, in 1917 the pigs were placed on the rye plat on May 11 and increased steadily in weight until at the end of the barley period, August 22, a total gain of 497 pounds had been made. ‘The rise of peas above rye shows the gain made on peas, and the rise of barley over peas indicates the gain made on barley. Besides the increase in weight for each crop, the diagram shows the period during which each crop was pastured. Tasie 5.—Results obtained by pasturing 1 acre of alfalfa with pigs at Huntley, Mont., each year from 1918 to 1921, inclusive. Weights of animals and feed (pounds). Rr Pasture period. A Kind of |Num- Hog weights. Oren eNdeldtot plats ber ewe sumed. chee and year. | Of plat. pigs. F Daily Per Date on. | Date off. |Days.| Initial.| Final. |Gain.| 8° | Total. | pound De of gain. pig. Cultivated rows: 1918... 6|May 7| July 9 63 532 828 | 296 0. 78 890 Sok | Ee eres 1919... 4|May 9)] June 27 49 318 448 | 130 66 376 2.89 1920... 4| May 28] July 9 42 303 408 | 105 - 63 302 2.88 2,260 1921... 6 | May 19] July 28 70 772 | 1,208} 436 1.04 | 1,326 3.04 Average 5 | May 16] July 11 56 481 723 | 242 78 724 2.96 753 Plats sown broadcast: 1918... 8| May 7} Jul 9 63 702 | 1,050 | 348 69 | 1,148 3.30 | 1,254 1919... 7| May 9] June 27 49 530 718 | 183” 55 3.21 1920... 6] May 28] July 9 42 458 600 | 142 56 450 3.17 1,146 1921. . 6 | May 19} July 28 70 728 | 1,180 | 402 94 | 1,326 3.30 0 Average! 6.8 | May 16 | July 11 56 605 875 | 270 69 882 3.25 600 . | MAY JUNE Sly 600 400 200 OT 600 9 4008 200 S oop 600 400 g 200 X& Os 600 400 200 3° fia. 2.—Diagram showing graphically the period in each year during which pigs were on alfalfa in rows and alfalfa sown broadcast and the gains made on each pasture and between weighings. The data obtained on the alfalfa pastures are presented in Table 5 and shown graphically in Figure 2._ This has been reduced to an acre basis for each year. Some preliminary pasturing was done with fall and spring pigs on alfalfa, but the data given in the table and the figure are for the years from 1918 to 1921, inclusive. During these years the average number of pigs used was 5 for the row plat and 6.8 for the broadcast plat. Both plats had the same pasture period, averaging 56 days from May 16 to July 11. 22 BULLETIN 1143, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.» On the row ie the average daily gain per pig foreach of the four years averaged 0.78 of a pound. A supplementary ration of corn pe fed. The 4-year average ratio is 2.96 pounds of corn per pound of gain. he lots on the broadcast plat made an average daily gain of 0.69 of a pound. This required an average of 3.25 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. TaBLe 6.—Results obtained by paskureny 1 acre of brome-grass with pigs at Huntley, Mont., each year from 1918 to 1921, inclusive. | | Weights of animals and feed (pounds). Pasture period. lay | : | Corn con- Kind of Num | HOB IESE Rts. | sumed. —_‘| Yield of plats of | check AHAWGCALS | ce lee 3 era eee Ta ; ant __ "= SAL ek | pigs. | | 4 | | | | Daily | Per Date on. | Date off. |Days.| Initial.) Final. | Gain. Sam | Total. | pound per, | of gain. | plg- Cultivated | | rows: HOTS. eer: 8 | Apr. 30} July 9 70 764 | 1,114} 350 0.63 1,344 Si O84 45 FSSA oe 1919... . 6| Apr. 25 | June 14 50; 582 726 | 144 -48 | 653 thy oem ee 1920... . 2 | May 28/ July 9 42 170 220 50 -60 | 166 8.324 sce ese 1921 6 | May 19) July 28 70 | 732} 1,042 | 310 74 | 1,242 4.02 455aeoas oe. Average} 5.5 May 11 July 8 58 | 562 776 | 214 -61 851 3. OF ee a Plats sown | broadcast:) | “1918. ...| 8} Apr. 30| July 9 70 778 | 1,152 | 374 .67 | 1,344 3.59 664 1919....} 6) Apr. 25 | June 14 50 579 770 | 191 -64 653 3.42 0 1920... ..| 2|May 28! July 9| 42 169 245 76 | -90 | 169 2.22 568 1921-...| 8 | May 19/ July 19 61 | 1,012] 1,448 | 436 -90 | 1,412 3.24 0 Average} 6| May 11 July 5 | 55 635 904 | 269 .78 895 3.11 308 The brome-grass pasture results are shown in Table 6 and Figure 3. When reduced to an acre basis, the row plat has carried an average of 5.5 pigs for a period of 58 days from May 11 to July 8. These pigs have made an average daily gain of 0.61 of a pound. The ratio is 1 pound of gain for each 3.92 pounds of corn. - SPR. MAY SUNE JULY APR. MAY JUNE ®*JULY “=TH (P T SRORDORST PLAT 19/7 OW PLAT | CB Gh ey ma ae SSP eee, Hae SG HE 19/19 1920 192/ Fic. 3.—Diagram showing graphically the period in each year during which pigs were on brome-grass in rows and promised wi Prostcst aah the gains made on each pasture and between weighings. Six pigs were carried on the broadcast plat for an average of 55 days. This period was from May 11 to July 5. An Ay orn daily gain of 0.78 of a pound per pig was made on this plat. Corn fed amounted to an average of 3.11 pounds of grain for each pound of, gain. etre DRY-LAND PASTURE CROPS FOR HOGS. 23 Table 7 presents the combined returns from the several systems of the continuous pastures. TABLE 7.—Average returns from the several pastures or continuous pasture periods. A Weights of animals and feed Pasture period. (pounds). | Years Num- Grain sup- Pasture. aver- ber of , plement. aged. pigs. 3 Daily Date on. | Date off. | Days. Gain.) gain | ee per pig. | | Per - | Total. | pound | of gain. secne cee et eS HS ee Ee SS SSS ee ee Tiel ~| _ Rye, peas, and barley........- 6| May 14] July 30 75 | 10.2 | 462 0.60 } 11,701 3. 68 Alfalfa in rows........--+.2.0.. 4| May 16| July 1 b7| 5 | 2421 .77| 2724] 2.96 Alfalfa sown broadeast......... A Wesdor. 22... dowecal juosalO.8 |, .270 69} 2882) 3,25 Brome-grass in rowS.........-- 4) May 11/ July 7 68} 5.5 | 214 -61 | 2851 3.92 Brome-grass sown broadcast... 4) \s2:dors-. .|| Iwly 75 56 | 6 269 . 78 2 895 3.11 Cire ee AE Ne 4] Sept. 21} Oct. 10] 20] 5.5] 119 1.14 FO ety 9 1 Corn fed on rye and peas. 2 i 8 Average yield of corn from the check plat, 865 pounds. This was converted into gains at the rate of 7.44 pounds of corn for each pound of gain. The 3 acres of forage, consisting of rye, peas, and barley, when pastured consecutively carried an average of 10.2 pigs for an average grazing period of 77 days. During this time the gain made averaged 462 pounds, or 0.6 of a pound per pig per day. ‘This gain was made at an expense of 3.68 pounds of corn for each pound of increase. Alfalfa in rows had a 4-year average of five pigs to the acre for a 56-day period. They increased in weight 242 pounds and consumed 724 pounds of corn. The average daily gain per pig was 0.78 of a pound, and the ratio of corn fed to gain is 2.96 to 1. An average of 6.8 pigs were supported for 56 days on an acre of alfalfa seeded broadcast. The average daily gain per pig was 0.69 of apound. It required 3.25 pounds of corn as a supplement to make a pound of gain. The acre of brome-grass in rows carried an average of 5.5 pigs continuously for 58 days. The gains made averaged 214 pounds, or 0.61 of a pound a day for each animal. It required 3.92 pounds of corn supplement to make 1 pound of gain. Brome-grass sown broadcast had a carrying capacity of six pigs for 55 days. This lot made 269 pounds of gain, an average daily gain of 0.78 of a pound per pig. Corn consumed was at the ratio of 3.11 pounds of grain for every pound of gain. The acre of corn had a 4-year average of 5.5 pigs for 20 days. These gained 119 pounds during the period. The average daily gain was 1.19 pounds each. When the yields of the check plat of corn are taken as a basis for the grain ratio, 7.44 pounds of corn were required for each pound of gain. CONCLUSIONS. It is fully realized that the data so far obtained from these experi- ments are not conclusive and that the work must be carried on for a longer period of years before its value can become accurately estab- lished. The diversity of conditions affecting the procedure and the results of the experiment from year to year call for a careful study of each year asa unit. This is more necessary, perhaps, where the live stock is a factor to be considered along with the crop production than when only the crops are influenced. 7 24 BULLETIN 1143, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In order to make a direct comparison and so determine the value of these pastures, it is planned to carry a lot of hogs in a feed pen without pasture but receiving a full ration of corn during the pasture season. Regarding the five points about which the work was outlined, it is believed that rather marked indications have been obtained regarding the seasons during which each crop may, give the best returns from grazing, the comparative number of hogs which an acre of each crop will carry, and the possibility of furnishing continuous grazing. To date, no definite information has been obtained on the value of manure resulting from pasturing or of the economic merits of pasturing over harvesting the crops used. It is yet impossible to state the influence that manure may have had on the rye and pea crops, because the rye was grazed off or clipped before maturity and the damage to the pea crop by hail offset any increase in growth that may have been induced by manure. The effect of manure has not been apparent at any time on the barley and corn crops. With the exception of 1921, as indicated in Table 1, the beginning of the pasture season for rye does not vary widely from the average date of May 16. The length of the grazing period will depend upon the number of hogs used and the season, but the total gains made have been comparatively uniform, no matter how many pigs were used or how long they were on the pasture. The high pork returns have not necessarily correlated with high grain returns from the check plat. The crop of peas suffered from hail three years out of five, which factor influenced the returns received. Peas proved to be a very palatable forage, but light yields even when the crop had not been reduced by hail would seem to warrant at least 2 acres of peas to 1 of rye. . Barley was severely checked by drought practically every year, and comparatively low yields resulted. Small. yields of grain and the apparent unpalatability of the barley resulted in enerally oor gains. Alfalfa and brome-grass proved to be Benarally alltel forage, and the dates of opening the pasture season on these crops were fairly well established. The deviation was not far from May 11. The length of the pasture period depended more upon the season and the stand of the forage than upon the number of hogs used. It so hap- pened that gains made were generally greater with the larger number of pigs used and with the longer pasture periods. The perennial pastures made somewhat more profitable returns than any one of the annual pastures, and in most cases the perennial pas- ture gave more profitable returns per acre than the continuous annual pastures. Considerable experimental work is yet needed to establish a system of continuous grazing and, if possible, continue the season of green- forage pasture beyond the period when field peas are available, thus sup ylementing the barley pasture with green forage or cae barley entirely. It would seem desirable to have green forage unti the time corn ‘is ready for harvesting. This would permit the use of two crops of pigs a year and so increase the efficiency of hog produc- tion as a factor toward the diversification of Peet dry-farming practices. Experiments for the study of several crops in regard to their ability to furnish green forage during the latter part of the sum- mer have been outlined, and some of the work is already under way. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1923 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. March 20, 1923 COST OF MILK oT ee We FORTY-EIGHT WISCONSIN By S. W. MenpuM, Junior Hconomist, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, CONTENTS. Page. Page. Feed requirements and consumption_ 3), Production jandy prices: 44 ss. 15 Labor applied to milk production___ LOS SummanrysoticOsts= esas = saeeenoeene 20 Other costs—Incidentals, overhead__ 12 | Other considerations ______________ 21 Norr.—The writer wishes to express his appreciation of the patience and courtesy of the cooperating farmers in making reports, and to thank a number of other men and women who have helped in the preparation of the bulletin. The purpose of this study was to observe the management of a number of herds kept under ordinary farm conditions and to measure the more important factors of cost, with a view to determining the nature and degree of changes in management which may be expected to result in a more favorable relation between income and expense as prices of materials and of products change. Information was gathered through regular reports submitted by the farmers, supple- mented by personal observations. The determination of an average cost figure was urgently solicited by farmers, with a view to infiu- encing prices paid by consumers and factories, but for reasons ap- parent to all who are familiar with cost data, this figure is of only minor significance. Milk production is only a part of the farm business on most Wis- consin dairy farms. Besides milk production, there are the herd itself, other classes of productive livestock, the corn, small grains, and hay grown to feed the livestock, and a variety of special crops grown for sale. Each of these other enterprises contributes more or less to the farm income, and entails its share of the farm expense. These shares are variable and not always well defined. Moreover, there are wide differences in the amount and value of land, buildings, equipment, and labor devoted to the several farm enterprises. 1 The data for this bulletin were gathered by the writer under a cooperative arrange- ment between the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. United States Department of Agri- eulture, and the University of Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Division of Markets also assisted in the field work. 26543—23——_1 2 BULLETIN 1144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It would be desirable if these various enterprises could be made to stand on their own merits, and to some extent they do, but the decision with respect to the management of any one of them does not depend solely on the fact of a figured profit or loss in any season or period of years, but rather on how it fits in the general farm opera- tions. An enterprise will be continued as long as it pays better than any other which could be substituted for it, and as long as it con- tributes to the net income of the farm, either directly or indirectly. As indicated above, the typical dairy farm has several activities more or less closely related to each other, a fact which tends to obscure the relations between the income and expenses for each and affects the decisions which will be made from time to time as costs and prices change. The chief element in the cost of producing milk is feed, with labor next, the two together constituting two-thirds or more of the total cost. The remainder consists of a number of smaller incidental charges. In order to simplify the discussion as much as possible these are taken up separately. With the same purpose in view, milk production is considered primarily as an independent enterprise, then in its relations to the whole farm business. That the figures may be most generally usable, they are given as quantities to which anyone may apply prices or cost rates for any given time or locality. On the average, these basic factors of cost do not change so much or so frequently as do prices, although they show a wide range, suggesting the possibility of important changes in financial results to be brought about by changes in management. The figures presented were obtained through the cooperation of 48 farmers during the calendar year 1920. These farms were divided into five groups, according to similarity in the more important factors of location, markets, feeds, herd management, and the like. Group A is made up of 12 farms in the eastern part of Sheboygan County ; group B includes 8 farms in the eastern part of Columbia County ; group C includes 11 farms west and south of Milwaukee in the Mil- waukee milk district; group D is made up of 8 farms also in the Milwaukee milk district, but lying in a compact group to the north, most of them in Ozaukee County; group E includes, besides 7 farms in the southeast corner of Marathon County, 2 other farms of similar characteristics, but in other counties. (See Table 1.) The farms range in size from 17 acres to 240 acres, the size of herds from 3 cows and 1 heifer to 28.7 cows and accompanying stock cattle; in produc-. tion from 13,000 ous average per cow, including dry time and discards, down to 2,830 pounds 3 per cow for the year. Some of the herds were purebred, but most of them were grade herds, with or without some pure-bred animals. co COST OF MILK PRODUCTION ON WISCONSIN FARMS. TABLE 1.—General characteristics of the farms studicd. Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E | (Sheboygan) (Columbia |(Milwaukee| (Ozaukee | (Marathon | All farms.1 County). | County). | County). | County). | County.) | | Number of records. ........... 12 8 11 8 | 9 | 48 Average area........-- acres... 75 145 107 59 106 | 97 Cropiarea! 010. .1).J).02 do...- 55 98 74 49 | 45 | 64 Pasture area...........- do.... 14 43 30 | 9. | 49 | 28 Horses, per farm... .number. 3 4 4 3 | 3 | 3 Land value, per acre........-- $200 $120 $150 $15) $70 | $137 Land value, per farm......... $15, 000 $17, 500 $16, 000 $8, 800 $7, 400 | $13,300 Buildings, value per farm..... $4, 600 $7, 800 | $8, 000 $4, 500 | $3,100 | $5,600 Machinery, value per farm 2...| (9) $1,490 | (6) $2,250 | (5) $1,700 | (8) $1,275 | (9) $1,470 | (37) $1,590 Number of cows, per farm... . 13.1 | 18.5 14,2 9.6 | 10.2 13.1 Milk produced, per farm, | (OUTS sews pseeadseueuees 128, 606 128, 926 95, 215 60, 123 | 56, 655 | 96, 103 Average milk produced per COW POUNCS sees bee es ee 9, 820 6, 940 6,700 6, 290 | 5, 570 | 7,320 Winter production. per cent. . 46.5 59. 4 58. 2 49, 2 46. 2 | 51.9 ‘Summer production ....do.... 53.5 40.6 41.8 50.8 53.8: | 48.1 VARIATIONS OBSERVED IN THE FACTORS SHOWN. In size of farm: | WAGZeStee see cia: - acres. . 150 210 171 79 240 240 Smallest.....-.-:..- do..-. 17 | 72 58 26 32 17 An number of cows: | Warpesmmerd ces ssc ee- 18.4 | 28.7 28. 2 12.6 23.8 28.7 Smallest herd..........-. 7.4 | 7.5 5.2 4,2 3.0 3.0 In average production, pounds per cow: Highest herd..........-.-- 13, 000 8,370 8, 050 9,350 6,320 13,000 Wowestherd 21/2.) aga! 8,050 | 4,950 4,170 5, 220 2, 830 ear 830) 1 The rates in this column in all tables are weighted averages figured from totals. 2 Figures in parentheses show the number of farms reporting. The quantities of feed and labor used, the number of cows in the herd, and the amount of milk produced were reported each month, together with price of feeds and of milk. A financial record was also kept, from which the data for figuring the other costs were ob- tained. The observations were made by working farmers for their own herds. Although they did not go into the more minute details, the farmers were conscientious in their observations of the main ele- ments. For this reason it would seem possible for any farmer with little difficulty to check for his own farm any of the facts and con- clusions here presented. FEED REQUIREMENTS AND CONSUMPTION. Naturally the kinds and amounts of feed supplied to cows for milk production vary greatly. Not only are the kinds and qualities of feeds on different farms numerous, but the number is multiplied by all the kinds and grades that may be purchased. Henry and Morrison, in “ Feeds and Feeding,” tabulate analyses of nearly 350 feeding stuffs used in the United States. Twenty-six dif- ferent concentrates, nine kinds of dry roughage, and eight kinds of succulent roughage, besides pasture, were reported as fed to a group of cows in association work in Wisconsin. Of course, these different feeds have different values for milk production—values which are more or less accurately reflected in the usual schedules of prices for the various components, materials, and mixtures. t BULLETIN 1144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Obviously all these different materials must be reduced to fairly definite relations to some standard if feeding animals is to be any- thing short of pure guesswork. Profitable feeding is a fine art, but an art developed.on a basis of countless experiments to determine, by chemical analyses and by physical measurements, the relative values of different feeds for production and the feed requirements of cows of different capacities. The standards thus established serve as a means of reducing the different, feeding practices to a common basis for comparison, and as a rough guide to the prices which may be offered or demanded for feeds of various kinds. Armsby’s feeding standards, as given in Henry and Morrison’s “Feeds and Feeding,” 1917 edition, have been used in the calculations of feed values and feed requirements for this study, the principal unit of measurement being the therm of net energy. Digestible pro- tein must not be overlooked, however, in compounding rations or in comparing the values of concentrates, especially the cereal and oil- mill by-products which are used to balance rations. The quantities of grain, hay, silage, and fodder fed to herds in the five groups are shown in Table 2. The term “ grain” includes, be- sides the home-grown corn, oats, and barley, the various purchased mill feeds, brewers’ grains reduced to a dry basis, and beans. The hay fed was mostly clover, with some alfalfa. Silage includes, in addition to corn silage, pea silage, with small amounts of soiling crops on a dry-matter basis. ‘“ Fodder” was mostly cornstalks, in- cluding little or no grain. Besides the feeds thus supplied, the cows had pasture in varying amounts and of varying qualities. The term “ pasture ” covers all the feed the cows gather for themselves during the summer, from wild or rough land unsuitable for crop production, from meadows or fields definitely set aside for the purpose, and from the aftermath of the other fields. Thus, pasture is an exceedingly variable quantity, both in the amount of feed provided and in the number of cows it will support and the time it will provide feed. It is unfortunate that pasture can not be more clearly defined and di- rectly measured, as it plays a very important part in the management of dairy herds. In order to approximate the amount of feed supplied by pasture and to explain the relations between feed consumption and milk production, the feeding standard and analysis of feeds mentioned above were used in calculating the feed requirements of the cows . and for comparing the amounts of feed supplied in the several areas. The pasture season may begin in April and may continue into De- cember. For present purposes the year was divided into two periods of six months—the winter season November 1 to May 1, and the “sum- mer,” or pasture season, from May 1 to November 1. Many farmers do not turn the cows out to pasture until the latter part of May and are obliged to resume feeding by the middle of July. The practice varies, of course, with the amount of feed supplied by pasture and the number of animals to be fed. The price of feeds and of milk affect the use of pasture: in 1920, with feed high in price and falling milk prices, many farmers did not resume feeding as early as they would under normal conditions. The estimated annual feed requirements of the cows included in the study, due allowance being made for differences in size of the COST OF MILK PRODUCTION ON WISCONSIN FARMS. 5 cows, the quantity of the milk produced and its quality, were com- puted according to the Armsby feeding standard (see Table 2). The net energy values of the average quantities used of the different feeds were then computed. The feed contribution of pasture was computed as the difference between the net energy required and the net energy supplied by the feeds supplementing pasture during the 6 months from May 1 to November 1. This calculation assumes that the cows maintained approximately the same body weight during the year, which, however, is not strictly true. On this basis, pasture supplied nearly one-fourth of the estimated feed requirements of the cows and somewhat less than that proportion of the total net energy sup- plied during the year. TasLE 2.—Feed consumption per cow and per 100 pounds of milk produced on 48 Wisconsin farms, 1920, together with the computed net energy values of this feed.* Group A.| Group B.| Group C.| Group D. | Group E. | All farms. INummibenoffarmsten. =: ssceceecee eee = ccs - 12 8 11 8 9 48 Average production per cow, pounds.....-. 9, 820 6, 940 6, 700 6, 290 5, 570 7,320 - ANNUAL FEED CONSUMPTION, PER COW (IN ADDITION TO PASTURE). Grain poundsecys.3 sae o acs segs ns Sains 2, 987 7,914 1, 854 1, 484 1, 056 | 1,990 Hay apoundsscs ine: ine 12 Ss Me 2) 045 2) 581 2743 2 358 2 372 | 2’ 430 Silage? ete: pounds). . 485.2 55202.22.22..0.- 8, 496 7,993 7,640 9,140 3,948 | 7,591 Rodderypoundsemmceamtan stoke te 852 124 448 1,527 393 | 595 NET ENERGY VALUES OF FEED SUPPLIED PER COW. Estimated requirement (year total), therms 4, 850 | 4,085 4,304 3, 772 3, 949 4, 480 Reported fed, therms..................--- 4, 576 3,618 3, 870 3, 849 2,375 | 3, 750 Pasture supplied, therms.................. 859 | 1, 248 961 914 1, 574 | 1, 053 Total provided, therms.........--.. 5,435.| 4, 866 4,831 4,763 3,949 4, 803 Percent oftotalrequired supplied by pasture deve | 30. 6 22.3 24,2 0 | 23.5 FEED SUPPLIED (IN ADDITION TO PASTURE) PER 100 POUNDS MILK. l Graimepounds sso). seer vee ce 30.4; 27.6| 27.7 23.6 | 19.0 27.2 SY OUNASE es es soseeneeecnes ce lvoe acts « 20.8 37.2 40.9 37.5 | 42.6 33.2 Silagvexete: pounds. mer ca-ms-cicceciesece- 86.5 110.1 119.3 145. 4 | 71.4 103. 7 Modder spounds-\\sy--ee ose cee Bee eRe 8.7 1.8 6.7 24.3 | 7.0 8.1 VARIATIONS OBSERVED IN RATE OF FEEDING GRAIN. «. { In quantity of grain fed per cow: IWARSeSt sp OUNASS-sseeM ecco. cress sca 5, 454 2,614 3, 053 3, 146 | 1, 807 5, 454 Smallest pounds-2222. ess. 0i4. Oss 1, 265 1,144 735 763 | 209 209 In grain fed per 100 pounds milk: | Highest pounds|s-eececeescne cet ceeae. 43.5 39.6 | 45.2 34.3 28.5 45,2 NEOWeStRDOUN GSH esac eesescces soenice 16.7 Palit | 12.0 | 14.3 5.9 5.9 1 The net energy values and standard requirements used in the computations for this and other tables in this bulletin are those published in “‘ Feeds and Feeding,” edition previously referred to. In his book, “Nutrition of farm animals” (1917), Dr. H. P. Armsby discusses the whole problem of feeding cows in minute detail, making a revision of the standard net energy requirements for milk production of approxi- mately 10 per cent less than the figure used in these computations, based on the earlier tables. As these older tables are probably much more generally available to farm readers through “Feeds and Feeding,” and Professor Eckles’s book, “Dairy Cattle and Milk Production,” and his research bulletins published by the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, the computations have been made on that basis rather than according to the modified standard. 6 BULLETIN 1144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is evident that high-producing cows need more feed than low- producing cows. It is conceivable that production may be limited by lack of sufficient feeds of the proper kind. How far it is possible to increase production by supplying more feed is a question which can be answered only by trial, but it was acknowledged by some of the farmers reporting that their cows gave, in 1920, less milk than usual because of restricted grain feeding owing to relative prices of feeds and milk. The higher yields must usually be obtained by increased use of concentrates. Cows use digestible protein and net energy for two purposes; first, to maintain their bodies, and, second, for producing milk or flesh. The protein and net energy devoted to the first purpose are called the maintenance requirements and the feed supplying them the “ maintenance ration.” Whatever digestible protein and net energy there may be in the ration above the main- tenance requirements are devoted to production. Milk production ae eich bee class em PER YEAR THERMS t 7000 +— = | | | | | _ Z 6000 , —, a: | MN Hee r 2 | og, HIE Z g Z sade TOTAL NET ENERGY BusPaLED TO COwWS|(PASTURE INCLUDED) A| G Z g STIMATED FEED EQUIVALENT GF PaAsTURG B ents g g g Z Z | yikes Z AG 4000 4 pEd iG Z Z |_ noe | Ba Z AN Z st Z Z 3000 es g Z Lair ne 3 a ee 2) CATON fae] Lu 2000 ITNT N RONINNTATRINTT ON * AANA . mh » b (y) 10600 Se 7 NON NMEA yee ate 1 2 3 4 5 6 PRODUCTION PER COW PER YEAR IN THOUSANDS OF POUNDS L E DCB A P GROUPS OF HEADS Fic. 1—Computations of the net energy supplied to cows as reported by farmers com- pared with standard requirements show a very intimate relation between quantity oF feed and quantity of milk produced, a relation which liberal feeders turn to their advantage. may be limited by the amount of digestible protein supphed, and as the annual yield increases more attention must be given to this factor (as feeders recognize by adding more grain), especially the high- protein concentrates for their best cows. Total amount of feed, even of a well-balanced ration, may be a limiting factor in milk produc- tion. The amount of milk produced is the basis for feeding cows individually instead of giving the same amount to each. Some feeders still persist in the latter practice. The relation between the maintenance requirements, total require- ments, and milk production at rates up to 13,000 pounds per year is indicated in Figure 1. The upright bars show the production per cow in nine cases; H represents the highest herd; L, the lowest herd; A, B, C, D, and E, the averages of the groups into which the farms are divided; K, a single cow reported by Professor Eckles; and P, 120 cows taken from the Register of Production (Cire. 129 of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station). The full length of COST OF MILK PRODUCTION ON WISCONSIN FARMS. fi the bars shows the net energy values of the feed supplied in the respective cases, including the allowance for pasture as above noted. The solid part of the bars shows the net energy attributed to pasture. The higher-producing cows are unusally larger than the lower- producing cows, and require more for maintenance e, but the difference r not very great; in fact, some high-producing Cows may be smaller than their lower- producing sisters. The total net ene rey require- ments increase more rapidly after maintenance is provided; the requirements for production increase uniformly with increase in milk yield of the same quality; milk rich in butter fat, however, re- quires a higher rate per pound of milk than low test milk. (The net energy requirements for milk production is given by Armsby as 0.3 therm for each pound of 4 per cent milk. The revised standard for 4 per cent milk is given as 0.265 therm per pound of milk, which is 10 per cent less than the figure used in these computations as noted above. Similar reductions are given for milk of other butter fat tests. ) The comparative economy “of high-producing cows in a dairy enterprise 1s widely recognized. In this regard, tests conducted under comparable conditions, as in cow- testing association work, are conclusive. Considering the whole farm business, however, under different conditions, the case is not so clear, complicated as it is by varying prices and amount of feeds. The feeds consumed per 100 pounds of milk are shown in Table 1, together with the number of therms of net energy reported fed, including the allowance for pas- ture. The unit requirements shown in the table can har dly be used for single months or shorter periods, as they vary widely through- out the - year according to practice and production, each of the items ranging from nothing up to a high figure per 100 pounds. Their unit requirements will nevertheless apply reasonbly well to different years because feeding habits do not change rapidly. While the higher-producing cows consume the larger quantities of feed, particularly of grain, the difference is not so great when re- duced to a unit basis, as is indicated in the case of grain in Figure 2, showing the average annual production of each of the herds and the number of pounds of grain fed per 100 pounds of milk produced. The problem of feeds is presented in this detail to develop the method of calculating the feed equivalent of pasture, and to re- iterate the advantage of adequate feeding of cows. Within the limits observed on these farms and up to the point where cows begin to show marked evidence of putting on flesh, production seems to increase with the quantities of feed supplied, financially as well as physiologically. The prices used in figuring the cost of feed in 1920 were as fol- lows: Grain, $60 per ton; hay, $25; silage, $10; fodder, $15, and pasture $15 per cow for the season, with local variations.2 At these rates the feed cost of milk was $2.02 per 100 pounds. These were the prices most commonly named, and they represent market values at the farm rather than actual cost. The actual cost of growing the crop is difh- cult to work out from data ordinarily available. Moreover, the 2¥For the Marathon group (Group E) the price of grain was $75 a ton and of pasture $9 a head for the season. 8 BULLETIN 1144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, farmer feels that he ought to get through his cows as much as he would receive by selling his grain and hay. One trouble with using market prices for feeds is that the home- grown feeds are not put to the test of sale agreement between in- terested parties as to grade. Much of the feed used for livestock is not marketable, or if marketable would be docked in price. Hay, however, has a relatively high market price because so much of it is fed out at home that the surplus is seldom more than enough to meet the demand of deficit areas. Then, too, the memory of high prices received persists, and it is common to assume that all the available supply might have been sold at those prices if it had not been fed, which of course is contrary to the experience of the most optimistic speculators.. Then there is the expense of getting the feeds to market and the important consideration of maintaining fertility of the land through use of farm manure. Annual average producton per cow by herds Pounds of grain fed per 100 lbs milk produced —-—-Hours of lacor on cows per /00 /bs milk produced \ LRA SSA YE ENGNG] 9 8 77 6 5) 4 J 2 48 FARMS Fic. 2.—The higher producing cows usually get a higher proportion of concentrates in their rations than the others. The high producers are economical of labor. Some farmers had to pay, in 1920, as high as $100 a ton for a part of their feed (in bag lots). Most of the purchased grain fed during the year was bought at prices above $60 per ton—even bran nearly touching that figure. Oats and corn would have sold for more than this for a considerable time. Although the price dropped sharply in the fall, and farmers perhaps did not get $60 per ton for their feed through the cows, it is felt that $60 is a reasonable figure to use. Hay is figured at $25 per ton, though some hay was purchased at $30 and quotations for alfalfa went even higher. It takes a high price to make it worth while for a farmer to sell hay, especially if his farm is heavily stocked. Hay at $25 in the barn will ordinarily show a profit over cost of growing. This is approximately its con- version value compared with grain at $60 per ton. Silage at $10 per ton is high or low according to the yield per acre. At ordinary yields, common practice and going rates for labor, corn silage cost very close to $10 per ton for the 1919 crop, most COST OF MILK PRODUCTION ON WISCONSIN FARMS. 9g of which was fed in 1920. ‘The 1920 crop also was made with high- priced labor. The pea silage bought ‘cost about $2.50 per ton, plus the labor of getting it, which, while considerable in amount, was done at odd times. The beets and the pea-vine silage fed were placed on the same basis as corn silage. Silage does not have a market value, but is assigned its value in various ways, sometimes from the price of corn, sometimes from cost of putting it up, some- times from values of some feed which it will replace. Occasionally silage is sold at auction, but the price paid at a sale is not a very good indication of value, depending as it does on the necessities of the bidders and the cost of moving it to the place where it will be fed. Corn fodder has about twice as much dry matter per ton as silage, and nearly twice as much net energy, but is subject to some- what greater waste, and is not highly rated where hay is abundant. If it may be contended that the prices used are too high for home- grown feed, it can hardly be denied that if all the feed needed had been purchased the total feed cost would have exceeded the amount figured. At any rate, such other prices as may seem fitting may be applied ky anyone who wishes to take exception to those used. In 25 cases where the cash paid out for feed for cattle was ac- counted for separately, the range was from $45 to $2,200, with an average somewhat more than $600 per farm. The average total feed cost for cows per farm at the rates given above is as follows: Group A, $2,345; Group B, $2,548; Group C, $2,131; Group D, $1,397; Group E, $1,001; all farms, $1,937. This compares with a general average of $2,569 per farm as the value of the milk produced. The average offset for manure is $278 per farm, ranging from $158 in Group E to $414 in Group B. (See manure credit below.) In special cases the manure may be worth more than this—when the quantity of concentrates fed is large, the need of the land great, and the management of the manure such as to avoid ordinary losses of plant- food value. MANURE CREDIT. The value of the manure produced on a dairy farm is considerable. It is generally shown as a credit or offset to cost. It is not a cash item, as it might seem to be at first glance from its usual position in the cost statements. It is closely associated with the prices or cost of feeds. If the farmer buys feed, he brings fertility to his farm; if he feeds his own crops he retains part of the fertility on his farm and can better afford to figure his feed as costing less than market price (less cost of marketing) than he can to part with his crops. The price a farmer gets for any feed he sells includes some payment for the plant food contained in the feed sold. Similarly, the price he pays for feed bought includes some payment for the fertility thus secured. The value placed on this is variable, and is somewhat obscured by, the primary considerations leading to sale, or by the more direct use as feed in the case of purchases. While the fact is widely recognized, consciously or unconsciously, that some allowance for the plant food saved to the farm or brought to it properly may be made, there is more or less disagreement as to the amount of the allowance which should be made. This difference arises from dif- ferent needs of different farms and alternative sources of plant food. 26543—23——_2 10 BULLETIN 1144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The amount of manure recovered and drawn to the fields is about 1 ton a month for each cow. The feeding season is about 7 months; the other 5 months the cows are outdoors most of the time. The estimated value of manure on Wisconsin farms in 1920 is $2.25 a ton for that produced during the feeding season and about half that price for the manure left on the fields and pastures, together amounting to $21.25 for the year for each cow... At this rate the credit to milk production on account of manure is 29 cents per 100 pounds for the farms studied. LABOR APPLIED TO MILK PRODUCTION. The man labor spent on cows and milk per cow averaged 171 hours per cow for the year, or 28 minutes a day. This covers milking, feeding, caring for the barns, utensils, and the like. It does not include hauling manure away from the barn, delivering the milk, or care of the young stock. One farmer with a large herd spent 368 hours per cow of ‘direct labor on cows, while the least work reported was 116 hours per cow. Five farms spent as little as 20 minutes a day per cow on care of cows, and only four farms spent more than 45 minutes per cow. Five farmers used milking machines part of the year and by use of them were able to reduce the labor to a low point, but several other farmers not equipped with machines spent very little more time on their cows than those using machines. The total labor on the dairy herd averaged 2,706 hours } per farm for the year, of which 2,251 hours was for cows. The labor requirements by-groups of farms is shown in Table 3. Taste 3.—Labor requirements. Hours of labor per farm, per cow and per 100 pounds of milk produced, together with variations observed, on 48 Wisconsin dairy farms in 1920. Group Group Group Grou Grou All A. B. C. D. P E. F farms. Member) OfjfarmsS fareeae tan a = awiae'w se x $26 ra ate /e" Yen 4 > x SASS O55 Paras ?; 2X OS, 4 © 3 5050 %s xX o, KX A/ S25 53 o> Cee oe, SX Of CX XK MG Neree.: o; neshee SO g S R G S) Q cS x Q os cx oe, 65 Eee $35 x on 25 OY 525 Se SR S550 38 xO ats =o o, oS x — xX © or6; \A? erent S a 2% oe, £35 oo ~ rem 2 as ) o So = @, os 2 £05 _ <> 2 gc ras ven os o, & ~ vi SS x x OOO. 0 ORK x 2505 A SX SRK 0 3S A/ c> oe e ve o x & “4 <2, 7 Ry OBO x bed wee EXXXX Percentage distribution of production, 1920, on 48 farms Frelative monthly price Milwaukee 1920 (ave.=/00) — —-—Felative monthly price Chicago (ave of 1/907-/9/6) Frelative monthly condensery base price, Sheboygan Co, 1920 a Oe, oS 5 BS beS<5 $ me Bx FEB. MAR. APR. MAY J Cc RS Zz m Fic. 3.—Spring was the season of maximum production on these farms in 1920. Fail- ure of milk prices to follow the normal course in the autumn was marked and had @ depressing influence on production. middle of July, and supplementary feed is necessary unless fresh pasture is available, or the aftermath of the fields® is sufficient. Grain feeding was not resumed as promptly in 1920 as usual on account of the high price of feed and discouraging outlook for milk prices. The average price of milk for 1920 for the Sheboygan County group was $2.33 per 100 pounds, the range being from $1.81 to $3.13; for the Marathon County group from $2.11 to $2.94, average $2.67; for the Columbia County group $2.30, with a range from $2.12 to $2.46, while the Milwaukee producers averaged $3.15 net at the farm. The range in price in any locality is caused not so much by difference in schedule prices paid by the factories as by the distri- bution of the production and the butter-fat test of the milk. As between the Milwaukee price and prices outside Milwaukee, the higher price paid is due in no small measure to the activities of the 5 Aftermath is secured from grain and crop fields as well as from hay fields. COST OF MILK PRODUCTION ON WISCONSIN FARMS. Vi Milwaukee Milk Producers’ Association, which looks after the inter- ests of its members, bargaining with the distributors with respect to price and taking care of all the surplus.. Milk is sold at a uniform price per can (of 8 gallons) delivered in Milwaukee. All producers get the same price except for the cost of hauling to the city. Two cents per 100 pounds is paid into the association fund by each member to help meet unavoidable manufacturing losses. Market milk usually commands a higher price than factory milk, because of additional requirements and because no by-products are returned. Conden- saries also pay somewhat higher prices than cheese factories for the latter reason. Outside the Milwaukee area practically all the milk is sold by test. Producers of high-test milk in the Milwaukee area usually plan to sell cream or have a special trade. Price quotations commonly available need considerable interpre- tation because of differences in practice. Condensaries usually quote a base price per 100 pounds of 4 per cent milk. Creameries and cheese factories pay for butter fat according to test, and quote prices as so many cents per pound of butter fat. Thus, comparisons with whole milk are made by a simple multiplication, usually neglecting the skim milk or whey value. However, unless the milk tests 4 per cent the farmer does not get the quoted price. Comparatively few get the quoted price, for if cows are milking heavily, especially if they are Holsteins, the test is likely to be less than 3.5 per cent. Some factories pay a straight rate per pound of fat as shown by the test, others deduct from or add to the base price a fixed number of cents per pound for every tenth of 1 per cent by which the milk tests less or more than 4 per cent. This may have the effect of penalizing the farmer with low-test milk. Many condensaries maintain collecting routes and charge for hauling, saving the farmers the cost of making - daily trips. These are perfectly straightforward and open practices, but they mean that many farmers do not and can not get for their milk the prices that quotations would indicate. The differences between quoted prices and what a farmer gets for his milk are likely to be still more marked when several months are averaged. The common average of monthly quotations reflects the true average, in which alone the farmer is interested, only when the sales of milk are the same for each month. To illustrate: A common average price of $3.624 was quoted in 1919 by a condensary. One of its patrons, using his actual monthly prices in the common way, found his average was $3.31, with a range from $2.55 to $4.05. But even with good Guernsey cows he did not get the base price for more than 6 per cent of his milk; 65 per cent was sold in five months at’ $2.55 to $2.91 while the quoted price ran from $3.29 to $3.40 in these same months. His true average price for the year, before deducting haul- ing, was $3.09, netting $233 less on his total sales than his “ average ” price led him to suppose. Other practices have been noted, all aiming to avoid unfavorable discussions among patrons about prices. In short, each producer must know definitely what he gets for his milk and why he does not get more. . The normal price movement by months is also shown in Figure 3 as the relative monthly prices 1907-1916 in Chicago. The highest 18 BULLETIN 1144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. prices are usually paid in December and January; lowest prices in May, June, and July. The 1920 prices did not follow the normal course. Instead of going up in the fall they went down. The high prices in late summer are partly explained by the success of producers in bargaining, with high cost as the basic argument, which distrib- utors considered, but following the fall in grain prices, millx prices could not be sustained. The spread in prices is some inducement to winter production, and those who produce in winter receive higher average prices for their milk than those who follow the normal practice. But the spread in prices is not commonly held to be sufficient to offset the extra cost of feeding for winter milk production, above roughing the cows through the winter and turning them out all summer ‘where pasture is abun- dant. The chief arguments, however, for winter production are that the total yield for the year is increased by having the cows freshen in the fall, and that there is a better distribution of the farm labor over the year. Many who follow this practice say “it is easier to produce milk in the winter.” There is more time to care for the cows, feeding can be controlled more definitely, there is not so much milking to do in hot weather and harvest time, and the production of cows suffers less from heat, flies and shrinking pastures. With the higher producing cows, year-around feeding is necessary, so that the time of freshening is not a significant factor in feed consumption. There may be some increase in “ opportunity cost of feed,” by which is meant that the farm price of feeds increases from harvest time on, and feeds might have been sold at increased prices instead of being fed, but the necessary supplies are definitely set aside on a dairy farm for the stock and the question of possible sale is disposed of early in the season. Purchased feed is also provided for on the same basis. The record of 120 cows in the Register of Production,’ selected without regard to any factor other than date of freshening, were examined to determine the effect of time of fr eshening on production and on feed supply. The records of the cows freshening in each month of the year were taken. There was no significant difference in the aver- age production, and very little difference in the character of the feed consumed. The fall-fresh cows were fed a little more grain than the cows freshening later in the winter, but the April and June fresh cows consumed more than the average. Of the 421 cows listed, only 142 freshened between March 1 and. September 1. Storage of butter, cheese, condensed milk, millk powder, and ice cream materials, tends to keep the winter price of milk below and the summer price above the points they would naturally reach with- out storage facilities. This is of benefit both to the consumer, who can have as much as he desires at all times, and to the producer, who, on account of the tendency of production to concentrate in the low price months, gets a higher price for his year’s product. Though the cost of milk is higher in winter than in summer, it is more nearly uniform than prev: valent methods of figuring indicate. The tendency to figure cost of feeding dry and nearly-dry cows as part of the cost of winter milk is practically unavoidable. “It results in a cost figure, which would mean a prohibitive price of dairy © Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station Circular 129. COST OF MILK PRODUCTION ON WISCONSIN FARMS. 19 products or would spell loss to producers at winter prices of feed and usual prices paid for milk. It does not lay enough emphasis on the value of pasture as feed, and reconciles the producer to an unduly low price of milk in summer. “ Pasture is cheap feed,” farmers say ; no grain is needed and less work is required; so low prices in summer are accepted with a shrug of the shoulders. Yet the cost of car rying cows through the winter is part of the cost of producing milk on pasture. Thus, though winter prices do not go so high as cost figures would indicate, summer prices do not go so low. A more near ly uni- form price throughout the year, as urged at times, would tend to increase the concentration of production in the summer and would defeat its purpose. Only in the market-milk zone can anything approaching uniform price be effective, and then only when distr ib- utors are relieved of the burden of surplus milk, and on condition that milk from cutside the normal territory for the city supply be kept off the city market, conditions which practically can not be met in the present state of organization of producers and of their control over production. Adjustment of prices in favor of producers is a slow matter requires continuous efiort, and has not yet been wholly satisfactory with respect to price. Pooling plans have met with some measure of success in times of rising prices, but their story is not yet fully told; some of them have recently caused financial loss to participants. Still this kind of effort warrants the support of every producer. The individual producer must look to his own devices for im- preving his situation with regard to current costs and prices. Each needs to analyze his own results to determine current relations be- tween his costs and prices, and proceed to make the adjustments necessary. These adjustments will usually be in the direction of adequate feeding, prompt and thorough culling, constructive breed- ing, and keeping expenses as low as possible. In the matter of individual items of expense, one must bear in mind that low expense does not necessarily mean low cost if thereby production is restricted. Most dairy farms are provided with silos, although occasionally a farmer is found who does not yet believe in the silo. Most of these who do not have silos will have them when they can spare the funds necessary to build them. Silos are investments rather than expenses, and pay good returns. Silage as feed is itself relatively cheap and makes other feeds more effective. Drinking cups call for a considerable outlay, but the effect on pro- duction is so marked that more than one farmer has said that he would not be without them if he had to install a new set each year. In one case observed, a barn housing only six cows was provided with cups. The matter of justifying the remodeling of stables to provide more light and air, concrete floors, swinging stanchions, which add to the health and comfort of the cows, is more difficult, as is also the question of outlay for litter carrier, feed cart, chutes for hay, and other labor-saving devices, the return from which is distributed over a long time and is indirect. It is impossible to relate losses from tuberculosis directly to poor accommodations for cows, but there is small room for doubt that a relation between the two exists. Many a farmer suffers a daily drain because of poor arrangement of his 20 BULLETIN 1144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, buildings and equipment, caused by the gradual development of his business and often not to be altered without rebuilding, but a tax none the less on his effort. As pointed out the judicious additional expenditure for high protein feeds to balance the ration, and for any kind of feed to maintain production as pastures fail has an effect on the year’s return greatly in excess of its relation to the im- mediate cost. There is also the further means of reducing costs by careful scrutiny of the relative values of the feeds available, buying those which provide digestible nutrients at the lowest figures. In this way the dairyman_ produces at the lowest possible “feed cost, and guards against paying excessive prices. The constant examination of conditions is not a guaranty against loss, but is effective insurance against ordinary failure to make ends meet. SUMMARY OF COSTS. From this discussion it appears that the cost of producing milk in 1920 on the 48 farms in question was $3.30 ) per 100 pounds, with a modified allowance for depreciation, or $3.57 per 100 pounds with depreciation as observed. This figure includes an allowance of 19 cents per 100 pounds for interest, which some authorities maintain should not be displayed as an-element of cost, though they agree that the price of the product must ordinarily be sufficient to cover it. TABLE 5.—Average cost of producing milk on 48 Wisconsin farms, 1920. Average ee cent cost per | of net Item. 100 total pounds. cost. TOO Serre ones SAE incon wine cine tase sc. tie's ep ns oe SEM ee ce ROP ERR Leics EERO ES Ee 2: O28 eer aitens Allowance for MANUTP Yess =. Soc cee cece eae cece tod heen cae or eee ee cera eee ee aed 2 ee ees Met costiofieed se eee Sees oo ea a EE RS coe ots See a See Se 1.73 53 Labor: . 2c ae ee ae . E RB Re SSS 94 28 PEAS ©. See oer an ok biol sino alesis oer wok Meteors ao eerie Sac 09 3 Other costs Cow COSE Ss Jceeeasecs Sete de clsiog)n wis < oeiate Be ett d ce aaa o- wis Sees $0. 27 BANGING USO eeessesc er ces ae coat tase oe os oS ee Gane MEE eS hs cocaine - 20 Mauipment seu sst. ese sae Gk os TE SPER es as 015 General oxpenscomse pene de ne cr vine bob cick ncn cae ete eee Le eae es 055 54 16 INGE Potalicpstemessctce ewes ot esis ean ccs eos oe AACR Rae vee se cee ee See 3.30 100 Déducting interestepet ss aseg- see e O33 - -)sts F~ ERC See oe oe ck EEE Same Ee -19 Cost not:iIncludinganterest . Osh ee LE REISS 3.11 PAV OTASS TICS OL mMLks pesd keris fan'siarariayn fate os oon t oe ORE eee PERS omic cinicioaee btaeknee 2.65 Onportumifyplosss7s- ssa sesso 4. ct itee seen teh epee Seech oscars eee 10,65 1 Or $0.46 without interest. To offset a part of this loss some of the farmers took whey back from the factory for hog feeding, while others had skim milk for calf _feeding. No fair estimate of the amount of this offset was obtained. Its value to a farmer depends on the use to which he puts it, and while it might be argued that farmers should use all the by-product in reduction of cost of the main product, cheese factory patrons do not always care to feed as large a number of hogs as the whey from their milk will feed, nor is it always possible to do so without chang- ing their farm plans. Those who skim at the farm can make good use of the skim milk for calf feeding, and often have some left over COST OF MILK PRODUCTION ON WISCONSIN FARMS. 21 for hogs. Of the 48 farmers reporting, 27 sold whole milk, 12 sold to cheese factories and 9 sold cream. The computed cost of 100 pounds of milk and the value of the milk produced on the farms studied is shown in Table 6. The value of the milk fed to calves and of that used by the farm family varies ma- terially. Neither value is generally considered of much significance. The quantity sold is usually the figure used by farmers when they think of quantities at all, except for records of individual cows. In this study the quantities sold, fed to calves, and used by the farm family were reported separately each month. The proportion of the total quantity produced used on the farm varied from about 14 to 15 per cent. In the months of lowest production, in a few cases practi- cally all of the milk was used on the farm. TABLE 6.—Cost of 100 pounds of milk and average value of milk produced on 48 Wisconsin dairy farms in 1920. Group A. | Group B. | Group C. | Group D. | Group E. | All farms. Number of farms......---..--- 12 8 11 8 9 48 Average production per cow, : OUNGSHeN eM) Sake ee 9,820 6,940 6, 700 6, 290 5,570 7,320 VALUE OF MILK PRODUCED, 1920. Cash sales, per farm.........-- $2,691.00 | $2,690.00 | $2,713.00 | $1,742.00 | $1,343.00 $2,281.00 Wali ilkwere, sh. Sees See ee 233. 00 305. 00 222. 00 112.00 70.00 | 194. 00 HAIMILYESUPDLYs ene n ccc es. 73.00 | 73.00 64.00 | 39.00 99.00 | 71.00 Total, at market price...) 2,997.00 3,068.00 | 2,999.00, 1,893.00 | 1,512.00| 2,546.00 Average price per 100 pounds . 2. 33 2.38 3.15 3.15 2. 67 | 2. 65 i] | | COMPUTED COST OF 100 POUNDS OF MILK, 1920. Heed eee pea ae. VATE TEES. « $1. 80 | $2. 07 $2.19 $2. 32 $1. 82 | 1 $2.02 Manure— Credit. 15 secenene:.- . 24 | 32 +32 34 | +28 | : Net cost of feed.......... 1.56 | waz, 1.87 1.98 | 1.54 | 11.73 Labor at 40 cents per hour....- 68 | 84 1.00 1.39 | 1.21 | 94 Hauling milk soldat 3505-2 -08 | .14 -07 -02 | -18 - 09 COwsCOSteseeaen sas Sate eee ate $0. 24 | $0.31 $0. 30 $0.18 | $0 2] $0. 27) PB UNGIBEMISC fo 2 aa setae toe . 12}. 41 - 20>. 56 - 28>. 65 - 257.54 - 18>.53 ae Equipment and general.....-. - 05 05 -07 aahl 11 | 07 Total cost..........2+.+- 2.73 3.29 3.59 | 3.93 | 3.46 3.30 Claimed depreciation........-. 02 1.09 45 | .52 | 29 -48 1 This is 8 cents per 100 pounds larger than a strict weighted average. For prices used in computations See page 7. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS. In separating one enterprise for particular study from a number of closely related, interdependent enterprises it is necessary to make some more or less arbitrary divisions of costs and benefits, to which many may take exception. There is opportunity for argument on every item of milk cost, especially in the feed and labor items. Com- petition is the ruling factor, with farmers bidding against each other and consumers paying as little as they are obliged to pay. It is not so much a question of what milk costs as of what farmers are willing to take for their milk. Just as a long period of rising prices was necessary to attract enough milk to glut the market in the fall of 1920, so a period of low prices will be necessary to discourage the less- 22 BULLETIN 1144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. favorably situated dairymen to the point of giving up milk produc- tion, and they seem likely to persist, partly because milk production seems to pay better than other alternatives and partly because they are willing to take less for their milk and therefore -less for their services than others. This is what makes it so hard for dairymen to agree on a price and to hold together when a price is set. No price can be established on “ cost of “production,” for, once a price is made, costs are immediately altered either by increasing production or decreasing or increasing costs of materials, or, more than likely, a combination of these alternatives. During the process of adjustment some dairymen are bound to suffer loss. Some farmers concerned in this study were able to produce milk at a cost. less than the price received by virtue of unusually high production or of unusually low expenses, or of a combination of the two, resulting in low unit ‘costs. Most of them also had other enter- prises w hich contributed to the annual income. Farm income ex- ceeded farm outlay, but out of that margin had to come the living of the family and the maintenance of the “farm buildings, equipment, live stock, and supplies. Many dairymen had to draw on these sup- plementary sources of income in 1920 to make up for deficits in the main line. The supplementary sources of income are different in the different areas. The farmers in the Sheboygan County group sold crops, hogs, and poultry products in about equal amounts: The Columbia County group sold peas for canning, and hogs. The Milwaukee district groups sold truck crops and potatoes. “The Ozaukee County group sold potatoes, sugar beets, and poultry. The Marathon County group sold some crops, hogs, and logs. A few farms reported no income except from the dairy enterprise. The receipts from crops varied from nothing up to about $4,000, hogs up to $1,400, poultry and eggs up to $975. The average increase in cattle other than cows was $493. The expenses incurred in producing these items were not separated. With the exception of the cattle, these supplementary sources of income do not warrant figuring an average, as an average would give only a vague and distorted idea of them. The crop inventory at the end of the year was in most cases larger in quantity than on January 1, but smaller in value, the price shrinkage amounting to several hundred dollars on many farms if compared with the crop value figured at prices in effect January 1, 1920. The larger farms offered greater "opportunity for employing the labor available, had larger incomes and larger expenses. As far as milk production is concerned, there does not seem to be any correla- tion between size of farm and cost of milk. Recession of inventory values absorbed a large part of such income as might be figured. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ECHCVOLU Of PAOKiGuLbUnema ae ee ese Henry C. WALLACE. TAISSUSUCINE MW NECHCULTY ea TE C. W. PUGSLEY. DirEClOT Of aS Cuenerfic. W O7Ka22 8 ee 1D Da BY Nsey op Director of Regulatory Work______-_____ ah WY QOL OEE? LEILA EE aoe Nepean ee CHARLES F. Marvin, Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Economics________ Henry C. Taytor, Chief. Bureawiof, Anmat Industry 2 JOHN R. Mouter, Chief. Bureauxof Blan’ Industry 2 2 WirtiaAm A. Tayntor, Chief. LEOPROSG AS POLO GS aS Ae pe eae eR EE, W. B. GREELEY, Chief. JBOD OF OWA OSE ne WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. BUC ORO TMS OUUS Mates Main. a ss ae Ts MILTon WHITNEY, Chief. BUGEOU Of ntOMOLO GY. i L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau of Biologicat Survey_____-__ EH. W. NEtson, Chief. BUCO Of MeWOUGHICOGdS ee 2a ee THomMAS H. McDona.Lp, Chief. Fized Nitrogen Research Laboratory_____. F. G. Corrrety, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements__ A. ZAPPONE, Chief. Miviston. of Puolications.. oot a JOHN L. Cosas, Jr., Chief. JESUITS SSS a CLARIBEL R. Barnett, Librarian. States Relations Service___________.______. A. C. True, Director. Federal Horticultural Board_____________ C. L. Maruatr, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board______-__- J. K. Haywoop, Chairman. Grain Future Trading Act Administration__ the Secretary. OCC Of UlVe ON OUCILOT: 2a es = Ae aes R. W. Witxiams, Solicitor. Packers and Stockyards EE age Morrity, Assistant to This bulletin is a contribution from the Bureau of Agricultural Economics___—____ HENRY C. Taytor, Chief. Farm Management and Cost of Pro- EI HU Os SRS tg gD rR H. R. Torey, in Charge. 23 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 87, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 V ) Ree Prey: Mee rk: BS oes ae ie pete Ba uate Ei? poe tye tpt fan sole aa as Ces ete me ae, oh 4 eee er o 5 PY. AG cant. ts ss AY ) L } 3 gente i. Pact “Ee Waa ae ; ne ee bie? fe ty wear (ie: ane A Se EAty ae repent Ayo a2 oh oan ian Ya) Ng ae if hi ce fhe: ieee ee WAG tA i. t: : Pe ke ec Wave 445") f ey rte bh ra eee ee. OE Vee Sp L-iieye ie eae 3 re yA ie i} 3 a : if ear i) ee ady, APL, «625 Hand a Hh BED a ho = ee as spat TAHT yo bab eae ecert onto pet Basis TERMS gh) oS Yapde chy vices SSE iss, Bera a + TaN Pa saat & on a bees a 3 est 1 oe eS eyes celeste ce Weer a ‘shilte PeNsi Bh Pes = aye 4 Tver ahs capsid) RTE! UR a8 GOO ist reoag er kt f S eettin satel wtih ae) os hes eee ae) Bea j ie ora ae eae re , RS (oe Non ph BN 9 ; a Ber Hp ee 2 Hs ratte: iat ern —hpiea LL LE aie Ce ee ia As UH Sate Oaeyarii,, 7a; ’ few ~ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. May 10, 1923 MIGRATION RECORDS FROM WILD DUCKS AND OTHER BIRDS BANDED IN THE SALT LAKE VALLEY, UTAH. By ALEXANDER WETMORE, Assistant Biologist, Division of Biological Investigations, Bureau of Biological Survey. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Wat OdItGhiOne ee ee 1 CGinnamonittes) = 8 Migration and occurrence records_-_ 3 Shoveler, or spoonbill____________ Gi WYN GN [ee ee ee 4 Pinitailipe stasis hearse See TS 9 Glaldiw alll hie ee aes ee ES 5 Redhead! 2224 2 Ree ele od S 11 Green-winged teal _7________-___-_ 6H sOthermcbirds setter ee eee 13 INTRODUCTION. The Bear River marshes at the north end of Great Salt Lake, Utah (Pl. I, Fig. 1), a region highly attractive to wild ducks and other waterfowl, are known as one of the great centers where such birds gather in the West, so that information regarding the migratory movements of the large numbers of birds that visit this region is of interest and importance. In the period from 1914 to 1916, the writer, while engaged in the study of an alkali poisoning prevalent among waterfowl in the Salt Lake marshes, had opportunity to band and release a considerable number of ducks and other birds (Pl. I, Fig. 2), a fair proportion of which were killed subsequently in other regions. Reports already published? have dealt with the so-called duck sickness, and have detailed methods by which a considerable number of the birds affected were cured. Before such individuals were set at liberty each was marked with a numbered band, and record made 1 Reports made on the author’s investigations of the duck sickness in Utah are con- tained in bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture as follows: No. 217, Mortality among Waterfowl around Great Salt Lake, Utah (Preliminary Report), 10 p., 3 pls., 1915; and No. 672, The Duck Sickness in Utah, 25 p., 4 pls, 1918. Other reports based in part on investigations then made are contained in Bulletin No. 793, Lead Poisoning in Waterfowl, 12 p., 2 pls., 1919; and No. 936, Wild Ducks and Duck Foods of the Bear River Marshes, Utah, 20 p., 4 pls., 1921. Notr.—This bulletin is a report on a study of the migratory movements of waterfowl and other birds, based on banding operations carried on in Utah from 1914 to 1916. It is for the information of sportsmen, ornithologists, and others interested in bird migra- tion and the protection of game birds. 27252°—23 2 BULLETIN 1145, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the number, the species of bird, and the date of release. In addi- tion to wild ducks, numbers of young of other marsh birds were marked in a similar manner before they were able to fly. The re- lease of these banded birds was given publicity, and reports on bands recovered have been received from widely scattered sections in the United States and even from Canada and Mexico. An account of these records is presented in detail in this bulletin. Bands were placed on 1,241 individuals of 23 species of birds of large or medium size belonging to various families, the majority on wild ducks of 9 species. The bands used were of two kinds, both made of alumi- num and manufactured originally for use in marking poultry. In each style a serial num- ber was stamped on one side. The reverse of one was marked, “ No- tify U. S. Dept. Agt., Wash. D. C.,” and of the other, “ Notify Bio- logical Survey, Wash- ington, D. C.” In the ease of birds that had been at liberty for more than a year the bands returned were badly worn, and those received after two years’ wear had be- come thin and friable. One band more than four years old was re- covered, but it is prob- able that on most birds that survived beyond a period of three years the bands had become eeiiam worn until they were Fic. 1.—Map of the western United States showing broken and lost. To be Fe cro Nae Deane tare dear ne! used successfully, there- and release is marked by a cross (position indicated 10Te, bands for water by an arrow). Localities where banded birds were birds should be twice dot in some cases representing several returns, aS thick as those ordi- narily used for poultry. The thicker bands are now being employed by the Biological Survey in its extensive bird-banding operations. All birds banded as a basis for the present study were released near the Duckville Gun Club, at the mouth of Bear River, Utah, save for a few that in 1916 were given to the State fish and game commission for exhibition at the annual State fair in Salt Lake City; these were subsequently released near Geneva, Utah, on the shore of Utah Lake. Of the 1,241 birds that were banded, 182 returns have been received, or somewhat more than 14 per cent. MIGRATION RECORDS FROM WILD DUCKS AND OTHER BIRDS. 38 Of the whole number banded, 994 were ducks, of which 174 were recovered. The number of returns from birds of this group, a little more than 17 per cent, indicates the results that may be obtained from work in banding birds of this family. In considering these records it is to be borne in mind that many of the birds banded at the mouth of Bear River, Utah, were individuals that had not bred there. Drake pintails and a few mallards begin to come in to that region after the first week in June and continue to gather, perhaps from points far distant, from then until late in fall. Migration out to other points begins about the first week in September, and there is a constant shifting of the waterfowl population during the fall as birds arrive from the north or leave for other points. The Bear River bays begin to freeze about Thanksgiving time, and in normal years by Decem- ber 1 ducks are forced out of this region, although an occasional open winter may permit their sojourn until in January or later. A few remain to winter in Utah in sloughs or channels kept open by spring water, but the majority perform extended flights to other regions. Some of the wintering mallards pass a short distance northward into the Snake River drainage in Idaho. Returns from all the records cover a vast area (see Fig. 1) extend- ing from western Missouri and Kansas west to California, and from southern Mexico (Guerrero) to Saskatchewan, Canada. A study of the results indicates one general line of flight to the west from the Salt Lake Valley to California, a route followed by green-winged teals and shovelers and part of the mallards and pintails. Another line of flight, taken by a group of birds that includes cinnamon teals, redheads, pintails, and mallards, crosses to the Great Plains region and thence south into Texas. Indications are that some of the birds last mentioned fly north and east to cross the divide separating Snake River from the headwaters of the Missouri and follow down east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains; that all pursue such a route is doubtful, since there is nothing to prevent a direct flight to the east or southeast across any of the mountain passes. There is also a third general migration southward over the Rocky Mountain Pla- teau, probably by a comparatively small number of birds, that carries the snowy herons and some of the ducks through the scattered lakes and. ponds found in central and southern Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. MIGRATION AND OCCURRENCE RECORDS. 4 Following is a list of species from which there have been no re- turns, with figures to indicate the number of individuals banded and set at liberty: ee WESTERNS TC (Oe a2 oe k SERED 503 0 NS Dee MY PR tee 2S AS Pied-billedsorebea erty ky Reh Le errar eer! seo ee Calhiformiagoull ca. et OB is | ue ee ee ee Pe Rine=hilled: gulls os es ee es SSeS eee Baldpate .Or American widkeons ses 2 ene eee eS PER ULL CY; LUI C eg ae ad AS RAAF tts CM IR RA DE a son) S American bitternS:2:28et. Sis. 5. ic TE eam eer an Black-crowned ni sht,Meronss 22% Seer ye BASU. O CO te eur esse RIS A Ne (Oa RS CNN PAGE 2 OR ees IIACK NECKE MEAS ELI eee ni eat ae ee arn i he ae Marbleds cod waite. l= 204 gS Era Lee es Ree fet kt He OD TD He Re Op 4 BULLETIN 1145, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Species from which returns have been received are as follows, the numbers in the first column following each indicating the number of individuals banded, and in the second the number recovered and reported upon: Banded. Returned. Double-crested cormorant! 2. ene ee ee ee il i Mallargheencte 280 E lt eR Ee eee ee uk) ae 72 22 GROWS arene res 2 oles 2 ty See Be Pee eee 3 Oe sai 4 Green=winged! teallet.. AOL ayes ere ee se OL EEO 1350 49 Cinnamontteale tiie. yeeros ees) bane pt 45 5 Shovelersor Spoonbill: eee eee 48 9 Ey Ean] pe 8 ed Peg 221 34 ed he ieee eee ne cranes. 2) Mir. eee eee eee 239 51 Wihite-taeedtclossy ibis2 2 sees ee eee) eB 104 1 Greatiblue herons. 2? eae). orld Se Derrek te hie ees 11 + Snowy Denon Ses a ee ee ee 83 4 AAMECrICANT COG ee 2 ee ee ee eee ae 18 ll MALLARD. In comparison with some of the other species of ducks, the number of mallards handled was comparatively small, as only 72 were banded and released during the three seasons in which this work was carried on. Of these, 22—a little more than 30 per cent—were killed and reported subsequently (see Table 1). Seven were secured near the mouth of Bear River within a few miles of their place of release, 6 of them, and possibly 7, during the fall in which they had been marked. The other 15 individuals divide into two main groups, one of birds that remained until late fall or winter in the same general re- gion as the mouth of Bear River, and the other of birds that made extended migrations to other regions. In October two mallards marked during the preceding month were taken on Bear River near Tremonton, not far in an air line from the mouth of the stream. During November these ducks may wander more extensively, as, though several were taken during this month near the mouth of Bear River and one a short distance from Tremon- ton, others were reported in the sloughs near Great Salt Lake, west of Salt Lake City, and on Utah Lake, near Provo. In addition to these, late in November one was secured near Logan, Utah, and an- other on Snake River, in Fremont County, Idaho. Records for De- cember are more widely scattered. One bird was killed on Bear River, near Collinston, December 13, and another on the Logan River, in Cache Valley, December 28. In the same month a drake was shot far to the south, on the Sevier River, north of Delta, Utah. During January one was taken near Pebble, Bannock County, Idaho, on the 14th, and another near Stone, in the same State, on the 19th. The latter bird was free from June 17, 1915, to January 19, 1917. From this account it would seem that a number of mallards remain in ponds and channels kept open by the inflow of spring water after more extensive bodies of water are closed by ice. Such birds pass north in suitable localities as far as the Snake River in Idaho. Return records from other States are notable more for their wide scattering than for anything else. One banded bird secured near Bishop, in Owens Valley, Calif. (in the Great Basin), on October 16, does not necessarily indicate an early migration from the Salt Lake Valley, for it had been at liberty for two years, so that there is no certainty that it had come from Utah the year it was killed. MIGRATION RECORDS FROM WILD DUCKS AND OTHER BIRDS. 5 A second bird was taken about March 1 in southeastern New Mexico, and a third on December 28, west of Houston, Tex. Part of the mallards from Salt Lake Valley, therefore, go west into California and part into the drainage basins leading into the western part of the Gulf of Mexico. Table 1.—Record of returns for banded mallards. Place recovered. Date released.! Date recovered. State. Locality. Sept. 16, 1914. UO Manes hee WU AN er ccreleloie cin Mouth of Bear River.’ Sept. 25, 1914.......|.---- CO ope rereperrsinerss|/aet Do. Sept. 17, 1916. Nov. 28, 1916 Do. Nov. 12, 1916 Do. eicier COR AGeane Do. Nov. 15, 1916... z Do. Dec. 28, 1914... Bee -| On Logan River, Cache Valley, near Logan. Oct. 9, 1914...-. See .| 2 miles east of Tremonton. Nov. 29, 1914... .| At Utah Lake, 3 miles southwest of Provo. Nov. 7, 1915...- .| 2 miles south of Thatcher. Nov. 26, 1915... .| 5 miles southwest of Logan. .| Dee. 31, 1916... 2dOse5 -| On Sevier River, 7 miles north of Delta. Oct. 9, 1916..... edOse- .| 3 miles southwest of Tremonton. .-| Dec. 18, 1916 do... .| On Bear River, near Collinston. Nov. 10, 1916 0. -| West Lakes near Salt Lake City. Jan. 14, 1915....... os .| Pebble, Bannock County. Nov. 15, 1914 d -| On Snake River, Fremont County. Jan. 19, 1917.......]....- .| Near Stone. Oct. 16, 1916....... i Las sey -| 9 miles south of Bishop. Mar. 1, 19154......]| New Mexico...... Newman Ranch, near Newman, 35 miles northeast of El Paso, Tex. Dec. 28, 1915...-.. RAS teen 25 miles west of Houston. 1 All banded and released at the mouth of Bear River, Utah. 2 This bird and the one following were killed some time after November 1, of the year in which marked. 8 The band of one other mallard killed here late in the fall of 1915 was lost, so that information as to date of banding is not available. 4 Approximate date. GADWALL. Only 17 gadwalls were banded during the course of this work, but of these, returns came from 4 individuals (see Table 2). As all were killed in the immediate vicinity of the mouth of Bear River during the year in which they were released (except possibly in one instance), they offer nothing in regard to possible lines of migra- tion of the species. Only one of the records is worthy of comment— an individual that was given its freedom August 27, 1916, and was killed below Willard, Utah, about October 12, 1916. Others lived at liberty only a comparatively short time. TasLte 2.—Record of returns for banded gadwalls. Place recovered. Date released.! Date recovered. State. Locality. Sept. 11, 1915...--.- Oct eto leases Witaheseyss hea eee Mouth of Bear River.? DOS teste ee Oct. 1-8, 1915.-222.)-...- Chae eNreeees Dow Aug. 27, 1916....-... Oct. 12) L9VG3 Se alee Gosicenn cee Below Willard. 1 All banded and released at the mouth of Bear River, Utah. : 2 The band taken from one gadwall killed in the fall of 1915 was lost before the number wasrecorded. This bird may have been released during 1915 or may have been one of three marked the previous year. 3 Approximate date. 6 BULLETIN 1145, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GREEN-WINGED TEAL. Pu, Liye: 4: Of the total number of birds banded, 336, or slightly more than one-fourth, were green-winged teals, and 49 of these have been re- ported by hunters (see Table 3). Among 23 of these birds killed TABLE 3.—Record of returns for banded green-winged teals. Place recovered. Date released.! Date recovered. State. Locality. Sept. 16, 1914....... Oct. 7, 19142...... Sept. 23, 1914....... Nov. 24, 1914...... DOs255255cisees Nov. 26, 1914...... Sept. 24, 1914. ...... Oct. 10, 19142 Dont. se eases GOs 3-, teeneege|ose s. Sept. 26, 1915. . Oct. 20, 1916... Sept. 28, 1915... Oct. 1-8, 1915.. Sept. 2, 1916... . OcEsaO16 eles Sept. 7, 1916 Nov. 1, 19162......]..... Sept. 11, 1916. ...... Nov. 17, 1916......|----- 01-222 eee Oct. 20, 1916:..--.-|..... Doe eek et 25; 1916222 |e 582 Sept. 17, 1916.....-. Oct. 20, 1917 2 Sept. 20, 1916....... Oeti 219162505225. Dor ee. ees | Oct 296 225. a4 | yao82 Sept. 25, 1916. .....- Oct20 19162 ehs|o es. Sept. 29, 1916. ...... Oct! 951916. 22 35. | ae. o: Doses ssc en Over CT ow sre RR Sept. 30, 1916. ...... Oct=i105 1916: -.-b =.) 22-22 Oct. 3, 1916........- Noysi6s1916...... (foe Oct. 15, 1916.......- Octs20"1916 = |e Oct. 23; 1916-1. 2. -- Nov. 20, 1916 2 E Oct. 24, 1916.......- Oct3151916:22s222|54 ne dost oe Do. Sept. 16, 1914....... ack PAs 1914! 4.55. seek de doz iteselesn2 New Moon Gun Club, near Salt Lake City. Sept. 26,1915.....-. MCC421 AGU Ee eae, sd Osseeeep eh oes Near mouth of Jordan River. Sept. 11, 1916....... OctT205 19TGS ea secon Cowen ee ae Sloughs west of Salt Lake City. Sept. 20, 1916....... INOW 17, LOLG Roo oe sade Ose eee eee Junction of Mill Creek and Jordan River, near Salt Lake City. Oct. 10, 1916 3._..... Oct me T1916 earls eek dort See Utah Lake, near Geneva. Sept. 30, 1916....... INOVe LOI ee see alan. Ove ae mene North channel at mouth of Weber River. Oct. 23, 1916.......- Nov. 13, 1916.2... .j5i:.: dort $4sscree Mouth of Weber River. Sept. 20, 1916.....-. Jan. 28, 1917....:.. California......... Yolo County, 5 miles from Sacramento Sept. 23, 1914....... OP Bl at a eS Ee Gols. Te Big mete 1 mile from Clarksburg, Yolo ounty. Sept. 2, 1916.......- Jans 2ilolipenseocl aos ee dO-tersec eee Near Rutherford. Sept. 16, 1914......- Oct} 16; 1916232254225: oO a5 55 Harvey Gun Club grounds, at junction of Cordelia and Suisun Sloughs. Dow tis 2s, Ssh anti?) 1915, Near Gustin, Merced County. Sept. 30, 1916....... Jan. 28, 1917 Near Ingomar, Merced County. Do. ...| Jan. 27, 1918 Near Los Bafos. 7 miles southeast of Los Baiios. .| 8 miles southeast of Los Bafios. Near Los Bajos. Sept. 29, 1916. Sept. 11, 1916. Sept. 14, 1915. Oct) 19162 Sa 10705 PPh) Carer fae ‘i Near Brito, Merced County. Sept. 30, 1916. -....- Jan. 28, 1917 Do. Oct 2351916. eee Dec. 10, 1916 Mouth of Pajaro River near Watsonville, Santa Cruz County. Sept. 7,1916........ Dee: 27, 1916. oe dos esE EN Near Maricopa, Kern County. Sept. 16, 1914....... DEC IZA Los..c. Le|se eo Gore ss eck Near Porterville. Sept. 26, 1915....... JatielG, AQIGl ssh) Seene Cs emacs 12 miles northwest of Wasco, Kern County revion 13, township 25 south, range 23 east). Sept. 23, 1914...-... Jan/6; 1016: .ccoec|oee es Ole sees Semitropic. Aug. 20, 1916........ Dees 20 V1G16.. 220s |t ace. Gor33. 2358s On holdings of Chico Land & Water Co., Orange County, 33 miles below Los Angeles. Sept. 16, 1914....... Noyet7 191622... 2]- sabe COPPER SPRAYS ON IRISH POTATO TUBERS. 5 Working with a large number of greenhouse plants, Zucker (52) concluded that plants sprayed with Bordeaux have greater resistance to etiolation than the unsprayed plants. The sprayed plants also showed an increase of chlorophyll and an increased power of assimi- lation, and their shoots lived longer. All of the sprayed plants transpired more than the unsprayed plants or those sprayed with lime alone. Harrison (22) found that Bordeaux-sprayed plum, peach, and pear leaves were slightly thickened and that a marked development of chlorophyll granules occurred in their cells. According to Chuard and Porchet (6), copper spray causes a slight increase in the sugar content of matured fruits. Injection of solutions of copper salts into the tissues of such plants as the grape- vine produced more vigorous growth, more intense color, and greater persistence of the leaves. The copper seemed to act as a stimulant to all the cells of the organism. Other metals, such as cadmium and iron, are said to give a similar effect. Injecting small quantities of copper salts into the branches of a currant bush caused an acceler- ation in the maturation of the fruit identical with that obtained by the application of Bordeaux to the leaves. If the quantity of copper introduced-into the vegetable organism was increased, the toxic action of the metal was brought into play. These investigators attribute the stimulus, as shown by the earlier maturation of the fruit, to a greater activity of all the cells of the organism and not to an excita- tion of the chlorophyll functions alone. Treboux (49), in 1903, demonstrated the harmful effect of solu- tions of copper salts on leaves, measuring the activity of photosyn- thesis by a determination of the rate of emission of bubbles of oxygen. Kanda (25) undertook to ascertain whether copper had a stimu- lating action on plants. He found that very small amounts of copper sulphate were toxic to peas grown in distilled water. Schander (4/7) believes that the copper in a Bordeaux spray pene- trates the leaf to a very small extent, perhaps less than one in a hundred million parts, and that the copper there produces changes in assunilation and in transpiration. He considers that the shading effect of the Bordeaux spray on the leaves is beneficial to the absorp- tion of carbon dioxid. Ewert (77) states that in the morning Bordeaux-sprayed potato plants contain more starch than the unsprayed plants, not because they are making more starch, but because they are unable to get rid of it as rapidly. The starch is piled up in the chlorophyll bodies as the minute amount of copper absorbed checks the diastase action. Bordeaux spraying, shading the plants with cloth, and a combination of the two procedures diminish the yield of tubers. This author demonstrated by its effect on diastase that copper is present in the sprayed leaf in minute amount and concludes that the organic life of the plant is hindered rather than stimulated by the application of Bordeaux sprays. Von Schrenk (50), working with cauliflower, also observed that eye. were formed on the leaves owing to the action of copper salts. Amos (7) studied the effect of Bordeaux mixture on the assimila- tion of carbon dioxid by the leaves of plants to determine whether any 6 BULLETIN 1146, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stimulation resulted. He found a diminished assimilation by the sprayed leaves for a time. This effect, however, gradually disap- peared. It is suggested that the stomata are blocked by the Bordeaux mixture, so that less air is diffused into the intercellular spaces and less carbon dioxid comes into contact with the absorption surfaces. This then is a mechanical and not a physiological action that reduces assimilation. Duggar and Cooley (74) showed that potted potato plants when sprayed with Bordeaux transpire more water than unsprayed plants. Duggar and Cooley (74), using potted potato plants, studied the effects of surface films on the rate of transpiration. The use of Bor- deaux and other films increased the rate of transpiration. The plants treated with weak Bordeaux (2-38-50) were in good condition at the close of the test, while those sprayed with stronger Bordeaux (4-6-50) showed injury from too much transpiration. These in- vestigators stated that it does not follow that the same results will be obtained in the open. After measuring the cells of Bordeaux-sprayed and unsprayed potato leaves, Lutman (33) concluded that in general the leaves from the Bordeaux-sprayed plants had thicker palisade and pulp parenchymas than those from the check plants. He believed also that the number of chlorophyll bodies was increased in the sprayed leaves. An increased turgor is probably the immediate cause of these un- usually large cells. He considered that a small quantity of copper enters the leaf and that a chemical combination takes place between the chlorophyll and the copper. The chlorophyll is less easily re- moved from sprayed plants, showing that it has been rendered less soluble. Greenhouse tests and experiments conducted for one year in Germany by Lutman showed no stimulation effects. Lutman con- siders that in this country the physiological effects of Bordeaux on the potato are quite as important as its fungicidal effects. The physiological effect observed in Vermont is ascribed to lessened tip ‘burn and flea-beetle injury and not to a stimulation and daily increase of starch formation as suggested earlier by him. Edgerton (75) decided that Bordeaux applied in Louisiana de- layed the ripening of tomatoes, while any increase in yield was un- certain. Pritchard and Clark (38) concluded that treatment with copper sprays increased the yield of tomatoes in Virginia, Mary- land, Indiana, and New Jersey. In some of Montemartini’s experiments (36) one side of a plant was sprayed while the other was not. Leaves sprayed in the morn- ing with dilute copper sulphate solution and removed and measured in the evening had a greater dry weight per unit area than the untreated leaves. When leaves were treated at night and removed in the morning they had a lower dry weight per unit area than the untreated leaves. According to Montemartini, these results indi- cate that the treatment stimulated the formation and translocation of organic matter. Ball (5) has definitely established the fact that the potato leaf- hopper causes “burning” of potato leaves, to which the term “hop- perburn” has been applied. He states also that it has long been recognized that spraying with Bordeaux mixture reduces tip burn, probably because it acts as a partial repellent against the leafhoppers. COPPER SPRAYS ON IRISH POTATO TUBERS. i( Dudley and Wilson (13) report that the potato leafhopper is one of the most important enemies of the potato in the United States. Bordeaux repels the leafhopper and therefore effectively controls the potato leafhopper and hopperburn. According to Fenton and Hartzell (78), the leafhopper can be effectively controlled and hop- perburn can be prevented by covering the potato plants with Bor- deaux spray. ‘This spray keeps the adult insects from laying their eggs on the plants and kills many of the young insects. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. Three kinds of sprays containing copper were used in the experi- mental work reported here: (a) Ordinary Bordeaux spray, pre- pared by mixing milk of lime and copper sulphate solutions; (/) Pickering spray, prepared by mixing a saturated solution of lime- water with a dilute solution of copper sulphate; and (c) a barium- water spray, prepared by mixing barium hydroxid with a dilute cop- per sulphate solution. These sprays are discussed fully in United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 866. The yieid data were obtained from the two middle rows of a 4-row plot. Care was taken to select for these experiments plants which were as free as possible from late blight, mosaic, leaf roll, ete. The tubers from six plants receiving the same treatments were placed in a sack and immediately taken to the laboratory for analysis. For each analysis six medium-sized tubers were selected from the sam- ple and the analyses were made the day on which the tubers were dug. All of the samples were run through a Herles press which gives a very finely divided product. AJl determinations were made in duplicate, the average figures being recorded in the tables. With the exception of the 1921 data, which include detailed analyses, only solids, starch, and total nitrogen determinations are reported. Solids, ash, insoluble ash, sugars, total nitrogen, and phosphorus were estimated by the methods of the Association of Official Agri- cultural Chemists (3). Starch was determined by the Herles method (23) which depends upon the conversion of the insoluble starch to a soluble starch by means of hydrochloric acid and a reading of the percentage of soluble starch in the polariscope. Copper (9) was estimated on 10 grams of the dried sample by the colorimetric pro- cedure, using potassium ferrocyanid. Soluble nitrogen, soluble phos- phorus, ammonia nitrogen, coagulable nitrogen; and nitrogen as monoamino and amid nitrogen were estimated on water extracts of the finely-divided samples of tubers as previously outlined by the writer (10). The pH data were obtained on the water extracts of the tubers, using the colorimetric procedure of Clark and Lubs (7). RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK. CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF TUBERS DURING GROWTH. During the season of 1921 tubers from four varieties of potatoes grown at Presque Isle, Me., were analyzed. Some of the plants had been sprayed with copper sprays, while others had not. The tubers were analyzed at various periods during their growth in order to determine when the influence of the copper sprays was exerted, and also to show the changes that take place in the composition of American-grown tubers during their development. 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Siny PI “ydeg bra ¢ } 61 ‘sly = -og = SOCT LT “4deg = OG aa) cT ‘sny og edz?) 9¢ Arne COPPER SPRAYS ON IRISH POTATO TUBERS. 9 The proportion of solids in most cases showed a gradual increase during the growth of the tubers, With the exception of the Green Mountain sample, the proportion of solids was higher in the tubers from copper-sprayed plants than in those from the unsprayed plants at the time of the first analysis, that is, when the tubers were less than an inch in diameter. This indicates that the effect of the copper was exerted very early in their development. The solids for all the tubers from the Bordeaux-sprayed plants averaged 18.63 per cent; for all those from the unsprayed plants, 17.87 per cent; for all those from barium-water-sprayed plants, 19.58 per cent; and for all those from Pickering-sprayed plants, 18.29 per cent. The following average ash figures were obtained for all the samples analyzed: Tubers from unsprayed vines, 0.87 per cent; tubers from Bordeaux-sprayed plants, 0.88 per cent; and tubers from Pickering- sprayed plants, 0.85 per cent. ‘The percentage of the total ash found as insoluble ash decreased in most cases during the growth of the tubers. The pH data obtained on the water extracts of the tubers showed no significant change. The proportion of total nitrogen, which increased during the growth of all four varieties of tubers, was somewhat higher for the tubers from copper-sprayed plants than for those from the un- sprayed plants. The percentage of nitrogen was higher for the tubers from copper-sprayed plants than for those from the unsprayed plants at the time of the first analyses, showing again that the action of the copper on the metabolic activities of the plant was exerted very early. The percentage of insoluble nitrogen in the tubers showed a tend- ency to decrease during growth. The percentage of soluble nitrogen increased during growth. The percentage of coagulable nitrogen increased during growth in the case of the Irish Cobbler, the Early Ohio, and the Early Rose varieties, but not in the Green Mountain variety. The monoamino and amid nitrogen, which includes the nitrogen not precipitated by phosphotungstic acid, showed a marked increase for all four varieties during growth. The average per- centage was slightly higher in the tubers from copper-sprayed plants than in those from the unsprayed plants. The ammonia nitrogen content showed no regular change. During tuber development the percentage of starch increased some- what more rapidly than the percentage of solids. A larger percent- age of starch was usually found in the tubers from copper-sprayed plants from the first analysis to the last than in the check tubers. The average data for the content of starch in the tubers were: Bor- deaux-sprayed, 12.24 per cent; check, 11.73 per cent; barium-sprayed, 12.67 per cent; and Pickering-sprayed, 12.36 per cent. The sugars, calculated as dextrose and sucrose, were present in the young tubers in relatively large proportions. At the time the tubers had reached maturity the dextrose had practically disappeared and the quantity of sucrose had markedly decreased. The unsprayed tubers of the three early varieties contained a higher percentage of sugars in the first stages of development and usually a lower per- centage at maturity than the tubers from copper-sprayed plants. 27475 °— 23 2 10 BULLETIN 1146, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, This means that the copper sprays may in some way accelerate the transformation of sugar to starch during the active stages of growth. The Green Mountain tubers did not show this tendency. The ratio of sugars to starch decreased greatly during growth, the percentage of sugars decreasing while the percentage of starch increased. The ratio of sucrose to dextrose increased during the growth of the tubers, the dextrose practically disappearing at maturity. At the time the first and second analyses were made the three early varieties of potatoes contained a higher percentage of dextrose plus sucrose than the late variety (Green Mountain). This higher sugar content may be characteristic of early varieties and may be associated with the rapid growth which these varieties make. The unsprayed tubers, with the exception of the Green Mountain, usually showed a higher ratio of sugar to starch than the tubers from the copper-sprayed plants. It is evident that marked changes take place in the potato during development. Apparently these changes are influenced in some way by the copper sprays, higher percentages of solids, starch, and nitrogen usually following the application of copper sprays to potato vines. These data may be of value in determining when a potato is mature. It appears that the sugar to starch ratio, as suggested by Appleman (2), as well as the ratio of protein to amid nitrogen and the percentage of total nitrogen as amid nitrogen, is of value. The percentage of starch in terms of total solids may be used. Appar- ently certain changes in the ash constituents may be applied to solve the question. EFFECT OF COPPER SPRAYS ON YIELD AND COMPOSITION OF TUBERS. 1917 AND 1918 DATA (MAINE). In 1916 and again in 1917 potato plants which received copper sprays gave higher yields than those which received no copper spray. It was therefore thought that the copper sprays might influence the composition of the tubers as well as the yield. Late blight was severe in 1917 in this locality but was slight in 1916 and 1918. Dur- ing the season of 1917 Green Mountain pope were sprayed at Presque Isle, Me., using 5-5-50 Bordeaux, Pickering sprays contain- ing various amounts of copper, and a barium-water-copper-sulphate spray containing 0.7 per cent of copper sulphate. Duplicate deter- minations for solids were made on four samples of tubers from (a) 55-50 Bordeaux-sprayed vines (1.25 per cent copper sulphate) ; (6) Pickering-sprayed vines (0.64 per cent copper sulphate); and (¢) unsprayed vines grown in the same field. All of the vines were sprayed seven times during the season, lead arsenate being used on all of the plants. The four samples of tubers from the Bordeaux-sprayed vines averaged 21.45 per cent solids; those from the Pickering-sprayed vines, 21.49 per cent solids; and those from the check vines, 20.65 per cent solids. Similar results were obtained with this variety of potatoes in Maine during the season of 1918, COPPER SPRAYS ON IRISH® POTATO TUBERS. 11 1919 DATA, Arlington Experimental Farm, Va—The 1919 experiments at the Arlington Experimental Farm of the Department of Agriculture were conducted on the Early Rose and Irish Cobbler varieties of potatoes. All plots were sprayed four times, lead arsenate being applied to both unsprayed and copper-sprayed plots. The field was uniformly fertilized, using 4-8-4 mixture which was applied at the rate of 1,200 pounds to the acre. The tubers were analyzed the day they were dug. TanLe 2.—Yield and composition of tubers from copper-sprayed and unsprayed (check) potato plants, Arlington Haperimental Harm, 1919, from Variety. - Treatment. 2rows, | Solids. |Nitrogen. each 100 feet long. Pounds. | Per cent. | Per cent. Marly Rose..-:_...- Nojcopper spray (check) <<. 22... obessece aces ce ds os ~~ 50. 0 13.96 0. 293 Dore: Sa Bordeaux 44-50 (1 per cent copper sulphate)....-.. 87.6 14.30 272 UD Oe hy Pickering spray (0.5 per cent copper sulphate)..-..-.. 90.3 15. 83 «325 Trish Cobbler 1... .. Noxcopperispray: (checks. ee Se eo 124.0 16. 41 .346 Dove sees oe 4 Bordeaux 44-50 (1 per cent copper sulphate)....-.-- 134.0 18.14 347 ID Owe cenee ee seas Pickering spray (0.5 per cent copper sulphate)... .-.-- 123.0 18. 57 364 1 Average of 3 determinations given in each case. The data in Table 2 indicate that the copper sprays increased the yield for the Karly Rose variety and the solids content of tubers of both varieties in a locality where late blight is unknown and where Bordeaux or other copper sprays are not employed generally. Seven States—The yield and composition of tubers from Bor- deaux-sprayed and unsprayed plants in seven States (Virginia, Maine, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, and New Jersey) are recorded in Table 3. The analytical data are average figures for 62 samples. Data for Pickering-sprayed plots are included with the Arlington Experimental Farm resuits. The tubers analyzed were from sprayed and unsprayed potato plants grown in the various States under the direction of plant pathologists and were sent to the writer by express the day on which they were dug. Arsen- ical sprays were used on all plots. The average increase in yield per acre of potatoes was 25 per cent. The average increase of solids in the tubers was from 20.77 per cent, in the tubers from the \check plots, to 21.99 per cent in those from Bordeaux-sprayéd plants, an increase of 5.9 per cent. The average figures for pounds of solids of the tubers per acre were 2,591 for the noncopper-sprayed and 3,430 for the copper-sprayed plants, an aver- age increase of 32.4 per cent or 48 bushels, due apparently to the use of copper sprays. It is important to note that the tubers from Virginia, Maine, and Minnesota, where practically no late blight occurred, showed the same general results as those from the other four States, where more or less late blight was noted. This means that prevalence of late blight was apparently not the important factor or necessarily a factor at all. The potato plants grown in BULLETIN 1146, U. S. 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All the plants died early; consequently, it is not surprising that the tubers showed no effect of the Bordeaux spray, probably because they were formed before the first spray was applied and were therefore too far advanced to derive any benefit from the sprays. The New Jersey results for solids were not higher for the tubers from the copper-sprayed than for those from the unsprayed plants in the case of all samples examined, although the average figures were higher for the tubers from the Bordeaux-sprayed plants. A discussion of the use of Bordeaux spray on potatoes in New Jersey by Lint (30) is interesting in this connection. He considers the cli- mate, cultivation, and fertility of the field to be important factors in determining to what extent Bordeaux is beneficial to the potato. Ac- cording to this author, Bordeaux prolongs the life of the vines and affords the best. control of flea beetle, although increased yield of tubers does not consistently result from the application of Bordeaux to potato plants in New Jersey. It has been the writer’s experience that an occasional sample of tubers from a check plot will run higher in solids, starch, and nitrogen than a sample from a Bordeaux- or other copper-sprayed plot. This is the exception to the rule, however, and may be due to the inclusion among the tubers selected for analysis of a potato or several potatoes that are not hard and firm. Sometimes one of the tubers in a hill is a little softer than the rest, probably because the food supply has been limited or checked in some way. In work of this kind average figures are undoubtedly the only criterion. 1920 DATA. 7. Arlington Experimental Farm, Va.—In the spring of 1920 experi- ments were carried out at Arlington Experimental Farm, using Irish Cobbler, Early Ohio, and Early Rose varieties of potatoes. Spald- ing Rose, Gold Coin, Irish Cobbler, and McCormick potatoes were grown in the fall. A 44-50 Bordeaux spray, a Pickering spray, a 10-10-50 Bordeaux, and a 0-4-50 spray were used. The check plots and all the copper-sprayed plots received a lead arsenate spray. The figures reported in Table 4 are the averages for 53 sets of tubers separately analyzed. TABLE 4.—YVield and composition of tubers from sprayed and unsprayed potato plants, Arlington Haperimental Farm, Va., August and October, 1920. Yield Composition of tubers. from Variety. Treatment. 2 rows, pen Se Solids. | Starch. | Nitrogen. Barly, potatoes (August): Pounds. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. rish Cobbler 1}......- 4-4-50 Bordeaux...... 357 19. 91 14. 20 . 372 Os a Check (no copper)..--- 321 19. 59 13. 70 368 TD Oa Sag a ane Pickering spray....... ae 340 20. 64 14. 50 - 383 IDOLE AA aS! ‘10-10-50 Bordeaux ..........-....... 341 20. 42 14. 70 . 367 Dove Bere un eee 0-4-50 spray (No copper)--..-....-.. 350 19. 85 13. 90 306 Early Ohio1......... 424-50 Bord eauxentts. 0. aeeeeees bas 217 19.17 13. 90 412 0) ae SAA Be Bases Check;(mo0 copper) zs. 2 asses soe kce 216 19. 28 13. 90 410 Doweste ss 38F 2 IPickerime-Sprayensssc. ~ ete e sek 211 19, 44 14.70 433 Early Rosel......... A=A250BOrd cauxs 5.5) | sete. ee 245 20.18 14.38 . 367 OWE eee eclseece Check (no copper).......-...2-.2..-- 228 18. 97 13. 60 - 326 Dowie.) eees3 Pickering spray cscs saece eee eens 229 20. 86 14.83 . 364 1 Average of 2 sets. 2 Average of 4 sets. 14 BULLETIN 1146, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE +.—Yield and composition of tubers from sprayed and unsprayed potato plants, etc.—Continued. - Yield Composition of tubers. : from Variety. Treatment. 2 rows, etme Solids. | Starch, | Nitrogen. Late potatoes (October): Pounds. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Spalding Rose....... 0-450 spray (no copper)....-.....-.- 153 19. 36 16. 80 0.406 D Pickering spray 22222... +e! ese3 3 221 21. 48 19, 20 397 4-4-50 Bordeaux: o: oo... cca on wee 250 21 .45)4|\Gacomseenn - 430 Check (no copper)......-........-... 248 19. SU | 4 S38. 0-2 . 409 4-4-50 ‘Bordeaux: . 222. 5-./ es. eae 2A2 22,09 17.00 - 485 0—4-50 spray (mo copper).-...--.-.- au 232 pj Pa ee - 461 Pickeringisprayt. 4: -35-2 eee eevee 296 23. 80 17. 90 457 Check (noicoppeér) = 22... - 1222.22.22 8 294 19. 52 14. 50 444 44-50 Bordeaux..........-...-..... 303 22. 69 17, 20 » 443 .| 0-4-50 spray (no copper) -.--.--..-.-- 245 20.14 15,13 «400 -| 10-10-50 Bordeaux. - el a 291 22. 43 17.15 ~444 .| Pickering spray -- ee zu 261 21, 92 16. 73 443 .| Check a copper). . 288 20. 66 15. 429 Check (no copper) 245 21.72 15. 85 430 0—4-50 spray (Mo copper) --.------.-- 237 21. 36 15. 50 -419 Wickeriny splayecea: | soe ee eel 259 21. 88 15.90 456 44-50 Bordeaux : -. -.2-5.j-4--2-55--- 241 21. 32 15. 50 . 436 10-10-50 Bordeaux.....-....-.-..--. 226 21. 47 15.75 457 1Average of 2 sets. . 2Average of 3 sets. The 10-10-50 Bordeaux spray showed no particular advantages over the 44—50 Bordeaux spray or the Pickering spray in either the early or late tests. The vines receiving the 0-4-50 spray, which con- tained no copper but did contain lime, usually showed yield results lower than those of the checks, but the results of the analyses of the tubers usually agreed rather closely with those obtained for tubers from the check plants. The yield data are variable, but on an aver- age are higher for the copper-sprayed than for the check plants. The data for solids, starch, and nitrogen are generally higher for the copper-sprayed than for the lime-sprayed or check plants. This indicates that copper is the essential constituent of the spray. Maine, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.—Thirty-three samples of tubers from Bordeaux- -sprayed plants from Maine, Penn- sylvania, and New Jersey and from Bordeaux-sprayed and Bordeaux- dusted and unsprayed potato vines in New York (Table 5) were examined. All of the plants were sprayed with an arsenical. San- der’s Bordeaux dust was used. The sprays and dusts were applied five times during the season. TABLE 5.—Composition of tubers from sprayed and unsprayed potato plants, Maine, Pennsylwania, New Jersey, and New York, 1920. Composition of tubers. Source. Variety. Treatment. Mes OT Lo Sa Solids. | Starch. | Nitrogen. Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. Maine... Hee: Irish Cobbler............ 5-5-50 Bordeaux ...-........ 20. 45 15. 95 0. 367 Do; = setts Oe se See ee Check (no copper)..-.......- 18. 39 13. 80 200d Do. = 3 -00he8= Spalding Rose........... 5-5-50 Bordeaux.....-...... 18. 23 13. 80 . 356 DOs = saepep S|-see (alts ae Ie Re en a Check (no copper)........... 18. 13 18. 95 . 319 Do.. ft 2e-8r- MeGormicks sie... 25. ¢ 5-5-50 Bordeaux. .--.-...... 21.70 16. 80 . 371 Dou) ASF eee ole Pe ee eee Check (no copper).--.-.....- 20. 91 16. 00 » 356 Doz.) C2.b8: Earl ik OBe i ee = eth Ss 5-5-50 Bordeaux............ 21. 65 17. 00 . 316. iD fa ee) BEC: (ei. Dee. See ee Check (no copper)..........- 21.93 16. 95 - 339 COPPER SPRAYS ON IRISH POTATO TUBERS. 15 TABLE 5,—Composition of tubers from sprayed and unsprayed potato plants, Maine, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York, 1920—Continued. Composition of tubers. Source. Variety. Treatment. ——— Solids. | Starch. | Nitrogen. Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. Pennsylvania....| Blight Proof ..........-- 5-5-50 Bordeaux...-.....--- 25. 55 20. 80 0. 395 WOscee asic salseees CO ed ae Check (no copper)......-.--- 21. 92 17. 30 353 MD) Oa se soce ye Dibble Russet........... 5-5-50 Bordeaux........---- 21.79 16. 75 . 362 DOE ae we COs BER te Check (no copper)...--.----- 3.3 18. 53 . 334 Dose ou Blight Proof Union Co..| 5-5-50 Bordeaux...........- 24. 42 21. 04 . 340 (yes ast ee Cie HE CG Ka AS Rs Si Pie nyt Check (no copper)-...-..---- 19. 80 15, 20 - 363 New Jersey.:.... American Giants!...... 4-450 Bordeaux...........- 18. 20 12.73 . 30! D (Co een Check (no copper)...---.---- 18. 33 12. 35 290 Variety 9 (Wilkes)....-- 44-50 Bordeaux....- 23. 12 19. 50 274 - GONE ees: ese Bordeaux dust....... 22.96 19. 00 311 Sale GAO Ser Rees See Sa ae Check (no copper).... 5 23.16 19.10 . 297 Dorsles. As Variety 9 (White)......- 4-4-50 Bordeaux....... Pi 22.74 18. 60 ~412 DOE eee Met Oa EG Ea Bordeaux dust.........-.--- 22. 74 18. 40 - 403 Wor AV LE GoM Aes) Ae Check (no copper)......----- 22, 35 18, 20 367 DORE ee Heavyweight (Kd- SW EUR OLS)) (eR ee ies) ae oe Bordeatimidustasssce. cc ones 23. 80 18. 90 - 401 1D Yayoi aes a al (6 Ko) se IS ee Check (no copper)........--- 21.72 17.30 356 TD) O}epere = chicos Goldsomk eyes 44-50 Bordeaux............ 28. 16 22.30 455 Dos a aK ee (GKo Pe fk dee Be Be Bordeaux dust...........--- 26. 42 21.00 -478 DOR tes hee eos & Cosy ee Sea eS Check (no copper)..-.....--- 26. 62 21,40 416 IDO SSS ENE eS RRR Sp eae kp panna 44-50 Bordeaux...........- 24, 03 19. 60 236 IDOE ese cy eR TS ey ee Check (no copper)..----.---- 20. 34 15. 40 . 290 1D Ose Dibble Russet (Slayton).| Bordeaux dust............-- 27.61 22.75 - 348 IDO) Basaran eee LOR etait sii Check (no copper).--:---.--- 27.37 22. 80 347 1 Average of 2 sets. For the New York data several varieties of potatoes grown near Bath and one variety from Geneva were analyzed. From the limited number of samples tested it is impossible to state definitely whether Bordeaux dust has the same favorable effect on the potato plant as Bordeaux spray has, although the results in Table 5 are not par- ticularly favorable to the dust, with the exception of those for the Heavyweight variety. Average figures for three sets grown in New York gave 24.67 per cent of solids for tubers from Bordeaux-sprayed plants, 24.04 per cent for tubers from Bordeaux-dusted plants, and 24.04 per cent for tubers from unsprayed plants. The average starch results for these three sets are 20.13 per cent for tubers from plants receiving Bordeaux spray, 19.47 per cent for those from plants treated with Bordeaux dust, and 19.57 per cent for those from the check plants. The average nitrogen data for the three sets are: Tubers from Bordeaux-sprayed plants, 0.88 per cent; tubers from _ Bordeaux-dusted plants, 0.397 per cent; and tubers from unsprayed plants, 0.36 per cent. Comparing all five dusted plots with the five corresponding checks gives an average of 24.71 per cent solids against 24.24 per cent, and comparing all four Bordeaux-sprayed plots an average of 24.51 per cent solids against 23.12 per cent for the checks. In general, the results for the New York tubers were higher when Bordeaux spray was used than when no spray was used. Data were secured for four varieties of potatoes grown in Maine, two varieties from Pennsylvania, one variety having been grown in two different places, and one variety from New Jersey. Three of the four samples of tubers from Maine were higher for Bordeaux and they averaged 20.51 per cent solids from the Bordeaux-sprayed plants and 19.84 per cent from the check plants. Two of the three sets of tubers from Pennsylvania were higher for the Bordeaux 16 BULLETIN 1146, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. samples and the average solids content for the three sets was 23.92 per cent from the Bordeaux-sprayed plants, as compared with 21.69 per cent for the tubers from the check vines. The two samples of the American Giant variety from New Jersey had practically the same content of solids and the tubers from the Bordeaux-sprayed vines had*but slightly higher contents of starch and nitrogen. The average results for the tubers from the four States show that the general effect of the copper sprays is to increase the solids content of the tubers. 1921 DATA. Presque Isle, Me—The 1921 experiments were conducted at Presque Isle, Me., to determine the influence of Bordeaux, Pickering, and barium-water sprays, all containing copper, on the yield of tubers. The data were compared with data obtained from check or noncopper-sprayed plants in each case. All of the plants received an arsenical spray. TABLE 6.—Yield from 3 varieties of potatoes, Presque Isle, Me., 1921. Front plots. Rear plots. Dp Variety. ; Total.3 Et Spray used. Yield.t wae Spray used. Yield.1 Aroostook farm: Pounds Pounds. | Pounds. ra HO8e See E PORE ES Sosa eae ; ie 4 satce (no copper)... ae eae arly (0) eS haa: On SSE Pad ted |¢ LOD ea oul vemes O..c sce 1s SPO OF ECS. Jee SANS aes ba Shade (no copper)... a PB ae "fo SCTE, poe oe is 1, 592 Rar aASsoe Ordeatixceeeree _ TYG 2) Wes Se mi 80 1, 644 Green Moun-} 8A | Check (nocopper).-| 1,020} 8B | Check (nocopper)... 821 1,841 in. Does = eeee ee 9 | Bordeaux .<. 222. -2- 1,070 10) Baritms S2ee S22 ee 850 1,920 ve De Hae eee o 11A | Pickering.......... 1,046 | 11B }...-. CORRE Bae oe se 909 1, 955 eeland farm: ince Moun-| 1A | Bordeaux.......... 723 | 1B | Bordeaux.......:... 636 2, 751 ain. Dost: 329. 2A | Proprietary spray-. 639 | 2B | Proprietary spray... 707 2,682 LD eee 3A | Check (no copper)... 583 | 3B | Check (no copper)... 532 2,376 Doreen cae 3C | Barium spray-..... 671 | 3D | Barium spray...-.-... 733 2, 859 D ope ses 4A | Bordeaux.......... 732 | 4B | Bordeaux........... 660) 5--)- 4... DOSE eae a DAS | bickering! - Rees 664] 5B} Pickering.........-- 716 2, 760 Ba ras 2 a pier (no copper)... i ae euerks (no copper)... a Pees § Oe ae net 3 arium spray-..--- 7 Arlum Spray =e. cee ee meee Dose ahr: 7A. | Proprietary spray. - 625 | 7B pegarleter spray... ad Es 1 Yield from 2 rows, 300 feet long, in case of Aroostook farm potatoes; yield from 2 rows, 225 feet long, in case of Kneeland farm potatoes. 2 Yields from 50 hills each. 3 Yield from 2 plots in case of Aroostook farm; yield from 4 plots in case of Kneeland farm. From the data from the Aroostook farm and from the Kneeland farm (Table 6) it is evident that the copper-sprayed plants generally gave an increased yield of tubers. In 1921 there was no late blight (Phytophthora infestans) in northern Maine. The reason for using copper sprays in this locality is to control this fungus. Increased yields seem to follow the application of these sprays in seasons when no late blight was prevalent. PROPORTION OF TUBERS TO VINES PLUS TUBERS. The weights of vines and tubers were determined at Presque Isle} Me., at the time the analyses of the tubers reported in Table 1 were made. As a rule, eight healthy potato plants were pulled and ,the} : COPPER SPRAYS ON IRISH POTATO TUBERS. Uy potatoes under them dug. The dirt was shaken from the vines and the adhering roots, and the soil was wiped from the tubers. The vines and tubers were then weighed together and separate weighings of the tubers were made. From these data the percentage of tubers in terms of the total weight of the vines plus tubers was calculated. TABLE 7.—Weight of potato vines and tubers, Presque Isle, Me., 1921. No copper spray Bordeaux-sprayed. | Pickering-sprayed. (check). Date Wekev ed OY =%0 be aT — == Vines. Tubers. Vines. Tubers. Vines. Tubers. Variety. Lbs. | Lbs. | Perct.| Lbs. | Lbs. | Perct.| Lbs. | Lbs. | Per ct. July 261) 7.50 3.00} 28.5 ei 20 2. 50 25,6 | 9575 |Z. 50 20. 4 Aig. 15)? |) 15.255) 6.75:)| 2.3 77.00, 1/07. 00) | °:50..0°1-°5.25 | 5.25 |= 50.0 Sept. 173] 3.50} 8.50] 70.8] 3.25] 9.00] 73.5] 2.50] 11.25] 681.8 ATIC SZ (P6..00) |t © 267 Ob Pale be se tatelel| setoteioies |lioie yoo 6.00) 2.75 31.4 Nb OE SSC EOS y|. 40), Ose. Gaeo5| secososleneceee 6.75 | 6.75 50.0 Sept. 143)" 6:25 |I3.75'| “68587 ) oe. Sloe S| 4.75 | 13.00 | 873.2 Spy Ste} MO OOH rer oy | pe 2O mal aire cel eeitleeale «ee ete 8.25 | 2. 50 23.3 SUL HAUS .25 Ga DOU Iss Osi Ol: [LA Sabha etoieiete = [=iefein site| e)eicleiatale 8.25 | 8.00 49,2 Sept. 13.95/(045 2541178225 1, 16610 |For ss Secs eee ls 4.00} 8.00] £66.7 ug. 231) 10.75 | 4.00} 27.1 |411.50 | 45.00 | 430.3 | 8.50] 2.75 24.4 Aug. 232] 7.00} 5.50] 44.0] 5.25] 4.00] 43.2] 5.75 | 4.00 41.0 Avugy 292i lies os Paes oes 44,25 |44.00 |448.5 | 5.00] 5.00 50. 0 Sept. 203] 3.38] 7.38] 68.6 | 44.00 | 48.75 | 168.6 | 2.25 | 7.25 | 676.3 Heple wiles Pee tase ol Seeecee ACOH LOR SOS |Pyi2. 4 i. eas cea ee eee 3 ACCOR CREDO HS Uae ome ES Gedosod based] Saeseee esse Sco} 2 SoU) OUR EO IIS (GRNAR Seana saocaoa esac or 1 Date of first analysis. 2 Date of second analysis. 3 Date of last analysis. 4 Barium-sprayed. 5 Nickel-sprayed. 6 The check vines at time of last analyses were dead or partly dead and therefore lighter than the vines of the copper-sprayed plants. These figures are not comparable with the other data. The data presented in Table 7 show that when the potato vines were growing, that is, while they were green, a higher propor- tion of tubers to vines plus tubers was usually found in the copper- sprayed than in the unsprayed plants. At the time the first weigh- ings were made, as soon as the tubers were about an inch in diameter, the influence of the copper sprays was shown. The results in Table 7 indicate that the stimulating effect of the copper is largely shown by the increased weights of tubers rather than by increased weights of the vines and that it is exerted early in their development. As the tubers are the storehouse for the starch formed in the leaves, the per- centage of starch in the tubers would naturally increase. At the time the last analyses of the tubers were made the unsprayed vines had partly dried and therefore were hghter than the corresponding vines for the copper-sprayed plants. The data for these samples are not directly comparable with the rest of the data. INFLUENCE OF STRENGTH AND NUMBER OF APPLICATIONS OF COPPER SPRAYS ON COMPOSITION OF TUBERS. Several samples of tubers grown in New Jersey during the season of 1920 were analyzed for solids and nitrogen. Some of the plots from which samples were taken had received a 10-10-50 Bordeaux spray; others had received a 5-5-50 Bordeaux spray; a third plot had been treated with a 24-24-50 spray; while some of the plots had received no copper spray. ‘The results for solids and nitrogen in 18 BULLETIN 1146, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . the tubers from copper-sprayed plants were: 10-10-50 spray, 17.9 per cent solids and 0.38 per cent nitrogen; 5—-5-50 spray, 18.5 per cent solids and 0.34 per cent nitrogen; 24-23-50 spray, 20.1 per cent solids and 0.33 per cent nitrogen. The check tubers contained 18.3 per cent solids and 0.33 per cent nitrogen. The tubers from the plots receiv- ing the 24-24-50 spray were highest, and those from the 10-10-50- sprayed plots were lowest in solids. These results suggest the possibility that a certain proportion of copper in a spray gives the maximum stimulating effect in this local- ity and that a spray containing a greater proportion of copper may have a toxic rather than a stimulating®effect. Tubers grown at Arlington Experimental Farm in 1920 from vines that were sprayed with a 10-10-50 Bordeaux spray (p. 18) seemed to have no advan- tages over the tubers from plants sprayed with a 44-50 Bordeaux. It is, of course, probable that the stimulating effect of the copper varies with the climatic conditions, variety of potatoes used, ete. Tubers from vines in New Jersey sprayed with a 5-5-50 spray eight times during the season were compared with tubers from vines sprayed only four times with Bordeaux spray of the same strength. The average data for four sets were 18.6 per cent of solids and 0.37 per cent of nitrogen in the tubers from vines sprayed eight times and 19.1 per cent of solids and 0.35 per cent of nitrogen for the tubers from vines sprayed only four times. These variations are small and may not be due to the differences in the spray applications. These data also indicate that too much copper may have reached the vines by the eight applications, whereas the amount of copper present in the four applications was nearer the quantity required to give the best protective effect or a maximum stimulation to the plants. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON COMPOSITION OF TUBERS. The following data were obtained during the 1919 season. Early Rose tubers grown in Connecticut contained 21.59 per cent solids and 0.38 per cent nitrogen and the same variety grown at Arlington Ex- perimental Farm contained 15.83 per cent solids and 0.33 per cent nitrogen. Irish Cobbler tubers grown in Connecticut contained 22.28 per cent solids and 0.43 per cent nitrogen, while the same variety grown at. Arlington Experimental Farm contained 18.57 per cent solids and 0.36 per cent nitrogen. Dibble Russets from New York contained 25.38 per cent solidsand 0.39 per cent nitrogen and the same variety grown at Mt. Carmel, Conn., contained 21.24 per cent solids and 0.30 per cent nitrogen. Early Ohio tubers from Minnesota con- tained 22.79 per cent solids and 0.48 per cent nitrogen and the same variety from Connecticut, 20.52 per cent solids and 0.48 per cent nitrogen. These results again suggest that the composition of the tubers is influenced by the environment. Although these tubers were not grown from the same stock, the results in each case seem to indicate that a northern tuber is higher in solids than asouthern tuber. Thismay explain why a northern grown potato is a better seed potato than one grown in the South. The data also show that there is a decided variation in the percentage of solids in tubers of different varieties grown in the same locality. In this connection it is interesting to recall the findings of LeClerc and Yoder (27) who, working with wheat in four different parts COPPER SPRAYS ON IRISH POTATO TUBERS. 19 of the United States, concluded that environment rather than hered- ity is the major factor in determining the physical and chemical characteristics of the wheat crop. COPPER CONTENT OF VINES, STEMS, ROOTS, AND TUBERS OF SPRAYED AND UN- SPRAYED PLANTS. Copper is widely distributed in nature. Apparently all plants and animals contain small amounts of this metal. In 1816 Meissner (35) reported that copper was present in the ash of various plants in small quantities. Dieulafait (72) in 1880 showed that the amount of copper present in vegetation was largely de- termined by the nature of the soil. Lehmann (28), in 1895 and 1896, estimated the copper in wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, buckwheat, potatoes, beans, linseed, apricots, pears, breads, cocoa, and chocolate. He found that only in the plants grown in soil relatively high in copper does any appreciable amount of copper get into the plant. The species of plant is ap- parently of less importance than the copper content of the soil in determining the amount of copper found in the plant. In wheat and buckwheat the copper was chiefiy in the stems and _ leaves, little being found in the fruits and seeds. Therefore a high copper content in the soil does not necessarily mean that much copper is present in the grain and seed. The form in which the copper exists in plants is not known. Lehmann gives data showing that the quantity of copper in any species of plant varies with the individuals of the species, even when grown on the same soil in the same year, and under similar conditions. MacDougal (34) examined microscopically and analyzed various parts of a tree which had grown in copper-bearing soil. He found metallic copper in relatively large quantities throughout the tissues, indicating an absorption of copper by the tree over a period of years. TABLE 8.—Copper in tubers from copper-sprayed and noncopper-sprayed plants. [Parts per million.] Copper in dry tubers from vines treated with 1— Variety. Place grown. Calcium Lead Check arsenate |Bordeaux]} Picker- | arsenate (no cop- ; (no cop- | spray. fing spray.| (no cop- = P per). | per). ee Spalding Rose.........-. Arlington Experimental 8 il 15), \agasqesscs Soc tgteides Farm, Va. imishiCopplenie sess sss] 52) (tue peels ae ec Me eh 11 13 ital es ees od | ee DOR eae Soe seme aa] oes CG Kee rieipy Or et A oe Se ers 11 5 be ee a eee ID ays DA 3 eines ae Bean Ome eee eee Se oe Soe 14 16 a A ee eee INGER 5: SU ESR eS GOECE] GES BE Ole Baan see See 11 14 1 be 3 (ern ee Pn ee WO a |2esisecc ss te See eee American Giant--........ Ne w/Jerseyis ot oe se seis reece > | Daren pers ike matas ce a 8 10 11 Qui re sreroeeers 10s) s22 2 oe Bar iva@hiozeseee See Minnesota.........- Fa | i Se Se iI tie Aber iar ty ica ans | 13 Green Mountain. .-...... Presque-Isle; Me... . =. =. -|S222=5222: MY Sosee based poassanos= 9 Magnum Bonum......... INEZ NOs Se ea ee Hie Pree Re eae 10 DibbledRussetS. -28a52) see Os Sees Re ie + a 7h re ete { A 7 piers ae eee er |e SS a Pennsylvanian 42 2s oe. | Se eee 8h sls Lec eee 10 PANY CLELD Cem RE Br aren eit | Nate MNO RMN ere a nro] Meme ere 1K) [eatet penne el Re ies dam: 10 1 All of the copper-sprayed plants received an arsenical spray as well, 2 Sprayed twice. 3 Sprayed 6 times, 20 BULLETIN 1146, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Some of the tubers from copper-sprayed and from unsprayed potato plants grown at Arlington Experimental Farm during the season of 1920 were analyzed for copper (Table 8). The average figure for tubers from copper-sprayed plants grown at Arlington was 13.5 and for those from plants receiving no copper, 11 parts of copper per million. Average figures for tubers grown in other localities were 10 parts of copper per million for those from both the Bordeaux-sprayed and unsprayed vines. The writer (77) has shown that tubers contain only traces of copper, while the roots, stems, and leaves of potato plants contain appreciable quantities. During the season of 1921 three separate samples of leaves, stems, and roots from four varieties of potatoes were analyzed for copper. At the time of each analysis nine plants were dug and immediately taken to the laboratory, where they were washed in water. The plants were next dipped in 4 per cent hydrochloric acid for 30 seconds and then held in water for 5 minutes. This process was repeated three times. The plants were finally placed in a large tub, covered with water, and allowed to remain overnight. The next day all of the plants were thoroughly rinsed in running water and then in distilled water, after which they were dried in the air. The leaves were used for analysis directly. The stems and roots of all the samples were carefully scraped with a knife to remove the outer layers of plant tissue. The scraped samples were then washed in distilled water to remove any possible copper contamination during the scraping process. Five grams of the dried sample were used for copper analysis by the colorimetric method. The acid and water treatments apparently removed all the external copper from the lants, as the results for copper in the roots are higher than those fi copper in the leaves. TABLE 9.—Copper in leaves, stems, and roots of Bordeaus-sprayed and un- sprayed potato plants, 1921, (Parts per million on the dry basis.) Leaves. Stems Roots. Date of P z Variety. e digging. Sprayed ae Sprayed sannian Sprayed Sorel plants plants. plants. ants plants. plants. anes 7 aed LON 640 0.) 1 Op rg ok en ES 6.6 5.0 3.4 2.6 6.7 3.8 02-3) (Barly sRose-tseee- ce booted hos se 13.0 10.0 6.6 4.0], 18.4 7.6 Do-2:| arishi Cop blernts. ve. Fe case ss she 11.0 9.0 9.3 8.9 21.5 16.9 Do...| Green Mountain 2.............-. 8.0 7.4 4.6 5.8 7.0 8.0 Angi826| Marly Oli es tetas. eens a) 10.6 12.0 9.4 8.1 16.2 9.9 Do. 2 sWanly ROS coaaeoe 9.6 9.6 6.0 8.0 8.6 10. 4 Do...| Irish Cobbler........ 12.0 8.0 7.6 10.2 8.4 8.0 Do...| Green Mountain ?.... 11.4 10.6 7.0 7.0 10.1 8.6 Bentliss) sharky: Olnote-<-- oper sre tancaee 17.3 10.0 14.0 ih) 26.0 13.8 ovFs||\ Marky Rose\s: Sasrsst ee seen 13.0 9.0 5.0 8.5 19.4 9.1 Do. 5] (Irish Cobblers 3ssstaee en 11.0 9.0 8.1 6.3 8.3 9.0 Do...| Green Mountain...-............ 9.0 6.8 6.3 4,4 9.1 6.6 1 Sprayed with Pickering spray. 2 Sprayed with barium-water spray. The data for the leaves, stems, and roots, given in Table 9, show certain variations, but in the majority of the samples the correspond- ing figures for the copper-sprayed were higher than those for the unsprayed samples. The roots held the most and the stems the least COPPER SPRAYS ON IRISH POTATO TUBERS, 91 copper for all four varieties of potato plants. The three early vari- eties of potato plants contained more copper than the Green Moun- tain, a late variety. An appreciable quantity of the copper was present in all of the check plants. GENERAL DISCUSSION. In the case of copper sprays it is generally recognized that a small quantity of copper is gradually rendered soluble either by the juices of the plant or by the carbon dioxid of the air, and this copper thus rendered soluble may protect the plant and may stimulate its meta- bolic activities. The intensity of action of the copper compounds varies with the kind of plant used and with the quantity of copper applied. This difference in the ability of plants to withstand the action of copper sprays was illustrated by the drastic effect of Pick- ering sprays (9) on the grape and apple compared with its favorable action on the potato and cranberry. The influence of environment, soil, climate, etc., must also be considered in this connection, as a > Bordeaux spray may be used on a certain plant in one section of the country but can not be used without severe injury on the same plant in another locality. The data show that increased growth and tuber formation of the potato following the use of copper sprays may be secured. The fact that a certain amount of hopperburn was present in most of the fields where these tests were conducted is recognized. It was not severe in any case and practically none was observed on the plants at Arlington Experimental Farm. Some of the increased yield of tubers from copper-sprayed potato plants was undoubtedly due to the action of the copper sprays in controlling potato leaf- hoppers and thereby reducing hopperburn. It is difficult to explain it all on the basis of protective action alone. Analyses of grapes from copper-sprayed and from unsprayed vines reported by the writer (9) showed that the composition. of the grape had apparently been altered by the application of the copper sprays. Evidently copper sprays alter the composition of the potato and the grape and there is no reason to believe that their action is restricted to these two plants. _ Several theories have been advanced to explain the increased yield of tubers from Bordeaux-sprayed potato plants: (a) Bordeaux spray increases the transpiration rate of potato plants, according to Lutman, Duggar, and others. This effect would apparently be an advantage in wet seasons or wet localities but a dis- advantage in dry seasons or dry localities. Differences in humidity cause differences in the transpiration of plants, and this may react on the growth of the plant and the composition of the tubers. (6) It is possible that changes in the rate of respiration or in the general metabolism of potato plants may follow the application of copper sprays. A small quantity of copper may be absorbed by the plant and stimulate it to increased activity. There are several ex- amples of stimulation brought about ‘by a small amount of a sub- stance which in large quantities 1s toxic. There is evidence that copper stimulates some plants and the fact that stimulation can not be shown to exist does not prove that it is not there. Analyses of the leaves, vines, and roots of sprayed and unsprayed potato vines in most cases showed a higher proportion of copper in the leaves, yy BULLETIN 1146, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stems, and roots of the sprayed potato plants than in those of the unsprayed plants. (c) Variations in sunlight or stimulation resulting from the appli- cation of copper sprays may influence the photosynthetic processes. (d) The copper sprays protect the vines which are thus kept freer from tip burn, disease, and insect injury. Vines treated in this way are therefore more vigorous and their tubers may show an increase in solids, as well as in yield. It is now recognized that potato leaf- hoppers are the direct cause of hopperburn and that Bordeaux mixture repels the hoppers. Bordeaux spray is a protection against potato leafhoppers, flea beetles, and other insects, as well as against fungous diseases. It is not clear why the tubers should be higher in solids unless it is simply taken for granted that a vigorous plant produces a tuber higher in solids than a less vigorous plant. There is a possibility that the protective effect of Bordeaux is the only effect produced, but copper salts have such a pronounced effect on all living tissue that a stimulation is generally suspected and even accepted by many investigators in this field. Some suggestions from the recent work of Sherman and his co- workers are of interest in this connection. ‘They studied the effects of certain antiseptics upon the activity of amylases (42), all of which were very sensitive to copper sulphate. They also studied the influ- ence of certain amino acids upon the enzymic hydrolysis of starch (42), finding that glycine, alanine, phenyl alanine, or tyrosine caused an undoubted increase in the rate of hydrolysis of starch by purified pancreatic amylase, commercial pancreatin, saliva, or purified amy- lase. The favorable effect is not due to any influence on hydrogen ion concentration nor to a combination of the amino acid with the product of the enzymatic reaction. The addition of 1 per cent of these amino acids was shown to be a very effective means of pro- tecting the enzyme from the deleterious eftect of copper sulphate and may even serve to restore to full activity any enzyme which has been partially inactivated by copper. Arginine and cystine have a favor- able influence upon the hydrolysis of starch by purified pancreatic amylase, while histidine and tryptophane do not (44). The effect of histidine and tryptophane differs from that of all the other amino acids studied, possibly because of their heterocyclic structure or their position in the protein complex which doubtless constitutes either the enzyme itself or an essential part of it. There is evidence that a somewhat larger quantity of copper is present in copper-sprayed potato plants than in the unsprayed plants, and also that the proportion of amino and amid nitrogen in potato plants increases during growth. Data showing that copper had a favorable effect on the yield and composition of tubers were obtained. Possibly the amino acids protect the cell activity from any toxic action of the copper, thus permitting the copper to exert a stimulating effect on the cells. It is recognized that it would be desirable to have data showing the normal variation for the different varieties of tubers under the same conditions, but time did not permit the securing of such data. Analyses of several hundred tubers, both copper-sprayed and check, were obtained and the average data from this large number of tubers should overcome individual variation. COPPER SPRAYS ON IRISH POTATO TUBERS. Fo The results reported in this paper appear to establish the fact that copper sprays not only increase the yield of potatoes in various sec- tions of the country, but favorably influence their composition.? Bor- deaux sprays, Pickering sprays, and barium-water sprays seemed to give the increased yield and increased solids of the tubers which apparently depend on the presence of copper in the spray. In addi- tion to plant-disease control and insect control, the copper appears to exert a stimulating action on the potato plant. Bordeaux and other sprays containing copper are usually applied to the potato to control the late blight. In some States such a spray is apphed as a repellent to the flea beetle and the potato leafhopper, thereby reducing the injury to the foliage from these two insect pests and at the same time lessening tip burn and hopperburn. The im- portance of the effect of copper sprays on the yield of potatoes, in addition to their control of diseases and insects, has not been gener- ally recognized or at least emphasized. Nor has the fact that tubers from copper-sprayed plants may be stored more satisfactorily—that is, with less loss from rot—than tubers from noncopper-sprayed plants been widely advertised. When, in addition, an increased yield of potatoes and a higher proportion of solids in them follow the appli- cation of copper sprays, important additional reasons for their more general use become evident. SUMMARY. Tubers from copper-sprayed potato plants at the time they were large enough for analysis (about one inch in diameter) were usually higher in solids, starch, and nitrogen than the tubers from un- sprayed vines. The starch content increased approximately 50 per cent as the tubers matured, while the dextrose disappeared and the sucrose was materially reduced. The early varieties of potatoes showed a decrease in their sugar content to accompany an increased starch content in the copper-sprayed tubers during the early stages of development. The proportion of insoluble ash decreased during the growth of the tubers, although the total ash content remained constant. The total nitrogen increased. The figures for soluble, coagulable, and particularly the monoamino and amid nitrogen increased as the tubers matured. The proportion of tubers to green vines appeared to be higher for the copper-sprayed than for the unsprayed plants. Average data for seven States obtained in 1919 showed the food value of an acre of copper-sprayed potatoes to be 839 pounds more than that for an acre of noncopper-sprayed potatoes. ‘Two factors, increased yield (48 bushels an acre) and an increase of solids (5.6 per cent), are involved. Some results obtained at Arlington Experimental Farm, Va.,-com- paring a 10-10-50 Bordeaux and a 5-550 Bordeaux, suggest that the former spray has no advantage over the latter and may possibly furnish too much copper for the maximum stimulating or protective effects. Results from New Jersey, where a 44-50 Bordeaux spray was applied eight times, compared with results where the same spray 2 Attention is called to the experiments of Gray and Ryan, Monthly Bull. Dept. Agr. State of California, Chemical Number, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 11-33, 1921. They showed that the acidity of oranges was reduced by the arsenical spray. : 24 BULLETIN 1146, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was applied four times, show that the tubers were lower in solids in the former than in the latter case, suggesting again that too much copper may have reached the plant for the best results in the absence of any late blight. Tubers from several varieties of potatoes grown in a northern State were higher in solids than tubers of the same varieties grown in a State farther south. A larger yield of potatoes was secured from copper-sprayed than from check or noncopper-sprayed vines. Late blight (Phytophthora infestans) is eliminated as a necessary factor in the case. . When a lime spray containing no copper was used at Arlington Ex- perimental Farm, Va., the yields of tubers were decreased. Picker- ing-limewater spray and a barium-water spray gave practically the same increase in yield and in solids of the tubers as a Bordeaux spray. The copper in the spray seems to be the essential factor. LITERATURE CITED. (1) Amos, A. The effect of fungicides upon the assimilation of carbon dioxide by green leaves. J. Agr. Sci., 2 (1907) : 257-266. (2) APPLEMAN, C. O. Changes in potatoes during storage. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 167 (1912) : 327-384. (3) Assoc. OrricIAL AGR. CHEMISTS. Official and tentative methods of analysis, 417 pp. Washington, D. C., 1920. (4) Bascocr, D. C. ; Potato diseases. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 319 (1917) : 121-136. (5) Baty, E. D. The potato leafhopper and the hopperburn. Phytopath., 9 (1919): 291-293. (6) CHuUARD, and PoRCHET, E. L’action des sels de cuivre sur les végétaux. Arch. sci. phys. nat., 14 (1902) : 502-5. (7) CrarK, W. M., and Luss, H. A. The colorimetric determination of hydrogen ion concentration and its applications in bacteriology. J. Bact., 2 (1917) : 1-84. (8) CrLinton, G. P. Report of the botanist for 1915. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. 39th Ann. Rpt. (1915) : 421-487. (9) Coox, F. C. Pickering sprays. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bull. 866 (1920) : 47 pp. Composition of tubers, skins, and sprouts of three varieties of potatoes. J. Agr. Research, 20 (1921) : 623-635. ; : Absorption of copper from the soil by potato plants. J. Agr. Research, 22 (1921): 281-287. (12) DIEULAFAIT. Sur la présence normale du cuivre dans les plantes qui vivent sur les roches de la formation primordiale. Compt. rend., 90 (1880): 703-705. (13) Duptey, J. E., and Witson, H. F. Combat potato leafhopper with Bordeaux. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 334 (1921) : 31 pp. (14) Ducear, B. M., and Cootery, J. 8. The effects of surface films on the rate of transpiration: Experiments with potted potatoes. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard., 7 (1914) : 351-356. (15) Epcrerton, C. W. Delayed ripening of tomatoes caused by spraying with Bordeaux mix- ture. La. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 164 (1918) : 1-16. (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) _ (80) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (36) (37) COPPER SPRAYS ON IRISH POTATO TUBERS, 25 Erwin, A. T. Bordeaux spray for tip burn and early blight of potatoes. Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 171 (1917) : 61-75. EWERT, Der wechselseitige Einfluss des Lichtes und der Kupferkalkbriihen auf den Stoffwechsel der Pflanze. Landw. Jahrb., 34 (1905) : 233-310. Fenton, fF. A., and HARTZELL, A. Control of the potato leafhopper. Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 77 (1922) : 4 pp. FRANK, B., and Krucer, F, Ueber den Reiz, welchen die Behandlung mit Kupfer auf die Kartof- felpflanze hervorbringt. Ber. botan. Ges., 12 (1894): 8-11. Gippin6s, N. J. Potato spraying in 1909 and 1910. W. Va. Agr. Exp, Sta. Rpt., 1909-10, pp. 18-19. GIRARD, A. Recherches sur la culture de la pomme de terre industrielle. Dévelop- ment progressif de la Pies Compt. rend., 708 (1889) : 602-604. Harrison, F. C. The effect of spraying peat mixture on foliage. Ont. Agr. Coll, 23d Ann. Rpt. (1897) : 125-128. HERLES, F’. Volumetric starch estimation in potatoes. 8th Internat. Congress Ap- plied Chem., 26 (1912) : 5-10. JONES, ©. H., and WHITE, B. O. Report of the chemists. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. 13th Ann. Rpt. (1899- 1900) : 374-890. Kanpa, M. Studien tiber die Reizwirkung eininger Metallsalze auf das Wachsthum hoherer Pflanzen. J. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, 19, Art. 13 (1904) : 1-87. KREUSLER, U. Chemisch-physiologische Untersuchungen tiber das Wachsthum der Kartoffelpflanze bei kleinerem und grésserem Saatgut. Landw. Jahrb., 15 (1886) : 309-379. LECierc, J. A., and Yoprr, P. A. Environmental influences on the physical and chemical characteristics of wheat. J. Agr. Research, 7 (1914) : 275-291. LEHMANN, K. B. Hygienische Studien tiber Kupfer. Arch. Hyg., 24 (1895): 1-17; 27 (1896) : 1-7 Lerpy, R. W. The spraying of Irish potatoes. N. C. Dept. Agr. Bull. 40 (1919), no. 3, 38 pp. Lint, H. C. Report of potato scab experiments, 1915. N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. 36th Ann. Rpt. (1915) : 375-894. LoDEMAN, FE. G. The spraying of orchards, apples, quinces, plums. N. Y. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 86 (1895) : 47-76. LUTMAN, B. F. Plant diseases in 1911, potato spraying experiments in 1911. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 162 (1912) : 33-45. Some studies on Bordeaux mixture. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 196 (1916) : 1-80. Macpoueat, D. T. Copper in plants. Botan. Gaz., 27 (1899) : 68-69. MEISSNER, W. Versuche tiber den Kupfer-Gehalt einiger Pflanzenaschen. J. Chem. Physik. (Schweigger), 17 (1816) : 340-54. MOoNTEMARTINI, L. Nuove osservasioni sopra l’azione eccitante del solfato di rame sulle piante. Rev. patol. veg., 10 (1920) : 36-40. Pott, EH. Handbuch der tierischen Ernahrung und der landwirtscaftlichen Futtermittel, vols. 1 and 2. Paul Parey, Berlin, 1904. 26 (38) (39) (40) (51) (52) BULLETIN 1146, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, PRITCHARD, I’. J.. and CLARK, W. B. Effect of copper soap and of Bordeaux soap spray mixtures on control of tomato leaf spot. Phytopath., 9 (1919) : 554564. PRUNET, A. Recherches physiologiques sur les tubercules de la pomme de terre. Rey. gén. botan., 5 (1898) : 49-64. RumM, C. Zur Kenntnis der Giftwirkung der Bordeauxbriihe und ihrer Bestand- teile auf Spirogyra longata und die Uredosporen von Puccinia coronata. Erwin Niagale, Stuttgart, 1895. ScHANDER, R. Uber die physiologische Wirkung der Kupfervitriolkalkbriihe. TLandw. Jahrb., 33 (1904) : 517-584. SHERMAN, H. C., and CALDWELL, Mary L. Y A study of the influence of arginine, histidine, tryptophane and cystine upon the hydrolysis of starch by purified pancreatic amylase. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 43 (1921) : 2469-2476. and WALKER, ming ( The influence of certain aminogUgids upon the enzymic hydrolysis of starch. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 43°:(1921) : 2461-2469. and WAYMAN, MARGUERITE. Effect of certain antiseptics upon the activity of amylases. J. Am. Chem. Soe., 43 (1921) : 2454-2461. SORAUER, P. Hinige Beobachtungen bei der Anwendung von Kupfermitteln gegen die Kartoffelkrankeit. Z. Pflanzenkrankh., 3 (1893) : 32-36. Stewart, F. C., Eustace, H. J., and Smrins, FF. A. Potato-spraying experiments in 1902. N. Y. Geneva Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 221 (1902) : 235-268. Potato-spraying experiments, 1902-1911. N. Y. Geneva Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 349 (1912) : 99-189. STewartT, F. C., Frency, G. T., and Srirrine, F. A. Potato-spraying experiments in 1910. N. Y. Geneva Agr, Exp. Sta. Bull. 388 (1910) : 115-151. TREBOUX, O. Hinige stoffliche Hinfltisse auf die Kohlensiureassimilation bei sub- mersen Pflanzen. Flora, 92 (1908) : 56-58. Von ScHRENE, H. Intumescences formed as a result of chemical stimulation. Mo. Bot. Gard. 16th Ann. Rpt. (1905) : 125-148. Woops, C. D. Potato studies. Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 277 (1919): 17-82. ZUCKER, A. Beitrag zur direkten Beeinflussung der Pflanzen durch die Kupfer- vitriol-Kalkbriihe. Alfred Miiller & Co., Stuttgart, 1896. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Secretary of Agriculture______________-___- Henry C. WALLACE. AISSUSUC IGS CCHCUURY =e. eee ee ee es C. W. PUGSLEY. DirectoraofScientyie Work ---* ee BH. D. Batt. Director of Regulatory Work__-____--_-----_-_- IWCCUN mB UneG Ue eS A ONE CHARLES F.. Marvin, Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Economics__—_-____—- Henry C. Taytor, Chief. Bureaw of Animal Industry __--_ JoHN R. Monier, Chief. BURCOULO PE UL LUMI OUSERY = ae 2s oe WittiAm A. Taynor, Chief. Forest Service ___-____- Pe Le NV SY (GRERE EY (OME: SUG ECOUNOHOMEMASEi Ye = oe ew ee WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. Bureau of Soils___---__- Mh _. Mitton WHITNEY, Chief. ULC LUNOMMETULOMOLOG Ye. _ 2 eae L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey_———---_ _ HK. W. Newson, Chief. BUnCOuUnOfme WOliGHROCdS 22 oe ae THoMAS H. MacDonaxp, Chief. Fized Nitrogen Research Laboratory_____—_- F. G. Cottretyi, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements___._ A. ZAPPONE, Chief. Division of Publications__________ ___. JOHN I. Corss, Jr., Chief. JEAN O POH ASD CLARIBEL R. BARNETT, Librarian. States Relations Service_22 A. C. TRUE, Director. Federal Hortiéultural Board_______________ C. L. Mariattr, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board__________- J. K. Haywoop, Chairman. Packers and Stockyards Adninistration_____ CHESTER MorriL1, Assistant to the Grain Future Trading Act ee eh Secretary. ifee Off WO SOW ee R. W. WitiiaMs, Solicitor. This bulletin is a contribution from— URECOUMOMMOMENUSERY Loe os ONE TS eee W. G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. Miscellaneous Division_________....___- J. K. Haywoop, Chief. 27 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 Vv ; pee soit, see aaa “rege eae fp Bic e a de Bick mae caadniro: rs) a mean cody con Ks 19 ike ea ee — wear ead 4 2 Ey ee Pr ee meet je ue Ss oes axe risa, ‘ ste ie Pe iba i f oie ‘ ie er ae Bay, ie Wie % és Paine cok n Oe Poe O" See le ie 2 F i = tree * ot Vieaee Ff Sous . ARES ie Line Bs pee Be ae dg sad MRP TANS. Ok Oe | ae ee e we “ “a : é es tw c a% ' (ue i « te: ae oe. ee) Brown SE REE RAR, Bi , Mo eM A TOT y Peo edt es © BEAAK LAS @ eHie er e aia on Y COVE AO Dr an Sty pet | ihynn . > bee Ar At +t CAT ; : CRBC ‘gine Dy i 4 me S MISGATGH. 20 ws de aK @xcan : So TAA etme wa ba EN ROE ‘ea ; UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. June 9, 1923 CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL, AND INSECTICIDAL PROPERTIES OF ARSENICALS. By F. C. Coox, Physiological Chemist, Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory, Miscel- laneous Dimsion, Bureau of Chemistry, and N. E. McInpoo, Insect Physiologist, Fruit Insect iasicnnens Bureau of Entomology.' CONTENTS. Page. Page. Purpose of investigation................----- 1 | Comparative toxicity of arsenicals........... 24 MArSenicals studiedes a fees ee ese: 1 | General properties of arsenicals.-...........- 50 Chemical properties of arsenicals..-.....-...- 2), OUIMIMALY Spee MY ise ey. oh sek ae a eee clae as 53 ZO) \eaiteratuneicited tay eke etme rey cee ccs eeeeee oe 55 Physical properties of arsenicals..........- He PURPOSE OF INVESTIGATION. A study of the chemical, physical, and insecticidal properties of arsenicals on the market was undertaken in order to gain a better understanding of them, to be able, if possible, to improve them, and to produce new arsenicals for insecticidal purposes. The results of this investigation, which was conducted by the Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture, are here reported. ARSENICALS STUDIED. Paris green and lead arsenate, which have been standardized and found reliable for many years, have constituted the principal in- secticides used against external chewing insects. However, during the past few years, the use of calcium arsenate has steadily in- creased, owing in part to the discovery that itis effective in combating the boll weevil. Fhe manufacture of calcium arsenate, although well beyond the experimental stage in most factories, probably will not be completely standardized for several years. Because of the im- portance and recent large-scale production of calcium arsenate, many of the results in this bulletin deal with comparisons of calcium arsenate and acid lead arsenate. 1 The following assisted in this work: R. Elmer, W. A. Gersdorff, R. Jinkins, B. Neuhausen, and A. Schultz, Junior Chemists, Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry, and W. A. Hofi- man. Scientific Assistant, and W. B. Wood, Entomological Assistant, Bureau of Entomology. 27476°—23—Bull. 1147-1 2 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The arsenicals analyzed in this investigation, many of which were used in the entomological tests (pp. 26-50), were obtained on the market in 1916. The samples were used as purchased, with the exception of the paste products which were dried before being used. Samples of the following arsenicals were studied: Arsenious oxid (4 samples), arsenic oxid (2 samples), acid lead arsenate (18 samples), basic lead arsenate (2 samples), calcium arsenate (9 samples), zinc arsenite (2 samples), Paris green (2 samples), mixture of calcium and lead arsenates (2 samples), sodium arsenate (2 samples), potas- sium arsenate (1 sample), London purple (1 sample), and mag- nesium arsenate (1 sample). Several samples of acid and basic lead arsenate and of calcium arsenate, and one of barium arsenate, one of aluminum arsenate, and one of copper barium arsenate mixture were prepared in the laboratory, analyzed, and tested on insects. Various names are applied to the arsenicals here designated as (a) acid lead arsenate, 6s) basic lead arsenate, (c) arsenious oxid, and (d) arsenic oxid. Some of these names are incorrect because they are based on erroneous analyses or interpretations of composi- tion, for example, ‘‘neutral lead arsenate’’ for a basic lead arsenate. Some are considered not to be in good usage, according to modern chemical writing, for example, ‘‘arsenious acid’’ for arsenious oxid. Arsenious oxid dissolved in water forms arsenious acid. The same relation exists between arsenic oxid and arsenic acid. Other names, although correct, are unnecessarily involved, for example, ‘‘hydroxy- lead arsenate’’ for basic lead arsenate. The terms selected for use in this bulletin are both scientifically correct and commonly applied to arsenicals. Their names, with the synonyms, are as follows: (a) Acid lead arsenate (PbHAsO,). (6) Basic lead arsenate—Continued. Ordinary lead arsenate. Trilead arsenate.” Hydrogen lead arsenate. Nonacid lead arsenate. Diplumbic arsenate. Hydroxy-lead arsenate. Dilead arsenate. Lead ortho arsenate.” Diplumbic hydrogen arsenate. (c) Arsenious oxid (As,O,). Bibasic arsenate. Arsenic. (b) Basic lead arsenate (Pb,(PbOH) White arsenic. (AsO,)3. HO). Arsenious anhydrid. Triplumbic arsenate (T. P. arsen- (d) Arsenic oxid (As,O,). ate).? Arsenic pentoxid. Neutral lead arsenate.” Arsenic anhydrid. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ARSENICALS. OXIDS OF ARSENIC. Arsenious oxid (As,O,), commonly called white arsenic or simply arsenic, is the basis for the manufacture of all arsenicals. In the United States arsenious oxid is a by-product from the smelting of lead, copper, silver, and gold ores, being recovered from the flue dust and fumes. The arsenious oxid first sublimed is impure, owing to the presence of carbon and sometimes of sand. The impure oxid may then be resublimed to give a relatively pure oxid, consisting of approximately 99 per cent of arsenious oxid and a trace of arsenic oxid (As,O;). Between 11,000 and 12,000 tons of arsenious oxid were produced in the United States in 1920, more than half of which was 2 These names are incorrect, having been used when basic lead arsenate was considered to be trilead arsenic. ARSENICALS. 3 used for insecticide purposes. Canada, Mexico, England, Germany, anne Japan, and Portugal produce large quantities of arsenious oxid. There are three forms of arsenious oxid: (a) The amorphous, vitreous, or glassy form; (b) the ordinary crystalline (‘‘octahedral’’) form; and (c) the orthorhombic crystalline form. The amorphous form changes spontaneously into the crystalline form on standing. The trade usually recognizes two grades of arsenious oxid, the light and the heavy forms, although ie are the same chemically. The literature contains conflicting statements concerning the solubility of arsenious oxid in water. Because of the slowness with which arsenious oxid goes into solution, many weeks being required to dissolve even a small sample of the solid, it is probable that in all of the reported results equilibrium had not been reached. The varying percentages of crystalline and amorphous material present in the samples tested, the amorphous form being more soluble than the crystallme forms, may possibly help to account for these dis- crepancies. With the exception of Paris green, the arsenites are prepared by combining arsenious oxid and the base. As a rule, arsenates are made by the direct action of arsenic acid in solution on a metallic oxid. The arsenic acid used for this purpose is manufactured from arsenious oxid by oxidation, usually by means of nitric acid, but sometimes by other oxidizing agents. The analytical results here reported are based on the weights of the original samples. The methods of analyses used were in general those of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (/).* Table 1 gives the analytical results on the six samples of arsenious and arsenic oxids selected to represent the arsenical materials used in the manufacture of arsenicals. TABLE 1.—Com~position of arsenitous oxid (As,03) and arsenic oxid (As,0;) used in manu- facturing arsenicals. Total Total Water- | Water- : soluble | soluble . arsen- arsenic . Moisture. cafe GRA SG arsen: arsenic Sample No. -y [ious oxid| oxid (A820). | (As205)- |(45503).1| (AsO) 2 Material analyzed. Per cené. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. 9 | Laboratory arsenious oxid...........-...... 0. 20 99. 80 17.77 19 | Commercial arsenious OXid..............--- -99 99. O1 10 | Laboratory arsenic oxid (solid arsenic acid).|..........]....-.---- 16 poner! arsenic oxid (dissolved arsenic EVGA} 5k 5s Ses aS Fad eS Sg Se 1 Determined by the A. O. A. C. method for Paris green. Attention is called to the wide variation in the data obtained for water-soluble arsenious oxid in the different samples of arsenious oxid. This is undoubtedly due to differences in the size and structure of the crystals present in the samples tested. Traces of arsenious oxid (0.008 per cent) and nitric acid (0.02 per cent) were found in the commercial sample of arsenic acid (No. 16). 3Ttalic numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited. 4 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. All samples of commercial arsenic acid are likely to contain traces of arsenious oxid and nitric acid. Arsenic acid solutions containing from 56 to 66 per cent of arsenic oxid have a specific gravity of from 1.8 to 2. Solid arsenic acid containing from 75 to 80 per cent of arsenic: oxid has recently been placed on the market. BASES USED IN PREPARING ARSENICALS. The oxids of lead, zinc, calcium, and magnesium are the bases most used in manufacturing arsenicals. Litharge is the commercial lead oxid and lime the commercial calcium oxid. Zine oxid (ZnO) and lead oxid (PbO), ordinarily employed in the manufacture of zine arsenite and lead arsenate, are more expensive than calcium oxid (CaO) (in the form of lime) and magnesium oxid (MgO) used in manu- facturing calcium arsenate and magnesium arsenate. Table 2 gives the results of the analyses of the five bases and the copper oxid (CuO) and barium hydroxid (Ba(OH),) which were ae in this investigation. TABLE 2.—Composition of bases in arsenicals. Undeter- Sample ' : 3 Carbon mined No Material analyzed. Moisture. Oxid. dioxid | material, 7 .| (COs). | by dif- ference. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. dis yime) (la boratony, saz 2: ssaoondase see ge5= eee 6.54 | 84.00 (CaO)...... . 02 0. 44 12 | Lead oxid (laboratory) ...........-..-..---.-- -00 | 99.13 (PbO)..... Trace. - 87 20 | Lead oxid (commercial)..............---- 2aat -02'| 97.88 (PbO)... _. 1.64 . 46 22\| Zine\oxid (commercial)... eel ele -17 | 100.00 (ZnO).... S00E cE atts. 2 63 | Magnesium oxid (laboratory)......-.-..-.--.- -99 | 77.16 (MgO)..... 2A a 65 | Copper oxid (laboratory). .........----------- -00 | 98.75 (CuO)... ... -10 1.15 67 | Barium hydroxid (laboratory)..............-- 14.58 | 66.73 (BaO)..... 14.91 3.78 ACID LEAD ARSENATES. F. C. Moulton, chemist for the Massachusetts gypsy moth com- mittee, is credited with the discovery in 1892 of the insecticidal properties of lead arsenate. The use of arsenate of lead as an in- secticide, first recommended in October, 1893 (21), has greatly increased during the past few years. Thirty-one United States patents for its production have been issued. The principal lead arsenate is acid lead arsenate (PbHAsO,), an acid salt, so-called because of the presence of hydrogen (H) in its molecule. It has the following theoretical composition, As,O,; (33.13 per cent), PbO (64.29 per cent), and water of constitution (2.58 per cent). In the early procedure for preparing acid lead arsenate, solutions of lead acetate or of lead nitrate were precipitated by sodium hydrogen arsenate (Na,HAsO,). The tendency is to produce acid lead arsenate when lead nitrate is used and the more basic form when the acetate is used. McDonnell and Smith (27) obtained acid lead arsenate of ractically theoretical composition by precipitating lead nitrate or ead acetate by an excess of monopotassium arsenate. A method frequently employed in manufacturing this arsenate is to mix arsenic acid (H,AsO,) and litharge (PbO) in the presence of a small amount of nitric acid. Other processes, however, are used. The fact that acid lead arsenate is a comparatively stable compound and is but ARSENICALS. 5 slightly soluble in water, offers an explanation as to why it burns foliage only very slightly when properly applied. McDonnell and Graham (26) found that long-continued exposure to constantly changing water brings about decomposition, both lead and arsenic being dissolved, the arsenic, however, at a relatively greater rate, leaving the residue more basic than the original acid lead arsenate. According to McDonnell and Smith (27), the specific gravity of acid lead arsenate crystals is 6.05. The chemical data on 10 samples of powdered lead arsenates and on 9 samples of paste lead arsenate, the latter being dried in the laboratory before analysis, are reported in Table 3. Of the powdered arsenate samples 1 apparently was a basic lead arsenate and 9 were acid lead arsenates. Of the paste lead arsenate samples, 1 appar- ently was a basic lead arsenate and 8 were acid lead arsenates. These samples, which were obtained from various manufacturers in this country, include most of the leading brands. The results of the analyses, therefore, are representative of the composition of the commercial lead arsenates on the market in 1916. TABLE 3.—Composition of powdered and paste commercial lead and calcium arsenates. Arsenic oxid Water of (As205). constitu- - Poesy ob Rear Carbon | tion and Saale Material analyzed. ols Oxid. | dioxid | impuri- i } Water- (CO2). | ties by Total. | soluble. differ- ence. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. 1 | Powdered acid lead arsenate... - 0.32 30. 86 0.31 64.88 (PbO) 0. 54 3.40 ESS LOR ULE OMEN lS 1.43 | 31.55 .24| 62.95 (PbO) 15 3.92 aL SH ee SOE CO SEE SA ENTE A i igh 221 | 82529 B32) |164) 231(PbO) 22. 22e 3.27 aE ESSE LOPE Pitt ett ldisy py aay Sek oll 32. 00 -30 63242) (PDO) #229. -2522 4.41 Bowler aes LORRAIN GG no 230 81.24 238 64535) GRDO) seas. esas 4.11 ay esos ClO AEs) A aie at OY Se 14 32. 47 245112164529) (PDO) |e ie ee 3.10 SOM ees Mohs) 55 3 As AUR ACH sa EI al -20 32. 93 67 63:92) (Bib) ate ae ae 2.95 Os Oe eee NA ee SOD NY EGE 2 2.06 32.76 245 63210 CR DO) ese es 1.48 On| eee ee COM hae hee Eon Ea ele 4 245 31.59 22 63500/CRbO) s)he Seeks 4.96 28 | Powdered basic lead arsenate... 230 24. 80 243 T2823 (CRD O))c\ beeen ee 2.62 3 | Paste acid lead arsenate, dried... 10 31.95 ~34 | 64.57 (PbO) | Trace. 3.38 4 do 12 32.30 42 642 50iCBR DO) Glgseee see 3.08 do 19 30. 38 253 652 21CRbO)) |e ee 4,22 do ell 382. 07 Cali 652013 CBRDO)sfaseeseee 2.81 .do pall! 33.17 22 63. 82 (PbO) 2.90 .do.. Gillal a aeeai .22| 64.67 (PbO) |... 2.71 do 722 33. 09 -67 63.41 (PbO) |..-- 3.28 do 612 32.98 1.73 63.13 (Phos aN 3.77 21 | Paste basic lead arsenate, dried. ell 23.00 = 508])4.%3999s(PbO)))2-. 2.90 6 | Paste calcium arsenate, dried... 28 43,35 -70 | 38.86 eet 2. 74 14.7 7 | Powdered calcium arsenate..... 1.58 43.35 388 | 44.08 (CaO) 1.83 9.16 OA EAS (CIOS 2 UO SUS Sear Sen ena 1,33 49. 40 2. 74 40.57 (CaO) -98 7.72 Syd es a COR e tie, aia NAR SF sol 41,82 322 42.61 (CaO) 1,64 13.62 Boel COE SS See oS ens Gee eles nce ee 9. 56 38.16 1,92 37.38 (CaO) 4.34 10. 56 OO Meee ae GOW SCE Sacro eA ae agai te CAYAS 39.19 SOD) 42.79 (CaO) 4. 04 6.27 OTM ee Ae (SOS St Mle a 11.30 40. 49 -08 44,03 (CaO) 1.05 3.13 OSu eee GG Sets eG AS ae op .99 47.83 25 46.16 (CaO) 1.7 3. 32 Oy ae ee (OKO SAS 2 IG eS MI Sn 6.07 45. 37 2.32 41.48 (CaO) 2. 43 4.65 The results in Table 3 show that in most cases the chemical com- position of the commercial samples of acid lead arsenates closely approaches the theoretical composition. The manufacture of lead arsenate has become standardized to such an extent that different batches, or “runs,” of the product vary but little from the theoretical figures. Acid lead arsenates are sold in both dry and paste form, the paste containing usually from 45 to 50 per cent of water. 6 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The two most important determinations to be made on lead ar- senates are the total arsenic oxid and the water-soluble arsenic oxid. The total arsenic oxid of an acid lead arsenate usually varies from 31 to 33 per cent, and the water-soluble arsenic oxid is less than 0.3 per cent in a good grade of commercial acid lead arsenate. Robinson and Tartar (37) reported analytical results on commercial lead arsenates and described various tests used to determine the forms in which the lead and the arsenic are combined, as well as the extent to which these forms exist in such substances. Tn acid lead arsenate the ratio by weight of arsenic oxid to lead oxid is theoretically 1 to 1.94. According to the results of the analysis (Table 3), however, this ratio is somewhat higher in com- mercial lead arsenates, showing that a slight excess of lead oxid (litharge) had been used in their manufacture in order to make sure that no uncombined arsenic acid would be left in the product. A small amount of carbon dioxid, which had been introduced in the litharge, was found in the acid lead arsenates tested. This is of no practical significance. In all but three of the powdered samples the moisture content was less than 0.35 per cent. The water of consti- tution of acid lead arsenates is theoretically 2.58 per cent. The results by difference show differences slightly greater than the theo- retical figures, but in no case are they of any magnitude. The per- centages of arsenic oxid and lead oxid, together with the low per- centage of water-soluble arsenic oxid, indicate that the commercial acid lead arsenates examined were good and stable products. BASIC LEAD ARSENATE. The early investigators recognized “basic,” or “sub,” arsenate of lead and applied the term ‘‘neutral lead arsenate” to PbHAsO,, which is the present commercial acid lead arsenate. They also ap- plied the term “‘neutral lead arsenates” to lead pyroarsenates, which are not commercial products, and therefore will not be discussed here. McDonnell and Smith have printed a report on pyroarsenates (27). ‘As a result of another investigation on basic lead arsenates, these authors (28) report the existence of a basic arsenate having optical and crystallographic properties similar to those of mimetite, from the analytical data apparently hydroxy mimetite, containing one mole- cule of water of crystallization. One or two manufacturers of in- secticides sell, generally on special order, what is commercially called “1. P.” arsenate. Basic lead arsenate may be prepared as follows: Produce basic lead acetate by the action of acetic acid on lead or lead oxid, usually litharge. Then mix it with arsenic acid, thus forming basic lead ar- senate. Basic lead arsenate may also be made by the reaction of sodium arsenate, litharge, and nitric acid, or by the action of ammonia on acid lead arsenate. It has the following theoretical composition: As,O, (23.2 per cent), PbO (75 per cent), and water of constitution and crystallization (1.8 per cent). The specific gravity of this substance was found by McDonnell and Smith (28) to be 6.86. Only two samples (Table 3, Nos. 28 and 21) of commercial basic lead arsenate (a powder and a paste) were secured on the market. While these showed somewhat greater variations from the theoretical than did the acid lead arsenates, both are relatively pure compounds. ARSENICALS. 7 They have essentially the same composition except for the presence of water in the paste. CALCIUM ARSENATES. It is not known who made the first sample of calcium arsenate. Pickering (31) in 1907 stated that calcium arsenate had already been used in the United States as an insecticide. He gave the proportions of a calcium salt and an arsenate to be united in preparing calcium arsenate, recommending the use of an excess of lime in order to pro- duce a calcium arsenate with all the arsenic precipitated and there- fore containing no appreciable amount of water-soluble arsenic. As many of the early commercial samples of calcium arsenate contained excessive amounts of water-soluble arsenic, frequent scorching of foliage resulted from its use, thus retarding its general introduction. Since 1907, many experiments to devise a method for making a commercial calcium arsenate have been performed. It is now being produced by many American manufacturers and its sale is constantly increasing. The quality of the commercial pro- duct has been much improved during the past few years, but its course of manufacture has not yet been standardized as has that of lead arsenate. Dicalcitum arsenate (CaHAsO,(H,O)) contains theoretically 28.3 per cent of calcium oxid and 58 per cent of arsenic oxid. It breaks down easily in water, yielding a large quantity of water-soluble arsenic and is not suitable for commercial spraying purposes. Calcium meta-arsenate (Ca(AsO,).) was prepared according to directions obtained from C. M. Smith, of the insecticide and fungicide laboratory. Because of its extreme insolubility, it can not be used for insecticidal purposes. All the commercial calcium arsenates are made more basic than tricalcium arsenate; that is, the molecular ratio of calcium oxid to arsenic oxid is 4 to 1, rather than 3 to 1. The additional lme is used in their manufacture in order to produce compounds relatively free from water-soluble arsenic. The following simple method of preparing calcium arsenate com- mercially, as outlined by Haywood and Smith (18), calls for the direct mixing of calcium hydroxid and arsenic acid, the only by-product being water: Slake the lime to a smooth paste by using from 3 to 34 times as much warm water (by weight) as lime, and allow it to stand until the lime is completely slaked. Then mix it, add the cold arsenic-acid solution at room temperature as rapidly as possible, and stir the mixture well until the liquid becomes alka- line to phenolphthalein. Lastly, filter, dry, and grind the resulting compound. The lime and arsenic acid should be mixed in such proportion that the actual weight of calcium oxid used will be equivalent to that of the arsenic oxid employed. This method produces a reason- ably light (bulky) material, which is easily pulverized. The finished product should contain approximately 44 per cent of calcium oxid, from 40 to 42 per cent of arsenic oxid, and from 14 to 16 per cent of water and impurities, which approaches the ratio, 4 CaO: 1 As,O,. The excess of lime is used to keep any soluble calcium arsenate from remaining in the product. 8 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The analytical results on nine samples of calcium arsenate aro recorded in Table 3. Samples 6, 24, and 34 were not strictly com- mercial products, but were made by the manufacturers as an experi- ment. Sample 24 contains a higher percentage of arsenic than the strictly commercial samples. Samples 6, 24, and 34 have a lower lime content than the six commercial samples analyzed, and it is probable that a portion of their arsenate is in the form of dicaleium arsenate. The somewhat large amount of carbon dioxid found in all of the samples of calcium arsenate comes from the lime, which is always carbonated to a certain extent. The water of the calcium arsenates varies more than that of the lead arsenates. Analyses of samples 56 and 57 showed, respectively, 11.75 per cent and 12.35 per cent loss on ignition, 0.35 and 0.5 per cent of ferric oxid and aluminum oxid, 0.51 per cent and 0.74 per cent of magnesium oxid, and 0.62 per cent and 0.51 per cent of sodium oxid. Sample 56 contained 0.35 per cent of antimony oxid. Lovett (23) in 1918 reported a high water-soluble arsenic content in samples of commercial calcium arsenate. Since then the amount of water-soluble arsenic in commercial calcium arsenate has been reduced, as shown in Table 3. Lovett (24) in 1920 published graphs showing the chemical features of calcium arsenate, apparently based on the percentages of lime or on the ratio of lime to arsenic oxid in the calcium arsenates. No consideration seems to have been given to the percentages of total and water-soluble arsenic oxid which are the generally recognized criteria for judging the quality of calcium arsenates chemically. Robinson (35), who tested the solubility of calcium arsenates in water containing lime, reported that the lime prevents the arsenic oxid from becoming soluble. He also studied the action of carbon dioxid on calcium arsenates and found that carbonic acid has a solvent action upon the calcium arsenates. Patten and O’Meara (30) made a series of tests on the amount of soluble arsenic oxid obtained from calcium arsenate in water containing carbon dioxid and in water free from carbon dioxid. From their results, which showed a great increase of soluble arsenic oxid when carbon dioxid was present, they concluded that the burning of foliage, when calcium arsenate is applied, is due to the arsenic made soluble by the carbon dioxid of the air. The commercial calcium arsenates contain approximately one- third more lime than is required by tricalcium arsenate. They con- tain a higher percentage of total arsenic oxid than the lead arsenates, but they should be manufactured more cheaply per unit of arsenic oxid because of the low cost of the base (CaO). Coad and Cassidy (0) have recommended that calcium arsenate for dusting cotton should contain not less than 40 per cent of arsenic oxid and not more than 0.75 per cent of water-soluble arsenic oxid, and that it should occupy a volume of from 80 to 100 cubic inches a pound. PARIS GREEN. Paris green, originally used as a paint pigment, is said to have first served as an insecticide in the western United States. It is a com- pound of arsenic, acetic acid, and copper, known as aceto-arsenite of copper. The theoretical composition of Paris green is copper oxid ARSENICALS. 9 (31.39 per cent), arsenious oxid (58.55 per cent), and acetic anhydrid (10.06 per cent). The manufacture of Paris green,* which has become standardized, may be briefly described thus: Solutions of soda ash (commercial anhydrous sodium carbonate) and arsenious oxid are first heated together, forming sodium arsenite. Crystalline copper sulphate is dis- solved in warm water in a separate container. The sodium arsenite mixture is poured into a mixing tank, the copper sulphate solution is added, aud the mixture is stirred. Acetic acid is added, and after a little stirring the olive-colored mixture becomes green. The Paris green is washed with water, after which it is allowed to settle and all the water that can be drained off is so removed. This washing should be repeated as often as necessary to remove practically all the sodium sulphate. The Paris greenis then dried. The dried product is passed through a “breaker” and finally through a fine sieve or a bolting machine. The “tailings” are mixed with the next batch of Paris green. The finely divided Paris green is now ready to be placed in containers. The colcr of Paris green varies with the details of manufacture and the degree of fineness of the product. The composition of Paris green on the market ranges from 54 to 57 per cent of total arsenious oxid, from 1.5 to 4.5 per cent of water-soluble arsenious oxid, and from 29 to 30 per cent of copper oxid. Haywood (17) stated that the impurities in Paris green include small amounts of sand, sodium sulphate, and arsenious oxid, and also that the soluble arsenic in Paris green produces scorching of foliage. Be green, when of a high grade, breaks down to some extent when water is added, but when it has been improperly prepared much more soluble arsenic is yielded on treatment with water. Avery and Beans (2) found that high-grade Paris green was slowly attacked by water and that the rate of decomposition was increased by grinding to a very fine powder and suspending in water. They also found that the pres- ence of carbon dioxid in the water increased the rate of decomposi- tion. There are two sources of the soluble arsenic in Paris green, (a) the soluble arsenic originally present in the sample, and (b) the arsenic made soluble by water and carbon dioxid after the material has been applied. ‘The admixture of lime with Paris green when used as a spray lessens its scorching properties. Analysis of a typical Paris green (sample 64) is given in Table 4. MISCELLANEOUS COMMERCIAL ARSENICALS. Analyses of samples of several miscellaneous arsenicals which were tested against insects are given in Table 4. ‘Details of the manufacture of Paris green are given in 45 Ann. Rept. Sec. Mass. State Board Agr. (1897), Dp. 357. 27476°—23——Bull. 1147-2 10 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Zine arsenite is made by heating together arsenious oxid, zinc oxid, and water. It is sold only as a powder. The arsenious oxid content of the two samples (Nos. 23 and 33) analyzed is approxi- mately the same as the average arsenic oxid content of the calcium arsenates on the market. The water-soluble arsenious oxid figures are a little higher than the results for the best grade of lead or calcium Taste 4.—Composition of miscellaneous arsenicals. Total Total sh ates A 5 Material analyzed. Moisture.) 275¢h10us | arsenic | arsenious 0. oxid oxi Grid (Asi02). | (8:03). | (Qa Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 23 | Commercial zine arsenite 0.15 41. 49 83) |e Oho Seo Abe oe dene - 06 42.54 |.. 64 | Commercial Paris green soe -53 55. 09 36 | Commercial calcium and lead arsenates......... Selb Ne see th sede 8 | Commercial calcium and lead arsenates plus calciumicarnbouate=-ca.-ssesscsceseees seem LOB) |aeeis cones ae 62 | Commercial magnesium arsenate.............-- 2306) | ee area 71 | Laboratory barium arsenate..................-- o 2ONee Sure a ate 74 | Laboratory copper and barium arsenate..-..... 4:73) 4) eee 73 | Laboratory aluminum arsenate.............---- LOS 20F len nee ceee ae 31 | Commercial sodium arsenate.-.........--.-..--- SAO) S5- ease ATS Oe ee ee sccete teeth Po.. ee 62:32h| tote oe 25 | Laboratory sodium arsenate...........--.-.---- Si 54 West See 26 | Laboratory potassium arsenate. .........------- BST lacore ecco e 90 | Commercial London purple...........--.------- 6. 41 31.10 splabse C soluble arbon | +, Pant Material analyzed. arsenic Oxid. dioxid | U nae ; oxid (COs). | 75 (As205) Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. 23, Commercial zinc arsenite] #2 = 4.20 - deja = ne bers oeee'= oe pelo (MAK) | pes 2 = Ree 2.06 SEBS Oa Ae ete = rhe tat tee cee dats eee || tales creo eet 56. 46 ote wlebasdsee 94 64 | Commercial Paris green.............--22---2-+--|---220-00- { F a Peers) \ reek tek 35.92 36 | Commercial calcium and lead arsenates.......-. 1.14 { iM 8 C28 \ 1.50 5.75 8 | Commercial calcium and lead arsenates plus Calcrincarpouateesases ee. tasrancesemceebieos -53 { se; af a6 \ 23. 23 5.31 62 | Commercial magnesium arsenate..........------ 1.56} 34.32 (MgO ¢ Bb 28. 57 71 | Laboratory barium arsenate..............------ -21| 64.96 (BaO 1.33 2.49 74 | Laboratory copper and barium arsenate....-... - 90 { i e (Bue \ -13 25.08 73 | Laboratory aluminum arsenate.......-..---...- 12") 16.84 (AlsOg) Hob eee aes 35. 22 31 | Commercial sodium arsenate.........---.----.-.- 45.16 | 45.76 N20 bn din'afe'ateate 5.68 75 papas doseesaeees Jaateec ee eateries shake dessa 59.80 | 27.66 (NasO) }.......... 6. 22 25 | Laboratory sodium arsenate..........-----.. ie 37.99 | 19.35 (NasO)}....2..... 5.12 26 | Laboratory potassium arsenate........-..--.--- 59.39 | 36:00 (1X9Q))}0 2. bcos 4. 26 90 | Commercial London purple.............--- sone -25| 34.88 (CaO 4. 37 22. 99 arsenates. For more detailed information, the publication of Schoene (44) on zine arsenite should be consulted. Magnesium arsenates—It is theoretically possible to prepare ortho, meta, and pyroarsenates of magnesium in the same manner as the corresponding arsenates of lead. Practically twice as much as rE calculated as magnesium oxid, was found in the sample analyzed as is needed to combine with the arsenic oxid present. Patten and O’Meara (50) give analytical results on a magnesium arsenate containing 32.13 per cent of arsenic oxid and 1.25 per cent of water-soluble arsenic oxid. They found 41.7 per cent of the total arsenic to be soluble in water containing carbon dioxid. A commercial magnesium pyroarsenate analyzed ‘by them had a low ARSENIGCALS. 11 solubility in water and yielded only 3.01 per cent of arsenic oxid soluble in water saturated with carbon dioxid. London purple, originally a by-product in the manufacture of aniline dyes, is now made directly to a limited extent. It consists of arsenite of lime and arsenate of lime, with the addition of a dye. Table 4 gives the composition of the material used in the investigation. The analyses of four additional samples showed the following varia- tions: Arsenious oxid, 18.30 to 29.38 per cent; arsenic oxid, 0.07 to 11.49 per cent; water-soluble arsenious oxid, 0.48 to 5.30 per cent; and water-soluble arsenic oxid, 0.07 to 2.46 per cent. One sample showed 24.91 per cent of calcium oxid, 2.70 per cent of magnesium oxid, and 11.25 per cent of ferric oxid and silicon dioxid. London purple, therefore, is of uncertain composition and contains varying amounts of water-soluble arsenious oxid and arsenic oxid. On account of its variable character and its tendency to burn foliage, the addition of lime is recommended when it is used as a spray. Calcium and lead arsenates combined (samples 36 and 8) were analyzed and tested on insects. The demand for a mixed calcium and lead arsenate is limited. It is held by some that lead arsenate adheres to foliage better than calcium arsenate, so that the presence of a little lead arsenate in the mixture increases the adhesive prop- erties. The use of calcium carbonate in the mixture reduces the percentage of arsenic present and permits the product to be sold more cheaply. Sodium arsenate was formerly on the market in two grades, a 45 per cent and a 65 per cent arsenic oxid product. During the past three or four years it has been difficult to obtain sodium arsenate in commercial quantities. In preparing sodium arsenate contain- ing 45 per cent of arsenic oxid, nitrate of soda (Na,NO,), arsenious oxid (As,O,), sodium carbonate (Na,CO,), and salt (NaCl) are roasted together. In preparing the 65 per cent grade the salt is omitted. The two commercial samples (Nos. 31 and 41) correspond to these two grades, although sample 41 contains about 60 per cent of arsenic oxid. Sample 31 contains 28.44 per cent of sodium chlorid, sample 41, 6.14 per cent, and sample 25, 0.096 per cent. Calculating the results for these two samples and for sample 25 (prepared in the laboratory) to a moisture-free basis, sample 25 contains 60 per cent, sample 31 about 47 per cent, and sample 41 about 64 per cent of arsenic oxid. All the arsenic present in sodium arsenate 1s water soluble. Sodium arsenate is sometimes added to Bordeaux mixture to produce a combined fungicide and insecticide. The excess lime of Bordeaux combines with the arsenic oxid of the sodium arsenate, forming insoluble calcium arsenate. The amount of sodium arsenate added and the amount of the excess lime of the Bordeaux are the factors which determine whether all of the soluble sodium arsenate is converted into the insoluble calcium arsenate. Potassium arsenate-—Sample 26 is a laboratory product contain- ing 59.39 per cent of arsenic oxid, all of which is soluble in water. No commercial samples of potassium arsenate are now available. MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTAL ARSENICALS. The analytical results on three samples of lead arsenates and four samples of calcium arsenates made in the laboratory are given in Table 5. 12 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 5.—Composition of lead and calcium arsenates prepared in the laboratory. | = Arsenic oxid Water of (As2O5). constitu- Lead | Calcium} Carbon | tion and Sample Material analyzed d d | di No. \ yzed. tareh oxi oxi oxid | impuri- man RVater (PbO). | (CaO). | (COs). Be by * | soluble. ence Per cent.| Per cent.) Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent 17 spiel lead arsenate............ 0. u ey 4 0. a eS. st J3 i352 ALOR ERE 3. e 68 |....- GO) Fee? a5 5c AOR odo a 3 2 ‘ j BUY] Seri aes. sa5 ee 2.9) 18 | Basic lead arsenate........... - 06 23. 40 27 14.60" |02 ce cube meee niet 1.88 45 | Calcium meta-arsenate....... . 03 79.63 | Trace. }.....0... 18. 45 0. 00 1.89 46 | Monocalcium arsenate........ . 23 69. 09 6L 67) |patseeees 19. 92 -10 10. 66 42 | Tricalcium arsenate.......... 1. 06 52.05 346 fet. 40. 07 ~ .96 5. 86 Boras GOLer Se ase sees 2.30 42, 84 BY al soseincce 44, 89 5.73 4, 24 Lead arsenates—The two samples of acid lead arsenate (Nos. 17 and 68) contained percentages of arsenic oxid very close to the theoretical (33.11). They were prepared by mixing lead nitrate and arsenic acid, according to the procedure of McDonnell and Smith (27). The percentage of lead oxid in the two samples is a little lower than the theoretical. Basic lead arsenate (sample 18) was prepared by the action of ammonia on acid lead arsenate. There is slightl more arsenic oxid and slightly less lead oxid in this sample than is called for by the theoretical figures. Both the acid and basic lead arsenates were made from pure lead oxid and crystallized arsenic acid; consequently they are extremely pure. Calcium arsenates.—A calcium meta-arsenate (Ca(AsO,).) (sample 45) was prepared according to directions obtained from C. M. Smith of the insecticide and fungicide laboratory. The theoretical per- centage of arsenic oxid for such a product is 80. No moisture or carbon dioxid was peel in the sample, as the product had been leniee Although high in arsenic oxid, the product is so insoluble that its insecticidal properties would undoubtedly be low. A mono- calcium arsenate (CaH,(AsO,),) (sample 46) was also prepared according to Smith’s directions. Its theoretical composition is as follows: Arsenic oxid (71.4 per cent), calctum oxid (17.41 per cent), and water of crystallization and water of constitution (11.19 per cent). This compound is very soluble in water and can not be considered a commercial possibility as an insecticide. ‘Two samples of tricalcium arsenate were prepared. The composition of sample 42 approached the theoretical Coen of tricalcium arsenate (Ca,(AsO,),.2H,O) as determined by Robinson (35), 38.7 per cent of calcium oxid, 53 per cent of arsenic oxid, and 9.3 per cent of mois- ture and water of constitution. Sample 69 was prepared by using equal weights of lime and arsenic oxid, which gave a compound with an excess of lime, having slightly more than 4 equivalent parts of calcium oxid to 1 part of arsenic oxid, and containing but 0.17 per cent of water-soluble arsenic oxid. Calcium arsenate of this composition was recommended by Haywood and Smith (/S) as suitable for com- mercial manufacture. Barium arsenate seems to have been used first by Kirkland (20) in 1896. The next year Kirkland and Burgess (21) tested barium arse- nate against certain insects. Smith (48) in 1907 also used a barium arsenate. Its preparation is not described by any of these investi- ARSENICALS. 13 gators. A sample of barium arsenate (sample 71, Table 4) was pre- ared by adding a solution of arsenic acid to a solution of barium dae with constant stirring. The details were as follows: Dissolve 546 grams of barium hydroxid (Ba(OH),.8H,O), containing 240 grams of barium, in 3 liters of water to which 300 cubic centi- meters of commercial arsenic acid, containing 0.4 gram of arsenic oxid per 1 cubic centimeter, has been added. After this mixture has been thoroughly stirred, the precipitated barium arsenate soon settles. Then wash the precipitate several times by decantation, filter it on a Biichner filter, dry and pulverize it, and finally pass it through a 100-mesh sieve. The theoretical composition of tribarium or- thoarsenate (Ba,As,O,) is as follows: Barium (59.7 per cent) and arsenic oxid (383.32 per cent); that is, the ratio of arsenic oxid to barium is 1 to 1.8. The ratio for the sample made in the laboratory was 1 to 1.9, showing the presence of a slight excess of barium. Its insecticidal value is discussed on page 38. Copper barium arsenate mixture (sample 74, Table 4) was made as follows: A solution containing 360 grams of copper sulphate was mixed with 275 grams of arsenic oxid. No precipitate resulted. A dilute solution of barium chlorid was added and then barium hydroxid un- til the solution was but slightly acid. The mixture of copper and barium arsenate and barium sulphate was then thoroughly stirred and allowed to settle. The precipitate was washed several times by decantation and then was separated by filtering on a Biichner filter. The precipitate was finally dried, ground, and passed through a 100- mesh sieve. Its adhesive and fungicidal properties have not been tested, but its insecticidal powers are discussed on pages 38 to 46. Aluminum arsenate (sample 73, Table 4) was prepared by mixing a solution of aluminum sulphate with arsenic acid. The precipitate was washed, filtered, and dried. The insecticidal results of this product are discussed on pages 38 to 42. Copper arsenate was prepared by mixing a solution of copper sul- phate with arsenic eid and then adding ammonia. The percentage of water-soluble arsenic oxid in this product was so high that no ad- ditional tests were made with the sample. Zine arsenate has been prepared by several investigators. The sample prepared in this study was made by mixing a solution of zine chlorid with arsenic acid. Its physical properties did not seem to warrant further study. COMBINATIONS OF ARSENICALS WITH FUNGICIDES AND OTHER MATERIALS. In order to reduce the cost of spraying, various combinations of arsenicals with fungicides are frequently made. The arsenicals are also mixed with other substances, like glue and casein, to increase the length of time the arsenicals will adhere to the foliage or fruit. While some of these combinations are frequently made, very little exact knowledge as to the chemical changes which take place in them is available. Accordingly, an investigation was undertaken to obtain information on the changes which occur in some of the im- portant combinations involving arsenicals. One pound of powdered acid lead arsenate per 50 gallons of water is recommended as satis- factory for most commerical spraying. Acid lead arsenate at this rate and other arsenicals in corresponding amounts, depending on their arsenious or arsenic oxid contents, were used in the tests. 14 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Thus amounts of the arsenicals containing equivalent percentages of arsenious or arsenic oxid were taken in each case. In all the tests the mixtures of the arsenicals and other material were agitated in flasks by rotating in a water bath which was main- tained at a constant temperature of 35° C. All were made in trip- licate, but only the average figures are reported in the tables. The soluble arsenic (that found in the filtrates) was determined by the modified Gutzeit test (47) or by the Gooch-Browning method (7). ARSENATES AND LIME-SULPHUR. Ruth (38) made a study of the chemical changes resulting when acid lead arsenate and lime-sulphur were mixed. He found (a) a decrease of lime and sulphur in the solution, (b) an increase of thiosulphate sulphur in the solution and in the residue, (c) an increase of autphits in the solution, (d) formation of lead sulphid, and (e) the formation of a compound containing arsenic and sulphur, but in- soluble in the lime-sulphur solution. Robinson (35), after agitating mixtures of lead arsenate and lime-sulphur for three days, allowed them to settle and then poured off the clear liquid. He found that 25 per cent of the lime and more than 35 per cent of the sulphur had been precipitated and that 5 per cent of the arsenic had become soluble. Robinson and Tartar (37) tested mixtures of lime-sulphur and lead arsenates (4.8 grams of arsenate per 1,000 cubic centimeters of lime-sulphur, diluted 1 to 30). When basic lead arsenate was used little change occurred, but when acid lead arsenate was used an increase of soluble arsenic and a decrease of total soluble sulphur and polysulphid sulphur resulted. They concluded that the efficiency of AR lime-sulphur had been reduced 25 per cent, and that the arsenic rendered soluble might injure foliage. Fields and Elliott (15) present data showing that less than five parts per million of arsenic oxid by weight was made soluble when solutions of lime- sulphur were mixed with either acid or basic lead arsenates. n the present investigation standard commercial lme-sulphur solution was diluted (1 to 30) with recently boiled and cooled distilled water. Control flasks (500 cubic centimeters volume), completely filled with this diluted solution, were securely closed with stoppers and paraffin and agitated for 1-hour and 91-hour periods. Other flasks, filled with the diluted solution of lime-sulphur, to each of which 1.2 grams of powdered acid lead arsenate (sample 39) had been added, were similarly treated. Series of three flasks were removed, and the solutions were filtered immediately on removal from the bath. The results obtained with lead arsenate are given in Table 6. ARSENICALS. 15 TABLE 6.—Composition of lime-sulphur solution and of the filtrates from mixtures of lead arsenate or calcium arsenate and lime-sulphur solution. Composition (grams per 500 cubic centimeters). After i: as abies Sree ‘ having ; | Material analyzed. peen Total | Total | Sulphid | .TM- | sutphate| Arsenic B Pea lime sulphur | sulphur A lohac sulpbur oxid (CaO). (8). Syme (8). (8). | (As,0s). SERIES 1: Tineenleliur solution 1 hour..... 1.9680 | 4.9430} 4.5190 | 0.1960} 0.0035 0. 0002 aa --*-/\91 hours...| 2.0520] 4.9290] 4.5060 . 2030 0069 . 0002 Filtratestrommixturesof |ftonours.--|...-.--.-| 4.2670| 4.0450| 11900| 10053 | 20208 lead latseunipland lime- 143 hours...|.......... 4.2560 | 3. 9080 .1980 0036 0199 Snr ci Ak CF 91 hours...| 1.8030 | 4.2790] 3.7110 . 1970 . 0076 . 0200 SERIES 2: 1 hour..... 1. 9800 5. 2500 4, 7800 . 3200 . 0089 . 0002 Lime-sulphur solution....|;21 hours...| 1.9900 5. 2500 4, 7500 . 3200 . 0099 . 0002 5 days..... 2. 0400 5. 2000 4, '7000 . 3300 . 0077 . 0003 Filtrates from mixtures of | {1 hour..... 2.0400} 5.1000} 4.7500 . 3200 . 0089 . 0008 calcium arsenate and |,21 hours...) 2.0600 | 5.0500 | 4.6800 . 3300 - 0087 . 0005 lime-sulphur solution ...||5 days..... 1. 9600 5. 1000 4. 7000 . 3600 . 0108 . 0010 Using the analytical data on the lime-sulphur solution as controls, the analytical results on filtrates from a mixture of lead arsenate and lime-sulphur solution show the following: (a) The total lime in solution was reduced 10 per cent after having been shaken for either 1 hour or 91 hours; (6) the total sulphur in solution was reduced 9.5 per cent after 1 hour and 14 per cent after 19, after 43, and after 91 hours; (c) the sulphid sulphur was reduced 8 per cent after 1 hour and 18 per cent after 91 hours; (d) the thiosulphate sulphur remained unchanged after each period; (e) the sulphate sulphur increased slightly, although the same increase was observed in the control; and (f) 5.2 per cent of the total arsenic oxid of the lead arsenate used was rendered soluble. From these results, it is apparent that chemical changes have occurred. The mixture is therefore chemically in- compatible.* Some of the sulphur in lime-sulphur solution probably united with the lead of the lead arsenate and produced lead sulphid, which could be seen as black particles in the mixture. The arsenic oxid group, liberated by the decomposition of the lead arsenate, was then free to combine with the lime in the lime-sulphur solution, probably forming calcium sulph-arsenate. The formation of in- soluble tricalctum arsenate took place only to a limited degree. Robinson (84) in examining mixtures of calcium arsenates and lime-sulphur found that no reaction took place in such mixtures. His tests with “dry lime-sulphur” mixed with calcium arsenate showed the presence of no soluble arsenic, but those with “soluble sulphur” mixed with calcium arsenate showed that it was present. Lovett (24) also reported that no changes take place when calcium arsenate is mixed with lime-sulphur solution. Experiments similar to the Aad arsenate tests were performed, using calcium arsenate (sample 57) in place of the acid lead arsenate. A series of 500 cubic centimeter flasks were filled with lime-sulphur solution diluted 1 to 30. Nine of the flasks were used as controls; to each of the others 1 gram of calcium arsenate was added. The solutions were agitated for periods of 1 hour, -21 hours, and 5 days. They were immediately filtered and the filtrates were tested. 5 The term “‘compatible”’ is here used only in the chemical sense. 16 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The data given in Table 6 (series 2) show that no detectable changes took place when calcium arsenate and lime-sulphur were mixed. The small amount of arsenic found in the filtrates was the water- soluble arsenic originally present in the calcium arsenate and amounted to 0.2 per cent of the total arsenic oxid in the calcium arsenate. In brief, it is evident that chemical changes take place when acid lead arsenate and lime-sulphur are mixed. This mixture is therefore incompatible chemically. When calcium arsenate is mixed with lime-sulphur no soluble arsenic is formed in the case of high-grade products. Therefore this arsenate, when mixed with lime-sulphur, would seem to be a satisfactory insecticide. Field experience, how- ever, shows that it often injures the foliage sprayed. Such a mixture is chemically compatible and has been recommended by Quaintance and Siegler (32), Sanders (40), and others, who, how- ever, do not claim that it is always free from burning properties. No experiments with basic lead arsenate and lime-sulphur were pees Bradley (5), in 1909, used basic lead arsenate in com- ination with lime-sulphur, and found 0.28 and 0.43 per cent of soluble arsenic. He considered that there was no danger of the formation of excessive amounts of soluble arsenic in such mixtures. Bradley and Tartar (6), who used both acid and basic lead arsenates in combination with lime-sulphur, found eight times more soluble arsenic with acid lead arsenate than with basic lead arsenate. Both forms of lead arsenate were more soluble in saline water than in pure water. Alkaline carbonates exerted a decomposing action, especially on acid lead arsenate. ARSENATES AND BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Fields and Elliott (15) stated that very little soluble arsenic is present when Bordeaux mixture is combined with lead arsenate. They found in both the acid and the basic lead arsenates only from 1 to 3 parts of soluble arsenic per million. Since combinations of arsenicals with Bordeaux mixture are fre- . quently made, it was considered important to determine whether or not chemical changes take place in these combinations. Tests were therefore conducted in which 4—3.67-50 Bordeaux mixture was pre- pared, dried, and passed through a 100-mesh sieve. Four-gram sam- ples of the dry Bordeaux were placed in each of a series of 300 cubic centimeter flasks and to each flask were added portions of one of the four arsenicals in the following amounts: 0.8 gram of acid lead arse- nate (sample 39); 0.667 gram of calcium arsenate (sample 57); 0.69 gram of sodium arsenate (sample 25); and 0.47 gram of Paris green (sample 64). Mixtures of the various arsenicals alone and of Bor- deaux alone in distilled water were prepared and tested under the same conditions as the mixtures of the arsenicals and Bordeaux. The flasks were agitated at a temperature of 35° C. for periods of 1 hour, 1 day, and 3 days. The mixtures were filtered immediately and the filtrates were tested for copper by the colorimetric test with potas- sium ferrocyanid (12) and for lead by the lead sulphid color test as used by W. D. Lynch, of the insecticide and fungicide laboratory. The analytical data are given in Table 7. No copper was found in any of the filtrates. The filtrates from the acid lead arsenate Bordeaux mixtures contained the following per- ARSENICALS. 17 centages of the total lead present in the sample: For the one-hour ceria 3 per cent; for the one-day peried, 7 per cent; and for the three-day period, 7.6 per cent. The results for water-soluble ar- senic in the combinations are lower than those for water-soluble ar- senic in the arsenicals alone. It is evident that the excess lime of the Bordeaux combined with part of the soluble arsenic present in the arsenates, forming insoluble calcium arsenate. The results show that Bordeaux mixture and the arsenates of lead and calcium, as well as Paris green, are compatible, that a soluble ar- senate, such as sodium arsenate, may be used in quantities large enough to act as an insecticide in combination with ordinary Bordeaux mixture, and that the excess lime of the Bordeaux will combine with the soluble arsenic to form insoluble calcium arsenate. ARSENATES AND KEROSENE EMULSION. As kerosene emulsion is occasionally used in combination with acid lead arsenate and may be used with calcium arsenate, a series of experiments was undertaken to determine whether detectable chemical changes take place in these combinations. A kerosene emulsion was prepared according to the following direc- tions:® One liter of commercial kerosene oil and 1 ounce of sodium fish-oil soap in water were mixed, and the resulting emulsion was diluted to 10 liters. A series of 300 cubic centimeter flasks were filled with this emulsion and 0.8 gram of acid lead arsenate (sample 39) or 0.667 gram of cal- cium arsenate (sample 57) was added to each of the flasks, with the exception of the control flasks. Mixtures of the arsenates alone and of the emulsions alone were used for controls. The mixtures were agitated at 35° C. for periods of one hour, one day, and three days. They were filtered immediately and the filtrates were tested for arsenic. The average figures only are recorded in Table 7. TABLE 7.—Soluble arsenic in filtrates from combinations of arsenicals with Bordeaux mixture and with kerosene emulsion. Soluble arsenic (As) found Percentage of total ar- Totalar- after standing for— senic (As) found soluble A seni after standing for— carpi Material analyzed. eal taken. lhour. | lday. | 3days. | Lhour. | 1day. | 3 days. i Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. |Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. 25 | Sodium arsenate...........- OSE7095 | Sees eae eae ORGHOW eee coselacckasess 96. 55 Gao pRarisiereencs tone sen eet LOSS | occas emacs MOOBO MN hces ce ces|cacates coe 3.41 57 | Calcium arsenate.........._. LDS. | ese | Meee eee NOO0S 4a ea secal een se 0. 20 39 | Acid lead arsenate.......... L709) | See eee | MOO4S AE sence cel oeniee eee 28 Ci kBordes xamixture) oe etal loa ene a eames Et CERN: GO0006-|2ess2552 eee Becerra — | Sodium arsenate (25) plus iBordesux |(6L)- 2. 2 ee - 1709 | 0.00095 | 0.00001 | .00001 0. 56 0. 00 . 00 — | Paris green (64) plus Bor- deaux(Gl) eee nsec sane - 1938 00113 | .00053 | .00046 -58 a2) 24 — | Calcium arsenate (57) plus ‘Bordeawx | (G1) sess eek -1753 | .00003 | .00005 | .00000 02 -03 - 00 — | Acid lead arsenate (39) plus BORG Catixee nays Bebe -1709 | .00051 | .00030 |) .00018 -30 18 gilt — | Calcium arsenate (57) plus kerosene emulsion........ 1753 | .0018 - 0095 -0122 1.03 5.42 6.96 Acid lead arsenate (39) plus — kerosene emulsion........ -1709 | .0332 . 0768 . 0740 19. 43 44, 94 43.30 6 Taken from U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bull. 958, p. 28. 27476°—23—Bull. 1147 3 18 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The amount of arsenic made soluble was much larger when acid lead arsenate was combined with kerosene emulsion than when ecal- cium arsenate was combined with it. The same amount of arsenic was rendered soluble in one day as in three days in the case of the acid lead arsenate. When calcium arsenate was used, 1.5 per cent more of the total arsenic was made soluble the third day than the first day. It is evident that the lead and the lime of the arsenates combined with the fatty acids to produce soaps, leaving the corre- sponding amounts of arsenic in a soluble condition. The results show that less decomposition occurred in the case of calcium arsenate mixed with kerosene emulsion than in the case of acid lead arsenate and kerosene emulsion. Both mixtures are chemically incompatible. ARSENATES AND FISH-OIL SOAP. Combinations of acid lead arsenate with fish-oil soap are sometimes made. Because of the large quantity of calcium arsenate now being manufactured, it seemed advisable to test combinations of calcium arsenate and of acid lead arsenate with fish-oil soap in order to deter- mine how much arsenic might be made soluble. Fish-oil soap solutions of two strengths, 1 and 2 pounds of soap per 50 gallons, were prepared. ‘The fish-oil soap was the same kind as that used in making the kerosene emulsion. A series of 300 cubic centimeter flasks were filled with the soap solution. No arsenical was added to some of the flasks which were used as controls, but 0.8 gram of acid lead arsenate (sample 39) or 0.667 gram of calcium arsenate (sample 57) was added to the others. A one-day period was taken for agitating the solutions, because the results with kero- sene emulsion showed that in one day the reactions were practically complete for the lead arsenate and much retarded in the case of the calcium arsenate. TABLE 8.—Arsenic rendered soluble on combining lead or calcium arsenates with fish-oil soap. Arsenic . Arsenic (As) rendered Sample Material analyzed. (As)present} “soluble after standing No. in sample lah taken. y: Grams Grams. Per cent. Dim PMCalcimrarsenalown=t sens sjo on oe cece ee Sete eee eee eae 0.1753 0.0003 0.17 39 | Acid lead arsenate ?.......- sine 2hed aodiedshooassosess2Be+ -1717 - 0032 1.86 — | Calcium arsenate plus fish-oil soap (1 pound to 50 gallons) . . 1753 . 0503 28. 69 — | Acid lead arsenate plus fish-oil soap (1 pound to 50 gallons). . silyiley - 1475 85.90 — | Calcium arsenate plus fish-oil soap (2 pounds to 50 gallons). - - 1753 . 0667 38.05 — | Acid lead arsenate plus fish-oil soap (2 pounds to 50 gallons). -1717 - 1703 99.18 1 Calcium arsenate at the rate of 0.93 pound per 50 gallons. 2 Lead arsenate at the rate of 1.11 pounds per 50 gallons. The results obtained (Table 8) follow the trend of the results secured with kerosene emulsion (Table 7) in that they show that more arsenic was rendered soluble when acid lead arsenate was used than when calcium arsenate was used. They also show that the greater the quantity of fish-oil soap used the larger the amount of soluble arsenic formed. All of the arsenic was made soluble when acid lead arsenate was mixed with the soap at the rate of 2 pounds per 50 gallons. The lead soaps are more readily formed than the ARSENICALS. 19 lime soaps, for which reason more arsenic was left in a free or soluble form when acid lead arsenate was used than when calcium arsenate was used. Based on the results of chemical analyses, both of these mixtures are incompatible. ACID LEAD OR CALCIUM ARSENATES AND NICOTINE SULPHATE SOLUTIONS. Mixtures of acid lead arsenate and of calcium arsenate with a solution of nicotine sulphate were prepared and analyzed. A 1-800 dilution of a 40 per cent solution of nicotine sulphate was made. In the first series 500 cubic centimeter flasks were filled with this dilute nicotine sulphate solution and 1.2 grams of acid lead arsenate (sample 39) or 1 gram of calcium arsenate (sample 57), containing 13 per cent of free calcium oxid, was added to dell of the flasks, with the ex- ception of the controls. Results of the analyses of the lead and cal- cium arsenates used are given in Table 3. After agitating the differ- ent solutions for periods of one hour, one day, and three days they were immediately filtered and the filtrates were analyzed for arsenic and nicotine. Nicotine was determined by the official silicotungstic acid method (Z). A second series of tests, using two commercial calcium arsenate samples (Nos. 32 and 59) and a pure tricalcium arsenate prepared by C. M. Smith, was made. Sample 32 contained 9.99 per cent, sample 59, 5.23 per cent, and sample 464 no free calcium oxid. In this series 0.6 gram of the calcium arsenate was placed in each of a series of 300 cubic centimeter flasks, which were made to volume with the dilute nicotine sulphate solution. These solutions were agitated for one hour and for ee days. _TaBLE 9.—Results of combining acid lead arsenate or calcium arsenate with nicotine- sulphate solutions. Soluble nicotine after agi- Soluble arsenic oxid (As205) tating for— after agitating for— Material analyzed. 1 hour. 1 day. 3 days. | 1 hour. 1 day. 3 days. 500 cubic centimeter volume tests: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Nicotine-sulphate solution..........-- O32748y Bee 0. 2820 0500) ec 2saee ce 0.00 Acid lead arsenate (39) plus nicotine SUP hate eee eee eae . 2748 0. 2780 . 2763 -45 0.34 - 60 Calcium arsenate (57) plus nicotine sulphate Se RE ra SES eS cmt .2778 . 2815 - 2815 44 -52 -50 Acid lead arsenate (39)........--..-.-- . 0000 . 0000 . 0000 FG 0 a ae ee ee Calcium arsenate (57)....-........---. . 0000 - 0000 . 0000 Sel Peete cers Bess ae 300 cubic centimeter volume tests: Nicotine-sulphate solution ..........-. SLT4O ME 22 eed So 200) |S caclcene -00 Calcium arsenate (32) plus nicotine SUlphatetee eos etcnc sae ewscame veloute pa be sO) ese al ke ea ed Vlohlacocsaoece 1.09 Calcium arsenate (59) plus nicotine : SULPHATE Re ee eS ga oe LCR ah Oy oe ae Ook eee WE OFS | So tes mace 11.50 Calcium arsenate (464) plus nicotine Sulphatess oes h eee ie esas ess SETAOM EAE Race Son cee aed 10.39 |..--.----- 11.86 Caleitimyarsenater (32) ee eee eee a oe Ua ane lee seams lecicic ccc «cls BOY fil epee 2S Bi 27 Galcitimarsenatet(59) tenes ee ee eee es SRE ee Seales es see QrO9t\ eee ear ee 2. 22 Galcimmibarsens ter (464) ae ee ea a eee yet eR es ee 35345 |b ee 3.57 The results (Table 9) show that acid lead arsenate (sample 39) when combined with nicotine sulphate gives no increase of soluble arsenic and that the amount of soluble nicotine is not altered. This mixture is therefore chemically compatible. 20 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. When calcium arsenates are combined with nicotine sulphate solutions, soluble arsenic oxid may be produced, depending on the sample of calcium arsenate used and on the quantity of nicotine sulphate present in the mixture. The percentage of soluble arsenic oxid will be low if there is enough excess lime in the calcium arsenate to combine with the SO, of the nicotine sulphate. If sufficient excess lime is not present, the SO, combines with some of the CaO of the calcium arsenate, liberating soluble arsenic oxid. Calcium arsenate (sample 57) contained 13.16 per cent of free calcium oxid, and when combined with nicotine sulphate only 0.5 per cent of free arsenic oxid was found. Calcium arsenate (sample 32) contained 9.99 per cent of free calcium oxid, and when combined with nicotine sulphate 1.15 per cent of soluble arsenic oxid was found. When the free lime in the calcium arsenates was low or absent entirely there was a marked rise in the percentage of soluble arsenic oxid. For example, sample 59, containing 5.23 per cent of free cal- cium oxid, and sample 464, containing no free calcium oxid, gave practically 12 per cent of soluble arsenic oxid. Sample 6 (3.68 per cent free calcium oxid) and sample 58 (9.06 per cent free calcium oxid) gave, respectively, 6.67 and 2.28 per cent of soluble arsenic oxid after being agitated for 1 hour with nicotine sulphate solution in the proportions given. ‘These mixtures, therefore, are chemically incompatible, and the only way that such a combination should be made is to use a high-grade calcium arsenate containing at least 10 per cent of excess calcium oxid and using a proportion of nicotine sulphate no higher than that used in these tests. The hme of calcium arsenate decomposes the nicotine sulphate, leaving free nicotine, but does not change the amount of nicotine present. The results given in Table 9 show that the percentage of soluble nicotine was not altered by the presence of calcium arsenates. A few tests made in the insecticide and fungicide laboratory in which free nicotine. solution was mixed with acid lead arsenate or with calcium arsenate showed that these combinations were chemi- cally compatible. Results obtained on combining nicotine sulphate solutions with Bordeaux mixture were reported ‘by Safro (39) and Wilson (52), who claimed that such mixtures were compatible. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ARSENICALS. A commercial calcium arsenate and a commercial acid lead arsenate were selected for a series of tests on the adhesive properties of these substances on sprayed foliage, which was extended over three seasons (1917, 1918, and 1919). For each 50 gallons of water 1 pound of powdered acid lead arsenate or an equivalent amount of calcium arsenate, based on the arsenic oxid content, was used. The sprays were applied to potato and apple leaves with a power sprayer. At various periods after the sprays had been applied leaves were gath- ered for analysis. ‘The leaves were dried and samples of approxi- mately 5 grams each were digested with nitric and sulphuric acids and analyzed for arsenic by the modified Gutzeit (47) method. The results (Table 10) by this method do not warrant in all cases the ex- pression to the degree of accuracy which the figures may imply, but this is the common way of expressing results where small amounts of a substance are present. ARSENICALS. 91 TaBLE 10.—Arsenic on potato and apple leaves sprayed with lead or caleiwm arsenates. Arsenic (As) found. x Average ae . 1 number Per ‘Year and locality. Spray used. of square | op g samples.| meter | | ey of leaf CAVES - surface. 1917. POTATO LEAVES, Milli- | Parts per i h grams. | million. Washington, D.C... 30s. Acid lead arsenatese.. 0-0. es es ceemeaee 7 5 140 IDLO) SI A hyo ere Rear on Calciumiarsenatersae cet ht ec tteks Ieee 8 3 50 Presqueilsle, Mens. 0) 325 22. Acid lead arsenate...-.................2.-- 2 80 1, 460 DX) Se Ok Ce Calcitimarsen a ten ee ee eee eee yee. 2 56 1,270 Greenwood, Va......-...---- Acidileadiarsenate.ee. cen = cee sieeee eee seer 2 16 50 DY) Se ches Sess Se eat ce Calciamyarsenate ec 2 226.) skeen eee ee 2 19 70 1918. Washington), Dei Coo. 22 22k at. Acidjleadiarsenatewe sacs Whecemencmasniee Bd Pe ae 170 TD FO ees Bie es ta ee a Calcrimrarsenater: as ats see ase eee eee e RY eee = Ne 60 Greenwood, Va..........-.-- ANciaCadyarsenatersee esc cke etek eee vee oe eee, OMESS 130 Dosesieiiiecvdcoseeie: Calcium arsenate seis cm sy ciscrseeerdtera oak rete 7) ied era he 270 1919. Arlington Vacances nse = Acid lead arsenate.-..........525.22-2--225 1 Baeeeeeeae 260 Ove Ret is e Li cee Calciumyarsena tery a) 44 Se Oe ees eerie Dyleetnoneamare 210 1917. APPLE LEAVES. Greenwood, Va..........---- Acid lead arsenate.-........ Weds aacesuorped 2 40 510 TB Xa Rs Ee re a a Calciumiarsenates ii oo aie sce aie eee 2 9 120 1918. Greenwood, Va..:.-...-.--.- Acidilead arsenate: is asneh gus eS Ses 2 2 a ese 130 1D Yay eH Oe Oe Aa Ar aE Calcium arsenates .9oc epi page Soe ae oc Ae Rae aa 260 The results of the tests for all three years show an average of 286 parts per million of arsenic on the dry leaves receiving the lead arsenate spray and an average of 219 parts per million of arsenic on the dry leaves receiving the calcium arsenate spray. The 1917 and 1919 results show that a larger percentage of arsenic of acid lead arsenate adhered to the leaves than of the arsenic of the calcium arsenate. The 1918 results are practically the same for the two arsenates. Lime was used with certain of the arsenates in some of the 1918 tests (Table 11). Potato vines were sprayed with a commercial calcium arsenate and a commercial acid lead arsenate alone and with the addition of lime to each. Zine arsenite and calcium meta- arsenate were used without the addition of lime. Two calcium arsenates, one with a molecular ratio of 3 CaO to 1 As,O; and the other with one of 4 to 1, were tested, with and without the addition of ime. In these two cases both 2 ounces and 4 ounces of lime per 10 gallons of spray were used. The arsenious or arsenic oxid con- tents of the sprays were made the same in all cases, with the exception of calcium meta-arsenate. From the data in Table 11 it is evident that the lime was of no advantage in increasing the amount of arsenic adhering to the leaves. 22 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 11.—Arsenic on potato leaves sprayed with arsenicals with and without the addition of lime. Total 3 arsenic | Arsenical) Arsenic EE , Material used. ner ) aero age in dry | gallons. | leaves. arsenical. Parts per Per cent.| Ounces. | million. 2A \Galchimiarsenate: .-- and tod 39 | Acid lead arsenate....|....-. B45 OhStesi|o2eo PAM USE Ls oe oo All.| All. 1.6 2.9 28 | Basic lead arsenate. ..| 96.0 | 74.8 | 87.5 | 47.0 | All.| 76.3 |/100.0 | All.} All| All.] 59.9 | 10.9 5 | Calcium arsenate. ....|...-.- 84.0 | 87.7 | 538.7] All} 81.3 |.....- All.}| All.| All.} 70.6 9.1 Gi sees (0) esas aie 30.3 | 24.4 | 87.7 | 40.6] All] 45.8 | 44.9 | 20.7] All.} All.| 39.9] 66.0 56 |-.... LO a 98.1 | 52.4 | 86.8 | 43.8] All.| 70.3 |100.0 | 49.8] All.| All| 59.2 | 30.8 Olea GON ee ea 98.0 | 50.3 | 84.7 | 51.5 | All| 71.1 |100.0 | 45.7 | All.| All} 59.3] 29.9 OST eae. CO se 22.9 | 22.2 | 87.7 | 53.2 | All.| 46.5 | 29.2 | 20.5} All.| All.| 40.8] 69.1 OL ass dows besen. ti, 100.0 | 69.4 | 86.6 | 52.3} All| 77.1 |....-- 19} Al.| All.) 68.6] 18.5 Control without food. .| 71.5 | 83.3 | 79.3 | 37.4 |..----|-.-- SET OOO) Alle pA. | She Oli aye ere | eres Control with food... .. 0 | 14.4 | 12.3 | 42.5 | 78.3 | 17.3 | 0.0] 41.8 | 50.5 | 57.1 | 15.5 | 100.0 Table 13 shows the following: The average percentages of toxicity of the acid lead arsenate (sample 39) and of one sample of calcium arsenate (sample 5) on five species of insects are practically the same; the percentage of toxicity for another calcium arsenate spray (sample 59) is a little lower; those for two other calcium arsenates jeealbs 56 and 57) and for basic lead arsenate (sample 28) are practically the same; while those for the remaining calcium arsenates (samples 7 and 58) are very low. Samples 7 and 58 were not efficient against all five species of insects tested. The basic lead arsenate acted much more slowly on the silkworms and webworms than did the acid lead arsenate, but, as a rule, only slightly more slowly on the tent cater- pillars, potato-beetle larve, and grasshoppers. ‘The quantity of food consumed is inversely proportional to the toxicity, being least for samples 39 and 5 and most for samples 58 and 7. The results in this table also show that starvation had little or no effect on the in- sects tested, but that the insects really died from the effects of the arsenates. EFFECT ON TOXICITY OF ADDING LIME TO ARSENICALS. According to the preliminary experiments conducted in 1917 and 1918, the laboratory sample of calcium arsenate (sample 42) and the same compound plus 0.3 gram of lime (sample 42A) killed 69 per cent and 68 per cent, respectively, of the webworms counted on the twelfth day. When the quantity of lime was doubled (sample 42B) the mortality was 50 per cent, and when it was quadrupled (sample 42C), 40 per cent. In 1919 many other experiments, in which a larger amount of lime was added to every 418 cubic centimeters of another laboratory sample of calcium arsenate, were performed, using silkworms, 1 set (variation 49-53, average 51) ; webworms (H. cunea), 2 sets (538-818: 622); tent caterpillars, 4 sets (785-1021: 943) ; web- worms (H. teztor), 1 set (181-325: 266); potato-beetle larve, 3 sets (290-361: 339); and potato-beetle adults, 1 set (37-41: 39). De- 32 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ducting the mortalities of the controls and basing the average per- centages of toxicity on the mortalities of the third, sixth, tenth, and twentieth days, the results for all these insects are: Sample 69, 45; sample 69A (sample 69 plus 0.5 gram lime), 32.7; sample 69B (sample 69 plus 1 gram lime), 29.1; sample 69C (sample 69 plus 2 grams lime), 26.5. TABLE 14.—E ffect on tovicity of adding lime to arsenicals on 4 species of insects, 1919 and 1920. Percentage ofinsects dead within— 3 days 6 days Arsenicals and control. ae 5 ; i S a Salen n a Aolg 2 A 8 ¥y $ nN o . 3 E /Efls¢| 2] 3] 8 |E8|e2| 2 | s = Bs 2 Se =| ® Ss 2 3 nee 2 g 5 EB \ecl8e|e# |e] 4 leale=| 8 | 8 ra a |FCle = Bae Ire (eter ot a =r 1) = 39 | Commercial acid lead arsenate.} 91.0 | 11.0 | 18.1 | 21.0 | 35.3 | 100.0 | 72.8 | 82.2 | 58.0 | 78.3 39C | Sample39 pluslime (2 grams)..| 69.0] 6.3 | 18.0 | 14.0 | 26.8] 93.0] 38.3 | 81.1 | 40.0] 63.1 69 | Laboratory calcium arsenate...} 32.7] 5.4 | 42.3 | 12.0 | 23.1] 53.8] 39.7 | 91.6 | 44.0] 57.3 69C | Sample 69 pluslime(2grams)..| 9.4] 1.8 | 33.3] 7.0] 12.9] 15.1] 14.4 | 91.2 | 23.0] 35.9 64 | Commercial Paris green.-.....- LOOK O} | SON) 65s 7h SiO) e258 ncaa eas 85.2 | 99.0 | 62.0} 86.6 64C | Sample64pluslime(2grams)..| 57.0} 1.8} 23.4!) 8.0] 22.5] 79.0} 44.2! 86.0] 56.0} 66.3 39 | Commercial acid lead arsenate.]......- 2053 iL Re ees) Ree ies ee CEBU RS See Re Eee 39L | Sample39 (leavessprayed with Samplewuime) pee cere ec ocleew sens 205) | Seetad oto |ccasec | Sescaes ST leccescleccseeleess aim 57 | Commercial calcium arsenate. .|......- Ca aed ees] PORE 6) 1a SB a Se at 55855 57L | Sample 57 (leaves sprayed with : JaniplewelHms)seseeeee eases | eccee. PF Yl eae | [Dacha DA sigh) Ps AA AQ yess ECR SR eee cle Control with food.............. -0 -0 -6 A Stoo -0 -0| 8.8] 12.0 |...... Percentage of insects dead within 10 days. Toxicity for Bb ~_ i fe) j n a= by n 4 a e & iS Arsenicals and control. fi 5 S s “2 “ F A 2/3 ci 3 s 2 5 os 85 Sp 8 = s S = & a -E 3 ) ea g 22 ne o KS : Hoe /B=| 8 | & [eae] 8 | 2 D 2) BO la < a2 |PCle y < 39 | Commercial acid lead arsenate.....|....... 99.3 | 100.0 | 99.8 | 97.0 | 61.0 | 66.8 | 39.5] 66.1 39C | Sample 39 plus lime (2 grams)..... 100.0 | 82.9] 100.0] 94.3] 87.3 | 42.5 | 66.4 | 27.0] 55.8 69 | Laboratory calcium arsenate-..... 59.6} 66.0] 98.8] 74.8] 48.7 | 37.0] 77.6 | 28.0} 47.8 69C | Sample 69 plus lime (2 grams)..... 22.6 | 30.2] 100.0] 50.9] 15.7 | 15.5] 74.8] 15.0] 30.2 64 | Commercial Paris green...........|..--..- 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 72.0 | 88.2] 38.5] 74.7 64C | Sample 64 plus lime (2 grams)..... 100.0} 99.4] 100.0} 99.8] 78.7} 48.5 | 69.8 | 32.0] 67.2 39 | Commercial acid lead arsenate.-...]......- 9356: eee kaccl s otcwa| sects ee 6: Sar i Ue a Ue a 39L | Sample 39 (leaves sprayed with sampledtiime) 2 see eae et O51 es SOS cae oe GAR i ae ere 57 | Commercial calcium arsenate......|.....-- 6B50 5 Bese ae eae See 3456) |code Soewen|eeoses 57L | Sample 57 (leaves sprayed with Sample dLlime) ss settee ss sees Ses SB. 4 Fas so SS INSEE PEELS L740 "| EREEER SSS... Control with food................. .0 2,623. 1e ne en] Serine [hock | ene eeeees | ee 1 Based on mortalities for third and sixth days only, because these controls, confined in small cases, lived for only 8.4 days on an average. In 1920 these experiments were repeated on a larger scale. The following data are not given in Table 14: Silkworms, 2 sets (each of 50); webworms (H. cunea), 1 set (variation 136-194: 145); tent caterpillars, 3 sets (198-385: 280); and honeybees, 2 sets (each of 50). The percentages given for samples 69 and 69C are taken from the 1919 results, and should be compared only roughly with the other percentages given in Table 14. Reference to this table shows that ARSENICALS. 33 the addition of lime to the three arsenicals employed reduced the toxicity in practically all cases. There are two possible explanations for the reduction in toxicity due to the addition of lime. The excess lime may unite with the soluble arsenic and prevent it from functioning as a poison. This explanation is supported by practically all the results recorded, providing the excess lime did not decrease the percentage of arsenic in the food or on the leaves eaten. It did not reduce the percentage of arsenic in the poisoned honey, yet the lime in every case caused a decrease in toxicity to honeybees. In the case of the leaf-eating insects, the lime added theoretically reduced the percentage of arsenic on the leaves, because 2 grams of lime were mixed with every gram or less of the arsenical. Consequently, the dried spray material on the leaves would be greatly adulterated and the percentage of arsenic in it would be lowered. To determine the extent of the decrease in the arsenic, many leaves were sprayed with samples 39, 39C, 69, 69C, 64, and 64C. After repeating these experiments three times and analyzing the 18 samples of leaves sprayed, it was found that the addition of lime had reduced the arsenic on the leaves 26.3 per cent, while the excess lime on other leaves similarly sprayed had reduced the average toxicity of the same three arsenicals only 21.1 per cent. In order to prevent the decrease of arsenic on the leaves, at the same time retaining an excess of lime on them, the following experi- ments were performed. Many leaves were sprayed, some with acid lead arsenate (sample 39) and others with calcium arsenate (sample 57). When dry, half of each lot was again sprayed with lime (sample 11) grams of calcium oxid in 418 cubic centimeters of water). When all the leaves were dry, half of them were prepared as samples to be analyzed for arsenic and the other half were fed to fall webworms. These experiments were repeated twice, using 8,888 webworms in all. The results in Table 14 show that the lime (sample 39L) did not affect the toxicity of the acid lead arsenate (sample 39), but it (sample 57L) reduced the toxicity of the calcium arsenate (sample 57) 50 per cent. Analyses of the leaves sprayed with samples 39 and 39L showed that the lime reduced the arsenic 18 per cent, while in those sprayed with samples 57 and 57L the arsenic was reduced 29.4 per cent. EFFECT ON TOXICITY OF ADDING BORDEAUX MIXTURE AND LIME-SULPHUR TO ARSENICALS. Sanders and Brittain (41) reported that Bordeaux mixture and Wilson (51) reported that lime-sulphur, when added to arsenical spray mixtures, decrease the killing power of the arsenicals. Many experiments were performed by the writers in 1919 to determine whether or not these statements were true. The following insects were used: Webworms (H. cwnea), 1-set (variation 102-476, average 241); tent caterpillars, 4 sets (742-1187: 919); and potato-beetle larve, 2 sets (130-264:153). After deducting the mortalities of the controls, the average percentages of toxicity of the three species of insects used are as follows: Sample 68 (laboratory sample of acid lead arsenate), 47.1; sample 50 (sample 68 plus lime sulphur), 40.1; sample 69 daboratory sample of calcium arsenate), 55.6; sample 53 (sample 69 34 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, plus Bordeaux mixture), 42.8; sample 51 (sample 69 plus lime- sulphur), 41.8; sample 23 (commercial zinc arsenite), 51.4; and sample 54 (sample 23 plus Bordeaux mixture), 46. From these figures it seems that both Bordeaux mixture and lime-sulphur decreased the toxicities of the arsenicals used. Since silkworms and honeybees refuse to eat food containing lime-sulphur, the experi- ments in which they were used are not reported. All the other larvee enumerated ate only about 25 per cent as much food as did the con- trols, while those that fed on foliage sprayed only with Bordeaux mixture and lime-sulphur ate 83 per cent and 54 per cent, re- spectively. Neither Bordeaux mixture nor lime-sulpbur used alone had much insecticidal value against the insects tested. In 1920 these experiments were repeated. Different arsenicals were tested, but the Bordeaux mixture (4—3.67—50) and lime-sulphur (1-30) were of the same strengths. The Bordeaux mixture and arsenicals were so mixed that each dry spray material consisted of practically 22 per cent of arsenious or arsenic oxid, and when the necessary amount of water was added, each had an arsenic or arsenious oxid content of 0.076 per cent. Table 15 gives the ana- lytical results on these spray materials before water was added. TABLE 15.—Composition of Bordeaux mixture alone and in combination with arsenicals. Arsenious (As203) or arsenic eam) Carbon Bample Material analyzed. Mois Saas Base. puna Pa: USA RAPES EE ) Water- Total. | soluble. pal ' ae PACH El Che ttre Cbs ie a0 (ono Pach 61 aboratory sample o ordeaux mixture a!) uO) (4-3.67-50). \ 0.68 |... --.-4].-+. 2-2. 54.49 (CaO) \ 3.52 ; 5.60 (CuO) 91 | Sample 61 plus acid lead arsenate (39)-........ -24 | 22.06 0.12 |418.16 (CaO) 1.17 ? 42.52 (PbO) 92 | Sample 61 plus calcium arsenate (57)-.-.......- -57 | 22.30 - 26 oan tau} \ 5. 29 55 | Sample 61 plus sodium arsenate (25).......... 15.64 | 22.16 | 16.81 Bee (onO} \ AEE es ' : 7.07 (CuO) 54 | Sample 61 plus zine arsenite (23)............. -37 | 23.05 - 23 1424.22 (CaO 1.95. 30| Cc ial Bord d zi ite mix- |) 30.88 (Zuo ommercial Bordeaux and zine arsenite mix- k n ure. f 46) 24.33 «38 |{73°99 (Ca0} \ .56 Table 16 shows the average percentages of toxicity against web- worms and tent caterpillars of lead arsenate and of caleliiee arsenate alone, with Bordeaux mixture, and with lime-sulphur, and of sodium arsenate and zinc arsenite alone and with Bordeaux mixture. ARSENICALS. 35 TABLE 16.—L fect on toxicity of adding Bordeaux mixture and lime-sulphur to arsenicals on four species of insects, 1920. Percentage of insects dead within— 3 days. 6 days. any , we Teeeseal Arsenicals and control. 3) a cs) ef n, et (i Abe a Bi Memo si caulk alt Bi | Sel ai lye, é Ca ln oid CS pull easy | neat Be McNamee en gO RD a |e Bf ei 4 | a /E eH || = 39 | Commercial acid lead arsenate....} 91.0 | 11.0 | 18.1 | 21.0 | 35.3 | 100.0 | 72.8 | 82.2 | 58.0] 78.3 91 | Sample 39 plus Bordeaux mixture 10) eee ea Mcdpesdbpodeveccun 78.0 7.4 ) 11,3 }.12.0 | 27.2 99.0 | 40.0 | 88.1 | 46.0 68.3 93 | Sample 39 pluslime-sulphur (60)..)...-.- GRO MSS.ON| meet 2002 |e es. 60.7 | 88.9 ]...... 74.8 57 | Commercial calcium arsenate. --.. 56.0 | 8.4] 14.4 | 12.0 | 22.7 | 85.0 | 27.1 | 72.8] 44.0] 57.2 92 | Sample57 plus Bordeaux mixture (GD) estes sa eddbeueRbEcaaSaGn 52.0 | 3.3] 10.1 | 12.0] 19.3 | 83.0 | 11.7 | 72.2 | 20.0] 46.7 94 | Sample 57 plus lime-sulphur (60)..]...-..- 4,2 | 37.4 |...... CAUSED asoes 21.0)| 93.5 |)... 57.2 25 | Laboratory sodium arsenate...... 99.0 | 28.8 | 36.6 | 33.0 | 49.3 | 100.0 | 72.2 | 91.4 | 62.0] 81.4 55 | Sample 25 plus Bordeaux mixture Ghee ae Se ame 77.0 | 3.7] 33.8 | 20.0 | 33.6 | 99.0 | 43,5 | 94.2 | 53.0] 72.4 23 | Commercial zine arsenite. .-....-- 96.0 | 12.5 | 68.9 | 25.0 | 50.6 | 100.0 | 37.5 | 96.9 | 44.0] 69.6 54 | Sample 23 plus Bordeaux mixture 6B) eee so gogondesoousenEoEeDeEEE 83.0] 9.1] 68.1 | 18.0 | 44.5 | 95.0 | 30.0 | 98.4 | 54.0] 69.4 Control with food..............-.. a) .0 -6 ORE SORE | -0 OU 8.18) |eL25 Oh Sater Percentage ofinsects dead within— vt Average Toxicity for— toxicity for— 10 days. Arsenicals and control. bi a ty ra 2 ce Y Cs - 4 ont A = wai a Tales | 3) a S . Cons 4 = mp, Oo; om 2 SMES MS ise li Sai lf silk Sj) teeliaeal bers a iA 2 » my B a2 ~ 2 a ar g © q © 4 |e q aula om 3 =| ® S| ® 2 0) n = i <4 a |e ica dH i< ee 39 | Commercial acid lead arsenate.-..|..-.-.- 99.3 | 100.0 | 99.8 | 97.0 | 61.0 | 66.8 | 39.5 | 66.1 | 63.9 91 | Sample 39 plus Bordeaux mix- tunel(6)) es ISSOE ESE BE SOSHUEE 100.0 | 87.0 | 100.0 | 95.7 | 92.3 | 44.8 | 66.5 | 29.0 | 58.2] 55.6 93 | Sample 39 pluslime-sulphur (60).|.....-- 88.5 | 99.6 } 94.0 |.-.2.2 BLAND ||V4s 2. ||. oke | sees 63.0 57 | Commercial calcium arsenate....| 97.0 | 65.4 | 100.0 | 87.5 | 79.3 | 33.6 | 62.4 | 28.0 | 50.8] 48.0 92 | Sample 57 plus Bordeaux mix- ume) (Gin) Bee See ee ee ssl 97.0 | 47.5 | 100.0 | 81.5 | 77.3 | 20.8 | 60.8 | 16.0 | 43.7] 40.8 94 | Sample 57 pluslime-sulphur (60).}....-.- 76.0 | 100.0 | 88.0 |....-.- SEASON Eosaed becsce 55.3 25 | Laboratory sodium arsenate.....|....--- 96.6 | 100.0 | 98.9 | 99.7 | 65.9 | 76.0 | 47.5 | 72.3 | 71.0 55 | Sample 25 plus Bordeaux mix- CHDERS) (OH) Sh AY sole aegis oe A Sede a 100.0 | 91.3 | 100.0 | 97.1 | 92.0 | 46.2 | 76.0 | 36.5 | 62.7 | 61.1 23 | Commercial zinc arsenite. .......|--..--- 60.9 | 100.0 | 87.0 | 98.7 | 37.0 | 88.6 | 34.5 | 64.7 | 62.8 54 | Sample 23 plus Bordeaux mix- THeLns) (GIO)\G8 Fo ee SEES aaa ESO See 100.0 | 70.9 | 100.0 | 90.3 | 92.7 | 36.7 | 88.8 | 36.0 | 63.5 | 62.7 Control with food................ 3 PASE 7) Aa Ra I Ha SO Rr Beeooel Hise oes ces sce 1 Based on mortalities for third and sixth days only. GENERAL AVERAGE TOXICITY. Four arsenicals without Bordeaux mixture and lime-sulphur {63.5 (all four species). Four arsenicals with Bordeaux mixture 57. oo. 0 (all four species). i 1 (webworms and tent caterpillars). Two arsenicals without lime-sulphur, 56.0 (webworms and tent caterpillars). Two arsenicals with lime-sulphur, 59.1 (webworms and tent caterpillars). \61.4 (webworms and tent caterpillars). 36 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The addition of Bordeaux mixture to the four arsenicals employed reduced the percentages of toxicity against silkworms, webworms, and honeybees, but reduced the toxicity against the tent caterpillars little, ifany. The addition of lime-sulphur (sample 93) to the lead arsenate (sample 39) reduced the toxicity against Saree but seemed to in- crease it against tent caterpillars. The addition of lime-sulphur (sam- ple 94) to the calcium arsenate (sample 57) neither decreased nor in- creased the toxicity against webworms, but appeared to increase it against tent caterpillars. In the 1919 results, Bordeaux mixture and lime-sulphur reduced the rates of toxicity in all cases. The following data are not given in Table 16: Silkworms, 2 sets (each of 50); webworms (#7. cunea), 1 set (variation 107-332, average 141); tent caterpillars, 3 sets (118-557: 301); and honeybees, 2 sets (each of 50). To determine the percentage of arsenic borne by leaves sprayed with the foregoing spray mixtures, many apple and mulberry leaves were sprayed at four different periods. The parts of arsenic per million parts of the leaves were as follows: Sample 39, 1,200; sample 91, 800; sample 93, 800; sample 57, 1,000; sample 92, 800; sample 94, 900; sample 23, 1,650; sample 54, 1,300; sample 25, 1,100; and sample 55, 1,100. The general average of those containing neither Bordeaux mixture nor lime-sulphur (samples 39, 57, 23, and 25) is 1,238 parts of arsenic, while those containing these two fungicides (samples 91, 93, 92, 94, 54, and 55) have a general average of 950 parts of arsenic. According to these figures, the fungicides reduced the arsenic content 23.3 per cent, whereas they reduced the general average toxicity only 11.5 per cent. RELATIVE TOXICITY OF ARSENATES AND ARSENITES. Toxicologists report that arsenites are more toxic than arsenates. Furthermore, on the basis of equal percentage of arsenious oxid and arsenic oxid, 16.2 per cent more metallic arsenic is present in the arsenites than in hs arsenates. ‘To secure additional data on this subject, a high-grade acid lead arsenate, a calctum arsenate, a sodium arsenate, a zine arsenite, and a Paris green were selected in 1919 for comparison. The following insects were used: Silkworms, 1 set (variation 49-54, average 51); webworms (/. cunea), 2 sets (818- 1725, average 1173); webworms (JH. teztor), 1 set (189-310, average 251) ; potato-beetle larvae, 3 sets (282-404, average 345); and grass- hoppers, 2 sets (181-302, average 242). After deducting the mortali- ties of the controls, the average percentages of toxicity were as follows: Acid lead arsenate (sample 39) 66, calcium arsenate (sample 5) 63.9, and sodium arsenate plus Bordeaux mixture (sample 55) 61.7, an average of 63.9 for the arsenates on five species of insects; zinc arsenite (sample 23) 57.6, and Paris green (sample 64) 65.5, an average of 61.6 for the arsenites. Thus the Paris green tested is equal to the arsenates in toxicity, and, as shown by the average, these two arsenites are not quite as toxic to insects as are the three arsenates employed, althougt the comparison is not fair in all respects. The smallest number of units eaten were sprayed with Paris green. ARSENICALS. 837 TaBLe 17.—Relative tovicity of arsenates and arsenttes on 4 species of insects, 1920. Percentage of insects dead within— 3 days 6 days. e Arsenicals and control. if 5 7 7 me aL al S a am | 8 yn a 4.) | 4 A | ESlse] 8 . A |ES|e¢el| 3 : 2 Seles ca lemoierti Ss | es | om |e ak a 5 lye oy Fs Ps FS | La | eo Fa : Bles|ee) 2/8 | 8 |ay/ee/ 8 | 2 B Sa l= aeer = AO | hae ey WE Ca es H | < 39 | Commercial acid lead arsenate...) 91.0 | 11.0 | 18.1 | 21.0 | 35.3 | 100.0 | 72.8 | 82.2 | 58.0 | 78.3 25 | Laboratory sodium arsenate.._.. 99.0 | 28.8 | 36.6 | 33.0 | 49.3 | 100.0 | 72.2 | 91.4 | 62.0] 81.4 Average for arsenates............ 95.0 | 19.9 | 27.3 | 27.0 | 42.3 | 100.0 | 72.5 | 86.8] 60.0 | 79.9 23 | Commercial zinc arsenite........ 96.0 | 12.5 | 68.9 | 25.0 | 50.6 | 100.0 | 37.5 | 96.9 | 44.0 | 69.6 64 } Commercial Paris green.......... LOOVON| SOR OSerei Los | O2e9N | bic ence 85.2 | 99.0 | 62.0 | 86.6 SSa ee IOS Kea S Be ee ee ee ee 100.0 | 38.9 | 59.3 | 25.0 | 55.8 |....... 86.7 | 97.5 | 55.0 | 84.8 SO eerste CO se ee ee 98.0 | 18.5 | 53.9 | 22.0 | 48.1 | 100.0 | 72.3 | 97.6] 57.0] 81.7 Average for arsenites............. 98.5 | 22.7 | 61.9 | 21.8 | 51.8 | 100.0 | 70.4 | 97.7 | 54.5 | 80.7 90 |Commercial London purple...... 98.0 | 24.1 | 34.7 | 11.0 | 42.0 | 100.0 | 57.1 | 92.0 | 33.0 | 70.5 Control with food... -... 2.4.05... 05.0) 0508). ONG sO. 08|eeean O50) e050) 1k 48. Splel2s0) |baeeee Percentage of insects dead within— Toxicity for— 10 days. > Arsenicals and control. = fo) Ze HE a nD Ba iB ¥ Zz, qa |& Sl ea] ¢ q |£8/2./ 28/2 2 5 Es | os =) S |es}ca| 2 30 a Se ego a picasa ii aes Bl eo esr oe as q iol AS lcd sil len | oat fa eles fs Cau lets Ja a te eS es < a |/Elle Heli 39 | Commercial acid lead arsenate.......|..-..-- 99.3 | 100.0} 99.8] 97.0] 61.0 | 66.8] 39.5 | 66.1 25 | Laboratory sodium arsenate........]...----. 96.6) 100.0} 98.9 | 99.7 | 65.9 | 76.0 | 47.5) 72.3 Average for arsenates.............--- 100.0] 98.0] 100.0) 99.3] 98.3 | 63.5 | 71.4 | 43.5) 69.2 | 23 | Commercial zinc arsenite............|..----. 60.9 | 100.0} 87.0] 98.7 | 37.0] 88.6 | 34.5) 64.7 64 | Commercial Paris green.............|..----- 100.0} 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 72.0] 88.2] 38.5 | 74.7 CH ieee psf eRe EAN Be EIDE ee ae eae (es Bd 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 } 100.0 | 75.2 | 85.6 | 40.0} 75.2 CUesesa Oa ee Re sostee 96.6 | 100.0} 98.9 | 99.3 | 62.5] 83.8] 39.5] 71.2 Average for arsenites...............- 100.0] 89.4] 100.0] 96.5) 99.5] 60.8 | 86.5] 38.1] 715 90 | Commercial London purple.........|..--.-- 94.7 | 100.0 | 98.2] 99.3 | 58.6 | 75.6 | 22.0} 63.9 Controliwithifood ye) esc o boll. 0.0 2: Gol Dokie eee Ree Oe ye ool Cowen eee eee ae 1 Based on. mortalities for third and sixth days only. In 1920 experiments similar to the preceding ones were performed, using one lead arsenate, one sodium arsenate, one zinc arsenite, three Paris greens, and one London purple (an arsenate and an arsenite combined). The following data, which are not given in Table 17, were obtained: Silkworms, 2 sets (each of 50); webworms (H. cunea), 1 set (variation 90-136, average 120); tent caterpillars, 3 sets (207-507, average 288); and honeybees, 2 sets (each of 50). Table 17 shows that the average percentage of toxicity of the arsenates was 69.2, while that of the four arsenites was 71.5. The toxicity of the arsenites should be 16.2 per cent more than that of the arsenates, providing the toxicity is due to the arsenic, irrespective of its form of combination. According to the preceding figures, the toxicity of the four arsenites is only 3.3 per cent more than that of the two arsenates. Comparing the toxicity of the four arsenites with that of the lead arsenate, however, it is 7.8 per cent more, 38 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and comparing the toxicity of the three Paris greens with that of the lead arsenate, it is 11.5 per cent more. London purple (sample 90) has an average percentage of toxicity of 63.9, being ractically the same as that of zine arsenite. While this sample cilled all of the webworms tested within 20 days, only about 90 per cent of those fed zine arsenite died during the same period of time. RELATIVE TOXICITY OF NEW ARSENATES. In making a comparison of the relative toxicity of new arsenates, three commercial products and three pure laboratory products were used. The commercial acid lead arsenate (sample 39) was taken as a standard by which to judge the relative toxicity of the other roducts. The two other commercial products (sample 70, acid ead arsenate made by a new process, and sample 62, magnesium arsenate) and the laboratory sample of barium arsenate (sample 71) are practically new, while the laboratory samples of arsenates of aluminum (sample 73) and of copper and barium (sample 74) are totally new, as far as known. In 1919 the following insects were tested: Silkworms, 1 set of 50; webworms (H. cunea), 1 set (variation 124-195, average 152); web- worms (ZH. textor), 1 set (189-514, average 314); potato-beetle larve, 2 sets (150-355, average 260); and grasshoppers, 2 sets (181-805, average 265). After deducting the mortalities of the controls, the following figures were obtained. When silkworms, webworms (H. cunea), and potato-beetle larve were tested, the average percentages of toxicity were: Sample 39 (acid lead), 58.2; sample 70 (acid lead, new process), 57.3; and sample 62 (magnesium), 59.8. When silk- worms, webworms (both species), potato-beetle larve, and grasshop- pers were tested, the percentages were: Sample 39, 58.8; and rls 62, 54.2. When webworms (both species), potato-beetle larve, and grasshoppers were tested, the percentages were: Sample 39, 55; sam- le 71 Gana 43.6; and sample 74 (copper and barium), 48.9. en webworms (both species) and potato-beetle larva were tested, the percentages were: Sample 39, 57.2; and sample 73 (alumi- num), 34.6. In 1920 these experiments were repeated, with the results shown in Table 18, as well as the following: Silkworms, 2 sets (each of 50); webworms (H. cunea), 2 sets (variation 647-897, average 776); webworms (JZ. textor), 1 set (189-514, average 314); honeybees, 2 sets (each of 50); and tent caterpillars, 3 sets (240-556, average 337). | IAARSENICALS, TaBLE 18.—Relative toxicity of new arsenates.on 5 species of insects, 1920. Arsenates and control. S vA & A q iss] n 39 | Commercial acid lead Srsenaves. esa. cri 2 71 | Laboratory barium BTSenatesecesease cess 74 | Laboratory copper barium arsenate. ..-. 62 | Commercial magne- sium arsenate........ 70 | Commercial acid lead arsenate “new proc- ~J w Bip ion SL & [e)} q 2 GTSCNALOS se cccce cle s<|eo = - Control with food...... Arsenates and control. S a Ae joy) g cH n 39 | Commercial acid lead BTSONALO me eos cee eee |e cee 71 | Laboratory barium GTSONAtE! face che oe eee 74 | Laboratory copper barium arsenate. -.... 62 | Commercial magne- sium arsenate........J....... 70 | Commercial acid lead arsenate (new proc- ess 73 | Laboratory aluminum Control with food. ..... CUNEL).« Webworms (dH. Percentage of insects dead within— 3 days. Zz 3 |3 g | 8 antes o re = a So ® an} a 21.0 } 18.1 11.0 | 14.0 9.0} 18.1 4.0) 5 sa5e8 0.0] 0.6 41.5 /100.0 12.2 | 68.0 22.0 | 98.0 Webworms (dH. cunea ). Webworms (2H. textor). Honeybees. Average | Silkworms. @ S o oo Pa Silkworms. Webworms (H. cunea). Percentage ofinsects dead within— Toxicity for— Honeybees.! 10 days. nt = or Hh [or R n i BS Slee licis o8 3 ap o3 ES o 3 2 ES 2 = 5 Eales g 8 > | ase = = 4 | a |e 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 97.0 72.1] 99.0] 87.8 | 60.7 82.7] 100.0] 94.5 | 86.3 SSS Es. aceelemecocts 97.0 as 2 | bea gee 97.0 SONG Ree acta mee eisin | cietsietste IS) nial eeo aa loeesos Boones g a 2 E o 5 3 | & Pe i] a | 3 ® > BH | 82.2 | 83.9 75.1 | 58.3 83.2 | 66.7 858) saan 2/3 Balas 8 | 2 isle > a |< 66.8 | 71.1 62.7 | 46.2 67.1| 56.0 1 Based on mortalities for third and sixth days only. Sample 39, 72.2; sample 62, 56.5 Sample 39, 86.0; sample 70, Sample 39, 76.2; sample 73, 51 COMPARATIVE AVERAGE TOXICITY. 40 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, RELATIVE TOXICITY OF PURE ARSENIC OXIDS AND OF BASES. In order to judge as accurately as possible the relative toxicity of various bases when combined with the oxids of arsenic, the mate- rials used are grouped in Table 19. In each mixture of the bases, 0.48 gram of the base was used in 100 cubic centimeters of water. At this rate from three to five times as much base was used as is present in the arsenical mixtures. The following data are not given in Table 19: Silkworms, 1 set (variation 47-54, average 50); webworms (H. cwnea), 1 set (161-761 average 280); tent caterpillars, 4 sets (565-1030, average 805); an potato-beetle larvee, 2 sets (105-279, average 152). TABLE 19.—Relative toxicity of pure arsenic oxids and of bases on 4 species of insects after deducting mortality of control with food, 1919. Percentage of insects dead within— 3 days. 6 days. Material and controls. : : 3S 6 ia =a ae © | ee tae Sirsnles 5/3] S B | 3 oj Si as = is) 2 8 4 op iS} 2 g d bp a E 5 3 z P<} s Q c=) 8 3 2 a 8 5 q E BBS Sue 5 a ed Sho eed n ue =| A= j= hm ol Vd I= lf jet | | 9) -Arseniousioxid eae -eeeeee pe ere 40.0 | 21.6] 4.6] 19.2 | 21.4] 58.0] 67.3 | 50.5 | 23.1 | 49.7 10) PArsenicoxidsrescaase cate ecnees 100.0 | 23.1 | 68.1 | 65.1 | 64.1 |....-.. 77.6 | 85.2 | 65.0 | 82.0 19) Calciumoxides 2 yeee ee .0 0; .0 ail -0 -0 -0 -0 Sif 2 5)|| Calcium arsenate:2 225.2525 -.0% - 4 | 96.0 | 12.5 | 54.3 | 64.8 | 56.9 | 100.0 | 69.2 | 89.6} 63.4 | 80.6 1D" beadioxiG tae tere ee wees 1258 -0 -0} 30.5] 10.8] 31.9 20)| 455) 14653" || 19.9 39 | Acidlead arsenate..............- 96.0 | 39.1 | 53.1 | 50.4 | 59.6 | 100.0 | 91.8 | 86.5] 51.2 | 82.4 224| ZANC OXId ye te ee See a .0 SOF) pi cOll L4c Sule Lek .0 -0 -0 | 12.0 3.0 23 | ANC ATSCMIUO venice eee teen ces 85.7 | 4.8] 73.8 | 59.8 | 56.0] 98.0 | 32.7 | 90.0 | 58.9} 69.9 63 | Magnesium oxid-..-. .0 -0 Oud -0 .0 GH Ee Saee 62 | Magnesium arsenate 96.0 . 3.8 1.6 ald Oseieccice © 65 | Copper oxid....-.-- .0 .0 SOne sth] bores 64 | Paris green.....---. 100.0 if A (A ee 74 | Copper barium arsenate Sno rece sc V2 AB ALIUI OXdGeE. ae eee cece cal ecen cts thea a 71"\ Barium arsevateseae ses aek == Gane) case cs Controlwithoutfoodeeetet se sc5 5] L202 TOP eA eee elect al Ode iee || accede Daies tle reteieiet | eiete ele Control with food-....-.......... 5.5 | 20.7 6.7 Control with food, omitting tent Catenpillarsh esas eco me er ane epee Benen beeen ett nnn Cllnnn Pet nenn Crernr Penne beeen beeen ARSENICALS. 4] TABLE 19.—Relative toxicity of pure arsenic oxide and of bases on 4 species of insects after deducting mortality of control with food, 1919—Continued. Percentage of insects dead within— 3 10 days. 20 days. EA na q Som ks be pe 83 a. g 3 DEL ote oD Material and controls. § . 8 § 8 loa o 8 8 “a E 8 a Feat [cota ns Ml est . ra a . tu a en) Sy e =| isa} 3 S y oS = CATS toed 3 ; 5 ; Ba | S$ jesal 5 |S & ee ee | cella | ful 8 | a peeue le 2g 5 = 8 4 op 3) 2 g & |S4a| a | ° ey US ls shilline NRSMMIE Rais elise 4) 38 (Sreegll Suede Sees iis. | ewiee, | ©.) &.| &. eoslie te a | Fay es MN ete ad ee el one) ean | ae = a | 24 |p 9 | Arsenious oxid........| 70.0 | 95.6 94.6 | 46.1) 9.6 LOT Arsenic Oxides ee a Hees 94, 2 1100.0 | 76.5 | 3.5 11 | Calcium oxid..-....... -0 0 26.9 | 0.2 [143.4 5 | Calcium arsenate......|---..-- O25 100.0 | 73.5 | 7.4 12h eadloxid sey eon ies: 46.8 0 65.3 | 18.3 |148.6 39 | Acid lead arsenate.....|..---- 93. 7 100.0 | 74.5 | 2.8 Di liinicroxide eet DOH 0 35.0| 2.6 |119.8 23 | Zinc arsenite..........- 100.0 | 66.7 97.8 | 66.9 | 22.0 63 | Magnesium oxid....... -0O} 1.3 2076. | 1 ee 105.5 62 | Magnesium arsenate...|..---- 84.7 9729) |e | 14,2 65 | Copper oxid.-..-...... 2.0 -0 2HOnE A eae 106.9 GAn Mb arisiereenees ns) Jee ee 93.7 LOOKQ 53 eee 3.9 74 | Copper barium arsenate}. .---- Eyal 100.0 -| 10.8 2) (PR aritam Oxide ses ss | abe ee 6.4 47.2 .| 70.3 71 | Barium arsenate.......|....-. 66.9 93.7 .| 28.0 Control without food. .| 71.5 | 93.6 (LOOKO) | Sa e eae s Control with food-.-..... .0} 4.1 32.2 100.0 Control with food, omitting tent cater- ot DEEN YG ea Ae FE aE ear De Le ee 2650} S2ee see 1 First 8 and next to the last figures to be compared; next 8 and last figures to be compared. 3 Based on webworms (H. cunea) and tent caterpillars. Comparing the mortality of the insects fed on the various bases with that of the control insects (Table 19), it appears that calcium oxid is beneficial to insects (sample 11, 26.9 per cent, and control, 32.2 per cent), that zinc oxid (sample 22, 35 per cent, and control, 32.2 per cent), magnesium oxid and copper oxid (samples 63 and 65, 29.6 per cent and 27 per cent, and control, 26 per cent) are slightly injurious, that barium oxid (sample 72, 47.2 per cent, and control, 26 per cent) is moderately injurious, and that lead oxid (sample 12, 65.3 per cent, and control, 32.2 per cent) is the most effective of all the bases used. Since the arsenious oxid (sample 9) used in the 1919 experiments had a low toxicity, a commercial white arsenic (As,O,) was used in the experiments conducted in 1920. Sample 9 contained only 17.77 per cent of water-soluble arsenious oxid, while sample 27 contained 38 per cent. To obtain its average toxicity on four species of insects in comparison with the toxicities of pure arsenic oxid (sample 10) and acid lead arsenate (sample 39), the following insects were used: Silkworms, 2 sets (each of 50); webworms (H. cwnea), 1 set (varia- tion 100-136, average 120); tent caterpillars, 3 sets (221-446, aver- age 292); and honeybees, 2 sets (each of 50). The average per- centages of toxicity are as follows: Sample 27 (arsenious oxid), 62.4; sample 10 (arsenic oxid), 74.3; and sample 39 (acid lead arse- nate), 71.2. 42 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | RELATION OF WATER-SOLUBLE ARSENIC TO TOXICITY OF ARSENICALS. No perceptible differences in mortality which could be attributed to the usuall small differences in water-soluble arsenic oxid were observed in the 14 commercial acid lead arsenates used in the pre- liminary tests. Three of these arsenates which have high percent- ages of water-soluble arsenic oxid, however, killed no more insects than the others. TABLE 20.—Relation of water-soluble arsenic to toxicity of arsenicals, 1919. Insects tested. Food eaten Water- per soluble | Toxicity | insect 5 ; arsenigs ate de- er ample : ase ucting | mated) No. Arsenicals and control. on total aa based’ Number.| Species.1} arsenic | tality of | on web- in control. | worms sample. and tent cater- pillars Per cent. | Per cent Units. 18 | Laboratory basic lead arsenate......-...-.-. 1,184 | sftl...... 1.15 21.5 68.6 28 | Commercial basic lead arsenate. 15939h Pee dOseees 1.73 60.9 10.9 68 | Laboratory acid lead arsenate. -- se BG 1 ool i=- dose. .5O7 59.6 17.6 9 | -Purearsenious Oxide. -e-A. 2-5-5. eee aoe 1,529 |. -do...-- 17.77 46.1 9.6 10)| Pirejarsenicioxides step sone secs eee J, ol6 WEeedo.-2-- 100. 00 76.5 3.5 23 | Commercial zinc arsenite......-..----...... ai | as Co 1.25 66.9 22.0 70 | Commercial acid lead arsenate (new PLOCESS) ae ee et sae eens ans oe 422 | -sfl....... .69 66.9 2.8 39 | Commercial acid lead arsenate....--.....__. 2,263 | sftlg.-... -61 68.9 2.9 5 | Commercial calcium arsenate....-.-........ 2,645 |_.-do...-! 41 70.0 9.1 dalameee (60) ad SS Sot snob sdopacberonOnonssosedcaeoe 2,492 |..-do.--.. 88 39.9 66.0 56, | one: Sb) SHR A GS nad ADEE Beem aRP mec b ecccse ESV |posakoe sas 1.31 59. 2 30.8 Sia eee COP eer ee eee etn Sano p ees meee 2,099) |e edOre see - 20 60.1 29.9 BSilseees Oe eee ee es ae ae entero Deititi4n | Gea obeae= 52 43.1 68.1 @ 59 |. 222 Gop ses: SH Pee ett Sead ee Boe ee i 2,657 |..-do.---- 5. 20 65.9 18.5 69 | Laboratory calcium arsenate.......---...--. 2,298 |...do-...- -88 52.5 55.0 45 | Laboratory calcium meta-arsenate.....-.... 1,232 | ft-.-- . 04 3.6 99.9 46 | Laboratory monocalcium arsenate--.......- 1,758 |..-do--... 89. 26 81.2 2.0 55 | Laboratory sodium arsenate plus Bor- deax:mixture: ool foes es ee ee eee 2,004 | SH EV 20 acl cedemnsige = 61.7 5.0 64 | Commercial Paris green........-...........- 25059 }...do_. 22: 3.52 65.5 3.2 62 | Commercial magnesium arsenate.........-. 1,651 figy SO8e- 4,64 50. 2 18.3 71 | Laboratory barium arsenate...............- Ob) | seed Ose eee - 68 43.6 22.2 74 | Laboratory copper barium arsenate......... 1,814 |...do..... 6. 27 48.9 15.6 73 | Laboratory aluminum arsenate............-. 1,482 | fly-.--.. 1.91 39.3 16.1 =}! | Control-with food soos 25282, SSE SSL RECS SER CERI oo eee eceee 100.0 1s, silkworms; f, webworms (H. cunea); t, tent caterpillars; 1, potato-beetle larve; g, grasshoppers; and y, webworms (H. teztor). Table 20 shows that those arsenicals which are readily water soluble (samples 10 and 46) have extremely high percentages of toxicity, but that some of those which are almost insoluble in water (samples 5, 23, and 39) have percentages of toxicity nearly as high. The toxicity of the insoluble arsenicals does not appear to be based upon the water-soluble arsenic present, but upon the stability of the compound and how readily it can be broken down in the bodies of insects. During all of these experiments no special study of the burning effects of the many arsenicals sprayed on foliage was made. The pe eee of water-soluble arsenic 1s generally taken as a criterion or judging the burning effect on foliage. The following spray mixtures badly burned wild-cherry foliage: Sodium and_ potassium arsenates, sodium arsenate plus Bordeaux mixture, all the samples of arsenious and arsenic oxids used. calcium arsenates (samples 5, ARSENICALS. 43 34, 46, and 59), lead and calcium arsenates plus lime-sulphur (samples 50 and 51), and Paris green. The following slightly burned wild- cherry foliage: Zine arsenite (samples 23 and 33), zine arsenite plus Bordeaux mixture (sample 30), calcium arsenate (sample 32), and barium arsenate (sample 71). Zine arsenite (sample 23) and Paris green slightly burned mulberry foliage. RELATION OF ARSENIC RENDERED SOLUBLE BY INSECTS TO TOXICITY OF ARSENICALS, Kirkland and Smith (22), in 1897, found that the alimentary tracts of the gypsy moth larve were alkaline to litmus. Analyses of the dialysate from washed and macerated alimentary tracts showed the presence of phosphorus and potash in proportions suffi- cient to form alkaline potassium phosphate, which is suggested as the cause of the alkaline reaction. Because of the report of these investigators, determinations of the hydrogen-ion concentration (pH value) were made on the water extracts of the bodies of the insects fed various arsenicals and also of the bodies of control in- sects. The results thus obtained showed a comparatively uniform acidity for all the insects tested. It is possible, however, that lactic or other acids are formed in the dead tissues of the insects. The buffer effect normally available may possibly have masked any slight changes in the reaction caused by the arsenicals fed. It is obvious that the pH data as here obtained, or ash determinations on dialysates of intestinal tracts as made by Kirkland and Smith, are inadequate to show the reactions (pH) of the living tissue of the intestinal tracts of insects. The following methods were employed to determine the total arsenic and water-soluble arsenic in insects and also the hydrogen-ion concentration of the water extracts from the insects. The weights and number of the washed larve were recorded, after which the insects, parts of insects, or feces (dried in an oven at 105° C.) were macerated in a mortar containing about 20 cubic centimeters of dis- tilled water. The macerated larve were then transferred to flasks and diluted to 500 cubic centimeters with distilled water. The solu- tions were shaken every 5 minutes for an hour, at the end of which they were filtered and aliquots were taken for the determination of the hydrogen-ion concentration and for the water-soluble arsenic. The rest of the solution, with the residue, was used for the total arsenic determination. ‘The hydrogen-ion concentration was deter- mined by the indicator method outlined by Clark and Lubs (8). The solutions used for determining the soluble arsenic and those with the residues for determining the total arsenic were placed in large por- celain casseroles, and nitric and sulphuric acids were added. They were then warmed on the steam bath and finally heated on the hot plate until the organic material was completely destroyed. Since the acids used, particularly the nitric acid, were not totaly free from arsenic, a record of the quantities of acids used was kept. The solutions were then freed from nitric acid by adding water and by applying heat. Next enough water was added to make a volume of 100 cubic centimeters, and finally the arsenic was determined by the Gutzeit method, revised by Smith (47). As preliminary tests, the following experiments were performed in 1919. Both sides of several mulberry leaves were heavily sprayed 44 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with acid lead arsenate (sample 39). After having been dried by an electric fan, the leaves were fed to 50 large hungry silkworms. When the silkworms had ceased eating, they were removed to clean cages where the feces, contaminated as little as possible, were collected and subsequently analyzed. The next morning a sample of 34 dead and dying silkworms was thoroughly washed for five minutes in running tap water, then, one worm at a time, in six different washes, the first four consisting of hydrochloric acid (2 per cent) and distilled water and the last two of distilled water alone. A pencil brush was used for scrubbing them. Analysis of the sixth wash showed the presence of no arsenic. These experiments were repeated five times. To determine how much of the arsenic had passed through the intestinal walls, the alimentary canals of three sets were removed by careful dissections. The results of the analyses of these samples were as follows: 84 entire silkworms yielded 2.66 milligrams of arsenic oxid, being 54 per cent water-soluble; 72 silkworms with alimentary canals removed yielded 0.89 milligram of arsenic oxid, being 36.7 per cent water- soluble; the alimentary canals of these 72 silkworms yielded 1.03 milligrams of arsenic oxid, being 55.9 per cent water-soluble; and the 2.18 grams of dried feces from these 72 silkworms yielded 0.45 milli- eram of arsenic oxid. According to the figures obtamed from these 72 silkworms, 37.6 per cent of the total arsenic eaten had passed through the walls of the alimentary canals, 43.4 per cent of it was retained inside these canals, and 19 per cent of it was voided with the feces. Reaction (pH) of water extract from the larve was neutral (7); from the alimentary canals, slightly alkaline (7.1); from the larvee with the alimentary canals removed, slightly acid (6.2); and from the feces, acid. The foregoing experiments were repeated on a larger scale by feed- pean arsenicals sprayed on leaves to caterpillars of the catalpa- sphinx moth (Ceratomia catalpe Bdy.). The results obtained in- dicate the following: (a) As a general rule, the higher the percentages of water-soluble arsenic in the larve and feces, the higher the rates of toxicity of those arsenicals; (6) the percentage of water-soluble arsenic in the arsenical ingested usually has little to do with the rate of toxicity; (c) the amount of arsenic found per caterpillar is fairly constant for all the arsenicals used; (d) the higher the ratio of total arsenic (per 100 grams of larval material or feces) found in the larvee to that found in the feces, the higher the rate of toxicity; (e) the reaction (pH) of water extracts from the larve fed various arsenicals seems to kage no relation to the rate of toxicity. In 1920 the preceding experiments were repeated on a much larger scale, using the following insects: Honeybees, 2 sets (each of 100); silkworms, 3 sets (each of about 25); Ceratomia, 2 sets (each of about 25). The procedure followed was the same as that in the preliminary tests, but, in order to determine the percentage of arsenic actually made soluble by the juices of the insects, the percentage under ‘control results’ in Table 21 was subtracted from the percentage of arsenic found soluble in the bodies of insects. Since the solubility of a minute quantity of arsenic in 500 cubic centimeters of water proved to be greater than that of a larger quantity, an amount of arsenic approximating the average amount found in a sample of the insects analyzed was employed as a control. ARSENICALS. 45 TABLE 21.—Relation of arsenic rendered soluble by insects to toxicity of arsenicals, 1919 and 1920. Total Percentage of arsenic. pumber ihe ey si tl (0) bos insects | 99 Att ana- an Soluble in bodies of— Made soluble by juices lyzed aA of— g's 2 ie dau ti4 iS it eee Arsenicals. i enicals 5 | 3 fo) Bae | aS 4 a%q a u ; G . « hal a § | Aes $ H | 8 ; 3 7 Le fal ha g AS} Os 2 I = % Q q fe 2 ist -|e | eea |S Sth Gaile Sailte es aly Teale : e)e/ Bes} e818) 8) 8) se) 81218 B eo rien ea ef Noy on PSO eta d= [cs pl pa 39 | Commercial acid lead arse- MATOS sb a ein da cals -nisielove' 8 | 310 17.3 | 44.5 | 46.0 | 83.5 | 58.0 | 27.2 | 28.7 | 66.2 | 40.7 28 | Commercial basic lead arse- MALO eee sto. 8 | 353 7.2 | 28.8 | 37.7 | 63.5 | 43.3 | 21.6 | 30.5 | 56.3 | 36.1 57 | Commercial calcium arse- FOES ye eas het aes peta 8 | 405 35.7 | 78.6 | 60.6 | 84.7 | 74.6 | 42.9 | 24.9 | 49.0 | 38.9 27 | Commercial white arsenic...| 7 | 320 5.2 | 64.8 | 33.9 | 20.0 | 39.6 | 59.6 | 28.7 | 14.8 | 34.4 71 | Laboratory barium arsenate.| 8 | 360 30.5 | 69.4 | 30.3 | 64.0 | 54.6 | 38.9 -0 | 33.5 | 24,1 45 | Laboratory calcium meta- ALSCM ALOR ene se cece aise = 6 | 336 2.4 | 41.8 | 39.1 | 22.6 | 34.5 | 39.4 | 36.7 | 20.2 | 32.1 64 | Commercial Paris green. -... 9 | 423 15.9 | 98.3 | 44.3 | 71.0 | 71.2 | 82.4 | 28.4 | 55.1 | 55.3 64C | Sample64pluslime(2grams)| 7 | 321 11.0 | 91.8 | 37.4 | 61.2 | 63.5 | 80.8 | 26.4 | 50.2 | 52.5 62 | Commercial magnesium ATSENALEL Ase ep ENE Sse 9 | 546 37.9 | 80.3 | 59.9 | 98.7 | 79.6 | 42.4 | 22.0 | 60.8!) 41.7 90 | Commercial London purple.| 6 | 293 33.2 | 84.3 | 48.4 | 95.1 | 75.9 | 51.1 | 15.2 | 61.9 | 42.7 23 | Commercial zine arsenite ...| 6 | 292 6.0 | 58.4 | 63.8 | 73.9 | 65.4 | 52.4 | 57.8 | 67.9 | 59.4 74 | Laboratory copper barium arsenatert see le. 10 | 570 6.2 | 74.6 | 59.2 | 58.8 | 64.2 | 68.4 | 53.0 | 52.6 | 58.0 10 | Pure arsenic oxid...-......-- 7 | 331 100! Os) ¢8824.51/ 740.9) 789) 683.01) CLL. ak (eae ae eae 25 | Laboratory sodium arsenate.| 9 | 515 LOOTO! FS: 5454 ly S90 |\deeDe lo oaclce lees -|2 ee cecleceee ’ ww > 3 © | Average amount of arsenic per ° 3 a. BA, insect analyzed. fant | ag a Eo) g f-x I Ss os} m g go am ~S °F | as ae oS 8.2 Qs2 Arsenicals. oA of S3 ci eo iro! a Sr S) ea 33 B ro) RRR A os Smt ® I 3 : Dace 2 £3 | 98 2 S ae eo Ea e s3 oS > 5 g a gos ql Ejeet | 41 8 | 2 1 BBE a Si acy file> a © -tevalicd Per ct.| Mg. Mg. Mg. Mg. 39 | Commercial acid lead arsenate........-.. 78.5 0.61 | 0.0223 | 0.1212 | 0.0126 | 0.052 6.0 28 | Commercial basic lead arsenate.........- 61.7 1.73 | .0142 0803 0158 | .0368 6.0 57 | Commercial calcium arsenate.......---.- 65. 5 20) .0099} .1245] .0189} .0511 6.0 27 | Commercial white arsenic. .-...........- 69.5} 38.00} .0091 | .0914 0285 | .0430 6.0 71 | Laboratory barium arsenate.........-.. 51.0 - 68 0105 | .0694} .0138 | .0312 5.8 45 | Laboratory calcium meta-arsenate..---- 17.5 -04] .0120] .0676] .0110|] .0302 5.9 64 | Commercial Paris green.............---. 79.5 3.52 | .0087 | .1203 0143 | . 0478 5.9 64C | Sample 64 plus lime (2 grams)._......--- 66.7 3.52] .0075 | .1157 027 - 0503 5.8 62 | Commercial magnesium arsenate....-... 71.0 4.64] .0120 1460 | .0173 | .0584 6.0 90 | Commercial London purple......-.-...- 73.7 5.30] .0068] .1315] .0305 | .0563 5.8 23 | Commercial zinc arsenite ........-..--..| 77.5 1525 | .0182 |) .1430 0220 | .0594 6.0 74 | Laboratory copper barium arsenate..... 66.0 6.27 | .0058| .0675 0177 | .0303 6.0 LON MEURElaTseniciOxid= <2 yf a as 78.5 | 100.00} .0165 1130 0600 | .0632 5.9 25 | Laboratory sodium arsenate.......-..... 82.4 | 100.00} .0180 | .0968 0169 | .0439 5.9 The following deductions are made from the results shown in Table 21: (a) Samples 45, 27, 23, 74, and 28 are very stable in water (slightly soluble as compared with control results); samples 64C, 64, and 39 are moderately stable in water; samples 71, 90, 57, and 62 are unstable in water; and samples 10 and 25 are totally water soluble. 46 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (b) Sample 45 is least soluble and sample 10 is most soluble in the bodies of insects. Samples 10 and 25 were totally water soluble before they were eaten, but after being eaten only about three- fourths of the arsenic was obtained as soluble arsenic. (c) While no general deductions can be made as to the average percentages of arsenic found soluble in the bodies of insects, when the figures under ‘“‘control results”? are subtracted from these aver- ages, as a general rule, the higher the percentages of arsenic made soluble by the juices of the insects, the higher are the rates of toxicity. Using lead arsenate (sample 39) as a standard, the last statement is strongly supported by the results obtained with the first seven arsenicals (samples 39, 28, 57, 27, 71, 45, and 64), but it is not so strongly supported by the following five samples (64C, 62, 90, 23, and 74). (d) The percentages of water-soluble arsenic in the original samples of Sectioals bear no relation to the toxicity of those arsenicals, except in the case of those which are totally water soluble. (ec) As a general rule, the larger the average amount of arsenic in the insects analyzed, the iene is the rate of toxicity of that arsenical. Using average weights of the undried insects fed on all 14 of the arsenicals and average amounts of arsenic per insect, a bee weighing 98 milligrams contained 0.0119 milligram of arsenic, a silkworm weighing 1,370 milligrams contained 0.1063 milligram, and a Ceratomia weighing 1,620 milligrams contained 0.0219 milhgram of arsenic. Thus, although a silkworm is 14 times as large and a Ceratomia is 16 times as ‘large as a bee, the silkworm contained 9 times as much arsenic as did the bee and 5 times as much as did the Ceratomia. This difference in amount of arsenic probably may be explained by the fact that for bees and silkworms the spray mix- tures were used five times the usual strength, while for the Cera- tomia the usual strength (1 pound to 50 gallons of water) was suffi- cient to kill the insects within 24 hours. (f) None of the water extracts of the bodies of the insects fed on the various arsenicals showed an alkaline reaction, and the highest acid reaction was 5.8 (pH value). As an average pH value for the 14 arsenicals, the bees gave a value of 6; the silkworms, 5.7; and the Ceratomia, 6.1; and as an average pH value for any arsen- ical against all three insects, the only figures obtained are 5.8, 5.9, and 6. Again it is shown that the pH value has nothing to do with the percentage of arsenic rendered soluble by the insect juices. Experiments like those performed on the three foregoing species of insects were also performed on another large but easily killed caterpillar (Datana integerrima G. & R.). As the number of these caterpillars was limited, only samples 39, 57, and 64 were used against this species, so that the results obtained could not be easily incor- porated in Table 21. They are, however, similar in all respects to those already discussed. MINIMUM DOSAGE OF LEAD ARSENATE REQUIRED TO KILL SILKWORMS. By means of a needle-pointed pipette, an acid lead arsenate (sample 39) was dropped upon fresh mulberry leaves. Upon evaporation of the water from these drops, the portions of leaves bearing the white spots were fed to large hungry silkworms in the last instar. ARSENICALS, 47 One drop would occasionally kill a large worm but more often two drops were fatal. In almost every case three drops proved fatal within 24 hours. Therefore, for these larve three drops may be regarded as a minimum fatal dosage of acid lead arsenate. An analysis of 100 drops (4 sets) from the same pipette gave 0.0091 milligram of metallic arsenic as an average per ei making 0.0273 milligram of arsenic a minimum fatal dosage for fully grown silk- worms. An analysis of 59 of the dead silkworms, each of which had eaten three drops of the arsenical, gave 0.0027 milligram of arsenic per larva, indicating that 90 per cent of the arsenic eaten had been voided in the feces before the larvee died. Silkworms which had received a maximum dosage of the same arsenical voided in the feces only 19 per cent of the arsenic eaten, and Ceratomia, which had received an average dosage of the same poison, voided 64 per cent of the arsenic with the feces. QUANTITY OF ARSENIC EATEN BY INSECTS IN FEEDING TESTS. During the feeding tests many samples of dead larve were pre- pared for analyses, but only those of webworms (/. textor) and those of potato-beetle larve were finally analyzed. The webworm is one of the most difficult to kill by arsenic, while the potato-beetle larva is one of the most easily killed. Some of the webworms were washed as described on page 44, but most of them were not washed. Also several samples of feces (more or less contaminated) were analyzed. The percentage of toxicity, as shown in Table 22, is the average of the mortalities recorded on the third, sixth, and tenth days for the one species concerned. TABLE 22.—Arsenic consumed by insects in feeding tests, 1919. Arsenic (parts} Tox- Mua per million) eity F : Condition of | ber of | Arsenic a after de- Species: cof tere Arsenicals and controls. | larvee before | larvee | per Geen Bp i being analyzed. | ana- | larva. fauit zed. Y y Larvee.|Feces.; of control. Webworms (H. tez- Milli- tor): grams. BOW siebaaoe «tae acs Commercial acid lead | Washed and 163 | 0.0017 B59" || 1S2it | saseceee arsenate. dried. SUR Anes SUsUbS ase (0 Co esc a Ae oa eR Drieds: weeks 400 | .0025 885 {1,114 68.6 DB ASsABee BESSA Commercial calcium ar- | Washed and 200 | .0014 303 |? T46.\2 2228270 senate. dried. | By SC See ear ene (Oa Sees er Driede is Seas: 400 | .0024 481 |1,125 59.1 Zoe pe) Be ae Commercial basic lead }..-..-. dol. seb: 200 | .0040 691 | 330 48.9 arsenate. p é GORE Sen ees ees cae Paboratory, calcium arse-|..... do. bot eh. 180 | .0033 436 | 851 15.1 nate. 69BEI Vets. Sample 69 plus 1 gram |..... GO. sor See 130 | .0040 674 | 355 6.3 lime per 418 cc. 1 f Ciloe cies vara ate ils Laboratory barium arse- |..... (0 Yo Ham ati ed ph 160 | .0027 399 | 365 3L5 nate. G2 ey sci Yin Commercial magnesium |..... oe SANA 200 | .0050 747 | 539 36.5 arsenate. Bs Lisl 55....-......-.--| Laboratory sodium arse- |....- GOs cesar 200} .0016 303 | 818 59.3 nate plus Bordeaux mixture. 3 eae Pn OBOE BSE E NOE Commercialzine arsenite.|....- dO. . Soe 200 | .0055 917 | 903 63.6 GEAR 13) Commercial Paris green -}.---- Ov: Se 200 | .0050 911} 946 62.6 TORTS ES Laboratory aluminum |..... dou eee 200} .0028 383] 840} 32.0 arsenate. is Sass ae on f Tedd osteeermeeiie Laboratory copper |..... dom seuseects 200} .0053 613 | 306 | 41.8 barium arsenate. oy Controlifeces eee ois] See meeemne sees ce cfeciccacce|oceceee= 15% Socesces 48 BULLETIN 1147. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 22.—Arsenic consumed by insects in feeding tests, 1919—Continued. Arsenic (parts| Tox- NAERE per million) | icity “e in— afterd Condition of | ber of | Arsenic : pi etieee EST Arsenicals and controls. | larve before | larve | per |——————|ductin® Dp , being analyzed. | ana- | larva. tality lyzed. Larve.|Feces.| of control Potato-beetle Milli- larve: grams. OOF ge eee oe Commercial acid lead ar- |... .. 0 Ko eons yeas ae 150 | 0.0017 VATE race's 62.1 senate. 28% fia Pyloseusag Commercial basic lead |..... dor. 674-2 - 4s 125 | .0020 168 |..2... 53.4 arsenate. BBE 132 BA Laboratory acid lead |..-... dort shoe 100 | .0038 S274. Fee 57.9 arsenate. OY AI Moe Commercial calcium ar- |...--. Goxeneeesens 150 | .0026 205 ve tee 62.7 senate. i} pesrepestnenie > Seypete Laboratory calcium ar- |..... (6 Co ea al 110 | .0043 SL We ones 61.8 senate. 69B..... Sinteiaree o Sample 69 plus 1 gram |...-.. Olesen Be 80 | .0042 330)|b2 e025 61.9 lime per 418 cc. WL. he Je Rae rt aka barium arse- |.-... dow tse4-24 110 | .0049 SEOW deen 50.9 nate. G22. os Bese ees Commercial magnesium |..... Gos. Bassas 130 | .0029 yg eo ee 57.1 arsenate. ODE ee rere pee Laboratory sodium arse- |... .- doseeees-se4 100 | .0028 257) |Socke o 51.8 nate plus Bordeaux mixture. PAS EE BASE Commercial zine arse- |..... Gots. 22 ee 100 | .0018 172, |waseee 54.7 nite. ; 64. tee hee ke 2 Commercial Paris green..]....- Gone: SSEb 120 | .0024 206) |b -5e% 59.5 WR ca ceipse cas cee Laboratory copper ba- |..... GOs Beene pets 130 | .0051 460 |f25-.. 54.7 rium arsenate. The following facts are evident from Table 22: About 40 per cent of the arsenic (samples 39 and 5) found in the samples of eotncas was probably carried on the integuments of the larve. As a general rule, the higher the average toxicity, the smaller is the quantity of arsenic found in the larve. The ratio of arsenic found in the webworms to that found intheir feces is about 3 to 5 for those arsenicals giving high toxicities, while for those arsenicals giving low toxicities the ratio is about 1 to 1. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ARSENIC ON INSECTS. Symptoms of arsenic poisoning in the various insects used in the preceding experiments can not be fully described, because these insects were usually too sluggish to permit observation of the later symptoms, other than an Scie contortion of the body, the voiding of soft, watery feces, spewing at the mouth, and finally the complete loss of control of the legs. Since honeybees are extremely active and are easily studied in observation cases, they were fed arsenic acid (sample 10) in honey at the rate of 0.00076 milligram of arsenic oxid or 0.0005 milligram of metallic arsenic per bee, providing all consumed equal quantities of the poisoned fool! The poisoned bees lived for 5.4 days on an average, while the controls lived for 8.4 days on an average. On the second day after being poisoned many of these bees became more or less inactive, a few died and subsequently but few of them were seen eating. By the third day they were dying rapidly, their abdomens ARSENICALS, 49 were swollen, and they could not fly, although they could walk in a staggering manner, dragging their abdomens on the table. The only teens between the behavior of the bees subjected to nicotine oisoning (29, p. 91) and that of bees subjected to arsenic poisoning is that (a) nicotine acts more quickly, (b) its symptoms are more pronounced, and (c) in arsenic poisoning the abdomen is always more or less swollen, while in nicotine poisoning the abdomen is only rarely swollen. From the symptoms observed, it may be concluded that the bees fed arsenic might have died of motor paralysis, although the paralysis may be only a secondary cause. Blythe (4, p. 567) says that flies, within a few minutes after eating arsenic borne on common arsenical fly paper, fall, apparently from paralysis of the wings, and soon die. Spiders and all insects into which the poison has been introduced exhibit a similar sudden death. According to the textbooks on pharmacology by Cushny (/4) and Sollmann (49), arsenic is termed, among other things, ‘‘a capillary poison.”’ These authors state that arsenic is toxic to all animals haying a central nervous system and also to most higher plants, but not to all the lower organisms. In mammals arsenic is cumulative, being stored in various organs, and it is excreted very slowly by the usual channels—urine, feces, sweat, milk, epidermis, and hair. With oral administration, the main part leaves i the feces, probably having never been dissolved. TRACING ARSENIC IN TISSUES OF INSECTS. All attempts to trace arsenic fed alone to fall webworms (4. cunea) by histological methods failed. The light-colored precipitate formed by the union of arsenic and silver nitrate was either Gaghed out of the tissues or was obscured because the tissues were stained dark by the silver nitrate. In an endeavor to trace arsenic in both the soluble and insoluble forms by stains and lampblack the following experiments were per- formed, using the method for tracing nicotine outlined by McIndoo (29, p. 106-109). Four sets of fall webworms were fed leaves sprayed with an acid lead arsenate (sample 39), mixed with stains or lampblack as follows: First set ate arsenate mixed with indigo-carmine; second set ate arsenate mixed with carminic-acid; third set ate arsenate mixed with No. 100 carmine powder; and fourth set ate arsenate mixed with No. 100 lampblack powder. A day later those fed carmine were voiding reddish feces, and two days after being fed all of those nearly dead were fixed in absolute alcohol. The indigo-carmine and carminic- acid were soluble in water, but they were partially precipitated by absolute alcohol; the carmine was only slightly soluble in water, but totally insoluble in absolute alcohol; and the-lampblack was soluble in neither water nor absolute alcohol. Webworms fed indigo-carmine showed no stain. Those fed carmine- acid and carmine revealed pinkish intestines, those colored with the carmine being almost red. The intestinal contents of these larve were pink, but no carmine-acid could be observed outside the intestinal wall. In the larve fed carmine the stain was widely distributed. The nuclei in the cells of the intestine were strongly 50 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stained, while all the tissues outside the intestinal wall contained more or less of the stain. In the larve fed lampblack much of the powder could be observed inside the intestine, but very little (perhaps none in reality) outside the intestinal wall. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ARSENICALS. Used alone, arsenious oxid burns the most resistant foliage, because of its high percentage of water-soluble arsenious oxid. To overcome this difficulty, Sanders and Kelsall (43) mixed a very finely divided arsenious oxid with Bordeaux mixture, to serve as a sub- stitute for sodium arsenate and Bordeaux mixture, to control the potato beetle and late blight in Nova Scotia. Cooley (13) suggested the use of white arsenic with Bordeaux mixture for dusting potato vines and has successfully used white arsenic as a substitute for the expensive Paris green in bran mash to control grasshoppers in Montana. He considers crude arsenious oxid to be superior to the refined product, as the particles are finer. Most authors think that arsenious oxid possesses high insecticidal properties. The results of the investigation here reported, however, indicate that the toxicity of arsenious oxid varies greatly, depending on the degree of fineness of the crystals which influences the percentage of water-soluble arsenious oxid present. In no case did the toxicity equal that of an equivalent amount of arsenic oxid present in acid lead arsenate. — Acid lead arsenate, a satisfactory insecticide material, is to be recommended in general when an uncombined arsenical is to be used, as it possesses excellent adhesive and insecticidal properties, and burns foliage little if at all. Acid lead arsenate is compatible with Bordeaux mixture and with nicotine sulphate solutions. Lime- sulphur and acid lead arsenate are incompatible from a chemical standpoint, some soluble arsenic being formed. However, it is well recognized that acid or basic lead arsenates are used with lime- sulphur without serious foliage injury in most cases. A powdered acid lead arsenate contains about 32 per cent of arsenic oxid and about 64 per cent of lead oxid, while powdered basic lead arsenate contains about 23 per cent of arsenic oxid and about 73 per cent of lead oxid. Also, basic lead arsenate is more stable and less toxic than acid lead arsenate. Paris green, a valuable insecticide on account of its high arsenic content, is said to dust well in spite of its high apparent density, but not to adhere well to foliage. Tt has no advantages over acid lead arsenate, but has several disadvantages, the burning of foliage bein the principal one. The expensive copper sulphate and acetic aci used in its manufacture do not increase its power as a poison. The amount of soluble arsenic in an arsenical is reduced by mixing it with Bordeaux mixture, and an unsafe arsenical may in certain cases be made safe by mixing it with Bordeaux. Soaps contain alkalies which decompose arsenicals. The more soap used, the greater the decomposition. When calcium arsenate was mixed with sodium fish-oil soap, a smaller amount of soluble arsenic was formed than when acid lead arsenate was used in the mixture. Both of these mixtures are incompatible. When acid lead arsenate or calcium arsenate is used in a kerosene- soap emulsion, soluble arsenic is rapidly formed. In the acid lead ARSENICALS. 51 arsenate combination, six times as much arsenic is formed as in the calcium arsenate combination. Acid lead arsenate, therefore, should not be used in preparing kerosene-emulsion sprays, as the mixture is chemically incompatible. Gray (16) reports that basic lead arsenate is not affected by the alkali of soap. When acid lead arsenate was mixed with solutions of nicotine sul- phate, no chemical incompatibility was found. When calcium arsenate was used with nicotine sulphate, however, the latter was decomposed and free nicotine was formed. The SO, of the nicotine sulphate combined with free lime (CaO), if present, or with lime of the calcium arsenate, and large amounts of soluble arsenic were formed in certain mixtures. Free nicotine is present in all of these mixtures. The free nicotine is not dangerous but the soluble arsenic is. These mixtures are chemically incompatible. The findings in connection with the chemical compatibilities and incompatibilities of the various arsenicals, fungicides, and other materials tested are summarized in Table 23. Gray (16) in 1914 published a summary of data on the compatibilities of various spray materials which he had collected. TABLE 23.—Chemical compatibility of arsenicals combined with other spray materials. Other spray materials used. Arsenicals used. wile = Bie et ie ‘ ordeaux erosene Sodium fish- icotine-sul- Lime sulphur. | “mixture. emulsion. oil soap. phate solution. Acid lead arsenate. ...} Incompatible...| Compatible .| Incompatible...| Incompatible...| Compatible. Calcium arsenate... -.- Compatible... -].-..- (olka ery HS GOseeree alec Ole AResasee Incompatible. IDSrIis/STeCM Ae ste ee ok eet ses o ede! COM Prea| Siaeasieacee sere | eaters oe she aa tee eee eae HOGMMUMATSENA Ls ears emis ceicjcitcisieleteieteiai| wine o.5 AG chr snipe tercteee ricco ate emetic ce |Seee er gemeeacee Sanders and Brittain (41) tested the comparative insecticidal prop- erties of the arsenates of calcium, barium, and lead, alone and in com- bination with Bordeaux mixture, lime-sulphur, barium tetrasulphid, and sodium sulphid (‘‘soluble sulphur’’), on one species of insects. The results obtained showed that the presence of a fungicide had a marked influence on the efficiency of the arsenical investigated. The four arsenicals were 13 per cent more efficient when used with sodium sulphid than when used alone. The toxicity of the arsenicals was reduced when they were mixed with any of the other fungicides. The explanation given by these authors for the increased toxicity resulting from the use of sodium sulphid with an arsenical is that the sodium increases the palatability of the sprayed leaves, which causes the insects to eat ravenously for afew days. The insects thus take a large amount of arsenic into their systems in a short time and death rapidly ensues. Mixing sodium sulphid with acid lead arsenate produces some lead sulphid and sodium arsenate. The sodium arsenate is soluble and therefore may be more active than the original acid lead arsenate. The results in Table 21 indicate that the soluble arsenicals are more toxic per unit of arsenic than are the insoluble ones, the greater toxicity being due to the water-soluble arsenic present in the com- pound or to the arsenic which is quickly rendered soluble inside the insects. Data obtained during this investigation suggest that the amount of arsenic present per unit of sprayed leaf is larger when a 52 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soluble arsenical is used in combination with a fungicide than when an insoluble arsenical is used. Accordingly it may be possible to explain chemically the increased activity or efficiency when sodium satihid is used with arsenicals. dvidence seems to show that it is not always true that an insecti- cide containing a high percentage of arsenic 1s more toxic than one containing less arsenic, for the reason that toxicity depends not alone upon the amount of arsenic present, but also upon its form of combi- nation. The insecticidal role played by the base itself is small and sometimes nonexistent. When lime or Bordeaux mixture was combined with the arsenicals the toxicity of the arsenicals was reduced. ‘The fact that the addi- tion of lime or Bordeaux mixture to the arsenicals reduced the toxicity of these insecticides to insects may be explained in two ways: (a) Leaves sprayed with the arsenicals combined with lime or Bordeaux usually contaimed less arsenic than those similarly sprayed with the arsenicals alone; (b) the toxicity was greater in the tests with honeybees fed honey containing the arsenicals alone than in tests in which bees ate honey containing the arsenicals with lime or Bordeaux mixture. These results support the theory that the cal- cium present prevents or counteracts the formation of soluble or more toxic arsenic compounds. Based on the reported results, it would appear that if all seven species of insects used had been tested under similar conditions, their susceptibility to an acid lead arsenate would probably be in the following order, beginning with the insect most susceptible: Honeybees, silkworms, orasshoppers, potato-beetle larve, tent caterpillars, webworms (77. teztor), and webworms (H. cunea). The arsenious oxid (“white arsenic”) samples were crystalline; the other commercial arsenicals generally lacked crystal outline and were probably for the most part amorphous. The calcium arsenates used contained some small “‘octahedral” crystals, but were largely composed of apparently amorphous material. The arsenious oxid samples gave variable results in the toxicity studies and wide varia- tions were found in the results when calcium arsenates were used. On the other hand, the amorphous acid lead arsenates and the amorphous Paris green samples gave uniform toxicity data. The data show a relation between the uniformity of the products and uniformity of toxicity. Where the products were not uniform variations in toxicity were found. Commercial arsenicals used for spraying or dusting purposes are usually judged chemically on the basis of the total arsenious or arsenic oxid contents and on the percentages of the total amount of these oxids which go into solution under certain conditions. The per- centage of base present is also determined. Soluble arsenic oxids or arsenic rendered soluble after the application of arsenicals will burn foliage, the extent of the injury depending mainly on the amount of soluble oxid present or formed in the spray or solution applied. The results here reported indicate that it is the soluble arsenic or the arsenic rendered soluble by the insects that causes death. ‘The rapidity with which arsenicals are made soluble in the bodies of insects seems to be the most important factor in connection with their toxicity. What happens to the soluble arsenic inside the insects is not known, except that part of it passes through the in- ARSENICALS. 53 testinal walls into the blood and is distributed to all parts of the body. A small portion of it reaches the nervous system, where it apparently kills by paralysis. The way arsenic affects the various tissues is not known, although Sollmann (49) reports that it is now generally believed that the arsenicals hinder protoplasmic oxidation in an unknown way. A successful ieachibids must be sufficiently stable to be applied to foliage without injury and sufficiently unstable to be broken down in appreciable amounts in the bodies of the insects ingesting it. SUMMARY. Arsenious oxid, commercially known as white arsenic, or simply as arsenic, is the basis for the manufacture of all arsenicals. Samples of commercial arsenious oxid vary in purity, fineness, apparent density, and in the rate of solution in water (soluble arsenic), which accounts for the diverse chemical and insecticidal results reported in the literature. Arsenites are prepared by combining arsenious oxid with a base. Arsenates are produced by first oxidizing ar- senious oxid to arsenic oxid (arsenic acid) and then combining the material with a base. Except for their water content of approxi- mately 50 per cent, the paste arsenicals have the same general com- position as the powdered arsenicals. The usual lead arsenate on the market, acid lead arsenate (PbHAsO,), is well standardized and stable. Basic lead arsenate (Pb,PbOH(AsO,),), also well standardized and stable, is_ being manufactured at present only to a limited extent. Chiefly because of its low arsenic and high lead contents, basic lead arsenate is more stable and therefore less likely to burn foliage than acid lead arsenate. It possesses weaker insecticidal properties and is somewhat more stable in mixtures than acid lead arsenate. Commercial calcium arsenate (arsenate of lime), the manufacture of which is rapidly becoming standardized, contains more lime than is required to produce the tribasic form. Paris green, an old and well standardized arsenical, is less stable and contains more ‘‘soluble arsenic’? than commercial arsenates of lead or lime. Laboratory samples of aluminum arsenate, barium arsenate, and a -copper barium arsenate mixture, in the powdered form, were tested. The last named gave excellent insecticidal results. The following combinations of insecticides. and fungicides were found to be chemically compatible: Lime-sulphur and calcium arse- nate; nicotine sulphate and lead arsenate; and Bordeaux mixture with calcium arsenate, acid lead arsenate, zinc arsenite, or Paris green. The following combinations were found to be chemically incompat- ible: Soap solution with either calcium arsenate or acid lead arsenate; kerosene emulsion with either calcium arsenate or acid lead arsenate; and lime-sulphur with acid lead arsenate.° Combined with nicotine sulphate, calcium arsenate always produces free nicotine, and unless a decided excess of free lime is present soluble arsenic is produced. The combination of sodium arsenate with Bordeaux mixture as used in the experiments here reported gave no soluble arsenic. Pape anne to the Bureau of Entomology, this combination in large amounts is used successfully in the eld. 54 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Of all the arsenicals tested, acid lead arsenate and zine arsenite were the most adhesive and Paris green the least adhesive on potato foliage. The use of lime with arsenicals applied to potato foliage did not increase their adhesiveness. The suspension properties of the powdered arsenicals are of value in differentiating Hight” from “‘heavy”’ powders, as determined by their apparent densities. The physical properties of the commercial powdered arsenicals could not be satisfactorily determined by sieving, as they are generally amorphous and pack in the sieve on shaking. Arsenious | samples sometimes contain or consist of relatively coarse crystals, so that sieving may provide valuable data. Microscopic examination gave little information concerning the desirable physical properties of the amorphous or seemingly amor- phous powdered arsenicals. Differences in size of crystals present in the arsenious oxid samples were detected under the microscope. The toxicity findings are based on the use of equivalent quantities of arsenious and arsenic oxids. Higher percentages of toxicity were found for acid lead arsenate than for basic lead arsenate. The differ- ent samples of calcium arsenate tested varied widely in toxicity. When lime or Bordeaux mixture was added to arsenicals, the toxici- ties were reduced. The average toxicity of the three samples of Paris green and that of one zine arsenite tested was slightly more than that of an acid lead arsenate and a sodium arsenate. Of the four samples of arsenites, the Paris green samples gave the highest values, zine arsenite being much less toxic. Based on equivalent metallic arsenic percentages, the Paris green samples gave values no higher than that of the acid lead arsenate tested. Several new arse- nates tested did not show as high toxicities as did acid lead arsenate. Of the various bases tested, lead oxid showed some insecticidal value, while the oxids of zinc, magnesium, and copper showed little and lime no value. Arsenic acid, acid lead arsenate, and one sample of calcium arsenate gave high and practically equal toxicities. Arse- nious oxid (white arsenic) gave lower and variable results. The per- centages of water-soluble arsenic in the original arsenicals had little or no influence on the toxicity, except in the case of those arsenicals which were entirely or largely water soluble. These had high per- centages of toxicity. . The determination of reaction in terms of the pH value of water extracts from the bodies of various insects fed all of the different arsenicals, and also from the bodies of control insects, showed uni- formly a slight acidity. These results indicate that the arsenic compounds fed did not affect the pH values as determined on dead insects. The minimum dosage of metallic arsenic required to kill a honeybee is approximately 0.0005 milligram, while 0.0273 milligram (or 54 times as much) is required to kill a full-grown silkworm. Honey- bees, confined in cases, void none of the arsenic eaten, whereas silk- worms void 90 per cent of the amount ingested. Thus, in reality about 6 times, rather than 54 times, as much arsenic is fatal to a silkworm as is required to kill a honeybee under the somewhat unnatural living conditions. ARSENICALS. 55 The conclusions that may be drawn from this investigation are that a chemical analysis of an arsenical does not give sufficient data to judge satisfactorily its insecticidal properties, and a toxicity study alone does not. show that an arsenical is suitable for general insecti- cidal purposes, but both a chemical analysis and a thorough toxicity study are required in order to judge lth or not an arsenical is a satisfactory insecticide. LITERATURE CITED. (1) Assoctation or OrriciAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS. Official and tentative methods of analysis as compiled by the committee on revision of methods, revised to November 1, 1919, 417 p., 18 figs. Wash- ington, D. C. (2) Avery, S., and Brans, H. T. Soluble peecaous oxide in Paris green. In J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1901), 23: 111-117. (3) Beprorp, DuKe of, and Picxerina, 8. U. Lead arsenate. Jn 8th Rept., Woburn Exp. Fruit Farm (1908), p. 15-17. (4) Buyrun, A. W. Poisons: Their effects and detection, 5th ed., p. 745. London (1920). (5) Brapuey, C. E. Soluble arsenic in mixtures of lead arsenate and lime sulfur solution. In J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (1909), 7: 606-607. and Tartar, H. V. Further studies of the reactions of lime sulfur solution and alkali waters on lead arsenates. Jn J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (1910), 2: 328-329. (7) Brirrain, W. H., and Goon, C. A. ee apple maggot in Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia Dept. Agr. Bul. 9 (1917), (8) CLarK, WM. and Luss, H. A. The calorimetric determination of hydrogen-ion concentration and its appli- cations in bacteriology. Jn J. Bact. (1917), 2: 1-34. (9) Coan, B. R. Recent experimental work on poisoning cotton boll weevils. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 731 (1918), 15 p. (6) (10) and Cassipy, T. P. Cotton boll weevil control by the use of poison. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 875 (1920), 31 p. (11) Some rules for poisoning the cotton-boll weevil. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cire. 162 (1921), 4p. (12) Cook, F.C. Pickering sprays. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bul. 866 (1920), 47 p. (18) Cootzy, R. A. ; Latest developments in arsenical insecticides. Jn Better Fruit (1920), 75: 9. (14) Cusuny, A. R. A textbook of pharmacology and therapeutics, 6 ed., 708 p., 70 figs. Phila~ delphia-New York (1915). (15) Fretps, W.8., and Ettiort, J. A. Making Bordeaux mixture and some other spraying problems. Ark. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 172 (1920), p. 33. (16) Gray, G. P. ont we The compatibility of insecticides and fungicides. Monthly Bul. Cal. Com. Hort. (1914), $: 265-275. (17) Haywoop, J. K. Paris green spraying experiments. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 82 (1904), 32 p. and Smiru, C. M. A method for preparing a commercial grade of calcium arsenate. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 750 (1918), 10 p. (19) Howarp, N. F. Insecticide tests with Diabrotica vittata. In J. Econ. Entomol. (1918), 71: 75-79. (18) 56 BULLETIN 1147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (20) Krrxuanp, A. H. A new insecticide (barium arsenate). U. 8. Dept. Agr., Div. Entomol. Bul. 6 (1896), p. 27-28. (21) and Bureess, A. F. Experiments with insecticides. Jn 45th Ann. Rept., Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. for 1897, p. 370-389. (22) and Smiru, F. J. Digestion in the larve of the gypsy moth. Jn 45th Ann. Rept. Mass. State Bd. Agr. (1898), p. 394-401. (23) Lovert, A. L. The calcium arsenates. Jn J. Econ. Entomol. (1918), 17: 57-62. (24) (25) Insecticide investigations. Oreg. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 169 (1920), 55 pp. and Rosrnson, R. H. Toxic values and killing efficiency of the arsenates. Jn J. Agr. Research (1917), 10: 199-207. (26) McDonnELt, C. C., and Granam, J. J. T. The decomposition of dilead arsenate by water. In J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1917), 29: 1912-1918. and Smirn, C. M. The arsenates of lead. Jn J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1916), $8: 2027-2038. (27) (28) The arsenates of lead. Jn J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1917), 39: 937-943. (29) McInvoo, N. E. Effects of nicotine as an insecticide. In J. Agr. Research (1916), 7: 89-122. (30) Parren, A. J., and O’Meara, P. The probable cause of injury reported from the use of calcium and magnesium arsenates. Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Quart. Bul. (1919), 2: 83-84. (31) Pickertine, 8. U. Note on ae arsenates of lead and calcium. Jn J. Chem. Soc. (1907), 91: 307-314. (32) QuatnTaANcE, A. L., and Sreauer, E. H. Information for fruit growers about insecticides, spraying apparatus, and important insect pests. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 908 (1918), p. 11, 73. (83) Ricker, D. A. Experiments with poison baits against grasshoppers. Jn J. Econ. Entomol. (1919), 12: 194-200. (34) Roprnson, R. H. The calcium arsenates. Oreg. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 131 (1918), p. 15. (35) The beneficial action of lime in lime sulphur and lead arsenate combination spray. Jn J. Econ. Entomol. (1919), 12: 429-433. (36) and Tartar, H. V. ae The arsenates of lead. Oreg. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 128 (1915), p. 32. 37 The valuation of commercial arsenate of lead. In J. Ind. Eng. Chem. (1915), 7: 499-502. (38) Ruts, W. E. Chemical studies of the lime sulphur lead arsenate spray mixture. Jowa Agr. Exp. Sta., Research Bul. 12 (1913), p. 409-419. (39) Sarro, V. J. The nicotine sulfate-Bordeaux combination. Jn J. Econ. Entomol. (1915), 8: 199-203. (40) Sanpers, G. E. Arsenate of lead vs. arsenate of lime. Jn Proc. Entomol. Soc. Nova Scotia for 1916, no. 2, p. 40-45. (41) and Brirram, W. H. The toxic value of some poisons alone and in combination with fungicides, on a few species of biting insects. Jn Proc. Entomol. Soc. Nova Scotia for 1916, no. 2, p. 55-64. (42) and Ketsatt, A. Some miscellaneous observations on the origin and present use of some in- secticides and fungicides. Jn Proc. Entomol. Soc. Nova Scotia for 1918, no. 4, p. 69-73. (43) The use of white arsenic as an insecticide in Bordeaux mixture. Jn Proc. Entomol. Soc. Nova Scotia for 1919, no. 5, p. 21-83; Agr. Gaz. Canada, (1920), 7: 10-12. ARSENICALS. 57 (44) ScnorneE, W. J. ; Zinc arsenite as an insecticide. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 28 (1913), p. 15. (45) Scorr, E. W., and Sircurr, HE. H. Miscellaneous insecticide investigations. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 278 (1915), p. 47. (46) Scorr,W.M. | Arsenate of lime or calcium arsenate. Jn J. Econ. Entomol. (1915), 8: 194- 199. (47) Smirx, C. R. The determination of arsenic. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Circ. 102 (1912), 12 p. (48) Smirn, J. B. Arsenate of lime. Jn Rept. Entomol. Dept., N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. for 1907, p. 476. (49) SortMann, TORALD. A manual of pharmacology. 1 ed., 901 pp. Philadelphia—London (1917). (50) Tartar, H. V., and Wuson, H. F. ; The toxic values of the arsenates of lead. In J. Econ. Entomol. (1915), 8: 481-486. (51) Wison, H. F. Combination sprays and recent insecticide investigations. Jn Proc. Entomol. Soc. British Columbia, no. 3, n. s. (1913), p. 9-16. (52) Insecticide investigations of 1914, and Bien. Crop Pest and Hort. Report for 1913 and 1914, Oregon Agr. Expt. Sta., p. 137. (53) Common insecticides: Their practical value. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 305 (1919), p. 15. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SEG ELOY JOY PA OTACULTUR Cs on a i mn oo an eee Henry C. WALLACE. ASSISTED ECNELANY oo t= ee Ae ee te C. W. Puastey. Darector of Scirenivfic Work--eieaos- . aie eee BK. D. Batt. Director of Regulatory Work.......------+-+--- Weather Banenin eee See. Bal Joel eee Cuares F. Marvin, Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. ....-.----- Henry C. Taynor, Chief. Bureau of Animal Industry ...-..--.--------- Joun R. Monter, Chief. Bureau of Plant dndusiry® 6928. - S204 -te eet Wiu1am A. Taytor, Chief. TEGT ESTAS CPUUCERES. PUREE Beas a cco le ae oe eee W. B. Greetey, Chief. BUF CG OTMONEMISIRY eee ee ie hc rae tee WaLteR G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. Bureau OF SOUS. ck ee are ee ete = ce Serato Miuton Wuitney, Chief. Buea Of ENLOMOlOgy? =... «s\n eo eee L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey....----------+----- K. W. Netson, Chief. IBIRFERUTO/UE UDULC OCOS: aaa ak mee ote ee Tuomas H. MacDona.p, Chief. Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory ..--.------ F. G. Corrrett, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements........ A. ZAPPONE, Chief. DaristonsOfePaGuication sere soe tae eee eee ea Epwin ©. Powe .., Acting Chief. TaD rary) eetnee Urania eek Aik A 1 a8 eae ae Craripet R. Barnert, Librarian. Suites Relations Services 1) eee ee - ease A. C. Trux, Director. Rederal Horiuultural Board. 2252 2--. 22252222. C. L. Maruatr, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board.....----.---- J. K. Haywoop, Chairman. Packers and Stockyards Administration... -..--- - CHESTER Morritn, Assistant to the Grain Future Trading Act Administration . . - . i Secretary. Office of thetSolicitor es 2a ee he 3 eee ee R. W. Wriurams, Solicitor. This bulletin is a contribution from IBURCOUOSMOMEMIS HY sce eei- iste nee ae ea eet ore WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Aeting Chief. Miscellaneous Division.........---------- J. K. Haywoop, in Charge. BUT COM Of EMONIOVOGY Reese miciise 2 cee sie L. O. Howarp, Chief. Fruit Insect Investigation.........--.----- A. L. QuarntancE, Entomologist in Charge. 58 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 Vv UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE In Cooperation with the i Clemson Agricultural College DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 1148 | Washington, D.C. \/ February 1, 1923 COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS OF SUPERIOR VARIETIES OF COTTON (GROWN UNDER WEEVIL CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTHEASTERN STATES; CROP OF 1921) By Witiuram R. Meapows, Cotton Technologist, and Witt1am G. Buair, Specialist in Cotton Testing, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Page. Page. IP UGDOSCIOMbLES USE Meese aen ease see/ncc< 2-22 1. |eBercentagesioh wastes. 260 222 aes-- sen eee 2 Importance of pure varieties. .-..---.-------- 1) eMoisture\con ditions. -)-,- 323205. 3 ss bese 3 Varieties of cotton tested. .-...----.--------- 2 | Breaking strength of yarns.................. 4 Onigintonunercoulonee.s.s-ssec-5-s2. 2225-25" 2 | Irregularity of yarns...-. Fa eae see eee me rere 5 Classification of the cotton........-.--------- 2 | Manufacturing properties.................... 5 Mechanical conditions......-.----.---------- 2 las CUI ATV ees Joffe We een eis - sees ese itials sae 6 PURPOSE OF TESTS. The spinning tests herein described were conducted to determine the relative spinning value of cotton commercially thought to be of superior character with that of a number of pure strains of superior varieties of cotton. All were grown under boll-weevil conditions in the southeastern cotton States during the season of 1921. IMPORTANCE OF PURE VARIETIES.’ Pure stocks of cotton seed produce larger and better crops because all of the plants in the field are alike, while in mixed stocks many of the plants are degenerate and unproductive and the lint is mixed and therefore of mediocre value. The use of pure seed means larger crops and better fiber. The fiber from pure stocks is better not only because of its greater length or strength, but also because the fibers are more uniform, which is the first essential of high quality in cotton fiber. Good cultural conditions simply give pure seed an opportunity for the expression of the full possibilities of the variety. By superior varieties we do not necessarily mean long staples. There are superior short staple varieties as well as superior long staple varieties. Superiority consists of uniformity—uniformity of plants, uniformity of fruiting habit and of fruit; all of which results in uniformity in the length and in the character of the cotton, the most valuable spinning qualities to be had. Pure seed is the first essential to a superior fiber. 1 These spinning tests were conducted under the general supervision of William R. Meadows, cotton technologist, and under the direct supervision of William G. Blair, specialist in cotton testing, who was assisted by H. B. Richardson, C. E. Folk, and E. 8S. Cummings, assistants in cotton testing. The tests were made in the textile department of the Clemson Agricultural College, Clemson College, 8. C. 2 From a paper read by G. S. Meloy, investigator 1n cotton marketing, at the conference of the cotton division, New Orleans, La., June 23, 24, 25, 1920. 27782°—-23—Bull. 1148 2 BULLETIN 1148, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. VARIETIES OF COTTON TESTED. The following varieties were tested: Acala, Lone Star, Mexican Big Boll, Rowden, and typical North Georgia. All of the cotton was obtained from men of reputation for their plant-breeding work, with the exception of the typical North Georgia cotton, which was bought from a prominent cotton merchant as typical ‘‘ North Georgia” cot- ton. This type of cotton always commands a premium over other cotton of the same grade and length of staple. ORIGIN OF THE COTTON. The Acala cotton consisted of 7 bales grown near St. Clair, Lowndes County, Ala.; the Lone Star consisted of 4 bales grown near Fay- etteville, N.C.; the Mexican Big Boll consisted of 4 bales grown near McFarland, N. C.; the Rowden consisted of 4 bales grown near Monroe, N. C.; and the typical North Georgia cotton consisted of 4 bales bought from a merchant in Athens, Ga. The exact origin or history of the typical North Georgia cotton is unknown, except that it came from that region known commercially as typical ‘North Georgia” territory. CLASSIFICATION OF THE COTTON. Samples of cotton from the different bales were classed by a com- mittee of the board of examiners. This committee is authorized to class cotton at the future exchanges under the provisions of the United States cotton futures act. he results of this classification are shown in Table 1. TasLe 1.—Classification of the cotton of the different varieties. | Length | Length Variety. Grade. een Variety. Grade. of | staple. | staple. | Inches. || Inches. JCAL AAR nom oe 5 - Mid dling seco eens 1 |) Mexican Big Boll.....| Strict Middling. . . 1 Middling.......... ys || Good Middling. -.. 1 Middling.......... Lys |! Good Middling....) 1 full. Middling.......... | 1; Good Middling....| lys Midalings.=- 222 = | 1s full, ROWdentec see ee nee Good Middling....) 1 full. Middling.......... | 13; full. Good Middling.... lis Strict Middling. . | 1y5 full. | Good Middling. ... 1s Tone Star er nese Middling.......... | lis Good Middling.... 1s Middling.......... 1ys || Typical North Georgia] Strict Middling...| 1 full. Strict Middling. . . 1s Strict Middling. . . 1s Good Middling....| 15 | Strict Middling.. .) 13, | | Strict Middling-.-.| lis MECHANICAL CONDITIONS. The five different varieties of cotton were run under identical mechanical conditions, which conformed to common mill practices for the grade and length of staple used. PERCENTAGES OF WASTE. Accurate weighings were made of the net amount of cotton fed to and delivered by each cleaning machine and of the net amount of waste discarded by each. From these weighings the percentage of visible, invisible, and total waste were determined. The percentages of waste for each variety are shown in Table 2. , ‘COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS OF COTTON, 3 TABLE 2.—Percentages of waste from the different varieties of cotton. ee | Typical Acala. Prone Bo Bo Rowden.| North | Georgia- CTCL eee ee aerate nielclale io wicloveisisimiciec/sjele aie'oleisie 's wintate Mid. S.M. G.M. G.M. S.M. Menesthvorsiapler(iMches) |. 3. io ance cence se eee 1y'5 Ivy | 1full.... 1, 1-4, Picker waste: @ Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.\| Per cent. Opener-breaker motes and fy assays. ee 1.31 1. 26 . 86 . 86 .74 Hinishermotessand flys... i222 o esc... ae 1. 44 1.11 91 . 80 85 Motallvasible secre aieys o.< 6-0 Sio,c)-\sicjes defelacls wc = sielsie 2.79 2.37 1.77 1. 66 ‘1, 59 Iba\kh ole sec Bone con eee EOC CROC CCC CER EC ET eemrtS se - 68 . 54 1. 03 1. 21 1. 03 Total visible and invisible.............2---.-+- 3. 43 2.91 2, 80 2. 87 2, 62 Card waste: } ipa IMEI, SUMO Scio ec clacigdee CbOOc COREE CCOOE OR OCRBERE cc 2.70 2. 58 2. 51 2. 32 2. 30 Cyilinderand doffer strips... 22.2.2 0 )2. 22242-2982 1. 02 98 1. 00 73 es) WES TONG Lr RSS AON aa a aa A 1. 96 1.65 1. 47 1. 32 | 1.60 SWIG NAPS Bere eet tn seen cannes cfale asco ee 05 11 10 07 | 07 MO taliwASI Lense pele As ee Re So ae 5. 73 5ya2 5. 08 4, 44 | 4. <3 TTaIPdIST 2 ge Bo RS ge es I 2 83 12 ‘29 “83 | 7 Total visible and invisible..........-..-..-.... 6. 56 5. 44 SEY) 5. 27 | 5. 30 Pickers and cards: @ PRO tAMVAST DIC ampere oder eid elie She oe 8. 28 7. 54 6.71 5. 97 6. 29 Morals Ole eee en ee | ae 1.48 65 1.31 2. 02 | 1.49 Total visible and invisible.........-.-...------ eS RE 7/90) ears | | \ H a Based on net weight fed to bale-breaker. b Based on net weight fed to cards. Table 2 shows that the percentages of total visible waste discarded by the different varieties of cotton, closely followed the grade when comparing the pure strains of cotton. MOISTURE CONDITIONS. The different varieties were run under as nearly identical moisture conditions as possible. Outside weather conditions caused higher relative humidities in the picker and card rooms than were desired. A relative humidity of 50 per cent was desired in the picker room, 60 per cent in the card room, and 70 per cent in the spmning room. Actual conditions which prevailed while the cotton was being ma- chined are shown in Table 3. These averages were obtained from readings of self-recording hygrometers equipped with electric fans. TABLE 3.—Average temperatures and relative humidities during tests. : Mexican Typical Acala. Lone Star. Big Boll. | Rowden. North Georgia. Process. | ae ae a — | Rel. Rel. E | Rel. Eeeiieaiee Temp. | he Temp. ee Temp. Rel: Temp. ek | SES piel, | | | Per Per Per | Per | | Per HP epee en GeRae ORs cent. a die cent. ele cent. Oe cent: When opened.......) 17 | CO ee EO, 67 85 67 83 | 70 80 | 71 Finisher picker | 79 | 71 77 | 73 84 65 79 69 82 69 Wands ye 77 | 61 81 | 65 83 62 $4 64 S4 | 62 Drawing frame 77 | 60 82 | 62 83 62 84 65 | 84 62 Roving frames. | 78 | 66 83 | 64 80 61 83 62 5) 64 Spinning frame. ..... | 84 | rat | 85 | 71 86 70 86 70 86 70 : | | 1 | Samples for moisture tests were obtained at different periods during the day from the different manufacturing processes. The averages of these moisture tests are shown in Table 4. “4 BULLETIN 1148, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 4.—Percentages of moisture regain in cotton at the different manufacturing processes. | | Thane | Mexican ; Typical Sample. | Acala. eine || BES Rowaen.| North XtN | Boll. Georgia. -| | | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. RTO DAG Ses ee tee SS eh clans caien setae cles 7.78 7.81 8. 47 8.78 9. 20 BINISRED PICKED LAD sees see sae cen eeeeee ream ene otal 7.42 | 7. 64 7.87 6. 92 8.78 PApicony PAckiOnucandes eee. ane erenace cues see mee 566 7.01 | 7.36 7.42 7.10 8. 21 Sr Ad ACME steps as sages man apnea SETA me A eR Ea Es 6.7 6. 90 7.10 6. 84 7.71 Minisher Prawing sliver:® 3. 5 eh ses hoes ae. es 6.66 | 7.12 7.27 6.38 7.61 Kine framenovine shee: Pee eee ces 6.96 6.97 6. 62 6. 62 7.25 Fine frame roving from creel of spinning frame.....-! 7.47 | 7. 25 7.31 7. 27 7.40 arn from/spinnin pyiramesesee sess scenes ceaseless 7. 84 | 7. 64 7.38 7.48 7.53 { | The difference between the percentage of moisture in the bale and in the card sliver corresponds closely with the total percentage of invisible waste obtained from the pickers and cards. Whenever cotton in process is abiea to a given relative humidity and temperature for two hours or more, the cotton assumes the moisture regain of that relative humidity and temperature. The variation in moisture regain of the varieties is due to the different hygroscopic properties and the moisture in the bale of each variety. Theat the differences in the moisture content (see Table 4) of the finisher picker lap and the lap from the back of the card, and the fine frame roving and the fine frame roving from the creel of the spinning frame are accounted for by the fact that the relative humidity of the picker room averaged 70 per cent, the card room 60 per cent, and the spinning room 70 per cent. BREAKING STRENGTH OF YARNS. The cotton of each variety was spun into 28’s, 36’s, and 44’s yarn with twists equal to 4.25, 4.50, and 4.75 times the square root of the number spun. The average breaking strengths are shown in Table 5. These averages have been corrected for slight variations in the sizings of the yarn. TasLe 5.—Breaking strength in pounds per skein of 120 yards of yarn spun from the different varieties of cotton. Ty Diseee | Twist Lone hes an Typical No. of yarn. Stands multi- Acala. Star Big Balt |Rowden.| North earar plier. 3 eee | Georgia. mee i a4). Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 9207/0 ese Cote SaOSeHOnboSus| 69 | 4, 25 .4 62.6 6s. 1 64.4 57.2 4.50 (flee 62.9 67.2 62.9 56, 2 | 4.75 68. 8 | 61.3 | 66.3 | 63. 1 55.9 Average 70.5) 623| 67.2 63,5| 86.4 - aR SNR as OS RAN 54 4.25| 50.6 45.6 48.6| 44.6) 40.5 | 4. 50 50. 4 43.7 46,8 44, 0 39.9 4.75 48. 7 43.8 46. 4 42.6 39. 8 | Average. | 49. 9 | 44. 4 | 47.3 | 43.7 40. 1 | i CREA s3535dn Sess seas 44 4.25 | 38. 7 33. 7 | 36. 3 | 34.9 20.12 4.50 | 38.7 33. 9 | 33.7 | 33.8 25.9 4.75 | 37. 2 32. 8 | 33.3 | 33. 1 25.6 Average. | 38. 2 33.5 34. 4 | 33.9 25.6 | | COMPARATIVE SPINNING THSTS OF COTTON. 5 The different varieties arranged in the order of their strength values, after allowing for the difference in the length of staple of the cotton, are as follows (strongest at top of list) : ernest 1]. \equal * (Mexican Big Boll. .f°4"* Lone Sitar. yeahs | ee 2. {eee Ie ices “equal. 3. Typical North Georgia. IRREGULARITY OF YARNS. The irregularity of the yarn was determined by calculating the average deviation of the sizings and breaking strengths per skein of 120 yards. Table 6 gives the percentages of average deviation in the sizings per skein of 120 yards. Taste 6.—Irreqularity or average deviation in the sizings of the yarn. No. of | Tone. \| Mexican! | Typical Naa Acala. =p oss | Rowden.| North yarn. Star. | Big Boll. | Georgia. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.\ Per cent. DRisenilin) | 72,02 2.02 2.11 201 | 194 367s)... 2.06 2.06 2.18 DATONG W210 44’s_.| 2.40 1.87 2.16 OT ais AEST Table 6 shows that the yarns made from the different varieties of cotton were practically equal in evenness. Table 7 gives the percentages of average deviation in the breaking strength per skein of 120 yards. TaBLE 7.—IJrreqularity or average deviation in the breaking strengths of the yarn. is ins oa | | 7 . | Typical No. of Lone | Mexican | || oat Nee Acala. ar eritda fee | Rowden.| North yarn. Star. | Big Boll. | Georgia. | | a aes Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 28's 4. 54 3272) ane | 4.72 BNE 36's 4.51 3. 86 5. 09 | 3. 98 3. 86 44’ 4.58 5. 30 5.27 | 50 | 6.29 The different varicties arranged in order of evenness of strength are as follows: 1. Lone Star. 5 ee RO eRe Ae \ Typical North Georgia. . {© 3. Rowden. 4. Mexican Big Boll. qual. MANUFACTURING PROPERTIES. No difficulty was encountered in running any of the varieties, all showed excellent spinning qualities. 6 BULLETIN 1148, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SUMMARY. The cottons tested were from the crop of 1921, and consisted of the fiber of the following varieties: Acala, finn Star, Mexican Big Boll, Rowden,.and of typical cotton of the kind commercially known as “North Georgia.” The Acala cotton was grown in Alabama, the Lone Star, Mexican Big Boll and Rowden were grown at different points in North Carolina, and the typical North Georgia cotton was grown in “ North Georgia.” All of the cottons were tested under identical mechanical conditions. The grades, lengths of staple, percentages of visible waste, strengths of the yarns, and percentages of average deviation or irregularity of the sizings and strengths as shown in Table 8, indicate that for hard twisted or warp yarns the varieities tested if placed in order of their merit and attractiveness from a spinner’s viewpoint would fall in the following rank: NIA calle eell mek Oe: \ Y \Mexican Big Boll.. equal 2 (Honeistare. oo. vse {ponte ree Me equal, 3. Typical North Georgia. TaBLE 8.—Grades, lengths of staple, percentages of visible wasie, strengths of the yarn, and percentages of average deviation of the sizings and strengths of the yarn. -* ! Typical Lone Mexican Acala. Pi . Rowden.| North | | Star. | Big Boll. Georgia. | | Grade. toss aoe one sepsis nines Josep ras ty saeee | Mid. S. M. G. M. GQ. M. SU iM. Length of staple (inches).--.-...-....--.-.. Deceiucs © ote lis ls 1 full 15 1s Percentage of visible waste..-.......--.2-.-324-21--2 8. 28 7. 54 6.71 3. 97 6. 29 Strength of yarn in pounds per skein of 120 yards: | BSH REE ARIE 2 Ee AREY Oe So Se oa ase ete eae 70.5 62.3 67.2 63.5 56. 4 BOISE Corea eS Cee eee oats ac cre ctaie ot mereniae ere ere 49.9 44, 4 47.3 43.7 40.1 BA SOU IE iy ee Nee Was VE ou ae sks San 38. 2 33.5 34. 4 33.9 25.6 Percentage of average deviation or irregularity of siz- ing of the yarn: 1S Pee ENS: NEHA, BD LS Pes SAR REN ANAS | 2. 02 2. 02 2.11 2.01 1. 94 Fe es as POR Noes G0 a apes SI 2 | 2. 06 2. 06 2.18 1.79 2.10 BM Soe. cen eee ess cic ventticedeeteiey nds 2. 40 1.87 2.16 2.1 1.8L Percentage of average deviation or irregularity of strength of the yarn: 28's 4, 54 3.7 4.72 4.72 3.7 36's | 4.51 3. 86 5. 09 3.98 3. 86 BA S32 aneeicee 4, 58 5. 30 5.27 5.70 6.29 These tests show clearly the desirability, from a spinning stand- point, of fiber produced by purebred strains of superior varieties of cotton over that produced from commercial seed even when grown in districts in which the reputation for character in cotton is excellent. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI- CULTURE. DICERELOMIMOPMAOTICUILUNE. 2201s. 2 alana nisiccce ode onesie Henry C. WALLACE. PAS SISHOUMLIDS CONELOMY cate tea) sa a wise ob bes... dee naee C. W. Pucsuey. Dircctomofescrentijic; Work... 0... 2-2-5200. dee6 le. E. D. Bau. Directonopneguiatory Work... 300.05... 005322. QnlOa? (DURES A Be Sa rr rn, Cuarues FI, Marvin, Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. ..........---- Henry C. Tayior, Chief. iBureono;-ammart Industry)... 2.226.605... 282226: Joun R. Mower, Chief. BUREOMOP LONE ANGUSETY 050)... 5 2s eek ce ek oe Wiiuam A. Taynor, Chief. PHORESIS ETUICE ME Hats role sarc) =\c) niece eine cic = oe 2 = HB slajeoe W. B. Greevey, Chief. EC OOMMERCNUISETY =f coe Sh Ue ees UB Watrer G. Camppeii, Acting Chief. LB EER, Oj (SOUS. 5 Shh 5 A eR Mitton Wuitney, Chief. BUCO O{PENUOMOLOGY.s 15-5 =.cas Gieee een a Product. | pera- | humid-| fumi- Bay | | NAP i) Vaca cane: ity. | gation. heats Rind. | Flesh. Parts | Parts | Parts per per per il Days. | million.| million., million. 43 1 sth fe eee PB )ere Se 43 | 2 sf) aes neeeese Ss 51 0 (tet nome cer 51 0. 36. |Zccees S. /ESSSee= 33 OdlSace bee 7 6 33 1 eee ees 6 2 23 Op sez eco 97 42 23 a ERS ete 16 5 6 This is made by dissolving sodium cyanide in water at the rate of 200 pounds to 50 gallons. 6 BULLETIN 1149, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 2.—Hydrocyanic acid in fruits and vegetables after fumigation—Continued. } ‘Sodium cyanide. Hydroeyanic acid in— | : Tem. | Rela- | Period ae ae os Product. erase ea leaiey : ; ture, | bumid-) fumi- | wWroje | .. | NAP | Vac. ity. | gation.) ¢i¢, | Rind. | Flesh. Oz. per | Oz. per Parts | Parts | Parts 100 100 per oe er Avocadoes: cu. ft. | cw. ft. | °F. Days. | million.| million.) million. VBnelels shel Sees elo 8 Se Aes fee ate 4 73 48 0.) ome 1,090 220 DOS. Come ere ae oetee 4 73 48 Pi ae 250 78 DA +64 lesen septa ass eo. wad de IT res Arey ets ce 73 48 Qj) fic clas ll 270 150 1 Bye Seti ig Re sek era rei ae ag spn 73 48 Ny Parsee se Ro 170 93 Oiérripe? 5108... Sa Pee! Abd Stet 4 75.5 72 Od S-L. 6 77 60 UD (oye Se Soe Fe eh ens eer 22 | t 75.5 72 pW PS Sa OF 95 41 Dou? AL GRE | AL pV Oe 75.51) 72 0 BONE: 73 11 WOrccteccuysasd's webtcs oss. Ar ifeesne. Za 75.5 12 Vn eee os 75 41 Bananas: F Ripe 4| 64 43 2 2 Ixlatalleecas D 2 75 51 0 OS are cers toe Do 2 15e4M 51 0 G5) SPV ERE. 222 Do 4 (Baa) || 40 Date on ok ae 440 110 Do 4 ToaD) 40 Tite tees 97 33 Do iaeo 4 40, Q || 82526 210 61 Do 73.5 | 40 ie teectus 110 43 Beans, string (green): PT6SU Rs Jays: or oaes Gee ees cbeneeliloc. hed 4 Ue 43 | 0 1 LOOM ep tass Bl gies. 4 77.5 43 1 ZOO eee cn tea] eee tae 77.5) 43 Oil) 480 lent -Lebpdse eee 77.5 43 ] TL eee | ee | 64 42 0 64 | 49 0 67) | 53 0 (3 eee ate 153 1 67 |) 5B 0 67a tomes 1 | SELEY. SEP ERE RRR O23 os. se 64 42 0 64 42 0 67 39 0 67 39 1 67 39 0 67 39 1 Bede RAR ones Bee Mea lake varecttela| arodaag 65 44 1 LOD). fA\<, 582. a a... 65 44 1 Fy al Bea 3) Fu ILGhs ecaahand 60 20 Oe See 170 | 56 60 20 tlg ee 120 | 44 60 20 Qh} .. Fen sae 200 — 7 60 20 TES ge 150 | 80 | he ASE AMR Cag DEY Lak 65 44 O} Sse VOOT Yas. |. 65 44 0 B1Osbs-b ce eh). Pazepie 75 51 0 nS 18 pals ea Sea 67 39 0 L201 basi HE) Bessie 67 39 1 75h (eee ee Peres 67 39 0 TA. Voce bes alicelisereioge 67 39 1 (Ue, es Jee een Ene oe RES spec Se bee nae paaeeen 82 65 0 230 oowerccs|ecennnee 82 65 1 100) ect celine eas 6 > CUES Re Mee A). Nig 1 iD YeR ASML. LQG BT a RCS I alan ean | 4| 68 34 0 TD Yo Rye Sy i Svein (6 | i URNA AA So RR || 4} 68 34 1 Potatoes (white) | | | EO) 0) 6 US, (2), ah op) ON ke OO | 4) 65 44 1 rh eae. pee TDYeaG Reese” Soi) Lari AE Rn ina 4| 65 44 1 TON oo eS ee DOS ees Peer coh AA ea te aka 33 Oe 20 6 1D Ye Bagpipe Ras Rs) Sl el er Ne re eee Se} 72 33 | Te ye Se 8 2 Dee los eh mens oh Pepe 4| 68 34 ON sous | 30 3 TDN aE sh ERC 2) ity eae ERI 4/ 68 34 | ANG Pee i 8 1 Salsify: | Salas elpalaiead pas ce 1S OE fl ak ak A Non) (2 a 42 | 0 ZOO Cee eae eters Te ee amet res ca ate Oe 4! 64 42 | 0 aC HG aheso.. SRB SS Dp test 052 PR a ae | aS rl f 63 19 0 L1O | jemtaaebl uae... Bs ae Se ais Be TE [hoe 4/ 63 | 19 1 0) co een DEL I CEN, Te em Sy | eee 6. | 19 a0 bE Li einige (se RG Oe ac an cee ce ees 4 Saran. he 63! 19 1 fe eS «Se 2 Fumigated at Key West, Fla. 58 feet from generator. 7 4 feet from generator. 4 Pod. °6 feet from generator. 8 14 feet from generator. Bull. 1149, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE | Before fumigation After fumigation. EFFECT OF HYDROCYANIC ACID ON FUMIGATED PRODUCTS. ABSORPTION OF HYDROCYANIC ACID. 9 TaBLE 2.— Hydrocyanic acid in fruits and vegetables after fumigation—Continued. ‘ . c anic ac = Sodium cyanide Rela- | Period Hydrocyanie acid in Product Seca te tive a | ture. |Dumid-) fumi- | whole} _,. - NAP | Vac. ity. | gation. fruit Rind. | Flesh. Oz. per| Oz. per Parts | Parts | Parts 100 100 er per per Sapodilla: Cisfiten| WCws Sts Mme Days. | million.| million.| million. Ripe 4 76.5 70 (OA ace Se 550 120 76.5 70 yi A 110 | 34 76. 5 70 On eens sis = 450 | 110 76.5 70 BU bs i a 50 15 | 73.5 40 ONle asta toy 130 | 51 73.5 40 Wis | Perstata tere 110 15 73.5 | 40 Oile estate 94 | 36 73.5 40 1 a aps 55 | 29 75.5 89 0 (ERG) 89 0 “oson 89 1 ouo 89 1 1ded 89 0 | (ES) 89 0 75.5 89 1 75.5 89 1 64 43 | 1 24) hog | eae 64 43 2 514) in = eel aoe ee oe 74 23 | OMe sess 400 59 74 23 MoS Se ehic 85 23 74 23). (Val Beonmecse 430 54 74 23 Le |) 98] 16 | 64 42 0 LQ eae eese | aenseeee 64 42 0 890 o eee aeceees 67 53 OPIS. eee. 74 17 67 53 1 Bg ere 28 23 67 53 Ode ee 56 | 12 67 53 | 1 Htc 14 9 ATH |8 ELEN 0)} Ti tee le eechge 21 ( O SOes see 1 PAA ea aoeeee ATG NV. IAA 3 Dae ee Vee eee aoe OAS ee aes 0} | 3 (ee eee legers, See MOWere Meee ese 1’ | Le i indi de be iy Lat ai TOV Pease ee | 3 919) | 2. 5. 2s eee 65 44 | ASIA 190 {PEEL [eee 65 44 | TUB TADS) aes fog Me sc 72 33 | On Socte se 120 | 53 (Pe 33 | Ars ee 45 | 31 68 34 04 eee 340 | 120 | 68 34 ie eee {99 43 | | | | IMR nb cota soos se Coe See Ge BeBB EG Ch ale aS iene) 66 Op eeemeees 5 | None DOS SGG5Re HaC Hes ORG aoe aeee | A | i of | 79 66 Ayileee | 4! None | { { 2 Sample cut and allowed to stand overnight before analysis. 9 Sample stored at 70° F. All the fumigated fruits and vegetables absorbed some hydrocyanic acid, but the quantities absorbed differed widely for different prod- ucts. In general, the hard-skinned products, such as apples, oranges, lemons, watermelons, and grapefruit, had comparatively little of the gas in the flesh or edible parts. On the other hand, fruits and vege- tables of a succulent nature or containing much chlorophyll absorbed larger quantities. Of course, in many cases these products are cooked before eating, so that most of the hydrocyanic acid, if not all, would have been driven off before they were eaten. The physical effects on the products treated at the rate of 4 ounces of sodium cyanide per 100 cubic feet are noted in Table 3. 10 \ BULLETIN 1149, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 3.—Physical effects of hydrocyanic acid gas on fruits and vegetables. Product. Effect of hydrocyanic acid. Product. Effect of hydrocyanic acid. | Apples: $..-.-.- 5 None. Muskmelon......., Decided softening. Avocadoes........ Deterioration very much has- || Onions............ | None. : tened. Oranges: ...4500.': Do. Bananas.......... Slight yellowing of the pulp; || Parsnips.......... ‘Do. some darkening of the epi- |} Peas..............| Do. carp. Hapeachess oe i... Do. Beans (green, | None. means. paced oes _ Darkening of the epicarp. string). || Peppers (green)...) None. : GOS? oops es Do. || Pineapples........ Do. Cabbage.........2: Some wilting and yellowing.} || Plantains......... | Decided softening of the pulp GATTOLS: Hone oc None. t | and browning of the epicarp. Wpleryes ec ce Severe wilting.! Potatoes (sweet)..) None. Corn(green, sweet) | None. Potatoes (white) . | Do. Cucumbers... ... Do. Salsifyerrsco eases i Do. Dasheen........-: Do. || Sapodilla.......... Do. Eggplant.......... Do. Hesatiash=..-ods8s ee Do. Grapes. 5 5. 25.13. Decided softening. || Strawberries ...... | Decided softening and severe: Grapefruit........ None. | wilting.! emMUnseas eee es Do. || Tangerines........ | None. PSthce eas Immediate and severe wilting.1 || Tomatoes.......-.. Do. Mameyea.........- Softening |] Durmips.cs2i6s2- Do. Mammee apples... None. || Watermelons......| Do. Minponnceer ne Darkening of the epicarp. 1 Deterioration was so serious that the product was not marketable. Some of the fumigated products show a tendency to speedy decay, probably because of a reduction of their natural resistance to putre- factive organisms (Pl. I). This is particularly noticeable in the case of the avocado. Refrigeration does not seem to prevent the disin- tegration to any great extent. No very direct relation seems to exist between the quantity of hydrocyanic acid absorbed and the damage to the tissues. Green peas and string beans both absorbed large quantities and yet showed no deterioration. On the other hand, mameyea, pears, and musk- melons contained comparatively small quantities but deteriorated greatly. 7 Although Schmidt (21) reports severe deterioration of peaches due to fumigation, the lower concentration of gas in the experiments here Proricd gave no such effects. SEEDS AND FLOUR. Experiments with seeds and flour were undertaken to determine the following points: (a) The quantity of hydrocyanic acid absorbed during fumigation; (>) the rate at which it is dissipated on storage; (c) the effect of evacuating the chamber several times after fumiga- tion on the quantity of hydrocyanic acid retained by the product; (d) the relation of the concentration of the fumigant to the quantity ab sorb ed. Navy beans, white field corn, cowpeas, wheat, and flour were tested. Sacks containing about 15 pounds of each were fumigated with the dosage indicated, by a modification of the method of Sasscer and Hawkins (20). In the first series of experiments the products were put into the fumigation chamber, and air was pumped out until the vacuum auge registered 26 inches. The hydrocyanic acid gas was then introduced, allowing 5 minutes for generation and 5 minutes for washing the gas from the generator to the fumigation chamber, after ABSORPTION OF HYDROCYANIC ACID. 11 which the air was permitted to enter until normal atmospheric pressure had been attained. After the products had been exposed to the fumigant in this manner for an additional 50 minutes outside air was drawn over them for 10 minutes to remove the hydrocyanic acid. They were then taken from the chamber for analysis. The treatment of the second series was conducted in the same manner as that of the first, except that at the completion of the 50-minute exposure the chamber was again evacuated until the gauge read 25 inches, air was introduced until atmospheric pressure was reached and, after a further 2-minute aeration, the products were withdrawn for analysis. The treatment of the third and fourth series was the same as that of the second, except that the evacuation at the end was repeated once and twice, respectively, with intermediate aerations of 2 mimutes in each case. Determinations of hydrocyanic acid were made, after distillation with tartaric acid, by the method of Viehoever and Johns (23), on the day of fumigation (except in the first series) and at intervals thereafter. A delay with the first series made it impossible to con- duct the analyses on the same day. The products were stored in a large, well-ventilated room during the intervals, at a temperature of about 70° F. The results of the examinations are recorded in Tables 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. TaBLE 4.—Hydrocyanic acid (parts per million) in fumigated navy beans. Number Hydrocyanicacidafter— © . of times Se aac a ae chamber | Peecat | Oday. | 1day. | 4 days. | 7 days. | 14 days. | 30 days. | 60 days. | 90 days. Oz. per 100 cu. ft. | USdieoede CO) [Areal Rae ee 3.3 oso ia 7/ 0.8 INORG. | 50.3202 salen ge ee eee re UH eee fy RS eye 8.3 3.3 2.5 -8 IN OT 0 Sil emer eee BRSeete ae Poses 7) a kg 8.3 4,2 2.5 .8 0.8 0.4 | 0. 1 ee Blears i Ges aa Sa Shes iS 8 8 6 Trace CAS Aden) 0 20 4.2 2.5 a7, 2 il nk TAD on ole eek tee pad eae 1 16 8.3 6.6 2.5 Ke/ Zeal 12 | .4 ie peas 2 16 6.6 3.0 2.5 eG | 1,2 ee 2 it .4 Be ee) 3 12 3.3 3.3 3.3 2.5 eae ata .4 | ae 0 58 13 5.0 4.2 3:3 3.3 | elie 1.2 cE a 1 42 17 5.0 3.3 2.5 2rlaet 21 17, tee Ne, 2 25 17 5.0 4,2 3.3 2.5 | 21 1.7 21 es 3 42 20 4.2 3.3 2.5 eS iy | 1.7 (See 0 25 6.6 5.0 4.2 3.3 Pega | Qek--\} 1.57 Goa 1 42 27 10 6.6 5.0 3.3 Zou) | 2.5 ee aease 2 42 30 13 8.3 6.6 3.3 2.5 | 1eTes Gaeccare 3 58 20 12 10 6.6 3.3 2/3 1 EY a 12 BULLETIN 1149, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 5.—Hydrocyanic acid (parts per million) in fumigated field corn. | Number Hydrocyanic acid after— of times | see pegeyre ea meeting} | | | vented Oday. | 1day. 4days. | 7days. 14 days. | 30 days. | 60 days. | 90 days. - | } | i ad OO } 0 25 lee 1-B.4 1 2.1 | ‘8 2 1.2 ‘8 3 8 | | Oo. 62 ea Oa oe aa ae BT Tr ee 0.8 0.8 1) 25 ot bl leader 1.7 12} 12 1.2 oe 2 12 B07 ilu ee 1.7 1:7 1.7 1.2 ‘8 3. $8) 50) 25 “A am babes 1 di | Sidi 5 1.2 “s Dal) Aza 6-6 3.3 3.3 2.5 1.7 1.2 1.2 | 1 25 10 3.3 3.3 2.9 2.9 2.1 1.7 | 2 25 8.3 4.2 3.3 2:1) |. ae 1.7 1.7 | 3 | 17 6.6 3.3 2.5 2.5 2.1 21 17 Oo” 33 | Bil) Ate” epee 3.3 2.1 2.1 1.7 1 | 33 108 ake 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.0 4.3 2 33 | 6.6 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.3 3.3 3.3 3 | 3 12 6.6 B01 os 4.2 3.7 3.3 ! } | TaBLe 6.—Hydrocyanic acid (parts per million) in fumigated cowpeas. ry if | Nuuber Hydrocyanic acid after— | | Sodium | 2 times - | cyanide, | Chamber Bye : | | Leaetere 0 day. lday. | 4 days. | 7 days. | 14 days. | 30 days. | 60 days. | 90 days. | | | | Oz. per 100 cu. ft. | AE sa! Dare ee: 6.2 4.2 3.3 2.5 1.7 ‘as aia BP 13 yee re Ie en ae 16 5.0 4.2 255,04... bb Dull Le Yeduhaila7 AvP a (aes ac 4.2 4.2 4.2 2.5 107 8 | 8 Heed Zi Gea baa ae 4.2 4.2 rr 1.2 ie 1.2 5 Oe 0 | 56 16 3.3 2.5 olin aii tbaee 1.7 1.7 TAR Sa 1 | 33 16 5.0 3.3 2.5 2.1 2.1 | 107 2| ier aie 2 | 21 17 50 [te 4.2 2.57 Wns ¥ 20d L7eeeegilot 4 {oe a 16 11 4.2 3.3 3.3 2.1. )4. 2s 137 0 83 33 «| 5-47, Gute.6 | $45.8 6.8 | ®) 88Gheeraed 4 50 S36) liek 8 5.0 | 5.0 5.0 rR Ee 2, | 42 33 | 8.3 5.0 | 4.2 4.2 ta 3.3 3 | 42 3) 6.6 5.8 5.8 | Si 5.0 Net ER oy ae 0 33 17 | 3.3) wes 6.6 | 4.2 dD ages:3) || 63325 is: 1 | a7 | 6cea [eeaes 7.5 7.5 6.6 5.0 | i aaa 2 130 27 17 13 5.0 | °. 6.0 5.OMheaese | Bas. 3. 3 100 40 | 13 12 10 6.6 6.6 | 5.0 | iL pea Jah | No hydrocyanic acid was found in unfumigated samples of any of the products, showing that none of it was naturally present in them. All of the seeds absorbed hydrocyanic acid on fumigation. The results obtained on the day of fumigation have little comparative significance, since much of the gas was loosely held and variations of three or four hours in the times of standing were unavoidable. They show, however, that the quantity then present is fairly large. Most of it disappears during the first few days. In fact, in most cases the hydrocyanic acid content, on the fourth day, was not more than 5 parts per million. After this time there was an extremely slow dis- ia) ABSORPTION OF HYDROCYANIC ACID, ] Yasue 7.—Hydrocyanic acid (parts per million) in fumigated flour. Number Hydrocyanie acid after— : of times | Sodium | chamber cyanide. | was evac- : nated? 0 day. 1 day. 4days. | 7 days. Oz. per | 100 cu. ft. ees aa OPalersete ssid MEN OOO er /-iitalstcls « eStart ae llermrate ys Sates TAY ersten ca INOS Heese es ct |--eceeneee | ee ees Dill eieteeie c's cig INIOMLG Slee ean sicher | Meteialsterstetace ASE: Bee Sn BOOS ERE Io oc acer INONO RM ees enecee. ot ava aes 0 50 DUB eeN ones) leche sao Darvocet tare 1 83 3.3 0.8 | None 9) AR ae 2 83 8.3 INONGS, lec oe eee 2a els SA 3 83 3.3 IN‘OTCS im ooeemenen | diode ddeatc 0 33) NODE lites nol) pers atate lets Aa ee eel 1 150 3.3 None: aoe es Gauge) l 2 50 | 4,2 INOW sel oemcaate ore A342 3 120 6.6 INGHON es esaoeee Gee tek tle 0 | 100 3.3 8 None. | Osoedeseue Wc 170 6.6 8 None. | GR EN 2 200 8.3 -8 | None. | Ge 3 170 3.3 Nones-|/-c8-5 222! | TaBLEe 8.—AHydrocyanic acid (parts per million) in fumigated wheat. Number Hydrocyanic acid after— . of times Soman chamber cyanide. | was evac- anted 0 day. 1day. | 4days. | 7 days. | 14 days. | 30 days. | 60 days. | 90,days. i | Oz. per | 100 cu. ft. | Te SGeaee OMA Maree ers eS 5.0 3.3 2.5 Use 1.2 Te 12 As Bins Te) SCe BOOB 4.2 353 255 BY VSTi 1.7 17a) Mee yatepetere Pia | ehals ouovelele 4.2 aie 2.5 WS | 2 1357 DE er SHE eters tec ese. bese s 2.5 2.) ee, LST, sy eral pHi, 0 7 | 8.3 3n7 3.3 255 el boat Delt Die Rok 1 21 | 6.6 5.0 4.2 aha} 833 21 174 Dae 2 13 | 5.0 3.3 255 2.5 255 PRat 1.7 Pye eee 3 13 3.3 3.3 3.8 3.3 259) 5] 2.9 21. Basie e 0 17 6.6 6.6 5.0 4.2 4,2 4.2 33} vn oh RRR 1 25 6.6 5.8 4,2 4,2 350 2.9 2.9 CV aus 2 Zan 6.6 5.0 4,2 4,2 4.2 4.2 3.3 4.. . 3 17 &.3 6.6 4,2 4,2 4.2 B83 29) | (gonesae 0 17 5.0 3.3 3.3 3.3 2.5 2.9 2.5 Genet. 1 25 6.6 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.0 5.0 4.2 Gees 2 33 6.6 6.6 5.0 5.0 4,2 4,2 3.3 Be Seceed 3 25 6.6 6.6 5.8 5.8 4.2 4.2 3.3 Sipation, a very small quantity of the fumigant being present at the end of the 3-month experimental period in all but a few cases. The flour differed from the seeds in that, while it at first took up a large quantity of hydrocyanic acid, the union seems to have been extremely weak and by the end of four days, or, at most, a week, no traces of it could be found. Evacuating the fumigation chamber once, twice, or three times to get rid of the fumigant did not have much effect. In fact, a sample from the series in which the chamber had been evacuated two or three times frequently had a higher gas content than the corresponding sample in the series in which the chamber had not been evacuated. 14 BULLETIN 1149, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The quantity of sodium cyanide used had a marked effect on the hydrocyanic acid absorbed by the product. This effect was noticeable after storage for 3 months. MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS. In the work of the Department of Agriculture it has at times seemed desirable to fumigate certain other material with hydrocyanic acid. These products have been analyzed, with a view of determining their safety for use after fumigation. The results are shown in Table 9. TaBLe 9.—Residual hydrocyanic acid in miscellaneous products after fumigation. Period | ; : 2 Hydro- Product. ae aaa, ih Pressure.| cyanic tone acid. Oz. per Parts per Days. | 100cu.ft.| Hours. million. . BOsnS) BraZaMs ~~ one peice eis spiebin ls eal-'= Pte) 1} Er Vac.2 | Less than | 4, PS CATIS HED) WAT ee cn ten enge oe ei itetian SO = ofute Ream. Stacia | 2 1 1} Vac. 5 Cotton seed, Columbia: | Wiholesbed ssa esos eels d cas se eee t 3 } Vac. 58 TE RDU RPI 0 Ce Cees ee Raya apa 7s eee aE RE ey | 4 3 3 Vac. 110 MCR TSS: See nc eee ery CoRR ahs eR 4 3 3 Vac. None WHOMGSREO Mason oceccs te cnt eee tes es seis eee emise 4 6 if Vac. 3 ERTS ate eS Pepe RG recite Wa ee CO 4 6 3 Vac. 140 INLCATS sonia meee ce eee Seon veo eee ee oa anes oon | 4 6 | 3 Vac. None Cotton seed, Sea Island: Whole seed... EI RECA RC 2 e } 1 3 3 Vac. 75 EUS ae Bea eee poles niet ea } 4 3 3 Vac. 150 Meats we eo.) Re Ae re talk ours , | INDEBTEDNESS il CR. LIVE STOCK INVENTORY DECREASES | | a cre Se Fia, 10.—Cash journal, showing method of recording cash disbursements, EQUIPMENT | JOURNAL UNDIVIDED BALANCE FEDERATION DUES EXPLANATIONS AA | | | : S VY] aia GSE MWS aie LEFT-HAND PAGE 14 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LOSSES PAID L MANAGER'S N (| | eso | ouereo| ‘Pato’ loucreo| | |_| i 3 oe 2 ea) TS (ee et NET PROCEEDS LIVE STOCK SETTLE- MENTS CHECKS | < Z, ae = © Fe “ DY) < 0 Fic, 11.—Cash journal, showing entry for settlement with shippers. EXPLANATIONS HA LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 15 When settlement is made for a shipment of live stock several ac- counts are affected. The debit and credits arising from shipment No. 111 are as follows (see Fig. 6) : DEBITS. CREDITS. Account. Amount. Account. Amount. BOIS CIS LOC Kemomremmermtstie rt ace ccivahsce are 47402. 73 || BAUKepteee acct -'s- -osek ese te stenoses $1, 430. 03 Manager’s commission................... 9. 5A Insiranceraundy te cots. 053 Sy pe 7.78 LOGRVCATOXDCNSB.. jn o.cccore tues -lacvers 4. 00 Dues-State federation.-........0..2....1. - 50 Undivided balance-gain.................. - 88 1, 452. '73 1, 452.73 The entry to be made in the cash journal would appear as shown in Figure 11. For the sake of clearness, the entry for the receipt of the proceeds is also recorded. The two entries, however, represent two separate and distinct transactions. The Live-stock account is debited, indicating that the gross amount due shippers from the sale of live stock has been distributed. The manager’s commission account, the insurance fund account, the local car expense account, and the federation dues account are each credited with the amount deducted for each specific purpose. The amount paid by checks is credited to the bank account. As complete dis- tribution was not made, the undivided balance account is credited with the 88 cents not distributed. TRANSACTIONS WHICH DO NOT INVOLVE THE CASH ACCOUNT. In the illustrations given above, cash was either received or dis- bursed in each transaction. Although this is the case in the large majority of transactions, it is occasionally necessary to record trans- actions in which cash is neither received nor paid out. For illus- trations see transactions (25) to (28) on page 50 and entries for these transactions dated December 31 in Figure 8. ILLUSTRATIVE TRANSACTIONS. In order to illustrate further the operation of the cash journal, the business of an imaginary shipping association for the months of November and December, 1921, together with a summary of the previous 10 months’ business is recorded on the cash journal pages illustrated in Figure 8. (A list of these transactions is given on pages 47 to 51.) It will be noted that the first entry records the accumulated debits and credits in the accounts resulting from the business transacted previous to November 1, 1921.5 This entry is then followed by the entries for the business transacted during No- vember. 5As the management is responsible for the condition of the business as revealed by the books, the manager or secretary should insist that the statement upon which the opening entry is based be approved by the board of directors. If the books of a previous secretary or manager are taken over they should first be approved by the board of directors. The books should be examined by an auditing committee at intervals of from one to three months, and a thorough audit by a_ skilled accountant should be made each year, or each time a change in management is made. Strict adherence to this rule would not only be a protection to the management and to the membership but it would tend to keep those responsible for the affairs of the association in intimate contact with the business. 16 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. At the end of the month, the totals of all the columns are brought down on the same line and are carried forward to the end of the year. However, in preparing the statement of resources and liabili- ties at the end of each month, the balances in the different accounts — should be determined and only these used. (See statement of re- sources and liabilities for November 31, 1921, on p. 49.) INFORMATION NEEDED TO DETERMINE THE BUSINESS STANDING. The records of many associations go no further than the prorating sheet, and information as to their business standing or the condition of their different accounts is not available. It is necessary, if proper accounting is to be done, that the results of the individual shipments be accumulated until the final reckoning at the end of the fiscal period, or oftener. As the estimates for imsurance and overhead expenses are often intentionally made high or low, this final reckon- ing will reveal the excess or deficiency of such estimates and bring to light other items which may have been overlooked. Proper dis- position can then be made of the excess reserved, or provision made for taking care of the deficiency. Furthermore, every association transacts some business which has reference to no particular shipment. Equipment is bought, claims are collected, money is borrowed or a note paid, office supplies are purchased, the premium on the manager’s bond is paid, or farm supplies are shipped in. These transactions affect the standing of the business just as much as those which relate directly to specific shipments. All of the business transacted, whether it affects cash or property, debts, reserves, expenses, net worth, or what not, should therefore be brought together and classified according to the accounts affected. Only when this is done will the association be able at all times to answer the question, “ How do we stand?” with any degree of assur- ance that it is answered correctly. The business standing of an individual or a business concern is re- vealed by the statement of resources and liabilities. In the case of a farmer purchasing a farm for $50,000 and paying $30,000 in cash and giving mortgage notes for $20,000, the statement of resources and liabilities would appear as follows: Resources. Liabilities. Marm (roy: cone ad t-py $50, 000 | Notes payable_____-_________ $20,000 Net worth... 40 ee eee Owner’s investment__________ 30, 000 50, 000 50, 000 This statement shows, first, that the farm business, as a unit in itself distinct from the owner, is in the possession of property valued at $50,000. In the second place, the statement shows the kinds and the amounts of the different equities in the business. Note holders have a prior claim of $20,000 against the undivided property of the farm business. The remaining $30,000 represents the owner’s equity. If the owner had invested $40,000 instead of $30,000, the other items (value of farm and the indebtedness) remaining the same, the owner’s claim against the business would be worth only 75 cents on the dollar, as there would be only $30,000 left after paying the note LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 17 holders, who have a prior claim. The farm business in this case might be thrown into bankruptcy by the creditors. On the other hand, if the property was valued at $60,000, the other items remain- ing the same, there would be $40,000 left? after pi aying off the note holders. In this case, each dollar of the owner’s investment would be worth 1334 cents, and the financial condition of the farm would be considered very favorable. A similar procedure is followed in determining whether or not any other kind of business concern is worth 100 cents on the dollar. An illustrative statement representing the affairs of an imaginary shipping association is presented below. STATEMENT OF RESOURCES AND LIASILITIES OF THE BROOKRIDGE COOPERATIVE SHIPPING ASSOCIATION, NOVEMBER 1, 1921. Resources. CCUSNSAOY Sea yl ae lh hen a 2 an a $576. 02 Yard andofice equipment. _-— eee eho 4p 1, 000. 00 ——— $1, 576. 02 Liabilities. INOteS payable fae bite ieee Sai oh Ort) ee i $3007 00 Hederation iUes) (ert tee ky fee Ti leet ee 55. 00 TASUIETM COm tu sey Boke Sat ee te 799. 51. Wincdivadedy balance: 2227 go a ee 8. 51 ——— 1, 158. 02 Net worth CapitalastOc kee smite ai a See ks ee. 400. 00 SuGpluSs undivided profits) =) = 20s yre pene ae 18. 00 418.00 1,576.02 It will be noted that the resources consist of cash and equipment amounting to $1,576.02; the liabilities amount to $1,158.02, consist- ing of outstanding notes, dues owed to a State association, the re- serve for insurance and the undivided balance. The resources exceed the liabilities by $418, which amount represents the net worth of the association. As only $400 was put into the business originally, the difference of $18 represents surplus profits left in the business. It will also be noted from this statement that the investment in the business came from stockholders, rather than from an individual owner, as in the case of the farm business. An association which is not incorporated is regarded as a partnership, in which case all of the members would be joint owners. Each of the subdivisions in the statement shown above represents a separate account in the cash journal; in fact, it is from the accounts in this book that the information for such statements is obtained. The accounts which a particular association needs depend upon the character of the business, if any, which it combines with live- stock shipping. Ordinarily all shipping associations need the follow- ing accounts: 1. Bank. 5. Local car expense. 2. Live stock. 6. Undivided balance. 3. Manager’s commission. 7. Loss and gain. 4. Insurance fund. 8. Net worth. Other accounts which are frequently needed are: 9, Federation dues (State or district | 11. Indebtedness (or notes payable). federation). 12. Merchandise. 10. Yard and office equipment. 33703 °— 23 3 18 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Each of these accounts is described and illustrated fully on the following pages. DESCRIPTION OF THE ACCOUNTS. THE BANK ACCOUNT. It is good practice to handle all funds through the bank. All receipts ‘of cash from whatever source will accordingly be entered in the “ deposits ” (debit) column and as checks are issued the amounts will be entered in the “checks” (credit) column. A debit balance indicates the amount of available funds in the bank and is an asset. A credit balance indicates an overdraft and is a lability. Debit : Credit : (1) eS the available balance of cash in | (1) With an overdraft, if any, at time of he bank as shown by the balance opening the books. obcee at the time of opening the (2) With the amounts of all checks drawn. books. The checks issued to shippers will (2) With all checks, drafts, and currency be entered in total for each ship- received from live stock and other ment. sources, as well as proceeds of notes given for loans, as these items are deposited. All cash should be recorded in one bank account in the cash jour- nal, even though the cash is divided into different funds at the bank or is carried in more than one bank. Where it is desired to divide the business between two banks it is preferable to change banks once or twice a year rather than to carry funds in both banks at the same time. LIVE STOCK. Debit: Credit ; (1) With net proceeds prorated at the | (1) With the net proceeds received from time of the settlement for each ship- commission firms for live stock ment, ship ts (2) With the purchase price of live stock | (2) With the amounts received for live purchased outright. stock sold locally. A credit balance in this acount usually represent proceeds which have not yet been prorated to shippers and is a lability. However, if live stock is bought outright the account will show a gain if the credits exceed the debits, and a loss if the debits exceed the credits. At the end of the fiscal year any such gain or loss will be closed to the loss and gain account. MANAGER’S COMMISSION. Debit : Credit : (1) With amounts of salary or commis- | (1) With commission earned at the time sion aS payments are made. settlement is made for shipment of (2) With amounts paid manager in reim- live stock. bursement of amounts advanced by | (2) With amounts advanced by manager him for association expenses. for association expenses at the time the advances were made, Where the manager is paid on the commission basis, the account will balance if he has been paid in full. A credit balance represents the amount of unpaid commission due the manager. If the man- ager is paid on a salary basis, the debit balance will represent the amount of expense due to manager’s salary, which will be closed to the loss and gain account at the end of the year. INSURANCE FUND. Debit : Credit : (1) With payments to shippers for losses, | (1) With amount deducted from the pro- (2) With payments of attorney’s fees for ceeds of each shipment as the in- collecting claims when such fees are surance charge. paid by ah association check. (2) With amounts received in settlement of railroad claims. LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 19 The insurance fund account will usually show an excess of credits over debits, in which case the balance indicates that more has been reserved than actually paid because of losses. Such a credit balance is a liability from the point of view of the association, as it represents deductions from returns due members in excess of the needs for insurance purposes. In a sense, this excess is held in trust for the members and in case of dissolution would. be prorated back to them. As the financial strength of an association depends to a considerable extent upon its ability to meet ordinary losses promptly without bor- rowing, it is important that a conservative credit balance be maintained in the insurance fund account. After a balance of several hundred to a thousand dollars (depending on the volume of business and other conditions) has been accumulated, the charge for insurance should be reduced to a point which will maintain the desired balance in the fund. The practice of some associations of drawing on the in- surance fund for overhead and miscellaneous expenses is not to be commended, as the protection to members is likely to be impaired by an undue drain on this account. Where the membership fees are not adequate, special provision should be made for meeting over- head expenses. This may be done either by making a separate de- duction from the proceeds of shipments for this purpose or, when a lump deduction is made for all purposes in general, by dividing the total deduction into two parts, one to be specifically reserved for insurance purposes and the other for overhead expenses. In order to avoid the possibility of using the insurance funds for purchases of equipment or otherwise rendering it unavailable for the payment of losses, some associations set aside the cash reserved for insurance in a separate deposit account in the bank, or even invest part of it in securities of a readily salable sort. LOCAL CAR EXPENSE. Debit: Credit : (1) With amounts paid for feed, bedding, | (1) With deductions from proceeds from partitions and other materials used sales of live stock to cover any ex- in preparing cars for shipment. pense incurred in preparing cars for shipment, including local feed, bed- ding, partitions, rope, nails, etc. The local car expense account will balance provided the deductions from returns exactly equal the expenses incurred in preparing cars for shipment. It happens sometimes, however, that supplies, such as feed, bedding, or lumber for partitions, are bought in quantities and charged against the shipments for which they are used. In such cases, the “ payments ” (debits) at a given time will exceed the “deductions” (credits) and the balance will represent the value of unused supplies on hand. UNDIVIDED BALANCE. Debit : Credit: (1) With losses on shipments when more | (1) With gains on shipments when less is is distributed than the actual bal- distributed than the actual balance ance available for distribution. available for distribution. 20 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Much time is often wasted in attempting to distribute returns to the cent. In calculating the shrinkage and expenses it is much more practicable to use rates figured to the nearest whole number or convenient fraction. Furthermore, when carloads of mixed grades are sold for a flat sum, it is necessary to “ price the car up and down” according to grades when making returns to members. In all of the above cases the amount prorated may differ slightly from the actual returns. The difference is to be carried in the un- divided balance account. Some of the older associations have adopted a flat rate of expense based on past experience which is applied on all shipments of a given species of livestock over a con- siderable period. In such cases gains or losses occurring on indi- vidual shipments will also be entered in this account. At the end of the year the net balance should be closed to loss and gain or otherwise disposed of as decided by the board of directors. LOSS AND GAIN, Debit : Credit: (1) With general expense, such as postage, | (1) With deductions from proceeds from stationery, telephone, premium on shipments of live stock to cover manager’s bond, interest paid, taxes overhead expenses. and similar items. (2) With membership fees.® (2) With losses suffered in handling sup- | (3) With extra charges made for handling plies or buying live stock. stock for nonmembers. (3) With the balance in the undivided bal- | (4) With profits resulting from handling ance account at the end of the year supplies or buying live stock. when the overpayments exceed the | (5) With the balance in the undivided bal- underpayments. ance account at the end of the year (4) With the net gain at the end of the when the underpayments exceed the fiscal year when it is distributed in overpayments. accordance with board action. (6) With net loss at the end of the fiscal year when it is transferred to the net worth account. The expenses of the ordinary shipping association fall into two classes, namely: Expenses incurred in preparing cars for shipment, which are not borne by the association but charged to the shippers and deducted from their returns; and, expenses which are not charge- able against any particular carload, that is, the overhead expenses, such as telephone, stationery and printing, advertising, interest on borrowed money, premium on manager’s bond, and similar items. All such overhead expenses and any other items not charged to shippers and deducted from returns should be entered under “ gen- eral expense” in the loss and gain account. The income from which such expenses are met will be entered under “income” in this ac- count. This income will usually consist of membership dues,’ in some cases supplemented by a special charge against shipments for this purpose. At the end of the fiscal year, after the necessary ad- justments have been made, the loss and gain account will show either a net gain or a net loss, which should then be carried to the net worth account, or otherwise distributed as decided by the board of directors. ® See note on page 11. 7If the law under which the association is incorporated regards membership fees as capital contributions the same as capital stock, the amounts so collected should be credited to the net worth account as they represent the members’ equity in the business. The same procedure should be followed even though the association is not incorporated, when more than a nominal fee is collected for the purpose of purchasing and installing scales, equipping yards or for other similar purposes. ’ LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 21 NET WORTH. Debit : (1) With the excess of. liabilities over assets at the time of opening the books. (2) With the par value of shares of stock retired, or memberships redeemed where such memberships are redeem- able. (3) With the net loss transferred from the loss and gain account at the end of the fiscal year. Credit : (1) With the par value of shares of stock outstanding at the time of opening the books. (2) With the excess of assets over liabili- ties at the time of opening the books. (3) With the par value shares of stock sold. (4) With the membership fees paid in, in ease of associations incorporated under laws which hold memberships redeemable. (5) With net profits transferred from the loss and gain account at the end of the year. of additional Tt seldom occurs that the total resources of a concern exactly equal the total liabilities. es. If the resources at the time of opening the books exceed the liabilities, a free surplus exists. This balance represents the proprietors’ (members’ or stockholders’) equity or interest in the business and will be entered on the credit side of the net worth ac- count. Sales of shares of capital stock, if any, will also be entered in this column. However, if the habilities or debts exceed the resources, the balance will represent the amount by which the association is unable to meet its obligations 100 cents on the dollar. The balance in this case will be entered in the debit column. At the end of the fiscal year the stockholders’ or members’ equity will be increased or decreased by the amount of the net gain or net loss shown by the loss and gain account. In addition to the above, the following accounts are frequently needed. FEDERATION DUES. Debit : (1) With payments of current dues to State or district federation on ac- count of membership in such federa- Credit : (1) With deductions from proceeds of the pale of live stock for federation ues. tions. ; Associations which are members of a State or district federation of shipping associations, whose membership fees are collected out of the proceeds of shipments, will need a federation dues account. Any excess of the total collected over the amount paid out will repre- sent the amount due the federation at any given time. YARD AND OFFICE EQUIPMENT. Debit: (1) With the value of equipment at the time of opening the books. (2) With the purchase price of additional equipemnt bought. (3) With the freight and installation costs of equipment. Credit : (1) With cost value of property sold or otherwise disposed of. (2) With estimated depreciation at the end of the fiscal year. Space is provided for two additional accounts. Associations which have invested money in yard and office equipment should use one pair of these columns for keeping track of such property. INDEBTEDNESS, Debit : (1) With payments made in settlement of outstanding obligations. Credit : (1) With the amount of outstanding obli- gations at the time of opening the books. (2) With subsequent obligations incurred because of money borrowed or sup- plies purchased on account, 92 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Where indebtedness is incurred an account should be opened with indebtedness or accounts payable, which will be credited with any obligation incurred and debited when it is paid. MERCHANDISE. j Debit: Credit : (1) With the invoice price of supplies | (1) With amounts received for supplies bought. whether collected in advance or on (2) With freight and other direct handling delivery of supplies. charges, such as extra labor, etc. If supplies of any kind are handled, an account should be opened with merchandise, which will be debited with the purchase price, freight, and any other direct costs incidental to the handling of such merchandise. The account will be credited with sales. When all of the merchandise has been sold the account will show either a gain or a loss, which should be transferred to the profit and loss account or prorated back to members at the end of the year. If a larger number of accounts is needed than space is provided for in the cash journal, a short sheet providing space for six to eight accounts may be inserted between the left-hand and the right-hand pages of the journal. However, where the number of accounts needed is relatively large, a ledger should be used and the form of the cash journal modified accordingly, ADVANCES TO SHIPPERS. Some associations regularly make advances to shippers, if re- quested, at the time of the delivery of live stock. Where this is done, one of the blank pairs of columns in the cash journal should be headed “ advances.” All advance checks should be recorded in the cash journal as all other checks are recorded, and the amounts charged to the advances account. Deductions for advances will then be made on the prorating sheet, the amount being entered, with an appropriate notation, in the membership column. The advances deducted in making settlement will appear as one of the deductions on the credit side of the home statement on the shipment record envelope. The advances account will be credited when the entry for the settlement is made in the cash journal. As advances do not affect the value of live stock or the expenses of shipping, no record of the advances need be made in the shipment summary record. SALES SUBJECT TO INSPECTION. Separate returns are usually rendered to cover animals sold subject to inspection, even though the terminal weight of such animals has been included in determining the expense rate on the remainder of the shipment. A separate prorating sheet should be filled out when the returns for such animals are received, and a separate entry made in the cash journal simialr to that made for regular settlements. All the papers concerned in such sales should be pinned together and filed in the envelope with the other papers for the shipment. When animals sold subject to inspection are condemned it some- times happens that their tankage value does not cover the expenses. In such cases, the shipper owes the association the difference. As LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS, 23 no debit will consequently appear in the live-stock account, when the cash journal entry is made the advances account should be debited for the amount due from the shipper when, such amounts are collected either in cash or by deduction from a subsequent shipment, the ad- vances account will be credited. THE NEED OF PERMANENT RECORDS. Even when ordinary care is taken to file and preserve the papers containing information regarding the business transacted, it seems to be the general experience that sooner or later many or all of the apers are mislaid or destroyed. Unless the data they contain have een recorded in permanent book form, the association is unable to show what business has been done in the past or to verify the details of transactions. RECORDS AS A PROTECTION TO MANAGERS, DIRECTORS, AND OTHERS. Embarrassing situations traceable to this lack of records develop frequently. In a recent instance a question arose as to whether or not the funds of the association had been properly accounted for. Neither the secretary nor the manager had preserved a permanent record of the shipments made or other business done. As a result the association was unable to prove that the funds had not been properly accounted for, and the manager was unable to prove that he was free from blame. The fact that it was the practice to “check out” each shipment completely did not save the situation. Many an honest man- ager or officer has found himself in an exceedingly embarrassing osition because of his failure to keep the few books needed to enable a to prove conclusively that his record is clear. Fidelity insurance companies usually require that proper records be kept as a condition to bonding officials responsible for the funds of an association. In view of the responsibility which rests upon the manager and the board of directors in such matters, they should, for their mutual pro- tection, insist that a complete, permanent record be made of all busi- ness transacted, that this record be kept in the same manner from year to year, irrespective of changes in the management. Further- more, all accounts of sales and other details supporting records and working sheets should be preserved so as to make possible a verifica- tion of the entries made in the shipment summary record and the cash journal. Only when kept in this way will the records adequately serve as a protection to the manager, the directors, and the members, and be a reliable guide in determining business policies. RECORDS AS A GUIDE TO MANAGEMENT. Mismanagement is one of the most frequent causes of failures in business generally. The remedy for a large number of the cases of mismanagement is to substitute facts for guesswork in the determina- tion of business policies. The judicious use of the figures covering the business from the time the association is organized eliminates much of the guesswork. For this purpose summaries are needed showing the values, numbers, weights, shrinkage, itemized expenses, losses, and other information resulting from the sale of live stock. These data are also needed in calculating averages which throw light on the relative economy of different methods of handling stock, the relative 24 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. advantages or disadvantages of shipping to different markets, and in directing the attention of the management to variations in the rates of expenses, losses and shrinkage, with a view to ascertaining the causes of such variations and reducing these costs to a minimum. Each manager believes he is doing the best that can be done, until he learns that-others have obtained better results than he. If all managers kept the essential figures in a uniform manner it would a a simpler matter to compare notes and ascertain “how it was one. The relatively small amount of time required to keep these records will be found to have been well spent when information is desired regarding the results of operations. ‘The time required in the prepa- ration of the annual report can be reduced to the few moments needed in copying the desired totals from the records. The value of these figures for publicity purposes is frequently overlooked. Many associations obtain SAA publicity by submit- ting their monthly and annual reports to the local papers to the county agents, to federations of cooperative live-stock shippers and by mailing mimeographed copies to the members. MONTHLY AND ANNUAL REPORTS. Tilustrations of the different schedules which a satisfactory report should include will be found on the following pages. ‘These sched- ules consist of the following: A. Financial statements. 1. Statement of resources and liabilities, 2. Statement of income and expenses. B. Statement of results of shipping. ' 1. Volume and value of live stock handled. 2. Analysis of expenses and deductions. 3. Analysis of shrinkage. 4. Analysis of losses. C. Report of money handled. 1. Cash receipts and disbursements. 2. Bank reconciliation. 3. Analysis of undivided balance account. 4, Analysis of insurance fund account. ANNUAL, REPORT OF THE BROOKRIDGE COOPERATIVE SHIPPING ASSOCIATION FOR THE FiscaL YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1921, A. FINANCIAL STATEMENTS. A 1.—Statement of resources and liabilities. Resources. Liabilities. Cashin dian ke vcae ce sec see $19.62 | Notes, payable_______________ $200. 00 Prepared expenses (feed)--___ 17.50 | Insurance fund_=_~_-----____- 500. 00 Equipment____________ $1,255 —— Less depreciation _____ 50 700. 00 1, 205. 00 Net worth. > By stgs Capital stock paid in ____-___, 395.00 1,242.12 | Surplus beginning of Wea pes IM As ae $000. 00 Net profits this year. 147.12 Total surplus______+ a Fs he LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 25 A 2.—Statement of income and expenses. Net proceeds received for live stock_____._u-+—.__.___.________._ $192, 478. 56 Hairoad claims collected}* gross_—___ ea ee et 1, 016. 21 OIC EET ea TS Ee RL 193, 494. 77 Net amount paid shippers for undamaged stock—__..__ $188, 230. 46 TES SESH ch Cece eee a hc 1, 287. 90 ANC fe) bof avz VAG ASI ay OS) ofS Smale lipemia 189, 518. 36 Add increase carried forward in insurance fund held TOPRVENeHIit OL SHU PErS se ees Nie 500. 00 Ot AmACCEUINS tO US OID DCTS 2 eet i ie Se ee ae 190, 018. 36 Balancenavailable: for expenses=2"0. = so ees ee 3, 476. 41 Add cash membership fees received_______-_--____-______________ 40. 00 ROtALEoTOSS INCOME CF is iS heen e eae eee 3, 516. 41 Expenses. Manager’s commission________________________________ $2, 339. 40 GO CHIMCAT REX) CTS SU loa o ln ue ls Ee 646. 89 PANT UO TMC VAS) VCE S rere mae i PLL SEIS We aR eae Ie 208. 50 Statemrederackiony Ques wis eee ee 62. 50 UNG fea) ipeseraresmermmncrturun esc ea art RO aie bse LT OTST ANeeamamiteNre sie Sry 3, 252. 29 Premium on manager’s bond_-__--------_-----_ $37. 50 ANAT PTGS Fee I UU A ee 16. 00 Meprecia tion) LAW Ls VW Haye eben PI aes 50. 00 Brintine and stationery 2 ee 9.00 TRELE WHOM eC emseuena a Ae 2. 50 Miscellaneous 22 228500 20 2 Wii) hea 2. 00 117. 00 MoOtalerorsallvexpeNnSese sc A eens 3, 369. 29 Net profit carried to surplus____-___________E 147. 12 B. STATEMENT OF RESULTS OF SHIPPING. B 1.—Volume and value of live stock handled. Number of carloads. Number of head. Kind of live stock. a This year. | Last year. | This year. | Last year. 1B IG oO a he SECC aC UGO CBS BES BEC OFS SORCSE epee 120 92 8,815 6,610 Cat ee eee el oc REO PE eo hg Od 3 U Mixed 2 Dt BABAR OEE oe Raters octcc Total 125 AQ4 |e sce R Sais |e Serge ee Hogs. Cattle. Grossisalestivalimes 20 ERO es le $201, 978. 21 $4, 792. 21 Added out of insurance fund.________- = 1, 287. 90 Total e NG hS oi 208, 261. 11 4, 792. 21 Total expenses and deductions_____-_-________ etal Bl gyre tial kes) 701. 83 Paid shippers’.U2._- 2 2-22 oe eee 185, 427. 98 4,090. 38 § Home net value less gain in undivided balance plus insurance paid. 33703°—23——4 26 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. B 2.—Analysis of expenses and deductions. Hogs. Cattle. Reretent, switching: war tax. 8 eee a $9, 429. 16 $390. 16 UiiP cos Nam a ee ie OO to es I 971. 73 28. 50 aT Gere Rien a ee ee eee Fee 1, 055. 88 39. 68 Selling (commigsion23 9"... Sie bias gee ys 2, 239: 57 99. 03 Inspection andginsnrance s.-38- eee 32. 80 3D Total freight and terminal expenses________ 13, 729. 14 657. 72 ManaeerissCOnmMIssi on: Se esos see 2, 248. 95 90. 45 DECUCTCAE TOT MIN SUTAN CE Bete ier ek eine ee, 1, 133. 89 38. 12 Local, cary expense seo cs) bee as AT eee 634, 01 12. 88 State rederation *duese-22 24) Le te ae ee 60. 61 1. 89 Membership fees deducted__~_---------_________ 20. 00 ——— Undivided balance: CEE TES) ie et a I St $17. 35 1.47 HOS SES OER ae ie Pee ee ee oe 10. 82 6. 53 . 70 77 Total sjhomedeductions2= 2 se eee 4,103. 99 144.11 Total all expenses and deductions_________ 17, 833. 13 701. 83 B 3.—Analysis of shrinkage. ; Hogs. Cattle. ome sweiphiteeee eacnsetiaee e eee se a pounds__ 2, 290, 951 95, 880 Market wel oi tee eat 5 Me a RE ald do____ 2, 271, 489 93, 620 Spree A ee! dolce 19, 512 2, 260 Shrinkage, per 100 pounds__--__--______--__--__ do-22- 0. 852 2.4 Average value of shrinkage, per 100 pounds, market MVGLE TE. COME Si es ee Na ae ee ee sss *7. 034 *10.6 B 4.—Analysis of losses. Number, of .dedda=s2= 2S seen OE — ee 106 Number (of crippleso nO ASS Ree a 142 Total damaeedi oe 6d ee ee 248 TOSSES (PAIGE grey gl rey eps Neen ree a ele ogee $1, 287. 90 Claims tcollecteds cross 22 see ee eee $1, 016. 21 Less. collection) fees iss seen ele eee De Sa 208. 50 Nef amountor claimsrcollecte dae aaa eS ae 812. 71 INGE TOSSES SE Reuss enivenm a sD a cS ee i 475.19 Net losses, per 100 pounds market weight, cents____________________ 2. 09 Net lossesofsales'value;sper. cent... ee 0. 285 C. REPORT OF MONEYS HANDLED. C 1.—Cash receipts and disbursements. Receipts. Cash balance Jan. 1, 1921 Received for live stock: fe 1d a a TD Pr a Tek eee ee $188,244.07 Cattle= 5 2 anwar Gna 4,234.49 Popa ls eee Speer ehel ei Sa 2 SE $192,478.56 Capital stock, sold -Aeceiwees is ee 400.00 Membership iiees: ea gies iie iia. CTE amma ente ER 40.00 Borrowed:'at banka: se. sige ee 400.00 Claims collected 2 aie ee we ae 2a 1,016.21 Total receipts ig Goo Urls ait eh EMT SALE 10) TRG a $194,334.77 +For method of calculation, see footnote on p. 39. LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 27 Disbursements. Net value of live stock: 1 (Co 2 LN erp SAAN se $184,166.61 (Cpe Gel span ee ga 2) 4,091.15 iY a Le phe OS OE ee 188,257.76 Less: Membership fees_________-_______ $20.00 Undivided balance______________ 7.30 27.30 Paid shippers for undamaged live stock_____ 188,230.46 PIE SSCS jap i CL ee ai ees a 1,287.90 Motalespsrid Shipper gee isa ieee LH $189,518.36 wcalestand) scale mouse: 2200 1,000.00 ZNO MGUY ya IC TA 0 i a a 250.00 SNC GOLTUG ) VOCOLOY spy Af DO ) ST Ue 5.00 Manager’s commission == 2-2) 2,339.40 Meedt bedding epel sau The i ALT Us 664.39 Attorney’s fees, collecting claims______________-_______ 203.50 State federation dues.2b ke 62.50 Paid for certificate of capital stock____-____________-___- 5.00 Pordenoerat, state banks 2 sess 2 ees ee 200.00 Premium on manager’s bond________-___-_-_-___________ 87.50 Printingvand) stationery es yok es ee 9.00 Nine re stem eee mene l OR Bt) a 16.00 CDP EN LSU BUGS a MS ES CI 2.50 Miscellaneous expenses____---_---____-___-_---_-----__ 2.00 Total disbursements! = 55 she. oi ee en es $194,315.15 1] RPT Wo VfL eo SS UTS THe pc ie Da), TY eh ea cae 19.62 C 2.—Bank reconciliation. Balance as per bank statement______________--__--_----_-------------- $102. 12 Less outstanding checks as follows: HINO 7p eee les ee Ee I A RS $20. 00 DOGO UTR eS lh ade 62.50 82.50 BalanceOnyv Our: DOOKS Meee. sa NCU eM reo ee 19. 62 C 3.—Analysis of undivided balance. 1 Bp Tigray eysy fea ale La AS Ae nai LA i OO Sa $000. 00 Gainszonl shipments, VO20 ee ee $18. 71 Hossesvonyshipments, OQ a Lea 8 Ue eh oe ee 11. 41 Excess on gains over losses_____-_-___--_______________ 7. 30 ‘Transterredstovloss and gains +. 20 ee 7. 30 Carniederonw are eos ois Wires sis Sea RS ped 2/8 e Wialie ETRE 000. 00 C 4.—Analysis of insurance fund account. ES DUTY COM ATM pal os 1 DS eis SU eI esl eel ele A els $000. 00 Deducted during 1921: VE (CORRS oc AS SUS BGM Cl gc a $1, 133. 89 CRN Ke) Lo A UI LT SUN ACI A eM 38. 12 1S DRO GEV C8 10 HY EY (ARO 0 Ae Lc ns Lette Or PAG ael aims COMeGcted aah CNR ei a 1, 016. 21 28 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Losses paid: 1c 6} -4- a eee $1, 287. 90 (O72), 5 8 (cee ee ea ee 000. 00 Total losses paids = a ees a 1, 287. 90 Attorney’s' fees 425 Sas eee po ee Seer es 203. 50 TOtaL dep lES eee eee eS A ee 2 $1, 491. 40 Credit «balance: 40 ss... 1 ne Bie" ee 696. 82 Deduct amount transferred to loss and gain_______________ 196. 82 Net, increase carniedfonrward... 202d eee $500. 00 Totalseanriedotorward.-—— 2 ee ae 500. 00 ANALYZING THE BUSINESS. If the information contained in the records and reports is to be utilized to the fullest extent in determining business policies, it must be analyzed and reduced to terms which will serve as measures of efficiency. The most successful association is the one which, first receives the highest price obtainable for each class and grade of live stock, and, second, pays the shipper the largest. proportion of each dollar of gross sales, considering the services performed. The analysis presented in Table 1 is based on the actual results ob- tained by three Iowa shipping associations in shipping hogs in 1921. It will be noted that even these associations, selected at random from the same territory, show wide differences in expenses, shrinkage, and losses. The exten’ to which these differences are justified must be de- termined by the management of each association in the light of its local conditions and other factors. It is not the purpose here to at- tempt to explain these differences, but rather to emphasize the fact that only by keeping adequate records and analyzing the results will the leaks in the marketing of live stock be revealed and their causes eliminated. TABLE 1—Comparison of the results obtained by three Iowa associations in shipping, 1921. Association | Association | Association A. B. C. Numbers of straight carloads shipped. ..............-..-.---- 120 140 144 Markets to winchishipped ac cre tence sc cee nc cnet ecmeoemenele x POCA NG X&Z Cents per 100 | Cents per 100 | Cents per 100 - Tbs. 1bs.1 1bs.1 Braipnbsswitching) War taxes. o:oncc (2) i) 622 3.4 te =3 3 DU a of ¢ & 2 a2 & penses to the penny. In the illustration it is found that $1,480.03 was actually distributed, whereas $1,430.91 was available for distribution, hence the undistributed balance-gain of 88 cents. LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. Al PRORATING MIXED SHIPMENTS. The prorating of carloads containing more than one kind of live stock is discussed under prorating on page 36. However, in order to illustrate more fully the procedure involved, and assumed carload referred to as shipment No. 112 containing 13,505 pounds of hogs and 5,400 pounds of cattle is carried through the records in the following pages. Other complications such as reimbursement for dead and crippled animals, dockage, and membership deductions, are also in- troduced into this shipment. : For the purpose of this illustration, it is assumed that the scale tickets show that live stock was delivered as shown in the manifest illustrated in figure 12. It is assumed that the account sales shown on this page represents the results of the sale of this shipment. [Account sales for shipment Nv. 112.] GooPpERATIVE ComMMiIssiIon Co., UNION Stock YARDS, CHICAGO, NOVEMBER 6, 1922. Sold for the account of the Brookridge Cooperative Shipping Association, Brookridge, [owa. Dockage. Buyer. Heads | kinds |pWeight. |_|, = asa Marks. Price. |Amount. Sows. | Stags. Lbs. Sywittee sees 22 | Hogs. CeO), Se aeee eneoovs|occeaubae 2-1; 20 No. mk....] $10.00 | $446.50 inkle 2:2! 1 | Dead P10) See Me lb acecoeer ($10) = eee ceeeeee 1.00 2.00 Armour 20 | Hogs. BOAO HEE oo Sah ~ amc mene eee No mark. ......-:: 9. 50 564. 30 Hinkle..... 1 | Crip..... B00) oeannae Gece con|cancscuss 1 ($9.50) Resin aceoes 7.00 21.70 Swift....... 7 | Packers QIAO S ioe) (Liul emcees 22 ee opbsa5-55 7.00 6. 25 «75 THSHEANCS 1RSp Ct OMe ac vee eee ean lea nn een eel -27 +20 -07 Spline) commissions. cea. one ee ee sen an 5 -caleiae e eee eaten eee tee 18. 00 13. 97 4. 03 Totslwmarket CXpense-.-e. ood hee ee - <3 Pe eee eee wn ie toe ctelace 126. 65 94. 08 32. 57 ManarersiCamiamtiss] Olen te eae seep rican o-oo eee ee eeieoa seis aaa 10. 11 8. 00 2.11 ire itds (G5 = ek 4 ae RG bes sone eeobon focessce ire Fee cetesabees: 7. 66 6. 08 1.58 Operating expenses $3.50, dues $0.50. . --..-....---.------2------ 5-2 --28-- 4. 00 2. 88 1.12 AWG LNG Gg Heise Sse Scetecocces Sseeeresosaeoc 000 SSeBouescseos 21.77 16. 96 4.81 Totalex:peuSes-eer ease ee paes eb see aan dees eae ele = aan eee 148, 42 111. 04 37. 38 Ratemper 100 poundSe- sesame nee = eeaeas-Cee hee - seen n= = Cents.-}. 22.02. .- 83. 28 70.8 To facilitate the calculation of the expenses to be charged each shipper, the rate for hogs was rounded down to 83 cents and for cattle up to 71 cents. All data needed in prorating are now before us. A separate pro- rating sheet is used for each kind of live stock, and after the ex- penses have been transferred to the prorating sheets the calcula- tions are carried out as explained in prorating shipment No. 111. Referring to the accompanying prorating sheets for shipment No. 122; (See Figs. 13 and 14) it should be noted that in calcu- lating the returns for the hogs, nothing appears on the prorating sheet to indicate that one hog was dead and another crippled. As these hogs were received in good condition they are to be paid for at the price they would have brought undamaged and the difference is to be charged to the insurance fund account. These animals are therefore included with the undamaged animals in carrying out the calculations. The amount of $25.75 appearing opposite “ insurance paid” under proof of settlement includes $18, the difference between the $2 which the dead hog actually brought and the $20 it would “See discussion of method on p. —. LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 43 have brought undamaged at $10 per 100 pounds, according to nota- tions made on the account sales by the commission firm. Similarly the loss on the crippled hog amounts to $7.75, making a total of $25.75 for both hogs. dé me 3 INS ™s Bg q a 2 ro} ~ Zi 4 S 3 9] 8 Elia : $ z o 2 Rel aes ats a Sheets d & ol : ‘ x a w 5 ay 1.8 zr fe) Fi) g Ls \% Z, Wl Slike x 2) .2 ae q oY se tess Las EI S RQ] S& 9 — U iF = a nD Zz = = Fe = S = — on < cles ies | ci 4 aang 3 a) Te See re) Boe Sioa G6] 8 & is] STA oy Al oH © $F a so} iG : | 3 “quays i N ee: | | eae ie nR ne : E S ¢ ° & A =i “oy SI Sp SSF Sp Se Y {3 sf S| 3} Sa} ef 9] aj ~|] A Rl sl sl [is & § > Sas Sffelle A ENINIS = = = |_& RUS > 3 | & ay = z% w £ A 2 8 a Bl st | -| | 3 + S & 3 2] zl =| § 6 g 5 2| 3] gS Fai8 3 e| | i] S12] 2 8] yess zi4i¢) | | a] za 2 =| §| 2/8 lel s| e Bl g/siiel 8] co) 2] 2] = 3| 2/2 s £ s| 3| &| & miles ees iacs a] se} Soi a] 2] 2] &| al =|] £ a. 223 z/ $1 81 2] | St 2] } sla el ai elel gl €] Zl ei) |e ces a 21 Sj a Sl a] S$} sie = a aas Coop gl et 2/2] 2/6 2) el} di 6| =| 2&|&| = e| 8] 2 The items of 25 cents, undivided balance-loss on the prorating sheet for hogs, and the 11 cents, undivided balance-gain on the pro- rating sheet for cattle, may be analyzed as follows: Losses. Gains. Hogs: NCA GX CNC: oe uh Lea oe ea ig 8 $111. 04 HRenSese WLOrated 42 le Pane te ie if Te ee et 110. 67 TOYS A EG Ee $0. 387 Actual shrinkage on packer hogs-—_________--___ 45 lbs. Shmingaceo pLora tedec eee Te ee ee 44 lbs. AGS Soe Stee US a Se 1 1b.@8¢ .08 44 Hogs—Continued. Actual shrinkage on buteher hog Shrinkage prorated ie sere ES a ae ee egeeener et Gaatanr nae anee-loss2-22r2- a Cattle: Actual expenses Expenses prorated Undivided balance-gain BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Losses. Sas 5 7 aR SE BiB 120 Ibs. 122 lbs. Lo ie 2 lbs.@10. Ss ee ae $0. 45 .2 BEE SHIPMENT No./Z2—___ i jn 3 Bice Hat tll tre oe res el ae fe} y | uw {ls EE Hee ae aa ts RPE RUHR of ERED EISIEI iti abi z SP = Beebe hw De Oe SRI Cale bere Meeks Pare a fe | a ac a fr o| =e — [fos [fae es SEMEL CTT Fre) Fest SL 1S LL VL ad) PP le muyys Q i | | miss | FTIEGHEE CC EB | oy i, Zelt|.. Paes aioe “| iS Seat el [378 g E a | Insurance anagers im ing FG q " PROOF OF SETTLEMENT | | rostral sl [| | Undivided (Gain eS bess ~_Balance ie Gains, $0. 20 - 20 Fie. 14.—Prorating sheet for cattle, shipment No. 112. A member’s statement showing the results of the sale of the live stock delivered by Axel Johnson in shipment No. 112 is shown in Tigure 15, LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 45 The data to appear on the shipment record envelope for ship- ment No. 112 are shown in Figure 16. It will be noted that when the undivided balances on both prorat- ing sheets are combined for this shipment, there was a net overpay- ment of 14 cents, which is obtained by subtracting the underpayment of 11 cents on the cattle sheet from the overpayment of 25 cents on the hog sheet. Shipping Association Form No. 4 MEMBER’S STATEMENT Shipment No. 1/2 Amount eee Attached find Check for Balance due $.. L$ 2f A). Please ask about anything not understood. Complete statement of each shipment is on file, (Tear Off Before Depositing) TOW8, crsrsssenseen’, Gm. @_.192.2— 2 TN oe é/. Fu A, orn 6 DOLLARS Tic. 15.—Member’s statement showing the results of sale of stock included by Axel Johnson in shipment No. 112. By referring to the illustrative entries in the shipment summary record for shipment No. 112 it will be noted that the data are sum- marized separately for hogs and cattle. Reference is made to trans- action (14), on page 49, for the cash journal entry to be made for the settlement for this shipment. SHORT WEIGHT AND MIXED CARLOADS. The following tables ** are presented to illustrate the effect on the freight cost per 100 pounds of shipping carloads containing less than ie if Tables prepared by C. W. Crickman, assistant in agricultural economics, Iowa State ollege, 46 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the minimum weight and of shipping mixed carloads containing hogs and cattle. The figures apply to a standard 36-foot single-deck car and the rates used were 36 cents per 100 pounds for hogs and 34 cents for cattle. Similar tables may be readily constructed for other kinds of live stock, for cars of different capacity, for different minimum weights, and based on different rates. Shipping Ama Form No. $ Shipment No_/72—_ SHIPMENT RECORD ENVELOPE er DIE) BOE ie To Commission Co. Time Loaded foo AM Number of on hy, of Decks a Syetecha): Ore Pees Car Nos. 2-7 PLUN -Sb9 = HOME STATEMENT Jorarcs Fund rl Local Car Expense $ Fic. 16.—Shipment record envelope for shipment No. 112. TABLE 2.—Freight cost on short-weight cars. Hogs. Cattle. Cost per Cost per 100 pounds 100 pounds Weight. oflive | Weight. of live stock stock shipped. shipped. Pounds Cents. Pounds Cents 17, 000 36.0 22, 000 34.0 16, 0u0 38, 2 21, 000 35.6 15, 000 40.8 20, 000 37.4 14, 000 43.7 19, 000 39.4 13, 000 47.1 18, 000 41.6 12; 000 51.0 17,000 44.0 11, 000 55.6 16, 000 46,7 10, 000 61.2 15, 000 49.9 By referring to Table 2 it will be seen that the cost of freight rises rapidly as the weight of live stock loaded falls below the LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 47 minimum weight. The matter of getting the proper weight into the car is often a difficult problem for the manager to solve. Even though the member is under contract and delivers the exact number of head of live stock listed, his estimates of the weight are often wide of the mark. The result is a constant swinging from short- weight to overloaded cars. The properly loaded car is, of course, not necessarily the one which contains at least the minimum weight. In fact, experience seems to show that, particularly in the case of hogs, the saving in freight cost resulting from’ loading to the minimum weight or over it is frequently more than counterbalanced by excessively heavy shrinkage and losses due to dead and crippled animals. The alternative of shipping a short-weight partly-filled carload of hogs, cattle, or sheep is of course to ship a mixed load.1 When the manager has a choice, his problem is to decide which is the more economical alternative. Many communities, however, pro- duce live stock in such quantities and in such proportions that the mixed carload is the rule rather than the exception. In this case the manager’s problem is to select such proportions of two or more different kinds of live stock as will reduce the freight burden to the minimum. From observations made, it would seem that this problem is not generally understood, and that relatively little attention is given to an effort to obtain just the right mixture which can be shipped at the lowest costs. It is probable that careful study of the proper load will reflect as large savings to the shippers as can be made in any other way. . ILLUSTRATIVE TRANSACTIONS. Notr.—See Figure 8 for cash journal entries for the following transactions. For the purpose of this illustration, it is assumed that totals have accumulated in the different accounts as indicated below, as a result of the business transacted up to November 1, 1921. This business is assumed to consist of livestock handled as summarized on the first line in the shipment summary record (see p. 9). Eighty shares of capital stock at $5 per share have been sold; $300 have been bor- rowed at the bank, and $1,000 have been invested in scales and other equipment. The manager has been paid in full and the deductions for local car expenses just equal the amount which has been dis- bursed for this purpose. The totals which have accumulated are shown in the following trial balance. : Trial balance November 1, 1921. Debits. Credits. TBS ara S a a a oe eR Cem $172, 655. 49 $172, 079. 47 TEMS. 9 SyeroX LB 0 NUTS Te gpm po 170, 965. 03 170, 965. 03 Manager's -commission’ (010822) a es 2, 070. 09 2, 070. 09 Insurance fund (including railway claims) _—___ 1, 226. 00 2; 025. 51 Tocallleariexpenseliaiis item Tia pect cet ae ie 578. 60 578. 60 HECerabOML AUCs ss eee MN Pi 2 Nin ee ae 55. 00 madividedsbalanece see ince is uss i OE 8. 96 12. 47 11 The freight on a mixed load of live stock is caleulated at the highest rate based on the highest minimum represented by the live stock in the ear. 48 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Debits. Credits. Hounipments 6-3 oe og oe a ed $1;(000. 009 eee tae Indebtedness) 2 ese Ae pe ee kL $300, 00 LOSS ANG een. ee eee ee Bn a en 18. 00 Net’ “wortin2 fase te Oni eo So eee ae ere ee Me 400. 00 otal te Eee tt 348, 504. 17 348, 504. 17 The condition of the business affairs is revealed by the following statement of resources and liabilities constructed from the balances in each of the foregoing accounts: Statement of Resources and Liabilities of the Brookridge Cooperative Shipping Association November 1, 1921. Resources. Liabilities. Cagiiege =) bee ne ee ee $576. 02 | Notes payable _-_______._____ $300, 00 Kyguipment 22222 sas eet 1,000.00 | Insurance fund ______________ 799. 51 —————— | Federation dues______--_______ 55. 00 PPG: as na ee 1,576. 02 | Undivided balance____________ 8. 51 Net worth. Capital stock paid in_________ 400. 00 LOSS and) gain — 2) See eee 18. 00 Motel cero! Ave ee 1, 576. 02 November 1. (1) The board of directors has approved both the trial balance and the state- ment of resources and liabilities constructed from it. The cash journal will, therefore, be opened by entering in each account therein the accumulated debits and credits given in the foregoing trial balance. (2) Paid Jones Feed Store for feed for SHpmpue No. 111; check No. 101, for ‘$4. November 2. (3) Received from Cooperative Commission Co. proceeds of shipment No. 111, $1,452.73. (4) Paid Bell Telephone Co. November telephone bill, check No. 102, $2.50. (5) Paid Eureka Printing Co. for cash journal binder $5 and stationery $5, check No. 103, $10. (The permanent binder should be debited to the yard and office equipment account and the stationery to general expense.) November 3. (6) Settlement for shipment No. 111 as per home statement on the ship- ment record envelope for this shipment. Accounts debited. Accounts credited. Live, ‘stock. =: ==3 = ee $1, 452.73 | Bank (checks 1—2)________-__ $1, ae 03 ————— | Manager’s commission _____-__ 9. 54 Total 25 a oi ee ees 1, 4520 fo. Pensa Ce tur i ae eee 7. 78 Local car expense____-_______ 4. 00 Wederation.. dues-———- 4 = . 50 Undivided balance—gain_______ . 88 Total 2 eee 1, 452. 73 (7) Paid Jno. Clark, manager, commission for shipment No. 111, check No. 104, $9.54. November 4. (8) Paid Blank State Bank $200 note with interest $16, check No. 105, $216. November 5. (9) Paid Smith Hardware Store for rope for shipment No. 112, check No. 106, $1. (10) Paid Farmer’s Elevator Co. 40 bushels of corn, check No. 107, $20. November 6. (11) Received from Cooperative Commission Co., proceeds from shipment No. 112, $1,406.05. LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 49 November 7. (12) Paid Tribune Printing Co. for advertising circulars, check No. 108, $4. (18) Paid National Surety Co. for premium on manager’s bond; check No. 109, $37.50. (14) Settlement for shipment No. 112. (See shipment record envelope on p. 10 for this shipment). Accounts debited. Accounts credited. OV CM SLO Gg eee ee $1, 406.05 | Bank (checks Ct) $1, 408. 17 Insurance fund (losses paid) —_— 25.75 | Manager’s commission ________ 10. 11 Undivided balance loss__________ f4 |) Insurances Lund)2== === Sees 7. 66 —— Local car expense________-___ 3. 50 WR Ou A pee ee 1, 431.94 | Federation dues______________ . 30 Loss and gain (membership fees), ties Gl te eras 2.00 Tay ye a 1, 431. 94 November 25. (15) Paid United States Office Equipment Co. for Burroughs adding machine No. 36980, check No. 110, $250. (16) In order that the cash journal may show the results of all shipments made during November, as recorded in the shipment summary record, ship- ments No. 113 to No. 122 will, for the purpose of this illustration, be entered in summary form. It will be assumed that the manager’s commission and the local car expenses have been paid in full for these shipments. The debits and credits arising from these transactions are as follows: Debits. Credits. ERE keane eu ME AE os $18, 654. 75 $18, 760. 33 Ni EStOCKgeaseeesee mete Seen cee en Oe 18, 654. 75 18, 654. 75 Manacers commission. 2201 a a) Oe eee 249. 66 249. 66 NSA COMET eee ane ek hes he oo 236. 65 a Dal yz Local car expense___-- eee Sn 60. 79 60. 79 Federation dues ______________ Ge Sli Sieoraligsath 72a Aet cateai sae 6. 50 Windivided: balance. ss 2) he tek Se eee Ol! 5. 36 37, 858. 91 37, 858. 91 Total all columns at the end of the month, entering all of the amounts on the same line. See Figure 8 on page 106. If the debits and credits arising from each transaction have been correctly en- tered, the sum of the debit totals at the end of the month should equal the sum of the credit totals. A statement of resources and liabilities based on the balances in the different accounts at the end of November appears as follows: Statement of resources and liabilities, November 31, 1921. Resources. Liabilities. Yard and office equipment_____ $1, 255.00 | Bank overdraft _____________- $63. 52 Prepaid expense (feed) -_~-__ 1250 -|sNotesh payables: 22) ores = 100. 00 Due Jno. Clark, manager______ 10, 11 iMmsurancey: hunds222 = =a eee 674. O07 Federation dues____________-_ 62. 50 Undivided balance______--____ 7. 30 Net worth. Capital stock paid in_ $400. 00 Less loss and gain___ 45. 00 —- 355. 00 SPotal ie i 1, 272. 50 Mota euy Genes SST 1272558 December 1. (17) Received in cash $40 from 40 new members, as per the minutes of the November 31 meeting of the Board of Directors. 50 BULLETIN 1150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. December 2. (18) Paid John Clark, manager, commission on shipment No. 112, check No. 111, $10.11. December 5. (19) Received from C. & NW. Ry. $25.75 in settlement of claim of Novem- ber 7. December 6. (20) Paid Stephen Stone, attorney’s fees for collecting claim of November 7, check No. 112, $3. (21) Borrowed at the State Bank on 3 months note at 7 per cent $100 to cover overdraft. December 9. (22) Paid Sinclair Oil Co., for 10 gallons gasoline, check No. 1138, $2. December 15. (23) Bought of J. Andrews, retiring member, capital stock certificates No. 24, check No. 114, $5. (24) Paid State federation dues for 1921, 50 cents on 125 cars, check No. 115, $62.50. Fiscal year adjustments. (25) The Board of Directors voted to charge off depreciation on the equip- ment estimated at $50 for the year. (This amount will be credited to the yard and office equipment account and debited to the loss and gain account.) (26) The credits in the insurance fund account at this point exceed the debits by $696.82. The Board of Directors, it is assumed, decided to carry for- ward only $500 in this account. Hence the excess of $196.82 will be transferred to loss and gain by debiting the former account and crediting the latter. (27) The Board of Directors also decided to close the credit balance of $7.30 in the undivided balance account to loss and gain. Debit undivided bal- ance account and credit loss and gain. Had the credit balances in the two above instances been in excess of the needs of the business, the directors might have voted to re- fund the excess to the shippers as a patronage dividend. Prefer- ably such refunds should be first credited to indebtedness when the refund is decided upon by the directors, and, subsequently when paid, debited to indebtedness. Distribution of net income. The loss and gain account at this point shows a credit balance of $147.12 which represents the excess of all deductions and income over all expenses incurred. As profits can be distributed legally only by action of the Board of Directors, it is assumed the board has voted to carry the balance of $147.12 to surplus. (28) In accordance with the above action of the Board of Directors debit loss and gain account with the balance of $147.12 and credit same to net worth. All columns should again be totaled as was done at the end of November. As this marks the end of the fiscal year, the smaller side of each account should be deducted from the larger and only the balance carried forward to the new fiscal year. LIVE-STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS. 51 Annual report. Suggestions for the preparation of the annual report will be found on pages 24 to 28, where statements based on the illustrative figures in the accompanying cash journal and shipment summary record will be found. January 2, 1922. (29) Bill Adams came to the office and stated that he had been overcharged in the settlement made for shipment No. 111. A recalculation of his expenses, which appear on the prorating sheet in Figure 4 shows the overcharge to be 71 cents. This amount is paid Mr. Adams by check No, 116. Debit undivided balance account. ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SCCretary” Gr AQiiCuleure se a ee eee HENRY C. WALLACE. Assistant, Secretary.-- 22 2 eee C. W. PUGSLEY. Director of Scientific Work___-___-_______ E. D. BALL. Director of Regulatory Work_____________. Weathers Bureqes 2a ae. CHARLES F., Marvin, Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Economics________. Henry C. Taytor, Chief. Bureau of Animal Industry_____-_----____- JOHN R. Mouter, Chief. Bureau of Plant Industry____________-___. Wirttiam A, TAytor, Chief. POrest Service === a eee ee | eee W. B. GREELEY, Chief. Bureau of \Chemistny ee eee. 2 ae WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. BULeounol es oils eee eee MILTON WHITNEY, Chief. Bureau of Hntomology-——— —__-___ __-- ==. L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey_____________- E. W. NEtson, Chief. Bureaw of Public Roads. eee THOMAS H. MACDONALD, Chief. Fired Nitrogen Research Laboratory____. F. G. Corrrety, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements__. A. ZAPPONE, Chief. Division of Publications 2-2 EDWIN C. PowELL, Acting Chief. TACT OY es ee CLARIBEL R. BARNETT, Librarian. States Relations Senvice=— =. eee A. C. TRUE, Director. Federal Horticultural Board___-_-____---_ C. L. Martatrr, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board__________ J. K. HAywoop, Chairman. Packers and Stockyards Administration____- CHESTER MorriL1, Assistant to the, Grain Future Trading Act ee ee Secretary. Office (ofthe: SOL Cito Aas ae a oe ae R. W. WILLIAMS, Solicitor. This bulletin is a contribution from Bureau of Agricultural Economics_______-. Henry C. Taytor, Chief. Division of Costs of Marketing_______. A. V. SWARTHOUT, in charge. 52 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D, C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY PULCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. v April 23, 1923 THE EFFECT OF BORAX ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF CROPS By J. J. SKINNER and B. E. BROWN, Biochemists, ana F. R. REID, Assistant Biochemist Office of Soil-Fertility Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry CONTENTS Page Introduction SRR o rca ts) wits Len ombeMiemeoy steele oem fe) oie 1 Review of the Literature . . MAR OMAN sui siaensps ls: |. <) iheu Age 2 Scope and Plan of the Investigations i in 1920. SPSRoMNCH Aye fie: | es !%. 61). Verh elapee Experiment .with Borax at Arlington, Va - - - Sian! | ule fot a holders kamen Field Experiments Using Fertilizers with and without pore Bical sje), si eat te anetre CMe at Effect of Borax on Cotton at Muscle Shoals, Ala. SUR cece, Lisi), Jeu Nai, itera Mee The Residual Effect of Borax - - Spee Tai eM IMTat hy el) vat" “6; , Wend Stet Monn wess Symptoms of Borax-Affected Plants - - + «© «© «© « « « « e« 26 IMM ALY REAM CS PRS Meri clon “ey? Weigh dese ROMIPMLORE eM iON Ate Lie) Delete, i ree PiteraturalGitedtveinc cic yetles is) = |, watatre emie pairath tse wy) Se tiUitet aterm ene oO WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1923 % Ws i a i he A ms ‘ oe : we tid UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1128 Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 20, 1923 DECAYS AND DISCOLORATIONS IN AIRPLANE WOODS By J. S. BOYCE, Pathologist Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology Bureau of Plant Industry CONTENTS Chemical Discolorations Discolorations Caused by Fungi... . Woods Used for Airplane Construction Sap-Stain General Defects of Airplane Woods . . Color Comparisons Discolorations Caused by Wounds Lightning Wounds Sapsucker Wounds Pith-Ray Flecks Brown-Oak Discolorations Decay Discolorations Decay in Finished Airplanes Summary Literature Cited Defects of Wood Referred to in This Bulletin, Arranged by Species .... WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1923 es met meee ne ene UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1132 Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 21, 1923 THE RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK FROM 1916 TO 1921, INCLUSIVE CONTENTS Page. Page. Introduction . . . 2. « © 2 © « e 1 | Table I1.—Results of compression tests Table I.—Results of physical tests of of rock made prior to January 1,1916 . 48 roadbuilding rock from 1916 to 1921, Table I1].—General limiting test values CEES WEL Oa A TL San Fir ie ara for broken stone . . . .. .-: = 51 , Table IV.—Geographical distribution of Crushing strength or compression test . 46 rock samples tested from January 1, Interpretation of results ofphysicaltests . 46 1916, to January 1,1922 ... .. 5&2 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1923 UNTED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 26, 1923 SELF-FERTILIZATION AND CROSS-FERTILIZATION | IN PIMA COTTON By THOMAS H. KEARNEY, Physiologist in Charge of Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry CONTENTS Page Introduction Pollen competition as a factor in self-fertilizetion and Vicinism, or natural hybridization, in cotton iwterocey -fertili Structure of the flower in relation to pollination . . . Ontogeny of the flower in relation to pollination . . . Fea a De lation to self-fertilizati Seasonal! variationsinrelati vecompleteness offertilization. 51 Aer ile fettilis nde ata Taree ie) coerce em 27 | The inferior fertilization of bagged flowers 53 Relative earliness of arrival of self-deposited and of insect- Boll shedding in relation to pollination and fertilization . = carried pollen 31 | Inbreeding in relation to fertility Deposition of self pollen and of foreign pollen byinsects . 34 | Summary Pollen-carrying insects at Sacaton 36 | Literature cited Relative compatibility of like and of ualike pollen . . | localities WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1923 4.8 ey Grrr Ss v By UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. Vv May 12, 1923 KILN DRYING HANDBOOK By ROLF THELEN, In Charge, Section of Timber Physics, Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service CONTENTS Purpose verreiictieh ciency fel sitoiie) ioGeiene) vslietiedtauoiMelveiietie! heiisiive) (sire/lelllel tele sli cike Moisturein wood . General principles of drying wood Heatinthe kiln Humidity inthe kiln Air circulationinthe kiln . . Drying and drying stresses Drying schedules . - Kilntypes Pilingl umber for kiln drying Details of kiln operation Air seasoning WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1923 ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Secretary of Agriculture..________-.------_. Henry ©, WALLACE. BAESES OMEN SECT CLOT a= C. W. PUGSLEY. Director of Scientific Work_.._._____-_______ EK. D. BAL. Director of Regulatory Work_____---_--_-__ . DRET UB UREO Ue ook CHARLES F. Marvin, Chief. Bureawof Agricultural Economics_________. Henry C. T’Aytor, Chief. Bureau of Animal Industry__.______-__-___- JOHN R. MouteEr, Chief. Bureau of Plant Industry___.__.____________ WILLIAM A. TAytor, Chief. IGE S TUS CTU CE se a ee I es a W. B. GREELEY, Chief. UREOUOR Chemistnyes oe ee WALTER G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief. RUE RE CERO WIS O1US went US er ea MILTON WHITNEY, Chief. Bureau of Entomology____--_------_------- L. O. Howarp, Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey________-----__- H. W. NExson, Chief. BURECUIOR EUORG WOGdso_ 2 ale ee ~ THomas H. MAacDonatp, Chief. Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory______-_ F. G. CorTtrety, Director. Division of Accounts and Disbursements___. A. ZAPPONE, Chief. Division of Publications___..-_______._-_-_- JOHN L. Cosss, Jr., Chief. ED TCOPR TGP lp I La see peer UENO CLARIBEL R. BARNETT, Librarian. Siates Felations Service..2 2-2 - = A. C. TRUE, Director. Federal Horticultural Board__.__---_--___- C. L. Marratt, Chairman. Insecticide and Fungicide Board______----- J. K. Haywoop, Chairman. Grain Future Trading*Act Administration__{ Secretary. Office of the Solicitor__._._.___.___.___________. R. W. WILLIAMS, solicitor. Packers and Stockyards eee CHESTER MORRILL, Assistant to the This Bulletin is a contribution from the— GEESE RSET LCC meee WIE AL Oh WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester. IB UENCHRORICCSCONCH an oe BArRLE H. Crapp, Asst. Forester. Forest Products Laboratory_____—_ CARLILE P. WINSLOW, Director. Section of Timber Physics_____ RotFr THELEN, in charge. ae EE Nan AR stenie OOOO a an 7 aS, Ca wut wr i, babel aryy Pd UN. Fike AY OA Washington, D. C. | PROFESSIONAL PAPER February, 1923 VITAMIN B IN THE EDIBLE TISSUES OF THE | OX, SHEEP, AND HOG I. Vitamin B in the Voluntary Muscle II. Vitamin B in the Edible Viscera By RALPH HOAGLAND, Senior Biochemist, Biochemie Division, Bureau of Animal Industry Vitamin B in the diet |. Vitamin B in the voluntary muscle Importance of meat as a food _ Previous investigations with meat Experimental work Diseussion of results Summary of Part I 1, Vitamin B in the edible viscera Importance of edible viscera as food Previous investigations with edible viscera Experimental work Summary of Part I Conclusions WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1923 a ae a | ppetie) ‘ Wy fae! Ba ae Ne a CALEB LA SIA ee my ee Cys nioiak’ 1 inhi " me Ay } pS Abani RLY. Wel ihe Waraiets aH Wi 1 ities Aay Ne aaa ‘Nya ii UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 1141 Washington, D. C. Vv | May, 1923 EVAPORATION OF FRUITS By JOSEPH S. CALDWELL, Plant Physiologist, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations Bureau of Plant Industry CONTENTS Page | Treatment of the various fruits—Continued Extent and character of the fruit-drying industry - Principles involved in drying fruits Community drying plants Buildings and equipmentfor drying The kiln evaporator Theindividual kiln Prunes The kiln-drying plant Smal Ifruits The apple-drying workroom andits equipment .. - Storing the dried products The prune tunnel evaporator Preparing evaporated fruits for market. . - - The operation of the tunne! evaporator Packing evaporated apples ‘Smalldriers or evaporators Packing peaches, apricots, and pears Treatment of the various fruits Packing prunes Apples. 2 2 2 eee Laws relating to evaporated and dried fruits . Cherries WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1923 Wa | CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL, AND INSECTICIDAL PROPERTIES OF ARSENICALS By F. C. COOK, Physiological Chemist, Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory Miscellaneous Division, Bureau of Chemistry and N. E. McINDOO, Insect Physiologist, Fruit Insect Investigations Bureau of Entomology CONTENTS Purpose of investigation Comparative toxicity of arsenicals Arsenicals studied General properties of arsenicals Chemical properties of arsenicals Summary Physical properties of arsenicals Literature cited WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1923 v Avgust 8, 1923 ACCOUNTING RECORDS AND BUSINESS METHODS FOR LIVESTOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATIONS By \ \ FRANK ROBOTKA Assistant, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, and Coliaborator, Bureau of Agricultural Economies CONTENTS What forms are needed The need of permanent records Sraleiipkettetectvel (stilts) faiMaliw jase jena lala Records as a protection fo manager, directors, and Records as a guide fo management Monthly and annual reports Analyzing the brsiness Who should keepthe books? - .-- +++. -s 29 Prorating sheet Member’s statcmen? Shipment record envelope Shipment summary record Marketing methods - The cash journal : Terminal marl:ct methods Operating the cash journa! Grading and prorating at home Information needed to determine business standin: - Problems involved in prorating Description of the accounts Filling out the prorating sheet Advances to shippers - .-.2-.-+-++-.- 22 Prorating mixed shipments Sales subject io inspection Short-weight and mixed carloads Illustrative transactions WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1923 ie i hy y u 100113035